CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY THE CHARLES WILLIAM WASON COLLECTION ON CHINA AND THE CHINESE fnfo^F.-Ly- -^ JDATE DUE U^^ %Bn "-^r ■ IM^^ lOftt fj PHsm i-lpL-^yiYtl M m ftTl/Mll__ ^~^'^'%f9^ ■ CAVLORD % PRINTEOINU.S.A u\ 0~ \}^ ^■■' Chinese Horrors AND :^ERSECUTIONS of the CHRISTIANS CONTAINING A 'ULL ACCOUNT OF THE GREAT INSURRECTION IN CHINA; ATROCITIES OF THE "BOXERS;" MASSACRE OF FOREIGNERS AND NATIVE CHRISTIANS; HEROIC ATTEMPTS TO RESCUE THE FOREIGN MINISTERS AND AMBASSADORS, ETC. TOGETHER WITH THE. COMPLETE HISTORY OF CHINA OWN TO THE PRESENT TIME, INCLUDING THE WAR WITH JAPAN ; MANNERS, CUSTOMS AND PECULIARITIES OF THE PEOPLE ; SUPERSTITIONS ; IDOL WORSHIP; INDUSTRIES; NATURAL SCENERY, ETC., ETC. By Henry Davenport Northrop Author of ^^ Queen of Republics,^* " Gem Cyclopedia" xtc.^ »^\,t EHTERCO ACCORDING TO ACT OF CONGRE6S, IN THE YEAR 1S00. BV SEORGE W. BERTRON t" THC OFFtCC OF rME LtBRARIAN OF CONGRESS, AT WASHINGTON, D . urn Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924107207387 BOXERS ENROLLING AT A MILITARY POST FOR THE INSURRECTION IN CHINA. BIRD'S-EYE VIEW MAP, SHOWING PEKIN, TIEN TSIN, TAKU AND ALL IMPORTANT TOWNS, INCLUDING THE GREAT WALL, CHINA. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAOK. Early History of the Celestial Empire 17 CHAPTER II. The Story op the Han Rulers . . 30 CHAPTER III. The Mongol Conquest of China . . 44 CHAPTER IV. The First Manchu Ruler . . . . . 74 CHAPTER V. The Taeping Rebellion and Story OF Chinese Gordon 91 CHAPTER VI. Prince Kung and the Regency . . 122 CHAPTER VII. The Reign op the Emperor Kwangsu 145 CHAPTER VIII. The Emperor op China and His Court 162 CHAPTER IX. PA«X. The Punishment of Criminals. . . 180 CHAPTER X. Chinese Mechanics and Merchants 191 CHAPTER XI. Chinese Marriage Customs CHAPTER XII. Varieties of Chinese Life. 19& 21S CHAPTER XIII. Food, Dress and Amusements of the Chinese 235 CHAPTER XIV. The Religions op China . . CHAPTER XV. Country Life in China . , 254 274 CHAPTER XVI. Agricultural Products and Exports 280 V CONTENTS. CHAPTER XVII. Life and Travel in Corea 289 CHAPTER XVIII. Outbreak of the War Between China and Japan 299 ' CHAPTER XIX. . - The Battle of Ping-Yang 309 CHAPTER XX. Japan's Great Naval Victory . . .325 CHAPTER XXI. Stirring Incidents OF the Campaign . 338 CHAPTER XXII. Uprising OF the Boxers 357 CHAPTER XXIII.- - . -L Two Princes Wakkjng for a Throne 362 CHAPTER XXIV. Perils to Foreigners in China . . . 369 CHAPTER XXV. Peculiar Chinese Superstitions and Customs . . 379- CHAPTER XXVI. Under the Fire of Boxer Savages . 387 CHAPTER XXVII. Rescue of the Foreign Ministers at Pekin 404 PREFACE. THE horrible massacre of foreigners in China has shocked the whole o' lized world. An insurrection, attended by unparalleled atrocities aroused the deepest concern in America and Europe. All intelligent persons are eager to obtain reliable information conct ing China and the great revolution which has involved the Powers of Eurc and our own country. This information is contained in this volume. It treats of the history of China from the earliest times to the prese day. Dating back to the earliest dawn of history, China has outlived all th great nations of ancient times, and is a living empire to-day. No other natic in the world has such a record. Against the flood that has swept might kingdoms into oblivion, China has stood like an immovable rock. She is th wonder and the miracle among the august Empires of the East. The reader traces her surprising growth, her conquests aud her power at a period when "time was young." He sees the rise and fall of brilliant dynasties, while one emperor after another appears upon the checkered scene, each of whom is invested with the proud title of "The Son of Heaven." He reads the graphic story of the Han Rulers, who, in arms and conquests, are worthy to be ranked with Roman Caesars. He learns why, for more than 2,000 years, the Chinese have been proud to call themselves the " Children of Han." Then comes the Mongolian conquest. With tramping legions, with dashing steeds and gleaming spears, the Northern hordes sweep down upon the plains of the " Flowery Kingdom." The panorama of startling events moves on, and we are brought to the dynasty by which China is governed at the present time. The Manchus ascended the "Dragon Throne," and still sway their sceptre over nearly 400,000,000 of the human race. The History of China within the present century is read with eager interest. With the record of other great crises, a masterly and thrilling account is given of the famous Taeping Rebellion. Suddenly a young Eng- lish officer appears upon the scene. The world knows him now as the cele- brated "Chinese Gordon," who performed miracles of valor and conquest. Fertile in resources, brave and magnetic, silent and stern, unyielding as granite, his story reads like that of the renowned old heroes of classic fable. This is followed by an account of Prince Kung and the Regency, and the history closes with the reign of the present Emperor. Then comes a full description of China and its people. The gorgeous splendors of the Emperor's Court and Palace are vividly pictured — ^the PREFACE. ly.stery tliat surrounds him, the vast power he wields, the princes and nobles hat attend upon him, the curious ceremonies of his marriage, the awe with ch his subjects prostrate themselves before him, the palatial magnificence, life of the Empress and the disdain for foreign sovereigns. This superb work also contains a full description of Corea, the "Hermit ngdom," and furnishes a concise account of the war between China and pan in 1894. ^^^ causes of the great conflict are stated, and an accurate itimate of the two armies is given — their numbers, discipline, equipments id the ability of their commanders. The rapid movements of the Japanese -my, its brilliant achievements at Ping- Yang, and the great naval battles ■e fully described. The whole course of stirring events is traced, and the iader sees the rolling battle clouds and hears the shock of contending legions. But thrilling interest is aroused throughout our country by the bloody uprising in China against all foreigners, resulting in the murder of the Ger- man Ambassador and the indiscriminate persecution and slaughter of native Christians. The " Boxers," a secret society, the members of which do not look upon murder as a crime, an organization compact, mysterious and dan- gerous, carried terror to all parts of Northern China, and it has been asserted by foreigners on the ground, were in league with the Imperial Government. The dreadful crimes of these desperadoes, of whom many thousands took up arms, make all civilized nations stand aghast. The greatest anxiety was manifested by the Great Powers, including our own Government, in the unexpected events that imperilled all Americans and Europeans within the bounds of the Flowery Kingdom. No such massacre as that begun by the " Boxers," with painful evidences that the^ intended to complete it, has stained the pages of modern history. A full account is given in this volume of the heroic efforts of the Allied Powers to reach Pekin and rescue the unfortunate Ministers, Ambassadors and their families shut up in the Legations, upon which the most desperate and bloodthirsty attacks were made. This part of the story has in it all the elements of tragedy, accompanied by the most painful uncertainty as to the final outcome of the uncontrolled uprising of conspirators. The value of such a volume as this, which contains only authentic statements, and is composed of facts gathered after the most careful scrutiny cannot be overestimated. It traces the disorder and its attendant massacres with an impartial hand from the origin of the trouble. It depicts the scenes that have a horrible fascination for every reader. It tells a plain, unvarnished tale of the woes suffered by Christians in China. It is a comprehensiv ■work that will be prized in every home to which it is admitted. Lr)ipa : r ron) bi)e rvarlicsb i iir)es io br)e rresepb JJay. CHAPTER I. EARLY HISTORY OF THE "CELESTIAL EMPIRE." ALL Asia is astir. Old nations that have slept the sleep of ages are waking to modern ideas. For centuries China was almost a world by itself; now it forms a part of the galaxy of eastern empires and is a centre of interest to both Europe and America. No nation in the world has been so rigid and unchangeable as China, and none has preser\'ed with such tenacity the laws, cus- toms and national peculiarities which existed long before the Christian era. A most re- markable people are the Chinese, comprising nearly one-third of the human race, scattered over a vast realm, maintaining little inter- course with other countries, and lacking in that spirit of enterprise which, for the last few years, has distinguished the Japanese. But modern civilization advances even in Asia, and China is learning that she cannot remain the China of three or four thousand years ago. The ships of many nations touch at her ports ; commerce seeks entrance at her gates; her most intelligent people are asking questions, and already the darkness is illu- mined with the light of a new and better era. 2 The Chinese are unquestionably the oldest nation in the world, and their history goes back to a period to which no prudent his- torian will attempt to give a precise date. They speak the language and observe the same social and political customs that they did several thousand years ago, and they are the only living representatives to-day of a people and government which were contem- porary with the Egyptians, the Assyrians, and the ancient Jews. Same To-Day as in Early Times, So far as our knowledge enables us to speak, the Chinese of the present age are in all essential points identical with those of the time of Confucius, and there is no reason to doubt that before his time the Chinese national character had been thoroughly formed in its present mould. The limits of the Empire have varied from time to time under circumstances of triumph or disunion, but the Middle Kingdom, or China proper, of the eighteen provinces has always pos- sessed more or less of its existing proportions. Another striking and peculiar featurt 17 18 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. about China is the small amount of influence that the rest of the world has exercised upon it. In fact it is only during the present century that that influence can be said to have existed at all. Up to that point China had pursued a course of her own, carrying on her own struggles within a definite limit, and completely indifferent to, and ignorant of, the ceaseless competition and contests of mankind outside her orbit, which make up the history of the rest of the old world. The long struggles for supremacy in Western Asia between Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian, the triumphs of the Greek, fol- lowed by the absorption of what remained of the Macedonian conquests in the Empire of Rome, even the appearance of Islam and the Mahomedan conquerors, who changed the face of Southern Asia from the Ganges to the Levant, and long threatened to over- run Europe, had no significance for the people of China, and reacted as little on their destiny as if they had happened in another planet. A Curious History. All that pertains to China has a peculiar interest to the reader. He is studying the history of one of the most remarkable na- tions that ever existed. At every step he meets with surprises, and eagerly follows the record of events, many of them startling and unparalleled, although they transpired " when time was young." As a curiosity in human existence, the earlier history of this country may justly receive careful notice. In these ancient records we see the beginning and progress of a people whose numbers, laws, customs, conservatism and strange ideas are the wonder of the modern world. We learn the infancy of a people who have grown and multiplied to their present vast proportions and power. Even though the details are noi recited the recollection of the antiquity of China's insti- tutions must be ever present with the stu- dent, as affording an indispensable clue to the character of the Chinese people and the composition of their government. The first Chinese are supposed to have been a nomad tribe in the province of Shensi ^ which lies in the northwest of China, and among them at last appeared a ruler, Fohi, whose name at least has been preserved. His deeds and his person are mythical, biif: he is credited with having given his country its first regular government. The First Emperor. One of his successors was Hwangti (which means Heavenly Emperor), who was the first to employ the imperial style of Emperor, the earlier rulers having been content with the inferior title of Wang, or prince. He adopted the convenient decimal division in his admin- istration as well as his coinage. His domin- ions were divided into ten provinces, each of these into ten departments, these again into ten districts, each of which held ten towns. He regulated the calendar, originating the Chinese cycle of sixty years, and he encour- aged commerce. He seems to have been a wise ruler and to have been the first of the great Emperors. His grandson, who was also Emperor, continued his good work and earned the reputation of being " the restorer or even founder of true astronomy." But the most famous of Hwangti's succes- sors was his great grandson Yao, who is still one of the most revered of all Chinese rulers. He was "diligent, enlightened, polished, and prudent," and if his words reflected his actions he must have been most solicitous of the welfare of his people. He is specially remarkable for his anxiety to dis- cover the best man to succeed Kva I'n t'l- / . / ' /I ■ ^-^ iA;','ii,//.iu. " 20 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. government, and d-iring the last twenty-eight years of his reign he associated the minister Chun with him for that purpose. On his death he left the crown to him, and Chun, after some hesitation, accepted the cliarge, but he in turn hastened to secure the co-operation of another minister named Yu in the work of administration, just as he had been associated with Yao. The period cov- ered by the rule of this triumvirate is con- sidered one of the most brilliant and perfect in Chinese history, and it bears a resem- blance to the age of the Antonines. High Idea of Princes. These rulers seem to have passed their leisure from practical work in framing moral axioms, and in carrying out a model scheme of government based on the purest ethics. They considered that " a prince entrusted with the charge of a State has a heavy task. The happiness of his subjects absolutely depends upon him. To provide for every- thing is his duty ; his ministers are only put in office to assist him," and also that " a prince who wishes to fulfill his obligations, and to long preserve his people in the ways of peace, ought to watch without ceasing that the laws are observed with exactitude." They were staunch upholders of temperance, and they banished the unlucky discoverer of the fact that an intoxicating drink could be obtained from rice. They also held fast to the theory that all government must be based on the popular will. In fact the reigns of Yao, Chun, and Yu are the ideal period of Chinese history when all questions were decided by moral right and justice, and even now Chinese philosophers are said to test their maxims of morality by the degree of agreement they may have with the conduct of those rulers. 1 With them passed away the practice of letting the most capable and experienced minister rule the State. Such an impartial and reasonable mode of selecting the head of a community can never be perpetuated. The rulers themselves may see its advan- tages and may endeavor as honestly as these three Chinese princes to carry out the ar- rangement, but the day must come when the family of the able ruler will assert its rights to the succession, and take advantage of its opportunities from its close connection with the government to carry out its ends. The Emperor Yu, true to the practice of his predecessors, nominated the President of the Council as his successor, but his son Tiki seized the throne, and became the founder of the first Chinese dynasty which was called the Hia from the name of the province first ruled by his father. This event is supposed to have taken place in the year 2197 B. C. and the Hia dynasty, of which there were seventeen Emperors, ruled down to the year 1776 B. C. These Hia princes present no features of interest, and the last of them, named Kia, was deposed by one of his prin- cipal nobles, Ching Tang, Prince of Chang. The Chang Rulers. This prince was the founder of the second dynasty, known as Chang, which held pos- session of the throne for 654 years, or down to 1 1 22 B. C. With the exception of the founder, who seems to have been an able man, this dynasty of twenty-eight Emperors did nothing very noteworthy. The public morality deteriorated veiy much under this family, and it is said that when one of the Emperors wanted an honest man as ministci he could only find one in the person of a common laborer. At last, in the 1 2th cen- tury before our era, the enormities of the Chang rulers reached a climax in the person of Chousin, who was deposed by a pop':!;ii EARLY HISTORY. 21 rising headed by Wou Wang, Prince of Chow. This successful soldier, whose name signi- fies the Warrior King, founded the third Chi- nese dynasty of Chow, which governed the Empire for the long space cf 867 years down to 255 B. C. During that protracted period there were necessarily good and bad Empe- rors, and the Chow dynasty was rendered specially illustrious by the appearance of the great social and religious reformers, Laoutse, Confucius, and Mencius during the existence of its power. The founder of the dynasty instituted the necessary reforms to prove that he was a national benefactor, and one of his successors, known as the Magnificent King, extended the authority of his family over some of the States of Turkestan. Confucius Appears. But on the whole the rulers of the Chow dynasty were not particularly distinguished, and one of them in the eighth century B. C. was weak enough to resign a portion of his sovereign rights to a powerful vassal, Siang- kong the Prince of Tsin, in consideration of his undertaking the defence of the frontier against the Tartars. At this period the authority of the central government passed under a cloud. The Emperor's perogative became the shadow of a name, and the last three centuries of the rule of this family would not call for notice but for the genius of Laoutse and Confudius, who were both great moral teachers and religious reformers. Laoutse, the founder of Taouism, was the first in point of time, and in some respects he v/as the greatest of these reformers. He found his countrymen sunk in a low state of moral indifference and religious infidelity which corresponded with the corruption of the times and the disunion in the kingdom. He at once set himself to work with energy and devotion to repair the evils of his day, and to raise before his countrymen a higher ideal of duty. He has been called the Chi- nese Pythagoras, very learned yet obscure, and the mysterious Taouism which he founded holds the smallest or the least assignable part in what passes for the religion of the Chinese. As a philosopher and minister Laoutse will always attract attention and excite specula- tion, but as a practical reformer and politician he was far surpassed by his younger and less theoretical contemporary Confucius. Influence of the Great Teacher, Confucius was an official in the service of one of the great princes who divided the governing power of China among themselves during the whole of the seventh century before our era, which beheld the appearance of both of these religious teachers and lead- ers. He was a trained administrator with long experience when he urged upon his prince the necessity of reform, and advocated a policy of union throughout the States. His exhortations v/ere in vain, and so far ill- timed that he was obliged to resign, the service of one prince after another. In his day the authority of the Chow Emperor had been reduced to the lowest point. Each prince was unto himself the supreme authority. Yet one cardinal point of the policy of Confucius was submission to the Emperor, as implicit obedience to the head of the State throughout the country as was paid to the father of every Chinese household. Although he failed to find a prince after his own heart his example and precepts were not thrown away, for in a later generation his reforms were executed, and down to the present day the best points in Chinese government are based on his' recommendations. If " no in- telligent monarch arose" in his time, the greatest Emperors have since sought to con- .22 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. form with his usages and to rule after the ideal of the great philosopher. His name and his teachings wei-e perpetuated by a band of devoted disciples, and the book which con- tained the moral and philosophical axioms of Confucius passed into the classic literature of the country and stood in the place of a Bible for the Chinese. The list of the great Chinese reformers is completed by the name of Mencius, who, coming two centuries later, carried on with better opportunities the reforming work of Confucius, and left behind him in his Sheking the most popular book of Chinese poetry and a crowning tribute to the great master. The Warlike Period. From teachers we must again pass to the chronicle of kings, although few of the later Chow Emperors deserve their names to be rescued from oblivion. One Emperor suf- fered a severe defeat while attempting to establish his authority over the troublesome tribes beyond the frontier ; of another it was written that " his good qualities merited a happier day," and the general character of the age may be inferred from its being desig- nated by the native chroniclers "The warlike period." At last, after what seemed an interminable old age, marked by weakness and vice, the Chow dynasty came to an end in the person of Nan Wang, who, although he reigned for nearly sixty years, was deposed in ignomin- ious fashion by one of his great vassals, and reduced to a humble position. His con- queror became the founder of the- fourth Chinese dynasty. During the period of internal strife which marked the last four centuries of the Chow dynasty, one family had steadily waxed stronger and stronger among the princes of China. The princes of Tsin, by a combina- tion of prudence and daring, gradually made themselves supreme among their fellows. It was said of one of them that " like a wolf or a tiger he wished to draw all the other princes into his claws, so that he might devour them." Several of the later Tsin princes, and particularly one named Chow Siang Wang, showed great capacity, and carried out a systematic policy for their own aggran- disement. When Nan Wang was approaching the end of his career, the Tsin princes had obtained everything of the supreme power short of the name and the right to wear the Imperial yel- low robes. Ching Wang, or to give him his later name as Emperor, Tsin Chi Hwangti, was the reputed great-grandson of Chow Siang Wang, and under him the fame and power of the Tsins reached their culminating point. This prince also proved himself one of the greatest rulers who ever sat on the Dragon Throne of China. A Soldier and Statesman. The country had been so long distracted by internal strife, and the authority of the Emperor had been reduced to such a shadow, that peace was welcome under any ruler, and the hope was indulged that the Tsin princes, who had succeeded in making themselves the most powerful feudatories of the Empire, might be able to restore to the central gov- ernment something of its ancient power and splendor. Nor was the expectation unreasonable or ungratified. The Tsins had fairly earned by their ability the confidence of the Chinese nation, and their principal representative showed no diminution of energy on attain- ing the throne, and exhibited in a higher post, and on a wider field, the martial and statesman-like qualities his ancestors had dis- played when building up the fabric of their 24 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. power as princes of the Empire. Their supremacy was not acquiesced in by the other great feudatories without a struggle, and more than one campaign was fought before all rivals were removed from their path, and their authority passed unchallenged as occupants of the Imperial office. Ruler at the Age of Thirteen. It was in the middle of this final struggle, and when the result might still be held doubtful, that Tsin Chi Hwangti began his eventful reign. When he began to rule he was only thirteen years of age, but he quickly showed that he possessed the instinct of a statesman, and the courage of a born com- mander of armies. On the one hand he sowed dissension between the most formid- able of his opponents, and brought about by a stratagem the disgrace of the ablest general in their service, and on the other he increased his army in numbers and efficiency, until it became unquestionably the most formidable fighting force in China. While he endeavored thus to attain inter- nal peace, he was also studious in providing for the general security of the Empire, and with this object he began the construction of a fortified wall across the northern frontier to serve as a defence against the troublesome Hiongnou tribes, who are identified with the Huns of Attila. This wall, which he began in the first years of his reign, was finished before his death, and stilt exists as the Great Wall of China, which has been considered one of the wonders of the world. He was careful in his many wars with the tribes of Mongolia not to allow himself to be drawn far from his own border, and at the close of a campaign he always withdrew his troops behind the Great Wall. Towards Central Asia he was more enterprising, and pne of his best c^enerals, Moungtien, crossed what is now the Gobi Desert, and made Kami the frontier fortress of the Empire. In his civil administration Hwangti was aided by the minister Lisseh, who seems to have been a man of rare ability, and to have entered heartily into all his master's schemes for uniting the Empire. While Hwangti sat on the throne with a naked sword in his hand, as the emblem of his authority, dis- pensing justice, arranging the details of his many campaigns, and superintending the innumerable affairs of his government, his minister was equally active in reorganizing the administration and in supporting his sovereign in his bitter struggle with the literary classes who advocated archaic prin- ciples, and whose animosity to the ruler was inflamed by the contempt, not unmixed with ferocity, with which he treated them. The Empire was divided into thirty-six pro- vinces, and he impressed upon the governors the importance of improving communications within their jurisdiction. New Roads in All Directions. Not content with this general precept, he issued a special decree ordering that " roads shall be made in all directions throughout the Empire," and the origin of the main routes in China may be found with as much certainty in his reign as that of the roads of Europe in the days of Imperial Rome. When advised to assign some portion of his power to his relatives and high officials in the pro- vinces he refused to repeat the blunders of his predecessors, and laid down the per- manent truth that " good government is impossible under a multiplicity of masters," He centralized the power in his own hands, and he drew up an organization for the civil service of the State which virtually exists at the present day. The two salient features in that organization are the indisputable supre- EARLY HISTORY. 25 macy of the Emperor and the non-employ- ment of the officials in their native provinces, and the experience of two thousand years has proved their practical value. When he conquered his internal enemies he resolved to complete the pacification of his country by effecting a general disarma- ment, and he ordered that all weapons should be sent in to his capital at Hienyang. This " skilful disarming of the provinces added daily to the wealth and prosperity of the capital," which he proceeded to embellish. He built one palace within the walls, and the Hall of Audience was ornamented with twelve statues, each of which weighed twelve thousand pounds. But his principal resi- dence, named the Palace of Delight, was without the walls, and there he laid out magnificent gardens, and added building to building. In one of the courts of this latter palace, it is said he could have drawn up 10,000 soldiers. A Standing Army. This eye to military acquirements in even the building of his residence, showed the temper of his mind, and, in his efforts to form a regular army, he had recourse to " those classes in the community who were without any fixed profession, and who were possessed of exceptional physical strength." He was thus the earliest possessor in China of what might be called a regular standing army. With this force he succeeded in estab- lishing his power on a firm basis, and he may have hoped also to ensure permanence for his dynasty ; but, alas ! for the fallacy of human expectations, the structure he erected fell with him. Great as an administrator, and successful as a soldier, Hwangti was unfortunate in one struggle that he evoked. At an early period 01 his career, when success seemed uncertain. he found that his bitterest opponents were men of letters, and that the literary class as a body was hostile to his interests and per- son. Instead of ignoring this opposition or seeking to overcome it by the same agency, Hwangti expressed his hatred and contempt, not only of the literary class, but of literature ^ itself, and resorted to extreme measures of coercion. The writers took up the gage of battle thrown down by the Emperor, and Hwangti became the object of the wit and abuse of every one who could use a pencil. His birth was aspersed. It was said that he was not a Tsin at all, that his origin was of the humblest, and that he was a substituted child foisted on the last of the Tsin princes. Grand Council Summoned. These personal attacks were accompanied by unfavorable criticism of all his measures, and by censure where he felt that he deserved praise. It would have been more prudent if he had shown greater indifference and patience, for although he had the satisfaction of triumphing by brute force over those who jeered at him, the triumph was accomplished by an act of Vandalism, with which his name will be quite as closely associated in history as any of the wise measures or great works that he carried out. His vanquished oppo- nents left behind them a legacy of hostility and revenge of the whole literary class of China, which has found expression in all the national histories. The struggle, which had been in progress for some years, reached its culminating point in the year 213 B. C, when a Grand Council of the Empire was summoned at Hienyang. At this council were present not only the Emperor's chief military and civil officers from the different provinces, but also the large literary class, composed of aspirants to office and the members of the academies and 26 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. college of Censors. The opposing forces in China were thus drawn up face to face, and it would have been surprising if a collision had not occurred. On the one side were the supporters of the man who had made China again an Empire, believers in his person and sharers in his glory; on the other were those who had no admiration for this ruler, who detested his works, proclaimed his successes dangerous innovations, and questioned his right to bear the royal name. "A Vile Flatterer." The purpose of the Emperor may be detected when he called upon speakers in this assembly of his friends and foes to express their opinions of his administration, and when a member of his household rose to extol his work and to declare that he had "surpassed the very greatest of his predeces- sors." This courtier-like declaration, which would have been excusable even if it had had a less basis of truth than it unquestionably possessed in the case of Hwangti, was received with murmurs and marks of dissent by the literary class. One of them rose and denounced the speaker as "a vile flatterer," and proceeded to expatiate on the superior merit of several of the earlier rulers. Not content with this unseasonable eulogy, he advocated the restoration of the Empire to its old form of principalities, and the conse- quent undoing of all that Hwangti had ac- complished. Hwangti interrupted this speaker and called upon his favorite minister Lisseh to reply to him and explain his policy. Lisseh began by stating what has often been said since, and in other countries, that " men of letters are, as a rule, very little acquainted with what con- cerns the government of a country, not that government of pure speculation which is nothinfj more than a phantom, vani.shing the nearer we approached to it, but the practical government which consists in keeping men within the sphere of their proper duties." He then proceeded to denounce the literary class as being hostile to the State, and to recommend the destruction of their works declaring that " now is the time or never to close the mouths of these secret enemies and to place a curb on their audacity." The Emperor at once from his throne ratified the policy and ordered that no time should be lost in executing the necessary measures. All books were proscribed, and orders were issued to burn every work except those relating to medicine, agriculture, and such science as then existed. The des- truction of the national literature was carried out with terrible completeness, and such works as were preserved are not free from the suspicion of being garbled or incomplete versions of their original text. The burning of the books was accompanied by the execu- tion of five hundred of the literati, and by the banishment of many thousands. Inexcusable Tyranny. By this sweeping measure, to which no parallel is to be found in the history of other countries, Hwangti silenced during the last few years of his life the criticisms of his chief enemies, but in revenge his memory has had to bear for two thousand years the sully of an inexcusable act of tryanny and narrow- mindedness. The price will be pronounced too heavy for what was a momentary gratifi- cation. The reign of Hwangti was not prolonged many years after the burning of the books. In 2IO B. C. he was seized with a serious illness, to which he succumbed, partly because he took no precautions, and partly, no doubt, through the incompetence of his physicians. His funeral was magnificent, 28 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. and, like the Huns, his grave was dug in the bed of a river, and with him were buried his wives and his treasure. This great ruler left behind him an example of vigor such as is seldom found in the list of Chinese kings of effete physique and apathetic life. He is the only Chinese Emperor of whom it is said that his favorite exercise was walking, and his vigor was apparent in every department of State. On one occasion when he placed a large army of, it is said, 600,000 men at the disposal of one of his generals, the commander expressed some fear as to how this huge force was to be fed. Hwangti at once replied, "Leave it to me. I will provide for everything. There shall be want rather in my palace than in your canip." A Famous Ruler. He does not seem to have been a great general himself, but he knew how to select the best commanders, and he was also so quick in discovering the merits of the generals opposed to him, that some of his most notable victories were obtained by his skill in detaching them from their service or by ruin- ing their reputation by some intrigue more astute than honorable. Yet, all deductions made, Tsin Chi Hwangti stands forth as a great ruler and remarkable man. The Tsin dynasty only survived its founder a few years. Hwangti's son Eulchi became Emperor, but he reigned no more than three years. He was foolish enough to get rid of the general Moungtien, who might have been the buttress of his throne; and the minister Lisseh was poisoned, either with or without his connivance. Eulchi himself shared the same fate, and his successor, Ing Wang, reigned only six weeks, committing suicide after losing a battle, and with him the Tsin dynasty came to an end. Its chief, nay its only claim to distinction, arises from its hav- ing produced the great ruler Hwangti, and its destiny was Napoleonic in its brilliance and evanescence. Looking back at the long period which connects the mythical age with what may be considered the distinctly historical epoch 01 the Tsins, we find that by the close of the third century before the Christian era China possessed settled institutions, the most remarkable portion of its still existing liter- ature, and mighty rulers. It is hardly open to doubt that the Chinese annahst finds in these remote ages as much interest and instruction as we should in the record of more recent times, and proof of this may be discovered in the fact that the history of the first four dynasties, which we must dismiss in these few pages, occupies as much space in the national history as the chronicle of events from Tsin Chi Hwangti to the end of the Ming dynasty in 1644, at which date the official history of China stops, because the history of the Manchu dynasty, which has occupied the throne ever since, will only be given to the world after it has ceased to rule. Folly and Incompetence. We must not be surprised at this discur- siveness, because the teachings of human experience are as clearly marked in those early times as they have been since, and Chinese historians aim as much at establish- ing moral and philosophical truths as at giv- ing a complete record of events. The conse- quences of human folly and incompetence are as patent and conspicuous in those daj's as they are now. The ruling power is lost by one family and transferred to another because the prince neglects his business, gives himself over to the indulgence of plea- sure, or fails to see the signs of the times. Cowardice and corruption receive their due and inevitable punishment. The founders of EARLY HISTORY. 29 the dynasties are all brave and successful warriors, who are superior to the cant of a hyper-civilized state of society, which covers declining vigor and marks the first phase of effeteness, and who see that as long as there are human passions they may be moulded by genius to make the many serve the few and to build up an autocracy. Nor are the lessons to be learnt from his- tory applicable only to individuals. The faults of an Emperor are felt in every house- hold of the community, and injure the State. Indifference and obtuseness at the capital entailed weakness on the frontier and in the provincial capitals. The barbarians grew defiant and aggressive, and defeated the Imperial forces. The provincial governors asserted their independence, and founded ruling families. The Empire became atten- uated by external attack and internal divi- sion. But, to use the phrase of the Chinese historians, "after long abiding disunion, union revived." The strong and capable man always appears in one form or another, and the Chinese people, impressed with a belief in both the divine mission of their Emperor and also in the value of union, wel- come with acclaim the advent of the prince who will restore their favorite and ideal system of one-man government. CHAPTER II. THE STORY OF THE HAN RULERS. AS the Chinese are still proud to call themselves the sons of Han it will be understood that the period cov- ered by the Han rulers must be an important epoch in their history, and in more than one respect they were the first national dynasty. When the successors of Tsin Chi Hwangti proved unable to keep the throne, the victorious general who profited by their discomfiture was named Liu Pang. He had been a trusted official of the Emperor Hwangti, but on finding that his descendants could not bear the burden of government, he resolved to take his own measures, and he lost no time in collecting troops and in making a bid for popularity by endeavoring to save all the books that bad not been burned. This was in the year 202 B. C. His career bears some resemblance to that of Macbeth, for a soothsayer meeting him on the road predicted, " by the expres- sion of his features, that he was destined to become Emperor." He began his struggle for the throne by defeating another general named Pgiwang, who was also disposed to make a bid for supreme power. After this success Liu Pang was proclaimed Emperor as Kao Hwangti, meaning Lofty and August Emperor, which has been shortened into Kaotsou. He named his dynasty the Han, after the small state in which he was born. Kaotsou began his reign by a public pro- clamation in favor of peace, and deploring the evils which follow in the train of war. He called upon his subjects to aid his efforts for Iheir welfare by assisting in the execution of 30 many works of public utility, among which roads and bridges occupied the foremost place. He removed his capital from Loyang in Honan to Singanfoo in Shensi, and as Singan was difficult of access in those days, he constructed a great high road from the centre of China to this somewhat remote spot on the western frontier. The First Suspension Bridge. This road still exists, and has been described by several travellers in our time. It was constructed by the labor of 100,000 men through the most difficult country, crossing great mountain chains and broad rivers. The Chinese engineers employed on the making of this road, which has excited the admiration of all who have traversed it, first discovered and carried into execution the suspension bridge, which in other coun- tries is quite a modern invention. One of these "flying bridges," as the Chinese called them, is 150 yards across a valley 500 feet below, and is still in use. At regular intervals along this road Kaot- sou constructed rest-houses for travellers, and postal-stations for his couriers. No Chinese ruler has done anything more use- ful or remarkable than this admirable road from Loyang to Singanfoo. He embellished his new capital with many fine buildings, among which was a large palace, the grand- eur of which was intended to correspond with the extent of his power. The reign of Kaotsou was, however, far from being one of unchequered prosperity THE STORY OF THE HAN RUL1:RS. Among his own subjects his popularity was great because he promoted commerce and improved the administration of justice. He also encouraged literature, and was the first ruler to recognize the claims of Confucius, at whose tomb he performed an elaborate ceremony. He thus acquired a reputation which induced the King of Nanhai — a state composed of the southern provinces of China with its capital at or near the modern Canton . — to tender his allegiance. But he was destined to receive many slights and injuries at the hands of a foreign enemy who at this time began a course of active aggression that entailed serious consequences for both China and Europe. A Desert Chieftain. Reference has been made to the Hiongnou or Hun tribes, against whom Tsin Hwangti built the Great Wall. In the interval be- tween the death of that ruler and the con- solidation of the power of Kaotsou, a remarkable chief named Meha, or Meta, had established his supremacy among the dis- united clans of the Mongolian Desert, and had succeeded in combining for purposes of war the whole fighting force of what had been a disjointed and barbarous confederacy. The Chinese rulers had succeeded in keeping back this threatening torrent from overflow- ing the fertile plains of their country, as much by sowing dissension among these clans and by bribing one chief to fight another, as by superior arms. But Meha's success rendered this system of defence no longer possible, and the desert chieftain, realizing the opportunity of spoil and conquest, determined to make his posi- tion secure by invading China. If the enter- prise had failed, there would have been an end to the power of Meha, but his rapid suc- cess convinced the Hia'ns that their proper and most profitable policy was to carry on implacable war with their weak and wealthy neighbors. Meha's success was so great that in a single campaign he recovered all the districts taken from the Tartars by the general Moungtien. He turned the western angle of the Great Wall, and brought down his frontier to the river Hoangho. His light cavalry raided past the Chinese capital into the province of Szchuen, and returned laden with the spoil of countless cities. Rescued by a Maiden. These successes were crowned by a signal victory over the Emperor in person. Kaot- sou was drawn into an ambuscade in which his troops had no chance with their more active adversaries, and to save himself from capture, Kaotsou had no alternative but to take refuge in the town of Pingching, where he was closely beleaguered. It was impos- sible to defend the town for any length of time, and the capture of Kaotsou seemed in- evitable, when recourse was had to a strata- gem. The most beautiful Chinese maiden was sent as a present to propitiate th,e con- queror, and Meha, either mollified by the compliment, or deeming that nothing was to be gained by driving the Chinese to desper- ation, acquiesced in a convention which while it sealed the ignominious defeat of the Chinese, rescued their sovereign from his predicament. This disaster, and his narrow personal es- cape, seem to have unnerved Kaotsou for when the Huns resumed their incursions in the very year following the Pingching con- vention, he took no steps to oppose them, and contented himself with denouncing in his palace Meha as " a wicked and faithless man, who had risen to power by the murder of his father, and one with whom oaths and treaties carried no weight." Notwithstand- 32 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. ing this opinion, Kaotsou proceeded to nego- tiate with Meha as an equal, and gave this barbarian prince his own daughter in mar- riage as the price of his abstaining from further attacks on the Empire. Never, wrote a historian, " was so great a shame inflicted on the Middle Kingdom, which then lost its dignity and honor." Meha observed this peace during the life of Kaotsou, who found that his reputation was much diminished by his coming to terms with his uncivilized opponent, but although several of his generals rebelled, until it was said that "the very name of revolt inspired Kaotsou with apprehension," he succeeded in overcoming them all without serious diffi- culty. His troubles probably shortened his life, for he died when he was only fifty- three, leaving the crown to his son Hoeiti, and injunctions to his widow, Liuchi, as to the conduct of the administration. A Wicked Empress, The brief reign of Hoeiti is only remark- able for the rigor and terrible acts of his mother, the Empress Liuchi, who is the first woman mentioned in Chinese history as taking a supreme part in public affairs. Another of Kaotsou's widows aspired to the throne for her son, and the chief direction for herself. Liuchi nipped their plotting in the bud by poisoning both of them. She marked out those who differed from her, or who resented her taking the most prominent part in public ceremonies, as her enemies, to be removed from her path by any means. At a banquet she endeavored to poison one of the greatest princes of the Empire, but her plot was detected and baffled by her son. It is, perhaps, not surprising that Hoeiti did not live long after this episode, and then Liuchi ruled in her own name, and without filling up the vacancy on the throne, until the public dissatisfaction warned her that she was going too far. She then adopted a supposititious child as her grandson, and governed as regent in his name. The mother of this youth seems to have made inconvenient demands on the Empress, who promptly put her out of the way, and when the son showed a disposition to resent this action, she caused him to be poisoned. She again ruled without a puppet Emperor, hoping to retain power by placing her relatives in the principal offices ; but the dissatisfaction had now reached an acute point, and threatened to destroy her. It may be doubted whether she would have sur- mounted these difficulties and dangers, when death suddenly cut short her adventurous career. The popular legend is that this Chinese Lucrezia Borgia died of fright at seeing the apparitions of her many victims, and there can be no doubt that her crimes did not con- duce to make woman government more popular in China. Better Government. It says much for the excellence of Kaotsou's work, and for the hold the Han family had obtained on the Chinese people, that when it became necessary to select an Emperor after the death of Liuchi the choice should have fallen unanimously on the Prince of Tai, who was the illegitimate son of Kaotsou. On mounting the throne, he took the name of Wenti. He began his reign by remitting taxes and by appointing able and honest governors and judges. He ordered that all old men should be provided with corn, meat, and wine, besides silk and cotton for their garments. At the suggestion of his ministers, who were alive to the dangers of a disputed succession, he proclaimed his eldest son heir to the throne. He purified C3 Z O M o Pi o H o o O « ...,t....»^^. CHINESE IMPERIAL TROOPS OUTSIDE THE GATES OF PEKIN "CHINESE GORDON." 109 As a measure of precaution Major Gor- don sent some of his heavy guns and stores back to Taitsan, where the English com- mander, General Brown, consented to guard them, while he hastened off to Kahpoo, now threatened both by the Soochow force and by the foreign adventurers acting under Burgevine. He arrived at the most critical moment. The garrison was hard pressed. General Ching had gone back to Shanghai, and only the presence of the Hyson pre- vented the rebels, who were well armed and possessed an efficient artillery, from carrying the fort by a rush. The arrival of Major Gordon with 150 men on board his third steamer, the Cricket, restored the confidence of the defenders, but there was no doubt that Burgevine had lost a most favorable oppor- tunity, for if he had attacked this place in- stead of proceeding to Soochow it must have fallen. Moving on the Rebel Stronghold. General Ching, who was a man of almost extraordinary energy and restlessness, re- solved to signalize his return to the field by some striking act while Major Gordon was completing his preparations at Quinsan for a fresh effort. His headquarters were at the strong fort of Ta Edin, on the creek leading from Quinsan to Soochow, and having the Hyson with him, he determined to make a dash to some point nearer the great rebel stronghold. On the 30th of August he had seized the position of Waiquaidong, where, in three days, he threw up stockades, admir- ably constructed, and which could not have been carried save by a great effort on the part of the whole of the Soochow garrison. "Towards the end of September, Major Gordon, fearing lest the rebels, who had now the supposed advantage of Burgevine's pres- ence and advice, might make some attempt to cut off General Ching's lengthy communi- cations, moved forward to Waiquaidong to support him ; but when he arrived, he found that the impatient mandarin, encouraged either by the news of his approach or at the inaction of the Taepings in Soochow, had made a still further advance of two miles, so that he was only 1,000 yards distant from the rebel stockades in front of the East Gate. Major Gordon had at this time been rein- forced by the Franco-Chinese corps, which had been well disciplined, under the com- mand of Captain Bonnefoy, while the neces- sity of leaving any strong garrison at Quin- san had been obviated by the loan of 200 Belooches from General Brown's force. Effective Fire of the Gimboat. The rebel position having been carefully reconnoitred, both on the east and on the south. Major Gordon determined that the first step necessary for its proper beleaguerment was to seize and fortify the village of Pata- chiaou, about one mile south of the city wall. The village, although stockaded, was evacu- ated by the garrison after a feeble resist- ance, and an attempt to recover it a few hours later by Mow Wang in person resulted in a rude repulse chiefly on account of the effective fire of the Hyson. Burgevine, instead of fighting the battles of the failing cause he had adopted, was traveUing about the country : at one moment in the capital interviewing Tien Wang and his ministers, at another going about in disguise even in the streets of Shanghai. But during the weeks when General Ching might have been taken at a disadvan- tage, and when it was quite possible to recover some of the places which had been lost, he was absent from the scene of military operations. After the capture of Patachiaou most of the troops and the steamers that had 110 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. taken it were sent back to Waiquaidong, but Major Gordon remained there with a select body of his men and three howitzers. The rebels had not resigned themselves to the loss of Patachiaou, and on the ist of October they made a regular attempt to recover it. They brought the Kajow into action, and, as it had found a daring commander in a man named Jones, its assistance proved very con- siderable. They had also a 32-pounder gun on board a junk, and this enabled them to overcome the fire of Gordon's howitzers and also of the Hyson, which arrived from Wai- quaidong during the engagement. But not- withstanding the superiority of their artillery, the rebels hesitated to come to close quarters, and when Major Gordon and Captain Bon- nefoy led a sortie against them at the end of the day they retired precipitately. ^A^ishes to Surrender. At this stage Burgevine wrote to Major Gordon two letters — the first exalting the Taepings, and the second written two days later asking for an interview, whereupon he expressed his desire to surrender on the pro- vision of personal safety. He assigned the state of his health as the cause of this change, but there was never the least doubt that the true reason of this altered view was dissatis- faction with his treatment by the Taeping leaders and a conviction of the impossibility of success. Inside Soochow, and at Nankin, it was possible to see with clearer eyes than at Shanghai that the Taeping cause was one that could not be resuscitated. But although Burgevine soon and very clearly saw the hopelessness of the Taeping movement, he had by no means made up his mind to go over to the Imperialists. With a considerable number of European followers at his beck and call, and with a profound and ineradicable contempt for the whole Chinese official world, he was loth to lose or surrender the position which gave him a certain importance. He vacillated between a number of suggestions, and the last he came to was the most remarkable, at the same time that it revealed more clearly than any other the vain and meretricious charac- ter of the man. A Scheme of Treachery. In his second interview with Major Gor- don he proposed that that officer should join him, and combining the whole force of the Europeans and the disciplined Chinese, seize Soochow, and establish an independent authority of their own. It was the old fili- bustering idea, revived under the most unfavorable circumstances, of fighting for their own hand, dragging the European name in the dirt, and founding an indepen- dent authority of some vague, undefinable and transitory character. Major Gordon listened to the unfolding of this scheme of miserable treachery, and only his strong sense of the utter impossibility, and indeed the ridiculousness of the project, prevented his contempt and indignation finding forcible expression. Burgevine, the traitor to the Imperial cause, the man whose health would not allow him to do his duty to his new masters in Soochow, thus revealed his plan for defy- ing all parties, and for deciding the fate of the Dragon Throne. The only reply he received was the cold one that it would be better and wiser to confine his attention to the question of whether he intended to yield or not, instead of discussing idle schemes of "vaulting ambition." Meantime, Chung Wang had come down from Nankin to superintend the defence of Soochow; and in face of a more capable opponent he still did not despair of success, I 1 '"■«># ^^^ ^E 'k L ■* '1 I* y^-^mi m^^'s 1^ w o in O y-t H THE REIGN OF THE EMPEROR KWATSfGSU. 149 ceptionable character. It was a delicate mission with which he was entrusted. The letter was submitted to Sir Thomas Wade in order that its terms should be exactly in accordance with Chinese etiquette, and that no phrase should be used showing that the Chinese government attached less importance to the mission than the occasion demanded. The Embassy proceeded to Europe, and, whatever may be thought of its immediate effect, it must be allowed that it established a precedent of friendly inter- course with that country, which proved an additional guarantee of peace. A curious incident arising from the pas- sion of gambling which is so prevalent in China, and bearing incidentally upon the national character, may be briefly referred to. The attention of the Pekin government was attracted to this subject by a novel form of gambling, which not merely attained enor- mous dimensions, but which threatened to bring the system of public examination into disrepute. This latter fact created a pro- found impression at Pekin, and roused the mandarins to take unusually prompt meas- ures. Lottery on a Large Scale. Canton was the headquarters of the gam- bling confederacy v/hich established the lot- teries known as the Weising, but its ramifica- tions extended throughout the whole of the province of Kwantung. The Weising, or examination sweepstakes, were based on the principle of drawing the names of the suc- cessful candidates at the official examinations. They appealed, therefore, to every poor vil- lager, and every father of a family, as well as to the aspirants themselves. The subscribers to the Weising lists were numbered by hun- dreds of thousands. It became a matter of almost as much importance to draw a suc- cessful number or name in the lottery as to take the degree. The practice could not have been allowed to go on without intro- ducing serious abuses into the system of public examination. The profits of the owners of the lottery were so enormous that they were able to pay not less than eight hundred thousand dollars as hush-money to the Viceroy and the other high officials of Canton. In order to shield his own participation in the profits, the Vice- roy declared that he devoted this new source of revenue to the completion of the river de- fences of Canton. Severe Penalties Threatened. In 1874 the whole system was declared illegal, and severe penalties were passed against those aiding, or participating in any way in, the Weising Company. The local officers did not, however, enforce with any stringency these new laws, and the Weising fraternity enjoyed a further but brief period of increased activity under a different name. The fraud was soon detected, and in an Edict of August II, 1875, it was very rightly laid down that " the maintenance of the purity of government demands that it be not allowed under any pretext to be re-established," and for their apathy in the matter the Viceroy Yinghan and several of the highest officials in Canton were disgraced and stripped of their official rank. In China natural calamities on a colossal scale have often aggravated political troubles. The year 1876 witnessed the commencement of a drouth in the two great provinces of Honan and Shansi which has probably never been surpassed as the cause of a vast amount of human suffering. Although the provinces named suffered the most from the prevalent drought, the suffering was general over the whole of Northern China, from Shantung 150 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. and Pechihli to Honan and the course of the Yellow River. At first the government, if not apathetic, was disposed to say that the evil would be met by the grant of the usual allowance made by the Provincial Governors in the event of distress; but when one province after another was absorbed within the famine era, it became no longer possible to treat the matter as one of such limited importance, and the high ministers felt obliged to bestir them- selves in face of so grave a danger. Li Hung Chang in particular was most energetic, not merely in collecting and forwarding supplies of rice and grain, but also in inviting con- tributions of money from all those parts of the Empire which had not been affected by famine. Efforts to Relieve the Famine. Allowing for the general sluggishness of popular opinion in China, and for the absence of any large amount of currency, it must be allowed that these appeals met with a large and hberal response. The foreign residents also contributed their share, and even the charity of London found a vent in sending some thousands of pounds to the scene of the famine in Northern China. This evidence of foreign sympathy in the cause of a common humanity made more than a passing impres- sion on the minds of the Chinese people. While the origin of the famine may be attributed to either drought or civil war, there is no doubt that its extension and the apparent inability of the authorities to grapple with it may be traced to the want of means of communication, which rendered it almost impossible to convey the needful succor into the famine districts. The evil being so ob- vious, it was hoped that the Chinese would be disposed to take a step forward on their own initiative in the great and needed work of the introduction of railways and other mechanical appliances. The Viceroy of the Two Kiang gave his assent to the construc- tion of a short line between Shanghai and the port of Woosung. The great difficulty had always been to make a start; and now that a satisfactory ( commencement had been made the foreigners were disposed in their eagerness to overlook all obstacles, and to imagine the Flowery Land traversed in all directions by railways. But these expectations were soon shown to be premature. Half of the railway was open for use in the summer of 1876, and during some weeks the excitement among the Chi- nese themselves was as marked as among the Europeans. The hopes based upon this satisfactory event were destined to be soon dispelled by the animosity of the officials. They announced their intention to resort to every means in their power to prevent the completion of the undertaking. The situa- tion revealed such dangers of mob violence that Sir Thomas Wade felt compelled to request the Company to discontinue its operations, and after some discussion it was arranged that the Chinese should buy the line. Opposition to the Railway. After a stipulated period the line was placed under Chinese management, when, instead of devoting themselves to the interests of the railway, and to the extension of its power of utility, they wifully and persistently neglected it, with the express design of de- stroying it. At this conjuncture the Viceroy allowed the Governor of Fuhkien to remove the rails and plant to Formosa. The fate of the Woosung railway destroyed the hopes created by its construction, and postponed to a later day the great event of the introduc- tion of railways into China. Notwithstand- THE REIGN OF THE EMPEROR KWANGSU. 151 ing such disappointments as this, and the ever present difficulty of conducting relations with an unsympathetic people controlled by suspicious officials, there was yet observable £\ marked improvement in the relations of the different nations with the Chinese. Opening New Ports. Increased facilities of trade, such as the i opening of new ports, far from extending the area of danger, served to promote a mutual / good-will. In 1876 Kiungchow, in the island of Hainan, was made a treaty port, or rather the fact of its having been included in the treaty of Tientsin was practically accepted and recognized. In the following year four new ports were added to the list. One, Pakhoi, was intended to increase trade intercourse with Southern China. Two of the three others, Ichang and Wuhu, were selected as being favorably situated for com- merce on the Yangtse and its affluents, while Wenchow was chosen for the benefit of the trade on the coast. The close of the great work successfully accomplished during the two periods of the Regency was followed within a few weeks by the disappearance of the most important of the personages who had carried on the government throughout these twenty years of constant war and diplomatic excitement. Before the Pekin world knew of her illness, it heard of the death of the Empress Dowager Tsi An, who as Hienfung's princi- pal widow had enjoyed the premier place in the government, although she had never possessed a son to occupy the throne in person. In a proclamation issued in her name and possibly at her request, Tsi An described the course of her malady, the soli- citude of the Emperor, and urged upon him the duty of his high place to put restraint upon his grief. Her death occurred on 1 8th April, from heart disease when she was only forty-five, and her subsequent obsequies were as splendid as her services demanded. For herself she had always been a woman of frugal habits, and the successful course of recent Chinese history was largely due to her firmness and resolution. Her associate in the Regency, Tsi Thsi, who was always more or less of an invalid, survived her. The difficulty with Russia had not long been composed, when, on two opposite sides of her extensive dominion, China was called upon to face a serious condition of affairs. In Corea, "the forbidden land" of the Far East, events were forced by the eagerness and competition of European states to con- clude treaties of commeace with that primi- tive kingdom, and perhaps also by their fear that if they delayed Russia would appropriate some port on the Corean coast. Corea a Source of Trouble. To all who had official knowledge of Russia's desire and plan for seizing Port Lazareff, this apprehension was far from chimerical, and there was reason to believe that Russia's enroachment might compel other countries to make annexations in or round Corea by way of precaution. Practi- cal evidence of this was furnished by the English occupation of Port Hamilton, and by its subsequent evacuation when the neces- sity passed away, but should the occasion again arise the key of the situation will probably be found in the possession not of Port Hamilton or Quelpart, but of the Island of Tsiusima. Recourse was had to dip- lomacy to avert what threatened to be a grave international danger; and although the result was long doubtful, and the situatio' sometimes full of peril, a gratifying success was achieved in the end. In 1 88 1 a draft commercial treaty was 152 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. drawn up, approved by the Chinese author- ites and the representatives of the principal powers at Pekin, and carried to the Court of Seoul for acceptance and signature by the American naval officer, Commodore Schu- feldt. The Corean king made no objection to the arrangement, and it was signed with the express stipulation that the ratifications of the treaty were to be exchanged in the following year. Thus was it harmoniously aroused the jealousy of Japan, which has long asserted the right to have an equal voice with China in the control of Corean affairs ; and the government of Tokio, on hearing of the Schufeldt treaty, at once took steps not merely to obtain all the rights to be conferred by that document, to which no one would have objected, but also to assert its claim to control equally with China the policy of the Corean Court. With that ob- CHINESE OUT arranged at Pekin that Corea was to issue from her hermit's cell, and open her ports to trading countries under the guidance and encouragement of China. There can be no doubt that if this arrangement had been carried out, the influence and the position of China in Corea would have been very greatly increased and strengthened. But, unfortunately, the policy of Li Hung Chung — for, if he did not originate, he took the most important part in directing it — FOR AN AIRING. ject, a Japanese fleet and army were sent to the Seoul river, and when the diplomatists returned for the ratification of the treaty, they found the Japanese in a. strong position close to the Corean capital. The Chinese were not to be set on one side in so open a manner, and a powerful fleet of gunboats, with 5,000 troops, sent to the Seoul river to uphold their rights. Under other circumstances, more especially as the Chinese expedition was beheved to be the THE REIGN OF THE EMPEROR KWANGSU. 153 superior, a hostile collision must have en- sued, and the war which has so often seemed near between the Chinese and Japanese would have become an accomplished fact; but fortunately the presence of the foreign diplomatists moderated the ardor of both sides, and a rupture was averted. By a stroke of judgment the Chinese seized Tai Wang Kun, the father of the young king, and the leader of the anti-foreign party, and carried him off to Pekin, where he was kept in imprisonment for some time, until matters had settled down in his own country. Rivalry Between China and Japan. The opening of Corea to the Treaty Powers did not put an end to the old rivalry of China and Japan in that country, of which history contains so many examples ; and the attack on the Japanese Legion in 1884 was a striking revelation of popular antipathy or of an elaborate anti-Japanese plot headed by the released Chinese prisoner, Tai Wang Kun. At the opposite point of the frontier China was brought face to face with a danger which threatened to develop into a peril of the first magnitude, and in meeting which she was undoubtedly hampered by her treaties with the general body of foreign Powers and her own peculiar place in the family of nations. It is the special misfor- tune of China that she cannot engage in any, even a defensive, war with a maritime power without incurring the grave risk, or, indeed, the practical certainty that, if such a war be continued for any length of time, she must find herself involved with every other foreign country through the impossibility of confining the hostility of her own subjects to one race of foreigners in particular. In considering the last war with a Euro- pean country in which China was engaged, due allowance must be made for these facts, and also for the anomalous character of that contest when active hostilities were carried on without any formal declaration of war — a state of things which gave the French many advantages. Towards the end of the year 1882, the French Government came to the decision to establish a " definite protectorate '' over Tonquin. Events had for some time been shaping themselves in this direction, and the colonial ambition of France had long fixed on Indo-China as a field in which it might aggrandize itself with comparatively little risk and a wide margin of advantage. The weakness of the kingdom of Annam was a strong enough temptation in itself to assert the protectorate over it which France had, more or less, claimed for forty years; but when the reports of several French ex- plorers came to promote the conviction that France might acquire the control of a con- venient and, perhaps, the best route into some of the richest provinces of interior China without much difficulty, the tempta- tion became irresistible. France is Quick to Act. French activity in Indo-China was height- ened by the declaration of Garnier, Rocher and others that the Songcoi, or Red River, furnished the best means of communicating with Yunnan, and tapping the wealth of the richest mineral province in China. The apathy of England in her relations with Burmah, which presented, under its arrogant and obstructive rulers, what may have seemed an insuperable obstacle to trade in- tercourse between India and China, afforded additional inducement to the French to act quickly ; and, as they felt confident of their ability and power to coerce the Court of Hue, the initial difficulties of their undertak- ing did not seem very formidable. 154 CHrNA: PAST AND PRESENT. That undertaking was, in the first place, defined to be a protectorate of China, and, as the first step in the enterprise, the town of Hanoi, in the delta of the Red River, and the nominal capital of Tonquin, was cap- tured before the end of the year 1882. Tonquin stood in very much the same re- lationship to China as Corea ; and, although the enforcement of the suzerain tie was lax, there was no doubt that at Pekin the opin- ion was held very strongly that the action of France was an encroachment on the rights of China. But, if such was the secret opin- ion of the Chinese authorities, they took no immediate steps to arrest the development of French poHcy in Tonquin by proclaiming it a Chinese dependency, and also their inten- tion to defend it. While Li Hung Chang and the other members of the Chinese Gov- ernment were deliberating cis to the course they should pursue, the French were acting with great vigor in Tonquin, and committing their military reputation to a task from which they could not in honor draw back. Movements of the "Black Flags." During the whole of the year 1883 they were engaged in military operations with the Black Flag irregulars, a force half piratical and half patriotic, who represented the national army of the country. It was be- lieved at the time, but quite erreoneously, that the Black Flags were paid and incited by the Chinese. Subsequent evidence showed that the Chinese authorities did not take even an indirect part in the contest until a much later period. After the capture of Hanoi, the French were constantly engaged with the Black Flags, from whom they cap- tured the important town of Sontay, which was reported to be held by Imperial Chinese troops, but on its capture this statement was found to be untrue. The French were in the full belief that the conquest of Tonquin would be easily effected, when a serious reverse obliged them to realize the gravity of their task. A considerable detachment, under the command of Captain Henri Riviere, who was one of the pioneers of French enterprise on the Songcoi, was surprised and defeated near Hanoi. Riviere was killed, and it became necessary to make a great effort to recover the ground that had been lost. Fresh troops were sent from Europe, but before they arrived the French received another check at Phukai, which the Black Flags claimed as a victory because the French were obliged to retreat. Extreme Measures by the French. Before this happened the French had taken exteme measures against the King of Annam, of which state Tonquin is the northern pro- vince. The King of that country, by name Tuduc, who had become submissive to the French, died in July, 1883, and after his death the Annamese, perhaps encouraged by the difficulties of the French in Tonquin, became so hostile that it was determined to read them a severe lesson. Hue was at- tacked and occupied a month after the death of Tuduc, and a treaty was extracted from the new king which made him the depend- ent of France. When the cold season began in Tonquin, the French forces largely in- creased, and, commanded by Admiral Cour- bet, renewed operations, and on the i ith of December attacked the main body of the Black Flags at Sontay, which they had reoccupied and strengthened. They offered a desperate and well sustained resistance, and it was only with heavy loss that the French succeeded in carrying the town. The victors were somewhat recom- pensed for their teirdships and loss by the magnitude of the spoil, which included a THE REIGN OF THE EMPEROR KWANGSU. 155 large sum of money. Desultory fighting continued without intermission ; Admiral Courbet was superseded by General Millot, who determined to signalize his assumption of the command by attacking Bacninh, which the Black Flags made their headquarters after the loss of Sontay. On the 8th of March, he attacked this place at the head of 12,000 men, but so formidable were its defences that he would not risk an attack in front, and by a circuitous march of four days he gained the flank of the position, and thus taken at a disadvantage, the Black Flags abandoned their formidable lines, and retreated without much loss, leaving their artillery, including some Krupp guns, in the hands of the victors. A Treaty of Peace. At this stage of the question diplomacy intervened, and on the i ith of May a treaty of peace was signed by Commander Fournier, during the ministry of M. Jules Ferry, with the Chinese government. One of thd prin- cipal stipulations of this treaty was that the French should be allowed to occupy Lang- son and other places in Tonquin. When the French commander in Tonquin sent a force under Colonel Dugenne to occupy Langson it was opposed in the Bade defile and repulsed with some loss. The Chinese ex- onerated themselves from all responsibility by declaring that the French advance was premature, because no date was fixed by the Fournier convention, and because there had not been time to transmit the necessary orders. On the other hand, M. Fournier declared on his honor that the dates in his draft were named in the original convention. The French government at once demanded an apology, and an indemnity fixed by M. Jules Ferry, in a moment of mental excitement, at the ridiculous figure of ;^SO,ooo,ooo. An apology was offered, but such an indemnity was refused, and eventually France obtained one of only ;^8oo,ooo. After the Bade affair hostilities were at once resumed, and for the first time the French carried them on not only against the Black Flags, but against the Chinese. M. Jules Ferry did not, however, make any formal declaration of war against China, and he thus gained an advantage of position for his attack on the Chinese which it was not creditable to French chivalry to have asserted. The most striking instance of this occured at Foochow, where the French fleet, as repre- senting a friendly power, was at anchor above the formidable defences of the Min river. In accordance with instructions telegraphed to him, the French admiral attacked those places in reverse and destroyed the forts on the Min without much difficulty or loss, thanks exclusively to his having been allowed past them as a friend. Upholding the Laws of Neutrality. The French also endeavored to derive all possible advantage from there being no for- mal declaration of war, and to make use of Hongkong as a base for their fleet against China. But this unfairness could not be tolerated, and the British minister at Pekin, where Sir Harry Parkes had in the autumn of 1883 succeeded Sir Thomas Wade, issued a proclamation that the hostilities between France and China were tantamount to a state of war, and that the laws of neutrality must be strictly observed. The French resented this step, and showed some inclination to retaliate by instituting a right to search fol rice, but fortunately this pretension was not pushed to extremities, and the war was closed before it could produce any serious consequences. 156 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. The French devoted much of their atten- tion to an attack on the Chinese possessions in Formosa, and the occupation of Kelung ; a fort in the northern part of that island was captured, but the subsequent success of the French was small. The Chinese displayed great energy and resource in forming de- fences against any advance inland from Kelung or Tamsui, and the French govern- may be gathered from the fact that the com- pulsory retreat, in March, 1885, of the French from before Langson, where some of the Chinese regular troops were drawn up with a large force of Black and Yellow Flags — • the latter of whom were in Chinese pay — did not imperil the negotiations which were then far advanced towards completion. On the 9th of June of the same year a treaty of VIEW OF TIENTSIN, CHINA. ment was brought to face the fact that there was nothing to be gained by carrying on these desultory operations, and that unless they were prepared to send a large expedi- tion, it was computed of not less than 50,000 men, to attack Pekin, there was no alternative to coming to terms with China. How strong this conviction had become peace was signed by M. Patenotre and Li Hung Chang which gave France nothing more than the Fournier convention. The military lessons of this war must be pronounced inconclusive, for the new forces which China had organized since the Pekin campaign were never fully engaged, and the struggle ended before the regular regiment THE REIGN OF THE EMPEROR KWANGSU. 157 sent to Langson had any opportunity of showing their quality. But the impression conveyed by the fighting in Formosa and the northern districts of Tonquin was that China had made considerable progress in the military art, and that she possessed the nucleus of an army that might become for- midable. But while the soldiers had made no inconsiderable improvement, as much could not be said of the officers, and among the commanders there seemed no grasp of the situation, and a complete inability to con- duct a campaign. Incapable Commanders. Probably these deficiencies will long remain the really weak spot in the Chinese war organization, and although they have men who will fight well, the only capacity their commanders showed in Tonquin and For- mosa was in selecting strong positions and in fortifying them with consummate art. But as the strongest position can be turned and avoided, and as the Chinese, like all Asiatics, become demoralized when their rear is threatened, it cannot be denied that, considerable progress as the Chinese have made in the military art, they have not yet mastered some of its rudiments. All that can be said is that the war between France and China was calculated to teach the advisability of caution in fixing a quarrel upon China. Under some special difficulties from the char- acter of the war and with divided councils at Pekin, the Chinese still gave a very good account of themselves against one of the greatest Powers of Europe. During the progress of this struggle a coup de'tat was effected at Pekin of which at the time it was impossible to measure the whole significance. In July, 1884, the Chinese world was startled by the sudden fall and disgrace of Prince Kung, who had been the most powerful man in China since the Treaty of Pekin. A decree of the Empress Regent appeared dismissing him from all his posts and consigning him to an obscurity from which after many years he had not succeeded in emerging. The causes of his fall are not clear, but they were pro- bably of several distinct kinds. While he was the leader of the peace party and the advocate of a prompt arrangement with France, he was also an opponent of Prince Chun's desire to have a share in the practical administration of the state, or, at least, an obstacle in the way of its realization. Prince Chun, who was a man of an imperious will, and who, on the death of the Eastern Empress, became the most important personage in the palace and supreme Council of the Empire, was undoubtedly the leader of the attack on Prince Kung, and the immediate cause of his downfall. Prince Kung, who was an amiable and well inten- tioned man rather than an able statesman, yielded without resistance, and indeed he had no alternative, for he had no following at Pekin, and his influence was very slight except among Europeans. Sudden Death of Prince Chun. Prince Chun then came to the front,' tak- ing an active and prominent part in the government, making himself President of a new Board of National Defence and taking up the command of the Pekin Field Force, a specially trained body of troops for the defence of the capital. He retained posses- sion of these posts after his son assumed the government in person, notwithstanding the law forbidding a father serving under his son, which has already been cited, and he remained the real controller of Chinese policy until his sudden and unexpected death in the first days of 189 1. 168 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. Some months earlier in April, 1 890, China had suffered a great loss in the Marquis Tseng, whose diplomatic experience and knowledge of Europe might have rendered his country infinite service in the future. He was the chosen colleague of Prince Chun, and he is said to have gained the ear of his young sovereign. While wiUing to admit the superiority of European inventions, he was also an implicit believer in China's destiny and in her firmly holding her place among the greatest Powers of the world. In December, 1890, also died Tseng Kwo Tsiuen, uncle of the Marquis, and a man who had taken a prominent and honorable part in the suppression of the Taeping rebellion. Tax on Opium. In 1885 an important and delicate negotia- tion between England and China was brought to a successful issue by the joint efforts of Lord Salisbury and the Marquis Tseng. The levy of the lekin or barrier tax on opium had led to many exactions in the interior which was injurious to the foreign trade and also to the Chinese government, which obtained only the customs duty raised in the port. After the subject had been thoroughly discussed in all its bearings a convention was signed in London, on 19th July, 1885, by which the lekin was fixed at eighty taels a chest, in addition to the cus- toms due of thirty taels, and also that the whole of this sum should be paid in the treaty port before the opium was taken out of bond. This arrangement was greatly to the advantage of the Chinese government, which came into possession of a large revenue that had previously been frittered away in the provinces, and much of which had gone into the pockets of the Mandarins. The Emperor issued an edict in 1890 formally legalizing the cultivation of opium, which, although practically carried on, was nominally illegal. An immediate consequence of this step was a great increase in the area under cultivation, particularly in Manchuria, and so great is the production of native opium now becoming that that of India may yet be driven from the field as a practical revenge for the loss inflicted on China by the competition of Indian tea. But at all events these measures debar China from ever again posing as an injured party in the matter of the opium traffic. During these years the young Emperor Kwangsu was growing up. In February, 1887, in which month falls the Chinese New Year, it was announced his marriage was postponed in consequence of his delicate health, and it was not until the new year of 1889, when Kwangsu was well advanced in his eighteenth year, that he was married to Yeh-ho-na-la, daughter of a Manchu general named Knei Hsiang, who had been specially selected for this great honor out of many hundred candidates. Magnificent Marriage Ceremonies. The marriage was celebrated with the usual state, and more than ;^ 5, 000 ,000 is said to have been expended on the attendant ceremonies. At the same time the Empress Regent issued her farewell edict and passe::! into retirement, but there is reason to believe that she continued to exercise no inconsider- able influence over the young Emperor. The marriage and assumption of govern- ing power by the Emperor Kwangsu brought to the front the very important question of the right of audience by the foreign ministers resident at Pekin. This privilege had been conceded by China at the time of the Tient- sin massacre, and it had been put into force THE REIGN OF THE EMPEROR KWANGSU. 159 as a result of that concession. The Em- perors of China do not appear at any time to have taken up the position that their own person was so supremely sacred as to render audience with a foreigner an indignity. On the contrary, in olden days, when the Im- perial state and prestige were immeasurably greater than they now are, audience was freely granted, and the person of the Sover- eign was less hermetically concealed than is now the fashion. The Two Great Questions. Two questions, however, have successively been made uppermost in the settlement of the matter, namely, the character of obeis- ance made by the foreigner admitted to the interview, and the nature and locality of the building in which it took place. As regards the former the favored individual was ex- pected to comply with the Chinese usage by performing the kowtow, that is, kneeling thrice and knocking his forehead nine times upon the ground. The theory of Chinese sovereignty being that the Emperor is the dejure monarch of the whole earth, of which China is the Mid- dle Kingdom, all other nations, therefore, must be either his tributaries or his subjects; whence the exaction of this mark of defer- ence from their envoys. As regards the site of audience, the practice of emphasizing the lowliness of the stranger in presence of the Son of Heaven by fixing the audience in a building that carries with it some implication of inferiority, appears to have been the growth only of the last fifty years, if not more recently. In the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- turies both the Jesuit Fathers who were in the service of the Emperor and the envoys of European Courts or Companies, who came to Pekin for complimentary purposes or to secure facilities for trade, performed the kowtow without apparent compunction. One Russian official, however, who arrived at Pekin in the reign of the first Manchu Emperor Shun Chih (i 644-1661) was re- fused an audience because he declined to kowtow. In those days the audience commonly took place in one or other of the great Ceremonial Halls of the Imperial Palace in the heart of the Forbidden City, where no European is now permitted to enter. Here stands the Tai Ho Tien, or Hall of Supreme Harmony, a magnificent structure, 1 10 feet in height, erected upon a terrace of marble 20 feet high, with projecting wings, ascended from the outer court by flights of steps. Seated on a Raised Throne. The Great Audience Hall on the summit of the platform is a vast pavilion, in design not unlike the Memorial Temple of Yung Lo at the Ming Tombs, 200 feet in length by 90 feet in depth, sustained by 72 immense columns of painted teak. In this Hall the Emperor held and still holds the splendid annual Levees at the Winter Solstice, at the New Year, and on his own birthday. Here in the Tai Ho Tien the Emperor takes his seat upon a raised throne in the centre. A few Manchus of exalted rank alone are admitted to the building. Outside and below the marble balustrades are ranged the no- bility and officials in eighteen double rows, the civil officers on the east side, and the military officers on the west, their respective ranks and positions being marked by low columns. The utmost care is observed in appointing places for the officials according to their respective ranks and titles. The privilege of audience, as we see, had been conceded, and it had been put into force 160 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. on one occasion during the brief reign of Tungche. The time had again arrived for giving it effect, and, after long discussions as to the place of audience and the forms to be observed, Kwangsu issued in December, 1890, an edict appointing a. day soon after the commencement of the Chinese New Year, for the audience, and also arranging that it should be repeated annually on the same date. In March, 189 1, Kwangsu gave his first ians' made on him the idea which they carried away of the Emperor Kwangsu was pleasing and almost pathetic. His air is one of exceeding intelligence and gentleness, somewhat frightened and melancholy look- ing. His face is pale, and though it is dis- tinguished by refinement and quiet dignity it has none of the force of his martial ancestors, nothing commanding or imperial, but is alto- gether mild, delicate, sad and kind. " He is essentially Manchu in features, his OPIUM SMOKERS. reception to the foreign ministers, but after it was over some criticism and dissatisfaction were aroused by the fact that the ceremony had been held in the Tse Kung Ko, or Hall of Tributary Nations. As this was the first occasion on which Europeans saw the young Emperor, the fact that he made a favorable impression on them is not without interest, and the following personal description of the master of so many millions may well be quoted : "Whatever the impression 'the Barbar- skin is strangely pallid in hue, which is, no doubt, accounted for by the confinement of his life inside these forbidding walls and the absence of the ordinary pleasures and pur- suits of youth, with the constant discharge of onerous, complicated and difficult duties of state which, it must be remembered, are, according to Imperial Chinese etiquette, mostly transacted between the hours of two and six in the morning. His face is oval shaped with a very long narrow chin and a sensitive mouth with thin nervous lips ; his THE REIGN OF THE EMPEHOR KWANGSU. 161 nose is well shaped and straight, his eye- brows regular and very arched, while the eyes are unusally large and sorrowful in ex- pression. The forehead is well shaped and broad, and the head is large beyond the average." Owing to the dissatisfaction felt at the place of audience, which seemed to put the Treaty Powers on the same footing as tribu- tary states, the foreign ministers have en- deavored to force from the government the formal admission that a more appropriate part of the Imperial city should be assigned for the ceremony, but as the Powers them- selves were not disposed to lay too much stress on this point, no definite concession was yet made, and the Chinese ministers held out against the pressure of some of the foreign representatives. But, although no concise alteration was made in the place of audience, the question was practically settled by a courteous concession to the new English minister, Mr. O'Conor, who succeeded Sir John Walsham, and it is gratifying to feel that this advantage was gained more by tact than by coercion. When Mr. O'Conor wished to present his credentials to the Emperor, it was arranged that the Emperor should receive him in the Cheng Kuan Tien Palace, which is part of the Imperial residence of Peace and Plenty within the Forbidden City. The British representative, accompanied by his secre- taries and suite in accordance with arrange- ment, proceeded to this palace on the 1 3th of December, 1892, and was received in a specially honorable way at the principal or Imperial entrance by the officials of the Court. Such a mark of distinction was con- sidered quite unique in the annals of foreign diplomacy in China, and has since been a standing grievance with the other ministers at Pekin. It was noticed by those present that the Emperor took a much greater interest in the ceremony than on previous occasions. This audience, which lasted a considerable time, was certainly the most satisfactory and en- couraging yet held with the Emperor Kwangsu by any foreign envoy, and it also afforded opportunity of confirming the favor- able impression which the intelligence and dignified demeanor of the Emperor Kwangsu made on all who have had the honor of coming into his presence. One incident in the progress of the audience question de- serves notice, and that was the Emperor's refusal, in 1891, to receive Mr. Blair, the United States Minister, in consequence of the hostile legislation of our country against China. The anti-foreign outbreak along the Yangtsekiang, in the summer of 1891, was an unpleasant incident, from which at one time it looked as if serious consequences might follow ; but the ebullition fortunately passed away without an international crisis, and it may be hoped that the improved means of exercising diplomatic pressure at Pekin will render these attacks less frequent, and their settlement and redress more rapid. 11 CHAF»TrBR VIII. THE EMPEROR OF CHINA AND HIS COURT. THE foregoing concise and graphic history from the able pen of the well-known historian, Mr. D. C. Boulger, may appropriately be fol- lowed by Mr. Robert K. Douglas's interest- ing and entertaining account of the manners and customs of the Chinese. This enables the reader to see China as it has been in the past and as it is at the present time. He is now conducted from one point of observation to another, while before him are pictured the customs, the domestic life, the manners, dress, idol-worship and singular ideas and habits of this remarkable people. With the exception of fashions in trivial matters, nothing has changed in China for many centuries. Every institution, every custom, and every idea has its foundation in the distant ages and draws its inspiration from the sages of antiquity. Immutability in all that is essential is written on the face of the empire. No fear of organic change perplexes monarchs, or anyone else, in that changeless land, and the people love to have it so. Sovereigns reign and pass away, dynasties come and go, and even foreign powers take possession of the throne, as at the present time, when a line of Manchu emperors reigns at Pekin ; but the national life in all its char- acteristics goes on unmoved by political change and revolutionary violence. One of the most remarkable spectacles in the world's history is that of this strange empire which, having been time after time thrown into the crucible of political unrest, has always reappeared identical in its main 162 features and institutions, and absorbing rathei than being absorbed by the foreign elements which have occasionally thrust themselves into the body politic. The poUtical constitution, the social rela tions and customary ceremonies were crys- tallized in their present forms by those ancients on whom, according to the opinion of the people, rested the mantle of perfect wisdom. If the death of the emperor is an- nounced, it is proclaimed in words used by Yao, who lived before the time of Abraham. Fondness for Antiquity. If a mandarin writes a controversial de- spatch, he bases his arguments on the sayings of Confucius ; if a youth presents himself at the public examinations, he is expected to compose essays exclusively on themes from the four books and five classics of antiquity ; and if a man writes to congratulate a friend on the birth of a daughter, he does so in phraseology drawn from the national primi- tive odes, which were sung and chanted be- fore the days of Homer. This immutability gives certain advantages in writing on Chinese society, since the author is not called upon "To shoot folly as it flies And catch the manners living as they rise." It is enough for him to keep in view the rock from which the people have hewn their lives, and to draw from the current literature, which reflects that foundation, the picture which he may propose to sketch. What, then, are the constituent elements THE EMPEROR AND HIS COURT. 163 of Chinese society ? They are very simple, and are free from the complications and enlacements of European life. At the head is the emperor and his court, next comes the bureaucracy, and after them the people. With the exception of some few families, such as those of Confucius, of Tseng, and five or six others, there is no hereditary aristocracy of high rank and importance. All are equal until the examiners have elected into an aris- tocracy of talent those whose essays and poems are the best. The remaining divisions of "farmers, mechanics, and traders," repre- sent one level. High-Sounding Titles. Above these classes the Emperor reigns supreme. The possessor of a power which is limited only by the endurance of the people, the object of profound reverence and worship by his subjects, the holder of the lives of "all under heaven," the fountain of honor as well as the dispenser of mercy, he occupies a position which is unique of its kind, and unmatched in the extent of its influence. There is much magic in a name, and the titles by which the potentate is known help us to realize what he is in the eyes of the people. He is the "Son of Heaven," he is the "Supreme Ruler," the "August Lofty One," the "Celestial Ruler," the "Solitary Man," the "Buddha of the present day," the " Lord ; " and, in adulatory addresses, he is often entitled the " Lord of Ten Thousand Years." As the Son of Heaven, he rules by the express command of the celestial powers, and is sustained on the throne by the same supreme authorities, so long as he rules in accordance with their dictates. He alone is entitled to worship the azure heaven, and at the winter solstice he performs this rite after careful preparation, and with solemn ritual, a description of which cannot fail to be of interest to the reader. The Temple of Heaven, where this august ceremony is performed, stands in the southern portion of the city of Pekin, and consists of a triple circular terrace, two hundred and ten feet wide at the base, and ninety feet at the top. The marble stones forming the pave- ment of the highest terrace are laid in nine concentric circles. On the centre stone, which is a perfect circle, the Emperor kneels, facing the north, and "acknowledges in prayer and by his position that he is inferior to Heaven, and to Heaven alone. Round him on the pavement are the nine circles of as many heavens, consisting of nine stones, then eighteen, then twenty-seven, and so on, in successive multiples of nine until the square of nine, the favorite number of Chinese phil- osophy, is reached in the outermost circle of eighty-one stones." The Burnt Sacrifice. On the evening before the winter solstice the Emperor is borne in a carriage drawn by elephants to the mystic precincts of the temple, whence, after offering incense to Shangti, "the Supreme Ruler," and to his ancestors, he proceeds to the hall of pene- tential fasting. There he remains until 5.45 A.M., when, dressed in his sacrificial robes, he ascends to the second terrace. This is the signal for setting fire to the whole burnt sacrifice, which consists of a bullock two years old and without blemish. The Su- preme Ruler having been thus invoked, the Emperor goes up to the highest terrace, and offers incense before the sacred shrine, and that of his ancestors. At the same time, after having knelt thrice and prostrated himself nine times, he offers bundles of silk, jade cups, and other gifts in lowly sacrifice. A prayer is then i4 w > a o M H W 164 TH)£ EMPEROR AND HIS COURT. 165 read by an attendant minister, while the Emperor kneels in adoration, to an accom- paniment of music and dancing. One solemn rite has still to be performed before the sacri- ficial service is complete. While the Em- peror remains on his knees, officers appointed for the purpose present to him " the flesh of happiness," and the "cup of happiness." Thrice he prostrates himself before the sacred emblems, and then receives them with solemn reverence. It is curious to find these marked resemblances to Jewish and Christian wor- ship in the Chinese ritual. Claims Divine Authority. By this solemn sacrifice the Emperor assumes the office of Vice-regent of Heaven, and by common consent is acknowledged to be the co-ordinate of Heaven and earth, and the representative of man in the trinity of which those two powers form the other per- sons. As possessor of the Divine authority, he holds himself superior to all who are called gods, and takes upon himself to grant titles of honor to deities, and to promote them in the sacred hierarchy. On one occasion a memorial was pre- sented to the throne by the Lieutenant- Governor of Kiangtsu, asking the Emperor to confer higher honors on the Queen of Heaven, the God of the Wind , the God of the Sea, and the God of the city of Shanghai, in consideration of their having brought the tribute rice safely on its way to Tientsin, and for having favored the vessels bearing it with gentle zephyrs and a placid sea. To this re- quest the Emperor was pleased to accede, and the gods and goddesses reaped the re- ward of his benignity by the issue of patents which were held to vouch for their promo- tion on the heights of Olympus. One other instance of this form of super- stition may be mentioned, which is remark- able as having for its advocate the redoubt- able Tseng Kwofan, the father of the Mar- quis Tseng, and the foremost man of the day in the empire. To him, more than tc- any other mandarin, is due the suppressior< of the Taeping rebellion. He was the inti mate adviser of the throne, and was held ir the highest esteem as a learned and enlight ened man. This viceroy, in conjunction with the Viceroy of Fuhkien, "petitioned the throne to deify two female genii who had worked a great number of miracles for the good of the people." In the district of Chiangtu, write the viceroys, " there is a place called Hsien-nii-chen, which has long had a temple to the two genii, Tu and Kang. This temple was once upon a time the scene of a benefi- cent miracle, which is duly recorded in the history of the district. Moreover, in the eighth year of Hiengfung (1858), when the Taeping rebels were attempting to cross on rafts at Fuchiao, on the east side of Yang- chow, a frightful storm of thunder and rain burst over the place and drowned countless numbers of them. Lamps and Fairy Godesses. "The refugees from the city all stated that, on the night in question, when the rebels were attempting to cross, they saw the opposite bank lined, as far as the eye could reach, with bright azure-colored lamps, and in the midst of the lamps were seen the fairy goddesses. Scared by this apparition the rebels abandoned the attempt, and the town and neighborhood were saved from fall- ing into their hands." " Some time ago," the memorialists add, "Tseng Kwofan petitioned the throne to deify the two female genii, Tu and Kang ; but the Board of Rites replied that the local histories only mention Kang, and asked what authority there was for 166 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. ranking Tu among the genii. There appeared to be no doubt in respect to Kang. "The memoralists have, therefore, re-in- vestigated the whole case, and find that Kang was a priestess in Tu's temple, and that she ascended from the town in question on a white dragon up to fairyland, and that in consequence of this the inhabitants placed her on a par with Tu and worshipped them together. The names of the fairies, Tu and Kang, are to be found in the official registers, and they have long been objects of worship. Such are the representations of the local gentry and elders, and the memoralists would earnestly repeat their request that his majesty would be graciously pleased to deify the two genii, Tu and Kang, in ac- knowledgment of the many deliverances they have wrought, and in compliance with the earnest wish of the people." In the pages of the Pekin Gazette, such memorials, presented by the highest officials in the empire, are constantly to be met with, and are treated with all seriousness both by the suppliants and the Son of Heaven. His Subjects Adore Him. In harmony with these lofty attributes his subjects, when admitted into his presence, prostrate themselves in adoration on the ground before him, and on a certain day in the year he is worshipped in every city in the empire. At daylight on the day in question the local mandarins assemble in the city temple, where, in the central hall, a throne is raised on which is placed the imperial tablet. At a given signal the as- sembled officials kneel thrice before the throne, and nine times strike their heads on the ground as though in the presence of the Supreme Ruler. In speaking of this title, the Supreme Ruler, it is interesting to go a step beyond the English rendering of the term, and to look at the native characters which repre- sent it. They form the word Hwangti, and are of considerable interest both as indicating the very lofty idea entertained by the inven- tors of the first character of what an emperor should be; and, in the case of the second, as confirming a theory which is now commonly accepted, that the Chinese borrowed a num- ber of their written symbols from the cunei- form writing of Babylonia. The character Hwang was formerly made up of two parts, meaning "ruler" and "one's self," and thus conveys the very laudable notion, in har- mony with the doctrines taught by Confu- cius, that an emperor, before attempting to rule the empire, should have learnt to be the master of his own actions. Supreme White Ruler. In the same spirit Mencius, about two hundred years later, said, " The greatest charge is the charge of one's self." An idea which appears in the mouth of Polonius, where he says — "This above all : to thine own self be true, And it must follow, as the night the day, Thou canst not then be false to any man." By a clerical error the character is now written with the omission of a stroke in the symbol for one's self, and, so altered, the compound reads, " the white ruler." The second character means "the supreme." The Emperor is also the Buddha of the present day. This is a title which has little meaning among the skeptical Chinese, who agree with Confucius in preferring to leave the question of a future existence unex- plored. But in the weary wastes of Mon- . golia and Tibet, the ignorant natives give an interest to their dreary existences by blindly following the superstitious teaching of their priests. In Tibet, more especially, Budd- THE EMPEROR AND HIS COURT. 167 hism has gained complete possession of the people, and the priestly profession is crowded with men who seek for power, and who find it easier to make a living out of the supersti- tious fears of the people than from the barren soil at their feet. Not content with managing the spiritual concerns of their followers, these men have made themselves masters of the political situation, and in the hand of their chief, the Grand Lama, rests the government of the country. To these people the title of the " Buddha of the present day " is full of mean- ing, and a command from the potentate at Pekin is readily obeyed as coming from the suzerain of the land, and the spiritual head of their religion. The Grand Lama is sur- rounded by several dignitaries, and on the death of any one of these ecclesiastics the re-embodiment of his spiritual essence is re- ferred to Pekin, and is not considered valid until the sanction of the Emperor has been received. On occasions the Emperor actu- ally forbids the transmigration of the soul of any dignitary who may be under his ban, which thus remains in a state of suspended animation during his good pleasure. A Strange Decree. The Pekin Gazette tells us, that one such, a Hut'ukht'u, was once impeached for desert- ing his post, and carrying off his seal of office, in consequence of a disturbance which arose through a distribution of alms. For this dereliction of duty his title and seal were cancelled, and it was at the same time decreed by the Emperor that his soul should not be allowed to transmigrate at his decease. On receiving this extinguishing sentence the offender came to Pekin for the purpose of appealing, and soon afterwards his death produced the crisis in his spiritual state which the sentence contemplated. The sympathy produced by his condition prompted the despatch of petitions to Pekin to plead for his soul, and such success attended them that an edict was shortly afterwards issued in the following terms: " We decree that as is besought of us, search may be made to discover the child in whose body the soul of the decased Hut'ukht'u has been re-born, and that he be allowed to resume the government of his proper lama- sery, or dominion." Compelled to Fall on Their Faces. The title of "the solitary man" is emi- nently applicable to a potentate who thus not only claims temporal dominion, but who assumes the position of high priest over the household of the gods. It is a common complaint with emperors and kings that they have no fellows; but here is one of their number whose cherished attributes place him beyond the reach of mortals. With the exception of those immediately about his person, his subjects are not allowed to gaze upon his face. When he goes abroad the people are compelled to fall on their faces to the ground until his cavalcade has passed on, and on all occasions he is to them a mystery. A sovereign so exalted and so worshipped would naturally expect to receive from foreigners entering his presence, homage equal to that to which he is accustomed from the pliant knees of his subjects, and at first, no doubt, the refusul of British repre- sentatives to kotow, or prostrate themselves before him, came as a surprise. From the time of Lord Macartney's mission, in 1792, down to a few years back, the question of the kotow was a burning one, and was as consistently resisted by foreign ministers as it was urgently pressed by the Chinese. At the present time, on two or three occasions on which the European ministers have been 168 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. granted audiences, they have paid the Emperor the same reverence, and no more, that they pay to their own sovereigns. Gazette, and to the plays and novels of the people, for sketches of his monotonous and dreary existence. The palace, as befitting TYPES OF CHINESE WOMEN. Being so entirely withdrawn from the pub- lic gaze, very little can possibly be known of the Emperor's private life, and we are driven to that veiy candid periodical, the PeHn the abode of so exalted a personage, is so placed as effectually to cut off its occupants from the rest of the empire. Situated in the " Forbidden City," it is surrounded with a THE EMPEROR AND HIS COURT. 169 triple barrier of walls. Beyond the inner and secret enclosure is the Imperial city, which is enclosed by a high wall topped with tiles of the Imperial yellow color ; and outside that again is the Tartar city, which forms the northern part of the capital. Strict guard is kept day and night at the gates of the Forbidden City, and severe pen- alties are inflicted on all unauthorized persons who may dare to enter its portals. One of the highest distinctions which can be con- ferred on officials whom the Emperor delights to honor, is the right to ride on horseback within these sacred precincts. Only on rare occasions, and those almost exclusively occa- sions of ceremony, does the Emperor pass out of the palace grounds. These no doubt present a miniature of the empire. There are lakes, mountains, parks,, and gardens in which the Imperial prisoner can amuse him- self, with the boats which ply on the artificial lakes, or by joining mimic hunts in miniature forests ; but it is probable that there is not one of the millions of China who has not a more practical knowledge of the empire than he who rules it. Stirring Before Daylight. Theoretically he is supposed to spend his days and nights in the affairs of state. The gates of the Forbidden City are opened at midnight, and the halls of audience at 2 a.m. Before daylight his cabinet ministers arrive and are received at veritable levees, and all the state sacrifices and functions are over by 10 o'clock. Even the court amusements are held before the dew is off the grass. The following programme, taken from the Pekin Gazette, describes a morning's work at Court : "To-morrow, after business, about 6 o'clock A.M., the Emperor will pass through the Hwa-Yuen and Shinwu gates to the Takaotien temple to offer sacrifice. After- wards His Majesty will pass through the Yung-suy-tsiang gate, and, entering the King-shansi gate, will proceed to the Show- hwang temple to worship. His Majesty will then pass through the Pehshang gate from the Sishan road, and, entering the Shinwu gate, will return to the palace to breakfast. His Majesty will then hold an audience, and at 7 o'clock will ascend to the Kientsing Palace to receive congratulations on his birthday. At 8 o'clock he will take his seat to witness the theatrical performance." Putting On the Purple. And if wrestlers and conjurers are sum- moned into the Imperial presence, they must be ready at an equally uncongenial hour to show their skill. But such relaxations are the glints of sunlight which brighten the sombre life of the solitary man. The sov- ereign announced his assumption of the Im- perial purple in 1875, when he was quite an infant, in the following edict : " Whereas, on the fifth day of the moon " (January 12, 1875), "at the yeo hour" (5-7 P.M.), "His Majesty the Emperor departed this life, ascending upon the Dragon to be a guest on high, the benign mandate of the Empress Dowager and Empress Mother was by us reverently received, commanding us to enter upon the inheritance of the great suc- cession. Prostrate upon the earth we be- wailed our grief to Heaven, vainly stretching out our hands in lamentation. For thirteen years, as we humbly reflected, His Majesty now departed reigned under the canopy of Heaven. In reverent observance of the an- cestral precepts, he made the counsels prompted by maternal love his guide, apply- ing himself with awestruck zeal to the toil- some performance of his duty. The welfare of the people and the policy of the State were ever present in his utmost thoughts. 170 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. Not in words can we give expression to the sadness which pierces our heart and shows itself in tears and blood." The Pekin Gazette bears testimony to the desire which was felt by the Emperor's tutors to rear the tender thought aright. And in that journal the following memorial on this subject was published with approval. " His Majesty, being still of tender age, it is beyond question expedient that effectual training in the right path be studied. All those who surround His Majesty, and are in near employment about his person, should be without exception of tried capacity and solid character. No youthful and thought- less person should be suffered to be in at- tendance." A Wife for the Emperor. From time to time the outer world was informed of the progress which this tenderly guarded youth was making in his studies. At last the time came — in 1889 — for him to assume the reins of power hitherto held by the dowager empresses, and to take to him- self a consort. The question of choosing a wife for the Imperial recluse was a more serious matter to arrange than the transfer of power. It was necessary that the lady should be of the same nationality as himself — a Manchu — and that she should satisfy the requirements of the Dowager Empresses as to looks and appearance. Levees of aspirants to the honor were held by the Dowagers, and a lady having been chosen, the personage most interested in the event was made aware of the selection. According to custom, and possibly to pro- vide against any disappointment which the appearance of the bride might produce in the imperial breast, two young ladies were also chosen to accompany the Empress as second- ary wives. This trio forms the nucleus of the royal household, in which secondary wives are counted by tens and fifties. As is natural in the case of any matter affecting so exalted a personage as the Son of Heaven, the ceremonies connected with his marriage are marked by all the dignity and splendor which are peculiar to Oriental states. Unlike his subjects, even of the highest rank, who are bound as a preliminary to pay court to the parents of their future brides, the Emperor finds it sufficient to issue an edict announcing his intention to marry the lady on whom his choice may have fallen, and she, trembling with the weight of the honor, blushingly obeys the command. Unlike his subjects, also, the Emperor is by law entitled to wives of three ranks. The first consists of the Empress, who is alone in her dignity except when, as has happened, on some rare occassions, two Princesses have shared the imperial throne. The second rank is unlimited as to number ; and it is from these ladies that, in case of the death of the Empress, the Emperor com- monly chooses her successor. The third rank is filled up as the taste of the Emperor may direct, and it is rarely that the ladies of this grade ever succeed to the lofty dignity of the throne. Imposing Ceremonies. To the wedding of the Empress alone are reserved the courtly ceremonials which grace the imperial marriage. These ceremonies are ten in number. First comes an edict announcing the intended marriage. The Board of Ceremonies next proclaims the fact throughout the empire, and having consulted the Imperial astronomers as to the choice of a fortunate day for sending the customary presents to the bride-elect, prepares for the occasion ten horses with accoutrements, ten cuirasses, a hundred pieces of silk and two ^^Lffwm < l-H a o ft o P t4 w o z 1— ( PM a z 1— I g 3 < o 1— I Pi w s 171 172 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. hundred pieces of nanking. To the Board of Rites belongs the duty of preparing a golden tablet and a golden seal on which the scholars of the Hanlin College inscribe the necessary decrees relating to the marriage. Armed with these imperial pledges a President of the Board invites the imperial order for the presentation of the gifts. When this has been received, the officials, at early dawn on the day appointed, place a table in the hall of "Great Harmony" for the recep- tion of the imperial seal, while others set out a pavilion ornamented with dragons, in which the cuirasses, the silks and the cloths are reverently deposited. The Imperial Mandate. When the assembly is complete, the master of ceremonies orders every one to his al- lotted place, and exhorts all to assume a grave and decorous attitude. In the hear- ing of this attentive gathering a commis- sioner, after bowing the knee, reads aloud the Imperial mandate, which runs as follows : "The august ruler has, in accordance with the wishes of the revered Dowager Em- press, promised to take Miss of the as his consort, and orders the min- isters to take the seal of the empire with the nuptial presents, in accordance with the sacred rites." So soon as the herald has ceased speaking a Secretary of State takes the seal from the table and hands it to an Imperial messenger who, in company with officials carrying the pavilion and other gifts, and preceded and followed by the Imperial guards, goes to the house of the future Empress. Everything there has been prepared for his reception. A table has been placed in the centre of the hall between two others, draped with ap- propriate hangings. On the arrival of the messenger the father of the lady salutes him on the threshold, and kneels while he carries the Imperial gifts to the tables in the great hall. On the centre table the envoy places the Imperial seal, and on the others the vari- ous portable presents, while the horses are arranged on the right and left of the court- yard. When all are disposed in order, the father of the lady receives the gifts kneeling, and prostrates himself nine times as a token of his gratitude for the Imperial favor. The departure of the messenger, who carries the Imperial seal away with him, is surrounded with the same ceremonies as those which greeted his arrival. Two banquets form the second part of the ceremony. The mother of the bride is, by order of the Emperor, entertained by the Imperial princesses in the apartments of the Dowager Empress, while the Imperial cham- berlains and high officials offer the same hospitality to her father. The Nuptial Presents. On the wedding-day officers appointed for the purpose present to the bride two hun- dred ounces of gold, ten thousand ounces of silver, one gold and two silver tiaras, a thou- sand pieces of silk, twenty caparisoned horses, and twenty others with equipments. To her father and mother are, in like man- ner, offered gold, silver and precious orna- ments ; pieces of silk, bows and arrows, and countless robes. The declaration of the marriage follows. An ambassador is sent with an Imperial letter to the father of the future empress. On his knees, this much genuflecting man listens to the words of his future son-in-law, and makes nine prostrations in the direction of the Imperial seal, which again stands on his table. On this occasion his wife and two ladies of his household take part in the cere- THE EMPEROR AND HIS COURT. 173 mony. Six times they bow low, thrice they bend the knee, and twice as often they pros- trate themselves before the seal. This done, they receive from the envoy the tablet of gold, on which is inscribed the declaration of marriage, and retire with this evidence of the fulfilment of their hopes to the apartments of the bride. On the eve of the eventful day ministers are sent to announce the auspicious event to Heaven, and Earth, and to the deities of the Imperial temple. On the following morning, so soon as the august procession is formed, the Emperor enters his sedan-chair, and is borne to the Tzuning palace, where the dowager Empress awaits him seated on a throne of state. With dutiful regard he kneels, and thrice, and again nine times bows low at the feet of his mother. The Great Seal. Having thus manifested his respect, he proceeds to the " Hall of Great Harmony," accompanied by bands discoursing music from an infinite variety of instruments. There, at a signal given, the members of the Board of Rites kneel and prostrate them- selves before their august sovereign. This done, a herald advances and reads aloud the Imperial decree, which runs as follows: " The Emperor, in obedience to the desire of the Empress his mother, agrees that the princess shall be his consort. In this propitious month, and under this favorable constellation, he has prepared the customary gifts and the usual contract, and now com- mands his ministers to escort the chosen bride to his palace." In harmony with this last clause, the Imperial envoy, followed by chamberlains and officers of the guard, and accompanied with music, takes the great seal and starts on his mission. Following in his train come officers carrying the tablet and seal of gold, and bearers with the sedan-chair destined for the bride. In strange contrast to the ordi- nary state of the streets, the thoroughfares on this occasion are swept, garnished, and made straight. On arriving, over these unwontedly smooth ways, at the dwelling of the bride, the envoy is received with every mark of honor and reverence, not only by the father of the bride, but by the elder ladies of the house- hold, dressed in their most brilliant costumes. In the grand hall the father kneels before the envoy, who hands the seal to a lady in wait- ing, while his lieutenant delivers the tablet and the Imperial letter to the ladies appointed to receive them. As these things are borne to the private apartments of the bride, her mother and ladies kneel in token of rever- ence, and then, following in their wake, listen with devout respect to the terms of the letter addressed to the bride. The Bride Escorted to the Palace. When this ceremony is concluded, the bride, with her mother and ladies in attend- ance, advances to the " Phoenix Chair," in which, preceded by ministers bearing the Imperial seal, and followed by musicians and guards of honor, she proceeds to the palace. On arriving at the gate, the officers and attendants dismount from their horses, while porters bearing aloft nine umbrellas orna- mented with phoenixes lead the procession to the Kientsing gate. Beyond this the attendants and officials are forbidden to go, and the bride proceeds alone to meet her affianced husband. One more ceremony has to be performed to complete the marriage. A banquet is spread for the august pair, at which they pledge each other's troth in cups of wine, and thus tie the knot which death alone un- 174 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. ravels. This, however, does not quite con- clude the laborious ceremonial which falls to the lot of the bride. On the morning after the wedding it becomes her duty to testify her respect to the dowager Empress by bringing her water in which to wash her hands, and by spreading viands before her, in return for which courtesies the dowager entertains her daughter-in-law at a feast of welcome. Meanwhile the Emperor receives the CHINESE MANDARIN. homage of the princes, dukes, and officers of state, and for some days the palace is given up to feasting and rejoicing — an echo of which reaches the remotest parts of the empire when the proclamation announcing the joyful event is made known in the pro- vinces. The long and formal ceremonies are now concluded and the Emperor is married. But the Imperial mentors not only teach the Emperor how to live, but they teach the "still harder lesson how to die." On the approaching death of the late Emperor, the following valedictory manifesto was put in his mouth : " It was owing to the exalted love of Our late Imperial father. Our canopy and support, that the Divine Vessel (that is, the throne) was bestowed - upon Our keeping. Having set foot in Our childhood on the throne, We from that moment had, gazing upwards, to thank their two majesties the Empresses for that, in ordering as Regents the affairs of government, they devoted night and day to the laborious task. When, later, in obe- dience to their divine commands, We personally assumed the supreme power. We looked on high for guidance to the Ancestral precepts of the Sacred Ones before Us, and in devotion to Our govern- ment and love towards Our people, made the fear of Heaven and the example of Our Forefathers the mainspring of every act. "To be unwearied day by day has been Our single purpose. Our bodily constitution has through Our life been strong, and when, in the nth moon of this year. We were attacked by small- pox. We gave the utmost care to the preservation of Our health ; but for some days past Our strength has gradually ^ failed, until the hope of recovery has passed away. We recognize in this the will of Heaven." And then the dying man named his successor in the person of his first cousin. So soon as the august patient has ceased to breathe, his heir strips from his cap the ornaments which adorn it, and " wails and stamps " in evidence of his excessive grief The widow and ladies of the harem in the same way discard the hair-pins and jewelry which it is ordinarily their delight to wear, and show their practical appreciation of the position by setting to work to make the u o s H ^, D 175 176 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. mourning clothes and habiliments. The coffin prepared for the remains having been carried into the principal hall of the palace, is inspected by the heir, and receives its august burden. By an ordinance, which is probably more honored in the breach than in the per- formance, the new Emperor and his courtiers sacrifice their queues as a token of their sor- row, and the ladies of the harem, not to be outdone, submit their flowing locks to the scissors of their attendants. Periods of Mourning. For three years, which by a fiction is reduced to twenty-seven months, the young Emperor mourns the decease of his prede- cessor. The exigencies of administration, however, make it necessary that he should confine the period of unrestrained grief to a hundred days ; while twenty-seven days are considered sufficient for the expression of the regrets of the concubines of the third rank. During the twenty-seven months members of the Imperial family are not supposed to marry or indulge in any of the pleasures of married life. A curious punishment was inflicted on a late Emperor for an infraction of this last rule. Most inopportunely a son was born to him at a time which proved that, in accord- ance with Chinese notions, its existence must have begun during the mourning for the deceased Emperor. The question then arose how the august offender was to be dealt with. Banishment would have been the sentence naturally passed on any less exalted person- age, but as it was plainly impossible to send the Son of Heaven into exile, it was deter- mined to banish his portrait across the deserts of Mongolia into a far country. On a day of good omen the will of the deceased Emperor is carried, with much pomp and circumstance, to the gate of " Heavenly Rest." From the balcony above this portal the contents of the document are announced to the assembled crowd. The terms of the testament having been commu- nicated to the people of the capital, it isf printed in yellow, and distributed not only throughout the empire, but throughout every region which owes allegiance to the Son of Heaven — Corea, Mongolia, and Manchuria, and Liuchiu, and Annam. When the time named by the astrologers arrives for the removal of the coffin to the temporary palace on the hill within the Impe- rial enclosure, a procession, formed of all that is great and noble in the empire, accom- panies the Imperial remains to their appointed resting-place, where, with every token of re- spect, they are received by the Empress and the ladies of the harem. The Three Names. In a mat shed adjoining the temporary palace the Emperor takes up his abode for twenty- seven days. With unremitting atten- tion he presents fruits and viands to the de- ceased, accompanying them with sacrificial libations and prayers. The choice of a post- humous title next occupies the attention of the ministers, and from that moment the names which the late sovereign has borne in life disappear from Imperial cognizance. To every Emperor are given, during life, and at his death, three names. The first may be called his personal name; the second is assigned him on coming to the throne, and resembles the titles given to the occupants of the papal chair; the third is the style chosen to commemorate his particular virtues or those which he is supposed to have pos- sessed. So soon as the posthumous title has been decided upon it is engraved upon a tablet and seal; and in order that the spiritual powers THE EMPEROR AND HIS COURT. 177 should be made acquainted with the style adopted, especially appointed ministers an- nounce the newly chosen epithet to Heaven, and Earth, and to the gods of the land and of grain. On the completion of these long- drawn-out ceremonies a day is chosen for the removal of the coffin to its tomb. In a wooded valley, forty or fifty miles west of Pekin, lie all that is mortal of the emperors of the present dynasty. Thither, by easy stages, the coffin, borne by countless bearers, is carried, over a road levelled and carefully prepared for the cortege. Funereal Pomp. As in duty bound, the Emperor accom- panies the coffin, but does not find it neces- sary to join in the actual procession. By pursuing devious ways he reaches the travel- ling palaces, at which the halts are made, in time to receive the coffin, and without having experienced the fatigue of the slow and dreary march. Finally, with many and minute cere- monies, among which occurs the presentation to the deceased of food, money, and clothes, the remains are laid to rest in the august company of Imperial shades. With much the same pomp and ceremonial a deceased Empress is buried in the sacred precincts, and the proclamation of her death is received in the provinces with much the same demonstrations of grief and sorrow as that which greets the announcement of the decease of a Son of Heaven. Some years ago, on the death of the Em- press Dowager, a curious proclamation, prescribing the rites to be performed on the occasion, was issued to the people of Canton. From this paper we learn that the notification of the death was received from the hands of the Imperial messenger by the assembled local officials, and was borne on the " dragon bier" to the Examination Hall. As the 12 procession moved along the officers fell on their knees and, looking upwards, raised a cry of lamentation. On reaching the pre- cincts of the hall the mandarins, from the highest to the lowest, thrice bowed low, and nine times struck their foreheads on the ground. So soon as the notification had been placed on the table prepared for it, the herald cried aloud, " Let all raise the cry of lamentation." Anon, the same officer proclaimed, " Pre- sent the notification," upon which the officer appointed for the purpose presented the paper to the governor-general and governor of the province, who received it on their knees and handed it to the provincial treas- urer, who, in like manner, passed it to the secretary charged with the duty of seeing that it was reverently copied and published abroad. At another word of command the mandarins retired to a public hall, where they passed the nig^ht abstaining from meapt and from all carnal indulgence. Mourning in White Apparel. For three days similar ceremonies and lamentations were performed, and for nine times that period white apparel was donned by the mandarins, who had already dis- carded the tassels and buttons of their caps on the first arrival of the Imperial messenger. From the same date all official signatures were written with blue ink, and seals were impressed with the same color. No drums were beaten, no courts were held, and a blue valance was hung from the chair and table of all officers in lieu of the ordinary red one. On each of the first three days a state banquet was offered to the deceased, when, in the presence of the assembled mandarins, the herald cried aloud, " Serve tea to Her Majesty." Upon which attendants, preceded by the governor-general and governor, 178 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. ascended the dais, and, kneeling, poured out a cup of tea, which they handed to the governor-general. With every token of res- pect this officer placed the cup before the us in STREET SCENE CANTON. tablet representing the late Empress. With the same ceremonies rice, water, and wine were offered to the spirit of the deceased Empress. Finally, at a word from the herald, the viands were committed to the flame, and with prostrations and bows the ceremony came to an end. Such is the side of the shield presented to the pages of the Pekin Gazette. It represents a cloistered vir- tue which, even if genuine, we should admire more if it sallied out to seek its ad- versaries. Probably, how- ever, a truer presentment of the inner hfe of the palace is to be found in the native novels and plays, where the natural effects of confining the Son of Heaven within the narrow hmits of the Forbidden City, and of depriving him of all those healthy exer- cises which foster a sound mind in a sound body, are described as resulting from the system. It can only be men of the strongest will and keenest intellects, who would not rust under such conditions, and these quali- ties are possessed as rarely by Emperors as by ordi- nary persons. For the most part we see the Emperor portrayed as surrounded by sycophants and worse than sycophants, who fawn upon him and add flattery to adulation in their attempts to gain and to hold his favor. Ener- vated by luxury, he, in a vast majority of cases, falls a ready victim to these blandish- ments, and rapidly degenerates into a weak and flabby being. It is true that occa- sionally some hardy Son of Heaven enjoys THE EMPEROR AND HIS COURT. 179 a long reign, but the more common course of events is that a short and inglorious rule is brought to a premature close by the effects of debauchery and inanition. In so complicated an administrative ma- chine as that of China it is difficult to say what part the Emperor really takes in the government of the country. We know that some have been powerful for good and many more for evil. Over the Imperial princes and nobles the Emperor holds complete sway. He regulates their marriages, and in cases of failure of issue he chooses sons for their adoption. He appoints their retinues, and orders all their goings with curious minute- ness. Over them as over all his other sub- jects, his will is, theoretically, law. No Indian Rajah, no Shah of Persia, ever possessed more autocratic power. We have some knowledge of the debasing effect of eastern palace life from the histories of the better known countries of Asia, and we may safely draw the deduction that, since the same conditions produce the same effects, the records of the Forbidden City would, if written at length, reflect the normal condi- tion of society in the old palace of Delhi or that at Teheran. Rewarded for Bravery. As has already been said, the hereditary aristocrats of rank and importance form but a small and unimportant body, while the lower grades are well supplied with men who have earned distinction in the battle-field and in other arenas of honor. For example, the man who was first to mount the wall of Nanking when it was recaptured from the rebels was rewarded by a title of the fourth rank. To all such distinguished persons annual allowances are made, and though in- dividually small in amount, the total sum becomes a serious burden on the provincial exchequers, when by Imperial favor the number of those holding patents of nobility is multiplied. On one occasion the governor of Kiangsi complained that he had to pro- vide 50,000 taels a year for the incomes of the four hundred and eighty-three hereditary nobles residing within his jurisdiction. This number he considered to be quite large enough, and he begged his Imperial master to abstain from throwing any more nobles on the provincial funds. In Hunan the number, he alleged, was confined to four hundred, in Nanking to three hundred and forty-eight, in Soochow to a hundred and fifty, and in Anhui to a hundred and seventy- six. Beyond these areas his investigations had not travelled. The Chinese Nobility. The hereditary nobility of China may be divided into the Imperial and National. Of the former there are twelve denominations which, with certain subdivisions, extend over eighteen classes of persons ennobled because of their descent. These are, of course, under the present dynasty, exclusively Manchus. The members of the National nobility may be Manchus or Chinese elevated for their merits to one of nine degrees. The five su- perior of these, viz. : Kung, Hou, Pih, Tzu, Nan, the English in general describe by duke, marquis, earl, viscount, and baron ; the re- maining four, for convenience sake, they call orders of knighthood. The highest of these and the five above sepecified are each divided into first, second, and third classes, making in all twenty-six degrees. Unless the title given be conferred in perpetuity it loses one degree of nobility with each step of descent. Thus the Kung, duke, of the first class will reach the lowest round in twenty-six generations ; the first class Tzu, viscount, in fourteen. CHAPTKR IX. THE PUNISHMENT OF CRIMINALS. IT has often been said that the laws of a nation furnish the best and truest description of the manners and cus- toms of the people. In all respects the Chinese Code is an exceptionally good instance of the truth of this maxim. Unlike many of the legal systems of the east and west, it avoids all useless redundancies, and represents in a concise form, the laws which are intended to govern the courts of justice. Further, following the bent of the national mind, it does not concern itself only with the duties of men as citizens, but follows them into their homes and provides legislation for their social conduct, their relations in the family, and even for the clothes which they should wear. Regarded as a whole it is obvious that its provisions are mainly directed to keeping the people quiet and loyal. The Emperor is surrounded with enactments which are in- tended to ensure that such divinity shall hedge him in " that treason can but peep to what it would," and every disturbing motive and exciting cause is studiously suppressed among his subjects. The code begins by enumerating the pun- ishments to be inflicted for offences, and defines them as (i) flogging with a straight polished piece of bamboo, the branches cut away and reduced to five Chinese feet five inches in length, varying in breadth from one to two inches, and in weight from one and a half to two Chinese pounds, and when used to be held by the smaller end ; (2) the canque, consisting of "a square frame of dry wood, 180 three feet long, two feet nine inches broad, and weighing in ordinary cases twenty-five pounds," which is carried on the shoulders; (3) the capital punishment, which is inflicted either by strangulation or by the execu- tioner's sword. Most punishments for the less serious crimes are redeemable by fines, and even capital sentences, in such cases as are not legally excluded from the benefits of general acts of grace and pardon, are commutable for sums of money varying in amount with the heinousness of the crime and with the wealth of the criminal. A man sentenced to a hundred blows with the bamboo can save his skin by the payment of five ounces of silver, and an officer above the fourth rank who is sentenced to be strangled may avoid the cord by paying twelve thousand ounces into the coffers of the state. Pardon Often Granted. But besides these pecuniary modifications, there are certain conditions which are held to justify the mitigation of sentences. In the case of an offender surrendering himself to justice, he shall, in some circumstances, be entitled to a reduction of two degrees of punishment, and in others he absolves himself from all consequences by giving himself up. If, again, "an offender under sentence of death for an offence not excluded from the contingent benefit of an act of grace, shall have parents or grandparents who are sick, infirm or aged above seventy years, and who have no other son or grand- THE PUNISHMENT OF CRIMINALS. 181 son above the age of sixteen to support them, this circumstance shall be submitted to the consideration of His Imperial Ma- jesty." In any case offenders under fifteen years of age, or over seventy, are allowed to re- deem themselves from any punishment less than capital. Even when the crime is capital, if the offender is less than ten or more than eighty, his case, unless he be charged with treason, is to be recommended to the con- sideration of the Emperor; and no punish- ment, except for treason and rebellion, shall be visited on those who are less than seven or more than ninety. Flogging and Imprisonment. Especial regulations lighten punishments to be inflicted on four classes of the popula- tion. Astronomers sentenced to banish- ment may submit to one hundred blows with the bamboo instead, and redeem them- selves from further punishment, unless they have been guilty of "poisoning, murdering, wounding, robbing, stealing, killing by magic, or of any such offences as may subject the party to the punishment of being branded." Artificers and musicians who have incurred sentences of banishment may be flogged, and, instead of being sent to Central Asia, may be kept in the magistrate's yamun and employed in the service of government; while women who are sentenced to banish- ment can always redeem themselves by pay- ing a fine. ; In cases where women are convicted of jbffences punishable by flogging, it is pro- /vided that they shall be allowed to wear / their upper garment unless the crime should be adultery, when that privilege is withdrawn. Such are some of the main provisions which condition the laws laid down in the code. These apply with strange minuteness to all sorts and conditions of men, from the Emperor in his palace down to actors who are regarded as the meanest of his subjects. In every kingdom and Empire the life and repose of the sovereign is jealously guarded by all the precautions which the law can provide, and in eastern countries, where the dagger and poison are the constant terror of potentates, the preventive measures are always carefully devised. No doubt many of the observances prac- ticed at the Chinese Court, such, for instance, as standing with the hands joined as in sup- plication, and kneeling when addressing the sovereign, were instituted as safeguards from harbored weapons or from violence. In the code, pains and penalties of every intensity are laid down as the portion of those who directly or indirectly raise any suspicion of evil design against the throne. Barbarous Punishments. Any one passing without proper authoriz- ation through any of the gates of the For- bidden City incurs a hundred blows of the bamboo. This law is invariably enforced, and quite lately the Pekin Gazette announced the infliction of the penalty on a trespasser, and the degradation of the officer of the guard at the gate through which he had en- tered. Death by strangulation is the punish- ment due to any stranger found in any of the Emperor's apartments; and with that curious introspection which Chinese laws profess, any one passing the palace gate with the intention of going in, although he does not do so, is to have a definite number of blows with the bamboo. Every workman engaged within the palace has a pass given to him, on which is a detailed description of his figure and appearance, and which he is bound to give up to the oiificer of the identical gate 182 through which he was admitted. To carry- drugs or weapons into the Forbidden City is to court a flogging in addition to perpetual banishment, and any one " who shall shoot arrows or bullets, or fling bricks or stones towards the Imperial temple, or towards any Imperial palace, shall suffer death by being strangled at the usual period." No convicted person or relative of a con- CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. thereon while the Emperor's retinue is pass- ing is to be strangled. If the Emperor ar- rives unexpectedly at a place, "it shall be sufficient for those who are unable to retire in time, to prostrate themselves humbly on the roadside." But there are other and more insidious dangers than these to be guarded against. Doctors and cooks have it readily within CHINESE MODES OF TORTURE. victed person is to be employed about the Imperial city, and any one found disputing or quarrelling within the precincts of the palace is to be punished with fifty blows. If the quarrelling leads to a personal encounter the penalty is doubled. Even the roads along which the Emperor travels and the bridges which he crosses are not to be pro- faned by vulgar use, and any one intruding their power to do all the evil that the dagger or club can accomplish, and it is, therefore, enacted that if a physician inadvertenly mixes medicines for the Emperor in any manner that is not sanctioned by established practice, or if a cook unwittingly introduces any prohibited ingredients into the dishes prepared for his Imperial master, they shall each receive a hundred blows. The same THE PUNISHMENT OF CRIMINALS. 183 punishment is due to the cook, if he puts any unusual drug into an article of food, and, in addition, he is compelled to swallow the compound. Marriage is regarded as an incentive to political peace and quiet. It is considered, and rightly considered, that a householder is less likely to disturb the peace of the realm than a waif and stray, and the Government therefore considers marriage a subject worthy of careful legislation. In Chinese parlance the State is the father and mother of the people, and it is part of its office to see that parents do not neglect their duty in this respect towards their offspring. Shall Receive Fifty Blows. When a marriage contract is in contem- plation it shall be made plain to both of the families interested that rc:*^her the bride nor bridegroom are " disease r', infirm, aged, or under age." If, no objection having been raised on any of these scores, the preliminary contract be made and the lady afterwards wish to decline to execute it, the person who had authority to give her away shall receive fifty blows, and the marriage shall be at once completed. If a son, when at a distance from his family, enters into a marriage con- tract in ignorance of an engagement which his father may have made on his behalf at home, he shall give up his own choice and shall fulfil the contract made for him by his parent. Bigamy is punished with ninety blows, and the same fate awaits any man who, dur- ing the lifetime of his wife, raises a concubine to the rank which she enjoys. The times and seasons proper for marriages are, in western lands, left to individual taste and judgment; but in China, where etiquette is a matter of State policy, it is necessary to lay down rules for the guidance of the people in such mat- ters. The same authority which makes it incumbent on a son on the death of his father or mother to go unshaved for a hun- dred days, and if he is in office to retire into private life for twenty-seven months, forbids him to marry while in mourning for a parent, under a penalty of a hundred blows for dis- obedience. The same punishment is to be inflicted on any misguided widow who embraces a second husband before her weeds should be legally dispensed with ; while the frisky widow, who, having been ennobled by the Emperor during the lifetime of her first husband, should dare to marry again, is ordered to be bambooed, to lose her rank, and to be separated from her second venture. Strict Matrimonial Laws. Marriage is strictly forbidden within cer- tain recognized degrees of relationship, and even persons of the same surname who in- termarry are liable to separation, and to for- feit the wedding presents to Government. Indeed, the matrimonial prohibitions are both numerous and far-reaching. A man may not marry an absconded female criminal — a law, one would imagine, which it cannot often be necessary to enforce. A mandarin may not marry the daughter of any one living under his rule, nor may he make either a female musician or comedian his wife. A priest of Buddha or of Tao may not marry at all. A slave may not marry a free woman, and so on. But though the State in its wisdom is a great promoter of marriage, it affords many loopholes for escape to people who find that they have made mistakes. Of course the law of divorce only applies to the wife, and apart from the supreme crime of wives, the following seven causes are held to justify the annulling of the marriage ; namely, barren- ness, lasciviousness, disregard of her hus- 184 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. band's parents, talkativeness, thievish pro- pensities, envious and suspicious temper, and inveterate infirmity. It must be admitted that this list offers many chances of escape to a restless husband, and the further enactment that when " a husband and wife do not agree, and both parties are desirous of separation, the law limiting the right of divorce shall not be enforced to prevent it," leaves nothing to be desired. Of all offences treason is, in the opinion of Chinese legislators, the gravest and most worthy of severe and condign punishment. So atrocious is it that capital punishment as laid down in the general provisions is considered an insufficient requital, and the equivalent of the old English sentence, "To be hung, drawn, and quartered," is met with in China in the shape of an even more cruel sentence, namely lingchi, or death by a slow and lingering process. Gashes on the Body. A culprit, condemned to this form of death, is tied to a cross, and, while he is yet alive, gashes are made by the executioner on the fleshy parts of his body, varying in number according to the disposition of the judge. When this part of the sentence has been carried out, a merciful blow severs the head from the body. It is a principle of Chinese jurisprudence that in great crimes all the male relatives of the principal are held to be participators in his offence. Thus, for one man's sin, whole families are cut off, and in cases of treason " all the male relatives of the first degree, at or above the age of sixteen, of persons con- victed — namely, the father, grandfather, sons, grandsons, paternal uncles and their sons respectively — shall, without any regard to the place of residence, or to the natural or acquired infirmities of particular individuals, be indiscriminately beheaded." But this is not all. Every male relative, of whatever degree, who may be dwelling under the roof of the offender, is doomed to death. An exception is made in the case of young boys, who are allowed their lives, but on the condition that they are made eunuchs for service in the Imperial palace. In the appendix to Stanton's translation of the code an imperial edict is quoted from the Pefdn Gazette in which a case is detailed of a sup- posed treasonable attempt on the life of the Emperor Kiaking (1796- 1820). Horrible Cruelty. As the Imperial cortege was entering one of the gates of the palace a man pushed through the crowd, with, as it was con- sidered, the intention of murdering the Emperor. He was promptly seized by the guards and put on his trial, when he made, or is said to have made, a confession of his guilt. In grandiloquent terms the Emperor proclaimed the event to the Empire, and ended by confirming the sentence of lingchi on the offender, and by condemning his sdns, " being of tender age, to be strangled." Lingchi is the invariable fate pronounced on any one who kills three people in a house- hold, or on a son who murders his father or mother. Some of the most horrible passages in the Pekin Gazette are those which announce the infliction of this awful punishment on madmen and idiots who, in sudden outbreaks of mania, have committed parricide. For this offence no infirmity is accepted, even as a palliation. The addition of this form of execution to those generally prescribed is an instance of the latitude which is taken by the powers that be in the interpretation of the code. To read the list of authorized punishments THE PUNISHMENT OF CRIMINALS. 185 one would imagine that the Chinese were the mildest mannered men who ever had culprits before them. Admitting that tor- ture is necessary in China to extract con- fessions from obdurate witnesses, the kinds authorized are probably as unobjectionable as could well be devised. But they are but a shadow of the pain and penalties actually inflicted every day in all parts of the Empire. Even in the appendix to this code it was found advisable to add the Imperial sanction to more stringent measures in cases of rob- bery or homicide. Instruments of Torture. Instruments for crushing the ankles, and for compressing the fingers, are there ad- mitted on the canonical list. The first of these, it is laid down, shall consist of "a middle piece of wood, three (Chinese) feet four inches long, and two side pieces three feet each in length. The upper end of each piece shall be circular and rather more than one inch in diameter, the lower end shall be cut square and two inches in thickness. At a distance of six inches from the lower ends, four hollows or sockets shall be excavated-^ one on each side of the middle piece and one in each of the other pieces to correspond. The lower ends being fixed and immovable, and the ankles of the criminal under exami- nation being lodged within the sockets, a painful compression is effected by forcibly drawing together the upper ends." The finger squeezers are necessarily smaller, but are arranged on much the same principle. But even these tortures are considered insufficient to meet the requirements of the courts of justice. Mandarins, whose minds have grown callous to the sufferings of their fellow-creatures, are always ready to believe that the instruments of torture at their dis- posal are insufficient for their purposes. Unhappily, it is always easy to inflict pain; and in almost every yamun throughout the Empire an infinite variety of instruments of torture are in constant use. To induce unwilling witnesses to say what is expected of them, they are not unfrequently made to kneel on iron chains on which their knees are forced by the weight of men stand- ing on the calves of their legs. Others are tied up to beams by their thumbs and big toes. Others are hamstrung, while some have the sight of their eyes destroyed by lime or the drums of their ears deadened by piercing. This list might be extended indefinitely, but enough has been said to show that, like so many Chinese institutions, the penal code only faintly represents the practice which is actually in force. Penalty for Murder. Beheading is the ordinary fate of a mur- derer, while accessories to the deed, when not actual perpetrators, enjoy the privilege of being strangled. In the case of the mur- der of a mandarin the accessories as well as the principal are beheaded, and if a man strikes a mandarin so as to produce a severe cutting wound his fate is to be strangled. The charge has of late years been con- stantly made against missionaries, that they kill children and others to procure from parts of the body drugs for medicinal pur- poses. This sounds so barbarous that it will readily be believed that the charge had its origin in the wild imaginations of the most ignorant of the people. But this is not quite so. Some sanction is certainly given to the idea by the code, which provides, for instance, that "the principal in the crime of murdering, or of attempting to murder any person, with a design afterwards to mangle 186 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. the body, and divide the Hmbs of the de- ceased for magical purposes, shall suffer death by a slow and painful process." Even, if the crime is only in contempla- tion the principal offender on conviction shall be beheaded, and the chief inhabitant of the village or district who, on becoming aware of the design, shall fail to report it, shall suffer to the extent of a hundred blows. the throne that "alarming rumors were cir- culated among the people concerning the cutting off of queues, the imprinting of marks on the body by 'paper men,' and the appearance of black monsters which played the part of incubi on sleeping persons." It would be natural to expect that the governor being learned in all the wisdom of China would have reproved these foolish BEHEADING A CHINESE CRIMINAL. Like most uncivilized nations the Chinese are firm believers in magic, and place full belief in those arts of the sorcerer which have a congenial home among the inhabit- ants of Central Africa, and of which dim traces are still to be found in the highlands of Scotland, and among the most ignorant of English rustics. Not long since the gov- ernor of the province of Kiangsu reported to imaginings, and would have used his influ- ence to check the spread of such ridiculous rumors. But the course he took, with the subsequent approval of the Emperor, was a very different one. He professed to have discovered at Soochow a " wizard," named Feng, and others who, afler trial, were all condemned to be beheaded. Several others in different parts of the province suffered THE PUNISHMENT OF CRIMINALS. 187 the same penalty, and a man named Hu and his wife were arrested on a confession made by Feng that they had imparted to him the words of the incantation necessary to invoke the "paper men." As the statements made by the Hus were " stubbornly evasive, the prefect with the district magistrate and other officers sub- jected the prisoners to repeated interroga- tions, continued without intermission even by night, instituting rigorous and searching inquiry in an unprejudiced spirit; as a result of which the woman Hu at length made the following confession. She acknowledged having met a man whose name she did not know, and whose manner of speech was that of a person from distant parts, who gave her some foreign money and taught her the words of an incantation, and how to send off the "paper men " to go and crush people. Head Stuck on a Pole. "She told this to her husband, and he, animated by the desire of gain, communi- cated the secret to their acquaintance Feng. On the woman being confronted with Hu, he made full confession to the same effect ; and after it had been established by thrice re- peated interrogatories that the confessions were truthful, the governor arrived at the conclusion that, in having been so bold as to follow the advice of an adept in unholy arts ; in practising incantation ; and in communi- cating the secret, the guilt of the two pris- oners was such that death could barely ex- piate it. " He gave orders forthwith to the pro- vincial judge, directing him to cause Hu and the woman to be subjected together to the extreme penalty of the law, and to cause the head of Hu to be exhibited on a pole as a salutary warning. It is now ascertained on inquiry," adds the sapient governor, " that the entire province is free from practi- tioners of unholy arts of this description, and that the population is in the enjoyment of its accustomed tranquillity, whereby grounds are afforded for allaying the anxie- ties of the Imperial mind." This case affords an excellent example of the gross superstition which exists even among the most highly educated Chinamen, and it also draws a picture which, to those who can read between the lines, stands out very clearly, of the gross cruelty and shame- ful abuse of the use of torture. Compelled to Lie. There cannot be a doubt that Feng, having under the influence of torture falsely con- fessed his own guilt; was further called upon by the same pressure to give up the names of his associates, and that, in his agony, he wrongfully implicated Hu and his wife. The " repeated interrogations " to which this couple were subjected mean the infliction of sufferings so acute that even the prospect of death became a welcome vision, and by a self-condemning lie they escaped by means of the executioner's sword from the hands of the more inhuman torturer. It must not be supposed that this particular governor was more ignorant than the rest of his kind. The code, which was based on the laws existing during the Ming dynasty, was thoroughly revised by a committee of the highest functionaries of the realm, and received the Imperial approval in 1647, after careful consideration. In it we find, there- fore, the mind which was in these grandees, and that they deliberately adopted a section providing that " all persons convicted of writ- ing and editing books on sorcery and magic, or of employing spells and incantations, in order to influence the minds of the people, 188 CHINA: PAST AND PKESENT. shall be beheaded." This was a fair warn- ing to all parties concerned. Lesser punishments, on what principle awarded it is impossible to say, are incurred by magicians who raise evil spirits by means of magical books and dire imprecations, by leaders of corrupt and impious sects, and by members of superstitious associations in general. Even fortune-tellers, unless they divine by the recognized rules of astrology, are liable to be bambooed. As Bad as Others. By analogy, persons who rear venomous animals, and prepare poisons for the purpose of murder, are treated on a par with those who commit murder. In all Chinese legislation the principal that the family is the basis of government is con- spicuously apparent. The authority of the father is everywhere recognized, and it is only in supreme cases that the State inter- feres between the head of a household and his family belongings. If a man discovers his wife in criminal relations with another man, and kills her on the spot, he is held blameless; and if a husband punishes' his wife for striking and abusing his father, mother, grandfather, or grandmother, in such a way as to cause her death, he shall only be liable to receive a hundred blows. With equal consideration a man who kills a son, a grandson, or a slav , is punished with seventy blows and a year and a half's banishment, and this only when he falsely attributes the crime to another person. Though the code affords no direct justifica- tion for punishing disobedient sons with death, or for infanticide, it is an incontro- vertible fact that in cases which constantly occur, both crimes are practically ignored by the authorities. A particularly brutal case, of the murder of an unfilial son, was recently reported. The report was in the form of & memorial addressed to the throne by the governor of Shansi, in which that officer stated that there had been in his district a lad named Lui, who was endowed by nature with an " unamiable and refractory disposition." On one occasion he stole his mother's head ornaments, and another time he pilfered 2,000 cash belonging to her. This last mis- demeanor aroused her direst anger^ and she attempted to chastise him. Unwilling to en- dure the indignity, Lui seized her by the throat, and only released her on the expostu- lation of his sister. This behavior so angered the old lady, that she determined on the death of her son. A Helpless Victim. Being physically incapable of accomplish- ing the deed herself, she begged a sergeant of police on duty in the neighborhood to act as executioner. This he declined to do, but softened his refusal by offering to flog Lui. To do this conveniently he bound the lad, and, with the help of three men, carried him off to a deserted guard-house on the out- skirts of the village. Thither Mrs. Lui followed, and implored the men to bury her son alive. Again the sergeant declined, and empha- sized his refusal by leaving the hut. The other men were more yielding, and having thrown Lui on the ground they proceeded, with the help of his mother and sister, to pull down the walls and to bury their victim in the ruins. When the case came on for trial it was decided " that the death in this case was properly deserved, and that his mother was accordingly absolved from all blame." The sergeant, however, was sen- tenced, for his comparatively innocent part in the affair, to receive a hundred blows, and the three men and the daughter each re- THE PUNISHMENT OF CRIMINALS. 189 ceived ninety blows, which was considered only a just punishment. This case is significant of the supreme power which practically rests in the hands of parents, and is exemplified by the countless acts of infanticide which go unpunished eveiy year. In the volume of the Pekin Gazette from which the above account is taken, a wretched case is reported, in which a husband drowned an infant born to his wife, of which he had reason to believe he was not the father. On another and subse- quent issue the case came before the man- darins, but the infanticide was not so much as mentioned in the finding. Children Placed at Disadvantage. Throughout the whole code sons and daughters, as well as daughters-in-law, stand at a marked disadvantage with regard to their parents. Not only is parricide pun- ished by lingchi, but even for striking or abusing a father, mother, paternal grandfather or grandmother, the punishment is death ; and the same penalty follows on a like offence committed by a wife or her husband's father, mother, or paternal grandparents. A still more one-sided provision ordains that "a son accusing his father or mother ; a grandson, his paternal grandparents ; a prin- cipal or inferior wife, her husband or her hus- band's parents, or paternal grandparents, shall in each case be punished with a hun- dred blows and three years' banishment, even if the accusation prove true, and that the individuals so accused by their relatives, if they voluntarily surrender and plead guilty, shall be entitled to pardon." If such accu- sation should, however, turn out to be either in part or wholly false, " the accuser shall suffer death by being strangled." Though neither wives nor slaves are so entirely in the hands of their husbands and masters as sons and daughters are in those of their parents, they suffer, from a Western point of view, many and great legal inequali- ties. A wife who strikes her husband is liable to be punished with a hundred blows, while the husband is declared to be entitled to strike his wife so long as he does not pro- duce a cutting wound. Punishment of Insolent Slaves. Death by beheading is the punishment for a slave who strikes his master; but if a master, in order to correct a disobedient slave or hired servant, chastises him in the canonical way, and the offender "happens to die," the master is " not liable to any punish- ment in consequence thereof" One of the strangest sections in the code is that which deals with quarrelling and fighting, and in which every shade of offence is differentiated with strange minuteness. On what part of the body a blow is struck, with what it is struck, and the result of the blow, are all set out with their appropriate penal- ties. Tearing out "an inch of hair," break- ing a tooth, a toe, or a finger, with countless other subdivisions, are all tabulated in due form. It is commonly observed that people, and therefore nations, admire most those qualities in which they are deficient, and on somewhat the same principle Chinese legis- lators delight to hold up to opprobrium those social misdemeanors to which they are most prone. If an impartial observer of Chinese man- ners and customs were to name the two most prominent civil vices of the Chinese, he would probably give his decision in favor of bribery and gambling. Against both these vices the code speaks with no uncertain sound. The mandarin who accepts a bribe of one hundred and twenty taels of silver and upwards, when the object is in itself 190 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. lawful, or eighty taels and upwards when the object is unlawful, is pronounced guilty of death by strangulation. It is no exaggera- tion to say that if this law were enforced it would make a clean sweep of ninety-nine out of every hundred officials in the Empire. Gambling also is denounced with equal fervor, and eighty blows is the punishment for any person found playing at any game of chance for money or for goods. The same FIGHTING QUAILS. penalty awaits, in theory, the owner of a gaming-house, with the additional fine of the loss of the house to Government. The existence of such a law, side by side with the open and palpable violation of it in streets and alleys, as well as on country roads and in village lanes, reduces it to an absurdity. At breakfast-time workmen stream out of their places of employment, and throw dice or lots for their meal at the nearest itinerant cookshop. CooUes, in moments of leisure, while away the time with cards and dice as they sit at the sides of the streets, and the gaming- houses are always full of eager excited crowds, who are willing to lose everything they possess, and more also, in satisfaction of the national craving. Like opium, games of chance have a peculiar fascination for Chinamen. One of the commonest games is known as fantan, and is so simple that it can be played by any one. The croupier throws down a heap of cash, and each gambler stakes on what the re- mainder will be when the pile has been counted out in fours. This and other games are publicly played at the gambling -houses, the owners of which purchase security for their trade by bribing the mandarins and their police. Quail-fighting, cricket - fighting, and pubhc events are also made subjects of wagering, and the ex- pected appearance of the names of the suc- cessful candidates at the local examinations is a fruitful source of desperate gambling. With the object possibly of discouraging speculation and games of chance, the code fixes the legal rate of interest at thirty-six per cent., but the enactment, if that is its object, fails signally to effect its purpose. The love of games is so deeply imbedded in the Chinese nature that all sorts of expe- dients are resorted to in order to escape detection. CHAPTER X. CHINESE MECHANICS AND MERCHANTS. NEXT to farmers in popular estima- tion stand mechanics, and even a deeper state of poverty than that which afflicts agriculturists is the common lot of these men. They live per- petually on the verge of destitution, and this from no fault of their own and in spite of their untiring devotion to their callings. No one can have seen these m.en at work in the streets, or in their workshops, without being struck with the indefatigable industry which they display. From an hour in the morning at which European workmen are still in bed until a time at night long after which the same men have ceased to toil and spin, the patient Chinaman plods on to secure for himself and family a livelihood which would be con- temned by all but the patient Asiatic. As in every branch of science and art, mechanics in China have remained for cen- turies in a perfectly stagnant condition. The tools and appliances which were good enough for those who worked and labored before our era, still satisfy the requirements of Chinese craftsmen. The rudest tools are all that a workman has at his disposal, and the idea never seems to occur to him that an improvement in their structure is either called for or necessary. The abundant population and over-crowded labor market may have something to do with the disinclination of the people to the use of labor-saving machinery. It is not so long ago that, in civilized countries, there arose an outcry that the adoption of railways would be ruin to all those who made their living by the earlier methods of travelling, and it need not therefore surprise us to find Chinamen ranging themselves in opposition to any contrivances which may appear to compete with human labor. The mason who wishes to move a block of stone knows no better means for the pur- pose than the shoulders of his fellow-men supplemented by bamboos and ropes. The carpenter who wants to saw up a fallen tree does so with his own hand, without a thought of the easier device of a saw-mill. So it is with every branch of industry. Many of the contrivances employed are extremely ingenious, but since their inven- tion no further advance has been made towards relieving the workman from any part of his toil. Great Mechanical Skill. In many cities. Canton, for example, bricklayers and carpenters stand in the street for hire, and often, unhappily, remain all the day idle. Even when employed their wages are ridiculously small compared with the pay of their colleagues in our own country, or even in Europe, whose hours of labor are short compared with theirs, and whose relaxations furnish a relief from toil to which Chinamen are complete strangers. In the higher branches of mechanical skill, such, for instance, as gold, silver and ivory work. Chinamen excel, and they are excep- tionally proficient in the manufacture of bronzes, bells, lacquer ware and cloisonne. 191 192 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. With the appliances at their command their skill in casting bells of great size and sonorousness is little short of marvellous. The famous bell at Pekin weighs 120,000 pounds, and is one of five of the same weight and size which were cast by order of the Emperor Yunglo (1403-1425). Like all Chinese bells, it is struck from outside with a mallet, and its tones resound through the city to announce the changes of the watch. Jacks of All Trades. A feature in the workaday life of China is the number of itinerant craftsmen who earn their livelihood on the streets. Every domestic want, from the riveting of a bro- ken saucer to shaving a man's head, is supplied by these useful peripatetics. If a man's jacket wants mending, or his shoes re- pairing, he summons a passing tailor and cobbler, and possibly, while waiting for his mended clothes, employs the services of a travelling barber to plait his queue, or it may be to clean his ears from accumulated wax. Even blacksmiths carry about with them the very simple instruments of their trade, and the bellows which blow the flame are commonly so constructed as to serve when required as a box for the tools and for a seat to rest the owner when weary. It is characteristic of Chinese topsy-turvy- dom that that class of society which has done most to promote the material prosperity of the nation, should, in theory at least, be placed on the lowest round of the social ladder. The principle, " that those who think must govern those who toil," is justly upheld in China, but why the men who have made her the rich country which she is, and who have carried the fame of her wealth and power into every market in Asia, should be subordinate in the social scale to laborers and mechanics it is difficult to understand. The merchants and traders of China have gained the respect and won the admiration of all those who have been brought into con- tact with them. For honesty and integrity they have earned universal praise, and on this point a Shanghai bank manager, in acknowl- edging a valedictory address, presented to him on his leaving the country, bore the following testimony: "I have," he said, " referred to the high commercial standing of the foreign community. The Chinese are in no way behind us in that respect ; in fact, I know of no people in the world I would sooner trust than the Chinese merchant and banker. I may mention that for the last twenty-five years the bank has been doing a very large business with Chinese at Shanghai, amounting, I should say, to hundreds of millions of taels, and we have never yet met with a defaulting Chinaman." Chinese Merchant Princes. It was such men as these that built-up the commerce which excited the wonder and ad- miration of Marco Polo and other early European travellers ; and it is to their labors and to those of their descendants that the existence of the crowded markets, the teem- ing wharfs and the richly laden vessels of the present day are due. However much in theory the Chinese may despise their mer- chant princes, their intelligence gains them a position of respect, and their riches assure them consideration at the hands of the man- darins, who are never backward in drawing on their overflowing coffers. It is noticeable that while noveUsts are never tired of satirizing the cupidity of the mandarins, the assumption of the literati, and the viciousness of the priesthood, they refrain from reflections on a class which at CHINESE MECHANICS AND MERCHANTS, 19S least honestly toils and only asks to be allowed to reap the rewards of its own un- tiring industry. As for everything else in China, a vast antiquity is claimed for the beginning of commerce. In the earliest native works extant men- tion occurs of the efforts made to barter the products of one district for those of another, and to dispose of the super- fluous goods of China by exchange with the merchandise of the neighboring countries. The subject was not consid- ered beneath the notice of the earliest philosophers, and Confucius on several occasions gave utterance to his views on the matter. Wise as many of his sayings were, it is a fact that his dicta on practical affairs were for the most part either plati- tudes or fallicies. It is not difficult to determine in which class his best quoted pronouncement on trade should be placed. " Let the pro- ducers," said the sage, "be many and the consumers few. Let there be activity in the production and economy in the expenditure. Then the wealth will al- ways be ample." It might have occurred even to Con- fucius that, if the producers of a certain commodity were in the majority, and the consumers in the minority, the only people who could possibly benefit would be the few, more especially if they further reduced the demand for the product by following the philosopher's advice and practising economy in the use of it. Fortunately, the merchants of China have not found it necessary to accept Confucius as an infallible guide in mer- cantile concerns ; and they, in common with the rest of their countrymen, have benefited by the disenthralment from the bondage which still binds the literary 13 classes to the chariot-wheels of the sage. The same problems which were at an early PAGODA AND VASES. date worded out in the commercial centres of Europe have been presented for solution to the frequenters of the marts in the Flowery 194 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. Land, and occasion as much controversy as they did long ago. Long before the establishment by Lom- bard Jews of banks in Italy (A. D. 808), the money-changers of China were affording their customers all the help and convenience whidh belong to the banking system ; and three hundred years before the establish- menjt at Stockholm of the first bank which issued notes in Europe, paper currency was passing freely through all the provinces of the Empire. A later development of trade has been the adoption of guilds, whose halls are often among the handsomest build- ings to be met with in the busy centres of trade. For Mutual Protection. The idea first took shape in a curious way. Provincial mandarins on visiting the capital found that they were quite unable to cope singly with the exactions of the officials and the insults which their local pronunciations and provincial attires drew upon them from the people. They determined, therefore, to combine for mutual protection, and to estab- lish guilds as common centres for protection in case of need, and for the more congenial purpose of social intercourse. Strange as it may seem to those who only hear of the opposition shown by Chinamen to foreigners, it ie yet a fact that a like host- ility, though in a mitigated form, is com- monly displayed towards natives of other provinces and districts. Like the provincial mandarins at Pekin, travelling merchants found the advantage of being of being able to show a united front to the annoyances which they suffered from the natives of " outside provinces," and, following the ex- ample set in the capital, they founded pro- vincial guilds in all parts of the country where trade or pleasure made their presence either necessary or convenient. Natives of Canton visiting Chehkiang or Hunan are now no longer subjected to the insults to which they were accustomed at the native inns. In their provincial guilds they may count on security and comfort, and, if merchants, they are sure to find among the frequenters of the clubs, either customers for their goods or vendors of the products which they may wish to buy. The more strictly mercantile guilds serve invalu- able purposes in the promotion of trade. Each is presided over by a president, who is helped in the administration by a specially elected committee and a permanent secretary. This last is generally a graduate, and thus in virtue both of his literary rank and of his . connection with the guild has ready access to the mandarins of the district. Through his instrumentality disputes are arranged, - litigation is often prevented, and the Lekin taxes due from the members of the guild for the passage of their goods into the interior of ' the country are compounded for by lump sums. Where Revenue Comes From. The revenue of the guilds is derived from a payment of one-tenth of one per cent, on all sales effected by members. At first sight this percentage appears insignificant, but so great is the volume of internal trade, that the amount realized not only covers eveiy requirement, but furnishes a surplus for lux- urious feasts. In one guild at Ningpo the reserve fund was lately stated to be 700,000 dollars, to which must be added the amount realized by the deposit exacted from each new member of 3,000 dollars. Against the income account must be set down large outgoings in several directions. In the case of a member going to law with the sanction of the guild he receives half his law expenses, and a not inconsiderable sum CHINESE MECHANICS AND MERCHANTS. 195 is yearly disbursed in payment of the funeral expenses of those members who die away from their homes. Besides these outgoings money is advanced on cargoes expected, and is lent for the purchase of return ventures. The rules regulating the guilds are numerous and are strictly enforced. The favorite penalty for any infraction is that the offender shall provide either a theatrical entertainment for the delectation of his brother members or a feast for their benefit. If any member should be recalcit- rant and refuse to submit to the authority of the committee, he is boycotted with a sever- ity which might well excite the emulation of promoters of the system in the Emerald Isle. Fines for Dishonesty. Allied to these mercantile associations are the guilds which are strictly analogous to the trades-unions among ourselves. Each trade has its guild, which is constituted on precisely the same lines as those above described. So far as it is possible to judge, the action of the Chinese trades-unions appears to tend to the promotion of fair play and a ready kind of justice. Unjust weights, or unfairly loaded goods, are unhesitatingly condemned, and substantial fines are inflicted on members found guilty of taking advantage of such iniquities. By the influence of the unions wages are settled, the hours of work are determined, and the number of apprentices to be taken into each trade is definitely fixed. Silk- weavers are not allowed to work after nine o'clock in the evening, nor are any workmen permitted to labor during the holidays pro- claimed by the guild. On one occasion, at Wenchow, the carpenters were called upon by the mandarin to contribute more than the recognized work of one day in the year for the repairing of public buildings. The men struck, and the mandarin, fearing a popular tumult, was wise enough to give way. Perhaps, also, the recollections of a terrible retribution which was, in 1852, meted out to a magistrate near Shanghai, for Ijjindly ignoring the just demands of the people under him, may have encouraged a yielding disposition. Acted Like Savages. In this instance the people, in an access of rage such as that to which Chinamen are occasionally subject, and which in an instant converts them from peaceful citizens into brutal savages, invaded the magistrate's yamun, and, having made the wretched man their prisoner, bit off his ears, each man taking his part in the outrage to prevent the possibility of a separate charge being brought against any particular rioter. An even more brutal display of violence once took place at Soochow. It happened that more gold leaf was required for the use of the Emperor's palace than the trade as constituted at Soochow could supply. In this difficulty the master manufacturer took the unwise step of asking the leave of the magistrate to engage extra apprentices. Possibly with the knowledge that no one had been punished for the atrocity described above, which, having occurred in the neigh- borhood, must have been well known, they determined to inflict an even more brutal punishment on the erring manufacturer. " Biting to death is not a capital offence," was proclaimed amongst them, and, acting upon this dictum, they captured the offender and literally bit him to death. On being admitted as an apprentice a lad has, as a rule, to stand treat to the workmen, and in the more skilled trades he has to serve five years before he is admitted to the rank of journeyman. Though the conduct 196 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. of these societies is generally beneficial, they are occasionally apt, like all similarly consti- tuted bodies, to act tyranically. Barbers, for example, are in many parts of the country forbidden to add the art of shampooing to their ordinary craft, it having been determined by the union that to sham- poo was beneath the dignity of the knights ITINERANT CHINESE BARBER. of the razor. During the last six days of the year, when the heads of the whole male portion of the Empire are shaved, barbers are forbidden to clean the ears of their cus- tomers, as it is their wont to do during the rest of the months. Any one found breaking this rule is liable to be mobbed, and to have his tools and furniture thrown into the street. By a long-established custom, barbers and the sons of barbers used to be reckoned among the pariah classes who were disquali- fied for competing in the competitive exami- nations. Though complaints of this depri- vation had been long and loud, no formal action was taken in the matter until the union took up the question. In their collective capacity the members appealed to the governor of Chehkiang, who, approving of the spirit of the memorial, pre- sented the matter to the Emperor, and obtained for the barbers the removal of the disability. It is too much to expect that the unions should always refrain from bring- ing to bear the influence which they collectively possess for their direct financial advancement. Jjjl^;^ Strikes are of frequent occur- 'J*'y |( rence, and victory is commonly fi, ]!.' with the workmen, except when their claims are manifestly unjust. The mandarins recognize that they cannot flog a whole trade, and the poverty of the men se- cures them against those exac- tions which would probably be demanded from their employers were they to appear in court. These facts are fully recognized by the masters, who prefer rather to yield to the demands of their men than to fall into the clutches of their rulers. As in all primitive and un- educated states of society, the Chinese have a rooted objection to machinery of all kinds. Just as they now oppose steam navigation in the inland waters of the Empire, so, until, quite lately, they rebelled against the im- portation of all labor-saving contrivances. Some years ago a Chinaman, imbued with CHINESE MECHANICS AND MERCHANTS. 197 Western ideas, landed at Canton a machine for sewing boots, and especially the leather soles worn by the natives. At this innova- tion the cobblers at once took alarm. They rose in their thousands and destroyed the new-fangled machine. In the same way the promoters of the first steam cotton-mills were compelled to submit to the destruction of machinery which, if it had been allowed to work would have given employment to many thousands of people. The absence of a hereditary aristocracy deprives the Chinese of a most useful and potent link between the crown and its sub- jects. England has learned from her own history how great is the protection afforded to the nation by the presence of a body of powerful nobles who are strong enough to resist the encroachments of the sovereign and to moderate and guide the aspirations of the people. In China no such healthy influ- ence is to be found, and the result is that there is a constant straining and creaking in the social machine, which has many a time ended in fierce outbreaks, and not infre- quently in the overthrow of dynasties. It was remarked by a Chinese statesman, at the time of the Taeping rebellion, that two hundred years was the normal length of a Chinese dynasty, and this bears substantial evidence to the want of some such mediat- ing influences as hereditary and representa- tive institutions are alone able to afford. The voice of the people finds no expression in any recognized form of representation. Po- litically, they are atoms whose ultimate power of asserting their claims to justice lies only in the sacred right of rebellion, which they are not slow to exercise on occasion. CHAPTER XI. CHINESE MARRIAGE CUSTOMS. BY the highest and most revered authorities marriage is described, and rightly described, as the great- est of the five human relationships. It is the foundation of the State, and it holds oiit that prospect, which is so dear to the heart of every Chinaman, of obtaining sons who shall perform at the tombs of their parents the sacrifices which are necessary for the repose of their spirits. In one respect, matrimonial alliances in China have an advan- tage over those in Western lands. They can never be undertaken in a hurry. There can be no running off of the young lady to the registry office some morning before her par- ents come down to breakfast, nor can a special license be obtained in a moment to gratify a sudden caprice. In the houses of all well-to-do people the ceremony is surrounded by rites which make haste impossible, and the widest publicity is secured for the event. In dealing with social matters in so huge an Empire as China, it is necessary to remember that practices vary in detail in different parts of the country. But throughout the length and breadth of the land the arrangement of marriages of both sons and daughters is a matter which is left entirely in the hands of the parents, who in every case employ a go-between or match- maker, whose business it is to make himself or herself — both men and women follow this strange calling — acquainted accurately with the circumstances of both families and the personal qualifications of the proposed bride and bridegroom. 198 It is obvious that considerable trust and confidence have to be placed in these people, and it is also a fact that they not uncom- monly betray this trust and confidence in the interests of rich people who are able to make it worth their while to represent a plain and ungainly girl as a Hebe, or a dissolute youth as a paragon of virtue. Archdeacon Gray, in his " China," de- scribes a tragic scene which occurred at a wedding at which he was present. A dying mother, anxious to see her son married before she closed her eyes for ever, insisted on the marriage ceremony being performed at her bedside. On the completion of the rite the bridegroom raised the bride's veil and gazed on the features of a leper. The scene which followed was of a most painful description, and ended by the bride being incontinently repudiated and sent back to her parents. Professional Match-makers. "To he like a match-maker" is a common expression, and a published correspondence exists between a Chinese bridegroom and his friend, in which the former bitterly complains that his bride, far from being the beauty described by the go-between, is fat and marked deeply with small-pox. His friend, being of a practical turn of mind, and not being himself the victim, recommends the bridegroom to make the best of the bargain, and with cheap philosophy reminds him that if the young lady is stout she is probably healthy, and that, though disfigured, she may very possibly be even as " an angel from CHINESE MARRIAGE CUSTOMS. 199 heaven," to use his own words. This was certainly very comforting. From the time that the match-maker is employed, until the bond is tied, there are six ceremonies to be performed. The parents of the young man send the go-between to the parents of the girl to in- quire her name and the moment of her birth that the horoscopes of the two may be ex- amined, in order to ascertain whether the proposed alliance will be a happy one. If the eight characters of the horoscopes seem to augur aright, the man's friends send the match-maker back to make an oifer of mar- riage. If that be accepted, the lady's father is again requested to return an assent in writ- ing. Presents are then sent to the girl's parents according to the means of the parties. The go-between requests them to choose a lucky day for the wedding. The preliminaries are concluded by the bride- groom going or sending a party of friends with music to bring his wife to his house. Betrothal of Children. So soon as the first of these ceremonies is performed, the betrothal is considered bind- ing ; and in the cases of the engagement of children, nothing but disablement, or the af- fliction of leprosy, is considered potent enough to dissolve it. Certain supersti- tions, however, render the contract more easily dissoluble when the pair are of marri- ageable age. If, for instance, a china bowl should be broken, or any valuable article lost within three days of the engagement, the circum- stance is considered suflficiently unlucky to justify the instant termination of the under- taking, and in cases where facts unfavorable to the one side, whether socially, physically or morally, have, in the meantime, come to the knowledge of the other party to the con- tract, advantage is taken of some such acci- dents to put an end to the negotiations. In accordance with usage, the letters which pass between the parents during the preliminaries are couched in good set terms, the sender of presents describes them as " mean " and "contemptible," while the re- cipient regards them as "honorable" and "priceless." The parent of the bride speaks of his daughter as "despicable," and his house as " a cold dwelling," while the bride- groom's people designate her as " your hon- ored beloved one," and her home as " a ven- erable palace." "The Best Man." The Chinese love of indirectness comes out conspicuously in the betrothal cere- monies. The bridegroom does nothing, and his father, who is the real negotiator, is rep- resented by a friend of the bridegroom, who alone passes backwards and forwards be- tween the two houses. The first duty of this "best man" is to carry to the lady's father a statement of the hour, day, month and year of the bridegroom's birth, together with the maiden name of his mother ; and to receive in return a document containing the same particulars concerning the bride. On receipt of these facts the fathers of the pair spread the documents on the family altars, and beseech the blessings of their ancestors on the match. Astrologers are next consulted, and, should the horoscopes of the young people be propitious, the best man is again sent with a letter making a formal proposal of marriage. The following authentic letters, appropriate to this occasion, are good specimens of the bland self-depreciatory tone which is in- dulged in by fond fathers when exchanging presents. 200 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. The first is from the parents of the would- be bridegroom, and runs thus : " Prostrate, I beseech you not to disdain this cold and mean application, but to listen to the match- maker, and to bestow your honorable daughter on my slavish son, that the pair may be bound together with silken threads, and be united in jadelike joy. In bright spring-time I will offer wedding gifts, and present a pair of geese. And let us hope that we may anticipate long-enduring happi- ness, and look forward through endless gen- erations to the completion of the measure of their sincere attachment. May they sing of the Unicorn, and enjoy every felicity. Pros- trate, I beg you to look favorably upon my proposal, and to bend the mirrorlike bright- ness of your glance upon these lines." A Lucky Day in Spring. In reply the lady's father, who was proba- bly a wealthy man, and whose references therefore to his impecunious condition are intended only to exaggerate the wealth and position of the would-be bridegroom, writes : "A respectful communication. I have re- ceived your notice of a lucky day in spring for the ceremony of exchanging bridal pres- ents. Your younger brother, being a plain and unpretentious man, cannot escort his daughter with a hundred chariots." [This is a reference to a king in the eighth century before Christ, who brought home his bride attended by an escort of this extent.] " She shall not, however, be without cotton skirts, hair-pins, and wooden brooches, as I will surely arrange for the trousseau of my impoverished green-windowed " (that is, poor) " daughter. If you say that you seek, the palace of the moon " (wedlock), "I shall ask for a sceptre from the grassy field, and so frustrate your design.'' This phrase has reference to a man in ancient times, who was told by a fairy that if he would plant some jewels in a certain grassy field, he should obtain a charming wife. He obeyed, and shortly afterwards made overtures of marriage to a lady who was renowned for her beauty and accompHsh- ments. Her father, not particularly desiring the match, gave his consent on condition that the bridegroom presented the lady with a jade sceptre. Remembering the buried jewels, the bridegroom dug in the field and found to his delight a sceptre exactly answer- ing to the description demanded. Of course, the marriage took place, and the pair lived happily ever afterwards. The S5rmbol of Marriage. Historical allusions of this kind abound in such communications, and a curious sym- bolism is employed in the various rites. The plum-tree is held to symbolize marriage, probably because it is conspicuous for its beauty in spring-time, when, in China, as elsewhere, "young men's fancy lightly turns to thoughts of love," and no youth sighs in verses for a bride, nor does any maiden in the harem lament in numbers her lonely con- dition, without references to the beauty of the blossom, and the excellence of the fruit. The letter of the bridegroom's father is sent on a lucky day chosen by the astrolo- gers, and is handed to the best man, with much ceremony, at the family altar, before which the writer performs the kotow in honor of his departed ancestors. On arriv- ing at the bride's dwelling the groomsman is received with much state and is conducted by his host to the ancestral hall, where a master of ceremonies stands ready to direct the rites. At a word from this potentate they both prostrate themselves before the ances- tral tablets which stand on the altar, and having risen from their knees resume their CHINESE MARRIAGE CUSTOMS. 201 positions, the one on the east and the other on the west side of the hall. The groomsman then, with a few appro- priate phrases, presents his host with the letter, and at the same time offers for his ac- ceptance boxes of confectionary and a live pig, or, in some parts of the country, a pair of wild geese. The choice of these birds as a nuptial present is so odd that one is apt to consider it as one of the peculiar outcomes of the topsy-turvy Chinese mind. But it is not quite so ; for we find from George Sand that at the marriage of French peasants in Berry, a goose, though a dead one, was com- monly borne in the bridegroom's procession. Gifts and Music. "Near," writes the authoress, "this bearer of a flowering and ribboned thyrsus is an ex- pert spit-bearer, for under the foliage is a trussed goose which forms the object of the ceremony ; around it are the carriers of the presents and the good singers, that is to say those who are clever and knowing and who are going to engage in an [amicable] quarrel with the followers of the bride." It is odd to find the East and West allied in so curious a detail, but such marriage customs seem to be scarcely less widely spread than the rite itself. So soon as the cakes and the box contain- ing the letter have been placed on the altar, the host again prostrates himself and reads the letter, while the groomsman is led off to be regaled with tea and viands in the guest- chamber. The reply is handed to the groomsman with the same ceremonies as that with which the letter was received, and he is then invited to a feast which etiquette bids him refuse twice and accept on the third occcision. On an adjournment to the ances- tral hall he is presented with return presents of cakes, and wends his way back to report proceedings to his principal. Presents consisting of silks and satins, ear- rings, bracelets, and hair-pins, are next sent to the bride, and return gifts are offered by her parents. A sumptuous dinner, given by the bridegroom to his friends, announces the completion of this ceremony, which is known as Napi, or "The Presentation of Silks." The Dragon and Phoenix. When sending the presents it is customary for the bridegroom to prepare two large cards containing the particulars of the engagement. On the one which he keeps is pasted a paper dragon, and on that which he sends to his bride, a phoenix, emblems which are held to symbolize the Imperial qualities of the one and the brilliant beauty of the other. To each card are attached two pieces of red silk, which are tokens of the invisible bonds with which Fate has from their infancy connected the ankles of the pair, for, in China, as with us, marriages are said _be made in heaven. To that power is left the choice of a lucky day for the final rite. The astrolo- gers who interpret the signs of the sky com- monly pronounce a full moon to be the for- tunate time, and so soon as this fixture is arranged, the bridegroom's father sends gifts of wine and mutton to the lady. Etiquitte requires it that the groomsman should ask the bride's father to name the day, and that he should in his turn beg that the bride's future father-in-law should decide the point. This is the cue for the grooms- man to produce from his sleeve the letter of which he is the bearer, announcing the lucky date, which is already well known to all con- cerned. To this the host replies in stilted terms, expressing his concurrence, but adding his regret at having to part with his "insig- nificant daughter" so soon. For some days before the date fixed the bride assumes all the panoply of woe, and 202 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. weeps and wails without ceasing. On the day immediately preceding the wedding her trousseau and household furniture are sent to her future home, and though the trunks are always locked, cases have been known in which the bridegroom's female relatives, being unable to restrain their curiosity, have EMBROIDERED CHINESE SCREEN, picked the locks to examine the dresses of the bride. On the eventful day the bridegroom either goes himself, attended by a procession of friends and musicians, with flying banners bearing feUcitous mottoes, to carry away his bride, or sends his faithful friend similarly attended. In many parts of the country this ceremony takes place in the evening, and is a mere formality, whereas in others, as wHI be presently shown, it retains more of its original significance. On entering the bride's house the bride- groom is received by his father-in-law, who conducts him to the central hall, and there offers him a goblet of wine, from which the visitor pours out a liba- tion to the emblematic geese in token of his nuptial fi- delity, accompanying the action with a deep rever- ence to the family altar in confirmation of his vow. The bride, covered from head to foot with a red veil, is now introduced on the scene, and makes obei- sance in the direction of the spot where the bride- groom is standing, for he is as invisible to her as she is to him. The procession then re- forms, and the bride having been lifted into her sedan- chair by two women of good fortune, that is to say, who have both husbands and children living, is borne to her future home to the airs of well-known wedding melodies. On arriving at the portal of the house the bridegroom taps the door of the sedan-chair with his fan, and in response, the instructress of matrimony, who prompts every act of the bride, opens the door and hands out the still enshrouded young lady, who is carried bodily over a pan of lighted charcoal, or a red-hot CHINESE MARRIAGE CUSTOMS. 203 coulter laid on the threshold, while at the same moment a servant offers for her accept- ance some rice and preserved prunes. It is curious to observe that the ceremony of lifting the bride over the threshold is found existing in all the four continents, and we also know that in ancient Rome the bridegroom received his bride with fire and water. It has been conjectured that the act of lifting the bride over fire may have some reference to purification, but we have no duly authorita- tive statement on the meaning of the act. The First Sight. In the reception hall the bridegroom awaits the bride, who prostrates herself before him, and he then for the first time lifts her veil and gazes on her features. The moment must be a trying one, especially on occasions when the go-between has concealed defects or exaggerated charms. Perhaps it is as well that etiquette forbids the utterance of a word, and in a silence which must often be golden, the bridegroom conducts his bride to the divan, when they seat themselves side by side; it being traditional that the one who sits on a part of the dress of the other is likely to hold rule in the household. But the marriage has yet to be consecrated. For this purpose the young people repair to the hall, where, falling on their knees before the ancestral altar, the bridegroom announces to his ancestors that, in obedience to his parents' commands, he has taken so-and-so to wife, beseeching them at the same time to bestow their choicest gifts on himself and his partner. Prostrations in honor of heaven, earth, and the bridegroom's parents complete the ceremony, and the newly wedded couple retire to the semi-privacy of their apartments to enjoy a repast in which they pledge one another in the wedding goblet. In some parts of the country it is cus- tomary for the groom to join the guests at their feast in the outer hall, where he forms the subject of countless jokes, and is expected to submit to a like severe ordeal in the matter of riddles as that which enlivened Samson's wedding. It is impossible not to recognize that many . of the ceremonies which have been described are relics of the primitive right of marriage by capture. In the procession which, gen- erally at night, goes to carry the bride to her new home is plciinly observable a sur- vival of the old-world usage, in compliance with which young men sallied out to snatch their consorts from their foes. "I/O, how the woman once was wooed ! Forth leapt the savage from his lair, He felled her, and to nuptials rude, He dragged her, bleeding, by the hair. Prom that to Chloe's dainty wiles, And Portia's dignified consent, What distance ! " Perched in a Tree. But even within the Chinese Empire we find almost every gradation between these wide extremes. In Western China, among some of the native tribes it is customary for the bride to perch herself on the high branch of a large tree, while her elderly female rela- tives station themselves on the lower limbs armed with switches. Through this protect- ing force the bridegroom has to make his way, and is duly assailed by the dowagers before he reaches the object of his search. At Chinese weddings also it is not unusual for the bridegroom to be compelled to run the gauntlet on the way to the bride's cham- ber between rows of waiting women, who go through the farce of pretending to bar his progress. But the most perfect survival of the old rite is found among the Lolo tribes of China, who indulge in a long prelude of alternate feasting and lamentation before the 204 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. wedding, as if the occasion were one for mourning rather than rejoicing. At last, as the late Mr. Baber writes : "A crisis of tearfulness ensues, when suddenly the brothers, cousins, and friends of the hus- band burst upon the scene with tumult and loud shouting, seize the almost distraught maid, place her pick-a-back on the shoulders of the best man, carry her hurriedly and violently away, and mount her on a horse, which gallops off to her new home. Vio- lence is rather more than simulated, for though the male friends of the bride only repel the attacking party with showers of flour and wood-ashes, the attendant virgins are armed with sticks, which they have the fullest liberty to wield." Carrying off the Bride. This practice of carrying off the bride has its counterpart among the more civilized Chinese in the act of bearing the lady over the threshold of her house; and it exists in full force in Orissa, where General Campbell tells us in his " Personal Narrative of Service in Khondistan," he once "saw a man bear- ing away upon his back something enveloped in an ample covering of scarlet cloth; he was surrounded by twenty or thirty young fel- lows, and by them protected from the des- perate attacks made upon him by a party of young women. On seeking an explanation of this novel scene," adds the writer, " I was told that the man had just been married, and his precious burden was his blooming bride, whom he was conveying to his own village." Again, in certain districts in China, where the aborigines predominate, each girl, in her choice of her husband, is solely led "by nice direction of a maiden's eyes," and pairs off without any troublesome formalities with the youth she admires and who admires her. But to return to the orthodox Chinese ; the marriage ceremonies having been completed, the young couple take up their abode in the house of the bridegroom's father, and, speak- ing generally, the contract remains binding until death does them part. But the obligation is more social and re- ligious than legal, and cases constantly occur in which the tie is broken by mutual con- sent, and freedom for the future secured without the interference of any court or proctor. On one occasion, in a case of an appeal to Pekin, it came out incidentally in the proceedings that one of the parties in the case had previously married a bride who, being discontented with the house to which she had been brought, incontinently left her spouse, and married another man. In popular history, also, there is a well- known case of a woodcutter who, having some knowledge of books, and being a de- voted student, disgusted his flippant and foolish wife by attending more to the works of Confucius than to felling trees. Finding expostulation vain, his short-sighted partner deserted him and married a more business- like man. Left to himself, the woodcutter acquired such scholastic proficiency that he passed all the examinations with ease, and, by a coincidence, was appointed prefect over the district where he had formerly lived. Nothing Said. Among the men employed to make smooth the roadway for his arrival was his wife's second husband, to whom it chanced that she was in the act of bringing his dinner when her first venture's cortege passed by. A recognition was mutual, but as the prefect had equally consoled himself, nothing was said about the restitution of conjugal rights. Difficulties often arise, however, in cases where the husband is not a consenting party to the arrangement, but in such instances 205 206 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. the husband commonly takes the law into his own hands, and recovers his errant wife by force, or engages friends and neighbors to intervene and persuade the lady to return. The use of force not unfrequently brings the matter before the magistrate, but otherwise ;the law does not interfere — unless, indeed, formal complaint of a bigamous marriage is made, when the law orders that the offend- ing woman shall be strangled. As a rule, however, public opinion is sufKcient to bring the difference to a satisfactory conclusion. Seven Grounds for Divorce. But apart from these irregular matri- monial causes, the law puts it in the power of the man to annul his marriage on any one of seven distinct grounds, among which dis- obedience to father-in-law or mother-in-law, and over-talkativeness are named. But even on occasions when these legal plaints are in question, a decree without any nisi is gener- ally granted by a court composed of the elders of the neighborhood, and not by the mandarins. In this and similar matters local social pressure takes the place of a wider public opinion. There are no newspapers in China beyond those published at the treaty ports, and peo- ple's attention, instead of being distracted by subjects of general or foreign importance, is centered in the affairs passing around them. The very stationary nature of the population adds force to this peculiarity. In most vil- lages and small towns the majority of people are related to each other through the con- stantly widening circles of relatives which each marriage in the family tends to multiply. A minute acquaintance with every one else's affairs is the natural consequence of this kinship. No Chinaman ever stands alone. He forms one only of a general body, and to the opinion of this body he is compelled to yield obedience. He would no more ven- ture to refuse to submit even those concerns which we should consider most private to the arbitration of his neighbors than an Englishman would dream of flouting the de- cision of a judge and jury. In a well-known farce this peculiarity of Chinese society is amusingly illustrated. The hero of the play is a man, who, having married a Miss Plumblossom, has taken to himself a Miss Willow as a secondary wife, in accordance with the custom which will be presently described. To each lady a court- yard of the house is assigned, Plumblossom occupying the front part and Willow the rear premises. The first scene opens with the husband approaching his dwelling after a long absence. A 'Wordy W^arfare, The evening is drawing in, and he tells his servant to drive to the back , door without disturbing the elder lady. He is cordially greeted by Willow, in whose company he is enjoying a repast, when Plumblossom, hav- ing become aware of his arrival, presents herself upon the idyllic scene. Peace in- stantly vanishes. In piercing accents the intruder reproaches Willow for having robbed her of her privilege as mistress of the household of receiving her husband after his absence. Nothing daunted, this young lady defends herself, and replies with coun- ter-reproaches in the shrillest of trebles, while the husband attempts to throw oil upon the troubled waters by occasional words of expostulation. So great is the tumult that the neighbors are disturbed, and on the essentially Chinese principle that every one else's business is your business, they determine to interfere, quoting as their justification a saying of a certain philosopher that, in cases of disturb- CHINESE MARRIAGE CUSTOMS. 207 ance If the neighbors do not interfere, they become participators in the guilt of the dis- putants. Two graybeards are therefore de- puted to inquire on the spot into the circum- stances of the quarrel. Their arrival on the scene, instead of prompting a desire on the part of the husband to eject them inconti- nently, and to tell them to mind their own business, is regarded by all concerned as the most natural thing in the world. I Peace Finally Secured. The ladies submit their cases to their de- cision, and, though it is some time before the storm has sufficiently subsided to enable them to arrive at the rights of the quarrel, th^y eventually consider themselves in a position to deliver judgment. They pro- nounce that, in the interests of peace in the neighborhood, it is necessary that the hus- band should apportion his residence equally between the two courtyards, residing in one fr<^m the first of each month to the full moon, and in the other from the full moon to the end of the month. To this the ladies as well as the husband a^ee, but a further question is raised, which lady is to have which half of the month ? Plumblossom claims the time of the waxing moon, and considers the waning period quite good enough for Willow. That young lady, on the contrary, claims that as it was then the first part of the month, and that as she was in possession, that period of the month should belong to her. This knotty point the graybeards find a difficulty in deciding, and they, therefore, determine to leave it to the throw of the dice. The ladies readily produce a trio of those endless sources of amusement, and Plum- blossom throws first. To her infinite delight she throws two sixes and a cinque, and thinks herself secure. But, to the surprise of all, still better fortune befriends Willow, who throws sixes and breaks out into a paean of triumph, amid the strains of which her rival retires discomfited. It seems almost anomalous after this ap- parent instance to the contrary to say that polygamy is not practised in China. But in the strictest sense that is true. A man goes through the full ceremonies of marriage with one woman only, except on very rare occa- sions. A certain godlike Emperor of anti- quity gave, we are told in the canonical his- tories, his two daughters in marriage to his successor. With such an example as this before them, the Chinese have always con- sidered such double marriages admissible, and in many of the best-known romances the heroes marry two young ladies of the same household, and, if the authors are to be believed, always with the happiest re- sults. Naughty Fickleness. In a popular novel which has been tran- slated into several European languages, the hero makes love to a young lady through the medium of her waiting-maid, and with a despicable fickleness becomes enamored of another paragon of learning and virtue, re- siding in another part of the country, who ultimately proves to be the cousin of his first love. Towards to the end of the work, when the mists and doubts which surround the plot begin to clear, the two ladies find that their happiness is centred in the same object, and, as they have become inseparable, they determine to endow the hero, who is eminently unworthy of them, except for the beauty of his verses, with the double prize. But such marriages, though they exist, are very exceptional, and the secondary wives which men take are received into the household with a much abridged form of 208 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. ceremony. No nuptial sedan-chair bears them in triumph to their new homes, and they enter the portals unattended by the musicians and processionists who accompany the first bride on her wedding-day. And, in fact, the relation of such a one to the mis- tress of the establishment is very much what Hagar's was to Sarah in Abraham's house- hold. By conventional laws she owes obedi- ence to the first wife, and only rises to a and though the advent of a secondary wife is occasionally resented, this is not by any means always the case. Not unfrequently ladies are pleased to have it so, considering that an addition to the household adds to their dignity. In com- plimentary language the chH is compared to the moon, and the secondary wife to a star, and in a well-known collection of published letters several are met with in which friends THE BRIDAL FEAST. level with her ih case progeny should be denied to the ch'i, as the Chinese term the wife, and be granted to her. A case of this kind occurred in the instance of the late Emperor, who was the son of one of the young ladies who accompanied the Empress to the palace, and whose birth raised his mother to the rank of Empress. It is difficult for us who live under so entirely different a condition of things to realize such a state of domestic society as is here described, are congratulated on having taken " a star " to add lustre to the " moon." It is impossible to suppose that, things being as has been described, the status of a wife can be anything but, to say the least, unfortunate. As has been remarked, how- ever, " though the lot of Chinese women is less happy than that of their sisters in Europe, their ignorance of a better state renders their present or prospective one more supportable ; happiness does not consist in absolute enjoy- CHINESE MARRIAGE CUSTOMS. 209 ment, but in the idea which we have formed of it. A Chinese woman does not feel that any injustice is done her by depriving her of the right to assent to whom her partner shall be ; her wishes and her knowledge go no further than her domestic circle, and when she has been trained in her mother's apart- ments to the various duties and accomplish- ments of her sex, her removal to a husband's house brings to her no great change." Blissful Ignorance. This is no doubt to a great extent true in common life. Ignorance is unquestionably a protecting shield against many of the wounds inflicted by the repinings and re- grets which arise from a perfect knowledge. And Chinese women are, as a rule, provided with an ample shield of this description. There are, however, exceptions. History tells us of women who have ruled the Empire, directed armies, and made them- selves illustrious in every walk of life com- monly trodden by men ; and novelists assure us by their creations that not a few women have an abundant taste and skill in literature. The heroines of most novels have a pretty art in composing verses and writing essays, and so make congenial companions for the heroes, whose chief claims to distinction are gained not in the battlefield, or by personal prowess, but in their studies before the examiners. A monotonous and quiet existence is the most favorable role which a Chinese woman can expect to play. Confucius laid it down, and it is rank blasphemy to dissent from him, that a woman should not be heard of outside her own home. Unhappily neither ignor- ance, nor the placid nature which belongs to most of them, is able to save them in all cases from the miseries inherent in the state of abject dependence which belongs to them. 14 In the estimate of the other sex. Chinamen agree with a certain well-known Kentucky editor, who described women as "a side issue," and this view of the sex we find stereotyped in some of the ideographic char- acters of the language. If a husband is driven to make mention of his wife he speaks of her as his " dull thorn," or by some equally uncomplimentary term. In ordinary life he regards her less as a com- panion than as a chattel, which in times of adversity may be disposed of by sale. In seasons of famine an open market is held of the wives and daughters of the poorer suf- ferers ; and not long since, during a period of dearth in Northern China, so great a traf- fic sprung up in women and girls, that in some places nearly every available cart and conveyance were engaged to transport the newly-purchased slaves to the central pro- vinces. Cruel Husbands. When such is the position which women occupy in China, it cannot but be that they occasionally suffer ill-usage at the hands of such husbands as are capable of cruelty. It is not at all uncommon for husbands to pun- ish their wives severely, sometimes, no doubt, under great provocation, for Chinese women, untutored, unloved, and uncared for, have all the faults and failings of unreclaimed natures ; but at others for little or no reason! The Abbe Hue tells a story of " a Chinese husband, who had a wife with whom he had lived happily for two years. But having con- ceived the idea that people were laughing at him, because he had never beaten her, he determined to make a beginning in such a way as to impress every spectator, and ac- cordingly, though he had no fault to find with her," he beat her mercilessly. Although this story carries with it the im- 210 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. primatur of the worthy Abbe, it may properly be received with a certain amount of caution. But even if this particular instance may be an exaggeration, the facts that the question, "Does your husband beat you?" is very commonly put to English ladies by Chinese women, and that the indignant negative with which the inquiry is happily always answered, invariably excites astonishment and incred- ulity, are sufficient to prove that Chinese women are not unusually subject to ill-treat- ment at the hands of their natural protectors. Occasionally, however, the wife has her revenge, and in the collections of ancedotes which abound there are plenty of stories of DEFORMED FEET OF CHINESE LADIES. hen-pecked husbands and masterful wives, in one case a certain man who at times suf- fered much at the hands of his wife was driven to seek refuge from her violence be- neath his bed. Unwilling to allow her victim to escape her, the harridan called upon him to come out. " I won't," replied the man ; "and when a man and husband says he won't, he won't." But experience shows that, after all, the rule tends in the opposite direction, and that which makes the position of a wife more than ordinarily pitiable, especially among the poorer classes, is that she has no one to appeal to, and no one to whom she can fly for refuge. By the accident of sex she is viewed as a burden by her parents from her birth onwards, and, if they succeed in marry- ing her off, they are only too glad to wash their hands of her altogether. Among our- selves a man is taught that he should leave his father and mother and cling to his wife, but the theory in China is that a man should cling to his father and mother and compel his wife to do the same. When admitted into her new home it be- comes her duty to wait on her parents-in- law in the same way as she has been accus- tomed to serve her own father and mother, and it is often from these elders that the un- happy bride suffers the great- est hardships and cruelty. So many are the disabilities attaching to married life in China that many girls prefer going into Buddhist nun- neries, or even committing suicide, to trusting their fu- tures to the guardianship of men of whom they know practically nothing. Archdeacon Gray, in his "China," states that in 1873 eight young girls, residing near Canton, '■who had been affianced, drowned them- selves in order to avoid marriage. They clothed themselves in their best attire, and at eleven o'clock, in the darkness of the night, having bound themselves together, threw themselves into a tributary stream of the Canton river." In some parts of the same province anti-matrimonial associations are formed, the members of which resist to the death the imposition of the marriage yoke. "The existence of this Amazonian League," writes a missionary long resident in the neighborhood, "has long been known, but as to its rules and the num- CHINESE MARRIAGE CUSTOMS. 211 ber of its members, no definite information has come to hand. It is composed of young widows and njarriageable girls. Dark hints are given as to the methods used to escape matrimony. The sudden demise of be- trothed husbands, or the abrupt ending of the newly-married husband's career, suggest unlawful means for dissolving the bonds." This is the sordid view of the position. Happily, in this and in all other matters there is a reverse side to the shield, and in their own peculiar way the Chinese certainly enjoy a modicum of wedded bliss. In a modern Pekinese play, one of the characters, a widower, describes the even current of his late married life by saying that he and his wife lived together as host and guest, and in most novels we read of husband and wife living harmoniously, if not rapturously to- gether. In poetry also the love of home is constantly insisted on, and the misery of being separated from wife and children is the common plaint of the traveller and the exile. Dreary Solitude. In a poem entitled " Midnight Thoughts," which was translated by Sir John Davis, the poet, after describing his inability to rest in the remote district in which he finds himself, goes on to say : " This solitary desertion ! — ^how bitter do I find it ! Ivet me then push my roving to a distance : Let me visit the passes and mountains a hundred leagues hence, Like some devotee of Buddha, wandering amid clouds and torrents, Ignorant of what is passing elsewhere. How shall I forget the melancholy of my own home ? Thus dull and mournful through life's whole course, My sorrows and pains can never have an end." In the lines put in the mouths of the stay- at-home wives the melancholy of the traveller becomes a keen longing, and they lament in tearful notes the absence of their lords. But there is other and more direct evidence of the existence of happiness in the married state. Cases constantly appear in the Pekin Gazette in which wives, unwilling to survive their husbands, commit suicide rather than live without them. One such instance was that of the wife of Kwo Sunglin, brother of a late minister to the English court. Through a long illness this lady nursed him with devoted tenderness until death came, when she ended her own existence by taking poison. Died in Grief. Another case was once reported to the Emperor, in which a young widow, aged twenty-seven, declared her intention not to survive her lord, and remained for three days without nourishment. "At length," writes the memorialist; " having made an effort to rise and perform the mourning rites of pros- tration, she threw herself weeping on the ground, and breathed her last." The most curious phase of this devotion is the form which it takes in some of the southern prov- inces, where after the manner of Sutteeism, the widow commits suicide in public in the presence of an applauding crowd. In an instance described by an eye-witnes^ a vast procession escorted the young widow, who was dressed in scarlet and gold, and was borne in a richly decorated chair to the scene of the tragedy. On arriving at the scaffold, on which stood a gallows, the lady mounted the platform, and having welcomed the crowd, partook, with some female rela- tives, of a prepared repast, which, adds the narrator, she appeared to appreciate ex- tremely. She then scattered rice, herbs, and flowers among the crowd, at the same time thanking them for their attendance and upholding the motives which urged her to the step she was about to take. 212 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. She then mounted on a chair, and having waved a final adieu to the crowd, adjusted the noose round her neck, and drawing a red handkerchief over her face, gave the signal for the removal of the support. With extra- ordinary self-possession, while hanging in mid-air, she placed her hands before her, and continued to make the usual form of salutation until complete unconsciousness ensued. Such devotion to the fond memory of husbands invariably receives the approval of the people, and when reported to the Emperor gains his entire approbation. From the above account of this particular phase of Chinese society it will be seen that it represents a condition of things which leaves much to be desired. Nor is the cause of the mischief far to seek. In the very sub- ordinate position occupied by the women of China we see the origin of the evil. In a State where women are degraded, the whole community suffers loss, and the first symtoms of the approach of a healthy and beneficial civilization is the elevation of women to their legitimate and useful position in society. At present no trace of the dawn of a bet- ter day appears on the horizon of China, but the example which has been set by Japan leads one to hope that the day is not far dis- tant when the slow-moving Chineman will be induced to follow in the footsteps of their more advanced neighbor. Until quite re- cently the position of women in the Land of the Rising Sun was every whit as unworthy as that now occupied by their Chinese sisters. Happily the experience gained in western lands has taught the Japanese that the un- trammelled society of educated and pure- minded women exercises a wholesome and elevating effect on a nation. With the intuitive perception which they possess for what is best and wisest in foreign systems, they have, by a course of sound education, begun to prepare the women of the country for the new position which it is intended that they should occupy, and already an example is being set by the em- press and other leaders of fashion, of the better part they are expected to play. This change cannot be without its influence on China^ and though we know that the sur- face of small pools is more easily agitated than the face of larger waters, yet it cannot but be that the spirit of reform which is now abroad will influence even the sluggish tem- perament of the Chinese nation, and will eventually stir to the depths the minds of this hitherto changeless people. CHAPTER XII. VARIETIES OF CHINESE LIFE. IT may be asked in surprise why no mention has been made of the profes- sional classes — the doctors, the law- yers and others ; and the answer may be returned in the words of the celebrated chapter on the snakes in Iceland, " There are none." That is to say, there are none in the sense to which we are accustomed. There are plenty of doctors, but they can only be described as belonging to a profes- sional class in the sense in which itinerant quacks, who profess to cure all the ills which flesh is heir to by bread pills, can lay claim to that distinction. They are the merest empirics, and, having no fear of medical colleges or examination tests before their eyes, prey on the folly and ignorance of the people without let or hindrance. The physicians who are privileged to pre- scribe for the Emperor are the only mem- bers of the profession to whom failure means disgrace. When the late Emperor was at- tacked by small-pox, an improvement in his symptoms with which the doctor's skill was credited, brought a shower of distinctions on the fortunate physicians. Unhappily for them, however, the disease took a fatal turn, and when his Imperial Majesty " ascended on a dragon to be a guest on high," the lately- promoted doctors were degraded from their • high estate, and were stripped of every title to honor. Such of the drugs in common use as have any curative properties are derived from herbs, while the rest are probably useless when not absolutely harmful. No Harvey has yet risen to teach the Chinese laws of the circulation of the blood, nor has the study of anatomy disclosed to them the secrets of the human frame. Amputation is never resorted to, it being a part the creed of the people that any mutilation of the body is an act of disrepect to the parents from whom it was received ; and cases have constantly occurred where mandarins, who have met with violent acci- dents, and who have been assured by foreign doctors that amputation alone could save their lives, have deliberately chosen to go to their graves rather than lose a limb. On the same principle, a criminal condemned to die considers himself fortunate if he is allowed to make his exit by strangulation or the hang- man's cord rather than by decapitation. Doctors Poorly Paid. Between the ignorance of the doctors and the fees they receive, there is a just ratio. No physician, in his wildest moments of ambition, expects to receive more than a dollar for a visit, and many are not paid more than a fifth of that sum. But, what- ever the amount may be, due care is taken to wrap the silver in ornamental paper bearing the inscription " golden thanks." On entering the presence of his patient the doctor's first act is to feel the pulses on both wrists. Not only are they entirely ignorant of the difference between arteries and veins, but they believe that the pulses of the wrists communicate with, and indicate the condition of, the different organs of the body. By the 213 214 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. beating of the pulse of the left arm they pro- fess to read the state of the heart, while that on the right represents the health of the lungs and liver. If these guides are deemed insufficient to make patent the disorder under which the patient is suffering, recourse is had to the tongue, which is supposed to yield a sure augury of the nature of the malady. Singular Notions. Their great object is, as they say, "to strengthen the breath, put down the phlegm, equalize and warm the blood, repress the humors, purge the liver, remove noxious matters, improve the appetite, stimulate the gate of life, and restore harmony." A dual system of -heat and cold pervades, they be- lieve, the human frame, and it is when one of these constituents is in excess that illness supervenes. The Chinese delight in numeri- cal categories, and they profess to find in the five elements of which they believe a man's body to be composed, an intimate relation to the five planets, the five tastes, the five colors, and the five metals. " The heart," they say, " is the husband, and the lungs are the wife." and if these two main organs cannot be brought to act in har- mony, evil at once arises. In the native pharmacopoeia there are enumerated four hundred and forty-two principal medicines as being in common use. Of these three hun- dred and fourteen are derived from vegeta- ble products, fifty from minerals, and seventy- eight from animal substances. Among the monstrous tonics prescribed by the Galens of China, are asbestos, stalac- tite, fresh tops of stag-horns, dried red spotted lizard-skins, dog-flesh, human milk, tortoise-shell, bones and teeth of dragons, shavings of rhinoceros-horns, and other pos- sible and impossible nostrums. Two thou- sand years B. C. the Emperor Hwangti wrote, it is said, a work on the healing art. In the centuries which have elapsed since that time little advance has been made in the science, the principal exceptions being a knowledge of acupuncture and of vaccination. It is uncertain when acupuncture was first practiced in China, but the faith of the people in its efficacy for all cases of rheumatic affec- tions and for dyspepsia is unbounded. So soon as the physician has made up his mind that a particular bone or muscle is in a state of inflammation, he thrusts a substantial steel needle into the part affected, and stirs it ruthlessly about. Happily for the patients, their race is heir to a lymphatic temperament which preserves it from many of the evils which would certainly arise from such treat- ment among a more inflammatory people. Thrusting in a Needle. The treatment for dyspepsia is even more calculated to produce danger and disorders than that applied to the joints and bones. A Chinese doctor does not hesitate to thrust the needle into the patient's stomach or liver, and the system of blistering wounds thus caused adds considerably to the danger sur- rounding the operation. For many years the Chinese have em- ployed inoculation as a preventive against small-pox, but it was not till the arrival at Canton of Dr. Pearson, in 1820, that the knowledge of vaccination was introduced into the Empire. A pamphlet on the sub- ject, translated into Chinese by Sir George Staunton, spread the knowledge of the art far and wide, and though by no means uni- versally used, it still allays to some degree the terrible scourge of small-pox which is ever present in China. It is seldom that a child escapes from an attack of the disease, and the percentage of deaths is always con- VARIETIES OF CHINESE LIFE. 215 siderable, enough to create a panic among people better informed. In the north of the country, it has been observed that the disease becomes epidemic every winter. The reason for this regular recurrence of the malady is probably to be found in the fact that the infection clings to the fur clothes worn by the people, which are, as a rule, sent to the pawnshops on the return of every spring, and are only brought out again on the approach of winter. Throughout all the central and southern provinces leprosy is endemic. In the pro- vince of Canton it is reckoned that there are ten thousand people afflicted with this terri- ble malady. Though it is not regarded as infectious, contagion is avoided ; and outside most of the large cities there are leper vil- lages, where the victims to the disease are supposed to segregate. The Horrible Leprosy. The law on this subject is not, however, strictly enforced, and in the streets of such cities as Canton, for example, beggars suf- fering from the disease appeal for alms to the passers-by by exposing their swollen and decaying limbs to their gaze. Many are the strange remedies resorted to for cures in the first stages of the malady, but so soon as the disease is fully developed, the wretched sufferers resign themselves to their fate. It is recognized among the natives, as has been found to be the case elsewhere, that it is only by constant association with a leper that there is danger of infection, and that cleanliness is as potent a protection against the disease as damp climates and unhealthy food are promoters of it. Epidemics of cholera and diphtheria sweep periodically over the land, and the people are powerless to allay their progress or to diminish their intensity. Though they have succeeded in reaching that stage in which disease is recognized as a departure from the usual and harmonious working of the organism, they have yet never learnt, in the words of Harvey, " to search and study out the secrets of nature by way of experi- ment." Charms for Cholera. In the presence of cholera, instead of tak- ing any medical precautions, they have re- course to charms, to the worship of their gods, and, as a religious exercise, to the practice of vegetarianism. Being deprived, therefore, of every rational weapon with which to combat the malady, one would be inclined to expect that the disease would be endemic, instead of only epidemic. If the theory of infection is without qualification true, and, if no precautions whatever are taken to prevent the spread of the disease, it would be only natural to suppose that the areas of infection would increase and mul- tiply. No care is taken to isolate the patients ; no such safeguard is invoked as the destruc- tion of the clothes of the victims, whose dead bodies are frequently allowed to remain encoffined in the dwellings of the survivors. And yet the outbreak disappears almost as suddenly as it came, leaving no trace behind it except in the sad memories of those who mourn the loss of relatives and friends. The natives believe that the outbreaks are the re- sults of atmospheric conditions, and they assert that they have seen the evil approach in the shape of clouds, which have swept over provinces, leaving disease and death in their train. Some color is given to this theory by the fact, as already stated, that the disease comes and goes without any ap- parent cause, and certainly not as a result of any unusual sanitary or unsanitary conditions. 216 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. Much the same may be said of the out- breaks of diphtheria, which constantly prove so fatal in the north of the country. In a recent epidemic in Pekin, it was stated by a resident English doctor that in a household of twenty-six persons, twenty-four were car- ried off by this fatal disease. Indeed, the whole history of epidemics in China seems to suggest that we have not yet arrived at the true solution either of the origin of the out- breaks or of the cause of their cessation. As in most Eastern countries, the cities THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA. and villages of China swarm with mangy and half-starved curs of all degrees. Ill fed, uncared for, these scavengers range through the streets and lanes, picking up a precarious livelihood from the refuse which is thrown out as unfit for the food of either man or beast. If we add to these conditions that the climate over the greater part of the Empire is almost tropical in its heat, and that the water available to slake the thirst of the dogs is none of the purest, it will be admitted that no surrounding is wanting to promote and encourage outbreaks of hydrophobia. It is a remarkable fact, however, that, though the disease exists, it is not more pre- valent than it is. Chinese doctors recognize it, and their medical works treat of it, de- scribing both the symptoms and the remedies for its cure. One well-known authority gives the following prescription as a sure and un- failing treatment for the victims of the malady : "Take the curd of the black pea dried and pulverized, mix it with hemp oil, and form it into a large ball ; roll this over the wound for some time, then break it open and the inside will present a hair- like appearance. " Continue the rolling until, on breaking it open, it is found to have lost the hair-like aspect. The pa- ^ tient must avoid eating dog-flesh THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA. 267 for the admiration of posterity, but the evil, if there were such, was interred with their bones. The stilted sayings and highly moral re- flections which are attributed to them in the Book of History and other Records, appeared to Confucius to be the acme of wisdom, and he sought a remedy for all the political ills which surrounded him in the reproduction of the condition of things which prevailed at the earlier period. His leading dogma was the comfortable doctrine that man is born good, and that it is only by contamina- tion with the world and the things of the world that he is led to depart from the strict paths of rectitude and virtue. It was only necessary, therefore, for a sovereign to give full vent to his natural strivings after good to enable him to emulate the glowing exam- ples of Yao and Shun. How to Gain 'Wisdom. He made no allowance for the evil pas- sions and moral turpitudes which disgrace mankind, and he entirely failed to recognize that "there is a power that shapes our ends, rough-hew them as we may." On the con- trary, he held that man was alone arbiter of his own fate, and that by a strict regard to conventionalities, and by the careful ob- servance of the rites proper between man and man, it was possible to attain such a height of wisdom and righteousness as to constitute an equality with Heaven itself. His system, therefore, began with the cul- tivation of the individual, and this was to be perfected by a strict observance of the min- utest details of conduct. In his own person he set an illustrious example of how a great and good man should demean himself. He cultivated dignity of manner and scrupulous respect to those to whom respect was due. When he entered the palace of his sovereign 17 he walked with a bent head and humble mien, and towards parents he inculcated through- out his career the duty of paying minute obedience and the most affectionate atten- tion to their every wish and command. In the manner in which he took his food, in the way in which he dressed, even in the attitude in which he lay in bed, he set him- self up as an example for all men to follow. People, he believed, were as grass before the wind, and that, if they were bent by the in- fluence of a superior in a certain direction, they would naturally follow that ' inclination. That the example of the sovereign was as the wind, and that he had but to allow his virtue to shine forth to ensure the reforma- tion of the whole state. Such a man " would plant the people, and forthwith they would be established ; he would lead them on, and forthwith they would follow him ; he would make them happy, and forthwith multitudes would resort to his dominions ; he would stimulate them, and forthwith they would be harmonious. While he lived, he would be glorious. When he died, he would be bit- terly lamented." Incapable Rulers. Such a sovereign need but to exist and an age of peace and prosperity would settle on the land. When, therefore, a state was dis- turbed and rebellious, the main fault was not to be attributed to the people, but to the sovereign who ruled them ; and hence it fol- lowed that the duties of ruler and people were reciprocal, and that while the people owed respect and obedience to virtuous sov- ereigns, they were exempt from the duty of loyalty to rulers who had departed from the paths of virtue. According to his theory, it was an easy matter for a sovereign to rule his people righteously. "Self-adjustment and purifica- 258 CHINA: MST tion, with careful regulation of his dress and the not making a movement contrary to the rules of propriety — this is the way for the ruler to cultivate his person." Having cul- tivated his own person, he is able to rule the Empire, and' Confucius -could find no excuse, therefore, for a sovereign who failed to fulfil these very easy conditions. Skeptical Views. In such a system there is no room for a personal Deity, and Confucius withheld all sanction to the idea of the existence of such a Being. He refused to lift his eyes above the earth or to trouble himself about the future beyond the grave. " When we know so little about life, was his reply to an inqui- sitive disciple, "how can we know anything about death?" and the best advice he could give his followers with regard to spiritual be- ings was to keep them at a distance. But while ignoring all direct supernatural interference in the concerns of man, he ad- vocated the highest morality among his fol- lowers. Truth and Sincerity, Righteousness and Virtue were the main themes of his dis- courses, and though he himself failed on many occasions to observe the truth, he yet pro- fessed and felt the greatest respect and re- gard for that virtue. He was a plain, un- imaginative man, but used the mundane weapons at his command with mighty and far-reaching effect. Once only he reached to the high level of perfect Christianity, and in the enunciation of the command " to do unto others as you would they should do unto you," he sur- passed himself. From his limited stand- point he had no future bliss to offer to his followers as a reward for virtue, nor any pun- ishments after death with which to awe those who were inclined to depart from the paths of rectitude. His teaching was of the earth, AND PRESENT. earthy, and as such was exactly suited to the commonplace, matter-of-fact tone of the Chi- nese mind. And thus it has come about that, though, during his lifetime, his influence was confined to a small knot of faithful disci- ples, his system has since been accepted as the guiding star of the national pohcy and conduct. Confucius was not the only teacher of note who appeared about this time to warn the people of the probable consequences of the violence and misrule which was spread- ing over the Empire like a flood. For many centuries men calling themselves Taoists, who were plainly imbued with the philoso- phical mysticism of Brahminical India, had preached the vanity of attempting to stem the tide of disorder, and had, like the Mani- chaeans, withdrawn as far as possible from the crowd of men into selfish retirement. Disagreed With Confucius." The views of these men were vague and shadowy, and it was not until the appearance of Laotzu, who was a contemporary of but senior to Confucius, that their aspirations found expression in a formulated system. In almost every respect Laotzu, or the old philosopher, was poles asunder from Con- fucius. Of his childhood and youth we know nothing, and, unlike Confucius, whose every act of daily life is faithfully recorded, we are left in complete ignorance of his per- sanal history until we meet him as an old man, holding the office of keeper of the records at the Court of Chow. We are told that his surname was Li, and that his personal name was Urh, which is, being interpreted, "an ear" — a sobriquet which is said to have been given him on ac- count of the unusually large size of those organs. His birth, we are told, took place in the THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA. 259 year 604 B. C, at the village of Chiijen, or "Oppressed Benevolence," in the parish of Li, or "Cruelty," in the district of Ku, or " Bitterness," and in the state of Tsu, or "Suffering." If these places were as mythical as John Bunyan's " City of De- struction " and "Vanity Fair," their names could not have been more appropriately chosen to designate the birthplace of a sage who was driven from office and from friends by the disorders of the time. It is remark- able that the description of his large ears and general appearance tallies accurately with those of the non-Chinese tribes on the western frontiers of the Empire. Indian Philosophy. His surname, Li, also reminds one of the large and important tribe of that name which was dispossessed by the invading Chinese, and was driven to seek refuge in what is now Southwestern China. But, however, that may be, it is impossible to overlook the fact that he imported into his teachings a decided flavor of Indian philosophy. His main object was to explain to his fol- lowers the relations between the universe and that which he called Tao, The first mean- ing of this word is, " The way," but in the teachings of Laotzu it was much more than that. " It was the way and the waygoer. It was an eternal road ; along it all beings and all things walked, but no being made it, for it is being itself; it was everything and noth- ing, and the cause and effect of all. All things originated from Tao, conformed to Tao, and to Tao they at last returned." Like Confucius, Laotzu held that the nature of man was originally good, but from that point their systems diverged. In place of the formalities and ceremonies which were the corner-stones of the Confucian cult, laotzu desired to bring his followers back to the state of simplicity before the absence of the virtues which Confucius lauded had forced on the minds of men the conscious- ness of their existence. He would have them revert to a halcyon period when filial piety, virtue and righteousness belonged to the nature of the people, and before the re- cognition of their opposites made it neces- sary to designate them. Instead of asserting themselves, he urged his disciples to strive after self-emptiness. His favorite illustration was that of water, which seeks the lowliest spots, but which at the same time permeates everything, and by its constant dropping pierces even the hard- est substances. By practising modesty, humility and gentleness, men may, he taught, hope to walk safely on the path which leads to Tao, and protected by those virtues they need fear no evil. The Mother of All Things. To such men it requires no more effort to keep themselves pure and uncontaminated than it does to the pigeon to preserve un- tarnished the whiteness of its feathers, or to the crow to maintain the sable hue of its pinions. Tao was the negation of effort. It was inactive, and yet left nothing undone. It was formless, and yet the cause of form. It was still and void. It changed not, and yet it circulated everywhere. It was impalpable and invisible. It was the origin of heaven and earth, and it was the mother of all things. To such a prophet as Laotzu war was hateful, and he inculcated the duty of turning the other cheek to the smiter, and of retreating before all forms of violence. Unlike Confucius, he advocated the duty of recompensing evil with good, and injury with kindness; but he joined hands with that sage in ignoring the existence of a personal 260 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. Deity. Thus, in some particulars, they held common views. Tao was all and in all. It was uncon- ditioned being, which, as an abstraction too every evil. It did not strive with man, but let each one who strayed from its paths find out for himself the evil consequences of his acts. As a political system Taoism was plainly TEMPLE AT NANKIN. subtle for words, is the origin of heaven and earth, including God Himself; and, when capable of being expressed by name, is the mother of all things. It was a mighty pro- tector who guarded its faithful sons against impracticable. If the Chinese state and the surrounding nations could have been con- verted bodily to it, an ideal such as Laotzu sketched out may have found a place in existence. But in camps and amid the clash ■THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA. 261 of arms its adoption was plainly incompatible with the existence of a nation, and Laotzu, finding that his preaching fell on deaf ears, resigned his missionary effort, and, leaving China behind him, started in a westerly direc- tion — whither we know not. No record has come down to us of his last days, nor have we any more knowledge of where death overtook him than we have of his origin. As a meteor he flashed across the meridian of China, and then disappeared into darkness. A comparison of the doctrines advocated by Laotzu with the Brahminic philosophy, proves to demonstration that he drew his inspiration from India. The Tao of Laotzu as expounded in the Taoteching, a work which is popularly attributed to him, was the Brahma of the Brahmins, from which everything emanates and to which every- thing returns ; " which is both the fountain from which the stream of life breaks forth and the ocean into which it hastens to lose itself." A Crop of Heresies. The whole conception of the system was foreign to the Chinese mind, and his personal influence was no sooner withdrawn from his disciples than heresies cropped up and de- based views took the place of the singularly pure and subtle metaphysical thoughts of the teacher. The doctrine that life and death were mere phases in the existence of man encouraged the growth of an epicurean longing to enjoy the good things of life in oblivion of the hereafter. This tendency led to an inordinate desire to prolong life, and there were not wanting among the followers of Laotzu those who professed to have gained the secret of immortality. Several of the reigning sovereigns, at- tracted by these heterodox views, professed themselves Taoists ; and even Chi Hwangti, the builder of the Great Wall, fell a victim to the prevailing superstition. More than once he sent expeditions to the Eastern Isles to procure the plant of immortality, which was said to flourish in those favored spots. Death and poverty have always been states abhorrent to common humanity, and to the elixir of immortality, Taoist priests, in the interests of the cause, added a further con- quest over nature, and professed to have fathomed the secret of being able to trans- mute common metals into gold. Believers in Magic. These are superstitions which die hard, and even at the present day alchemists are to be found poring over crucibles in the vain hope of being able to secure to themselves boundless wealth ; and seekers after magic herbs, though hesitating to promise by their use an endless life, yet attribute to them the virtue of prolonging youth and of delaying the approach of the time when " the strong men shall bow themselves, and the grinders cease because they are few, and those that look out of the windows be darkened." Coupled with these corruptions came a desire for visible objects of worship, and, fol- lowing the example of the Buddhists, the Taoists deified Laotzu, and associated two other gods with him to form a trinity. The establishment of these deities gave rise to a demand for new gods to personify the various personal wants and wishes of the people. At the present day a Taoist temple is a veritable Pantheon, and it is scarcely pos- sible to imagine a craving on the part of either man or woman for which there is not a particular god or goddess whose province it is to listen to their cries. Thus the whole tendency of modern Taoism has been towards the practice of magic and the most debased 262 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. superstitions and it has found multitudes of willing adherents. If a man desires that his horoscope should be cast, or that the demon of disease should be expelled from the body of his wife or child, or that a spirit should be called from the other world, or that the perpetrator of a theft or murder should be discovered, a Taoist priest is invariably sent for, who, by the exercise of his arts, succeeds in so far mystifying the inquirer as to satisfy his demands. These preyers on the follies of their fellow-men reap so rich a harvest from the practice of their rites and incantation, that the calling is one that is eagerly sought after. A Pompous High Priest. Being thus largely supported, the Taoist hierarchy has grown into a large and power- ful body, and is presided over by a high priest, who is chosen for the office by divine selection from a certain family bearing the name of Chang, among whom the spiritual afflatus is supposed to rest. This ecclesiastic lives surrounded by wealth and dignity, and at stated intervals presents himself at Pekin to offer his allegiance to the Emperor. As agreeable supplements to their monas- teries, the Taoist priests encourage the estab- lishment of nunneries, into which young girls retreat, either at the bidding of their parents or of their own free choice as a means of escape from the uncertainties of marriage or from the miseries of their homes. Such retreats are not always the abodes of purity and peace, and, as occasionally has hap- pened, the occurence of disorders and impro- prieties has compelled the law to interfere for their suppression. The descent from the lofty aspirations of Laotzu to the magic, jugglery, and supersti- tion of the modem-day Taoists is probably as great a fall as has ever been recorded in the history of religions. Laotzu attempted to lead his disciples beyond the attractions of self and the seductions of the world. His so-called followers devote their energies to encouraging the debased superstitions of their fellow-men, and so fatten on their follies. Cravings of Human Nature. But there are instinctive longings in the minds of men, even in those of Chinamen, which neither Confucianism, nor Taoism in its earlier phase, could supply. Deep down in the hearts of civilized and uncivilized peoples is a desire to peer into the future, and seek for verities beyond the limited circle of pains and miseries which bounds the pres- ent life. To Chinamen this want was supplied by Buddhism, which was introduced into the Flowery Land by native missionaries from India. So early as 219 B. C. the first fore- runners of the faith of Sakyamuni reached the Chinese capital of Loyang. But the time was not ripe for their venture. The stoical followers of Confucius and Laotzu presented a determined and successful oppo- sition to them, and, after a chequered experi- ence of Chinese prisons and courts, they disappeared from the scene, leaving no traces of their faith behind them. In A. D. 61 a second mission arrived in China, whose members met with a far more favorable reception. A settled government had followed the time of disorder which had previously preveiiled, and, though the Con- fucianists raged and persecuted, the mission- aries held their own, and succeeded in lay- ing the solid foundation of a faith which was destined in later ages, to overspread the whole Empire. Even at this early period a schism had rent the Churgh in India, where the Hina- THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA. 263 yana and Mahayana schools had already divided the allegiance of the followers of Buddha. The Hinayana school, which held more closely to the moral asceticism and self-denying, self-sacrificing charity which were preached by the founder of the faith, established iiself more especially among the natives of Southern India and of Ceylon. The Mahayana school, on the other hand, which may be described as a philosophical system, which found expression in an elab- orate ritual, an idolatrous symbolism, and in ecstatic meditation, gained its main support- ers among the more hardy races of North- ern India, Nepal, and Tibet. Gained Many Converts. It was this last form of the faith which found acceptance in China. It supplied ex- actly that which Confucianism and Taoism lacked, and, notwithstanding the opposition of the stalwarts of the Confucian doctrine, it spread rapidly and gained the ready adhe- sion of the people. And though the mis- sionaries sanctioned the deification of Buddha and the worship of gods, they still main- tained the main features of the faith. The doctrine of Metempsychosis, the necessity of gaining perfect emancipation from all passions, all mental phenomena, and, greatest of all, from self, were preached in season and out of season, and gained a firm hold among their proselytes. It is the fate of all religions to degenerate in course of ages from the purity of their origins, and Buddhism in China affords an illustrious ex- ample of this phenomenon. Not content with the liberal share of superstition which was santioned by the Mahayana system, the people turned aside to the later Tantra school in search of a sanction for still more fanatical practices. Like the Taoists, the Buddhist monks pro- fessed to be adepts in the arts of magic, and claimed to themselves the power of being able to banish famine, remove pestilence, and drive away evil spirits, by their incanta- tions. They posed as astrologers and exor- cists, and made dupes of the people from the highest to the lowest. Governed by the Senses. With the choice before them of a holy life, from which desire and self are wholly eradicated, and a religious profession which ministers to the senses and to the ordinary intelligence, the modern Chinese have had no hesitation in throwing in their lot with the more mundane school. With the five com- mandments of Buddha, "thou shalt not kill; thou shalt not steal ; thou shalt not commit any unchaste act ; thou shalt not lie ; thou shalt not drink any intoxicating liquor," the ordinary Chinese Buddhist does not much concern himself. He clings, however, to the doctrine of the transmigration of souls, and though he not uncommonly lapses into the sin of eating meat and fish, yet his diet for the most part is, to his credit it must be said, confined to the Lenten fare of vegetables and grain. In all religious works this dogma is strenuously insisted on, and even in popular literature authors not infrequently picture the position of men who, by the mercy of Buddha, have narrowly escaped from the sin of devouring their best friends in the guise of a carp or a ragout. The plain and un- disguised adoption of idolatry by the Chinese made the existence of temples a first neces- sity, and at the present time these sacred edifices are to be found wherever men meet and congregate whether in the streets of cities or in village lanes. Among the countless idols which adorn their halls the first places are invariably 264 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. given to the trinity of Buddhas — the past Buddha, the present Buddha and the Buddha which is to come. These three figures dominate the principal hall of every temple. In rear of this is commonly a dagoba in which is concealed a relic of Buddha — it may be the paring of a nail, a tear-drop or a lock of hair — and at the back of that again are the deities which are supposed to preside over all the ills that flesh is heir to. As is the case everywhere, women are the most constant devotees, and on the pedestals of the favorite deities are commonly to be seen scores of votive offerings expressing the gratitude of these worshippers for mercies vouchsafed to them. But there is a reverse side to the shield from the gods' point of view. It not unfrequently happens that deities who, either from forgetfulness or malevolence, have turned a deaf ear to the prayers of suppliants, are violently assaulted and defaced. Rebellion Against an Idol. At Foochow, where a long drought had wrought havoc among the neighboring farms, the people rose against the god of sickness, who was supposed to be the cause of the plague, and having made a paper junk bearing a paper effigy of the offending deity, they launched him on the river at the same moment that they set fire to the vessel. This emblematized banishment was supposed to do away with the evil influences which had prevailed, and the showers which subse- quently fell were held fully to justify the ex- emplary rite. Strictly speaking, the term " priest " does not apply to Buddhists. They offer no sacri- fice to the gods, but are merely monks who perform services and pronounce incantations for the benefit of their followers. The prac- tice of contemplative meditation, which is one of the features of the Mahayana school, has multiplied these social drones by directly encouraging the establishment of monasteries and their allied nunneries. Each monastery is governed by an abbot, who has the power of inflicting punishment on offending brothers, and the discipline commonly preserved is in direct ratio to the vigilance and conscientiousness of that func- tionary. If the popular belief is to be accepted, neither the discipline nor the morality of the monasteries is above sus- picion, and in popular farces and tales the character who appears in the most compro- mising positions, and is discovered in the perpetration of the most disgraceful acts, is commonly a Buddhist priest. How Vacanies are Filled. Outwardly, however, an air of peace and decorum is preserved, and there is seldom a lack of aspirants for the sacred office when vacancies occur. Commonly the neophytes join as mere boys, having been devoted to the service of Buddha by their parents. At other times a less innocent cause supplies candidates for the cowl. Like sanctuary of old, Buddhist monasteries are held to be places of refuge for malefactors, and of this very raw and unpromising material a large proportion of the monks are made. But from whatever motive he may join, the neophyte, on entering, having discarded his secular garments, and donned the gown and cowl of the monkhood, marks his sepa- ration from the world by submitting to the loss of his queue and to the shaving of his head. The duties of the monks are not labrious, and they enjoy in the refectory good though plain food. In the nunneries, which are almost as numerous as monas- teries, much the same routine is followed as is practiced by the monks. The evil of the THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA. 265 system is, however, more apparent in the sisterhoods than in the monasteries, and a bad reputation for all kinds of improprieties clings to them. It must not, however, be supposed that there is no such thing as religious zeal \ among Buddhist monks. Mendicant friars often endure hardships, practice austerities, and undergo self-inflicted tortures in the cause of their religion. Others banish them- selves to mountain caves, or condemn them- selves to perpetual silence to acquire that virtue which ensures to them an eternal life in the blissful regions of the west. But such cases are the exceptions, and to the majority of both monks and nuns the old saying applies, " The nearer the church the further from God." Superstitious Observances. Such is, stated briefly, the position of the three principal religions in China. Both Mahommedanism and Christianity have their followings ; but the numbers of their adher- ents are so comparatively small that, at present, they cannot be said to influence in any way the life of the nation. Mean- while, the people, disregarding the distinc- tive features of the three creeds — Confu- cianism, Taoism, and Buddhism — take from each such tenets and rites as suit their immediate views and necessities, and super- adding numerous superstitious observances which have existed from before the time when Confucius and Laotzu were, have established a religious medley which, hap- pily, satisfies all the needs of which they are conscious. Many of the forms employed to coia- memorate the annual festivals have in them that touch of nature-worship which makes the whole primitive world kin. In the seventh month, for example, a festival in honor of a star-goddess, famous for her skill in embroidery, is held, at which young girls display specimens of needlework, and offer up supplications before the altar of the god- dess, praying that a share of her skill may be bestowed upon them. At the same time, to show that they are worthy disciples of the deity, they attempt on their knees to thread their needles, held above their heads, to the accompaniment of music discoursed by blind musicians. The moon is worshipped in the eighth month, and moon-cakes, especially prepared for the occasion, are offered by the light of her beams in adoration of the goddess. The sun also comes in for his share of adoration. To these and similar celebrations Buddhism lends its countenance, and on the eighth of the fourth month the saint himself submits to be bathed in effigy for the edification of the faithful, who testify their zeal by pouring handfuls of cash on his brazen forehead. Religious Edifices. Incidentally, we have brought to our atten- tion in this connection the construction of religious edifices or temples, and Chinese dwelling-houses. We are all familiar with drawings of the quaint roofs with their up- turned corners, which characterize the archi- tecture of the country. The form at once suggests that, as is probably the case, this dominant style of building is a survival of the tent-dwellings of the Tartar peoples. It is said that when Jenghiz Khan, the founder of the Mongol dynasty, invaded China, in the thirteenth century, his followers, on pos- sessing themselves of a city, reduced the houses to a still more exact counterpart of their origins by pulling down the walls, and leaving the roofs supported by the wooden pillars which commonly bear the entire weight of those burdens. 266 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. What at once strikes the eye in the appearance of a Chinese city, even of the capital itself, is the invariable sameness in the style of building. Palaces and temples, public offices and dwelling-houses, are built on one constant model. No spire, no dome, no tower, rises to relieve the monotony of INTERIOR OF A CHINESE TEMPLE, SHOWING the scene, which is varied only, so far as the buildings are concerned, by the different colored tiles — green, yellow, and brown — which indicate roughly the various uses which the buildings they cover are designed to serve, and by occasional pagodas, remind- ing us of the faith of the people. In his "History of Indian and Eastern Architecture," the late Mr. Fergusson sug- gested, as a reason for this absence of variety the fact that " the Chinese never had either a dominant priesthood or an hereditary no- bility. The absence of the former class is important, because it is to sacred art that architecture has owed its highest inspiration, and sacred art is never so strongly developed as under the influence of a powerful and splendid hierarchy. In the same manner the want of an hereditary nobility is equally unfavorable to do- mestic architecture of a dura- ble description. Private feuds and private wars were till lately unknown, and hence there are no fortalices, or fortified mansions, which by their mass and solidity give such a marked character to a certain class of domestic edifices in the West." There are, however, other factors which have operated even more powerfully than these two in producing this monotonous conformity to one model, and that is the sterility of the imaginative powers of the Chinese people, and the steadfast conservatism of the race. Just as the arts and sci- ences, which in the dim past they acquired from more cultured races in Western Asia, have remained crystallized in the stage in which they received them, and just as their written language has not, like that of Ancient Egypt and Assyria, advanced beyond a primi- tive phonetic stage, so their knowledge of architecture has been perpetuated without THEIR IDOLS. THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA. 267 the smallest symptom of development or the least spark of genius. Even when they have an example of better things before them, they deliberately avert their eyes, and go on repeating the same type of mean and paltry buildings. Filthy Streets. At all the treaty ports, and notably at Shanghai, there have been reared on the foreign settlement houses in every kind of western architecture, bordering wide and well-made roads, and provided with every sanitary improvement, and yet, in the ad- joining native cities, houses are daily built on exactly the original model, the streets are left as narrow and filthy as ever, and no ef- fort is made to improve the healthiness of the areas. It might be supposed that in a nation where there exists such a profound veneration for everything that is old, the people would have striven to perpetuate the glories of past ages in great and noble monuments that Emperors would have raised palaces to themselves at records of their greatness, and that the magnates of the land would have built houses which should en- dure as homes for generations of descend- ants. But it would seem as though their no- madic origin haunted them in this also, and that, as in shape so in durability, " the re- collection of their old tent-houses, which were pitched to-day and struck to-morrow, still dominates their ideas of what palaces and houses should be." Throughout the length and breadth of China there is not a single building, except it may be some few pagodas, which by any stretch of the imagin- ation can be called old. A few generations suffice to see the state- liest of their palaces crumble into decay, and a few centuries are enough to obliterate all traces even of royal cities. The Mongol conqueror, Kublai Khan, whose wealth, magnificence and splendor are recorded with admiration by travellers, built for himself a capital near the city of Pekin. If any his- torian should wish to trace out for himself the features of that Imperial city, he would be compelled to seek amid the earth-covered mounds which alone mark the spot where the conqueror held his court, for any relics which may perchance survive. Above ground the city, with all its bar- baric splendors, has vanished as a dream. For this ephemeralness the style and nature of the buildings are responsible. A Chinese architect invites damp, and all the destruc- tive consequences which follow from it, by building his house on the surface of the soil; he ensures instability by basing it on the shal- lowest of foundations, and he makes certain of its overthrow by using materials which most readily decay. The Roof Built First. The structure consists of a roof supported by wooden pillars, with the intervals filled in with badly baked bricks. It is strictly in ac- cordance with the topsy-turvy Chinese methods that the framework of the roof should be constructed first, before even the pillars which are to support it are placed in position. But, like most of the other con- tradictory practices of the people, this one is capable of rational explanation. Strange as it may seem, the pillars are not sunk into the ground, but merely stand upon stone foundations. The weight of the roof is, therefore, necessary for their sup- port, and to its massive proportions is alone attributable the temporary substantialness of the building. To prevent an overthrow the summits of the pillars are bound together by be?ims, and much ingenuity and taste is 268 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. shown in the adornment of the ends of these supports and cross-pieces, which ap- pear beneath the eaves of the upturned roof. For the most part the pillars are plain, and either square or round, and at the base are slightly cut in, after the manner of the pillars in the temples of ancient Egypt. Dragons and Serpents. Occasionally, when especial honor, either due to reUgious respect or official grandeur, attaches to a building, the pillars are carved into representations of dragons, serpents, or winding fohage, as the taste of the designer may determine. But in a vast majority of buildings the roof is the only ornamented part, and a great amount of pains and skill is devoted to add beauty to this part of the structure. A favorite method of giving an appear- ance of lightness to the covering of a house or temple which would otherwise look too heavy to be symmetrical, is to make a double roof, so as to break the long line necessitated by a single structure. The effect produced by looking down on a city studded with temples and the palaces of nobles is, so far as color is concerned, brilliant and pictur- esque, and reminds the traveller of the view from the Kremlin over the glittering gilt- domed churches of Moscow. The damp from the soil which is so detri- mental to the stability of the building is made equally injurious to the inhabitants by the fact that all dwellings consist of the ground floor only. With very rare excep- tions such a thing as an upper story is unknown in China, one reason, no doubt, being that neither the foundations nor the materials are sufficiently trustworthy to sup- port anything higher than the ground floor. The common symbol for a house indicates the ground plan on which dwellings of the better kind are designed. It is one which is compounded of parts meaning a square within a doorway. On entering the front door the visitor passes into a courtyard, on either side of which are dwelling-rooms, and at the end of which is a hall, with probably rooms at both extremities. Doors at the back of this hall communicate with another courtyard, and in cases of wealthy families, a third courtyard succeeds, which is devoted to the ladies of the household. Beyond this is the garden, and, in the case of country houses, a park. The whole enclosure is surrounded with a blank wall, which is pierced only by the necessary doors. All the windows face inwards. Monotony of Architecture. To the wayfarer, therefore, the appearance of houses of the better sort is monotonous and drear, and suggests a want of life which is far from the actual fact, and a desire for privacy which, so far as the apartments devoted to the male inmates are concerned, is equally wide of the mark. In accordance with Chinese custom, the front courtyard may be considered to be open to any who may choose to wander in, and a desire to ex- clude all strangers would be held to argue that there was something wrong going on which the owner wished to conceal. The courtyards are decorated with flowers and vases according to the taste of the in- habitants, and occasionally a forest tree arises in their midst, which gives a grateful shade from the heat of the day. The rooms, when well-furnished, are rather artistically pretty than comfortable. To begin with, the floors are either of pounded clay or of badly made bricks. No carpet, except in the north of the country, protects the feet from the damp foundation, and if it were not for the THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA. 269 thick wadded soles of the shoes worn, and the prevailing habit of reclining on divans, and of sitting cross-legged, the result to the health of the people would be very serious. In the south, these divans are of wood, and in the north they take the shape of Kang, or stove bed-places. These last are com- monly built of brick, and occupy one side of the room. They are made hollow, for the insertion of burning brushwood or coal, which affords warmth to the room generally! and especially to the occupants of the Kang. A Pillow of Wood. Mats placed on the brickwork form the resting-place of the wadded bedclothes, which supply all the furniture for the night which a Chinaman requires, except the pillow. To us the idea of a pillow is some- thing soft and yielding, which gives rest, and an elastic support to the whole head. To a Chinaman it conveys quite a different notion. A hard, rounded cylinder of wood or lacquer-ware has, to him, a charm which lulls to sleep in an attitude which would be intolerable to us. It supports only the neck, and leaves the head without anything on which to recline. In some parts of the country, where women, by the use of bandoline, dress their hair in protrusive shapes, this kind of pillow has, at least, one advantage. After the longest night's rest they are able to rise without the slightest derangement of their coiffures, which thus remain for days, and sometimes for weeks, without renewal. Unlike their Asiatic neighbors, the Chi- nese have been accustomed to the use of chairs for centuries. A record of the time when they were habituated to the common Oriental custom of sitting on the ground, is preserved in the word for " a feast," the pri- mary meaning of which is " a mat," suggest- ing the usual Eastern practice of spreading food on a mat or rug on the floor. But, though they have advanced so far, they have by no means arrived at the knowledge of an easy chair. Angular in shape, stiff and un- yielding in its materials, a Chinese chair is only welcome when rest is not an object. Its very uncomfortable structure and ma- terial suggests a foreign origin for it, and even at the present time, the use of chairs is not universal throughout the Empire. When the Emperor lately received the foreign min- isters, he did so seated cross-legged on a cushion ; and on all native state occasions in the north of the country this mode of sitting is commonly in vogue. Choice Furniture, In wealthy households the woods used for furniture are those brought from the Straits Settlements and Borneo, such as camagon, ebony, puru, redwood and rosewood; while less opulent people are content to use chairs, bedsteads, and tables made of bamboo and stained woods. But, whatever the material, considerable labor and artistic skill are used to give grace and beauty to the various arti- cles. As in the case of the roofs already spoken of, the ornaments in tables are chiefly centered in the space beneath the overlap- ping tops. Ornamental work, bearing a strong i-esem- blance to Greek patterns, is commonly em- ployed with admirable effect, and though the general appearance of a well-furnished Chi- nese room is somewhat disfigured by the angular shape of the furniture, the skill with which the different articles are arranged makes up to a great extent for the want of rounded forms and soft materials. Just as the Chinese show a genius for artistic landscape gardening, so in their rooms they display a taste in decoration and 270 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. harmonizing colors which imparts an air of comfort and elegance to their dwellings. Carved stands, on which are placed diverse shaped vases containing flowering plants or shrubs, dwarfed into quaint and attractive forms, are varied and mingled with rockwork groups in miniature, while on the tables are disposed strangely bound books, and orna- ments of every shape and kind. rich men is the wood-carving which adorns the cornices of the rooms and the borders of the doorways. With that richness of ornament which be- longs to the East, fruits, flowers, creeping plants, and birds are represented by the artists in an endless variety of beauty, and through this fretted embroidery a cool stream of air circulates in the apartments. In any Hi''""^ KELIGIOUS The walls are commonly hung with scrolls, bearing drawings of landscapes by celebrated masters, in which mountain scenery, falling water, and pavilions shaded by queerly shaped trees, form conspicuous elements. On others are inscribed the choice words of wisdom which fell from the lips of the sages of ancient China, written in black, cursive characters on red or white grounds. But one of the chief glories of the houses of CEREMONY IN A JOSS-HOUSE. but a hot climate the absence of carpets. tablecloths, and cushions would give an ap- pearance of discomfort, but with the ther- mometer standing at the height which the neighborhood of the tropics gives to it, the aspect of a Chinese room suggests a grate- ful and refreshing coolness. The studies of scholars have furniture peculiar to them. The table is supphed with the four requisites for writing, viz.: lME religions oe china. 271 paper, pencil-brushes, ink, and ink-stone, while against the walls stand shelves on which, by a curious survival of the practice common in the libraries of Babylonia, the books are arranged on their sides, their lower edges, on which are inscribed the titles of the works they contain, being alone apparent. The following is a description of one of the Foos, or ducal residences, in Pekin. "A Foo has in front of it two large stone lions, with a house for musicians and for gatekeepers. Through a lofty gateway, on which are hung tablets inscribed with the owner's titles, the visitor enters a large square court with a paved terrace in the centre, which fronts the principal hall. Here, on days of ceremony, the slaves and depend- ants may be ranged in reverential posture before the owner, who sits as the master of the household, in the hall. Behind the principal hall are two other halls, both facing, like it, the south. Internal Arrangements. " These buildings all have five or seven compartments, divided by pillars which sup- port the roof, and the three or five in the centre are left open to form one large hall, while the sides are partitioned off to make rooms. Beyond the gable there is usually an extension called the Urfang, literally, the ear-house, from its resemblance in position to that organ. On each side of the large courts fronting the halls are side houses of one or two stories. The garden of a Foo is on the west side, and is usually arranged as an ornamental park, with a lake, wooded mounds, fantastic arbors, small Buddhist temples, covered passages, and a large open hall for drinking tea and entertaining guests, which is called Hwating. " Garden and house are kept private, and effectually guarded from intrusion of strangers by a high wall, and at the doors by a numer- ous staff of messengers. The stables are usually on the east side, and contain stout Mongol ponies, large Hi horses, and a good supply of sleek, well-kept mules, such as North China furnishes in abundance. A prince or princess has a retinue of about twenty, mounted on ponies or mules." Facing Southward. By something more than a sumptuary law, all houses of any pretension face south- ward, and their sites, far from being left to the mere choice of the proprietors, are deter- mined for them by the rules and regulations of Feng Shui. This Feng Shui is that which places a preliminary stumbling-block in the way of every Western improvement. If a railway is proposed, the objection is at once raised that it would destroy the Feng Shui of the neighborhood by disturbing the sepulchres of the dead. If a line of tele- graph is suggested, the promoters are promptly told that the shadows thrown by the wires on the houses they pass would out- rage the Feng Shui of the neighborhood and bring disaster and death in their train. In the minds of the people Feng Shui has a very positive existence, but with the mandarians, who are not all so grossly ignorant, it has been found that when state necessities require it, or when a sufficient sum of money is likely to be their reward, the terrors of Feng Shui disappear like the morning mists before the sun. The two words Feng Shui mean " Wind " and " Water," and are admittedly not very de- scriptive of the superstitution which they represent. So far as it is possible to unravel the in- tricacies of subtle Oriental idea, Feng Shui appears to be a faint inkling of natural 272 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. science overlaid and infinitely disfigured by superstitution. As it is now interpreted, its professors explain that what astrology is to the star-gazer, Feng Shui is to the observer of the surface of our planet. The features of the globe are, we are told, but the reflex of the starry heaven, and just as the con- junction of certain planets presage misfor- tune to mankind, so the juxtaposition of cer- tain physical features of the earth are fraught with like evil consequences to those under their influence. The Dragon and Tiger. But, in addition to this, it is believed that through the surface of the earth there run two currents representing the male and female principles of Nature, the one known as the "Azure Dragon," and the other as the "White Tiger." The undulations of the earth's surface are held to supply to the professors of Feng Shui, aided as they always are by magnetic compasses, the whereabout of these occult forces. To obtain a fortunate site these two cur- rents should be in conjunction, forming as it were a bent arm with their juncture at the elbow. Within the angle formed by this combination is the site which is calculated to bring wealth and happiness to those who are fortunate enough to secure it either for build- ing purposes or for a graveyard. As it is obvious that it is often impossible to secure such a conjunction, the necessary formation has to be supplied by artificial means. A semicircle of trees planted to cover the back of a house answers all the purposes of the "Azure Dragon " and " White Tiger," while in a level country, a bank of earth of the same shape, surrounding a tomb, is equally effective. Through the mist and folly of this superstition there appears a small particle of reason, and it is beyond question that the sites chosen by these professors- are such as avoid many of the ill effects of the climate. Many years ago, when we first settled at Hong Kong, the mortality among the soldiers who occupied the Murray Barracks was ter- rible. By the advice of the colonial surgeon, ' a grove of bamboos was planted at the back • of the buildings. The effect of this arrange- ment was largely to diminish the sickness among the troops, and it was so strictly in accordance with the rules of Feng Shui that the natives at once assumed that the surgeon was a past-master in the science. Again, when we formed the new foreign settlement on the Shamien site at Canton, the Chinese prophesied that evil would befall the dwellings, and " when it was discovered that every house built on Shamien was overrun as soon as built with white ants, boldly defying coal-tar, carbolic acid, and all other foreign appliances ; when it was noticed that the English consul, though having a special residence built for him there, would rather live two miles off under the protecting shadow of a pagoda, it was a clear triumph Feng Shui and of Chinese statesmanship." Barring Out Evil. In front of every house which is protected at the rear by the approved genial influences, there should be a pond, and the approach to the door should be winding, for the double purpose of denying a direct mode of egress to I the fortunate breath of nature secured by the ' conditions of the site, and of preventing the easy ingress of malign influences. For the same reason a movable screen is commonly placed in the open doorway of a house, which, while standing in the way of the admission of supernatural evil, eflectually wards off the very actual discomfort of a di-aught. With equal advantage a pair of stone THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA. 273 lions placed at the doorway of a house which is unfortunate enough to be faced by a straight lane or street are said to overcome the noxious currents which might be tempted by the direct access to attack the dwelling. Temple architecture differs little from that of the houses, and varies in the same way from splendor to squalor, from gorgeous shrines built with the costly woods of Borneo and roofed in with resplendent glazed tiles to lath-cUid-plaster sheds covered in with mud roofing. In country districts, and more especially in hilly regions, Buddhists show a marked predilection for the most sheltered and beautiful spots provided by nature, and there rear monasteries which might well tempt men of less ascetic mould than that they profess to be made of to assume the cowl. Sumptuous Temples of Buddha. The contemplative life which they are in theory supposed to lead is held to tempt them to retire from the busy haunts of men and to seek in the deep ravines and sheltered valleys the repose and quiet which in more public positions would be denied them. It says much for the charity of the people that out of their poverty such sumptuous edifices can be raised to the glory of Buddha. Many owe their existence to the benefi- cence of Emperors, and others to the super- stition of notables who, in the performance of vows, have reared stately temples to the beneficent avatars of Buddha who have listened to their prayers. The majority, however, are built from the doles secured by the priests from the wretched resources of the people. With indefatigable labor these religious beggars draw into their nets fish great and small, and prey on the superstition of the people for the glorification of their faith. 18 Sometimes, however, the self-denial is not confined to the donors. Devout priests arouse the zeal of their congregations by placing themselves in penitential positions until the building money is collected, and thus add to their claims on the people by appealing to their pity. Not long ago, a begging priest, zealous for the faith, erected for himself a wooden case like a sentry-box in one of the public thoroughfares of Pekin. Long and sharp nails were driven into the case on all sides from without, leaving their points projecting inwards. A Shrewd Beggar. In this case the priest took his stand, and declared his intention of remaining there until the sum required for building the temple for which he pleaded had been col- lected. The construction of the case made it impossible that he could either sit down or lean in any position which would secure him against the points of the nails. For two years he stood, or professed to have stood, in this impossible position, which was mitigated as time went on by the with- drawal of the nails, one by one, as the sum of money which each was held to represent was collected from the passers-by. For the most part the bridges of China are high wooden structures, such as those with which the willow-pattern plates have made us familiar, but occasionally, and espe- cially on the highways to the capital, sub- stantial stone bridges stretching in a series of arches across the streams are met with, care- fully wrought and adorned with all kinds of fantastic devices. A noticeable instance of a bridge of this kind is one which crosses the river Hwen on the west of Pekin. Though upwards of six hundred years old, its neighborhood to the capital has secured its preservation. .^ CHAFTTKR XV. COUNTRY LIFE IN CHINA. OF the four classes into which the people of China are traditionally divided, the first is that of lit- erati or scholars. These are those, who, having graduated at the Exami- nation Halls, are waiting in the often forlorn hope of obtaining official appointments. They have certain privileges attaching to their order, and are generally recognized by the mandarins as brevet members of their own rank. They have, under certain condi- tions, the right of entree into the presence of the local officials, and the law forbids that they should be punished or tortured until they have been stripped of their degrees by an Imperial edict. As it would be beneath the dignity of a graduate to take to trade, and as there are many thousands more of them than there are places for them to fill, the country is burdened with an idle population who are too proud to work, but who are not ashamed to live the life of hangers-on to the skirts of those who are better off than themselves. As a rule they are poor men, and the temptation to enrich themselves by means of illegal exactions is often too strong for the resistance of their feeble virtue. The glamour which surrounds their names as graduates, and the influence which they pos- sess with the mandarins, incline the people, who by long usage are accustomed to yield, to bow their necks unresistingly to their ex- actions. To the mandarins they are a con- stant source of annoyance. They arrogate to themselves the powers which belong by 274 right to the official class and absorb some of the illegal gains which, but for them, would naturally find their way into the exchequers of the yamuns. Being, however, no wiser than the rest of their race, they, though pos- sessed of all the learning and knowledge within their reach, show the same remarka- ble tendency towards superstitious follies as is observable in the most ignorant of their countrymen. It is difficult to read without a smile such memorials as one which was presented to the throne, at the instigation of some local scholars, with regard to the mi- raculous interpositions of the god of war in favor of the town of Kiehyang in Kwang- tung. The Bandits Frightened. "In 1844," runs this strange statement, "when the city was threatened with capture by the leader of a secret association, the banditti were affrighted and dispersed by means of a visible manifestation of the spirit of this deity ; and the efforts of the govern- ment troops in coping with the insurgents again in 1853, were similarly aided by the appearance of supernatural phenomena." As depositories of the wisdom of the sages of antiquity, the literati pose as the protectors of the national life. In his sacred edict, Kanghsi (1662-1723) warned the people against giving heed to stremge doc- trines, and thus gave new expression to a celebrated dictum of Confucius, which has guided the conduct of his followers in all matters relating to foreign religions and cus- COUNTRY LIFE IN CHINA. 275 toms. "The study of strange doctrines is injurious, indeed," said the sage ; and in the spirit of this saying the literati have at dif- ferent periods persecuted the religions of Buddha and Laotsze with the same acri- mony which is now characterizing their ac- tion towards Christianity. To foreigners and all their ways they are implacable foes. The outrages on the Yang- tse-Kiang in 1891 were entirely their handi- work. Once only in the history of the Em- pire have they in their turn suffered persecu- tion. The same Emperor who built the great wall, and established for himself an Empire, sought to confirm his power by de- stroying the national literature, and by be- heading all those scholars who still clung to the traditions of their fathers. It is said that persecution strengthens the character and improves the moral fibre of its victims. A Race of Bigots. This persecution in the third century B. C. may for a time have had such salutary ef- fects; but, if so, all traces of these virtues have long been swept away, and China has become possessed of a race of scholars who for ignorance, bigotry, violence and corrup- tion are probably unsurpassed by educated men in any country calling itself civilized. Under happier circumstances, the existence of this large body of scholars might be of infinite advantage to the literature of the country. With time to work and oppor- tunities for research they might add lustre to the writings of their countrymen and en- large the borders of their national knowl- edge. But the system of looking backwards for models of excellence, rather than for- wards, has so contracted the field of their labors, that those who write only add com- mentary to commentary on works already annotated beyond recognition. Instead of striking out for themselves new grounds of investigation, they have deliber- ately chosen the futile task of perpetually fixing their eyes on a particular object in a particular way, with the natural result that their vision has become contracted and their minds moulded on narrow and pedantic lines. The mental activity of these men, not having, therefore, any power to operate in a beneficent way, exerts itself with unpre- cedented vigor and hardihood in local affairs. Infamous Placards. No dispute arises, but one or more of these social pests thrusts himself forward be- tween the contending parties, and no fraud in the revenue or wholesale extortion is free from their sinister influence. The case of Chow Han, who instigated the anti-Christian crusade in Hunan, furnishes an instance of the overwhelming power which these men are occasionally able to exert. To him are due the infamous placards which were used to stimulate the outbreaks against foreigners at Wusueh and other places ; and when the crime was brought home to him, and the Chinese Cabinet, at the instance of the foreign ministers, ordered his arrest, not only did the viceroy of the province fail to comply with the command, but he actually released, at the bidding of the offender, a man charged with active participation in the riots. It is true that a futile commission was sent into Hunan to investigate the charges against him, but instead of bringing him to justice, the commissioners pronounced him mad, and recommended that he should be left un- trammelled, except by a mild system of supervision. In common estimation the workers of the soil stand next to the literati. From the earliest dawn of legendary history, agricul- 276 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. ture has been regarded as a high and en- nobling calling. To Shennung, the divine 2727 years B. C, is ascribed the invention of the plough and the first introduction of the A CHINESE PAGODA. husbandman, one of the legenaary emperors of ancient China, who is said to have lived art of husbandry. The connection thus established between the throne and the COUNTRY LIFE IN CHINA. 277 plough has been kept up through all suc- ceeding ages, and at the present time the Emperor, in the early spring of each year, turns a furrow to inaugurate the beginning of the farming season ; an example which is followed in every province by the viceroy or governor, who follows suit in strict imitation of his Imperial master. With the same desire to set an example to her sex, the Empress, so soon as the mul- berry-trees break into foliage, follows the gentler craft of pick- — p ing the leaves to sup- ply food for the palace silkworms. "Give chief place," wrote the Emperor Kanghsi, " to husbandry and the cultivation of the mulberry tree, in order to procure adequate supplies of food and raiment ; " to which excellent advice his son added, " Suffer not a barren spot to remain in the wilds, or a lazy person to abide in the cities ; then a farmer will not lay aside his plough and hoe; nor the house-wife put away her silkworms or her weaving." These commands have sunk deep into the national character, and the greatest devotion to their calling, sharpened, it is true, by a keen sense of self-interest, is everywhere shown by Chinese farmers. From these men it is impossible to withhold the highest praise for their untiring industry. With endless labor and inexhaustible resource they wrest ftom the soil the very utmost that it is capa- ble of producing. Unhappily to them, as to other classes of the community, the law as it is administered is oppressively unjust. It makes them poor and keeps them poor. The principal imperial tax is derived from the land, and by the law of succession it is generally necessary, on the decease of the head of the family, to subdivide his posses- sions, which thus become a diminishing quantity to each generation of successors to his wealth. Low grinding poverty is the re- A CHINESE CURIOSITY SHOP. suit, and it is remarkable, though not sur- prising, to observe the large number of crimes which are attributable to disputes arising out of feuds in connection with the inheritance of the land and its products. Probably there is no potentate on the earth who can say as truly as the Emperor of China can "The Empire is mine." Not only the lives and property of his subjects are at his disposal, but the land which they till is part of the heritage which belongs to him. 278 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. Just as he alone sacrifices to Heaven, and as he alone is the one Emperor over all the earth — in accordance with the dictum of an ancient sage, " There is one sun in the sky and one Emperor over the earth " — so he is the universal landlord of the soil of China. Although the Empire as a whole is thickly- populated, there are always some districts which remain uncultivated. CHINESE BABY IN ITS WINTER CRADLE. To find a parallel to the agricultural con- dition of the country, we must look to colonial empires, where settlers apply for un- inhabited lands, and receive the rights over them in exchange for small annual payments. This is the principle on which lands have been appropriated in times past, and still are leased out to farmers. As a rule, the land so let is taken up by a clan, the members of which cultivate it. Ten families constitute, as a rule, a village holding, each family farm- ing about ten acres. To such a community is allotted a common village plot, which is cultivated by each family in turn, and from which the tribute grain is collected and paid. The surplus, if any, is divided between the families. Towards the end of the year a meeting is held, at which a division of the profits is made on one condition. Any farmer who is unable to produce the receipt for the income tax on his farm ceases to be entitled to any benefit arising from the village plot. The land is classified ac- cording to its position and productive- ness, and pays taxes in proportion to the advantages which it enjoys. Two dollars and a half per acre is an average rental for the best land. It was once complained, in a memorial to the throne, that by faulty administration the tax frequently amounted to six times its nominal assessment. Five Harvests Free. By way of a set-off against that exac- tion, a merciful provision in the law lays it down that a farmer who reclaims lands from a state of nature shall be allowed to reap five harvests before being visited by the tax-collector. It often happens that an unjust gov- ernment, by timely concessions, gains for itself credit for wisdom and lenity when it is entitled to approval only for having had the wit to see exactly how far the people will en- dure the weight of its exactions. Such popularity is gained as easily as a spend- thrift acquires a reputation for generosity, and is enjoyed by the Chinese government by virtue of certain exemptions from the land-tax, which are granted when the country. COUNTRY LIFE IN CHINA. 279 labors under aggravated circumstances of distress. When the Emperor passes through a dis- trict, it may be on a visit to the Imperial tombs, the people are required to contribute their labor, and the magnates their money, towards making smooth the way before him. The presence of the potentate disarranges the course of existence and the prosecution of industries in the neighborhood. Fields are left unploughed and crops unsown until the tyranny is overpassed, and for the bene- fit of the sufferers the land-tax for the year is forgiven them. The Grain Tax, The same indulgence is granted to farmers in provinces which are visited with long droughts, excessive floods, or plagues of locusts. The probability is that the govern- ment, recognizing that the attempt to enforce the tax in such districts would be futile, has the wisdom to make a virtue of necessity. The grain-tax is also levied from the lands classified as "good," and this, with the land- tax, the salt-tax, and customs dues, form the main bulk of the revenue of the Empire. According to a recent calculation, these sources of revenue produce ;^99,375,ooo. In a country such as China, which is sub- ject to every variety of temperature, from tropical heat to almost arctic cold, the pro- ducts are necessarily as various as the sys- tems of agriculture are different. In the southern provinces, where rice is the staple crop of the farmer, irrigation is an absolute necessity. The rice plants are put out in fields inundated with water, and the crops are gathered in when the ground is in the same condition. This need makes it impera- tive that the fields should be banked in, and that a constant supply of water should be obtainable. For this last purpose the farmers exercise that particular ingenuity with which they are especially endowed. Wherever it is possible, streams from the hills are carried by aque- ducts to the different farms, and the water is distributed by minute channels in such a way as to carry the fertilizing current to the various fields and crops. When such sup- plies are wanting, water is raised from canals, rivers, and wells in several ways. By a sys- tem of buckets fastened to an endless chain, and passing over an axle, which is turned either by the feet of men or by a connecting- wheel worked by oxen, the water is raised from the river or canal to the level of the fields, where it is discharged into troughs at the rate sometimes of three hundred tons a day. This is the saJdyeh of the Egyptians ; and should any traveller from the banks of the Nile visit the plains of China, he might recognize in the method adopted for raising water from wells the shaduf of the land of the Pharaohs. Irrigating Rice Fields. A long horizontal pole, at one end of which is a bucket, and on the other end a certain weight, is fixed on an upright in such a position that on raising the loaded end the bucket descends into the well, and with the help of the counterbalancing weight can be raised full of water with ease and rapidity. If the level of the river or canal be only triflingly lower than the field to be irrigated, two men standing on the bank and holding a bucket between them by ropes draw water with great rapidity by dipping the bucket into the stream and by swinging it up to the bank, where its contents are emptied into the trough prepared to receive them. In the north of the country wheat, millet and other grains are largely grown, the rain supply furnishing all the moisture needed. CHAPTKR XVI. AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS AND EXPORTS. WHETHER in the north or in the south, the greatest care and ingenuity are used in providing manure for the land. Nothing is wasted. The usual ani- mal and vegetable manures are carefully collected and spread over the fields, while scraps of all kinds which contain any ferti- lizing matter, and which in most countries are disregarded, are turned to account by these most frugal tillers of the soil. Accus- tomed as we are to large farms and ex- tended systems of agriculture, Chinese farms appear to partake more of the nature of mar- ket gardens than of agricultural holdings. The implements used are primitive in the extreme, and are such as, we learn from the sculptures, were used in ancient Assyria. Two only may be said to be generally used, the plow and the hoe. The first of these is little more than a spade fastened to a single handle by bamboo bands. As a rule, it is drawn by a buifalo or buffaloes, and some travellers even claim to have seen women harnessed in the same yoke with these beasts of burden. From the shape of the share the Chinese plow does little more than disturb the sur- face of the soil, and rarely penetrates more than four or five inches. In the compound character which is used to express it on paper, the use of oxen as beasts of draught, and the results which it is instrumental in bringing about, find expression in the three component parts — oxen, sickle and grain. The spade is seldom used, and the hoe is 280 made to take its place. Rakes and bill- hooks complete the farmer's stock-in-trade. The bamboo, which is made to serve almost every purpose, forms the material of each part of the rake; while the bill- hook has a treble debt to pay, serving as a pruning-knife in the spring, a scythe in the summer, and a sickle when the grain is ripe to harvest. An Ancient Calendar. One of the earliest works existing in the language is an agricultural calendar, which describes the various processes of nature and the industries of the agriculturist throughout the year. It warns the farmer when to look for the first movements of spring, and de- scribes for his benefit the signs of the differ- ent seasons. It tells him when to sow his seed, and when he may expect to reap his harvest; and it follows with the love of a naturalist the movements and habits of the beasts of the field and the fowls of the air. This work was penned in about the eigh- teenth century B. C, and since that time the dignity which attaches by tradition to agri- culture has led to the publication, from time to time, of large and numerous works on the subject. Probably two of the best known of these books illustrate the two leading branches of the farmer's art, the cultivation of rice and the growth of the mulberry for the food of silkworms. Every process in both industries is minutely de- scribed and illustrated. The glimpses which these pictures give us AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS AND EXPORTS. 281 of country life in China suggest a domes- ticity and brightness which form a strong contrast to the fate of the poorer classes whose lots are cast in the crowded lanes and streets of the cities. Madame de Stael said in one of her books that she had travelled all over Europe and had met with nothing but men and women. We may extend the range to China, and may see in the pictures drawn in the above-mentioned work, of the farmyards, the dwellings, the kitch- ens, and the store-rooms of the silk producers of China, pleasing parallels to the brighter aspects of English agricultural life. The employment of women in arranging and managing the silkworm industry, gives an inter- est to their lives, and is a sure preventive against that languor which so often overtakes the un- employed women of the cities. The cultivation of silk can be traced back almost as far as the beginning of agri- culture, and up to the advent of the Mongol dynasty, in the thir- teenth century, it flour- ished exceedingly. With the arrival, how- ever, of the hordes of Jenghis Khan came the introduction of Indian cotton, which, from its cheapness and utility, was speedily preferred to the silken products of the looms of China. For four hundred years the industry was neglected, and continued to exist only in the A NATIVE CHINESE MISSIONARY. provinces of Szechuan, Honan, Kwangtung and Chehkiang, where just enough stuff was manufactured to supply the wants of the government and the local consumers. With 282 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. the establishment of the present Manchu dynasty and the arrival of foreigners, tke demand for the material which had given its name to China all over the ancient world — serica — led to a revival of the industry, and at the present time silk is produced in A MANDARIN RECEIVING A VISITOR. every province in the Empire. In those northern districts where the cold forbids the growth of the mulberry tree the worms are fed on a kind of oak, while all over the central and southern provinces the mulberry orchards bear evidence of the universality of the industry. At Ning-po alone a hundred thousand bales of silken goods are turned out every year, and in most of the districts of Central China the people are as dependent for their livelihood on the trade as the peo- ple of England are on the production of coal and iron. The prefect of Soo- chow, desiring to take advan- tage of this widespread caUing, proposed to levy a small tax< on every loom. The result, however, proved that his power was not commensurate with his will. The people re- fused as one man to pay the assessment, and threatened to stop their looms if the tax were insisted upon. The matter was referred to Pekin, and with the cautious wisdom which characterizes the action of the government towards the people, the proposal was left unenforced. A crop as general, or even more general than silk, is opium. In every province the poppy is grown in ever-increasing quantities, and in Yun-nan, one of the principal producing regions, the late Mr. Baber estimated, as a result of his personal experience, the poppy-fields constituted a third of the whole cultivation of the prov- ince. It is difficult to deter- mine when the poppy was first grown in China, but the references to it which are met with in the literature of the eleventh and twelfth centuries confirm the fact that it was then cultivated, and that the same kind of cakes were made from the seeds of the plant as are now commonly AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS AND EXPORTS. 283 eaten in the province of Szechuan. The habit of smoking opium is of a far later date, and gave rise to a marked opposition to the drug by the government of the coun- try. But, like most Chinese enactments, the one forbidding the habit was only partially enforced, and it is certain that the practice of smoking opium had become confirmed among the people before the Indian drug was first imported. From that time until within the last few years the government showed a pronounced hostility to the trade, but stultified its professions by never effec- tually carrying out its own prohibitions against the growth of the poppy. Lovers of Opium. Several motives conduced to these results. The growth of the poppy not only brought large profits to the farmers, but filled the pockets of the mandarins, who, while pro- testing against the cultivation, accepted bribes to ignore the evidence of their eyes. Repeated Imperial edicts became dead let- ters in face of these opposing interests, and year by year the white patches widened and multiplied throughout the Empire. In a country like China, where the value of sta- tistics is unknown, it is difficult to arrive at any accurate idea as to the number of opium smokers in the country. In Szechuan it is reckoned that seven- tenths of the adult male population smoke opium. On the shores of the rivers and canals the practice is universal, and affords the people the same relief from malarial fevers that the peasants in the fens of Lin- colnshire derive from eating morphia. By all such people the native opium is the only form obtainable, and at Tiensin it is esti- mated that nine chests of native opium are consumed to one chest of the foreign prepa- ration. * Since the legalization of the opium trade (i860) even the nominal restrictions placed upon native growers have been withdrawn, and the government has the advantage of deriving a large revenue from the crops. From the province of Kansuh, which is one of the poorest in the Empire, the tax on opium amounts to at least twenty thousand dollars a year, and this in face of the con- stant complaints published in the PeJdn Ga- zette of the smuggling which prevails in that and other districts. The small compass into which opium can be packed encourages illicit traffic in it. Candidates for examination going to their provincial cities, merchants travelling from province to province, and sailors trading between the coast ports, find it easy to smuggle enough to supply their wants; while envoys from tributary states whose baggage by international courtesy is left unexamined, make full use of their oppor- tunities by importing as much of the drug as they can carry free of duty. Wholesale Smuggling. Some years ago, when an Imperial Com- missioner was entering the port of Canton, the custom-house authorities had notice given them that the commissioner's fol- lowers were bringing a large venture dis- guised as personal effects in their luggage. The question arose what was to be done, and, with the timidity common to subordi- nate officials, the provincial authorities de- termined to ignore the information they had received rather than offend so potent a mag- nate as the commissioner. By this derelic- tion of duty the customs were the poorer by some twenty thousand taels. So portable is the drug in its prepared state that in the provinces, where silver is not always obtainable, it is used as currency. 284 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. and travellers are commonly in the habit of paying their hotel bills with pieces of opium of the value demanded by the landlord. This is not the place to discuss at length the effect of opium smoking on the people. The whole subject, however, is so sur- rounded with sentimental enthusiasm that a fact, however small, bearing on the ques- tion is worth recording. It is commonly said by the opponents of the trade that so lieve their sufferings. By deprivation they are cured for the time being of the habit, and in no instance have fatal consequences resulted from this Spartan method. Unmindful of the lesson thus taught, mis- sionaries are not unfrequently in the habit of attempting to cure opium smokers by ad- ministering morphia pills. That they effect cures by this means is very certain, but the doubt arises whether the remedy is not worse A MOUNTED MILITARY BOWMAN OF ANCIENT TIMES. pernicious a hold does the habit of smoking acquire over those who indulge in it that only by the use of palliatives can a con- firmed smoker be weaned from the habit without endangering his life. One fact dis- poses of this assertion. In Hong Kong jail, where opium smokers of every degree of habituation are constantly imprisoned, no notice is taken of their craving for the drug, ^nd no remedies are found necessary to re- than the disease. The processes through which the opium has to go before it reaches the lungs of the smoker unquestionably de- prive it of some of its deleterious ingredients. When, however, opium is eaten in the shape of morphia, the safeguards provided by the pipe are absent, and the man who gives up his pipe for the pill finds that his last state is worse than his first. Next to silk, however, the product which AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS AND EXPORTS. 285 we most nearly associate with China is tea, which proclaims its nationality by the two names tea and cKa, by which it is known all over the world. The English who took their first cargoes from the neighborhood of Amoy, know it by the name, or rather our grandmothers knew it by the name, by which it is known in that part of China. Te is the Amoy pronunciation of the word which is called cKa in the central, western and north- ern provinces of the Empire. The Russians, therefore, who have al- ways drawn their supplies through Siberia, call the leaf cKa, while the French and ourselves know it by its southern name. There is rea- son to believe that the plant has been known and valued in China for some thousands of years, and in one of the Confucian classics mention is made of the habit of smoking a leaf which is popularly believed to have been that of the tea plant. But however this may be, it is certain that for many cen- turies the plant has been cultivated over a large part of Central and Southern China. At the present time the provinces of Hunan, Fuh- kien, Kwangtung and Ganhwuy produce the best varieties. From them we get our Souchong, Flow- ery Pekoe, Oolong, Orange Pekoe and green teas ; and it is in those provinces that the competition of the teas of India and Ceylon is most severely felt. No doubt the farmers have themselves principally to blame in this matter. The long monopoly which they enjoyed tempted them to palm off on their customers teas of an inferior kind. Trees which had long passed the normal period of bearing were robbed of their leaves to fill the chests sent to London and Paris; pruning was neg- lected, and weeds were left to grow apace. The inevitable nemesis followed, and now, when too late, the farmers are becoming conscious of the folly of their neglect. In ordinary times great care is taken in selecting the seed, and when after careful tending the seedlings have reached a height of four or five inches, they are planted outt in the plantations in rows, two or three feet) A CHINESE MERCHANT OF CANTON. apart. For two years the plant is allowed to grow untouched, and it is only at the end of the third year that it is called upon to yield its first crop of leaves. After this the plant is subjected to three harvests : namely, in the third, fifth and eighth months. The leaves when plucked are first dried in the sun, and the remaining moisture is then extracted from them by the action of nude- footed men and women, who trample on 286 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. them, as Spanish peasants tread out the juice of the vine. They are then allowed to heat for some hours, and after having been rolled in the hand, are spread out in the sun, or, if the weather be cloudy, are slowly baked over charcoal fires. Among the wealthier natives the infusion is not generally made as with us, in tea-pots, but each drinker puts a pinch of tea into his cup, and, having added boiling water, drinks the mixture as soon as the full flavor of the COURTYARD OF A CHINESE HOSTELRY. tea has been extracted, and before the tannin has been boiled out of the leaves. By high and low, rich and poor, the beverage is drunk, and the absence of nervous affections among the people is strong evidence of the innoxious effect of the infusion in this respect. Not only is it drunk in every household in the Empire, but tea-houses abound in the cit- ies, in the market-places and by the highways. Like the London coffee-shops in the time of the Stuarts, the tea-houses in the cities form the places of meeting between merchants for the transaction of business and between friends, who congregate to discuss local afifairs and the latest official scandals. Women only are, by social regulations, excluded from these hospi- tableplaces of entertainment, which commonly occupy prominent positions in the principal streets of towns. But where such sites are not easily attainable, Buddhist priests, with a fine disregard of the holiness of their temples, very commonly let off a portion of the precincts to enterprising tea-men. The form in which tea is exported for general European and American use is not that which is suited for land trans- port. In carrying goods by road cubic space is a matter of vital importance. For centuries the Chinese have sup- plied the Tibetans with tea in so com- pressed a form as to be readily portable by carts, on beasts of burden, or on men's shoulders. In these ways it has long been customary to carry bricks of tea across the mountain ranges which mark the western frontier of China; and when a demand for tea sprang up in Russia, like circumstances suggested a like method. The principal place for preparing the brick tea is Hankow, where six or more factories are constantly engaged in the manufacture of it. Something has to be sacrificed to expediency, and it is incontestable that the Russians and other consumers of brick tea AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS AND EXPORTS. 287 lose in flavor what they gain by the smaller compass. The dust of tea, and therefore a poor kind of tea, is best suited for forming bricks, and even the inferiority thus entailed is increased by the process employed to weld the masses together. This is done by a method of steaming, which encourages an evaporation of both flavor and freshness, and when it has effected its purpose by moistening the dust, the mix- ture is put into wooden molds and pressed into the shape of bricks. It is left to stand in the molds for a week, and the bricks are then wrapped up separately in paper and packed in bamboo baskets, sixty- four filling a basket. As a rule, tea-growers are rich and well-to- do men, whereas the ordinary agriculturist is raised above the rank of a peasant, and has little to congratulate himself upon be- yond the fact that his calling is held up to general approbation, and that it inherits a record which is as old as that of the race itself. One of the largest products is straw braid from Northern China. This most useful class of goods found a place in the market after the opening of the port of Tientsin ( 1 860), and rapidly commended itself to the foreign merchant. But just as in tea, so in this braid, the Chinese producers have grown careless of the quality which they present to their customers. The inevitable result of this course has followed, and at the pres- ent time the elasticity which characterized the earlier movements of the trade has ceased to be observable. Wool from the plains of Mongolia and the table-lands of Thibet, and tobacco from the southern provinces of the Empire, form considerable items in the list of exports, together amounting in value to 2,620,164 taels. Arsenic also is produced in consid- erable quantities in the country, and al- though the home consumption is larger than might be expected, there is yet a surplus left for the benefit of foreigners. The native farmers use it with a freedom which suggests the possibility of danger, in protecting growing plants, and especially rice plants, from the insects which infest them. As an ingredient in the pastille which is used to smoke out mosquitoes, and in the .:^.4t .'. V. CHINESE STUDENTS. manufacture of the tobacco which is smoked in hubble-bubble pipes, it is largely employed. To the tobacco it is said to impart a pungent flavor and an invigorating tonic. Its prop- erty as a strengthening medicine is highly valued by doctors, who prescribe it largely for their patients. The absence of all legis-. lation regulating the sale of drugs makes it easy for evil-minded persons to possess themselves of this and other poisons; and the gross ignorance of the Chinese, even the most highly educated, in all matters related to diagnoses secures a practical im- munity to poisoners. 288 CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. It is true that occasionally cases of poi- soning by arsenic are reported in the Pekin Gazette, but almost invariably it is found that the murder is discovered, not by the recognition of the symptoms produced by the poison, but by the confession of the murder or his accomplices. When the un- ravelling of a crime depends on these coin- cidences, it is fair to assume that, in a great majority of cases, the offence is never dis- covered at all. The Luxuriant Bamboo. Like silk, the bamboo is a universal prod- uct in China, and the multitude of uses to which the shrub is turned justifies its eleva- tion to an equal rank of usefulness, so far as the natives are concerned, with that article of merchandise. Its use is incomparably more general than that of silk, and enters into the life of every being in the Empire, from the Son of Heaven to the scavenger in the streets. It grows over the greater part of the country in great profusion and in a number of varieties, and from the moment it first shows itself above the ground it is forced into the service of man. The shoots come out of the ground nearly full-sized, four to six inches in diameter, and are cut like asparagus for the table. Sedentary Buddhist priests raise this Lenten fare for themselves or for sale, and extract the taba- sheer from the joints of the old culms, to sell as a precious medicine for almost any- thing that ails one. The roots are carved into fantastic and ingenious images and stands, or divided into egg-shape divining- blocks to ascertain the will of the gods, or trimmed into lantern handles, canes and umbrella sticks. The tapering culms are used for all pur- poses that poles can be applied to in carrying, propelling, supporting, and measuring, for which their light, elastic, tubular structure, guarded by a coating of siliceous skin, and strengthened by a thick septum at each joint, most admirably fits them. The pillars and props of houses, the framework of awnings, the ribs of mat sails, and the handles of rakes are each furnished by these culms. So, also, are fences and all kinds of frames, coops, and cages, the wattles of abatis, and the ribs of umbrellas and fans. The leaves are sewn into rain-cloaks for farmers and sailors, and into thatches for covering their huts and boats ; they are pinned into linings for tea-boxes, plaited into immense umbrellas to screen the huckster and his stall from the sun and rain, or into coverings for theatres and sheds. The wood, cut into splints of proper sizes and forms, is woven into baskets of every shape and fancy, sewn into win- dow-curtains and door-screens, plaited into awnings and coverings for tea-chests or sugar-cones, and twisted into cables. Universally Used. The shavings and curled shreds aid softer things in stuffing pillows ; while other parts supply the bed for sleeping, the chopsticks for eating, the pipe for smoking, and the broom for sweeping. The mattress to lie upon, the chair to sit upon, the table to eat on, the food to eat, and the fuel to cook it with, are also derivable from bamboo. The master makes his ferule from it, the carpen- ter his foot measure, the farmer his water- pipes and straw-rakes, the grocer his gill and pint cups, and the mandarin his dreaded instrument of punishment. When such are the uses to which the bamboo is put in the land of its growth, it is surprising that there should be any surplus for exportation. But the demand for it for ornamental and useful purposes in Europe is constant. Lorea apd \i)e W ar Beb^sreci) Lr)ir)a ar)a Japar). CHAPTTBR XVII. LIFE AND TRAVEL IN COREA. AN interesting account of Corea is furnished by the Hon. George N. Curzon, whose travels and obser- vations in this country have given him high distinction. His graphic descrip- tions are eagerly read, and afford an accurate idea of a nation which has, through recent events, been brought into the thought and notice of America and Europe. The name of Corea has been for ages wrapped in mystery. It is an old country contemporaneous, as alleged, with Thebes and Babylon, but owning no ruins. It boasts a separate, if not an independent, national existence for centuries, yet is de- void of all external signs of strength. It contains beautiful natural scenery, still virgin to the traveller's foot. Corea claims to have given to Japan her letters, her science, her religion, and her art, yet is bereft of almost all vestiges of these herself. Her people are endowed with physi- cal vigor, but are sluggish in mind and morals. Such a spectacle is one which has no counterpart even in Asia, the continent o^ contrasts. A bridge between Japan and 19 China, Corea is, nevertheless, profoundly un- like either. It has lacked the virile training of the Feudal System in Japan, and the in- centives to industry supplied by the crowded existence of China. Its indifference to re- ligion has left it without the splendid temples that adorn the former country, without the stubborn self-sufficiency of character devel- oped by Confucianism in the latter. Corea Suddenly Aroused. Japan swept it clear of all that was beau- tiful or ancient in the famous invasion of Hideyoshi three centuries ago — an affliction from which it has never recovered. China's policy has been to keep it in a state of tutel- age ever since. Placed in an unfortunate geographical position midway between the two nations, Corea has been, like Issachar, couching between two burdens. Suddenly, at the end of the nineteenth century, it wakes up from its long sleep to find the alarum of the nations sounding at its gates ; the pleni- potentiaries of great Powers appear in its ports to solicit or to demand reciprocal treaties; it enters the comity of civilized 289 m eOREA AMD THe WAR. peoples; and, still half stupefied by its long repose, relaxes but slowly beneath the doubt- ful rays of Western civilization. The first glimpse of the Corean coast, which is mountainous, but little wooded, and relatively bare, gives no idea of the timbered heights and smiling valleys which may be encountered in the interior; but the first sight of its white-robed people, whose figures, if stationary, might be mistaken at a distance for white mileposts or tombstones, if moving, for a colony of swans, acquaints us with a national type and dress that are quite unique. Peculiarities of Dress. A dirty people who insist upon dressing in white is a first peculiarity ; a people inhabit- ing a northern, and in winter a very rigorous latitude who yet insist upon wearing cotton (even though it be wadded in winter) all the year round, is a second ; a people who always wear hats, and have a headpiece accommo- dated to every situation and almost every incident in life, is a third. But all these combine to make the wearers picturesque ; while as to Corean standards of comfort we have nothing to do but to wonder. As to their physique, the men are stalwart, well-built, and bear themselves with a manly air, though of docile and sometimes timid expression. The hair is worn long, but is twisted into a topknot, protected by the crown of the afore-mentioned hat. The women, of whom, those belonging to the upper classes are not visible, but the poorer among whom may be seen by hundreds engaged in manual labor in the houses, streets, and fields, cannot be described as beautiful. They have a peculiar arrange- ment of dress by which a short white bodice covers the shoulders, but leaves the breasts entirely exposed; while voluminous petti- goats, very full at the hips, depend from a waist just below the armpits, and all but conceal coarse white or brown pantaloons below. Their hair is black, and is wound in a big coil round the temples, supplying a welcome contrast to the greasy though fascinating coiffure of the females of Japan. Indeed, if the men of the two nations are unlike — ^the tall, robust, good-looking, idle Corean, and the diminutive, ugly, nimble, indomitable Japanese — still more so are the women — the hard-visaged, strong-limbed, masterful housewife of Corea, and the shuffling, knock-kneed, laughing, bewitching Japanese damsel. The Corean boy, indeed, might more easily be taken to represent the gentler sex, since, until he is engaged to be married, he wears his hair parted in the middle and hanging in a long plait down his back. Fatal Epidemics. Of this people, the males among whom exceed the females, there are believed to be about 11,000,000 in Corea, an area very similar in extent to Great Britain. Marrying at an early age, prone to large families, and undiminished for many years by war or famine, the Corean population ought to be on the increase were it not that the infant mortality is enormous, and that the death- rate from epidemics, against which no precautions are taken, and which sweep over the country every third or fourth year, is certainly high. On the other hand, the large tracts of uncultivated and almost uninhabited country that still await the ploughshare and the peasant will accomo- date a much larger population. The Coreans belong unmistakably to the Mongolian stock, occupying a sort of inter- mediate stage between the Mongolian Tar- tar and the Japanese. It is impossible to confound them either with the latter or with LIFE AND TRAVEL IN COREA. 291 the Chinese ; and a Corean would, to any- one who has travelled in the country, be a known man in any city in the world. It has been supposed by some writers, who have observed a different variety with blue eyes and fair hair in Corea itself, that there is also a Caucasian element in the stock ; but I am not aware that this hypothesis has found any scientific confirmation. Their language is of the Turanian family, with the addition of many Chinese words. If one does not either speak or under- stand Corean oneself, it is always possible to communicate with a Corean by using the Chinese symbols, which he equally employs. On the other hand, among the upper and let- tered classes, Chinese itself is the invariable vehicle both of speech and correspondence, just as it is also the official language em- ployed in government publications, proclam- ations, examinations and decrees. Poverty Everywhere. Of the people so constituted there appears to be but one opinion as to the national char- acter and physique. While an invigorating climate has made them naturally long-lived and strong, their habits of life and morals have rendered them subject to many forms of ailment and disease ; while their want of contact with the world and their servitude to a form of government which has never either encouraged or admitted of individual enterprise, but which has reduced all except the privileged class to a dead level of un- complaining poverty, have left them inert, listless and apathetic. As individuals they possess many attrac- tive characteristics — the upper classes being polite, cultivated, friendly to foreigners and priding themselves on correct deportment; while the lower orders are good-tempered, though very excitable, cheerful and talkative. Beyond a certain point, however, both classes relapse into a similar indifference, which takes the form of an indolent protest against action of any kind. The politician in Soul remains civil, but is wholly deaf to persuasion. The coolie works one day and dawdles away his wages upon the two next. The mapu, or ostler, takes his own time about his own and his pack-pony's meal, and no reasoning or compulsion in the world would disturb him from his complacent lan- guor. Corea's Vast Resources. These idiosyncrasies may only be interest- ing to the unconcerned student of national character, but they are of capital importance in their bearing upon national life. When, further, they are crystallized into hardness and are inflamed by the habits of an upper and official class — which subsists by extor- tion and prohibits, outside its own limits, either the exercise of surplus activity or the accumulation of wealth — they explain how it is that the Corean people remain poor amid stores of unprobed wealth, lethargic where there should otherwise be a hundred incen- tives to diligence, nerveless in the face either of competition or of peril. I have seen a Corean coolie carrying a weight that would make the stoutest ox stagger, and yet I have seen three Coreans lazily employed in turning up the soil with a single shovel, by an arrangement of ropes that wasted the labor of three men without augmenting the strength of one. So it is in every department of the national existence. An immense reserve of masculine force is diverted from the field of labor and is lost to the nation by being absorbed into ^&yamens, or offices of the local magistrates and prefects, where their function, instead of invigorating the blood of the country, is to 292 COREA AND THE WAR. suck that of their fellow-countrymen. The population of Corea may, indeed, be roughly divided into two classes — the upper or official, entitled yangban, whose position or gen- tility is a bar to work, and who, therefore, must subsist on others; and the great re- ; siduum, whose business it is to be subsisted upon, and to filch from the produce of their labor the slender necessities of existence for themselves. Poverty in the sense of desti- tution their is not ; but poverty in the sense of having no surplus beyond the bare means of livelihood and of the paralysis of all en- terprise is almost universal. An Official Burned Alive. Any less indolent people might be ex- pected to rebel ; and occasional magisterial encroachments beyond the limits of practice or endurance result in short-lived spasms of mutiny, in the course of which an offending official is seized and, perhaps (as happened once in 1891), is burned alive. But ordi- narily this implies too great an exertion ; the people are unarmed and very helpless, and the system is mutely acquiesced in, unless pushed to intolerable extremes. Travel in the heart of a country brings the stranger into contact with a type of humanity more primitive, but also more representative of the national character, than that encountered in the capital or in large cities, whilst it also discloses features of natural scenery of which the residents in towns or the frequenters of high routes alone may remain permanently ignorant. Both these advantages were derivable from the circuitous journey which I took from Gensan to the capital. The familiar route between these places, with the exception of one splendid mountain-crossing, traverses a land- scape never without interest, though lacking in the higher elements of grandeur or romance. A divergence, however, of a few days from the track brought me into a region which less than half a dozen foreigners have yet visited, and which contains some of the most renowned scenery in Corea, as well as the picturesque and venerable relics of the dis- established Buddhist religion, which for 1000 years before the foundation of the present dynasty, in about 1400 A. D., was the official and popular cult of the country. Gilded Images and Idols. This region is known as the Keum Kang San, or Diamond Mountains; and there — amid mountain valleys and recesses whose superb forest mantle rivals in amplitude, while it excels in autumnal tints of maple and chestnut the garniture of California can- yons, where rushing, crystal-clear torrents dance through every glen, and far skywards bare sphhtered crags lift their horns above the foliage — are scattered a number of mon- asteries, whose buildings are in some cases many centuries old, and whose dwindling congregation of inmates perform in these secluded retreats, secure from any intrusion save that of the itinerant pilgrim, the stereo- typed devotions before gilded images of Buddha and his disciples, in which they themselves, in common with the mass of their countrymen, have long ceased to be- lieve. By lovers of the picturesque nothing more enchanting than these monastic retreats can anywhere be found; nor will the discovery that, while every prospect pleases, man alone is vile — even though his depravity assume, as is credibly alleged of the Corean bonzes, the most profligate expression, or, as it did in my own experience, the more modest form of larceny of one's personal effects — deter the traveller from keen appreciation of surround- ings so romantic. LIFE AND TRAVEL IN COREA. 293 Surprise may be felt that in a country where the cloister is so generally and not unjustly despised, it should yet succeed, in spite of popular scepticism and official neglect, in attracting to itself a sufficient number of recruits. The answer lies in the incurable laziness of the people. The Corean form of Buddhism is closely akin to the Chinese, and is widely divorced from that which found favor in the more artistic atmosphere of Japan. Its hideously bedaubed temples, which only become toler- able with age, and its multiform, grotesque, and barbarous images have little in common with the beauty of Ikegami or the glories of Nikko, or even with the less aesthetic attrac- tions of Asakusa. Essentially Chinese, too, is the manner in which the original faith has been overlaid with superstitions, and has had grafted on to it an entire pantheon of semi- deified heroes. Singular Superstitions. Nevertheless, it is a welcome relief to alight upon the shrines even of a dishonored and moribund faith in a country where no popular cult appears to exist save that of spirits, dictated in most cases by nervous apprehension of the forces of nature, and where, as the old Dutch navigator put it, "as for Religion, the Coresians have scarcely any." To these superstitions is the Corean peas- ant peculiarly prone. Outside his villages are seen wooden distance-posts carved into , the hideous and grinning likeness of a human head, in order to propitiate the evil spirits. Of similar application are the bronze figures of monsters that appear upon the roofs of palaces and city gates, the rags and ropes that are tied to the boughs of trees (supposed, in Corean demonology, to be the particular abode of spirits), and the stones that are heaped together on the summits of hill-roads, in passing which our native camp-followers would invariably bow and expectorate. Female sorceresses and soothsayers, to cast horoscopes, and to determine the propi- tious moment for any important action, are also in great request. In Soul I heard a story of a sick man who was supposed to be possessed by a devil, but was successfully cured by an English mission doctor, who affected to drive out the evil spirit, which was forthwith pursued down the street by a large crowd and "run to ground" in the mission compound. Worship of Ancestors. Among the upper classes the only vital form of religion is ancestor worship, devel- oped by familiarity with Confucianism and by long connection with the Chinese. A man has no higher ambition than to leave male descendants who may worship his ghost and offer sacrifice at his grave. An outcome of the same ethical system is the sense of filial piety, which would have ren- dered JEneas a typical Chinaman, of unques- tioning obedience to the sovereign, and of duty to the aged and to friends. No Buddhist monks are allowed inside the cities — a prohibition which is said to have originated in the Japanese invasion 300 years ago, when the invaders crept into some of the towns in monastic disguise — although the King, in the neighborhood of the capital, has one or more secure mountain retreats, whither, in time of danger, he flees to the protection of a monkish garrison. Travelling in Corea is best undertaken in the autumn months of the year. The climate is then perfect — a warm sun by day and refreshing coolness at night. In the winter deep snow falls and the cold is exces- sive. The summer heats are equally un- pleasant. There are no made roads in the 294 COREA AND THE WAR. country, and the tracks are mere bridle-paths, of greater or less width, according to the extent to which they are trodden. In a country that is as plentifully sprinkled with mountains as a ploughed field is with ridges, these are frequently steep and stony in the extreme, and in the out-of-the-way parts which I visited the track was not unfrequently the precipitous and boulder- strewn bed of a mountain torrent, amid and over the jagged rocks of which none but a Corean pony could pick his way. Tough and Wiry, A wonderful little animal indeed is the latter. With the exception of the ox, which is the beast of heavy burden, and the donkey, which is much afifected by the im- pecunious gentry, no other pack or riding animal is known. Rarely more than eleven hands higli, combative and vicious, always kicking or fighting when he can, he will yet, with a burden of 150 lbs. or 200 lbs. upon his back, cover a distance of some thirty miles a day ; and provided he has his slush of beans and chopped straw, boiled in water, three times a day, before starting, at noon, and in the evening, he emerges very little the worse at the end of a lengthy journey. Each pony is attended by its own mapu, or driver, and the humors of these indi- viduals, who sing and smoke and crack jokes and quarrel all day long, are among the alleviations of travel. If the destination be not reached before nightfall the bearers of official passports have the right to torch- bearers from each village. Long before reaching the latter, tremendous shouts of ' Usa, usa ! ' (torch), are raised by the mapus or yamen-r\xc\.'!Xtrs ; and if upon arrival the Government linkmen are not forthcoming with their torches — made of a lopped pine- ,Ug or a truss of straw — ^they are roused from their slumbers or hiding with cuffs and violent imprecations. In a few moments half a dozen torches are ignited, and, amid waving banners of flame, the cavalcade dis- appears into the night. Sport is a further and agreeable conco- mitant of journeying, although, as in every country in the world, not much game can be seen except by divergence from the hurried track of travel. Pheasants abound in the undergrowth on the mountains. In the winter months every variety of wild-fowl, from wild geese and swans to wild duck, teal, water hen, plover, and snipe, swarm along the coast and rivers or in the soaking rice-plots. Shouts of Delight. The natives either snare them or shoot them sitting ; and the spectacle of a rocket- ing mallard brought down from a great height in the air is greeted by them with frantic shouts of admiration and delight. Turkey bustards, cranes, herons, pink and white ibis are also encountered, and there is a large eagle, whose tail-feathers are much prized by the Chinese for fans. But the richness of the Corean covert lies rather in fur and skin than in feather. Hares, foxes, badgers, wild cat, wild boar, sables, ermin, and otter in the far north, and different kinds of deer (which are hunted for the medicinal properties supposed in China to belong to the horns of the young buck) are to be found in the scrub on the mountains. Leopards are quite common, and in the winter months sometimes venture even inside the walls of Soul. But the tiger is the king of Corean quar- ries. He is of great size; and I saw, while in Corea, some splendid skins. His haunt is the wooded mountain-slopes near the east coast, and the entire belt of country north- o o o o o H o 295 296 COREA AND THE WAR. wards as far as the forests on the Yalu, where man-eaters are not uncommon. In winter-time tigers have more than once come down into the settlement at Gensan and carried off a victim ; I even heard there of a European who, going out to dine, met a tiger walking down the middle of the road ; and when I was at Chang An Sa (the Hall of Eternal Peace), the principal of the Keum Kang San monasteries, one was said to patrol the quadrangle every night, and we came across their spoor and droppings. Royal Tiger-Hunters. The King maintains a body of royal tiger- hunters, who capture them by means of pits and traps, the commonest of these being a sort of big wooden cage constructed of timbers and stones, rather like a gigantic mouse-trap. A pig is tied up inside, and the entrance of the tiger releases the door ^md confines the beast, who is then despatched with spears. The natives, however, regard the animal with an overpowering apprehen- sion, and there is an old Chinese saying that "the Coreans hunt the tiger during one-half of the year, while the tiger hunts the Coreans during the other half." They will not travel singly at night, but go abroad in company, brandishing torches and striking gongs. They are also most reluctant to act as beaters; whence, perhaps, it arises that, common as the tiger is in Corea, I have rarely heard of a European who has bagged one to his own rifle. I am sometimes asked by sportsmen as to the charms or chances of a Corean expedition. As regards wild-fowl shooting, the great nuisance is that there is no means of disposing of the slain, and after a time mere slaughter palls; while, as regards big game, the difficulties and the hardships of travel, accommodation, food, and following, will probably send back the sportsman with a much worse appetite than when he started. Thus wayfaring through the country one sees much of peasant hfe and agriculture. The villages are collections of mud-huts, thatched with straw (over which, as a rule, runs a climbing gourd), warmed by flues running beneath the floors, and surrounded for protection or seclusion by a wattled fence of branches or reeds. On the clay floor outside are usually seen drying a matful of red chillies, or of millet and rice grains fresh threshed by the flail; long strings of tobacco leaves, suspended in festoons, have been picked from the garden plot hard by, from which also a few castor- oil plants are rarely absent. A small sty of black and abominable little pigs usually fronts the road, on which the children are disporting themselves in a state of compara- tive nudity. Wide Wastes of Country. Inside, the sour-visaged females are per- forming the work of the household, or are grinding, threshing, or winnowing the grain on the open threshold. The men are away in the rice-fields or among the crops of millet, beans, and buckwheat, which are the staple cereal produce of the country. Cul- tivation is assiduous, but not close. Hun- dreds of acres of cultivable, but uncleared soil, alternate with the tilled patches, and coarse grasses wave where the yellow grain should be ripening for the garner. I saw no carts or wagons on my journeys, although they are used in the north, near Ham-heung, and in a few other places. The ox, which is the familiar beast of burden, sometimes drags after him a rude wooden sled. More commonly a sort of rack is fitted on to his back, and is packed with firewood for fuel. Men do not, as in Japan LIFE AND TRAVEL IN COREA. 297 and China, carry burdens on bamboo poles, but in wooded racks, called chi-kai, upon their backs. They rest themselves by sitting down, in which position the rack, having a wooden peg or leg, stands upright upon the ground. \ The long, thin pipe of the country, between two and three feet in length, when not be- tween the lips of its owner, is stuck in his collar at the back of his neck, and protrudes sideways into the air. When a pony is shod it is thrown down upon its back, and its legs tied together at the fetlock by a rope. Tablets of Stone. Outside towns of any size may commonly be seen a number of stones, or tablets (some- times of iron or copper), bearing inscriptions in Chinese characters. These are erected either in connection with some historical event, or more frequently in honor of a local governor, who has earned the gratitude of the people, not for justice or clemency, which are not expected, but for wielding with no more than ordinary severity his pre- rogative of spoil; or of a successful local candidate at the literary examinations, or of some public benefactor, or of a virtuous wife who has found in suicide the sole consola- tion for the loss of her spouse. Chinese influence is visible everywhere, notably in the disposition of the dead. The Royal Tombs are at a distance of ten miles from the east gate of Soul ; but they are on a modest scale compared with the mauso- leums of Peking and Hue. Mandarins' graves are frequently marked by a stone table or altar for offerings, and a stele or pillar, bearing the epitaph of the deceased. Sometimes, after the Chinese fashion, stone effigies of warriors or animals are added, or a saddled stone horse, in case the spirit of the defunct should care to take a ride, or a small column in case it should have been metamorphosed into a bird and should re- quire a perch. The commonest form of grave, however, is a large, circular, grassy mound, usually placed upon the side of a hill or summit of a little knoll, and sur- rounded with Scotch firs. The site is selected after consultation with a soothsayer, is visited every year on fixed days, and is ever afterwards kept inviolate from the spade or plough. The environs of Soul are sprinkled with thousands of such graves. Officialism, which is the curse of the coun- try, is not without its effect even upon the fortunes of travel. Such an incubus is the travelling mandarin, who quarters himself where he pleases and exacts rations for which he never pays, that the villagers flee from an official passport as from the pest. Though I paid for everything, chickens and eggs were constantly refused me, on the plea that none were forthcoming, but really, I sup- pose, from fear that, on the strength of the kuan-chow, I should appropriate without payment whatever was produced. A Motley Crowd. Under these circumstances, it is necessary to carry almost everything with one, in the form of tinned provisions. In the out-of-the-way ports few wayfarers are encountered; but near the capital the road will be crowded with officials, tucked up in small and com- fortless sedans, with candidates going up to or returning from the examinations, with pil- grims, traders, professional players or mountebanks, beggars, picnicers, and impe- cunious vagabonds of every quality and style. These are the picturesque sides and spec- tacles of Corean travel. There are some who would find in the Corean inn, which is the unavoidable resting-place at night, a 298 COREA AND THE WAR. more than compensating pain. There are no good inns in the country, because there is no class to patronize them. The officials and yangbans, as I have shown, quarter them- selves on the magistracies. The peasant accepts the rude hospitality of his kind, and the village inn is only the compulsory resort of the residuum. Surrounding a small and filthy courtyard, to which access is gained by a gateway from the street, is on one side a long shed with a wooden trough, from which the ponies suck their sodden food; on another side is the earthenware vat, and the furnace by which it is cooked; opening off in a single, small, low-roofed room, usually eight feet square, unadorned by any furniture save one or two dilapidated straw mats and some wooden blocks to serve as pillows. There the traveller must eat, undress, dress, wash, and sleep as well as he can. He is fortunate if the surrounding filth is not the parent of even more vexatious ene- mies to slumber. Nevertheless, I have wooed and won a royal sleep in the Corean inn; wherefore let me not unduly abuse it. The government of Corea is a hereditary and absolute monarchy, and carried on through three ministers, besides whom are ministers of six departments. Caste is very powerful, and no office of even only local importance is held by other than a noble. The earliest records of Corea carry us back to 1 122 B.C., when Ki-tze with 5000 Chinese colonists brought to Corea Chinese arts and politics. Down to modern times Corea has remained pecfectly secluded. Al- most the first knowledge of Corea obtained by Europe was through the shipwreck of some Dutchmen on the coast in 1653. The missionary De Cespedes had, however, en> tered Corea at the end of the sixteenth cen- tury, and from 1777 other missionaries fol- lowed. In 1 8 3 S M. Maubant gained a footing in Corea, but in 1866, after thousands of converts had been put to death, the only three Catholic missionaries left had to flee for their lives. To avenge the death of the Catholics the French sent an expedition, which was, however, repulsed, while a stranded American schooner was burned with her crew in sight of Phyong-ycmg. In 1 87 1 the United States was baffled in the attempt to obtain redress. Japan was the first to effect a footing in Corea in 1876, when a treaty was concluded between the two countries. Corea followed this up with treaties with China and the United States in 1882; with Germany and Great Britian, 1883; with Italy and Russia, 1884; and with France in 1886. The three ports opened to foreign trade are Chemulpo, Fusan, and Gensan. The new policy led to discontent ; and there was an insurrection in 1884. A rumor that Russia was about to establish a protectorate over Corea in 1888 was officially denied, although it is known she has long had her eye on that country. CHAPTBR XVIII. OUTBREAK OF THE WAR BETWEEN CHINA AND JAPAN. ON the twenty-second of July, 1894, the startling news came from Shanghai that war between China and Japan was considered inevit- able. It was known that there was a feud of long standing between the two countries concerning Corea. Corea is a peninsula extending down from the mainland and is in close proximity to Japan. In area it is nearly twice as large as the State of Pennsylvania. The average width of Corea is 135 miles and the whole length is about 600 miles. There are eight provinces, each with a Governor. The King's revenues, which are considerable, are obtained chiefly by the letting of lands and from a tithe of all the produce. The King owns nearly all the land property. The people are great sufferers through this system of land grabbing and tax farm- ing. Grinding poverty holds them in a relentless grasp. The capital proper is Seoul, a walled town of 250,000 inhabitants, about twenty-five miles inland and joined to its seaport by a badly made road. Seoul is in the heart of Corea and it is the one aim and object of every Corean to live there, for in the city every pleasure and vice is more easy of attainment and the chances of getting favor- ite posts by judicious flattering and canvass- ing of superiors are multiplied. The King is a puppet in the hands of his Court, and the country only preserves its independence through the jealousy of the Chinese, Japanese and Russians, all of whom covet the land. Corea is claimed by Japan- ese and Chinese, and it is difficult to say which race the inhabitants hate most. They are, however, more afraid of the Chinese, who always assume superior airs as belong- ing to the dominant power. A telegraph has penetrated Corea and a wire runs from Wan-San, a seaport town on the east side, to the capital and Chemulpo on the west coast. It is the fate of weak Eastern kingdoms to be the prey of their powerful neighbors. Corea has not only to endure the rivalries of China and Japan, but is threatened with the dangerous assistance of Russia. Civil War in Corea. The Russians have long wanted an open Asiatic port to replace Vladivostock, which is icebound in winter time. Port Lazareff, or Gen-San, as the natives call it, about the middle of the east coast of Corea, would exactly suit them, but a Russian harbor there could hardly be accepted by Great Britain, considering that she gave up Port Hamilton on the condition of no Russian port being established in the Japanese Sea. In 1 89 1 civil war broke out in Corea. Ground down by official tyranny and extor- tion, the people rose in despair. A " national party,"— the " Tong Hak "—took the lead and succeeded in securing a whole province. Then Japan appeared upon the scene, send- ing troops to suppress the insurrection on the plea of protecting her subjects. The Mikado's Government next proposed to 299 300 COREA AND THE WAR. China jointly to recognize the weak Corean administration after a more modern fashion, but China as suzerain of Corea, would brook no interference. Then, therefore, the ques- tion resolved itself into a trial of military- force between the rival empires. Li Houi, King of Corea, is the twenty- eighth sovereign of the dynasty of Han. He ascended the throne in 1864, when he was thirteen years old. He has a variety of titles such as " Son of Heaven " and " King of Ten Thousand Isles," yet this hereditary claim and all his grandeur did not save him the humiliation of being obliged to ask China's permission to assume rulership or pay heavy annual dues. The Chinese Emperor regards him as a vas- sal, but the King of Corea is so holy a personage in his own country that it is a sacrilege to even mention his name. He literally has no name to speak of until he dies. Then his successor allows him one. An Act of High Treason. To touch him with an iron weapon is high treason. One of his predecessors, Tieng- tseng-tsi-oung, died from an abscess in the neck in 1800 rather than have it lanced. His present Majesty, presumably, shaves himself. On the other hand, any subject touched by the King's hand has to always wear a brass plate to commemorate the fact. The King is now the Mikado's prisoner in his own capital, Seoul, July 23, 1894, though his subjects may not have known it, for this ruler of the Hermit Kingdom is a veritable hermit to the outside world, as invisible to his people as the Chinese Emperor. His Queen, who belongs to the noble Min family, is nearly a year older than he. Their son, Li Tchok, the hereditary or crown prince, was born February 4, 1873. Li Houi has a few ideas of modern ways, such as introducing the electric light into his palace. His time is largely occupied in re- ligious ceremonies. The Coreans are tall, well-formed men, very like the Chinese of the better class. Indeed, Corea in many ways is a kind of duplicate of China. A Corean's great weakness is hats. His imagination runs wild on hats, and he wears a vast variety of them. The ordinary rain hat, made of oiled paper, looks like a folded fan. The common hat is so made of bam- boo and hair cloth as to let in the rain in winter and the sun in summer. The upper classes always wear overcoats ; the poor only wear them by way of evening dress. Love for Children. The principal moral virtue of the Corean is that he loves his children so dearly that he neither slays nor exposes them. In re- turn, if a son meets his father in the street, he makes obeisance, and, if his father is im- prisoned, it is a sacred duty to hang the whole time about the prison door. There is no division of labor to speak of; each peasant makes everything he wants. Paper is the one manufacture. The national shoe is made of straw, with an aperture for the great toe to peep out of The Corean money, called " cash," is made of the basest and cheapest composi- tion. It takes three thousand "cash" to equal seventy-five cents of our money. It is all a Corean pony can do to carry ;^ 1 5 in "cash." In the country districts coins of greater value than " cash " are of no use ; one cannot get change for them. The causes of the trouble respecting Corea may be summed up as follows : First of all comes a permanent ill-feeling between Chinese and Japanese, who have a rooted dislike for one another. OUTBREAK OF THE WAR BETWEEN CHINA AND JAPAN. 301 Second, their mutual jealousy as the two great Far Eastern Powers. Third, there were Japan's vastly prepon- derant interests — population, shipping, trade — in Corea, against China's ancient suzerainty and her modern pohtical control of Corean affairs. Fourth, the rebellion in Corea, threatening all foreigners, including Japanese, stands for something, but not so much as has been made out, for Corean rebeUions are not very serious affairs. Fifth, Japan was exasperated by the de- coying of the pro-Japanese Corean rebel, Kim-Ok-Kiun, from his refuge in Tokio, and his brutal murder in Shanghai, winked at by the Chinese Government. Russia Seeking a Port. Sixth, Japan was afraid, not without rea- son, that China was about to settle her dif- ficulties with Russia by allowing the latter to occupy a port on the east coast of Corea. Finally, both countries believed themselves to possess powerful forces of the European kind, and were not sorry to have an oppor- tunity of showing what they could do with them. This was much truer of Japan than of China. A high opinion was entertained of the Japanese army. Up to the time of the Franco-German war the instructors of this army were Frenchmen. The result of the war was sufficient, in Japanese opinion, to make a change desirable, and the French in- structors were changed for English, Ger- man and Italian. Few of these remain, as the Japanese now think they know enough about the art of war to prosecute it without foreign assistance. The Japanese army is equipped according to the most modern ideas, and is of consider- able size, while the number of troops that China can put into the field is known to none outside of the " Flowery Kingdom," and to few within the realm. Their equipment, too, is a good deal of a mystery. The Japanese are not only well drilled and well armed, but they are brave and competent. Regarding the suzerainty of China over Japan it amounts to very little. The " Son of Heaven," as the Emperor of China is styled at home, considers himself the suze- rain of the world. He was suzerain of Lower and Upper Burmah, and lost them both. Thibet is the only country the " Son of Heaven " would fight desperately for. The Crown Prince. Of the King and Crown Prince of Corea few entertain a flattering opinion. The Crown Prince is described as little better than a " self-opinionated idiot." The King is a slight improvement upon this. Corea alone is never in a position to make a fight. The country is impoverished, and under its present ruler is of no use to the Coreans or to anybody else. There are only a few hun- dred Corean soldiers at the capital, and they are of the opera bouffe order. The assassination of Kim-Ok-Kiun, if not the prime cause of the trouble between Japan and China, has had much to do with precipi- tating long-standing national enmities into active preparations for war. On March 27, 1894, three men arrived at Shanghai from Japan. They took up quarters in a Japanese hotel in the foreign settlement. One of the three was Kim-Ok-Kiun, an instigator if not the instigator, of the Corean ' massacre of December, 1894. For nine years Kim had been a refugee in Japan. Unsuccessful demands for his surrender had several times been made by the King of Corea to the Japanese authorities. As the Emperor of China is the acknowledged 302 COREA AND THE WAR. suzerain of Corea, much surprise was felt that Kim should have dared to set foot on Chinese soil. An English journalist set out to probe the mystery, but before he found his way to the Japanese hotel the Corean was lying dead with three revolver bullets in his body. On the body of the murdered man was found a card, bearing the name, " Kim-Ok-Kiun," printed in Roman characters. The murderer proved to be one Hong Sjyong-Ou, a Corean of good position, re- cently a somewhat prominent figure in Par- isian society. He had, he said, assassinated Kim by order of the King of Corea. He was acquitted and set free. On Hong's re- turn to Corea after the murder he was re- ceived with honors, while his victim's body was subjected to mutilation and public ex- posure. Accused of Intrigue. It is alleged in justification of his assassi- nation by order of the King of Corea, that he had been intriguing not only with Japan, but with Russia, for the overthrow of the Chinese suzerainty. At Yokohama, July 22, it was reported that the war feeling was running high and the whole nation was much impressed with the refusal of the Government to keep out of the Corean treaty ports at the request of China. Corea was also reported to have executed the proposed reforms, but it was said that the acceptance by Corea of the re- forms proposed by Japan was conditional upon the withdrawal of the Japanese troops from Corea. The Japanese Government was surprised at this firm stand, which was supposed to prove that Chinese influence was paramount in Corea. In the direct negotiations between Tokio and Pekin, China ignored the Japanese counter-proposals, and was not willing to yield her prerogatives. Advices from Shanghai, July 23, stated that while war had not yet been actually de- clared, the outlook was not all encouraging. It was reported that Japanese gunboats, with a large force of troops are now bom- barding Corean ports. There was consider- able excitement in the city, and it was an- nounced that the Government was already organizing regiments to reinforce the regular army of the Empire. The greatest loyalty to the Government was felt at the emergency. Twelve thousand troops immediately left Taku with a fleet of gunboats, it was sup- posed for Seoul, with orders to fight the Japanese if they opposed China's occupation of any point in Corea. If war should be declared the government at Pekin would make a levy of 20,000 men from each Chi- nese province and send a fleet to attack Japanese ports. Distrust of Japan. It was generally believed that Japan did not desire a pacific settlement of the Corean dispute. As evidence of this, attention was called to the fact that as soon as one diffi- culty was overcome, Japan immediately raised another. The latest attitude of the King of Corea in the crisis was supposed to be due to China's decided measures to up- hold her claim to sovereignity over the Corean peninsula. The Chinese Government officially an- nounced that it was preparing to block the Yang-Tse-Kiang River and the bar near Woosung at any moment in case of need. In this connection it will be of interest to the reader to have a detailed statement con- cerning the strength of the Japanese army. Immediately after the civil war the Em- peror of Japan, who had decided to " Eu- < w H h O o o K K •< ft. 303 304 COREA AND THE WAR. ropeanize" his country and his court, saw first the immediate necessity of organizing the army. Young men were sent to study in the military schools of France and Eng- land, while French and English instructors were engaged to come to Japan. It was in 1 868 when the French Empire seemed to be leading Europe, and had covered itself with glory in Algeria, Italy and the Crimea. Grotesque Helmets. The Japanese did not hesitate in copying the French army as much and as well as they could. French instructors were called to Japan, and the old huge, grotesque iron mask helmets — which were supposed to frighten the enemy — chain and lacquer armor, were replaced by modern uniforms copied from the French. The Japanese of all times have always been great warriors, fearless, full of courage and energy, nearly the whole of the male population being accustomed to the use of arms. They are able to stand any amount of fatigue. After the war of 1870, the in- fluence of France in the Japanese army yielded before that of Germany. Prussian officers were called to Japan, and the French "kepi" was replaced by the Ger- man flat and round military cap. But of late the French have come to the front again, and many of the best Japanese officers are graduated from St. Cyr, the Polytech- nique and Saumur. The army uniforms and equipments of the modern Japanese officer are exactly like those of the French. I have seen in Tokio many a young officer who, had he been walking or riding in the Champs Elysees, would have been undoubtedly taken for an officer of the French artillery. The Em- peror's uniform is that of a commander of artillery in France, the red band on the trou- sers being replaced by a gold one, and a similar uniform is worn by the male mem- bers of the Imperial family. As for the soldiers, they still wear the German cap, the rest of the uniform, however, being made like that of the French. Since 1874 conscription is law in Japan, and every male inhabitant in the country is subject to military service from seventeen to forty years of age. The Japanese land forces are divided into : First — Standing army — ^three years' ser- vice. Second — Standing army reserve — four years' service. Third — Reserves — five years' service. Fourth — Territorial army — eleven years' liability to serve. Size of the Army. The standing army reserves are required to serve sixty days each year, but the terri- torial army is called out only in case of war or grave emergency. A sweeping sys- tem of exemptions exists, but, as it is, the standing army comprises about 50jOOO soldiers. In a few days the number can easily be raised to 210,000, comprising only men who have served for the most part, three years. The proportions of the different arms are : Infantry 102,382 Cavalry 1,459 Artillery 7,881 Engineers 3,522 Transports 55iOo6 Gendarmes 1.436 Military schools 2,910 Central staff 21O14 Imperial Guard 5.591 There are 450 staff officers, 3,360 com- missioned officers and 10,391 non-commis- sioned officers. The infantry is armed with an eight-mil- OUTBREAK OF THE WAR BETWEEN CHINA AND JAPAN. 305 limetre-repeating rifle, designed from Eu- ropean models by a Japanese colonel, and is considered superior to those of Germany and France. It much resembles the Lebel system. The magazine, when fully loaded, contains eight cartridges; it has a ninth one in the breech and a tenth in the cham- ber, and it can be used as a non-repeater. The powder used is smokeless and produces very little noise. The bullet is of hardened lead, covered with copper. Quick-Firing Guns. The artillery is magnificently equipped with field quick firing guns, and they are drilled with a coolness, smartness and rapid- ity that would hardly be excelled. It is, however, to be feared that the Japanese artillery will not see much active service in Corea, the country being exceedingly moun- tainous and having no roads over which the guns might be transported. The Japanese cavalry, on the other hand, whose number is altogether out of propor- tion with the remainder of the army, is ex- tremely defective. There are but few horses in Japan, and they are not worth much. In spite of the greatest efforts, the Government has been unable to find a race of horses that could be acclimated. Nearly all the cavalry ofificers are graduated from Saumur, and can be relied upon as knowing their business thoroughly. The Japanese navy has been copied from that of England, though of late nearly all the cruisers and torpedo boats not built in Japan have been ordered in France. The dockyard at Yokosuka and the arsenal at Koishikawa are thoroughly equipped, and first-rate torpedo boats and the most elabo- rate ordnance are turned out there. The cruisers and gunboats are among the finest vessels of their class afloat, and they are 20 manned and officered entirely by Japanese who make competent commanders. Some years ago Japan gave up building or buying large ironclads, of which she has only five. On the other hand, they have thirty-two cruisers and forty-two torpedo boats. The Itsukusima and Matsusima, of French build, are of 4277 tons. The Chi- yoda steams over nineteen knots, the Naniwa (English built, of 3650 tons) has about the same speed, while the Yoshino has made over twenty-three knots, and is considered the fastest vessel of her class in the world, the United States cruisers excepted. Most of these Japanese cruisers are not sufficiently protected, many not at all, and could not possibly engage the heavy armored Chinese ironclads at close range. Modern Inventions. All branches of the two services are ad- mirably organized, as well as in any Euro- pean country. The coasts are defended by modern forts, well armed with quick firing guns, and are provided with electric search lights, strategical railroad lines, telephones, telegraphs, etc. A well informed correspondent wrote to the London Times in the highest terms of the equipment and admirable military temper of the Japanese army. " The Chinese," he says, have sent an army to the Corea. But it would be as reasonable to match brave men armed with pitchforks against brave men armed with rifles as to pit, man for man, the Chinese in their present condition against the Japanese. " The Japanese are armed with the Murat magazine rifle, and there is no better rifle in Europe. It is manufactured at the arsenal at Tokio; 1200 men are employed, and 120 rifles turned out a day in times of peace. It carries ten rounds in the magazine on the 306 COREA AND THE WAR. Remington principle; the bullet is lead, coated with copper, that metal being plenti- ful in Japan; the Geneva Convention has no jurisdiction here, so the copper bullet is not tabooed. " The Japanese cavalry are well equipped, though, to our ideas, badly mounted, but they are thoroughly aware of their short- comings, and are taking steps to remedy them by degrees. The horse they are mounted on is, after all, the horse of the country, and no animal could be better adapted for service in Japan or in Corea. The same applies to the artillery horses, which are simply 14-hand ponies, but strong and hardy to a marvellous degree. Their field guns are 7-pounders, made at Osaca on a patent of their own, I forget its name, but its action is simple and rapid and resembles Krupp's; they have also 12-pounder Krupps, and heavy Armstrong guns for the defence of forts. The German Drill. "Their drill is that of the German army twenty years ago. They are precise and steady, and the officers know their work and how to teach it. In the cavalry swords were carried on the saddle until the Emperor one day remarked it, and said that only gentle- men wore swords and the cavalryman was not a gentleman, so swords are not now worn on the body. " One great feature in all the barracks is the gymnasium. The men are thoroughly trained in this department, and some of the feats I saw performed by cavalry recruits of the guard at their general inspection would have done credit to any circus. "Their wonderful neatness, completeness and regularity is what struck me most. Everything was tidy, everything was ready, everything was there. Their only trouble was the wearing of European boots. Men who had all their lives been accustomed to straw sandals having to thrust their feet into hard leather boxes, so to speak, very soon went lame. But this is the only thing I noticed that required alterations after a very careful inspection of the three arms, both guards and line. Fine Soldiers. " The troops they remind me most of are Indian Goorkhas, and of all native and colonial troops that I have seen — and I have seen most of them — I would, next to Goorkhas, prefer a regiment of Japanese. They are brave, temperate, patient and ener- getic, and though the Chinese might be made, under European officers, as fine soldiers as they are, at this moment they are about two hundred years behind them ; and although the victory is not always to the strong, as was found out in the Boer campaign, from every data that a soldier can judge by, the Japanese should beat the Chinese in Corea with the greatest ease." To proceed with the narrative of events, it was reported from Yokohama, Japan, on August 1st, that although war had not been declared, several naval engagements had been fought. The most important of these was on July 25th, in the neighborhood of Japan, and was claimed by the Japanese as a "signal victory." This is not the view of the English press of Japan, from which the following account is taken : Three Japanese men-of-war, the Akitsu- shima, Takachiho and Naniwa, met at sea the Chinese cruiser Tsi Yuen, with a small despatch boat, the Kootsu, and the transport Kow Shing, and after an engagement lasting an hour and twenty minutes captured the despatch boat and sank the transport, while the cruisers escaped. OUTBREAK OF THE WAR BETWEEN CHINA AND JAPAN. 307 To fully appreciate the action the relative strength of the combatants must be consid- ered. On the Japanese side were the Akitu- sushima, of 3150 tons, and with a speed of nineteen knots ; the Takaschiho, of 3700 tons, and with a speed of eighteen and a half knots, and the Naniwa, fully as large, power- ful and swift as either of her companions. The armament of these three included one 42-ton gun, four 28-ton guns, twenty rapid firing and thirty-two machine guns. On the other side was the Tsi Yuen, of 2355 tons, 2800 horse-power, a speed of but fifteen knots, and carrying two 8}^ -inch guns, one 5-inch and nine machine guns. The despatch boat was entirely unarmed, and being a wooden ship not steaming more than eight knots, her power of resisting capture was as small as her capacity to evade it. Immediately Opened Fire. The Japanese war ships were proceeding toward Jinsen (Chemulpo), when the Chinese trio were met. The Chinese war ships, on seeing the Japanese flagship, immediately opened their ports, instead of observing the usual courtesies, and began fighting, appar- ently to cover the retreat of the transport steamer, which left, promptly pursued by the Naniwa. At this juncture the transport was flying a white flag, as well as the English colors. What happened to her was not seen by the combatants, but was reported by the Naniwa. Her officers* account is that the flag of sur- render was no sooner displayed than the Chinese on board prepared to attack the boarding parties from the Naniwa, and, in fact, did fire on them as they came alongside. The boats then returned to the cruiser and the transport was sunk with one well directed shot. In the meantime, the Takachiho and Akitusushima engaged the Tsi Yuen and Kootsu. The former, after fighting stub- bornly for over an hour, displayed flags of surrender, and the Japanese men-of-war were approaching her, when she suddenly dis- charged torpedoes, which, however, the Japanese were able to dispose of. The engagement was then renewed more hotly than ever, until, finally, the Tsi Yuen turned and made off" at full speed toward Jinsen, being pursued for one hundred miles by the Japanese, but was not overtaken. An Easy Capture. The Kootsu got aground in shallow water while seeking sheltered anchorage, and thus fell an easy captive to the Japanese. The Chinese fought their guns much more rapidly than their opponents, and had they not been so greatly outnumbered would undoubtedly have achieved victory. As it was, it is a strong testimony to the skill of the Tsi Yuen's commander that he fought two of Japan's best ships for a full hour and then escaped. From another account we learn that although the fighting, though of short dura- ation, was very severe. One of the Japa- nese warships got within a comparatively short distance of the transport Kow Shing and discharged a torpedo at her. The mis- sile was well directed and struck the trans- port fairly. A terrific explosion followed and the Kow Shing began at once to fill. Prior to the discharge of the torpedo the crew of the transport, which was armed, and the military force on board of her, made a hard fight against the attacking force. Many of those on board of her were shot dead on her deck. When the vessel began to sink there was great excitement on board. In the dire con- fusion that prevailed no attempt was made to 308 COREA AND THE WAR. lower the small boats. But even had such an attempt been made the boats could only- have carried a small percentage of those on board. Every foreigner on board the transport, which had been chartered by the Chinese Government from an English company, was either killed in the fighting or went down with the vessel when she foundered. The loss of life was very great. Of nearly 2000 Chinese troops on board of her only forty were saved. They were picked up by the French gunboat Lion that was cruising in the vicinity. Only a short time elapsed between the ex- plosion of the torpedo and the foundering of the transport. The vessel went down sud- denly near Shopoint Island, at which place her commander made an attempt to beach her. The Tsao Kian, which was captured by the Japanese, was an old man-of-war that had been impressed into use as a transport. Many men were killed on board of her before she fell into the hands of the Japanese. The Kow Shing was the fastest vessel in Eastern waters, and the Japanese were glad of the chance of depriving China of her services. The presence on board of General Von Hanneken would also give an incentive to an attack upon the ship, as that officer was supposed to be on his way to take com- mand of the Chinese army in Corea. Another spirited battle between the Chinese and Japanese fleets was fought July 30th. After a fierce fight the Chinese ironclad man-of-war Chen Yuen, the largest and most recently built ship in the Chinese navy, was sunk, and two Chinese cruisers were captured by the Japanese. The two Chinese cruisers were the Chih Yuen and Ching Yuen. It was reported that another cruiser, the Foo Tshing, was also destroyed. The Chinese fleet carried about one thousand men, most of whom were drowned. Among the killed were two German officers attached to the Chen Yuen. The Chen Yuen was a battle ship of 7400 tons displacement, carrying 14^ inches compound armor at the water line. Her battery included four 1 2-inch guns protected by an armored breastwork, and two smaller Krupps, eleven Hotchkiss cannon, two 8^- inch and 6-inch Krupps in her main battery and a secondary battery of Hotchkiss re- volving cannon. She also had tubes for Whitehead torpedoes. The Chen Yuen was a sister ship of the Ting Yuen and was the most powerful war- ship in the Chinese navy with the exception of the Ting Yuen. Its loss was a serious blow to the Chinese navy. CHAPTBR XDC. THE BATTLE OF PING=YANQ. DURING the month of August re- ports were frequently received of the advance of the Japanese army into the Kingdom of Corea. War had been formerly declared by Japan, vast preparations had been made for carrying it on, troops had been landed upon the Corean coast, and it was evident that the Japanese had resolved to assume the aggressive and strike a powerful blow before China could prepare herself for the onset. It is doubtless true that Japan had been anticipating the contest for at least ten years. She believed the time would come when she would have to maintain her claims in Corea by the force of arms. There is nothing to show that China expected an immediate war with her eastern neighbor. Her army, such as it was, could not compare with that of Japan in discipline, in modern equipments and especially in patriotic feeling and en- thusiasm, the loyal spirit that can turn one man, as it were, into a thousand. It may therefore be said that in all coun- tries this side of the Orient there was a quite universal expectation that in the early stages of the conflict Japan would be victorious. Nearly all the reports of skirmishes and minor battles showed such to be the case. From point to point the various divisions of the Japanese army advanced, meeting but little opposition. At Ping-Yang, however, a place strongly fortified, the Chinese troops were massed and here an important battle was fought on the 15 th and i6th of Sep- tember, the result of which was a victory for the Japanese army. Some account of this town will be of interest to the reader. Ping- Yang, or, as it is more correctly spelt, Ping-An, is the capital of the Corean province called Ping-An Do, is situate upon the Da-Tong (Ta-Tong), or Ping-An River, about fifty miles from its mouth. Its loca- tion makes it a natural stronghold. The river is, next to the Yalu River, on the north, which separates Corea from China, the most important waterway of the country, and a number of considerable towns and villages are situated within its basin. It has been described as the Rubicon of Corean history, and at several periods anciently was the boundary river between China and Corea, or of the rival kingdoms into which, in olden times, the Corea of to-day was divided. A Historic Town. For a period of ten centuries, dating from about the commencement of the Christian era. Ping- Yang was a royal seat. In the remote past it has many times been besieged by both Japanese and Chinese armies, and many decisive battles have been fought in its vicinity. The murder of the crew of the General Sherman, an American schooner, in 1866, took place on the Da-Tong River, not far from Ping- Yang. This occasioned the de- spatch, in 187 1, of the United States naval expedition, under Admiral Rodgers, which ended ignominiously. The Gamsa, or Gov- 309 310 COREA AND THE WAR. ernor, of Ping-An Do resides at Ping-Yang. The province was shown by the last census to contain 293,400 houses, and to have 174)538 men capable of bearing arms. The people of this province are more aggressive and turbulent in character than those of the southern provinces. They are said to be not very loyal to the reigning dynasty, and the government is constantly apprehensive of revolutionary outbreaks among them. While this is especially true of the Ping- Yang province it equally applies to the people of the adjoining province on the south, Whang-Hai Do. Ping- Yang is reported to be very rich in the precious metals and in minerals, but the mining of gold and silver is prohibited by the general government. The Yalu River. Another very important city of this prov- ince is Ai-Chin, or Ai-Chow (also written Yi-Chow, Wi-Chow, and A-San). It is the nearest Corean town to the Chinese frontier, and the gateway of the kingdom. It is situated on a hill overlooking the noble Yalu, or Ap Nok River, which is easily navigable for junks as far up as Chan-Son, a noted trading place, sixty miles from the mouth of the river. Yalu means "dragon's windings," and refers to the sinuous course of the river; Ap Nok describes its deep green color. What was until a few years ago a " No Man's Land " stretched along the further bank of the Yalu, in Chinese territory. It was known as the Neutral Territory, and, though highly fertile, was laid waste by the Corean Government two or three centuries ago, and its cities razed to the ground to prevent its further occupation by Chinese outlaws and bandits, with which it was long infested. It is now Chinese territory. Fifty miles beyond the Corean frontier is Pien- Mun, "the Border Gate," where a great in- ternational fair was wont to be held three or four times a year. The first despatch announcing the battle of Ping- Yang was dated at Shanghai, Septem- ber 17th, and was as follows : The Japanese attacked and carried Ping- Yang (Ping-An) on Saturday and Sunday after a stubborn resistance. The Japanese lost eight hundred killed and wounded. Twenty thousand Chinese surrendered. The Battle Begins. On Thursday, September 1 3th, a Japanese column from Pong-San made a reconnois- sance in force, drawing the fire of the Chinese forts and thus ascertained their position. The column then fell back in good order with little loss. By Friday night all the Japanese were in position for a combined attack upon the enemy. The Gensan column threatened the left flank of the Chinese, the Pong-San column menaced the Chinese centre, while the Hwang Hai column operated against the right, which had been reinforced the day be- fore by a detachment of marines from the fleet at the mouth of the Ta-tong River. The Chinese had utilized the old defences at Ping- Yang and thrown up new works, mak- ing the position an exceptionally strong one. The battle was opened on Saturday at daybreak by a Japanese cannonade of the Chinese works, which was continued with- out cessation until afternoon, the Chinese responding. The work with the heavy guns showed good practice. At about two o'clock a body of infantry was thrown forward by the Japanese, and maintained a rifle fire upon the enemy until dusk. Throughout the day only the Pong- San column was engaged. The Chinese defence had suffered greatly, but the losses THE BATTLE OF PING- YANG. 311 on either side were small, both the Chinese and Japanese having taken advantage of all the shelter available. The Japanese troops, however, had gained some advanced positions. The firing con- tinued at intervals during the night, and in the meantime two Japanese flanking columns had formed a cordon around the Chinese. At three o'clock on Sunday morning an attack was made by the Japanese columns simultaneously and with admirable precision. The Chinese lines, which were so strong in front, were found to be weak in the rear, and here the attack was a perfect success. The Chinese were completely taken by surprise, and were thrown into a panic. Hundreds were cut down, and those who escaped death, finding themselves surrounded at every point, broke and fled. Some of Viceroy Li Hung Chang's European drilled troops stood their ground to the eastward, and were cut down to a man. Captiire of Immense Stores. The Pong-San column, swarming over the defences in front, completed the rout. Half an hour after the attack was opened the posi- tions at Ping- Yang (Ping-An) were in pos- session of the Japanese. It was estimated that 20,000 Chinese soldiers were engaged in the battle. The Japanese captured immense storea/of provi- sions and munitions of war and hundreds of colors. The Chinese loss was estimated at 16,000 killed, wounded and taken prisoners. Among those captured by the Japanese were several of the Chinese commanding officers, including General Tso-Fung, commander-in- chief of the Manchurian army, who was sev- erely wounded. The number of the Chinese who were killed was estimated at 2,300. The Japanese loss was only 30 killed and 270 wounded, including 11 officers. Most of the casualties among the Japanese oc- curred during the first day's fighting, and very few were the result of the night attack. Within ten hours after the conclusion of the battle the military engineers had com- pleted a field telegraph line from Seoul, the capital of Corea, to Ping- Yang (Ping-An). A large number of prisoners were brought into the Japanese camp from houses in which they had hidden themselves during the final assault. Several thousand Chinese fled toward a valley to the northward and, upon finding their retreat in this direction cut off) surrendered in a body. Ping- Yang (Ping-An) was searched in the belief that a number of important Chinese officers were hiding in the city under the protection of friendly Coreans. Congratulations from the Emperor. The walls of Ping- Yang (Ping-An) were badly shattered by the cannonade which was poured upon them by the guns of the Japan- ese, but the city itself was only slightly damaged. The Japanese Emperor tele- graphed from Hiroshima, where the head- quarters of the army are located, congratu- lating Marshal Count Yamagata upon the success of the arms. Marshal Yamagata issued a general order commending the valor of his troops, which they demonstrated on the battlefield. The order concluded with an expression of pride on the part of Marshal Yamagata at being in command of so brave an army. A flying column of the Japanese army pushed northward with the object of taking possession of the mountain passes. The Japanese force pursued the fugitives, who threw away their arms and readily yielded themselves prisoners. A proclamation was issued promising full protection to the Coreans if they would re- 312 COREA AND THE WAR. frain from acts of hostility toward the Japan- ese. On the other hand, they were informed that if they gave shelter to or engaged in traffic with the Chinese, they would be sum- marily dealt with by process of martial law. It was reported that four Chinese generals, Tso Paokwoi, Wei Jinkwoi, Ma Yukowong and Sei Kinlin, together with 14,500 other officers and men, were taken prisoners by the Japanese at Ping- Yang. The Japanese outnumbered the Chinese three to one. Excited by the News. The Chinese were fearfully exicted over the news of the defeat and great slaughter of the Chinese army at Ping- Yang (Ping- An). The Shanghai Mercury printed a special edition containing despatches from the front, and in its editorial comments on the result of the battle expressed full appreciation of the crushing defeat and great slaughter of the picked troops composing the Chinese army engaged. The paper dilated upon the consequences of the disaster to the Chinese arms and expressed well-grounded fear of a speedy Japanese invasion. Advices received at the Japanese Legation in London officially confirmed the report of the absolute and crushing defeat of the Chinese in the engagement at Ping-Yang. Artillery salutes were fired at Tokio in celebration of the victory of the Japanese army. Public opinion concerning the Japanese victory was freely expressed through our leading journals. One called the battle " The Chinese Sedan," and affirmed that the Japanese managed their campaign with a grasp of military science and soldierly abil- ity deserving of the utmost eredit. Another journal said : " It is difficult to see how China can recover from the blow which reveals the essential weakness of her military equipment and administration. The Powers will probably be content to accept the faits accomplis if the Japanese are wise enough to show moderation and a just sense of their position. The moment is favorable for the neutral powers to renew their over- tures for peace. China might easily grant the virtual independence of Corea, which Japan is probably willing to accept." Another journal commented as follows : " The Japanese have every reason to pride themselves upon the excellence of their mili- tary arrangements, but it is not safe to assume that the victory of the Japanese will incline the Chinese to sue for peace. Defeat in the past has only nerved the Chinese to more strenuous efforts. It is much more probable that the Ping- Yang fight will have the effect to embitter and prolong the struggle than that it will result in China's involuntary self-effacement in Corea." Brave and Brilliant ^Vork. Says another journal : " The Japanese army has done its work bravely and brilliantly, but their navy will now have a tough task. If they can defeat the Chinese Pei-Yang squadron, the Japanese forces will certainly land in China and reduce Port Arthur and Wei- Wei from the land side, and possibly attempt to advance upon Pekin. When this happens the end will not be far off. The Mongolian colossus has feet of clay, which are crumbling. If the Powers, especially England, were to intervene promptly with friendly counsels, the conflict might be ended." The Chinese army of the north, consist- ing of Manchus and Chi Li-men, at Ping- Yang (Ping-An), numbered, according to report, 50,000 men. The Chinese troops at Heijo and its vicinity numbered nearly 15,000, while there were with them 200 or THE BATTLE OF PING-YANG. 313 300 Coreans. There were also 2,000 more marching from Kasesan upon Heijo, and over 1,000 defeated troops from Seikwan and Gazan were also making for Heijo. These figures were from Chinese oiificial sources, and there is no doubt that she had, at least, 20,000 troops concentrated at Ping -Yang, including some of the best trained and bravest soldiers. On August 18 there were 10,000 Japanese troops at Chemulpo, and about the same time 6,000 more were reported as having landed at the Taitung River. An Advance Northward. It might be assumed that the armies of Japan and China now in Corea numbered each 35,000 to 40,000 men. The Japanese landed their troops at Gens2m, on the east coast, at Chemulpo, and at the mouth of the Ta-tong. The main body of the army went from Chemulpo to the Corean capital, Seoul, and then advanced northward to meet the Chinese forces, which crossed the northeastern boun- dary of Corea in the latter part of July. Japan prevented the Chinese from sending reinforcements by sea direct to Corea by the admirable use she made of her fleet, one por- tion of which kept the Chinese warships oc- cupied in the Gulf of Pechili, while another protected the transports carrying troops to Chemulpo, the Yalu River and other points. In arms, drill and morale the Japanese troops in Corea were undoubtedly superior to the Chinese, the latter being for the most part the levies from Manchuria, though there was a goodly proportion of soldiers from Li Hung Chang's province who had been drilled in the European fashion by European officers. It was believed that the first result of the crushing defeat inflicted on the Chinese at Ping-Yang (Ping-An) would be the complete occupation of Corea by Japan. Whatever might be the reorganization of the govern- ment and the reforms elaborated by the Corean Council, they would be in reality dictated by Japan and to her ultimate ad- vantage. Says a well-informed writer upon the problem of Corea : " Just outside the walls of Seoul is an archway of wood and stone about thirty feet high. This is called by the Coreans the Arch of Subjugation, but offi- cially it is known as the Arch of Amity. It was under this arch, erected to commemo- rate her acceptance of the suzerainty of China, that Corea annually paid her tribute to China. It is now more than probable that she will not pay this tribute, and that the Arch of Subjugation will shortly be de- molished or left as a memento. May Throw Off the Yoke. " It appears to be now established that the King has definitely resolved, under the influence of his Japanese advisers, to assert the independence of his kingdom and throw off" the suzerainty claimed over it by China. This suzerainty has been for centuries more nominal than real. For unnumbered years Corea has derived from that country all that makes up her civilization. Her mental at- titude has been and is Chinese. Her cus- toms, the written characters in which her language is expressed, her culture, her art, her religion, have all come from her great neighbor. Her literature and education are formed on Chinese models. " China's influence has, in fact, moulded her national life, and the control has been exercised in a peculiarly Celestial way — dis- claiming all responsibility for Corea's acts when she has embroiled herself with West- ern Powers, and then rushing wildly to her 314 COREA AND THE WAR. capital with troops and ships whenever Japan has made any forward move in the political game. " Corea has been the buffer between China and Japan for a thousand years, and has paid tribute at intervals to either country or to both at the same time as far back as the third century, though for two centuries past the claims of Japan have been somewhat re- laxed, thus giving China freer sway. "Thus, when in 1876, the former suc- ceeded, after some trouble, in negotiating with Corea an independent treaty, whereby she secured substantial trade advantages, rights of residence and property and the opening of three ports to her commerce, it took China several years to wake up to the fact that a new danger threatened her hold on the Hermit Kingdom, and putting forth freshly her claim of vassalage, she advised Corea to listen to the overtures of the United States, then knocking at her doors. Treaties with Foreign Powers. " On this advice a treaty was made with us in 1882, followed in the same year by conventions with Great Britain, France and Germany. The ancient tribute was more tenaciously exacted and a brilliant young Chinese army officer — then twenty-two years of age and a captain of infantry — was sent to Seoul as resident. This was Yuen, and he was commissioned to protect Chinese interests." A second account of the decisive battle already described is as follows ; Full details are now to hand respecting the great Japan- ese victory at Ping- Yang. The city of Ping- Yang, situated on the banks of the Tai Dong River, has been long regarded by China as the most invulnerable of all her strongholds. Ordinarily the city and sur- rounding forts are garrisoned with 20,000 Chinese troops, but shortly before Japan's attack upon the place these had been re-en- forced by the refugee soldiers from Seikwan, where Japan's first victory in Corea had been achieved. Roughly estimated the Chinese forces in and around Ping- Yang must have numbered not less than 25,000 men. Japan's attack upon this formidable stronghold had been carefully planned, andi armies had been sent out by four different ' roads with orders to be in readiness for a combined attack on the city by dawn of September isth. The Troops Advance. The western army started from Matsu- Bashi on September 1 3th, a town some fifty miles from Ping- Yang, and continued a forced march, till on the evening of Septem- ber 14th it camped before the Chinese earth- works of the stronghold. The northern army had left Tai-Cheng on the 1 3th and after camping for the night at a small town advanced on Ping- Yang from the north and occupied a position not far distant from that of the western army. The central army, in two divisions, had adopted similar tactics from the south, and both di- visions advanced on a line with each other. Finally the eastern, or so-called " mixed " army — ^it being composed of several divi- sions — boldly marched on the Chinese en- trenchments from the east, as though chal- lenging them from this quarter. It Wcis these columns that were expected to draw the attention of the enemy from the advance of the Japanese troops from the north, west and south, or, in fact, from five different points for the central army had been divided into right and left wings. Concerning the strength of Chinese posi- tions it need only be said that Ping- Yang, THE BATTLE OF PING-YANG. 315 besides being a natural stronghold, was man- ned by China's finest troops. In the main fort or castle, close to the city gates, there were three Krupp field pieces and several Gatling guns, while all the soldiers carried Spencer or Mosler rifles, and there was no lack of ammunition. There were one or more field pieces and several Gatling guns in each of the Chinese earthworks and masked forts. Altogether the Chinese troops were en- trenched at twenty-five different points, and apart from the main castle there were five other large and well-armed forts — ^two to the south and one to the north of the city and main stronghold and two on the opposite side of the river. The masked fort built in front of the castle was undoubtedly the best piece of military engineering ever accom- plished by the Chinese. Formidable Defences. The Northern and Eastern Japanese armies found themselves confronted by seven forts and earthworks, all well armed and manned, while behind each fort large num- bers of Chinese troops could been seen to be encamped. To the south of these were other camps, toward which Major Okuzama marched his troops. All these camps were fired during the day of the battle, and the flames added to the horrors of the conflict. There were two earthworks on the banks of the Tai Dong, opposite to the city, and two forts on the hillside among the pine trees. It was at these points that the Chin- ese forces, confidently expecting an attack from the east, had gathered in greatest strength, and it was Major-General Oshima who had been detailed to attack the enemy here. The Chinese evidently had every confi- dence in the security of their position, and huge flags, upon which were inscribed the names of the various commanding generals, were flaunted proudly in every direction. The "mixed" or Eastern army, under command of Major-General Oshima, had been re-enforced by another detachment from the south, and was the first to begin the battle. All attention was at once cen- tred upon this point, as had been expected, and the northern, western and central forces at once advanced on the Chinese forts from the rear. Major Okugama separated from the mixed column and advanced on the forts to the south. Hand-to-Hand Conflict. The Chinese troops, in the meanwhile, were entirely ignorant of any advance of the Japanese forces from either the rear or flanks until the actual engagement had begun, and the Japanese armies were within one hundred yards of their various strong- holds. Now the Japanese charged upon the hill- side forts, but the Chinese used their Krupps and Gatling guns with great efiectiveness, and Major Tatemi quickly divided his de- tachment which had undertaken the charges into two swings. As they neared the fort, the Chinese fire ceased, but when the Japan- ese troops had reached the walls the Chinese stormed out upon them with a desperation born of despair, and a terrible hand-to-hand encounter ensued, the Japanese killing over fifty Chinese with their bayonets at one spot alone, while the rest of the garrison fled. The Japanese then took possession of the fort. This was their first step toward victory, and occurred at seven o'clock in the morn- ing. In the meantime a cold, drizzling rain, which later in the day changed to a steady downpour, increased the discomforts of the 316 COREA AND THE WAR. attacking army but did not damp the ardor of its enthusiasm. By this time the second wing of the northern army had placed their field pieces on the crest of the newly-gained hill and opened fire upon the Chinese in the earth- works and forts below, throwing them into a panic and causing them to retreat toward the castle and city in confusion. At eight A. M. the Japanese found themselves in pos- session of a second fort. The western column, in the meantime, had been engaged in several skirmishes with the enemy and had captured several Chinese officers. They began to advance on the Chinese earthworks and forts to the east at five A. M. The troops of this division were divided into two wings, and by nine A. M. the Japanese were in possession of all the forts outside of Ping- Yang, with the excep- tion of the castle and the masked forts on the hill beyond the city and castle. The opposition of the Chinese at these points, however, was most desperate. The Chinese Cavalry. Several attempts were made to storm the gate of the castle, but it was now two P. M., and the attacking forces of the eastern and northern divisions were well nigh exhausted by the continued fighting, and so the ad- vance was stopped for a time. Shortly after midnight on the morning of the 15 th the central division advanced on the Chinese earthworks from the south, and were charged upon by a detachment of Chinese cavalry, who came out of the city gates, and hid themselves in a wheat field, the rain and darkness aiding their almost noiseless advance. But the Japanese, with fixed bayonets, were also in the wheat field, and after a sharp encounter the entire com- pany of cavalry were killed, with the excep- tion of eight that were taken prisoners and sent to the rear. The Japanese officers of this division for the first time learned approximately what the other divisions had been doing, and how so many of the Chinese position were in jeopardy. Later in the day the central di- vision captured several small bands of fleeing Chinese, and from them learned of their armies' victory. This division then fired the dismantled forts and deserted houses outside of the city, and continued the advance, meet- ing soldiers fleeing in all directions. Desperate Fighting. The mixed division in the meanwhile had formed into three wings — a right, left and central. They had hastily thrown up earth- works, but abandoned these to advance on the Chinese positions. The fighting was des- perate ; those killed and wounded among the enemy seemed innumerable, while every of- ficer of the second and fourth detachments of the Japanese forces of this division were killed. The earthworks of the Chinese were strongly manned and armed with rapid firing guns, which they used with terrible affectiveness. The fighting continued uninter- ruptedly for some time, when the ammuni- tion of the Japanese gave out, and the divi- sion was on the verge of a retreat. A more extended account of the battle of Ping- Yang was furnished by the correspon- dent of one of our leading journals, who was with the army in Corea : " The first battle of magnitude or import- ance in the Corean. campaign was fought September isth and i6th, and ended with a sweeping victory for the Japanese side. "I have just returned to headquarters, at the south of Phyongyang (the Japanese name for Ping-Yang), after a hasty circuit of THE BATTLE OF PING-YANG. 317" those parts of the captured city to which civilians are admitted, and a short excursiou along the line of retreat by which the great body of the Chinese fugitives escaped. Therefore, I am prepared to present an out- line sketch of the operations which have left us masters of the chief stronghold on the peninsula. " My opportunities of observation have been greater than those most of my com- rades enjoyed, as from the beginning of the month I have been allowed the same free- dom of action as an officer on staff duty. During the past two weeks I have travelled over most of the territory occupied by Lieu- tenant-General Nodsu's forces. Rapid Progress Impossible. " It has been plainer to me than to others that the impatience with which the army movements were regarded in Japan was not at all justified. The circumstances in which we were placed made it impossible to pro- ceed with rapidity unless we were prepared at the same time to sacrifice all considerations of prudence. " The condition of the country is inde- scribable. What Coreans call roads are un- worthy of the name. There is little to choose between the open fields in the valleys and the wretched courses of slime and di- luted clay which connect the towns in the northern provinces. Often the routes re- sembled rather a series of half-choked canals than proper lines of communication. "To transport artillery and ammunition over districts flooded at intervals to a depth of from one to two feet is a task that tries the endurance of officers and men alike. It is a constant surprise that their cheerfulness and energy continue unabated day after day. " To overcome difficulties by hard fighting, to push their way through the opposing bodies of the enemy, is a service in which my countrymen delight, as they proved six weeks ago at Songhwan. But the slow and wearing labor of dragging supplies and en- gines of destruction through almost impassa- ble regions strains them in their weakest point. " There have been many days when with their utmost strength they were unable to advance more than four or five miles. I doubt if the average progress of the main division has exceeded an average of six miles since the march from Seoul began in the early part of August. "As was to be expected, plans of our gen- erals were held in dark secrecy at the begin- ning of the campaign. It was not until our near approach to Phyongyang (Ping- Yang) that the scheme of operations in which we were engaged became clear to the troops in general. The privilege of moving in various directions enabled me to grasp the situation at a comparatively early date, and to form conjectures which it was my fortune to see realized in due course. Strong Positions Chosen. " It is now apparent that the sharp and ef- fective engagements at Songhwan and Asan were not included in the original project of our leaders, but were mere incidents of the contest caused by the selection of the Naipo districts by the Chinese as a landing place for their troops. " From the outset it was recognized that the scene of the principal conflict would be the Valley of the Taitong (or Daido) River, in which many good defensive positions could be chosen by our foe and from which, in case of a success to their arms, they could descend by more than one avenue and menace our ports around Seoul from several points. S18 COREA AND THE WAR. "The Japanese design was to seize the large towns along the Taitong and make the northern part of the peninsula untenable, while preparing for more extensive feats which are still to be essayed. "As a preliminary measure, the intrenched Chinese at and near Asan had to be dis- lodged, and this enterprise was brilliantly carried through by Major-General Oshima, with a small force, which, after performing its allotted task, hastened to rejoin the body led northward by Major-General Tatsumi. Active Night and Day. " I was with a regiment which fought at Songhwan and did not get back to the main column until it had arrived at Kaisong, some distance north of Seoul. There I changed my limited range of duties for a more exacting duty I was called upon to per- form, and for nearly a month lived in con- stant activity day and night, accustoming myself to look upon the details of food and sleep as mere trifles, scarcely to be con- sidered beside the imperative requirements of my new service. "The united army, which directed its course northward, consisted of from fifteen to eighteen thousand men. General Oshima conducted the left. General Tatsumi the right, and the chief command was assumed by Lieutenant-General Nodsu, whose quarters were in the centre and for a considerable time at the rear. "The left moved upon the town of Hwangju under orders to cross the Taitong River, near that place. The right proceeded towards Songhwan, where another crossing would be made, and the centre bore directly along the main road (or mud ditch so desig- nated) to Changhwa. " To any one knowing these three lines of march it was plain that the object aimed at was the ancient fortified city of Phyong. Yang (Ping- Yang), once a capital of Corea, and a place of much greater natural strength than Seoul, the modern seat of government. Probably our destination was made public in Japan long before the army heard of it, but by the end of August there was little doubt on the subject, even among the lowest ranks. "When the soldiers had satisfied them selves as to the precise object of attack the feeling of exhaustion and weariness which few had been able to resist vanished as sud- denly as if the painful toil of the past three weeks were nothing but a dream. The spirit of Tamato Damouhi was rekindled in all its vigor, and the order of assault was awaited with feverish eagerness on all sides. Eager for Battle. " Perfect discipline is the controlling rule in the Japanese service, but it was evident to every beholder that from the moment the Taitong came in view of the foremost skir- mishers each hour of restraint was a vexa- tion and a grief to the whole mass of troops. Yet it was at just this time that they were called upon to curb their impetuosity and to lie idly on their arms, awaiting the develop- ment of events in other quarters. " The machinery set at work to crush the Chinese in their chosen stronghold was not confined to the force commanded by General Nodsu. Experience had shown at Asan and elsewhere that the faculty of flight is one in which our enemies exhibit greater capacity than in any other, and it was assumed that if threatened by a determined onset in their front, they would sooner or later seek to es- cape, and would scatter themselves over the country in small and disconnected groups, pursuit of which would be futile. " Precisely as before, they would probably be a terror to the peasantry, and would, per- THE BATTLE OF PING-YANG. 319 haps, indulge in the same excesses as those of General Yeh's disbanded soldiery, who not only pillaged far and wide, but put to death all who presumed to resist their de- mands. Among other atrocities they were accused of having murdered a much-re- spected French priest in the neighborhood of Asan. " To prevent a repetition of these dis- orders, and also to provide against the re- gathering of the dispersed remnants at the Yalu River or any other place of retreat, the War Department organized a co-operative force, to be transported from Japan to Gen- san, a port on the east coast of Corea, and to move thence across the peninsula upon the rear of Ping- Yang, thus enclosing the Chinese between two columns. Every effort was made to hide the details of this strategic combination. Beyond the bare fact that it was in progress, nothing was known about it to the mass of the combatants. But we were aware that Gensan is considerably to the north of Ping-Yang, and about one hun- dred and ten miles away. Difficult Passes. "A few years ago I was detailed to make an examination of the territory around that port, and for some distance into the interior, I then learned that the roadways were, if possible, worse than those in the neighbor- hood of Seoul, though the hilly character of the country renders them less liable to inun- dation. The passes over broken ranges be- tween the eastern coast and the Taitong Valley are narrow, in many places blocked by heaps of fallen stones, and can hardly be less difficult to surmount than the bogs and morasses of the western provinces are to wallow through. " From what I was permitted to learn, the troops landed at Gensan numbered four or five thousand, and were commanded by Major-General Oseko. They did not begin to penetrate southwestward until about Sep- tember 1st, when the bulk of General Nodsu's Southern army was almost on the edge of the broad valley on the other side of which lies Ping- Yang. "The reason why the attack from the south was delayed is now obvious. But to the troops enforced inactivity was most gall- ing. The men who had come fresh from victory at Soughwan were burning to renew their triumphs, and those who had not yet shared in conflict were longing to rival the exploits of their more favored comrades. All were under peculiar influences, which greatly inflamed their desire to meet the ad- versary. Daring Exploits. " The whole region was full of brave asso- ciations, dear to the heart of every Japanese who cherished the memory of his country's glories in the past. It was in the valley of the Taitong that the warriors of Hidrioshi, the great Taiko, performed their most daring exploits during the invasion of the sixteenth century. "Within the walls of Ping- Yang they made their heroic stand against the Tartar hordes, maintaining a desperate defence in the face of overwhelming numbers, subsist- ing towards the end upon the horses and other animals of their camp, and defying starvation itself, until the order from Kioto came directing them to give over the strug- gle, the fiery spirit that had sent them forth being conquered at last by death. "However reckless the ambition of Hidrioshi may have been, the valor of his soldiers was incontestable, and the plains that encircled the ancient capital of Corea still bear testimony to many a deed of 320 COREA AND THE WAR. chivalry which the decendants of the me- diaeval heroes would rejoice to emulate. " How anxiously and ardently the signal to resume the march was looked for, no one could bear witness to more surely than I, for in the first two weeks of this month I several times traversed the camp that lay crouching, I rnight say, along ^:he southern border of the Taitong and through the valley below, and heard on all sides impa- tient murmurs of restlessness and agitation, which would have risen to complaining cries but for the loyal faith of the soldiers in the resolution and sagacity of their leaders. "During the first ten days of September several changes were made in the disposition of the troops, and various small commands were transferred to increase the effectiveness of the onset to come. But the general plan underwent no alteration. Supplies Cut Off. "General Nodsu advanced to the front and assumed the direct management of af- fairs. Reconnoitring parties made frequent examinations of the belt of land between our van and Ping- Yang, which was found com- pletely devastated by the ravages of the Chi- nese. The supplies which should have been provided the Chinese from Chefoo had been cut off for some time by the Japanese ships and the Coreans were compelled to give up everything that could contribute to the sus- tenance of the hungry multitude. " Prisoners were occasionally brought in by scouts, and strange tales were recited for our amusement concerning the blood-thirsty characteristics attributed to our soldiers by both the Chinese and the Coreans. Most of the captives were at first speechless with terror and could make no reply when ques- tioned by our commanders. They could hardly be prevailed upon to eat or drink, and at each word addressed to them they would fall prostrate, trembling and moaning as if expecting instant death. By gentle treatment they were generally reassured, though some seemed never to recover from their paralyzing fright. " None could give much information as to the number or organization of their army. It appeared that General Tsopaokwei, an officer of higher grade than any in our corps and ordinarily at the head of the Moukden garrison, was in chief command and under him we were told were 'many tens of mighty generals,' each leading countless myriads of invincible braves. Living on Promises. " Their stories with regard to their per- sonal associations were more easily credited. They and their companions had suffered from want of sufficient food ever since they entered the peninsula and had been in the habit of foraging for themselves at every opportunity. Raw vegetables, dug from the fields, were welcome additions to their regular diet. For weeks previous to starting on this campaign they had received no pay, though brilliant promises of rich spoils had been held out to them. " Their intelligence, except in one or two instances, certainly was not of a high order. Some could not tell the names of the officers under whom they immediately served. But they might have been mere camp followers and not fighting men. Stolid as they mostly were, they could not conceal their satisfac- tion at the indulgence they received, and, from their own account, their daily fare with us must have been absolute luxury compared with their habitual lot. " Their gratitude, however, took no higher form than the expression of a moody regret for the awful fate in store for us. That we THE BATTLE OF PiNG-YANG. S2i were all destined to annihilation as soon as we should come in contact with their irre- sistable warriors was a conviction which nothing could shake. " The second week of September brought some relief to the stagnation which oppressed us. After all, the idle term was not so long as it seemed to our over-wrought senses, and all discontent vanished as soon as the troops were called upon to march again. "The central body passed Chung Hwa on the loth of the month. The left reached Taitong on the nth and was ready for crossing at Tetsudo Island on the 12th. On the same day the right passed Choldo and also prepared to pass over to the north bank. Cheering News. " On the 1 3th a singular thing happened. In the morning the news came that the head of a detachment from General Oseko's Gen- san column had made its way to Songchon, only thirty miles from Chyong-Yang, and that the entire eastern force naturally would presently be in a position to participate in the joint attack. " This intelligence, of course, was delivered privately at headquarters, and was communi- cated to only the subordinate generals and a few of their staffs. There was no possible way in which it could become public prop- erty. Yet on that very afternoon it was noticed that an extraordinary stimulus spread over the whole of the army, approaching from the south, and that even the most dis- tant regiments appeared animated by some exhilarating impulse. " I was a witness to several exhibitions of this feeling in front of General Tatsumi's wing. Sub-officers gathered in knots to inquire of one another if any event of un- usual promise had occurred, and private 21 soldiers not on duty ran about from tent to tent in search of information which no one could give, and of the existence of which no one outside of the highest circle had any positive knowledge. " I have since heard that the same phe- nomenon, if it may be called so, was every- where perceptible. All along the banks of the Taitong, from Kangdon to Hwangju, an inexplicable excitement prevailed, which lasted until the time came for striking the great, decisive blow. " On the 14th the report was circulated that a squadron of warships had been sighted at the mouth of the river, directing its course towards our outposts. No anxiety was felt on this score, for enough was now known to make it understood that the Japanese Navy would not be behindhand in lending support to our movement, while the death-like silence of the Chinese fleet since the engagement near Asan warranted the belief that inter- ference from that arm of the enemy's service was the last thing to be feared. Investing the City. " The clouds of smoke arising below Hwangju were hailed as a token that busy work was at hand, and, sure enough before nightfall the welcome order was sent forth. " Early on the following day the troops were in motion from every side, converging towards the city, which the Chinese had selected as their main station of defence in Corea. From Sangchon the Gensan party rapidly descended, uniting with the advance force of our left near Kangdon, and then stretching across the river north of Ping- Yang, to close the avenues of escape in that direction. " The central body, coming from the south, marched for the Taitong bridge and the gate through which the high road from S^2 COREA AND THE WAR. Seoul to the old capital passes. The left wing skirted the northern bank opposite Hwangju, until it reached Kangso, when it was divided, one part proceeding straight to the object of attack and the other ascend- ing towards Shunnen, and blocking the line of retreat to Wiju, on the frontier. The Chinese in the Toils. " Before evening the Chinese were believed to be almost completely enveloped. Of what occurred while the investment was going on at the north I have heard no coherent details, but it was a surprise to those who conducted the onset from the south that the defence was not more obstinate and effective. " Of the advantages possessed by the Chi- nese there could be no question. The city stands on a steep slope, and is surrounded by a wall which, though out of repair in many places, could easily have been made formida- ble in the long time since the army estab- lished itself there. Except at one gate, there was no bridge fit to aid the passage of troops over the Taitong, and it certainly seems that a resolute resistance on the north bank might have made the crossing a much more serious undertaking than it proved. Between the wall and the river the ground was most un- comfortable to the assailants, being largely cut up into swampy rice lots. " Better fighting on the Chinese side was expected, even by those who had tested their incapacity at Songhwan, for here the chances were much more in their favor, and their behavior in some of the skirmishes along the route had indicated a determination to do at least a little towards retrieving their shattered reputation. But from the time when they were driven within their rough fortifications they appeared to lose all spirit, and allowed themselves to be chased from post to post with scarcely an effort to maintain order. " The first troops sent forward by General Oshima were, according to present accounts, more vigorously met than any others, but this may have been due to the circumstance that there was a scarcity of ammunition in one brigade, necessitating a brief suspension of the advance on the afternoon of the 15th. There is nothing to show that General Oshima's wing was obliged to use extraor- dinary exertions in reaching its goal after his order. The regiments which pushed northward from Kangso are said to have been the most strongly confronted. Confused Accounts. " It is difficult, however, to collect reports that can be thoroughly trusted, so soon after the battle. Rumors are altogether too abun- dant to be safely relied upon when matters of minute detail come into question. I heard an officer of high position say, on the day after the affair was concluded, when the greater part of the army was resting and trying to remember what had happened, that it would be at least a fortnight before the Government at Tokio could receive a really full and accurate account of the event, and you may imagine the obstacles that stand in the way of a single observer who tries to present even a glimpse of the mighty scene in which, perhaps, thirty thousand comba- tants struggled for life and death through a good part of two fierce and furious days. " Little more than forty-eight hours has passed since the last shot was fired, and the last flag lowered. It seems as if the echoes of the vast tumult and confusion were still ringing through the air, forbidding the mind to dwell upon anything but the colossal features of the conflict, or to gather together the multitude of incidents which must be brought into orderly array before the true character and import of this great achieve- THE BATTLE OF PING-YANG. 323 ment of history can be rightly estimated. What we now know beyond all doubt is that the strategic combination for the overthrow of the first Chinese army in the field has wholly and brilliantly succeeded. " The campaign was carefully laid out in Tokio, and was executed with admirable dexterity by four of the best generals in the Japanese service, not one of whom, it may be mentioned, is of the highest rank. The single full .general in Corea did not arrive in time to take any part in the proceedings, and even the lieutenant-general in command was not despatched from Japan until opera- tions were in active progress. Organizing Victory. " But when he came he threw himself heart and soul into the work and set an ex- ample of energy and fervor which roused to emulation all who were brought into con- tact with him. To him and to the three major-generals belong the credit of having carried the enterprise through triumphantly. To the organizer of victory, who may be an approved tactician, or an unknown adviser of the War Department, the honor of the conception is due, and will, let us hope, be righteously awarded. "A great blow has been struck, and with such force as to forever destroy the prestige of China in Corea. An army computed at not less than 1 2,000, and it may be 20,000 ' — and which may prove to be still larger, for the looseness and negligence of the Chinese system is such that the exact num- ber actually under arms is not known to themselves — ^has been defeated, and is now held captive, with the exception of the fugi- tives and the slain. " Four generals of renown from the mili- tary standpoint of their country have sur- rendered — not with sufficient dignity, it is said, to entitle them to respect in their down- fall. "All the material results of the victory that could be expected have been secured. The entire store of weapons and ammuni- tion is in our hands. A quantity of treasure, roughly calculated to be worth from ;g70,000 to ^100,000, was siezed in the houses occu- pied by the commanding generals, together with dozens of bags filled with copper and iron "cash" of the country. "Not a single condition of success appears to be lacking. And I can say with pride that the discipline, which it is so often diffi- cult to preserve after great conquests has not been relaxed in the slightest degree. The districts I have visited in the last two days have been as free from violent disturbance as any part of my own capital in a time of pro- foundest peace. Soldiers roam about sing- ing lively songs and occasionally shouting 'Teikoku banzai,' but perfect good humor is the rule, and not an angry voice is heard. Spared the Horrors of 'War. " The earliest order sent out on the i6th was for the firm enforcement of order and the protection of the inhabitants of Ping- Yang. The few citizens who are willing to communicate freely, which they can do in symbolic writing, though utterly ignorant of our language, are earnest in assurances of thankfulness at having been spared the hor- rors they had been led to anticipate in case of falling under Japanese control. But they are far from confident as to what the future may bring forth. That the security which | now prevails can last is more than they dare hope for. "Unless the Chinese who endeavored to escape by the Gate of the Seven Stars, at the northeastern corner of the city, fought harder than those who made a show of 324 coreA and the war. standing to their posts it is not probable that the number of deaths will prove very great. But there is still a good deal to be learned about what took place in that locality and along the line of pursuit which followed. "As I walked out yesterday on the west- ern avenues leading from the city I saw heaps of weapons hedging the wayside as far as my sight could reach. Rifles, mostly of an old pattern, spears of the middle ages and swords of every conceivable manufacture were lying just as they had been thrown away, undisturbed as yet by the populace, ■who probably have not awakened to the fact that the late owners of the property have gone with no intent to return. Clothing enough to satisfy the winter necessities of the poor was also waiting to be picked up by the first comers. "Until the cavalry detachments sent to overtake the runaways return to give an ac- count of their adventures the lists of losses cannot be made up. At present it looks as if great results had been obtained without anything like the amount of bloodshed that usually accompanies a decisive battle. If, however, I attempted to verify this opinion, I should either be compelled to rely upon insufficient data or run the risk of overstq)- ping the time allowed me. " I close in the hope that when all the particulars are known it will be found that the rejoicings over our victory need not be too darkly shaded by lamentations over the sacrifice of human life." CHAPTER XX. JAPAN'S GREAT NAVAL VICTORY. THE Yalu River is the boundary be- tween China and Corea. Off the mouth of the Yalu a decisive naval engagement occurred, September 17th, between the Chinese and Japanese navies. At noon on September 17th nine Japanese war ships, convoying two armed transports, sighted twelve Chinese war ships and six gun-boats. The fighting began by an attack upon three of the Chinese war ships, which were sunk. As the fighting progressed another Chinese war ship was set on fire and destroyed, but the remaining eight, only one of which was uninjured to- gether with the six gun boats, succeeded in getting away. The Japanese war ships Matsushima and Hi-Yei were slightly dam- aged and one of the armed transports was seriously crippled, but none of the Japanese ships were lost. The Japanese loss was twenty men known to have been killed and forty-six wounded. When the Japanese sighted the Chinese fleet the latter ships were steaming towards the Yalu River, in which direction they pro- ceeded, appearing indisposed to fight. The Japanese chased them for an hour, when the Chiyoda, getting within range, drew the fire of the Chinese flagship. A running fight of two hours' duration preceded the main en- gagement in the bay, during which the trans- ports entered the Yalu River in safety. The work of transferring the troops and stores from the Chinese transports to the shore was proceeding rapidly when the Japa- nese fleet was sighted. Admiral Ting of the Chinese fleet signaled to his ships to weigh anchor and form in line of battle. In obedi- ence to this order the fleet was formed in a single line, with the exception of the cruisers Kwang-Kai and Kwang-Ting and four tor- pedo boats, which were formed in a second line at the mouth of the river. The Japanese fleet advanced at full speed while the Chinese columns were forming in line, until they came within range, when the war ships formed in line of battle, nine of them in the first column and three gunboats and five torpedo boats in the second column. The firing at the outset of the engagement was of an indifferent order, but the Japanese were creeping gradually closer to the Chinese ships and their gunners were improving their aim by practice. A Bursting Shell. The Chinese barbette ship Ting-Yuen was the first to suffer any severe injury, a Japa- nese shell bursting in her battery. A cease- less cannonade was kept up on both sides for an hour and a half, when the Japanese ship Saikio was rendered helpless, and, ac- cording to the assertion of a Chinese officer, sank soon afterward. Two of the big guns of the battle ship Chen-Yuen were disabled, but she continued to use her smaller guns. The vessels of both fleets worked very easily under steam, and the Japanese were con- stantly manceuvering, but the Chinese held their original position. Suddenly two Japanese cruisers, believed to have been the Akitsushima and the Yo- 325 826 COREA AND THE WAR. shino, endeavored to break the Chinese line. They were followed by three torpedo boats. As the Japanese ships advanced at full speed, the Chinese ships Chin-Yuen and Choa- Yung backed full speed astern to avoid dis- aster. The Japanese torpedo boats fired, but their projectiles were stopped by nets. The guns of the other Chinese ships were quickly trained on the two Japanese cruisers, and they retired after a short time, almost helpless. The Chinese declared they were sunk. A Ship on Fire. The Ching-Yuen was several times pierced by shells. The Chao-Yung ran ashore while retreating, and became a target for the Japa- nese guns until she was set on fire. The King- Yuen was in a terrible plight. A shell burst through her decks and she slowly foundered, while flames burst from all parts of her. The Tsi-Yuen withdrew from the first into the second column. The Chinese torpedo boats vainly at- tempted to put the Japanese on the defen- sive, but the Japanese remained the aggres- sors throughout, although two or three at- tempts to break the Chinese line were re- pulsed. The cruiser Yang- Wei went ashore stern foremost and met a fate similar to that of the Chao-Yung. After the first three hours of the engage- ment the firing was intermittent. The cap- tain of the cruiser Chin-Yuen fought bravely when his ship was little better than a wal- lowing wreck, until the cruiser was sunk by a torpedo and her crew engulfed. The scene at this point is described as appalling. Many guns on both sides were disabled, the bat- tered ships rolled heavily, and their steam pumps were kept constantly at work to keep them afloat. During the last hour of the battle some of the Chinese ships ran out of ammunition, and some of the Japanese ships threatened to founder. At dusk the Japa- nese ships moved slowly southward in double line. Another account of the battle is as follows : Long before the rejoicings over the capture of Ping-Yang had begun to subside, Japan was excited by fresh enthusiasm by the news of another victory of even greater significance in the Northeastern inlet of the Yalu River. The 1 6th of September Admiral Ito, com- manding the squadron, stationed at the mouth of the Taing, or Daido River was notified that a large Chinese fleet had arrived at the Yalu River, which divides Corea and China, in charge of transports, conveying reinforcements to the army on the frontier. He set sail the following morning with all the men-of-war that could be immediately sum- moned, viz : The Matsushima, flagship ; Hashidate, Itsukushima, Yoshino, Taka- chiho, Akitsushima, Naniwa, Chyoda, Fuso, Akagi and Hi-Yei. Accompanying these eleven was the Saiko, a merchant steamer, taken into the national service since the war began, of no strength and not intended for heavy work in action. Commenced Firing. She would not have joined the expedition, but for the desire of Admiral Viscount Kaba- yama, the naval chief of the staff, who being on a visit of inspection at the North, could not resist the temptation to witness the ex- pected engagement. Between 12 and i o'clock, fourteen Chinese ships and six tor- pedo boats were discovered a little south of a harbor, called Taikosan, in Japanese pro- nunciation, the East of Kaiyoto Island. Contrary to expectation they advanced unhesitatingly and commenced firing when 4000 yards distant from the Japanese, who reserved their first discharge until another JAPAN'S GREAT NAVAL VICTORY. 327 1000 yards had been covered. The serious fighting began between the vessels at the Chinese right and the Japanese left, the flag- ships of both sides leading the onslaught. £y I o'clock the contest was general. Both lines maintjuned their positions steadily for an hour when the Chinese showed signs of wavering. Ships and Crews go Dov^n. Three of their ships, either by accident or design, had for sometime been made special objects, and although they contended vigor- ously to the last, they were sunk, one after another, the crew climbing into the rigging and signalled wildly for help to their com- panions and assailants. These were the Lai-Yuen, Chih-Yuen and Chao-Puen. As soon as they were disposed of, the foremost Japanese ships directed their cissault against the immense German-built vessels at the head of the Chinese column, for a long time without effect on the heavy steel plates which protected them. At last, however, a lucky shell struck the Ting- Yuen a little above the water — and seemed to the Japanese observers to pierce the armor through and through. Their belief that this feat had been accomplished was increased when a thick body of smoke was seen rising from the flagship, and although no diminution of activity aboard was perceptible, they were convinced that she had been set on fire and remained burn- ing up to the hour of her hasty departure. Whatever the condition was, she succeeded in inflicting heavy punishment upon her chief adversary. The Matsushima was struck by two twelve-inch shells. The first upset and battered out of shape one of her guns, while the second exploded an ammu- nition box, dealing havoc among the crew and starting a fire, which was subsequently, with great difficulty, put out. In conse- quence of the mishap, the Matsushima with- drew from the scene and moved toward Tai-Tong, Admiral Ito transferring his flag to the Hashidate. Meanwhile three other Japanese vessels had undergone extremely rough treatment. The Saiko, which Viscount Kabayama per- sisted in keeping in the thickest part of the fight, notwithstanding her obvious unsuita- bility for such duty, lost control of her rudder and found herself in much closer proximity than was desirable to the Ting- Yuen and Chen-Yuen. As she could not avoid them, she made directly for them, it is supposed, in the belief that she was about to ram them. A Shower of Missiles. The Japanese are of the opinion that it was under this illusion that the two huge ships separated, allowing the Saiko a passage about forty fathoms wide through which to escape. Torpedoes were discharged at her as she went by, but without avail. The Hiyei having been unable by reason of her slowness to keep pace with the rest of the fleet, became a conspicuous object to the Chinese, and was so deluged with missiles that she was set on fire before the afternoon was half over. Her small crew was greatly reduced, and as the surgeon was among the wounded, the sufferers could not be properly cared for. When she had lost twenty killed and three wounded, she fell out of line and returned to Tai-Tong, but meeting a transport on the ' way, she obtciined assistance in quenching the flames, and handed over the wounded, and returned with all the speed she could make, not waiting for a doctor, to take up her work where she had left off. In this hope she was disapp^ted, for the enemy 328 COREA AND THE WAR. had flown and the battle was over. Still she was exposed to the enemy's fire. It is reported that when she steamed away in flames she was thrice in great danger from torpedoes, but skillfully escaped by employing a device described in a recent magazine account of an imaginary fight in South America. To most readers of that sketch, the expediency of stopping a projec- tile by turning upon it a converging fire of shot and shell seemed purely fiction, yet this is precisely what the Hi-Yei is said to have done in, at least, one instance. The Akagi, a small gunboat, was badly overmatched from the outset, accident hav- ing brought her under the fire of not less than six of the enemy's boats. Her com- mander was struck down and killed while she was thus hotly engaged, yet she would still have kept up a determined resistance, but for the loss of a mast, which rendered her unmanagable. She also found it neces- sary to return to the Tai-Tong. The Flagship Retreats. About the time that Admiral Ito left the Matsushima the disorder in the Chinese fleet plainly indicated that the contest could not be prolonged on either side. Three ships had been sunk, and a fourth, the Yang- Wei, had been half destroyed and abandoned. Beside the Ting-Yuen was on fire, and the entire force was thoroughly demoralized. A little later, after five o'clock, the flagship took the lead in retreat toward the home stations. Four fast steaming Japanese cruisers were detailed to follow, and, if possible, to cut off" their escape. But the torpedoes had to be reckoned with, and the possibility of being struck with one of them in the night made it imperative that the Japanese should exer- cise caution. Morning found them at the mouth of the Gulf of Pechili, with no ship of the enemy in sight. They steamed back to Kayioto Island, keeping a keen overlook on the way, but the Chinese had evidently reached a place of refuge. The greater part of the Japanese squad- ron and reconvened near Takaisan Harbor, on the chance of getting another fight, bringing this time torpedo boats to co- operate. The need of them was so greatly felt on the previous day that it is safe to say no large number of Japanese ships will ever again sail without these essential adjuncts. Loss of Life. One of them was now put to a practical, if somewhat inglorious use, in breaking up the Yang- Wei, deserted and unfit for further service. Examinations show that none of the Japanese vessels received damages that could not be repaired with slight cost and labor. All but the four referred to were so free from injury that they could have gone into action the following day. The loss of life was the largest on the Matsushima. Her complement was 335. Four officers and thirty-nine men were killed and seventy officers and men wounded. The total loss was ten officers and sixty-nine men killed and one hundred and sixty officers and men wounded. Further particulars of the great battle were learned from the following despatch from Tien-Tsin, dated September 21st: Wounded officers of the Chinese fleet con- firm the original report of the engagement on the 17th inst. They say that the Chinese fleet arrived at Yalu River on the afternoon of the i6th and remained ten miles outside of the mouth of the river while the transports were unloading. At eleven o'clock on the morning of the 17th they sighted the smoke of the Japanese fleet, JAPAN'S GREAT NAVAL VICTORY. 329 which was approaching in two columns. The Chinese vessels steamed out to meet them in two columns, converging on the flagship. The Japanese fleet consisted of twelve ships, while the Chinese had ten ships. The Chinese Admiral opened fire at a dis- tance of six thousand yards, but the firing on both sides fell short until the opposing vessels came within five thousand yards. The Chinese endeavored to come to close quarters, but were prevented from accom- plishing their purpose by the superior speed of the Japanese ships, which, keeping for the most part two miles off, manoeuvred ad- mirably and made splendid practice with the long range quick firing guns. Went Down with all Hands. The Chinese cruiser Chih-Yuen, Captain Tang Chi Chang, early in the day closed with one of the enemy's ships at full speed, intending to ram her. Four Japanese vessels then closed round the Chih-Yuen, and she was ripped up by shots under the water line, and went down with all hands, including the engineer. Meanwhile the battle raged furiously round the flagship Ting- Yuen and her consort, the Chen-Yuen. A gunnery officer on the Ting-Yuen, was killed. The Japanese ships were difficult to identify, but it is known that the cruiser Yoshino received some damaging shots at close quarters, which enveloped her in smoke and made her invisible. Some of the Chinese gunners devoted their attention especially to the Japanese cruiser Naniwa, and succeeded in setting her on fire, but none of the Chinese officers saw her sink. An account received three days later says : If naval supremacy of the future is to be decided by battleships, the crucial test of modern conditions for fighting at sea has still to be made. Of the twenty-seven ves- sels engaged in the fight at the mouth of the Yalu River only two had any pretensions to be called battleships. These were the Chinese vessels Ting-Yuen and Chen- Yuen. All the rest were of the protected or un- protected cruiser class. All through the war the Japanese have shown that their intelligence department is excellently worked. There can be no doubt that they received accurate information about the destination of four thousand troops and large quantities of rice and mili- tary stores which left Taku about September 14th in the Chinese steamers Hsinyu-Tsonan, Chintung, Lee-Yuen and Haeting. These vessels picked up their convoy and made for Tatung Kou under the escort of six cruisers and four torpedo boats. Approach of the Fleet. When off Talienwan Bay they were joined by larger vessels of the Chinese fleet, and made their destination on Sunday, Septem- ber 1 6th. The debarkation began under cover of torpedo vessels and two of the lesser draught ships, and was successfully accomplished, while the other nine vessels of the fleet remained in twenty-five fathoms, from ten to twelve miles south by east, from Tatung Kou. The Japanese, with that provision which precludes the element of luck, had carefully surveyed the coast two or three years ago. The harbor master of Port Arthur had re- peatedly urged the Chinese to follow their example, but without success. Steam was kept up, when at noon on Monday, Septem- ber 17, a cloud of that obtrusive black smoke which the Japanese coal gives off showed the approach of their fleet from the south. 330 COREA AND THE WAR. The Admiral at once weighed anchor, drew up his squadron, in formation like an obtuse angle, with two armored ships at the apex, and advanced to give battle. The Japanese came on in line and carried out a series of evolutions with beautiful precision. The tactics of both sides are too highly technical for the layman, but in common speech they may be resolved thus: Movmg in a Circle. The Japanese, having speed, kept circling around the Chinese, enlarging their radius as they came within range of the big guns of the armored Ting- Yuen and the Chen- Yuen, and coming closer in as they came opposite the unarmored ships and guns of less calibre. The Chinese kept their wedge formation, but as all the halyards were shot away on the admiral's ship early in the action, they had simply to watch leaders and exact dis- cretion. The first evolution of the Japanese de- tached three Chinese ships. One was the fine Elswick cruiser Chih-Yuen (2300 tons, 1 8 knots, three 8-inch 1 2-ton guns, two 6- inch 4-ton and 17 rapid firers). Captain Tang handled his ship with great coolness. His vessel was badly hulled very early in the fight, and took a strong list to starboard. Seeing she was sinking he went full speed ahead at a Japanese ship which was sticking to him like a limpet, and making free prac- tice with the intention of ramming her, but he foundered with all hands, 250, just before the ship got home. One account of it is that he did sink the Jap, but the weight of evidence is that he only disabled her by his return fire. The King-Yuen, 2850 tons, 16-12 knots, two 8-inch ten ton guns, two 6-inch four tons and seven machine guns, took fire soon after this, but her captain, while subduing the flames, still fought his ship. Seeing a dis- abled Japanese near him, most probably the same vessel that the Chih-Yuen had tried to ram, he came up, intending to capture or sink her, but was incautious enough to cross the line of her torpedo tube at a short dis- tance. The Japanese thereupon shot her caily bolt, and sure enough blew the King-Yuen up. Out of a complement of two hundred and seventy odd, some seven only are known to have escaped. One occount says that this fine vessel perished from fire, but subse- quent information from Port Arthur gives the foregoing as the more accurate version of her end. With regard to the disabled Japa- nese vessel not one informant will deliberately say "I myself saw her founder," but without exception they all maintain that she sank soon after the destruction of the King-Yuen. A Cowardly Captain. The notorious Fong, the reinstated cap- tain of the Tsi-Yuen, again distinguished himself by his devotion to the white feather. All the foreign survivors are very silent on this subject, but there is no doubt whatever that this poor creature signalled early in the day that his ship was badly struck and that he then promptly took her out of action. In doing so he ran precipitately into the shal- lows where the Elswick built cruiser, the Yang- Wei (1350 tons, sixteen knots, two ten-inch five ton guns, four four tons and ten machine guns) was in difficulties, struggling hard to get off. Pong's navigation and pilotage were about equal to his courage. Finding his surround- ings suddenly changed, he altered his helm and fairly rammed his unhappy colleague, escaping himself, however, with a damaged bow. The Yang-Wei's crew of 250 were JAPAN'S GREAT NAVAL VICTORY. 331 nearly all lost, and that vessel herself went down in about four and a half fathoms on a straight keel, with her tops and lighter guns out of the water and her turret or barbette just awash. She was seen in that position four days after by the returning transports. The Tsi-Yuen ran at full speed for Port Arthur. There the foreign engineer came ashore and flatly refused to serve further with such a captain. News has since ar- rived in Tien-Tsin that he will be under no necessity of doing so, as Fong's head was promptly sheared off by an imperative order from Tien-Tsin. This poltroon had been recently court martialed for his conduct on the day of the Kow-Shing disaster and then, to the great indignation of the fleet, rein- stated to his command. An Eye to the Main Chance. His villanous example was followed by the commander of the wooden corvette, the Kuang-Chia, iioo tons, three twelve-inch rapid firing guns, eight machine guns. It is a moot point whether his ship was injured in action or not. He shows the woodwork of the latrines as a proof. At any rate, he bolted, and kept so keen an eye to the main chance after that, that at 1 1 P. M. he ran his vessel on a reef, some twenty miles east of Talienwan Bay, and for all that is known she is there still, although there is a rumor that the Japanese afterward put a torpedo into her. The desertion of these two ships would have reduced the Chinese to seven had they not been reinforced by vessels from in shore, and later on by torpedo vessels, four in number. One of the two ships, the Yang- Wei, was, as stated, rammed by the Tsi- Yuen, the other, the Choayung, a sister ship, soon took fire, and also got into shoal water, where sne burned completely out. More than one hundred men were taken off" by a torpedo vessel, but some of Tier crew were killed. The vessel remained visible, a useless shell, just above the wash of sea at low water. This completes the list of Chinese casualties and losses. The torpedo boats found some difficulties ■ in joining the fray. The loss of halyards and in some cases of colors made it difficult to distinguish friend from foe, but the young officers in charge did well and acted fully up to their instructions to keep well under the lee of the big ships during fire and then to dart out under the bank of smoke. Unfortu- nately for them, these little vessels had been scouting for three weeks and had been over- worked. The result was lamentable. When they opened out their possible twenty knots sank to something between fourteen and fif- teen. The smoke rose rapidly, and long before the Schwarzkopf range was reached they were seen and fired at. Oddly enough they were not hit once by anything worthy of notice. Torpedoes of Little Account. But, on the other hand, they effected noth- ing. The dreaded torpedo only scored once in the action, and that was in the case of the King-Yuen, an issue entirely due to over- confidence and rashness. In the meantime, the two armored vessels, the Ting-Yuen and the Chen-Yuen, were the recipients of the continued and persistent firing of the Japanese. The Chen- Yuen, under the command of Commodore Lin, assisted by two foreigners, made grand practice and kept admirable dis- cipline. Her frequent fires were extinguished promptly, and the ship was admirably han- dled throughout the action. The foreign officers on board are both severely wounded, one in the arm, while the other, through an inadvertence, in the too prompt fire of one of 332 COREA AND THE WAR. the heavy guns, got his scalp and face badly- burned and was subsequently wounded in the arm. So persistent was the fire of this vessel that the magazine was all but depleted, and she arrived at Port Arthur with only twenty rounds of heavy shell left. She fired one hundred and forty-eight six-inch shells, and quite exhausted her smaller ammunition. Her fire was as effective as it was sustained, owing to the skill and coolness of the foreign experts. This ship's superstructure was almost completely destroyed, and a shell struck the spindle of the hydraulic gear of the port gun, putting it out of action. Little Damage. With this exception it is amazing to find how little damage the heavy fire did to the guns and machinery. Only three guns were dismounted in the whole Chinese fleet, and in no case were the engines, boilers or hydraulic machinery (the Chen-Yuen's ex- cepted) injured. No casualties were reported from the engine rooms, where the behavior was excellent. The Lai-Yuen, a sister ship to the King- Yuen in build and armament, had her super- structure damaged by fire and shell more than any other ship in the fleet, and was an appalling sight in Port Arthur. Foreigners who saw her deemed it a marvel that she could ever have been brought into port, so completely wrecked was all her deck gear. She was essentially sound in hull, armament and engines, however. The Ting- Yuen (flag ship, 7,430 tons, fourteen and one-half knots, four thirty-seven ton Krupp guns, two four ton Krupps, eight machine guns) was the scene of some striking episoded. A heavy shell, supposed but not known to be on the ricochet, struck the fighting top, killing instantly seven men in it and knocking the entire gear into the sea. Another shot in its vagaries bent but did not break the steam pipe. A third killed poor Nicholls, an ex-petty officer of the British navy, who, seeing another foreigner bleeding from a wound in the groin, volunteered to take his place for a few minutes while he went below. The Admiral and the third engineer, who had volunteered from the customs service, were violently thrown off the bridge by con- cussion and rendered senseless for some time. It is supposed that heavy guns were simul- taneously fired from the barbette. On recovering the Admiral was found to have sustained injury to his foot, while an attend- ant, in bearing help to his master, was literally blown into the air aftd sea in infini- tesimal pieces by a shell — an accident which profoundly affected the brave old fighter. The Engagement Renewed. About three o'clock the Japanese hauled off for consultation, but came on again and renewed the battle. About five they took their final leave, the Ting-Yuen and Chen- Yuen following them up. This was probably a bit of strategy on the part of the Japs, for after running ten or twelve miles five of them turned round and fired. This was apparently the last kick, for to the unmitigated dehght of the Chinese officers they finally hauled off and departed to the southward. The Admiral then sent on a verbal mess- age for the transports to come along. But they had gone far up stream when they knew what was going on, and did not dare to move without more special orders. It was sup- posed that they had fallen victims to the Japs, who returned the next day. But on Saturday they all arrived safely at Taku. They had left Tatung Kou on Friday, four days after the battle. They saw the shell of JAPAN'S GREAT NAVAL VICTORY. 333 the Chao-Yung and the tops of the Yong- Wei in the water on the scene of action. They called in at Port Arthur, where they saw six Chinese vessels, and crossed the Gulf of Pechili in perfect safety. The following account ts valuable as com- ing from an experienced naval officer, who was present. The account is mainly a re- petition of previous reports, but adds that the concussion of the first discharge of the guns of the Ting-Yuen threw everybody off the bridge of the ship. The Japanese ships approached in column of divisions, the line ahead of the divisions being disposed abeam. At Close Quarters. Coming closer, they tried to form a line abreast. The Chinese ships started in a sec- tional line abreast, at a rate of speed of seven knots an hour. As they came nearer the Japanese appeared to form in quarter line, to which the Chinese replied by turning two points to the starboard, thus keeping their bows toward the enemy. Approaching within forty-four hundred yards the whole Japanese fleet seemed to turn eight points to port, thereby forming a single line ahead, and steaming across the Chinese line turned its starboard wing. The Chinese were unable to keep pace with the enemy, and endeavored to follow their movements by keeping bow on them as the Japanese ships circled around, maintain- ing the while a heavy bombardment. The Japanese fleet that kept in the thick of the fight consisted of six ships of the " Yuen " class. The Japanese ships, having completed one circle, hauled off to a distance of eight thou- sand yards, and went through an evolution with the object of separating into two divi- sions, the first consisting of seven of their best-known and the swiftest cruisers, and the second of five inferior ships, which stood off some distance. The battle thus arranged itself into two groups, four Chinese cruisers becom- ing engaged with the second division, while two ironclads, the Chen-Yuen and Ting- Yuen, attacked the first division. The fighting of the second division was irregular and difH- cult to follow. It ended in the Japanese disappearing in the direction of Hai-Yung-Tao. The first Japanese division carried on the fight with the ironclads by circling round at a distance of forty-five hundred yards. The Chen-Yuen and Ting-Yuen, keeping to- gether, followed the enemy's movements in a smaller circle, the whole evolution taking a spiral form. Occasionally the distance be- tween the opposing ships was reduced to two thousand yards, and once to twelve hundred yards. Keeping at a Distance. The Japanese aimed at keeping a long distance away, so as to avail themselves of their superior speed, and make the most of their quick-firing guns, which vastly excelled those of the Chinese. The object of the Chinese was to come to close quarters, so as to use their slow-firing guns of large calibre with full effect. The firing continued between the Chinese ironclads and the Japanese first division until nearly five o'clock in the afternoon. The quick-firing guns gave the latter an immense advantage, scattering showers of splinters, occasionally setting the Chinese ships on fire and riddling everything that was not pro- tected by armor. During the action one of the smaller Japanese ships was seen with her propellers out of the water and her bow nearly under. Another was seen to be on fire, enveloped in flames and apparently sinking. 334 COREA AND THE WAR. The Yoshino and Matsusima were burn- ing fiercely. The former, after receiving two shots each fi-om the Ting-Yuen and Chen- Yuen, was enveloped in a cloud of white smoke, which lay heavily on the water and completely covered the ships. The Chinese vessels waited for the cloud to clear, and got their port guns ready, but before the Yoshino became visible their fire was diverted by a Japanese vessel of the Matsusima type, which came on at a distance of two thousand two hundred yards on the port quarter. The guns that were laid for the Yoshino were fired at the newcomer, with the result that she began to burn. Whether these three Japanese ships received mortal injuries is uncertain. In the latter part of the battle the Chinese iionclads ran short of common shells and continued the action with steel shot. This was ineffective, as the Japanese vessels have no armor. The two ironclads fired 197 rounds with 1 2-inch guns, and 268 rounds with 6-inch guns. About four o'clock the Ting- Yuen was badly on fire forward, the smoke impeding the working of the fore- turret. Before five o'clock the Japanese had ceased firing, and the distance between the fleets was rapidly increasing. Effective Armor. In regard to the conclusions to be drawn from the battle it may be said that the Chinese battleships proved formidable. The Chinese ironclads stood the battering of the heavy quick-firing guns admirably. Their upper structures were severely damaged, but not a shot penetrated a vital part. The bar- bette protection of the 12-mch guns was most effective, very few men being wounded within the barbettes. Two barbette turrets were as intact after the action as before. This fact, however, coupled with the fact that the 6-inch guns at both ends of the ships, which are only slightly protected, were also undamaged, seems to indicate that the destructive effect was due to the enor- mous number of projectiles from the quick- firing guns, rather than to the skilled direc- tion of the shots. The manceuvering of the Japanese first division excited great admira- tion. Taking advantage of their speed and the long range of their guns, they always kept at the distance that suited them, main, taining perfect order throughout the fight, attempting nothing sensational and never coming within destructive range of the heaviest guns. The Mast Cut Away. Captain Sakamoto, of the Akagi, was aloft watching for torpedoes and signalling to the other vessels of the fleet their loca- tion, when the mast was cut away by a shot from the enemy and he was killed. The Yoshino's forward barbette was slightly damaged. All the ships of the Japanese squadron carried new guns, and these did ex- cellent service. They used no torpedoes, all the damage sustained by the Chinese vessels being inflicted by shot. In view of this fact, the sinking of double bottomed vessels like the Lai-Yuen is considered remarkable, and it is the generally expressed opinion among nautical authorities that the work of the Japanese was the most successful thing since the time of Nelson. Toward the close of the fight great confu- sion was observed on board the Ting-Yuen, King-Yuen and Ping-Yuen. These ships appeared to be on fire. At sundown the Chinese fleet were in full retreat. They were pursued by the Japanese ships, which laid their course parallel to that taken by the enemy. The night being very dark, the pursuers kept at some distance JAPAN'S GREAT NAVAL VICTORY. from the Chinese, fearing that should they follow the enemy too closely they might be damaged by the latter's torpedo boats. Owing to this fact and the extreme darkness the Chinese succeeded in getting away and reaching a safe shelter. At daylight the Japanese vessels endeav- ored to find the enemy, but were unable to do so. They then returned to the scene of the previous day's action, where they found the Yang-Wei ashore and deserted, and destroyed her with a fish torpedo. None of the Japanese vessels were lost in the engage- ment and only three of them were seriously injured. All of them, with the exception of the MatsuBima, remained on the station. All the official reports of the battle were very laconic and greatly wanting in scientific and useful details, but from the foregoing statements the reader will be able to obtain a true account of the battle. Literal Gifts. The ex-Daimio of Mito, one of the great Tokugawa family of the Shogunatow, com- memorated the victory of Ping- Yang by a donation of ^8000 to the war fund. His younger brother gave at the same time ^2300. Large contributions to the same object continued to be received from various sources, the theatre managers being especi- ally conspicuous for their liberality, but the native journals complained that the promi- nent merchants and bankers, and especially the contractors, who were receiving enor- mous sums from the public treasury, offered no similar donations. By command of the Empress, the pecuni- ary circumstances of the families of soldiers and sailors who died in the war, were ascer- tained for her Majesty's immediate consider- ation. Subscriptions to the war aggregated on September 25, $55,000,000, $10,000 be- 335 The ing applied for at the rate above par. call was for only ;^2 5, 000,000. Warnings of punishment in store for Li Hung Chang in consequence of the repeated defeats suffered by the Chinese Army and Navy were sent from Pekin, but the text of the decree proclaimed on the 17th of Sep- tember, after the battle of Ping-Yang, was as follows : Li Hung Chang Degraded. "The Emojen (Japanese pigmies), having broken faith with Corea and forcibly occu- pied that country, the throne sympathized with its tributary kingdom in her distress and so raised an army to attack the common enemy. Upon Li Hung Chang, Imperial High Commander of Peyang, having chief control of the forces there, rested the entire burden of being prepared for emergencies, but, instead, he has been unable to act with speed and promptness in his military prepara- tions, so that much time has elapsed without any important results. He has indeed failed in the trust reposed in him by us. We, therefore, command that his decoration of the Three-Eyed Peacock Feather be plucked off from his hat and that he be stripped of the yellow riding jacket as a slight punish- ment. It is necessary then that the said Im- perial High Commander exert himself to the utmost and decide upon what should be done ; that he direct and hasten the various armies from the various provinces to the front in order that all may put forth their best strength to chase and root out the enemy. In this way Li Hung Chang may hope to redeem former errors." The position of foreigners in the interior of China, especially at the north, was regarded as extremely critical. Even residents of Shanghai felt it necessary to remind com- manders of European fleets of dangers that 336 COREA AND THE WAR. would threaten them in case the government suffered further reverses, and the few aliens who remained in Pekin had far more serious cause for apprehension. The authority of Li Hung Chang, which would ordinarily be exercised on behalf of strangers was now so weakened that his promises of protection could no longer be trusted. No immediate movement from the capital could be safely attempted, as the roads were thronged with disorderly bodies of troops and a peasant population, famished and desperate. The presence of marines to guard legations and restrain the lawlessness of mobs, which seemed waiting only for a pretext to rise upon Europeans and Ameri- cans, was imperatively demanded. A New Commander. The call of Prince Kung to power was interpreted as another sign of Li Hung Chang's decline. This halfrforgotten states- man, seventy years of age, controlled the diplomacy of the Empire some thirty years before, until he was set aside by one of the palace conspiracies which in those days frequently threw the government into confu- sion. His appointment was quickly followed by the nomination of General Sung to the chief command of the Northern armies. This was understood as equivalent to a definite denial to Li's position to be entrusted with the direct management of the military and naval forces. The statement previously published that the Chinese fleet purposely carried no boats was corroborated. The crews of all the lost vessels perished, with scarcely an exception. The number of drowned was roughly estimated at nearly seven hundred. Every deck officer engaged was injured. On the ships which returned to Port Arthur about one hundred were killed and two hundred and fifty were wounded. The engagement was severe throughout, and the casualties were unavoidable. An extraordinary Imperial edict was issued calling for a true report of the battle of Ping- Yang. The Emperor announced that the defeat was owing to dissensions amongst the defenders and rivalry of generals in charge of the several brigades and stated that the guilty parties would be severely punished. A proclamation was issued warning British troops against accepting any engagements that might be offered. The Merchants' Steam Navigation Company continued the transfer of its ships from Chinese to German control. One of the Imperial decrees announced that the sovereign had consented to the Empress Dowager's request to omit or post- pone the celebration of that lady's sixtieth birthday and devote the immense sums of money collected for the ceremonies to the prosecution of the war. Reports of mutinies among Chinese troops in Manchuria gained strength and caused great agitation in Pekin and Tien Tsin. Prompt Contributions. "Ever since the war began," wrote a Japanese correspondent, " the enthusiasm of the Japanese has known no bounds. Con- tributions for the comfort of the soldiers in Corea flow in from all sides. Every imagin- able article was piled up in the Army Depart- ment as gifts to those fighting for the country. Contributions from ten cents up to tens of thousands of dollars were daily reported. Mr. Fukuzawa, the famous educationalist and journalist, contributed $10,000 to the relief fund. "Ladies, high and low, were sending money, as well as lint bandages for the wounded. Towns and villages were busying themselves in organizing militia companies to JAPAN'S GREAT NAVAL VICTORY. 337 offer their services to the Mikado. The Mikado, however, addressed the people, ex- horting them that it was their duty to stay at home, to follow their own vocations, as there is a regular army sufficient for the occasion, although he rejoiced in their patri- otism. This must have been a great disap- pointment to the brave and warlike Samurai class. " To prepare for a prolonged war Japan issued this large five per cent, government loan of ;^2S, 000,000. The Minister of the Treasury consulted with financiers and bank- ers as to the advisability of the measure. The Minister was of the opinion that the bonds ought to bear six per cent, interest, but the bankers' enthusiasm was such that they assured him that the greater part of the loan would be taken by themselves at five per cent, and they felt sure that there would be no difficulty in raising the entire amount. The feeling of the whole country is at such a pitch that they cannot rest until they realize the long cherished hope of humiliating China." Japan's Field Marshal. The Commander-in-Chief of the Japanese army in Corea, Field Marshal Count A. Yamagata, who brought the Ping -Yang campaign to a brilliant close, may well be said to be a born soldier. He was called the Von Moltke of Japan, and his brilliant strategy at Ping- Yang would indicate that he deserved the title. In stature, he is tall and slender. The reader will be interested in the follow- ing sketch : " Socially he is very quiet and silent, and here his resemblance to the great 22 German general is brought out in bold relief. His influence and popularity are immense, especially in the army. He comes of very humble origin, his father being one of the Ashigaru caste, the lowest of all the Samurai classes, who, in feudal times, could not under ordinary circumstances be promoted to a higher rank. " When still in his teens he was the head of the Chosin cavalry forces, and led them against the army of 20,000 men sent in 1864 by the Shogun, then the reigning power, for the chastisement of the feudal lord of the Chosin province. With the insignificant force of scarcely 2000 men he checked the advance of the enemy and completely de- feated them before they could invade the Chosin territory. His strategy and tactics on that occasion were masterpieces in skill and precision. There has scarcely been any fighting since the war of restoration in which he was not actively engaged. Japan's Greatest Marshal. " It is the general opinion of Japanese that Marshal Yamagata is the ablest general that Japan now has. There are four field mar- shals in the Japanese army, and Count Yama- gata is the only one who is not of princely birth. The other three are Prince Arisugawa and other high personages of royal blood. " Marshal Yamagata has in his staff in Corea, Lieutenant General Nodsu, as vice commander, who has had as brilliant a mili- tary career as the Marshal himself They have been together in previous battles, and know each other well. It is not likely that there will be any disagreement between then! as to military operations." CHAPTBR XXI. STIRRING INCIDENTS OF THE CAMPAIGN. AFTER the great naval battle which resulted so disastrously to the Chi- nese navy, the Japanese army made preparations for a bold advance, having in view especially the towns and for- tified places occupied by the enemy. A number of minor battles were fought, which although not decisive, or fraught with great results, yet served to show the superiority of the Japanese arms. A strong patriotic feeling in support of the war manifested itself in Japan, and the popu- lace were elated over recent victories and were enthusiastic in their support of the government. On all sides there was rejoic- ing and congratulations. By this time the conviction not only pervaded Japan, but other nations likewise, that the military power of China was only a mere shell and would easily be crushed in the conflict. As a result it began to be rumored that China was ready to propose terms of peace, and although this was denied by officials of high position the statement was again and again renewed and found a ready relief. The fact also became known that England was extremely nervous on account of the events in the Orient which threatened her commercial relations with China. There was talk of interference by the European powers and it was only after mature delibera- tion that the decision was reached to allow the war to proceed and take its own course. The powers most frequently named were England and Russia, and it became an inter- esting question as to what part each would 338 play in the sanguinary conflict. Reports flew from continent to continent with light- ning rapidity, rumors and contradictions of rumors filled the air, and public interest with the dawn of each day inquired what new move had been made upon the chess-board of the Orient where nations were playing the great drama of Empire. Meanwhile let us turn our attention to the military movements and incidents of the campaign following the battle of the Yalu. Death of China's Commander. After the battle of Ping- Yang, while the Japanese soldiers were engaged in burying those who had fallen in the fight, they found, surrounded by a heap of dead bodies, the remains of an officer very richly clad. On the body was found a letter from the Chinese government addressed to General Yeh, Com- mander-in-Chief of the Chinese forces in Corea. This letter, together with others, from the wife of General Yeh, and various documents, which were also found on the body, fixed beyond doubt the identity of the remains as those of General Yeh, who was supposed to have succeeded in making his escape after the complete rout of his forces by the Japanese. The body was interred with the honor due the rank of the deceased officer. At this juncture of affairs it was reported that Japan was endeavoring to negotiate a treaty with the United States. The treaty was one which the Mikado's government regarded as more important than any ever STIRRING INCIDENTS OF THE CAMPAIGN. 339 made by it before with any country. It pro- vided for the abolition of that feature of the present treaty which is known as " extra-ter- ritorial" jurisdiction, which is equivalent to placing the affairs of foreigners in Japan under the control of courts composed of consuls representing the commercial powers. Japan has made such progress in civiliza- tion during the past two decades that her national pride revolts at a continuation of such authority, which is only demanded in our treaty negotiations with semi-barbarous nations. This was the real bone of conten- tion in the proposed new treaty, and it was one from which Japan emphatically declined to recede. Concerning Immigration. Another important clause was that which relates to immigration. This, however, it was believed, could be satisfactorily adjusted, inasmuch as the policy of the Tokio govern- ment is to discourage emigration, and, more- over, it is claimed, the Japanese are not a migratory people, and there is no probability that this country would ever be threatened with a "Japanese invasion," as has been the case with the subjects of China. The proposed new treaty was drawn on practically the lines of the treaty agreed to by Great Britain. It specifically enumerated the respective rates of duty which would be levied on importations from the United States, and it provided for the abolition of the export duty on silks and teas, both of which articles are principally exported to the United States, and which yield to the Japanese gov- ernment a revenue amounting to more than ;^ 1, 000,000 annually. As the consumer in this case " pays the tax " the pecuniary sacri- fice made by Japan will be a benefit to the American people, and will furnish an addi- tional proof on the part of the Japanese government for an expansion of their trade with the United States. The treaty also contained other provisions of an economic nature, which, it was believed, would tend further to increase our trade relations with that country. Public interest was further awakened in the affairs of the Orient by reliable news of a proposition to partition China among the European Powers. The following despatch from St. Petersburg indicated what was going on in diplomatic circles : Partition of China Proposed. " In a long and remarkable article on the China-Japanese war the Novosti, a leading journal, strongly advocates European inter- vention, and advises Great Britian, France and Russia to come to an understanding, with a view to the partition of China by a joint occupation. The conquest of China by these three Powers, it is contended, would be an easy undertaking and would render vast service to civilization at large. It would be of benefit to the Chinese people themselves, in saving them from certain de- cay and in freeing them from an arbitrary round of routine in order to bring them into the common sphere of civilization. " The Novosti draws a glowing picture of the enormous economic advantages which would result from the transformation of China into a vast market, which would be the receptacle of the superabundant pro- ducts, natural and industrial, of Europe. " Commenting on the situation in Corea, the Novoe Vremya says : — ' Russia is entitled to more preponderating influence than Great Britian in the settlement of the Corean ques- tion, in view of the fact that the geographical position of Corea places that country within Russia's sphere of influence.' " The obstacles in the way of carving China 340 COREA AND THE WAR. up for an all round distribution, such as the Russian Novosti suggested, would be very great. But these obstacles would not for the most part be furnished by China herself. It is true that she has a population of many millions, and she possesses arsenals where cannons, rifles and ammunition of the most modern type are turned out in considerable quantities. But there is no country in the world where scientific warfare is less intelli- gently studied or understood. "The Chi- nese army," says a highly qualified English observer, " under Chinese officers, even with muskets in its hands and cartridges in its pouches, is an undisciplined rabble of tramps, about as well qualified to withstand a European force as a body of Hyde Park pro- cessionists would be to repel a charge of the Life Guard." Great, but Weak. All history goes to show the facility with which China, notwithstanding her over- whelming numbers, may be worsted by a de- termined invader. Two and a half centuries ago she yielded to a few hundred thousand Tartars, who founded the present dynasty. Four centuries before that she had bowed before the Mongols. In recent times many territorial losses have borne testimony to her weakness. Tonquin, Annam and Cochin China have been taken by France; Siam no longer owes her allegiance ; Burmah has be- come a British possession; the Loo-Chow Islands have passed under the dominion of Japan; and now finally Corea has been wrested from her uncertain grasp. There is yet another reason why China could not hope to resist a partition should the Powers decide upon making it. The Chinese are not one people — not a single community, but a congeries of communities. There is among them no national unity or cohesion. The Thibetans and Mongolians, the Turki and Mussulmans are not united in a real band. The inhabitants of the north- ern portions of the Empire cannot so much as understand the speech of their southern fellow subjects. The provinces are all inde- pendent, with their own armies and their own government, strung loosely together by the same submission to the reigning house. This nexus removed, internal disruption would inevitably result. Anarchy would Result. Were the capital occupied by an enemy the Emperor expelled and the dynasty over- turned, it is doubtful whether China would persevere in any protracted resistance, or initiate a policy of revenge. The various elements of disorder scattered through the Empire would each find its local focus, and a reign of lawless anarchy and universal dis- location might be expected to ensue. It is clear that this crumbling of the Empire upon the removal of its Emperor would enormously assist the division of its terri- tories among a number of greedy and pow- erful foreign states. The effect of the war news upon the Japa- nese was electric and was the occasion of some striking scenes in the large cities. At Yokohama a large number of flags taken from the Chinese were exhibited in front of the Shokonsha shrine, which is dedicated to the spirits of the soldiers that have fallen in battle since the days of the restoration. Thousands of people daily gathered round the place, their countenances beaming with delight at this tangible proof of the superi- ority of the Japanese arms. The pride of those in the crowd who had soldier relatives was freely expressed, and such phrases as "my brother" or "my cousin" did this or that were frequently to be heard. The ex- 341 342 COREA AND THE WAR. hibition of flags was of itself well worth seeing, but the exhibition of family pride and loyalty was more touching. It is estimated that more than fifty thou- sand soldiers were in Tokio, the majority composed of the first-class reserves. The barracks were full to overflowing, and the houses of wealthy private citizens were ap- propriated, as many as fifty men being bil- leted on one house. The calling out of the first-class reserves resulted in sorrow to many households. The metropolitan journals reported one case of peculiar interest, which revealed the crime of infanticide. The young wife of a time- expired soldier died, leaving the widower with an infant daughter. On being called to go to Corea he made strenuous efforts to get some one to take his baby, but, being very poor, was unable to procure a home for the little one. As there was apparently nothing else to do he killed the child and then joined his regiment. The crime was not discovered until after his departure for Corea. He left word with a friend that he was resolved to die on the field of battle. Fears for Missionaries. As a result of the outbreak of the war the gravest solicitude was felt for the missionaries located in China. After a Cabinet Council instructions were cabled to the British Min- ister at Pekin, and to the British Consuls at all the treaty ports to send to the mission stations in the interior, imperative directions for the withdrawal of all the missionaries to the protected coast districts. The Consuls were empowered by their instructions to call for assistance upon Vice Admiral Free- mantle, commanding the British fleet in Chinese waters, who was authorized to send gunboats to any possible distance up the Chinese rivers, if such action was deemed necessary, to cover the withdrawal of the missionaries. The instructions also directed that all missionaries, without regard to nationality, should be protected. The few and meagre telegrams received by the Minister "and Con- suls from the nearest mission stations, indi- cated that the missionaries there were determined not to desert their posts, but to continue their work in the face of all risks. The largest Protestant inland mission in China is engaged in the provinces of Se-Chuen and Hu-Pei, in which provinces anti-foreign riots have most often occurred. Remained at their Posts. The managers of this station, instead of withdrawing the workers under their super- vision, sent fresh drafts of missionaries to the various sub-stations in their district, they having received advices that there was no more cause for fear of ill-treatment than usually existed. The society which operates this station, also, has four stations in the province of Pe-Chi-Li, in which province Pekin is situated, and these four stations employ 614 missionaries, no one of whom, so far as is known, was preparing to retreat. The same may be said of the Catholic mis- sionaries, whose numbers are largely in excess of the Protestants. In Nieu-Chang and Moukden, which are near the centre of the district where the war was being carried on, there were stationed twenty-three Catholic and seventeen Protes- tant missionaries. The mail advices received from those points stated that the churches and houses of native converts had been pil- laged and burned, but that the foreign resi- dents had meanwhile remained unharmed. The position of affairs debarred the Admir- alty from sending explicit orders as to how to dispose of the vessels covering the ports, STIRRING INCIDENTS OF THE CAMPAIGN. 343 but Vice Admiral Freemantle was advised to station gunboats at the Che-Foo, Ichang and Hankow, and also at the furthest inland port, Chun-King. At Shanghai the Indo- European police force was increased on representations made by British shippers there. Taking Shelter in Pekin. The London Missionary Society received a cablegram from the missionaries under its charge located in Tientsin and vicinity, stating that they were well, but that their families were leaving for Pekin, fearing the result of the anti-foreign feeling which had made itself manifest on the part of the natives. China, with her teeming millions, has always been regarded as an important field -for missionary labor since the Nestorians in the seventh century first carried the standard of the Cross into that country. The Jesuit missionaries that went to China about the time when the present Manchu dynasty came into power were well received by the Chinese government. Many of them suc- ceeded even in obtaining high official posts through their scientific attainments. Protestant missionaries made no attempt to enter China till the beginning of the present century. The opening of the five ports in 1842 gave an impetus to missionary labor as well as to trade. The field was gradually widened by the subsequent open- ing of other ports. At first the missionaries naturally confined their operations to these places. Not content with this limited sphere of action they soon established themselves in other parts of the country. Now the differ- ent missionary societies in this country and in Europe have mission stations in every province of the Empire. The American Board has four principal missions in China, called, respectively, the South China, the Foo-chow, the North China and the Shansi. The China Inland Mission has appropriated to itself the interior parts of China as its special field. These examples are sufficient to show how ubiqui- tous the missionaries in China are. In fact, one may come across these self-sacrificing men and women in any out-of-the-way corner of the Empire. Their isolation in this fashion in remote districts renders it practically impossible to afford them ade- quate protection. Execution of Japanese Students. On October i ith it was reported that two Japanese students who were surrendered to the Chinese authorities by the American Consul at Shanghai had been barbarously executed at Nankin by order of the Vice- roy. They died bravely. The arrest of these Japanese was the cause of a spirited controversy, the question involved being that of territorial jurisdiction. The two Japanese were students in Shanghai, who, it was alleged, at the outbreak of hostilities be- tween China and Japan, gathered information concerning China's weakness for the use of their government. It was not known whether they succeeded in sending any of this information to Japan. The Chinese au- thorities claimed that they detected them in their alleged unlawful work and attempted to place them under arrest. The Japanese fled to the French Consu- late in Shanghai, but remained there only a short time, the French Consul General turn- ing them over to the United States Consu- late. Some days after their arrival at the United States Consulate the Chinese authori- ties demanded that they be turned over to them, and not having jurisdiction over them, our Consul General Jernegan had to accede 344 COREA AND THE WAR. to their request. This action was considered in the United States Senate December sth. The next advices from the seat of war stated that on October loth a detachment of Japanese cavalry and infantry made an attack upon and routed a force of 2,000 Chinese at Wi-Ju, and that the place re- mained in the hands of the Japanese. The Japanese force had been greatly delayed in its advance by the badness of the roads. The heavy guns could be brought forward but slowly, and the troops were compelled often to wait for supplies. Pioneer troops had to be used repeatedly to make the roads passable. The main Japanese column reached Yung-Chen, a short distance to the south of Wi-Ju, on October 4. There was no sign of the enemy. Four days later the scouts who had been sent out towards Wi-Ju reported that a small Chinese force still occupied the city. The Town Captured. The strength of the enemy was estimated at about 2,000. A strong body of infantry and cavalry, supported by light artillery, was thrown forward at once. The Chinese offered little resistance. They retired before the first attacking party, and eventually broke and fled across the Yalu. The Chi- nese loss was hardly more than a hundred killed and wounded. The Japanese line of communications was now complete through- out Corea. The Japanese Parliament, convoked to consider war measures, was opened at Hiroshima, October i8th, by the Emperor in person. A bill was submitted providing for increased expenditures for the army and navy. The war expenses were estimated at ;^ 1 50,000,000, of which amount ;^26,- 000,000 was to be taken from the Govern- ment reserve fund. Another bill introduced provided for raising a further internal loan of ;^ 1 00,000,000, payable in instalments, with interest not to exceed six per cent. A resolution was submitted by the radicals under the terms of which the increase of the navy proposed at the fourth session should now be accepted and executed cis rapidly as possible. Under the resolution work upon the ships in course of construc- tion would be pushed to completion, the ad- ditional defences heretofore proposed be rapidly constructed, and the necessary sup- ply of arms and munitions of war be se- cured with the least possible delay. The Emperor's Speech. The following was the speech of the Em- peror to the extraordinary session of the Imperial Diet at Hiroshima : " Nobles and Gentlemen : "We have convened an extraordinary session of the Imperial Diet at this time, and have specially commanded our Ministers whose departments are concerned to lay before you a number of measures of great urgency. These are the bills relating to the naval and military expenditure. " We have again to repeat that China, in disregard to her duty, declined to co-operate with Japan for the preservation of peace in the East. The present conflict is the re- sult. But the sword once drawn, hostilities must not be permitted to cease until the ob- ject of the war is attained. " It is our earnest desire that our loyal subjects shall in perfect union and harmony devote themselves to the promotion of the interests of the Empire, and to the securing of the complete and final triumph of our arms, and thereby bring about a speedy re- storation of peace to the Orient. It is for you, nobles and gentlemen, to exert your' STIRRING INCIDENTS OF THE CAMPAIGN. 345 selves to obtain the complete realization of this object." An address in reply to the speech from the throne was presented by the Presidents of the two Chambers of the Diet, thanking the Mikado for advancing the standard of Japan by personally assuming direction of the war, the natural results of which direc- tion by His Majesty have been the Japanese victories on land and sea. The address of the Presidents concluded as follows : "Your Majesty rightly considers China an enemy to civilization, and we comply with the Imperial desire to destroy the bar- barous obstinacy of that race." The patri- otic tone of the speeches in the Japanese Lower House strengthened the Govern- ment. In Favor of Peace. The deep-seated repugnance of war on the part of many of the American people found expression at Washington on October 19th. The members of the American branch of the International Peace Bureau issued an appeal to the Emperors of Japan and China to arbi- trate their difficulties. Some of the success- ful arbitrations that have been achieved by these International Peace Associations were mentioned in the appeal, the more prominent of which were the treaty of London, which gave to Belgium her neutrality; the treaty of Washington, which resulted in the settle- ment of the Alabama clciims, and the Behring Sea Arbitration, known as the treaty of Paris. The appeal stated that further loss of life and property could be avoided, without any reflection upon either country, by submitting their pending disputes to arbitration with the same results and without loss of prestige, as were secured by the contending nations which were parties to the foregoing arbitra- tions. It recommended as arbitrators the Pope of Rome, the Emperor of Austria, Queen Victoria, the King of Denmark, and the Queen Regent of the Netherlands. Pending the negotiation of such submission to arbitration all hostilities to cease and the usual international forms of truce to be strictly observed by both the contending parties, The appeal, in conclusion, pledged that the International Peace Bureau would do all in its power to have this armistice strictly observed. Across the Yalu River. Meanwhile, military operations went for- ward. Count Yamagata, commander-in- chief of the Japanese forces in Corea, re- ported to the government at Tokio that a detachment of 1600 Japanese infantry crossed the Yalu River on the morning of October 24th, at Sukochin, above Wi-Ju. Shortly after crossing the river the troops met a body of Chinese, composed of 600 cavalry and 100 infantry, with two cannon. The Japanese at once made an attack upon the enemy and the latter fled, leaving behind them the two guns and a large number of muskets. The Chinese lost twenty killed or wounded, but there was not a single fatality among the Japanese. The latter also seized a fort near the scene of the engagement. A detachment of the Japanese forces advanced upon Lishiyen and the main body crossed the Yalu River. The force of Japanese that crossed the river and defeated the Chinese was composed entirely of riflemen. Earthworks had been thrown up at Sukochin by the Chinese, but a slight deviation enabled the attacking forces to cross the river without hindrance. The Chinese position was garrisoned with a small force of artillery and infantry, and these fled after two or three rounds of shots had been fired. 346 COREA AND THE WAR. Count Yamagata added: "We captured the works with a rush. A regiment of Manchurian cavalry came up as the enemy were driven from the earthworks and cov- ered their retreat. The retiring force took refuge within Chinese batteries further down the river, throwing away their muskets in their flight. "Our advanced detachment now holds the fortifications erected at Sukochin ferry oy the Chinese, and is prepared to guard the passage across the river of the main body, which will probably be made at dawn of the 25 th inst. Pontoons have already been placed in position at Nodzu, and all the men and materials are ready for a rapid advance. There are still many Chinese troops in the batteries opposite Wi-Ju, but their number has not been increasing during the past week. The opposing forces have both been making reconnoissances since the Chinese were driven out of Wi-Ju, but no fighting had taken place until the morning of the 24th. The Chinese Force. " Scouts have made their way to a con- siderable distance down the river, and have also pushed into the interior, but none has met any armed Chinese. A report is cur- rent that the entire effective Chinese force is intrenched close to the Yalu River on the Moukden road. The main attack on the Chinese will be made before Sunday." A startling incident of the war was the murder of a high Corean official. "Cor- rupt and treacherous though China's official circles may be, says the Jiji Shimpo, of Tokio, of September 22, we never have given credence to the report that the late Chinese Minister to Corea, Yuen-Si-Kwei, was killed by poison. But a recent despatch from a trustworthy source says that this dreadful tragedy of Chinese treacher^;, was enacted in the very capital of China itself, in Pekin. At the outbreak of the war Li- Hung-Chang was accused of having brought on the premature rupture of peace between China and Japjm. "Matters were getting too hot for the Viceroy, and he sought means to extricate himself from the charges made against him, and to protect his own safety by transferring the whole blame upon Minister Yuen. He answered the impeachment of the Pekin court with the arraignment of poor Yuen, whotn he charged with acting in the Corean question without his order and without his knowledge, thus bringing about the present conflict. A Piece of Treachery. "At this juncture Yuen returned to China from Corea. No sooner had he touched the soil of Tien-Tsin than Li took possession of him, and, apprehensive of Yuen's exposure of his share in the Corean complications, in- duced him to conceal his whereabouts. Li kept him literally in a state of confinement, while he was using his every effort in Pekin to bring him into disgrace. Yuen's indigna- tion was great when he finally learned of this piece of treachery on the part of the old Viceroy. Determined to protect himself from danger by giving facts and evidence be- fore the high officials of the Pekin court, Yuen escaped to the capital. " The dread of Li-Hung-Chang in conse- quence of the disappearance of Yuen can well be imagined. He was quite at a loss at first what to do, but he determined to take some extreme measure for his own safety. Yuen arrived at the capital, where he was happy at the prospect of being able to appeal to the court, and of establishing his inno- cence by exposing the whole affair before 348 COREA AND THE WAR. the high officials. On the night of his ar- rival he was invited to dine with a friend from whom he had been separated since he went to Corea as Minister. He returned home and retired, feeling unusually comforta- ble for the first time after his arrival in his native land. But next morning Yuen was no more. He was dead." Field Marshal Count Yamagata reported to the Emperor that at daybreak on October 25 the Japanese army under his command completed its crossing of the Yalu River, and in the forenoon attacked and defeated the Chinese near Fu-Shang, also capturing a fortress on the right bank of the River Ai. According to the statement of a Chinese officer who was made prisoner the enemy were eighteen battalions strong. The Chi- nese lost two hundred killed and a large number wounded, though it was not known how many. The number of Japanese killed or wounded was five officers and ninety men. A Forward Movement. Advices received from Nodzu stated that the Japanese began to transport the main body of their army across the Yalu on the evening of October 24. The work of cross- ing continued throughout the night, and at day-break on October 25 all the guns, horses and men had crossed without mishap and formed an intrenched camp.. In the mean- time Colonel Sato, who had taken a flying column on the morning of October 25 for the purpose of reconnoitring, came upon the enemy, who occupied a fortified position near the village of Fu-Shang, on the right bank of the Ai River. Colonel Sato at- tacked the Chinese at ten o'clock in the morning, the fight continuing until past noon. The Chinese offered a stubborn resistance, but were ultimately driven out of their forti- fications and retired in disorder to Kiu-Lien- Chen. The Japanese then destroyed the for- tress and rejoined the main army. Count Yamagata 's report to the Emperor added that the Chinese engaged in the fight greatly exceeded the Japanese in number. He further said that his plans for the coming fight were completed. These contemplated the movement of several columns in a con- certed and concurrent attack upon the Chinese from all sides. Already, he said, a network was being drawn around the Chinamen, and it was expected that the attack would take place at daybreak on October 27, though it possibly might be made earlier. Precipitate Flight- Subsequently the Marshal reported that on October 26th, at daylight, he had arranged to attack the enemy at Kiu-Lien-Cheng, but found that this place had been evacuated by the Chinese, who, apparently frightened, had fled at the approach of the Japanese. The number of men in the Chinese force he was not certain of, but it was reported that there were 16,000. During the last three days^ the Field Marshal reported the Japanese captured thirty guns, a large quantity of ammunition, rice and fodder and 300 tents. After the capture of Kiu-Lien-Cheng on the 26th, the Japanese headquarters were moved from Wi-ju to this point. Two columns chased the Chinese in various directions. The Chinese fled without fight- ing, throwing away arms and drums in their flight. The capture of Wi-Ju was a victory of great value to the Japanese, it seems, as it is a place of considerable strategic import- ance. Whoever controls this city controls the mountain passes and roads around it that lead into Corea on the one hand and into Manchuria on the other. The Yalu river at this point is very wide and deep. Its STIRRING INCIDENTS OF THE CAMPAIGN. 349 banks are moderately high and slope upward with a gradual ascent till they meet the hill on which the city stands. Wi-Ju is described as being the hand- somest and cleanest place in either Corea or China. This means a great deal, because most of the places in those two lands, and especially in the Celestial Empire, are monu- ments of filth and disease. It is a walled iity of the first class, and occupies a site whose natural advantages cannot be sur- passed. The hill on which Wi-Ju stands is about a mile wide and more than a mile and a half long. On its summit is the city, which is surrounded by a long, high and strong wall of cut granite, which ages of exposure have bleached to a dead white. At intervals are watch towers with windows, from which the sentry can spy out in every direction. It is high and pierced with open- ings to allow the archers to shoot down upon invading armies, A Historic City. Before the invention of artillery the place was considered almost impregnable. The walls of the city are so high that but little can be seen of the city within. Here and there are glimpses of red roofs and porcelain copings, the top of Buddhist temples, and the upper stories of official buildings. Trees and towers are half concealed by tree tops and running vines. To the northwest, west and southwest the city looks upon a fertile rolling plain divided into farms and fields, water courses and woodlands. The city has been besieged, sacked and conquered at least twenty times. Centuries ago it was the outpost of the old kingdom of Liaotong, and long before that — ^in the third century of the Christian era — it was the capital of one of the so-called Sushun kingdoms. It is the distributing centre and the chief market of this part of Corea and Northeastern China. Its ware- houses contain large amounts of rice, grain and other foods, and its wells and streams supply an inexhaustible amount of good water. Complaints against Chinese Soldiers. General Tatsumi started for Fens-Huang on the 27th and arrived there on the 31st. The garrison made no show of fight, but fled toward the main body as soon as the Japan- ese approached. The principal generals were proceeding with their troops toward Mouk- den. The inhabitants of Haichao and Taku- shan complained bitterly of the violence of the Chinese soldiers, from whom they suf- fered constantly during the occupation. They were very friendly toward the Japanese. Three hundred Chinese bodies were found after the capture of Kiu-Lien-Cheng, many of them having died of wounds received in previous battles. By the capture of Feng-Huang-Cheng and two more abandoned places, the Japanese came into possession of 5 5 cannon, 20,000 rounds of ammunition, 1500 muskets and 2,000,000 cartridges, besides an enormous quantity of miscellaneous supplies. Marshal Yamagata ordered that all labor and sup- plies be paid for as soon as obtained by the Japanese, consequently the inhabitants of the country volunteered their services and gladly provided the commissariat with any needed provisions. Marshal Yamagata then estab- lished an office of civil administration in Antong, and placed in charge Colonel Ko- mura, secretary of the Japanese Legation in Corea. He issued a proclamation promising protection to the people and ordering them to pay taxes to Colonel Komura. It was reported on November 5 th that the English government was attempting to put 350 COREA AND THE WAR. an end to the war. This was a renewal of the attempt made a month previously, which was unsuccessful. The English press, acting for the commercial interests of the nation, advocated an alliance with other Powers, and the adoption of such measures as would bring hostilities to a close. It was rumcfred that China had already submitted to the Powers the terms upon which she was willing to make peace. Anti-War Sentiment. The public sentiment was expressed as follows by one of the journals: "No Euro- pean government can desire to see this disastrous conflict prolonged. Even the United States, despite the Monroe doctrine, must be concerned by the regularity and security of their trade with Japan. Sooner or later — and better sooner than later — there must be an international settlement. It will be difficult to contend that interferences will be premature now. " There is reason to believe that China has resolved to formally ask the Powers who have immediate commercial interests at stake to stop the war. The Chinese Minister is said to have communicated the request to the Foreign office in London. According to a telegram from Pekin, China is disposed to conclude peace upon the basis of the ac- knowledgment of Corea's independence and the payment of an indemnity to be fixed by the Powers. The Powers who are willing to support this arrangement are requested to intervene. "The conquerors will for the first time display a lack of sagacity if they decline to accept reasonable overtures for peace. They are no longer despised by the Chinese, but, more than ever, are hated, and could not hope to govern a single province of China proper, if it should be formally ceded to them. Meanwhile the Powers have a com- mon interest in averting the disintegration of the Celestial Empire. Humanity peremp- torily forbids the thought of .allowing a gov- ernment under which hundreds of millions live, to be destroyed. Japan may lose the whole fruits of her victory by clutching for too much." On November 7th it was reported that Ta-Lien-Wan, on the north of Port Arthur, on the northeastern shore of the Regent's Sword, had been taken. The Emperor of China was desirous of consulting personally with all the foreign Ministers on the situa- tion. A provisional local government over the conquered territory had been established by the Japanese, with its headquarters at Antong. One year's taxes were remitted by the Japanese authorities to the natives. Battle Ships off Port Arthur. The Chinese reported that the Japanese were rapidly advancing in the rear of Port Arthur, and that a strong Japanese fleet, in- cluding thirty torpedo boats, was outside the harbor. It was expected that Port Arthur and the Chinese fleet would fall into the hands of the enemy. Japanese reports from Nin-Chwang stated that deserters from the Chinese army were arriving there by fifties, and that a great panic existed among the Chinese, hundreds of whom were leaving by every steamer. The Japanese flying squadron was reported to be a hundred miles off Niu-Chwang, and the Chinese there were reshipping their goods, considering it unsafe to remain there during the winter. An incident of the campaign was the ar- rest of several Americans by the Japanese authorities. The two who were arrested on the steamer Sydney, at Kobe, were named Hope and Brown. The name of a China- STIRRING INCIDENTS OF THE CAMPAIGN. 351 man who was taken into custody at the same time was Cham Fam Moore. He was believed to be the interpreter of the Chinese Legation at Washington. The Japanese au- thorities informed the captain of the Sydney before attempting to make the arrests that if he would surrender these passengers he would be allowed to proceed for his destina- tion. The offer, however, the captain re- fused to avail himself of, whereupon an armed force boarded the Sydney, and, de- spite the protests of the French Consul and the steamer's captain, seized the three men and removed them from the vessel. A despatch from Tokio stated that the two Americans and the Chinaman arrested by the Japanese authorities appeared to be under contract with the Chinese government to attempt to destroy the Japanese fleet. Story of the Captives. The arrest was explained to some extent by the following statement, made by a Washington newspaper correspondent: "A story is told of the China-Japan war which is full of dramatic interest. About six weeks ago the report was circulated in diplomatic circles here that Mr. Moore, one of the attaches of the Chinese Legation, had been recalled to Pekin by the home government. It was said that he had been ordered back in disgrace, and his friends were profuse in their expressions of sympathy. It was noticeable, however, that Mr. Moore bore his ill fortune philosophically, but by many it was feared that his return to his native country would be followed by his speedy decapitation. It now appears that the supposed recall was not in any sense a recall, but that Mr. Moore was returning to China in pursuance of a clever scheme, which had for its pu: pose the de- struction by dynamite and torpedoes of the Japanese fleet now in Chinese waters. " Mr. Moore is the Chinaman referred to as having been arrested, and his associates are Mr. John Wild, an inventor, of Provi- dence, R. I., and a Mr. Cameron, a Scotch- man, who was employed for a time as a workman in a torpedo manufactory at Provi- dence. Messrs. Wild and Cameron had, it appears, satisfied the Chinese government of their ability successfully to destroy the Jap- anese vessels, and Mr. Moore was instructed by the Pekin government to conduct them to Shanghai. They travelled to San Francisco and thence to Yokohama under assumed names, Mr. Wild being known as Howie and Mr. Cameron as Courtney. The Plot Discovered. " The Japanese government, through sources which they decline to reveal, learned of the plot, and when the trio sailed from Yokohama they were arrested en route at Kobe, a Japanese seaport city. The particu- lars of their arrest are contained in a dispatch dated at Hiroshima, the headquarters of the Japanese army and navy. The dispatch is as follows : " 'A Chinese official, with two foreigners, an Englishman and an American, arrived at Yokohama a few days since on the steamer Gaelic. All were under assumed names. The foreigners were suspected of entering into an agreement through Chinese officials, with the Chinese government, for the purpose of engaging in the war against Japan. They landed at Yokohama and took passage on board the steamship Sydney, for China. The captain of the Japanese war vessel Tsukuba, under orders from headquarters, exercised the right of visit and search on board the Sydney when she was in the harbor of Kobe, and found in their possession an agreement with the Chinese government to destroy the entire navy of Japan within eight weeks by 352 COREA AND THE WAR. the use of torpedoes. Other official docu- ments on the same subject were also found. In consequence, the three were arrested and taken ashore, and the ship released from de- tention.' It is understood that none of the trio will be punished by the Japanese govern- ment, but will probably be held as prisoners WW, THE KING OF COREA AND HIS SON. of war indefinitely." This would effectually prevent any damage that otherwise might be inflicted upon Japanese war-ships, which have acted an important part in the war. Wild's scheme of destruction was offered the United States government some two years before. He claimed that at the ex- pense of a few thousand dollars he could annihilate any foreign fleet which he attacked. His plan was to throw from a torpedo boat shells filled with chemicals, which, on strik- ing, would explode, creating an impenetrable and suffocating smoke, and to follow this up by attacking with torpedoes. The Navy Department was not convinced of the merits of Wild's plan, and he left:. When the Eastern war broke out Wild came to Washington and offered his plan to the Japanese Legation. It was not favor- ably considered, and he went straight to the Chinese Legation. There his scheme fell on fallow ground. Under pretence of leaving for a vacation. In- terpreter Moore went to New York, and thence to Providence, R. I., where he met Wild and his associate, Cameron, and arranged the details for the destruc- tion of the Japanese fleet. But the Jap- anese Legation had lost sight of neither Wild nor Moore. Their movements Mrere shadowed, and they were allowed to proceed across the country and across the Pacific to Japan, where they were arrested at the latest possible moment. Offered No Protest. Secretary Gresham was officially noti- fied of the arrest by the Japanese Minis- ter, receiving from that official a copy of the despatch wired to the legation by the Japanese authorities. It was decided by the State Department offi- cials that this government could offer no protest against the arrest of the Ameri- can. All it could do was to prevent any unnecessary cruelty being practiced on him. Intervention on this score, it was not believed, would be requisite, in view of the lenient man- ner in which the Japanese had hitherto treated all prisoners and were disposed to treat them in the future. STIRRING INCIDENTS OF THE CAMPAIGN. 353 Immediately upon the receipt of the in- formation of the arrest of the American, the State Department authorities began looking up precedents in this matter. An important one was found in the Formosa expedition in 1874. Speaking on this point, a State De- partment official said: — "No action can be taken in the case of the American held by the Japanese for conspiring against them. If criminating evidence had not been found on his person, as was stated in the despatch transmitted to the department from the Japa- nese Legation, the department might have entered a protest, and some trouble might have followed, as a result. One of the best precedents found which bears upon this case is the Formosa trouble, in which three Americans participated. All we can do is to see that the American is not maltreated. The Japanese government has a perfect right to hold him as a prisoner of war in view of the fact that he was at the time of his arrest in the service of China, hired to destroy Japan's navy." The King's Appeal. A correspondent who obtained an inter- view with the King of Corea gave his im- pressions as follows: In the midst of the perils that overwhelm his kingdom and threaten his life, the King of Corea received the correspondent and made a direct appeal to the people of the United States for help. He recognizes our government as the first to treat with Corea as an independent power and claims to have a special right to look for some practical proofs of friendship from America, at a time when war and private conspiracy are infringing upon the autonomy of the "hermit nation." The king no longer speaks of Corea as a sealed kingdom. He sees plainly that this country must surrender to civilization at last. 23 It was a strange experience to return from a bloody battlefield and see this gentle monarch standing among sinister courtiers like a frightened woman and to hear him say that his one desire was to entrust his person to a guard of American soldiers. When the correspondent saw the King, the unhappy monarch was surrounded by police officials. On the right stood the crown prince, a half- witted, open-mouthed youth, attired after the fashion of his father, save that purple took the place of crimson. Three slow bows and a pause. The interpreter folded his hands across the embroidered storks on his bosom, bent his head reverently and advanced. Seeking Protection. " I am glad to receive a representative of the American press," said the King. "I take this opportunity of saying that it is the wish of my people as well as of myself that Corea should be absolutely free and independent. I appeal now and shall continue to appeal to the civilized nations of the world, to use their influence in preserving the integrity of this kingdom. I especially rely upon the friendship of the United States in this mo- ment of difficulty and danger. Your Gov- ernment made the first treaty with Corea, and has always promised to befriend us. I now look to America for a fulfillment of these promises. My faith in the United ????? States is unshaken. I am waiting patiently." The correspondent asked His Majesty how the United States could help Corea, assuiing him that the American Govern- ment had already shown its disposition to resent any attempt to interfere with the au- tonomy of the nation. The King looked embarrassed and his voice dropped almost to a whisper. It was plain that he felt con- strained in the presence of his courtiers. He hesitated, looked about him nervously, then 354 COREA AND THE WAR. said : " If a few American soldiers were sent to the palace to protect my person, it would change the situation. " I have already told the American Min- ister, Mr. Sill, what I ask the United States to do," continued the King. " I hope for a favorable reply. The United States Govern- ment has from the very beginning of our re- lations repeated its assurances of a very special interest in this kingdom. We gave your country the first treaty, because we were convinced that your Government had a sincere and disinterested friendship for Corea. I hope I shall receive some prac- tical proofs of that friendship now. I ask the President and people to help in protect- ing the independence of the kingdom." Ready to Open Corea. Tai Won Kun, the supposed regent of the country, added : " We are ready to open Corea to the world. The country can be no longer kept sealed to foreigners. But this change is too sudden. It has thrown everything into disorder. The people are in a state of great excitement. Corea is a pe- culiar country. For thousands of years our people have clung to certain usages. The customs of ages cannot be surrendered to the world in a day. The change must be gradua? Our first duty is to quiet the peo- ple and restore order and the reign of law." The Japanese issued proclamations to the various Manchurian cities through which they passed. In these they declared that they were waging war against the Manchu Government only, and promised safe protec- tion to all people remaining quiet and fol- lowing their ordinary occupations. The Chinese troops were deserting in large num- bers and passing themselves off as farmers. The garrisons of Ta-Lien-Wan and Kinchow, on the neck of Regent's Sword Promontory, both of which places were captured by the Japanese, numbered respectively three thou- sand and one thousand. They fled after making a feeble defence. The Japanese loss amounted to fourteen. On November nth, a special steamer ar- rived at Hwang Chu, with despatches as to the course of the war in Corea. Kinchow, on the Regent's Sword Promontory, was taken by the Japanese on November 4th. The garrison consisted of some 1,200 infan- try and artillery. The batteries were very badly served during the defence. The first division of the Japanese army advanced to the attack with spirit on the morning of the 4th. The resistance of the Chinese was feeble. The fire from their guns was weak and ill-directed, and the outlying fortworks were cleared quickly. Fled in Confusion. A panic then took possession of the troops in the interior works. They aban- doned their guns, standards and stores, and fled in disorder, the infantry even casting aside their small arms in their haste. The defence was so weak that only a few Japa- nese were wounded, and but twenty or thirty Chinese were killed and wounded. It is believed that many of the garrison had deserted on the 3d, when they became con- vinced that the battle was at hand. Afl:er the victory the first division joined the second division in investing Ta-Lien-Wan. In the evening of the next day (November 5) fire was opened on the Chinese position. On the 6th the works were carried with a rush. The garrison of 3,000 men hardly waited to resist the attack. They fired a few shots and then fled toward Port Arthur, strewing the road with their firearms, swords, drums and standards. In the confusion of their flight the Chinese lost some fifty men, killed STIRRING INCIDENTS OF THE CAMPAIGN. 355 and wounded. The Japanese loss was two killed and ten wounded. The Japanese fleet, cleared for action, steamed into the bay at Ta- Lien-Wan on the afternoon of the 6th, but it was too late to assist the land force, which was then celebrating its victory. From Ta-LienWan the first and second divisions started for Port Arthur, which they were confident of capturiug within a week. Admiral Ito's despatch to the Mikado con- cerning the fleet's part in the operations at Ta-Lien-Wan confirmed the account sent by the land commander. General Oyama made the attack from the rear. Nineteen war ships and six torpedo boats were prepared to assist him, but the Chinese, who had expected the main assault from the sea, did not wait. They hardly resisted the Japanese. They abandoned everything and retreated in disorder. Sketch of General Oyama. " Count Oyama, the commander of the forces," says an authentic account of recent date, " is a field marshal in the Japanese army, and is a brilliant soldier. He took a promi- nent part in the War of the Restoration, in the sixties, and in the Satsuma Rebellion in 1877, in which he fought side by side with Marshal Yamagata, the victor of Ping-Yang, against the rebel Takamori Saigo. Some years ago he was sent to Europe by his government to study military science as practiced in the West, and he witnessed the Franco-German war. " Later on he served in the Tonquin cam- paign, fighting with the Chinese against the French. On returning from Europe he passed through the United States, and stayed for some days in New York. For several years he held the post of Minister of War, which he relinquished a few weeks ago in order to command the present expedition. Personally the Count is strong, muscular build and tall, with an imposing figure. His fellow countrymen have every confidence in his military genius and experience." Another startling incident of the war was the suicide of the Empress of China, which was reported on October 31st, and further disclosed the critical state of affairs at Pekin. A brief sketch of the Empress will be of interest. A Very Young Empress. Yo-Ho-Na-La was a little Manchu maiden of thirteen when she was married to the boy Emperor against her will and against his. He was but eighteen at the time, but he had a will of his own, and he resented bitterly this thrusting of a child-consort upon him by the imperious Er,ipress Dowager. Hav- ing been forced into union with Yo-Ho-Na- La, who was the daughter of General Kuei-Hsiang, the Empress Dowager's younger brother, the Brother of the Moon never became reconciled to her, and the life of the young couple was most unhappy. There were many quarrels between them, and then the end came. The girl Empress, completely broken in spirit by the humiliation to which she found herself constantly sub- jected, chose to face death rather than try to bear the burden of her unhappiness any longer. It was in February, 1889, that the wed- ding was solemnized. On the 31st of December, of the previous year, the State Department had been informed by the United States Minister at Pekin of the edict of the Empress Dowager, published in the Pekin Gazette of November 9th, reading as follows : "The Emperor, having reverently suc- ceeded to his exalted inheritance, and in- creasing day by day in maturity, it ia 356 COREA AND THE WAR. becoming that he should select a virtuous consort to assist in the administration of the palace, to control the members of his house- hold, and to encourage the Emperor himself in upright conduct. "Let, therefore, Yo-Ho-Na-La, daughter of Deputy Lieutenant-General Kuei-Hsiang, whom we have selected for her dignified and virtuous character, become Empress." By a further edict of the same date : " Let Ja-Ta-La, aged fifteen years, daughter of Chang Hsii, formerly Vice-President of the Board, become secondary consort of the first rank, and let Ta-Ta-La, aged thirteen, also daughter of Chang Hsii, formerly Presi- dent of the Board, become an Imperial concubine of the second rank. Respect this." Many Chinese Beauties. The selection of the bride was goverened by the rules laid down in the Book of Rites, and is a tedious and elaborate process. The dynasty is Manchu and the Emperor must marry one of his own race. For a year before the marriage was celebrated hundreds of fair competitors, all daughters of Manchu mandarins of not less than the third rank, competed for the honor of sharing the Imperial throne. After several inspections, in which the beauty, family influence, and intellectual attainments of the young ladies were taken into grave consideration, the list of aspirants was reduced to thirty. The Emperor himself was deeply smitten with the charms of the daughter of a high Manchu military officer, and he expressed his intention to share his throne with her. He also selected another fair damsel whose beauty struck his youthful heart with admira- tion, for his second wife. But the old lady who had so long and so nobly wielded the sceptre during his minority had no intention of allowing the young Emperor to follow his bent in this matter, and had already decided on a match for him by which the throne would be shared by one of her own family. Accordingly, the lady selected was her niece, who was anything but a beauty, from a Chinese or Manchu point of view, and after a great many "scenes" and violent alterca- tions, the Empress Dowager proved her authority by having the marriage with her niece celebrated. Family Quarrels. The young Emperor was urged by his tutor, the great Ung Tung-ho — ^the most powerful man at the present moment in China, and the one who really governs the Emperor's acts — ^to marry the lady whom the Empress Dowager flouted, and the old lady, afterwards learning of Ung's part in the business, gave him a warm piece of her royal mind. She had already enlisted on her side Prince Chung. After the marriage there prevailed the most bitter acrimony be- tween these august personages, and in the struggle the youthful ruler, assisted by his crafty tutor, for the moment gained the up- per hand. But it was a dangerous game to fight the Empress Dowager, who was a determined and subtle antagonist to tackle, and in the end young Kwangtsu might have fallen a victim to the necessities of the moment, as his predecessor Tung-Chi did, had he not come to terms with the old wo- man. Nor would the Gorgon of the Dragori Throne allow its youthful occupant to con- sole himself by bringing the fair object of his choice into his harem, but selected two strong-minded damsels, also of the Imperial clan, to form the nucleus of the seraglio, which Chinese custom prescribes shall be limited to seven, but which is unlimited. CDETA.i'TEi?, x:x:zi. UPRISING OF THE BOXERS. THE war between China and Japan, the history of which is written in the pre- ceding pages, was followed by several years of peace in the Flowery Kingdom. Inter- nal dissensions, however, broke out in 1 900, and finally grew into one of the most formid- able insurrections of modern times, which resulted in great destruction of life and property. The attention of our own country and of European nations was immediately turned toward China, and reports of the ghastly massacre of the native Christians of China, and of the foreign residents, were received with a thrill of horror. The reader will doubtless seek- information concerning the bloodthirsty actors in this shocking tragedy, the appalling details of which were scarcely believed until evidence was forthcoming that could not be questioned. It would seem impossible for the most brutal savages to perpetrate such crimes as were instigated and performed by the noto- rious Boxers. Lost to every sense of humanity, loudly applauding justice while fiendishly violating it, their evil deeds show what infamous crimes the savage nature of the Chinese hordes can perpetrate. Wu Ting Fang, the Chinese Minister at Washington, was asked : " What is the meaning of the term ' Boxers ' in Chinese, or what is its derivative analysis ? " He replied : " I have seen from the Chinese papers that the local word applied to the people that your papers call the 'Boxers' is ' Yee-ho-chuan.' 'Yee' means ' righteousness.' ' Ho ' means ' harmony.' 'Chuan' means 'fists.' 'Yee-ho-chuan' would therefore involve the righteous idea of promoting harmony by the fists, the righteousness resulting from the harmony, with the fists as an incidental means to a good end. The term undoubtedly arose in connection with athletic sports and teachers of the art of boxing or defense by the fists." Boxers Originally Sheep Herders. The Chinaman before he became an agri- culturist was a sheep raiser and herder. His word for truthfulness, uprightness, that which stands for righteousness, is composed of two parts — the first and the second, form- ing the phrase "my sheep," apparently pointing to a time when, upon the rightful ownership of flocks — demonstration of the same — one was in the right, therefore upright, therefore had a righteous cause. Transpose this to possession of the land of China, for which the great powers are now uncovering their armaments, and the Boxers' use of the word "righteousness" does not seem so far-fetched. The word "right," in the Chinese tongue, is from "tsze," meaning "one's one," and "yang," meaning "sheep." Make that land, or the privacy of the home, or the right to worship Confucius, or the right to "esist foreign invasion, and error is difficult to detect. The Boxer therefore, by all justification of his past, " rightfully " uses his fist for defense of his own, and when he becomes heated in passions, it is not surprising if for the fist he 357 358 UPRISING OF THE BOXERS. substitutes a weapon. Nor is it surprising, if looked at with dispassion, that in killing the invaders he fails to draw a discriminating line between Caucasian missionaries, railroad engineers, diplomats or soldiers. In his mind they all stand for the same thing — invasion and conquest. Of course, whether slaughter involves killing Boers in South Africa, Indians in the United States or mis- sionaries in China, the killing is morally- wrong. Yet there may be partial j ustifica- tion at times. "Up with the Ching Dynasty." As to what the Boxer is, competent testi- mony comes from various sources. Edwin Wildman, late vice-consul of the United States at Hong Kong, says : " They are divided into lodges, and have common signs and pass-words known only to themselves. They have certain methods of interrogating each other and recognize peculiar manners in placing cups and dishes at the table ; of wearing their garments and saluting each other. They hold their meet- ings usually in secluded places in the dead of the night and draw blood from their bodies, mixing it with water and pledging each other to oaths of vengeance against their enemies. The Boxers have adopted a flag bearing the motto : ' Up With The Ching Dynasty And Down With the Foreigner,^ The information we here re-produce is embodied in the reports to the To-A Dobun- kaiofTokio from Mr. M. Inouye of Shan- ghai, and Mr. H. Nishimura, director of the Chinese paper, "Kwo Wen Pao," at Tien Tsin — two gentlemen who, it cannot be denied, enjoy exceptional facilities for keep- ing themselves posted concerning passing events in China. According to these authorities, the I-hwg tuan (the Boxer society) is said to have been evolved out of that celebrated secret associa- tion which is known in the North by the name of Peh-hen-hui (White Lily Society) and in the South by the San-hoh-hui (Triad Society). Like its mother association, it is a politico-religious organization with very simple tenets and strict internal regulations, the details of which are a sealed book to those not belonging to it. All that is known to outsiders is that its members practice the art of boxing and pro- fess that in virtue of a certain incantation which they recite mentally, their person is rendered proof to bullets and fatal weapons. The first historical mention of them occurs about the middle of the eighteenth century under the reign of the Emperor Kienlung, when their organization went by the name of I-hwa-men-kiao (Patriotic, Harmonious Sect). Boxers Have Steadily Increased. But it was not until the time of the Emperor Kiaking that the Boxers began to attract the attention of the ruling power. At the beginning of that Emperor's reign they were discovered to have obtained a strong footing in the country districts on the bor- bers of Shantung and Honan, and their activity so rapidly increased that their sect or association was interdicted in 1809 ; but in spite of occasional persecutions they have since then steadily increased in power and numbers. In the early days of its existence, the political tendency of the association was antagonistic to the existing dynasty, and its whole energies seem to have been directed to its overthrow. Latterly, however, taking shrewd advantage of the growing friction CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. 359 between native Christians and non-converts, the Boxers have identified themselves with the latter's cause and adopted opposition to the foreign creed and its professors as their principal creed. Still more recently, to ingratiate themselves with those in power, they have adopted the popular legend of "Hing-Tsing mieh yang" (Up with the dyn- asty ! Down with foreigners !") Famous Prince Tuan. As to the alleged close connection between the Pekin court and the Boxers, there can be no doubt on the subject. In the first place it is a significant circumstance that the open manifestation of anti-foreign activity by the Boxers coincides with the appearance of Prince Tuan on the political stage at Pekin at the beginning of the year 1900. We may here refer to an incidental description of that important personage. "Prince Tuan," we are told, "is a comparatively young man of a little past fifty years, strongly built and with a commanding presence." During the last few years he has been assiduously culti- vating the acquaintance of all classes of men, and there are said to be several other traits in his character that distinguish him from the other members of the imperial family. Evidently he is a man of lofty ambitions, for it is widely whispered that since the appointment of his son as heir apparent his aspirations mount no lower than the imperial throne itself Be that as it may, there can be no room for doubt that he is deeply im- plicated in the Boxer agitation. To make his connection with the Boxers still more clear, it is stated that their leader, a notori- ous adventurer who made himself conspicu- ous in connection with an insurrection in Honan about 1888, has been staying with the Prince at his palace in Pekin, during which time they are supposed to have sec- retly plotted and intrigued together. It is highly probable, as is generally be- heved in well-known circles, that the ambi- tious but inexperienced Prince is a dupe in the hands of the artful I-hwa leader, who has an object of his own in view in the great conspiracy, which is no other than getting himself in power at court. Whichever may be the greater dupe, there seems to be no doubt that these two men have been work- ing hand in hand. Empress Not In the Conspiracy. With regard to the Dowager Empress, it does not appear that she has been privy to the intrigue from its commencement. At all events, neither Mr. Nishimura nor Mr. Inouye make any allegation of the kind. They assert, however, the fatal policy of the Pekin government toward the Boxers has her entire approval and sanction. They state that this policy was definitely adopted at a Cabinet council in the palace. On that occasion the proposed policy was warmly advocated by Prince Tuan, Prince Ching, Kang-yi and Chao Sukiao, while Yung Lu and Prince Li were against it, and Wang ' Wenchao kept silent and did not say a single word either for or against it. If this account of what took place at the alleged cabinet meeting is reliable, we are sorry to find Prince Ching, who was con- sidered a moderate conservative, in the same camp with Prince Tuan and the rest of that group. He is, however, a trimmer of trim- mers, and was doubtless quick to discern the growing change in the scale of political power at court. The leader of the Boxers formerly resided in the South and had some connections with the Ko-bao-hui, so that it is justly feared that 360 UPRISING OF THE BOXERS. the latter may at any moment join with the Boxers. Moreover, the people in general are very much excited by their strong super- stitious belief that when an intercalary month occurs — as it does in the year 1900, according to the lunar calendar — between the eighth and ninth months of the year of the Rat, or the seventh Stem, the country will be harassed by great political convul- sions, and, furthermore, that such convul- sions will be justifiable and proper, as they are the will of Heaven. Add to this the long smoldering fire of antagonism to the Manchu dynasty in the Southern provinces and nobody will be so bold as to predict that the disturbance thus far happily con- fined to the country around the capital will not lead to general disorder and great con- vulsions throughout the whole empire. A Strange People. In a descriptive work on China the author says ; " No Occidental ever saw within or under- stood the working of the yellow brain, which starts from and aims at a different point by reason of inner processes we can neither follow nor comprehend. No one knows, or ever will know, the Chinese — the heart and soul and springs of thought of the most incomprehensible, the most unfathom- able, inscrutable, contradictory, logical and illogical people on earth. Of all Orientals no race is so alien. Not a memory or a cus- tom, not a tradition or an idea, not a root- word nor a symbol of any kind associates our past with their past. There is little sym- pathy, no kinship nor common feeling, and never affection, possible between the Anglo- Saxon and the Chinese. "Nothing in Chinese character or traits appeals warmly to our hearts or imagination; nothing touches ; and of all the people of worth they most entirely lack soul, charm, magnetism, attractiveness. We may yield them an intellectual admiration on some grounds, but no warmer impulse beats for them. Their very numbers and sameness appal one, the frightful likeness of any one individual to the other three hundred odd millions of his own people. Everywhere, from end to end of the vast empire, one finds them cast in the same unvarying physical and mental mold — the same yellow skin, hard features and harsh, mechanical voices ; a monotony, unanimity and repetition of life, character and incident, that offend one almost to resentment. Dirt and Disorder. " Everywhere on their tenth of the globe, from the edge of Siberia to the end of Cochin China, the same ignoble queue and the sense- less cotton shoes are worn ; everywhere this fifth of the human race are sunk in dirt and disorder, decadent, degenerate, indifferent to a fallen estate, consumed with conceit, sel- fish, vain, cowardly and superstitious, with- out imagination, sentiment, chivalry or sense of humor, combating with most zeal any- thing that would alter conditions even for the better, indifferent as to who rules or usurps the throne." Surely this passage is an over-accentua- tion of Mongolian racial characteristics, which, when reduced to the last analysis, means no more than that the Chinese are not Anglo-Saxons and do not pretend to admire or adopt Anglo-Saxon ideas and ideals. As to their physical sameness, the educated Chinese traveller could make the same complaint against Europeans and Americans in this age, when the whole of the Caucasian races are neai'ly, if not quite, CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. 361 drilled into uniformity. The author does not share in Lord Wolseley's apprehension of the "Yellow Peril." Had he written at a time when it was known that over two thousand well-drilled and well-armed European troops, under command of a British admiral, were com- pelled to retire from before Pekin after losing twenty per cent, of their number, and had he known that 25,000 men were thereafter deemed insufficient by European com- manders to begin a movement on Pekin to relieve the foreigners who were in danger of massacre, he might not have written so con- temptuously of Chinese military prowess, or said with such confidence that the defeat of China by Japan in 1894 brought about the fall of the great Humpty Dumpty of the far East. It is admitted by better informed observers, that wonders have been accom- plished in the matter of drilling the Chinese and arming them with modern weapons. The repulse of the allied troops at Tien Tsin opened the eyes of the world to this fact in a startling way. TWO PRINCES WARRING FOR A THRONE. TWO men are at the bottom of this Chi- nese trouble. They are the conspirators. To-day, their names, their deeds on the hps of the world ; yesterday, their existence unknown, undreamed of by the masses. Such men are Ching and Tuan, rival princes for the mysterious, blood-stained throne of the Yellow Dragon. They who hear and talk and read know of the hatred of China for all things not of itself, for the " foreign devils," and they know that the Boxers' awful work is the latest manifestation of this feeHng of cen- turies of conservatism to the outward world. They know, too, that Princes Ching and Tuan, somehow, are vastly mixed up in the turmoil — and now they know that desire to be superior to all their fellows is largely at the bottom of it all. It is because his soul cries out for su- preme power that Tuan organized the Boxers, ordered them to strike at the op- portune moment, and leads them. It is because he longs passionately for men to hail him as Emperor, " ,Son of Heaven," that Ching has taken up arms against his old enemy, and thus poses as the champion of foreigners. Both are playing skilfully their cards, for Tuan realizes that to grasp the coveted prize his Boxers must not be checked ; and Ching hopes that, by overcoming the fana- tics, the grateful nations will see him seated in purple on the Dragon Throne. In the first year of the automat n-like reign of the present Emperor Kuangsu the 362 feud of Ching and Tuan began. That wes in 1 872, when both were beginning to realize that the throne was in reach of any prince who could keep his head on his shoulders, and lay plans for it. Tungchih, shortly after his marriage to the young Ahluta, had died suddenly of smallpox, and the Dragon Throne was vacant. To Tsze Hsi An, the dead Empe- ror's mother, the Dowager Empress, "the only man in China," came Tuan, nephew of Hienfung, Tungchih's father and predeces- sor, and diplomatically whispered in her ear that his elder son, Kuangsu, being only four years of age, would make an excellent and unobtrusive ruler. The sagacious Dowager at once declared baby Kuangsu "the Son of Heaven." And Prince Tuan smiled and increased power was his. Could Not Agree. Ching at this time, though ten years the senior of Tuan, was only a prince imperial of the third order. Tuan, of course, ranked high in the first order. To Tuan came Ching with well-worded proposals that the former use his influence with the Dowager, now that Kuangsu had brought him into close relationship with her, to have the peti- tioner raised higher in the scale of princes' dignity. But Tuan remembered a sHght Ching had placed upon him when both were princes of the third order, and the request of Ching, distant relative of the Emperor, was refused. This was the beginning. Ching persever- CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. 363 ing, sought other methods of reaching the Dowager's ear. Tuan as assiduously tried to frustrate his attempts, but, finally, Ching secured the favor of Tsze Hsi An, the dead Emperor's mother. His path was now rosy, despite the ma- chinations of Tuan. Gradually he was trusted more and more. He was made general of one of the Banner Corps, direc- tor of the Imperial Clan Court, a prince of the first order, and in 1884 — the hardest blow of all to Tuan — he was placed at the head of the Tsung-li-yamen, the Chinese Foreign Office. There he remained, ex- cept for a few mouths, when his predeces- sor, Kung, was recalled from exile and again entrusted with the direction of the Empire's public affairs. Tuan Organizes Boxers. In the meantime Tuan was also increasing in power, and especially by siding with the Dowager in her hatred of foreigners. So, partly through his suggestion, Tuan set about secretly organizing the Boxers. Osten- sibly one Jue is known as their founder, but Jue is only an agent of Tuan. And all who joined their numbers swore to drive out and kill all foreigners when bidden by the princely leader. But this was not Tuan's sole step forward. He was placed in command of the flower of the Chinese army — the so-called Pekin Guard — 20,000 strong, to whom is entrusted the defense of the Purple City. And by an edict of the Dowager Empress, his younger son, Kuangsu's only brother, was named as heir apparent to the Imperial Throne. A son on the throne, another son heir- apparent, the picked foot and horse and cannon of the Chinese army and a horde of fanatics I'eady to call him Emperor — and Tuan thought his hour was come r-jnd struck to drive out universally the hated whites and take the Dowager's place, the power behind the throne. Prince Ching, sitting a*- the head of the Tsung-li-yamen, had not wasted his time. He had felt thoroughly the pulse of the world, he had come to the knowledge that though he hated the foreigners as thorougly as his rival, Tuan, yet it would be disastrous to do more than oppose them diplomat- ically. Also early in the organization Ching, somehow, had learned of Tuan's connection with the Boxers and the fact that his rival was leading such a movement, also helped to decide him to oppose all such attempts to oust the foreign devils. Consequently, he tried to check the spread of the society as much as possible, but his efforts were not any too successful. But he did manage to keep his troops of the Banner corps, trained in modern warfare by German tacticians, from being infected. Champion of Foreigners. Thus, when Tuan struck and the streets ran blood and the world stood, rooted in horror, Ching, desiring to see his enemy de- feated, having felt the pulse of the world, certain of the loyalty of his German-trained troops and gnawing the bone of ambition, declared himself the foreigners' champion and went out to do battle with Prince Tuan. Not that he loves the foreigner — oh, no. His eyes, hke Tuan's, are ever turned on the Dragon Throne. If he conquers Tuan and his Boxers, Ching reckons on his native followers and the foreign devils he cham- pions to place him there. Ching remem- bers that Li Hung Chang was offered the throne by Chinese Gordon because he stood 364 TWO PRINCES WARRING FOR A THRONE. by the whites — and then, too, Ching has felt the pulse of the world. And so the struggle was precipitated for a throne — the oldest in the world — and per- sonal rivalry is largely at the back of it all. Foreign Trespassers. Foreign aggression on Chinese territory became marked immediately after the close of the Chinese-Japanese war, which had resulted in China ceding the Island of For- mosa to Japan. By the close of 1 899 Ger- many, Russia, England, and France had acquired large areas of Chinese territory, either by lease or by force. During the war with China the Japanese had captured and occupied Port Arthur, the strongest harbor on the northeastern coast of China, and pro- posed to keep it, but were forced to restore it to China by Russia, who afterward pro- ceeded to take it, and in 1 898 obtained from China a lease for twenty-five years of Port Arthur and Ta-lien-wan, with the adjacent seas and territory to the north, on the Pen- insula of Kwang-tung, Manchuria. Port Arthur is to constitute a naval port for Rus- sian and Chinese men-of-war, from which naval and merchant vessels of other nations are to be excluded. One part of the port of Ta-lien-wan is reserved for Russian and Chinese men-of- war, the remainder to constitute a commer- cial port open to merchant vessels of all countries. In November, 1 897, the port of Kiao-Chou, on the east coast of the Province of Shantung, was seized by the Germans, ostensibly in retaliation for the murder of certain German missionaries in that province. In January, 1898, Germany demanded and obtained from the Chinese government a lease of the town, harbor, and district for a period of ninety-nine years. The British, alarmed at Russia securing so valuable an acquisition as Port Arthur, demanded compensation, and April 2, 1898, by agreement with China, Wei-hai-wei, opposite Port Arthur, was leased to Great Britain for such length of time as Russia may hold that port. Great Britain also obtained a ninety-nine-years' lease of territory on the main land opposite the Island of Hongkong, In the meantime, France demanded compen- sation for the advantages granted Russia, Germany, and Great Britain, and April, 1898, the Chinese government granted the French a ninety-nine-years' lease of the Bay of Kwang-Chou-Wau, on the Coast of Lien- Chu Peninsula, opposite the Island of Hai- nan, and, November, 1899, conceded to France possession of the two islands com- manding the entrance of the bay. Lost Their Harbors. Thus the Chinese were forced to see some of their finest harbors, and vast stretches of their territory, pass to the control of foreign- ers. Fortifications were begun and railroads and factories multiplied, but for every con- cession granted a dozen new ones have been presented by the various powers. Numerous conflicts occurred between the natives and the foreign troops and men engaged in the construction of railroads, intensifying the hatred of the Chinese toward the foreigners and giving fresh impetus to the secret socie- ties throughout the Empire. China has had many secret revolutionary societies in the past, but none that arose more swiftly and spread more rapidly than that of the " Boxers," which was originally a patriotic society and was organized at the time of the war with Japan to prevent the Japanese gaining control of the country and also to war against bandits. The statement CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. 365 frequently made, that the society is com- posed almost entirely of the lawless ele- ments of the Empire is emphatically refuted by Europeans long resident in the country. Doubtless there are now large numbers of coolies, river pirates and criminals of all classes among its members, and the object of the society has become the extermination of the foreigners, but the leaders to-day are men of ability, and its membership includes mandarins, high officials, scholars, and rep- resentatives of all the best classes in the Empire. Organized to Oppose Germany. The present activity of the society origin- ated in the Province of Shantung to oppose German aggression. Some of the most densely populated provinces in the north are now under its control, and its influence is rapidly spreading southward, where French interests predominate. Like all previous secret societies in the country, it wages continued warfare against foreigners and all foreign enterprises, and has for its watchword, "China for the Chinese." Numerous revolts instigated by the "Boxers" occurred between 1889 and 1895, and, as foreign aggression on Chinese terri- tory became more marked in the succeeding years, the society began a relentless warfare against missions, schools and hospitals, which finally culminated in the general up- rising of 1900 in which missionaries and merchants alike were massacred and Euro- pean and American property laid waste and destroyed. For almost a year before these develop- ments in China Christendom had been shocked with stories of outrage upon mis- sionaries perpetrated by the " Boxer."!," of the "Society of the Righteous Fist," or of the "Big Sword." Early in the spring of 1900 these stories increased in number and in April and May, 1900, scarce a day passed without rumors from China of repeated atrocities. The " Boxer" movement spread rapidly until the powers were aroused by the beginning of wholesale slaughter of Chris- tians, native and foreign, and the destruction of churches and missions of all denomina- tions. What follows is a chronology of events attending the "Boxer" agitation. Early in June complaints of " Boxer " outrages increased, Russia offered to put down the " Boxer " uprising. JVTany mis- sion stations were reported destroyed. United States Minister Conger sent a message to Washington complaining that the Pekin government was inactive. Missionaries Killed. On June 6th the mission at Yan Tin was burned and missionaries Robinson and Nor- man were killed and mutilated. Immedi- ately reports from China indicated a dangerous increase of "Boxer" disturbances. Great Britain landed troops at Cheefoo. On June 8th American missionaries in various parts of China asked President McKinley for protection. The Chinese for- eign office refused the use of the railroad to Pekin to foreign troops. Next came the news that the City of Tung Chow, near Pekin, was burned and twenty missionaries killed. China protested against presence of foreign troops. Early in June, Chinese mobs compelled all foreigners to seek refuge in the legations, which were surrounded by armed Boxers. The threatening aspect of affairs in Pekin caused great anxiety among the European Powers and in the United States. The Chinese Emperor petitioned the Powers to 366 TWO PRINCES WARRING FOR A THRONE. aid him in quelling the Boxer uprising. It was announced that Prince Tuan had been made Minister of Foreign Affairs. The Empress Dowager forbade foreign troops to enter Pekin. One June 15th the Japanese legation was burned and the chancellor killed. On the same date, 4,000 Russian troops were landed at Taku. The next day Pekin mobs attacked foreigners and besieged the legations. England immediately ordered six regiments from India to China, and 1,200 American troops were landed at Taku. American Consulate Destroyed. On June 21st, the American Consulate at Tien-Tsin was destroyed. United States Admiral Kempff urgently asked for more troops and ships, and the Ninth United States Infantry sailed for Taku. About this time, United States Admiral Remey was ordered to China. The Chinese minis- ter at Washington asked for an armistice, which was refused. The next day, June 26th, 3,000 Japanese troops were landed at Taku. Admiral Seymour, with an expedi- tion, endeavored to reach Pekin, but was compelled to return to Tien-Tsin. It was stated that 60,000 Boxers were surrounding Pekin. On July 14th occurred the battle at Tien- Tsin, in which it was reported several thou- sand Chinese were slain. Admiral Kempff announced that the foreign ministers in Pekin had been ordered to leave, but refused. It was also stated that the Boxer uprising was spreading and southern prov- inces were in revolt. In the first day's combined attack upon the native city over forty guns bombarded the Chinese positions. The fighting was most determined, and the allies' losses were heavy. Eight Chinese guns were captured, and the Chinese were driven out of the west arsenal after a fierce cannonade. A strong mixed force came close to the walls, and preparations were made for a fierce and determined assault. The guns of the allies did immense dam- age to the native city, causing many large conflagrations, and finally silenced the majority of the enemy's guns simultane- ously. Then 1500 Russians, assisted by small parties of Germans and French, assaulted and captured eight guns that were in position on the i^ailway embankment and the fort, the magazine of which the French subsequently blew up. The Arsenal Attacked. A body of American, British, Japanese and Austrian troops then made a sortie, and attacked the west arsenal,which the Chinese had reoccupied. After three hours of the hardest fighting yet experienced, the Chinese fled. When the arsenal had been evacuated by the Chinese, the Americans, French, Japa- nese and Welsh Fusiliers advanced toward the native city, and joined with the other attacking forces. The Japanese infantry and a mounted battery advanced to the foot of the walls, supported by the Americans and French. Despite valiant attacks, the allies were only able to hold the positions gained outside the walls preparatory to renewing the assault in the morning. The casualties sustained by the allies were exceedingly heavy, especially those to the Americans, French and Japanese. Several explosions in the native city were caused by the bombardment. The Chinese appeared to have exhausted their supply of smokeless powder, as they were now using black powder. CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. 367 f Russians made up the right wing of the international column in the advance on the native town of Tien Tsin. As they moved steadily over the open plain toward the entrance to the city the Chinese shelled steadily from the walls. The Rus- sians lost 300 killed and wounded. During the night the Japanese, Ameri- cans and some English troops attacked the city on the left wing. The Japanese shelled the walls, and, making a breach, gallantly entered first of all the international troops. The Americans occupied the most danger- ous position and were forced to advance over absolutely unprotected ground. The Ninth Infantry and a handful of marines lost many killed and wounded. Colonel Liscum was killed while leading his men. Brave Defense of Chinese. The Welsh Fusiliers and Wei-Hai-Wei regiment came up on the American right. The Chinese defended the walls bravely, but fled once the breach was made. The city was occupied by the international troops, who found dead Chinese lying about the streets in hundreds. At night the city was in flames. Though the taking of the city had the effect of discouraging the Boxers, the total loss to the foreigners was 1200 dead and wounded. Another account of the battle is as fol- lows : "The battle which was begun with the attack by 7000 of the allied forces upon the walls of the native city at 2 o'clock in the afternoon continued all day, two battalions of the Ninth Infantry participating. Colonel E. H. Liscum was killed. Among the United States marines the casualties num- bered forty. " The American contingent, after lying in shallow, hastily dug trenches, full of water, facing the south wall of the city, and suffer- ing for want of water and food, beside being short of ammunition, were ordered by Gen- eral Dorward to retire under cover of dark- ness. " The Russians were outside the east wall, while the Japanese, British and French were close to the west wall, with the Chinese try- ing to flank them. The walls were sadly battered by shells. The total losses of the allied forces on the first day were estimated at 800." In the British Legation, A messenger arrived who left Pekin, July I. The foreigners at that time were all in the British legation. Chinese troops were beginning to bombard the legations from the streets. The legations had been under rifle fire for a week previously, and in that time four foreigners had been killed and several wounded. The marines had unsuccessfully attempted to capture a gun on a wall com- manding the legations. The foreigners were supplied with an abundance of provisions. Fuller details of the fighting at Tien- Tsin on July 13 showed that the allies, with forty- two guns, bombarded the native city, and afterwards advanced on it. The attacking force, 7000 strong, British, American, Jap- anese, and Russians, supported by field bat- teries and machine guns, attacked the west arsenal, which the Chinese had reoccupied. The enemy repHed with a heavy rifle fire. For several hours there was hard fighting, but the allies captured a position on the east. The Russians, assisted by the French and Germans, assaulted the positions on the rail- way embankment and captured eight guns. They also took a fort with five guns, with 368 TWO PRINCES WARRING FOR A THRONE. wliicli the Chinese had harassed the settle- ment, and blew up a magazine. After stub- born resistance by the enemy, the Chinese force, which was estimated at 25,000, suc- ceeded in delaying the entrance of the allies into the native city until the following day, the 14th, when it was captured, che allies having camped outside the walls during the night. An American refugee from Tien-Tsin states that European officers, and particularly one American, declared they saw Europeans serving guns on the walls of the Chinese native city. The Famous Viceroy. Li Hung Chang, the famous diplomat and viceroy, having been summoned to Pekin from Canton, prepared to make his journey, which he declared was in the interests of peace. In reply to the British, French, American, German, and Portuguese consuls, who officially visited him in a body. Viceroy Li Hung Chang insisted that his departure for the north had a twofold object, namely, to save the lives of the foreign Ministers in Pekin and to arrange the best terms of peace possible with the allied Powers. He assured the consuls that he had taken all precautions against any uprising, and added that he had received important cable messages from Lord Salisbury and the French Foreign Minister, M. Delcasse, iden- tical in tone, and demanding full protection from injury and insult for the foreign Minis- ters in Pekin, aud threatening to take life for Hfe of high officials responsible if the Minis- ters had been murdered. Earl Li Hung Chang informed the con- suls that he was the only Viceroy of high dignity in all China who dared to transmit such messages to the Empress, and that he sent them verbatim. She had received them, and he had no doubt whatever that she must have exerted her powerfulinfluence in saving f the Ministers' lives. He said he had induced by persuasion and advice all the other Viceroys, except two, to join a lengthy memorial to the throne to secure the safety of all the foreigners in Pekin, to suppress the Boxers, end the pre- sent conflict, and make full and thorough reparation for damage done and lives lost. Foreigners Safe. To the American consul, who had inquired about accurate intelligence concerning the actual safety of the foreign Ministers, the Viceroy answered that he had had no news from Pekin within a week. His previous advices had assured him then of their, safety. If they were alive he was almost certain that matters could be satisfactorily arranged with the allied Powers. If they are dead — here he shrugged his shoulders significantly, and added, with lowered voice : "It is hard to tell what rnay happen. I am going to Pekin practically unarmed, except for my bodyguard of 200 men." He added : "That ought to be evidence to the whole world that I do not further any fighting, and of my pacific intentions." He was evidently exceedingly anxious about the Ministers, for, returning to the subject, he said: "My heart is sore about them. I know them all personally, and am on the best terms with them." He spoke with much feeling. PERILS TO FOREIGNERS IN CHINA. u DID you ever get socially acclimated, ever feel at home in China ? " was asked a gentleman who had lived and traveled extensively in that country for fifteen years. " No," said he, " unless you can call get- ting thoughtless and occasionally careless by that name. " How do you mean ? " " Well, just as the lion tamer does occa- sionally. Though he know s he's always in danger, at times he get used to it and for- gets it and is liable to pay the penalty. So in China. Foreigners need to be constantly on their guard. They or their governments must make the Chinese fear them. " You may get some faint notion of it," he went on, " if you've ever gone as a per- fect stranger into the foreign quarters of a big city like New York or Chicago, or the East End of London. The very fact of your being well dressed and apt, like a stranger, to peer and peek and stare about you, excites suspicion. And especially if you take out paper and pencil and begin making notes. They will spot you at once. " The first thing you know the swarming denizens — the women particularly — will be looking at you and whispering to one another. Some of them will frown and scowl. If you ask your way or ask any- one's address, they will probably grow angry or sullen, and refuse to answer. The children, even, will notice you, and nudge one another, following your every motion 24 with their eyes, and running to tell their parents of your presence. They ar'^ in- structed to mislead you if you put any questions to them. They take you for a collector, assessor, tax gatherer, or some one that wants to get money out of them. " Now, multiply that feeling toward you, say fifty-fold, and know that they are, besides, liable to break out in riot and mur- der at any moment, and you can get a notion of the way a European or even a Japanese feels in a Chinese city, especially when he is alone and at a distance from the foreign quarter, if there is one. How Travellers Are Treated. " They are liable to crowd about you and jeer and make unpleasant remarks. I don't mean that all of them do, but in the interior cities, and villages, where they seldom see foreigners, they are almost certain to do so. Then, besides, they will feel of your clothes; take off your hat and put it on their own heads, generally with unpleasant subsequent results to yourself. They will feel of ) our hair to see if it is of the same texture as theirs. " If you should happen to have a sketch book and a pencil, or any European writing materials, or any trinkets, like a watch chain, a foot rule, a pocket knife or any- thing queer and odd to them, they do not hesitate to seize it, examine it, pass it around, and if possible, keep it. I have even known them to snatch a bundle from a European's hand and calmly open it and 369 3?0 PERILS TO FOREIGNERS IN CHINA. inspect its contents. Once a parcel was snatched from a woman missionary, in Wusuch, I think. It was opened and her nightdress spread out and ilapped about to the great delight of the crowd. "Lentz, the man who made a tour of the world on a bicycle, had, you remember, a very tough time of it. Of course, his wheel attracted attention, and made them think him a new kind of 'foreign devil.' They would either hold him up and make him give them a ride on it, or they would throw bricks and sticks at him. Sometimes they would surround him in such numbers that he could not move, and would proceed to unpack his ' pack,' rifle his tool box, play with his monkey wrench and steal anything they could lay hands on that was nickel- plated under the impression that it was silver. He had frequently to turn on them and fire his revolver into the air to scare them off, so as to proceed on his journey. Chased and Stoned. "In the cities they would crowd around the premises where he stopped, and even burst in the door or the side of the fragile inn, so as to get sight of him. He finally had to put up at the inns in the small vil- lages. In the country crowds of farmers with hoes and forks would chase him for miles, throwing stones and cutting across fields in order to head him off. He stopped at my house during his journey, and he ad- mitted his fear of never getting through alive. If he did he said he would never set foot in China again. "So you can well believe it is no picnic, no summer excursion to walk about China, either inside or outside of the cities. You certainly don't want to take a tour there for your health. It is but little less dangerous than going about among the Indians when they are on the warpaih against the white man. And in some quarters of some of their towns I would about as soon be walk- ing out unarmed on the prairies at night with a pack of wolves out for their supper. "Then there are such swarms of these creatures. If they should be sufficiently irritated to set upon a man they could fairly trample the life out of him no matter how well armed he might be. When they begin gathering about you you feel as helpless as when you have stirred up a hornet's nest. There seems to be thousands of them, streaming in from every side street and pour- ing out of their huts or their boats and nooks and corners that you never would have dreamed could hold so many. It makes one think of that hole in the ground, in Persia, or somewhere, that they used to thrust condemned people into, to have them eaten by myriads of red ants, so that next morning only the skeletons would be left. Lost in the Streets. '' I shall never forget the afternoon and part of a night a friend of mine once spent in searching for his son, a boy about ten or twelve years old. He had gone out with one of the Chinese servants, and either through his own or the servant's careless- ness, had got separated from him. He had grown so interested in the shops and the sights and sounds of the streets that before he knew it he found himself alone in a neighborhood that was altogether strange to him. This frightened and bewildered him, and in trying to make his way back to the other part of the city, he only plunged deeper into this strange quarter. " He soon attracted the attention of the crowds. The Chinese children especially CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. 371 were greatly excited and began press around him, Galling him names and making ugly faces at him. The older people did not at first molest him, but they encouraged the younger ones, especially by laughing and by their evident enjoyment of the poor little fellow's plight. He was pretty plucky and stood his tormentors off as well as he could. But they grew bolder and more insolent, and followed close upon his heels, shouting, laughing, plucking at his clothes, pulling his hair and throwing mud and filth at him. Rescued by a Shopkeeper. " Some of the older ones, however, began to think that serious trouble might come of it. Suddenly a shopkeeper more intelli- gent than the rest rushed out, drove away the urchins, seized the boy, carried him into his house and barred the door. The crowd stood about, howling for a time, but finally dispersed. The shopkeeper brushed off his clothes and gave him some honey and sweetmeats. But as the man couldn't speak even ' pigeon ' English, the boy was quite in the dark as to what he intended doing with him. In a short time the China- man turned the key on him and went away, after addressing some unintelligible remark to him. "The boy was terrified at being left alone, but he was more frightened at the prospect of venturing on the streets again. Hour after hour passed. The dusk fell, the night came on, and he was still alone in the dark. " At last he saw lights approaching and heard voices. To his great joy he thought he heard European accents. The door was opened. There stood his father, scarcely able to speak from the agitation and anxiety of the long hours during which he had searched for him, for it was but a few mo- ments before that he had learned that his boy had been carried into the shopkeeper's dwelling. Almost at that moment the shop- keeper had come up, having traced the father in his wanderings in the footsteps of his son. He had gone away for the purpose of hunting up the boy's relatives and claim- ing a reward, shrewdly suspecting that there would be search for him. The father's prog- ress had been very slow on account of the reluctance of the people along the boy's route to confess that they had seen him or been willing witnesses to the abuse and menaces that he had had to submit to. The shopkeeper was paid better than he de- served, the father being too overjoyed not feel generous. Hatred of Foreigners. " Among the lower classes in China, they are strangers," said the traveller. " I sel- dom saw a friendly smile upon their faces in presence of a foreigner. They are almost sure to either frown or grin at you. Many of them believe that foreigners have the evil eye. I have seen mothers snatch their children away and hide them when they de- tected a European woman looking at them. Women put their hands before their faces if you look at them, and old women will curse you to counteract the bad influence. " You can always tell whether they are friendly or not. If they are friendly they will call you 'yan-se-sang' — foreign mister — otherwise, 'yan-kwei-zu ' — foreign devil — though this last may be a term of admiration as well as of enmity. Their conviction is that the foreigner has come there, whether pretending to be a missionary or not, to confiscate their property, take it away from them and kill them off. 372 PERILS TO FOREIGNERS IN CHINA. " The Chinese say that white men smell like sheep. It certainly is true that a Chi- nese dog knows the difference. The ap- proach of a white man will wake one out of a sound sleep and set him to barking, thinking perhaps that he is to have a mutton chop. " Some say that the Chinese as a race are incapable of either speaking or believing the truth. This is a sweeping accusation, and is itself, I am afraid, an illustration of the very thing it condemns. Yet there is a prevail- ing notion that they do not feel under the slightest obligation to speak the truth to a foreigner if a lie will better serve the pur- pose, In other words, the foreigner is a natural enemy. Certainly they are willing to believe any lie that is told about him. Strange Beliefs. " They believe that the missionaries gouge out the eyes of their converts and use the eyes for medical purposes. They believe that white children are made so by their mothers' licking them, as cats do their kit- tens. They have been told that Europeans cook and eat Chinese children. Cans of con- densed milk have been exhibited, with the explanation that the stuff is children's brains cooked for the depraved appetite of the foreigner, and that gelatine is Chinese babies boiled down to a jelly for the foreign epi- cure. " The riots at Tien-Tsin and other places in 1 89 1 grew out of the fact that the Sisters of Charity and the Wesleyan ministers took charge of Chinese female infants that had been either thrown or given away. Owing to their feebleness and exposure, the mortality among them was very large, and these mis- sionaries were accused of kidnapping and slaughtering them, and making their eyes. hearts and brains into medicine. About the time of these riots placards were posted up warning Chinese fathers and mothers against allowing their children to wander about the streets. "They believe, too, that cameras take pictures by means of dead Chinese babies' eyes with which they are packed full. The difference in looks of European and Chinese eyes they believe enables the European to see into the ground and detect hidden or buried silver, which he will take away from them. In short, they look upon the for- eigner as a predestined malevolent enemy to be watched, thwarted and, if possible, gotten rid of The Two Sexes. " They are also much prejudiced against the Europeans on account of what they deem the improper behavior of the sexes. They are highly scandalized at a woman's coming into personal contact with a man who is not her husband. The spectacle of a woman's shaking hands with a man is very shocking. They immediately set her down as unfit to associate with. And they think it the height of immodesty for a woman to kiss her hus> band in public. " They do not understand, therefore, how a woman who is unmarried can come ouf there as a missionary and live on friendly and intimate social terms with mascuime mis- sionaries and masculine converts, and be the good woman that she pretends to be. They naturally do not want their own women to associate with her, and they resent all efforts to convert them to her religion. " They are offended at the conversion of their women to the new religion because it does away with that exclusiveness which they insist on for their women. They object CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. 373 strenuously and bitterly, therefore, to female missionaries and female converts. " Another charge which the foreign office brought against the missionaries during the riots of 1 89 1 was that they drew converts from the immoral and lawless classes of the population, who allowed themselves to be converted in order to get the benefits and the privileges accorded to converts. They were rebels, criminals, pettifoggers and mis- chief-makers, it was said. They rely upon the protection of the missionaries to oppress and take advantage of non-Christians, and the missionaries uphold them when they create disorder. Fear of Missionaries. " There is some foundation for these accu- sations. They are not made out of whole cloth. But they are greatly exaggerated. If the Chinese people and government did not fear that the Europeans, missionaries and all, have come there for the purpose of dispossessing them of their country, these other grievances would be tolerated. The ruling classes would not allow the mission- aries to be molested by the lower classes if they did not believe that they are only the advance guard, the scouts and couriers of the main army of civilization that purposes to deprive them of their land and displace their ancient civilization with this new one. " If China is ever thoroughly aroused and believes itself capable of driving and keeping the foreigner out of the country by sheer force of numbers, the government, when that time comes, will not, in my opinion, hesitate to challenge the world and take the conse- quences. If they are forced to choose, the people will prefer to lose their country fight- ing for it than to have .it stolen from them without resistance. And the Powers will find that they have taken an enormous con- tract on their hands." There is a certain Greek legend that might be recalled at this juncture of affairs in China which relates to the founding of Thebes by King Cadmus, who went about looking for a suitable site for his future cap- ital guided by a vagrant heifer. When, having selected his site, Cadmus sent some of his party to draw water from a well sacred to Mars, there uprose a great dragon, which slew them all, but was itself slain by the king, who was directed by Min- erva to sow its teeth in the soil about the city. He had no sooner done so than up sprang a host of men armed to the teeth, who were about to attack Cadmus, when he cast a stone into their midst and diverted their attention so successfully that they fell upon each other and fought until only five were left. These five had had enough of fighting by that time and so turned to and helped the king build his new city. Yellow Dragon Awake. There are indubitable signs that the long dormant Chinese dragon has at last awak- ened from his sleep of centuries and, Hke some giant saurian of the Nile, is bursting the cerements of clay which have incased him. This dragon of superstition now threatens, like his prototype of old, to de- vour the intruding foreigner and to exter- minate the invaders of his sacred soil. Should he be slain by some modern Cad- mus, represented by the armies of the allied powers, there will doubtless be, as an after- math, a plentiful crop of dragon's teeth, which already, indeed, have shown signs of pre-existence in the pernicious Boxers and hundreds of other secret societies, with their innumerable ramifications. 374 PERILS TO FOREIGNERS IN CHINA. It will not be the " yellow dragon " alone which the allied powers will have to com- bat, but the millions of dragon's teeth, wide scattered over a territory larger than that of the United States. Armed and perfectly equipped as the powers may be, with the latest appliances and the most destructive death dealing weapons invented by modern science, it must be remembered that their foe is a great and terrible hydra, whose lop- ped off heads are immediately replaced by hurrying millions pressing from the rear. The arm that strikes may eventually fall from sheer weariness, and may it not be necessary to employ the Cadmian tactics and cast some stone of contention into the midst of the million headed throng, by which its members shall turn and rend themselves ? Are They Fanatics? To fight fire with fire, is an axiom of war ; to combat superstition with superstition may prove the legitimate corollary which shall bring the " foreign devil " in China out of his difficulties. But, to be perfectly fair with the Chinese, let us inquire if they are open to the charge of being superstitious and fan- atical. Two definitions of the term "super- stition " will establish that, one of which is " an excessive reverence for or fear of that which is unknown or mysterious," and "the worship of a false god or gods, false religion, religious veneration for unworthy objects." From the loins of these two spring fanati- cism — " a state of high wrought and self- confident excitement." If the Chinaman were called a worshipper of false gods, he might retort that this was a mere matter of opinion ; but he most assuredly is, if the consensus of our highest civilization is of any value. That portion of the world which has made the greatest advancement no longer recognizes a belief or trust in inanimate objects, such as idols of wood or stone, prayer machines or paper ghosts. As to the other part of the definition — "fear of that which is unknown or myste- rious " — says a writer who resided in China for many years : "Fear is at the root of all Chinese religion. When a man dies, his ghost acquires great powers and is to be feared and placated. I heard of an instance where a man quarrelled with his neighbor and killed himself in order to wreak ven- geance on his enemy." Belief in the malign powers of the dead is universal. Cause of Trouble. If one is in trouble of any sort whatever it is the work of the dead. If one succeeds in business or any undertaking, it is with the assistance of the spirits. But the means of placating the spirits are very simple. You have only to secure or cut out paper repre- sentations of money, houses, clothing, or other desirable things, which are burned with religious rites and become real in the spirit world. A learned Chinese mandarin says : " In England they have the art of cutting out paper men and horses, and by burning charms and repeating incantations transforming them into real men and horses. They may, how- ever, be dissolved by beating a gong, by discharging large guns or by spouting water over them." Hungry ghosts, famishing for the souls of men, lie in wait on all roads, and funerals, weddings, etc., must be protected by offer- ings, en route, to the devils and spirits, who may also be temporarily frightened away by loud noises, like the pounding of gongs and firing of firecrackers. CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. 375 At New Year's every house is cleared of ghosts by a sort of spirit house cleaning, which, as is said of the Chinaman and his bath, is done once every year, whether needed or not. The ghosts thus driven out from every house fill the streets — the court- yards and doorways opposite being protected by screens — for devils move only in straight lines. Every year there is an all souls' day, when offerings are made to homeless and hungry ghosts who have none to care for them. It is this belief in the necessity of caring for the ghosts of friends and ancestors that prevents the Chinaman, it is said, from per- manently settling in a foreign country and causes him to stipulate that if he dies his corpse shall be sent back to the land of his birth. The spirit Chinaman, like his relative in the flesh, wants a noise, and plenty of it. Even the sick are cured — or killed — by the same heroic measures, for "musicians" fill the house with terrific and discordant sounds until the devil is driven out or the patient gives up the ghost. Policeman the Chief Idol. There is a certain temple the chief god of which is supposed to be a mighty policeman, who keeps watch on people and decides when, how and where they ought to die. As the soul is about to leave the body he sends out two or three of his spiritual policemen who seize and bring it before him for sen- tence. The saying that a people's gods will be very much like themselves is exemplified in the Chinese conception of this police judge, for the Chinese never knew of a judge who could not be bribed, so they argue that this spirit judge is open to conviction only through the means of "cash." For this pur- pose they make or buy a peck or so of paper money and burn it before this god in the temple, and thus for a few cents purchase exemption from spiritual punishment. In one of the last letters received from the missionaries before they were cut off from the outside world, written at Lin-ching, is an allusion to the celebrated sacred tablet, which is brought out in times of drought. "This is the time of year," he writes, "when we get little or no rain, but the need is so great that the local officials are visiting the temple of the war god twice a day and prostrating themselves before an iron tablet brought from a famous well some sixty miles to the west. The custom is to keep the tablet five days in one temple, when, failing to get an answer in rainfall, it is moved to another." Peculiar Superstition, One of the vexatious things which the foreigner in China has to encounter is the " feng shui," a peculiar geomantic supersti- tion by which the good luck of sites and buildings is determined. The literal render- ing of the term is "wind and water," but its real meaning is the harmony of the air and water spirits with buildings and the cir- cumjacent region. If one's house is not on the right spot, the "feng-shui" will be bad, and all sorts of calamities will befall its occupants. If on the right spot, it will be good, etc. As only the geomancers or soothsayers can determine this point, the application is rather arbitrary. The railroads are very antagonistic to the "feng-shui," because they are generally straight, while good spirits, as is well known, always travel on curves. One company of wealthy Chinese merchants bought an English railroad at Shanghi twelve miles long, and destroyed it s;6 PERILS TO FOREIGNERS IN CHINA. to placate those same spirits. In several cities, whole streets of houses are shown only two stories high which were originally intended to be three, but had their con- struction stopped on account of those oppo- site being no higher, and consequently provocative of a very bad " feng-shui." Massacre at Tien-Tsin. It is said that the real cause of the terri- ble massacre of Europeans at Tien-Tsin in 1870 was owing to the erection of a high tower for the French cathedral, which, as it overlooked all other structures in its vicin- ity, was peculiarly bad " feng-shui " for that part of the city and religiously re- sented. As to the so-called religion of China, it may be said, as an old writer declared of its history, " If you wish to be acquainted with it, you must read five cartloads of books." There are two recognized religions — ^Taoism, or Rationalism, and Buddism — besides Con- fucianism, which is political and moral, rather than religious. One writer has called the Chinaman the " religious triangle," because of his three-sided belief, for in thi."? respect, he really suffers from an embarrass- ment of riches. The result is that he has more "gods" than any other people on the face of the earth, ranging from the dieties of sun, moon, stars, clouds, thunder, moun- tains, seas and rivers down to those rf flags, cannon, gates and streets, even of the kitchen and dust pan. The three sects combined have over a million temples, containing at least 1 0,000,- 000 idols and ancestral tablets, and it may be said of China, as it once was of Athens, that there are more statues of gods than there are men now living. It is estimated that there are 6o,ooo,ooo families in the Chinese empire, most of which have from three to five tablets of near or remote ancestors, which they virtually worship. Having such a confused notion of religion and V, hat it implies, it might be inferred that Chinese fanaticism is confined chiefly to the lower and ignorant classes, but on the con- trary, it is said to be the " litterati," or educated ofificials and disappointed office seekers that the last outburst is due. They have recently published and promulgated a book of denunciation against all Christians, which has operated upon the vulgar mind to the extent of causing the flames of fanati- cism to sweep the land. Charges Against Christians. Here are a few things they charge Chris- tians with doing : " They make use of occult and devilish arts and bewitch the ignorant by magical incantations, so they joyfully enter the sect. When a person enters this (the Christian) religion, the teacher gives him four ounces of silver and a pill. When he has taken this pill, his whole mind is confused and darkened, so that he destroys his ancestral tablets and only worships the image of a naked child, which points one finger towards heaven and another towards the earth. " In case of funerals, the religious teachers eject all the relatives and friends from the house, and the corpse is put into the coffin with closed doors. Both eyes are then secretly taken out and the orifice sealed up with plaster. The reason for extracting the eyes is this: From one hundred pounds of Chinese lead can be extracted eight pounds of silver, and the remaining ninety-two pounds of lead can be sold at the original cost. But the only way to obtain this silver is by compounding the lead with the eyes of CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. 377 Chinamen. The eyes of foreigners are of no use for this purpose. " It is impossible to enumerate all their evil practices. If we seek for the general motive which leads them (the Christians), it is a fixed determination utterly to befool our people, and under false pretences of religion, to exterminate them. Thus they wish to take possession of the middle king- dom." This book, say the translators, is directed against foreigners generally and all inter- course with them — social, commercial and national. Religion only is the point of attack, because religion, in the minds of the Chinese, is essentially political and national. To them, the idea that Christianity is prop- agated from benevolent motives, is incon- ceivable. They almost universally regard it as a political agency, used by foreigners for the accomplishment of selfish and polit- ical ends. Contempt for Innovations. This is the ostensible conception of Chris- tianity entertained by the educated China- man. Having thrown down the gauntlet so boldly, he seems to assume by his proud self-sufficiency, his reverence for ancestral traditions and his contempt for modern in- novations, that his 2400 years of Taoism and Confucianism and 1800 of Buddhism have resulted in a product every way supe- rior. But do the records bear him out ? It would rather seem, according to an eminent writer, that a significant result of this union of beliefs has been the debasement of man's moral nature to the lowest level found in any of the creeds. It has often been remarked that there is no other civil- ized nation in existence under such bondage to credulity and superstition as the Chinese. They feel that the earth, the air and the heavens above them are filled with mysteri- ous powers, tnvious if they are happy, unwilling to give them health or sympathy. They worship their ancestors as a protection from their angry ghosts, who would harm them if they failed in their offerings. Visitors to a certain district of China have been shown a small structure like a temple tomb, known as the Baby Tower, with an opening in one wall, into which infants unfortunate enough to have been born girls are thrust, to die amid horrors unspeakable. Female Children Destroyed. So thoroughly is woman's inferiority be- lieved in that many infant daughters are destroyed by their parents. Such is the wretched condition of the Chinese girl that many times the mother herself assents to her murder in infancy. " What then ? " she asks, "Would you have her grow up as wretched as I am ? " The wretched practice of foot binding, with its terrible tortures, is in itself enough to destroy all love for life or hope of happi- ness in the world. Yet how many millions are compelled to do it? That the poor resort to the selling of their female children as slaves to relieve in some small measure their cruel poverty, is not so much a reflec- tion upon their individual acts as upon the system that not only tolerates, but compels it. It was to combat the glaring evils of Chi- nese superstition that the many missionaries of various sects have taken their lives in their hands and gone forth to spread the blessings of Christianity. The first to enter China were the Nestorians, more than iioo years ago, and 800 years later the Roman Catholics had flourishing stations there. They were received at first with tolerance, 378 PERILS TO FOREIGNERS IN CHINA. but eventually were driven out with blood- shed, and in the museum of the Pi'ado at Madrid is a painting depicting the tortures inflicted upon early missionaries in the six- teenth century. The lowest estimate of converts to Chris- tianity places them at nearly or quite a mil- lion, of which the Protestants of different denominations claim about 100,000, with 2460 missionaries and more than 2000 sta- tions. The first Protestant mission in China was established in 1807 by the London Mis- sionary Society, and during the 90 years and more since then the field has been the favorite for those who choose a life devoted to labor and self-sacrifice. Sore Persecutions. All sects and denominations, says an English paper, have undergone sore trials, and persecution is not by any means at an end. It seldom comes from the uninstructed impulse of popular fury, but as a rule is inspired by some mandarin or his hangers on. Such were the massacres of 1870 and 1895, in which latter the Rev. R. W. Stew- art, his wife, three daughters, son and seven others were murdered. Referring to the sneers of Chinese diplo- mats at the treatment of the 100,000 low class cooHes in the United States, who in- variably intend to go back home with their earnings, and to the accusation that many of the so-called converts are " rice Christians," one who is well informed says: "On the other hand, there are but 1,060 Americans in all China, half of them women, children and missionaries, all respectable, self sup- porting people, most of them well educated, many with large capital, all of them bring- ing something to improve the civilization of China, " But how is this handful of Americans, as well as other foreigners in China, treated ? They are called ' foreign devils ; ' mission- aries and their converts are persecuted; merchants have their trade hampered and restricted by oppressive taxation ; foreign residence is officially confined to a few sea and river ports, and foreigners go into the interior at their own risk, where their lives and property are never entirely safe ; anti- foreign riots often occur, and the govern- ment rarely interferes until the mischief is done." Stormed by the Mob. Missionaries only fight when their lives are actually in danger. In the first place, when rumors of trouble are rife, they flee to the nearest important "yamen" (office of foreign affairs) and claim the protection of the official. Usually the mandarin dare not refuse it, but it may happen that he cannot give protection and that the " yamen " is sure to be stormed by the mob. Then the missionary takes refuge in the house of some convert and is hidden there until he can be safely spirited away, or is discovered and dragged out to torture, from the contempla- tion of which the mind shrinks appalled. At the beginning of this last great disrup- tion the missionaries were already expecting a disturbance. One of them wrote, just before they were attacked by the mobs : "The condition of affairs remains about the same, and rumors still wildly float around. Our guard of Chinese soldiers still comes at night, but they will be of small service in case of actual outbreak. The morale of their presence here is the only justification for keeping them," How futile, alas, was their hope. PECULIAR CHINESE SUPERSTITIONS AND CUSTOMS. TO ascertain why John Chinaman is " pe- culiar" we must go further back than the history of our own civilization takes us and grope among the musty traditions of a long forgotten past. He lays claim to an antiquity that laughs our own to scorn and to a hneage which, by comparison, puts that of the " barbarian " completely in the shade. Everything, of course, depends upon the point of view, and if it is admitted at the beginning that an ancient ancestry carries with it a prestige before which the rest of the world should bow, then the Chinaman has an advantage at the start. The chronicle of Chinese dynasties alone extends back to nearly three thousand years before the beginning of the Christian era, or some iive thousand years in all, which is quite a respectable period. China, in fact, is a survival of another and more ancient world than that in which we live at present, and herein lies the explanation of one phase of Chinese peculiarities. Nearly nineteen hundred years ago, or about A. D. 80, the Chinaman introduced gunpowder from India and was using it to some advantage fourteen hundred years be- fore the alleged discovery of America. Thirteen hundred and fifty years ago the art of making paper from vegetable fiber was brought into Europe from China, where it was probably invented ; at least so far back as the sixth century, printing was practiced by the Chinese; in the tenth century the imperial classics were printed, and by the thirteenth much of the lit- erature of former ages was in circula- tion. In fact, there are few great inventions of modern times, saving those pertaining to steam and electricity, which were not com- mon in China at one time or another. These facts may be set down to the Chinaman's credit, but to his discredit must be urged the other notorious fact that, while he was the originator of many useful inventions, he never learned how to apply them to the best advantage. Everything Old. He makes his paper in the same manner as his ancestors didthree thousand years ago; he prefers block to movable type to-day! His country used firearms centuries before other nations had abandoned bows and arrows ; yet up to the present time he has great faith in antiquated " jingals " and other primitive weapons (with which some of the rebels resisted the allied powers) and be- lieves in the efficacy of hideous noises, grimaces and vile odors in arresting the ad- vance of an enemy armed with the latest inventions of warfare. These facts betray another phase of Chi- nese character and show how a nation, great at the beginning or in ancient times, may become the victim of arrested development, and in a certain sense be petrified. That is the trouble with the Chinaman. He started out well, made great progress at first and then, probably overcome by his mighty conceit, suddenly "stopped short never to 379 380 PECULIAR CHINESE SUPERSTITIONS AND CUSTOMS. go again," like that famous clock which was either wound up too tight or slipped a cog. Anyway, he slipped and fell, and when he arose, bewildered by the shock, he seemed to have forgotten everything else but the ' former greatness of his ancestors and the magnitude of his country. It is a sorry state to get into when a nation assumes, either by assertion or by implica- tion, that it "knows it all," and can no longer be taught. This seems to be the con- dition of China, for, reflecting that it is, or ought to be, next to Russia, the largest state that ever existed, with a population aggre- gating 400,000,000, or one-third the earth's inhabitants, it arrogates to itself some quality of greatness which it really does not possess. Mighty Little Japan. It seems to forget that quality always counts for more than quantity, and that a nation is truly great only in proportion to its achievements and not to its area or popula- tion. For example, in 1895 little Japan destroyed China's mighty navy and brought the boastful Chinese in abasement to their knees. Overbearing and narrow-minded, the Chinese learn nothing from experience and fail to perceive the lessons of adversity The Chinese are not a homogeneous peo- ple, yet, with the exception of some natives, such as those of Hainan and the half wild peoples of the interior of Formosa, now under Japanese rule, they all speak a com- mon language, which, again, has so many dialects that the residents on different sides of a river or a mountain range may have a different pronunciation. Chinese is a diffi- cult language for a foreigner to acquire, and this may account for the ease with which those to whom it is natural learn another tongue. Educated Chinese diplomats, like Mr. Wu Ting Fang, the Minister to the United States, speak our language with accuracy and an exquisite pronunciation. The fact that even those Chinamen supposed to be highly educated do not always master all the in- tricacies of their own written language may be responsible for the amazing ignorance they sometimes display of the resources of their own land. This ignorance, however, invariably results in exaggeration of the greatness of China. Best Artists. A Chinaman will tell you that his country possesses the best artists in the world ; but any one who has seen a Chinese drawing, with its total lack of proportion and perspec- tive, can refute this. He will assert that his native musicians are fit to twang a harp in celestial choirs ; but whoever has listened to their discordant " harmonies," without rhythm and melody, and in which the ear- splitting gong is the prime factor, can testify to the contrary. As to the drama, in which women are replaced by eunichs and beardless youths, and which, like the poet's brook, goes on almost "forever, oh," it is no wonder that the official classes are debarred from attend- ing its performances. The Chinese are imi- tative without being inventive or original, but they are slow to adopt the customs of the " barbarians," as they term all foreign- ers. If they do not understand, it is because they do not want to, and the reasons given for not adopting foreign innovations are about on a par with those they allege for not indulging in dancing — that it is easier to hire some one to do it for them ! Because the customs of a person or people are different from ours, it is not a necessary CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. 381 inference that they are therefore peculiar or barbarous. Some things that we do are doubtless strange and unaccountable in the eyes of the Chinese, but from our point of view, they seem to go by con- traries, like the Irishman's pig, who had to be driven "in an opposite direction from the ivay he was going." For instance, when we address the Supreme Being, we raise our faces and direct our thoughts to heaven, but the Chinaman prostrates himself upon the earth, in which he supposes his gods to dwell. A Wonderful Stomach. Our location of intelligence is in the brain, while the Chinese locate it in the stomach. Their meals, especially their din- ners, begin with sweetmeats and preserves, and end with plain food, like rice, contrary to our custom of eating the simpler articles first and the dainties last. And, while we use a fork in conveying the food to the mouth, the Chinese use the primitive chop- sticks. As we shave our faces and allow the hair of our heads to grow, so John Chinaman shaves his head and coaxes out all the hair he can on his chin ; he chalks his shoes, while we have ours blackened and polished; he shakes his own hand when he casually meets a friend ; after a visit, he backs out ceremoniously and does his bowing in the street; at the left hand is his post of honor; he pays his doctor only while he is well, and docks his salary so long as he is sick — a custom which, it would seem, could not be too highly commended. The Chinese gentleman prides himself upon his ceremonious etiquette and the punctual observance of polite formalities; he never thinks of sitting while his guest is standing or until he has bowed him to a seat at his left hand. Yet the Chinese have recently revoked the guarantee of safety due to all ministers at Pekin, and Chinese officers at Taku gave the command to fire upon the foreign ships before war was declared, for their foes were " barbarians" in their estimation, and not entitled to considera- tion. All these things mentioned may be merely matters of ethics, for which the individual is not to be held responsible any more than for the cues worn by the men and the de- formed feet of the women. Both these fashions are due to a perverted sense of what should be rendered to antiquated and ridiculous custom. To ascertain why and when the first John Chinaman wore a pig- tail we shall have to go back a few hundred years in his history, and yet not so very far either. There are older customs than that, and more important events have happened, of which chronicles have been preserved. History of the Cue. It was not until the year 1644, after long and bloody wars, that the present Mant- choo dynasty was established, and it was just about that tinic also that the Chinaman was forced to adopt the badge of his Tartar conquerors, which was the cue. The Tartar gave John the cue, and he has kept it ever since, even though at the time it was be- stowed as a sign of servitude. He was told to shave his head, all but the part on top — and let the rest of his hair grow long. From the fact that those who conformed were promised a tael apiece some have in- ferred the name of "pigtail," by which it is commonly known ; but this is probably far- fetched. An inquisitive statistician has esti- mated that if all the pigtails in China were 3852 PECULIAR CHINESE SUPERSTITIONS AND CUSTOMS. cut off and thrown on the market they would weigh in the aggregate not less than 30,000 tons, and if tied end to end would reach three times around the globe ; but this, again, is a matter of conjecture. As to the foot binding practiced on the women, that is a custom which has been in vogue since a certain emperor, about a thou- sand years ago, found great pleasure in the dancing of a girl who had made her feet small by binding them up so that she could pirouette very prettily on the tips of her toes. The emperor was so delighted with the evolutions of her little feet that he caused a pavement of his palace to be inlaid with golden lotus leaves and flowers for her sat- isfaction, and the other women of his em- pire, hearing of it, all began to bandage their feet. An Obstinate Race. But when the Mantchoo dynasty came into power the first edict issued, after the male Chinese had been ordered to wear the pigtail, declared it punishable by death for parents to bind the feet of their children. It is another illustration of the obstinacy of the Chinese that they took kindly to the pigtails, which at first they despised and now consider as a sign of honor instead of disgrace, while they resented the edict against bandaging the feet, so that it was recalled after three years and the custom reinstated. The Chinese ladies and gentlemen rarely eat together, but occupy different rooms, rather from the fact that it is more conveni- ent than in obedience of some law of caste. The men have a custom in hot weather of divesting themselves of their coats and all superfluous garments and sitting around in negligee, which they would not feel at lib- erty to do if women were present. Both sexes of the higher classes wear most expen- sive garments, and the fashions change, though almost imperceptibly, as in our country. The men, as well as the women, are very proud of their fine embroideries and exquisite silks, their beautiful needle- work and precious stones in elaborate set- tings of gold. Followers of Confucius. While the Chinese cannot be said to have a settled religious belief, as we regard it, still they have their convictions and are strongly swayed by the ethical teachings of the great Confucius. The central feature of their superstitions or religion is ancestor worship, and on certain days of the year all the members of the family perform their sacred duty of carrying to the graves of their progenitors gifts of incense, sandalwood, candles, food and drink. The ancestor has a special niche in the household, as well as the family god or gods, for when a man dies it is believed that his ghost acquires great powers and must be placated with gifts. As for the family idol, he has a good time or the reverse according to the family for- tune. So long as things go along smoothly he has a plate of rice placed for him at every meal, and joss sticks and incense are burned before him daily. But if ill luck comes to his owner he is first cursed for a ne'er do well ; then, if it continues, he is kicked out of the house, or, if made of metal, battered to pieces and sold for old junk. While the visible embodiments of their gods are of mechanical manufacture, the Chinese also have a mechanical arrangement by which they do their praying, which con- sists in turning a big cylinder filled with in- numerable invocations on paper or parch- CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. 383 ment. After jerking a bell rope as he enters the temple, to inform the god of his pres- ence, the Chinese worshiper then gives the cylinder a whirl and reels off more prayers in a minute than an ordinary petitioner can utter in years. Superstition is rampant in China, and the soothsayers are consulted on every import- ant step or occasion, no class being exempt from its pernicious influence. One of the superstitions of the Chinaman is his belief in the "fung shway," or the eternal balance of of things, as, for example, if a window is opened on one side of a room another must be opened on the other, etc. Worshiping a Lizard. This superstition takes more forms than one can conceive, and a case is cited of a high mandarin, who had represented his country at a foreign court, prostrating him- self before and worshiping a green lizard found in his courtyard because he had been assured that it was the incarnation of the great dragon king who was then devastating the country by a terrible drought. We are considering, of course, the native as un- touched by foreign civilization, which rolls off him like water off a duck's back, and as uninfluenced by the missionaries who have devoted so many years trying to overcome his superstitions. Strange to say, it is this ancestor worship which, while it has kept China so long un- progressive and a laggard in the race between the nations, has given rise to the most ten- der family ties in inculcating a beautiful filial piety. .. On account of the fact that the pos- session of children will probably secure him perpetual worshipers when he shall be en- tombed with his ancestors, the Chinese father welcomes a birth with joy, and from that hour the mother becomes a person of im- portance in the household. The childless wife is despised and maltreated, but the mother of a large family is almost idolized, for the Chinaman holds, with Napoleon, that the greatest woman is she who is the mother of the most sons. One of the first lessons the children learn is courtesy, and rich and poor alike are taught to address their parents, their supe- riors and inferiors, with respect. The boys and girls are educated together until they are about lo years old ; then the boys of the rich go to a separate school or have a private tutor, and the girls are kept at home. It is said that while the worship of ancestors and obedience to parents is the religion of the Chinese, so education is their universal ambition. Great Esteem for Learning. They positively worship learning, and have the greatest respect for those who have acquired it. Naturally enough, too, Confucius is the particular god, the patron saint of every Chinese school, and when a boy first attends he takes his joss sticks, painted candles and a small package of mock money, all of which he burns before a strip of cloth or paper on which is inscribed one of the many titles of Confucius, the boy bowing while his offering burns before the god. This ceremony is called " entering school" and "worshiping the sage." It is a matter of wonder how the Chinese children learn anything at all, since all the exercises are conducted viva voce, the pupil shouting out his lesson as loud as he can, and the more noise he makes the more pro- ficient he is supposed to become. The height of a boy's ambition is to take the course prescribed by the tsung-li-yamen, 384 PECaUAR CHINESE SUPERSTITIONS AND CUSTOMS. or central government, at Pekin, and be- come a diplomat, though to acquire a degree one has to undergo a most severe series of examinations, and many lives have been lost in the attempt. It will be seen from the foregoing that the Chinese have fairly earned their designation of "peculiar," and that, though they have many commendable traits, they have some which they can well afford to do without. One characteristic trait of the Celestial is his power of endurance ; another is his in- sensibility or indifference to pain. He is essentially thick skinned, or pachydermatous, and not only can endure suffering stoically, but is also unaffected by the sufferings of others. This is exemplified by the terrible cruelty exercised in his treatment of crimi- nals and of those charged only with having committed small offenses against the laws. Torture of Criminals. A person without influence, if suspected of any crime, is tortured in a most revolting manner in order to wring confession. Some- times he is hung head downward by means of cords fastened to his toes ; again, stood on his head, while the soles of his feet are beaten with heavy bamboos. If he con- fesses, as he generally does, under the ter- rible punishment, he is thrown to the ground and beaten nearly to a jelly, or else is taken to the execution yard, where his head is chopped off. And the Chinese mode of execution indicates the vast difference be- tween their civilization and ours, for, while we are only moved to execute capital punish- ment by dire necessity, and then effect it as secretly as possible, the Chinese use every sort of brutal accessory to make of it a sport and shocking exhibition. Sometimes a dozen or more victims have their heads chopped off at a time, being arranged in rows, so that each one can see the ghastly act performed on the one that goes before him. The prisoners are chained hand and foot and are dumped on the ground like so many pigs, and their heads lopped off by an exe- cutioner with a keen bladed ax or long knife until the ground is drenched with blood, and all present are spattered with the blood that spouts from the headless trunks. Grotesque Funerals. Lastly, the Chinese funerals, like their executions, partake of the awfully grotesque. As the Chinaman has to pay the "last debt of nature," like other individuals, and can- not hire a substitute, as he might if con- demned to be beheaded, he accepts the inevit- able with resignation. But he has taken every precaution to "fool the devil," who, he knows, is lying in wait for his soul, by providing a great store of firecrackers, which are let off at every corner as the funeral pro- cession passes in a nip and tuck race for the cemetery. Under cover of the funeral Fourth of July celebration the just freed soul is sup- posed to depart in peace uncaught by the evil one. The idea of China's setting out to battle with and subdue the combined forces of the civilized nations of the world would be ridicu- lous if it were not so pathetic. Never before has the self-confidence of a nation been so conspicuously displayed ; and the spectacle of the Empress, who was once a slave girl, boldly defying the world, is one that will not soon be forgotten. Of course it is true that up to a few years ago the Chinese people looked upon their nation as invincible. To most nations the war with Japan would have been a lesson ; to most nations the affectionate regard of CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. 385 such powers as Russia, Germany, and Eng- land would have been a warning to circum- spection ; but from appearances it would seem that China has neither learned the les- son nor understood the warning. I It is not so strange that ignorance in these matters should be displayed by the common people, but one who imagines that it has been the common people who have been the cause of these disturbances will have an incorrect view of the Eastern situation. It is the com- mon people who have made the noise. The Common People. In all probability it will be the common people who will suffer the penalties for all these acts when the day of reckoning arrives ; but in spite of all this, the Powers realize that the common people have been no more than the innocent tools of a spiteful and vindictive woman who has been great enough to seize the reins of a nation, but who has not yet been great enough to be able to realize her own powerlessness and the insignificance of her own country The following from the pen of Hon. Charles Denby, our former Minister to China, contains valuable information, and will be read with interest : " The reader may be assisted in forming an opinion touchingthe importantstepswhich have happened in China by some account of the life of the remarkable woman who is now the head of the Empire. The Empress- Regent, Tzi An, has had a career full of startling changes, coup d'etats and ro- imance. " In her youth she was a servant girl at a public inn. She became the secondary wife of the Emperor Heinfung. It is to be noted that secondary wives are not concubines, who constitute a lower rank. The concu- 25 bines are divided into classes, there being first, second, and third classes. " The Empress has never received any foreigner except Prince Henry of Prussia, in 1898, and the ladies of the Legation in 1899. Her own subjects never see her face. She receives behind a screen. From 1861 to 1899 she never gave audience to any foreign Minister, and I believe that she has not done so since. In 1889 the Emperor Quangsu assumed the reins of government. The Empress came prominently into public life after the allies had taken Pekin in i860. This event occurred October 13, i860. Oc- tober 24, 1 860, the British treaty was made and the day after the French treaty. Alarm of the Empress. " In 1899 the Empress Dowager became alarmed lest the whole of China would be ceded to the foreign powers and seized the reins of government with her old but strong hands. As the writer left China in August, 1898, he is unable to render an accurate account of the facts which transpired in con- nection with this event. " When the Empress attained the age of sixty, in 1894, all the nations which were represented at Pekin vied with each other in showing her respect. Autograph letters were written to her by all the chiefs of state, including her own, and many handsome presents were forwarded. It would seem that this respect and esteem have changed to infinite hate and loathing. It is under- stood that the foreigners in China regard her as the "anti-Christ," the opponent of progress, the prospective murderer of the Emperor. " Other people say, and I am inclined to give some credence to thtir statement, that llie Empress is making a despeiate effort to 386 PECULIAR CHINESE SUPERSTITIONS AND CUSTOMS. save China from partition. It is claimed by well-informed people that this is her supreme end and purpose. " If this be true the people of the United States should wish her success. The main purpose of American supremacy to-day should be to prevent the partition of China. If the empire is divided up there will be an end to our missionary work, except, per- haps, in the English possessions. As for our commerce, which is so greatly develop- ing, it will be constrained, cabined, and con- fined. There is no reason in the world why Great Britain, Russia, France or Germany should have any greater right to seize por- tions of China than we have. Our Rights in Asia. "Will any man formulate a reason why we have not equal rights in Asia with the European powers? Will any man put on paper a decent argument why they should have the exclusive right or any right to take possession of the provinces of China ? We have done as much, or more, to introduce modern civilization into Asia as they have. Our trade surpasses theirs except England's. Our people are next to the Enghsh in num- bers. "That the powers should protect their people from death or injury goes without saying, but must they necessarily wipe out of existence a field of enterprises which is the most promising in the world for our people? And must we stand idly by while the process goes on ? " The Empress ruled China from 1861 to 1889. She had built up the difficult edifice of foreign intercourse. She left her country at peace with the whole world. She was reverenced by her own people and respected by foreigners. It is hard to believe that all this honorable regard has been forfeited. The reign of the Empress-Regent was noticeable for a marked and general progress in a number of different directions, especially commercial. Railroads did not until recently' win their way, but the foundation was laii for them. The use of the electric telegraph became general. " The secret societies in China have been heretofore chiefly influenced by antagonism to the Manchus. They have favored the restoration of the Ching dynasty — which was Chinese. In order to embarrass the Government they have attacked foreigners and native Christians, who under the treaties, are entitled to protection. There were occasional anti-foreign riots. Riots and dis- turbances are not unusual in our own country. China paid compensatory dam- ages in every case of injury to person or property. Chinese Secret Societies. " It would seem from some of the reports from China that the secret societies have taken up the cause of the Emperor. This is almost a self-evident contradiction. The quarrel with the Empress on the part of the foreigner is that she is anti-foreign and that she is secluding the Emperor, who is in favor of the foreigners. There can be no reason, therefore, why the secret societies should take up his cause. "At the bottom of all these popular upris- ings is discontent growing out of deluges and starvation caused by short crops. There is a great deal of misery and poverty in China. Left to herself, China will work out_ as Japan has done, her own salvation. Ruled by monarchies and despots, her land will always be the abode of abject misery and want." Ci:E3:A.iPT:E:R xixivi. UNDER THE FIRE OF BOXER SAVAGES. REV. ROBERT R. GAILEY, once well known as a Princeton football player, wrote a letter to Rev. Henry E. Jackson, of Swarthmore, Pennsylvania, dated Yokohama, August 12, in which he gave a vivid picture of the scenes in Tien-Tsin, at the time of the capture of the city. The letter said : "We did not think that the crisis would come quite so soon, though we were fully aware of the serious state of affairs. The Taku forts were fired on at ii o'clock Sat- urday night, June i6, and the flags of Eng- land, Russia, Germany and Japan were flying over them by 7 o'clock Sunday morning. "By 2.30 that afternoon the first shell struck within a few rods of the spot where the military officers were standing, discus- ing the situation. It not only befuddled their councils, but struck terror to everybody but the babies. I had just gone up town after luncheon to arrange about Clara and the baby, Robert, staying up in the center of the settlement, as our building is three- quarters of a mile out, and quite unpro- tected. Mr. Lowrie, of the Presbyterian mission at Pao Ting Fu, was staying with us at the time, and the plan was for us two men to guard the premises with two Winchesters we had purchased for the purpose, while Clara would look after Robert with a feeling of greater safety in the settlement if anything should happen. " Well, I was just going into the house of a Mrs. Way to see if she could give me a retreat for my wife and bairn, when that first boom of cannon roared out, and the peculiar whizz, shriek and explosion of the shell followed, not simultaneously but all in one act, so that the impression of the mind is of one terrible thing taking place under one conception. " I was undone for a moment. My wife and child were three-quarters of a mile away, and the shells were flying right in the direction of our building ; but many of them were aimed very high and being 'time' as well as concussion shells they went off up in the air and did no damage. Some, however, were hitting the settlement and the higher and more conspicuous buildings. Hurried to the Rescue. "I hurriedly jumped into my rickshaw and started for home. It was hot and the man pulling me, because of heat and fear, gave out and I ran on, leaving him come after me, for Clara and the baby. "When I got in sight of home I saw Mr- Lowrie and Clara and the baby coming with only a few things they had grabbed up in their fright and haste. It was the toughest three-quarters of a mile I ever traveled. We kept close to the buildings, for the little protection they afforded and hurried on as fast as we could. About every two minutes would come that deafening boom two miles away, and that pushing through the air and clashing whirr of the shells. This was kept up for over two hours, and the people began to 387 388 UNDER THE FIRE OF BOXER SAVAGES. come out on the streets again, gingerly at first, but bolder soon ; and how everybody gazed blankly into the possibility of the next few days as we discussed the situation is best understood when you learn that we were not prepared at all to meet the strong fighting, and if the Chinese had come down on us at once we, humanely speaking, would have been overcome, for the Chinese take no prisoners. " Some people stayed in their homes, but the most of the women and children and many men took refuge in Gordon Hall, the most conspicuous but best constructed build- ing in the settlement. Driven to the Cellars. " In an incredibly short time the building was filled, and during the firing we took to the cellars. Oh, the confusion, the gabbling of Chinese nurses, the babbling of children, the excited talk of every one, all in a cellar that was dark, with no means of lighting it except by candles, bad odors and foul air to breathe, no food and no place to sleep and night at hand ! "The Chinese kept up the firing every day. Our forces, 2000 only and a few big guns, did splendid work, but it was fighting with an invisible enemy. The Chinese houses afforded excellent protection for the Boxers and Chinese soldiers, so the order was given Tuesday evening to burn all the Chinese houses between the native city and the foreign settlement. The destruction by fire was something awful. For the next four or five days this burning went on, and fighting with it. " We stayed in the cellars of Gordon Hall for eight days, and our baby was quite ill when we fled there, though he seemed to grow no worse under bombardment, so I arranged to go to the home of Mr. Cousins, an association president, where we were much more comfortable, and where we got good meals, whereas in the hall we lived on sandwiches and tea most of the time. " The firing had not ceased by any means, but we got on the protected side of the house while it was going on, as we felt that we could not live longer in a cellar. " On July 5 we came out safely with over one hundred more, and were placed on transports, which got us over here to Japan. We went down on a tug boat, six and a half hours down the river, to Tangku. The river all along showed dead Chinese floating or lodged on the banks. Just after the heaviest fighting at the settlement and railroad sta- tions, I was told that the river was full of bodies. There must have been many more, for those we saw were fresh, and the heaviest fighting had been ten days prior to our exodus. On the Transport. " We were told to go aboard the ' Sheng King,' a merchant vessel. Everybody scram- bled to get the best place. I went aboard but found every berth occupied or guarded by some man. I called Captain Wise, of the ' Monocacy,' aside and explained, and he said, ' Will you sleep in a private railroad car?' It was just the place. There was plenty of air and room, and we had a good night. The next day we went out to the transport, and after much tribulation were taken on the ' Yorktown,' and had a goo 1 night, and every kindness shown. The third day we were put on the ' Logan." She had just arrived, with the Ninth Infantry, from Manila. " From the time I got on the ' Logan,' and saw the 150 fine looking fellows going CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. 389 into China, I had the insuppressible desire to go with them and do Christian work under the auspices of the Young Men's Christian Association. As we came on to Japan, the idea of army work grew upon us, and when we landed here in Yokohama our minds were pretty well made up that I ought to return and do ail I could. " I found, to my surprise, that no commu- nication of any kind had come from our New York committee with regard to army work. I wired the committee, proposing to return, and asking if they would send sup- plies. They instructed me to go ahead and take charge. I got letters from the United States and British Ministers to the officers in command of their respective forces, which will get me through the lines." House Burned Down. The work that Dr. Gailey began in that way is the same kind of work that enabled the Young Men's Christian Association to help the soldiers so much during the Span- ish-American war. Before leaving Yoko- hama, Dr. Gailey had collected ^8io from the merchants of that city, and the ladies of Shanghai had begun to make pajamas, mos- quito nets and fans. Mrs. Frank Davis, of Philadelphia, was at Tien-Tsin during the bombardment of the city by the Boxers and the Imperial troops, and gave a graphic account of what occurred. Her own house was burned to the ground, and her costly collection of curios either stolen or burned. Her husband was still in Tien-Tsin as a volunteer, and his last letter to her told of the fearful slaughter which was still going on. Mrs. Davis says: "About June 3d my servants came to me and pleaded with me to leave. I only laughed at them, and, indeed. it was the general impression among the foreign population that it was a scare, and had no real foundation. My servants would not leave me. Everywhere I went they followed, and insisted on my leaving the city immediately. ' Must not stay,' they said, 'you too long here, must go to-night, if stay you surely make die pidgin.' To make die pidgin is to be killed. I learned from them that all the servants in the employ of for- eigners were ordered by the Boxers to quit their work, under penalty of death. " In order to keep the concession free • from suspicious Chinese, all Chinamen in '■ the concession after dark were ordered to carry lanterns. The characteristic dress which the Boxer was so proud of — a red cap, red sash and red slippers — and which marked him everywhere as a Boxer, was being dispensed with, so that one was unable at all times to pick a Boxer out from other Chinamen. Boxers Give Warning. " On June 4th we were again notified to leave our houses and go to the English con- cession, but I was sick and had no fear, so I stayed. It was now evident that matters were becoming serious indeed. Wednesday, June 6th, the Boxers sent notice that they intended to make an attack. Mr. Davis and I went to the British Consulate. "This concession was considered the strongest because it stood in the middle, surrounded by the German concession oa one side, the French on the other, while the Pei Ho river flanked it on one side and a canal and wall on the other. In case of a retreat, therefore, all forces could slowly withdraw into this concession and there make a better stand. " Mr. Davis, together with nine foreign- 390 UNDER THE FIRE OF BOXER SAVAGES. ers, joined Captain McCalla's forces as vol- unteers on June 7, and these men stood guard in relays from 9 to 5 every day. "Captain McCalla's idea was to i-each Pekin to relieve our Minister. Troops of eight different powers, with the Americans at the head, left Tien-Tsin on June 10 to reach Pekin. Mr. Mcintosh, a young me- chanic from Manayunk, ran the engine, on the tender of which was mounted a Maxim gun. A few cars with implements for re- pairing and carrying about fifty Americans made up the train. No provisions were taken, and when it was found that the road had been torn up it was necessary to beg for food. This was done two days in succes- sion ; when the engine tried to get back on the third day it was found impossible. They had been cut off. Guards All Killed. " The six guards the men had stationed at intervals around while the men worked repairing the road were all killed, and the Boxers, rushing in on the men who were unaware of their presence, began a hand-to- hand conflict, at the same time retreating toward their cars, where the Maxim was poured in on them. The Boxers for the first time found out that they could not swallow bullets and spit them up again, as they had been led to believe they could. Many were slain. It was found that to reach Pekin was out of the question, so joining the rest of the allied foices, which had now come up, the entire army of looo men fell back toward Tien-Tsin. " Mcintosh was soon after expelled from the volunteers. He would not listen to any- thing but fight. He was after Boxers where- ever he heard one existed, and would not listen to orders. He shot them, buried them — did everything to get rid of them, and was as brave as he was good-hearted. Men on guard at the concession on June 15, about II P. M., reported that the Boxers were attacking the railroad station, and were about to swoop down on the concessions. A small bridge made of old Chinese junks was the only thing that separated us from the station. Fvery One a Hero. Just before the attack lOOO Russian Cos- sacks, every one a hero and a soldier, sat down in the cool twilight and sang their national airs, and ended with aTe Deum. It was the mo.st inspiring thing I ever heard. They knew before long they must face a force of men five times as strong as their own, who were captained by trained men, and it must either be win or be cut to pieces. "They had not long to wait. About mid- night the bittle began, and it was a hand-to- hand encounter. The Russians used their bayonets, and inch by inch they drove those rascals back. When they were far enough away the soldiers fired on them. The next morning Chinamen were found dead all around the station, and a stretch of dead Boxers far back into the country showed the direction the Boxers took in retreating. The Russian soldiers cannot be praised too highly for their conduct at this encounter. " It makes my blood boil when I read the statement that the Russian Cossacks were inhuman and brutal. Mrs. Drew feels this more than any one else, and she wishes the public to know that the statements attributed to her about the conduct of these Russians soldiers are all untrue, and were never made by her. "June 17 the Japanese succeeded in CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. 391 driving the Boxers back again, with fearful loss to both sides. At this time we were all gathered in Gordon Hall, and any defeat meant death to all. "Shelling the concession was now the idea. Forcing an entrance was abandoned. Shells flew wide at first, but soon the gauge was acquired, and house after house was struck. The entire Chinese market place, which obstructed our fire on the enemy, was burned, and in this way we were able to return the fire to better advantage. " Imperial Chinese troops now joined the Boxers, and together all forts along the Pei Ho to Taku were taken. Attack after attack upon the concession followed this movement, but every time they were repulsed. In Terrible Danger. "Our condition was then grave indeed. We needed help, and needed it immediately. Jim Watts, a lad of 19 years, a jockey and fearless rider, who knew every route, volun- teered to go to Taku for help. Together with three Russians he started off, and on June 23 succeeded in guiding a force of men safely from Taku to Tien-Tsin. He was made a hero. The men carried him on their shoulders and cheered him to the echo. Everywhere he went he received an ovation. I believe poor Jim has since been killed. He saved us all. Time after time the Russians were going back, and Jim, unable to speak to them, merely took his pistol and pointed it at them, then pointed to Taku. It had the necessary effect. "The forces which had returned from Pekin were held in a fort seven miles from Tien-Tsin by the imperial troops. They were almost starved by this time, so the relief from Taku started out to relieve them. (This they did, and the wounded were brought back with them, contrary to the reports pre- viously published. The combined forces now begun making things secure around Tien- Tsin. Arsenals were taken, and the forts along the Pei Ho toward Taku captured and the river thus opened up. " July I, at 10 P.M., I was notified I could reach Taku next day, and together with Mrs. Raysdale, her two children, daughter-in-law and child, and Mrs. Charles Denby, Jr., and child, in the tug • Tah Wan,' started for Taku. We had a small Maxim gun, which now became a horror to these Chinamen, so we felt quite safe. Along the route we could see the soldiers burning a village, which seemed to be deserted. In many cases only two or three soldiers were doing the work, and had only a club for protection. At other points Chinese farmers were peacefully cul- tivating their ground as though nothing had happened. Dead Bodies Everywhere. " All along the banks were strewed the dead bodies of Boxers, piled high in many cases, and Chinese dogs could be seen eating their remains. Skeletons, dried in the sun, told the same story of the awful slaughter which had been done. " We towed a lighter behind us with the wounded soldiers, and when we reached the harbor of Taku the gunboats lined up on either side and saluted their wounded men. " We were assigned quarters on board the British ship ' Orlando,' and we were treated with the utmost courtesy. I felt that all my trouble was repaid, for again I had clean things and a table to eat from. We went to Japan, and there took passage on board the ' Logan' for home." When Charles Mcintosh, the hero men- tioned in the foregoing statement, reached 392 UNDER THE FIRE OF BOXER SAVAGES. Philadelphia, he was asked for some account of what happened at Tien-Tsin. He spoke very modestly of what he had done and talked about himself and his experiences in China with evident reluctance. "I did not do much," he said. "All we could do in Tien-Tsin when the Chinese were shooting at us, was to .shoot back." He did not seem to regard his experiences during the three awful weeks he spent in Tien-Tsin as worthy of much consideration, and he made light of the dangers through which he had passed. "There was not a minute during the day," he said, " when we could not hear the ping of Mauser bullets in the air over our heads. The Chinese fired too high, and this accounted for the few fatalities among the residents of the foreign conce sion. The short man had the advantage of the tall one for once." Expedition Failed. Mr. Mcintosh was formerly a loom fixer in the plush mills of a well-known firm. He went to China in 1898, to help install the machinery in the woolen mill erected there by Dr. Diffenderfer. When the Boxers were threatening to attack the foreign concession in Tien-Tsin he joined Captain McCalla's forces as a volunteer in company with about 100 other Americans. When the first relief expedition left Tien-Tsin in a vain effort to reach Pekin Mr. Mcintosh served as engi- neer on the engine that drew a train of cars canying supplies, as well as a flat car on which a machine gun had been mounted. The expedition failed and the railroad was torn up behind the train, so that the loco- motive and cars were abandoned. During the subsequent bombardment of the foreign concession by the imperial troops and the attacks by them and the Boxers there were but few of the foreigners killed, though the Chinese were slain by hundreds. The machine guns were par- ticularly effective, and Mr. Mcintosh be- lieves but for them all the residents of the foreign concession in Tien-Tsin would have fallen victims to the fury of the Chinese. Could Not Face Guns. " The Boxers were not particularly dan- gerous," he said, " as they had no firearms, and their swords and spears were not terrify- ing at a distance. They did not possess the nerve to stand up against the fire of machine guns, and when they suffered a repulse they retreated in complete disorder. The first time that the Boxers attacked troops that had a machine gun they were permitted to approach within 150 yards before fire was opened on them. Many of them were rid- ing horses, and boys of from 1 2 to 15 years of age were placed in front to serve as breastworks, ;md within a few seconds after the machine gun commenced business eighty or one hundred of them were dead and the rest of the Boxers were tumbling over each other in their haste to get away. " When the imperial troops, who practi- cally surrounded the concession in which the foreigners lived, began their bombard- ment on June 17th, we learned what trouble actually meant. We were under fire from four directions, and the fire came from mod- ern Krupp guns of large size. Three and four-inch shells poured into us every hour during the day, and many of them were actually accurately aimed. At night the fire from the artillery ceased, but the fire of the Mauser and Manlicher small rifles was inces- sant. Across the Pai Ho river the sharp- CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. 393 shooters, or 'snipers,' as we called them, were behind mud huts and salt heaps in such positions as to cover every street in the con- cession. Poor Marksmen. " Whenever they could see a human target they fired at it, and when there was no tar- get they fired at random. Fortunately, they aimed too high to do serious damage. Down on the bund, the street which was on the bank of the river forming the quay, it was not safe to show yourself. I foolishly rode my bicycle down there one day, and the storm of bullets that rattled around me made me think that a machine gun was turned loose in my direction. "The effect of some of the bullets that are fired at high velocity is something fright- ful. I have seen men struck in the forehead by one of these bullets, and the head would be split entirely open and all of the bones would be shattered. The head would rattle like a dice-box when the body was moved. The Chinese killed all their wounded, and paid little attention to the dead. If the corpses were close to the river they were dumped into the water, and if they were not they were sometimes burned. The smell of burn- ing flesh was in the air all of the time, and the stench from decaying bodies was over- powering. The Chinese are pretty good fighters, and they have a tremendous advan- tage in being numerically strong." A letter depicting the siege of Tien-Tsin was received by the Rev. H. H. Lowry, D.D., president of Pekin University, from his son, Edward K. Lowry, of Pekin, who was interpreter to General Chaffee, and was for some time secretary of the American Legation. Mr. Lowry, who had left his family in Pekin to go to Tien-Tsin, was caught in the latter city at the time of the siege. His letter describing the troubles and their be- ginnings, gives a realistic idea of the state of affairs. He tells how the shells pierced houses, how buildings were burned, and of the sensations of those who were besieged. Mr. Lowry refers to the participation of the imperial troops in the troubles, and affirms that "China is certainly seeing her last days." There are numerous personal references, but the tenor of the writing shows coolness and lack of terror that would not be expected to reign in a city where shot and shell con- stantly fell. Siege of Tien-Tsin. The Rev. Dr. Lowry, president of Pekin University, spent thirty-five years in China, and organized a great work there. He came to this country to attend the General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, and determined to return at once to his duties, notwithstanding the perils that threaten foreigners. The letters from Dr. Lowry's son follow : " Tien-Tsin, June 24, 1900. "Since two weeks ago last Wednesday I have been shut up here in Tien-Tsin, and if will be impossible to tell you what we. have passed through during that time. The trouble here began one week ago last Fri- ,. day night, when the Boxers set fire to and;; burned all the chapels and the Catholic' Cathedral in the Chinese city. Saturday night they burned the London Mission Chapel, j ust above here, and quite a num- ber of foreign buildings in that neighbor- hood. The forts at Taku were bombarded and taken the same night. There was a large fleet of forty vessels of different nation- alities. Our force here has consisted of 394 UNDER THE FIRE OE BOXER SAVAGES. about 3,000 men, 1,600 of which were Rus- sians. Saturday night, the i6th, the Rus- sians killed quite a number of Boxers across the river, in the neighborhood of the station. They have been holding the station right along. " On Sunday, the 17th, about I o'clock, the Chinese soldiers began to bombard the foreign settlement, from the forts up in the Chinese city. They have two large guns there. Nearly all the foreigners living on the outskirts of the settlement left their homes and moved in, a great many going to Gordan Hall. Mr. and Mrs. Pyke and children, Cora and her children, Mr. Martin and I went to the Drews, on Sunday afternoon, and returned only yesterday afternoon. The ladies from across the way all went to Mr. Cousin's. Mr. and Mrs. Hayner were at the Drews for only one night, and then decided to come back and take their chances, because Nor- man was taken with a light case of scarlet fever, and they could not get comfortable quarters at the Drews. Shower of Shells. " I think it very providential, however, that we left, for Mr. Fyke's house has been struck three times by shells, two of which went through the wall of the guest bedroom that I occupied, and one of the projectiles was found on the bed. " The church in our compound here has been pierced three times, and I have a good collection of bursted shells and bullets. The bullets have been falling all about for nearly a week. Considering the amount of shelling which has been going on, there has been very little loss of life and destruction to property. The Chinese were shelling us from three sides for a time. They had some guns across the river, over at the East Arse- nal, at the forts north of the settlement, and also at the West Arsenal. Ail that could be done here was simply to fortify and pro- tect the foreign settlement, because we did not have enough men to spare to go and take any of these guns. "We simply had to take the defensive until relief came, and I cannot tell you whaC a joyful time it was yesterday, when the reinforcements arrived. Two thousand came in yesterday. They were two days and a half from Tongku, having to fight their way all along. They came by train to within thirteen miles of Tien-Tsin. Trying to Reach Pekin. • Two days ago the Americans and some Russians got up as far as the arsenal, but had to fall back, as the Chinese were too strong for them. The Americans lost several men, the Chinese loss, however, being about 200. I do not know just how many foreign sol- diers have been killed, but I guess quite a number. There must be at least 100 wounded in the hospitals. " Two weeks ago to-day, over 2000 sol- diers left here for Pekin, by train. I started out with them, hoping to reach Pekin in a couple of days, at least, but the Boxers had accomplished considerable destruction to the line, and by Wednesday we were only to Lang Fang — half way. Our captain told me to come back, as he feared they would have a tough time of it. I ate with our marines and slept on the ground at night, with noth- ing under me but the bare ground, and nothing over me but the blue sky. "Those poor soldiers must have had a very hard time, because, when I left them they had only three or four days' provisions, and we received word yesterday that they CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. 395 were only eight miles from Tien-Tsin, with forty killed and seventy wounded. From all we can learn, they did not reach Pekin, and it is the opinion of everyone here that the foreigners from Pekin are not with them. On Thursday last, the 21st, Mr. Drew received a message from Sir Robert — just a line — saying that the foreigners had been ordered to leave Pekin in twenty-four hours. His message was dated June 19, at 4 P. M. It was brought by special messenger. He car- ried the note in the sole of his shoe. Mission Stations Burned. "All the mission compounds, except ours (Methodist Episcopal), have been burned by the Boxers, and all of the cathedrals. There was also a large fire in the Chinese city, destroying about one thousand buildings, and also the city tower over the Ch'ien Men — the tower over the gate, which is always closed, and is only opened for the Emperor when going to the Temple of Heaven. That seemed to enrage the Empress Dow- ager, and for some reason she turned over the keys of the three gates on the south side of the Tarter city to the British Legation. "The messenger told me that the foreign soldiers killed about seventy Boxers, in a temple just north of the Austrian Legation. While I was with the soldiers who started for Pekin there was some fighting. It was the second afternoon, between Loh Fa and Lang Fang. There were a large number of Boxers engaged in destroying the railroad, and it took a short time for the marines to clear them out. They killed about fifty- eight and wounded seven. It was quite ex- citing for a time, I can assure you, but I felt much safer with them than I have felt during the past week, before we were rein- forced. Then we had nothing to fear but Boxers, who are armed with nothing but swords and spears ; now we are fired upon by the Chinese troops. " If I could know that the loved ones in Pekin were safe. It has been such an anxious time. I have not heard from Kath- arine for ten days, and I have no idea where she is now. We have no definite word about them — whether they are with the troops who went up to Pekin or not, we do not know. The last news from Pekin is what Sir Robert wrote Mr. Drew. We have had two very quiet days here, yesterday and to-day. There is some firing north of the city, but we do not know what it is. Awaiting the Troops. " The reinforcements from Taku will be pouring in by the thousands very soon. An American lieutenant told me we alone had three regiments, and about seven hundred or eight hundred artillerymen. The Russians and Japanese are sending large numbers. The Russians have the largest number already, and had it not been for them, I am very much afraid we could not have held out. " Monday, June 25. — I must try and finish my letter as soon as possible, because I was told that the post-office is receiving letters, and that a mail will be sent out every day for Shanghai. I walked over to the station yesterday afternoon, with Mr. Hayner, to have a look around, and see what the con- dition of things was. The station has been completely destroyed. It was set on fire by one of the Chinese shells fired from the forts in the native city. We saw a great many dead bodies in the river — Chinese, of course. The Chinese buildings in the French con- cession have all been cleared out by fire, and, of course, a great many fine foreign buildings had to suffer also. 396 UNDER THE FIRE OF BOXER SAVAGES. "Nearly all the houses across the river, along the bund, beginning up as far as the station, have been burned, or are still being burned. All this has been done by the foreign soldiers, in order to keep the place free from Chinese. The latter would con- ceal themselves in the houses and shoot through the windows, and for several days the bullets kept whizzing over our heads, and many fell into the yards and on the streets. Last night a large force started out to take the forts up in the city, and to relieve the Pekin people. We have not heard from them yet. Arsenal in Flames. "The British shelled the West Arsenal this morning, and the place has been in flames for the last three hours. The gun they used was a twelve-pounder, which was used in the Transvaal, and had just been landed from the 'Terrible.' There has been considerable firing from the forts in the Chi- nese city this morning, but not in our direc- tion. We judge they are either directing their fire against the force from Pekin, or against the force which left here last night. " Oh, how thankful I shall be to see the dear ones in from Pekin. It keeps one in such a suspense not to know where they are, and how they are faring. Cora manages to be brave, and keeps quite cheerful. It seems rather strange that I should be here with Cora, and George with Katharine. Mr. King is also in Pekin, and his family at Peitaiho. The Walkers, Gamewells, ladies ; Mr. King, Mr. Davis, George and Katharine are the only ones of our mission in Pekin. 'Just think of Mrs. Jewell, with ail her school girls ! The Paotingfu people have not been heard from for two weeks, and they are unable to get away. I forgot to mention Dr. Terry, Mr. Veritz and Mr. Hobart among the Pekin people. Mr. Pyke, Martin, Hay- ner and Dr. Hopkins just got out. They came down by the last train. We met Dr. Hopkins and Mr Hayner between Teng Jen and T'ang Shan, and they were the first to break the news to us, for we had heard nothing of any trouble while we were gone. We had not planned to return by way of T'ang Shan, but thought we could gain a day by coming that way. It is rather prov- idential, I think, that we did, because we should have passed through T'ung Chou, and no doubt we should have met with trouble. "The T'ung Chou property has all been destroyed, but the missionaries all arrived safely in Pekin. Quite a number of their native Christians were killed. Fleeing from Tien-Tsin. " I can't begin to tell you all that has taken place the past month. China cer- tainly is seeing her last days. I will write again as soon as there is any news. We have not been able to communicate with the outside world for ten days. The telegraph wires have been cut for more than a week, and all mails have been stopped between Tien-Tsin and Taku and Pekin. "TiEN-TsiN, July 5, 1 900. "It is already after ten o'clock, and time to be in bed, but I will begin a letter to you though I may not finish to-night. There has been quite an exodus from Tien-Tsin to-day. I think at least two hundred women, children and men took their de- parture. Cora and her three children, Mrs. Pyke and family and Hayners all left for home and will be there probably as soon as this letter. Misses Wilson, Shockle\-, Glover and Mr. Stevenson left also, but CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. 397 expect to remain in Japan for the summer. Dr. Benn stayed behind to help in the hos- pital. I am very glad so many of the women and children have gotten away, for they were nervous and caused increased anxiety to the gentlemen. Cora has had rather a hard time over here, but I am glad for her and the children's sake that they are away from here, for this certainly was not the place for them, and I hope they will manage to get along well on the trip. " With the exception of this morning we had a quiet day. I was awakened at 5 this morning by the thunder and crash of cannon. The British have three good-sized guns planted a short distance from here, and they opened fire on a Chinese battery of seven guns stationed east of us, and on the other side the Lutai Canal. What damage was done I do not know, but was told that the Chinese have moved their guns. Heavy Cannonading. " Friday, July 6 — This has been another lively day. The cannonading began about 3 o'clock this morning and has continued all day, but has ceased now. The Chinese were sending shells at a lively rate this afternoon, and they were bursting all around us. One went through the roof of Mr. Pyke's house into the garret, tearing up things in great shape. Two pieces went clear through the floor and were found in the back hall Our batteries were at work for several hours this afternoon, throwing shells up into the Chi- nese city. " Mr. Martin and I watched the bombard- ment for a good while and could see where a good many of the shells struck. One of the city's gates was hit a number of times, and one or two shells were sent into the Viceroy's yamen. We have heard nothing from Pekin since I last wrote. I wrote the latest in my letter to Mr, and Mrs. Mullikin, and you probably will have seen that letter before this reaches you. It was to the effect that all foreigners had gone to the British Legation, and that three of the Legations had been burnt, and that Baron von Ketteler had been killed on his way to the Tsung-li- Yamen. Looking for Way of Escape. " The news was sad indeed, and my spirits were very much lowered when I heard it. What has happened since then nobody knows, but somehow, I cannot imagine how, I believe God will spare those people and He' can provide a way of escape. I think when I see Katharine again it will be like seeing her come up out of her grave. It just seems to me that such a thing as the killing of all those people in Pekin could not be allowed to happen — it would be too awful. For the most part I have had a con- viction that they would come out of it all right and that has given me quite a little comfort. In one more week it will be three months since I left Pekin, and how little did I dream when I bade Katharine good bye that we should have to pass through all this trouble. We will probably go home as soon as Katharine gets down, for I feel she will be nervously upset and there will be no business here, I'm afraid, for some time to come. "Sunday, July 8. — Here it is Sunday and my letter is not finished yet. Yesterday was rather a noisy day, a good deal of shooting and shelling. The Chinese guns bombarded us quite lively for a while. In the afternoon the French used their ' melinite ' shells for a short time on a part of the native city. I watched them strike from the tower. Every 398 UNDER THE PIRE OF BOXER SAVAGES. shell that struck sent up a cloud of smoke and dust about fifty feet into the air. A large number of buildings were set on fire. "We did not have much peace last night owing to the amount of rifle firing just above us. TheChinese'have a good many soldiers up the Taku road and across the river. They conceal themselves among the salt heaps and of course it is very difficult to get at them. We can see them very plainly in the day time going back and forth, but they are a long ways off. There are five or six hundred French located just beyond the London mission, so that we feel quite safe here. There has been considerable shelling to-day. Several shells struck in our yard, doing no damage more than knocking down some of the wall on the south side of the court. The soldiers have orders to fall out to-morrow morning at 3 o'clock, and they say there is to be a general attack made on the city. We may look for a hot time to- morrow. I will not finish till I know, but must say good night. Shells Thicker and Faster. "Monday, 9th — Well, we have had a lively time this morning — more shelling than any time yet. Our forces had an engage- ment with the Chinese troops out near the race course, and from there they drove the Chinese back, the latter retreating toward the West Arsenal. Our men did a good deal of artillery firing. They marched up and burnt all the villages near the arsenal and also what was left of the arsenal itself. There was nothing in the report about mak- ing a general attack on the city. I hope sincerely that they will do something very soon to silence the Chinese guns. I am so thankful that our ladies got away when they did. Mr. Aiken's house was set fire to this morning by a Chinese shell and has burnt down. " An American regiment is to arnve to- day. They are expected at any hour. Two more regiments are on their way I believe. The Enghsh have 1 1,000 Indian troops on their way." The Gallant Ninth. September loth, Major-General Corbin received the complete official reports of the battle of Tien-Tsin, when the American troops had their baptism of fire on Asiatic territoiy and the gallant Ninth Infantry sus- tained such heavy losses, including its colonel. The reports show numerous in- stances of conspicuous bravery. That of Lieutenant-Colonel Coolidge, who com- manded the force until General Chaffee's arrival, several days later, is as follows : "The Adjutant-General, United States Army, Washington, D. C. " Sir : I have the honor to inclose herewith the reports of Major Lee and Captain C. R. Noyes, adjutant Ninth Infantry ; Lieutenant Weeks, commanding Company A, Ninth In- fantry, and to render the following report as third battalion and regimental commander, Ninth Infantry, in the engagement of July 13, 1900, at Tien-Tsin, China : " I had been left in charge of the third bat- talion and regimental property on board the United States Army transport 'Logan,' on the departure of regimental headquarters and the first and second battalions, at the anchorage off Taku forts. I proceeded with my bat talion, by lighter, up the Pie-Ho river th< 1 2th inst, arriving at the encampment c;l ' the regiment, on the German Concession, Tien-Tsin, China, about 10 A. M., July 13. 1900. Upon landing, I learned of the de parture of the first and second battalions, CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. 399 under Colonel Liscuni, at 3 A. M. on July 13th, for an attack on the south gate of the walled ciy of Tien-Tsin. Company A had been sent to the railroad station and Com- pany E left in encampment to guard property. Colonel Liscum had taken 420 men with the six companies. " While preparing my command to join the regiment, a staff officer from Lieutenant- Colonel Bower, of the British army, com- manding at the railroad station, arrived, and requested me to send him reinforcements, as they ' were hard pressed.' Consequently, I sent liim two comp;inies, K and M, under command of Major Foote, Ninth Infantry. A messenger from Surgeon Banister shortly arrived with a request for medical stores, dressings, water, etc. I procured some car- riages, to be drawn by hand, and filled them with supplies, including ammunition, and proceeded to the south gate of the outer mud wall with companies I and L, Ninth Infantry, where we arrived about 4 P. M. Impossible to Advance. "I reported to General Dorward, of the British army, who was in command of the British and American forces that day. He informed me that he intended to withdraw the Ninth Infantry at dark under the shelter of a cannonade from his batteries ; that it would be useless to reinforce them, and that I could not get to them without a great sacrifice of life, which he would not order; that the reinforcements I had would be of no utility even if we reached the position held by the rest of the regiment ; that it was impossible for the regiment to advance from their position. " He then directed me to proceed to take care and dispose of the wounded as they ar- rived. The men under Major Lee arrived between 8 and 10 P. M., bringing in their wounded, which were attended to by Major Banister, who had established a temporary field hospital at the south gate of the mud wall, bringing back from near the advanced line Captain Bookmiller and other wounded. His zealous and efficient labors are highly commended, as well as his assistants, Sur- geon Marrow, who was with the firing line, and Surgeon Calhoun, who arrived with my command. All Sent to the Hospital. " The wounded were all sent in to the Ma- rine Hospital, in the British concession, be- fore midnight, and the men under Major Lee, who had been fighting since daylight, lying in the mud and water for over eleven hours, were sent back to their quarters to change their clothing, get something to eat, and to return to the south gate the next morning. Company A, from the railroad station, had been relieved by Major Foote, and reported to me at the south gate about dusk. " Oh the morning of the 14th, the south gate of the walled city of Tien-Tsin having been blown open by the Japanese and the city entered by the allied forces, our servi- ces were no longer required, and by direc- tion of General Dorward, the Ninth Infantry were returned to their encampment. I am pleased to concur in the recommendation of the company and battalion commanders of their.4nen who distinguished themselves dur- ing the battle and so richly deserve the bre- vets, medals of honor, etc., or honorary mention, for distinguished services in the battle of Tien-Tsin. There were one officer and nineteen men killed, four officers and seventy-two men wounded, and one man missing. 400 UNDER THE FIRE OF BOXER SAVAGES. "The body of Colonel E. H. Liscum was brought in from the field by Major Lee's men and sent in to the hospital that evening. His body was sent down to Tong-Ku the evening of the 14th inst., the funeral proces- sion from the hospital to the boat being attended by General Dorwaid, of the British army, and his aids ; also by officers of the Marine Corps and all of his regiment, the Ninth Infantry. At Tong Ku he was buried with military honors, under direction of Captain Wise, of the United States cruiser 'Monocacy,' attended by all the senior offi- cers of the naval fleets of Russia, Japan, France, America, Germany, Austria and Italy. The enlisted dead having been brought off the field of battle with two excep- tions, were buried on the evening of July 15 near the southeast corner of the com- pound, where the regiment is encamped. The body of one man was subsequently found on the field of battle by Lieutenant Hammond and buried where it lay ; one man reported •missing,' body not found. Liscum' s Successor. " I deem it my duty especially to report that upon the wounding of Colonel Liscum Major J. M. Leefell in command of the Ninth Infantry, engaged on the firing line. His coolness, good judgment and control of his men during these long trying hours, as related by his adjutant and others, preserved the efficiency of the line and lives of many of his command. His execution of the work of bringing off the field the body of Colonel Liscum and all the wounded without the I0.SS of an additional man, is worthy of the greatest praise and reward. I have the honor to recommend him for a medal of houor and that he be brevetted one grade beyand any brevets already conferred upon him, for bravery at Tien-Tsin, China, July 13, 1900. " Major James Regan, Ninth Infantry, was twice seriously wounded in the arm and thighs. His conduct and bravery were of the highest order of merit, and I have the honor to recommend that he receive a medal of honor and be brevetted for gallant ser- vices in the battle of Tien-Tsin, China, July 13, 1900. " Captain C. R. Noyes, regimental adjutant Ninth Infantry, was twice wounded in the arm and leg early in the engagement, yet managed to make his way by swimming the canals for nearly two miles and crawling back to the south gate. I have the honor to recommend him for a medal of honor and brevet one grade above any previously con- ferred upon him for bravery in the battle of Tien-Tsin, China, July 13, 1900. Seriously Wounded. " Captain E. V. Bookmiller, Ninth Infan- try, was seriously wounded in the thigh early in the morning. I have the honor to recom- mend him for a medal of honor and brevet of major for bravery in the battle of Tien- Tsin, China, July 13, 1900. " First Lieutenant L. B. Lawton, battalion adjutant Ninth Infantry, and acting regi- mental adjutant (after Captain C. R. Noyes, adjutant Ninth Infantry, was wounded), whose distinguished services in coming back from the firing line with information from the regimental commander of the Ninth Infantry to the commanding general of the British and American forces and returning to his regiment under a terrible fire of shells and bullets, during which he was again wounded, have been especially mentioned by General Dorward in letter inclosed. I indorse Major Lee's recommendation that Lieutenant CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. 401 Lawton be granted a medal of honor and be brevetted captain for bravery in the battle of Tien-Tsin, China, where he was twice wounded on July 13, 1900. " A copy of communication from Brigadier- General A. R. F. Dorward, British Army, to the commanding officer of the American forces in China, regarding the services of the regiment, July 13, 1900, is herewith trans- mitted. A map of the battlefield and posi- tions of the Ninth Infantry thereon, is also inclosed. Very respectfully, " Charles A. Coolidge, Lieutenant-Colonel Ninth Infantry, Com- manding." Major Lee's Report. The report of Major Lee, who com- manded the fighting force after Colonel Lis- cum's death, follows : " The Adjutant, Ninth Infantry. "Sir : In consequence of the death of Col- onel Emerson H. Liscum, Ninth United States Infantry, on the field of battle on the 13th inst., and my succession to the com- mand of the companies therein engaged, namely, companies B, C, D and detach- ment of E, and companies F, G and H, I have the honor to submit the following report pursuant to paragraph 267 of the regulations for troops in campaign : The formation was made at 3 A. M. on the 13 th inst., at the Nong-Po-Quilo Mortuary, near the Tien-Tsin University, on the south side of the foreign settlement. The command imoved out in column at 3.30 A. M., fol- lowing the British Naval Brigade. After a circuitous march of about two hours, we took position as a reserve in line of battle fronting the west arsenal, at a distance of about 800 yards. From dropping shots at long range we suffered considerable loss, 2G the heaviest being the second company from the left. Captain C. R. Noyes, the adjutant of the regiment, was sUghtly wounded at this place, but continued on duty. Behind a Mud Wall. " We then moved forward about 7 A. M. to the protection of the mud wall at west arse- nal, the first battalion forming on right into line, all as a support to the Japanese, the second battalion being . on the right. At about 7.30 A. M. we moved quickly over the wall, and the command reformed a short distance forward, under fire, with the protec- tion of some mud huts. In a few minutes the men enthusiastically moved forward, rapidly crossing a bridge, and by Colonel Liscum's orders took a position in battle order to the right, along the banks of a broad canal. Owing to the contracted space, Company B was moved from the right to the front, on a road at an angle to the gen- eral line, and followed soon after by com- panies C, D, G, F and H, it being the inten- tion for this entire line to conform to the general advance of the Japanese towards the Taku gates. At this juncture, a heavy enfilading fire was opened on the Ninth Infan- try at a point about 1,200 yards distant, and many casualties resulted. By Colonel Lis- cum's orders and personal directions, we fronted this fire, and moved forward, Cap- tain Brewster, Company B, in advance. This was about 8 A. M. "The fire became hot and heavy from a fortified mud village in our front, which practically flanked the advancing column on the Taku gate of the walled city. We moved rapidly forward, suffering severe losses. Captain E. V. Bookmiller falling severely wounded at the first advance. Until about 9 A. M. the two battalions occupied 402 UNDER THE FIRE OF BOXER SAVAGES. an advanced position within from loo to 200 yards of the fortified village, where we were subjected to a deadly fire of musketry and shrapnel. The ground passed over was irregular, filled with dikes and ditches, the mud and water varying from three to eight feet deep. " I repeatedly met Colonel Liscum, who, with uplifted arms, coolly and calmly urged his men forward. When within about two hundred and fifty yards of the enemy's forti- fied position, which was protected by an un- fordable canal or moat fifty yards wide, I met Major Regan, commanding the second battalion, where he fell severely wounded. After locating his wound I directed the men to put him under cover and moved forward. Captain Noyes, the adjutant, had received his second wound, a severe one, and was taken to a house for partial protection shortly before 9 A. M. A Mortal Wound. " I inquired for the Colonel, and was in- formed by Lieutentant Frazier that he had been hit, and was in the trench mortally wounded. I then took command of the remnants of the first and First Lieutenant Joseph Frazier the second. A further ad- vance was impossible, and to retire was out of the question. About lo A. M.I directed my gallant adjutant, First Lieutenant Louis B. Lawton, to go to the rear, he being com- pelled to cross the field swept by a most destructive fire, and report to General Dor- ward, of Her Majesty's service, our needs and condition. This he did, and in less than two hours returned, and, though twice wounded, reported the result of his perilous mission. He was afterward again hit by a shot in the sole of his shoe. We remained in this position under musketry and machine gun fire, many of the men lying in water from their knees to their armpits, with no hope of withdrawal until 8:10 P. M., when under cover of darkness we withdrew under fire, with a loss in so doing of one man of Company C killed. Our final withdrawal was handsomely covered by the British naval troops and the United States Marines sent to our aid by General Dorward. Timely Help. "These gallant men also aided us in the removal of our wounded, and we owe Gen^ eral Dorward and them a debt of gratitude which will never be forgotten by the Ameri- can soldiers on that bloody field, and the high tribute given by General Dorward to the officers and men of the Ninth Infantry will be sacredly cherished as long as the battle of Tien-Tsin shall remain inscribed on our colors. " Having removed our wounded and the body of our colonel, we assembled at the south gate of the west arsenal at about 9. 1 5 P. M., where I reported to Lieutenant-Col- onel Charles A. Coolidge, Ninth Infantry, the senior officer of the regiment. It is but just to state that throughout the trying ordeal of the day the officers and the great majority of the men behaved with splendid gallantry. When our ammunition was nearly exhausted and our forces • on the firing line greatly reduced, there was a grim determination on the part of every officer and man there under my command to hold * on through the long hours of constant and deadly fire until such time as withdrawal could be effected under cover of night In this connection, attention is invited to the accompanying sketch of the field of opera- tions, prepared by First Lieutenant Harold Hammond, exhibit A : also to a report CHINA: PAST AND PRESENT. 403 exhibit B, by Captain Charles R. Noyes, adjutant, made in response to my request. Company A of the regiment was not under my orders during the day, having been ordered on the preceding day to duty at the north pontoon bridge as a reserve to the troops at the railroad station. This com- mand consisted of Company A, sixty-six men, and thirty-two men of Company D, commanded by First Lieutenant W. W. Weeks, Eleventh Infantry, with Second Lieu- tenant F. R. Brown, Ninth Infantry, attached. This command suffered casualties of two killed and five wounded from a bursting shell. Attention is invited to Lieutenant Weeks' report which is herewith submitted as exhibit C. "At the 3 A. M. formation on the 13th inst, the effective force of the command to which I succeeded was fifteen officers and 418 enlisted men. In addition, there were two medical officers and eight men of the Hospital Corps. Casualties : Killed, one officer ; wounded, four officers ; killed, six- teen enlisted men ; wounded, sixty-seven enlisted men ; total casualties, five officers, eighty-three enlisted men. "The following named officers are recom- mended for medals of honor : Captain Charles R. Noyes, adjutant, for conspicuous gallantry for continuing on until twice wounded (special report forwarded) ; Cap- tain Andre W. Brewster, for conspicuous gallantry in rescuing at great risk to his Ufe a wounded soldier who would have drowned ; First Lieutenant Joseph Frazier, for conspicuous gallantry in rescuing at great peril the colonel of his regiment, who had fallen mortally wounded, and conduct- ing him to the trench ; First Lieutenant Louis B. Lawton, adjutant first battalion, for conspicuous gallantry in carrying a message for relief over a field swept by a deadly fire, returning and reporting after having been twice wounded in doing so (special report forwarded)." RESCUE OF THE FOREIGN MINISTERS AT PEKIN. STRENUOUS efforts were made by the Allied Powers to push their forces on to Pekin and rescue the foreign ministers and the attaches of their offices, who had been shut up ill the various legations, threatened momentarily with assassination by the Boxers. It was a period of great anxiety both in America and Europe. The insurrection in China had sprung up suddenly and had assumed formidable proportions. The fury of the Boxers was directed against all foreigners, not even excepting the Ministers of the various countries represented at Pekin. On August 14th the American and Rus- sian flags were planted on the east wall of Pekin at eleven o'clock in the morning. The Indian troops entered the British Le- gation at one and the Americans at three. There was a joyful reception from the wall. The emaciated tenants could have lasted but little longer. They had only three days' rations. The Chinese had been attacking furiously for two days. Four thousand shells fell in the legation during the siege. Sixty-five persons were killed and one hundred and sixty wounded. The Japanese began the battle before day- light, and fought about the north wall, where a part of the Chinese were defending the imperial city. The plan was to make a general attack the next day, and the troops were arriving at camp, five miles east, all ni^ht. They were completely exhausted, and hlept in the corn fields in the rain. The generals, however, alarmed at the' 404 sounds of a heavy attack on the legations, pushed forward independently, the British, Americans and French on the left of the river and the Russians and Japanese on the right. Beginning at two o'clock in the morning the Japanese diverted the brunt of the resist- ance to the northern city, their artillery engaging the Chinese heavily there. The Americans and British met with but little resistance until they entered the city, where there was street fighting. Reilly's battery attempted to breach the inner wall. The troops finally entered the foreign settle- ment through the canal. Young American First. Company E, Fourteenth United States Infantry, planted its flag on the outer wall, Musician Titus scaling the wall with a rope, by means of which the others climbed to the top. Calvin Pearl Titus is a native of Vinton, Iowa, and later was a resident of Spokane, Washington. The following graphic account of life in Pekin during the siege is from the pen of Rev. C. H. Fenn, an American who was shut up with others in the beleaguered city. After detailing the sudden growth of the Boxer movement and the flight of many foreigners to places of safety, Mr. Fenn gives the following interesting account of the experiences of the foreigners who were for many days at the mercy of the Boxers, expecting every moment to be assaulted and massacred. RESCUE OF THE FOREIGN MINISTERS AT PEKIN. 405 "On Tuesday, the 19th of June," he says, "came the news that the foreign ships having attacked Taku, the Ministers and their families were ordered to leave Pekin in twenty-four hours. If we wished to live we must go, too. But this meant, first, leaving all our Chinese converts to certain massacre, and, second, probably being our- selves massacred as soon as we had left the gates of Pekin and reached the open country. If we stayed, it meant less than 500 marines, the same number of civilians, about 800 Protestant converts and 1800 or more Roman Catholics, against imperial armies. German Minister Shot. "Next morning, as we were told that the Ministers had demanded several hundred carts for the journey, we could simply gather together and pray that the Lord would pro- vide some means by which we could protect our Chinese, and also escape the danger. He answered most wonderfully. In a short time the German interpreter was brought to our compound seriously wounded. With the German Minister he had set out for the Tsung li Yamen (State Department), invited, like the other Ministers, to consult over their departure from the city. "Both were shot by Chinese soldiers on the street, the Minister killeil and his body carried off, while the wounded interpreter escaped to our place. This convinced the Ministers and marines not only that a jour- ney to Tien-Tsin would mean almost certain death, but that there would soon be an attack by the Chinese soldiers on our quar- _,ters in Pekin. It was, therefore, decided very hastily that we should all move at once to the British Legation and make our defence there. " Well, that night the horrors of war began. I will not attempt to follow it day by day. By fair means or foul they, the Chinese, were bound to get in to murder us. Not content with rifle and cannon they have tried over and over again to set fire to our buildings from the outside. After several exciting experiences of this kind, fighting a fire behind which were hundreds of soldiers and Boxers ready to shoot any man who showed his head to throw water, we put a stop to it by burning and tearing down all buildings bordering on our north and west sides. " We had thought ourselves safe on the north from fire, as we adjourned there the Han Lin Yuan, where reposed the Empire's most valuable books, including the 22,000 volume encyclopaedia, . all in writing, not print, of which there are not more than three or four copies in the world, thousands of blocks for printing the winning essays of ages or examinations for high degrees, etc. Fired by Fiends. " One morning the fiends set fire to build- ings in that compound, and threatened thereby everything in the Legation. We fought the fire and the fiends, and then de- stroyed a number of the buildings. Three- fourths of the blocks and books, I suppose, are destroyed by fire or water, and the pride of China's scholars is sadly wounded. "After the destruction by the Chinese of the Austrian, Italian, Belgian and Dutch Legations, the customs, post-ofifice and other places, there still remained within our borders several grain shops and three foreign stores. These have thus far fur- nished abundant food for our almost 3000 people. The rice supply was not as abun- dant as the wheat, one shop having just received thousands of bushels of new 406 CHINA : PAST AND PRESENT. wheat from Honan. Had it been two or three weeks earlier we should have had none. "In this shop there were eleven Chinese mills for grinding wheat. After carrying away some of the wheat to the Legation, lest we lose it all, we set the mills going, and day after day, worked by mules, they ground out for us far more than we could use at the time of graham flour and cracked wheat. Later on, as those quarters seemed dangerous, we moved away seven of the mills and set them up in safe places. From the beginning, as a member of the Food Supply Committee, I have had chief charge of this work. We should have been in need of bread by now had it not been for these mills. Protection by Sand Bags. "Another of the most remarkable Prov- idences in connection with this siege is the never ending supply of material for sand bags. These bags have saved many a life on the top of the barricades. There was very little to make them of at first, but what we had was used. We 'looted ' the shop of a Chinese tailor and got two hand power sewing machines, and Miss Dorno had one with a treadle. The foreign stores furnished considerable cloth. " A large number of small native shops, dwellings, a temple, etc., within our borders provided dozens of rolls of cloth, silk, bro- cade, embroideries (worth several dollars r yard, some of them) ; the Legations offerc