ITS MANUFACTURE AND USES BUCKNALL SMITH ADVERTISEMENTS. T&,CO. INVENTORS AND MANUFACTURERS OF PATENT FLEXIBLE STEEL WIRE ROPE AS USED IN THE ERFOTinM r>c TA^ PS ( fyxntW Uttiw^itg p VbxM^ BOUGHT WITH THE INCOMB | FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OP M^enrQ W. Sage X891 ^/j^/.?.2,.^.- -.^..18..»5.5:5: - ..-.^.--. yy ..A-iA'hs.s:.^ - s^..^....^.. 44<^:^ii..... C Mining & Hauli ng Plant. PATENT FLEXIBLE STEEL WIRE ROPE FOR BULLIVANT & COMPANY, Chief Office : 72, Mark Lane, LONDON, B.C. Works: Millwall, LONDON, E. _ Cornell University Library TS 270.S66 A treatise upon wire, its manufacture and 3 1924 004 438 796 ADVERTISEMENTS. THE WHITECROSS CO, (LIMITED) Forges and HoUing I^ills. IRON & STEEL ROD ROLLERS, WIRE DRAWERS, WIRE ROPE MAKERS, WIRE NETTING WEAVERS, WIRE NAIL MAKERS, GALVANISERS. SPEOIAUTIES : LflW-ResistaJice TELEGRAPH and TELEPHONE WIRES AS SUPPLIED TO THE LEADING SPECIFICATIONS. All Material used in the Company's manufactures prepared ..and finished by themselves within their own Works. OFFICES AND "WORTHS - AVARRIN&TON. COLLIERIES - ST. HELENS. LONDON OFFICE -S, KIN& TA7ILLIAM 8T„ E.G. A TREATISE UPON WIRE, ITS MANUFACTURE AND USES. m Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924004438796 A TREATISE WIRE, MAIsTUFACTURE AKD USES, EMBRACING OOMPREHENSIVE DESCRIPTIONS OF THE CONSTRUCTIONS AND APPLICATIONS OF WIRE ROPES. J. BUCKNALL SMITH, C.E. Author op "Cablb Traction, as applied to the Working of Rail and Tramways," "Rope Haulage in Mines," "The Diamond Mining Industry of South Africa," &e. (Late Constructing Engineer to the Patent Cable Tramways Corporation and the Steep Grade Tramway Company, Highgate, b'c., &fc.) OFFICES OF "ENGINEERING," LONDON; AND JOHN WILEY & SONS, NEW YORK. 1891. RNELL UNJVERSfTY \LIBRARY PEEFACE. This Treatise is intended to convey to the average reader intelligible and practical descriptions of the history, manufacture, and uses of various kinds of plain and worked wire as occurrent in, or applicable to, innumerable industries and purposes of daily ser- vice to all classes of the community. Upon perusing the Synopsis of Contents, it will be apparent that each chapter relating to branches of the art or kindred matters, alone affords ample material for a separate work capable of occupying the available limits of this volume. The present treatise is there- fore submitted as an elementary international disser- tation, as reasonably exhaustive as the comprehensive nature of the title will permit. As the production and manipulation of wire are mainly recognised under the style of " trade," it has been endeavoured to treat the subject at issue with a practical subordination of commercial considera- tions involved. Costs of manufacturing and values of products, &c., have, however, been generally dis- regarded, owing to the wide and rapid fluctuations which occur in the prices of materials, &c., implicated in the industries described. The writer is not aware of the existence of any other treatise upon the subject on similar lines to VI PREFACE. the present effort, although some fragmentary con- tributions have appeared in the form of papers, pre- sented to societies, and articles in technical and trade journals. The substance of the present work is, however, largely based upon personal experiences, investigations and observations made by the author in various parts of the globe. Many leading home and foreign manufacturers in the different departments of the industry, are impartially referred to, so that where information has been necessarily curtailed, or deemed advisable to omit, the interested reader may pursue his in- quiries or studies in competent channels. It is therefore hoped that some instructive and use- ful particulars may be gleaned from the following pages by those interested or engaged in the technical and commercial applications of wire or its products. A few lines will now be devoted to the general plan of the treatise, after which some comments will be appended upon matters of interest which have tran- spired, or have come under the writer's notice, since the work has passed through the press. Considerable care and trouble has been bestowed upon the collection of the historical, and other data, given in the treatise, and in obtaining reliable con- firmation as far as possible. Upon perusing the Introduction, it is believed the reader will concur that sufficient has been written to demonstrate to a wide community some of the many serviceable applications of wire, and did space permit, the examples might be almost indefinitely extended. To some, the title " Wire " may at first convey PREFACE. vii insignificant associations, but upon brief acquaint- ance with the subject and reflection, it will doubtless be admitted that the chemical, physical, mechanical, and electrical considerations involved in the em- bodied industries, are almosb as extensive and im- portant as the applications of the manufactured products themselves. The antiquity and history of the craft at issue are alone of prominent interest amongst the records of the early arts and manufactures, as also are its developments which have occurred with the progress of civilisation and mental culture. Again, the physical considerations concerned in the properties of ductility and tenacity peculiar to different metals, and upon which their comparative " drawing " efficiencies depend, embody worthy material for instructive reflection. Wire, composed of iron and steel, and described in the first Chapter, will be found to afford manifold opportunities for technical deliberations, whether in the chemistry of the billets, the molecular or physical changes which occur in the metal or its alloy during hot-rolling, cold-drawing, annealing, hardening, and tempering, &c., or in the mechanical arrangements or appliances employed in the manufacture. Nearly half a centuiy has passed away since the introduction of cast-steel wire, and which still marks a most important period in the career of the industiy. Now, by proper selection, treatment, and manipula- tion, cast-steel wire is daily produced which has fully three times the tensile resistance of any other known form of steel, whilst the degrees of elasticity Vlll PEEFACE. may extend to within some 75 per cent, of its ulti- mate strength. These and other extraordinary com- bined a,nd unique properties have, from time to time, engaged the serious attentions of eminent physicists, chemists, and engineers, both at home and abroad. The serviceable applications of iron and steel wire are alone practically innumerable. In the succeeding Chapter descriptions are given of the manufacture and uses of the more delicate productions in copper, bronze, brass, platinum, and other precious metals, some of which are to be met with in degrees of fineness which rival any human hair. The beautiful and economical manufacture of silver-gilt wire and its ornamental applications here afford a further interesting example of dexterous manipulation and utility. The third Chapter deals briefly with gauges, past and present, for measuring the diameters or sizes of wire, and to which all readers practically interested in the industries at issue should bestow some earnest attention. The ambiguity or confusion resulting from the use of old or obsolete gauges has been the cause of many costly and vexatious disputes, and for which, since the inauguration of the Imperial or Legal Standard, there are no valid excuses. The following Chapter upon electrical conductors, only deals with bare or uninsulated wires, and is necessarily of a brief and elementary character. The greater purity, and consequent better conductivity of copper, obtainable of recent years, is here referred to, whilst passing attention is directed to the manu- facture and applications of hard-drawn copper and PREFACE. IX silicium-bronze wires. Mattheissen's well-known standard of electrical conductivity, supplemented by the able researches of T. C. Fitzpatrick, are also cursorily approached. Galvanised iron and steel wire for postal and railway telegraph purposes, then re- ceive some share of attention consistent with the determined limits of the work. The first two Chapters of the second section of this volume are devoted to somewhat exhaustive descriptions of the history, manufacture, and ser- viceable employments of wire ropes, and which it is hoped will be found acceptable to some class of readers. Practically all the different constructions or types of roping commercially known in Europe and America are explained and illustrated, and these are followed by some examples of the numerous substantial services rendered us by their daily use. Many of the exemplifications here submitted are the results of personal experiences or investigations made by the writer in diverse parts of the world. Readers desirous of gleaning more exhaustive par- ticulars concerning the countless applications of wire roping, may perhaps be assisted in their object by reference to different articles published by the author in the columns of Engineering during 1887 and 1888, The Colliery Guardian in 1887,- The Mining Journal in 1888, and The Engineer in 1889. The two concluding chapters of the treatise relate to the manufacture and utilities of wire netting and woven fabrics, &c., and fencing X PREFACE. materials, with their necessary adjuncts, &c., and it is hoped will be found to incorporate matters of agricultural and commercial interest. Since the treatise has passed through the press, the author is indebted to the editor of The Elec- trician for directing his attention to the question of the comparative efficiency of stranded electrical conductors, a matter that appears to have largely escaped the notice of electricians and engineers, and concerning which correspondence appeared in the following numbers of the journal mentioned : Vol. XXVI., January 23rd, 30th, and February 6th. Upon reflection it will be evident that the electrical conductivity of wires laid into strands, is not directly proportional to that presented by solid straight conductors, firstly, because the contact of the wires is more or less imperfect, and secondly on account of the component wires being laid in a spiral or helical form. Readverting to Chapter III. on " Wire Gauges," it may be mentioned that Mr. A. P. Trotter has recently published in The Electrician (Vol. XXIV., page 8), an able article and diagram concerning the ambiguity and variation of obsolete gauges still sometimes unnecessarily quoted and used in the electrical industries. Referring to Messrs. Glover & Co.'s table of par- ticulars, re copper conductors, given on the folding sheet opposite page 150, it may be of interest to some to know that Mr. W. S. Boult, of Liverpool, has recently issued a series of comprehensive inter- national tabulations, giving the sizes, areas, weights, PREFACE. xi current densities and resistances, &c., of electrical wires. Towards the close of last month a Paper was read on " Wire Ropes," by one of Her Majesty's In- spectors of Mines, before a Midland Society of Engineers, and which, according to a report giyen of the same in one of our leading industrial journals on the 27th of March, appears to embody some egregious mistakes. The author of the Paper in questioQ is reported to have advanced that wire ropes "are divided into three great classes, viz., iron, steel, and plough steel," the average breaking strengths of which are given as " 20, 35, and 50 tons respectively, per square inch of sectional area." These alleged ultimate tensile resistances of the materials specified are erroneous, hence some deduc- tions following are misleading. The average quality of mining rope wire is composed of " improved cast steel wire," of about 80 tons resistance, whereas "plough steel" usually ranges from 100 to 120 tons quality, and as defined and explained on pages 42, 58, 174, and 214 of this volume. Again the state- ment, " steel wire should withstand twenty-eight twists," conveys nothing tangible. To those practi- cally acquainted with the subject, the questions naturally present themselves, to steel wire of what quality, temper, gauge, and length does this remark refer ? However, with regard to broad averages in mining practices, the torsional efficiency of the wire might be about double that above mentioned, and as will be better understood upon reference to pages 68, 81, 209, and 214 of this treatise. Further, the method advocated for ascertaining Xli PREFACE. the ultimate tensile strengths of rope wire, and con- sistingf in the attachment " of a tub at the lower end" of a piece to be tested, and into which water is steadily poured until the wire ruptures, does not appear to be a practical or convenient arrange- ment. The examples of steel mining rope wire given on page 68 of this treatise are average quali- ties for the construction of running ropes of from about 2 to 3 in. in circumference, and it will be seen that some of these individual or component wires will withstand a strain of fully 1200 lb. The average diameters of these wires range between 14 and 15 S.W.G., and which sizes will be understood upon reference to the Table and diagram given on pages 72 and 73 respectively. Now take a winding rope, say 4 in. in circumference, composed of larger sized wires (say of Nos. 11 or 12 S.W.G.) of plough steel, and we shall find it is quite feasible to en- counter individual wires which may take fully a ton to break them, i.e., say, 2500 lb. Therefore the capacity of a hogshead (54 gallons or 540 lb.) or even a butt (108 gallons, 17.3 cubic ft., or 1080 lb.) would not be equal to the possible requirements even if they were the most convenient things in the world to handle. The tensile testing machines illustrated on pages 77 and 80, &c., are capable of exerting a strain equal to from, say, 30 cwt. to 2 tons on the specimen. When the breaking strain of any wire has been ascertained, the proportion that it bears to tons per square inch of sectional area may be readily calculated by the Table given on page 76 of this volume. It is admissible that however c9,reful 9-n author PEEFACE. XUl may be, errata and discrepancies do sometimes creep into a work, but one hardly expects to find the accuracy of accepted fundamental principles over- looked. Since the remarks were written concerning the probable federation of the Australian Colonies, on page 222, the " Constitution of the Commonwealth " has finally passed the Session ; let us hope that the next measure to be adopted will be some arrange- ment for a special rate of Imperial duties for sup- porting our own manufacturers and for facilitating a preferential commercial reciprocation with the mother country. In conclusion the author has pleasure in acknow- ledging the valuable assistance he has received from numerous leading manufacturers and others both at home and abroad, and in mentioning that comments or criticisms made concerning any considerations at issue are impartially and courteously intended. J. BucKNALL Smith. London, April, 1891. SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS. INTRODUCTORY. PAGE Antiquity of Wire Manufactures — Early Egyptian Productions — Wire Relics from Herculaneum, &c., Wiredrawing, Its Invention and Origin — Early Wiredrawing Processes in Germany and France, and Introduction of the Industry into Great Britain — First Mill in England — Hand and Machine Drawn Wire — Lancashire and Yorkshire Indus- tries — Early Manufacturers of Wire in Britain, Europe, and America — Descriptions and Uses of Various Kinds of Wire — Electrical Applications— Wire Ropes and their Services — Wire Netting, Gauze, Cloth, and Cords — Lines in Scientific Instruments — Platinum and Silver Wires — Pin- Making Industry — The Manufacture of Needles, Fish and Crochet Hooks, Umbrella and Spectacle Frames, &c. , with Dates of their Invention, &c. — Wire Springs, Spindles, and Pinions used in the Watchmaking Trade — Wire Cycle Spokes, NaUs, and Music Strings, &c. — Wire and its Functions in Pianos — Wire- Walkers and Aerial Wires — Silver and Silver Gilt Wires Used for the Production of Filigrees, Laces, Embroideries, and Spangles, &c. — Lightning Conductors — Wire Used in the Construction of Ordnance, Torpedo Nets, and Flywheels, &c. — Chemical, Physical, and Mechanical Considerations re Metals Used in the Wire Industry — The Gauge Question, &c 1 to 29 SECTION I. THE MANUFACTURE AND USES OF WIRE. CHAPTER I. Iron and Steel Wire. The Principle of Producing Rods and Wire Explained — Chemical and Physical Considerations in Iron and Steel — Puddled and Charcoal Iron Wire — Swedish Iron — Definitions of Steel — Distinction between Iron and Steel — Mild and High- Carbon Steels — Acid and Basic Bessemer, Siemens-Martin, and Crucible Steels — Properties of Elements present in Iron and Steel — Physical Characteristics of Iron and Steel — Wire Rod Billets, their Forms, Weights, and Chemical Compo- CONTENTS. xvii PAGE L/nited States : International Trade Considerations — Rail- way and Shipping Rates of Carriage, &c. — Comments on British and Foreign Exports, &c 125 to 134 CHAPTER IV. Electrical Conductoks. Mattheiasen's Standard of Electrical Conductivity — Purity of Copper and its Influence on Conductivity — Fitzpatrick's Re- search — Soft and Hard-drawn Copper Wires — Comparative Conductivity of Copper and Iron Wire, and Effects of Temperature, Density, and Impurities on same — Durability of Electrical Conductors — Electrolytically deposited Copper — Weiller's Table of Conductors — Sizes, Weights, and Re- sistances of Silicious - Bronze and Hard-drawn Copper Wires — ^Effects of Temperatures upon Telegraph, &c.. Lines, their " Sag" and Tension, &c. — Telegraph Wire Joints — Postal and Railway Specifications re Supply of Telegraph, &c., Conductors — Iron and Steel Wires and Effects of Gal- vanising same, &c. — Charcoal Iron and Siemens' Steel Telegraph Wires, their Tempers and Properties, &c. — Electro- Welding of Wire — Telegraph Wire Tests — Com- pound Telegraph Wires — Glover's Wire Gauge and Table of Sizes, Weights, and Resistances, &c. ... ... 135 to 162 . SECTION II. WOEKED WIEE AND ITS APPLICATIONS. CHAPTER V. The Manueactuke and Uses of Wikb Ropes. Invention of Wire Ropes —Albert's Experiments in the Hartz Mines — Wilson's Claims — Newall's Invention and Inaugura- tion of the Industry in Great Britain — ^Early Rope Manu- factures — Newall's Career — Selvagee Ropes — Formed or Stranded Ropes — -Modern Wire Rope Works, their Arrange- ment and Equipment, (fee- — Recent Constructions of Roping, their Manufacture explained — Flat Wire Ropes — Lang's Construction of Roping — Laidler's Rope — Scott's Locked Wire Sheathing — Latch and Batchelor'a Locked coiled Ropes — Proportions for Lays in Compound Strands or Ropes — Flat or Oval Stranded Ropes — Westgarth's Construction — Electric - Cable Winding Ropes — Seal e's Type of Roping — Hodson's Spiral Rope Core — Aerial Standing Ropes — Flexible Crane and Hoisting Ropes — Sash and Clothes Lines, Picture Cords, Fencing and Signal Strands, and Lightning Conductors, &c. — Wire Strand and Rope-making Machinery — Compound Stranding and Roping Machines — Practices in the Manufacture of Wire Ropes — Proportions of Lays in Strands and Ropes — American Biope-making Appliances — Considerations in xviii CONTENTS. PAGE the Wire Rope Trade — Biggart's Paper on Wire Ropes — Fatigue of Steel and Cutting Action of Wires in Cables — Internal and External Wear — Deakin on Wire Ropes — Lengths of Ropes Equivalent to their Working Loads — Sizes of Drums and Pulleys for Ropes to work over — Rope Records kept at Mines — Irregularities in Quality and Durability of Wire Ropes — Criticisms on Dif- ferent Constructions of Wire Roping — Reasonable Sizes, Weights, and Strengths of Wire Ropes— Value of Uniform Tensile Efficiencies of Wire used in Cables — Gauge of Wires to produce a given Size of Roping — Diameters of Component Wires to run over Pulleys of determined Sizes — Lengths of Splices and their Relation to Ultimate Strengths of Roping — Jointing of Wires in Strands — Multiple laid Ropes — Comments on the Rope Trade of the United States ; Prices obtained, Discounts given, Trade Conventions and Guarantees — American Firms Manufac- turing Wire Ropes — General Competition in the Home and Foreign Rope Trade ; Manufactures Guaranteed to give a Definite Service — Ropes in Japan and the Australian Colonies, &o. — Rope Trials on the Melbourne and other Cable Tramways — BuUivant's Table of Round Wire Ropes — Ropes and the Victorian Goldflelds — Wire Rope- making in India, &o. — Inconsistent and Impractical Wire Rope Specifications — General Considerations and Com- ments upon the Industry at Home and Abroad, &c. 153 to 222 CHAPTER VI. Some Applications op Wire Ropes. Main and Tail-Rope and Endless Rope Haulage in Mines — The Report of the North of England Institute of Mining Engi- neers upon Underground Haulage Systems — Stated Effi- ciency of the Endless Chain System and Comparative Performances of Ropes — Haulage Exhibits at the New- castle Mining Exhibition — Costs of Working various Rope Traction Systems in Mines — Rope Haulage from under, over, and side of Wagons, with Comments as to Compara- tive Efficiency — Details in Haulage Systems, e.g.. Pulleys, Driving Drum, Clutches, Rope -Tension Gear and Clip- ping, &c., Appliances — Systems of Underground Rope Haulage at Bedlington, Bldon, Harton, Hetton, Hod- barrow, Moresby, Seaton-Deleval, Tredegar, and Whit- burn, &c., Mines — Cost of Endless Rope Haulage at Clifton and Cadzow Collieries — Capacity of Mining Wagons Worked as "Singles" or "Sets" — Curves and Gradients Worked by Rope Traction in Mines — Sections and Weights of Rails and Typical Permanent Ways and Switches, &c. — Leading and Trailing Rope-Clip Cars or Bogies — Hyslop on Defects of Side Haulage Systems — Mining Rope Haulage Engines — Ramsey's Rope-Clutch Bogie and Gripping Appendages — Automatic Rope- Clipping Appliances — Mining Lubricating Devices — Rope CONTENTS. XIX PAGE Sockets and Attachments — Considerations and Comments upon the Employment of Hopes in Mines — Vertical Wind- ing and Effects of Reverse Bends in Roping — Aerial Rope- ways for Transporting Minerals and other Products — Car- rington's and Otto's Systems of Aerial Rope Haulage- Aerial Lines at Gibraltar, Hong Kong, and in the Trans- vaal, &c. — Details of Construction and Cost of Operation, &c. — Aerial Knot Grips for Surmounting Steep Gradients — Rope Haulage and Winding Systems used in the Diamond Mines of South Africa — Rope Traction for Propelling Street and other Railway Vehicles — Railway Appliances in the U.S.A. for Transporting Spools of Continuous Wire Roping — Railway Distances and Freights in the States — Performances of the Traction Cables upon the N^ew York and Brooklyn Bridge — Rope Gear used in the Erection of the Forth and Sukkar Bridges — Cranes and Hoisting Appliances employing Ropes — Shipbuilding and Launching and Wire Ropes used in connection therewith — Steel Marine Hawsers for Towing, Mooring, Warping, or Anchoring Purposes, and Reels and Nippers employed with same — Comparative Sizes, Weights, Strengths, Dura- bility, and Cost of Wire Roping as against those of Vege- table Fibres, e.g.. Hemp and Manilla — Wire Ropes used for Raising Sunken Vessels — Transmission of Power by Ropes, Speeds of Driving and Cost of System, &c. — The Hudson River Wire Rope Suspension Bridge at Peekskill, U.S.A., &o 223 to 283 CHAPTER VII. WiKE Nettino and Woven Fabrics, &c., their Manufacture and Uses. Invention of Wire Netting and Inauguration of its Mechanical Production — Barnard's Original Wire Netting Machine, and Modern Improvements in the Mechanical Manufacture — Meshes, Gauges, and Widths of Netting commonly adopted in the Industry — Characteristics of Wire Netting made for Home and Foreign Markets, with Weights of same per Mile, &o. — American Practice in the Trade — Modern Wire Netting Machinery, e.g., as constructed by Wilmott Brothers and Bond, &c. — The Principle of the Mechanical Manufacture explained— Spring Winding or Coiling Ma- chines — Mechanical Means for Tight-Rolling Wire Net- ting for Home and Export Markets — Dennis' continuous Wire Netting Machine, its Construction and Operation — Machinery employed in the Manufacture of Wire Webs or Woven Fabrics — Automatic Power Looms for Weaving Wire, &o. — Makers of Strong Wire Webs and Fine Gauzes —Wire Torpedo Nets as used by Home and Foreign Navies— Spiral AVoven Wire Netting, &c.— Gelding's Ex- panded or Meshed Metalwork as a Substitute for certain Wire Fabrications, &c. 284 to 311 XX CONTENTS. PAGE CHAPTER VIII. WiEE Fencing Materials and Appendages, Wibe Staples, Nails and Sundries. Various Forms of Wire Fencing Materials and Dates of Intro- duction — Fencing Wire when First Used at Home and in the Colonies — Capital Invested in Fencing Properties in the United Kingdom, and Annual Cost of Maintaining same — Solid-Rolled, Drawn, Varnished, and Galvanised Fencing Wire, with Means of Erection and Attachments, &c. — Barbed Wire Fencing, the Invention, Licensed Makers, its Merits and Weaknesses, &c. — Ordinary Fencing Wire used in the Colonies, how Manufactured, Coiled and Varnished, &c. — German versiis English Fencing Wire — Lengths of Wire sought in the Markets — Superiority of Galvanised Wire — Drawbacks in the Employment of Common Grades of Fencing Wire — Advantages of Superior Steel Wire over that of Iron or Soft Steel, with Comments and Comparisons respecting their different Physical and Mechanical Properties — Fencing Ribbons, Oval and Cor- rugated Wires, &o. — Various descriptions of Fencing Strands — Different Constructions of Barbed Fencing Wire and Appliances used for its Erection — Typical Illustrations of Strained Wire and Strand Fencing, with Pillars, Standards, and Wire, &c., used in same — "Porcupine" Tree Guards — Comparative Lengths and Weights of Solid Fencing Wires and Strands — "Droppers" used in Strained Wire Fences — Espalier Wires for Training Trees and Plants, &c. — Tools used in the Erection of various kinds of Wire Fencing — Hurdles and Fences of Expanded Metal — Horti- cultural Temples, Flower Stands, and other Wirework — Wire Nail Machines and Presses, &c. 312 to 335 Index 339 to 347 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Sections of Wire Rod Billets Bedson's Wire Rod Rolling Mill Bleckly's Rod Mill tiarrett's Continuous Rod Mill in the U.S.A. Wire-Drawing Mill or Blocks Steel Wire Improving Apparatus Bedson's Annealing and Galvanising Plant . Modern Wire-Galvanisiug Appliances The Standard Wire Gauge (Template) Continental Wire-Testing Machinery . Carringtons' Tensional and Tortional Wire-Testing chinery ....... Deniaon's Wire-Testing Machinery Kitchin's Wire-Testing Machinery Byrne's Continuous Wire-Drawing Mill Wire-Straightening Michines Plan of Ryland's Works .... Bolton's Continuous Wire Mill . The Micrometer for Gauging Wire Pelten & GuUleaume's Works, Cologne " Britannia " Telegraph Wire Joint . Telegraph Wire-Testing Appliances . Glover's Wire Gauge or Micrometer . Twenty-four Bobbin Wire-Stranding Machines Large Horizontal Wire Rope-Closing Machines Hydraulic Rope-Testing Machinery . Lang's Construction of Wire Rope Laidler's Rope ...... Scott's Locked Wire Sheathing . Latch and Batchelor's Locked Coil Ropes . Diagram of Proportions of Lays in Roping Flattened or Oval Stranded Ropes Westgarth's Rope Scale's Construction of Cable Hodson's Spiral Wire Rope Core Aerial Ropes for Tramways Vertical Rope-Closing Machines Twelve Bobbin Stranding Machinery Compound Tandem Stranding Machines Compound Stranding and Roping Machinery Stone's Rope Making Machinery of U. S. A. Plan of Mining Haulage Systems Details in Mining Rope-Haulage Systems . Driving Pulleys for Wire Roping Systems of Rope Haulage under Wagons . Rope Clips or Grips used in Rope Traction Haulage over Top and Side of Wagons Ma PAGE 39 44 45 8,49 53 61 64 65 73 77 80,81 . 82 85, 87 90 92 94 103, 105 116 119 142 146 150 163 165 169 173 175 176 177 178 180 182 184 185 185 193 195 (folding plate) •! j^gg 205 228 230 232 234 236, 238 , 238 XXll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Pulleys and Gates for Side Haulage Systems Ramsey's Rope Clutch Car .... Rope Haulage Engines ... Automatic Rope Haulage Clips .... Mining Lubricating Appliances . Socket Attachments for Wire Ropes . Vertical Shaft Working in Mines Aerial Ropeway at Hong Kong .... Aerial Rope Transports at Gibraltar . Otto's System of Aerial Ropeways Details of Construction in Aerial Lines Aerial Rope-Gripping Appliances Driving Knots on Aerial Ropes Section of Sheba Aerial Line .... Railway Wagon for Transporting Roping . Erection Ropes of the Forth Bridge . Eopes Used in the Construction of the Sukkar Bridge Cranes and Rope-Hoisting Appliances Reels and Nippers for Marine Wire Hawsers Raising of Sunken Vessels by Wire Ropes Wilraott's Wire Netting Machinery . Diagrams Explaining the Manufacture of Netting Bond's Compact Adjustable Netting Machine Spring Winding Machines Dennis' Continuous Wire Netting Machine Wire Weaving Looms ...... Netting for Protecting Vessels against Torpedoes Spiral Wire Woven Matting .... Machinery Employed^ for Making " Expanded Metal Samples of Mesh-Expanded Metal Coils or Hanks of Common Fencing Wire . Wire Staples for Fencing, &c., Purposes . Barbed Wire and Fencing ..... Cattle Enclosures Formed of Barbed Wire . Apparatus Used in the Erection of Barbed Fencing Appliances for Jointing Barbed Strands Fencing Structures Employing Barbed Wire Barbed or " Porcupine " Tree Guards Strained Wire Park Fences, &o. Strained Wire and Strand Fencing for Cattle, &o. Angle Strainers and Winders Used in Fencing . Fencing Standards and Tightening Appliances . " Droppers " Used in Wire Fences Espalier or Tree-Training Fences Tools Used in the Erection of Wire Fencing Fencing of Expanded or Meshed Metal Horticultural Wirework Wire Nail Machinery and Presses, &c. PAGE . 240 . 242 . 244 247, 249 . 249 . 250 . 252 . 256 267, 258 . 260 . 262 263, 264 . 265 . 266 . 270 . 275 . 276 . 277 . 279 . 281 . 287 289, 290 . 292 . 292 . 297 . 302 . 305 . 305 308, 309 . 310 . 313 . 314 . 316 . 317 . 318 . 319 . 320 . 321 . 321 . 323 . 324 . 326 . 327 327 . 328 . 329 332, 333 . 334 LIST OF TABLES. PAGE Chemical Analyaes of Steel Wire Rod Billets . . 39 to 41 Mechanical Properties of Iron and Steel Wire .... 42 Chemical Composition and Properties of Plough Steel Wire . 58 Tabulation of Rope Wire Tests 68 Chemical Composition and Properties, &o., of Piano Wire 69 to 71 Sizes, Weights, Lengths, and Strengths of Iron Wire . . 72 Sizes, &c., and Breaking Strengths of Steel Wire ... 74 Tensile Strengths of Wire in Pounds for 1 Ton per each j^^ in. 76 Table for Calculating Strengths of Wire from No. 20. to No. 40 S.W.G 116 Wire Gauges Used till 1883 (Obsolete) 126 Imperial Standard Wire Gauge ... ... 128 English Standard and German Millimetre Gauges . 129 American National Wire Gauge ..... 130 - Fitzpatrick's Research re Mattheissen's Electrical Standards . 137 Weiller's Table of Electrical Conductors 137 Sizes, Weights, and Electrical Resistances of Silicium-Bronze Wire 139 Silicious-Bronze Wires Shown at the French Exhibition . . 140 Sizes, Weights, Strengths, and Conductivity of Hard-Drawn Copper Wire 141 Tension and Sag of Hard-Drawn Copper Telegraph Wire . . 142 Tables to Specifications for Copper Wire and Strands . . 143 Tables to Specifications for Galvanised Iron Telegraph Wire 147 Tables to Specifications for Postal and Railway Telegraph Wire 147 to 149 Glover's Wire Gauge for Electrical Wires, and Table of Sizes, Lengths, Weights, and Resista,nces of Copper Wire 150 Proportions of Lays in Strands and Roping .... 174 Biggart re Forth Bridge Ropes 210 Deakin re Weights and Working Loads of Ropts . . 213 Reasonable Weights and Strengths of Ropes .... 214 Particulars of Flexible Crane Ropes 217 Table of Sizes, Weights, and Strengths of Wire Roping . 221 Comparative Costs of Rope Haulage Systems .... 225 Aerial Ropeways in the Transvaal .... . 266 Meshes and Gauges of Wire Netting 285 Comparative Lengths and Weights of Fencing Wire and Strands 322 INTRODUCTORY. The manufacture of those metallic filaments or shreds, known as ^uire, is one of considerable antiquity, and has been traced by good authorities as far back as the period of early Egypt. Gold wire is mentioned in connection with the decorations of the Sacerdotal robes of Aaron, whilst metallic shreds — it is recorded — have been actually discovered that date as distant as 1700 B.C. A specimen of wire made by the Ninevites some 800 years B.C. is exhi- bited at the Kensington Museum. Homer and Pliny referred to similar productions in their early writings. Metal heads, with imitation hair of wire, recovered from the ruins of Herculaneum are in the Portici Museum. From such remote eras up to the fourteenth centurj', wire in its general acceptation was produced by ham- mering out strips of metal, and not by the process of "drawing" as practised at the present time. In the middle ages this industry was extensively pursued, and the artificers thus engaged were termed, in the trade, "wire-smiths," but in the earliest days of the manufacture, gold, silver, and bronze appear to have been the only metals so treated. It is, however, fairly substantiated by technical records that the present method of " drawing wire " was practised in the Lenne district of Germany during the fourteenth century, for we find in the histories of Augsberg and Nurem- B 2 Historical Revieiu of Wire Ivdxhstry. berg, dated 1351 and 1360 respectively, the term " drahtzieher " (wiredrawer), mentioned in connection with this industry, so that it is reasonable to infer that the '■' drawplate " was known and used at this period : possibly the first wire-drawing mill was that erected at Nuremberg by a man named Rudolf shortly after the time above mentioned, or when the art of hand- drawing wire had reached some degree of excellence. At least, so the writings of Conrad Celtes, of 1490, lead us to understand. About the year 1500 the credit of " wiredrawing'' was ascribed in France to one Richard Archal, and even now some classes of wire produced in this country are known as " fil d' Archal." According to Beckmann's " History of Inventions," published in London, 1817, as little was definitely known about the claims of Archal as those attributed to Rudolf of Nuremberg. It was not, however, until about J 565 that machine- drawn wire was produced in Great Britain, and when, it is recorded, a Saxon, C. Schultz, and Caleb Bell, came over to this country, in concert with other foreigners, with the view of establishing the industry here, and for which the permission of Queen Elizabeth had been obtained. Bell had charge of a mill in Greenfield Valley, Holywell, driven by water power, and from this the Queen was supplied with toilette pins. Relics of the mill may still be seen. The spring from which Bell derived his source of power is known as "Gallopell," evidently a corruption of the utiliser's name. Inferior hand-drawn wire had been, and was being, manufactured in the neighbourhood of the Forest of Dean and elsewhere, but, in the seventeenth century, the improved fabrication was carried on in York- •shire, and later, in the districts of Warrington and Bir- mingham, or where the industry is still largely located. In the year 1630 a proclamation was issued by Charles I., to the effect that the home industry had made Historical Review of Wire Industry. 3 such advancements that further foreign imports of wire were forthwith prohibited. This was the second trial of home trade protection, for in 1465 we learn that the importation of iron wire into this country was for- bidden, although, however, soon afterwards this law was cancelled owing to the inferior productions of our own manufacturers. "Wire at this date was largely made of " Osmond " iron, i.e., selected ore treated with charcoal fuel, and probably an imitation of Swedish iron. In 1668 the first mechanical wire mill proper was erected in England, at Sheen, near Richmond, and from this date the industry maintained a substantial footing, and established a series of progressive developments. It should not, how- ever, be imagined that the Germans, who were the pioneers in the industry of wiredrawing, allowed themselves to be quietly superseded; on the contrary, they kept plodding on, and are still to-day our most formidable competitors in the trade. From the year 1800 the Warrington district has been continually identified with the production of wire and the various developments of the industry, and it was at this date that one Captain Ains worth projected works in this neighbourhood in concert with a practical wiredrawer named Nathaniel Greening. The proposed arrangements, however, fell through, and we next hear of the latter gentle- man joining Mr. John Rylands to carry out the contemplated scheme or original programme. Preliminaries having been satisfactorily arranged and the works equipped, these gentle- men commenced to manufacture in 1805, and continued to work together until about 1840, when the partnership was dissolved, and Rylands' three sons, John, Glazebrook, and Peter, succeeded their father in the business, under the title of Messrs. Rylands Brothers. At the same time Mr. Green- ing brought his sons into the trade and started a separate establishment, styled Messrs. Greening & Sons, the father 4 Early Manufactures in Lancashire and Yorhshire, O £ 1 I 6G Galvani'srd, Tinned and Coffered Wires. drums, driven by worm-gearing. Galvanised iron and steel wire is largely used for hawsers and rigging ropes, signal and fencing strands, telegraph conductors and sub- marine cables, clothes lines and other purposes where moisture or wet is to be encountered. The process, how- ever, causes a slight depreciation in the properties of the metal. Tinned wire is obtained in a similar manner to the process last described, only hanks or coils of wire, after cleansing, are dipped into a bath of molten tin, the super- fluous metal being afterwards shaken off" and a bright surface imparted to the wire by finishing it in a draw- plate. Sometimes the wire is reduced several sizes after being tinned. The surface of the molten metal is covered with 2 in. or 3 in. of tallow to protect it from oxidation. It will be understood from that which has been already stated that iron or steel tinned wire,if imperfectly coated with tin (i.e., uncovered portions left exposed), it is more liable to active oxidation than plain wire, because in this case a galvanic pair is formed in which the iron is the positive element. Bright drawn tinned wire is largely used for spring mattress-making, &c., but this class should not be confused with " tinman's wire." The latter is a soft and pliable bright drawn wire used in the manufacture of various tinplate utensils and goods. Bright coppered wire is produced by steeping hanks of steel wire in a solution of sulphate of copper, and whereby a film of metallic copper is deposited. The coated wire is then drawn down in order to give it a bright polished surface. Bright drawn coppered spring wire is largely used for the manufacture of upholstery springs. Previous to galvanising, tinning, or coppering great care has to be exercised to efl'ectually " pickle " or cleanse the wire intended for such treatments. ■"Lacquered" or straw-tinted wire is also obtained by Card Wire. 67 drawing iron or steel through a wealv solution of sulphate of copper, e.g., as used for toys and fancy goods, &c. The " tempers " of the different steel wires to be sub- mitted to the above processes are previously determined by experience, and which in the case of rope wire might range from, say, .05 to .50 per cent, of carbon, similarly for telegraph purposes .06 to .075, for springs about from .3 to .45 per cent, of carbon, &c., but it all depends upon the material, and how it has been previously treated. Card wire was originally manufactured from Swedish charcoal iron drawn down to about 19 G., on large blocks, when it was annealed in small ovens and afterwards cooled on brick floors. The wire was then run through an arrangement of rollers to remove the scale, and subsequently was drawn down to No. 24 G., or any intermediate size to No. 50 as required. Of recent years charcoal iron has been superseded by special qualities of steel capable of being hardened and tempered. At one time Messrs. S. Fox & Co. obtained over £50 per ton for this quality of wire drawn to Nos. 18 or 20 G. The wire has to be frequently annealed during its treatment, and draws well through lubricating leys or liquors, such as sour ale, beer bottoms, solutions of flour or soft soap, &c. Suitable lengths of the wire are then " dressed," straightened and tested for tough- ness and elasticity by a process of bending and twisting backwards and forwards, termed " snarling." These tests are essential in order to determine whether the wire is capable of withstanding the "plunger" in the "card setter," and which bends it at right angles into the "fiUetting." The "temper" of the wire has to be hard in order to withstand repeated grinding or sharpening when in the form of carding teeth. Messrs. Royston, Sons, & Co. and Ramsden, Camm, & Co., &c., are amongst the eminent firms engaged in this branch of the industry. The manufacture of superior grades of steel rope wire is 68 Rope Wire. an important speciality in the trade, and amongst such makers the names of Messrs. W. Smith & Co., Webster & Horsfals, Fairbrothers & Co., and John Lord & Sons, &c., figure conspicuously. Some short time ago the writer's attention was directed to a series of tests made in April last with some of the last mentioned firm's wire, and which from the following tabulation will be seen to present a very satisfactory example of uniform quality and temper : April 8, 1889. .089 W.G. .082 W.G. .072 W.G. Front Ead Back End Front End Back End Front End Back End of coil. of coil. of coil. of coil. of coil. of coil. fl s a a fi a .Is OQ 1 02 S ■ 1^ a OQ 1 02 Id (3 1 00 02 (0 09 S 1 02 lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. 34 1220 33 1230 43 960 41 985 47 725 46 740 33 1225 33 1235 44 955 42 970 49 730 45 760 33 1200 33 1210 45 945 44 950 48 735 47 750 3i . 1200 29 1225 43 960 40 990 48 730 46 740 30 1205 30 1210 45 950 42 970 46 740 45 755 36 1180 33 1200 47 940 45 960 47 725 46 745 3b 1190 34 1210 45 960 43 980 48 730 46 740 34 1210 33 1230 46 950 44 975 48 740 47 730 37 1180 35 1190 45 965 42 990 46 720 45 750 33 1200 33 1205 43 960 41 980 47 735 45 740 These wires were made from rods of Siemens-Martin steel supplied by The Steel Company of Scotland, and the tests are recorded consecutively and not by any selection. The elongation of these wires averaged about 2 per cent. The manufacture of piano wire constitutes a very im- portant branch of the industry at issue, and the following are the sizes and average tests of such class of wire as made by the well-known firm, Messrs. Webster, Horsfals, &iLean. Piano Wire. 69 Numbers in jnusio wire ) ^^ jg ^^ ^^ jg j^ jg ^g ^^ ^^ 22 '''Tn'^lfia'diamei«r' \ '"'^ -"^l '"^^ '"^^ -"^^ '"^^ •«" •«« •«« «" -"^^ Ultimate ten^^e^atrength | ^SB 250 285 305 340 360 31.5 425 500 640 eso It has been mentioned in the introduction to this treatise that Messrs. Pohlmann, of Nuremberg, Miller, of Vienna, and the firm previously referred to, have attained a leading reputation in this branch of the wire industry. To these the names of Messrs. Houghton & W. Smith, of Warring- ton, are worthy of incorporation. Below is given a Table of chemical and mechanical tests (especially prepared for the author), made with some of the best piano or music wire obtainable in any market in the world. The name of the manufacturer is placed above each test, and the writer has pleasure in acknowledging the courtesy shown him by Messrs. Broadwood & Sons in furnishing the samples in question. Wbbstee- HoBsrAL's. Pohlmann's. Millbe's Chemical Composition : — Carbon -(percent.)- 0.640 0.740 0.570 Silicon „ 0.032 0.205 0.090 Sulphur- „ Trace. 0.017 0.011 Phosphorus ,, 0.004 0.015 0.018 Manganese ,, 0.120 0.330 0.425 Physical Properiibs : — Diameters in fractions of inches - .040 .036 .037 Torsion or turns in six inches - - - - 60 to 70 30 to 40 60 to 70 Ultimate tensile strength in pounds - 400 318 340 Equivalent tension in tons per square inch - 142 140 141 The uniform quality of these wires is apparent. Miller's is a little inferior in the torsional tests, which is perhaps attributable to having the highest percentage of carbon, or from some slight lack of regular temper. According to other tests made, some of Pohlmann's wire 70- Piano Wire Tests. broke at an equivalent to 150 tons per square inch of sectional area, and yet exhibited a torsional efficiency of some 60 twists ; similarly other pieces of Webster's wire, 140 tons with 90 twists, whilst some of W. Smith's wire showed tensile and torsional resistances equal from 140 to 155 tons per square inch, and 100 to 30 turns respectively. Some official tests made in Paris, Vienna, and the United States of America concerning the tensile strength, &c., of music wire, are now appended. 1. Official Tests made bv the Jury or the Internationax, Exhibition, Paris, 1867. Messrs. Pleyel, Wolff & Co.'s Machine Used. No. 13 No. 14 No. 15 No. 16 No. 17 No. 18 Moritz Pohlmann's broke at a strain of English wires broke at lb. 226 lb. 264 214 lb. 292 lb. lb. 296 312 lb. 348 274 Official Tests made by the Jury of the International Exhibition, Vienna, 1873. No. No. No. No. No. 13 14 15 16 17 lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. 232 260 290 300 322 168 192 206 232 255 No. 18 Moritz Pohlmann's broke at a strain of Martin Miller & Son's wire broke at a strain of ... lb. 336 280 3. Official Tests made by the Juby of the World's Exhibition, Philadelphia, 1876. Messrs. Steinway & Son's Testing Machine Used. Moritz Pohlmann's broke at a strain of W. D. Houghton's wire broke at a strain of ... ... Smith & Son's wire broke at a strain of Washburn & Moen's wire broke at a strain of No. 13 lb. 265 231 221 176 No. 14 lb. 287 242 242 No. 15 lb. 320 No. 16 lb. 331 263 287 242 287 198 ... No. 'No. 17 18 lb. 342 331 320 242 lb. 836 374 331 Music Wire Tests in Paris, Vienna, and U.S.A. 71 4. Tests made by " The Musical Couribk," June 4, 1884. Riehle Brothers' Machine Used. No. 13 No. 14 No, 15 No. 16 No. 17 Moritz Pohlmann's broke at a stoain of W. D. Houghton's wire broke at a strain of Smith & Son's wire broke at a strain of Felten & Guilleaume's wire broke at a strain of Washburn & Moen's wire broke at a strain of Roeslau wire broke at a strain of lb. 275 240 210 235 210 200 lb. 290 265 210 260 235 270 lb. 325 290 250 300 240 280 lb. 355 315 255 295 270 330 lb. 410 340 315 385 295 335 Measurement of the Dipfebbnt Wires Tested by Musical Courier," June 4, 1884. Brown and Sharpe's Millimetre Gauge Used. 'The No. No. No. No. No. 13 14 15 16 17 mm. mm. mm. mm. mm. Of M. Pohlmann's make measured ... 770 825 880 920 975 ,, W. D. Houghton's make measured 780 825 875 925 975 ,, Smith & Son's make measured 790 865 900 950 955 ,, Felton & Guilleaume's make mea- sured 800 860 920 940 975 ,, Washburn & Moen's make mea- sured 800 840 860 900 960 „ Roeslau' s make measured 780 840 880 960 950 Difference in Gradation. In Strength. j In Thickness. \ m o o o o o . o O o . ^^ ^lO ^«5 ^£r ^3 ^13 !z5« |z5t. S >3 S >> S P>> § ►> S >> S >> § f^ S ^ px> o^ ofi a.n SrQ An- nealed Bright m 1 in. ram. lb. lb. yds. lb. lb. 7/0 .500 12.7 .1963 193.4 3404 58 10,470 15,700 7/0 6/0 .464 11.8 .1691 166.5 2930 67 9,017 13,525 6/0 5/0 .432 11 .1466 144.4 2541 78 7,814 11,725 5/0 4/0 .400 10.2 .1257 123.8 2179 91 6,702 10,052 4/0 3/0 .372 9.4 .1087 107.1 1885 105 5,796 8,694 3/0 2/0 .348 8.8 .0951 93.7 1649 120 5,072 7,608 2/0 1/0 .324 8.2 .0824 81.2 1429 138 4,397 6,595 1/0 1 .300 7.6 .0707 69.6 1225 161 3,770 5,655 1 2 .276 7 .0598 58.9 1037 190 3,190 4,785 2 3 .252 6.4 .0499 49.1 864 228 2,660 '3,990 3 4 .232 5.9 .0423 41.6 732 269 2,254 3,381 4 5 .212 5.4 .0353 34.8 612 322 1,883 2,824 5 6 .192 4.9 .0290 28.5 502 393 1,644 2,316 6 7 .176 4.5 .0243 24 422 467 1,298 1,946 '7 8 .160 4.1 .0201 19.8 348 566 1,072 1,608 ,8 9 .144 3.7 .0163 16 282 700 869 1,303 9 10 .128 3.3 .0129 12.7 223 882 687 1,030 10 11 .116 3 .0106 10.4 183 1,077 564 845 11 12 .104 2.6 .0085 8.4 148 1,333 454 680 12 13 .092 2.3 .0066 6.5 114 1,723 355 532 13 14 .080 2 .0050 5 88 2,240 268 402 14 15 .072 1.8 .0041, 4 70 2,800 218 326 15 16 .064 1.6 .0032' 3.2 56 3,500 172 257 16 17 .056 1.4 .0025 2.4 42 4,667 131 197 17 18 .048 1.2 .0018 1.8 32 6,222 97 145 18 19 .040 1 .0013 1.2 21 9,333 67 100 19 20 .036 0.9 .0010 1 18 11,200 55 82 20 It has been endeavoured to give the sizes of wires herein- Wire Gauges or Standards. 73 before referred to in fractions of inches as far as possible so as to avoid reference to obsolete gauges with misleading and conventional titles, such as "Birmingham," "Music," and other like standards. The above table, however, serves to correctly describe the now only legally recognised wire gauge in this country, whilst the accompanying diagram, . Fig. 12, will visibly convey an idea of the sizes at issue, in their numerical order. Pig. 12. In a subsequent chapter the '•' Gauge Question " will be more exhaustively discussed. The average of the specifip gravities of iron and steel wire is so nearly the same, that frequently in practice any difference is ignored. For example, " The Whitecross Co., Limited," have issued a table of sizes, weights, and lengths for both iron and steel wire, which is identical to that of Messrs. Eylands just reproduced, but with additional columns for the increased breaking strains as follows : — 74 Sizes, Strengths, and Weights of Steel Wire. Breaking Strains of Steel Wire. Size. ; S. W. G. Annealed. Bright. lb. lb. 13611 20310 7/0 11722 17583 6/0 10159 15243 5/0 8712 13067 4/0 7534 11302 3/0 6593 9891 2/0 5726 8573 1/0 4901 3751 1 4147 6221 2 3458 5187 3 2930 4395 4 2447 3672 5 2007 3011 6 1668 2530 7 1393 2091 8 1130 1694 9 893 1339 10 734 1099 11 590 884 12 461 691 13 349 523 14 284 424 15 223 334 16 170 256 17 128 188 18 87 130 19 72 106 20 When, however, it is desirable to estimate the average weight of steel wire more accurately, multiply that o£ 100 yards of iron wire by 1.02 ; but results so obtained would also slightly vary according to the quality under con- sideration. For comparing the tensile and torsional strengths of wires it is usual to consider their sections in fractional equivalents of a square inch, in order that such areas may be calculated to a uniform constant, or unit of comparison. It will be evident that when the exact diameter of any wire is kuoAvn, its area may bo readily deduced, and after- Breaking Strengtfis in Tons per Square Inch. 75 wards its proportion to a square inch easily computed. In Ryland's table the gauges of the wires are given in milli- metres as well as decimal fractions of inches, so that it may be mentioned that in cases where breaking strains are given in kilos, per square millimetres (as on the Continent), these may be converted into tons per square inch by multiplying the same by .635. The tabulation in question only extends to sizes worked in Lancashire, i.e., up to 20 G., or the demarcation where fine wiredrawing commences. The smallnfess of this gauge, however, will be appreciated upon reference to the illustration Fig. 12. Later on the measurement of finer wires will be considered and the use of the micrometer explained. Some time ago " The Ironmonger " published a very useful Table, by John Lord (late of Brighouse), now of the Springfield Wire Mill, Leyland, for readily calculating the tensile strengths of wire from .270 to .001 in. diameter at one ton per square inch for each 1000th part of an inch. By the author's permission the writer is enabled to give on the following page a modified arrangement of this tabulation, from No. 5 to No. 20 S.W.G. The use of this Table will be at once understood from the following simple example. Assuming it is required to find the equivalent breaking strain of a wire, say .04 in. diameter, in tons per square inch of sectional area, which broke at 400 lb. tension, a case as cited with reference to one of the piano wire tests previously given. Opposite this size of wire in the above Table will be found the co- efficient 2.8 lb., which used as a divisor of the ultimate resistance in pounds., e.g., 400 divided by 2.8 lb., will give in the quotient the equivalent strength in tons per square inch, and which in the present case is nearly 143 tons. The co-efficients for similarly computing the breaking strains of fine wire, i.e., from Nos. 21 to 40 S.W.G., will be given in the succeeding chapter, which deals with this section of the industry. 76 Table for Calculating Strengths of Wire. O o Pi Pi o p:5 O CO O P-i p^ o Q 02 >— I 02 P5 h- 1 H •spunoj ifi -^' -* T)i •*■ Tji Ttf CO M CO CO CO co" sa -l OSOOI^O lOlOlOlOlO-^THrXTXTHTjHTtlTjlThrdCOCOCOeO 1 oo q o o qoo oo ooo oooq qo "OM'S 00 05 o •spunoj THCiq-*rH05J>-*(M OOlOCOiHOSt-lOCO csodooooodjt^t-^jr^i^li^^ocDooioiriioid •IBraT09(J iM iH o o> 00 1^- o in T« CO N -^ osooj^coio t— l>.l>-CO'CDCDCDCOCOCDCOCOCD10lOiiSmm oooooooooooooooooo ■QMS in CO t>- ■gpunoj coq«oco_ _t--*-HQOinco _i>.TH^qq-* ■* co' CO co' co' ■»■ eq oi r-i ,-i th i-i o o o oi ai ro •jBuiioaQ; csoo t-as lo ^ CO cq ^ os oo t- co lO ■<* co •O'MS r-t •spatioj ia>Hi>.Tj< i^cooi o (N q q ;cOCOtOlrfl010-i*(T)' ■|buiio3q; oot^coiorticooq— 1 o>oot-cOLOTtieo 05 0> 05 Ol 05 rHi-lTHiHr-lrHi-lr-lr-IOOOOOOOOO O'MS aq CO •Bpunoj o qoqoocoqio ocoaamrHi-- oo"& 00 i>l i>l CO CO id lO TJ^' -^ -<# co' CO eq (M (m' ^' ^ o »acMqoqoqq •[Btiiioa(j CO in -* CO oq — 1 05 oo i^- co in -* co iM iH J3 OqOqOqOq*' CO co' «' oq -i -i o o cs ci oo' 00 COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOC0COC0COCO(M(N(M(>q •IBUiioaQ; r)-COin-*CO(M.-l OSOOl^- ■*'*'!*i-*-*cocococococococococo<>q(>q(M rHrHrH,HTHi-lTHiHi-liHT-J.Hi-li-lrHiHr-l.-l ■f)A\.-S s •spunoj uqco inOJTtioocoi^aqin'-iq in in co' id in •>*' CO co' eq I TXTtiTti-^-^TitTti-rtiTf^-^Tfcococoeococo •IBinioaQ; oq rH OS 00 i~ CO in -^ CO <>q iH O300J^-cDln cococoinininminininininin-*Tti-*-*T(i ■QM.-S 00 •spunoj; CO i> fH in 05 CO J:^ Tt< 00 oq jt>- m os co i:^ j>l CO id in tH co' CO cq cq rH o o cj ci x i>^ j>^ CO inininininininininoinin-*-*-*-*-*'* •[■EtaiogQ; OS 00 t>- CO in -^ CO iM r-( 05 00 1^- CO in -^ CO oot-J^-^-^^J^"l^-l>■l^-i^-t-^<^cococoCi^co rHTHiHTHr-lrHrH>-liHrHrHiHrHi-l,HTHrHT-( •O-jWS 1> •Bpunoj COCO -*cooOrHinoooq-^in^ co' in -*' •*' co' c; cococococDcocDcDcococococDcoinininin •^BuiioaQ; 00 t- CO in tX CO oq .H os oo i?- co in ■* co oq t-i 050S050105O030J05000000000000000000 •0"M.'S CO •spunoj tH oq -^ CO cs » -^ t* oq >-! o oj 00 00 1>^ co' CO in -* co' co' oq .-i rH o oi 00Q0 00t»t^J^*l>•J^-l^-^'t~'^^J^-J^"ir-i^'CO ■(■Buiioao; cDin-^cooqiH OS 00 1>- CO in "HH CO oq iH os oqeqsqSoqSSoqoqoqoqiyiaqoqSSoqS •OM.-S in Fig. 13. — Wirf.-Testikp M ACHINE. Wire-Tesi.ivf/ MarJimcs. 79 Messrs. John Lord & Son ha\-e somewhat recently started their mill at Leyland, and whei"e they appear to be turning out some creditable steel and charcoal iron wire, &c. We will now turn our attention to some different accepted types of wire-testing machinery for ascertaining the tensile and torsional strengths of various kinds of wire. Fig. 13 illustrates a class of machine much used on the Continent, and in which g, is a counter- weigh ted lever provided with a pointer m, working over the divided arc n, and having connection with the link and wire clip h. The other clamping attachment is shown in connection with the screw spindle h of the handle-wheel. These wire clips h are provided with swivel actions or universal joints for the purpose of allowing automatic adjustment of the parts according to the true line of tension exerted upon the wire during testing. All the parts of the machine are compact and accessible, whilst the employment of skilled attendants is unnecessary. A piece of wire to be tested is placed between the clips h, the jaws of which automatically grip the same when the tensile force is applied or the machine put into operation, and it will be readily under- stood that as the counter-weighted lever g is pulled up or raised by the handle-wheel h into a more horizontal position, so is an increasing tensile force transmitted to the wire in question. A rack and detent device is provided in connection with the said lever g and the traversing ai'C h, so that upon the rupture of the wire the pointer or index finger in is retained in a position to indicate the breaking force exerted, and which is shown upon- the graduated arc n in pounds or kilogrammes as required. It will be further seen that, by the medium of the wheel and screw, spindle h, the tensile strain can be very gi'adually and uniformly applied to the wire fixed between the clips. After the breaking strain has been observed or recorded, the lever Fig. 26. Fig, 27, Bolton's continuous wire mill. 104 Continuous Braiuing of Copper Wire. tion will suffice to explain the system at issue. Fig. 26 represents a front elevation and Fig. 27 a plan of Bolton's apparatus under consideratipn. A is a bench to which a series of lubricating troughs B are fixed for receiving the underside of the cylinders C, formed upon the horizontal shaft C, mounted in suitable bearings attached to the bench. E E^ are two parallel bars for carrying the draw- ing dies e, supported by the standards E^. Ten dies are shown in the illustration as a suitable number for drawing copper or brass wire, but it will be understood that the number in each group could be varied according to require- ments or the metal to be treated. The reels F, mounted on vertical spindles, serve to carry the wire to be drawn or in intermediate stages of attenuation. G is a bar arranged in front of the dies for directing and controlling the course of the wire under treatment. "Wire taken from the reels F is passed around the driving cylinders C, partially immersed in lubricating liquid contained in the chambers B, and then taken to the guiding bar G, around which it is lapped so as to bring it opposite the first drawing die e. Upon examin- ing the drawing it will be readily apparent how the wire is continuously drawn through the series of dies by the cylinders 0, so as to simultaneously cause a uniform in- creasing reduction in the thickness of the wire. After the wire has been pulled through the dies on the bar E, it i=! returned to the cylinders by those on E\ and in like manner it is conducted from one group of dies to the next through- out the consecutive progressive stages, until the wire is drawn through the finishing dies H, fixed on independent supports opposite to the draw-off drums D. The machine is driven by means of a pulley C^, fixed upon the shaft C. The reels F and D are actuated by bands driven from the cylinders through the intervention of the pulleys C^,C*, and D^. For the purpose of throwing the drums D out of action when desired, eccentric motions, D^, are provided Phosphor-Bronze Wire. 105 upon the bench, and by which the drums can be raised clear of frictional contact with their conical spindles D\ As the cylinders C are here all of the same diameter and driven at one speed, obviously any necessary compensation for the elongation of the wire must be obtained by slipping. Fig. 28 illustrates Bolton's invention as applied to the operation of an ordinary draw-bench, similar letters of reference being used to those attached to corresponding parts in the previous figures just described. (M9.E.) Fig. 28. In 1872 C. A. Dick, of Pittsburgh, U.S.A., obtained a British patent for the manufacture of " phosphor bronze," or an alloy composed of copper, tin, and phosphorus, and which was claimed to form a valuable substitute for copper required for electrical and other purposes, inasmuch as it possessed greater tensile strength and was inoxidisable. The alloy contained from 2 to 6 per cent, of tin, and from ^V to ^ per cent, of phosphorus, but it was soon discovered that although greater strength and elasticity were thus obtained, the presence of the last-named element was detrimental to efficient electric conductivity. Sometimes the employment and term of " phosphor bronze " are still some- what indiscriminately applied, but it may be accepted as a 106 Silicium-Bronze Wire. matter of fact that any wires presenting a conductivity of over 35 per cent, are not composed of this alloy, what- ever they may be termed. In 1882 L. Weiller, of Paris, obtained patents for the production of an alloy termed " silicium-bronze," formed by adding silicium and sodium to copper in a particular manner as the broad principle was previously known. His invention practically consisted in the introduction of sub- stances into molten copper or bronze, which by chemical reaction furnished silicium and sodium. For this purpose he placed within a plumbago crucible fluo-silicate of potash pounded glass, chloride of sodium and calcium, carbonate of soda and lime, and applied heat. After reaction had taken place the contents of the crucible was thrown into the molten metal to be treated, and the application of heat continued. Finally the alloy was cast into ingots, rolled into rods and drawn down to wire in the usual manner. The properties of silicium-bronze wire were then found to be that it presented a conductivity of some 40 per cent, within that of copper, and four times more than iron, although only about one-fourth the weight, whilst its tensile strength was nearly that of steel. Mons. Weiller soon realised the impor- tance of his invention for furnishing superior telegraphic and telephonic conductors. According to a modification, the patentee described the use of a metallic base of soda combined with tin or tin and copper to form silicium-bronze, or combinations with silicium in the presence of fluo-silicate of potash when in- troduced into melted copper or bronze. The conductivity of the alloy now ranges from 40 to 98 per cent, within that of copper, and the tensile strength from 29 to 55 tons per square inch of section. During 1888 Weiller supplemented his invention by patents for improving the density and tenacity of his alloy, and which consisted in adding zinc to copper, bronze, or Properties and Uses of Silicium-Bronze. 107 alloys of silicium and sodium. The practical success of Weiller's discoveries are now not only long since proved, but generally accepted, and by way of exemplification ex- tracts from the paper on " Electrical Conductors," read by Mr. W. H. Preece, F.R.S., before the Institution of Civil Engineers, are here appended.* "Phosphorus has a most injurious influence on the electrical resistance of an alloy. Silicium is far superior ; hence the silicious bronze is preferable for telegraphic pur- poses. Its efficiency is very great; in fact, phosphor- bronze has disappeared for telegraph wire, and has been replaced by silicious-bronze. " The electric resistance of silicious-bronze can be made nearly equal to that of copper, but its mechanical strength diminishes as its conductivity increases. Wire whose re- sistance equals 95 per cent, of pure copper gives a tensile strength of 28 tons on the square inch, but when its con- ductivity is 34 per cent, of pure copper its strength is 50 tons on the square inch. Its lightness, combined with its mechanical strength, its high conductivity, and its inde- structibility, rendered it eminently adapted for telegraphs. " Long telegraph lines, for which iron wire weighing 400 lb. per mile is now used, can be made of bronze wire weighing 100 lb. per mile, which would give higher electrical efficiency ; and over-house lines, for which steel wire is often used, can be replaced efficiently by bronze wire, weighing only 30 lb. per mile, which would be almost invisible. " If overhead wires were erected of such a material, upon sightly supports, and with some method, there would be an end to the meaningless crusade made in some quarters against serial lines. These, if constructed judiciously and under proper control, are far more efficient than under- ground lines. Corporation and local authorities should * Vol, Ixxv, of the Proceedings, 108 Silicious-Bronze Wire. control the erection rather than force administrations to needless expense and to reduce efficiency by putting them underground. Not only do light wires hold less snow and less wind, but they produce less electrical disturbance, they can be rendered noiseless, and they allow existing supports to carry a much greater number of wires. Other bronzes have been tried, but without any evident advantage, either in quality or price." These quotations serve to concisely convey the cardinal virtues of silicium-bronze wire as recognised by an incon- testible authority. As a supplement to the advantages already defined, the following particulars may not be super- fluous. The alloy is inoxidisable ; its intrinsic value as a remelted metal is equal to that of the best qualities of copper. There are single poles now in this country which are supporting over 200 silicium-bronze telephone wires, an achievement utterly impossible where iron or even hard- drawn copper wires are employed. For telegraph services a wire .080 in. in diameter, weighing 100 lb. per mile, can be used in lieu of iron wire 0.2 in. in diameter, weighing about 630 lb. per mile. Some qualities of silicium-bronze wire now possess a conductive efficiency up to within 97 per cent, of pure copper, with a tensile resistance of nearly 30 tons per square inch of sectional area. For railway telegraphic purposes, or long distance wires, an alloy pre- senting 80 per cent, of conductivity and 35 tons strength is recommended. For telephone lines, wires of 50 tons strength and a relative conductivity of about 45 per cent, that of copper, is largely used and advocated. Mons. L. Weiller's British and Colonial patents are the sole property of the Phosphor-Bronze Company, Limited, of London, whose manufactures are so well known and appreciated that further comment is unnecessary. This company also manufactures rolled brass, German silver, copper, dipping and gilding, &c., metals. Brass and Delta Wine. 109 In the chapter upon electrical conductors, a Table of the weights and electrical resistances of silicium-bronze wires is incorporated. Brass wire is commonly composed of an alloy formed of If to 2 parts of copper to 1 of zinc, the ingots being rolled into rods in a cold state, in order to obtain strength and tough- ness, and these are afterwards drawn into suitable sized wires, similarly to copper and other metals before described. During drawing it requires, however, to be more frequently annealed than copper wire. An enormous quantity of brass wire is annually consumed in the manufacture of pins, rivets, &c. The tensile strength of this material may range from about 20 to 40 tons per square inch of sectional area, dependent upon the amount of zinc used in the alloy, whereas ordinary drawn and annealed copper wire may range from, say, 15 to 20 tons. Brass wire may be drawn at a speed of from, say, 200 ft. to 350 ft. per minute, and copper wire from about 250 ft. to 750 ft. per minute, depen- dent upon the diameters of the wires. " Delta " wire is made from an alloy composed of copper, iron, and zinc, which forms a very strong and tough material. Some pf this wire has a breaking equivalent of over 60 tons per square inch of section, but in about 45 to 50 ton quality it possesses considerable toughness and plia- bility, and has withstood from thirty-five to forty twists in 8 in. lengths. Some soft delta metal wire is used for the manufacture of special kinds of roping, whilst finer sizes are employed in the production of certain classes of gauze and braiding, &c. The alloy is not subject to oxidation nor deposits of verdigris. Professor Unwin, F.R.S., M.I.C.E., in a somewhat recent lecture referred to the properties of this alloy as follows : — ■ In alluding to the tensile strength of delta wire, which was stated to be 62 tons per square inch, he said it was quite true that steel wire often possessed greater 110 Aluminium and German Silver Wires. tensile strength, in some cases even as much as 150 or 180 tons per square inch, but such wire was brittle. The property o£ delta metal, upon which he would lay special stress, was its toughness, which, combined with its tensile strength and resistance to corrosion, render the alloy ex- ceedingly valuable for many manufactures. Aluminium in the form of wire has a specific gravity of about 2.68, but as its tensile strength is only some 10 tons per square inch of cross-section, and its elastic limit equally low, it cannot be regarded as a useful metal for structural purposes. Fine aluminium wire is sometimes used for philosophical instruments, where great lightness is required and for metallic embroideries or lace, in the place of silver. When, however, the metal is alloyed with copper, a material can be produced — known as " aluminium-bronze" — of high tensile and elastic efficiency. The physical properties of the metal in question are very characteristic, e.g., it is malleable, ductile, sonorous, an excellent conductor of heat and electricity, is inoxidisable and unaffected by the presence of sulphur. Aluminium wire has been drawn as fine as 11,400 yards to the ounce, or at the rate of about .042 grains per yard, a size too fine to be practically measured by any gauge or instrument. Obviously such degrees of fineness are more for exhibition purposes than practical use. Aluminium is probably the most abundant and widely diffused of all metals, although it is never found in nature in a free state, but in combination with every variety of clay in quantities varying from some 10 to 20 per cent. This metal was first extracted by Wohler in 1828. " German or nickel silver " is an alloy of copper, zinc, and nickel, or practically brass whitened by the addition of nickel. This alloy has been drawn into wire as fine as .002 in. in diameter, in which form it is sometimes Used for electrical and other scientific instruments. Whilst mentioning practical examples of fine-drawn Platinum Wire. Ill wires, it may be stated that iron has been thus attenu- ated, so that over 2^ miles in length only weighed one ounce, and frequently this metal has been drawn into wire of .003 to .002 in. in diameter, although very line sizes in so highly an oxidisable metal is not usual or desirable. Amongst the finest practical gauges of iron or steel wire are those used for carding brushes or belts. Platinum is a very valuable metal, found usually in a free state in alluvial deposits where gold is present. The metal was first discovered in Jamaica in 1741, its name being derived from the Spanish, signifying " little silver." The chief spurces of supply are the Ural Mountains, Peru, and parts of Australia and California. Although platinum, like gold, occurs in the metallic state, it is usually found associated with iron and copper or the rarer metals, iridium, rhodium, palladium, and osmium. The metal follows gold and silver for ductile efficiency, and therefore can be readily drawn into the finest sizes of wire, although its high in- trinsic value is greatly against its extensive application. The uses of platinum wire are therefore practically confined to special scientific instruments and electrical appliances in which resistances to high temperatures, oxygen, and acids, are essential. Wire formed of this beautiful metal also finds indispensable employment in blow pipe opei-ations and experiments. Besides its high fusing point, platinum ex- pands less than other metals when heated, and which property therefore permits it being sealed in glass without fear of ci'acking. The practical value of this unique pro- perty makes it extremely useful in the manufacture of incandescent lamps, and various other philosophical pur- poses. By the courtesy of the eminent firm of Messrs. Johnson & Mathey, the writer has had facilities of inspecting the manufacture of platinum wire from .001 in. in diameter, and upwards, and further wires of platinum and silver alloys from .0008 in. in diameter, although that of 112 Silver Wire. about .0015 in. would be considered more a commercial production. Silver is usually extracted from its ores by the process of cupellation, eliquation, or amalgamation, the principal sources of supply being from mines situated in the United States, Mexico, Peru, Chili, Bolivia, Australia, Spain, and Hungary. Silver is the best conductor of heat and electricity amongst the metals, and which properties de- crease as the temperature rises. Its specific gravity ranges from about 10.5 to 10.6 although in its pure state it is usually too soft for practical applications and is there- fore hardened by alloying with copper. The standard silver used for coinage in this country contains about 7 per cent, of copper, and in commercial parlance its de- gree of purity is generally expressed in so many penny- weights above or below the standard value. At normal temperatures silver is not affected by exposure to moist or dry air, but the presence of any sulphur will cause it to tarnish, from the formation of a film of sulphide of silver. In the wire trade this metal is chiefly used for filigree, embroidery, and decorative work, as well as some scientific instruments. In the former applications it is usually employed in the form of silver-gilt wires, some of which have been drawn as fine as 5000 yards to the ounce, but usually it is not drawn finer than .002 in. to .003 in. in diameter, the latter being about the size of a human hair. By the courtesy of the old-established firms of Messrs. H. «fe E. Watts and J. B. Corney, of London, the writer has recently had the opportunity of inspecting some beautiful manufactures in this branch of the wire industry. The first- named firm has drawn some precious metals and alloys into wire so fine that as much as 6500 yards only weighed 1 oz., and no practical method was available for measuring its diameter. Further, they have drawn Silver-GUt Wire. 113 24 grains of gold, on a silver rod, out to 140 miles in length, a result which admirably conveys the degrees of ductility characteristic of gold, silver, and platinum, and the property of divisibility in certain metals. The silver used in this trade is sometimes about 16 dwt. above standard purity, e.g., 992 per 1000 parts, but for many purposes it is used at standard value or even slightly below same. Hatton Garden and Little Britain are now the chief dis- tricts in London where the fine wiredrawers of precious metals carry on their delicate industry. As described in the introduction of this treatise, fine silver-gilt wires are largely made and used for the manufacture of twists, purls, and bullion trimmings, laces, fiUigrees, embroideries, and other decorative devices for -ministerial and ecclesiastical robes, and the uniforms of naval and military officers, &c. Solid drawn gold wire is now practically unknown in the trade, and the economy of the present practice at issue should be appreciated from the previously cited example of some 24 grains of gold being attenuated so as to cover 140 miles of silver wire. Usually, however, silver-gilt wire of 1500 to 2500 yards to the ounce is fine enough for most commercial requirements. The quantity of gold put upon the rods to be drawn into wire naturally varies according to the quality to be produced, but it may be taken on an average to range from IJ to 2 per cent, of the weight of silver to be manipulated. The gold is put on to the silver rods in the form of best leaves, about 4| in. square, weighing some 18 grains per leaf, and the two metals are then drawn down together, first through steel dies, and afterwards through drilled rubies, sapphires, or diamonds, which constitute expensive items in the trade. The French still retain a high reputation for the manufacture of these "gem draw-plates." In the first place the silver ingots, weighing some 1000 oz., are refined or " grained " by melt- I 114 Manufacture of Silver-Gilt Wire. ing and pouring into water, and by which it assumes a granular form. These granules are then collected and melted down into bars, which are subsequently forged into rods, about 2 in. in diameter, under a small steam hammer, in order to obtain compactness or molecular homogeneity. The rods are then " straight drawn'' in the cold state through metal dies in order to obtain a smooth surface, when the gold leaves are attached by tapping or rubbing and the straight drawing is continued until they are reduced to about \ in. in diameter. When the gilding is performed the rods are about If in. in diameter by 2 ft. 6 in. long, and weigh some 350 oz. to 400 oz. each. The reduced rods are then drawn upon "blocks" in the usual manner until the wire is fine enough to be treated in the gem- plates before referred to by the assistance of wax, soap, oil, or other suitable lubricants. The fine wire is drawn upon pulleys, about 18 in. in diameter, operated by hand, at a peripheral speed up to about 20 ft. per second. At the requisite intermediate stages the wire is annealed by winding it on to small copper cylinders some 4 in. in dia- meter, which are then placed for a few minutes within a charcoal fire. During the various stages of attenuation the wire is at first broken up into about 30-oz. hanks or coils of different gauges, and later into reels of finer wire from, say, 15 oz. to 5 oz. each, the latter containing probably a length of fully 7000 yards. From the particulars previously given it will be evident that the aggregate lengths of wire obtained from an original rod may equal from 400 to 500 miles. The method of drilling the gems to such extra- ordinary degrees of fineness, requisite for the manufacture of this and other similar classes of fine wire, is kept a secret in the trade. The writer has examined some such mineral draw-plates, in which the holes were only discernible by aid of a magnifying glass. After the silver-gilt wire has been drawn to the required sizes it is flattened out by Silver-Gilt Wire. 115 rolling in a delicate and very accurate machine, also men- tioned in the introduction to this volume, so as to present a larger covering surface when spun upon the yellow silken threads, in which form it is usually sold, for working into various decorative embellishments. For the manufacture of the more common kinds of silver and silver-gilt wires the silver is sometimes bored out and internal copper rods inserted into the same, and the two or three metals are thus simultaneously drawn down together. This affords an astonishing example of the ductile efSciency of certain metals when even only mechanically combined. The inser- tion of aluminium has been similarly tried for the produc- tion of silvered wires, but apparently without much success. For theatrical costumes, wires and " spangles" of yellow and other coloured compositions are largely used, but superior kinds of spangles are also manufactured from minute rings of silver-gilt wire, which are each hammered out on an anvil so as to weld the cuts in the wire and form beautifully bright little discs of metal with holes through their centres. It has been pointed out that wires of very fine sizes are estimated more according to weight of a given length than by any mechanical methods of measurement. However, wires as fine as a human hair, e.g., .003 in. in diameter, and even thinner, can be gauged by delicate instruments termed " micrometers," an example of which is given at Fig. 29 of the illustrations. The diameter of any specimen may be accu- rately determined upon insertion between the fixed head- piece and the fine adjustable screw-spindle (at A), when the latter is screwed up to the wire and the measurement read ofi'in decimal fractions of an inch by the Vernier and scale pro- vided upon the collar and handle of the instrument shown. The descriptive numbers of the standard wire gauge range from No. 7/0 (.500 in. in diameter) to No. 50 (.0010 in), but for all ordinary practical purposes No. 40 (.0048 in.) is small 116 The Micrometer. enough, indeed, upon reference to Fig. 12, No. 36 (.0076 in.) can only be diagrammatically conveyed by a fine line. For the purpose of calculating the comparative breaking strains of fine wires in tons per square inch of sectional Fig. 29. area, further revised co-efiicients from John Lord's Tables are now appended, the use of which will be self -apparent No. S.W.G. Decimal. Pounds. No. S.W.G. Decimal. Pounds. 20 .036 2.3 25 .019 .635 .035 2.15 26 .018 .57 .034 2 .017 .51 .033 1.91 27 .016 .45 21 .032 1.8 .015 .40 .031 1.7 28 .014 .346 .03 1.6 29 .013 .299 .029 1.48 30 .012 .252 22 .028 1.38 31 .011 .2128 .027 1.28 32 .01 .1767 .026 1.19 34 .009 .1425 .025 1.1 35 .008 .1126 23 .024 1.01 36 .007 .0862 .023 .93 37 .006 .0633 24 .022 .85 39 .005 .044 .021 .77 40 .004 .0282 25 .02 .7 after the description and example given in the previous chapter. Calculations re Strengths of Fine Wire. 117 Nos. 33 and 38 are omitted because their differences from the preceding gauges are only in the fourth decimal figures, i.e., .0108 in., .0100 in., and .0068 in., .0060 in. For most practical purposes the gauge template shown at Fig. 12 will be found sufficient for determining the sizes of all ordinary wires, the use of the micrometer is slower and more complicated, besides in the hands of workmen being liable to errors from unobserved movement. To the eye or by rough measurement, the notches in the template will appear to decrease by uniform and almost imperceptible gradation, but by the use of a micrometer, or upon re- ference to Lord's Table in Chapter I., it will be seen that between some gauges several thousandths of an inch inter- vene. Upon reference to Rylands' Table the ratio of attenuation or elongation that wire undergoes by drawing, will be seen to be directly according to the squares of sectional diminution. The well-known continental firm, Messrs. Felten & Guilleaume, as pointed out in the introductory chapter^ commenced their business at Cologne about a century and a half ago under the auspices of Mr. J. T. Felten, whose name has been retained in the style of the firm up to date, although the establishment for the last six decades has been exclusively controlled by the Guilleaume family. The rapid development of their business is unquestionably largely ascribable to the enterprise, energy, and ability of the late F. C. Guilleaume, combined with the natural business aptitudes of the successive heads of the firm. Mr. Theodore Guilleaume is the present sole proprietor. The migration of the firm to Millheim-on-the-Rhine is but of comparatively recent date, and the factory that was founded in 1873 has since grown up to an enormous establishment without parallel in the wire trade of the world. These works now cover an area of some eighty acres of ground, which is monopolised by an exten- lis Wire Works on the Continent. sive aggregation o£ wire mills, galvanising shops, wire roperies, cabling, and barb wire factories, smelting works and mechanical workshops, &c., o£ every description, supplemented by efficient chemical and mechanical testing laboratories, and a good technical library of standard works. The operative staff, which has been constantly increasing, now comprises 2500 hands, besides a large number of oiitdoor employes. A pictorial view representing the Miilheim Works is given on the opposite page. Some idea of the magnitude of Messrs. Felten & Guilleaume's operations may be gathered from the fact that they are producing upwards of 50,000 tons of wire and wire manufactures, and electric cables per annum. Every class of wire, from the commonest qualities up to the highest grades, is manufactured by this firm at Miilheim, e.g., for fencing and other agricultural uses, for spring-making, ropes, musical instruments, wool-carding, telegraphic, and other purposes too numerous to mention. Steel, copper, and bronze, &c., wires are drawn on the pre- mises, from the largest to the smallest sizes used in the trade. In the wire rope departments they are similarly employed upon every description of work. Another prominent feature of this establishment consists in the manufacture of electric conductors and cables of various kinds. The cable factory and its accessories are devoted to the production of every description of telegraph, telephone, and electric light, &c., cables and wires, of all qualities and sizes. The firm has its own gas and water works and electric light installations on the premises, whilst suitable access to and from the works is obtained by some 2000 yards of full-gauge railway. The requisite motive power is fur- nished by engines of 2400 nominal horse-power. Besides the Mijlheim establishment, Messrs. Felten & M n M H i M 1-1 M ■ rt o O Hi S Wire Works Abroad. 121 Guilleaume are the proprietors o£ a large spinning mill at Rosenthal, Cologne, for manufacturing hemp-rope, twine, &c. Here the output is about 4000 tons per annum, and which employs 900 hands and 1200 horse-power. Space does not permit of more than a casual reference to one or two of this firm's achievements, e.g., they were the pioneers of the wire and wire rope industries of the Continent, and now control the largest establishment, not only in Europe, but in the whole world. Upwards of 40,000 tons of finished wire are annually produced at these works. The first telegraph wire for the Prussian Telegraph Department was drawn by this firm. The German under- ground system of telegraphy was definitely ratified after the success of Messrs. Felten & Guilleaume's cables, laid on the experimental section between Berlin and Halle. It was this eminent firm who supplied and laid the major portion of the telegraph cables which now intersect the German Empire. The telephone cables produced by this firm enjoy a well-merited reputation, especially in hot climates, where some other cables have failed. Their electric light cables are giving satisfaction at the nume- rous central stations installed by this firm, amongst which may be cited those at Barmen, Hamburg, Bremen, Lubeck, &c. By no means the least noteworthy feature connected with this firm is the manifest care bestowed upon the comfort of their staff". The numerous workmen's dwellings built by the firm are models of sanitary construction; an infant asylum, a free school, co-operative stores and savings bank, testify to the firm's care for the welfare of their employes and offsprings. It may also be mentioned that by their very eligible situa- tion on the banks of the Rhine they possess good facilities for shipping, so that the works enjoy every convenience for speedy transport by land or water, 122 Wire Factories in the U.S.A. In the United States of Araeiica there are several import- ant wire rod-rolling, drawing, and rope-manufacturing firms, amongst which, perhaps, that of Messrs. John Roeb- lings, Sons & Co. will he most familiar. The works of this company were established at Trenton, New Jersey, in the year 1849, and at present occupy an area of some 25 acres of ground. The rope-producing capacity of these extensive works is stated to be equal to 7000 tons per annum. The premises are equipped with suitable appliances for the manufacture of all kinds of wire roping and cables for mechanical and electrical purposes, besides the production of wii-e netting, nails, and fencing materials, &c. — in which industry some 2000 hands derive daily employment. This American firm has manufactured large quantities of special roping for cable tramway purposes, some of which, it is stated, have attained a running life of over 90,000 miles. Some of these ropes are 7 miles long, in one continuous piece. Ropes manufactured by this company are usually of six strands of seven or nineteen wires, the latter con- struction being preferred in cases where considerable pliability is required. Here the safe working loads of roping are estimated at from one-fifth to one-seventh of their ulti- mate breaking strengths, whereas in Great Britain, the average factors of safety vary from one-sixth to one-tenth of their ultimate resistances and as will be discussed in a later chapter. Messsrs. Roeblings manufacture various classes of steel wire cables up to a tensile efficiency of from 200,000 lb. to 300,000 lb. per square inch of sectional area, say, to 130 tons. This firm has supplied cables for numerous important suspension bridges built in America, e.g., those used in the construction of the Niagara Falls, Cincinnati, Pittsburg, and New York and Brooklyn Bridges, &c. Our transatlantic cousins are in some respects to be congra- tulated upon their system of co-operation and protection in American Wire Works. 123 order to maintain more profitable prices for manufactures ; in this country the wire and rope trades are at present se- verely mutilated by cutting competition. Messrs. lloeblings also produce large quantities of iron, steel, and copper telegraphic and telephonic wires, pos- sessing high conductive and other physical properties. The Belgian system of rolling long lengths of wire rods and improved methods of galvanising wire were first introduced into the United States at these works. The efficient arrangement of the continuous rod-rolling machinery provided at these important works has already been described in the preceding chapter. Here the anneal- ing furnaces are mainly heated by petroleum gas, a system both clean and effective. The wire cleansing and liming department is also admirably arranged, with the view of economising labour. These stages of treatment are carried on in circular vats accessible to hydraulic cranes, and which take the hanks of wire from the washing solutions to the limewater tanks with ease and despatch. Some 30,000 tons of finished wire are annually turned out at this establishment, which, on the whole, is a model of well studied convenience and modern efficiency. Thomson-Houston's electric welding apparatus is largely used in these works. Mr. C. G. Roebling, son of the late well-known engineer of this name, is president of this com- pany. Messrs. Roeblings have also extensive warehouses or stores in New York, Chicago, and San Francisco. Messrs. Washburn, Moen, & Co., of Worcester, Mass., founded by I. Washburn and B. Goddard in 1831, is one of the largest and most important concerns in the States. Their present works cover about 50 acres, and give employment to some 3000 hands ; the premises have been twice demolished by fire. This company now manufactures all kinds of iron, steel, and copper wire, besides barbed fencing and wire ropes. In 1856 the firm commenced the manufacture of 124 American Wire WorJcs. tempered music wire, and in 1869 adopted a system of con- tinuous rodrolling. The enterprise was turned into a com- pany in 1868. The works of the Aluminium, Brass, and Bronze Company at Bridgeport, Conn., are also worthy of men- tion amongst the important producers of wire across the Atlantic. 2^he Wire-Oauge Question. 125 CHAPTER III. WIRE GAUGES AND OTHER TRADE CONSIDERATIONS. Probably the first definitely mentioned gauge or " size " for measuring the diameters of wire was that described in Lewis' " Philosophical Commerce of Art," published in 1745, and consisting of a brass plate provided with step- like notches. Hughes states in his pamphlet on the subject, that after a long and diligent search he failed to discover any wire gauge prior to 1842 that contained more than twenty-six sizes. The complications and confusions that subsequently developed themselves will be readily apparent upon examining the Table on the following page, which gives some examples of the variations in wire gauges used from 1866 to 1881, the sizes being expressed in lOOOths of an inch. This epitomised tabulation presents a simple view of the incongruity then existing, but the magnitude and impor- tance of the question is far more forcibly demonstrated by Hughes' treatise of 1879, and in which the author displays no less than fifty-five different gauges, forty-five of which were for measuring or determining the sizes of wire manufactured and sold within the United Kingdom. Stubs, of Warrington, in 1843 commenced to gauge his wire by "mils," and this system was followed by Sir Joseph Whitworth in 1857. A year later J. Cocker, of Liverpool, advocated another standard of measurement. In 1867 Latimer Clarke, M.I.O.E., read a paper before the British Association, upon the "Birmingham wire gauge," 126 Old Wire Gauges. o CO o OT CO o o 00 CO o CO CO o o o 00 CO o lO 00 CO CO o o o O -H o o CO o o o «5 o o o o to o 00 o o o o CD O o o 00 00 o c> o o oq to o lo in to CO o o Oi CO o CO CD o o 00 05 CD CD O O o o lO 1:- O !>■ O 03 -* CO i- O O O H CO CO 00 iH O Q 02 & 03 o & d3 H 03 o 02 PQ O O 1^ w «1 H o 00 o CO 00 o CO CO 00 00 o o 00 o J>- 00 o o o tH o o o o o iH CO o o O CO Iffl 00 00 CO o o o 00 OS o o o rH O 5q o oq CO OJ CO O .H oq oq CD CO OS eq oq 00 CO 00 CO oq oq oq o CO oq in oq o oq OS oq OS oq 00 oq 00 CO oq 00 CD (M O oq CO oq T)H O 00 t- oq oq oq_ OS CD oq H » n )H S „ CB M law 02 o oq o CO o tH (~, o oq CO (, OS tH o OS o OS o o OS CO oq CO oq '^. CO CO oq '^. °i CD o CD o Q ■* -* o cq oq oq cq oq oq CO CO CO CO '". ' CO CO • m •saonvo ■saonvo so Confusions Caused by Old Gauges. 127 and subsequently proposed the adoption of his amended system. In a report by a special committee, appointed by the American Institute of Mining Engineers, published in 1877, it was proposed to abandon numbers for expressing certain sizes, and to adopt a gauge graduated according to thousandths of an inch, or the equivalents, as determined by the micrometer. The committee in question found that all existing wire gauges were only approximately correct, and that those made by different manufacturers all varied perceptibly. Such a state of inaccuracy and incongruity naturally gave rise to annoyance, disputes and lawsuits, besides stimulating carelessness amongst the wiredrawers. Later, the Yorkshire and Lancashire gauges, besides those of music, screw, pins, needles, and pinion wire, &c., became more or less indiscriminately incorporated under the de- nomination of the " Birmingham wire gauge." An example of the confusion thus arising is related by Hughes as fol- lowing : " An order was received from New York for some copper wire of No. 32 gauge, — Warrington gauge being the size intended. The order was, however, given to a Bir- mingham manufacturer to execute, and who supplied the wire according to his gauge, with the result that after arrival it was found to be incorrect and consequently rejected. Now, No. 32, on the Warrington standard, equalled No. 36 on the Birmingham gauge, whilst the difference of price between the two sizes amounted to £129 per ton." As the French and Germans had settled upon a stan- dard wire gauge, based upon the millimetre, it was very natural that a strong agitation should be raised in this country in favour of establishing some similar pro- vision. In' 1882 and the beginning of 1883 meetings were 128 Necessity of a Standard Wire Gauge. accordingly held by our iron and steel manufacturers, with the view of discussing this important question, and arriving at some practical solution of the vexatious problem at issue. The association of manufacturers appeared at first con- siderably in favour of an amalgamation of gauges, e.g., Lan- cashire sizes down to No. 20, and afterwards those of York- shire, which were further to be defined in thousandth parts of an inch. Consequently a memorial was addressed in July, Impbbiai Standard Wire Gauge. alents .ctions Inch. a alents lotions Inch. alents .ctions Inch. s s .E;S« ss •SSb bS .EiSrt SS.5 afR c8 ^^ 3fC| cs S 3 afc( ■« -Q^ H.S"3 w.g-s fi!^ W.go 7/0 .500 13 .092 32 .0108 6/0 .464 14 .080 33 .0100 5/0 .435i 15 .072 34 .0092 4/0 .400 16 .064 35 .0084 3/0 .372 17 .056 36 .0076 2/0 .348 18 .048 37 .0068 1/0 .324 19 .040 38 .0060 1 .300 20 .036 39 .0052 2 .276 21 .032 40 .0048 3 .252 22 .028 41 .0044 4 .232 23 .024 42 .0040 5 .212 24 .022 43 .0036 6 .192 25 .020 44 .0032 7 .176 26 .018 45 .0028 8 .160 27 .0164 46 .0024 9 .144 28 .0148 47 .0020 10 .128 29 .0136 48 .0016 11 .116 30 .0124 49 .0012 12 .104 31 .0116 50 .0010 1882, to the Right Hon. J. Chamberlain, President of the Board of Trade, and which resulted in counter proposals of material difierence to the scheme submitted. Deputa- tions were then organised and a further memorial tendered defining the objections of the Manufacturers' Association to the suggested modifications of the Board of Trade authorities, the document being supported by Messrs. Johnson & Nephew, Rylands Bros., Nettlefolds Limited, Uniform Wire Gauges. 129 The Whitecross Company, Edelston & Williams, The Shrop- shire Iron Company, Eamsden & Camm, Greening & Sons, Eoyston & Co., A. Rollason, Frederick Smith & Co., &c. Further proposed amendments by the Board of Trade were again rejected by the Association in February, 1883, but shortly afterwards an understanding was mutually agreed upon, and which resulted in the inauguration of the " Imperial Standard Wire Gauge." During September, 1883, the Board of Trade officially intimated to the manufacturers that their final system and schedule had been verified under the Weights and Measures Act of 1878, and in March, 1884, the new and long-sought uniform gauge became law, the denominations of which are given on the opposite page The German millimetre equivalents to our standard gauge are now appended from a No. 5 rod to No. 35 gauge wire : Number of English Standard W.G. German Millimetre W.G. Equivalents. Number of English Standard W.G. German Millimetre W.G. Equivalents. 6 5.38 20 0.91 6 4.87 21 0.81 7 4.47 22 0.71 8 4.06 23 0.61 9 3.66 24 0.56 10 3.25 25 0.51 11 2.95 26 0.46 12 2.64 27 0.42 13 2.34 28 0.38 14 2.03 29 0.34 15 1.83 30 0.31 16 1.63 31 0.29 17 1.42 32 0.27 18 1.22 33 0.25 19 1.02 34 0.23 35 0.21 In the United States of America many manufacturers designate the gauges they use after their own names, but practically they are nearly all precisely similar to Roebling's 130 Uniform Wire Gauges. and Washburn-Moen's standard, now frequently termed " the National wire gauge," the comparative sizes of which are defined Ibelow in decimal parts of an inch. Number of Wire Gauge. U.S.A. Roebling's and Washburn-Moen's Gauge. Brown and Sharpe'a Gauge. U.S.A. Eijuivalents in the English Legal Standard. S.W.G. in. in. in. 000000 .46 .464 00000 .43 .432 0000 .393 .46" .4 000 .362 .40964 .372 00 .331 .3648 .348 .307 .32495 .324 1 .283 .2893 .3 2 .263 .25763 .276 3 .244 .22942 .252 4. .225 .20431 .232 5 .207 .18194 .212 6 .192 .16202 .192 7 .177 .14428 .176 8 .162 .12849 .16 9 .148 .11443 .144 10 .135 .10189 .128 11 .12 .09074 .116 • 12 .105 .08081 .104 13 .092 .07196 .092 14 .08 , .06408 .08 15 .072 .05706 .072 16 .063 .05082 .064 17 .054 .04525 .056 18 .047 .0403 .048 19 .041 .03589 .04 20 .035 .03196 .036 21 .032 .02846 .032 22 .028 .02534 .028 23 .025 .02257 .024 24 .023 .0201 .022 25 .02 .0179 .02 26 .018 .01594 .018 27 .017 .01419 .0164 28 .016 .01264 .0148 29 .015 .01125 .0136 30 .014 .01002 .0124 31 .0135 .00893 .0116 32 .013 .00795 .0108 33 .011 .00708 .01 34 .01 .0063 .0092 35 .0095 .00561 .0084 36 .009 .005 .0076 Wire Gauges and other Trade Questions. 131 Although the " standard wire gauge " is the only legally recognised scale within our kingdom, nevertheless some manufacturers and engineers still persistently adhere to quoting Birmingham and other obsolete gauges; indeed, the writer has before him recent catalogues and specifica- tions wherein " nearest B.W.G.," &c., is repeatedly referred to. This practice is not only superfluous and confusing, but a dangerous source of maintaining in circulation illegal standards, or the observance of irregular sizes which cannot be enforced by law. Dr. Wedding, of Berlin, pointed out in 1885 that the wire export trade of Germany had, in certain districts, attained fully 60 per cent, of their production, and which had increased some fortyfold since 1850. Such thrifty and assiduous applications, combined with marked business enterprise and tact, are certainly praiseworthy, and doubt- less are now appreciated as a justifiable basis of self- congratulation. During a controversy which took place in a wire trade journal a few years ago it was pointed out that in 1877 the United Kingdom exported about 51,000 tons of iron and steel rods and wire, whilst Germany contributed some 32,000 tons of such products to outside markets. Seven years later, i.e., by 1884, the state of affairs was, however, much altered, for, whilst our manufacturers were exporting some 53,000 tons, our Teutonic competitors exceeded 240,000 tons, and out of which over 50,000 tons were sent into Great Britain. It may be here appropriately explained that very little plain wire is exported by Belgian manufacturers, although large quantities of wire nails and kindred products are annually distributed abroad. As German manufacturers, however, ship largely from Belgian ports, e.g., Antwerp for America and Australia, &c., many may incorrectly conclude that wire thus transported has been produced in the country. 132 International Trade Considerations. The writer has often observed the diligence with which some foreign firms apply themselves to a course of continual study and improvement, which in some cases is apparently superseded in this country by superficial know- ledge and arrogance. On the other hand it may be perhaps advanced that some foreign contemporaries may not have been always particularly conscientious as to the manner in which they sometimes obtained their infor- mation and trade. The present, however, is a period of keen competition, in which conservatism, insular prejudices or lethargy are ill-adapted. Reverting to the wire trade, it may have been concluded from examples cited, that, comparatively, there are no large factories in this country, therefore it should be mentioned that although we may not have moved sufficiently rapid to effectually hold our own in all branches of the industry, nevertheless superior grades of most English wire and manufactured products are still acknowledged to be the best obtainable throughout the world. Amongst the more common grades of wire and wire pro- ducts both our home and colonial trade have, apparently, of late years, suffered much from foreign competition. Indeed, it is incontestably clear that there are now large consumers of wire in this country who have been prac- tically driven into Continental markets in order to get supplied with anything like promptness. This apparently inconsistent independence existing amongst some of our manufacturers may be deserving of censure, but un- questionably labour troubles, geographical disadvantages, and high inland freights have been largely the cause of the above-mentioned state of affairs. In September, 1883, the Iron and Steel Wire Manufac- turers' Association of this country sent a deputation to the goods managers of our leading railway companies to plead for a reduction of rates from the midlands to Railway Rates : American Imports. 138 London. At this time special through freights, allowed from the Continent to, say, Birmingham, were less than the railway charges for conveying goods from this city to London. During the December following the reasonable overtures of our manufacturers were rejected by the railway authorities, and it was not until some four years later that such unfair privileges were eradicated by the amendment of the Railways Act. Railway rates on the Continent are far more favourable to export business than those in this country, whilst manu- facturers possessing the advantage of water freights stil further handicap our industries. For example, the present freight from Antwerp to London is very little more than the railway rate from Warrington to Liverpool, a distance of only twenty miles. At one time the United States of America afforded a profitable field for the importation of wire billets and rods, besides various qualities of finished wire. Only a few years ago these imports exceeded 190,000 tons, but at present the trade is comparatively insignificant, and every year shows a marked decline as their home industries improve and develop. The amount of wire rods imported into the States during the nine months ending September, ]890, was about 43,500 tons, whilst that of wire and wire roping only comprised 3370 tons. The falling off" in this trade appears mainly attributable to the development of the wire industry in the States, for at this time the effects of the popular incubus, "The McKinley Tariff" Bill," had not yet been felt, although it is not to be supposed that a measure that now extends from the humblest necessities of life to funereal exigencies should ignore all branches of the wire trade. It was a curious coincidence that the British Iron and Steel Institu- tion should have met last autumn for the first time upon American soil just as its statesmen had shown their dislike 134 Foreign Exports. to European competition by enacting the most drastic duty law. Large quantities of common fencing wire are annually shipped to the Australian and New Zealand colonies, but the greater part is now furnished by German manufacturers, who have spared no money or energy in extending their connections in every quarter of the habitable globe. Manufacturers in the United States, owing to protective tariffs and consequent high prices of labour and materials, cannot profitably compete in the export trade of the out side world, but at present they have plenty to do to meet their own internal demands. Electrical Conductors. 135 CHAPTER IV. ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS. The scope of this volume will not permit of any lengthy- dissertation upon electrical conductors generally, nor upon the multifarious scientific considerations involved in their applications,' therefore it will be necessary to confine our- selves to matters bearing directly upon a few forms of uninsulated wires and specifications relating thereto. Sir William Thomson in 1856 directed attention to the various conducting eflBciencies of certain metals and the cause of fluctuations, &c. Four years later Mr. A. Mat- theissen proved the variable conductivity of copper to be due to the presence of impurities, and established a standard of purity or conductivity almost universally accepted and used up to the present date. Copper and its alloys form the best practical electrical conductors known, although for certain purposes iron and steel are extensively used. The conductivity of the first Atlantic cable, laid in 1856, is recorded as having been 50 per cent., whereas modern cables may ha,ve a conduc- tivity of fully 98 per cent. This marked improvement is mainly attributable to the purity of the copper at present obtainable, and which, as mentioned in a previous chapter, may now be had practically pure. Taking Mattheissen's standard of pure copper as 100 per cent., some refined metal recently manufactured has exhibited an electrical conductivity equivalent to 103 per cent., but the efficiency is dependent upon temperature. Thus, it is possible for 136 Gcypper, &c., Condvxtors. the resistance of conductors to vary 10 or 15 per cent, between summer and winter in some parts of the world. The properties of hard and soft-drawn copper wire have been previously discussed in Chapter II., from which it will be remembered that the metal does not oxidise or corrode like iron or steel ; on the other hand it lacks the elasticity characteristic of the latter. It has also been pointed out that hard-drawn copper wire has a greater tensile re- sistance than that of soft drawn, but its conductivity is slightly impaired. Many authorities consider that after years of service, copper conductors are rendered somewhat brittle by the influence of electric currents, whilst others support the properties of constancy and durability. The electrical conductivity of copper is six times that of iron. Hard-drawn alloys of copper containing small quantities of tin form strong and valuable conductors, amongst which class that of silicium-bronze may be incorporated. This and other similar alloys are further useful for resisting the action of air impregnate'd with salt, and as encountered in seaside localities. German silver is used for electrical conductors of high resistance, but this alloy is rendered decidedly brittle by age or service. As Mattheissen's researches and tabulations upon the conductivity of copper were accomplished some sixty years ago, it is reasonable to conceive the possibility of their im- provement. Readers interested in this important branch of the subject at issue should study Mattheissen's series of papers published in the Transactions of the Royal Society, and T. C. Fitzpatrick's paper read before the British Association last September, being an Appendix to the Report of the Committee on Electrical Standards. Mattheissen found that impurities in copper sufficient to decrease its density from 8.94 to 8.90 produced a marked increase of electrical resistance. Electrolytically deposited copper may have a very high Purity and Conductivity of Copper. 137 degree of conductivity. The specific gravity of copper wire may, however, be varied by the process of drawing, and therefore it is not necessarily entirely dependent upon the presence of impurities. According to Fitzpatrick's recent experiments the dif- ference between the density of hard-drawn and annealed copper wire is .0039. This gentleman's researches with electrolytically prepared copper wire, obtained by fusion within porcelain tubes through which hydrogen was passed, resulted in the following determinations : (0 <1> f Wire rmina- Resist- .^'^• Resistance of ■4^ .2 O B — I s .a .5 ll ll CD Weight per K metre in Kil grammes. 1' Electrical Res ance at 0° C. Ohms per Ki Electrical Res ance at 32° F. Ohms per Mi Electrical Res ance at 0° C. Ohms per Ki Electrical Res ance at 32° F. Ohms per Mi Electrical Res ance at 32'' F. Ohms per Mi 158 4.0 12.5664 112.00 400 1.32 2.12 1.54 2.47 148 3.75 11.0446 98.44 348 1.51 2.42 1.83 2.94 138 3.50 9.6211 86.75 304 1.73 2.77 2.09 3.35 128 3.25 8.2968 73.94 261 2.01 3.22 2.13 3.86 118 3.0 7.0685 63.00 223 2.36 3.78 2.85 4.57 114 2.9 6.6062 58.87 210 2.53 4.05 3.05 4.90 110 2.8 6.1575 54.88 195 2.71 4.33 3.28 5.25 106 2.7 5.7255 51.03 181 2.91 4.65 3.52 5.64 102 2.6 5.3093 47.32 168 3.U 5.02 3.80 6.09 99 2.5 4.9087 43.75 155 3.40 5.44 4.11 6.60 95 2.4 4.5238 40.32 143 3.69 5.91 4.29 6.90 91 2.3 4.1547 37.03 131 4.02 6.43 4.46 7.15 87 2.2 3.8013 33.88 120 4.39 7.02 5.33 8.55 83 2.1 3.4636 30.87 110 4.82 7.71 5.82 9.32 79 2.0 3.1415 28.00 100 5.31 8.50 6.42 10 30 12.24 19.60 75 1.9 2.8352 25.27 92 5.89 9.43 7.00 11.26 13.56 21.70 71 1.8 2.5446 22.68 82 6.56 10.50 7.93 12.70 15.11 24.18 67 1.7 2.2698 20.23 73 7.37 11.79 8.89 14.25 16.94 27.00 63 1.6 2.0105 17.92 64 8.31 13.29 10.04 16.09 19.13 31.25 59 1.5 1.7671 15.75 554 9.45 15.12 11.42 18.30 21.77 35.00 55 1.4 1.5393 13.72 48 10.85 17.36 13.11 21.00 24.98 40.00 51 1.3 1.3273 11.83 42 12.59 20.14 15.20 24.40 28.98 46.00 48 1.25 1.2272 10.93 384 13.64 21.82 16.35 26.19 30.65 49.00 47 1.2 1.1309 10.08 36 14.77 23.63 17.87 28.80 34.01 54.00 43 1.1 0.9502 8.47 30 17.58 28.12 21.24 34.00 40.47 66.00 40 1.0 0.7854 7.00 25 21.28 34.00 25.70 42.00 48.98 79.00 36 0.9 0.6362 5.67 20 60.46 98.00 31 0.8 0.5026 4.48 16 73.40 118.00 Breaking strain B.W.G. of No. 14 about 3501b. about 4201b. about 280 lb. Breaking strain B.W.&. of No. 18 ^ about 2001b. 140 Silicious- Bronze Telegraph, &c., Wire. a weight of 21 kilos., and an electrical resistance equal to 5.31 ohms. The kilometric weights being in the proportion of 155 to 22, it follows, other things being equal, that the relative prices may vary to an inverse degree. Even when copper commanded a far higher price than it does at present, the uses of bronze conductors offered undoubted advantages, the difference in cost being largely compensated .3 g •-I h tiO o ■so Length of Wire. Relative Con- ductivity. Electrical Resistance at Zero per Kilo. Tensile Strength per Square Inch. Number of Bends to a Right- Angle. Bending Test. Telephonic SUicious-Bronze Wire. !-8 lb. ft. per cent. ohms. tons. 33 5800 43 39.5 48.25 40 5850 43 33.2 48.89 55 5200 43 21.25 45.71 55 2925 43 11.95 44.44 Telegraphic Silicious- Bronze Wire. 28.6 24368 102 80.5 26 63.8 5272 98.8 9.24 28.89 99.0 6031 98.8 5.20 29 122 2859 99.6 2.29 28,76 105.6 1247 99.0 1.02 28.57 12 12 10 8 14 9 Copper Wire of High Conductivity. fx> 30.8 26240 101.7 80.8 28.57 4 1^ 30.8 13408 100.7 41.7 28.57 4 n 61.6 13120 100.8 40.0 28.57 4 H 125.4 2303 102 1.74 28.57 4 ii 118.8 1010 101 0.81 28.57 4 for by the almost indefinite period that they will last, while iron and steel corrode rapidly, and have practically little "scrap" value. Another benefit lies in the great light- ness of the wires, which involves economies in transport, handling and fixing, the price of posts, and insulators, &c. Certainly at the present time the advantages are largely in favour of silicious- bronze, since at current rates it costs no Hard and Soft Copper and Silicious-Bronze Wire. 141 more than iron. At the International French Exihibtion of 1889 the descriptions (on opposite page) of copper and silicious-bronze wire were shown by Mons. Weiller. Where silicious-bronze wires have been employed for telegraphic purposes, their usefulness has been sometimes increased by making them also serve as telephone lines, e.g., the two lines between Paris and "Brussels, formed of four wires of three millimetres in diameter, with a total iresistance of 1562 ohms, the distance between the two cities being 207 miles. The electric light conductors laid by the Edison Company and others for the transmission of power by elec- tricity, in the Paris boulevards, are formed of large cables of silicious-bronze, some of which have as much as 775 square millimetres of metallic section. Below is given a Table of sizes, weights, and tests of hard-drawn copper wire as manufactured by Messrs. Frederick Smith & Co., of Halifax. No. Diameter in thousandths of an Inch. Weight per Mile. Breaking Strain. Torsion in 3 inches. Electrical Resistance per Mile. lb. lb. twists. ohms. 8 .160 400 1200 8 2.3 9 .144 324 980 11 2.9 10 .128 256 700 15 3.6 H .116 210 680 20 4.4 12 .104 169 530 25 5.45 13 .092 132 420 27 7 14 .080 100 330 30 9.2 15 .072 81 250 33 11.36 16 .064 64 220 36 14.38 17 .056 49 150 40 18.8 18 .048 36 115 45 25.5 Amongst the instructions issued by Messrs. Thomas Bolton & Sons for the erection of hard copper telegraph wire, the following may prove of interest to some readers. The wire should be handled as carefully as possible, and any flaws or kinks should be cut out. The coils of wire should be unwound from oflF revolving drums provided by 142 Hard-Drawn Copper Wire. the manufacturers. Britannia jointing is the best method of connecting the wires or their binding attachments, and these should be subsequently sponged with " Baker's solder- ing fluid." It is important that the wire should be pulled up so that the strain upon it does not exceed one-fourth of its ultimate strength, and for which purpose the use of a ratchet vice, combined with a dynamometer, is recom- mended. The annexed tabulation gives the proper tension and " sag " at different temperatures for a No. 14 G. wire, the At 22 Deg. At 40 Deg. At 58 Deg. At 76 Deg. Fahr. Fahr. Fahr. Fahr. i 02 Hard Frost. Ordinary Winter Temperature. Average Summer Temperature. High Summer Temperature. 1 1 .1 .2 GQ 1 .s i g' m §■ m g yds. ft. in. lb. ft. in. lb. ft. in. lb. ft. in. lb. No.U 100 2 8 80 3 7 59 4 4 49 4 11 43 -; ^ 90 2 2 80 3 1 56 3 9 46 4 4 40 d«l 80 1 8 80 2 7 53 3 2 42 3 9 36 7^^} 70 1 3 80 2 2 49 2 9 38 3 2 32 O h 1 60 11 80 1 9 44 2 3 34 2 8 28 0.J 50 8 80 1 5 38 1 10 29 2 2 24 amount of the " sag " being constant in all cases, but the tension is proportional to the weight of wire used. The tensile strength of hard-drawn copper wire may Fig. 30. attain 30 tons per square inch of sectional area, or nearly double that composed of ordinary soft or annealed copper. Fig. 30 illustrates a " Britannia joint " such as before referred to, and now almost universally adopted for con- necting telegraph lines. The ends of the wires are scraped • SpecificatioTis Relating to Copper Wire. 143 clean and then bound together by ordinary binding wire, after which the joint is rendered solid by soldering. Our Post OflBce authorities require that hard-drawn copper wire supplied to them shall be of the lengths, sizes, weights, strengths and conductivities as set forth in the annexed Table. 03 fi' ■ ^^ "Weight per Statute MUe. Approximate Equi- valent Diameter. Ci ^ so |S 'S u-i ai Ms ■S.S Maximum Resiatanc per Mile of Wire (whe hard) at 60 deg. Fah W^eight (or Coi] II Si B a S 'c S 3 02 B g i s B Minimum "' of each Piece of Wire lb. lb. lb. mils. mils. mils. lb. ohms. lbs.. 100 97* 102i 79 78 80 330 30 9.10 50 150 146; 153| 97 95i 98 490 25 6.05 50 200 195 205 112 not 113r 650 20 4.53 50 400 390 410 158 155| 160| 1300 10 2.27 50 * Except in the case of pieces cut for testing, as provided for in the Specification. The following are the requirements for the supply of hard copper wire strands : 02 r Weight per mile Breaking weight Resistance per mile at 60 deg. F. ... Weight of each coil lll^lb. 1081b. 3501b. 30 lb. 115 lb. 8.1 ohms 601b. The length of the lay in the strand is to be 2 in. All wire here referred to has to be free from any flaws or defects and of perfect cylindrical section ; every piece may be tested for ductility and tensile strength, &c. The wire has to be capable of being twisted six times round its own diameter without breaking. The conducting efficiency is calculated for a temperature of 60 deg. Fahr., each piece tested measuring not less than ^V^h part of an English statute mile. If 5 per cent, of any parcel of wire fail to come up to the standard specified, the whole of such lot is finally rejected. In the case of German 144 Iron and Steel Electrical Conductors. silver and platinoid wires supplied to our Post Office, the resistance of the former must not be less than twelve times that of pure copper, and in the latter not less than eighteen times. The first-mentioned alloy is to be composed of 57 per cent, of copper, 20 per cent, of nickel, and 23 per cent, of spelter. The wire must withstand an elongation of 10 per cent, without breaking, and all wires from 20 mils in diameter must be drawn through gems. Iron and steel telegraph wire is usually made from char- coal puddled bars and mild Bessemer or Siemens steel, of tempers ranging about .60 to 0.10 per cent, carbons, giving a torsional efficiency of some fifteen to twenty twists in 6-in. lengths, with a tensile resistance of about 20 to 30 tons per square inch of section, and an elongation of, say, 10 to 14 per cent. The electrical conductivity of iron and steel varies like copper, according to its metallic purity, and some authorities consider that the undue presence of manganese augments their resistance. Swedish charcoal iron wire, in about 100-lb. lengths, is much used for telegraph lines, but steel wire is preferred for long spans and where greater tensile strength is required. Galvanised wire is largely used for most situations — excepting smoky and sea-side districts, although it should be understood that the zinc coating is to some extent soluble in rain water, indeed its pro- tective influence appears due to the formation of a film of oxide. If, however, any imperfections exist in the galvanisation the iron corrodes more rapidly than plain wire. Iron or steel wire employed for telegraph purposes should be highly ductile, homogeneous and free from all flaws and undue impurities, otherwise the wire is liable to fracture in fros.ty weather. The elongational efficiency of iron and steel wire is slightly diminished by the process of galvanising. The wire should be manufactured in reasonably long lengths free from any sort of welds electro welding is not allowed by our Post Office authori- Iron and Steel Telegraph Wire. 1 4o ties, but in America it is largely resorted to and apparently with satisfactory results so far as their requirements are concerned. In this conntry, wires of high conductivitj'' and uniform strength, &c., are essential attributes for rapid and reliable working. In the United States the Thomps(;n- Houston electric welding machine is largely used, and where some authorities consider its use does not diminish the strength or conductivity of the wire, whilst others admit a depreciation of some 5 per cent, in the former property. Telegraph wire used in our colonies is commonly of greater tensile strength than that employed at home. Experiments and research made in Berlin support the contention that neither carbon nor silicon in iron or steel interferes with conductivity, but phosphorus and manganese are considered to decidedly influence this property. Paalzow and Wedding consider that high qualities of iron and steel telegraph wire should have an ultimate tensile resistance of about 23 tons per square inch of section, with an elon- gation of some 12 per cent., and that the sum of foreign elements present should not exceed .15 per cent. The metal should unquestionably have a fine grain and regular texture. Although joints in wires should be reduced as far as possible, the maximum convenient lengths of telegraph wires are controlled by weights most readily transported and handled. The employment of light wires means the use of small insulators and light supports, besides less leakage and electrical disturbance, &c., and constitute expe- dients which point favourably to the extended application of hard copper and silicium-bronze wires, &c. The British Post Office telegraph authorities require that all galvanised iron wire supplied to them shall be in accordance with the following stipulations : The wire shall be uniformly cylindrical, well annealed, soft, pliable, and free from inequalities or flaws of any kind. The efficiency of the galvanising is tested by plunging pieces of the wire four times into saturated solutions of sulphate h 144 Iron and Steel Electrical Conductors. silver and platinoid wires supplied to our Post Office, the resistance of the former must not be less than twelve times that of pure copper, and in the latter not less than eighteen times. The first-mentioned alloy is to be composed of 57 per cent, of copper, 20 per cent, of nickel, and 23 per cent, of spelter. The wire must withstand an elongation of 10 per cent, without breaking, and all wires from 20 mils in diameter must be drawn through gems. Iron and steel telegraph wire is usually made from char- coal puddled bars and mild Bessemer or Siemens steel, of tempers ranging about .60 to 0.10 per cent, carbons, giving a torsional eificiency of some fifteen to twenty twists in 6-in. lengths, with a tensile resistance of about 20 to 30 tons per square inch of section, and an elongation of, say, 10 to 14 per cent. The electrical conductivity of iron and steel varies like copper, according to its metallic purity, and some authorities consider that the undue presence of manganese augments their resistance. Swedish charcoal iron wire, in about 100-lb. lengths, is much used for telegraph lines, but steel wire is preferred for long spans and where greater tensile strength is required. Galvanised wire is largely used for most situations — excepting smoky and sea-side districts, although it should be understood that the zinc coating is to some extent soluble in rain water, indeed its pro- tective influence appears due to the formation of a film of oxide. If, however, any imperfections exist in the galvanisation the iron corrodes more rapidly than plain wire. Iron or steel wire employed for telegraph purposes should be highly ductile, homogeneous and free from all flaws and undue impurities, otherwise the wire is liable to fracture in frosty weather. The elongational efficiency of iron and steel wire is slightly diminished by the process of galvanising. The wire should be manufactured in reasonably long lengths free from any sort of welds electro welding is not allowed by our Post Office authori- Iron and Steel Telegraph Wire. 145 ties, but in America it is largely resorted to and apparently with satisfactory results so far as their requirements are concerned. In this conntry, wires of high conductivitj' and uniform strength, &c., are essential attributes for rapid and reliable working. In the United States the Thompscm- Houston electric welding machine is largely used, and where some authorities consider its use does not diminish the strength or conductivity of the wire, whilst others admit a depreciation of some 5 per cent, in the former property. Telegraph wire used in our colonies is commonly of greater tensile strength than that employed at home. Experiments and research made in Berlin support the contention that neither carbon nor silicon in iron or steel interferes with conductivity, but phosphorus and manganese are considered to decidedly influence this property. Paalzow and "Wedding consider that high qualities of iron and steel telegraph wire should have an ultimate tensile resistance of about 23 tons per square inch of section, with an elon- gation of some 12 per cent., and that the sum of foreign elements present should not exceed .15 per cent. The metal should unquestionably have a fine grain and regular texture. Although joints in wires should be reduced as far as possible, the maximum convenient lengths of telegraph wires are controlled by weights most readily transported and handled. The employment of light wires means the use of small insulators and light supports, besides less leakage and electrical disturbance, &c., and constitute expe- dients which point favourably to the extended application of hard copper and silicium-bronze wires, &c. The British Post Office telegraph authorities require that all galvanised iron wire supplied to them shall be in accordance with the following stipulations : The wire shall be uniformly cylindrical, well annealed, soft, pliable, and free from inequalities or flaws of any kind. The efliciency of the galvanising is tested by plunging pieces of the wire four times into saturated solutions of sulphate 146 Specifications re Galvanised Iron Telegraph Wire. of copper at a temperature of 60 deg. Fahr., without show- ing any trace of metallic copper coating. Further, the wire is to be capable of withstanding repeated bending round bars of from 1^ in. to 2 J in. in diameter without the zinc coating exhibiting any signs of cracking or peeling. In order to prove freedom from splits or similar defects, the wire is drawn over four or more pulleys, arranged as shown in Fig. 31, and whereby it is stretched and straightened with some degrees of severity. If during this test more than 5 per cent, of the pieces show any tendency to break or crack, the wire is rejected. Similar conditions are enforced with regard to crucial tests for determining the ductility and strength of the wire sub- mitted for acceptance. The electrical resistance of the wire is calculated at 60 deg. Fahr., and the lengths of same subjected to experiments are not to measure less than -jVth of a mile. If 10 per cent, of any parcel of wire submitted fail to pass all or any of the requirements specified in the appended Table, the entire batch is uncon- ditionally rejected. The following are the authorities' requirements for the supply of galvanised iron wire sti-and : Strand Wire. 3 5 7 1 3 5 8 8 8 14 16 16 Length of spiral or lay in inches 8 10 11 3f n 3;^ Weight of coils in pounds | ™"™«'» ■ • • ^ ^ 1 maximum ... 105 180 110 200 120 210 112 140 84 112 112 140 Eye of coil. (Diameter j mioimum ... 26 26 26 12 12 12 in inches) \ maximum ... 30 30 30 13 13 13 Maximum resistance per mile of strand wire at 60 deg. Fahrenheit (in ohms) ... ... ... 42 Galvanised Iron Telegraph Wire. 147 02 Weight of each Bundle. •ninuiixBj\[ .00000 jQ (N (N (N IN m h- 1 H 1— 1 O ■uinuttmj(|[ ;2 OS C5 05 oi oc "3 ^ •iuntuixej(j • c 10 .C oq (jq ; T-i ,H ©q i '4:3 1° 02 1 H •ui 9 m s^siai JO -ojjj •ranraimpj M 10 l^- OS to tH tH rH iH (M qoB iqgiaAV gaRBSJa JOii 10 J5 tN to <£1 10 S ;c OJ ■>* N to Oq iH rt rH ■UI 9 m s^sy^i JO 'ON •uinuiiaipj ■>* to 00 00 rH rH iH cq eq n o ^ou (nigpAV S"l1«8^a -lO;! . 10 00 lo rH oq 1>- CO ;;; 10 05 ■* (N to CM rH rH rH •ui 9 UI •tnnramipj; >0 t- 0> rH rH rH rH eq CO o SmqBgjg •uinuiTurpj .00000 J3 00 to 05 ■*. oq S tH 00 CO IN to (N i-H rH rH §3 -4-1 s • innuitx'Bpj ^ i>. ■* to to 10 :« -* rH 00 t- ©q g (N (N rH rH rH •lumnimpj =2 t, .^ CO to 00 :a CO Jr- to rH g Uq Oq rH rH rH •pmpuBC(g pajtnbs'a; ^ (N Oi rH rH rH a -* 00 t- (N g Oq Oq rH rH rH 1 13 09 •ranuiTXBj(j[ . CO o» t- -* CO pC CO (N t- IN rH — 1 00 to ■* •* (N O i •uinuiiuijij . r^ rH 'Ttl t- ,Q CO J:~ IN l- C5 '-' !•- 10 Tr CO rH •pjBpu«c)g pwinbag ^ g S g 148 Railway Galvanised Iron Telegraph Wire. s tf w O i I— I < O Hi •a-iTM JO noO •TO 8oai J ip'Ba JO ()i[Si9^ uinraraij\[ _o O O O lO p; C5 CJ T(H Weight of each Bundle. ■uiniuTx«j\[ C O IM an CO •pTOpuB^g paambag; i-ty-\ CD J -^Jil:- (M CO .3 IM iH rH O • (aSriBf) ajjaraiqua^) ezTg jBaiuio^ rXJ^O CO d d d d ■^a & -^s 9- ^ e e ^- 3 S Galvanised Iron Wire. 149 Some of our railway electricians stipulate that all galvanised iron telegraph wire supplied to their companies shall be manufactured from best charcoal puddled bars, and be uniformly annealed and pliable, &c., whilst any flaws, splits, or inequalities in the metal or galvanising, are guarded against by testing, as before explained. The Table on the preceding page gives the latest re- quirements of one of the leading railway companies of the United Kingdom, in respect to the supply of galvanised iron telegraph wire. The requirements of another large railway company in this country, in regard to the supply of the class of wire under consideration, are now appended : Diameter. Weight Mile. per .s ■3^ Maximum Resistance per Mile of Standard Weight at 60 deg. Fahr. Is II .srt si Bm 6^ Weight of each Coil. o CO c "b ^-2 s a B 'M a 1 Si .1 .5 S 3 B Minimum Nu Twists without in Six Inches. S 3 a e a s 'I in. 8.171 11 . 121 le'.oee in. .1§6 .118 063 in. .176 .125 .069 lb. 400 200 60 lb. 377 190 55 lb. 424 213 65 lb. 1100 600 20 27 in Sin. 20 ohms. 12 24 80 4800 4800 4800 lb. 90 80 28 lb. 120 112 112 lb. 90 56 5 The wire is to be manufactured from charcoal puddled bars, and be uniformly annealed, soft, pliable, smoothly galvanised, free from scale, inequality, flaws, splits, and other defects, cylindrical in form, and of the sizes mentioned in the annexed Table as applied to the standard specified, further, it is to possess the electrical and mechanical qualifications therein stipulated. The wire is to be drawn in continuous pieces or lengths of weights not less than those given in the Table. Each 150 Electrical Conductors. piece is to be wan-anted not to contain any weld, joint, or splice whatever, either in the rod before it is drawn, or in the finished wire. After having been well galvanise \, the wire is to be stretched (■' killed ") to the extent of 2 per cent., and be uniformly coiled so as to contain no bends or sinuosities. The wire is to be capable of passing the electrical and mechanical tests specified. The galvanising of the wire is to be capable of standing the following tests : The samples selected shall be plunged into a saturated solution of sulphate of copper, at 60 deg. Fahr., and retained there one minute ; it shall then be with- drawn and wiped dry ; this process shall be performed four times. If the sample retains a reddish deposit of metallic copper, it shall be accepted as proof that the coating of zinc is not satisfactory. Compound telegraph wires composed of steel cores and copper coatings, &c., for obtaining higher conductivity and greater strength than iron wire, is not practically known or used in this country, although our American contem- poraries have tried such form of conductoi-s to a considerable extent. Opposite this page is given Messrs. W. T. Glover & Co.'s Table of the relative dimensions, lengths, resist- ances, and weights of pure copper wire. Fig. 32 of the accompanying illustration represents Messrs. Glover's new standard wire gauge, for measuring g SSg g s; B 0> 3 W •s -fi 3 = ^- 3 fl 12; •" ;|-s C3 ^ ^ in. in. in. in. in. 05 2 6 6 1 .072 2| 6 1 3 6 6 1 .105 3 7* U 4 6 8 7 .116 3| 9 2 6.2 6 10 7 .146 4| 13 Upon analysing this practice it will be noticed that the proportions the lays in the strands and ropes bear to the diameter of the roping range from about three and a half to two and a half and six and a half to nine times the dia- meters respectively ; i.e., in order to maintain a requisite degree of flexibility the lays are reduced as the sizes of the cables are increased. For standing or fixed ropes the propor- tions of the lays might be greater. Superior haulage roping of the above construction may be made of cast-steel wires of from, say, 80 to 90-ton quality ; whereas vei-tical winding ropes might have their component wires of from about 90 to 120-ton strength per square inch, in order to reduce weight ; but it should be remembered that as the tensile strength is o raised the hardness of the wire is proportionately increased, and consequently it is less tough and flexible. Sometimes errors of judgment are committed by employing hard qualities of steel, although wires of comparatively high breaking strains may be more safely used in the last- named construction than in ordinary roping, as the lay in the former does not cause such sharp " crowns or knuckles" in the strands. Eopes of the sizes and construction set forth in the above Table might cost from, say, 40p. to 60,=. per cw^t., de- Laidler's Rope. 175 pendent upon the gauge and quality of steel employed in their manufacture. Users of wire roping should not forget the well-founded commercial adage, that cheap or inferior articles are dearest in the end. Plenty of inferior wire ropes are sold annually under conventional and elastic titles, and at prices that good wire cannot be pro- cared for. At present well-teaipered crucible cast-steel wire (of, say, about .105 S.W.G.) is worth about £30 per ton ; similarly best Siemens-Martin steel wire, about £18 per ton ; whilst suitable " homogeneous " or Be.ssemer steel wire of the same gauge can be obtained at some £10 per ton. During 1876 Newall introduced a construction of rope in which the strands were laid alternately in reverse directions, i.e., formed of a combination of right and left- handed strands. This arrangement was advocated for pre- venting the twisting or " spinning " tendency in winding ropes, such as employed for colliery and crane, &c., purposes. The diagrams, Figs. 6 and 7, represent Laidler's construc- tion of wire rope, consisting in the employment of wires of sectoral configuration. Fig. 6 shows a rope C composed of Fig. 6. Fig. 7. wires A, of triangular section, as indicated. Fig. 7 re- presents the principle as applied to the construction of strands C, for making a rope, the pitch line of which is given at B. This type has been manfactured and sold in some small quantities, but at present its commercial im- portance appears small, whilst the practical advantages of the construction have not, as yet, been sufficiently demon- 176 Scott's Lock-Rope Sheathing. strated. Ropes composed of such sectional wires can- not be neatly spliced, but this drawback also applies to other types in the market. Mr. F. W. Scott, of the Atlas Rope Works, Reddish, has devised a simple form of " locked " wire rope, and accord- ing to this invention two wires of the outer series of the strands or rope are held together by thin strips of metal — preferably steel — turned up at their outer edges, s6 as to partially embrace the wires and hold them in position. This construction is represented at Fig. 8, in which a indi- cates a pair of wires of an external series, held together by Fig. 8. the metallic band h, turned up at its edges, as shown. The sets of wires thus secured are then twisted into strands or the outer coverings of roping, and in this manner the external wires are locked pr held in their proper relative positions, so that should any become broken they cannot spring out of their normal positions. From that which has been already explained concerning the construction of ordinarj^ wire roping, or those composed of cylindrical wires, it will be evident that their cores or centres serve a,s supports for the wires and strands to be laid upon, but that practically they cannot be generally considered as contributing useful tensile strength to ropes. This will be apparent when it is remembered that the strand wires and strands themselves are usually longer than the cores, owing to their spiral turns or construction ; and the tensile values of the materials are different. In 1884 Messrs. Latch & Batchelor obtained letters patent for a novel and ingenious construction, termed " locked coil or stranded ropes." The principle incorporated in this manufacture consists in the employment of various suit- Latch & Batchelor's Locked Coil Ropes. 177 ably shaped wires, which, when cloped together, interlock and present a structure with a uniform wearing surface, in which each component wire is permanently held in its proper normal- position. Ropes constructed according to this invention were first publicly exhibited at the Inven- tions Exhibition held at Kensington in 1885. As before mentioned, the principle of construction may be applied to the production of either locked stranded or locked coil ropes, an example of the latter being represented by the illustration, Fig. 9. This transverse section shows a rope composed of an ordinary wire core around which a series of cylindrical and radial wires are closed, followed by an outside shell of sectional wires which are locked or held Fig. 9. down in position. The various succeeding layers of wires are laid in alternate directions, i.e., one to the right hand and the next to the left, and so on as in the manufacture of some compound strands previously referred to. It will be evident that the internal construction, as well as the shape of the external interlocking wires, may be varied or modified to suit different requirements without departing from the essence of the invention, and that the principle may be applied to the formation of one solid rope, as shown, or to strands for making roping on the ordinary method. In the manner above explained, a dense and compact metallic rope may be manufactured presenting an external surface of a smooth and uniform nature like a N 178 Locked Coil Ropes. cylindi'ical rod. These ropes may be made of considerable flexibility, and should any of the wires get broken from any cause, they will still be retained in their normal attitudes. In the construction of these or similar ropes, or those composed of compound strands, it is necessary or desirable to vary the lays of the consecutive coils, so, that all the component wires may bear their proportionate amount of working strain. Assume the above illustrated coil to be 3 in. in circumference, and the external series of interlock- ing wires to have a lay or spiral pitch of, say, 5 in., then the requisite lays for the intermediate series or coils may be determined by the construction of the diagram given at Fig. 10. Let A, B, C, and D represent a rectangular S lay 3'A sfi l%- I'/ii .' Fig. 10. parallelogram, the breadth of which is fixed by the pre- determined external lay of the rope, whilst its height is similarly governed by the circumference of the rope in question. The diagram is drawn to a scale of 6 in. to a foot for convenience, and the predetermined and deduced dimensions are given in inches. Within the parallelogram defined project a series of parallel lines, a, h, c, d, e, and /— shown dotted— at various distances from the base line C D, equal to the circumferences of the different component coils or layers of intermediate wires. Draw the diagonal B C. Then, the scaled or measured distances from the per- pendicular A C, along the parallel dotted lines to the inter- sections of the diagonal B 0, represent the proper propor- Locked Coil Eopes. 179 tion or lengths of lays for the various component coils. In the diagram, a indicates the core or neutral axis of the rope, b to e — inclusive — the circumferences of the different intermediate coils, and / the external shell of interlocking wires. The proper intervening lays thus deduced are represented on the diagram as IjV in., 1| in., 2f in., and 3f in. In practice, however, sometimes a rather longer or disproportionate lay is given to the external series of wires, in order that the outside of the rope may bear the greatest strains, and thus first indicate any rupturing tendencies in the wires. Upon considering the solution presented by the foregoing diagram, it will be understood that, owing to the variation of the spiral lays in accordance with the increasing circumference of the contiguous annular series, the same lengths of wire are containfed in any given rectilinear or axial length of rope. It will be evident that roping composed of " sectional wires " cannot be well spliced in the true acceptation of the word, although connections may be effected by brazing, welding, or socketting, or other convenient coupling con- trivances. The inside layers of wire, which furnish a large proportion of the rope's strength, according to the construction at issue, are protected from wear : the dura- bility of these ropes may be satisfactory. Their uniformly smooth surfaces should cause less wear to pulleys or drums than those of the ordinary formation. Com- paring weights, these locked coiled ropes appear to figure satisfactorily, for according to publications it is recorded that a locked coil rope weighing 6 lb. per fathom broke at 21 tons, whereas an ordinary rope of the same circum- ference exhibited an ultimate tensile resistance of only 13 tons ; an ordinary rope of corresponding strength weighed about 8 lb. per fathom. It is, of course, presumed that the class of steel used in both ropes was of similar grade or quality. These ropes appear suitable for winding 1 80 " Flattened " Stranded Ropes. and guiding purposes, although the extra first cost may be a consideration to some users, i.e., from 20 per cent, above the price of ordinary roping. Messrs. Latch & Batchelor have since invented another novel type of wire roping, composed of "flattened" or elliptical strands as represented at Fig. 11. The elongated strands h are formed of the wires / laid round a metallic Fig. 11. core g. The chief object of the invention is to provide a construction which will permit of more than one external wire being in peripheral working contact at the same time. The flattened surfaces of the strands may be obtained in various ways, e.g., by employing flat, oval, or triangular core wires upon which the outer wires are wound. Amongst the advantages claimed by the inventors are : That more than one wire must at all times be in working contact ; that for a considerable distance along the strands a smooth wearing surface is presented ; that in consequence of these virtues it is practical to use finer wires in their construction than in ropes of ordinary types, and by which means high degrees of flexibility are obtained. The ropes are compact, and their component wires and strands may all be laid in the same or opposite directions as de- sired. It is stated that splicing may be neatly and effec- tually carried out. Messrs. Newall & Co. have introduced a type of roping under the somewhat pedantic title of " the ne plus ultra of ropes," which is composed of strands of parallel wires laid Westgarth's Wire Roping. l8l into rope at one operation, tlie advantages claimed being that the rope is made in one machine at one operation ; that the component parallel wires of the strands are necessarily of equal length, and therefore bear their equal proportion of working strain ; that the lay in the strands is co- incident with the lay of the rope, by which it is stated that " the greatest possible length of wire is exposed to wear." About two years ago Messrs. Craven & Speeding, of Sunderland, commenced the manufacture of Westgarth's con- struction of wire rope. It has been previously explained that during the manufacture of ordinary wire roping the wires composing the strands are usually twisted from two to three times, whilst the strands make one spiral turn, or, in other words, the proportion that the lay in the strands bears to that of the rope is commonly, in round figures, two or three to one ; consequently an allowance is made for the difference of lengths, or resultant absorption, termed in the trade the " uptake " of the strands. According to Mr. Westgarth's invention, the amount of twist or spiral pitch put into the strands in relation to that adopted in the rope is proportioned and regulated with due consideration for the percentage of the uptake in the component strands, and by which the following results are alleged to be obtained : Firstly, the torsional strains exerted upon the wires are reduced ; secondly, the working strains on each wire are in the direction of its plane, and further, that when the rope is bent or deflected over pulleys, &c., the component wires give towards themselves, and not trans- versely to their axes ; thirdly, that in consequence of their proportionate arrangement of lays or twists these ropes exhibit less tendency to " kink ; " and fourthly, in virtue of the first and second above claimed advantages, the inte- gral wires are rendered capable of wearing to a maximum extent without being so liable to break at the crowns of the strands. The inventor submits that the aggregate 182 Westgarth's Rope. frictional surface of the individual component wires de- pends only on the length and size of the rope, and not on any particular direction or angularity of lay either in the strand or rope. The diagram, Fig. 12, is given to further elucidate the theory of the construction under considera- tion. Assume a 6 to represent a length of rope to be manufactured, and a c to be the requisite length of the strands to form such rope, then the dotted arc d b subtending the angle a obviously indicates the points of equal length in the strands and rope, whereas the extension of the oblique line or hypotenuse from d to c represents the proportion of strand absorbed by the twisting process, or equivalent uptake. The figures or divisions indicated Fig. 12. upon the hypotenuse and base represent the number of twists in the strands and rope respectively for a given lineal length. It will be noticed that according to the con- struction of an ordinary rope marked I, a greater number of twists exist in the strands than in the rope, whereas according to Westgarth's invention — marked II — the number of twists in both cases are the same. It should be here observed that in the Diagram I. all the divisions re- presenting the twists are of equal length, whereas in the second figure the scale of spiral turns is unequal, because both the base and hypotenuse are divided into eight parts as shown, i.e., all radii of the same circle being equal, hence the lengths a b and a d are equal, but in the second example Electric Gable Winding Ropes. 183 the scale of measurement is extended to the hypotenuse, which exceeds the length of the radius by the distance d c. It will be now understood that according to Diagram I, nine twists are shown in the strand and eight in the rope, and this is stated to occasion torsional strains resulting froQi the non-coincident positions of the lays when the rope is put together. On the other hand, by Westgarth's system of construction the number of twists in the strand and rope are the same, notwithstanding the greater length of the former ; that is to say, a proportion of the uptake is distributed over the lays of the fitrands so as to make the same coincident with that in the rope. How far these theoretical advantages are or may be corroborated by practice appears a matter of divided opinion. The principle of manufacture seems founded on a reason- able basis. Westgarth's construction is also applicable to the manufacture of flat ropes. The patentee lays proper stress on the quality of wire to be employed in the production of these ropes, for, after all, this is of the most essential importance. W. Armstrong, Jun., of the Wingate Grange Colliery, has patented a combined metallic rope and electric cable for mining and other analogous purposes, the manufacture of which has been entrusted to Messrs. D. H. & G. Haggie, of Sunderland. The rope in question is similar to some types of submarine telegraphic cables, only in the case mentioned they are employed for the simultaneous func- tions of winding, hauling, or guiding, &c., and electrical communicating purposes. Within the central core of any suitably constructed rope, or the strands of the same, insu- lated conducting wires are provided. According to one practical application, these ropes are used for colliery shaft winding ; and, obviously, it is a convenience and safeguard for the occupants of a mining cage to be able at all times to transmit visible or audible signalling codes to the sur- 184 Seate's Gonstruotion oj Roping. face, independently of their position in the shaft. Annually numerous accidents occur in mining shafts which, by some such simple means, might be largely prevented or much mitigated. The average annual fatal accidents which occurred in shafts from 1880 to 1886 is stated to be 664, out of which 174 happened during the journeys up or down the same. These ropes vary from about 4 in. to 5 in. circumference, and some have been made over 300 fathoms in length. Independently of thus having at all times a direct signalling communication with the engine- house in case of emergency, the provision is further useful for shaft repairing. In principle, the idea of employing electrical conductors within winding ropes is not new, and many years ago such roping was manufactured and tried in Germany, but appa- rently without permanent success. Fig. 13 represents a section of Scale's construction of Fig. 13. wire strand or roping, now finding favour in the United States for tramway traction and other similar purposes. A is intended to represent a compound wire strand or rope, of any convenient form, around which a series of larger wires B are twisted with the same lay, so that the latter shall fit into the spaces or recesses formed by the contiguity of the under series of smaller wires. D indicates the radial centre lines governing the position of the outer series of the strand or wires, whilst C shows the circular pitch-line of the same. Hodson's Spiral Gore Roping. 185 This arrangement, it will be seen, secures a very compact and solid construction, particularly suitable for ropes upon which gripping appliances are to be used. The illustration is only intended to convey the principle of construction, and not to give any definite formulae as to its practical application. Seeing the external series of wires must have the same lay as the internal ones, the working strains can- not be equally distributed throughout the structure, there- fore the solidity appears to be obtained at a sacrifice of the theory previously adyanced as a scientific desideratum in compound rope constructions. As, however, the outer series are of larger sectional area than the inner wires, this defect may be sufficiently counteracted. Fig. 14 illustrates Hodson's arrangement of metallic spiral core to allow for the expansion and contraction in wire Fio. 14. strands and roping occasioned by bending stresses or elongation, &c. This speciality is manufactured by Messrs. W. J. Glover & Co., St. Helens. Fig. 15. Fig. 15 represents a construction much used on the Continent for aerial standing ropes. 186 Messrs. T. & W. Smith's Works and Manufactures. It may be here appropriately recorded that Messrs. T. and W. Smith, of the St. Lawrence Ropery, Newcastle-on- Tyne, have devoted much careful attention to the matter of properly foi'ming multiple wire strands, and to machi- nery for carrying such operations scientifically into effect. These ingenious appliances have been constructed by Mr. J. Bulmer, engineer, of the same town, according to the sug- gestions of Mr. Eustace Smith, of the above-named firm. By the aid of these machines compound strands, composed of a series of wires with increasing lays or spiral pitches, may be simultaneously formed so as to take up the same length of wire in all the strands and the component series of the same. At these works the principle is incorporated in several arrangements and capacities, but for convenience we may confine ourselves to a brief examination of a com- pound 36-bobbin machine, i.e., a combination comprising 6, 12, and 18-bobbin stranding machines suitably arranged and geared together so as to work in simultaneous harmony. These machines are placed one in advance of the other, upon the same centre line, i.e., in '' tandem fashion," so that as a seven-wire strand is spun up in the first one, it is fed as a core into the second machine to be covered with twelve wires, which in its turn is similarly passed on to the third to receive a further coating of eighteen wires. Thus far the system comprises three separate or inde- pendent stranding machines of ordinary construction, of increasing capacities, and may be thus employed, but when used in concert as a serial machine for twisting up layers of wires to form compound strands, all these individual ma- chines are connected .up by a suitable train of gearing so as to be simultaneously driven at decreasing or variable velocities, whilst only one "draw-off" drum or motion is used on the last machine. It will be now understood that, by the agency of the train of differential spur-wheels, the first and smallest machine is driven at a maximum speed. Smith & Bulmer's Rope Machinery. 187 the succeeding ones being actuated in a decreasing propor- tion. The angular traverse of the draw-oif drum bears a uniform relation to the three stranding machines, and thus it will be seen that each apparatus must form a spiral pitch of increasing axial length. The relative or proportionate speeds at which the difierent machines are driven, in order to obtain certain variations of lays, are previously deter- mined or computed in a similar manner to that already explained with reference to the " locked coil ropes," &c. The component stranding appliances may be driven in alternate or the same direction, so that the series of wires may all be laid up in the same or alternating directions as desired. The speeds or motions of different parts of these machines may be varied at pleasure by the aid of inter- changeable spur-gearing. This firm is now manufacturing a type of roping termed " Albert's lay," or in which all the component wires and strands are laid up in the same direc- tion. Messrs. T. & W. Smith have further added to their efficient works a large horizontal closing machine capable of twisting 40 tons of strands in one continuous piece of roping without a tuck or splice. This piece of mechanism was also built by Mr. Buhner, who has been engaged in the manufacture of cable and rope-making plant for upwards of thirty years. Window sash-lines are now largely made of copper and steel wires, their circumferences usually ranging between about ^ in. and 1 in., the construction adopted being com- monly six strands of seven wires. Gilt and silver, &c., pic- ture cords are similarly manufactured, but their dimensions are obviously much smaller. Galvanised iron and steel wire clothes-lines, formed of strands of five or seven wires, also find an extensive scope of service. Strands of similar con- struction and material are also largely employed for actu- ating railway signals, and in the construction of fencing or other like purposes. Copper wire ropes, of from about J in. 188 Wire Sope-inahing Practices in U.8.A. to f in. in diameter, now find a wide field of application as lightning conductors, and are preferred by many authorities instead of copper tapes or ribbons of some 1^ in. broad by ^ in. thick. According to the usual practice of rope-making in the United States, six strands of only seven or nineteen wires are employed, and there the safe working loads of wire roping are generally taken to be one- fifth to one- seventh of their ultimate strength, whereas in this country the factors of safety allowed commonly range between one-sixth and one-tenth of their breaking strain. Obviously the margin allowed must vary according to the angle of the plane at which a rope is required to work, the maxi- mum factor being given to ropes working in vertical planes. We will now turn our attention to some wire rope-making plant of the most modern type. Some few leading rope manufacturers construct their own machines, or rather their duplicates, for with very few exceptions, specialists have designed the original machine to be found in most works, whether at home or abroad. Amongst engineers in this country who have made a special study of wire- working machinery generally and have attained a deservedly good reputation for this class of plant, none are more worthy of recognition than that of Messrs. Barraclough & Co., of Manchester and London. This company has supplied a great number of wire ropemaking and other machines to home and foreign manufacturers, the success of which appear largely attributable to the careful attention bestowed upon details of construction, combined with the use of good materials and workmanship. Machines built at their works are usually arranged to carry from six to twenty-four bobbins of various sizes, ranging from about 5 in. to 7 ft. in diameter, whilst many of them may be equally well employed for rope-closing as for strand-forming purposes. For the latter functions the six, twelve, and nineteen bobbin machines are now most Strand and Rope-maJcing Machinery. 189 used, for with the first named the common 7-wire strand can be conveniently produced ; and, when desired, this can be covered with twelve outer wires in the second machine to form the now much-used 19-wire compound strand, or the operations could be equally well performed on the last- mentioned type of machine. This class of strand could also be formed entirely on a 12-bobbin machine. In making larger kinds of rope, e.g., marine hawsers of, say, 366 wires, one 24-bobbin machine might be employed to lay up the various component series as follows : Firstly, six bobbins would be used to form a 7-wire strand, including the core ; secondly, around this twelve outer wires would be laid by employing a corresponding number of bobbins, and so on; thirdly, the nineteen wires would be encased within eighteen more ; and finally, the thirty-seven wires would be covered with twenty-four, thus making an aggregate of sixty-one wires in each strand. In this manner, and by the one machine, the six strands of a flexible wire hawser of, saj', 12 in. in circumference, could be produced with an ultimate breaking strain of about 320 tons, dependent upon the quality of wire employed in the manu- facture. Some few types of wire ropes are composed of four, five, and seven, &c., strands, but as the majority are constructed with six strands around a centre core, closing machines of this capacity are usually sufficient for all ordinary requirements. According to the practice of some manufacturers, and the nature of their machines employed, compound strands are simultaneously formed by spinning up nineteen or more wires at one operation. The bobbins of ordinary stranding machines may contain from, say, 8 lb. to 800 lb. of wire, of from about No. 20 S.W.G. to No. 5, whilst some large-sized roping machines will close strands about ^ in. circumference into rope. The space occupied by the former appliances commonly 190 Messrs. Barraclough's Wire-working Machinery. varies from about 6 ft. 10 in. by 2 ft. to 26 ft. by 6 ft., up to 55 ft. by 10 ft. Stranding and closing machines may be arranged in either a vertical or horizontal position. With these prefactory remarks concerning the general arrangement and functions of strand and rope-making machinery, we will now proceed to consider some of the latest developments and productions in this department of engineering. During the past few years, superior steel wire roping in comparatively long lengths has been in considerable demand for many purposes, as obviously it is not practical to splice a wire rope as perfectly as one composed of hemp or vegetable fibres. Spliced portions are usually more or less the thickest and stiffest parts of cables thus united, and therefore if they are required to run over pulleys, drums, &c., the uneven wear and premature deterioration is not infrequently very noticeable. By way of example, ropes for street tramway traction purposes may be cited as a case where great lengths of cable are required as free as possible from splices. It was, indeed, with this view that Messrs. Cradock & Co., of Wakefield, erected their 30-ton horizontal rope-closing machine, and a similar observation also applies to the big machine provided in Messrs. Bullivant & Co.'s works. The former firm has produced steel wire ropes in their machine for the Melbourne cable tramways of 8300 yards in one continuous piece, weighing 24 tons 13 cwt. As a further result of this comparatively recent demand for long lengths of continuous roping Messrs. Barraclough & Co. not long since constructed the largest rope-closing machine yet built in this country. This colossal piece of mechanism was designed for a firm of rope manufacturers in the United States. The machine is of the vertical type, i.e., the flyers and bobbins are arranged to revolve in a horizontal plane about a vertical axis, and the strand-closing die is fixed to Vertical Rope-closing Machines. 191 the longitudinal framing or beams provided above the machine. This arrangement was considered desirable on account of its size and the great weight of wire carried upon the bobbins. The six reels, or bobbins, measure about 7 ft. across their flanges, each being capable of carrying 8 tons of strand, or an aggregate weight representing about 56 tons of roping, including a wire coro-strand. The core, however, is not mounted in the machine itself, but is wound from off an outside stationary reel, whence it passes up the centre of the flyer frame in a vertical direction to the closing die. The bobbin frames, or flyers, are composed of wrought iron, and revolve with the rotary portion of the iHaehine ; whilst the former, carried in the same, are always maintained in one attitude, or relation, by means of a sun-and-planet motion, which prevents any axial twisting of the strands. The under-framing, or annular ring, which carries the bobbins and their appendages, is arranged to run on a series of steel balls and peripheral rollers provided within a circular path, and by which the running of the machine is nicely equalised, and onlj' a comparatively small power required for its operation. The machine is further designed — in respect of the rela- tion that the flyers bear to the floor level — so that the colossal bobbins or strand reels, with their weighty burdens, can be easily rolled by hand into their proper places or respective bearings. The strands are drawn off' the six bobbins, through the frames and closing die, by means of a large draw-drum, around which the rope passes several times before it is finally coiled upon a reel, driven by the gearing of the machine. As the coils of strand rotate around the central core, they are drawn upwards together through the fixed closing die by means of the draw-off" drum above referred to, the angular velocity of which determines the speed of traction, and consequently the lay of the rope being manufactured ; or, in other words, the lf)2 Practices in JRope-maJcing. spiral pitch of the component strands. The total weight of this machine, excluding the bobbins, is 33 tons, and 8 horse- power is sufficient to drive it, whilst only one man is required to attend its operations. The working velocity of the machine in question varies from, say, twelve to twenty revolutions per minute, dependent upon the weight of strands carried ; that is to say, at first, when the bobbins are heavily laden, the machine is driven slowly, otherwise the centrifugal force exerted might break the flyers or injure the machinery. The speed of production naturally depends upon the lay of the rope being manufactured, and the rate at which the apparatus is operated ; however, its capacity on an average may be taken to be from 200 to 300 yards per hour. According to English practice, cable traction ropes, of about 3| in. in circumference, are commonly constructed with six strands of seven or fifteen wires, the lays in the strands varying from, say, 3 in. to 3J in., and the lays in the ropes from, say, 7^ in. to 9 in. In the United States, however, strands of nineteen wires are generally preferred as being more flexible ; but, on the other hand, the smaller external wires wear out more rapidly. For example, the Market-street Street Railway Company, San Francisco, has used ropes l-} in. in diameter composed of six strands of nineteen steel wires, weighing 2J lb. per foot, the longest continuous length being 24,125 ft. Similarly, the Chicago City Railroad Company has employed cables of identical construction, the longest length being 27,700 ft. Again, on the New York and Brooklyn Bridge Cable Rail- way steel ropes of 11,500 ft. long, containing 114 wires, as above explained, have been used. Further considerations involved in this and other similar classes of wire roping will be resumed later on in this chapter. Fig. 16 illustrates a very similar kind of vertical closing machine to that just described, with the exception that its H O IB M QQ O o pi) Hh O E-l m > o H fa ff^d-^ 194 Wire Rope-making Machinery. smaller capacity has rendered a few detail modifications advisable. This class of machine is constructed with 6 to 9-strand bobbins and a central core reel all arranged within suitable "flyer-frames" controlled by a "sun-and-planet motion'' as previously explained. The stationary rope-closing die is arranged above the machine, as shown in the engraving, the said mechanism being provided with convenient means of adjustment. The "draw-off" drum," represented on the right- hand side of the base of the machine, is operated by an appropriate train of gearing, the speed of which may be varied at pleasure by means of interchangeable pinion wheels. From that which has been previously written concerning the general functions of rope-making machinery, it will be now readily understood how the strands carried by the re- volving bobbins are drawn off" and closed by the fixed die, through the agency of the draw drum. As the finished rope leaves the drum it is coiled upon a reel mechanically operated as shown in the illustration. A 12-bobbin horizontal stranding machine constructed by Messrs. Barraclough & Co., is represented at Fig. 17, but as the principles of construction and operation embodied in the same are similar to others already described, it will only be necessary to point out the existence of some special details peculiar to this company's design. The spindle bearings provided in the flyers of this machine are formed of replaceablemalleableiron bushes, the supporting rollers of the revolving portion of the mechanism being pro- vided with convenient means of adjustment, whilst the wrought-iron cranks of the flyer motion are secured by keys as well as pins. The front end of the horizontal (bored) shaft is carried upon anti-friction rollers arranged in the headstock of the machine. A special arrangment of gearing is further provided for actuating the coiling reel, and a n o n o M Wire Rope-Making Machi/mry. \^i metallic belt brake is fitted to the annular framing of tbe revolving portion of the machine. The bobbins are 14 in. in diameter, and each hold about 140 lb. of wire. This machine may also be employed for closing strands into roping up to about 3 in. in circumference. It may be here mentioned that continuous strands of any convenient lengths may be produced in any machine by tucking, brazing, or welding on additional wires ; i.e., when a skein or coil of wire on any bobbin is worked off another may be introduced, the end of the last wire in the strand being brazed or soldered on to the one end of the fresh coil, and so on; the various bobbins may be replenished with wire to practically any extent. In fact, the only limit is the capacity of the largest closing machine capable of receiving the strands and twisting them into ropes. It may be also pointed out that both stranding and closing machines are usually capable of being driven in either a right or left-handed direction, at the option of the manu- facturer ; but, ordinarily, strands are twisted up to the left hand, whilst rope is closed to the right. Reverting to Messrs. Barraclough's big closing machine previously described, it will be now understood, that as tramway traction ropes may average about 3^ in. in circumference, and weigh some 4 J tons to the mile, this machine is capable of producing roping of, say, over ten miles in one con- tinuous piece. When, however, it is desired to manufacture heavier cables, such as required for towing or other marine and exceptional mining purposes, the apparatus is equal to the demand, as the closing die or lay plate may be readily adjusted to produce the thickest ropes yet prescribed. It is well known and generally admitted that coils of galvanised and other wire can be shipped at very moderate rates, as such bundles can be easily handled and stowed at small risk, whilst coils of rope weighing, say, 20 to 40 tons eadh are difficult and costly to handle, and consequently are 198 Compound Stranding and Roping Machine. subject to high freights, landing dues, and transporting charges. With the present facilities for conveying and putting down machinery in most parts of the world, the manufacture of large ropes by the consumers themselves is now quite practicable. The increasing demand for long lengths of continuous wire roping free from splices, for hauling, winding, and other pur- poses,has given rise to other ingenious manufacturing devices, amongst which a Canadian invention termed " a compound wire cable making machine," is worthy of notice. The illustration. Fig. 18, on the folding plate, represents a machine of this construction as manufactured by Messrs. Barraclough & Co. This mechanical contrivance carries forty-two separate bobbins of wire, and is capable of making the strands and rope of, say, a 3-in. cable, in one operation to any convenient length. Upon reference to the engraving, it will be understood that the bobbins at the rear of the apparatus hold the strand cores, whilst the two succeeding series carry the strand wires, which, when spun up, are closed into rope by the lay plate or closing die fixed to the bedplate of the machine. The strands pass over guide rollers, and become concentrated at the head- stock, and closed into rope at the die plate, whence it is drawn off" by the drum, driven by appropriate gearing, as previously described. The central core, or heart of the rope, is shown entering at the back of the machine, through the tubular shaft. It will be now understood that the series of forty-two bobbins, or coils of wire (with the strand cores), enable six strands of seven wires each being simultaneously formed and closed into roping. The machine is driven by suitable pulleys and spur gearing, as represented. The core and strand bobbins, as also the guide rollers above mentioned, are mounted around the hollow horizontal shaft by which they receive their differential rotary motion, the bobbins being maintained Missing Page Com/pound Stranding and Roping Machine. 199 in suitable relative positions by means of the sun-and- planet motion and gearing, so as to avoid twisting the individual wires forming the strands and rope. The closing dies are capable of suitable adjustment so as to accommodate the gauge of wire used and size of rope to be produced, the lays adopted in the strands or rope being also capable of suitable variation, according to require- ments. The rope is passed four or five times round the draw drum, driven by gearing at the requisite peripheral velocity to give the required lay, the motion being communi- cated to the same by means of a horizontal shaft running under the machine. Upon leaving this drum the rope passes between a pair of "jockey," or compressing rollers, which serve to keep it taut, whilst an ingenious arrange- ment of mechanism is attached to the delivery-gear, so as to automatically indicate the exact length of rope manufactured in the machine. The entire component mechanism is so constructed and arranged that all the motions of the machine can be reversed, i.e., so as to allow of the wires being laid in one direction and the rope closed in the opposite way, or the wires and strands may be all twisted in the same direction. The adjustable strands and rope dies are arranged to exert an elastic pressure by means of spiral springs. The machine, it will be seen, incorporates two distinct functions and motions, i.e., each of the stranding devices has an independent rotating motion to form the strands, whilst the entire apparatus revolves around the horizontal shaft for closing the same into rope. The wires forming the strands are independently conducted into their proper spiral paths in order to obtain the requisite solidity and flexibility. The machine is capable of manufacturing ropes composed of strands containing any number of wires up to nineteen. The Hartlepool Ropery Company has adopted a similar SOO Proportions of Lays in Strands and Ropes. class of plant under the term of "a patent non -torsional rope-making machine," and by which, it is statol, that wires are laid into strands and roping free from all torsional influences, the metallic filaments being caused to take their proper positions and parallel attitudes to the spiral. As in the machine already described, the process of making the strands and rope is simultaneously performed in the one appliance. The lays adopted in roping are mainly dependent upon the gauges of the wires employed, the sizes of ropes to be made, and the purposes to which they are to be applied ; and as a general approximation it may be stated that the lays in strands vary from about 2 in. to 6 in., or say about three to four times the diameter of the rope ; whilst the lays in roping range from about 6 in. to 12 in., or say seven to ten times their diameter : in other words, about two to three twists are put in the strands to one in the rope. It should, however, be understood that these proportions will neces- sarily vary according to the sizes of the ropes, and whether they are intended for fixed or running purposes. Short-laid ropes are more flexible than those in which a compara- tively long lay is adopted. Hence short lays are frequently desirable for hauling and winding, whilst, conversely, long lays are usually beneficial in standing ropes. Black or clean drawn wire is generally used for the construction of running ropes, whilst galvanised roping may- be advantageously employed for some purposes, e.g., ships' rigging, and marine hawsers, &c., or for ropes working in water or wet places. According to Messrs. J. Roebling & Sons' opinion, black wire ropes may be preserved under water or ground by the application of vegetable or mineral tar, to which some fresh slacked lime has been added to neutralise acidity. This firm also considers that "in no case should galvanised ropes be used for running purposes. One day's use often scrapes off the coating of zinc, and then rusting proceeds with twice Considerations in Eope Machines. 20l the rapidity upon the exposed surfaces." The writer, however, has seen a galvanised steel rope, 3f in. in circum- ference, employed in a Staffordshire coal mine that had worked day and night for four years, and in which period it had raised 2,600,000 tons of mineral. In America running ropes are usually composed of six strands of nineteen wires, whilst standing ropes are constructed of six strands of seven wires. The wires in the strands are usually united by brazed lap joints. Steel employed in the manufacture of wire ropes should be of the best or superior qualities, as low grades may give inferior results to good iron wire. Reverting to compound strand and rope-making machinery, last year the writer had the opportunity of examining a very analogous machine to that last described, at the engine- house of the Market-street Cable Railway Company, San Francisco, Cal. The machine in question was, however, arranged to work in a vertical instead of a horizontal posi- tion, but the results at this time appeared to be decidedly indifferent, for the strands were irregular and " kinked," whilst the closing mechanism was chafing their crowns to a marked extent. Returning to examine the vertical rope-closing machine illustrated at Fig. 16, it will be noticed that the strand bobbins are of considerable diameter but of limited breadth, a measure essential to insure easy angles of delivery to the closing die. In some similar machines employed in the United States such precautions, however, appear disregarded, for strand bobbins of considerable breadth (like hawser reels) are mounted, in some cases (without flyers), upon rotary tables, consequently the angles of delivery are comparatively sharp and variable. Of late years the demand for flexible wire ropes, or cables composed of a large number of wires, has greatly increased, and therefore special attention has been bestowed upon strand-making machinery suitable for their manufacture. 202 Compound StrandiTig Machines. Fig. 19, on the folding plate, represents an ingenious class of machine, constructed by Messrs. Barraclough & Co., for meeting such requirements, and that which may be appro- priately described as a " compound tandem stranding ma- chine." It will be observed that it consists of four inde- pendent stranding appliances arranged one before the other on the same horizontal axis, and to which one draw-off" motion is provided. The bobbins, in the example illustrated, each hold about 370 lb. of wire, the machine being capable of making strands up to sixty-one wires, in the following manner: Commencing from the left-hand side of the diagram, the wire or hempen core is drawn through the tubular shaft of the first machine to receive a covering of six wires ; this strand is then drawn in as a core to the second machine, where it is coated with twelve more wires, and so on to the third and fourth, to be spun over with eighteen and twenty-four wires respectively, thus forming the finished compound strand of sixty-one component wires. As the strand leaves the last portion of the machine, it passes three or four times around the " draw-through drum," from whence it is coiled upon a reel ready for being made into rope. The four stranding devices are all geared together so as to be driven at decreasing speeds dependent upon the lays required, the course of rotation being in alternate or the same direction according to the type of strand desired to be manufactured. It will be apparent that as only one draw -off motion is provided, the strand must have the same rate of lineal progression through the four dif- ferential rotary machines, therefore by changing the angular velocities of the drum or motion referred to, uniform pro- portions of " lays " or spiral pitches will be produced. The machine is well designed and of strong construction. The central hollow shafts which carry the annular frames are formed of steel, the latter being provided with gun-metal flyer bearings. The cranks are of machined wrought iron Compound Stranding Machines. 203 secured by keys and pins. The flyers are constructed o£ the best forged iron, and are fitted with improved bobbin tension apparatus. The machine is mounted upon anti- frictional bearings as described with reference to the 12-bobbin stranding machine. The stopping and starting mechanism runs the whole length of the machine so that one attendant may have perfect control of the same. The draw-off drum is provided with a " surging " or smooth periphery equipped with a divider capable of variation according to the requirements of the user. The reeling apparatus is double geared so as to allow for the varying diameter of the coil, and is constructed either with a horizontal or vertical shaft. A "jockey pulley" may be affixed to the draw drum when required. The machine works on a series of cast-iron bedplates, carefully machined and fitted together, so as to form a compact and reliable job, whilst anti-frictional runners are placed under some of the rings in order to reduce the vibration and to enable the machine to travel at a maximum speed. These runners are fixed in suitable frames provided with adjustable staying apparatus to compensate for the wear of the brasses. The concentrating or rose plates and dies are of an improved construction, the die holders travelling on double stays, whilst pressure is applied to the dies either by a lever and weight or by springs, according to the require- ments or desire of the manufacturer. Messrs. Barraclough & Co. also manufacture various types of wire-drawing, testing, and straightening, &c., machinery, of the classes described in an early stage of this treatise. Some of the machines employed in the construction of " locked coil ropes " previously described, are provided with some fifty or more bobbins, for it will be apparent that their number will be dependent upon the quantity of wires used in the annular series. In this case the manu- ^04 Stone's Bope-Mahing Machine. facfcure of the ropes is effected after the manner of forming a compound strand as already explained with reference to other machines. Mr. John Bulmer has made a speciality of this and other classes of rope-making plant. It will be readily understood that wires of fancy sections are drawn precisely similar to those of cylindrical form, the apertures in the draw-plates being varied according to the configuration required. Wires of irregular sections are, however, more costly to produce, and their manufacture is usually confined to comparatively mild qualities of steel. It has been explained with reference to several types of strand and rope-making machines, that great care is usually exercised to provide efficient mechanical devices for pre- venting any twisting of the component wires or strands. We will now direct brief attention to an American machine which has been recently introduced to the notice of manu- facturers in this country, in which the above specified precautions are intentionally disregarded. The contrivance in question is the invention of J. B. "Stone, of Worcester, Mass., and is illustrated in side sectional elevation and plan at Figs. 20 and 21 respectively. The inventor claims to " do away with the necessity of preventing torsion being put into the individual wires or tendency to kink in the strands," &c., by the use of an analagous arrangement to that employed in Archi- bald Smith's obsolete machinery, combined with a wire- straightening device such as described on page 92 of this volume. How the patentee efiectually dispenses with this necessity above referred to, does not, however, appear so clear, for it is one matter to straighten wire with twists in it, and another to prevent or remove them. Reverting to the illustration, A is an ordinary horizontal flyer frame, mounted in suitable bearings, and within which the wire or strand bobbins B are arranged about the spindle b. Those acquainted with A. Smith's old EH W. 206 Stone's Bope-MaJdng Machine. machines, will at once recognise the similarity in this part of the design. D are tension cords or belts for controlling the " pay off " of the bobbins, whilst F are small pulleys mounted upon the revolving framing for governing the direction of the wire or strands delivered to the closing die. These details will be better under- stood by reference to Fig. 22, which represents a detached sectional view to an enlarged scale. This portion of the machine is actuated by the shaft g, provided with spur- gearing G, and bevil pinions H, as shown in the plan. J is the core and wire-concentrating tube, and K the fixed closing die. L is the wire straightener such as that already described with reference to Fig. 24 before mentioned. I represents the draw-off gear. The bobbin-flyer and the straightening device are driven by pulleys and straps com- municating with a counter-shaft as shown in the first figure. These illustrations are taken from the specification of the British patent, and which doubtless are only intended to convey the principle of the invention, for it is not clear as to what usual descriptions of strands or roping could be made with three bobbins as shown, although distinct reference is made to such manufactures, e.g. : " I have discovered that, by passing a rope made of two or more individual wires twisted together, without reference to the torsion put into the wires in the process of twisting them together, or without any means employed for prevent- ing torsion being put into the wires as they are twisted together, through what is termed a straightening device, of any ordinary construction and operation, by giving alter- nate bends to the wire or wires passing through it, all tendency of the rope to kink and contort is removed." " Briefly, my invention consists in twisting together two or more wires, and then passing the twisted wires through a straightening device, or a device adapted to give alternate bends to the wires, for the purpose of removing the ten- Strand and Rope-Making Machinery. 207 dency to kink and contort therefrom, all in one continuous operation," &c. The number of bobbins is, however, immaterial for our purpose, and we will assume the rotary flyer A to contain any suitable number of bobbins, the core being conducted through the centre of the tube J, whilst the wires or strands are similarly passed through the periphery of the same to the stationary closing die K. When a suflacient length has been pulled forward, the strand or rope is taken through the straightening apparatus L to the draw-off drum I, and the machine is then set in motion. It will now be apparent that as the flyer revolves with its bobbins the wires or strands concentrated at J will be twisted into a strand or rope at the fixed die K, and then be drawn forward by the drum I through the straightener L, so as to remove kinks or sinuosities. The last-mentioned appliance is not, however, pretended to remove torsion put into the wires or strands caused by the variable relation of the bobbins, and, there- fore, upon the whole, the writer fails to appreciate the value of the following remarks in the specification, viz. : " The great advantage of my invention will be readily appreciated by those skilled in the art, for, by doing away with the necessity of employing mechanical means for pre- venting torsion being put into each individual wire in the process of twisting the several wires together to form the rope, I am enabled to greatly increase the speed of the machine for twisting the wires together, and thus increase the amount of production." The machine in question may answer sufficiently well for running up some common descriptions of strands and roping, e.g., for fencing and rigging purposes, but most of our manufacturers would hardly care to employ one for the production of superior steel ropes of comparatively high tensile efficiencies. Although there unquestionably exists a large scope for 208 Comments on the Wire Rope Trade. teclinieal knowledge and dexterous manipulation in the manufacture of wire generally, one can scarcely claim the wire rope-making industry to reasonably constitute a verj learned or high art in modern structures. Certainly a manufacturer should exercise considerable judgment in the selection of his wire, besides the choice of constructions suitable for different applications ; but the employment of efficient machinery and dealings with a good and reliable wiredrawer is fully half the way to a successful issue. Unfortunately, keen competition, combined with the incon- sistently cheap requirements of many consumers, have in some cases necessitated manufacturers resorting to the use of materials frequently against their wishes and expe- riences. Some engineers and customers would probably often get better results by leaving their rope specifications to manu- facturers or other experienced persons practically versed in the properties of wire and cable constructions, for not in- frequently impracticable requirements are inserted, and sometimes inconsistent details insisted upon. However interpreted, such specifications must sometimes lead to the production of unsatisfactory ropes. Mr. A. S. Biggart's paper on " Wire Ropes," recently read before the Institution of Civil Engineers (Vol. CI. of the Proceedings), certainly constitutes one of the most valuable contributions yet published in connection with the industry at issue. Mr. Biggart was one of the engineers associated with the erection of the celebrated Forth Bridge, and the experiments described in the paper in question were under- taken with the object of determining some practical means of guidance in the selection of wire ropes to be employed at these works. The importance of these investigations will be appreciated when it is understood that over sixty miles of such roping were engaged in the erection of this colossal structure. Beyond the usual considerations of Biggart's Paper on Wire Ropes. 209 external wear, careful attention has been devoted to the results caused by internal friction, and the fatigue of steel wires from working over small pulleys such as used in cranes or hoisting appliances. The ropes employed for such purposes had to be composed of numerous wires of small diameters, in order to obtain suflficient flexibility to with- stand the severe bending stresses. About two years ago the writer received a communication from the author expressing the opinion that the failure of crane ropes was frequently due to the smallness of the pulleys over which they had to work, backed by the experience that sometimes he had observed cases in which three-fourths of their ulti- mate strength were taxed by the bending strains alone. In the execution of the works at issue rigid ropes were only used for wind-ties; the flexible ropes ranged from 1| in. to 2f in. in circumference, and were composed of crucible steel wires about .036 in. in diameter. Their construction was chiefly six strands of twelve, nineteen, or twenty-four wires, weighing about 2 lb. to 4 lb. per fathom, and pre- senting ultimate breaking strains of from about 6^ tons to 10 and 15 tons. The tensile efficiencies of the steel wires supplied ranged between 70 and 100 tons per square inch of sectional area, but the averages were from 80 to 90-ton quality. Mr. Biggart found that the strength of the component wires individually considered was about 10 per cent, above that obtained when in the form of roping. Further, the variation in the strength of pieces of plain wire was ascertained to be about 8 per cent., whilst galvanised wire showed a fluctuation of only 3 per cent. ; but in torsional efficiency the former with- stood an average of some ninety twists in 8 in., whilst the latter attained an average of sixty turns and no appreciable difference was detected, whether the twists were effected slowly or with considerable rapidity. Upon consulting the Tables appended to this paper it will be 210 Biggart's Research re Wire Ropes. observed that the loss of ductility in annealed galvanised wire is very pronounced, whilst an increment in such property is exhibited in the case of annealed plain wire, e.g., the galvanised wire withstood 57 twists against 178 in the plain condition. The loss of tensile strength due to annealing was found to be about constant in both cases. The permanent set observed in different qualities of steel wire varied between 25 and 80 per cent, of their ultimate tenacity, i.e., the former in mild Bessemer, and the latter in superior qualities of cast-steel wire. A similar range of elasticity is pointed out in Chapter I. (Section I.) of this volume. The average extent of elongation noticed in crucible steel wires is recorded as being about 3 per cent. Mr. Biggart points out that if a length of wire rope be soldered or secured at its ends the rigidity of the specimen is greatly augmented, and that the resistance may approach that of a solid bar. This is almost self-evident, and many will be aware that it is detrimental and deceptive to submit samples of flexible ropes to customers which have been secured at their ends by rings or other binding devices. The value of frictional adhesion present in roping, from the contact of the component wires, is exemplified in this paper by the fact that a splice of about 40 ft. in length may exert a resistance equivalent to the ultimate strength of the rope. This supports the experiments and views of the writer, who has also observed a similar result upon testing a rope which has had all its component wires cut some 18 in. in advance of one another. Biggart's in- vestigations further show that the practice of allowing a diameter in pulleys of fully six times the circumference of the rope required to work over the same is beyond usual requirements, although the sizes of the component wires should not be disregarded. The pulleys, in the case at issue, over which the ropes were tested, were of 10 J in. and 17 in. in diameter, but the results showed a marked increase Ropes used in the Erection of the Forth Bridge. 211 of durability in the ropes as the sizes were increased ; the cutting tendency produced by the longitudinal or axial movement o£ the component wires entered largely into these determinations. The author found that a rope If in. in circumference ran over the first-named size of pulley 16,000 times with a load equal to one-tenth of its breaking strain before there were any fractures or serious deteriora- tions. Subsequent examinations were considered to support the contention that the destruction of the ropes was more due to internal cutting friction and fatigue of the steel than from any external wear. This cutting action was found to be materially mitigated by the application of oil or other lubricants, when capable of permeating the rope. Thus, for example, a similar piece of roping to that which with- stood 16,000 bends, when oiled ran 38,700 times over the same pulley before breaking. Other similar pieces of rope unoiled ran over a 24-in. pulley 74,000 times, and when lubricated 386,000 times. The better bearing surface afforded to the wires of running ropes when laid accord- ing to " Langs' system " -is well supported by the fact that ropes of this type under similar conditions made 53,000 and 107,600 passes over the 10|-in. pulley before frac- turing. This last experiment strongly upholds the contention long since propounded by the writer, viz., that for wire ropes employed for running round or over pulleys, the component wires and strands should all be laid in the same direction, although the date is not very distant when sup- posed authorities ridiculed the idea of such a construction. Some three years ago the writer also called repeated attention, in different articles, to the baneful effect of running ropes round pulleys in reverse directions, e.g., used in some mining shafts and rope-driving machinery, &c. ; Mr. Biggart's experiences go to show that generally the life of a rope is twice as long when only bent in one 212 Hoisting Ropes used at the Forth Bridge. direction as against those used under alternate stresses of flexure. The depreciation in the properties of wire when made up into roping appears further supported by the author's tests of bending efficiency, in which the wires indi- vidually considered showed a far greater working life. If this loss is apparent in carefully manufactured ropes what amount of sacrifice might one reasonably expect to find in those produced by indifferent machinery, in which torsional and bending influences, &c., are disregarded ? In the experiments under consideration, excellent results were obtained by the employment of Bessemer iron and mild qualities of steel wires, and which did not reveal the symptoms of fatigue so discernible in higher grades of steel. In conclusion Mr. Biggart is of opinion that flexible wire crane ropes should usually be made of ungalvanised steel wires of about 80 tons quality with oiled hempen cores to form both the cores of the strands and central hearts, whilst the component wires and strands should all be laid in the same direction. Further, the ropes when in use should be frequently lubricated, both for reducing external wear and internal friction. Although there are doubtless some small discrepancies in the paper just discussed, such as some disregard of the element of time, trivial inaccuracies as to the sizes of certain wires to produce ropes of stated circumferences, and references made to an obsolete and meaningless standard, such as B. W. G., &c., it is on the whole a most important and vahiable contribution to the literature on the subject. In Deakin's paper on " Wire Ropes," recently read before the South Wales Institution of Engineers, some interesting and instructive particulars were given by the author and subsequent criticisers. Mr. Deakin gives the following depths at which the weights of wire ropes composed of diflierent materials equal their working loads, according to the Table of weights and ultimate strengths accepted by him t>eakin's Paper on W^ire Ropes. 2i^ viz. : Charcoal iron, 850 yards ; Bessemer steel, 925 yards ; patented cast steel, 1400 yards ; plough steel, 2000 yards. The author advocates the allowance of factors of safety from ^th to Tnrth of the maximum loads the ropes will withstand, and expresses an opinion in favour of ropes composed of six strands of seven, eight, or nine wires all laid up in the same direction, with cores of annealed iron wires. Proper stress is laid upon the value of lubricants and preservatives against rust, as well as that of storing ropes in dry places, and the desirability of uncoiling ropes from off reels so as to prevent the liability of injury from kinking. The sizes of pulleys and drums herein advocated are about ten times the circumference of the ropes to be used on the same, or say 1 ft. in the diameter of the former for each pound of rope per fathom, e.g., a drum 3^ ft. in diameter for a rope weighing 3| lb. per fathom. The value of keeping proper rope records was strongly upheld, .e.g., makers' name, quality, type of construction, when put to work, miles travelled, speed of work, tons hauled, and when discarded, &c. During the discussion, in which many leading mining engineers and other authorities took part, the following reasonable contentions were advanced. Wire ropes com- posed of ordinary cylindrical wires, laid in the same direc- tion as their strands, found the strongest and most unani- mous support, whilst those formed of wires of fancy sections, such as in Laidler's construction or the " lock-coiled ropes, obtained on the whole few practical admirers or advocates. The Westgarth system was considered by several to consist largely in theoretical allegations, the advantages claimed not being appreciable in practice. Many complaints were raised by users concerning the great irregularity in the quality and durability of ropes, and an instance was cited in which the sizes of wire in a rope varied some .006 in. and their tensile values from 34 tons to 214 Reasonable Weiglds & Breaking Strains of Ropes. 54 tons and 65 tons to 80 tons per square inch of section. A discussion then arose as to the reliability of certain tables of strengths of different iron and steel round ropes as supplied by some manufacturers, and which resulted in a favourable reception being given to Messrs. T. & W. Smith's tabulation (here appended), which is certainly consistent Sizes. Weights per Fathom. Breaking Strains. ii .o4J 1 s c o o • S <» Jh O (§020 Ill J in. in. lb. lb. tons. tons. tons. 1 .318 .945 1.12 1.39 2.78 3.81 li .397 1.48 1.74 2.17 4.35 5.96 li .477 2.13 2.5 3.12 6.28 8.58 ii .557 2.9 3.41 4.25 8.52 11.6 2 .636 3.79 4.45 5.58 11.1 15.2 8 .716 4.8 5.65 7 14.1 19.3 .795 5.91 6.99 8.7 17.4 23.8 4 .875 7.15 8.4 10.5 21 28.7 3 .954 8.5 10 12.5 25.1 34.3 3i 1.03 10 11.8 14.7 29.4 40 3* 1.11 11.6 13.6 17 34.1 46.6 31 1.19 13.3 15.7 19.5 39.2 53.5 4 1.27 15.1 17.8 22.2 44.5 61 4; 1.35 17.1 20.1 25.1 50 68.9 ^ 1.43 19.2 22.6 28.1 56.2 77 4 1.51 21.4 25.1 31.4 63 86 5 1.59 23.6 27.7 34.6 69.6 95 8 1.67 26.1 30.7 38.4 76.9 105 1.75 28.6 33.6 42 84 115.1 5i: 1.83 31.2 36.8 46 92 126 6 1.9 34 40 50 100 137.5 in respect of sizes and strengths. Improved or patented steel wire of 80-ton quality, with a torsional efficiency of some thirty-five to forty-five twists in 8 in., however, met with the best approval for the construction of mining ropes. All the component wires of any one rope should have as nearly as possible the same values of tensile efficiency, whilst their connections in the strands should be neatly formed by Relation of Gauges of Wires to Sizes of Roping. 215 brazing or welding. All such joints should be filed up by- hand, or by means of an emery wheel, so as to be of the same sectional area as the rest of the wire. Having determined the construction of any six-stranded rope to be made, the gauge of wires requisite to produce a desired circumference of rope may be roughly ascertained by dividing the required diameter of rope by the number of out- side wires to be employed in any strand -|- 3. This method of computation obviously gives the theoretical diameter of wire requisite to produce a rope of a predetermined size, but in practice the nearest corresponding commercial gauge has to be adopted. It will be further understood that the -^number of wires employed in each strand, and consequently the gauges of the same, should be varied according to the purposes to which the rope is to be applied. Some manu- facturers adopt a rule of making the compound wires of most running ropes of not more than the ^ ^(, ^ th part of the diameter of the smallest pulley over which they have to work ; but the largest gauge employed in patent cast- steel wire seldom exceeds .116 in. Whilst inspecting some traction ropes in the United States, the writer was surprised to find spiral joints existing in the wires of the strands, something similar to " Britannia jointing " in telegraph wire, which gave rise to rigid irregularities of a very objectionable character. It is fair to remark that these ropes were not made by Eastern manufacturers. It is strange that our transatlantic friends have not yet found the advantages of using the " Lang " construction of wire roping for traction, winding, and general running purposes. Their difficulties in the way of its adoption are apparently connected with the splicing of this type of rope, but it should be remembered that it has been long since extensively used for mining endless haulage systems in Europe, besides on the cable lines of Australia and New Zealand. The length of splices 216 Multiple Laid Ropes. shoald, however, be rather longer than those used for ordinary roping in which the wires and strands are laid in opposite directions. " Multiple laid ropes," i.e., those composed of six com- pound rope strands formed with a hempen heart and cores, may be of a very flexible character, and for this reason they are somewhat extensively used on the Continent for hawsers and crane or hoisting purposes. The con- struction is similar to that already defined as " cable laid," with the exception that the former usually contains a greater number of wires, e.g., from 700 to 800 wires in a rope from 3f in. to 7f in. in circumference. This type of roping is, however, costly, and little adopted in our course of practice. Messrs. T. & W. Smith have earned a high reputation for the manufacture of flexible crane and lift, &c., ropes, some particulars of which are here appended. The Table on the opposite page only relates to ungalvanised plough steel ropes ; it will, however, be understood that this class of roping can be manufactured from different qualities of plain or galvanised iron and steel wire. The construction usually comprises six strands of seven, nineteen, or twenty- four wires. From statistics given in Chapter III. it will be evident that comparatively little wire roping is now imported into the United States, indeed the manufacturers are quite capable of meeting the demands and requirements of their customers without any outside assistance. A considerable quantity of superior patent tempered wire is, however, still imported. Some time ago, when cable traction obtained a firm footing in the States, many European manufacturers tried to procure a share of the rope trade, indeed some orders were placed abroad, but apparently with little benefit to the makers or users. When the writer was in Kansas City last year he was informed that some benevolent English Fleodble Grane Ropes. 21? manufacturer had offered a cable tramway company there to deliver at the railway dep6t a " coopered " spool of high- class steel traction roping at 11 cents per pound. This Flexible. Special Flexible. Size. B 8 .4J Size. B o htB per Fathom, Breaking Strains and Equivalent Sizes and Weights of Ropes. 1 In oS-i Circumference of Compound Rope in Inches. 1.2 S| III 1^. .2 Is 0) (U S % 1 1 1 so. •S£S ill ^-3 11^ 1 1 eS "^ £.2 H 61 150 ,. .. 6 61 ,, 139 t\ 48 42 S| 6i ej 128 6i 44 38 b| 6 6* 118 6^ 4n 35 BJ 6i 110 6 37 32 6 61 6| 6 100 6i 34 29 ii 6i «i S3 ^ 30 26 6 61 _ 88 6i 2T 24 4 Bl 86 6 36i 23 4? Bi t'i 80 4J 24 22 u 5 6 (jM?ftii(/\^'^'-"''lM'''-^'i'4'^^'^^ Fiu. 12. StEAIHBD wire and STBAifD CATTLE FENCING. 324 Wire and Strand Fencing. for enclosing oxen ; it is 4 ft. high, and composed of stan- dards II in. by | in. placed 8 ft. apart. The wires are strained from ornamental cast-iron pillars situated 100 yds. apart, with diagonal strengthening stays ; additional supports are used on curves or over very undulating ground. Fig. 13. Fig. 12 illustrates a strongly designed galvanised strand fence, consisting of substantial straining pillars placed 200 yards apart with galvanised sheet-iron standards spaced at 15 ft., and carried 2 ft. above the ground. The strands are composed of seven galvanised wires. The pawl and ratchet straining mechanism attached to the pillars are shown in the engraving. Fencing Pillars, Standards, and Winders, &c. 325 A form of angle-straining pillar with double winders is shown in Fig. 13, This type of fencing is designed for batting to stone or concrete, whilst the winders are capable of straining lengths of wire up to 300 ft. It will be readily- understood that the pillars and intermediate standards may be of various sections and constructions according to taste and requirements, but a popular form for the latter sup- ports is of bulb-tee iron section about 1^ in. wide, such as represented in Fig. 14. For some lighter descriptions of fencing, angle iron uprights of about IJ in. by 1| in. by \ in., section are extensively employed. Figs. 15 and 16 illustrate ratchet winding or tighten- ing appliances used for wire fences in which the posts or supports are composed of wood. The first arrangement works in a vertical, and the second in a horizontal, plane. Fig. 16 might also be applied to metallic standards as a strainer of convenient design, and in both cases they are sold either galvanised or coated with protective varnish. Figs. 17 and 18 show views of angle iron " droppers " as employed in Smith's " corrimony " fencing — a system largely used in Scotland and other mountainous districts. These " droppers " are commonly placed every 6 yards apart, say three between the standards fixed in the ground 24 yards apart ; they serve to keep the strained wires in their proper parallel relations, and not being carried into the ground (but merely resting on the surface), a more flexible structure is obtained. One method of holding the wires to these spacing pieces is represented above, and will be seen to consist in the employment of steel clips, which embrace the wires and then pass through the apertures cut in the angle irons, as shown in the illustrations. It will usually be found more economical to have all fencing, materials galvanised; varnishing every two or three years generally proves more expensive and not so effectual. Fig. 15. Fig. Ifi. Fig. 14. Fencing standaehs and strainers. " Droppers " and " Espalier " Fencing. 327 Fig. 17. Fig. 18. Fig. 19 represents a strained wire "espalier" fence for training trees or shrubs, &c. Fig. 19. On page 328 are illustrated Messrs. Hill & Smith's tools advocated for the prompt and efficient erection of strained wire fences, the following descriptive numbers having reference to the figures given on the page referred to Fi6. 21. Fig. 26. Tools used in the beection of wire fences. Tools used in the Erection of Fences. 329 Fig. 20 represents a hand straining machine capable of tightening wires of the largest sizes ; Fig. 21, a wrought- iron tube for uncoiling and straightening the wire ; Fig. 22, a key for knotting or jointing wire ; Figs. 23 and 24, pliers with sharp and flat points and corrugated and smooth jaws ; Figs. 25 and 26, a steel-headed hammer and wrought- iron plug for holding the wires in the straining pillars. To this list of requisites a chisel and file may be added. 330 Fences and Hurdles of Expanded Metal. Fig. 27 represents a hurdle or a section of fencing com- posed of Golding's cut or expanded sheet metal referred to in the preceding chapter. The end opposite the standard has a rod extending below the meshed metal. Lugs form the connections for the next standard. The lugs of two sections are connected or disconnected at will by means of one bolt; the lower ends of the rods extend down- ward below the angular staying foot as shown at the ground line. The standards pass through these foot-plates and are also rivetted to them, but are wholly independent of the sections. The top rail of this fence is formed of a steel or iron tube open at its lower side and into which the upper edge of the sheet of expanded metal is secured. The lugs" at each end are fastened into this tube, and the rods round which the expanded metal is lapped, are rivetted through them, thus forming a strong section, convenient for trans- portation, and easily and quickly erected, requiring only that the standards be driven in the ground and the sections bolted to them. Staying hooks are provided for the lower edge of the metal as shown, as also strong iron foot-pieces. This fence will turn both large and small animals, which cannot get their heads through to feed from adjacent property, and are therefore free from the tempta- tion to force their way. Large quantities of simply rolled fencing wire are sold annually — more especially by German and American manufacturers — although annealed wire that has been drawn one hole or so to improve its surface and symmetry are preferred in most markets. Space available in this volume has only permitted a mere outline of the fencing question being given. Probably in about 1840 plain solid rolled wire was first used for fencing purposes, but it was not until shortly after the International Exhibition of 1851, that galvanised Wire Fencing, its Introduction and Cost, &c. 331 fencing wire and strands were practically used in this country ; since then the employment of wire for fencing purposes has made rapid progress until, at present, the business has assumed gigantic proportions. Some idea of the importance and enormous scope involved in the fencing question may be gathered from Professor Scott's treatise upon " Farm-fences," and wherein it is estimated that for every acre of enclosed land in this kingdom there is over £1 invested for fencing purposes. Pursuing this basis, as applied to 45 million acres of enclosed land within this country, the author proceeds to show that a capital of nealy 50 million pounds sterling has been invested in fencing, the annual maintenance of which he states costs fully £6,750,000. These remarks of course have reference to the employment of post and rail and every other description of fencing, but when we pause to reflect upon the above named expenditure, within our compara- tively small area, some idea may be formed of the field open to various kinds of wire fencing in the different agricultural and stockbreeding districts of the globe. The first orders received by home manufacturers for fencing wire for the Australian Colonies was in about the year 1856 or 1857, and about which date bright drawn wire was in some considerable demand. The limits of this treatise preclude descriptions of wire fences for poultry yards, dog-kennels and tennis grounds, &c., as well as many horticultural requisites, &c. Indeed, were it possible to incorporate all the mechanical pro- ductions in wire, this volume would only assume the features of a trade catalogue. Amongst the many ornamental garden structures, however, in which wire is largely used, perhaps the rose temple, flower stand and suspension basket, illustrated in Figs. 28, 29, and 30 (as manufactured by Messrs. J. J. Thomas & Co., London), may be embodied as typical examples of their class. Fig. 28. Hortictjitueal wiee-woek. o 6 O m Fig. 31. Fig. 32. Wire nail machine and pkbss. Horticultural Wirework and Nails. 335 These elegant structures may, be composed of galvanised wire or be japanned in various colours. The firm above referred to obtained gold medals for their tasteful horti- cultural wirework at the Exhibitions held at Paris and Kensington during 1878 and ] 882 respectively. In conclusion, Figs. 31 and 32 represent typical wire-nail manufacturing machines as constructed by Messrs. T. E. Bond, of Birmingham, and Malmedie & Co., of Diisseldorf . With reference to the first design, the wire is automatically straightened from the coil and fed into the machine, where dies grip it, whilst a pair of nippers cut the wire off in suitable lengths, when it is automatically pointed and headed. The latter operation is efiiected by means of the spring-bolt mechanism operated by a cam on the main shaft, and which remains inoperative until a suflScient length of wire has been fed into the machine to form the next nail. The cutting and pointing is performed in one operation. The flat or blade spring, shown in the illustration, actuates the heading bolt, whilst the spiral spring attached to a lever ejects the manufactured nail. The machine is capable of producing up to 300 finished nails per minute, dependent upon the lengths and sizes required. The second figure represents a press of somewhat similar construction, with the exception of certain mechanical modifications necessary to the design, i.e., the heads of the nails in this instance are formed by steady pressure instead of intermittent striking. Presses are capable of turning out more nails in a given time than machines, besides avoiding injurious concussion. The lengths of wire nails usually range between 1| in. and 6 in., the space occupied by the appliances described vary from, say, 5 ft. by 2 ft. to 13 ft. by 5 ft., whilst the power required for driving the same i-anges from :| to 2 horse -power. Readers interested in wire-working machi- nery of any description, can obtain every information from the manufacturers before referred to. INDEX. ADVERTISEMENT. ^glanbs ^r0ther0, Jimiteb, on. ^ ESTABLISHED 1805. REGISTERED t' T^ t BRAND. WIRE. All kinds -Iron and Steel, Plain, Galvanized, Tinned, Coppered, Telegraph, and Telephone. ROPES. For Mines, Collieries, Inclines, Tramways, Bridges, Hoists, Elevators, Shipping, &c. SIGNAL AND FENCING STRAND. NETTING. The Largest Production of all kinds in the world. SPRINGS. Every Size, Gauge, and kind. BARBED WIRE. INDEX ABEL, Sir Frederick, on Carbon in Steel, 31 Acid and Basic Steels, 34 Adam Smith on Pins, 10 Adhesion of Driving Drums, 251 Aerial Ropeways, 253 to 266 Aerial Standing Ropes, 185 Aerial Wire Performers, 23 Aim of the Treatise (See Preface) Ainaworth, Captain, and Wire, 3 Albert's Invention, 153 Allen's Research on Wire and Rods, 57 Alloys of Copper, 105, 106, 109, 110, 112 Alloys of Iron, 31, 87, 109 Alloys of Silver, 112 Aluminium Wire, 110 Ambiguity of Wire Gauges, by Trotter (See Preface) American Railway Kates, 272 American Rod Rolling, 43, 47 American Rope-Making Machinery, 201, 204 American Telegraphs, 7 American Wire Gauges, 130 American Wire Works, 122 to 124 Analyses of Rods and Wire Billets, 39, 40, 41, 67, 68 Analyses and Properties of Music Wire, 69 Anchoring Chains and Ropes, 278 Ancients and Wiremaking, 1 Andrews' Billets, &c., 41 Angle Fencing Strainers, 324 Annealing of Iron and Steel Wire, 56 Antiquity of Wire, 1 Applications of Different Wires, 5 Applications of Wire Ropes, 223 Apps' Great Inductorium, 7 Archal, R., and Wire, 2 Archibald Smith's Machine, 167 Attenuation of Coated Wires, 28 Augsberg and Nuremberg and Wire Draw- ing, 1 Australia, No Works in, 6, 222 Australian Copper, 101 Australian Fencing Wire and Orders, 331 Australians and Wire Netting, 285 Automatic Rope Clip, 246 BABBA6E on Watch Springs, 16 Basic Steels, 34, 41 Barbed Wire Fencing, 312, 316 to 321 Barnard, Inventor of Wire Netting, 285 Barraclough's Stranding and Roping Machines, 188 Bartleet's Needle Factory, 14 Bedson's Galvanising Plant, 64 Bedson's Inventions, 4, 44 Bedson's Rod Mill, 44 Beesley & Co. '8 Umbrella Wire, 15 Belgian Exports, 6, 131 Belgian Rod Train, 43 Belts of Woven Wire, 306 Bench-Hardened Wire, 63 Berlin Music Wire Trade, 19 Bessemer & Co.'s Billets, 40 Bessemer Process for Steelmaking, 34 Biggart on Wire Ropes, 208 Billets, Acid and Basic, 40, 41 Billets, Cast-Steel, 41 Billets, Composition of, 39, 40, 41 Billets, Iron and Steel, 39 Billets, Siemens-Martin and Crucible, 40 Birmingham Wire Gauges, 127 Black or Annealed Wire, 42, 63 Black Varnished Annealed Fencing Wire, 313 Blackwall Rope Railway, 229 Bleckly's Rod Mill, 45 Blister Steel, 35 Blocks for Wiredrawing, 53, 54 Bogie Clutch Gars, 241 Bolton's Continuous Wire Mill, 102 Bond's Nail Machinery, 835 Bond's Wire Coiling Machine, 293 Bond's Wire Netting Machinery, 293 Boults' International Wire Table (See Pre- face) Brass and Delta Wires, 109 Brass Wire for Pinmaking, 11 Breaking Strains of Wire, To Calculate, 75, 76 Brenner's Paper'on Ropes, 167 Bright Drawn or Finished Wire, 42, 63 " Britannia " Wire Joint, 142 British Wire Exports, 131 British Wire Manufacturers' Association, 128 Broadwood's Piano Wire, 21, 69 Bryne's Continuous Wire Mill, 89 Bulmer's Rope Machines, 187 Bullivant & Co.'s Works, &:c., 159 BuUivant's Wire.Netting, &c., 296, 304 CABLE Tramways, 268 Cable Tramway Ropes in Australia, 220 Cable Wire Rofjes, Laid, 160 Cadzow Collieries, Haulage at, 226 Calculate Strength of Wires, 75 Caleb Bell and Wire Mills, 2 Capacity of Aerial Ways, 260 to 260 Capital Invested in Fencing, 331 Carbons or Tempers of Billets, 37, 39, 40 Card Wire, 9, 67 Care in Using Ropes, 267, 268 Carrington's Aerial Ropeways, 253 Carrington's Wire-Teating Machines, 80 Cattle Fences, 317, 324 Chain System of Haulage, 224 Charcoal Iron Wire, 82, 38 Charges of Crucible Steel, 86 Chargea of Wire for Annealing, 66 Cheat) Ropes Bad in End, 176 Chemical Analyses of Billets, 39, 40 340 Index. Chemical, Physical and Mechanical Con- siderations, 28, 29, 36, 57, 68, 69 Chili Copper, 101 Chromium in Iron, 37 Classes of Various Wires, 5 Cleveland Kod Mills, U.S.A., 51 Clifton Collieries, Haulage at, 226 Coiling or Bundling Fencing Wire, 313 Coiling or Winding Ropes, Effects of, 251 Cold-Drawing Wire, 62 Colonial Fencing Comments, 313, 316 Colonial and Foreign Trade, 134 Comments on the Rope Trade, 208 Comparative Conductivity of Iron and Copper, 136 Comparisons re Mining Haulage, 237 Competition in America, 219 Composition of Steel Billets, 40, 41 Composition — Wires, 115 Compound Strands, Proportions ot, 178 Compound Stranding and Roping Machines, 198 to 203 Conditions in Haulage, Yariahle, 225 Conductivity of Aluminium and Silver, &c., 110 Conductivity of Copper, 100, 135, 137, 143, 150 Conductivity of Iron and Steel AflEected by Impurities, 144 Conductors, Electrical, 135 to 152 Conductors, Stranded, Efficiency of (See Prbfacb) Confusion of Old Gauges, 127, 129 Continuous Rod Rolling, 44, 45, 47, 60 Continuous Ropes In U.S.A., 272 Continuoua Wiredrawing, 89, 90, 102 Continuous Wire Netting Machine, 296 Contraflexure Straining of Ropes, 252 Convention in U.S.A., Rope Trade, 218 Copper Electrical Conductors, 99, 136, 137, 143. 160 Copper from U.S.A., Japan, Chili, &c., 101 Copper, its Extraction and Properties, 90 Coppered Wire, 66 Corney, Silver, &c., Wiredrawers, 112 ** Corrimony " Fencing, 326 Corrugated Fencing Wire, 316 Cost of Aerial Ropeways, 254 Coat of Electric Traction, 271 Cost of Endless and Tail-Kope Haulage, 225 Cost of Fencing in Great Britain, 331 Cost of Underground Haulage, 225 Crane and Hoisting Ropes, 186 Crucible Cast Steel, 35 Caprum, its Derivation, 99 Curves and Side Haulage Systems, 240 Curves Worked by Rope Haulage, 229 Cutting Action in Wire Ropes, 211 Cycle Spoke Wire, 19 DAILY Services of Wire, 27 Darlington Steel Co.'s Billets, 39 Date, Broadwood Founded, 20 Date, Draw-Plate Invented, 2 Date, Felten & Guilleaume'g Founded, 5 Date, First English Wire Mill, 3 Date, First Submarine Cable, 6, 7 Date, Flatting Mills used, 24 Date, Gem Plates Invented, 25 Date, Lightning Rod Conference, 25 Date, Music Wire used, 19 Date, Pin Machinery, 11 Date, Railway Telegraphs, 6 Date, Roeblings Founded, U.S.A., 5 Date, Rylands Founded, 3 Date, Spectacles used, 16 Date, Standard Wire Gauge, 29 Date, Steel Wire Invested, 4 Date, Steinway Founded, 20 Date, Umbrellas Invented, 16 Date, Wiredrawing Invented, 1, 2 Date, Wire Fencing Introduced, 330 Date, Wire Filigree and Lace made, 24 Date, Wire -Industry in U.S.A., 5 Date, Wire Music Strings, 19 Date, Wire Nail Machines, 19 Date, Wire Netting Invented, 9 Date, Wire used for Guns, 25 Date, Wire Ropemaking, 8 Date, Wire Watch Springs, 17 "Dead Soft " Steel, 40 Deakin's Paper on Wire Ropes, 212 Deep Sea-Sounding Wire, 10 Definition of Iron and Steel, 31 Delta Metal Wire, 109 Uenison's Wire-Testing Machine, 82 Dennis' Continuous Wire Netting Machine 29tJ. Denny Brothers' Rope Hoists, 277 Description of Pin-Making, 11 Descriptions of Various Wires, 5 Details of Aerial Tramways, 260 to 265 Details in Mining Haulage, 230 Development of U.S.A. Productions, 133 Diamond Mines and Wire Roping, 267 Dick's Phosphor- Bronze, 105 Discounts in U.S.A. Rope Trade, 218 Discovery of Platinum, 111 Distance Ropes Carried in U.S.A., 272 Divisibility of Metals, 28 Dockyard Rope Appliances, 277 Dog-Kennels and Wire, 331 Drawing Effects on the Metal, 57, 68 Drawing Wire Coated with Copper, 28 Drawing Wire Cold, Discovered, 1 Drawing Wire Continuously, 89, 90, 102 Draw-plates of Metal, 63, 55 Driving Adhesion of Drums, 261 Driving Belts of Wire, 306 Driving Gear in Haulage Systems, 231 " Droppers " for Fencing, 325 Ductility of Metals, 27 Ductility and Properties of Platinum, 111 Durability of Electrical Conductors, 136 Durability of Wire Ropes, 268 Dynamo Machines and Wire, 6, 7 EAKLY Makers of Wire, 2 Early Makers of Wire Ropes, 168 Edwin Bray Aerial Line, 266 Efficiency of Crane Ropes, 209 Effects of Patenting or Improving Wire 62,63 Effects of Reverse Bends in Ropes, 252 Egyptians and Wire, 1 Elasticity of Piano Wire, 22 Elasticity of Steel Wire, 38, 57 Electrical Conductors, 185 to 162 Electrical Conductors, Efficiency of Strands (See PREFACB) Electrical Conductivity of Copper and Silicious Bronze, 99, 107, 108, 135, 137, 139, 140, 141, 160 Electrical Conductivity, Effects of Impu« rities on, 135, 136, 144 Electrical Conductivity of Silver, 112 Electrical Resistance of Phosphor- Bronze, 105 Electric Lighting, 6 Electric Propulsion of Cars, 271 Electric Traction Wires, 8 Electric Winding Ropes, 183 Electro Plating, 6 Electro Welding Machines, 146 Electrolytically Deposited Copper, 136 Elements found in Iron and Steel, 36, 37 Elliptical or Oval Strands, 180 Index. 341 EnoloBuresot Wire, 312 to 830 Eiidleas Rope Haulage, 224 Engines, Rope-Hauling, 244 Equivalents in Millimetre Gauge, 129 Erection of the Forth Bridge, 274 Erection of Suklcar Bridge, 274 Erection of Wire Fences, 319, 329 Espalier Tree Fences, 327 Expanded or Meehed Metal, 306 to 311 Expanded Metal Fenres, 330 Experiences with Hoisting Bopes, 210 Experiments with Wire and Ropes by Biggart, 209 to 212 Export Trade in Germany, 131 Extraction of Copper, 100 Extraordinary Fine Wire, 9, 10, 89, 110, 111, 113 FACTORS of Safety in Ropts, 213 Fancy Sections in Wire, 204 Farm Fences, Cost of, 331 Felten & Guilleaume's Works and Manufac- tures, 6, 117 to 121 Fences of Expanded Metal, 330 Fencing in Great Britain, Cost of Erection and Maintenances, 331 Fencing Materials and Adjuncts, 312 to 330 Fencing Materials, Makers of, 319, 321 Fencing Strands, 322 Fencing Wire, Elasticity, Strength and Elon- gation, 315 Fencing Wire and Strands, Comparative Weights and Lengths, 322 Fencing Wire and Strands, Introductory, 9 Fencing Wire of Superior Steel verffiis Com- mon Wire, 313, 314 Filigree Silver Work, &c., 23, 112, 113 Fine Drawn Silver, &c.. Wire, 110, 112, 113 Fine Holes in Drawplates, 113, 114 Fine Iron, Aluminium, and Platinum, &c. Wires, 110, 111 Fine Wire, De6nition of, 56 Fine Wires, Calculating Strengths of, 116 Fine Wires for Optical Instruments, &c., 9, 10 Fine Wires in Precious Metals, 23, 111, 112, 113 Fineness of Watch Springs, 16, 17, 18 First Submarine Cable, 7 First Wire Mill in England, 3 Firth & Co.'s Steel, 69 Fisher & Walker's Driving Pulley, 229 Fish-hooks, 14 Fitzpatrick's Electrical Research, 130 Flat Wire Ropes, 171 Flattened Stranded Ropes, 180 Flatting Wire Mills, 24 Flexible Marine Ropes, 26, 278 Flexibility of Mining Ropes, 261 Flexibility of Ropes, Cause of, 161 Flower Temples, Stands, and Baskets, 332 Flywheels of Wire, 26 Foreign Competition in Wire and Watch Springs, 18, 131, 132, 133, 314 Forest of Dean, Wire, 2 Formation of Netting Meshes, 290 Formed Ropes, 160 Forth Bridge Erection Ropes, 208, 274 Foundation of Early Wire Firms, 4, 5 Fowler's Plough Steel Wire, 68 Fox's Card and Umbrella Wire, 16, 67 France and Invention of Wiredrawing, 2 Freights, Comparative, 133 Freights in U.S.A., 272 French Gem Draw-plates, 113 Friction Driving Clutches, 232 Friction, Internal and External, m Ropes, QANEVAL & Co.'s Wonderful Watch Springs, 16, 18 Galvanised Fencing Wire, 313, 326 Galvanised Telegraph Wire, 144 to 148 Galvanised Wire, 63, 64, 66, 144, 313, 325 Garden Requisites of Wire, 331 to 334 Garrett's Wire Rod Mill, 47 Garrucha Aerial Ropeway, 266 Gasworks Aerial Ropeways, 263 Gauges, Ambiguity of, by Trotter (See Pekfaoe) Gauge, Imperial Wire, 73, 128 Gauge, Micrometer, 115 Gauge Question, 29, 125 Gauges, Wire, British and Foreign, &c., 125 to 130 Gauzes of Wire, 9, 304 Gem Draw-plates, French, 113 Gem Draw-plates, Invention of, 25 German Fencing Wire, 313, 314 German Music Wire, 19, 20 German Silver Wire, 110 Germans and Rod IU)lling, 42, 47 Germany and Early Manufactures, 5 Germany and Invention of A^ iredrawing, 2 Gibraltar Aerial Ropeway, 257 Gillott's Thin Steel for Pens, 28 Gilt Silver Wires, 113 to 116 Glengarnock Steel, 40 Glover's Wire Gauge and Tables, 150 Gold on Silver Wires, Form and Process, 114 Goldbeating, 28 Golding's Expanded Metal, 306 Giadation of Music Wire, 71 Great Britain and Early Wire Industry, 2 Greening & Sons Founded, 3 Grip-Cars for Rope Haulage, 241 Gripping Haulage Appliances, 234 to 246 Grips on Aerial Ropeways, 263 to 265 Orummets of Woven Wire, 306 Guaranteeing Lives of Ropes, 219 Guards of Wire, 306 Guns, Wire for, 26 HADFIELD'S Cast-Steel Pulleys, 231 Hadfield's Manganese Steel, 37 Hair Springs of Watches, 16, 17, 18 Half Pinions in Netting Machines, 289 Hand-drawn and Machined Wire, 2 Hard-drann Copper Wire, Sizes, Weights &c.,100,102, 136, 187, 141 Hardening and Tempering Steel Wire, 61 Hardening Wire by Drawing, 67, 63 Hard and Soft Copper Wires, 100, 135 Hard Spelter Alloy, 64 Hartz Mines and Early Wire Ropes, 164 Haulage by Ropes in Mines, 223 Haulage from Side of Tubs, 239 Haulage Systems, Various, at Newcastle Exhibition, 226 Hawsers of Wire, 278 Heavy Coils of Roping, 272 Hempen and Wire Marine Ropes, 279 Herculaneum Wire Relics, 1 Hexagonal Netting Meshes, 290 High Breaking Strains of Steel Wire, 68 69 Hilda Colliery Haulage, 236 Hill &. Smith's Fencing Materials, 821 Histories of Augsberg re Wire, 1 History of Broad wood's Firm, 21 History of Filigree Wirework, 24 History of Music Wire, 19, 20, 21 History of Wire Industry, 1 to 4 Hodson's Spiral Rope Core, 186 Hoisting Ropes used at the Forth Bridee 210 * Hong-Eong Aerial Ropeway, 264 Horizontal Rope-Closers, 166 342 Index. Horse-Power, Transmitted by Ropes, 283 Horticultural Wirework, 331 to 334 Hot Rolling of Rods, 43 Houghton's Music and Spring Wire, 17, 69 Hudson Rope Suspension Bridge, -282 Human Hair not so Fine aa Wire, 9, 10, 112, 113 Hyslop on Side Haulage, 239 IMPERIAL Wire Gauge, 73, 128 Imported Ropea in U.S.A., 217 Imports to U.ti.A. and Australia, 133, 134 Impractical Rope Specifications, 222 Improving of Steel Wire, 60, 63 Impurities in Copper, Effect of, 101, 135, 136 Inauguration of S.W.G , 128 Inauguration of Wire Practically, 1, 2 Inconsistent Specifications, 208, 222 Induction Coils, 7 Inspector of Mines on Wire Ropes (See Preface) Internal Friction in Ropea, 211 International Trade Comments, 132 International Wire Table, Boult's (See Prepacb) Introduction of Steel Music Wire, 21 Introduction to Treatise, 1 to 29 Introduction of Wire Fencing, 330 Invention of Barbed Fencing Wire, 312, 31|6 Invention of Cast-Steel Music Wire, 21 Invention of Wire Netting, 284 Invention of Wire Ropes, 153 Invention of Gem Draw-platea, 25 Inventor of Watch Springe, 17 Iron Merges into Steel, 36 Iron and Steel Annealing Wire, 56 Iron and Steel, Distinction between, 33 Iron and Steel Galvanised Wire, 63, 64 Iron and Steel Musio Wire, 19, 20 Iron and Steel, Rusting of, 38 Iron and Steel, Specific Gravity, 38 Iron and Steel Telegraph Wire, 144 Iron and Steel Wiredrawing, 30, 53, 54 Iron, Swedish, 33 Iron Wire, Charcoal and Puddled, 33 Iron Wire, Sizes, Weights, and Strengths, 72 Irregularity in Quality and Durability of Wire and Ropes, 213 JAPANESE and American Ropes, 219 Japanese Copper, 101 Johnson & Mathey, Wiredrawers, 111 Johnson & Nephew's Mill, 46 Johnson & Nephew's Works, 93 Joillet Rod Mill, U.S.A., 51 Jointing of Barbed Wire, 319 Jointing Telegraph, &c.. Wire, 142 *' KILLING " Telegraph Wire, 146 Kimberley, Ropes used at, Si67 King of Burmah and Umbrellas, 15 Kitchin'a Wire-Testing Machines, 84 Knot-Grips for Aerial Lines, 265 LABOUR Value on Watchaprings, 16, 17 Lacea and Embroideries of Wire, 113 Laid Ropea, 160 Laidler's Roping, 175 Lake Superior Copper, 101 Lancashire and Yorkshire, and Early Trade, 2, 3, 4, 5. Lang's Laid Rope, 172 Large Ropes, 168 Latch & Batchelor's Locked Coil Ropes, 176 Lateral Friction in Rolling Stock, 239 Lattice Wirework, 306 nching Ropes, 278 Leading Grip Cars, 234 Lengths of Kope, equal to Safe Load, 213 Lengths of Submarine Cables, 7, 8 Lengths of Telegraph Wire, 144 Lengths of Wire on Dynamos and Coils, 7 Lengths of Wire used on Flywheels, 26, 27 Lensfths of Wire Rods, 52 Lengths and Weights of Fencing Wire and Strands, 322 Lenne District and Wiredrawing, 1 Licensed Makers of Barbed Wire, 316 Lift and Crane Ropes, 216 Lightning Conductors, 25 Lilleshall Co.'s Billets and Rods, 41 Liquors, Wire Drawn Through, 30, 54 Lives of American Traction Ropes, 273 Lloyds' Rope Regulations, 278 Loads Lifted in Shafts, 251 Loads, Length, and Weight of Roping, 213 Loads Raised by Ropes in Diamond Mining, 267 *' Locksley Hall," Raising of, 281 London, Fine Wiredrawers, 113 Long Ropea, Conveyance in U.S.A., 271 Longford Mill Started. 4 Looms, for Weaving Wire, 302 Lord's Table of Strengths of Wire, 75 Lowca Co. Haulage Engine, 244 Lubricating Devices in Mines, 249 Lubricants used for Silver Drawing, 114 Lubricants used in Wiredrawing, 30, 54, 114 MACHINES for Expanding Metal, 308 Machines for Making Netting, 308 Machines for Making Ropes. 188 to 206 Machines for Making Wire Nails, 334 Machines for Testing Ropea, 169 Machioes for Testing Wire, 79 to 84 Machines for Weaving Wire, 302 Main and Tail Rope Haulage, 224 Maintenance of Fences, Cost, 331 Malleability of Metals, 27, 28 Manganese, Effects on Steel, 36 Mannesmann's Wire Flywheel, 26 Manufacture of Card Wire, 67 Manufacture of Copper Wire, 100 to 104 Manufacture of Needles, 12 Manufacture of Pins, 10, 11, 12 Manufacture of Puddled and Charcoal Iron Wire, 32 Manufacture of Rope Wire, 68 Manufacture of Silver Gilt Wires, 24, 114 Manufacture of Spangles, 24 Manufacture of Watchsprings, 17, 18 Manufacture of Wire in Principle, 30 Manufacture of Wire Netting, 284 Manufacture of Wire, Processes involved, 28, 29 Manufacture of Wire Ropes, 153 Manufacture of Woven Wire, 304 Martin's Steel Process, 35 Matheissen's Standard of Conductivity, 135 Matting of Woven Wire, 306 Melbourne Tramway Ropes, 220 Menden Schwerte'a Works, 97 Merry and Cuninghame's Billets, 40 Meshea and Gauges of Wire Netting, 285 Metala associated with Copper, 99 Metals found with Platinum, 111 Metals present with Iron, 37 Metal-Strings for Musical Instruments, IS 20, 21, 22, 69 Micrometer, the, 115 Miles of Cable Lines in U.S.A., 268 Miles of Marine Telegraphs, 7, 8 Miller's Music Wire, 19, 20, 69 Millimetre Gauges, 127, 129 Minerals carried by Aerial Lines, 250 to 260 Index. 343 Mining Haulage Engines, 241 Mining Haulage Exhibits, 223 Mining Inspectors and Wire Ropes (See Prkfaob.) Mining Institute's Report on Haulage, 2-2J Mining Operations, Vertical, 261 Mining Rope Haulage Systems, 226 to 260 Mining Wagon Lubricators, 249 Modern Wire Rod Rolling, 51 Modern Wiredrawing Invented, 1, 2 Molten Metal (or Tempering, 61 Monte Fenna, Ropeway, 254 Morsan's Rod Mill, U.S.A., 61 Morriss, Protessor, on Tempering Wire, 63 Multiple Laid Ropes, 216 Music Wire, Manulaoture and History, 19, 20, 21, 22 Music Wire Tests, 69, 70 NAILS, Wire, and Machines, 19, 334, 335 National Wire Gauge o( U.S A., 130 Naval Torpedo Netting, 306 Needlemaking, Weight and Prioe,J2, 14 Netting Machinery, Wire, 8, 284 to 300 Netting, Mechanical Tight Rolling, 296 Netting, (or Protecting Vessels against Tor- pedoes, 305 Newall's Inventions and Career, 166 Newcastle Rope Haulage Exhibits, 226 New York Suspension Bridge, 8, 60 New York and Brooklyn Bridge Traution Ropes, 272 Niagara Suspension Bridge, 8 North Eastern Steel Co.'s Billets, 39 Notes, Musical Vibrations of Wire, 22 Number of Fish Hooks per oz., 14 Number o( Nails Made per Minute, 19 Number ot Needles per lb,, 14 Number o( Pins per lb,, 12 Number of Wires in Ropes (or a given Size, 215 Nuremberg, and Origin of Wire Drawing, 2 Nuremberg Music Wire, 19 OBSOLETE Wire Gauges, 126 Oil Baths for Hardening Wire, 61 Old Wire Gauges, 126 Order of Ductility and Tenacity, 27 Ordnance, Wire used in, 26 Ores of Copper, 99 Origin of Wiredrawing, 1 Osmond Iron Wire, 3 Otto's Aerial Ropeways, 269 Oval Fencing Wire, 316 Overhead Electric Traction, 8 Overtubs, Haulage System, 240 Oxidation of Iron and Steel, 33 PAPER, by Biggart, on Wire Ropes, 208 Paper, by Deakin, on Ropes, 212 Hark Fences, 322 Patented or Improved Steel Wire, 60 to 63 Pearson and Knowles' Rod Mill, 42, 46 Peekskill, Suspension Bridge, 282 Percy, Doctor, Research on Wire, 68 Performances of Bopes in U.S.A., 273 Performers on Suspended Wire, 23 Phosphor Bronze, 106, 108 Phosphorus, Effects on Steel, 37 Physical Changes produced by Drawing, &c., 67 Physical Properties of Metals, 27 Piano Wire, History, Quality, &c., 19 to 21, 69 Pinion Action in Netting Machmes, 289 Pinion Wire for Watches, 18 Pins, History of. Making, Weight, Price, &o,, 10 to 12 Pinmaking Machinery, 11 Pins, Quantity Made Annually, 10 Pillars for Fencing, 326 Plain Fencing Wire, 313 Platinum Wire, Properties and Uses, 111 Plough Steel, Definition of, Strength and Composition, 58 Pfihlmann's Music Wire, 20, 21, 69 Pole's, Doctor, Experiments with Music Wire, 21, 22, 23 "Porcupine" Tree Guards, 321 Portici Muteum, Wire Relics, 1 Post Office SpeoiBcations for Wire, 143 to 147 Poultry Yards and Wire, 331 f ower Looms for Weaving Wire, 302 Power Transmitted by Ropes, 282 Practices in Ropemaking, 188, 192 Preece on Silioium Bronze- Wire, 1C7 Preface, See for. Stranded Conductors, Am- biguity of Gauges, and Rope Data, &c. Preservation by Galvanising, 63 Press and Machine for Making Wire Nails, 334, 335 Preventing Oxidation in Tempering, 62 Prevention o( Oxidation in Steel, i^ Price o( Wire and Ropes, 175 Prices obtained (or Ropes in U.S.A., 218 Processes Involved in Making Wire, VS, 29, 30 Progress in German Trade, 131 Properties of Copper, 100 Properties developed by Rolling and Draw ing, 67 Properties of Ductility and Tenacity, 27 Properties of Elements in Steel, 36, 37 Properties of Fuddled Iron, &c., 32 Properties of Steel, 37, 38 Properties and Uses of Aluminium Wire, 110 Properties and Uses of Silicium-Bronze, 107 Proportions of Lays in Bopes, 174 Puddled Iron Wire, 32 Punches for Draw-plates, 66 Pure Metallic Copper, 100, 101 Purity of Silver, 113 Purity of Swedish Iron, 33 QUALITY of Cast Steel, 36 Quality for Cycle Spokes, 18 Quality for Fish-Hooks, 14 Quality for Piano Wire, 20 to 22, 69 Quality for Fins and Needles, 11 to 13 Quality for Telegraph Wire, 146 Qualil^ for Scientific Instruments, 9, 10 Quality (or Umbrella Frames, 15 Quality (or Wire in Ropes, Irregular, 213 Quantity of Coal Raised by Ropes, 8 Quantity of Fins Made, 10 RAILS Used in Mines, 230 Railway Carriage of Bopes, 271 Railway Rates, 133 Railway Telegraphs History, 6 Railway Telegraph Wire Specifications, 148, 149 Railways, Electrical, 8, 271 Raising Sunken Vessels, 281 Ramsey's Clutch Bogie, 241 Ratchet Fencing Strainers, 325 Reels and Nippers for Hawsers, 279 Refined Copper, 101 Relation of Gauge of Wires to Size o( Bopes, 216 Requirements in Telegraph Wire, 143, 144 Resistance and Sizes, Lengths, &c., o( Cop- per Wire, 160 Reverse Bending of Bopes, 262 Ribbon Fencing, 316 Bight and Left-handed Strands, 176 344 Index. Eight and Left Waltzing Netting Action, 289 Bod Boiling, ii, 43 to 52 Bods, Wire, Length of, 62, 72 Roeblina'8 Rod Mill and Worka, 49, 122 Boiled Fencing Wire, 330 Boiling, Effects on Metal, 67 Boiling Billets into Bods, 42 Rolling or Coiling of Wire Netting, 296 Romans and Copper, 99 Ropes on the Brooklyn Bridge, 273 Ropes, Considerations in Usage, 251 Ropes, Conveyance in U.S.A., 27i Ropes, Effects of Reverse Working or Bend- ing, 262 Ropes for Erecting Structures, 274 Ropes, Flat, 171 Ropes with Flattened Strands, 180 Ropes and Grips, Automatic, 247 Ropes Guaranteed a Certain Service, 219 Ropes, Haulage, at Hodbarrow, Whitburn, Harton, Castle Eden, Moresby, Seaton- Delaval, &c.. Mines, 227 Ropes and Haulage Clips, 234 to 246 Ropes and Haulage from Side of Tubs, 239 Ropes and Haulage in Mines, 223 Ropes and Haulage under Tabs, 227 Ropes, Hoisting, &c., 27 Ropes of Laldlei^s Design, 175 Ropes with Lang's Lay, 173 Ropes by Latch & Batchelor, 176 Ropes, Machinery for Making, 168, ISS to 206 Ropes, Manufacturers in U.S.A., 219 Ropes for Marine Purposes, 277 to 280 Ropes, Mining, 170 to 240 Ropes, Number of Wires for a given Size, 216 Bopea, Quality of Wire in, 68, 174, 183, 212, 214, 261, 267, 273 Bopes, Bailway Bates in U.S.A., 272 Bopes for Raising Sunken Ships, 281 Bopes and Records Kept at Mines, 213 Ropes and Ropeways in Diamond Mining, 267 Ropes with Scott's Sheathing, 176 Ropes and Socket Attachments, 250 Ropes and Testing Machinery, 169 Ropes used in Vertical Shafts, 261 Bopes, and Wire used for, 63, 174, 183, 214, 261, 267, 278 Bopes, Wire, Invention and Manufacture, 8, 153 Bopes, Wire and Strands in One Direction, 173 Eopeways, Aerial, 263 to 266 Rowat's Plat Roping, 171 Royston & Sons, 4 Rudolf's Mill, 2 Rusting of Iron and Steel, 38, 63, 144 Butherfords' Bope Clip, 246 Bylands Brothers' Works, 3, 94 SAG of Telegraph Wire, 142 Sal-Ammoniac in Galvanising, 64 Salt for Drawing Wire with, 59 Schauffhausen Telodynamic System, 283 Scope for Wire Fencing, 331 Scott on Cost of Fencing in Great Britain, 331 Scott's Locked Sheathing, 176 Seale's Rope, 184 Section of Sbeba Aerial Line, 266 Selvage Strands in Netting, 290 Selvagee Bopes, 157 Sentein Co.'s, Bopeway, 203 Services of Wire Daily Experienc ed, 27 Sheba Aerial Ropeway, 266 gheerlega, Ropes for, 277 Shipbuilding and Launching Ropes, 278 Shipment ot Fencing Wire, &o., 313, 314 Shrub or Plant-Training Fences, 327 Shuttle Appliances in Wire- Weaving Looms, 304 Side Haulage of Wagons, 239 Siemena-Uartin Steel, 35 Silicious-Bronze Electrical Conductors, 108, 139, 141 Silicon, Effects on Steel, 36 Silver and Gilt Wires, 23, 112 Silver Wire Ingots and Bars, 113, 114 Silver Wire, Properties and Uses, 112 Simultaneously Forming Strands and Rop- ing, 198 to 203 Size of Needles, 14 Sizes of Drums for Bopes, 213 Sizes, Minute, ot Watchsprings, 16, 17, 18 Sizes of Very Fine Wire, 9, 10 Sizes of Wires in Bopes to Work Over Pulleys, 215 Slipway Ropes, 277 Smith h Bulmer's Bope Machinery, 187 Smith's, Frederick, Hard -Drawn Copper Wire, 141 Smith's, G. B., Fencing Materials, 319 Smith's, T. & W., Rope Table, 214 Snedhill Co., 42 Sockets for Ropes, 250 Soft Penoing Wire, 314 Sources of Copper, 100, 101 Sources of Platinum, 111 Sources of Silver, 112 Spangles, Manufacture of, 24, 115 Spans of Aerial Ropeways, 250 to 260 Special Flexible Ropes, 217 Specific Gravity of Aluminium, 110 Specific Gravity ot Copper Dependent upon Impurities and Drawing, 100, 137 Specific Gravity ot Iron and Steel, 38 Specific Gravity of Silver, 112 Specifications for Electrical Wires, ' 143 to 146 Specifications re Ropes, 208 Specimens of Expanded Metal, 310 Spectacle Frame Wire, 15 Speed of Drawing Copper and Brass, 109 Speed of Drawing Silver Wire, 114_ Speeds of Bopes for Transmitting Power, 283 Speeds of Winding in Mines, 261 Speeds of Wiredrawing, Iron and Steel, 64, 66 Spiegeleisen, 34 Spiral Wire Mats, 306 Spools of Boping, Conveyance, 271 Spottiswood's Induction Coil, 7 Spring Netting Wire Winders, 293 Spring Tubes in Netting Machines, 289 Springs for Watches, 16, 17 Standards of Electrical Conductivity, 136 Standards for Fencing, 325 Standards ot Silver, Purity, &o., 112, 113 Standards of Wire Gauges, 73, 128 Staples for Fencing, 314 Steel, Acid and Basic, 34 Steel Affected by Elements Present, 36 Steel, Crucible, 35 Steel, Definition of, 31 Steel Fencing Wire, 314 Steel, Mild and High Carbon, S3 Steel Co. of Scotland, Billets, 39 Steel, Soft and Hard, 33 Steinway's Pianos, 21 Stone's Bopemaking Machinery, 204 Straightening, Wire Machine, 92 Strained Wire Fences, 317 to 327 Strajnefs tor fencing, 8-45 Index, 345 stranded Electrical Conductors (See Pre- pack) StrandiD); and RnpinK Machines, 188 to 206 Strands, Copper, Electrical, 146 and Frefacs Strands for Fences, 322 Strands in Ropinsr First Used, 168 Street and other Rope Railways, z68 Strength o( Aluminium Wire, 110 Strength of Copper and Brass Wires, 109 Strength of Iron and Steel Wire, 42, 74 Strength of Piano Wire, 22 Strength of Plough Steel, 42, 68 Strengths, Sizes, and Weights of Rope, 214, 221 Strength of Wires, To Calculate, 76 Stretching or Permanent Elongation of Ropes, 268, 273 Strings for Musical Instruments, 19, 20, 21, 22 Suhmarine Telegraphs, 7 Sukkar Bridge Erection Ropesj 274 Sulphur, Effects on Steel, 37 Sulphur, Effects on Silver, 112 Sunken Vessels and Wire Roping, 281 Superior Fencing Wire, 314 Suspension Bridge over the Hudsnn, 282 Suspension Bridges, Niagara and New York, 8 Swedish Iron, 32, 33 Switches in Mines, 234 TABLE of Bullivant's Ropes, 221 Table for Calculating Strengths of Wires, 76, 116 Table of Sizes, Weights and Strengths of Wire, 72 to 76 Taylor, D. F., Pinmakere, 11 Telegraph Construction and ' Maintenance Co., 8 Telegraph on Railways, 6 • Telegraph, Submarine, 7 Telegraph Wire, Iron and Steel, 144 to 148 Telegraph Wire Joints, 142 Telegraphs, Miles of, 7, 8 Telenhone, &c.. Wires of Silicious-Bronze, 108 Telescopes, Wire in, 9 Telodynamic Transmission of Power, 282 Temperature for Annealing, 66 Temperature for Improving or Patenting, 62 Temperature, Influence on Copper Wire, 136, 142 Temperature, Zinc Melts, 64 Tempering of Steel Wire, 61, 62 Tempers or Carbons of Billets, 39, 40 Tenacity of Metals, 27 Tennis Grounds and Wire Fences, 331 Tensile Resistance of Music Wire, 22, 69. 71 Tensile Resistance of Wire, To Calculate, 76, 116 Tensile Strength Caused bv Drawing. 68 Tensile Strength of Steel Wire, 42, 68, 69, 76 Tension on Piano Strings, 22 Tension on Strings for Given Notes, 22 Testing, Wire, Machines, 79 to 84 Tests of -Forth Bridge Erection Ropes. 211 Tests of Music Wire in Europe and U.S.A., 70 Tests re American Ropes, 273 Tests of Rope Wire, 68, 208, 273 Theatrical Costume Wires, &c., 116 Theodolites, Wire in, 9 Thomas & Gilchrist Steel, 34 Thomas' Horticultural Wirework, 332 Thomson, Sir William, and Wire, 10 Thornton and Continuous Wiredrawing, 89 Three-Rail System in Mines, 238 Tight Rolling of Wire ^Jetting , 296 Tinned Wire, 66 Titan and Goliath Rope Cranes, 277 Tools for Erecting Wire Fences, 319, 329 Torpedo Nets, 26, 304 Towing Hawsers, 278 Traction, Electric, Comments on, 271 Traction in Mines by Ropes, 224 to 246 Traotion Ropes, Good, 273 Trade, Wire, British and Foreign, 131 to 134 Training, Horticultural Fences, .327 Transmission of Power by Ropes, 283 Transportation by Aerial Ropes, 263 to 266 Transportation of Coal by Ropes, 224 Transportation of Wire Ropes, 271 Treatise, Scope of, 28, 29, and Prkfacb Treatment of Copper and Silver Ores, 101, 112 Tredegar Iron Company's Haulage, 226 Tree Guards of Barbed Wire, 321 Trellis Wirework, 306 Trenton Iron Company, U.S.A., 6, 98 Trials of Ropes in Australia, 220 Trotter re Ambiguity of Gauges (See Pre- faok) Tubes for Wire, in Netting Machines, 289 Twenty-four Bobbin 'Stranding Machines, 163 Two-Ply Fencing Strands, 316 Typical Constructions of Ropes, 161 UMBRELLAS Invented, Frames, &e., 16 Underground Rope Haulage, 225 to 243 XTnder Wagons, Rope Haulage, 227 Uniform Qualities of Wire for Ropes, 214, 267 Uniforn* Wire Decorations, 113 Unwin on Delta Metal, 109 U.S.A. Imports, 133 U.S.A., Rod Rolling in, 47 Use of Lubricants in Ropes, 211 Uses of Charcoal Iron Wire, 33 Uses and Properties of Iron, 31 Usesof Ropes, Comments on, 251 Uses of Various Wire, 5 Uses of Wire Ropes, Introductory, 8 VALUE of Needles and Hooks per 1000, 14 Value of Pins, 11 Value of Watohsprings, 18 Value of Woollen Trade, 9 Variable Conditions in Haulage, 225 Variations in Iron by Treatment, 31 Various Wire Gauges, 126 to 130 Vertical Winding Ropes, 251 Vessels Raised by Ropes, 281 Vibrations of Music Wire, 22 Victorian Goldfields and Ropes, 222 Viennese Music Wire, 19, 20 WAR Office Aerial Ropeways, 269 Warping Hawsers, 278 Warrington and Early Wiremaking, 3 Washburn & Moen'e Works, 6, 123 Watch Springs, Size, Weight, and Value, 16, 17, 18 Watts, Fine Wiredrawers, 112 Weaving, Wire Looms, 302 Webs, Gauzes, and Wire Fabrics, 304 Webster Hnrsfal's Wire, 4, 20, 69 Weight of Pins and Needles, 12, 14 Weight of Rod Billets, 39 Weight of Steel Wire, 74 Weight of Watch Hair Springs, 16, 17, 18 Weights and Lengths of Fencing Wire and Strands, 322 Weights of Rope Equal to Strength, 212 Weights, Sizes, and Strengths of Wire, 73 Weights of Wire Netting, 286 346 Index. Weiller'8 List of Electrical Conductors, 137 Weiller's Silicious Bronze, li 6 Welding: of Telegraph Wire, 144 Westfaiische Union, 97 Westgrarth'a Rope, 181 Whitecross Company's Worka, 96 Wire of Acid and Baaio Steels, S4, 36, 41 Wire, Aerial, Walkers, 23 Wire, Antiquity of, 1 Wire, Aluminium, 110 Wire Annealing, 64, 66, 101, 109, 114 Wire, Arrangement in Strands, 178 Wire, Barbed Fencing, 312, 310 Wire, Basic Steel, 34, 41 Wire Belting for Machinery, 306 Wire, Bessemer Sfeel, 34, 39, 40 Wire, Brass and Bronze, 102, 109 Wire for Carding Purpose, 9, 67 Wire, Cast Steel, 3% 36, 41 Wire, Changes Effected by Rolling and Drawing, 57 Wire ot Charcoal and Puddled Iron, 32, 33 Wire, Chemical and Ifechanical Considera- tions. 30 to 42 Wire, Class used for Netting, 285 Wire-Coiling Machines, 293 Wire Concerns every Community, 27 Wire Conductors, Electrical, 135 Wire, Continuous Drawing of, 89, 102 Wire, Coppered and Lacquered, 66 Wire, Copper, Hard-drawn, and Soft, 99, 100 to 102, 336 to 137, 141, 143 Wire Cords, Lines, and Strands, 187 Wire Core's tor Mining Ropes, 185, 267 Wire, Corrugated, 316 Wire ot Crucible Steel, 35, 36 Wire, "Dead Soft," Steel. 40, 42 Wire Decorations for Robes atd Uniforms, 113 Wire of Delta Metal, 109 Wire, Descriptions and Uses, 5 Wire on Dynamo Machines, Armatures and Coils, 6, 7 Wired rawers, how Paid, 55 Wiredrawers' Union, 55 Wiredrawing, rontinuous, 89, 102 Wiredrawing Explained, 30, 53, 64 Wiredrawing Introduced into Britain, 2 Wiredrawing Invented, 1 Wiredrawing, Jumping Holes in Plate, 55 Wiredrawing Mills, 3, 4, 6, 63, 64, 93 Wiredrawing Originated in Germany, 1 Wire, Ductility of, 27, 62, 56, 72, 89, 102, 110, 111, 112. 113. 116. 116 Wire, Early Manufacturers of, 1 to 5 Wire, Effects of Atmosphere on, 63, 144 Wire, Effects of Temperature on, 136, 1*2, 144 Wire, its Efficiencv in Ropes, 210 Wire, Egyptian, Early, 1 Wire, Electrical, 136 Wire, Elongation of, 38, 57, 69, 63, 68, 144, 210 273 Wire,' Exhibits of. 800 B.C., 1 Wire Fabrics. 9. 304 Wire Factories at Horaeand Abroad, 93 to 98, 117 to 124 Wire of Fancy Sections. 177, 204 Wire Fencing, 312 to 330 Wire Fencing, Rolled, Drawn and Gal- vanised, &c., 312,330 Wire for Fish-Hooks, 14 Wire Flatting Mills, 24 Wire Flexible Ropes, 26, 161, 186, 216 Wire for Flywheels. 26 Wire, Galvanised, 63, 64, 66 Wire, Galvani'ied, To Test EfBoienoy of, 146 Wire Gauge, Imperial Standard, 128 Wire Gauge Question, 29, 73, 125 to 130 Wire Gauzes and Cloths, &c. 9, 304 Wire, German Silver, 110, 144 Wire, Gilt, 24, 113 Wire, Hardening and Tempering, 62 Wire, High Carbon Steel, 34, 36, 41 Wire. History of Origin and Manufacture 1 to4 Wire Horticultural Work, 331 Wire in Induction Coils, 7 Wire Industry in Lancashire and Yorkshire, 2 3 4 Wire-iron, 32 Wire, Iron and Steel, 30 to 98 Wire, Iron and Steel, Strengths and Weights, 72,74 Wire, for Laces and Decorations, 23, 113 Wire, Lacquered, 66 Wire, Lightning Conductors, 26, 188 Wire, Lubricants for Drawing, 54, 114 Wire, Jointing, 142, 145, 197 Wire, Made 1700 B.C., 1 Wire, Making Explained, 30 Wire Manufacturers' Association, 128 Wire Manufacturers in Europe and U.S.A., 93 118 Wire, Mild Steel, 34 Wire Mill at Sheen, the Earliest, 3 Wire, Marine Sounding, 10 Wire Musical Strings, 19, 69 Wire Nails, Invention, &e., 19, 334 Wire Nail Machinery, 19, 334 Wire for Needles, 12 Wire Netting Machines, Continuous, 296 Wire Netting Machinery, Bond's, Dennis*, and Wilmotts', 286 to 300 Wire Netting and Woven Fabrics, 284 to 306 Wire for New York Bridge, 60 Wire, by the Ninevites, 1 Wire, Oxidation of, and Effects of Wet, &c., 38, 63, 100, 144 Wire of Phosphor-Bronze, 105 Wire for Pins and Needles, 10, 11 Wire, Piano or Music, 19, 20 Wire, Pinions and Spindles, 18 Wire, Platinum, 111 Wire, Plough Steel, 23, 42, 68 Wire of Paddled and Charcoal Iron, 32, 33 Wire, Relative Electrical Conductivity of Iron and Copper, 136, 144 Wire Relics from Herculancum, 1 Wire, for Robes, Theatrical, and Uniforms, 4;c., 23.113 Wire Rod Billets, Size, Form and Composi- tion, 39 to 41 Wire Rod Rolling, 42, 43, 44, 45, &c. Wire for Ropes, 68, 212, 214, 273 Wire Roping, Aerial Lines, for, 186 Wire Roping, Albert's Invention, 163 Wire Roping, American Makers of, 219 Wire Roping, Applications of, 223 to 283 Wire Roping, Average Quality of Wire in, 63, 68, 174, 212, 214, 273, 284 Wire Roping, Biggart's Paper on, 209 Wire Roping, Commercial and Technical Considerations, and Comments re, 172, 174, 201, 208, 212, 213, 216, 218, 219, 220, 222, 261, 268, 272, 278 Wire Roping, Cores in, 161, 185, 208, 212. 221, 251, 267, 273 Wire Roping, Crane and Hoisting, 216 Wire Roping, Effects of Reverse Bends and Coiling, &c., 210, 251, 252 Wire Roping, Plat, 171 Wire Roping, Flat or Oval Stranded, 180 Wire Roping, Fowler, J., iSc Co., and Plough ing, 172 * Wire Roping, German Discoveries, 153 Index. 347 Wire Roping, Hodson's Spiral Core, 185 Wire Hoping, Invention ot, 163 Wire Roping, Laidler's Form, 176 Wire Roping, Lang's Lay, 178 Wire Roping, Latch & Batcbelor'a Inventions, 177 to 180 Wire Roping, Loclt-Co'led, 177 Wire Roping, Lubricmts for, 211,212,261, 267, 273 Wire Roping, Maciiiner^' for Stranding and Closing, 188 to 207 Wire Roping, Manufacture, Machinery and Practices, 159 to 170, 188 do 207 Wire Roping for Marine Purposes, 278 Wire Roping for Mining Purposes, 224 to 252 Wire Roping, Multiple Laid, 216 Wire Roping, Newall's Invention, 164 Wire Roping, Number and Size of Wires for a given Circumference, 215 Wire Rop-ng, Proportion of Lays, 174, 178 Wire Roping for Railways, 268, 273 Wire Hoping, Selvagee Construction, 157 Wire Hoping, Scott's Sheathing, 176 Wire Roping, Seal's Construction, 184 Wire Roping, Strength of, 155, 168, 208, 213, 214, 220, 273, 274, 279 Wire Roping, Stretching or Elongation of, 268, 273 Wire Roping for Suspension Bridges, 8, 153, 157, 282 Wire Roping for Tramways, Aerial, 253 to 266 Wire Roping for Transmission of Power, 292 Wire Roping, Uncoiling ot, 251, 268, 271 Wire Roping, Uniform Quality of Component Wires, Essential, 213, 214. 267 Wire Roping, Westgarth's Construction, 181 Wire Roping, WlUon's Claims, 154 Wire, '* Sag " in Telegraphic, 142 Wire for Scientific InHtraments, 9 Wire of Siemens Steel, 40, 41 Wire of Silicium-Bronze, 106, 108, 139 Wire, Silver and Silver Gilt, 23, 112 Wire, Sizes, Weights, and Strengths, 72, 74, 139, 141, 147 Wire for Spangles, 23, 115 Wire for Spectacle and Umbrella Frames, 15 Wire, Speed of Drawing, 64, 55, 109. 114 Wire, Steel, and C»hon Present, 36, 37, 39, 41 Wire, Steel, Chemical Elements Present, 36, 37 Wire, Steel and Iron, Rusting, 38. 63, 144 Wire, Steel, Patented or Improved, 60 to 63 Wire Straightening Machine, 91 Wire, Strength, to Calculate 75, 76, 116 Wire, superior Steel Fencing, 315 Wire of Swedish Iron, 33 Wire, Telegraphic, 6, 40, 136 to 146 Wire, Tempering and Improving, 60 to 62 Wire, Tempera of, i.e.. Carbons, 39 to 41 Wire, Tenacity of, 27, 57, 69, 69, 72, 74, 76 Wire, Tensile Resistances of, 67, 59, 69, 74, 76 Wire-Testing Machines, Tensile and Tor- sional, 79 to 86 Wire, Thomas Gilchrist, Steel, 34 Wire, Tinned, 66 Wire, To Calculate Breaking Strain of, 76, 116 Wire Torpedo Nets, 26, 304 Wire, Torsion of, 68, 70, 81, 141, 144, 147, 149, 209 Wire, Trade Comments, 131 to 134 Wire, Umbrella Frames, 15 Wire used in Flywheels, 26 Wire used in Netting and Woven Fabrics, 285 Wire used in Ordnance or Guns, 26 Wire, Various Kinds and U-tes, 6 Wire, Varnished Annealed Fencmg, 313 Wire, Very Fine, 9, 10, 89, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114 Wire, Velocipede Spokes, 19 Wire Watchsprings, 16 17 Wire-Weaving Machines, 302 Wires, Number and Size in Ropes, To Cal- culate, 216 WoUaston's Very Fine Wire, 10 Works and Manufacture i of Bullivant ft Co., 169 Works and Manufactures of Felten & Guille- aume, 117 to 121 Works and Manufactures of Johnson & Nephew, 93 Works and Manufactures of Menden Schwerte, 97 Works and Manufactures of Roebling, Sons, & Co., 122 Works and Manufactures of Rylands Bros., 96 Works and Manufactures of Trenton Iron Company, 98 Works and Manufactures of Washburn & Moen. 123 Works and Manufactures of the Westphalian Union, 97 Works and Manufactures of the Whitecross Company, 96 Works of Wire Manufacturers at Home and Abroad, 93 to 97, 122 to 124 Woven Wire Matting, 306 Wright's Pinmiking Machine, 11 ZEBRA or Corrugated Wire, 316 Zinc Coating on Wire, Soluble, 144 Zinc or Spelter for Galvanising and its Action, 63 Zinc, Temperature Melts at, 64 LONDON - PaiMBD »T THE BEDFOBB PRESS, 20 AND 21, BEBFOEJJBURT, W.C ADVERTISEMENTS. ADVERTISEMENTS. FELTEN & CUILLEAUME, "Oarlswerk/' Miilheim-oii-Rhine, NEAR COLOGNE, GERMANY, MA.NXJF^OTXJRER8 OF WIRE & WIRE ROPES THE CELEBRATED REGISTERED "NEPTUNE" BRAND. IN ALL COUNTRIES. ■\Am?,E Patent Crucible Plough Steel Wire. Patent Crucible Steel Wire. Patent Steel Card Wire. Patent Steel Music Wire. Copper, Bronze, and Brass Wire. Siemens- Martin and Bessemer Wire. 'Swedish and German Charcoal Wire. Spring, Screw, Rivet, and Nail Wire, Fencing Wire, iScc. Galvanized Telegraph Wire. Galvanized Telephone Wire. Galvanized Fencing Wire. Galvanized Fencing Strand. Galvanized Grape Wire. Galvanized Espalier Wire. Galvanized Cable Wire. Galvanized Steel Wire, all qualities. PATENT GALVANIZED STEEL BARB WIRE. GALVANIZED WIEE NETTING. "Vs7"ii?,E i?,o:pes Plough Ropes. Colliery Ropes. Towing Ropes. Cable Wire Tramway Ropes. Ropes for Suspension Bridges. Patent Steel Hawsers. Rigging Ropes. Ferry Ropes. Copper Wire Ropes. Sash Lines, &c. TELEGRAPH, TELEPHONE,* ELECTRIC LIGHT Cables. SOLE AGENTS FOR GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND: W. F. DENNIS & CO., 11, Billiter St., London, E.G. IX ADVERTISEMENTS. Richard Johnson & Nephew (ESTABLISHED 1789), BRADFORD IRON WORKS, MANCHESTER. And ALDERWASLBY WIRE MILLS, near DERBY. LONDON OFFICE: 8, Great Winchester St., B.C. MANUFACTUEEES OF GALVANIZED TELEGRAPH, I A/ I TELEPHONE, AND CABLE Vv I SPECIALTIES IN CONDUCTIVITY AND HIGH-STRAIN MATERIALS. Specially Prepared TINNED WIRE for Mattresses. Patent Crucible Steel, Homogeneous, and Charcoal Wires for Colliery, Tram, and Steam Plough Ropes. ALSO GALVANIZED WIRE FOR HAWSERS, SHIPS' RIGGING, &c. USERS OF WIRE ROPES, when ordering, should specify "JOHNSON'S WIRE," and so ensure First-class Material being uppUed. FENCING WIRE, PLAIN AND GALVANIZED. And sole Licensed Man dfactukeks in Great Britain of the Galvanized Steel Barb Fencing EVERY REEL MARKED i «§Vl^ REGISTERED TRADE MARK. ADVERTISEMENTS. Ill RAMSDEN,CAMM&Co ROBIN HOOD /i£\ LE OPOLD ^^^ (ffl MRi°l WORKS, Brigliouse,TYorkshire. IRON AND STEEL WIRE-DRAWERS AND GALVANIZERS. MANUFACTURERS OF TELEGRAPH, TELEPHONE, AND CABLE WIRE. Contractors to H.M. Postmaster-Genera), the Indian and Colonial Governments, and leading Railway Companies. PATENT STEEL COLLIEEY EOPE WIEE. high strain. GALVANIZED HAWSEE WIEE, to LLOYD'S TESTS. Galvanized Eigging Wire. Galvanized Strand Fencing Wire and Staples. Eoiind and Sectional Drawn Eods for Screws, Nuts, &c. Best Steel and Iron Card and Eeed Wires. FINEST SIZES of COPPER, BRASS, PHOSPHOR BRONZE, GERMAN SILVER, TIN AND LEAD WIRES. Telegrams: "RAMSDEN, BRIGHOUSE." 2 a IV ADVERTISEMENTS. TRADE MARK ^P S^^ T I I ■ BHI TRADE MARK ^toi^**TiiLSTLE BRAUD- ' -* FREDERICK SffllTH&Co. CALEDONIA WORKS, HALIFAX, Contractors to the British, Indian, Colonial, and Foreign Governments and Railway Companies. SPECIALITY: TELEGRAPH WIRE speo^Si. BEST REFINED TELEPHONE WIRE. PATENT GALVANIZED TELEGRAPH WIRE, hi^cIS,,, PATENT STEEL ROPE WIRE,,»pf;t?e"i:° For Cable Tramways, Mining Ropes, Plough Ropes, &.c. GALVANIZED PATENT STEEL WIRE «« um^. Signal, Fencing, & Staying Strand. Speciality in Fine Steel Wire for Springs. Hardened & Tempered Fine Steel Wire for Cardmaking. COPPER WIRE, HIGH CONDUCTIVITY. HARD-DRAWN HIGH-CONDUCTIVITY COPPER WIRE for Land Lines. COPPER WIRE, ANNEALED, PLAIN, OR TINNED; for all Electrical Purposes. COPPER STRAND & TAPE for Lightning Conductors. COPPER DRAWN OR ROLLED TO ALL SECTIONS. MAKERS OF PATENT CONTINUOUS WIRE-DRAWING MACHINES FOR DRAWING ALL SIZES FROM NO. 14 TO NO. 40. ADVERTISEMENTS. WEBSTER, HORSFALL & LEAN, mtJ!iacx.Tr€3t:a:jhJiML. STEEL WIRE MANUFACTURERS. ORIGINAL PATENTEES OF MUSIC AND ROPE WIRE. Sole Majiiifa«tiii«r8 of Steel Wire in itiajitic GaUes, 1865-66. MAKERS OF BEST STEEL WIRE POR PIANOS. SPRINGS. SOUNDING, ROPES. SPOKES. Xc, Xc. NEEDLES. HOOKS, Xc. OFFICES : 1, CANNON STREET. WOKKS : HAY MILL, COYENTRY ROAD. PRIZE MEDALS: LONDON— 1851, 1862. PARIS— 1855, Telegraphic Address : "Atlantic, Birmlngbam,' Prices and Samples on application. c^^ WILLIAM SMITH & SON. DALLAM WIRE WORKS, WARRINGTON.Xv*''^ %tW For Ductility and Tensile Strength Cannot be Surpassed. Orif/ifial PATENTEES AND SOLE ,v4^ MANUFACTURERS -of- None GENUINE but WILLIAM SMITH & SON'S. Colliery Owners and Others when ordering Steel Wire Ropes should be particular in specifying for WILLIAM SMITH &. SON'S WIRE. By so doing disappointment will be avoided. i ■^1 ADVERTISEMENTS. WIRE HOOPS & BARS. REGISTERED BRANDS. s XL Rolled Wire. glQO ^S Drawn Annealed Iron Wire. SUN^^JsfeM- BRAND. Steel Wire and Hoops Bars and Hoops. THE SHROPSHIRE IRON CO. Shropshire & Trench Iron and Galvanizing Works, HADLEY, near WELLINGTON, SHROPSHIRE, MANUPACTURERS OF Med Charcoal, Best Best Iron and Steel Rods for drawing purposes, Rolled Iron and Steel Fencing Rods, Small Rounds and Squares, Flat, Tip, and Small Section Iron. Hoops. IRON & STEEL WIRE DRAWERS & GALVANIZERS. Galvanized Telegraph, Telephone, and Cable Wire, to all Specifications, in 100-lb. pieces, without weld or joint. RIGGING & ROPE WIRE, BUNDLE WIRE, BRIGHT ANNEALED OR GALVANIZED. TINNED BOTTLING WIRE. IRON & STEEL FENCING WIRE, STRAND, STAPLES, &c. &c.. For HOME, AUSTRALIA, NEW ZEALAND, and SOOTH AMERICAN MARKETS. Contractors to H.M. GOVERNMENT, and English and Foreign Railway Companies. SAMPLES and PRICE LISTS on application to the Works. ADVERTISEMENTS. vii JOHN A. ROEBLING'S SONS COMPANY, MA.NUFACTXJRERS OF STEEL AND IRON WIRE ROPE, Electric Cables and Conductors, Iron and Copper Telegraph Wire, Insulated Electric Wires, BARBED WIRE FENCING. WIRE NAILS, WIRE CLOTH AND NETTING. The Works of this Company are the largest in the United States, and have a capacity to complete orders of any magnitude with promptness. Its Wire Eopes made for Cable Tramways have a world-wide reputation, and are unsurpassed. The great New York and Brooklyn Suspension Bridge, as well as many other important public works, were designed and built by the engineers of this Company. Works at TRENTON, NEW JERSEY, U.S.A. Offices: Nos. 117 & 119, Liberty Street, NEW YORK, U.S.A. CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED. VIU ADVERTISEMENTS. The TRENTON IRON CO. MANUFACTURERS OF IRON & STEEL WIRE OF ALL KINDS; WIRE ROPE For all purposes, including: Cables of any desired length for Street Railways. PATENT LOCKED WIRE ROPE. PATENT WIRE ROPE TRAMWAYS. PATENT QUAKRT HOISTS For Quarries, Open-cut Mines, and Contractors' Work. Office and Works— TRENTON, NEW JERSEY, U.S.A. New York Office, COOPER, HEWITT & CO., 17, BURLING SLIP, NEW YORK CITY, U.S.A. Western Agents, ERASER & CHALMERS, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, U.S.A. ADVERTISEMENTS. IX — ESTi^BLISHED 1818. — W"J*« CLOVER & CO. St. Helen's Mope Works, ST. HELEN'S, LANCASHIRE. I^Ij&.ITXJE'.A.OTTTUEES OOP Steel Wire Ropes TO THE LORDS OF THE ADMIRALTY. PATENTEES AND MAKERS OF SODSON'S SFIEAL 'W'lEE COEE EOFE. ^ ^^ ^ ^<^ w # S IPE OI^A^LITIE S PATENT CRUCIBLE STEEL ROPES, FOR WINDING, HAULING, &c. CONSTEUCTED FROM THE BEST PLOUGH & PATENT STEEL WIRES, Drawn by William James Glover & Co., SPECIALLY PREPARED FOR EACH ROPE. GUIDE EOPES. GALVANIZED FLEXIBLE STEEL HAWSERS, Guaranteed to pass Admiralty and Lloyd's requirements. FENCING, GUY, TELEGRAPH, AND SIGNAL WIRES. A special Matoe of Round Wire Sinking ^l\^^^^*^^^ **"°^ ^'***^'^ *° *^^ ""^"^^ *" TBLBPHONi NUMBER 39. ^ ^ " TELEGRAMS : "GLOVER, ST. HELENS." ABVEETISEMENTS. Craven & Speeding Bros., SUNDERLAND, ENGLAND. "'»tdt& SOLE MANUFACTURERS OP "lestgarth's Patent" Wire Ropes, FOR COLLIERY AND SHIPPING PURPOSES. CONTEAOTOES TO THE LOEDS OF THE ADMIEALTY. WIRE R OPE DEPAR TMENT. FLAT & ROUND ROPES FOR HAULAGE & WINDING PURPOSES MANUFACTURED FROM PLOUGH & PATEOT IMPEOYED STEEL WIRE. Specially produced from our own specifleation. GALVANIZED FLEXIBLE STEEL WIEE EOPES For Hawsers, Lifts, and Running Gear. Galvanized lire Rigging for Marine Purposes. GUIDE KOPES. Aerial and CaWe Tram Ropes. HEMF ROPE DEPAB TMEITT. MANILA, SISAL, EUSSIAN HEMP, BOLTEOPE, & COIE EOPES Made by latest Improved Machinery. Manufactltbees by Special Machinebt of MANILA, SISAL, & NEW ZEALAND EEAPINQ YARN, As used on Hornsby's, Wood's, and McCormick's Machines. ADVERTISEMENTS. xi JOHN BULMER, Engineer, Millwright, and General Smith, MANUFACTURER OF HEMP & WIRE ROPE MACHINES AND Submarine Telegraph Machines, SPRINC GARDEN ENGINEERING WORKS, Pitt Street, ZTE WC ASTLE - OXT - TYITE. JOHN LORD & SON, LEYLAND, near PRESTON, LANCASHIRE. Telegraphic Address— ^^/s STEEL & IRON WIRE "Lord, \^^/ MANUFACTURERS. Ley/and." IMPROVED PATENTED STEEL ROPE WIRE, And 'IXrXXC.XS from Best Selected Swedish Iron, &e., &e. XU ADVERTISEMENTS. Grown Engine ajid T R Ml A D 11 O D CI M 11 ^o^<><' ^"''^^ ^^- ^^^^> Machine Works, tUffnllU Oi DUIlUi BIRMINGHAM. ( ' TELEaniMs: PATENTEE AND SOLE MAKER OF THE \ •• RACKS," BIRMINGHAM. "COMPACT ADJUSTABLE" WIRE NETTING MACHINE, Patented 1889 and 1890, in England, France, Germany, Belgium, United States of America, and other countries. The SPECIAL ADVANTAGES are Extreme Simplicity of Construction, High Speed, Great Strength of Working Parts , and occupying considerably less space than required by other MACHINES of similar class. PERFECTLY adjustable in every part to regulate wear, strain, &c. This Machine is achnowledged to be the best and most perfect Netting IHachine yet invented, and is being rapidly supplied to the most important Netting Manufacturers. Several additional PATENTED MACHINES and APPLIANCES to work in connection witli the above, viz:— AUTOMATIC BOBBIN WINDING MACHINES. AUTOMATIC SPRING WINDING MACHINES. AUTOMATIC StLVEDGE MACHINES. MECHANISM FOR MAKING CENTRE STRAND IN NETTING. SPECIAL MACHINES CONSTBTJOTED FOR MAKING EVEBY VABIETT OP WIBE NETTING AND WOVE -WTIEE WORK. EVERY POSSIBLE REQUISITE SUPPLIED FOR THE TRADE. GALVANIZING PLANT, &c. &c. NEW SPECIALITY— "STEELIOIN."™ademaiik, This Is a Metal from which the Pinions for Netting Machines are Forged, and Is equal to Best Steel for Strength and Durability. These Pinions can he made to any pattern. Low Prices quoted for large or small quantities on receipt of Sample Flnion. WIRE-WORKING MACHINERY for all Trades. THE IRRITON WIRE ROPE IRKS, Limited, 13, GOREE PIAZZAS, LI VERPOOL. CONTRACTORS TO THE ADMIRALTY AND WAR OFFICE. EST-A-BLISHE D lx:cix.A.3:.Mrxx:s s WIRE-DRAWING PLANT & TOOLS. TUBE DRAWBENCHES& KINDRED MACHINERY. METAL ROLLING MACHINERY. SUGAR MILL MACHINERY, CANE MILLS, &c. EVAPORATING PLANT, Single, Double, Triple, & Multiple EfFets. ENGINE S, BOILERS, PUMPS, &c. &c . SAMUEL FISHER & CO., fo?X Birmmgham. ESTABLISHED 50 YEARS. Telegrapblc Address : Telenhono No 574 "SMEROE, BIRMINGHAM." Teiepnone wo. &<*. WM. HORSFALIi & CO., MANUFACTURERS OF Best Oualities of CAST-STEEL WIRE, For NE3EDLES, FISH-HOOKS, SPRINGS, &c.; also of BEST POLI SHED WIRE IN STRAIGHT LENGTHS. ov^iS'i'tfe'^i^A^Rs. WIRE MILLS, BA RNSLEY. _. ■»■«■■■■=•«» (POLISHED STRAIGHT LENGTHS IN PINION SIZES. ^^^■** *^ X.4^.XaI^n JS S s I ^/yyg |y/ff£ pQfj f^jfiu SPRINGS for WATCHES, dc. WILMOTT BROS. & GOBON, ENGINEERS AND MACHINISTS, 30, 32, & 34, ROTHERHITHE STREET, ROTHERHITHE, S.E. WELL-KNOWN MANUFACTURERS OF THE HIGHEST CLASS WIRE NETTING, SPRING, BOBBIN, AND SELVEDGE MACHINES. ENGINES. BOILERS, AND MA'JHINES IN GENERAL SPECIALLY CONSTRUCTED TO SUIT THE VARIOUS MARKETS, Prices and any other information forwarded on application. TELEGRAPHIC ADDRESS: "COMBUSTION, LONDON." ADVERTISEMENTS. XVll OTTO'S AERIAL ROPEWAYS. Over 450 lines at work. SIMPLEST AND BEST MEANS OF TRANSPORT. fflGHEST AWARD, NEWCASTLE EXHIBITION, 1887. SILVER MEDAL, CORNWALL POLYTECHNIC, 1889. WILL GARRY 50 TO 500 TONS PER DAY OF W HOURS. CAN BE WORKED OVER GRADIENTS UP TO 1 IN 1. ADOPTED BY The SHEBA, the EDWIN BRAY, and many other Mining Connpanies. MINING MACHINERY A SPECIALTY. ESTIMATES GIVEN ON APPLICATION. GOMMANS&GO. 52,6iaceGliuroliSt, LONIIOII, E.G. Xvm ABVEETISEMENTS. CABLE TRACTION, AS APPLIED TO THE WORKINa OF STREET AND OTHER RAILWAYS. Copiously Illustrated, and bound in cloth, PRICE 5s. By J. BUCKNALL SMITH, C. E., Author of Treatise upon Railway Traffic, Appliances, &c. (Late Engineer for the Construction of the Highgate Hill Cable Tramways, London, dkc.) (Late Consulting Engineer for Cable Traction to the Lisbon Tramways Company, iSec. ) OODSTTBITTS. Introduction. Chapter I.— Colliery, Mining and Railway Rope Haulage. II. — Street Cable Tramways in California, U.S.A. III. — The Chicago, Philadelphia, New York, &c.. Cable Lines. IV. — New Zealand Cable Tramways. V. — Cable Traction in Great Britain, Europe, Australia, &c. VI. — Cost oe Constructing and Working the System. VII. — General Considerations in Tramway Working. VIII. — The Manufacture of Wire Ropes, and their Applications. Appendix. — The City of London and Glasgow Subways, &c., &c. OFFICES OF "ENGINEERING," 35 AND 36, BEDFORD STREET, STRAND, LONDON, W.C. OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. (The Railway Times, July 16, 1887.) "The subject is treated with the fairness of a critic rather than the partiality of an advocate." (The Colliery Guardian, July 22, 1887.) "This handsome volume is devoted to a practical treatise upon the various applications of rope haulage and the manufacture of wire ropes. The book is well written in a clear and impartial manner — the general finish of the work and illustrations being excellently carried out. The author has supplied a requirement in technical literature full of original and valuable information." (The English Mechanic, July 29, 1887.) " Those who desire to know what has been done with the cable haulage system will find all they need in this work." (Iron, August 20, 1887.) " A series which comprises all that is known about cable tramways. The author has had much experience with cable traction, and his history may thus be recommended to all who wish to learn. " (The Mining Journal, September 24, 1887.) "The author, a leading specialist on cable traction, &o is thoroughly at ease with all the details and ramifications of the various applications of the system, and which he clearly explains in an exhaustive and unreserved manner In fact, almost every conceivable application of rope haulage in all parts of the world are touched upon, so that the work should prove profitable reading to a large community, and a valuable book of reference to mining and other engineers." (The Builder, October 22, 1887.) " This work has a real and living interest for those engaged in working out problems of a like nature It is evident that tramways should have a literature, and Mr. B. Smith supplies the most important contribution yet issued." (The Engineer, October 28, 1887.) "In this book an interesting and useful review of the history of rope haulage in mines, on rail- ways, and aerial ropeways— dating from 1800 to recent times— is followed by full descriptions of cable street tramways." ADVERTISEMENTS. THOS.&WM. SMITH, "^ive "^ope '^arnxfacturexs, NEWCASTLE - ON - TYNE. "Special Flexible" and "Extra Special Flexible" STEEL WIRE ROPES, As most extensively used in the Erection of' THE POETH BRIDGE, And exclusively adopted for working the Hydraulic Gear on H.M,S."Victoria," "SansPareil," "Vulcaii,"&c. SMITH'S "ALBERT LAY" ROPES, FOR MINES, STEAM PLOUGHS, CABLE TRAMWAYS, &c. Special Ropes for Overliead Wire Tramways, Suspension Bridges, &o. THOS. & WM. SMITH, ST. LAWRENCE ROPERY, NEWCASTLE-ON-TYN E. ADVERTISEMENTS. WIRE DRAWING PLANT, Including Blocks fitted up complete for every description and size of Wire, Annealing Pana and Ovens, Cranes, Wire Drawplates, Pritchels, Wordels, Hammers, Punches, &c. WIRE GALVANIZING PLANT (CompIete). "VS^IRE TESTING MACHINES, Showing Tension, Elongation, and Torsion, with the utmost accuracy. COMPLETE SETS OF MACHINES For the Manufacture of Iron & Steel Cables for Railways, Tramways, Aerial Lines, Collieries, Mines, Ships' Use, Transmission of Power, Bridges, &c. : — Wire Winding Machines, Stranding Machines for any number of Wires. — Cable Closing Machines for Cables of every des- cription, size, length, and weight, without either strand or cable-splice. Cable Testing Machines, Cranes, Tarring Apparatus, Bobbins, Reels, &c., &c. PATENT COMPOUND WIRE-CABLE MAKING MACHINES. Which Strand and Close the Cable in One Operation, and produce Cables of every desired length a/nd weight without splice in either Strands or Cable. SPECIAL MACHINES FOE SASH AND WINDOW COEDS, Also for Lightning Conductors and Strands of all descriptions. CORE-MAKING MACHINES (No Ropewalk required) of the Most Improved Construction, also Jute and Hemp Winding Machines, Creels, Bobbins, -Tarring Apparatus, &c. MACHINERY FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF SUBMARINE AND OTHER ELECTRIC CABLES, OF EVEEY SIZE AND DESCEIPTION. Complete Sets of Machines for Covering, Taping, Insulating, Braiding, &c., all descriptions of Electric Wires and Strands. CA.BI.E TR^M^V^A^YS A^ND A.ERIAL LINES Equipped with the whole of the Plant and Fittings required. THOMAS BARRAGLOUGH & GO., LIMITED, aLOSE WORES, Whittey Street, Rochdale Road, MANCHESTER. Loridon Offices: 20, BUOKLERSBURY, E.G.