5 M2.CT Cornell University Library S 599.N2C74 The soil resources of Nebraska, 3 1924 003 375 700 THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA SAMUEL AVERY, Chancellor The Nebraska Conservation and Soil Survey G. E. CONDRA, Director BULLETIN 15 The Soil Resources of Nebraska BY G. E. CONDRA LINCOLN, NEBRASKA 1920 THE NEBRASKA OONSERVATION AND SOIL.SURVEY This department, under the Regents of The Uni- versity of Nebraska, covers the soil, forest, water,' water power, potash, and joad building resources of the, state ; studies industries, and c^onservation prob- lems ; passes upon the sale^ of foreign realty in Nebraska ; serves as a state information bureau, and publishes reports which are free upon request. ._ Some of the activities of the Sii"rv6y are carried on through co-operation with the U. S. BureatLof Soils, U. S. Geological Survey and the office of Farm Man-^ ageraent of the IL S. Department of Agriculture. THE BOARD OF IlEGENTS ISon. John Eschleman Miller, Lincoln Hon. Edward Provost Brown, Datvey 'Hon; Philip Louis Hall, Lineiiln -Hon. Harry DeWittLandis, Seward Hon. Prank W. Judson, Gmaha Hon. Jdhn Robinson "Webster, Omaha WOODRUPJJ Reinting Co., Lincoln, Webr. • THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA By G. E. CONDRA, Director of the Nebraska Conservation and Soil Survey-; The University of Nebraska This brief report, prepared to answer some of the many questions which the department receives in regard to the soil resources of Nebraska, is not complete enough to take the place of the detailed soil surveys, such as have been made of twenty-seven counties of the state. It is general and should be so considered. The reader should keep in mind the fact that Nebraska is large and diverse, having an area of 77,510 square miles, an altitude rising from 840 feet in the southeast to 5,340 feet near the western border, land forms varying from smooth plains to mountainous areas, more than 100 kinds of soil, and a rainfall decreasing from 33 inches in the south- east comer to 16 inches at the Wyoming line. County Soil Survey Reports — The State Conservation and Soil Survey, in co-operation with the U. S. Bureau of Soils, has studied, mapped, and described 27 counties of Nebraska. Each county report includes a detailed soil map and shows such cultural features as roads, tovims, and the locations of houses in the country. The various soil types are described and their adaptations to agriculture are shown. The reports on these areas are of use in farm management, road grading, road rout- ing, real estate, and for general educational purposes. They are pub- lished by the government and are free upon request as long as they last. District Reports — The State Survey has separated Nebraska into 14 areas or districts on which Conservation and Soil Survey reports are to be made when the detailed surveys have been completed in the re- spective areas. These reports are to be published by the state and they should have considerable value to the people of Nebraska. Soil Classification — The field work results in the determination of the kinds of soil, and grouping them under series. First, the lands are classified into kinds according to their origin, then the soils on these lands are grouped into series on the basis of similarity in color, struc- ture, origin, mode of formation, topography, and drainage. The series are divided into soil types on the basis of agricultural value, and texture which is determined by the relative amounts of various materials such as clay, silt, sand, and gravel. Clay is the finest material; it has no grit and is very plastic when wet. Silt is a large content of most agricultural soils in the state; it is 2 THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA more friable than clay. There are a number of silfcy soils, depending upon the percentages of silt, clay, and sand which they contain. Sand of four grades, determined by the diajneter of the particles, is recognized in soil classification. It is much coarser than clay or silt. Loam contains silt and clay and more or less sand. A typical loam has less than 20% clay and less than 50% silt and, some sand. An excess of any material such as clay, silt, sand, or gravel would distinguish the soil as clay loam, silt loam^ fine sandy loam, sandy loam, or gravelly loam. A very large area of Nebraska is occupied by silt loam soils. On a basis of soil, topography, and general economic development, Nebraska has three quite distinct regions or provinces — ^the Loess, Sand- hill, and High Plains, each with the subdivisions shown by Figure 1. THE LOESS REGION This division, so named on account of its well-known subsoil, occupies a little more than the southeast half of the state and is one of the best developed agricultural regions in the United States. Most Nebraskaris have seen loess. It is exposed in many ' rail- road cuts and excavations (Figure 2) at Omaha, Plattsmouth, Ne- braska City, and other places, 'and extends through most of the upland of the region. The loess extends, as smaller areas, southward into Kansas, and eastward into Iowa and Missouri. Kinds of Loess — There are three principal kinds of loess in Ne- braska, known as the plains, terrace, and Missouri River bluff land loesses. A fourth kind, less extensive, occurs on some of the weathered surfaces of the drift deposits of southeastern Nebraska, southern Iowa, northern Missouri, and northeastern Kansas. The loesses, though differing in origin, are very similar in physical properties, hence, for the most part, they are considered collectively in this report. Physical Properties of Loess — The most distinctive features of loess are the buff color, massive appearance, fine texture, and ability to stand nearly vertically in bluffs and other exposures. At many places, the material is broken by small vertical tubes, and may contain small con- cretions, snail-like shells, and bodies of sand. The buff color is due principally to iron oxide which acts as a weak cement. In parts of Nebraska, the loess has considerable range in color, especially in verti- cal sections. The loess is generally, but erroneously, known as yellow clay. Technically, it is not clay, but principally silt with some clay and fine sand. It is, therefore, a silt loam. Though there are local differences in the texture of the loess, as shown by vertical sections, the material becomes more sandy and a little coarser, as a rule, as one passes west- ward and northwestward across the Loess Region. THE SOIL RESOURCES OP NEBRASKA 4 THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA Divisions of the Loess Region — Not far back in geological time, the Loess Region was a nearly smooth plain, underlain with drift or glacial deposits in its eastern part and by thick layers of sand in the central and western parts. This original plain has been eroded and further modified by wind and streams, separating it into a number of distinct land divisions which we now call the loess plains, rough land Figure 2. Vertical section of Nebraska's deep subsoil. areas, wind-formed Mil areas, drift hills, hench lands, and alluvial plains. Though. they are in the Loess Region, two of the subdivisions and part of another, have very little loess. They are the alluvial plains, drift hills, and the rough, stony lands which, combined, occupy about 10,700 square miles or a little more than one-fourth of the Loess Region. THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA 5 LOESS PLAINS These are the nearly level remnants of the original upland plain (Figure 3). Their total area is about 14,100 square miles. The largest plain is in the southern part of the state, between Gosper and Saunders counties, lying in a general way between the Platte, Big Blue, and Republican valleys. The surface of this plain is quite even, with a broad landscape modified by small drainage-ways, shallow basins, and low knolls. Though the basins hold water intermittently, the drainage of the plain, both surface and underground, is quite good as a whole. There are a number of small loess plains in Nebraska with locations north of Ogallala (on the divide of west- central Keith County), south ot the Platte at Sutherland; in southwestern Lincoln County, southeastern Chase, and various parts of Hayes County; northeastern Dundy, north- western Hitchcock, southern Frontier, northwestern Red Willow; parts of the divide of Red Willow and Furnas counties lying between the Beaver and Republican valleys; the upland between Broken Bow and Sargent; northern Buffalo County; small areas north of Ravenna, six miles south of North Loup, between St. Paul and Boelus, west of Wolbach, and southwest of Spalding; the nearly flat uplands of Boone, Madison, Wayne, Cuming, Dodge, Douglas, Washington, and other eastern and northeastern counties. Several small plains of this kind occur east of the Big Blue, as in Seward, northern Gage, southern Lancaster, cen- tral Cass, and eastern Johnson counties. The small loess plains resemble in most respects the large one south of the Platte. LOESS PLAIN SOILS The plains are mantled with 25 to about 100 feet of silt loam, known as the plains loess, the texture of which is quite uniform, but becomes somewhat lighter westward and on knolls. The loess Is not a soil. It is one of the richest soil-forming deposits, and through slight modifications, gives rise to some of the state's most uniform and produc- tive silt loam, very fine sandy loam, and fine sandy loam soils. The principal soils developed upon the plains loess are the Orundy silt loam. Holdrege silt loam, Colby silt loam, and Scott silt loam. Some of the small areas In Dodge, Wayne, and other northeastern counties are occu- pied by the Marshall silt loam (flat phase). The loess plains are dark' silt loam soil areas. The Grundy silt loam occupies most of the eastern and central upland plains as in Butler, Polk, York, Hamilton, Fillmore, Saline, and Clay counties and parts of Jefferson, Thayer, Nuckolls, Adams, Howard, Gage, Cass, Madison, and several other counties. Formerly, it was called the "flat phase" of the Marshall silt loam. . The surface soil is 6 THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA a dark brown, heavy silt loam, 8 to 15 inches deep, friable and rich in organic matter. The upper subsoil consists of brown silt loam, consider- ably heavier than the surface soil and passes abruptly into dark, heavy clay mottled with yellow and brown. This heavy part of the subsoil, sometimes called "hard pan" or "gumbo," is underlain with a more friable part of the subsoil passing gradually into the unmodified loess. The Grundy soils grade locally between silt loam and clay loam. The silt loam, however, has the larger distribution. The Grundy soils grow wheat, corn, alfalfa, oats, and other leading crops and support stock raising. Much of the land is in cultivation. The Holdrege silt loam, typical of Phelps County in the vicinity of Holdrege, is dark and friable to a depth of about 15 inches, passing into a heavier granular silty clay loam, which grades through a dark brown to brown granular silty clay loam to silty clay to a depth of 28 inches. Below this is a mellow, silt loam of light gray color which continues through and below the three-foot section. The lower sub- soil usually is calcareous. Figure 3. View on Loess Plains of Fillmore County, showing large fields of corn, wheat and alfalfa. The Holdrege silt loam represents several variations. It resembles the Marshall silt loam at places. Its darker color, greater depth, and less heavy layer in the upper subsoil are the distinguishing features between the Grundy and Holdrege soils. The Holdrege silt loam occupies considerable areas between Adams THE SOIL RESOURCES OP NEBRASKA 7 and Gosper counties. Farther west, it grades into the loam and very fine sandy loam which are well represented on the small plains between Gosper County and the eastern part of Chase County. The Holdrege soils support extensive wheat farming, but are cul- tivated to corn, alfalfa, oats, and other crops. Much of the land is in cultivation. The Colby silt loam is best developed on the central and western loess plains where the rainfall is 26 inches or less. It consists of a brown to light brown silt loam, grading through a grayish-brown silt loam to 15 inches, below which, to a depth of three feet, is a light gray, floury silt loam. The subsoil from 18 inches down is calcareous, due to dis- seminated calcium carbonate and small calcareous concretions. The Coliy silt loam is lighter in color, more friable and lower in humus than the Marshall, Grundy, and Holdrege silt loams. It occurs on the plains proper and on slopes leading to the rough lands. There are places in this latter position where the type grades into a shallow phase, but where the subsoil is lighter, a fine sandy loam or even a sandy loam is formed as in southeastern Hall County and on the slope lands westward to Chase County. The Colby soils are cultivated to wheat, oats, corn and other crops, or used for grazing. The Scott silt loam, or basin soil of the region, is poorly drained. Its distribution is scattered in most counties on the Loess Plains, in areas varying from a few acres to a section or more. Some of the largest bodies of this soil are in western Seward, and in York, Clay, Fillmore, and Phelps counties. The surface soil of the Scott silt loam is dark, high in organic matter, hard when dry and plastic when wet. The change to the upper subsoil is gradual. At a depth of 20 to 24 inches, the subsoil becomes lighter in color and ash-like. Below 36 inches is a yellowish, friable silt loam. The subsoil is calcareous and impregnated locally with alkali salts. In some basins, the Scott silt loam grades into silty clay loam and clay loam. Much of the Scott soils is poorly drained and retained in the natural sod for grazing. Reclaimed areas are successfully farmed to corn, wheat, and other crops. DEVELOPMENT OF LOESS PLAINS The principal factors In the development of these areas are the soils, amount of rainfall, and a good well water supply, as is shovra in the road locations, forms of agriculture, density of population, and the towns and cities. 8 THE SOIL EESOURCES OF NEBRASKA Wagon roads are mostly on section lines. There is most grazing to the west where the rainfall is least, and on the drouthy soils. The Sicott, or basin soils, where drained, are cultivated; elsewhere, they are used for grazing. The Colhy silt loam is a good wheat soil and is quite successfully cultivated to corn and forage crops, especially when there is the normal rainfall during the growing season. The Grundy and Holdrege soils and the flat phase of the Marshall produce good yields of wheat, oats, alfalfa, com, vegetables, some fruits, and other crops most years and support successful stock raising. The Loess Plains rank very high in wheat production. The Grundy silt loam presents a big problem in its heavy upper subsoil. This layer is accountable in part for the short crops of dry years which have been too largely attributed to hot winds. The correc- tion of this soil condition, if it can be made, will be worth millions of dollars to the state. Viewed as a whole, the Loess Plains lie well and are absolutely stone free and easy to farm. The leading soils, are productive without artificial fertilizers. Humus can be replenished at most places by growing legumes, and by the use of barnyard manures. The farming operations are carried on in a big way and improved machinery is used generally. The density of rural population on the Loess Plains is greatest to the east. Farms average about 160 acres here and gradually larger farther west where there are a number of large holdings. Both country and town are well developed on the Loess Plains. The broad stretches of country, modified by big fields of grain and alfalfa, and by groves, roads on section lines, and modern farm homes, are most beautiful. Land Values in the Loess Plains range between $100 and $500 or more an acre, depending upon the soil, amount of rainfall, and improve- ments. Small tracts well located near cities have sold higher. References: Persons wishing further information in regard to the Loess Plain soils, should secure and consult the soil survey reports of Polk, Gage, Fillmore, Seward, Hall, and Phelps counties. . These, and other similar reports, are free upon request from the U. S. Bureau of Soils, Washington, D. C, as long as they last. See also, pp. 262-270, Report, Nebraska State Board of Agriculture, 1914. KOUGH LANDS These are the canyon areas, river Muffs, and rough stony lands. Canyon areas are best developed at the western edge of the Loess Plains. The bluff lands proper are the steep valleysides formed by rivers and landslides. They are well shown along the Missouri. Rough stony lands occur mostly on the valley slopes of the Republican, Little Blue, Big Blue, Big Nemaha, lower course of the Platte, and at places along the Missouri. THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA 9 CANYON AREAS These, covering about 1,500 square miles (Figure 4), are largely In Lincoln, Hayes, Frontier, HitchcoclJ, and Gosper counties, and in parts- of Phelps, Red Willow, Furnas and Dawson counties. Their steep- sided valleys (canyons) separate the areas into many flats or rem- nants of the original surface, making small, disconnected loess plains. In most places, the canyons being close, make the country very rough and difficult for travel and farming, yet there are locations where the flats are of considerable size. In other places, as near the river valleys where the flat divides have been reduced by erosion, the country is very hilly, as at the edge of the upland south of Gothenburg and southeast of North Platte. Figure 4. A small loess canyon of western Phelps County. The leading soil on the rougher parts of the canyon areas is the iroken phase of the Colby silt loam. This consists of a light brown to brownish gray silt loam four to five inches deep, underlain by gray silt loam, which becomes light colored and floury at 20 to 36 inclies. Locally, the Colby soils grade, on the rough lands, into fine sandy loam and sandy loam. Practically all rough land of the canyon areas is used for pasture. It grows nutritious grasses which afford excellent grazing. The small fiats between the canyons are occupied by the Colby silt loam, Holdrege silt loam, and Holdrege loam. These soils, though badly separated by canyons, are farmed to wheat, corn, forage crops, or pastured. 10 THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA Land Values in the canyon areas are comparatively low because much of the country is broken. They range between $15 and $100 or more an acre, depending upon the amounts of pasture land and farm land on a farm. BLUFF LANDS These border the Missouri (Figure 5), Platte, Elkhorn, Repub- lican, and other large valleys of the Loess Region, but they are only narrow, discontinuous belts between the alluvial bottom lands and the hilly uplands, or between the bottom lands and edges of the Loess Plains. The approximate total area of the bluff lands in the Loess Region is a little more than 1,000 square -miles. Some of the bluffs along the Missouri are high and steep, rising between 100 and 200 feet above the valley floors. From top downward, Figure 5. Missouri River bluff lands. they contain loess, drift, and bedrock. The mantle rock, dislodging and slipping from the upper parts of the slopes, leaves vertical walls above and forms slides below. The bluff line is further modified by numerous ravines, ridges, and truncated spurs. The topography, as a whole, is quite rough, interfering with the routing of transportation and with farming. Though less well defined at most places, the bluffs of the Platte, Loup, Elkhorn, and Republican valleys have about the same topographic features as those of the Missouri. There are certain differences, however, due to the fact that the loess is underlain by formations unlike those THE SOIL RESOURCES OP NEBRASKA 11 along most of the Missouri river belt, and due also to the lower rainfall in the western parts. Bluff Land Soils— -The Knox silt loam and the rough phase of the Golbp silt loam are the leading soils of the bluff lands. The Knox silt loam, which occurs in the eastern counties, resembles the Marshall silt loam in its lower subsoil, but has less humus in the upper layer because of the loss through erosion. The subsoil is mellow and can be plowed at any depth where exposed. The only defect of the soil, aside from the rough topography, is its low humus content. Occurring under 26 to 33 inches of rainfall, this type grows good stands of grasses and forest. Cleared land, though rough, is well adapted to alfalfa, grapes, and apples. Good returns are secured from commercial orcharding. There is successful fruit raising on the Knox silt loam and the Marshall silt loam near Blair, Omaha, Nebraska City, Peru, Brownville, and Rule. The general cultivation of the Knox silt loam to grain crops results, as a rule, in too much soil erosion, and therefore in the destruction of a valuable resource. The soil, being porous and mellow, absorbs heavy rainfalls, but this does not wholly overcome the effect of the rough topography which promotes run-off and the erosion of unprotected soil. At a few places, where cultivated to fruits, the Knox silt loam has been terraced with good results. The management of the Knox silt loam is not good as a whole. The natural forest which occupies much of the bluff land is formed of mixed trees such as the linden, oaks, elms, ash, and hickory for which, except the bur-oak for posts, there is no ready market. Alfalfa raising and fruit-growing are successful and it would seem that persons owning the bluff land should engage upon the production of the profitable crops. Land Values of the Knox silt loam vary greatly, depending largely upon the location. The range is between about $90 an acre for the poorest locations and $300 or more in the vicinity of Omaha. The value of the Colby silt loam (rough phase) of the central and western parts of the Loess Region is from $15 upward. As has been shown, this soil is used mostly for grazing. ROUGH STONY LANDS These are represented by narrow belts and irregular outcrops of sand rock, chalk rock, and shale in the Republican Valley; of sandstone in the lower courses of the Little Blue; sandstone and limestone in the lower part of the Big Blue; boulder areas, limestone and shale exposures in the central and lower parts of the Big Nemaha; limestone in the Weeping Water Valley and at places along the Missouri; sandstone and limestone along the lower course of the Platte; and limestone and sandstone in the Salt Creek Valley, as near Roca and Lincoln. 12 THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA Probably the best defined rough land in the Loess Region is the belts of chalk rock along the Republican between Bloomington and Riverton. The total area of the rough stony lands of the Loess Region is not known. It is estimated at 250 square miles. This land varies much in value. Some is good for pasture, and a considerable amount is forested. Stone is quarried at places and some of the shale is used in brick- making. •References on Rough Lands: The soil survey reports of Thurston, Washington, Douglas, Cass, Otoe, Nemaha, Richardson, Gage, Phelps, and Chase counties. Dakota and Red Willow County reports -are on the press. See also pp. 273-374, Report, State Board of Agriculture, 1914, and Bulletin 5 of the Nebraska Conservation and Soil Survey. WIND-FORMED HILL AREAS It is thought that the otiginal loess plain extended a considerable distance west of its present boundary, and that this border has been modified by wind and streams, making it hilly, resembling the sandhills. The hilly areas, forming this fairly well-defined belt between the Loess and Sandhill regions, contain loess and other materials finer than those which occur in the sandhills, hence they are included in the Loess Region. Wind-formed hill, areas also occur at places on the Loess Plains proper and along the edges of these plains, as northeast of Minden, and northwest of Grand Island. The total area of the wind-formed hilly lands in the Loess Region is about 900 square miles. The Soils of the wind-formed hill areas are more stable than dune- sand and lighter than the silt loams of the Loess Plains. They are usually classed with the Talentine and Golhy series and have value in farming, but are better suited to grazing and the production of native hay. Land values range between $20 and about $100 an acre. LOESS HILL AREAS These occupy about 11,900 square miles of Nebraska, in the north- eastern part of the state, and a narrow belt west of the southern part of the bluff lands of the Missouri. Included within the boundaries of these areas are several small loess plains and valleys. The plains are the high, flat divides and the valley forms are principally flood plains, terraces, and small bluffs. The loess hills (Figure 6) were eroded from the loess, plains. They are characterized by remarkably smooth surfaces mantled with loess. Though many of the hills in Custer, Sherman, Valley, and other counties on the west are quite steep, they usually have rounded slopes compara- tively free from guUeys and other erosional forms. A section of a hill THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA 13 near the Missouri, made from the top downward, shows loess, sand, drift, and bedrock. The underlying materials outcrop at widely separated places and are encountered in wells and some wagon and railroad cuts. There is no drift in the western parts of the loess hill areas. LOESS HILL SOILS There are several soils .on the loess hills but the Marshall silt loam has the largest distribution and greatest agricultural importance. It has a dark brown to nearly black, mellow surface soil, 10 to 15 inches deep, underlain by a comparatively mellow subsoil which grades downward into undisturbed loess. A flat phase of the Marshall occupieb som^e of the small loess plains farthest northeast. Similar plains farther west are occupied by Colby silt loam and Colby very fine sandy loam which extend onto the hills but mostly as shallow phases. On the east, the Marshall grades on some of the steepest hillsides into the Knox silt loam. Figure 6. View of Loess Hills, northwest of Neligh, showing fields of corn and alfalfa. The Marshall silt loam absorbs moisture quite readily and erodes much less by running water than would be expected in view of its occurrence on hills. This is not a reason, however, why farmers should not guard against the erosion of loess hill land. There are other soils of limited distribution in the loess hill areas, as those of the small flood plains and benches, and those formed on the sand and drift exposures of some hillsides. 14 THE SOIL RESOURCES OP NEBRASKA DEVELOPMENT OP THE LOESS HILL' AREAS These areas have a good supply of well water at most places which is a factor of importance. Most soils are productive without the use of artificial fertilizers. This is particularly true of the leading type, Marshall sitt loam. Though there is some erosion, reducing the humus content of the upland soils, this loss can be replenished by growing alfalfa and by the use of manures. The Marshall silt loam has great value in growing corn, oats, alfalfa, wheat, vegetables, trees, apples, and other crops. It is the state's second best com soil and, because of its wide distribution under a favorable rainfall, the loess hill areas have become the state's ranking com raising district and one of the leading stock raising areas. The loess hill country is well improved as to agriculture, roads, towns, and cities. Most land is cultivated with improved machinery drawn by horse power or motors. Farming is carried on in a large way under a high capitaliza- tion. Land Values in the loess hill area, determined by soil, rainfall, topography, location and improvements, range from $80 an acre on the west to more than $500 in the east and northeast. Small farms well located have sold higher. References: The soil survey reports of Wajme, Thurston, Wash- ington, Dodge, Douglas, Cass, Nemaha, and Richardson counties. See also pp. 270, 271, Report, Nebraska State Board of Agriculture, 1914. THE DRIFT HILL AREA This, with an approximate extent of 6,700 square miles, occupies much of the upland of Saunders, Cass, Lancaster, Gage, Pawnee, Johnson, Otoe, Nemaha, and Richardson counties. Similar areas occur in- north- eastern Kansas, northern Missouri, and southern Iowa. The drift hill areas represent a stage of physiographic development J)eyond that of the loess hills, in which all or nearly all of the loess mantle is removed and the surface features and soils are formed upon the drift sheets. The hills have a characteristic form, less even than the loess hills, and are further distinguished by the presence of sand, pebbles, and boulders in the subsoil and sometimes in the surface soil. DRIFT HILL SOILS These range between silt loam and loams. The main type is the Carrington silt loam which resembles the Marshall, silt loam of the loess hills, but contains less silt and more sand and clay. The soil is dark brown to nearly black, quite high in humus, and productive. In its THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA 15 best development, there are no pebbles and boulders In the surface soil but they may occur in the deeper subsoil. The Bhelby loam, sometimes called the Garrington Xoam, occupies some of the knolls, hill crests, and steep hillsides where erosion has re- moved much of the surface soil and concentrated the coarser particles of the upper subsoil. It has less humus than the Garrington silt loam and contains some stony material. Figure 7. Wheat on the drift hills of Lancaster County. Sandy soils are formed on eroded valleysides of the drift hlU area, especially where the Aftonian sands are exposed between the Kansan and Nebraskan drift sheets. Small boulder areas occur at places on the rough hills where all of the drift, except the coarse materials, has been removed. Such areas are in Nemaha, Richardson, and Lancaster counties. The complete removal of the drift on steep valley sides, as along ^the lower parts of the Big Blue and Little Blue, and along the Big Nemaha, has resulted in the formation of soils on the bedrock. One of the best examples of a bedrock soil is the Lancaster fine sandy loam developed on the Dakota sandstone in the vicinity of Lincoln. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DRIFT HILL AREA The development here has reached a high stage. There is sufficient rainfall for agriculture. The Garrington silt loam, which occupies most 16 THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA of the area, is very productive and nearly all successfully cultivated to corn, oats, wheat (Figure 7), alfalfa, vegetables, and fruits. The Shelby loam is not farmed so generally, partly because it is better suited for pasture and partly because it is not stone free. The rough lands support grazing and natural forest. The bottom lands, where cleared of forest, are grown to corn, wheat, and other crops, or pastured. The principal problems of the drift hill area are erosion and the correction of sour soils. Farmers who have the drift soils on their place, should guard against erosion, which if not checked, will change the valuable Carrington silt loam to a loam of much less value. Here is a conservation problem of great importance. There are, on some hillsides, small areas of sour or dead drift soils which could be corrected by the use of iinely ground limestone. Fortu- nately, limestones are exposed in this part of the state and they can be quarried and crushed for use, or the fine dust and screenings from quarries operating at or near Louisville, Meadow, Nphawka, and Weeping Water can be, bought at low cost for this purpose. Viewed as a whole, the drift hill country is an important agricultural district. It is the second leading com growing district of the state, but diversifies along other lines, as in stock raising. The grain type of farming, together with the raising of hogs, cattle, and some poultry, sheep and horses, prevails. Machinery is extensively used and farming is a commercial proposition. The fertile soils, adequate rainfall, and good water supplies have caused this drift hill area to rank high in the development of agriculture, transportation, tovms, cities,- and social conditions. Land Values in the drift hill area range from $90 or $100 an acre for the roughest land to $475 for the improved Carrington silt loam well located with respect to markets. Small tracts near towns sell higher. References: The soil survey reports of Gage, Seward, Saunders, Cass, Otoe, Nemaha, and Richardson counties. BENCH LANDS These are prominent features of valleys in the Loess Region (Figures). Their origin is thought to have been about as follows : The original loess plain was deeply trenched by rivers; later, the streams nearly filled their valleys vnth sand below and silt at the higher levels after which there came a time when the streams began to re-deepen their courses, which resulted in leaving the flat areas or benches on the valley- sides as we now find them. Some of the best defined terraces are at Blair, Omaha, Nemaha City Ashland, Lincoln, St. Paul;- north of Fremont, Schuyler, and Columbus- THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA 17 and at Superior, Oxford, McCook, and Culbertson. They occur in two or three steps or levels at some of these places, rising 20, 40, or even 60 feet or more above the bottom lands proper. The total area of bench land in the Loess Region of Nebraska is estimated at 2,150 square miles. TERRACE SOILS Most terraces are quite smooth and capped with a thick deposit of silt loam underlain with sand. The silt loam is loess-like, hence it is-called terrace loess. The drainage of terraces is good as a rule, except where there are small basins like those of the loess plains. These basins are occupied by the Soott silt loam. The prevailing soil on the benches in the eastern part of the Loess Region is the Waukesha silt loam which is dark brown, 12 to 15 inches deep, and high in organic matter. The subsoil is a yellowish, silty clay which, at 20 inches, becomes quite compact and buff colored. It is loess- like below 30 or 40 inches. The Waukesha soils range between fine sandy loam and silt loam. As a rule, the texture becomes a little lighter as one follows the benches of the main valleys wesitward or northwestward across the region, as along the Platte, Republican, Loup, and the Elkhom. The knolls or slightly elevated areas on the terraces have lighter textured soils than the general distribution. There are places in the central courses of the main valleys of the Loess Region, as north of Scribner in the Elkhom, and northwest of Thurston in Logan Valley, where the silt cap of the benches is thin and the soils are formed in part or nearly wholly from the underlying sand. This condition has given rise to soils classed as Sioux sand, Sioux loam, Thurston sand, and Thurston loam, all of which may be regarded as light types of the Waukesha series. These soils are less productive than the Waukesha silt loam of the eastern part of the region and the fine sandy loams, and very fine sandy- loams in the lower and middle courses -of the Republican Valley benches. Sand is exposed along the edges or scarps of most benches. This, when mixed with the finer materials from above, forms small local areas of light soils, or it is washed out upon the valley floors, making the fine sandy loams and other light soils. This condition is found at many places in the largest valleys. DEVELOPMENT OF BENCH LANDS The bench lands, because of their fertility, smooth surface, and posi- tion above flood level, have a high value, ranging between $100 and $500 18 THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA or more an acre. They are successfully cultivated to alfalfa, corn, small grains, vegetables, and some fruits, but are especially well suited to alfalfa. These lands afford good locations for roads, towns, and cities. References: The soil survey reports of Saunders, Dodge, Wayne, Gage, and Nemaha counties and the unpublished report of Red Willow County. ALLUVIAL PLAINS The name "Nebraska" means broad valley. It was well chosen to represent the wide valley bottoms of the Loess Region. The notable example of a broad valley is that of the Platte which has a width of about 18 miles in parts of its middle course. The alluvial plains of the Loess Region are comparatively smooth. They have a total area of about 3,750 sauare miles, including flood 'plains, alluvial fans, coUuvial slopes and the poorly defined low benches (Figure 8). Flood Plains — The lowest valley bottoms are subject to flooding by their streams, hence they are called flood plains. Figure 8. A generalized cross-section of a Loess Region valley showing 1, Loess Plains; 2, Terraces; 3, Colluvial Slope; 4, Alluvial Fan; 5, Flood Plain. Alluvial Fans are formed at the mouths of steep tributary valleys bordering flood plains. The small, swift, intermittent streams of these valleys carry much sediment, but drop it upon reaching the flat land of the trunk valley. The sediment deposited in this way causes the water to spread out and to distribute the sediments in a fan-shaped form. There THE SOIL RESOURCES OP NEBRASKA 19 are thousands of small alluvial fans in the Loess Region, and other parts of the state. They usually lie above the flood heights of trunk streams and are fairly well drained. Colluvial Slopes occur along the edges of flood plains and extend onto the foot of valley sides. They are built mostly of fine materials slipping and washing down from the slopes. The colluvial forms are made smooth by the action of sheet water. They differ greatly in size and somewhat in the texture of their soils, but are best defined where there are few ravines and where for a long time the trunk stream has not eroded against the slope and removed the local deposits. Some colluvial slopes are terrace-like. ALLUVIAL SOILS Several alluvial soils of the Loess Region have been mapped and classed under the Wabash, Cass, Sarpy, Hall, Lamoure, Judson, and other series (Figure 9). The agricultural alluvial soils with largest distribution in the eastern counties are Wabash silt loam, Wabash silty clay loam, Wabash clay, and some of the medium textured types of the Cass, Sarpy, Hall, Lamoure, and Judson series. Viewed as a whole, the distribution of the alluvial soils is spotted or patchy when compared vdth the upland types which extend uniformly over vsade areas. The large valley floors of Nebraska have many soils, occurring in irregular, small areas. There may be several kinds on a single small farm. This condition requires consideration in farm management because the soils vary greatly in texture, structure, drainage conditions, and agricultural possibilities. The Wabash Soils are fine textured, dark colored, and unusually deep in both soil and subsoil. They occupy most of the flood plains of the Big Nemaha, Little Nemaha, Weeping Water, Salt Creek, Maple Creek, Logan Creek, and the Big Blue and its tributaries, and considerable areas in the valleys of the Platte, Elkhorn, and Missouri. A great deal of the land, occupied by the Wabash soils, has been improved by straightening creek and river channels and by the construction of independent drainage ditches. Some land has been tiled, as near Fremont and Nickerson. The Wabash soils are naturally strong. Lying near the water level, they are not much affected by drouths. They are the state's strongest corn producing soils, but are also cropped to small grains. Where too wet, they are pastured or used in native hay production. As a rule, narrow belts of forest follow the streams located on these soils. The Wabash soils range in value per acre from about $100 to $500 or more. As a rule, farms, except on the large valleys, are occupied in part by other soils. 20 THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA JlMlllll^flllllllll||,tV y///,0(////p/\ "-"o^r^E /^ w, WW, j;0vOs\v.\ i f^^fi''^. TJl UTEPr m 'JiTr, y////^ !^>o DDpnnnD , , U UI I I Inr-ir-iRnr-n-inr-ir-n-Tnl \\\\ UQCiEaqc^DtiiCCjaQCi O ^ ^ ^Ul Innr— jrt'-ifTimaaQanLA. QSH noa cnDDtJODCODri rvTT tanaQDDDQDDDDMhHnnt \1L' \' ■DDaDDnDDDODaHnnnHhN ' ^\ JDapDQQDDDDDHUUU! " '^ ' ' "naoagaoDODiziDULIU IHRffiHSflaadb \nn[ OLDQ I \ \\ .\':\TnaDiTg! IDQCuanDnnDQC ,_„ JabDBaBBDDDa — _ rnrinst.;_^>^ nn"nnnn'inooog K Figure 9. Showing Soil Types in the vicinity of Fremont. The lands and soils are as follows: 1, A terrace modified by depres- sions and sandy borders; 2, Judson silt loam; 3, Lamoure silt loam; 4, Wabash silt loam; 5, Wabash silty clay; 6, Wabash clay; 7, Cass fine sandy loam; 8, Cass very fine sandy loam; 9, Cass loam; 10, Cass silt loam; 11, Sarpy very fine sand; 12, Sarpy fine sandy loam. The Cass Soils occupy a considerable area of the central and lower Platte Valley and parts of the Loup, Elkhorn, Blue, Nemaha, and Missouri THE SOIL RESOURCES OP NEBRASKA 21 river valleys. They are intermediate in character between the Wabash and Sarpy soils. The surface soil is dark brown to black. The upper subsoil is a little lighter in texture, commonly pale yellow or ^ayish in color and grades downward into sand. The soils are subject to overflows, but all of them, except the heavier types, drain well at low stages of their streams. The survey has studied and mapped seven types of the Cass soils in Nebraska. They are the fine sand, fine sandy loam, very fine sandy loam, loam, silt loam, clay loam, and clay. The Cass fine sand, as mapped in Hall County, supports grass and tree growth, but little of it is culti- vated. The fine sandy loam, where It lies close to the water level, as in western Douglas County, makes good wild hay land. The other types except the clay and the clay loam, are successfully farmed to corn rotated with small grains and other crops. AVhen drained, the clay loam is adapted to cultivation, but the clay, which occupies depressions and abandoned channels along the Missouri, grows only vrillows at most points. The Sarpy Soils range from light gray to brown in the color of their surface layer, but grade quickly in the subsoil to light colored sand. Though the soils are subject to flooding, their structure is favorable to good drainage. The Sarpy soils are lighter in color, and have the sandy subsoil nearer the surface than the soils of the Cass series. The fine sand, fine sandy loam, very fine sandy loam, silt loam, and clay of the Sarpy series have been studied and mapped in Nebraska. They occur principally along the lower Platte and the Missouri River Valley. The fine sand is used mostly for pasture. It is too drouthy at most places for successful farming. The other types, except part of the fine sandy loam and most of the clay, are cultivated to corn, wheat, oats, and truck crops. The Hall Series of Soils, with typical distribution in Hall County, includes dark-colored types stiflfer in the subsoil than in the surface layer. The color of the surface soil ranges from brown to nearly black and the subsoil is yellowish. This series is developed on low, alluvial terraces. The fine sandy loam, very fine sandy loam, silt loam, and clay have been mapped and described in Hall County where they are the prevailing soils. Except the clay, all the types are cultivated to corn, wheat, alfalfa, and other crops. The Lamoure Soils are represented in the Loess Region by four types mapped along the Platte, as in Dodge, Polk, Hall, and Phelps counties. The Lamoure series is similar to the Cass In color, but difl'ers in that the subsoil is as heavy or heavier than the surface soil. The material may be calcareous throughout the three-foot section, and always effervesces in the lower subsoil. The soils carry some alkali. Four types of the 22 THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA Lamoure soils have been mapped on the smooth, low-lying bottom lands of the Platte Valley. They are the fine sandy loam, silt loam, silty clay loam, and clay. The fine textured soils are poorly drained. The Lamoure soils resemble those of the WaMsh series but are less perfectly drained, have a lighter' colored calcareous subsoil and may carry some alkali. If improved by drainage, the Lamoure sioils have a high agricul- tural value. The Judson Soils, represented by the fine sandy loam and the silt loam, form long narrow belts on the low colluvial slopes bordering the flood plains of the Platte, Republican, and parts of the Missouri. In some places, these soils are on alluvial fans and terrace-like colluvial slopes. The soil materials were derived principally from the loess of the uplands, but they may receive coarser materials from drift, sand, etc., making the lighter types. The Judson soils are dark brown in the upper layer and light brown in the subsoil. They lie above flood levels, are quite well drained, and cultivated to the leading farm crops. Other Alluvial Soils have been mapped in the Loess Region. At places on the Platte Valley, as in Merrick and Hall counties, a thin surface soil is underlain by gravel. This condition, if the surface layer is not close to the water level, makes a drouthy condition which has given expression to the name "poverty ridge". The narrow sandy ridges on the Platte are also quite drouthy. Small patches of the sandy portions of the flood plains of the Elkhorn, Loup, Platte, and Republican have been modified by wind into dunesand. Some of the land bordering the Platte and Republican is only sandbars, or in a slightly more stable condition, called meadow land. The alluvial soils of the middle and upper courses of the Elkhom and Loup valleys have not been studied in detail, yet they are knovni to be largely sandy and fine sandy loams. The first bottom soils of most of the Republican Valley, and along the Platte and South Platte of the western part of the Loess Region are quite sandy, ranging from loamy sand to very fine sandy loam, and they are bordered ,by many small areas of colluvial and alluvial fans having light textured soils. References on Alluvial Soils: Soil survey reports of Wayne, Thurs- ton, Dodge, Washington, Douglas, Nemaha, Richardson, Gage, Polk, Seward, Hall, and Phelps counties. See also Red Willow and Dakota counties when published. DESTRUCTION OF ALLUVIAL LAND BY RIVERS The Platte, Missouri, Republican, and Elkhorn rivers erode a great deal of alluvial land each year. The Missouri has destroyed 200 acres of valuable lands at a single point within a year, as on Brookey Bottom of Cedar County; at Decatur, Burt County; and above Peru, Nemaha THE SOIL RESOURCES OP NEBRASKA 23 County (Figure 10). The river removes the land at cut-banks and deposits the debris at other places as accretion land, which requires several years to become valuable. The Missouri damages Nebraska hundreds of thousands of dollars a year and the government has spent a large amount of money to check its ravages without much effect. A company recently organized at Lin- coln is making good progress in holding the river and preventing the destruction of valuable farm lands, and it seems that a movement should be organized and backed by the state and nation to solve the problem of the Missouri. Figure 10. Showing how the Missouri River destroyed a 240-acre farm in Nemaha County. The Platte River is shallow and wide, flowing through interlacing channels spread among numerous sandbars and islands, which means that it occupies too many square miles of the state. Our investigations cause us to believe that this river can be controlled at comparatively low cost, and confined to a single, narrow channel. This, if done, would add many square miles to the land area of Nebraska. Some of the rail- road and county bridges have been shortened to confine the river to one- half or less its original width and with good results in contTolling the stream and reclaiming land, but there are persons who oppose this means of reclamation more on theory than on a basis of facts and results. 24 THE SOIL RESOURCES OP NEBRASKA THE SANDHILL REaiON The sandhills of Nebraska embrace a large region in the northwest- central" part of the state and smaller outlying areas, some of which extend into Colorado, Wyoming, and South Dakota. The main division, or the Sandhill Region proper, is well defined. Its topography, drainage, soils, roads, and development are unlike those of the Loess Region to the east and the High Plains Region to the west. The altitude rises from about 1,700 feet at the eastern border of the region to a little over 4,000 feet at the western border. The rainfall decreases from 28 inches on the east to about 18 inches on the west. The region is a vast prairie, and one of the most important cattle raising districts in the United States. Legend ill «*"• «"-«^-'- >'*'-"-»^ "^lo'tilcU' Figure 11. A sketch map of the sandhill land forms in the vicinity of Antioch, Sheridan County. Extent of Sandhill Areas — ^Figure "1 shows the distribution of these areas. The Sandhill Region has an extent of a little more than 18,000 square miles. The extents of the main outliers are about as follows: Those on Box Butte Table in Scotts BluflP and Sioux counties, 174 square miles; on Springview Table of Cherry, Keyapaha and Boyd counties, 224 square miles; on Ainsworth Table and Holt Plain of Brown, Rock, THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA 25 and Holt counties, 160 square miles; the Lincoln County area, 522 square miles; the Dundy County area, 684 square miles; scattered hills on Perkins Plain, 320 square miles; small patches in the Platte Valley, about 224 square miles. Much of the above hilly land is not occupied by dune- sand. It has soils of finer texture, such as belong to the Valentine, Rich- field, and other series. The total area of the Sandhill Region and its outliers is thought to be a little more than 20,000 square miles, of which 70 per cent or more is typical sandhill, i. e., hills. Figure 12. A wet valley and a lake of the sandhills. Land Forms — A good many people think that all the hilly lands of western and northwestern Nebraska are sandhills. They are in error in this because the sandhills were shaped or built up by wind, and the rock hills, which occur along some of the valleys, were eroded out of sandy formations. The main land forms in the sandhill country are sandhills, tasins, and valleys (Figure 11). Small alluvial valleys extend into the borders of the region. The hills, which gave the name to the region, vary con- siderably in size and form. Their heights range from a few feet to 150 feet or more. A single small hill may occupy a few acres and a large one may extend over a section or more of land. Some of the hills, and particularly the high, rugged ones, are roughened on their west slopes by depressions or pits, called "blow outs." The hills usually are united into ridges, or ranges, between which occur the basins and valleys . Basins 26 THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA are circular to irregular depressions between the hills or between the poorly defined ridges. In parts of the region, as in the vicinity of Spade post office, about 20 miles northeast of Ainsworth, the hills and valleys extend in an east-west direction. They have lengths of from 6 to 12 miles and occupy about equal portions of the land, each having widths varying from one-half mile to one mile. Sandhill valleys are entirely surrounded by ridges, or they join in an extension of several miles. In places, they lie northwest-southeast or even in north-south directions. The valleys are classed as dry and loet. The wet valleys have a large number of lakes, some of which are surrounded in whole or in part by marshes (Figure 12). SOIL RESOURCES The soil resources of the sandhills are more valuable than is generally supposed. The leading divisions are dunesancl, dry valley soils, and wet valley soils. Grass and native hay, the main products of these soils, sup- port extensive cattle raising. Dunesand is the typical soil on the hills (Figure 13). It is charac- terized by its uniform fine sandy texture, low humuF content, and mobility. There Is not much difference between surface soil and subsoil, both being light gray in color and of loose structure. Most of the dunesand is protected by a grass cover but there are small patches of bare ground on the exposed slopes of hills. According to the state survey, the dunesand land is classed as first-grade and second-grade grazing land, depending upon the continuity of the grass cover. The second grade land has blow-ground, some '"blowouts" and, therefore, less grass. The dunesand grows a large number of valuable grasses and some useful herbaceous plants. The grasses afford good pasturage through a long season and some of them cure for use on winter range. In cattle raising, it requires from 8 to 12 acres of this land per animal during the season, and it is estimated that, under good management, the dunesand soil of the sandhills would pasture close to 1,000,000 cattle. The dunesand land ranges from $7 or $8 to about $20 an acre. It is not sold separately, however, but is included with valley lands in ranch sales which are made at from $17 to $30 or more an acre. Dry Valley Soils — These occur on valleys which lie a few feet above the water level and are well drained. They are smooth to slightly hilly. The surface soil is coherent enough to resist wind erosion but becomes less stable under cultivation. There are a few small tracts of com- paratively hard land in the dry valleys of the Sandhill Region, but most of the soils are classed with the Valentine series, and under four leading types which are sand, loamy sand, fine sandy loam, and very fine sandy THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA 27 loam. The very fine sandy loam and, the fine sandy loam are farmed successfully at a good many places. The lighter soils, that is, the sand and loamy sand, blow badly when plowed. They are on the border line between the grazing soils and the agricultural soils and should be .used more for grazing and hay production than for farming. ,c^3^ tf ^^^^"^" 1^^-^ ^EI^^s35m^ ' ^^^^&-iihw «i;W* » «J^^*w^«fe» ^' ^J'" Kp ^'."i^^ i|y|tt|i|| B^^^,..-< mHi^^^^J^f%^^»KH 1 ^^^H^H^HBe^^-' ^ T ' l* 1^ ' * ^^^B Figure 13. A sandhill view showing hills. A noticeable^ feature at places in the sandhills is the presence of large Cottonwood groves in the dry valleys and on parts of wet valleys. This is particularly noticeable southwest of the town of Wood Lake and to the northwest of Brewster. Most of the dry valley areas are used for pasture and for the production of native hay. It requires from 2% to about 5 acres to pasture an animal, and the hay production is from one-half to one ton per acre. The principal cultivated crops grown on dry valleys are rye, corn, and potatoes. The dry valley lands range in value from $20 to $60 or more an acre, but are not sold separately, as a rule, because they are included in ranches which occupy principally the hill land. Wet Valley Soils — These are on the poorly drained valleys. The largest areas are_ in Cherry County, northeastern Morrill, northern 28 THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA Garden, southern Sheridan, and northeastern Rock County. Two soils, the fine sandy loam, and the loamy fine sand, have been mapped on the wet valleys and classed with the Q-annett series. They are composed principally of the finer grades of sand, but contain small amounts of clay, silt, and humus. In some locations, as in northeastern Morrill County, northwestern Garden County, and southern Sheridan County, the poorly drained soils carry large amounts of alkali, principally in the forms of potassium and sodium salts. The alkali soils grow principally salt grass which has some value in grazing. The wet valley lands grade intomarsh areas, which usually occur on the seepage sides of lakes (Figure 12). There are places where nearly all of a valley is occupied by marsh land growing flags, bulrushs, wild rice, sedges, and the lower forms of vegetation. When drained, or when the lakes subside suflBciently, the wet meadow soils are used for hay production. Many lakes and marshes have been drained to increase the area of hay land. The wet valleys, known as hay lands, require two acres or more to pasture an animal, or they will cut about one ton of hay per acre. The Values of wet valley land range from $30 to $60 or more an acre but the sales are made with other lands of a ranch, the whole going at a certain amount per acre. DEVELOPMENT OP SANDHILL SOILS There are several conservation problems in the sandhills. Most of the grazing grasses are nutritious and valuable, but some of the dominant kinds are undesiralble. For example, bunch grass, which occupies much of the surface of some hills, affords poor grazing, and the ranchmen' have made an attempt to supplant it with more desirable kinds, such as blue stem, grama, and buffalo grass. Improvement has been made on a number of ranches and with good results in which the efficiency of the range has been doubled at places within a few years. This shows that the matter of improving the grass resources of the region Is one of great Importance. The problem has been studied by Professor R. J. Pool of the Botany Department at The University of Nebraska. The hills must be properly managed if the soil is to be retained in a comparatively stable condition and not caused to be eroded by wind. Careless grazing, the plowing of hill land, and failure to take the neces- sary steps to check erosion when started, result in the destruction of soil and grasses and thereby in the loss of valuable resources. The problem of erosion is being studied by the State Survey. It has been proven that pines and other trees can be grown on sand- hills. The government has succeeded at Halsey in the forestation of sev- eral hundred acres of the hills to pines, yet it does not seem best to THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA 29 advocate the general forestation of the sandhills because of the great expense connected therewith and because the hills are especially well suited for grazing purposes. The dry valleys and wet valleys produce large quantities of hay for use in cattle raising (Figure 14). These valleys yield about one ton of hay per acre a year and it is thought that the breaking of the land for cropping to corn, wheat, etc., as has been done at many places, would, if carried on more generally, bring much smaller returns than are now realized from the hay, with less work. Furthermore, hay, next to grass, is needed in cattle raising which is destined to continue as the leading industry of the Sandhill Region unless it becomes necessary, because of some reason which we do not now see, to change the utilization and manage- ment of the soils of the Sandhill Region or of parts of it. Figure 14. Cutting wild hay in the sandhills of Cherry County. It is not easy to determine whether certain lakes and marshes of the sandhills should be drained in order to add to the grazing land and hay land. This is because some lakes have importance in fishing and hunting. The marshes are the haunts of muskrats and other fur-bearing animals which are trapped with good returns. Each case of proposed drainage should be decided mainly on a basis of what may be the best use of the land, i. e., whether in its natural condition or as it would be after being drained. 30 THE SOIL RESOURCES OP NEBRASKA CATTLE RAISING The sandhills constitute Nebraska's great cattle raising district (Figure 15). The favorable factors here are the healthful climate, abundant water supply, and grass resources for pasturage and hay production. Grass and hay are produced in abundance every year, whether there is a wet season or a dry season. When grazing fails in Wyoming, Colorado, and other hard land states, because of drouth, cattle are shipped to the Nebraska sandhills and pastured, or the dry district's import sandhill hay for feed. Figure 15. Cattle in the sandhills. The sandhill cattle have been improved by the use of registered bulls and a good many registered cows. The principal breeds are Herefords, Shorthorns, and Angus. It is not an uncommon sight to see a thousand or more well-bred animals on a single ranch. These animals are grown to two, three, and sometimes four-year-olds and shipped to the feed-lots or to market. The sandhills, in raising a large number of cattle ready to be finished for market, supplement the corn and alfalfa areas of the state in beef production. Many animals raised in the hills are shipped to the feed-lots of the Loess Region and finished for market, or they are sent to the irrigation districts and finished on beet pulp, alfalfa and other feeds and marketed in Omaha and other places. THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA 31 SANDHILL RANCHES The cattle raising activities of the sandhills are carried on in a large way under a heavy capitalization. The Kinkaiders, who filed on land a few years ago, have sold their holdings to ranchmen or they have engaged in the ranch business. "Very little farming is done now except to raise vegetables, some fruit, and to grow a small amount of grain. Much of the pasture and hay land of the sandhills has been improved by the introduction of new grasses and by better care of meadows. This management of ranches has added to the soil resources, and it should be more generally known and understood that to plow these lands would not improve them, but that in many places it would destroy the soil. There is considerable difference in the sizes of ranches. Some are small and not much improved, but the tendency for a few years has been to increase the holdings, i. e., to centralize. So the ranches now vary from 640 and 1,000 acres to many thousands of acres. The largest ones cover 50,000 acres or more. Ranches are all fenced and in most cases cross-fenced to make sum- mer pastures and to separate the holdings into summer and winter ranges. Water supplies are provided in practically all pastures by means of wells and windmills. This facilitates the movement of cattle in grazing and shows the importance of a dependable water supply available at all points. Poultry is raised on most of the ranches. Hogs are found where some corn is grown and horses are used in fence-riding, roundups, trail- ing, shaping-up, and haying. The telephone is in general use. Most roads follow valleys and many of them are in bad condition. The auto has nearly supplanted the buggy and wagon for travel and the truck is rapidly taking the place of the wagon in the haulage of ranch supplies. A considerable amount of labor is required on the ranches to do fencing, manage the range, put up hay, and for the winter feeding. Many of the small ranches are poorly equipped but most of the larger ones have well built corrals, lots, dipping vats, branding pens, dehorning pens, bams, and residences located on dry valleys and surrounded more or less by cottonwood groves. 32 THE SOIL RESOURCES OP NEBRASKA THE HIGH PLAINS REGION This, the most diverse province of Nebraska, occupies between 15,000 and 16,000 square miles of the western and northern parts of the state. It is called the High Plains Region because of its table lands or plains which are thought to be the remnants of a very large plain which formerly extended across central and western Nebraska and parts of the adjacent states. The original high plain sloped eastward from the Rocky Mountains, was comparatively smooth (Figure 16), and formed of thick layers of sand, silt, and other materials of Tertiary age, and shale, chalkrock, sandstone, etc., of Cretaceous and older ages. Figure 16. A table land view. The Platte, Niobrara, White River, and other streams have modified the original high plain surface. They eroded deeply the Tertiary beds in a considerable part of the region, and, in some places, cut entirely through them and into the Cretaceous formations. This dissection separated the plain into a number of distinct divisions, made the valleys and rough lands, and exposed seven geological formations upon which a number of soils were developed. So the region is now composed of several parts, each having more or less geographic and economic unity. The largest divisions of the High Plains Region of Nebraska, as shown by Figure 1, are Perkins Plain, Cheyenne Table, Pumpkin Creek Valley, Wildcat Ridge, North Platte Valley, Box Butte Table, Niobrara Valley (western part), Dawes Table, Pine Ridge, Hat Creek Basin, White River Basin, Sprjngview Table, Ainsworth Table, and Holt Plain. Several THE SOIL RESOURCES OP NEBRASKA 33 small divisions, not included in this list, are the tables along the middle, course of the Niobrara, Crookston Table, Lodgepole Valley, and the lower course of the Niobrara Valley. Small, scattered patches of sand- hills are found in several divisions of the High Plains Region. Following are brief descriptions of the topography, soils, and develop- ment of the sub-divisions of the High Plains Region. PERKINS PLAIN This division has an area of about 1,650 square miles in Chase, Perkins, and southern Keith County of Nebraska and extends into north- eastern Colorado. It is bordered on the north by South Platte Valley, on the east by sandhill and loess areas, and on the south by the Dundy County sandhills. The surface of Perkins Plain varies from nearly level to undulating, rolling, and rough. It is largely an upland plain, but has areas of sand- hills, valley slopes, rough lands, and inextensive benches and flood plains. The altitude increases from 3,150 feet on the east to 3,550 feet on the west. The annual rainfall is between 17% and 20 inches and the grovsring season, from 136 to 143 days. PERKINS PLAIN SOILS These are residual, aeolian and alluvial in origin. Those with largest distribution occur on the upland and were formed on the Ogallala Forma- tion which is composed mainly of sand, silt, and sandstone carrying some coarse material and impregnated more or less with calcium car- bonate. There is wide range in the texture and structure of the soils, from dunesand and loamy sands to loams and silt loams. The highest upland is occupied principally by the heavier soils in association with small bodies of dunesand and light types of the Valentine series. The slopes and most of the rough lands have the lighter soils, and some rough stony land. The bench lands and flood plains are occupied by stable soils, such as sandy loam, fine sandy loam, very fine sandy loam, and loams. The soil series with largest extent in the Perkins Plain area are the Roseiud, Dawes, Valentine, Tripp, and Laurel. The Rosebud Soils have a brovra to dark brown, moderately calcareous surface soil and a highly calcareous, whitish, floury subsoil, which may contain some gravel. A light colored, sandy, calcareous bedrock may lie at a shallow depth under some of the soil types or be exposed in the ravines and slopes. The heavier Rosebud soils occur principally on the gently undulating uplands, but the lighter ones extend onto the valley sides. 34 THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA Four types of the Roseiud series occur on Perkins Plain. They are the sandy loam, fine sandy loam, loam, and silt loam. The sandy loam occurs as a number of scattered areas in central Perkins County and as long narrow belts in north-central Chase County. The fine sandy loam is associated -with these areas. The types with largest distribution and greatest agricultural value are the loam and silt loam which occupy part of southeastern Keith, much of northern and eastern Perkins and most of northwestern Chase and southwestern Perkins. All types of the Roselud series are farmed to such crops as wheat, corn, oats, kaflr, and cane with favorable yields, especially during the years of normal rainfall. The Dawes Soils have a brownish to dark brown surface soil and a brownish to black upper subsoil with moderately friable and compact structure which grades at 20 to 30 inches to a light gray, highly cal- careous silty clay. The upper subsoil is heavier than the surface soil which does not contain much calcareous material. The Dawes soils occur principally in basin-like areas and valley- like depressions in the highest parts of the upland. Their origin is complicated, the types having been weathered from the bedrock and modi- fied more or less by colluvial and wind action. The Rosebud and Dawes soils differ mainly in the upper and lower parts of the subsoil. The Dawes soils of Perkins Plaint closely resemble the Dunlap type^ on parts of Box Butte Table and Cheyenne Table. Three types of the Dawes soils have been studied and mapped on Perkins Plain. They are the sandy loam, fine sandy loam, and Toam, all of which are successfully farmed to wheat, corn, and other crops. The loam occupies much of the surface in the vicinity of Imperial, a number of the slightly depressed areas near Lamar, and extends as patches across southwestern and western Perkins County. The fine sandy loam occurs in the same general areas but in smaller bodies, and the sandy loam is adjacent to the lighter soils of the Valentine series, which are associated vyith the small bodies of sandhills. The Valentine Soil Series is represented on Perkins Plain (near its sandhill areas) by four types, the loamy sand, loamy fine sand, sandy loam and fine sandy loam. These are lighter than the Rosebud and Dawes soils. They show less diiference between soil and subsoil and have a tendency to blow when plowed. This is particularly true of the loamy sand and loamy fine sand, which are better suited to grazing and the production of native hay than farming. The finer textured types are used for pasture, the production of native hay, and farming to corn, rye, oats, potatoes, etc. The Tripp and Laurel Series of soils occupy the alluvial bench lands and narrow flood plains of valleys. They are grazed, used for the THE SOIL RESOURCES OP NEBRASKA 35 production of native hay, or farmed to such crops as corn and the small grains. Some of the bench land is successfully irrigated from canals and parts of the flood plains are sub-iirrigated. DEVELOPMENT OF PERKINS PLAIN Prior to 1880, this area was an open range. Between 1880 and 1890, much of the land was filed upon and farming began with seeds and methods better suited to Illinois, Iowa, and eastern Nebraska than to Perkins Plain. The results were unsure. Then came the drouths of 1893 and 1894, following which many people left the country, and the land gradually fell into large holdings used mostly for cattle and horse raising. Of late years, forms of agriculture better suited and better adapted to the climate, and to the soil conditions have crowded the range until we now have a system of stock raising in connection with grain-farming, and on holdings ranging from 160 acres to 2,000 acres or more. The heavy soils of the "hard lands" are largely cultivated to small grains, forage crops, and corn, and the more sandy agricultural soils are grown to such crops as corn, rye, and potatoes. The sandhills and rough lands are used for grazing. It is generally recognized that the amount of rainfall and the need for the conservation of soil moisture are factors of importance in the agricultural development of Perkins Plain. Farmers are adapting their crops and methods to the conditions which confront them. The heavy soils are stirred frequently in order to maintain a mulch, but the lighter types are plowed less deeply and less frequently. The main crops on Perkins Plain are com, wheat, barley, sorghum, rye, emmer, and millet. Some alfalfa, potatoes, vegetables, and fruits are grown. Cherries and plums seem to be the surest fruits. Stock rais- ing includes cattle, hogs, horses, poultry, and sheep. Much of the country is quite well improved as to roads, fencing, telephone, and houses. Autos, tractors, and trucks are used quite gen- erally. The main towns on railroads are Imperial and Grant. Land Values of Perkins Plain have shown a marked advance the past two years, and they now range from $15 for grazing land to more than $100 an acre for farm land. 36 THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA CHEYENNE TABLE This division of the High Plains Region is in the southern part of the panhandle of Nebraska, extending southward from the Pumpkin Creek and North Platte valleys to and beyond the Colorado line and westward into Wyoming. The eastern border, which joins the small loess plain of Keith County, is not well defined, and it seems that on a basis of topography, the latter might be included with this area. Cheyenne Table comprises the whole of Kimball and Cheyenne, most of Deuel, the southern parts of Banner and Morrill, and the southwestern part of Garden County. The extent of this division in Nebraska is about 3,275 square miles. The surface of Cheyenne Table varies from nearly level to undulating and hilly and is further modified by the Lodgepole, Lawrence Fork, Rush Creek, and Ash Creek valleys, and by many small valleys, most of which are deep canyons. The Lodgepole Valley divides Kimball and Cheyenne counties into north and south tables. It is U-shaped, from one to two miles wide, about 300 feet deep, and bordered by gradual slopes which rise to steep, upper slopes. The Lawrence Fork, Rush Creek, and Ash Creek valleys in the north part of the area, and tributaries of Pumpkin Creek and North Platte, are bordered intermittently by rough land. The altitude of the upland of the Cheyenne Table area rises from 3,700 feet at the eastern side to 5,340 feet at the west boundary of Banner County, which is the highest point in Nebraska. The rainfall is 19 inches on the east and 16.5 inches on the Wyoming line. The average growing season is about 132 4ays. CHEYENNE TABLE SOILS i The soil conditions of this area are, as a whole, quite complicated. Much of the upland is occupied by residual soils derived from the Ogallala Formation which consists of clay, silt, sand, gravel, and beds of soft sandstone cemented with varying quantities of calcium carbonate which give it a light color. The stone containing much calcareous material is called "magnesia rock." The upland has been eroded and reduced at places, resulting in the exposure and weathering of bedrock materials. This has given rise to several soils, ranging from silt loam to gravelly sandy loam, and has left rough stony land on some valleysides. The principal streams of the area have made valleys in the original table land, exposing layers of the Ogallala Formation and part of the underlying Brule clay. Later, these valleys wefe partly filled with alluvial materials. Subsequent erosion and deposition formed the ter- THE SOIL RESOURCES OP NEBRASKA 37 races and -flood plains which are occupied principally by sandy to silt loam soils of the Tripp and Laurel series. The land rising from the valley floors to the tables proper are formed of alluvial fans, colluvial slopes, and residual slopes, all of which are occupied by light textured soils, such as gravelly sandy loam and fine sandy loam. Most soils of the area have a brownish surface layer and a light gray subsoil which is very calcareous. The leading soil series are the Roseiua (formerly called Sidney), Cheyenne, Tripp, Laurel, Dunlap, and Scott. They are briefly discussed under the divisions: table lands, slope lands, rough lands^ terraces, and alluvial plains. Table Land Soils The soil conditions on the broad table lands are quite uniform. In fact, a single type with its variations occupies much of the eastern part of the area. This is the Rosebud, silt loam, which has a brown to dark brown silt loam surface soil underlain by a slightly heavier layer which passes into a light colored calcareous subsoil. This type occurs as large bodies in Deuel and Cheyenne counties and as scattered smaller bodies in southwestern Garden, southwestern Morrill, southern Banner, and various parts of Kimball County. The Rosebud silt loam is successfully cultivated to wheat, corn, oats, and other crops. A gravelly phase of the type, with small extent in Cheyenne, Morrill, and Kimiball counties, is somewhat drouthy and there- fore not so valuable for cultivation. The shallow phase of the type, being thinner in the upper layer because of erosion, occurs on some of the undulating to hilly parts of the tables and ranks only fairly well in cropping value. It usually is underlain near the surface by the light colored magnesia rock. Another variation of the Rosebud silt loam is called the deep phase. Its surface soil is dark and deeper than the usual run of the type. The largest distribution of this phase is in the northern and southern parts of Cheyenne County. This is the soil which gave impetus to farming on the well-known Dalton Table of Cheyenne County. The Rosebud loam occupies small .areas in association with the silt loam, especially in Kimball, Banner, Morrill, and Cheyenne coun- ties. It is one of the best agricultural types of the area. The Rose- bud very fine sandy loam and the fine sandy loam occur on most of the table lands, bordering the silt loam and loam, forming a transi- tion zone between the uplands proper and the slope lands. The Rosebud gravelly sandy loam occurs on the high tables as small patches and ridge-like bodies. It was derived from gravel layers in the Ogallala Formation and is too drouthy for farming. 38 THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA The Dunlap silt loam is found in some of the slightly depressed areas on the highest table lands, principally of Cheyenne County. The surface soil is dark brown, 8 to 12 inches deep, and underlain by a dark brown heavy silt loam which passes through a light gray to brownish heavy silt loam into a light colored calcareous silt loam. The type is distinguished from the Rosehud by its heavy, compact sub- soil. The agricultural value of the Dunlap silt loam is about the same as the Rosebud silt loam but it requires more careful handling. Two of the typical distributions of the Dunlap silt loam on Chey- enne Table are two miles southwest of Dalton and ten miles east of Lorenzo, both in Cheyenne County. The type occurs as inextensive areas in western Deuel and southwestern Morrill County. The very small basin-like depressions, called "buffalo wallows," and occurring at many places in the various counties, are lined with a comparatively heavy soil called the Scott silt loam. The largest body of this soil is about 13 miles south and 5 miles west of Kimball. The foregoing descriptions show that much of the eastern and central parts of the nearly level to undulating table of Deuel and Cheyenne counties is occupied by the Rosebud silt loam, and that the soils become a little lighter towards the valley sides, and westward to the Wyoming line. There are scattered areas of the silt loam in Morrill and Banner counties, but the loam, very fine sandy loam, and sandy loam predominate here as they do in Kimball County. Slope Land Soils The principal valley floors of the Cheyenne Table area are bordered by well defined slope lands. Parts of the sides of some valleys are narrow and bare or only thinly covered with rock debris and soil. The lower slopes of the South Platte, Lodgepole and its tributaries are long, rounded, and formed of alluvial fans and colluvial slopes. Higher on these valleysides the soils are principally of residual origin and classed with the Rosebud series. Much of the slope land of the area is occupied by the Rosebud gravelly sandy loam. The largest extent of this soil is in Lodgepole Valley forming a belt between the terraces and edges of the table lands. A belt of this soil occupies the slopes north of the creek throughout the length of the valley, and extends beyond along the South Platte most of the way to Sutherland. The width of this belt ranges from one-quarter mile to two miles or more. The widest places are north of Chappell, in the western part of Cheyenne County, and in Kimball County between Kimball and the Wyoming line. The type forms a belt on the south side of Lodgepole Valley from the Wyoming line to Kimball, occurs in various tributary valleys of the Lodgepole, and along the south edge of Sidney Draw southwest of the city of Sidney. THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA 39 The slope lands at the heads of some, of the South Platte tribu- taries, across the divide southeast of Sidney, are occupied by the Rosetud gravelly sandy loam. There is a large area of this type on both sides of the lower course of Rush Creek and small patches are scattered in the smaller valleys of the high escarpment of Banner and Morrill counties. The upper parts of most valley slopes of Cheyenne Table are occupied by the Roseiud sandy loam and very fine sandy loam which grade into the heavier types on the edges of the table land proper. In some parts of Kimball County, the sandy loams and fine sandy loams extend down to the edges of the terraces, but elsewhere and throughout most of the area, the terraces and flood plains are bord- ered by the gravelly sandy loam. A great deal of the slope land of the Cheyenne Table area is better suited for grazing than for farming. There are places, how- ever, where the lower colluvial slopes contain soils heavy enough for successful dry farming. Rough Lands Cheyenne Table has several areas of rough land. They are the steep valleysides in which more or less stone is exposed, and ledges of rock and rock exposures alternate with small patches of debris in process of soil formation. The land of this kind has little value. It supports some tree growth, such as the yellow pine and cedar, and is largely used for grazing. There are about 265 square miles of rough land in the Cheyenne Table area, much of it being the rough stony type, located as fol- lows: Along Lawrence Fork, Rush Creek and east of Ash Creek; the rough land escarpment of the North Platte; south of the Lodge- pole at a point southeast of where the creek crosses the Wyoming line; two miles west of Kimball; northeast of Dix; northwest of Sidney; southwest of Sidney, and east of Potter. Terrace Soils Terraces are well developed in Lodgepole Valley and Sidney Draw, and occur in parts of Lawrence Fork, and South Platte. They stand 10 to 40 feet or more above first bottoms and a higher terrace is found at a few places in Lodgepole Valley. The benches in the western part of the Lodgepole, between Kim- ball and the state line, are occupied by the Cheyenne fine sandy loam and the very fine sandy loam. The first named of these supports a good growth of grasses and is used mostly for grazing, whereas tHe other is quite well suited for farming under irrigation. 40 THE SOIL RESOURCES OP NEBRASKA. The principal bench land soils of the area are classed with the Tripp series. They have a light brown to grayish surface soil and a light gray to pale yellow subsoil which is highly calcareous. A large body of this soil, the very fine sandy loam, extends on the south side of the Lodgepole from Kimball to and beyond the Chey- enne County line. It is quite smooth, drains well and is nearly all irrigated. Similar, though smaller bodies of this soil, occurring in Cheyenne and Deuel counties, are mostly irrigated. The low and high benches of Cheyenne County are capped with the Tripp very fine sandy loam and the silt loam. Some of their edges, bordering the flood plains, have lighter soils. A large body of the Tripp silt loam and very fine sandy loam, occurs along Sidney Draw, southwest of the city of Sidney. Most of this is farmed. At least 90% of the heavier textured terrace soils of Cheyenne County are in cultivation, partly under irrigation and partly by dry farming. Bench lands occupied by Tripp soils border both sides of the Lodgepole across much of Deuel County and are dry farmed, or irri- gated to corn, alfalfa, and other crops. Alluvial Soils Lodgepole Creek and its tributaries have narrow strips of first bottom land, occupied by Laurel and Cheyenne soils. There is not much difference between the soils of these series except that the Laurel types are a little more stable and, in some cases, they show more difference between the surface soil and subsoil. Both series have a large content of sand. The Laurel very fine sandy loam borders Lodgepole Creek through- out most of its length in Nebraska. It grades locally into lighter soils. The Laurel soils support a good growth of grasses which are used for pasture and wild hay. In the western parts of Kimball County, both in the trunk valley of the Lodgepole and its tributaries, most of the flood plains are occupied by soils which range from the gravelly sandy loam to the very fine sandy loam. These support thin stands of grasses and are used for grazing. Similar conditions occur in most of the length of Lawrence Fork, Rush Creek, and Ash Creek. The bottoms of the small valleys and canyons of Cheyenne Table are strewn with sand and gravel wash which is not developed to a stage called soil. The name "sand draw" is used for these valley forms and their sandy beds. THE SOIL RESOURCES OP NEBRASKA. 41 THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHEYENNE TABLE Climate and soils are the controlling factors in the agricultural de- velopment of this region. The low rainfall limits the yields of most crops, and the short growing season makes it necessary to raise quicker maturing crops than in eastern Nebraska. The soils vary much in texture, structure, and topographic position and therefore in their agricultural relations. Some types are drouthy, others conserve the rainfall and soil moisture and are well adapted to farming. Fortunately, much of the area is occupied by soils well suited to sub-humid farming. The development of the Cheyenne Table area started with cattle raising on open range; shifted to unsuccessful farming with crops and methods unsuited to the climate and soils; and went back to grazing which gradually gave way to a system of farming adapted to the conditions which shape the development. The rough lands and the drouthy soils now support grazing. Wild hay is grown on some of the upland and on the lowest parts ot the flood plains of the Lodgepole and South Platte. The heavier soils on tue bench lands are successfully irrigated where there is a water supply and the very fine sandy loam and the silt loam soils of the table lands are successfully cultivated to wheat, corn, oats, rye, po- tatoes, and other crops. Dalton Table was one of the first parts of the region to gain prominence in agriculture. Its deep silt loam soil and the large crops of wheat raised thereon attracted much attention, and farming soon spread to most of the agricultural soils and, in some places, the sod of drouthy soils was broken. There reiflains, however, a considerable acreage of unplowed land suitable tor cultivation. The best soils of the region are now farmed and no part of Nebraska is better supplied with machinery for farming on a large scale. It is a land of autos, tractors, and trucks. Wheat is the main crop on the uplands where big plows, large seeders, headers, and combines are generally in use. There is too much of a tendency for single cropping on some farms where wheat follows wheat year after year. This practice, if carried on much longer, may result in depleting the producing capacity of the soils. It will emphasize the big problem in the maintenance of nitrogen and humus. Irrigation is carried on in much of Lodgepole Valley where there is available water, and in parts of the South Platte, as below Jules- burg. . Practically all of Lodgepole Creek is used for irrigation by various small projects. The largest project, in the vicinity of Kimball, covers 7,000 acres. Its reservoir, TVz miles west of the city, stores 42 THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA flood water which Is released and carried through canals to the exten- sive bench land between Kimball and the Cheyenne County line. Alfalfa, sugar beets, potatoes, wheat, oats, corn, and fruits are grown under this irrigation. Stock raising has considerable importance in the Cheyenne Table country. It is based on grass, wild hay, some alfalfa, and grain feeds. The rough lands and drouthy soils are pastured. Wild hay is cut on some of the upland and on sub-irrigated alluvial lands. Much forage is grown throughout the region. Corn and forage constitute the main feeds. ~~ Poultry is found on practically all farms. Hogs are guite common, ' but cattle represent the largest development of the live stock industry. Some animals are shipped off the summer and fall range and others are finished for market on home grown feeds. A few horses are raised on most farms. The density of population is greatest in Lodgepole Valley and on the best soils of the table lands. Much of the country is well improved as to roads and farm buildings. The Lincoln Highway and the main line of the Union Pacific Railroad follow Lodgepole Valley and the Alliance-Denver branch of the Burlington crosses the area. The principal cities are Kimball, Sidney, and Chappell which compare well with places of their size in eastern Nebraska. Land Values of this region range from about $10 to about $250 an acre. The lowest valuation is for the rough stony land. The pasture lands or drouthy soils sell at $12 to $25 or more an acre, whereas the best farm lands on the tables run from $90 to more than $150 an acre, depending on soil, location and improvements. The highest priced land is under irrigation in the vicinity of Kimball. References: Soil survey report of Kimfeall County; the unpublished soil reports of Cheyenne, Banner, and Morrill counties; Reconnoissance Soil Survey of Western Nebraska. PUMPKIN CREEK VALLEY This division of the High Plains Region occupies parts of Banner, Scotts Bluff, and Morrill counties. It lies between the escarpment of Cheyenne Table and Wildcat Ridge, and opens into the North Platte Valley (Figure 17). Its course is eastward from the Wyoming line to southeast of Bridgeport, a distance of about 50 miles, and is bordered most of the way by escarpment-like walls. The valley has a width of 5% to 13 miles and an area of 455 square miles. The elevation is 4,600 feet at the Wyoming line and about 3,600 feet near the east end of the valley. THE SOIL RESOURCES OP NEBRASKA 43 The exact origin of this valley is not known beyond dispute. It is known, however, that it was formed principally by water and wind erosion. The valley seems too large for its small trunk stream. Various persons have tried to account for the size of Pumpkin Creek Valley and most of them have concluded that, at an earlier period, the stream was much longer and larger than now, or that the Platte has occupied this valley. Perhaps the best view of the matter is that Pumpkin Creek formerly extended into Wyoming and included Bear Creek, and that Horse Creek, a tributary of the Platte, developed southward, cut off the upper part of Pumpkin Creek, robbing the stream of its headwater drainage and thereby decreasing its length and volume. Pumpkin Creek Valley is a lowland containing several valleys, colluvlal slopes, and long, hilly spurs. It is what might be called a "greater valley." , PUMPKIN CREEK VALLEY SOILS The soils of this area are residual, colluvial, alluvial and aeolian in origin. They bear a close relation to the geological formations which underlie and border the valley. All of the soils have been modified to some extent by wind. The types with largest distribution are loamy fine sand, loamy very fine sand, fine sandy loam, very fine sandy loam, and silt loam. They are porous, quite well drained, and fairly productive. The soils of Pumpkin Creek Valley were derived from the Brule Clay Formation, from colluvial materials washed and blown from the uplands north and south of the area, and from alluvial materials gathered from various formations. The principal series of soils are the Bridgeport, Tripp, Epping, and Laurel, but the Boseliud, Valentine, and Cheyenne are represented. Residual Soils — The Rosebud soils on the upper slopes in the south part of the area are underlain with light colored sand rock. They are thin, grading from the stony loam to fine sandy loam, and arc used for grazing which requires 8 to 10 acres to pasture an animal during the season. The Epping soils are the residual types of Brule clay, which is at or near the surface in much of the Pumpkin Creek area. Those parts of this area where the Brule clay is not , mantled with colluvial or other material have given rise to the well-known Epping silt loam TiThich is light brown in the surface layer, a little heavier in texture and lighter in color in the upper subsoil, and grades downward into the unmodified Brule clay. This soil occurs on the Brule slopes of the hills and spurs in the southern and northwestern parts of the Pumpkin Creek area. It supports a good growth of nutritious grasses. 44 THE SOIL RESOURCES OP NEBRASKA ■o 1^ I w o ^ n Figure 17. A sketch map of the Pumpkin Creek and North Platte valleys. The Southside Government project is not shown. It will cover several thousand acres in Scotts Bluff County. THE SOIL RESOURCES OP NEBRASKA 4& sucli as grama, buffalo, and wheat grass and is largely used for grazing. The Epping silt loam grades into the very fine sandy loam which is eroded in spots as incipient bad lands. Colluvial Soils — A considerable part of this area is occupied by soils having a complicated origin. These soils mantle the various kinds of slopes which extend to the valley bottoms, but they contain very little residual material. On the contrary, the material was derived from the Roseiud and Epping 'soils and from the rough lands, by a combination of alluvial, colluvial and wind action, and deposited on the lower Brule slopes. All these soils, representing eight types, are classed with the Bridgeport series. The Bridgeport soils are grayish to brown in the surface layer, which is 6 to 12 Inches thick. The subsoil resembles the surface soil in color and texture to a depth of 2 or 3 feet. The lower subsoil is quite calcareous. Small amounts of gravel occur on the surface of these soils. Five of the Bridgeport types, and a phase of one of them, have most importance in the Pumpkin Creek area. They are the loamy fine sand, loamy very fine sand, fine sandy loam, fine sandy loam (rolling phase), very fine sandy loam, and the silt loam. The Bridgeport loamy fine sand, loamy very fine sand, and the rolling phase of the fine sandy loam occupy most of the steep slopes at the foot of Wildcat Ridge north of Pumpkin Creek. Some of the surface on which these soils occur is modified by small, steep-sided gulleys. The rolling phase of the fine sandy loam occupies a broad inter- mittent belt just south of the bench land bordering Pumpkin Creek. Beyond this belt are areas of very fine sandy loam which extend south- ward into the tributary valleys. This type is especially well developed on the long gradual slopes in- the southeastern parts of the area where the Bridgeport silt loam occurs in some of the small depressions. The Bridgeport soils are adapted to a number of purposes. The lighter types are grazed and the heavier ones are grazed, dry farmed, and irrigated where there is a water supply. Terrace Soils — The Tripp series is represented on the bench lands, which rise from 10 to 15 feet above Pumpkin Creek, by several types. The loamy fine sand is the most extensive, but it includes small areas of the loamy very fine sand and fine sandy loam. The nearly flat lands at the west end of Pumpkin Creek Valley, i.e., near the Wyoming line, are occupied principally by the Tripp fine sandy loam and very fine sandy loam. The heavier types of the Tripp soils are quite well suited to dry farming. They are irrigated to alfalfa, corn, and wheat, where there 46 THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA Is a water supply. The lighter types are used nearly exclusively for grazing. First Bottom Soils — There are narrow strips of first bottoms along most of the tributary valleys. Their soils vary from river wash to the Cheyenne sandy loam and support only thin growths of grass and shrubs. Pumpkin Creek is bordered most of its length by the Laurel Inamy sand and the sandy loam. This strip, from 100 feet to one- fourth mile in width, is sub-irrigated. It is used for pasture and a small amount of hay production. Wind-formed Soils-— The rolling phase of the Bridgeport fine sandy loam shows evidence of wind action. There is a small strip of Valen- tine very fine sand along the eastern border of 66 Mountain near the Wyoming line. Small patches occur farther east. The Valentine fine sand occurs in the southwestern part of Scotts Bluff County, and as small patches farther east. Two larger bodies are located a few miles southwest and southeast of Alden, a station on the Burlington Rail- road. Dunesand is found in association with most of the Valentine DEVELOPMENT OF PUMPKIN CREEK VALLEY This area is largely a grazing district. The soils produce nutritious grasses for pasture purposes, and some hay. A low per cent of the stable soils is dry farmed and part is irrigated. The cultivation produces forage and grain feeds but not enough to finish all of the livestock for market. The valley lies too high in most of its length to be irrigated by canals from the Platte. This is an unfortunate condition since much of the land is well suited for irrigation. The Pumpkin Creek area is thinly settled, partly because it is a grazing district, but more on account of its isolation caused' by the rough land barriers and a lack of railroads. No doubt, a much larger amount of land would be farmed if the valley had a railroad. Pumpkin Creek Valley has a low mileage of Improved wagon roads, and most of this Improvement is on highways leading across the area betwen points in the North Platte and Lodgepole valleys. Land Values range from $10 to about $130 an acre. The poorest ■ grazing land has the lowest value. Dry farming land sells at $30 to $50 an acre, depending on the soil, location and Improvements. The value of irrigated land ranges from $70 to $130 an acre. References: Report of Scotts Bluff County soil survey; the un- published soil surveys of Morrill and Banner counties; Camp Clarke and Scotts Bluff Geologic Atlases of the U. S. Geological Survey. THE SOIL RESOURCES OP NEBRASKA 47 WILDCAT RIDGE The Nebraska part of this mountainous area lies between the North Platte and Pumpkin Creek valleys (Figure 15). It occupies parts of Scotts Bluff, Banner, and Morrill counties, covering an area of 151 square miles. The ridge in Wyoming includes Eagle Rock, Bear Creek Mountain and the 66 Mountain which extends into Nebraska. From this point, the ridge extends northeastward, then eastward turning a little to the south, ending in Court House and Jail Rock south of Bridgeport. The total length of the ridge, including the outliers of Wyoming and Ne- braska, is about 70 miles. The main part of the area, as it occurs in 'Nebraska, lies between Signal Butte on the west and Roundhouse Rock on the east, a distance of 40 miles. The principal outliers in Nebraska are 66 Mountain, Eagle's Nest, Bald Peak, and Court House and Jail Rock. Most of the main part of the ridge in Nebraska stands abruptly above the lowlands bordering it and is deeply cut by canyons (Figure 18). Much of the border is formed by nearly vertical walls developed on the Gering Formation, below which are the low Brule slopes leading downward and away from the ridge, and above which is the light colored, soft Arikaree sandstone, with a rough topography which rises and retreats to the crest of the ridge. The ridge varies in width from less than a mile to more than six miles. In most of its length, the crest stands between 400 and 700 feet above the Pumpkin Creek and North Platte valleys, but lowers eastward. Three spurs extend northeastward from the ridge and end in Scottsbluff Mountain, Castle Rock, and Chimney Rock. A prominent spur on the south ends in Hog Back and Wildcat moun- tains. Among the prominent features of Wildcat Ridge in Nebraska are Signal Butte, elevation 4,583 feet; Scottsbluff Mountain, 4,462 feet; Hog Back Mountain, 5,082 feet; Wildcat Mountain, 5,038 feet; Castle Rock, 4,473 feet; Chimney Rock, 4,242 feet; and Roundhouse Rock, 4,256 feet. The outliers— Bald Peak, Eagle's Nest, and Court House Rock— have elevations of 4,420, 4,760, and 4,100 feet respectively. SOILS OF WILDCAT RIDGE Not including the types on the small valleys which indent the area and which are classed with the lowlands, the soil resources of the ridge are meagre. Much of the surface is rough stony land. A considerable part of the top of the Ridge is occupied by the Boseiud stony fine sand and the smoother parts have the loamy fine scwitZ and slightly heavier soils, a small amount of which is farmed. 48 THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA UTILIZATION OF WILDCAT RIDGE This area was a source of firewood and timber to the early settlers, and scattered pines and cedars remain on most parts of the ridge. Very good stands of these trees occur on some of the protected spots. Broad- leaf trees, such as box elder, green ash, and cottonwoods of two kinds, together with chokecherries and plums, grow in some of the canyons. L 'i ■^Bt.'..:... 1^. ^rw0^k fc '^'^^Xjl 1 - ■ . *>J ■':W0^'^:-{ ■'^7^'\^-^-\-^.. -[^ -i^^-*- ''/■:'.■■ \.M.:- .isjat. *s.^.:;;*« ■fciiSk*'. • ...ntn ' -^ -rl. .. .. ^^i^lj^ 1 ■ra^ ^"- w''^''^'«!W^ " •" '*«aB5<»v»i^BBir^?' •mm i 1 ^^^smsg^&i ^1^^^ 1 Figure 18. Scene in Wildcat Ridge. Practically all of the ridge is grazed to cattle and horses. In one sense, this area is not a resource at all. It is a barrier against the development of roads and communication which for years was strong enough to isolate Pumpkin Creek Valley from the Platte. This condition, during the past few years, has been overcome to a consider- able extent by the building of auto roads across Redfngton Pass, over the divide south of Gering, and at other' places. So it is now possible to make an easy journey across the ridge and to enjoy one of Nebraska's most scenic areas. References: The soil report of Scotts BlufiP County; the unpub- lished reports of Banner and Morrill counties; Scotts Bluff Geologic Atlas of the U. S. Geological Survey. THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA 49 NORTH PLATTE VALLEY This valley Is bordered on the north by Box Butte Table and the sandhills and on the south by Wildcat Ridge and Cheyenne Table. It is very wide across Scotts Bluff and most of Morrill County, beyond which it narrows to a width of 2 to 4 miles which is retained to the South Platte Valley. The valley has a length of 163 miles, a maximum width of 35 miles at the state line, and an area of 1,129 scjuare miles. It lies from 400 to 800 feet below the bordering high lands and drops from an elevation of 4,030 on the river, at the state line, to 2,940 feet on the valley floor north of Sutherland, or an average of a little less than 7 feet per mile. The North Platte area is more than a single valley. It is a lowland containing a trunk valley floor, several tributary valleys, wide slope lands, high terraces, and hilly lands. The topographic divisions in Scotts Bluff County, named from south to north, are as follows: (1) a wide belt of colluvial and alluvial slope land extend- ing from the foot of Wildcat Ridge to the alluvial bottom lands; (2) a strip 2 to 5 miles wide of first bottom land and low terraces; (3 J a high terrace 2 to 6 miles wide; (4) a broad undulating to hilly belt modified by basin-like valleys (Figure 17). SOILS OP NORTH PLATTE VALLEY The soils of North Platte Valley are classed under the following series: Tripp, Mitchell, Bridgeport, Minatare, Laurel, Epping, and Valentine (Figure 19). In Figure 19, Part B shows a strip of land from Chimney Rock northward a distance of thirteen miles. The soils are on steep slopes, the flood plain, bench land and slope land. The soil types, shown on 19 A, are: 1, rough broken land; 2, Bridgeport loamy fine sand; 3, Bridgeport loamy very fine sand; 4, dunesand; 5, Tripp loam^ very fine sand; 6, Tripp very fine sandy loam; 7, Tripp loamy fine sand; 8, Tripp loam; 9, Tripp gravelly sandy loam; 10, Bridgeport very fine sandy loam; 11, Rosebud very fine sandy loam; 12, poorly drained areas on bench land; 13, Rosebud very find sandy loam (shallow phase); 14, Rosebud loam; 15, dry stream bed, a gravelly sandy loam; 16, Laurel loam; 17, Minatare loam; 18, Laurel very fine sandy loam; 19, Minatare silt loam; 20, river wash, not shown by Arabic numerals, but represented by clear areas in Platte River. Slope Land Soils South of the River This area is best developed in Scotts Bluff and Morrill counties. The land varies much in its topography, ranging from nearly flat terrace- 50 THE SOIL RESOURCES OP NEBRASKA THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA 51 like slopes to sandhills. It is separated by spurs of Wildcat Ridge into flats or bottoms, sometimes called valleys. The soils are of residual, col- luvial, and aeolian origin. Mitchell Bottom, which extends from the state line to Scottsbluff Mountain, is largely occupied by silt loam soils. The southwestern part has been mapped as the Epping silt loam, but most of the rest of the area, except a body of Valentine loamy fine sand, nearly south of Morrill, has Mitchell silt loam and very fine sandy loam, both of which are well adapted to dry farming and irrigation. They are brown- ish to dark in the surface layer and light buff in the subsoil which has about the same texture as the upper layer. There are a few places on this bottom where the Brule clay and Chadron formations are badly gullied. There is a small bad land area at the foot of Scottsbluff Mountain. Gering Valley is largely occupied by Mitchell very -fine sandy loam and silt loam. There are small areas of Epping silt loam and eroded land on the upper slopes. Bodies of the Valentine loamy fine sand occur about 4 miles south and 3 to 5 miles east of Gering. Much of Gering Valley is dry farmed and irrigated. Melbeta Flat is occupied by Mitchell soils, about 2 square miles of Epping silt loam located on the southwestern part, and about 3 miles of dunesand and Valentine soils northwest of Castle Rock. A considerable area of this flat is irrigated. The rest is dry farmed and pastured. McGrew Valley, which has been called Horseshoe Flats, has largely Mitchell very fine sandy loam and silt loam, bordered on some of the higher slopes by Epping silt loam. There is an area of dunesand west of Chimney Rock. From Chimney Rock to Pumpkin Creek below Bridgeport, the south side soils are quite sandy. They are principally the loamy fine sands of the Bridgeport and Valentine series, and dunesand. There are patches of the Bridgeport fine sand (rolling phase) at the edge of the lowland, and dunesand occupies much of the higher land between Roundhouse Rock and Courthouse Rock. Much of the soil from Chimney Rock eastward is grazed, some is used for native hay, and considerable areas are dry farmed and irri- gated. From Pumpkin Creek eastward to the Garden County line, the slope land has less dunesand. It is occupied by various light to heavy types of the Bridgeport and Valentine series. 62 THE SOIL RESOURCES OP NEBRASKA First Bottom and Low Bench Soils These form a belt 2 to 5 miles wide along the river, and small areas along the tributary valleys. Much of the surface is nearly level. The terraces rise from 1 to 20 feet above the flood plain which Is from 1 to 2 or 3 feet above the river. The alluvial belt has ah area of about 376 square miles of which about 80 square miles is occupied by the river and river wash. Narrow to wide belts of the Laurel soils border the North Platte throughout its length in Nebraska. The loamy sand and the very fine sandy loam prevail. These soils, being sub-irrigated from the river, grow good stands of native grasses for pasture and hay. They are used nearly exclusively for hay production at places in the eastern part of the valley. The Minatare soils, usually forming narrow belts just outside the Laurel soils, occupy a considerable part of the low ground and the low- est benches, beginning about 3 miles east of ScottsblufC and extending as large or small areas throughout most of the length of the valley. The largest body of the Mitchell silt loam, 1 to 3 miles wide, is. north of the river between central Scotts Bluff County and east of Bayard. There are areas of considerable size on both sides of the valley between McGrew and Broadwater. Three types of the Minatare series have been mapped in the valley, namely, the silt loam, loam, and very fine sandy loam. The Minatare soils are light gray in their surface layer, and underlain by heavy clay. They support native grasses and sedges and are largely used for pasture and hay. A relatively small acreage is irrigated. The silt loam, especially, has a tendency to become alkalied as a result of seepage from the higher-lying soils. Low benches are well developed in North Platte Valley; most of the valley towns are on these benches. Smaller low terraces occur in Spotted Tail, NiJie-mile, Pumpkin Creek, and other tributary valleys. The Tripp fine sandy loam occupies most of the low terraces. There are places, however, where the very fine sandy loam prevails, as between Bayard and Broadwater. Some of the benches farther east are occupied by loamy fine sand and very fine sandy loam. The low bench lands at most places are highly productive and irrigated to alfalfa, beets, and other crops. High Terrace Soils A feature of the North Platte Valley is the high bench which extends from the Wyoming line to 6 miles east of Bayard. This bench stands from 50 to 100 feet or more above the iirst bottom of the North THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA 53 Platte, is 2 to 6 miles wide, 48 miles long and has an area of about 200 square miles. It is cut across by a number of small creek valleys and is roughened somewhat along the northern border.- There are many small outlying areas of high bench land north of the main area. The terrace is largely occupied by the Tripp soils. The south edge, where sand and gravel outcrop, has a narrow strip of gravelly sandy loam which is quite drouthy. This type occurs also on some of the high points farther north. Much of the remainder of the surface has soils suited to irrigation. The Tripp very fine sandy loam is the leading type. It occupies the smoothest bench land fronl northeast of Morrill to north of Bayard. Parts of the Dutch Flats north of Morrill and some of the area northeast of Mitchell are occupied by the loamy fine sand. A rolling phase of this type occurs along the north edge of the terrace in the eastern part of Scotts Bluff County. The bench northeast of Bayard is occupied by the Tripp loam which grades into loamy very fine sand on the north. The high bench land of the North Platte is one of the most ideal irrigation areas in the United States. It has productive soils, lies well for irrigation, and does not develop seepage areas. The North Side Soil Belt This begins in southwestern Sioux County, extends across northern Scotts Bluff and through Morrill County to northeast of Bridgeport. It is occupied by remnants of the high terrace, and by hills and basin-like valleys which open from one another in a southeasterly direction. This belt is between the main part of the high terrace and Box Butte Table in most of its course but, on the east, it slopes downward to the low benches and first bottom lands bordering the river. The soils of this belt belong to several series. There are small patches of the Epping silt loam and eroded surfaces on some of the upper slopes. Much of the smoother slope land is covered with the Bridgeport very fine sandy loam and lighter types. The terrace-like areas and bench lands are occupied by Bridgeport and Tripp soils which are the very fine sandy loam and lighter types. The Valentine loamy fine sand has areas of considerable size west, and 2 miles east of Lake Minatare. Much of the soil of this belt is adapted to dry farming and a large amount of it is irrigated. The lighter soils, not favorably located for irrigation, are pastured* 54 THE SOIL RESOURCES OP NEBRASKA DEVELOPMENT OF NORTH PLATTE VALLEY Soil and irrigation water have been the important factors In the development of this area. The hroad areas of productive land are under government and private irrigation projects. The North Platte project stores flood waters in the Pathfinder Reservoir southwest of Casper (Figure 20), Wyoming, carries the water on the river bed to the Whalen Dam and diverts it through long canals to the big storage reservoirs in Scotts Bluff County from which the water is distributed to thousands of acres of fertile soil. The Tri-state Project is the second in size; it diverts at a big dam east of Henry, through one of. the largest canals which extends onto the best land of the high terrace. There are many other irrigation projects in the valley whose canals have a total length of several hundred miles. Figure 20. The Pathfinder Dam which impounds water for irrigation in Nebraska. Irrigation in the North Platte has greatly increased production. Among the leading crops grown are alfalfa, sugar beets, wheat, corn, oats, rye, and potatoes. Many kinds of vegetables and fruits are raised. All told, North Platte Valley is one of the most productive and progressive parts of the state. Much of the area is quite thickly settled. There is a considerable mileage of improved roads and the valley is served by the Burlington and Union Pacific railroads. There are a number of growing towns the largest being Scottsbluff, Gering, Bayard, Bridgeport, Mitchell, Morrill, Minatare, Oshkosh, and Lewellen. THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA 55 Land Values in the North Platte Valley range from $25 an acre for some pasture land to more than $500 for the best irrigation land favorably located. References: Scotts Bluflf Couiity soil survey; the unpublished soil survey of Morrill County; the Geography of Nebraska. BOX BUTTE TABLE This sub-division of the High Plains lies between the Niobrara and North Platte valleys, is bordered on the east by the Sandhill Region, and extends westward into Wyoming. Its area, about 2,010 square miles, includes southern Sioux, most of Box Butte, and parts of Sheridan, Garden, Morrill, and Scotts Bluff counties. The surface along the northern and southern borders is hilly to quite rough. The surface of much of the table land proper varies from roiling to nearly level. An intermittent belt of sandhills extends across the area from northwest to southeast and joins a spur of the Sand- hill Region southwest of Alliance. The elevation of Box Butte Table drops from about 4,800 feet at the state line to less than 3,900 feet on the southeast. The annual rainfall is between 16 and 19 inches; the growing season is 130 to 336 days and the mean annual temperature at Alliance is 46.7 F. Good well water occurs at depths of 100 to 250 feet. BOX BUTTE TABLE SOILS The soils were derived principally from the Arikaree Formation ■uhich underlies the area. Most of the soil has been re-worked to some extent by wind. The leading series are the Dunlap, Rosebud, Yale, Tripp, and Valentine. The Dunlap silt loam occupies the high, nearly level remnants of the original plain. Its largest distribution is in the vicinity of Heming- ford, lying mostly to the southwest and extending as far south as west of Berea. This soil resembles the Rosebud silt loam but occupies a higher and more level topographic position and is underlain by a heavier subsoil. Much of the type is farmed to such crops as wheat (Figure 21), corn, rye, oats, and potatoes. The Rosebud Soils cover much of Box Butte Table. They range in texture from fine sandy loam to silt loam. Passing across the region from east to west, one may see areas of Bosedud silt loam, very fine sandy loam and of the fine sandy loam in association with the loamy fine sand. The silt loam occupies much of northeastern and central Box 56 THE SOIL RESOURCES OP NEBRASKA Butte County. The very fine sandy loam occurs in a considerable part of Sioux County west of Hemlngford. This soil extends onto the gradual upper slopes of the valleys but gives way on the steeper slopes to the fine sandy loam and the loamy fine sand. Much of the hard land of southern Sioux County is Rosebud very fine sandy loam and sandy loam. The various edges of the table land, lying between the sandhills and the North Platte Valley, are occupied on their smooth parts by very fine sandy loam, and by lighter soils on the steeper slopes. Figure 21. A typical view on Box Butte Table, near Hemlng- ford, showing heavy sod wheat beside the natural sod on the Dunlap silt loam. The heavier types of the Rosebud soils are dry farmed generally and this is particularly true of the silt loam which produces corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, and some alfalfa. The lighter types are used mostly for grazing and wild hay. The Yale silt loam occupies the high benches of Snake and Box Butte creeks. The largest area is just east of Alliance. Other areas are 7 miles northeast of Alliance and just east of Wild Horse Butte, THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA 57 located 12 miles north and 2 miles east of Alliance. The soil is nearly level, quite deep, productive, and nearly all farmed. The surface soil consists of a light brown to brown, mellow silt loam containing varying quantities of very fine sand. The upper subsoil passes abruptly into a rather compact, light yellowish-brown to grayish- brown silt loam which changes at a depth of 20 to 24 inches to light gray or grayish-yellow silt loam. The soil and the upper sub- soil carry a low content of lime, while the lower subsoil is highly calcare- ous. Much of this soil section is underlain at a depth of 3 to 6 feet by waterworn gravel. The Tripp very fine sandy loam occurs on the low terraces which occupy much of Snake Creek bottom. The largest extent of this soil is immediately south of Alliance. The type is used for grazing, hay, and dry farming. Some of it is irrigated. The Laurel silt loam forms most of the first bottom of Snake Creek Valley. It occurs as a discontinuous strip one-fourth to three- fourths mile wide. This soil is used for grazing, native hay produc- tion, dry farming, and a small amount is irrigated. The type is quite badly alkalied at places. The Valentine loamy fine sand and associated types form a belt between the hard table lands and the Sandhill Region. This belt is well developed to the northeast of Alliance, extending into Sheridan County and to the Niobrara Valley. A similar belt is south of Snake Creek, and very small bodies occur in the sandhill areas of southern Sioux County In association with the dunesand. Both the Valentine and dunesand are used for grazing and hay. There are places, however, where the heavier Valentine soils are cul- tivated to corn, wheat, rye, and potatoes. DEVELOPMENT OP BOX BUTTE TABLE The conditions in this area are similar to those of Cheyenne Table except that there are larger areas of dunesand and Valentine soil. Much of the western part of the area is in ranches and most of the eastern part is giving way to farming (Figure 22). The Dunlap silt loam and the Rosehud silt loam support extensive farming in which machinery has an important part. The potato Industry has assumed importance in this area. The crop Is grown on the silt loams and very fine sandy loam. Box Butte County has grown crops of 1,000,000 bushels of potatoes. The extensive grass lands, the production of much forage, and con- siderable grain, make this an important stock raising district. Cattle, horses, and hogs are the leading kinds of live stock. Poultry is found 58 THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA Table land corn has a short stalk. Figure 22. Missouri River bottom com, near Peru. Observe the size of the stalk compared with the table land corn shown in upper view. THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA 59 on all farms and ranches. Many of the farm animals are finished for market. Dairying Is a growing industry. The ranch country is thinly settled; the farming areas are quite well populated and much of the country is improved as to roads and farm homes. The Burlington's Billings line crosses the area and a branch line extends from Alliance to Denver. The principal towns are Hemingford and Alliance, the latter having a population of over 5,000. Land Values — The poorest grazing land, is valued at $8 to $16 an acre. Some of the ranches in the western part of the area, having both hard and sandy land, are valued at $15 to $25 an acre. The second-grade farm land sells at $25 to $40 or $50 an acre and the best grade ranges in price from $50 to $100, depending on the soil, location, and improvements. Places close to Alliance and Hemingford have sold considerably higher. References: The Box Butte and Scotts Bluff County soil surveys; the unpublished soil surveys of Morrill, Sioux, and Sheridan counties. THE NIOBRARA AREAS The Niobrara areas do not form a distinct soil region. There are three divisions — the upper, middle, and lower. The upper or western part, a valley, extends across Sioux, Box Butte, Dawes, and a few miles of Sheridan County. The middle course, which is the valley and narrow, bordering table lands, extends from western Sheridan County to the vicinity of Valentine, and the lower part, the valley and bordering table lands, continues from this point to northern Knox County. WESTERN NIOBRARA The valley is U-shaped from the Wyoming line eastward about 10 miles where it widens and retains a broad V-shaped form to Sheridan County (Figure 23). The valley floor in most of this distance lies 300 to 400 feet below the table land level. Its width ranges from 1-4 mile to a little over 1 mile. Much of the slope land of the valley sides is gradual and grass covered. The principal tributary valleys on the north are of Cottonwood, Pebble, and Pepper creeks. Those on the south are of Whistle, Dry, and Box Butte creeks. These valleys are quite rough in their upper and middle parts but widen out with comparatively smooth sides where they join the Niobrara Valley proper. Soils of the western Niobrara are on slope lands, terraces, and flood plains. The slope land or Rosehud types are described with 60 THE SOIL RESOURCES OP NEBRASKA the table lands. The benches stand 10 to 20 feet above the river, extend through most of the trunk valley, and are occupied by the Tripp fine sandy loam and very fine sandy loam which are grazed, used for native hay, and cultivated to alfalfa, corn, wheat, rye, po- tatoes, etc. About 15 per cent of the bench land is under irrigation. The Laurel soils form a narrow strip of first bottom land along the Niobrara and the lower courses of the principal tributary valleys. These soils resemble the Tripp types in texture, but are lighter in color because of a lower content of organic matter. They are largely sub-irrigated and used for grazing and hay production. A small acreage is cultivated. Figure 23. The open course of Niobrara Valley in Sioux County. Development in this part of the Niobrara has been influenced by the use of river water for stock and irrigation. The ranch buildings and improvements are close to the river, or in the creek valleys. This is a stock raising district devoted principally to cattle. The Rosebud soils will carry from 40 to 65 or more cattle per section during the season and the Tripp soils have a little greater capacity. The bottom lands produce adequate hay and some grain for winter feeding. Land values are determined by the sale of large holdings which usually occupy several soil types. The price is governed by the THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA 61 amounts of pasture land, hay land, and of farm land under Irriga- tion. Places with little of the best land are valued at $15 to $20 an acre; those with more of the bottom land and some irrigation sell for $25 to $30 or more per acre. MIDDLE NIOBRARA This division has an area of about 257 square miles including the valley and table land. The valley is deep, narrow, an'd bordered by talus slopes and stony outcrops which support some grass and fairly good stands of pines. The principal tributaries on the south are Pine, Snake, and Gordon creeks. Those on the north are Hay Springs, Rush, Antelope, and Bear creeks. A fairly well deOned table land extends on the south side of the valley from western Sheridan County to a point southwest of Cody. It varies from % to about 2% miles in width and stands from 100 to 200 feet above the river. A wider and more irregular table north of the river extends from a point opposite where the south table ends to about 12 miles southwest of Valentine. There .are small table lands east of the lower course of Snake Creek, between the lower part of Bear Creek' and the Niobrara, and east of Valentine. The middle Niobrara table lands are bordered on their sides away from the river by high sandhills. This gives them a terrace-like appearance. The Principal Soils of the middle Niobrara course belong to the Valentine, Tripp, and Laurel series but some Rosetud soils are repre- sented. The Valentine soils occupy much of the table land and range from nearly pure sand to the very fine sandy loam. The lighter types are used for pasture and hay; heavier ones are used for hay, or culti- vated to corn, rye, wheat, alfalfa, and potatoes. There are well developed farming districts on the Bear Creek flat, and a few miles southeast of Cody. '; '■"'' ^^ The Tripp fine sandy loam, very fine sandy loam, and some silt loam occupy the high and low terraces of the Niobrara and the Laurel soils cover most of the first bottom. They are used for farming and grazing where cleared of the native forest. The Development of the Middle Niobrara is related to cattle raising which prevails on the bordering sandhill areas. The table and alluvial lands supply hay and grain for the ranches. The road between Valentine and Chadron follows the Niobrara tables from southwest of Cody to the river bridge 26 miles east of Rushville. It is in only fair condition. Land Values of the Middle Niobrara have a wide range. Farm and hay lands sell at from $30 to $60 an acre. 62 THE SOIL RESOURCES OP NEBRASKA LOWER NIOBRARA This area was formerly a smooth sand and gravel plain. Streams trenched the original plain, in comparatively recent times, and ex- posed the Arikaree, Brule, and Pierre formations. The upland, except in the east, where it is covered by loess, has been further modified by wind, resulting in the development of patches of sandhills which separate the remnants of the original plain into disconnected table lands called Crookston Table, Springview Table, Ainsworth Table, and Holt Plain. There is a considerable area of Pierre soils in Boyd, Knox and Holt counties. Figure 24. The lower course of the Niobrara east of Valentine. Niobrara Valley, between Valentine and north of Stuart, is nar- row, deep (Figure 24), and bordered by steep sides developed on the Arikaree, Brule and Pierre formations. East of this, it widens and the slopes become more gradual as they extend on to the Pierre shale pf Boyd, Holt, and Knox counties. The Niobrara bottom land is confined to narrow strips. The river, meandering against the cut banks, separates it into small, dis- continuous fiats, making road building lengthwise of the valley im- possible. There are wider stretches of bench and flood plain land, and colluvial slopes in Boyd, Holt, and Knox counties. The Tripp and Laurel soils which occupy the alluvial lands, pro duce thick stands of broad-leaved trees and large amounts of wilCk THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA 63 plums, grapes, chokecherries, and currants. Cleared land is pastured and farmed. Crookston Table This is in Cherry County, between Minnechaduza Creek and the South Dakota line. It extends from north of Crookston to northeast of Valentine and occupies about 112 square miles. The surface of Crook- ston Table is undulating to nearly level hard land although the south border is rough. The soils of this table are mostly the Roseiud fine sandy loam and very fine sandy loam. They are successfully farmed to wheat, rye, corn, and potatoes. Land values are advancing. Springview Table Springview Table covers much of Keyapaha County but extends into Cherry and Boyd counties. The surface is occupied by small, nearly level table lands separated by wind-formed knolls and hills. There are about 642 miles of hard land and 126 square miles of choppy to hilly sandy land. The edges of the area are cut by canyons and steep slopes of the Keyapaha and Niobrara valleys developed on the sand plain, the Arikaree Formation, Brule clay and Pierre shale. The Soils of this area were derived from material of the sand and gravel plain and the underlying formations. The principal soil series are the Rosebud and O'Neill. There are small patches of the Pierre soils on some of the lower slopes of the Keyapaha and Niobrara valleys. Rosebud fine sandy loam and very fine sandy loam form a nearly continuous narrow belt around the area, just inside the rough lands. The O'Neill soils, derived from the sand -gravel plain, are the gravelly loam and the loam. The first named has a thin, brownish loamy surface soil and a gravelly subsoil. It occupies much of the various small hard lands, -one area being in the vicinity of Springview. The O'Neill loam has a brownish, fine sandy loam to silt loam surface soil with a depth of 8 to 12 inches, underlain by a yellowish-brown heavy loam to clay loam which rests on sand and gravel. The type has a limited distribution on the Springview Table but is a valuable agricultural soil. The gravelly loam is quite drouthy. The Valentine soils and dunesand form an intermittent belt across the area from northwest to southeast. Much of this soil is well suited for grazing and native hay, but a small amount is farmed. Springview Table is a good cattle raising country, but its develop- ment has been retarded by a lack of transportation facilities. Most of the farms and ranches occupy soils adapted to graiaing and the 64 THE SOIL RESOURCES OP NEBRASKA production of native hay, forage, and some grains. The heavier soils of the O'Neill and Rosebud series, and some of the Valentine series are well suited to general farming. Lan:'. Values range from $10 to about $90 an acre. Ainsworth Table This division is in the northern part of Brov?n and Knox counties, nearly surrounded by sandhills and occupying about 284 square miles. It is broken into small tables by the deep valleys of Plum Creek and Long Pine Creek. The elevation is 3,226 at Bassett and 2,523 at Ainsworth. Much of the surface is hard land underlain by sand and the Arikaree Formation. The Principal Soils are of the Rosebud, Bassett, and Yalentine series. The Rosebud fine sandy loam and very fine sandy loam occupy most of the central part of the area. The Yalentine soils are in the northeastern part and along the southern border. Inextenslve bodies of dunesand occur in the Yalentine areas and at a few places on the hard table land. The eastern part of Ainsworth Table is occupied by the Bassett silty clay which has a dark gray to brown loamy surface soil 7 to 14 inches deep, underlain by about 2 feet of similar material having a lighter color, below which is a heavy, light-colored, silty clay. This soil is well adapted to growing native grasses for hay. Ainsworth Table has considerable importance in general farming and stock raising, the only specialized industry is hay production on the Bassett silty clay. Some of the wagon roads are well improved. The Northwestern Railroad affords good transportation facilities. Its towns are Bassett, Long Pine, Ainsworth, and Johnstown. Land Values range from about $18 an acre for the cheapest pas- ture land to more than $100 for the best farm land. Holt Plain Holt Plain is a poorly defined area bordered by the Niobrara and Verdigre valleys on the north and east, and by the Sandhill Region and its outliers on the south and west. Its area is about 1,400 square miles, including some of the Elkhorn's drainage. The elevation is 1,978 feet at O'Neill and 2,110 feet at Atkinson. Drainage is to the Niobrara, Verdigre, and Elkhorn. The average rainfall is between 23 and 24 inches. The Soils occur on remnants of the sand plain, on terraces and flood plains, and on the Pierre and Arikaree formations exposed in the valleys of the northern part. The leading soil series are the THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA 65 O'Neill, ralentine, and Pierre. The Laurel, Tripp, and Rosebud series are represented. The O'Neill loam occupies much of the smooth land in north- central Holt County. It Is a valuable agricultural soil. A .narrow belt of O'Neill gravelly loam, a drouthy grazing soil, stretches several miles eastward from near O'Neill, and another area Is south of the rough land bordering the Niobrara. Rough lands and light soils of the Rosebud series occupy some of the northwestern part of the area on the uplands south of the Niobrara in association with the Valentine. Valentine soils cover much of the northeastern and northwestern parts of the area and include some dunesand. The largest body of dunesand is north of the Elkhorn, between Page and north .of Ewing. Pierre soils occur in parts of Eagle Creek Valley and along the south side of the Niobrara. The first bottom and bench lands of the Elkhorn are covered with very. fine sandy loam and lighter types of the Laurel and Tripp series. They are suited to grazing, hay production, and some farming. The Bassett silty clay, covering about 40 square miles in the vicinity of Stuart and Newport, grows grass for native hay. Holt Plain is an important grazing and farming area with consider- able specialization in the various kinds of stock raising. Much of the country is well developed and one of its noticeable features is the large farm groves. The wagon roads are good to bad, depending upon the soils and amount of improvement. The Northwestern crosses the area, and its towns are O'Neill, Atkinson, Newport, and Stuart. Land Values range from about $20 an acre for the poorest pasture land to $150 or more for the best farm land. Pierre Soils In about 340 square miles of eastern Boyd, northern Holt, and northwestern Knox County, the Tertiary formations have been eroded away and the topography and soils have been developed on the Pierre shale. A few areas of stony land, bordered by sandy loams, remain on the high divides, as In the vicinity of Twin Buttes, south of the town of Butte, southeast of Verdel and on parts of the divide between Bazile and Verdigre creeks. Elsewhere, much of the upland is occu- pied by the Pierre Formation. The soil on some of the smoothest divide land was derived from sandy materials mixed with the Pierre shale. It is a mellow silt loam, largely under cultivation. Much of Ponca Creek Valley, the steeper slopes on the north side of the Niobrara Valley in Boyd County, and the hilly lands between Verdigre and Bazile creeks are largely occupied by Pierre clay. This 66 THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA heavy soil supports a thick growth of native grasses used for pasture and hay. It is Quite well suited to small grain farming. A narrow belt bordering the Missouri, across Boyd and Knox counties, is occupied by prominent exposures of the Niobrara chalk, which has not given rise to a well developed soil. Land Values in this area range from $18 to $20 an acre for the poorest pasture land to about $160 for some of the best silt loam soil. References for Niobrara Area: Dawes and Box Butte County soil surveys; unpublished reports of Sioux and Sheridan counties; Recon- n.-iissance Soil Survey of Western Nebraska; Water Supply Paper No. 216 of the U. S. Geological Survey; Geography of Nebraska by the University Publishing Company, Lincoln. DAWES TABLE Dawes Table is between Pine Ridge and the Niobrara Valley. It extends through Sioux, Dawes, and Sheridan counties and has an area of about 1,475 square miles. It is not a typical table land in all parts. There are two principal divisions, and a third one is fairly well defined. The most typical table is in Dawes County lying just south of Pine Ridge. The second is in Sheridan County, at Rushville and Gordon. The third division, which is quite hilly, crosses Sioux County between Pine Ridge and the Niobrara Valley. The surface of Dawes Table varies greatly. There are rough borders, undulating to hilly slopes, and nearly flat tables. Some of the elevations are: Gordon, 3,556 feet; Rushville, 3,7fl; Hay Springs, 3,831; the high table of Dawes County, about 4,600; and the table at the Wyoming line northwest of Harrison, 5,050. The average rain- fall is 20 on the east and 16 on the west. The growing season is between 130 and 135 days. The mean annual temperature at Hay Springs is reported at 45.2° P. DAWES TABLE SOILS The soil conditions here are similar to those of Box Butte Table but there are fewer patches of dunesand. The leading series are the Rosebud and Dunlap, but the Valentine, Tripp, and Laurel are represented. The Rosebud silt loam and the very fine sandy loam are extensive In Sheridan County. A large area of the silt loam is north of the railroad between Rushville and the west county line and a second large area is north and northeast of Gordon. One of the largest bodies of the Rosebud very fine sandy Voam begins north of Rushville and extends northeastward to within three miles of Gordon. The THE SOIL RESOURCES OP NEBRASKA 67 silt loam and the very fine sandy loam, occur in many parts of Bherl- dan County. They give way on the hill sides and slopes' to lighter types, such as the fine sandy loam and loamy fine sand. Patches of the Rosebud gravelly sandy loam occur in the vicinity of Gordon, Clinton, and Rushville. There is a considerable area of Bo^seiud silt loam in Dawes County on the east, south and west of the level table. This grades, on the slopes, into a shallow phase and lighter types. Several square miles of silt loam occur in eastern Sioux County, just south of Pine Ridge. Here, as in Sheridan and Dawes counties, the soil becomes lighter and thinner on the steeper slopes. The very fine sandy loam occupies much of the undulating areas in the vicinity of Harrison, and north of the Niobrara south of Harrison. It grades into lighter types on rougher areas. The Dunlap silt loam occupies 96 square miles of Dawes County, just south of Pine Ridge, and extends a short distance into Sheridan County. It grades locally into fine sandy loam and is bordered by the Rosebud soils. Here is one of Nebraska's best dry farming districts. Tripp soils, ranging from fine sandy loams to silt loam, occupy terraces in parts of Hay Springs, Rush, and Antelope valleys. They are used for grazing, wild hay, and farming. The principal crops are alfalfa, corn, wheat, oats, rye, and potatoes. Laurel fine sandy loam, and very fine sandy loam occupy narrow strips in most of the main drainageways of Sheridan County leading to the Niobrara Valley. They are grazed or used for native hay, and a small acreage is farmed. Valentine soils, varying from the sand to very fine sandy loam, lie along the east and parts of the south edge of the area in Sheridan County. They are pastured, used for native hay, and some of the very fine sanay loam is farmed to corn, rye, potatoes, and other crops. DEVELOPMENT OF DAWES TABLE This area has passed through about the same development as the other table lands of the state. It started with cattle raising and shifted to grain and mixed farming on the agricultural soils and to the grazing of drouthy soils and rough lands. Most of the pasture land of the Rosebud series requires from seven to twelve acres per animal during the season. Much of the native hay land cuts from % to 1 ton per acre and the crop yields on the heavier soils are quite good. Stock raising has assumed considerable importance throughout the area, based on 68 THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA the good water, grazing areas, forage and grain feeds, and healthful conditions. Parts of the area are well developed as to farming, roads, and general improvements. The Northwestern Railroad crosses Sheridan County and its towns are Gordon, Clinton, Rushville, and Hay Springs. The Burlington crosses a narrow divide in the western part of Dawes County. Persons on the fertile table of Dawes County trade mostly in Chadron and are handicapped by not having shipping facilities nearer at hand. Autos and trucks are overcoming this drawback. The Northwestern crosses Sioux County and Harrison is its main town in this part of the area. Land Values range from about $15 an acre for the poorest pasture land to more than $125 an acre for the best farm land in the vicinity of Rushville and Gordon. Prices on the large tract of Dunlap silt loam, located south of Pine Ridge, are relatively low because of the distance from railroads. References: The Dawes County soil survey; the unpublished soil survey reports of Sheridan and Sioux counties. PINE RIDGE This irregular mountainous country is the eroded north edge of Dawes Table. It extends from Wyoming through Sioux, Dawes, and Sheridan counties into South Dakota and has an area of about 495 so.uare miles in Nebraska. Most of the ridge slopes and drains to White River and Hat Creek basins. Pine Ridge contains deep canyons, prominent cliffs, buttes, long stony slopes, and the park lands. There are two escarpments in Dawes County, the higher one rises to the level of the table land on the south. The other forms the nearly vertical, high cliffs at the edge of Hat Creek and White River basins. These cliits are a noticeable feature between Fort Robinson and Crawford. The park lands (Figure 25) are best shown in Dawes County where they lie between the upper and lower escarpments and are crossed by several deep canyons with permanent streaips. Pine Ridge stands from 600 to 800 feet above the edges of the basins on the north. It has an elevation of 5,050 feet at the Wyoming line, decreases to 4,600 feet in eastern Sioux County, and about 3,600 feet at the South Dakota line. Among the best known valleys of the area are Monroe, Sowbelly, West Hat, East Hat, West Ash, and Chadron . canyons. Some of the prominent features are Coliseum Butte, Church Butte, Lover's Leap, and Crow Butte. THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA 69 PINE RIDGE SOILS Much of this area is occupied hy rough stony landi which supports some grass and pine forest. The colluvial slopes and the park areas are occupied by Rosetud fine sandy loam, and very fine sandy loam which grow grass and pine trees and are cultivated to rye, wheat, potatoes, and other crops on the open places. The canyon floors are usually very narrow and covered with some stable soil which grows trees and several kinds of wild fruit. Figure 25. Parks and pines of the Pine Ridge Regions. DEVELOPMENT OF PINE RIDGE This area is chiefly used for grazing. The park lands are success- fully farmed but they are isolated somewhat by the rough topography. The rough land and the light textured soils are well suited to growing forest. Development of the region started with hunting, trapping, and the utilization of timber for firewood, ties, and some lumber. Much of the best timber was cut several years ago but sufficient seed trees were left for very good reproduction and the area is now covered with pines and cedars in stands of varying density. Pine Ridge is a barrier to transportation. Wagon roads pass through most of the canyons, connecting Dawes Table and Niobrara Valley with the basins. The Northwestern crosses the low points but 70 THE SOIL RESOURCES OP NEBRASKA the Burlington makes a climb of several hundred feet and passes through a long tunnel in the divide at Belmont. Though this area is very rough, it is without doubt, the most scenic part of Nebraska. Views stretch out for many miles across the basins on the north and to the Black Hills. Land values range from $8 or $9 an acre for the rough stony land to $40 and $50 or more for the best park land. References: Dawes County soil survey; Bulletin No. 1 of the Con- servation and Soil Survey; the unpublished Soil Surveys of Sioux and Sheridan counties. HAT CREEK BASIN This area is in the northwestern part of Nebraska, covering the northern part of Sioux County and a few square miles of northwestern Dawes County. It lies between the Pine Ridge escarpment and the South Dakota and Wyoming lines and has, in Nebraska, an area of 392 square miles. Hat Creek Basin Is a deeply eroded part of the High Plains. The Tertiary beds have been entirely removed from part of the area and several hundred feet of the Pierre shale eroded. The total thickness of beds removed here is approximately 1,500 feet. Crossing the area northward from the crest of Pine Ridge, one would pass over out- crops of the Arikaree, Gering, Brule, Chadron, and Pierre shale. The basin is well drained by streams which head in Pine Ridge, ■flow northward across the area, and join Hat Creek on the northeast where it passes into South Dakota as a tributary of the South Fork of Cheyenne River. Among the leading streams of Hat Creek Basin are Indian, Antelope, War Bonnet, Monroe, Sowbelly, West Hat, East Hat, and Whitehead creeks. Hat Creek Basin slopes away from Pine Ridge to an elevation of about 3,500 feet where Hat Creek leaves the state, but most points on the boundary between the basin and Pine Ridge have elevations between 4,300 and 4,500 feet. THE SOILS OF HAT CREEK BASIN The soils here occur in areas determined more or less by the outcrops of geological formations. They lie in fairly well defined belts, which, named from south to, north are: (1) A coUuvial belt at the foot of Pine Ridge, occupied principally by the Dawes soils; (2) spurs and hills developed on the Brule clay and occupied by the Epping soils, and (3) the so-called dark gumbo land, occupied by the Pierre soils. THE SOIL RESOURCES OP NEBRASKA 71 The above soil belts are crossed by valleys along whicli are narrow strips of first bottom land and larger areas of well defined terraces. Colluvial Soils — There is an Intermittent belt of comparatively- steep colluvial slope land at the foot of Pine Ridge, on which the soil was derived from materials washed from the Gering and Arikaree formations high in Pine Ridge, and deposited on the Brule slopes. The principal soil is the Dawes silt loam which shows three distinct layers in the soil section. The surface soil is a brown to dark brown silt loam; the upper subsoil, 6 to 12 inches thick, is a brown to dark grey, heavy, compact silty clay loam, and the lower subsoil is a yellowish brown, buff colored or almost white, heavy silt loam. This type is suited to general farming but, in this situation, is used very largely for pasture purposes. Soils Derived from Brule Clay — The Epping silt loam is the main soil of the Brule hills and ridges. It forms an intermittent belt across the area between the colluvial slope lands on the south and the Pierre clay on the north but grades locally into very fine sandy loam, and is eroded at places forming small bad lands of a few acres each. Two bad lands have 1,000 acres or more each. The Epping silt loam grows good pasture grasses and is used mostly for grazing. A small acreage is f&rmed. Pierre Soils — A large stretch of country in the northern part of the basin is occupied by the Pierre shale. It is part of a large tract which extends to the Black Hills and westward into Wyoming. The Pierre area varies from undulating to hilly. The soil with largest area is the Pierre clay. It has a smoky color, is very sticky when wet and cracks badly when dry. The surface soil passes at a shallow depth into unweathered Pierre shale. This type grows buffalo, grama, and wheat grasses, and is used mostly for grazing and some for hay during wet years. The rougher parts of the Pierre hills are occupied by a loam, which has more or less rock debris on the surface and includes small patches of rough stony land. This soil, derived In part from the Chadron Formation, is nearly all grazed. The Pierre soil of most value in the area is the clay loam. Most of it is grazed but some is farmed to small grains and corn. Terrace Soils— The terraces at the mouths of canyons opening out from Pine Ridge are quite narrow and short as a rule. Their soils, classed with the Tripp fine sandy loam and very fine sandy loam, are grazed, dry farmed, and irrigated. The principal valleys in the central and northern parts of the area have well defined terraces, 12 to 20 feet high, and one-quarter 72 THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA to a mile wide. They are occupied by the Mitchell silt loam and Mitchell sandy clay loam, which are deep and productive. They are the most generally dry farmed soils in the county. The various creeks in the basin have very narrow flood plains. The soils of these first bottoms vary from river wash at the edge of Pine Ridge to the Laurel very fine sandy loam farther north. They grow grass, willows, box elder, and cbttonwoods. DEVELOPMENT OF HAT CREEK BASIN The low' rainfall, comparatively short growing season, poor water supply at places, and lack of transportation facilities are drawbacks in this area which is more or less isolated from the rest of Nebraska-. It is necessary to climb the steep grades of Pine Ridge, through canyon roads, in order to reach the trading places along the Northwestern, and the distances to Ardmore, Orella, and Crawford on the Burlington represent long drives for most people in the basin. Orella, a place with less than 100 people, is the only town in the basin and it is at the edge of the area. Mansfield is a station on the Burlington. Hat Creek Basin is primarily a stock raising district. It has enough farming to produce vegetables for farm use and to grow forage crops and some grains for feed. The small streams are used to irri- g.ite about 3,500 acres of bench land. The water supply is scant and of poor quality in much of the basin. This is true on the Pierre lands and applies to much of the area in which the Brule clay is exposed. Most wells are on alluvial lands. Much of the water supply is from the streams. Hat Creek Basin is thinly settled. Most of the people live along the valleys having water supplies and fertile bench lands. Land Values are quite low. The poorest grazing tracts are valued at $2 or $3 an acre. Much of the pasture land ranges from |8 to $12, and the ranches. Including various soil types, and a water supply,' are listed at $20 to $25 an acre. Some of the best colluvial land is sold at $25 or more an acre and the best terrace land is worth $40 to $50 an acre. WHITE RIVER BASIN This area is somewhat similar to Hat Creek Basin. It lies north of Pine Ridge, covers most of northern Dawes and parts of Sioux and Sheridan counties, and slopes away from the foot of Pine Ridge from an elevation of about 4,000 feet to 3,100 feet where White River passes into South Dakota. The area is about 862 square miles. THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA 73 Much of White River Basin is undulating to hilly. Parts near Pine Ridge have been developed on the Brule and Chadron formations and much of the country north of White River, except the -western part, is occupied by the Pierre hills, slopes, and ridges. A small area in the northeast was formed on the Niobrara and Benton formations. About 2,000 feet of Tertiary and Cretaceous beds have been removed Iv. the erosion of this basin by White River and its tributaries. WHITE RIVER BASIN SOILS The Rosebud very fine sandy loam forms an intermittent, narrow belt on the slopes at the foot, of Pine Ridge. It extends into the lower courses of most of the canyons, occupies much of the broad slope land south and southwest of Crawford, and is used for grazing and farming. The Dawes silt loam, which grades locally into a lighter soil, forms a broad belt on the long coUuvial slopes developed on the Brule clay. There are many places in this distribution where the coUuvial material has been removed by erosion and small bodies of Epping silt loam, have been developed. In some places, excessive erosion has produced small badland areas. The Dawes silt loam is used for pasture, native hay, is cultivated to rye, alfalfa, wheat, corn, potatoes, and other crops. The Epping silt loam occurs as small, irregular bodies in the Dawes silt loam, and forms larger areas along the Burlington Railroad between Crawford and Orella. More of the type is farmed here than in Hat Creek Basin. Pierre Soils occupy about 350 square miles of the northern part of the area. The silt loam, silty clay loam, clay loam, and clay types have been mapped and described. The clay has the largest distri- bution. The Pierre soils are grazed, used for hay and some farming. Some of the broad valleys in the Pierre clay area are mantled with the Orman silt loam and silty clay loam derived by the re-working of Pierre shale by streams. These types, occupying 14 square miles along Cottonwood Creek and White River, are used mostly for pas- ture, but some is cultivated. Alluvial Soils of the valley floors are divided between the first bot- toms and the well defined terraces in White River Valley and all the tributary valleys entering from Pine Ridge. The Tripp silt loam, and very fine sandy loam occupy the terraces of White River between Whitney and the South Dakota line. These soils are extensively farmed both with and without Irrigation. The terrace soils farther up White River are a little lighter in texture. The very fine sandy loam prevails on the wide terraces in the vicinity of Fort Robinson 74 THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA above Crawford. The benches of the White River tributary valleys entering from the south are largely occupied by the Tripp very fine san6^ loam, most of which is cultivated. Most of the first bottom land of White River and the south tribu- ti;ries is occupied by Laurel very fine sandy loam and some silt loam, the heavier type being along the lower course of the river. The Bohemian, Maiden, and Alkali creeks on the north have the silty clay loam. DEVELOPMENT OP WHITE RIVER BASIN This basin has very good railroad facilities and the main wagon roads have been improved. The Pierre land area is nearly exclusively a cattle and horse grazing district, the former predominating. The coUuvlal lands are better suited to alfalfa raising than is generally supposed but are being successfully cultivated to the lead- ing crops. The bench lands are especially well suited to alfalfa but much of their area is also being cultivated to other crops. The White River country is a prosperous agricultural district in the raising of alfalfa seed, potatoes, grains, and live stock. Land Values range from about $10 an acre for the poorest Pierre soil to $130 or more for the best bench land in the vicinity of Chad- ron. Ranches on Pierre soils have sold at from $20 to $30 an acre; farms on the Rosehud and Epping soils sell at from $50 to $75 or more an acre. References: Dawes County soil survey; the unpublished soil survey reports of Sheridan and Sioux counties. THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA 75 SOIL CONSERVATION PROBLEMS Soil is the state's greatest natural resource. It is the basis of most development and its capacity to produce must be conserved in order to support the future prosperity of the state. Some of the land and soil problems of Nebraska are as follows: (1) Land has a high value compared with that of a few years ago. This increase in the capitalization of farms and ranches must be taken into account in the future, along with the labor item and other things in order to conserve the interests of land owners, tenants and the general welfare of the state. (2) Each soil of the state is better adapted to some uses than to others — a condition not to be abused by realtors, nor overlooked by farmers, the purpose being to secure the best utilization. (3) Single cropping to wheat or corn for several years has resulted in lowering the fertility of some soils. This practice should give way to a system of farming in which livestock have a more important place. (4) Some parts of the state have not practiced crop rotation. Enough is now known, however, of the soils in different localities, to serve in the establishment of systems of rotation suited to the soils, climate, and other conditions. The rotation should include alfalfa or some other legume to build up the nitrogen and humus contents of the soil. (5) The soils of some of the western counties present a problem in the maintenance of humus, because it is not easy to secure and maintain a good stand of alfalfa. Sweet clover might be used here, but it is in disfavor among many ranch owners and farmers. (6) Most soils of the state are quite well supplied with potash, lime, and other mineral matter necessary for plant growth, but there are soils, as on the drift hill area, where finely crushed limestone would be helpful. (7) Most commercial fertilizers are not balanced to suit the Ne- braska soils. (8) The state has many acres of unused land along the broad highways. A larger amount of this could be farmed and not allowed to grow weeds. (9) Field borders, roadside strips, and spaces along irrigation ditches should be carefully cleared, for the double purpose of checking the growth of weeds and destroying cover for hibernating insects. Cultivation of many fields Is made difficult and expensive by the pres- ence each year of a border of weeds to re-seed the area. Inasmuch 76 THE SOIL RESOURCES OF NEBRASKA as the crop is either decreased through weed competition, or made more costly by reason of extra cultivation, this matter of weed borders is one of real economic importance. (10) The eradication of rQdent pests should be effected, par- ticularly ground-squirrels and pocket-gophers, which disturb and occupy the soil by burrowing, and destroy crops. (11) Much soil is lost in the eastern parts of the state by hillside erosion and gulleying. Concerted action should be made to conserve the soil of hilly lands by placing obstructions in guUeys, by the growing of cover crops and by not plowing across the grass-covered sloughs. (12) Some of the soils of the western counties are well suited to farming, but there are kinds which produce more in their native sod than can be realized through farming, and with less damage to the soil. This means that the light drouthy soils and the heavy Pierre soils are better suited for grazing than for farming, and should be so managed. (13) Some of the smooth bottom lands, close to the water table, are especially adapted to growing native grasses for pasture and hay, and they should not be plowed up without careful consideration of ' the soil type as to blowing and crop adaptations. (14) The area of farm land in Nebraska can be extended consider- ably through drainage, irrigation and river control. (15) Land can be improved in its nativfe state without plowing. The sandhills present an attractive field for further study and prac- tical management, the purpose being to improve the grasses and other grazing plants in order to increase the carrying capacity of the land. (16) Lastly, those who farm the land should have a high regard tor the soil as the source of life, and handle it on a basis of fairness to the soil and its future possibilities, rather than rob It for imme- diate big yields. One who builds up the soil is a good citizen, a benefactor to succeeding generations, but one who lets the land run down or impoverishes the soil, does a thing which is fundamentally wrong.