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University of the State of Neiv York Subject no. 
 
 E^>ctension Department 
 
 Alt>an>'. N. Y. 35^ 
 
 Syllabus 73 May i8g8 
 
 CITY GOVERNMENT 
 
 By John R. Commons, Professor of Sociology, Syracuse University 
 
 Lecture i 
 
 POPULATION AND SUFFRAGE 
 
 Importance of the subject of city government 
 
 1 Cities control state and federal governments. 
 
 2 The peculiar problems of our civilization find their 
 focus in cities. Immigration, capital and labor, 
 crime, pauperism, etc. 
 
 3 The failures of our political machinery are here 
 most acute, alarming and far-reaching. 
 
 Definitions of a city 
 
 In ancient and modern times. In England and the 
 United States. In these lectures every local aggre- 
 gation of people having a representative govern- 
 ment. 
 Location of cities 
 
 Political (Rome, Washington), religious (Mecca), 
 and economic causes. Cities are a product of 
 division of labor. ' Population and wealth tend to 
 collect wherever there is a break in transportation.' 
 Mechanical and commercial ' break. ' 
 Cooley, C. H. Theory of transportation (see Amer. econ. ass'n 
 
 pub. g: 223-370) 
 Hart, A. B. Rise of American cities {see /us Practical essays on 
 
 Amer. government. 1894. p. 162-205) 
 [see Quar. jour, of econ. 4: 129-57) 
 
 Growth of cities 
 
 1 Division of labor. 
 
 2 Transportation facilities. 
 
 3 Discriminations in transportation and taxation. 
 
 4 Manufacturing advantages. 
 
 5 Superior social opportunities. 
 
EXTENSION SYLLABUS 
 
 
 Census 
 
 Total number of cities 
 
 Per cent of urbati 
 
 
 25000 pop. 
 
 8000 pop. 
 
 (8000) to total 
 population 
 
 
 1790 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 3-4 
 
 
 1800 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 4- 
 
 
 1810 
 
 4 
 
 " 
 
 4 9 
 
 
 1820 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 4-9 
 
 
 1830 
 
 6 
 
 26 
 
 6.7 
 
 
 1840 
 
 9 
 
 44 
 
 8-5 
 
 
 1850 
 
 21 
 
 8S 
 
 "■5 
 
 
 i860 
 
 33 
 
 141 
 
 16.1 
 
 
 1870 
 
 SI 
 
 226 , 
 
 20.9 
 
 
 1880 
 
 75 
 
 286 
 
 22.6 
 
 
 1890 
 
 124 
 
 437 
 
 29. 1 
 
 3715 places in the United States having- population 
 over 1000. 
 
 Total population Urban Rural 
 
 1880 50 15s 783 17 775 076 32 380 707 
 
 1890 65 622 250 26 142 025 36 480 225 
 
 Increase 
 4, increase 
 
 12 446 967 
 24.86 
 
 8 366 949 
 47.07 
 
 4 099 518 
 12.66 
 
 Rose, J ■. C. Decrease of rural population {see Pop. sci. mo. 42 : 
 
 621-38) 
 Wright, C. D. Urban population {see Bop. sci. mo. 40; 459-67) 
 
 Character of urban population 
 
 Population of foreign cities, homogeneous ; American 
 cities, heterogeneous. Percentage of foreign born, 
 United States 14.13; Boston 32, Chicago 40, New 
 York 42, Syracuse 25. In 124 cities above 25000, 
 29^. ' Cities containing one fourth the population 
 have nearly one half the foreigners. ' — Hart 
 
 Percentage of foreign born voters is much greater 
 
CITY GOVERNMENT 
 
 than the percentage of foreign born population. 
 In -Boston 50^, New York and Chicago probably 
 70 to Sofo of the voters are foreign born and chil- 
 dren of foreign born. 
 
 
 United States 
 
 Syracuse 
 
 
 Number 
 
 Per 
 cent 
 
 Number 
 
 Per 
 cent 
 
 Total native born population 
 Total foreign born 
 Total native males voting age 
 " foreign " " 
 
 53 372 000 
 g 249 000 
 
 12 591 852 
 4 34S 459 
 
 85 
 15 
 74 
 26 
 
 65 801 
 
 22 342 
 
 15 725 
 
 9372 
 
 75 
 25 
 63 
 37 
 
 Massachusetts, 56. 5<?^ of native born and 84.5^ of 
 foreign born population over 20 years of age. 
 
 London, 1880, 63^ of the population born in the city, 
 94^ in England and Wales, 98^ in United King- 
 dom, 1.6^ foreign born. 
 
 Can foreigners become assimilated to the habit 
 and power of self-government? 
 
 I Local self-government more difficult than national 
 self-government. 
 a) Apparent unimportance compared with the 
 spectacular, momentous interests of national 
 politics. More difficult to arouse interest, 
 investigation, criticism. 
 6) Personal relations are direct, giving greater 
 influence to politicians, priests, employers, 
 and the power-holding classes. 
 
 c) Assimilation more difficult in cities than in 
 rural and frontier life. Less self-dependence. 
 
 d) Nationality of immigrants according to ca- 
 pacity of assimilation, is changing for the 
 worse. 
 
i:XTEXSr<tN* SYLLAJJUS 
 
 New York I 
 
 I Chicago 
 
 Total foreign born . 
 
 639 943 
 
 4= 
 
 English and Scotch 
 
 47 000 
 
 / 
 
 German . 
 
 210 723 
 
 33 
 
 Scandinavian 
 
 S 644 
 
 I 
 
 Irish 
 
 190 41 5 
 
 30 
 
 Austrian 
 
 27 193 
 
 + 
 
 Russian 
 
 48 790 
 
 / 
 
 Italian . ... 
 
 39 051 
 
 6 
 
 Canadian 
 
 S 3.)S 
 
 I 
 
 Others non-assimilable 
 
 58 S26 
 
 II 
 
 4 5 'J 
 64 
 
 Per 
 
 cent 
 
 666 
 500 
 039 
 
 Sfi7 
 
 028 
 
 043 
 
 683 
 
 685 
 
 297 j 
 
 324 
 
 40 
 
 14 
 
 ^% 
 
 Boston 
 
 Per 
 cent 
 
 13 454 
 
 10 362 
 
 4 274 
 
 71 444 
 
 391 
 
 4 305 
 
 4 7i3 
 38 294 
 10 940 
 
 Smith, R. M. Assimilation of nationalities in the U. S. {see Pol. 
 sci. quar. 9:426-44) 
 
 Control of immigration (see Pol. sci. quar. 3:46-77, 197-225, 
 
 409-24) 
 
 Emigration and immigration, p. 53-91. 
 
 Theories of mixture of races and nationalities {see Yale 
 
 rev. 3: 166-86) 
 
 U. S. — Census bulletin 357. 
 
 2 Conclusion. 
 
 a) Majority of voters in large cities are foreign 
 born or children of foreign born. 
 
 /)) Practically two thirds to four fifths of foreigners 
 are assimilable. 
 
 c) Foreign element is not a source of great danger 
 provided the ballot be protected and government 
 be simplified; Portland (Ore.) has no foreign ele- 
 ment, yet city government is weak and corrupt. 
 
 The ballot 
 
 I E.xtent of venal voting. 
 
 16 ^ of total voters in Connecticut, 20't in rural 
 towns. Hold the balance. 
 
 McCook, J. J Alarming proportion of venal voters (see Forum 
 14: 1-13) 
 
 Venal voting: methods and remedies (j^^ Forum 14: 159-77) 
 
 Strong, T: N. Municipal condition of Portland i.see Nat. 
 
 conf. for good city gov't. Proceedings, v. 2-3, p.432-38) 
 
CTTV GOVERNMENT 5 
 
 Suffrage in foreign cities. 
 
 Germany, Dresden. Male, 25 years, no public poor 
 relief for two years, not under conviction for 
 crime, has paid taxes for two years, owns real 
 estate or has lived in the city two years, compul- 
 sory citizenship (but not compulsory voting), one 
 half city council elected by owners of real estate, 
 one half by occupants of rented flats. Historical 
 reasons for limited suffrage. 
 
 Peabody, F. G. A case of good city government [sec 
 Forum 13: 53-65) 
 
 Berlin. Only direct taxpayers; income tax, how- 
 ever, extending to incomes of 420 m. ; divided 
 into three classes in proportion to amount of 
 taxes. Election of 1880: 
 
 Voting Per cent voting 
 
 I 164 55-43 
 3 171 34- 58 
 
 II 707 12.12 
 
 Goodnow. Comparative administrative law, V. i, p. 331-32, 
 U. S. — House ex. documents, 47th cong. istsess. no. i, 
 pt I, p. 4S2. 
 
 Great Britain, Glasgow. Male householders, one 
 year residence, paid taxes, no poor relief, lodgers 
 paying ;^io yearly rent, occupiers of non-resi- 
 dence property worth ^10 a year who live within 
 seven miles of the city, owners of ^10 property 
 living within seven miles, women who are occu- 
 piers and rate payers. ' Self-disfranchisement of 
 theslums through non-payment of rates. In 1891, 
 out of 126,422 families, 78738 male voters, 15448 
 women rate payers, total less by 47000 than school 
 board electors where valuation is ^4 and not 
 required that rates shall have been actually paid. 
 
 Same in England, but owners pay rates for occupiers 
 and charge in the rents, hence more liberal in 
 practice. Birmingham 95500 houses, Siioomal 
 
 
 Registered 
 
 I st class 
 
 2 100 
 
 2d class 
 
 9 169 
 
 3d class 
 
 96 610 
 
EXTENSION SYLLABUS 
 
 voters, 11600 women. 
 
 Shaw. Municipal government in Great Britain, p. 39-46. 
 
 Compared with American cities, tenant pays rates, 
 which average one fourth rental, making $66, 
 which considering lower wages equal f 100 or $8 
 per month. 
 
 France. Municipal suffrage somewhat narrower 
 than general suffrage. Suffrage is universal yet 
 there is no country where limitations for special 
 causes are more stringent. Voters must be 
 males, 21 years, born in the commune, having 
 satisfied military requirements (those not born in 
 the commune must be taxpayers, one year resi- 
 dence), naturalized; those convicted and im- 
 prisoned for robbery, swindling, rape and high 
 crimes are forever disfranchised, lesser crimes 
 for five years; drunkards, vagabonds, paupers, 
 soldiers under sentence are disfranchised. 
 
 Block. Dictionnaire de 1' administration francaise, art. 
 Elections (Rabany) p. 967-83. 
 
 Comparative extent of suffrage in United States 
 and European cities : 
 
 
 
 Population 
 
 Registration 
 
 Rati 
 
 
 
 U. S., 1892 
 
 
 62 622 000 
 
 12 062 000 
 
 I in 
 
 5 
 
 New York city, i 
 
 [892 
 
 I 800 000 
 
 285 000 
 
 I in 
 
 6 
 
 Chicago, 1892 
 
 
 I 438 000 
 
 241 750 
 
 I in 
 
 6 
 
 Bonn, Germany 
 
 
 36 000 
 
 3 401 
 
 I in 
 
 II 
 
 Berlin 
 
 
 I 123 360 
 
 107 879 
 
 I in 
 
 II 
 
 Glasgow 
 
 
 565 700 
 
 78 738 (male) 
 
 I in 
 
 7 
 
 Birmingham 
 
 
 455 00° 
 
 Si 000 
 
 I in 
 
 6 
 
 Non-resident voters in Glasgow and Birmingham 
 
 disturb the basis of comparison. 
 Proposed limitations in American cities. 
 a) Property qualifications. 
 
 i) Impossible. Only (tf of population of New 
 York and 18^ of Boston, 22^ of Chicago, 235^ 
 
CITY GOVERNMENT 7 
 
 of Philadelphia, average 24^, own their homes. 
 Non-property holders can be disfranchised 
 only by their own votes and they are a large 
 majority. 
 
 2) Injudicious. Would remove the greatest edu- 
 cational influence and would result in strikes, 
 rebellions, anarchy. ' In a country where 
 wealth has no hereditary sense of obligation 
 to its neighbors it is hard to conceive what 
 would be the condition of society if universal 
 suffrage did not compel everyone having 
 property to consider to some extent at least, 
 the well-being of the whole community.' — 
 Seth Lozv 
 
 3) Unjust. Failures of city government not 
 from too much democracy but from too little. 
 Corruption and inefficiency proceed from pri- 
 vate contractors doing public work (^sec 
 lectures 8, 9) and defects in political 
 machinery, which was designed for govern- 
 ment by merchants, manufacturers and prop- 
 erty owners, and is not adapted to universal 
 suffrage, (see lectures 2, 4, 5) 
 
 b) Educational qualifications. 
 
 Associated with property, Belgium, Mississippi, 
 etc. Objections similar to those above. 
 
 c) Practical limitations. 
 
 i) Recipients of public poor relief, " to 6^ of 
 voters; trial by jury. 
 
 2) Convicted of crime and habitual drunkenness. 
 ]\IcCook shows that 1005^ of venal voters in 
 Connecticut are drunkards. 
 
 3) Strict naturalization laws strictly enforced. 
 
S EXTENSION SYLLABUS 
 
 Lecture 2 
 LEGALIZATION OF POLITICAL PARTIES 
 National conference on practical reform of primary elec- 
 tions. Proceedings, v. i. 
 
 Principles and methods 
 
 [ First principle : parties are no longer voluntary as- 
 sociations but are legalized public corporations 
 organized to name the officers of government. 
 
 Commons, J : R. Legalization of the primary {see Nat. 
 conf. on practical reform of primary elections. Proceedings, 
 V. I, p. 18-24) 
 
 a) Development from factions to parties; early 
 dread of parties ; non-recognition in constitu- 
 tion and laws; constitution recognizes only 
 candidates not parties. See Washington's 
 Farc7i<eU address. 
 
 b) Distinction between principles and organiza- 
 tion of a party. Principles are the common 
 self-interest of a party membership. Organi- 
 zation is the machinery by which the party 
 marshals together a majority or plurality of 
 the voters. 
 
 Morse, A. D. What is a party (see Pol. sci. quar. 
 11:68-81) 
 
 1) Tendency of organization to monopoly and 
 centralization ; a common fact in all prov- 
 inces of sociology; struggle for survival. 
 This with a plurality system forces subordi- 
 nate groups and factions into two great 
 parties. Initiated by democratic party, 
 copied by republican. 
 
 2) Organization of parties tends to subordinate 
 the constitution itself to party needs. 
 
 Election of president. 
 
 Subordinate civil service: George Clinton 
 
 and Andrew Jackson. 
 Municipal governments subordinated to 
 
 national parties. 
 
CITY GOVERNMENT 9 
 
 c) Progressive legalization of parties. 
 
 i) Negative recognition. 1842, New York 
 
 election law permitted elector to vote for 
 
 but two of three inspectors of election; i. e. 
 
 minority representation. 
 
 1870, provided specifically that third inspec- 
 tor should be chosen ' from the party in 
 general political opposition on state is- 
 sues to the party electing the two success- 
 ful candidates'. 
 
 1880, board of registration in cities above 
 300,000 population provided that every 
 ' political organization that shall present a 
 candidate or candidates ' should appoint 
 watchers. 
 
 1882, first primary law, penalties for ob- 
 structing .primaries. 
 
 1883, civil service reform, excludes parties 
 from administrative offices, i. e. from 
 using the machinery of government to 
 strengthen the organization of parties at 
 expense of their principles. 
 
 2) Positive. 'Australian' or 'secret' or 'offi- 
 cial ' ballot. 1888-91. 
 
 A rough definition of political parties based 
 on the party convention and the general 
 and executive committees of the party but 
 not based on the rank and file of the mem- 
 Jjership. 
 Party organizations as certified by the afore- 
 said party authorities. 
 Party organizations deprived by the state of 
 their mechanical functions ; management 
 of elections, printing and distributing 
 ballots, counting and certifying results. 
 Advantages of official ballot; makes for 
 
3 EXTENSION SYLLABUS 
 
 liberty against parties, wealth, position, 
 employers, creditors. 
 d) Defects of existing ballot laws. 
 
 1 ) Registration is considered a personal and not 
 a public interest. In Australia registration 
 officers register voters whether they apply 
 or not, subject to one month publication 
 and revision by courts. 
 
 Lusk, H. H. The American ballot (see Forum 
 22:225-34) 
 
 2) Multitude of elective officers grouped by 
 parties on the ballot: in England, Canada, 
 and Australia only legislators are voted for; 
 in London one member parliament, one 
 city or county councilor, one member parish 
 council, one or more members school board ; 
 no two elections on same day. 
 
 3) Expenditures of candidates and party mana- 
 gers not limited, except Ohio and Nevada; 
 ' corrupt practices acts '. Candidate for 
 London council or his agents, limited to 
 $125. Penalty, forfeiture of seat. Syracuse 
 alderman pays $1300 for $250 office. 
 
 Jenks, J. W. Suppression of bribery in England 
 (see Century 47: (new ser. 25) 781-89) 
 
 2 Second principle : every citizen has a right to be a 
 member of a political party. How can this be 
 secured? 
 
 Partizanship like citizenship defined and protected 
 by law ; not left to party managers. 
 a) Test may be 
 
 i) Elector's preceding vote, Wisconsin law 
 of 1895. If elector is challenged he must 
 take oath ' that he voted for the regular 
 candidates for the party at the preceding 
 general election '. 
 
CITY GOVERNMENT II 
 
 Destroys secrecy of the ballot. Unconsti- 
 tutional? 
 
 Obstructs freedom of choice, changing 
 from one party to another. 
 
 2) Present intention to support the party of his 
 primary choice, Mass. 1897 ; and non-partici- 
 pation in the primaries of any other party 
 for the past year. Kentucky 189 1. 
 
 Not to support the straight ticket but to 
 support ' generally, ' not necessarily in 
 municipal elections. 
 
 3) Secrecy and freedom of choice {see below) 
 d) Facility in choosing his party managers and 
 
 party nominees. 
 
 i) Enrolment, caucus, and registration the 
 
 same day, California 1897 ; in other states on 
 
 days set by party managers. 
 
 Stratton, F. S. Primary elections in California {see 
 Nat. conf. on practical reform of primary elections. 
 Proceedings, v. 1, p. 138-42) 
 
 2) Regular election officials, judges and in- 
 spectors, and ballot printed by state, Cal. 
 
 3) Pre-nomination. 
 
 Preliminary caucus, Wisconsin 1895. 
 Petition of party members, 10 members. 
 
 4) Secrecy. 
 
 Separate party ballots. 
 
 One blanket ballot for all parties, no de- 
 claration of affiliation, voter chooses both 
 his candidate and his party in secrecy. 
 
 Secrecy in elections leads to secrecy in 
 primaries, since oath to support is only 
 morally binding (Kentucky election 
 1894, democratic registration 25671; 
 democratic vote 14344; republican regis- 
 tration 15740; republican vote 18199; if 
 
12 EXTENSION SYLLABUS 
 
 democrats had voted as they registered, 
 democratic majority would have been 
 loooo; promotes freedom for individ- 
 uals ; protects parties from voters under 
 duress. 
 
 National con£. on practical reform of primary- 
 elections. Proceedings, v. i, p. 47-48. 
 5) Direct vote for nominees without conven- 
 tion, 'Crawford county plan,' South Carolina 
 democratic party: i) pledged delegates; 
 2) local option; six years exjperience of 
 Mass. and Kentucky favors direct vote. 
 People better acquainted with few promi- 
 nent candidates than with numerous un- 
 known delegates. 
 No danger of ' selling out ' 
 Greater confidence in result and devotion to 
 the party. 
 Brooks, F. M. Tlie nominating ballot {sec Outlook 57: 950-52 
 
 and editorial, p. 943-45) 
 National conf. on practical reform of primary elections. Proceed- 
 ings, V. I, p. 63, 86, gg-i02, 106. 
 Pavey, F. D. State control of political parties {see Forum 25; 99- 
 loS) 
 
 3 Third principle : the success of a party depends on 
 liberal treatment of present and prospective mem- 
 bers. 
 
 Two contrasted principles held by party leaders. 
 
 a) ' The larger the party the more successful it 
 will be ; and the fairer the primaries and con- 
 ventions the fewer its bolters. ' 
 
 b) ' The smaller the party the easier it can be 
 bossed. ' In Kentucky the party organiza- 
 tions do not use their legal power to add to 
 qualifications for partizanship. 
 
 Effect on municipal elections 
 
 I While cities depend on state legislature, impossible 
 
CnV GOVERNMENT 
 
 to maintain non-partizanship in city elections {see 
 lectiire 3) 
 
 2 Cities are political corporations and depend on 
 local political parties with local policies [see lec- 
 ture 5) 
 
 3 The personnel of local and national parties is 
 practically identical [sec lecture 5) 
 
 Lecture 3 
 HOME RULE FOR CITIES 
 Legislative control of municipal corporations 
 
 I Definitions. A corporation is an artificial creature 
 of law possessing only properties expressly granted, 
 the most important being immortality and indi- 
 viduality. 
 
 Dartmouth college case. Dartmouth college vs "Wood- 
 ward, 4 Wheat. 518. 
 
 PUBLIC DISTINGUISHED FROM 
 Private 
 
 Created for private pur- i 
 poses, though supposed 
 to promote the public 
 interest, specially for 
 business purposes. 
 
 2 A contract between the 
 state and the corpora- 
 tion. Dartmouth college 
 case. 
 
 3 The assent of the cor- ^ 
 poration is necessary to 
 incorporation. 
 
 PRIVATE CORPORATIONS 
 Ptiblic 
 
 Created not for business 
 but for public and social 
 purposes, as branches of 
 the state government, 
 to administer govern- 
 ment, poor relief, edu- 
 cation, protect life and 
 property, etc. 
 Not a contract, but a 
 mere legislative enact- 
 ment, though it may 
 give rise to vested rights 
 in favor of third persons 
 or the community. 
 The assent of the com- 
 munity is not necessary. 
 
14 EXTENSION SYLLABUS 
 
 4 Can not be altered or re- 4 ' The power of the legis- 
 voked without the con- lature over such corpo- 
 
 sent of the corporation, rations is supreme and 
 except where such power transcendent; it may, 
 is reserved or where it is where there is no consti- 
 judicially forfeited. tutional inhibition, erect, 
 
 change, divide, or even 
 abolish them, at pleas- 
 ure, as it deems the pub- 
 lic good to require.' — 
 Dillon. 
 
 Beach. Law of municipal corporations. 
 Dillon. Municipal corporations. 
 Stimson. American statute law. 
 
 2 Two movements in the history of American cities. 
 
 a) Extension of functions from purely local to 
 general administration. 
 
 b) Subordination to the legislature in both general 
 and local affairs. 
 
 ' Like the English municipal corporation, the 
 original American municipal corporation was 
 mainly an organization for the satisfaction of 
 purely local needs, i. e. for the management of 
 the local property and finances and the issue of 
 local police ordinances. . The affairs of the 
 general administration of the colon}' were at- 
 tended to in the municipality by officers similar 
 to the regular officers in the counties and rural 
 districts. . The legislature of the common- 
 wealth has to a large extent lost sight of the 
 original purpose of the municipality, and has 
 come to regard it as an organ of the central 
 government for the purpose of the general com- 
 monwealth administration, making little distinc- 
 tion between central and municipal matters, and 
 
CITY GOVERNMENT I 5 
 
 exercising over it much the same control which 
 it exercises over counties and towns. ' 
 
 lyins, W. M. Municipal government (see Pol. sci. quar. 
 2: 291-312) 
 
 Private corporations protected by the courts; 
 public only by the legislature. Distinction be- 
 tween enumerated and implied powers, former 
 American, latter European. Hence dependence 
 on legislature. 
 
 Goodnow. Municipal home rule, p. 1-55. 
 At the same time legal decisions and later legislation 
 tend to recognize these two kinds of functions, 
 though the distinction is not yet authoritatively 
 determined : 
 
 1 ) Local functions, i. e. proprietary or 'private,' 
 which the legislature may regulate but can not 
 destroy without compensation, e. g. streets, 
 sewers, railways, water, gas, electric light and 
 power, parks, sanitation, etc. 
 
 2) General functions, governmental, legislative, 
 ' public, ' over which the legislature may have 
 complete control, e. g. preservation of the peace, 
 protection of life, property, health, administra- 
 tion of justice, poor relief, free education, collec- 
 tion of taxes for state government, excise and 
 temperance laws, etc. ' Police officers are in 
 fact state or public officers and not private or 
 corporate officers.' — Dillon. Kentucky and New 
 York courts hold police to be local officers ; other 
 states, public. 
 
 Goodnow. Municipal home rule, p. 88. 
 3 Constitutional limitations on the legislature. 
 All state constitutions except those of N. Y. , Me. , 
 Mich., Minn., Md., N. C, Ore., Nev., Col., Ala., 
 prohibit special legislation for cities, and command 
 general laws applicable to all cities alike. Nulli- 
 fied by classifying cities, e. g. the act of March 6, 
 
l6 EXTENSION SYLLABUS 
 
 1891, creating a new charter for the citj- of Indian- 
 apolis is entitled ' an act concerning the incorpora- 
 tion and government of cities having rnore than 
 100,000 population according to the last preceding 
 census, etc' New York 1894 constitution classifies 
 cities and defines general and special legislation ; 
 mayor's suspensive veto over latter. 
 
 Goodnow. Municipal home rule, p. 56-97. 
 
 4 Effects of legislatiA'c control and interference. 
 
 a) On the state. i) Occupies the time of the 
 legislature, e. g. 280 out of 681 bills passed by 
 Xew York legislature in 1886 were local Meas- 
 ured by the ntimber of printed pages, local legisla- 
 tion is one half to three quarters of total state legis- 
 lation. 2) Effort on the part of city bosses, 
 lobbies, saloons, gamblers, corporations, to con- 
 trol state legislature, hence log-rolling, corrup- 
 tion, etc. 
 
 i!i)On the cities, i) Local inatters controlled bv 
 an irresponsible authority. 2) Identifies local 
 with state and federal politics. 3) Destroys local 
 independence and the feeling of local responsi- 
 bilitv; hence apathy, small vote at municipal 
 elections. 4) Compels cities to inject the politi-. 
 cal question 'enforcement' or 'non-enforcement' 
 of state law, into election of local executive 
 officers, e. g. excise; hence prevents business 
 administration, etc. 
 
 Goodnow. Municipal problems, p. 193-214. 
 
 5 Proposed plans for removing leg-islative control. 
 a) Separate elections. 
 
 /?) Home rule. Larger cities in Missouri, Cali- 
 fornia and state of AVashington may elect a con- 
 stitutional convention of freeholders, to draft a 
 miTnicipal constitution, which is stibmitted to the 
 electors and if adopted by a majoritj' vote be- 
 
CITY GOVERNMENT I 7 
 
 comes law (in Washington without ratification of 
 the legislature, ratification required in Missouri 
 and California). Cities now operating under 
 home-made constitutions are St Louis, Kansas 
 City, Los Angeles, Olympia, Seattle, Tacoma 
 and others. Yet St Louis police are controlled 
 by a board appointed by the state legislature, 
 and the courts hold that cities are not freed from 
 the operation of general laws. 
 
 c) Home sovereignty. Hambtirg, formerly a state 
 of the German empire, having ambassadors and 
 representatives in parliament, wholly independ 
 ent in local affairs, now absorbed by Prussia. 
 Proposed creation of New York and contiguous 
 cities into a separate state. 
 
 Morrison, Frank. Municipal government, a corporate not a 
 
 political problem {see Forum 13 : 788-94) 
 Oberholtzer, E. P. Home rule for Amer. cities {see Amer. acad. 
 
 of pol. and social sci. annals, 3 : 736-63) 
 
 6 Dangers from home rule. 
 
 a) Ignorant, foreign and corrupt elements are as 
 yet too powerful. 
 
 d) Does not recognize the distinction between local 
 and general functions, e. g. riots, justice, educa- 
 tion, health, etc. 
 
 7 Complete legislative, judicial and administrative 
 control. The city of Washington, governed by 
 three commissioners appointed by the president of 
 the United States under special laws enacted by 
 congress. Such government is strong, efficient, 
 honest, but irresponsible, undemocratic, paternalis- 
 tic and obnoxious. 
 
 Porter, J: A. The city of Washington (Johns Hopkins univ. 
 studies in hist, and political sci. ser. 3, no. 11-12) 
 
 Judicial control 
 
 I Ordinary civil and criminal jurisdiction. The 
 municipal corporation may be brought before the 
 
S EXTENSION SYLLABUS 
 
 ordinary- civil courts like a private corporation in 
 suits to enforce contracts or collect damages, and 
 municipal officers ma}' be tried in civil siiits for 
 damages or in criminal suits for violation of official 
 duties. 
 2 Administrative jurisdiction. The legislature can 
 not directly execute its laws. Must leave them to 
 locally elected officers. !Must therefore summon 
 other state agencies where local officers fail. In 
 the United States the higher courts are the agents 
 of the legislature, exercising their control through a 
 series of writs which have been historically developed 
 in English common law. Principal ones are : 
 a) Mandamus. A writ forcing an officer to do 
 
 something which the law commands him to do, 
 
 e. g. to levy a tax to pay certain lawful claims. 
 /;) Prohibition or injunction, to prevent officers 
 
 from performing certain acts, e. g. to le\'i- an 
 
 illegal tax. 
 
 c) Habeas corpus, to control the police and execu- 
 tive administration. 
 
 d) Certiorari, to review acts of officers, e. g. assess- 
 ment of property on complaint of inequality. 
 Also statutory. 
 
 e) Appeals, to courts in special cases where the 
 legislature makes provision, e. g. licenses. 
 
 /) Quo warranto, commanding a person to show by 
 
 what authorit}' he exercises an office or franchise 
 
 alleged never granted, or forfeited by neglect or 
 
 abuse. 
 
 Judicial control is tardy, reaching persons rather than 
 
 acts, and technical, formal, difficult, expensive and 
 
 uncertain. Its defects increase with growth of 
 
 city. 
 
 Goodnow. Municipal home rule, p. 261-72. 
 Municipal problems, p. 69-73. 
 
CITY GOVERNMENT 1 9 
 
 Administrative control 
 
 The legislature may grant complete home rule, 
 neither revoking nor amending charter nor enacting 
 special laws, but may create a body of state or 
 national administrative officers to assume the ad- 
 ministrative functions of the higher judiciary and 
 also to supervise, check and direct, discipline, sus- 
 pend and remove local authorities. 
 
 Two kinds of administrative control. 
 
 I Complete administrative regulation. Paris, en- 
 tirely free from central legislative control but 
 subjected to extreme administrative control. 
 Prefect of the Seine and prefect of police, 
 both political officers, appointed by the president 
 of the republic, subordinate to the minister of 
 the interior. Council is elective, has large dis- 
 cretionaiy powers in finance and taxation, but no 
 powers of appointment or execution. Can be 
 suspended or dissolved by prefect and president. 
 Decisions must be approved by prefect. Prefect 
 appoints stibordinates who have charge of taxes, 
 education, poor relief, military enrolment, regis- 
 tration lists, vital statistics. Prefect of police, 
 ' the most unaccountable, the most powerful man 
 in France,' controls police and detectives, has 
 large secret service fund, controls weights and 
 measures, and sanitation, licenses, shows, trades, 
 omnibuses; obligatory on municipal council to 
 appropriate funds for his budget. Yet his irre- 
 sponsible autocratic power is limited by a perfect 
 civil service system. In smaller cities mayor is 
 elected by council but removable by prefect as 
 well as all his appointees; otherwise the control 
 of the prefect over the city is the same as in 
 Paris. 
 
20 EXTENSION SYLLABUS 
 
 Administrative courts. In order to prevent 
 oppression by the prefect, local attthorities or 
 individuals may appeal to central administra- 
 ti\'e courts, the jndg'es having special knowl- 
 edge of administrative and public law, the 
 procedure being informal and inexpensive. 
 Unknown in United States and England, the 
 nearest approach being boards of equalization, 
 and appeals to ordinars- higher courts. 
 
 Shaw, Albert. Paris, the typical modern cit}- (see his Municipal 
 
 government in continental Europe, ch. i) 
 (see Century 42: (new ser. 20) 449-66) 
 
 In German}' administrative control and courts 
 similar to those of France, but more liberal in 
 practice. Police of Berlin are controlled and 
 paid by the state (Prussia). 
 2 Administrative supervision in England. Local 
 government board corresponds to department of 
 the interior, its president a member of the 
 cabinet. Its officers are clerks, financiers, medi- 
 cal men, architects, engineers, and other special- 
 ists, holding office or permanent tenure. Con- 
 trols public health, poor relief, local governments. 
 Functions are : 
 
 a) Advice to i) local authorities, 2) to parliament, 
 in case of eveiy local municipal or private bill. 
 In United States this is often three fourths 
 of the work of a state legislature. 
 
 b) Administrative control. In poor law, com- 
 plete, can remove but not appoint overseers. 
 In sanitation, less complete. In local govern- 
 ment, municipalities elect their own officers, 
 have full powers of all kinds delegated by 
 parliament biit all important financial matters 
 — loans, taxes, improvements — must be ap- 
 proved by local government board. It audits 
 
CIT\' r.OVF.RNJIENT 2 1 
 
 accounts of most local authorities (not munici- 
 palities, however) can compel municipalities to 
 meet certain expenses for schools, poor relief, 
 debt, etc. Central government pays one half 
 police expenses. 
 
 Goodnow. Municipal home rule, ch. 12. 
 
 Municipal problems, ch. 6. 
 
 Maltbie. English local government of to-day. 
 Wilcox. Study of city government, ch. 3. 
 
 3 Advantages of administrative control and super- 
 vision. 
 
 a) A responsible authority answerable to parlia- 
 ment and the judiciary. 
 I?) Composed of specialists having experience, 
 knowledge and permanent tenure. 
 
 c) Reaches the acts of local officials rather than 
 their persons. 
 
 d) Protects cities from extravagance and corrup- 
 tion while giving the greatest freedom to local 
 enterprise, pride and responsibility. 
 
 e) Being always ready for action it seldom is 
 compelled to act. 
 
 Proposed state supervision in the United States 
 
 1 Home rule as in the state of Washington, with 
 certain general laws by the legislature ; separate 
 elections. 
 
 2 A state raunicipal board with administrative super- 
 vision, similar to that now exercised in various 
 states by state boards of health, boards of charities 
 and corrections, tax commissioners, boards of 
 equalization, and public examiners, to be composed 
 of governor, attorney-general and auditor ex officio 
 and six to 10 unsalaried citizens from the two prin- 
 cipal parties. Board to appoint all subordinates 
 who should be experts and receive good salaries. 
 
2 2 EXTENSION SYLLABUS 
 
 a) No administrative powers, such as disciplining, 
 removing or suspending officers, thus enforcing 
 local responsibility and protecting the board 
 from partizan politics. Suspension and removal of 
 local officers by governor on recommendation of 
 board. 
 
 d) Auditing department, prescribed system of 
 municipal bookkeeping, full annual reports. 
 
 c) Supervision of examinations for municipal civil 
 service, as in Massachusetts. 
 
 d) Local investigations of complaints and abuses 
 similar to those now held by legislative commit- 
 tees, with publication of testimonj' and findings 
 — powers to compel testimony. 
 
 e) Veto on illegal bonds and contracts, unwar- 
 ranted financial measures which exceed the legal 
 debt-limit. 
 
 Popular self-government requires simplicity of public 
 affairs, full publicity and accurate, reliable, expert, 
 information. Local responsibility can then be 
 trusted. 
 
 Commons, J : R. State supervision for cities {see Amer. acad. of 
 pol. and social sci. Annals, 5: 865-81) 
 Lecture 4 
 MUNICIPAL ADMINISTRATION 
 
 Complexity of city government in the United States 
 
 I Cities are composed of independent governing 
 bodies, with independent debt-making and taxing 
 powers. These have grown up from rural con- 
 ditions and overlapped without any consistent plan. 
 Chicago has 15 governing bodies; eight town 
 boards, three park commissions, one city govern- 
 ment, one county government, one board of sani- 
 tary trustees, one board of education, besides the 
 judiciary. New York was found a few years ago 
 by Andrew H. Green to have ' 80 different boards 
 
CITY GOVERKMEXT 23 
 
 or individuals who cotild create debt independently 
 of each other. ' 
 Williams, Leighton. Municipal reform; the need of a positive 
 program {see Arena 9 ; 644-53) 
 
 2 No responsibility to the people. Elective officials 
 for all these positions. Only professional poli- 
 ticians can understand the maze, hence citizens 
 can vote only a straight ticket dictated by party 
 managers. 
 
 How unity and responsibility are secured 
 
 France. City government wholly centralized, ex- 
 tremely simple. In Paris, only elected officers are 
 the 80 councilnien, one for each ward, term three 
 years. The two prefects appointed by the presi- 
 dent and minister of the interior have entire ad- 
 ministration. In other cities, council elects mayor 
 and deputies from its own members for same term, 
 mayor appoints all subordinates except police. 
 Council has no administrative powers. Its com- 
 mittees are merely advisory to the mayor or prefect. 
 References on foreign cities cited in preceding lectures. 
 
 Prussia. Only councilnien are elected by popular 
 vote, all other officials appointed. Council has no 
 administrative functions. It elects 20 to 30 magis- 
 trates, or aldermen, one half of whom are salaried 
 professional officials, heads of departments, elected 
 for six years but usually reelected for life, must be 
 approved by state authorities; one half are un- 
 salaried citizens usually chosen from council having 
 eqiial status with the professional aldermen, but 
 not giving their entire time to administration. 
 Mayor is merely a presiding officer, a salaried 
 alderman, having no extra powers. Unity is 
 secured by conferences of the board of aldermen 
 which has entire executive control of the city except 
 police, corresponds to ' cabinet, ' meets separately 
 
:;4 EXTENSION SYLLABUS 
 
 from conncil. Departments controlled by per- 
 manent committees and subcommittees, composed 
 of aldermen, cotmcilmen and unsalaried citizen;; 
 appointed by board of aldermen, heads of depart- 
 ments being salaried aldermen, wbo are held 
 responsible and have full powers of appointment 
 and removal of subordinates, subject to civil service 
 rules. 
 
 England. Only cotmcilmen are elected, aldermen 
 chosen by council for six 3-ears, reelected, from its 
 o\vn members, neither receive salaries, aldermen 
 have no powers beyond councilmen. ^layor elected 
 by council one year from aldermen, usually not 
 reelected, merely a presiding officer, an integral 
 part of the council. All administrative power in 
 hands of council, 'the grand committee of the cor- 
 poration,' which passes all laws, no vetos (except 
 by local government board) appoints and removes 
 all officials, manages departments through stand- 
 ing committees of its own members, permanent 
 chiefs or superintendents being appointed by coun- 
 cil, in turn appointing their subordinates and 
 responsible to council through its committees. 
 
 United States. Formerly administrative power in 
 hands of council similar to English system, council 
 usually two-chambered, electing the ma3-or and 
 heads of departments and governing through its 
 own committees. Growing distrust of council led 
 to popular election of mayor (Xew York 1830, 
 Philadelphia 1S39), later the popular election of 
 heads of departments, mayor's appointees to be 
 confirmed by council. Results ; divided responsi- 
 bility, 'deals' between mayor and council and 
 independent boards, weak and corrupt officials 
 because pcissessing no power. Unity of govern- 
 ment now secured through the rise of an extra-legal 
 
CITV OOVERXMENr 25 
 
 private irresponsible governing body, the 'party 
 machine, ' controlled by a private citizen, the ' su- 
 preme boss, ' who is the true unified authority, 
 controlling nominations and elections, appointing 
 and removing officials ; latter therefore not respon- 
 sible to the people but to the ' machine. ' By treaties 
 and alliances between the machines of the two 
 parties the same 'ring ' is always in power. 
 
 Bishop, J. B. The price of peace {see Century 48; (new ser. 26) 
 667-72) 
 
 Champernowne. The boss. 
 
 Leavitt, J: B. Criminal degradation o£ New York citizenship 
 (see Forum 17: 659-65) 
 
 Stead. If Christ came to Chicago. 
 
 Reform movements in the United States 
 
 1 Consolidation of separate governments into a single 
 mvmicipal government covering all duties now per- 
 formed by county, township, city, boards and 
 commissions; e. g. London, act of 1888, for the 
 first time became a single united government, 
 under the ' London county council. ' It formerly 
 included parts of three counties, one city (about 
 one square mile) 70 parishes and sanitary districts. 
 
 Shaw, Albert. Glasgow: a municipal study (.fff Century 39: (new 
 ser. 17) 721-36) 
 
 How London is governed (see Century 41: (new ser. ig^ 
 
 132-47) 
 
 Municipal government in Great Britain, p. 222-62. 
 
 Municipal problems of New York and London (see Rev. of 
 
 revs. 5: 282-308) 
 
 2 Concentration of power in the mayor elected by 
 ]3opular vote. Tendency toward the French sys- 
 tem, giving mayor complete power of appointing 
 all heads of departments who are single officers 
 instead of boards, confirmation by council required 
 (except in New York, Brooklyn and Philadelphia), 
 power of removal limited by consent of council 
 
2 6 EXTENSION SYLLABUS 
 
 (except in Xew York, Philadelphia and Boston). 
 Greater Xew York charter; board of estimate and 
 apportionment, composed of five members, three 
 fifths of whom are mayor and two appointees, the 
 corporation counsel and president of board of taxes 
 and assessment. Has absohite veto on assembly 
 in debt, expenditures, franchises. Board of public 
 works, 1 1 members, including mayor and seven ap- 
 pointees, alone has initiative in public works, 
 flayer's veto overridden only by five-sixths vote of 
 assembly. 
 3 Reasons for concentration in the mayor. 
 
 a) Habit. Similar elections for state and federal 
 elections, accustomed to threefold division of 
 powers. 
 d) Simplicity. B}- giving the mayor extraordinary 
 powers of appointment and removal, the entire 
 government depends on him, public interest is 
 aroused, able men are nominated, hea\-3' vote is 
 called out, voters not confused by large number 
 nf offices to be filled and hundreds of candidates. 
 The ' simplicity ' of despotism. A • kill or cure ' 
 svstem of government. — Bryce 
 c) Veto on the municipal council which ever\-where 
 has become degraded and corrupt, and is wholly 
 distrusted by the people. 
 
 Bryce. American commonwealth, v. i, ch. 50-52. 
 
 Fiske. Civil government iri the U. S. p. 98-136. 
 
 Kellv, Edmond. Municipal government of New York (see Nat. 
 
 conf. for good city gov't. Proceedings, v. i, p. 103-10) 
 Low, Seth. Obstacles to good city go\ernment {see Forum 
 
 5: 260-6(1) 
 Low, W: G. Municipal government of Brooklyn (jf£ Nat. conf. 
 
 for good city gov't. Proceedings, v. 1, p. 72-79) 
 MacVeagh, Franklin. Municipal government of Chicago (see 
 
 Nat. conf. for good city gov't. Proceedings, v. i, p. So-Si>) 
 Mercer, G: G. Municipal government of Philadelphia (j-c«? Nat. 
 
 conf. for good city gov't. Proceedings, v. i, p. 94-102) 
 
CITY GOVERNMENT 27 
 
 Shepard, H. N. The mayor and the city {see Atlan. mo. 74: 
 
 85-94) 
 Storejs Moorfield. Municipal government of Boston {see Nat. 
 
 conf. for good city gov't. Proceedings, v. i, p. 61-71) 
 
 4 Heads of departments. 
 
 France. Mayor appoints single heads of depart- 
 ments who hold under civil service rules during 
 efficiency, are professional experts, graduates of 
 higher technical schools, may be removed by 
 prefect (corresponding to state governor). 
 Germany. Committees of aldermen and councilmen 
 and unofficial citizens selected by aldermen have 
 oversight of the professional salaried alderman, 
 who in turn is chosen by council to hold dtiring 
 efficiency, is responsible for appointments and 
 service in his department. 
 England. Committees of the council, similar to the 
 German system, supervision of the heads who 
 are men of highest administrative ability and 
 expert knowledge, security of tenure. 
 United States. Under system of government by 
 mayor there is double head for departments, 
 i) Political head, changing with the mayor, mem- 
 ber of mayor's ' cabinet, ' representing the de- 
 partment before the public, responsible to the 
 mayor and the public, controlling the ' policy ' 
 of the department. Sometimes ' bi-partizan ' 
 e. g. police. 
 2) Professional head, permanent chief, expert 
 control of details and principles, appointing 
 subordinates, representing the purely ' biisi- 
 ness ' management of the department. 
 
 5 The mayor's control of departments where the 
 commission plan is abandoned. 
 
 a) Fire. In Berlin controlled by the state. 
 
 b) Public works. 
 
E ENSION SYLLABUS 
 
 c) Charities and corrections. 
 
 d) Law. 
 
 A general agreement that the above departments 
 should be controlled by the mayor. 
 
 e) Police. Except in Boston, St Louis, Cincinnati 
 where governor or legislature appoints police 
 commissioners. Yet mayor is responsible for 
 the enforcement of laws and ordinances and 
 should therefore appoint police. 
 
 /) Health. Usually medical boards, experts, not 
 represented in mayor's cabinet; yet they have 
 political functions, enactment of health ordi- 
 nances which require police enforcement, and 
 should therefore be subordinate to the mayor. 
 
 g) Finance. Comptroller or auditor, the city book- 
 keeper, holds checks on all other departments, 
 hence usually elected. But with public reports 
 to council he might be appointed, same as federal 
 secretary of the treasury. Same applies to 
 treasurer, also assessors and collectors of taxes. 
 
 h) Education. Almost universally separated from 
 city government proper. 
 
 /) Judiciary. In other countries appointed by 
 state authorities, not a political nor adminis- 
 trative position. 
 
 Charter of greater New York: elective officers; 
 at large, mayor, comptroller, president assembly 
 four years; by districts, councilmen, aldermen, 
 coroners, judges; appointed by mayor, corpo- 
 ration counsel, police board of four members, 
 departments of water supply, highways, street 
 cleaning, sewers, public buildings, lighting and 
 supplies, bridges, parks, buildings, public char- 
 ities, correction, fire, docks and ferries, taxes 
 and assessments, education, health. 
 
CITY GOVERNMENT 29 
 
 The siibordinate civil service. 
 
 France. Qualifications determined by executive 
 decrees and departmental regnlations, not by 
 statute. No civil service commission, examina- 
 tion conducted under supervision of heads of 
 departments. Similar in Germany and England. 
 In the United States the fire department is the 
 only one generally administered on civil service^ 
 rules, being the one which directly affects the 
 property owners. Competitive examinations for 
 admission, probation, security of tenure, accident 
 insurance, old age pensions, pensions for widows 
 and orphans. 
 
 ^Massachusetts. Civil service commission, act of 
 1884, applies to state and cities; three commis- 
 sioners, appointed by governor, three years, $5 
 per day of service, chief examiner $2000 salary, 
 riiles subject to approval by governor and council. 
 Competitive and non- competitive examinations, 
 probations, promotions on basis of examinations 
 and seniority, no political assessments on em- 
 ployees, applies to clerks, laborers, fire, police, 
 truant officers, not to heads of departments who 
 can appoint only from applicants certified by the 
 commissioners, and retain full power to discharge. 
 Boston, 1893, total number of employees in 
 mimicipal service 4043 ; requisitions for laborers 
 67; certified 622; employed 398; registered dur- 
 ing the year 2317. Number of laborers dis- 
 charged fell from it 16 in 1887 to 348 in 1896 and 
 486 in 1897. 
 
 New York (1884). Municipal examiners; appointed 
 by mayor, regulations and classifications drawn 
 up by mayor, subject to approval of state civil 
 service commission. Officers exempted : elective, 
 confidential subordinates, heads of departments, 
 
30 EXTENSION SYLLABUS 
 
 teachers, subordinates having custody of funds 
 under bond, inspectors of election. Open com- 
 petitive examinations, also non-competitive; ap- 
 pointments from these graded by list ; period of 
 probation before absolute appointment; promo- 
 tion on basis of merit and competition; political 
 assessments prohibited ; no use of official authority 
 or influence to coerce political action of any 
 person or body. Veterans preference (1894), 
 veterans not to be removed except after hearing 
 (1892), city auditor liable on taxpayer's action for 
 salaries paid to persons appointed in violation of 
 law and rules (1894). 
 
 N. Y. (state) — Civil service commission. Reports. 
 
 Pensions for firemen and policemen. Syracuse 
 policemen, $300 to widow, terminates at mar- 
 riage, $300 to minor children till 1 8 ; permanent 
 disability one fourth to one half salary; super- 
 annuated after 10 years' service $300 to f 600; after 
 20 years, one half salary. Fund obtained from 
 fees for perfecting bail bond, contributions of 
 policemen, fines or dediictions imposed on police- 
 men, rewards and gifts, lost or stolen property, 
 pistol permits. 
 7 Advantages of civil service reform. 
 
 a) On the employees. Security of employment, 
 ' life career for intelligent and self-respecting 
 3'oung Americans:' independence, emulation, 
 esprit de corps. 
 
 b) On the service. Efficiency, economy, progress, 
 introduction of improvements. ' Inexperienced 
 officials necessarily follow precedent . . A new 
 official is afraid to depart from custom, lest he 
 fall into some dangerous or absurd difficulty. ' 
 
 Eliot, C: W. One remedy for municipal misgovern- 
 ment {see Forum 12: 153-68) 
 
CITY GOVERNMENT 3 1 
 
 c) On politics. Destroys a powerful bulwark of 
 the party ' machine. ' It may not always secure 
 the very best men, but it establishes a minimum, 
 keeps out the worst, and substitutes responsi- 
 bility to the public for responsibility to the 
 ' boss.' 
 Devlin. Municipal reform in the United States, p. 85-102. 
 Schurz, Carl. Relation of civil service reform to municipal 
 reform {see Nat. conf. for good city gov't. Proceedings, 
 V. I, p. 123-33) 
 
 8 Defects of civil service reform. 
 
 a) Does not reach heads of departments, the key 
 to good administration. Is only a check on free 
 appointment by heads. Where heads are per- 
 manent, not needed. 
 
 b) Does not ascertain ' fitness ' as distinguished 
 from ' merit. ' New York law amended 1897, 50^ 
 ' merit ' rated by board, 50^ ' fitness ' rated by 
 appointing officer. 
 
 Commons. Proportional representation, p. 211-16. 
 Goodnow. Municipal problems, p. 251-52. 
 
 9 Organization of the subordinate service. Usually 
 autocratic. Exception, street-cleaning department 
 of New York under Commissioner Waring. ' Com- 
 mittee of 41' representing laborers by sections and 
 stables. In 1896 heard 345 complaints, settled 
 221. 'Board of conference' five representatives 
 of the commissioner, five of the ' Committee of 
 41'; heard 124 complaints referred by committee of 
 41, settled 123. Referred one to commissioner. 
 
 Waring, G : E. , jr. Labor question in the department of 
 street cleaning of New York (see Municipal affairs i : 515-24) 
 
 10 Cooperation of private citizens. 
 
 France. Councilmen unpaid, election involves ob- 
 ligatory service. 
 
 Germany. Councilmen unpaid, citizens appointed 
 on commissions unpaid, citizens appointed in 
 
^2 EXTENSION SYLLABUS 
 
 Avards to assist in administration. In Berlin, 
 poor relief and corrections ^259 citizens; schuuls 
 1500; in all loooo taxpayers, men and women, 
 ccioperate rejiularly in municipal administration. 
 Penalty for refusal, double taxes. Result, effi- 
 ciency, public spirit, care for poorer classes not- 
 withstanding their exclusion from the suffrage. 
 
 United States. Cooperation of citizens formerly 
 obligator}-, e. g. in Xew York, refusal to ser\-e as 
 supemsor, tOA\Ti clerk, assessor, commissioner of 
 highways, overseer of poor, punished by fine of 
 S50. Dropped in 1890. — Goodnoii.' 
 
 Unpaid public sei-\-ice. State boards of health, 
 boards of charities and corrections, education, 
 trustees of institutions : municipal boards of edu- 
 cation, charities, boards of children's gniardians, 
 cotintv visitors (Ohio), etc., sei-^ice nut obligatory. 
 
 \'olunteer associations to urge city officials to per- 
 form their duties: good goveniment clubs, muni- 
 cipal leagaies, vigilance leagues, civic federations, 
 women's health protective leagaies, chambers of 
 commerce, business men's assuciations. 
 
 Thomson, E. P. 'What women have done for the public 
 health (see Forum, 24: 46-55) 
 
 Lt'c/iifi 5 
 DIRECT LEGISLATION 
 
 The threefold problem of city government 
 
 I Technical problem. 
 
 a) Deals with the material of nature or with social 
 material : children, criminals, paupers, drunk- 
 ards, et al. 
 
 b) A problem of science and technology : civil,- 
 mechanical and electrical engineering; peda- 
 gogy, criminology, charity, inebriety, psychology. 
 
CITY GOVERNMENT 33 
 
 c) Psychic basis, knowledge and skill. 
 I Business or administrative problem. 
 
 a) Deals with individtials. 
 
 d) Organization of responsibility. Sanctions : ap- 
 pointment, promotion, discharge. Economy in 
 buying and selling. 
 
 c) Psychic basis, tact ; foresight, persuasion, ' deal- 
 ing with men '. 
 3 Political problem. 
 
 a) Deals with social classes, through coercive agency 
 of stattites and ordinances and their enforcement. 
 
 b) A problem of the distribution of social privileges, 
 i) Beliefs: catholic, protestant; 2) health; 3) 
 enjoyments: saloons, Sunday observance, thea- 
 ters, parks; 4) education: free tuition, free 
 books, etc.; 5) incomes: day labor and contract 
 systems, franchises and municipal ownership, 
 public improvements, distribution of taxes and 
 assessments, etc. 
 
 c) Psychic basis : opinion ; wishes or desires of social 
 classes, modified by ideas concerning justice and 
 expediency. 
 
 Bearing of these distinctions on the plan of muni- 
 cipal organization 
 
 I Political problem takes precedence and sets condi- 
 tions for all others. Mistake of holding that par- 
 ties are only national. Municipal policies above 
 mentioned. 
 
 a) State legislative control with administrative 
 home rule injects the political issue ' enforcement 
 or non-enforcement ' of state laws into selection 
 of administrative oiificers (see lecture 3). Only 
 method available to the voters for enforcing their 
 opinions and wishes. 
 
 Roosevelt, Theodore. Municipal administration: the 
 New York police force (see Atlan. mo. 80: 289-300) 
 
34 EXTEXSIiiX SYLLABUS 
 
 b) Mayor's veto and appointment of political heads 
 of departments, makes him a political officer. 
 -< Separation of business from political organization 
 
 a) Legislative home rule [see lectiire 3) 
 
 b) ;\Iayor and siibordinates deprived of all legisla- 
 tive functions, veto, police and excise adminis- 
 tration, civil service reform, become mere busi- 
 ness organization. 
 
 c) Council deprived of all administrative functions, 
 becomes the legislative or political organ. 
 
 Goodnow. Municipal problems, p. 220-26. 
 
 d) Decadence, inefficiency and corruption of the 
 the council render this remed}' dangerous [see 
 lecture 6) 
 
 Initiative and referendum 
 
 I The initiative is based on the principle that everj' 
 citizen shall have the right to propose a measure of 
 law to his fellow citizens. All proposals shall be 
 accompanied by a petition signed by a certain per- 
 centage of voters in city, state, or nation. The 
 majority shall actually enact the law by voting the 
 acceptance or rejection of the measure proposed. 
 This principle, when applied through ballotings 
 at polling places, on measures sent from legislative 
 bodies to the people is known as the referendum. 
 Nebraska, 1897, municipal and local, on adoption 
 by vote of locality. Initiative, petition containing 
 full text of ordinance, order, resolve, agreement 
 or contract, signed by 15^ of voters, 20'^i for special 
 election within 30 days, takes precedence of other 
 business in council, council may submit amended 
 ordinance at same time but not alter original 
 petition, the one receiving majority of affirmative 
 votes becomes law. Optional referendum ; no or- 
 dinance, etc. (except public peace, health, appro- 
 
CITY GOVERNMENT 35 
 
 priation not exceeding those of previous years) to 
 take effect for 30 days, meanwhile petition, 15^ 
 voters mandatory, requires submission to popular 
 vote. Popular veto instead of mayor's veto. 
 Ziirich has obligatory referendum since 1869, 
 average voting per year, three. 
 Advantages and defects. 
 
 a) Relieves administrative and judicial branches 
 from political predominance, permits business 
 qualities to decide in election of mayor. Is 
 purely political, i. e. expressions of choice. 
 Massachusetts referendum on license and elec- 
 tion of non-parlizan mayors. 
 
 b) Banishes bribery and intimidation by corpora- 
 tions and bosses. Mutual confidence the basis 
 of free government. Eliminates the question of 
 ' honesty ' or ' dishonesty ' in election of candi- 
 dates. 
 
 c) Popular acquiescence in results. 'Extreme meas- 
 ures, whether radical or reactionary, have no 
 chance whatever of being accepted by the 
 people.' Lessening of crime in Switzerland. 
 Conservative, good and bad laws defeated on 
 question of ' confidence ' or ' no-confidence ' in 
 assembly submitting them. Espoused by con- 
 servatives in Switzerland. Yet not permanent 
 obstacle to reforms; state bank in Switzerland 
 defeated 1876, 1881, approved 1891. 
 
 Macy, Jesse. The Swiss and their politics (see Amer. 
 jour, sociology, 2:25-42.) 
 
 d) Educates the people on public questions. Con- 
 sciousness of personal influence. Dignity of 
 citizenship. 
 
 e) Petty persecution of small minority, e. g. Jews, 
 but without initiative, the same persecution more 
 violent, France, Austria. 
 
EXTENSION >VLLAf;US 
 
 /) People prefer to vote for men in whom they 
 have confidence rather than measures, but this 
 may change with education. 
 
 California 1896, five referendums: i) tax exemp- 
 tion for mortgages, 2) permit voting machines, 
 3) limited liability of stockholders to amount of 
 shares, 4, 5) home rule for San Francisco, 
 6) woman suffrage. Presidential vote 290,466; 
 referendum votes as follows : 
 
 
 Total 
 vote 
 
 Per cent 
 
 of 
 presiden- 
 tial vote 
 
 For 
 
 1 
 
 Against 
 
 Majority 
 
 
 For , 
 
 Against 
 
 I 
 
 226 769 
 
 7S 
 
 63 S24! 
 
 162 94; 
 
 
 99 121 
 
 2 
 
 200 247 
 
 70 
 
 121 655 
 
 :S 59= 
 
 43 161 
 
 
 3 
 
 191 702 
 
 66 
 
 S2 509 
 
 109 193 
 
 
 266S4 
 
 4 
 
 175 656 
 
 62 
 
 loi 501 
 
 74 155 
 
 27 346 
 
 
 5 
 
 176448 
 
 62 
 
 lOI 539 
 
 74 909 
 
 27 030 
 
 
 6 
 
 246 S51 
 
 J5 
 
 iio 0*9 
 
 136 762 
 
 ■ ■ 
 
 26673 
 
 Average 
 
 202 945 
 
 70 
 
 96 S52 
 
 106 093 
 
 i 
 
 • • • 
 
 In Switzerland 20 federal referendums during 1879- 
 91, average vote 58. 5 f? of total voters, ranging 
 from 40''; to 679', g'i in Canton Schwyz. Vote on 
 'Right to employment,' ^6''t, rejected 4 to i. 'The 
 result of the small vote is that laws dul}' consid- 
 ered by the national legislature and passed hj 
 considerable majorities are often reversed by a 
 minority of the voters.' In Ohio amendment 
 taxing franchises of corporations lost three times 
 because the constitutional 75^ failed to vote. 
 
 Commons. Proportional representation, p. 186-93. 
 
 Direct legislation record. 
 
 Lowell. Governments and parties in continental Europe, v. 2, 
 p. 23S-96. 
 
 Sullivan. Direct legislation. 
 
CITY GOVERXJIENT 37 
 
 Lecture 6 
 
 THE MUNICIPAL COUNCIL 
 Tendency to weaken and abolish the council 
 
 The council is ' the great unsolved organic problem in 
 connection with city government in the United 
 States. ' — Scth Low. Originally given complete 
 control of the city government the council has been 
 gradually stripped of power till in New York and 
 other cities it has only minor administrative details 
 which might better be performed by other depart- 
 ments. 
 
 'A useless and therefore a mischievous body. ' — 
 Moor field Storey 
 Nadal, E. S. The New York aldermen [set- Forum 2: 49-59) 
 Parton, James. Outgrown city government {see Forum 2: 539-48) 
 White, A. D. Government of American cities (.ycv Forum 10: 357-72) 
 
 Origin and evolution ofthe present council 
 
 The 'free cities,' merchant gild and its privileges 
 gained by bargain with king ; monopoly of trade 
 through the kingdom, free election of own magis- 
 trate, the inaire. Corporate payment of taxes, 
 independent minor courts. Manufacturers' gilds, 
 gained jurisdiction over own members, later par- 
 ticipation in city government through board of 
 aldermen. Cities were, therefore, close corpora- 
 tions, i) limited suffrage, 2) representation of 
 corporate property interests. 
 
 Gross. Gild merchant, oh. 6, 7. 
 
 Stubbs. English constitutional history, v. i, p. 419. 
 
 Reasons for inefficiency and corruption 
 
 1 Breakup of gilds as economic organizations ; ex- 
 ception, city of London. 
 
 Porritt, E. Boss rule in old English municipalities {sec 
 N. Am. rev. 164: 125-28) 
 
 2 Preservation of the shell of gild organization for 
 political organization of the municipality. Tran 
 
EXTEXSIOX SYLLABUS 
 
 sition from representation of interests to representa- 
 tion of wards or territories. 
 
 Universal suffrage ; new and antagonistic interests, 
 injected into the old shell. Required to elect one 
 man who ' represents ' them all, i. e. majority or 
 plurality vote. Resulting in 
 
 Compromise candidates: who represent no interest, 
 but for success in election must be unknown, in- 
 offensive, poor. 
 
 The ward boss: shrewdness, manipulation, se- 
 lection of candidates. Balance of power held by 
 small compact selfish interests, saloonists, gamblers, 
 bribers, the boss. 
 
 Compulsory introduction of federal politics, choice 
 being limited to the two principal parties. No 
 independent or third parties. 
 
 The gerrymander: rise of political parties, re- 
 districting for party purposes, disregard of both 
 equality between localities and equality between 
 parties. 
 
 a) Localities: New York 1894, one district 7000 votes, 
 another 24000. ist assembly district, 1897, 5174 
 votes; 4th, 5888; 34th, 13765; 35th, 15469. Syracuse 
 1897, 3d ward, 911 votes; 4th, 1710; loth, 829; 
 12th, 1746. 
 
 d) Parties. New York 1897 election of aldermen, 
 boroughs Manhattan and Bronx: 
 
 
 Votes 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Elected 
 
 Propor- 
 tional 
 
 Tammany 
 
 143666 
 
 48 
 
 31 
 
 17 
 
 Citizens' union 
 
 77210 
 
 26 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 Republican 
 
 55834 
 
 19 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 Jeffersonian dem. 
 
 13076 
 
 4 
 
 
 2 
 
 Socialist 
 
 9796 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 Scattering 
 
 1357 
 
 
 
 • • 
 
 300939 .100 36 36 
 
CITY GOVERNMENT 39 
 
 8 Why foreign cities secure able men in their coun- 
 cils. 
 
 The ward system prevails as in the United States 
 except in the smaller communities of France where 
 the council is elected on a general ticket. 
 
 a) Limited suffrage. Councilmen represent not the 
 people but the property owners, elected like the 
 directors and officers of a private corporation, 
 e. g. in Anstadt (Saxony) first class three voters, 
 second class five voters, third class 1350 voters, 
 one private corporation elects 24 of the 36 coun- 
 cilmen, having the three votes of the first class, 
 and a majority of the second class. In France 
 councilmen are quite inferior to those of Germany. 
 
 d) Absence of party politics, national issues and 
 ' spoils system.' 
 Parker, G: F. An object lesson in municipal government (see 
 
 Century 53: (new ser. 31) 71-813) 
 Ralph, Julian. The best governed city in the world, Birmingham, 
 (.f^(? Harper Si: gg-iii)- 
 
 Remedies 
 
 I Government by the mayor and cabinet, as a substi- 
 tute for the council. 
 
 a) Based on the idea that the city is only a business 
 corporation with the well defined duty of protect- 
 ing property at a low tax-rate, whereas it is a 
 political corporation, possessing sovereign attri- 
 butes of eminent domain, taxation, ordinance- 
 making, based on compulsion rather than free 
 contract. 
 
 b) Hence, all interests must be represented in city 
 government, whereas the mayor represents only 
 the majority, or plurality, with despotic powers 
 over the majority. 
 
40 EXTEXSIOX SYLLABUS 
 
 New York election 1897 
 
 
 Vote 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Van Wyck, dem. 
 
 233 997 
 
 44 
 
 Low, citizens' union 
 
 151 540 
 
 29 
 
 Tracy, rep. 
 
 lOI 863 
 
 19 
 
 George, Jeff. dem. 
 
 21 963 
 
 4 
 
 Lanial, socialist 
 
 14 467 
 
 3 
 
 Scattering 
 
 2 999 
 
 I 
 
 526 559 100 
 
 c) A ' cure or kill' method of government (Bryce), 
 tremendous interests at stake at every election, 
 already showing symptoms of failure, ascribed to, 
 
 1 ) Short term of the mayor, preventing him from 
 developing a ' policy. ' 
 
 2) Indifference of intelligent and business classes, 
 specially in the primaries and conventions. 
 
 3) Injection of federal politics. 
 
 4) Mayor, same as aldermen, creature of the boss. 
 
 2 ' Municipal board of commerce and finance. ' ' Mer- 
 chants municipal committee ' Boston, legalized 
 1897, advisory, no salary, similar to French, seven 
 members, non-partizan, representing board of 
 trade (two), real estate exchange, chamber of com- 
 merce, clearing house association. Merchants as- 
 sociation. New England shoe and leather associa- 
 tion. Deals with finance, commerce, taxation, 
 transportation, affecting city as a whole. Also, 
 not legalized, 'Advisory committee on public insti- 
 tutions,' 'Advisory committee on public baths,' 
 ' Board of municipal statistics. ' 
 
 Brooks, R. C. Business men in civic service (see Muni- 
 cipal affairs i ; 491-508) 
 
 3 General ticket. Ward lines abolished, entire coun- 
 cil elected on one ticket for city at large, each 
 voter as many votes as councilmen, one candidate 
 one vote, highest votes elected. 
 
CITY GOVERNMEXT 4 I 
 
 Syracuse school commissioners, election 1897 
 
 Republican Democratic Socialist labor Prohibition 
 
 GiUis g 76S Rosenbloom 13 376 Corregan 742 Stevens 173 
 
 Pinzer 10 718 Gafney ig 482 Lake 768 Dudlay 150 
 
 Gaffney . Brown 10 872 Harris 776 Rathbun 170 
 
 Bachman g ggi Van de Warker 11 606 Tyndall 757 Huntington 
 
 Grant 10 470 Huntington 12 080 Voss 732 Steen 146 
 
 Danzinger 10 218 Blust 10 766 Blunie 736 Grant 
 
 Spaulding 10 540 Schilly 10 738 Koeling 73g Annable i3g 
 
 61 705 88 g20 5 250 787 
 
 Advantages, better candidates. Defects, same as in 
 election of mayor, no recognition of parties. 
 
 4 ' Limited vote ', same as general ticket except each 
 voter has less votes than alderman. Boston board 
 of aldermen 12, voter votes for seven. Parties 
 nominate only seven, hence voter has choice of 
 only two of 14 candidates. Minority party elects 
 five. 
 
 5 ' Cumulative vote ', same as general ticket, except 
 that more than one vote may be given to one can- 
 didate. British school boards. Illinois legislature, 
 corporation law of Kentucky, Nebraska. 
 
 6 Proportional representation, same as general ticket 
 except in counting the vote, e. g. Syracuse school 
 commissioners : 
 
 Dem. party 88 920 
 Rep. party 61 705 
 
 150625^7=21 5 1 8=' unit of representation' 
 
 Dem. 88 920— :-2i 518^4+ remainder 2 848=4+0=4 
 Rep. 61 705—^21 5i8^2-|- " 18 66g=2-|-i=3 
 
 Total elected . . . 6+ largest remainder^6+i^7 
 
 Advantages. 
 
 a) Promotes the rinity of city government. 
 d) The basis of constituency ' would not, as now 
 depend on the accident of residence in a given 
 locality, the same ward, but on the community of 
 
42 EXTENSION SYLLABUS 
 
 public opinion and identical ends in view. ' — 
 Charles Francis Adams 
 
 c) Able and experienced men, the leaders of the 
 people, can be repeatedly elected. 
 
 d^ Freedom from party dictation, no hopeless 
 minorities — independence of voters — hence re- 
 moves federal politics from municipal elections 
 and calls out a full vote of all classes. 
 
 e) Freedom from the rule of saloons, gamblers, and 
 corporations, and opportunity for social reform. 
 
 f) Needed in the United States more than in Europe 
 on account of universal suffrage and the dominance 
 of the political machine. ' The class of educated 
 men, though comparatively small in numbers is, 
 in the inherent power to control the course of 
 human affairs, immeasurably superior to all the 
 rest combined. ' 
 
 Barnard, F. A. P. Degradation of our politics {see 
 Forum 9:117-321) 
 
 Proportional representation allows this class an 
 opportunity for leadership. 
 Commons. Proportional representation. 
 Forne)-. Political reform by the representation of minorities. 
 
 7 Proportional representation and party primaries. 
 a) Lessens their importance. 
 V) Applicable to them. 
 
 Remsen. Primary elections, p. 28-31, 72-90, 107-17. 
 
 Lecture 7 
 
 THE CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 The problems of education are two-fold: i) a po- 
 litical problem to be decided by the people through 
 government, involving social, economic and admin- 
 istrative questions. 2) A pedagogic problem, to 
 be solved by professional experts, involving ques- 
 tions of psychology, philosophy, pedagogfy and 
 
CITV GOVERNMENT 43 
 
 school administration. We are concerned only 
 with the political problems. 
 
 Social-economic problems 
 
 I The universality of education. 
 a) Free tuition. A fully accepted principle for ele- 
 mentary schools. Justification: i) in all times the 
 state has educated its rulers at public expense ; in 
 modern times additional justifications ; 2) protec- 
 tion to property; 3) to equip every individual for 
 the struggle of life and his highest possible de- 
 velopment. Hence special justification in cities 
 where : i ) traditions of good government are lack- 
 ing, 2) populations must be assimilated, 3) the 
 rulers have no property interests, 4) competi- 
 tion is most severe. Objections: communistic, 
 checks self-reliance. 
 Ward. Dynamic sociology, v. 2, p. 584-619. 
 
 d) Compulsory attendance and restrictions on child 
 labor in factories; truant ofl5.cers and truant 
 schools. 
 Shaw, W. B. Compulsory education in the United States {see 
 Educ. rev. 3:444-49; 4:47-52, 129-41) 
 
 c) Free books. — i) Increased attendance of poorer 
 children, poorer sections become as good as the 
 richer. 2) Greater economy, efficiency and uni- 
 formity of administration. 3) Training in re- 
 sponsibility for public property and good citizen- 
 ship.— Reports of superintendent of schools, 
 Washington, D. C. 
 
 d) Free food, clothing and play. Paris, meals 2 
 cents, 60^ free, 9,000,000 meals in 1891. Also 
 director of sports, gymnasium, vacation trips, 
 school camps, and colonies, school baths. 
 
 Food-aided education: experiments in Paris, London and Birm- 
 ingham (see Rev. of revs. 1892) 
 
 Rice, J. M. School excursions in Germany {see Century 48 : (new 
 ser. 26) 643-56) 
 
44 EXTEXSION' SYLLABUS 
 
 Riis, J. A. The making of thieves in New York (see Century 49: 
 (new ser. 27) 109-16) 
 
 Play grounds for city schools (see Century 4S : (new 
 
 ser. 26) 657-66) 
 Shaw. Municipal government in continental Europe, p. 118-26. 
 e) City schools enrolment increased from 20. 1^ of 
 total 1890-91 to 24.27; 1895-96, rural and village 
 schools increased i^. Private and parochial 
 schools 1890-91, 21.5^ of children; 1895-96, 19.6;^. 
 /) Average age of withdrawal, St Louis, 13.3, 
 Chicago 14.5, Boston 15.9. 
 
 U. S. — Education, Bureau of, Report of commissioner, 1894-95, 
 V. 2, p. H70. 
 
 2 Revenues and expenditures. Tax levy determined 
 by the board of estimate in New York ; city coun- 
 cil, Philadelphia, Boston, San Francisco, Syracuse 
 (not less than twice nor more than five times 
 amount received from the state) ; city tax commis- 
 sion, Cleveland; legislature, Louisville; board of 
 education, Cincinnati, Pittsburg, Omaha; fixed by 
 charter, St Louis. 
 
 
 
 
 Increase in 
 
 
 
 1890-gi 1895-96 
 
 four years 
 
 Number of cities 
 
 
 442 602 
 
 
 Male teachers 
 
 
 5 023 5 059 
 
 36 
 
 Female teachers 
 
 
 61 971 65 266 
 
 3295 
 
 Average wages 
 
 
 $625 S643 
 
 $18 
 
 Expenditure tuition 
 
 32 266 128 46 747 865 
 
 14 481 737 
 
 per 
 
 pupil 
 
 16 83 18 26 
 
 I 43 
 
 total 
 
 
 56 936 447 80 042 118 
 
 23 105 671 
 
 ■■ pel 
 
 • pupil 
 
 28 So 31 26 
 
 246 
 
 School property 
 
 
 84 507 058 257 236 583 
 
 [72 729 525 
 
 '* 
 
 
 97 92 100 48 
 
 256 
 
 a) The entire property of the city should be charge- 
 able for the education of all its children. The 
 antiquated district system survives only in Hart- 
 ford, Ct. 
 
 b) In the United States, except Massachusetts, city 
 property contributes also to state and rural 
 education. 
 
CITY GOVERNMENT 
 
 LOCAL EDUCATION TAX 1894 OF TYPICAL MASSACHUSETTS 
 TOWNS AXD CITIES 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Zi 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Crf 
 
 ti 
 
 
 
 
 0) 
 
 rt 
 
 V 
 
 >>^ X 
 
 P- 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 D. 
 
 -^* 
 
 Q. 
 
 *^ ri ri 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 ^ 
 
 S o- 
 
 
 
 
 1- 
 
 
 
 ■— til 
 
 -J 
 
 
 
 C ■:_ 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 =-n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 P^ 
 
 > 
 
 B 
 
 h 
 
 Sol 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 State average 
 
 >2 471 521 505 
 
 341 671 
 
 *7 879 
 
 S28S 
 
 
 
 
 Boston 
 
 928 log 042 
 
 59 "I 
 
 15698 
 
 I 90 
 
 S12 80 
 
 231133 55 
 
 25 
 
 Falmouth 
 
 5 651 887 
 
 37° 
 
 15 275 
 
 I 50 
 
 6 10 
 
 ggS 26 
 
 175^ 
 
 Hull 
 
 2 ySt 305 
 
 94 
 
 30 652 
 
 1 47 
 
 16 76 
 
 I 070 33 
 
 38 
 
 Florida 
 
 167 241 
 
 72 
 
 2 323 
 
 647 
 
 20 .. 
 
 400 02 
 
 
 Hawley 
 
 148 078 
 
 66 
 
 2 244 
 
 7 03 
 
 24 .. 
 
 18596 
 
 
 Sandwich 
 
 898 250 
 
 218 
 
 4 120 
 
 5 33 
 
 14.. 
 
 40973 
 
 
 NEW YORK STATE SCHOOL TAX if 
 
 TYPICAL COUNTIES 
 
 New York 
 
 Erie 
 
 Monroe 
 
 Onondaga 
 
 Cortland 
 
 Sullivan 
 
 Greater New York i8g8 
 
 COMPAPATIVE 
 
 School tax paid 
 $1 884 584 
 
 241 597 
 123 663 
 
 7S 081 
 
 9 398 
 
 4 892 
 
 2 428 176 
 
 STATISTICS 1895-96 
 
 Total received 
 $696 394 
 
 197 737 
 
 120 338 
 
 98 106 
 
 24 650 
 
 25 626 
 I 198 943 
 
 Revenues total 
 State apportionment 
 
 per cent of total 
 City 
 
 per cent of total 
 County 
 
 per cent of total 
 All other sources 
 
 per cent of total 
 Population 
 School population 
 Per cent of population 
 Private and parochial 
 Enrolment public 
 Per cent of population 
 Av'ge daily attendance 
 Per cent of population 
 Expenditure— tuition 
 
 " per pupil a 
 
 " total 
 
 " per pupil a 
 
 Chicago 
 
 S'j 082 418 
 
 >^^, 34 849 
 
 5 
 
 S5 145 672 
 
 SfKjI 897 
 
 I 6iy 226 
 
 448 597 
 
 27 
 
 213 825 
 13.2 
 
 165 570 
 10 
 
 ^4 141 473 
 S2 5.10 
 
 .■?6 676 517 
 $40.46 
 
 ! 728 604 
 
 .9422 
 96.6 
 
 S.;g 182 
 
 1.4 
 
 ^96 920 
 
 78561 
 
 15.6 
 
 12 231 
 
 79855 
 
 15.8 
 
 67 780 
 
 13-5 
 
 ^2 162 271 
 
 S3I.90 
 
 i^2 728 603 
 
 S4'-'-25 
 
 New 
 Y'ork 
 
 85 339981 
 
 S718647 
 
 15 
 
 S4 55° 334 
 
 83 
 
 ^7T 000 
 2 
 
 : 850 000 
 440 090 
 23 
 50 000 
 261 326 
 14 
 183 580 
 
 ID 
 
 $4 644 875 
 
 25.30 
 $7 036 181 
 
 S38.5... 
 
 Syra- 
 cuse 
 
 >«-' 211 
 S4Q 884 
 
 i 
 
 120 124 
 
 25 100 
 
 21 
 
 I 772 
 
 17 489 
 
 14-5 
 
 1353S 
 
 II 
 
 S314 828 
 
 S23.20 
 
 8343 267 
 
 S25 40 
 
 Indian- 
 apolis 
 
 •^517598 
 
 Sijg 632 
 
 ■9 
 
 s,r,2 471 
 70 
 
 S.ir 380 
 
 7 
 
 S14 115 
 
 4 
 
 150 000 
 
 37 569 
 
 25 
 
 2 241 
 
 27 662 
 
 18.4 
 
 15 939 
 10.6 
 
 $462 82S 
 
 S2M-00 
 
 J^536 1)24 
 
 833-5° 
 
 Berlin, per pnpil— $13.25, Palis .$32.70, London $13.74. 
 u Average daily attendance. 
 
46 KXTEX5I0X SYLLABUS 
 
 3 Subject matter. Popular education in its extent 
 should be intellectual, industrial, moral and civic. 
 a) Common branches. 
 
 />) Kindergarten. Far-reaching- influence on crime, 
 pauperism, familj', tenement-house, love of work. 
 Public kindergartens in St Louis, Boston, St 
 Paul, Milwaukee, Philadelphia, Brussels, Paris 
 {/coles maternelles). Reports of bureau of edu- 
 cation. 
 
 c) Industrial, manual, ornamental, drawing, and 
 apprenticeship schools, St Louis, Boston, In- 
 dianapolis. Usually connected with high school, 
 but continuing from the kindergarten in Wash- 
 ington, D. C. Remarkable system in Paris. 
 Trade schools in Germany. Does not lessen but 
 strengthens collateral book work. 
 
 U. S. — Education, Bureau of. Education in the industrial and 
 
 fine arts in the U. S. v. i, 2, 3, p. 1001-1119. 
 U. S. — Labor, Commissioner of. Annual report, v. S, Industrial 
 
 education with bibliography. 
 
 d) School savings bank. 
 
 Oberholtzer, S. L. School savings banks (see Amer. acad. of 
 
 pol. and social sci. annals 4: 972-74) 
 Thirv. School savings banks in the United States. Reprinted 
 
 in part in Report of U. S. commissioner of education 1SSS-S9, 
 
 v. I, p. 655-69. 
 
 e) High schools, i to 4.8'? of school enrolment, 
 about one third of whom are boys. 
 
 f) Citizenship. The meager attention to this sub- 
 ject in American schools and the insignificant 
 portion of the population who receive such in- 
 struction. Yet good citizenship is the main 
 justification of public schools. The study not 
 difficult in grammar and high schools. ' The 
 sociological method of unifying studies' — Hender- 
 son's Catechism for social observation. Ob- 
 servational social phenomena, e. g. farms. 
 
CITV GOVERNMENT 47 
 
 organizations, strikes, taxes, banks, saloons, 
 factories, homes, wages, expenditures, labor 
 city politics, etc. 
 4 The Gill ' school city, ' each school organized in 
 imitation of the larger city. Our country, pub- 
 lished by Patriotic league, 230 W. 13th St., New 
 York. 
 
 Political organization of the school system 
 
 1 Separated from the municipal system in the United 
 States (except Buffalo) and Great Britain, but 
 combined in France and Germany. Reasons : 
 i) importance, 2) to be 'kept out of politics.' But 
 with reformed council and civil service should be 
 combined, to secure unity and responsibility of the 
 entire city government. 
 
 2 Board of education, the political and business head. 
 Members ; Denver 6, Cleveland 7, St Paul 7, 
 Chicago 21, Cincinnati 50. Elected at large 
 in Cleveland, Boston, San Francisco, Syracuse ; 
 by wards in St Louis, Cincinnati, Louisville, 
 formerly in Cleveland and Syracuse ; at large by 
 wards in Lincoln; by district directors in Pittsburg; 
 appointed by judge of common pleas court by 
 wards in Philadelphia; by mayor in New York, 
 Chicago and St Paul; by council by wards in 
 Baltimore. In Cleveland also school director 
 elected, with powers corresponding to mayor. 
 
 3 District boards, in New York formerly appointed 
 by central board but in turn appointing teachers 
 In Philadelphia and Pittsburg elected. Results, 
 decentralization, power without responsibility. 
 
 4 Teachers certified by superintendent. New York; 
 board of examiners, Cincinnati, Buffalo; board of 
 education, Chicago. Appointed by board, Syra- 
 cuse; by superintendent, Cleveland, Buffalo. 
 
40 EXTENSION SYLLABUS 
 
 Draper, A. S. Plans of organization for school purposes in large 
 cities (set- Educ. rev. 6:i-i6) 
 
 Paris. Single director appointed by minister of edu. 
 cation of the republic, full powers and responsi- 
 bilities, assisted by advisory council elected by 
 teachers and professors. No local control or 
 initiative whatever. Most perfect system in the 
 world. Courses of study, rules, etc. all formulated 
 by minister of education and his council of eminent 
 educators. 
 
 Berlin. Committee 30 members, aldermen, council- 
 men, and representatives of school commissioners, 
 150 local committees, citizens unsalaried, 10 to 12 
 members each, appointed by central committee 
 supervision by minister of education who examines 
 teachers, confirms appointments. 
 
 London. School board, elected by cumulative vote, 
 complete control of revenues and expenditures, 
 appoints and removes district boards. Central 
 supervision by committee of education of the privy 
 council, parallel to supervision by local government 
 board, grants financial aid on basis of inspection. 
 
 Reports of bureau of education 1888-89 ^t^^ 1890-91 
 and following give excellent descriptions of foreign 
 systems. 
 
 Educational reform 
 
 Political reforms must clear the way for pedagogical 
 reform. Dr Rice's propositions: i) Schools must 
 be entirel}' divorced from politics. 2) Supervision 
 must be thorough, to compensate for lack of pro- 
 fessional skill on the part of teachers. 3) Teachers 
 must be students and grow. — Forum June 1893 
 
 I Board of education ' the strongest factor in making 
 or destroying the schools. ' — Dr Rice. Elected by 
 proportional representation, woman suffrage. 
 
CITY GOVERNMENT 49 
 
 2 School director. Political and business head, ap- 
 pointed by board during efficiency. 
 
 3 School superintendent. Professional head appoint- 
 ed by board during efficiency, full powers and 
 responsibility in appointing and removing assist- 
 ants, supervisors, principals and teachers. Wash- 
 ington, Cleveland, Indianapolis, St Paul. 
 
 Three stages in the development of superintendency : 
 i) Material, i. e. financial administration, now ex- 
 ercised by school director. 2) Pseudo-intellectual, 
 or mechanical. 3) Scientific or professional. — 
 Charles Francis Adams 
 Pickard. School supervision. 
 
 4 Normal schools. 
 
 5 Pensions. 
 
 U. S. — Education, Bureau of. Report of commissioner, 
 1894-95, V. I, p. 1079-1108. 
 
 6 State supervision similar to that of the proposed 
 state municipal board. New York and Great 
 Britain, board of regents, based on state aid to 
 schools. 
 
 Webster. Recent centralizing tendencies m state edu- 
 cational administration. 
 
 Lecture 8 
 CITY MONOPOLIES 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 1 Means of communication, exchange and distribu- 
 tion — ' distributive ' industries. ' Manufacturing ' 
 attachment subordinate, e. g. gas, electric light. 
 
 2 Advantages of situation, necessarily used by the 
 public. 
 
 3 Require a franchise for serving private consumers ; 
 i. e. use of streets. 
 
 4 Extent, abundance, cheapness and quality of service 
 demanded. 
 
50 EXTENSION SYLLABUS 
 
 Municipal ownership 
 
 1 Social factors underl3'ing development of ownership. 
 a) Increasing' density of population increases inter- 
 dependence. 
 
 /?) Technical progress. 
 
 i) Mechanical inventions, neve agencies of inter- 
 communication, transfer and service, tele- 
 phone, gas, electricit}-. Competition forces 
 all to use the new and best. 
 
 2) Business routine, speculative and experi- 
 mental features eliminated, reduced to army 
 basis. 
 
 c) Democratic popular suffrage and ethics ; opinions 
 on justice, eqiiality, popular sovereignty. 
 
 2 Successive stages of ownership. 
 
 a) Private property for speculation, profit, power. 
 Street railways Philadelphia 1S81-98 paid up 
 S5, 840,905, dividends Si 5, 164, 377, market value 
 1893, 848,563.365. Average cost construction 
 cities 100,000 to 500,000 population, 850,000 
 per mile; capitalization (1S96) north Chicago 
 8146,000, market value $243,000: ^lass. average 
 capitalization §54,500, Illinois, $134,500, Syracuse 
 $132,000. 
 Gas plant, Belfast, cost $2,50 per 1000 cu. ft of 
 
 vearlv output; Mutual fuel of Chicago 8- 14; 2- 
 
 large cities capitalized $7,22, Chicago gas trust 
 
 89.80, sJb^ di\-idends. 
 
 Commons, DistributioD of wealth, p. S6-106, 116-237. 
 
 d) Public regulation, 
 
 i) 'Affected by a public use'. 'When the 
 owner of property devotes it to a use in which 
 the public has an interest, he, in effect, grants 
 to the public an interest in such use, and must 
 to the extent of that interest submit to be con- 
 trolled by the public' — Jlitnn vs Illinois, 1S76. 
 
CITY GO\'ERNMENT 5 I 
 
 Not repugnant to 14th amendment. — People vs 
 Bitdd, 117 N. Y. 22. 
 
 2) Regulation is legislative function, under 
 police power, reaching health, morals, and 
 property of citizens. Held in Miinn vs Illinois 
 not subject to judicial interference. ' For pro- 
 tection against abuses by legislatures, the 
 people must resort to the polls, not to the 
 courts. ' 
 
 Clark, Walter. Rights of the public over quasi- 
 public services(j'if^ Arena 18: 470-85) 
 
 In later decisions held. 
 
 3) Judicial determination of I'easonable and just 
 rates, like eminent domain. — Chicago vs Min- 
 nesota, 143 U. S. 418. In Nebraska case 1898 
 held rates must allow reasonable returns on 
 ' original cost of construction, the amount 
 expended in improvements, the amount and 
 market value of its stocks and bonds, the 
 probable earning capacity of the property 
 under any rate prescribed by the statute, and 
 the sum required to meet operating expenses. ' 
 
 4) State commission may be delegated by legis- 
 lature with its authority. R. R. commission 
 cases no U. S. 307 and others. Massachusetts 
 board of gas and electric light commissioners 
 1884, supervision of companies, examination of 
 books, prescribes uniform bookkeeping, stops 
 over-capitalization, regulates quality, can re- 
 duce rates after public hearing, not allowing 
 for ' watered ' stocks or bonds, can compel 
 supply to individuals, companies protected 
 against competitors, cities deciding on munici- 
 pal ownership compelled to purchase existing 
 plant at judicial appraisal. In 1 3 years board 
 
52 EXTENSION SYLLABUS 
 
 heard 19 petitions from cities for lower rates, 
 granted 10, refused four, raised one, and four 
 were compromised outside. Massachusetts 
 board of railroad commissioners New York 
 board supervises quality but not rates, vetoes 
 new roads. 
 
 c) Public ownership; three principles of public 
 finance in the regulation of monopolies, 
 i) Profit or revenue. Manchester $150,000 on 
 gas, $roo,ooo water, $120,000 electricity, rates- 
 same as private companies. Glasgow §200,000 
 water, Berlin $1,000,000 gas, Paris $3,000,000 
 franchise tax, Toronto $144,000 street rail- 
 ways, Baltimore gfe gross receipts. Philadel- 
 phia street railways paved 271 miles street, 
 1892-96, $9,000,000. 
 
 Bernheim, A. C. A chapter of municipal foil)' {se£ 
 Century ;o; (new ser. 28 (149-52) 
 
 2) Cost of service; U. S. post-offi.ce. Usually 
 compromise between i) and 2). 
 
 Waterworks. Public ownership in 36 cities, average 
 cost $11.50 per capita daily consumption 90 gallons, 
 average cost of works $21.35 per capita. Private 
 ownership 14 cities average charges $17.42 per 
 capita (51^ higher) average capitalization $3i.2oper 
 capita (46'? higher) — iit/i census bulletin, no. 100 
 
 Gas. Belfast, gas cost 53 cents, sells 66 cents, profits 
 (less interest and depreciation) 1896, $327,892, 
 price lowered to 60 cents. 
 
 Taney, J. B. Cost of illuminating gas in Belfast {see 
 U. S. — Consuls. Report v. 53, p. 516-18) 
 
 Wheeling, W. Va. Gas 75 cents, profit 1897, $28,000. 
 Electric plant built from profits. 
 
CITY GOVERNMENT 
 
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c;4 EX PENSION SVLLABUS 
 
 Electric light private companies average charge i6 
 candle power, i cent per lamp per hour, 20 cents K. 
 W. . $1 per month. Public charges J^ cent, 10 cents, 
 50 cents. Logansport 5 cents. K. W. , profits on com- 
 mercial S3000; public lighting $13000 free. 
 
 Street railways. Glasgow horse car, ownership 1894, 
 reduced fares to i cent per half mile, three fourths 
 for less than two miles. Xet profits third year 
 $45000. Leeds workmen i cent per mile, profit 
 gJ2^. Detroit eight tickets 25 cent, no franchise 
 tax, operating expenses 2.22 cents per passenger, 
 dividends 4 7-2^ first year. 
 
 Telephone. Switzerland $9 per year throughout 
 republic. New York private $240, Syracuse $24 
 house, $56 business. U. S. interior department, 
 Washington, formerly paid $60 to $125 ; since 1895, 
 140 telephones, one woman $600, electrician $300, 
 total $900; $6.43 per phone. Interest and depre- 
 ciation S't- on $50, total $10.43. — Frank Parsons. 
 Telegraph monopoly {see Arena 16:629-55) 
 
 Commons. Social reform and the church. 
 
 3) Free service, streets, sewers, only three cities 
 with private sewerage companies. Detroit 
 vote for free water, present charge $5 per 
 family, cost of operation $1, balance goes to 
 new construction. Australia, children carried 
 free to and from school. 
 
 Permits monojpolies to be operated free of 
 charge or below cost, expenses met from 
 taxes. Advantages : facilitates industry, 
 • home ownership, scatters population in the 
 suburbs thus relieving tenement pressure; 
 better health, higher wages, shorter hours, 
 greater civic interest and municipal patriot- 
 
CITY GOVERXMEXT 5 5 
 
 ism on the part of the 765^ tenant popula- 
 tion. 
 Cure for the richest source of corruption, 
 bribery of aldermen and officials, control of 
 politics by private corporations, ' strikes ' by 
 corrupt officials. Joseph Chamberlain and 
 the reformation of Birmingham. 
 
 Bishop, J. B. The price of peace (see Century 48 : (new ser. 26) 
 
 667-72) 
 Parker, G: F. An object lesson in municipal government {see 
 
 Century 53: (new ser. 31) 71-S9) 
 
 Administrative preparation, for ownership 
 
 1 State supervision, prescribed bookkeeping, sinking 
 fund, debt limits, expert engineering consultation. 
 British local government board, Mass. board of gas 
 and electric light commissioners (.c^c lecture 3) 
 
 2 Commissioners instead of council or single heads of 
 departments, elected at large or appointed by the 
 mayor, unsalaried. Water commissioners Syracuse, 
 American counterpart of European councilors [see 
 lecture 4) 
 
 3 Civil service system. Chief engineer tenure of 
 office, subordinates appointed and removed by him. 
 
 4 Direct legislation, proportional representation [see 
 lectures 5, 6) 
 
 Bemis. Municipal franchises. 
 
 Lecture 9 
 PUBLIC WORKS 
 Three political questions 
 
 I Shall a given undertaking be made public, i. e. 
 owned and maintained by the city ? Decisive con- 
 siderations : a) Protection to life and property. 
 b) Health : abbattoirs, garbage disposal ; municipal 
 dwellings. c) Education; schools. d) Morals: 
 saloons, e) Recreation; parks, theaters. /) Mo- 
 nopoly. 
 
50 EXTENSION SYLLABUS 
 
 2 Shall the city require competitive wages or ' fair 
 wages ' on public works ? 
 
 European cities, competitive for policemen, firemen, 
 day laborers. Recently in England ' fair wages ' 
 movement. London county council minimum for 
 unorganized men $6 per week, women $4. 50; trade 
 union scale for others, binding on contractors on 
 public works. 
 
 Massachusetts cities $2 for g hours, contractors §1.25 
 to $1.50 for 10 hours. New York $2 for 8 hours, 
 evaded; Philadelphia, Buffalo, same wages for con- 
 tract and city laborer. City wages 20 to 60^ higher 
 for unskilled ; same for skilled except where unions 
 are weak ; same or less for foremen. ' Fair wages ' 
 based on: i) nationality, 2) previous standard, 
 3) family, 4) scope for higher wants, 5) leisure, 
 short hours, 6) voters, 7) preference for home 
 labor, 8) minimum wage with higher grades for 
 efficiency (Springfield). 
 
 3 Shall public works be constructed and maintained 
 by direct employment or by contractors ? Liver- 
 pool, Manchester, Glasgow, Birmingham aband- 
 oned the contractor. London ' works committee ' 
 also builds workmen's dwellings. American cities 
 mainly by contract for larger construction required 
 by state law, repairs and small construction by city. 
 
 ' Integration of industries ' by large corporations. 
 London, Boston, Worcester, Mass., city repair 
 shop. 
 
 Day labor and contract systems compared 
 
 1 Fair wages and shorter hours evaded by contractors. 
 
 2 Regularity of employment, can supplement private 
 employment, seasons and depressions. London 
 1634 men in November, 2128 in February, 1896-97. 
 
CITY GOVERXMF.NT 57 
 
 3 Quality. Contract system inferior. Liverpool 
 brick sewer, Philadelphia Queen Lane reservoir, 
 Duluth water works. Requires careful inspection. 
 On public works mechanics become inspectors. 
 Public bodies at disadvantage, must accept lowest 
 bids. Contractors lose if closely inspected. 
 
 4 Cost. 
 
 a) Inspection, i to zfc pavement, 5^ sewers. In- 
 spector same ability as foreman. 
 
 ^) Profits. Montreal contractors $15 per linear yd. 
 3x2 brick sewer, day labor $6. Buffalo private 
 customers paid $2.40 for asphalt, city $3. 
 Toronto city labor reduced contract prices two 
 thirds. Denver brick sewer saved 25^, unskilled 
 labor being 17^ of total cost. Woburn, Mass. 
 pipe sewer cost 4}^^ more, unskilled labor 65^^ at 
 30^ higher wages. Brockton sewers 20^ more, 
 unskilled labor 405^ of total, at 50^ higher wages. 
 
 c) Extras and litigation. City labor preferred in 
 unforeseen work. Contractors Syracuse reservoir 
 $261000, claimed $98000 extra. Board allowed 
 $8700, compromise $16000. 
 
 d) Repairs. 
 
 5 Corrupt politics. Contractors usually political 
 ' bosses ' or partners of bosses. Where politics are 
 clean no need of contract system, where corrupt 
 the system is a prominent cause. Also alienates 
 the voters from good government. 
 
 6 Justice of the laborer's plea for consideration. 
 Pays federal if not local taxes. Property gain in 
 repairs and decrease of extras and litigation and 
 higher capitalization of property. Laborers' only 
 capital is their daily labor. 
 
 7 Civil service regulations. Registration of day 
 laborers, examination of skilled; board of public 
 works; city engineer, tenure of office {see lecture 4) 
 
tS extexsi'jn syllabus 
 
 Commons, J : R. The day labor and contract system on municipal 
 
 works (5ev Yale rev. ;: 42S-45) 
 Comparison of day labor and contract system on municipal 
 
 works {see AmeT. federationist 3; 229-32, 252-54: v. 4, no. i-ii) 
 Stewart, Ethelbert. Rates of wages paid under public and 
 
 private contract {see U. S. — Labor dep't of. Bulletin, v. i, p. 
 
 721-53) 
 
 Lecture 10 
 TAXATION 
 
 The need of larger public expenditure 
 
 1 Not owing to corruption and inefficiency, but to : i) 
 density of population, 2) new functions, sanitation, 
 public works, free education, 3) free services, 4) 
 increased details of administration. 
 
 2 Per capita expenditures increase with increase of 
 size of cities. 
 
 Cities, population less than 50000, average per capita 
 
 S9-74- 
 Cities, population 50000 to 100,000, average per capita 
 
 $9.67. 
 Cities, population 100,000 to 200,000, average per • 
 
 capita §11. 74. 
 Cities, population 200,000 upward, average per capita 
 
 Sis- 98. 
 
 Xew York $2. 90 in 1820, 812. 10 in i860, $24 in 1880 
 and 1890. — nth census bulletin, 82 
 
 3 City expenses far exceed state expenses. 
 Boston 1890, $16,117,043; Mass. $4,955,669. 
 Chicago 1893, $28,891,931; 111. $3,993,163. 
 
 New York city 1895, $36,522,640; N. Y. 1896, 
 
 $20,020,022. 
 Philadelphia 1894, $32,418,476; Pa. $12,873,876. 
 
 The general property tax 
 
 I Uniform rate on all property, visible and invisible. 
 Distinguished from enumerated property tax of 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
CITY GOVERNMENT 59 
 
 2 Origin of the tax in agricultural communities. 
 New kinds of property not adapted to it. 
 
 a) Intangible personalty, corporations, stocks and 
 
 bonds, mortgages and credits. 
 6) Increased values of privileges, franchises, land 
 
 sites. 
 
 c) New varieties and qualities of old articles. 
 Seligman. Essays in taxation, p. 23-63. 
 
 3 Personalty. Lack of universality. Cincinnati, 
 1866, real estate 50;;^; personalty 565^. 1892, real 
 estate 76^; personalty 24:^. N. Y. state 1825, 
 personalproperty paid42;:/, in i860, 315^, in 1893, Sf^; 
 Syracuse 1886, 5;:^, in 1897, 17^; New York county 
 22^, Monroe 5.6;/, Erie 6. 4^, Jefferson 14J?:, Wash- 
 ington 2ofr. 107 estates probated $215,000,000, one 
 third escaped, others assessed three tenths of i^ to 
 igfp. — Comptroller's report. Chicago state banks 
 $19,000,000, assessed $50000. 
 
 4 Real estate and franchises. 
 a) Lack of uniformity. 
 
 i) Between individuals. Washington large hold- 
 ings 49^;^, small ■jo^f of true value (Report of 
 congressional committee May 1892). St Louis, 
 216 miles street car lines, $37,937,000, 
 assessed 11^, other property 50;^ (Missouri 
 bureau of labor statistics, 1896). Chicago 
 suburban houses 13.9^, central business 9.28^, 
 gas companies 3^^. 
 
 2) Between localities. Real estate varies from 50^ 
 to 90^ of true value in different counties of 
 New York. 
 
 d) Improved property taxed higher than unim- 
 proved. Chicago vacant land 5 to S-/^, improve- 
 ments 15^. 
 
 Illinois — Labor statistics, Bureau of. Biennial report, 
 V. 9. 
 
6o EXTENSION SYLLABUS 
 
 Incidence and shifting of taxes 
 
 Value depends on usefulness and scarcity. Taxes 
 tend to suppress the objects taxed, causing scarcity 
 and increased value. This suppression varies with 
 different objects as follows: 
 I Capital, disappears through 
 a) Flight to suburbs and other states. Mortgages, 
 stocks, bonds and personal property taxed at 
 situs of owner. Investments seek low tax areas. 
 Competition between assessors. 
 1^) Check on saving and improvement. Houses, 
 factories, machinery, street cars. Cumulative 
 taxation in America through tax on improve- 
 ments plus increased assessment of land so im- 
 proved. 
 c) High rates of interest and rent the result. Tax 
 shifted to industry. California mortgages taxed 
 as real estate, avoids double taxation, but interest 
 2< higher than U. S. average, average tax i. 75<?. 
 Massachusetts mortgage tax abolished 1881, 
 interest fell i^ in Boston. Stimulated building, 
 1880, 83,144,260; 1881, $8,918,969; 1889, $17,- 
 120,777. Average decline for state .477,'?, no 
 decline on corporation paper and collateral loans 
 not exempted 
 
 ilatthews, Nathan, jr. Double taxation of mortgaged 
 real estate (see Quar. jour, of econ. 4; 339-45) 
 
 ^ Labor. Can be heavily taxed only by national 
 authority, otherwise local and state competition 
 would cause non-enforcement, e. g. poll tax. 
 3 Land and land values. 
 
 a) Tax on ground rent not shifted. Does not 
 affect supply, which is fixed by population, trans- 
 portation, etc. 
 
 Commons. Distribution of wealth, p. 116-349. 
 George. Progress and poverty. 
 
CITV GOVERNMENT 6 I 
 
 b) Tax on speculative value of land, vacant lots, 
 suppresses speculation, increases supply of land, 
 fosters improvements, lower rents. Detroit 
 1884-91, small holdings less than $1000 increased 
 3310 to 13771, ^idfo, while all property increased 
 
 Michigan — Labor and industrial statistics, Bureau of. 
 Annual report, v. 9. 
 
 c) Tax on large holdings. New Zealand, state tax 
 graduated. Less than $25000, 5 cents on $100; 
 above $1,000,000, 80 cents. 
 
 Connolly, J. D. Land taxation and labor laws in New 
 Zealand {see U. S. Consuls. Reports, v. 53, p. 1-38) 
 
 d) Special assessment for local improvements, ac- 
 cording to benefits. Based on : i ) Frontage, 
 paving; 2) Area, sewers; 3) Particular benefit, 
 street openings. 
 
 Rosewater. Special assessments, p. 359. 
 
 f) Exemption of improvements, Baltimore and 
 western cities exemption of factories. Pennsyl- 
 vania exemption of manufacturing plant. New 
 York exemption from state corporation tax. 
 Brussels, Paris, Vienna. 10 year exemption on 
 buildings. 
 
 /) Ultimate exemption of improvements tends to 
 increase rents by attracting industry and popula- 
 tion. 
 
 The effects of taxation, intended and unintended 
 
 1 Fiscal, to provide a revenue. At first subordinate 
 to other sources of revenue, e. g. feudal dues, 
 royal property, public property, franchises. 
 
 2 Industrial 
 
 a) To foster, prohibit, or regulate certain industries 
 and practices. Tariff, state bank notes, specula- 
 tions, manufactures, home ownership, etc. 
 
62 EXTENSION SYLLABUS 
 
 d) To promote morals, suppress liquors, lotteries, 
 etc. 
 3 Social. To control the distribution of wealth; in 
 early times to concentrate, modem to diffuse. 
 Three theories concerning justice or equality. 
 a) Business theory. Payment for protection to life 
 and property. 
 
 i) A false conception, taxes not voluntary but 
 compulsory payments. 
 
 2) Can not measure protection. 
 
 3) Tends to suppress capital and labor and to 
 foster monoply, speculation; overlooks indus- 
 trial effects. 
 
 6) Socialistic theory. Payments according to abilit}-; 
 ability measured by prodtiction or savings, 
 i) Prohibitive industrial results. 
 2) Does not distinguish between personal abili- 
 ties and social contributions. 
 c) Social welfare theory. Payments according to 
 unearned incomes, i. e. individuall}- unearned, 
 socially earned. 
 
 i) Tax on inheritances and bequests which are 
 not a natural or common law right, but justifi- 
 able as promoting industry and thrift. Sub- 
 stitute for evaded personal taxes, i to s"? N. Y. 
 I to 10;? Great Britain, 5 to 2o< Switzerland. 
 West. Inheritance tax. 
 
 2) Coi-porations. Not natural persons but 
 branches of the state with sovereignity. Kinds 
 of taxes : 
 
 On articles of incorporation, restrictive. 
 On tangible improvements, restrictive, e. g. 
 
 street car license. 
 On gross income, does not allow for differ- 
 ences in operating expenses. Baltimore 
 street car 9<v'. 
 
CITV i;c>\'ERNiMb;N'T 63 
 
 Net income, Europe. 
 On ' fair cash value ', Indiana 1891. 
 Seligman. Essays on taxation, p. 136-264. 
 
 3) Franchise values, additional to corporation 
 tax. A peculiarly public property based on 
 eminent domain and use of public property. 
 
 4) Land values, based on ground rent, not build- 
 dings and improvements. Public property 
 like franchise values. 
 
 Administrative problems 
 
 I Separation of the sources of revenue. Spending 
 district coordinate with assessing district. 
 
 a) Federal. Customs, internal revenue, income, 
 inheritance. 
 
 b) State. Corporations, railways (including termi- 
 nals and depots) Pa. ; inheritances licenses ; 
 personal property. Rate of 30 cents on $100 for 
 state (not local tax) on moneys and credits 
 reaches $600,000,000, in state, $300,000,000 in 
 Philadelphia. Illinois average state rate of $4 
 reaches $34,000,000 in state, Chicago $10 reaches 
 $7,000,000, New York state total personalty 
 (1895) $562,000,000, New York city, $390,- 
 000,000, rate §2.14. Personal property taxed 
 in Switzerland locentsto $1, U. S., $1.50 to $10. 
 Low rate not shifted. Abolish boards of equali- 
 zation. 
 
 Eastman. Taxation for state purposes in Pennsyl- 
 vania. 
 
 State board of assessment: Indiana, governor, 
 auditor, secretary of state, two tax commis- 
 sioners. Raised railway valuation first year 
 $69,000,000 to $160,000,000. Sustained by 
 United States supreme court. 
 
 c) Local and municipal. 
 
64 EXTENSION SYLLABUS 
 
 1) Real estate. Philadelphia 81-85, no per- 
 sonalty. Syracuse Si. 39 on all property, equal 
 to 81-67 on realty. 
 
 2) Lower rates or temporary exemption on build- 
 ings and improvements. 
 
 d) Count}' taxes. City and county consolidated, 
 New York, Philadelphia. Elsewhere county 
 sources not separated from city. Possibly 
 licenses for county purposes. State assumption 
 of countj' expenses. 
 
 e) ' Home rule ' in taxation, a compromise based on 
 local option. 
 
CITY GOVERNMENT 
 
 65 
 
 
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66 EXTENSION" SYLLABUS 
 
 2 Publicity of assessments, Illinois 1898, tax list pub- 
 lished once in four years. Assessors appointed, 
 promoted, etc., under civil service rules [see lec- 
 ture 4). 
 
 1, Increased state revenues. 
 
 Source of state revenues 
 
 Pennsylva- 
 nia 1884 
 
 Illinois 
 1894 
 
 New York 
 1896 
 
 General property tax . 
 
 Personal property 
 
 Railwaj'S . 
 
 Banks .... 
 
 Other corporations 
 
 Inheritances 
 
 Licenses ■ • . . . 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 $2386751 
 3 132 S60 
 
 589155 
 
 2 467 506 
 
 869 179 
 
 1 366 137 
 
 2 070 296 
 
 S3 541 925 
 989600 
 
 $9711477 
 I 220 912 
 
 I 750 092 
 I 796652 
 
 6 023 260 
 
 Total 
 
 State expenses . . 
 
 Returned to localities . . . 
 
 $12873 786 
 4 281 272 
 7592514 
 
 S4531 525 
 3461 525 
 I 070 000 
 
 S20 302 393 
 
 16 802 393 
 
 3 500 000 
 
 4 Distribution of state surplus to local governments, 
 in order to relieve real estate. Three principles : 
 a) In proportion to taxes paid, i. e. in same pro- 
 portion in which they are collected. Personal 
 property tax Pennsylvania, state merely agent 
 of local government. Cities get larger share of 
 tax. 
 h) In proportion to needs. 
 
 1) Common schools according to enrolment, 
 average attendance, results: New York, Great 
 Britain. 
 
 2) Roads, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York. 
 (■) State assumption of common local interests: 
 
 state supervision of schools, state charities, 
 prisons, state highways. 
 
CITY GOVERNMENT 67 
 
 S) Future increase of city expenditure provided for 
 by increased land values, e. g. for parks, free 
 water, free transportation, etc. 
 
 LIST OF AUTHORITIES REFERRED TO 
 
 Not including; periodicals 
 
 Beach, C: F., jr. Law of municipal corporations. Bost. 
 
 Bemis, E:W. Municipal franchises. N. Y. 1898. Crowell$i.75 
 
 Block, Maurice. Dictionnaire de I'adniinistration frangaise 
 
 Ed. 3. 2232P. O. Par. 1891. Berger-Levrault 35fr, 
 Bryce, James. American commonwealth. Ed. 3. 2v. O, N. Y, 
 
 1897. Macmillan $4. 
 Chalmers, M. D. Local gevernment. i6op. D. N. Y. 1883 
 
 Macmillan $1 (Eng. citizen ser.) 
 Champernowne, Henry. The boss. 243P. O. N. Y. 1894 
 
 Richmond $1.25. 
 Commons, J: R. Distribution of wealth. 258p. D. N. Y. 1893 
 
 Macmillan $1.75. 
 
 Proportional representation. 298p. D. N. Y. 1896. Crowell 
 
 $1.85 (Lib. of economics and politics) 
 
 Social reform and the church. I76p. D. N. Y. 1894. 
 
 Crowell 75c. 
 
 Conkling, A. R. City government in the U. S. 227p. D. N. Y. 
 1894. Appleton $1. 
 
 Devlin, T: C. Municipal reform in the U. S. I74p. D. N. Y. 
 1896. Putnam $ I (Questions of the day) 
 
 Dillon, J. F. Commentaries on the law of municipal corpora- 
 tions. Ed. 4 enl. 2v. O. Bost. 1890. Little $12. 
 
 Eastman, F. M. Taxation for state purposes in Pennsylvania. 
 284P. O. Phil. 1898. Kay $2. 
 
 Fiske, John. Civil government in the U. S. 360 p. D. Bost, 
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 Forney, M. N. Political reform by the representation of minori- 
 ties. 199 p. O. N. Y. 1S94. 
 
 George, Henry. Progress and poverty. D. N. Y. 1895. Ster- 
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 Goodnow, F. J. Comparative administrative law. 2v. O. N. Y. 
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68 EXTENSION SYLLABUS 
 
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 $6. 
 
 Hart, A. B. Practical essays on American government. 31 ip. 
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 Henderson, C. R. Catechism for social observation. sSp. Bost. 
 
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 I>owell, A. L. Governments and parties in continental Europe. 
 
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 Maltbie, M. R. English local government of to-day. 296P. O. 
 
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 Proceedings, v. i, O. Chic. 1898. HoUister. 
 National conference for good city government. Proceedings. 
 
 V. 1-5, O. Phil. 1894-97. National municipal league. 
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 Pickard, J. L. School stipei-vision. I75p. D. N. Y. 1890. Apple- 
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 Porter, J; A. The city of Washington. 55p. O. Bait. 1885. 
 
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CITV GOVERNMENT 69 
 
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 Wilcox, D. F. Study of city government. 268p. D. N. Y. 1897. 
 
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City government. 
 
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