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Cornell Hntuerattg ffiihrarg 
 
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 BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE 
 
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 THE GIFT OF 
 
 HENRY W. SAGE 
 
 1691 
 
/Mr ««. Cornell University Library 
 
 QE 264.G31F4 1900 
 
 Tl ^9eology of central and western Fife 
 
 3 1924 003 982 869 
 
MEMOIRS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 THE GEOLOGY 
 
 OF 
 
 CENTRAL AND WESTERN FIFE 
 AND KINROSS. 
 
 Being a Description of Sheet 40 and Parts of Sheets 32 
 and 48 of the geological map. 
 
 By 
 Sib AKCHIBALD GFJKIE, F.K.S., D.C.L., D.Sc, 
 
 DntECTOR-GENEEAL. 
 WITH 
 
 AN APPENDIX OF FOSSILS 
 By B. N. PEACH, P.E.S. 
 
 PUBLISHED BY ORDER OF THE LORDS COMMISSIONERS OF HER MAJESTY S TREASURY. 
 
 GLA SGOW: 
 
 PRINTED FOR HER MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE 
 
 By JAMES HEDDERWICK & SONS 
 
 At the " Citizen " Press, St. Vincent Place. 
 
 And to be purchased, either directly or through any Bookseller, from 
 
 JOHN MENZIES & CO., Rose Street, Edinburgh, and 
 
 90 West Nile Street, Glasgow ; or 
 
 EYRE & SPOTTISWOODE, East Harding Street, Fleet Street, E.C., and 
 
 32 Abingdon Street, Westminster, S.W. ; or 
 
 HODGES, FIGGIS, St. CO., Limited, 104 Grafton Street, Dublin. 
 
 1900. 
 Price Five Shillings and Sixpence. 
 
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Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003982869 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The present volume describes the geology of that part of Fife and 
 Kinross which lies to the west of a line drawn from the Tay 
 Bridge on the Firth of Tay to Scoonie Links on the Firth of 
 Forth. The ground was mapped on the scale of six inches to a 
 mile by different members of the Geological Survey, when 
 Sir R. I. Murchison was Director-General and Professor A. G. 
 Ramsay, Local Director. Mr. H. H. Howell surveyed the area 
 westward as far as Newburgh, Auchtermuchty, the east end of 
 Loch Leven, Auchtertool, and Seafield Tower. Professor James 
 Geikie took the hilly district along the borders of the two counties 
 of Kinross and Perth between Auchtenny and Auldie Castle. 
 Professor John Young mapped the northern slopes and low ground 
 between Dunning and Newburgh. Mr. B. N. Peach surveyed 
 that part of the Ochil ridge which is traversed by the county 
 boundary between Dochrie Hill and Auchtermuchty. The area 
 from Seafield Tower westwards to Torryburn, and northwards to 
 the watershed of the Ochil Hills above Milnathort was mapped by 
 myself. 
 
 No descriptive Memoir having been issued by the Survey in 
 illustration of this tract of country, I have prepared the present 
 account, which will serve as an Explanation to Sheet 40 of the 
 Geological map and to the southern part of Sheet 48 as far east as 
 the Tay Bridge. It comprises the centre and west of Fife, with 
 the whole of Kinross-shire and the eastern margin of the county 
 of Perth between Dunning and the Firth of Forth. In writing the 
 following chapters I have availed myself of the work of my 
 colleagues as recorded in their field-maps, and of abundant notes 
 which I have myself made at different times in traverses of the 
 ground. It will be understood that the authority for the main 
 facts from each district rests on the basis of the surveys by the 
 officers above named. 
 
 The coal-fields have been in late years re- visited by Mr. J. S. 
 Grant Wilson, who has revised parts of the map and has collected 
 a considerable amount of information regarding mining and 
 boring operations since the date of the original survey. This 
 information is to a large extent embodied in the chapters descrip- 
 tive of the different coal-fields. 
 
 The palasontological details in the following chapters have been 
 revised by Mr. B. N. Peach, who has superintended the preparation 
 of the valuable Lists of Fossils given in the Appendix. Among 
 those to whom a special acknowledgment of indebtedness is due 
 
IV. 
 
 for assistance freely rendered, a first place must be found for 
 Mr. J. W. Kirkby, who has placed at the service of the Survey the 
 results of his long and intimate acquaintance with the stratigraphy 
 and palaeontology of the Carboniferous Series of Fife. The 
 materials so generously supplied by him have been incorporated in 
 the Lists of Fossils given in the Appendix, and I have further 
 availed myself of notes which he has furnished, and which will be 
 found to form an important part of the description of the Dysart 
 Coal-field given in Chapters XIV. and XV. Dr. Traquair has~ 
 greatly aided us in the determination, of the fossil fish, Dr. 
 Wheelton Hind in the examination of the laniellibranchs, and 
 Mr. Eobert Kidston in the discrimination of the plants. 
 
 Mr. Herbert Kynaston, one of the staff of the Geological 
 Survey in Scotland, has studied the microscopic structure of the 
 igneous rocks of the Lower Old Bed Sandstone, and his notes are 
 partly embodied in Chapter III. and fully given in Part II. of the 
 Appendix. The general petrography of the Carboniferous igneous 
 rocks, so far as comprised in this volume, is based on the studies of 
 Dr. F. Hatch and Professor "Watts. 
 
 Part III. of the Appendix, consisting of a Bibliography of 
 writings in which the geology of the region described in this 
 volume is discussed or alluded to, has been prepared by Mr. 
 D. Tait. 
 
 ARCH. GEIKIE, 
 
 Director- General 
 
 Geological Survey Office, 
 
 Jermyn Street, London, 
 1st June 1900. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. page 
 
 Introductory, 1 
 
 Area described : Form of the ground, p. 2 ; relations of 
 Topography and Geology, p. 5; Streams and their 
 "Valleys, Lakes, p. 6 ; Coast-lines, p. 7 ; Vegetation and 
 Soils, p. 8. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Formations and Groups of Rock and General Geologigal 
 Structure of the District, 12 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Lower Old Red Sandstone, 15 
 
 (1) Traverse of the Ochil Chain from Rumbling Bridge to 
 Dunning, p. 18; (2) Traverse of Ochil Chain along 
 Glen Farg, p. 25 ; (3) Traverse from Newburgh to 
 Auchtermuchty, p. 30. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 Upper Old Red Sandstone, 33 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 The Carboniferous System: Calciferous Sandstone Series, 38 
 
 I., Cement-Stone group, p. 40; II., Burdiehouse (Burnt- 
 island) Limestone and Oil-Shale group, p. 44 ; (a) 
 Distribution to the north and west of Burntisland — 
 Sedimentary development, p. 45. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 The Calciferous Sandstone Series {continued), 53 
 
 (b) Burdiehouse Limestone group to the east of Burnt- 
 island — Volcanic development— (i.) Bedded Lavas and 
 Tuffs. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 The Volcanic Development of the Burdiehouse Limestone 
 
 Group (continued), 77 
 
 (ii.) Volcanic Necks, p. 77 ; (iii.) Sills, Bosses, and Dykes, 
 p. 80. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. PAGE 
 
 87 
 The Carboniferous Limestone Series, 
 
 I., The Lower Limestones (Hurlet and Hosie), p. 88. 
 
 97 
 
 115 
 
 124 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 The Carboniferous Limestone Series (continued), 
 
 II., The Lower Coals, p. 97; (i.) the Dunfermline Field, 
 p. 98 ; (ii.) the Lassodie and Kelty Fields, p. 109. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 The Lower Coals (continued), 
 
 (iii.) The Lochgelly Field, p. 115; (iv.) the Kirkcaldy 
 Field, p. 119. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 The Lower Coals (continued), 
 
 (v.) The Markinch and Balbimie Field, p. 124 ; (vi.) the 
 Rameldry Field, p. 125; (vii.) the Kilmux Field, p. 
 126 ; (viii.) the Saline, Oakley, and Torryburn Fields, 
 p. 126. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 The Carboniferous Limestone Series (continued), 133 
 
 III., The Upper Limestones, p. 133; Capeldrae Coal- 
 field, p. 137. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 The Millstone Grit, 143 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 The Coal- Measures, 146 
 
 I., The Lower or Coal-bearing group, p. 147 ; (i.) the 
 Dysart, Wemyss, and Leven Coal-field, p. 148. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 The Coal-bearing Group of the Coal-Measures (continued), 157 
 
 (ii,) The Kinglassie Coal-field, p. 157 ; II., Upper or 
 Barren Red Sandstone group, p. 158. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 Intrusive Igneous Rocks in the Carboniferous System, 161 
 
 (i.) Volcanic Necks, p. 162 ; (ii.) Sills and Bosses, p. 166; 
 (iii.) Dykes, p. 171. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 Faults, 174 
 
VII 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. page 
 
 The Glaciation and the Glacial Deposits, 179 
 
 (1) Ice-worn Rock-surfaces, p. 179; (2) Boulder-clay, p. 
 181 ; (3) Erratic Blocks, p. 182 ; (4) Sands and Gravels, 
 p. 184 ; (5) Ancient Lakes, p. 185; (6) Raised Beaches 
 and Terraces, p. 186. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 Recent Deposits and Latest Changes, 189 
 
 River Terraces and Alluvium, p. 189; Disappearance of 
 Lakes, p. 191; Peat-Mosses, p. 193; Blown Sand, p. 
 194 ; Action of the Sea on the Coast, p. 104. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 Economic Minebals, - 197 
 
 Coal, p. 197; Ironstone, p. 202 ; Galena, p. 204; Fireclay, 
 p. 204; Oil-Shale, p. 205: Building-Stone, p. 206; 
 Limestone, p. 206 ; Road-Metal, p. 297; Peat, p. 208; " 
 Shell-Marl, p. 208. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Part I. — Pal«ontological, 211 
 
 A. List of Localities from which Fossils have 
 
 been obtained, - 212 
 
 B. General List of Fossils from Central and 
 Western Fife and Kinross, 216 
 
 0. Special List of Fossils found in each of the 
 
 Sub-divisions of the Stratigraphical Series, - 240 
 
 Part II. — Petrographical. 
 
 Petrography of the Ochil Hills. 252 
 
 On some Volcanic Rocks of the Cleish Hills, 260 
 
 Part III. — Bibliographical. 
 
 List of Writings having reference to the 
 Geology of Central and Western Fife and 
 Kinross, - 262 
 
 Part IV. — Journal of Blairhall Diamond Bore, Oakley, 268 
 
 Index, - • 275 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Fig. 1. Generalised Section across the heart of the Ochil 
 Hills, from Dunning on the north to near Saline 
 in the Fife Coal-field on the south . 19 
 
 2. Diagram-section across the Ochil Chain, from near 
 Bridge of Earn to the top of the West Lomond 26 
 
 3. Diagram-section across the Ochil Chain, from New- 
 burgh to Auchtermuchty 31 
 
 4. Section of the ground to the south of the Rumbling 
 Bridge 40 
 
 5. Section from Aldie Castle to Scaur Hill 41 
 
 6. Section in Georgetown Burn, west end of the Cleish 
 Hills 42 
 
 7. Diagram-section of the ground to the west of Burnt- 
 island 45 
 
 8. Diagram-section of the ground to the east of Burnt- 
 island 54 
 
 8a. Ejected Volcanic Block in Shales, shore Pettycur, Fife 56 
 
 9. Solid black Basalt overlain by " Earthy Basalt," east of 
 King Alexander's Crag, Burntisland 59 
 
 10. Volcanic block ejected during the deposition of a group 
 of sedimentary strata among the Burntisland lavas 59 
 
 1 1 . Section of Vent filled with Agglomerate, east end of 
 King Alexander's Crag, Burntisland 61 
 
 12. Section showing ramifying veins of finely-stratified 
 Tuff in a Basalt-lava, Pettycur 64 
 
 13. Ellipsoidal Basalt ("pillow structure"), west side of 
 Kinghorn Bay 69 
 
 14. Section to show the connection of the volcanic vent of 
 the Binn of Burntisland with the surrounding lavas 
 and tuffs 79 
 
 15. Intrusive Sills, Hawk Craig, Aberdour 82 
 
 16. Sill among the shales above the Burdiehouse Lime- 
 stone, Dodhead Quarry, Burntisland 84 
 
 17. Basalt invading strata of the Burdiehouse Limestone 
 group, cliff west from Dodhead Quarry, Burntisland 85 
 
 18. Interrupted Basalt-vein cutting strata of the 
 Burdiehouse Limestone group, Kilmundy Quarry, 
 Burntisland 86 
 
 19. Generalised section across the Dunfermline Coal-field 101 
 
 20. Intrusion of Basalt into a coal-seam, Townhill, Dun- 
 fermline 102 
 
 21. Reversed Fault in the Kelty Coal-field 114 
 
PAGE 
 
 Fig. 22. Section across the Lochgelly Coal-field 117 
 
 ,. 23. Section of Dolerite invading shales and sandstones, 
 
 railway, south of Kirkcaldy 122 
 
 , 24. Section of Sill in Panny Coal-pit, Kirkcaldy 122 
 
 „ 25. Section of Sill and reversed fault in the workings, Panny 
 
 and Lena Pits, Kirkcaldy 123 
 
 „ 26. Section across the Saline Hills, Fife 129 
 
 „ 27. Section of volcanic vent near Grange, Oakley (Mr. B. 
 
 N. Peach) - 137 
 
 ,, 28. Section across the Dysart Coal-field 149 
 
 ,, 29. Section across West Lomond Hill to show the intrusive 
 
 nature of the Dolerite sills - 169 
 
 ,, 30. Section of Thrust-plane or reversed fault in one of the 
 Hosie Limestones, shore south of Tyrie Bleach- 
 works, Kirkcaldy 177 
 
GEOLOGY 
 
 OF 
 
 CENTRAL AND WESTERN FIFE 
 AND KINROSS-SHIRE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 Area Described — Form of the Ground — Relations of Topography 
 and Geology — St/reams and their Valleys — Lakes — Goast-lines — 
 Vegetation and Soils. 
 
 The part of Scotland which will be geologically described in 
 the following pages embraces the central and western parts of the 
 county of Fife, as far towards the east as a line drawn from the Tay 
 Bridge southward by Cupar and Ceres to the Firth of Forth in 
 Largo Bay. It includes also the whole of Kinross-shire and, for 
 the sake of geological completeness, a narrow strip along the 
 south-eastern borders of Perthshire. The district thus circum- 
 scribed is nearly all included in Sheet 40 of the Geological Survey 
 Map of Scotland, but a portion of it, extending up to the Firth of 
 Tay, is contained in Sheet 48, while the southern projection of the 
 land to Queensferry is embraced in Sheet 32. The remaining 
 portion of Fife will be the subject of a separate Memoir on the 
 eastern district of the county. 
 
 It will be seen that the country to be treated of in the present 
 volume includes one of the most populous and industrial centres of 
 Scotland. Lying between two of the great estuaries of the King- 
 dom, and washed on all sides but one by tidal waters, it has from 
 early times played an important part in the seafaring life of Scot- 
 land. Possessing a succession of coal-fields throughout its entire 
 length, it has long taken no inconsiderable share in the mineral 
 development of the country. Its long ranges of pastoral hills have 
 furnished excellent ground for the rearing of sheep and cattle, 
 while the fertile soil of its valleys and seaward slopes has been 
 
2 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 assiduously and successfully cultivated. Its coal-producing tracts 
 have risen into thickly-inhabited centres of population. The 
 indentations cut by the sea or by rivers in its coast-line have 
 become harbours, where for many generations active and hardy 
 fisher-folk have plied their trade, and whence coal has been exported 
 in ever-increasing quantity to the Continent. 
 
 Much of this prosperity is distinctly traceable to the favour- 
 able geological conditions in which the people have been placed. 
 These conditions depend on structures and processes which cannot 
 be briefly described. In so far as they have been concerned in the 
 development of central and western Fife, a somewhat detailed 
 account of them will be found in the present volume. 
 
 Foem of the Ground. — It will be seen from the distribution of 
 the colours which represent the geological formations on the 
 Sheets of the geological map that this region consists essentially 
 of three broad bands which run, on the whole, parallel to each other, 
 in a general north-east and south-west direction. This arrange- 
 ment of the colours gives the key to the topography, which may 
 be said to consist of two belts of hilly country separated by a 
 central tract of lower ground. 
 
 The north-western belt embraces the central and nearly the 
 whole of the eastern part of the long range of the Ochil 
 Hills. This ridge, which forms so prominent a feature in the 
 scenery of the great midland valley of Scotland, reaches its 
 highest point (2363 feet) about seven miles to the west of 
 the limits of the region now to be described. From that cul- 
 minating summit the uplands gradually sink in level as they 
 extend towards the north-east. Where they enter our district 
 their highest crests have already subsided to from 1500 to 1700 
 feet, but where they leave it they are generally less than 400 and 
 seldom exceed 500 feet. The breadth of this belt of hills, between 
 the plains of Kinross-shire and the Howe of Fife on the south side 
 and the southern margin of the Firth of Tay on the north, is about 
 six miles. 
 
 The general aspect of the Ochil Hills is smooth and green. For 
 the most part the rocks have been worn by the various forces of 
 denudation into gentle slopes and rounded summits, which are 
 covered with pasture and heath. Crags and bare scars are compara- 
 tively scarce throughout most of the range, though naked rock 
 comes out in lines of bold cliff-escarpments among the northern 
 and western hills and in endless hummocks on the lower grounds 
 further to the east. The general dip of the rocks throughout most 
 of the district being to the south-east, they present their edges to 
 the opposite quarter, and as they succeed each other sometimes 
 with considerable regularity, their successive step-like terraces and 
 cliffs near sea-level have been mistaken by some observers for 
 lines of old sea-margin. This deceptive appearance is especially 
 well marked along some parts of the ground that descend steeply 
 into the estuary of the Tay. 
 
 While the successive parallel ridges of the Ochil Hills correspond, 
 
Introductory. 3 
 
 on the whole, with the general strike of their component rocks — that 
 is from south-west to north-east — most of the valleys are of the 
 transverse order, and the streams which now in them descend 
 either towards the south-east into the central lowland or towards the 
 north-west into Strath Earn. But there are also, especially on the 
 north-western side of the watershed, a number of longitudinal 
 valleys which correspond in direction with the prevalent trend of 
 the ridges. The same valley may be longitudinal in one part of its 
 course and transverse in another. Thus the Water of May runs 
 for the first five miles of its journey in a longitudinal valley until, 
 at the Mains of Oondie, it turns in a transverse direction to the 
 Barn. The most picturesque of the valleys in the Ochil range, 
 that known as Glen Farg, is an illustration of this union of the 
 two trends, and also an example of a continuous trench excavated 
 across the high grounds. On the southern side, the ground for 
 several miles rises only a few feet from the plain around Loch 
 Leven to the watershed near Damhead, where it is about 480 feet 
 above the sea. But from that point the Glen Farg valley strikes 
 obliquely across the chain of the Ochils in a north-easterly direction 
 as a narrow rocky defile until above Gresnend it suddenly emerges 
 from the hills and enters the alluvial plain of the Earn, which is only 
 about 50 feet above the sea. It is through this defile that the 
 Great North Road runs, and that the line of railway has been led 
 from Edinburgh by the Forth Bridge to Perth and the north. 
 Another instance of a continuous depression across the Ochil range 
 is furnished by the valley, or succession of valleys, along which 
 the road runs from Yetts of Muckhart to Dunning. 
 
 The central lowland between the Ochils on the north and the 
 disconnected groups of the Oleish, Lomond, and Kettle Hills on the 
 south forms part of the marked depression known as the Howe of 
 Fife, which extends from the south-west of the county of Kinross for 
 a distance of nearly thirty miles to the sea in St. Andrews Bay. 
 The portion of this important topographical feature included in 
 the area now under description embraces its western and broadest 
 part. Where it enters the district on the north-east at Cupar, the 
 vale is not more than about a mile and a half broad, and its surface 
 has a general elevation of little more than 100 feet above the sea, 
 which is some six miles distant. South-westward it expands 
 between Auchtermuchty and Freuchie to a breadth of nearly five 
 miles, but so little does the plain rise in elevation that even ten 
 miles further on it is less than 200 feet above sea-level. At 
 Strathmiglo, by the projection of the northern spurs of the Lomond 
 Hills, the vale is again narrowed to a mere strip chiefly occupied 
 by the alluvial plain of the river Eden and not a mile in breadth. 
 Beyond this constriction the depression sweeps south-westwards, 
 and soon expands into the wide plain of Kinross-shire, which, 
 circling round the base of the West Lomond, Bishop, Benarty, 
 Oleish, and Ochil heights, attains a breadth of some six miles. 
 This great enlargement of the Howe of Fife contains Loch Leven, 
 which, with its surrounding strip of alluvium, marking a former 
 
4 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 bottom of the water, covers an area of nearly twelve square miles. 
 If the general level of the plain of Kinross be taken at 400 feet, 
 then the average rise of the hollow from the sea to its termination 
 is little more than 13 feet in a mile. . 
 
 The southern belt of hilly ground in central and western .bile is 
 much the most varied tract in the district. Instead of a continuous 
 band of uplands, like the Ochils, it presents numerous groups of 
 hills and detached eminences which, though somewhat irregularly 
 distributed, maintain nevertheless, on the whole, the prevalent 
 trend of the region from south-west to north-east. Viewed m the 
 broadest way, this part of the district may be regarded as compris- 
 ing an assemblage of detached and prominent hills, gathered along 
 its northern margin, where it rises from the Howe of Fife and the 
 plains of Kinross, of a parallel belt of isolated and confluent ridges 
 of much lower elevation, beginning above Kirkcaldy and extending 
 south-westwards to Queensferry, and of scattered eminences which 
 diversify the lowland that separates these two more hilly tracts. 
 
 Of the northern belt of hills the most important and conspicuous 
 is the group of the West and East Lomonds, which rise to heights 
 of 1713 and 1470 feet, and form prominent landmarks all over the 
 eastern part of the midland region of Scotland. To the east of 
 these, a group of hills, ranging from 600 to 700 feet, stretches from 
 Freuchie and Kennoway north-eastwards to near St. Andrews. To 
 the south and south-west of the Lomond and Bishop group, the 
 ridge that overlooks Loch Leven mounts into a number of separate 
 heights. Of these the highest, Benarty (1167 feet), forms a noble 
 boundary to the southern margin of the lake. Further west lie 
 the Blairadam, Cleish, Cult, and Saline Hills (1178 feet), from 
 which the ground descends into the plains of Clackmannan. 
 Throughout this belt of hilly ground the topographical features 
 are more accentuated than in most of the Ochil region. The hills 
 frequently rise abruptly from the lower country around them, 
 often present precipitous crags, and occasionally display picturesque 
 ranges of escarpment, as in the Lomonds and Benarty. 
 
 In the stretch of hilly ground between Kirkcaldy and Queens- 
 ferry, there is a more continuous grouping of heights than in the 
 northern belt just described. It may be said that a scarcely 
 interrupted ridge runs from the Kaith Hills south-westwards by 
 Auchtertool and the Oullalo Hills to Inverkeithing. But besides 
 these more persistent tracts of higher ground, this part of the 
 district abounds in prominent detached eminences which form 
 characteristic elements in the landscapes between Kinghorn and 
 Aberdour. The Binn of Burntisland (631 feet) and Dunearn 
 Hill (727 feet) may be taken as two of the most conspicuous 
 examples of these topographical features. 
 
 The largest tract of low ground in the southern half of the 
 district is that which extends from the Kirkcaldy hills north- 
 eastward to the hills beyond Markinch, Kennoway, and Leven. 
 This important tract includes the Kirkcaldy and Dysart coalfields, 
 and is unbroken by any of the ridges and hilb that diversify the 
 
Introductory. 5 
 
 surface all around it. It is prolonged south-westwards between 
 the Raith and Cullalo Hills on the one side and those of Auchter- 
 derran and Blairadam on the other. But in this extension it no 
 longer retains the same unbroken lowland character, for it is 
 interrupted by detached ridges and isolated hills, like those of 
 Cowdenbeath, Halbeath, Eoscobie, and Luscar. 
 
 Relations of Topography and Geology. — The topographical 
 features which have here been enumerated, like those of the rest 
 of the midlands of Scotland, furnish admirable illustrations of the 
 close dependence of such features upon geological structure. The 
 fundamental law which has governed the evolution of the scenery- 
 has been that relative durability of material determines the shaping 
 of the contours of the land ; in other words, that as the present 
 surface has been produced by prolonged denudation, the rocks 
 which have been best able to withstand degradation have been 
 left projecting above those endowed with less power of resist- 
 ance, which have been hollowed into valleys and plains. Except 
 indirectly, underground disturbances cannot be shown to have 
 affected the development of the landscapes as these appear to-day. 
 Although the district abounds in volcanic rocks no single part of 
 the present topography dates from the time of the volcanic activity. 
 The lava and tuffs after their eruption were buried under hundreds 
 or even thousands of feet of stratified deposits, and their ultimate 
 re-appearance at the surface has been the result of stupendous 
 denudation, whereby their deep overlying cover of younger rocks 
 has been removed. Again, the rocks have everywhere been 
 affected by dislocation of the terrestrial crust, and are now 
 traversed by faults which show displacements of 1200 feet 
 or more. But these important fractures have not given rise to 
 yawning rents, chasms, or cliffs. For the most part, they 
 have not affected the present surface of the ground at all. 
 In the coal-fields, for example, where the position and effects 
 of the dislocations have been carefully ascertained during mining 
 operations, one may walk over the sites of some of the most 
 important faults without being able to perceive the slightest 
 surface indication of their existence. Here and there, indeed, 
 where a fault has brought down a comparatively soft against a 
 comparatively hard rock, a sharp rise of the ground may be seen 
 along one side of the line of fracture, such as the great southern 
 wall of the Ochil chain rising above the plain of the Clackmannan 
 coal-field. But even in such instances the effect of the movement 
 has only been indirect. What we now see is not any original 
 step-like interruption of the ancient surface, but is due to the 
 prevalent law that the harder rocks project above the softer. All 
 that can be attributed to the fault is the determination of the 
 direction of boundary of the two rocks, and consequently of the 
 topographical feature which has resulted from their unequal decay. 
 
 The Ochil Hills, consisting for the most part of hard volcanic 
 rocks belonging to the time of the Lower Old Red Sandstone, 
 rise as a broad belt of upland above the softer stratified formations 
 
6 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 on each side of them. The various detached and confluent ridges 
 and eminences in the belt of hilly ground lying to the south of 
 Loch Leven and the Howe of Fife also consist of various igneous 
 rocks, but of a different type and age from those of the Ochils. 
 Their position and outlines coincide with the area and nature of the 
 erupted masses that form them. On the other hand, the lower 
 grounds lie mainly upon stratified rocks which offer less resistance 
 to waste. Thus, the long depression of Kinross and the Howe of 
 Fife has been hollowed out of the comparatively unresisting red 
 sandstones which overlie the durable lavas of the Ochil chain on the 
 one hand, and pass under the hard eruptive sheets of the Lomond 
 belt on the other. 
 
 Streams and their Valleys. — During the long process of denuda- 
 tion, the waters running off the land have carved out lines of valley 
 for themselves in their passage to the sea. In the present area, a 
 vast number of such water-channels has been excavated, but none 
 of them has sufficient length and gathering-ground to have become 
 the bed of an important river. The chief stream is the Eden, which, 
 rising among the slopes of the Ochil chain, about two miles north 
 from Milnathort, flows through the whole of the long Howe of 
 Fife and falls into the sea in St. Andrews Bay. The west side of 
 the district takes in a small portion of the course of the Devon, 
 which drains a considerable tract of the Central Ochils. Loch 
 Leven, owing to a gap having been worn through the Benarty and 
 Lomond Hills, does not drain into the Howe of Fife, to which 
 geologically its plain belongs, but sends its water by the Leven 
 river eastwards to the Firth at Leven. The hollow between the 
 Auchterderran and Auchtertool Hills gives passage to the drainage 
 from the east side of the Cleish and Boscobie Hills, which is 
 conducted by the Ore into the Leven about three miles above its 
 mouth. 
 
 The topography of the whole region has been profoundly 
 modified by the geological events of the Ice Age. So thick was 
 the mass of ice which then descended from the Highlands, that it 
 passed over the lofty ridge of the Ochils and the other hills to the 
 south, and turned eastwards into what is now the Firth of Forth 
 and .the North Sea. By the long-continued movement of this ice- 
 sheet, the exposed rocks were rubbed down, scored, and polished, 
 and their surfaces acquired that undulating character still so 
 distinctive of them. Not only were their ruggednesses smoothed 
 away, but the decomposed material, accumulated upon them in 
 the course of long ages of subaerial decay, was ground up or moved 
 onward by the ice, which spread it in thick deposits all over the 
 low grounds. These deposits, known as Drift, conceal most of the 
 solid rocks, except where these rocks rise into prominent heights. 
 They fill up all the hollows and extend under the firth, where they 
 reach a thickness of sometimes nearly two hundred feet. 
 
 Lakes. — In central and western Fife and Kinross-shire a few 
 lakes diversify the surface of the country. Of these the most 
 important is Loch Leven— the largest sheet of fresh water in the 
 
Introductory. 7 
 
 midland valley of Scotland. In the north, among the hollows of 
 the Ochil chain, lies the Loch of Lindores. Among the Oleish 
 Hills, Loch Glow is nearly surrounded with peat-mosses. On the 
 lower grounds a number of smaller sheets of water lie between the 
 Cleish Hills and Kirkcaldy. Such are Loch Fitty, Loch Gelly, 
 Camilla Loch, Otterstone Loch, and Kinghorn Loch. But, as will be 
 more fully explained in Chapter XIX., the present lakes are only the 
 last survivors of a vast number that once were scattered broadcast 
 over this region. As in the rest of the lowlands of Scotland, the 
 former abundant lochs and tarns have here almost wholly vanished, 
 partly from natural causes and partly from the operations of man. 
 Coast-lines. — Upwards of 30 miles of the northern coast-line 
 of the Firth of Forth are included in the present district, between 
 Valleyfield and Scoonie Links, Though these shores are generally 
 low they afford excellent sections of the rocks for most of the 
 distance. Here and there, they rise into cliffs, of which the most 
 conspicuous are those formed by the igneous rocks. On the south- 
 west rise the picturesque crags of North Queensferry. Further 
 east the tuff of St. David's stands up as a long coast-cliff, while a 
 little beyond these precipices one of the diabase sills of Aberdour 
 runs out to sea as a rocky promontory. Similar headlands were 
 once more conspicuous at Burntisland than they now are, owing to 
 the enlargement of the harbour, and the works connected with the 
 railway station. To the east of Burntisland the coast reaches its 
 highest part in the crags of Pettycur and Kinghorn. Here the 
 ground rapidly ascends by escarpments and grassy slopes to a 
 height of 377 feet above King Alexander's Crag, and projects sea- 
 wards in a series of cliffs and skerries which afford admirable 
 sections of the volcanic rocks that form so marked a feature in the 
 Lower Carboniferous series of this part of central Scotland. From 
 Kinghorn to Linktown the interstratification of the volcanic sheets 
 and intrusive sills, in the limestone series is well displayed in shore- 
 reefs that are exposed between tide-marks. Beyond the sandy 
 beach of Kirkcaldy, the shore once more becomes rocky, and from 
 Pathhead north-eastward for seven miles presents a succession of 
 rocky ledges and out-jutting promontories, in which the upward 
 sequence of the Carboniferous system can be followed almost bed 
 by bed. Above these strata, the ground rises as a steep bank of 
 boulder-clay from the line of high water to a height of 100 feet. At 
 Bast Wemyss, the red sandstones form a line of low cliff beneath 
 the boulder-clay, along the inner margin of the beach. In this cliff, 
 when the land stood at a lower level, the sea excavated the group 
 of caves from which Wemyss takes its Celtic name. From Buck- 
 haven north-eastwards, the old coast-line, which will be afterwards 
 more fully described, begins to retire from the line of the present 
 beach, and a strip of blown sand, intervening between it and 
 high-water mark, forms a band of links that stretches for about 
 four miles as far as Largo. But the upper Coal-measure strata still 
 continue to make shore-ledges from Buckhaven to Leven and re- 
 appear at Lundin and Largo. 
 
8 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 In connection with the coast-line of the Firth of Forth, allusion 
 may be made here to the proofs, which will be more fully given in 
 a later part of this volume, that the sea has made considerable 
 inroads on the land during historic times, and that its progress can 
 be shown at many places by recent raw scars, where portions ol the 
 cliffs have been undermined and have given way. Among the 
 many instructive lessons which these shores afford to the geologist, 
 some of the most impressive are those which tell the story of the 
 destructive action of the waves. 
 
 The central portion of Fife likewise includes the southern coast- 
 line of the Firth of Tay from Newburgh to Newport— a distance of 
 about twelve miles. Neither from a pictorial nor from a geological 
 point of view is this shore so varied and interesting as that of the 
 Forth. It is straight and destitute of indentations. The alluvial 
 silt of the Firth spreads over the beach up even to high-water 
 mark. A narrow strip of low, drift-covered ground intervenes 
 between the shore and the base of the steep slopes into which the ' 
 volcanic rocks of the Ochil range rise. Here and there, as 
 immediately above Newburgh, where a gap has been cut in the 
 line of escarpment, some variety of outline is introduced, and the 
 rocks that tower steeply above the village, to which they present 
 their escarpments, show on their eastern declivities a notable series 
 of parallel ribs of rock slanting in a south-easterly direction into 
 the interior. 
 
 The geological variety of this coast-line is extremely limited. 
 As the line of the estuary coincides with that of the strike, the 
 same rocks continue along nearly the whole way. But they are 
 only well exposed on the shore at Birkhill, and still more pictur- 
 esquely between Balmerino and Newport. 
 
 Vegetation and Soils. — While the general form of the ground 
 is dependent upon the geological structure of the rocks underneath 
 the surface, the outward aspect of that surface is greatly affected 
 by the varying nature of the soils and the consequent character 
 of the vegetation. On the hills where the rocks come uncon- 
 cealed to daylight, the soils are directly derived from the decom- 
 position of the solid rock underneath. But in the valleys or the 
 plains, and generally over the slopes and lower grounds, the soils 
 have little or no immediate relation to the solid rocks, but have 
 been formed out of the various drift deposits under which the rocks 
 are buried. These differences in the composition and quality of 
 the soils have determined the character of the vegetable covering 
 of the country. 
 
 Thus, over the range of the Ochil Hills, on the tops of the ridges 
 and the upper parts of the slopes, the volcanic rocks appear in 
 knolls and crags, or are concealed under a thin mantle of their own 
 detritus. The soil to which they give rise is generally light, and 
 supports on these uplands a covering of pasture and heather. 
 Where, however, the higher ground sinks into slopes and 
 valleys under boulder-clay, it is covered, over the unenclosed 
 land, with a stiff retentive soil, not unusually distinguished by its 
 
Introductory. 9 
 
 abundance of rushes and other moisture-loving plants. The 
 progress of agriculture has done much, by drainage and ploughing 
 during the present century, to reclaim tracts of both these types 
 of soil, which had previously existed only as bare moors and wet 
 hillsides. The southern slopes of the Ochils now display a 
 continuous succession of farms, the plough has by each generation 
 been driven higher up the hills, and fields enclosed with walls 
 have crept upward to heights of more than 1000 feet above the 
 sea. Much of this land, however, which was formerly kept in 
 green crops and corn, is now retained as permanent pasture. 
 
 On the uplands none of the natural forest has survived which, no 
 doubt, at one time extensively clothed them, though here and there 
 among the still unreclaimed "muirs " (moors) an occasional group 
 of birches, willows, or Scotch firs serves to indicate what the natural 
 woodlands once were. But artificial plantations, chiefly of conifers, 
 have been made, and now cover wide tracts of ground. Some of 
 the largest of these may be seen in the districts traversed by the 
 Farg and the Water of May, and on the southern slopes between 
 Carnbo and Duncrevie. A number of these plantations have been 
 carried to heights exceeding 1000 feet. Thus, the Auchtenny 
 Wood, which overlooks the valley of the Water of May, rises to 
 more than 1200 feet. 
 
 The irregular groups of hills which form the long broken range 
 from Saline and Carnock eastwards by the Lomonds to the 
 north-east corner of the map differ in many respects from the 
 chain of the Ochils, and in none more than in the nature and 
 distribution of their soils. Instead of forming the main mass of 
 continuous high ground, as in the Ochils, the igneous rocks here 
 occur only in scattered isolated sheets and bosses, which rise out of 
 the surrounding stratified formations. In the great majority of 
 cases, the flanks of these projecting eminences are concealed under 
 boulder-clay, which sweeps across all the surrounding lower ground 
 The igneous material, where it is exposed to the weather, decom- 
 poses into a warm, fertile, rich brown loam, which, from the 
 frequent presence of apatite in the rocks, furnishes a supply of 
 phosphate of lime to the soil. Where these rocks come to the sur- 
 face on gentle slopes, and directly form the subsoil, they produce by 
 much the richest soils in the district. Under favourable conditions, 
 we may recognise, even from a distance, the boundary between the 
 igneous mass and the surrounding mantle of boulder-clay, by the 
 contrast between the vegetation on the two surfaces. The igneous 
 rock is carpeted with bright green grass, through which the dark- 
 brown hummocks and crags of decomposing rock protrude. The 
 boulder-clay, on the other hand, unless where it has been long 
 drained and ploughed, has its limits marked by the smoother and 
 darker slopes of rushy vegetation. 
 
 Over most of the lowland the stratified rocks seldom form 
 any prominent surface-features. Where the ground slopes most 
 steeply, the strata sometimes come out in successive bars of naked 
 stone, as in the declivities below the West Lomond and Benarty. 
 
10 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 It is chiefly in the course of the streams, and along the coast-line, 
 that the stratified formations impart a distinctive character to the 
 landscape. Elsewhere they are for the most part buried under 
 drift. 
 
 The two great subdivisions of the Drift Deposits— boulder-clays 
 and sands and gravels — which exercise so important an influence 
 on the nature of the soil, have in two directions powerfully affected 
 the outer aspect of the ground. The boulder-clay, as already stated, 
 furnishes stiff retentive soils which, where they remain unreclaimed, 
 are marked by a rank, mossy and reedy vegetation. But where 
 they have been properly treated, they have been so greatly modified 
 and improved by long-continued cultivation as now to afford 
 excellent corn land. Most of the arable ground in the district is 
 of this nature. But in the larger valleys and also along the sea- 
 margin the boulder-clay is more or less covered by deposits of sand 
 and gravel, which have given rise to soils of a totally different 
 quality. Thus, in the Howe of Fife, a thick mantle of these upper 
 drifts stretches up as far as Strathmiglo. The plains of Kinross 
 are likewise covered with them, and similar accumulations 
 extend westwards into the low grounds of Clackmannanshire. 
 The surface of the ground where it is formed by the sands and 
 gravels is generally a good deal more irregular than where it lies 
 on boulder-clay, for the upper drifts are often arranged in mounds 
 and ridges, with hollows between them either filled with water or 
 covered with the peat that marks former tarns or lakelets. Some 
 excellent examples of these topographical features may be seen 
 around Ooldrain, two miles to the south-west of the town of Kinross. 
 As may be inferred from their component materials, the upper 
 drifts form the lightest soils of the district. These soils vary from 
 sandy loam into a slightly loamy sand. Where the sand has 
 accumulated near the sea-shore and been blown by winds into 
 dunes, it furnishes a fitting soil for the various sand-loving plants 
 of our coasts, and under its covering of bent and short grass has 
 spread out in the " links," now so largely resorted to for the pastime 
 of golf. 
 
 It must always be remembered that the progress of agriculture 
 has vastly altered the general aspect of the country. Two hundred 
 years ago wide tracts of ground, which are now covered with 
 cultivated fields and abound with farms, hamlets, and villages, were 
 bare moorland, wholly unreclaimed and tenanted by grouse and 
 moor-fowl. Such were the various " muirs " which covered so 
 large a part of Fife, as the Forthridge Muirs, north of Inverkeith- 
 ing; the Muir of Dysart, the Bishop's Muir, north of the Bishop's 
 Hill; Strath Kinness Muir, Outh Muir, Lethans Muir, Eoscobie 
 Muir, Thriepmuir, Moors of Kinnesswood, Moors of Balgeddie, 
 Ceres Moor, Carnock Moor, Dirley Moor, Grantsmoor, and many 
 more. On Pont's map of Fife sparsely-peopled areas are distinctly 
 marked, while at the same time a more advanced condition of agri- 
 culture is shown by the names crowded together on the fertile 
 lands that slope to the sea, and that lie along the main valleys like 
 
Introductory. 1 1 
 
 those of the Eden and Leven. Some relics of this primitive aspect 
 of the country still survive. The Tents Muir, with its sand-dunes 
 and covering of bent, has undergone little further change than the 
 gradual encroachment of agriculture along its western borders. Of 
 the Priors' Muir, to the south-east of St. Andrews, a small tract of 
 heath, dotted with willows in its moister hollows, and with gorse on 
 its drier ground, remains as a memorial of the olden time. A 
 reminiscence of the former aspect of the county is preserved in 
 abundant place-names scattered all over Fife, such as Muirhead, 
 Muirfield, Muirton, Muirside, Muirend, and others. 
 
12 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 CHAPTEE II. 
 
 Formations and Groups of Rock and General Geological Structure 
 of the District. 
 
 The geological formations contained within the district are 
 indicated on the side of the maps and may be grouped in 
 stratigraphical order as in the subjoined table, the aqueous and 
 igneous series being kept distinct from each other. 
 
 Aqueous. 
 
 Sign on Maps. 
 
 o 
 15 ® 
 
 <D r1 
 
 :•■ 
 
 CD 
 
 Blown sand .... 
 Alluvium of stream-terraces 
 
 and old lakes . . 
 Peat 
 
 Mud and sand of present beach"] cs °8 £ Q_^-J 
 
 Eaised beaches (25 feet) . . >£ ® - g 
 
 ,, (100 feet) . ) h - S Q shaded yellow line. 
 
 2 T Sands, gravels, and stratified clays 
 ® j Erratic blocks .... 
 ^ j Boulder-clay or till . 
 C (^Ice-markings on rocks 
 
 o 
 
 <s 
 O 
 
 Upper Bed Sandstone group . . . <J 5 ' 
 
 Coal-measures ...... d 5 
 
 Millstone grit ...... d 4 
 
 Carboniferous C Upper Limestone group ") 
 
 ^ -{ Limestone < Coal-bearing group V d 2 
 
 series. (.Lower Limestone group J 
 Calciferous fBurdiehouse Limestone 
 
 Sandstone -< group .... d 1 ' 
 
 series. (^ Cement-stone group . d 1 
 
 Upper Yellow Sandstones (Dura Den 
 beds) and Bed Sandstones, marls, 
 and conglomerates ... c 3 
 
 Lower Bed Sandstones and conglome- 
 rates, with thick volcanic series . c 1 
 
 O =8 
 
w 
 
 o 
 
 M ■ 
 
 H >> 
 
 eg w 
 O 
 
 General Geological Structure of the District. 13 
 
 Igneous. 
 
 Interstratified, or contemporaneous with the formations among 
 which they lie. 
 
 'Dolerite, Basalt, Diabase, as intercalated 
 
 sheets of lava .... Bd 1 
 
 Andesite, Trachyte, lying above " Cement- 
 stone group " .... Pd 1 
 
 Volcanic tuffs (of basic character) . . Ts d 
 
 Agglomerate in necks or volcanic 
 
 chimneys ..... N d 
 
 \m «? 
 
 p , Jjj \ Andesites and associated lavas . . P c 1 
 
 9 ^ rg \ Agglomerates, tuffs, and volcanic con- 
 
 _. i — i p 
 
 M W DQ 
 
 I glomerates ..... Ts c 1 
 
 B. Intrusive, or subsequent in date to the formations among 
 ivhich they lie. 
 
 Basalt and dolerite in dykes, sills, and bosses Gn. B 
 Felsites of various types . . . . F 
 
 The threefold arrangement of the topographical features of the 
 district, noticed in the previous chapter, and their disposition in 
 parallel bands trending in a north-easterly direction, afford the 
 clue to the broad geological structure of the ground. Two main 
 geological systems are seen to be here represented — the Old 
 Eed Sandstone and the Carboniferous. The former includes the 
 northern or Ochil range of hills, together with the Howe of Fife 
 and the Kinross-shire plain ; the latter embraces all the rest of the 
 ground southward to the margin of the Firth. The Old Red Sandstone 
 system is tolerably uniform and persistent in the nature and 
 development of its rocks. Consequently its hard igneous masses 
 form the long continuous uplands of the Ochils, whilst its soft 
 sandstones underlie the plain of Kinross and the Howe of Fife. 
 The Carboniferous system, however, is much more varied in the 
 character and grouping of its constituent members, and thus 
 presents a greatly more diversified topography. Though it 
 conforms to the general north-easterly trend of the formations, the 
 strike of its several subdivisions is found to present continual 
 changes of direction, since the strata have been thrown into many 
 basins, and their structure has been further complicated by 
 numerous and often powerful dislocations. It will be observed 
 that these disturbances do not seem to have affected the Old Red 
 Sandstone area, at least they have not yet been traced therein, 
 though possibly if the strata underneath the surface had been 
 there as fully explored as those of the coal-fields have been, the 
 geological structure would not have proved altogether so simple. 
 
14 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 The boundary-line between the two systems runs continuously 
 across the map from the Bumbling Bridge on the west to the 
 extreme north-eastern corner. The western half of this boundary 
 is produced by a line of fault, but the eastern half is a natural 
 junction formed by the superposition of the base of the one system 
 conformably upon the top of the other. At only one part of the 
 boundary do the two systems encroach on each other by each 
 crossing the fault. The large dislocation which passes to the 
 south of Benarty allows a portion of the Lower Carboniferous 
 strata to appear on its northern side and a strip of the uppermost 
 yellow and red beds of the Upper Old Bed Sandstone to intervene 
 between the Carboniferous outlier and the main mass of the coal- 
 bearing series to the south. 
 
 In the following descriptions the several stratified formations 
 are taken in stratigraphical order, beginning with the oldest. 
 
Lower Old Bed Sandstone. 15 
 
 CHAPTEE III. 
 
 Lower Old Bed Sandstone. 
 
 The representatives of this geological system consist of two 
 distinct subdivisions — Lower and Upper — each of which is largely- 
 developed in Central Scotland, and supplies in Central and Western 
 Fife and Kinross-shire excellent illustrations of its typical characters. 
 
 The Lower Old Red Sandstone of the midland valley of Scotland 
 consists mainly of dull purplish -red sandstones and conglomerates, 
 which attain a thickness of several thousand feet. Among these 
 sediments of an ancient lake or inland sea are intercalated, through 
 certain strips of country, thick accumulations of lavas and tuffs, 
 Which prove that long-continued volcanic eruptions took place from 
 different vents along the floor of that sheet of water. The material 
 so discharged now forms long lines of upland that rise into some of 
 the most conspicuous features of the Lowland topography. One of 
 these chains of heights is seen in the Pentland Hills to the south 
 of Edinburgh. Another constitutes the still loftier and longer 
 range of the Ochil Hills. It is a portion of this latter range which 
 comes into the district now to be described. 
 
 The first observation that may be made regarding the Lower 
 Old Red Sandstone of this district is that sandstone, or ordinary 
 sedimentary rock of any kind, is singularly scarce. The whole 
 series is eminently volcanic, being built up of a vast succession of 
 sheets of agglomerate and lava, with occasional intercalations of tuffs 
 and volcanic conglomerates. The base of this volcanic pile is 
 nowhere visible, though its upper members can be seen to pass 
 under the thick mass of red sandstones which underlies Strath 
 Barn. Hence its total thickness cannot be determined. But 
 where most largely developed, in the western portion of the Ochil 
 chain, it must exceed 6500 feet. 
 
 In order to appreciate the geological structure of the ground and 
 the volcanic history now to be traced, it is necessary to note that 
 the volcanic rocks of the Ochils are arranged in the form of a broad 
 or flattened anticlinal arch, the axis of which runs obliquely 
 across the chain in a north-easterly direction, from the eastern end 
 of the Clackmannan coal-field near Muckhart to the alluvial plain 
 below Bridge of Barn. The lowest rocks are to be seen along the 
 crest of the fold, where they have been laid bare by the erosion of 
 the valleys excavated in them. The highest members of the 
 volcanic series are visible on the north-west side, where, from Por- 
 gandenny and Eorteviot south-westward by Dunning, Auchter- 
 arder, Sheriff Muir, and Bridge of Allan, they sink under a thick 
 series of red sandstones in Strath Earn and Strath Allan, 
 
16 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 The lavas consist chiefly of the varieties of somewhat altered 
 andesite which were formerly included under the general term 
 " porphyrite." Where fresh they are close-grained, compact rocks, 
 often distinguished by the abundance of their porphyritic felspars 
 and also by the frequency and great development of their cellular 
 structure. Their general colour as they weather on the hillsides is 
 some tint of purplish-red, but they shade on the one hand into 
 pale pinkish-grey varieties, and on the other through tints of 
 green and brown to dark brown or almost black. When examined 
 under the microscope, they are seen to possess the characteristic 
 felted microlitic groundmass of the andesites. Then- porphyritic 
 constituents are for the most part plagioclase felspars, sometimes 
 in flat tabular crystals half an inch or more in diameter ; but 
 enstatite, augite, olivine, and black mica also occur, the olivine 
 often in the form of hsematitic pseudomorphs, which on a fresh 
 fracture have a metallic lustre and readily yield a bright-red streak. 
 The andesites occasionally assume a resinous texture, as in a 
 remarkable pitchstone-like rock which occurs above Airthrey 
 Castle, near Bridge of Allan, and in rare instances their intrusive 
 varieties have even retained a vitreous or obsidian-like character, 
 like the example described by Messrs. Durham and Judd from 
 Newport. * 
 
 The vesicles in the andesites have been filled up with calcite, 
 zeolites, agates, and other minerals which have acquired for certain 
 localities a wide reputation on account of the variety and beauty of 
 the specimens which they have yielded. Glen Farg has been specially 
 famous in this respect from its accessibility (the great north road 
 to Perth, as well as a modern main line of railway, passes through 
 it), and from the abundant exposures of its amygdaloids. 
 
 While andesites of intermediate or even of somewhat basic 
 composition constitute the great mass of the lavas of the Ochil 
 Hills, they occasionally alternate with pale pink or yellow felsitic 
 rocks of much more acid character. These are generally somewhat 
 decayed, but they often retain in great perfection their original 
 flow-structure. That they are true contemporaneously erupted 
 lavas and not intrusive sills is proved by the abundant fragments 
 of them contained in the intercalated conglomerates and sand- 
 stones. Some of these more acid lavas are allied to the rhyolites; 
 others may be classed as dacites. Eocks of these types ' may be 
 seen on the shores of the Firth of Tay west of Wormit Bay. They 
 are also extensively developed in the ground around Craig Rossie 
 and Rossie Law to the east of Auchterarder. (Sheet 39.) 
 
 This remarkable alternation of comparatively basic with much 
 more acid material in the same volcanic field among the eruptions 
 of Lower Old Red Sandstone time was first noticed in the Pent- 
 land Hills, and has been subsequently observed in the other 
 volcanic areas of the same geological period. 
 
 While the lavas form the main mass of the volcanic pile, they 
 are accompanied with frequent intercalations of fragmeiital 
 
 * Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, Vol. xlii. (1886), p. 418, 
 
Lower Old Med Sandstone. 17 
 
 material, due mainly to volcanic explosions, but partly also to the 
 denudation of the materials of previous eruptions, and less frequently 
 to the deposition of ordinary sandy sediment. The tuffs vary in 
 texture from fine pyroclastic detritus to coarse agglomerates com- 
 posed of blocks of which some in Dumyat, near Stirling, are as large 
 as cottages. While most of the tuffs have been derived from the 
 explosion of the prevalent andesites, it is to be remarked that, in 
 the Ochils as in the Pentland Hills, some of them consist of pale 
 felsitic detritus, even when they are intercalated between andesites. 
 In these cases they have evidently been derived from the explosion 
 of a felsitic magma which may not always have reached the surface 
 in streams of lava. A characteristic feature of the fragmental 
 deposits is the occurrence among them of coarse volcanic conglome- 
 rates, derived wholly or in great part from the destruction of 
 banks of lava or scoriae by the action of waves or currents during 
 intervals between successive eruptions. Some of the sandstones 
 also have been in great part formed of volcanic detritus. Thus, at 
 Wormit Bay, on the Firth of Tay, a thick group of sandstones has 
 been in large measure derived from the waste of a pink orthophyric 
 lava-sheet which underlies them, and partly perhaps from volcanic 
 explosions of orthophyric material. The remarkable rocks of 
 Craig Rossie, near Auchterarder, are overlain by a breccia or con- 
 glomerate made up in great part of their detritus mixed with 
 ordinary sandy sediment. 
 
 Besides the rocks which have been ejected to the surface during 
 the volcanic period of the Lower Old Red Sandstone, there occur 
 also numerous intrusive masses which have invaded both the lavas 
 and tuffs. The great majority of these, though, of course, later than 
 the rocks which they immediately traverse, obviously belong to the 
 general volcanic series. They mark some of the subterranean 
 injections of the igneous magmas, and no doubt represent different 
 stages in the differentiation of these materials. They are partly 
 andesites, usually more compact and on the whole less basic than 
 the lavas. They are not as a rule vesicular. Some of them of 
 considerably more acid composition may be classed as orthoclase- 
 felsites or orthophyres. They may also include some rocks that 
 might best be classed with the trachytes. They occur in large and 
 small bosses, sills, dykes, and veins. An important group of them 
 lies among the hills to the north-east of Fossaway "and Carnbo. A 
 remarkable sill occurs near the base of the volcanic series 'at New- 
 burgh. 
 
 In addition to these intermediate and more acid intrusions, a 
 few bosses and dykes must be mentioned, the age of which cannot 
 be precisely defined, but which may with probability be regarded 
 as more deep-seated portions of the magma which supplied the 
 general body of andesitic lavas of the volcanic period of the Lower 
 Old Red Sandstone. They consist of dark more or less coarsely- 
 crystalline "greenstones." The largest of them rises through the 
 general mass of lavas at Duncrevie, and is a rudely circular boss 
 nearly half a mile in diameter. Microscopic examination of this 
 
18 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 rock by Mr. H. Kynaston shows it to be closely allied to the 
 enstatite-diorites and quartz-norites. (See his notes in Appendix, 
 p. 257.) Another smaller boss, traversed by the Dunning Burn, 
 a little more than a mile above the village, is a coarse-grained 
 crystalline rock and resembles externally the older diabases of the 
 region. A thin slice of this rock examined under the microscope 
 by Mr. W. W. Watts was found to " consist of augite and hyper- 
 sthene imbedded in and occurring amongst large plagioclase 
 prisms, some iron-ore being also present ; the rock is a hyperite." 
 A somewhat similar rock forms a small boss at Corb Bridge, five 
 miles south from Dunning, and is described by Mr. Kynaston as a 
 hyperite or norite. (Appendix, p. 257.) 
 
 The large basic dykes form prominent features in the geology of 
 the region. But they are much younger than the Old Red Sand 
 stone, and consequently will be more appropriately considered in a 
 later section of this volume. 
 
 Descriptions of the mode of occurrence of the various types of 
 rock which have been enumerated in the foregoing pages will 
 now be given in order to present an intelligible picture of the 
 present condition and original history of the volcanic series of the 
 Lower Old Red Sandstone. For this purpose it will be most con- 
 venient to take a series of easily accessible traverses of the Ochil 
 chain, and to show the nature and succession of the rocks that 
 may be seen in each of them. 
 
 1. Traverse of the Ochil Chain from Rumbling Bridge to Dunning. 
 
 First, let us follow a section through the very heart of the hills 
 as exposed along or not far from the road that runs from the 
 Rumbling Bridge to Dunning (Fig. 1). Beginning at the southern 
 end, we find ourselves among the agglomerates that form the lowest 
 visible portion of the whole volcanic series. These rocks lie here 
 on the dome or flattened crest of the great anticlinal fold above 
 referred to. Hence, as they are flat or only gently undulating, 
 they occupy the lower grounds, where they have been laid bare by 
 denudation, in valley after valley, while the lavas that overlie 
 them form the upper parts and cappings of the surrounding hills. 
 
 _ The southern limb of the anticline is here cut off by a large 
 dislocation, whereby the Carboniferous formations are brought 
 down against the rocks of the Ochil Hills. Immediately to the 
 south of this fault the shales, clays, sandstones, and cement- 
 stones of the lowest group of the Carboniferous system are seen 
 in the bed of the River Devon below Nether Dalkeith. On the 
 north side lies the great volcanic series of the Lower Old Red 
 Sandstone. The observer has here excellent facilities for the 
 study of this series, seeing that it has been laid open in the 
 ravine cut ui it by the Devon, as well as on many rocky hummocks 
 and occasional quarries on the surrounding ground. Nowhere, 
 however, is the bottom of the vast volcanic pile laid open. The 
 lowest rocks visible are coarse and fine agglomerates and tuffs— 
 
Lower Old Red Sandstone. 
 
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 thoroughly volcanic ' materials, 
 derived from the explosion of 
 various andesitic lavas. The 
 blocks in them vary up to three 
 feet or more in diameter, and are 
 angular, subangular, or roughly 
 rounded. The matrix in which 
 they lie is a finer detritus of the 
 same materials. For the most 
 part the agglomerates are un- 
 stratified. But here and there 
 more or less distinct bedding may 
 be observed in them, such as might 
 have resulted from a partial re- 
 arrangement of the ejected stones 
 and dust by the movement of the 
 water into which they fell. A 
 good section of the unstratified 
 condition of the agglomerate may 
 be seen on the side of the road 
 immediately to the south of the 
 Rumbling Bridge Station. An 
 example of the indefinite re- 
 assortment of the debris into 
 layers may be found in an old 
 quarry at the farm of Oraigend, 
 on the inlier of the Monk's Grave, 
 a little farther east. The rude 
 bedding of the rock is seen in the 
 upper part of the quarry, which 
 is further interesting from the 
 presence of numerous angular 
 fragments of a somewhat decayed 
 pink orthophyric rock with 
 beautiful flow-structure. 
 
 It will be understood that the 
 coarse agglomerates now described 
 indicate the fragmental discharges 
 of one or more volcanic vents in 
 this neighbourhood. The thick- 
 ness of the accumulation cannot 
 be ascertained owing to the con- 
 cealment of its bottom, but must 
 amount to at least several hundred 
 feet. On this foundation of con- 
 solidated breccias and tuffs the 
 whole vast volcanic pile of the 
 Ochils rests. 
 
 The same mass of agglomerate 
 and tuff may be seen at intervals 
 
20 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 in the bed of the Devon above the Crook. At Fossaway it passes 
 under the group of lavas which extends northwards through 
 Lendrick Hill (1496 feet), and sweeps thence over the surrounding 
 hills to the north, east, and west. The road runs upon the 
 agglomerates as far north as Whiteriggs, four miles and a half 
 above the Crook of Devon, and the same basement rocks may be 
 traced for many miles westward along the course of the Biver 
 Devon and its tributary valleys, forming everywhere the lowest 
 volcanic platform. Good sections of them may be examined in the 
 streams which descend from the Lendrick ridge between Fossaway 
 and Whiteriggs, and in the channel of the Devon itself. 
 Occasionally they may be observed to include a thin lava-bed or a 
 sill, while intrusive bosses and dykes may also be noticed in them. 
 At the foot of the Glendey Burn, where our road turns northward 
 from the Devon valley, a compact purplish andesite has invaded 
 the agglomerate, and has sent numerous veins and threads into it 
 and indurated it along the contact. The last section of this great 
 sheet of agglomerate exposed in the valley of the Glendey Burn 
 will be found in a small streamlet which, descending from the 
 higher slopes of Lendrick Hill, shows a coarse agglomerate enclos- 
 ing angular fragments and blocks of andesite in a dirty chocolate- 
 brown matrix, some of the included masses being several feet 
 in diameter. Higher up this brook, the agglomerate is seen to be 
 pierced by a number of veins or sills, by which it has been much 
 indurated. About 630 yards above the mouth of the brook, and at 
 a height of 300 feet above the bottom of the valley, the lavas 
 supervene. Hence, a thickness of at least three hundred feet of 
 coarse pyroclastic material can here be studied. The upper limit 
 of the agglomerate is well defined by the bottom of the over- 
 lying lavas, which, as the whole volcanic series continues so flat, 
 can be followed as a nearly level line, winding along the hill 
 slopes on either side of the Glendey valley and far up the vale of 
 the Devon. 
 
 These lavas, about 400 feet thick in Lendrick Hill, pass nnder 
 a sheet of coarse tuff or agglomerate, of which only a small outlier 
 is left as a cake capping the summit of the ridge. They are 
 further exposed on the roadside above Whiteriggs, where they 
 consist of dark purplish amygdaloidal andesites of the usual type. 
 
 They are succeeded by felsite-like orthophyres which display well- 
 marked flow-structure and are often brecciated. The occurrence 
 of such acid rocks, in alternation with andesites and even more 
 basic lavas, has already been referred to as having long been noticed 
 in the corresponding volcanic mass of the Pentland Hills. The 
 occurrence of fragments of these rocks in the conglomerates 
 and sandstones proves that they belong to the volcanic series, 
 but it is sometimes difficult to decide whether the sheets which 
 the orthophyres form should be regarded as interstratified lavas 
 or as subsequently intruded sills. The broken-up flow-structure 
 sometimes closely simulates true pyroclastic breccia, and it is 
 quite possible that some of it may actually be due to the accumula- 
 
Lower Old Bed Sandstone. 21 
 
 tion of ejected fragments. But there seems to be no doubt that 
 in other cases it is a brecciation that was produced during the 
 flow of the pasty rock, when the parts that had become devitrified 
 and solid were disrupted and carried along by the still uncongealed 
 portions. These rocks are typically developed at Craig Rossie, 
 near Auchterarder, and are further referred to on p. 23. 
 
 Upon the hill-slopes on the west side of the valley, above 
 Whiteriggs, a band of tuff is exposed in several watercourses, lying 
 among the dark andesites. What appears to be the same band 
 is traceable on the east side of the valley round the side of 
 Myrehaugh Hill. At the Lamb Linn, a waterfall on the South 
 Queich above Myrehaugh, dark fine-grained andesite appears, 
 together with some indurated coarse agglomerate. At another 
 small waterfall a little further up the stream the top of another 
 andesite sheet shows a somewhat slaggy matrix, and has included 
 large blocks of different andesites. Three hundred yards from the 
 Lamb Linn a pink felsitic dyke rises vertically through a purple 
 andesite of normal type. It crosses the stream and appears to be 
 the same as one which may be seen slanting across Glenross Burn 
 on the west side of the ridge of Mellock Hill. The rock of this 
 dyke is somewhat crystalline and possesses a well-marked banded 
 flow-structure, the striping running parallel to the vertical walls. 
 This structure sometimes exhibits a wavy wriggling round cores of 
 a pseudo-spheroidal nature. Alternations of pink and pale 
 purplish breccias, or brecciated orthophyres and andesites, form the 
 next- parts of the volcanic series on either side of the valley. 
 These rocks, as already mentioned, present many points of resem- 
 blance to the pale rhyolite-like orthophyres and tuffs of the 
 Pentland and Peeblesshire Old Red Sandstone volcanic series. In 
 some parts they are fissile and laminated, but so decomposed that it 
 is often hardly possible to determine whether their internal 
 arrangement should be regarded as the flow-structure of lavas or as 
 the stratification of fine tuffs. 
 
 The watershed is reached at a point on the road a little more 
 than half a mile above Littlerig, at a height of 1000 feet above the 
 sea, but there is no perceptible ridge. We pass insensibly across 
 the divide and find ourselves in the valley of the South Queich 
 Water, the drainage of which flows south-eastwards into Loch 
 Leven and thence by the River Leven into the Firth of Forth. 
 North of the watershed the brooks converge into the Water of 
 May, which turns northward into the River Earn and thus drains 
 into the Firth of Tay. 
 
 As we continue the traverse we begin to observe that not only 
 have we passed over the watershed, but we have also imperceptibly 
 crossed the axis of the anticlinal fold, and that the traverse leads 
 us somewhat more rapidly through an ascending section in the 
 volcanic series. At Oorb Bridge the stream flows over a band of 
 rather coarse agglomerate and tuff which, further down the valley, 
 includes numerous felsitic dykes and sheets, while immediately 
 above the bridge it is pierced by the small boss of coarsely 
 
22 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 crystalline " greenstone " above referred to. The rock forming most 
 of this boss has been examined microscopically by Mr. H. Kynaston, 
 who remarks that it shows a crystalline doleritic texture, and is 
 composed of plagioclase and enstatite, with a little interstitial 
 quartz and unstriped felspar. As already stated, it may be called 
 Hyperite or Norite. It may represent the deep-seated portions of 
 the enstatite-andesites. Beyond this intrusion a tolerably continu- 
 ous section of higher volcanic rocks includes reddish, pinkish, and 
 yellowish decomposed orthophyres, with vesicular andesites, bands 
 of agglomerate and tuff, and occasional veins of felsitic and mica- 
 bearing rocks. One of these dykes which crops out along the 
 bank on the south side of the road, about 400 yards east from the 
 Bridge, has been examined by Mr. Kynaston, whose description of 
 it will be found in the Appendix. On the roadside a quarter of a 
 mile north of Greenhill, a coarse agglomerate may be seen with 
 blocks of the normal type of andesite 18 inches in diameter. The 
 rocks which continue northwards by Tongue Faulds, Ferny Braes, 
 and Greenhill are then traversed by a fault which depresses them on 
 the eastern side. A thick intercalation of tuffs thereafter makes its 
 appearance and continues to show itself in numerous exposures as 
 far as Blaeberry, where it passes under some vesicular andesites. 
 These lavas traced northwards are soon found to be overlain by a 
 thick accumulation of tuffs and breccias which, with occasional 
 intercalations of lava-sheets, occupy most of the rest of the valley 
 down to Dunning. 
 
 Two dolerite dykes cross the line of section on the north and 
 south sides of Oockersfauld. These rocks, obviously of far later 
 date than those with which we are now dealing, probably belong 
 to the great Tertiary series, which plays so important a part in the 
 geological structure of Scotland. They will be described in a later 
 part of this volume (p. 172). 
 
 In pursuing our line of traverse we come upon several of the 
 vesicular or amygdaloidal andesites just referred to as interstratified 
 among the tuffs to the north of Oockersfauld. One of these is well 
 exposed in the Dunning Burn immediately below Shorter Bridge ; 
 another and thinner sheet may be seen on the upper side of the 
 bridge. The rocks have now a decided inclination northwards or 
 down-stream, and the angle of inclination gradually increases, so 
 that we enter with increasing rapidity into higher portions of the 
 series. This northward dip can be detected even from a distance 
 by the slope of the escarpments, as is well displayed on the hill- 
 side to the east of the Dunning Burn, immediately to the north of 
 the Balquhandy Burn. 
 
 A little below Quilts the mass of hyperite, to which reference 
 has already been made, pierces the lavas and tuffs. It forms a boss 
 which is traversed for a breadth of 700 feet by the stream. On its 
 eastern side a narrow dyke of " greenstone," which may be an off- 
 shoot from it, traverses a characteristic example of the pyroclastic 
 materials of this group of rocks— a reddish and greenish tuff, 
 consisting of angular, subangular, and rounded lapilli and larger 
 
Lower Old Bed Sandstone. 23 
 
 pieces"of different lavas imbedded in a dull granular paste. This 
 rock has a more or less distinct bedding, its strata dipping towards 
 the north-west at about 8°. Further down, below the Pitincailow 
 dolerite-dyke, the tuff is coarser, contains lumps of vesicular 
 andesite, and has scattered felspar crystals in its matrix. Similar 
 large and small blocks of slaggy andesite may be seen in the tuff 
 that overlies a sheet of andesite below Pitincailow. 
 
 A fine section of the highest members of the volcanic series in 
 this part of the district has been laid open in the Pitcairns Glen 
 by the erosion of the Dunning Burn. Above the thick accumula- 
 tion of tuff that extends northward beyond Pitincailow, a mass of 
 dark andesite supervenes which can be followed for some 400 yards 
 down the glen. Its upper portion presents the slaggy amyg- 
 daloidal structure characteristic of the surface of a true lava-flow. 
 It passes below an interesting group of alternations of volcanic tuff 
 with ordinary sandy and gravelly sediment. The sandstones and 
 conglomerates, though largely composed of non-volcanic detritus 
 which was transported from some source outside of the volcanic 
 area, includes much igneous material. Thin bands of tuff alternate 
 with the red sandstones and conglomerates, the whole group being 
 inclined towards the north-west at from 10° to 15°. Some of the 
 tuffs are still tolerably coarse, for they enclose stones measuring a 
 foot in diameter. 
 
 By degrees the volcanic materials diminish in quantity and give 
 place to a group of red, grey, and brown flagstones and shales 
 forming the base of the great overlying Lower Old Red Sandstone 
 of Strath Earn. But even when the deposition of ordinary 
 sediment had set in and had begun to bury the huge pile of 
 volcanic material, the eruptions had not entirely ceased. We 
 have evidence of this continuance of subterranean activity in two 
 separate sheets of andesite intercalated among the sandstones and 
 shales close to Dunning. One of these is crossed by the Dunning 
 Burn immediately above Newton of Pitcairns ; the other and larger 
 mass is the rock of Dunning quarry, a quarter of a mile west from 
 the village. That some part of the volcanic bank remained long 
 above water may be inferred from the abundance of rolled 
 fragments from its lava imbedded in the sandstones and conglome- 
 rates of the overlying sedimentary series. 
 
 Eeference has been made in the foregoing pages to Craig Rossie, 
 near Auchterarder, and as the remarkable rocks of that hill and 
 its neighbourhood stretch nearly as far as Dunning more special 
 reference to them seems to be required here. They appear on the 
 Geological Survey maps as tuffs and volcanic breccias, to which 
 they have in many respects a most deceptive resemblance. 
 Recent renewed examination of them, however, has proved that 
 they are not clastic rocks, but true lavas with admirably perfect 
 flow-structure. It is the singular perfection of this structure 
 which has led to their being regarded as stratified masses. 
 
 Craig Rossie is the central and highest eminence in a chain of 
 hills composed of the type of rock now referred to. The mass 
 
24 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 reposes upon the ordinary dark slaggy andesites, and dips gently 
 north-westwards like the rest of the volcanic series. The rock is 
 pinkish-grey, weathering almost white and then passing into a 
 kind of " claystone." On a fresh fracture the texture is felsitic or 
 horny. Porphyritic felspars are everywhere abundant, and _ small 
 plates of mica are sometimes numerous. But the distinguishing 
 characteristic of the rock is its flow-structure, which on fresh faces 
 appears in cross-section as parallel inconstant streaky lines, some- 
 times wavy and occasionally overfolded. The rock has evidently 
 been tolerably viscous while flowing. There is a kind of "crag 
 and tail" arrangement in the lee of the larger phenocrysts, 
 like the wisps of crushed material behind the larger fragments of the 
 crushed pegmatites in Sutherland and Eoss. And this arrange- 
 ment gives rise to little confluent ridges and knobs on weathered 
 surfaces. Here and there the laminae have been broken up after 
 consolidation, and the fragments have been enveloped in a matrix 
 of the still moving material, so as to give rise to a flow-breccia. 
 
 Occasionally pieces of the dark andesite are enclosed in the 
 rock. There occur also ovoid or ellipsoidal inclusions which are 
 mainly composed of a minute quartz aggregate or mosaic, and are 
 doubtless of secondary origin. These ellipses remind one of the 
 structures of some nodular silicified felsites. 
 
 So parallel and defined are the lines of flow that they give 
 the rock a thoroughly flaggy structure, so that it could be split 
 into large thin slabs. No one looking at it from a little distance 
 would be likely to take it for anything but a truly bedded rock. 
 Closer examination, however, would show him that now and then 
 the apparent stratification makes a great curve upward or downward 
 after the manner of rhyolites and obsidians. 
 
 A microscopic examination of this rock by Mr. H. Kynaston 
 shows it to possess a groundmass of microcrystalline quartz and fel- 
 spar and felsitic material with numerous small idiomorphic felspars. 
 The larger porphyritic felspars include probably orthoclase and 
 an acid plagioclase. A small proportion of rounded quartz-grains 
 is present, together with more numerous flakes of biotite. (See 
 Appendix, p. 254.) 
 
 That this interesting rock is not an intrusive mass, but a true 
 lava which was poured out at the surface, is convincingly shown by 
 a section in the line of railway near Pairnie, a little to the north of 
 Craig Eossie. At the east end of the cutting the Craig Eossie 
 rock may be seen with its usual features. It there passes under a 
 conglomerate or agglomerate made up of its fragments which are 
 imbedded in a matrix of fine green and red sand. The stones are 
 angular and subangular, sometimes somewhat rounded, and have 
 been thrown down promiscuously, large and small, with no bedded 
 arrangement and not infrequently standing on end. The appearance 
 of this deposit suggests some process such as that of volcanic explo- 
 sion, whereby stones of all sizes, up to two feet in diameter, were 
 thrown down upon a water-bottom where fine sandy silt was 
 accumulating at the time, and where the silt eventually filled up 
 
Lower Old Bed Sandstone. 25 
 
 the interstices between the loose blocks. The sandy constituent 
 increases in quantity, and the stones diminish in number and size, 
 as the deposit is traced upward, though an occasional band of 
 breccia may still be met with. But eventually the strata pass up 
 into the ordinary red sandstones that underlie the plains of Strath 
 Earn. 
 
 The felsitic rock of Craig Rossie is thus the latest of the volcanic 
 outpourings of that part of the Ochil chain. It furnishes a fresh 
 example of the law that in a prolonged volcanic period the last 
 emitted lavas tend to assume a more acid type than those with 
 which the first eruptions began. 
 
 The great plain of Old Red Sandstone between the chain of the 
 Ochil Hills and the flanks of the Highlands lies beyond our present 
 district. It may be mentioned, however, that the red sandstones 
 of this region which overlie the Ochil volcanic series are proved to 
 belong to the Lower Old Red Sandstone by the discovery in them of 
 specimens of Pteraspis and other typical fishes near Bridge of Allan. 
 Again, on the eastern side, from beneath the volcanic pile in the 
 Oarse of Gowrie, other organic remains have been obtained belong- 
 ing to an older part of the same division of the geological record. 
 
 2. Traverse of the Ochil Chain along Glen Farg. 
 
 A second traverse of the Ochil chain, about ten miles further to 
 the north-east along the line of Glen Farg, will be found to differ 
 in most respects from that which has just been described (Tig. 2). 
 The ground is much lower, the hills on either side ranging from 
 700 to 900 feet. The area lies on the south-eastern side of the anti- 
 cline, so that, the rocks being inclined in a south-easterly direction, 
 successively lower members of the volcanic series are met with as 
 we cross the chain from south to north. Again, the vast under- 
 lying mass of agglomerates and tuffs is now deeply buried under 
 higher portions of the series, which here consists almost entirely 
 of lavas. It is obvious that in moving towards the north-east 
 we leave behind us the chief centre of eruption in this part of the 
 Ochil chain. The ashes do not seem to have been discharged over 
 such long distances as were reached by many of the outflows of 
 lava. 
 
 Following the plan of taking the older portions of each series of 
 rocks first, we must reverse the direction pursued in the previous 
 traverse, and begin at the north side of the hills. As the valley of 
 Glen Farg has offered a convenient route for both the Great North 
 Road and for the line of railway by way of the Forth Bridge to 
 Perth, numerous instructive sections are to be met with on 
 the sides of the valley, in the bed of the stream, along the high 
 road, and in the railway cuttings. Starting on the Carse-land of the 
 lower part of Strath Barn (Sheet 48), and looking eastwards down 
 the line of the Firth ofTay, we can follow with the eye the line of 
 axis of the great anticlinal arch already referred to. On the left, or 
 north (Perthshire) side, the escarpments along the steep hillsides 
 
26 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 ■ >B 
 
 S.S a> 
 
 .-EH 
 
 CI - V 
 
 face to the south-east, while the dip slopes, 
 which show the inclination of the rocks, are 
 directed to the opposite quarter. The 
 southern, or Fife, side displays an arrange- 
 ment exactly the reverse ; we can mark 
 that the dip of the rocks is there towards 
 the south-east. 
 
 We first cross the platform of the 50-feet 
 raised beach, which, though here more than 
 two miles broad, rapidly contracts above 
 Bridge of Barn to not more than half a 
 mile. This marine platform forms a broad 
 fertile plain, through which the Earn 
 meanders until it joins the Tay four miles 
 below Bridge of Earn. A higher terrace, 
 belonging to the so-called 100-feet beach, 
 may be traced as it winds along the slopes 
 between the plain of the lower beach and 
 the steeper rise of ground immediately 
 to the south. Between the edge of this 
 terrace and the foot of the hills occasional 
 exposures of rock show that the Upper 
 Old Eed Sandstone fills the bottom of 
 this part of Strath Earn. These strata 
 at Quarry Hall, west of Bridge of Earn, 
 lie unconfbrmably upon the lavas of the 
 older division of the system. The exposure 
 is unfortunately now filled up, but numerous 
 blocks of the dull purplish-red sandstone 
 may be seen enclosing pieces of andesite 
 and also fragments of the Craig Eossie 
 type of rock. The same strata cross the 
 Tay and underlie the Oarse of Cowrie, 
 where, at Clashbennie, they long ago fur- 
 nished the original type specimen of the 
 characteristic Upper Old Bed Sandstone 
 fish, Soloptychius nobilissimus. .That we 
 are here dealing with the highest portion 
 of the Old Bed Sandstone is shown by the 
 occurrence of a small outlier of the base- 
 ment beds of the Carboniferous system 
 which has survived at East Dron. These 
 strata consist of red and greenish shales 
 and marls, white and red sandstones, and 
 fine conglomerate, evidently belonging to 
 the "Cement-stone group," to be after- 
 wards described. This identification of 
 their stratigraphical position is confirmed 
 by the discovery in them of remains of 
 Lower Carboniferous species of plants, 
 
Lower Old Bed Sandstone. 27 
 
 shells and fish. The survival of such a small patch of strata raises 
 some interesting questions. It indicates, for reasons to be more 
 fully given a few sentences further on, that part at least of the 
 Carboniferous system extended across the Ochils, and spread north- 
 ward into the region beyond. How far this system ever stretched 
 over the area of the Highlands remains for future determination. 
 There can be no doubt that Carboniferous strata covered some 
 part of Argyllshire, as is shown by the survival of portions of them 
 at Campbeltown, Pass of Brander, and Sound of Mull. 
 
 The Upper Old Red Sandstone and Carboniferous formations of 
 Strath Earn have been dropped into their present position by two 
 main faults which run approximately parallel in a north-easterly 
 direction along the centre of the anticline. It is as if the crown of 
 an arch had given way and sunk down. The line of the two 
 fractures nearly coincides with the abrupt rise of ground on either 
 side above the alluvial plain. It will be seen from the map (Sheet 
 48) that a portion of the volcanic series has also been dropped 
 between the two faults in the middle of the valley south of Forgan- 
 denny. The extent of displacement in these dislocations may 
 amount to several thousand feet, for the younger formations are 
 brought down against the lowest parts of the Lower Old Red Sand- 
 stone series along the crest of the great anticline. It can 
 hardly be more precisely determined without fuller informa- 
 tion as to the extent of the unconformability of the younger 
 formations on the Lower Old Red Sandstone. If in imagina- 
 tion we attempt to reconstruct the original arrangement of the 
 strata, we perceive that the Carboniferous shales of Dron, on 
 any view of the unconformability, must at first have lain many 
 hundred feet higher, and in that position would be prolonged across 
 the site of the Ochils. If, further, we suppose, as is highly probable, 
 that these shales were followed continuously by the rest of the 
 Carboniferous system, we realise that the Ochil chain may well 
 have been actually buried under a deep overlying cover of younger 
 Palaeozoic sediments. 
 
 Let us now cross the line of the great fault immediately to the 
 south of Aberargie, on the edge of the alluvial plain of lower Strath 
 Barn. The actual fault itself cannot be seen owing to the spread 
 of superficial deposits. But the rocks on the two sides can be 
 traced to within about 150 yards of each other. At the lodge of 
 Ayton House, red sandstones and conglomerates are exposed in the 
 brook, while at the mill immediately to the south, the dark 
 andesites of the volcanic series make their appearance. The line 
 of fault must pass through the alluvial haugh between these two 
 points. 
 
 Though the base of the volcanic rocks is not seen here, owing 
 to the effects of the fault, there can be little doubt that the 
 andesites lie not far above the bottom of the series. A bout four 
 miles to the north-east, sandstones and conglomerates are found 
 to rise from underneath the lavas, and to extend for some ten 
 miles along the south-side of the Firth of Tay. These strata 
 
28 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 present the ordinary characters of the sedimentary portion of the 
 Lower Old Bed Sandstone of this region. But they were not 
 entirely deposited before the beginning of the volcanic eruptions, 
 for on the shore about a mile south-west from Balmerino they 
 include some bands of andesite. 
 
 It will be observed that there is here no representative of the 
 thick mass of agglomerates and tuffs which forms the foundation 
 of the volcanic pile of the Ochil chain further to the west, as above 
 described. The lavas come immediately above the lower sand- 
 stone series. But they include several bands of tuff and volcanic 
 conglomerate. Of these the lowest are well seen at the foot of 
 Abernethy Glen, where, though they consist mainly of conglo- 
 meratic material derived from the lavas, they include also layers of 
 greenish felspathic sandstone, which show a gentle inclination 
 towards the south-east. A similar volcanic conglomerate is 
 intercalated among the lavas. 
 
 At the mouth of Glen Farg, immediately to the south of Ayton 
 House, the bottom of the gorge is occupied by dark purplish 
 finely porphyritic andesites, which dip gently into the hills and 
 extend southwards as far as the 7th milestone from Perth. The 
 upper surface of the highest sheet is highly vesicular and 
 slaggy, and passes under a coarse agglomerate of angular and 
 subangular fragments of andesite like the lavas underneath, 
 embedded in a granular matrix of the same material. This 
 fragmental band has a thickness of about 200 feet. It forms the 
 crags on the west front of Trapmore Hill, in the grounds of Ayton 
 House, and is well seen also at the north-western mouth of the 
 railway tunnel near Kilnockiebank. At its upper limit in the 
 bottom of the glen, it is pierced by one of the smaller intrusive 
 bosses, consisting of a fine-grained purplish-grey porphyrite, in 
 which the minute porphyritic felspars have a general orientation 
 parallel to the faces of a set of curved divisional planes whereby 
 the rock is split into thin slabs. (See Mr. Kynaston's description of 
 this rock in the Appendix.) Thereafter the lava-sheets set in with 
 a copious development, and continue throughout the rest of the 
 traverse. They consist of dark-brown, purple, or blue compact 
 andesites, often abundantly vesicular or amygdaloidal, and present- 
 ing the characteristic slaggy structure of true lavas. Some of these 
 sheets are beautifully porphyritic, from the presence of large flat 
 tabular plagioclase crystals. An occasional bed may be noticed 
 which weathers spheroidally, is more solid and massive than 
 the ordinary andesites, and on a fresh fracture shows abundant 
 heematitic pseudomorphs, after a pyroxene or olivine, and others of 
 a black mica. The amygdaloidal kernels consist of various minerals 
 of infiltration, particularly calcite, agate, quartz, and zeolites. 
 Among the minerals for which these andesites have long been 
 famous, the following may here be cited: — Calcite, quartz, 
 chalcedony, prehnite, laumontite, analcime, natrolite, saponite, 
 celadonite. Besides these amygdaloidal minerals, the andesites 
 have yielded a number of other species in veins or nests or diffused 
 
Lower Old Bed Sandstone. 29 
 
 through the body of the rock. These include native copper, 
 chalcocite, pyrite, fluor-spar, cuprite, hasmatite, iserine, limonite, 
 psilomelane (in dendritic form), malachite, datolite, chrysocolla, and 
 hydro-carbon compounds. The distinctive mineral components 
 of these rocks are plagioclase (commonly labradorite), enstatite, 
 augite, olivine, and magnetite. 
 
 The andesite lavas usually succeed each other without the inter- 
 calation of tuff or any stratified deposit. But the successive flows 
 can easily be distinguished by their peculiarly slaggy upper and 
 under surfaces. Some admirable fresh examples of this structure 
 may be seen in the railway and in the new cuttings required by the 
 deviation of the high road. The absence of intercalated sedimentary 
 layers probably accounts for the absence of the ramifying veins 
 of sandstone, which are so characteristic of the lavas of the same 
 period in other parts of Scotland, and even in the prolongation 
 of the Ochil chain into the east of Fife at Tayport. Possibly the 
 lavas in the Glen Farg district followed each other so rapidly 
 that they allowed insufficient time for the deposition of sediment 
 between them. 
 
 Immediately to the south of where the road crosses the Farg 
 for the last time, an interesting section may be seen by the side 
 of the railway, where an andesite sill, similar to the basic pyroxene- 
 andesites above and below it, has thrust itself between them. It 
 is five feet thick on the level of the rails, but rapidly thins away 
 northward. At its contact with the contiguous andesite, it shows 
 the fine-grained edge induced by more rapid cooling, and this 
 marginal portion is finely cellular, the minute vesicles being drawn 
 out into tube-like shapes parallel to the surface of contact. The 
 body of the rock is crowded with porphyritic felspars, which have 
 arranged themselves parallel with the planes of the sill. (For 
 petrographical descriptions of these rocks by Mr. Kynaston, see 
 Appendix.) 
 
 Beyond the southern end of the glen two dolerite dykes 
 belonging to the Tertiary series, to be afterwards more fully con- 
 sidered, rise through the volcanic series. One of these crosses the 
 line of traverse immediately south of Damhead, and has been 
 quarried away so as to leave the vertical walls of the fissure up 
 which the molten material ascended. The second and more 
 important example occurs a little further on at Thievesmill, near 
 the farm of Oarmore. 
 
 In this neighbourhood lies the large boss already noticed as 
 piercing the volcanic series a little to the west of Duncrevie. At 
 the south-western edge of the mass the rock encloses angular 
 pieces of amygdaloidal andesite. 
 
 Immediately to the south of the Thievesmill dyke, which has 
 been cut through in the railway, we emerge from the volcanic 
 series and enter the area of the Upper Old Ked Sandstone of the 
 Kinross-shire plain and the Howe of Fife. Although the actual 
 junction of the two formations is not seen, there can be no doubt 
 that here, as elsewhere, it is formed by a marked unconformability. 
 
30 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 All the vast mass of red sandstones and conglomerates which, 
 on the other side of the hills, overlies the volcanic rocks in 
 Strath Allan and Strath Earn, as well as in Strath More,_is here 
 completely overspread and buried by the younger formation. 
 
 3. Traverse of the Ochil Chain between Newburgh and Auchtermuchty. 
 
 The third traverse, which may be made for the purpose of 
 illustrating the nature and arrangement of the rocks that form the 
 Lower Old Red Sandstone of this district, runs across the Ochil 
 range from Newburgh to Auchtermuchty (Fig. 3). Along the 
 shore of the Firth of Tay a strip of red sandstones and conglo- 
 merates emerges from underneath the volcanic pile, but is mostly 
 concealed under the raised beaches. Immediately behind Newburgh 
 the lavas make their appearance, and form a line of bold escarp- 
 ments, which face the firth for many miles. Nowhere throughout 
 the district does the inner anatomy of the ground reveal itself 
 more clearly at the surface than along the steep slopes between 
 Newburgh and Glen Farg. Each successive sheet of the great 
 volcanic mass shows its position by a rocky rib or grassy depression, 
 and these features, running parallel to each other, retire into (each 
 recess that has been worn out of the declivities. The lowest lavas 
 at Newburgh are dull green slaggy and amygdaloidal andesites of 
 common types. Immediately to the south of the railway at the east 
 end of the town they are followed by an intercalation about 30 feet 
 thick of volcanic conglomerate and sandstone. The lowest sand- 
 stone lies directly upon the slaggy top of an andesite, and fits into 
 its inequalities so closely that at first the line of demarcation 
 between the two rocks is not quite apparent. These sedimentary 
 materials have been derived almost entirely from the destruction of 
 volcanic rocks, partly by ordinary aqueous erosion, but partly also, 
 perhaps, by volcanic explosion. The fine andesitic material of the 
 sandstones may be largely of the nature of ash or tuff. Above 
 these strata lies a remarkable rock which forms a succession of 
 crags along the front of the steep ground behind Newburgh. It 
 is conspicuous from a distance by its massive thickness, its 
 precipitous cliffs, and the rich yellow tint it assumes on weathering 
 — features which mark it off in contrast with those of the ordinary 
 andesites. On examination it is found to be a fine-grained grey 
 rock like some of those which have been observed forming intrusive 
 bosses. It _ has a strongly - developed platy structure, the plates 
 or flags being highly inclined or vertical. It is not vesicular or 
 amygdaloidal, but retains the same persistent close texture and 
 platy_ arrangement. It resembles the intrusive porphyrite above 
 described as exposed in the quarry near the foot of Glen Farg. 
 A thin section of the rock examined under the microscope gave the 
 characters enumerated at p. 256 of the Appendix. 
 
 That this rock is a great sill and not one of the true surface lavas 
 might be inferred from its texture, its uniformity, and its mass. But 
 this inference can, fortunately, be confirmed by nearly conclusive 
 
Lower Old Red Sandstone. 
 
 31 
 
 A 
 
 
 ■o 5 
 
 3«8 
 
 2 CO 
 
 S 3 
 ° a 
 
 O 
 
 -1 
 "o 
 
 g a 
 
 d o 
 
 ■■5H 
 
 f 
 
 01 Q3 
 
 pq o- 
 
 WlJB 
 
 So 
 
 1 
 
 -3 
 
 II 
 
 « 
 
 proofs. The rock forms the commanding 
 eminence of Clatchard Hill, crowned by an 
 ancient fort, and it presents on the north 
 side a high cliff which descends to the rail- 
 way. The top of the hill is 390 feet above 
 the sea, and the base of the porphyrite 160 
 feet, so that the rock must be more than 230 
 feet thick, for its top is not seen. Few of 
 the individual sheets of andesitic lava attain 
 a fourth or fifth part of that thickness. 
 Where it rests upon the zone of conglomerate 
 and sandstone, above referred to, the in- 
 trusive mass sends veins into it, and in at 
 least one place has invaded the sandstones 
 by sending a sill between their strata. 
 There can thus be little doubt that this 
 massive sheet is intrusive. It forms the 
 most important sill that has yet been detected 
 in the Ochil chain. 
 
 The ordinary andesites resume their place 
 further south with their familiar characters. 
 They include an occasional intercalation of 
 sandstone or of conglomerate mainly com- 
 posed of volcanic detritus. The most im- 
 portant of these, and that on account of 
 which this traverse is mainly taken, is a 
 great bank of interposed conglomerate, 
 which is about nine miles in length, for it 
 stretches from above Strathmiglo to beyond 
 Monimail. It attains a maximum thickness 
 of probably not less than 1700 feet. It 
 includes some interstratified sheets of ande- 
 site, which are most numerous in its south- 
 western part, where they thicken out and 
 join together. Another group of lavas, in- 
 tercalated in its lower portion, dies out 
 towards the south-west, but increases rapidly 
 in the opposite direction, till the several 
 sheets conjoin to the exclusion of the con- 
 glomerate. It would thus appear that during 
 the piling up of this bank of fragmental 
 material, one set of lava-streams reached it 
 from the north-east, while another flowed up 
 to it from the south-west. The conglomerate 
 rapidly dies out among the lavas along its 
 line of strike, both towards north-east and 
 south-west. It is traversed throughout its 
 length by the Tertiary dyke last mentioned. 
 
 This remarkable accumulation of frag- 
 mentary material may be conveniently 
 
32 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 examined by the side of the. road leading north from the village of 
 Auchtermuchty, and also in the Glassert Den, through which flows 
 the Beggar's Burn, a little further north. Its upper parts consist 
 of an andesitic agglomerate, which appears to have originated more 
 from volcanic explosions than from the denudation of exposed lava. 
 Comparatively few of the stones are rounded, most of them being 
 subangular or angular. It is a dull dirty-green unstratified rock, of 
 which the matrix is a granular paste of andesitic detritus. 
 
 In the Glassert Den good sections of lower parts of the deposit 
 show it to contain much more distinct evidence of water-action 
 and to be mainly a conglomerate of volcanic materials, though 
 including coarse unstratified parts that can only be called 
 agglomerate. The component blocks, sometimes measuring two feet 
 in diameter, consist of many varieties of the eruptive rocks of the 
 hills. Slaggy andesites and orthophyric rocks of different types 
 may be observed, together with pieces of fine-grained tuff. These 
 materials, always thoroughly volcanic in origin, may have been 
 partly derived from explosions, but they obviously underwent con- 
 siderable abrasion and re-arrangement under water. That the erup- 
 tions were subaqueous is indicated by the rounded and smoothed or 
 water-worn forms of many of the stones, by their arrangement on 
 their flat sides, by the stratification of the conglomerate, and by its 
 intercalation with and passage into layers of fine and coarse 
 f elspathic pebbly sandstone. Such stratified zones in the body of the 
 rock may mark intervals of comparative quiescence in the volcanic 
 discharges, when the loose detritus already thrown out over the 
 floor of the lake was in some measure re-assorted by the water. 
 That there may have been some emergent parts of the volcano or 
 volcanic bank exposed to wave-action seems to be intimated by the 
 roundness of many of the stones, especially in those parts of the 
 deposit where stratification is best developed, in contrast to the 
 preponderance of angular and subangular fragments in the more 
 tumultuous portions. The loose slaggy surfaces of the lavas might 
 furnish some of the shingle, though most of it may rather have 
 been derived from the washing down of the sides of one or more 
 volcanic cones built up of ashes and stones. 
 
 While no part of this intercalated mass of fragmentary material 
 can be regarded as certainly marking the actual vent from which 
 the stones were discharged, the site of the eruptive orifice can 
 hardly be far off. Possibly it may lie a little to the south on the 
 area now covered by the Upper Old Eed Sandstone. The con- 
 glomerate passes underneath an upper series of andesites on which 
 the village of Auchtermuchty has been built, while immediately to 
 the south lies the plain of the Upper Old Bed Sandstone, the 
 junction between the two formations being here buried under drift 
 over which is spread the alluvium of the vanished Eossie Loch. 
 
Upper Old Red Sandstone. 33 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Upper Old Red Sandstone. 
 
 Eeference has already been made to the occurrence of the Upper 
 Old Red Sandstone on the north side of the Ochil chain, where it 
 has been let down between two parallel faults along the centre of 
 a great anticlinal fold. On the south side of the chain the same 
 formation occupies an extensive tract of country, which includes the 
 wide plain of Kinross and the long valley of Strath Eden known 
 as the Howe of Fife. 
 
 Though this subdivision of the system must obviously lie uncon- 
 formably on the Lower Old Red Sandstone and its volcanic pile, 
 no single section in the present district can at present be adduced 
 in proof of this relation, for the junctions of the formation are 
 buried under drift, and the section formerly visible to the west of 
 Bridge of Earn is now filled up, as has been already mentioned 
 (p. 26). But it is evident, from the large part of the lower division 
 which is concealed along the south side of the Ochil chain, that the 
 upper division overlaps it and spreads across its denuded outcrops. 
 
 A nearly complete section of the Upper Old Red Sandstone, as 
 developed in this district, is supplied by the Glen Burn, which rises 
 on the West Lomond Hill and flows across the strike of the strata 
 into the Eden. If we take the line of that stream from the base of 
 the Carboniferous escarpment of the Lomond Hills to the edge of 
 the volcanic series near Edentown and allow a south-easterly dip of 
 5°, a thickness of rather more than 2000 feet would be obtained. 
 But the angle of inclination sometimes falls to no more than 3°, 
 and there may be some slight undulations and small faults in 
 those parts of the ground where the strata are concealed for a brief 
 space under drift. We shall probably not over-state the thickness 
 if we assume it to be 1500 feet. It must be remembered, however, 
 that the true base of the formation is not seen here, and that the 
 visible thickness of strata may not represent the whole of the 
 Upper Old Red Sandstone. 
 
 This mass of strata consists of sandstones, marls, and conglome- 
 rates, generally of a dark brick-red colour, but with intercalations 
 of yellow, green, and white tints. At their top immediately below 
 the cornstone, which is taken as a convenient line of division 
 between the top of the Upper Old Red Sandstone and the base of 
 the Carboniferous system, they are overlain by a zone of white and 
 yellow sandstones. 
 
 The age of these sandstones and their associated strata in this 
 district is made clear by the evidence of fossils. Not many miles 
 
34 Geology of Cenfral and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 to the east lies the famous locality, Dura Den, whence so large a 
 number of well-preserved Upper Old Eed Sandstone ichthyolites 
 has been obtained. Some of the same characteristic genera and 
 species of fossil fishes have been detected at many places within 
 the present district all along the Howe of Fife from Pitlessie, near 
 Cupar, to the plains of Kinross-shire. So that there can be no 
 doubt that the Upper Old Eed Sandstone of Dura Den is continued 
 westward between the base of the Lomond range and the foot of 
 the Ochils. Scales of Holoptychim have been found, among other 
 localities, at Easter Cash, near Strathmiglo, at various horizons 
 in the Glen Burn, in the quarry at Easter Gospetry, and in the 
 Butterwell Quarry between Wester Gospetry and Moors of Kin- 
 nesswood. Scales of Bothriolepis have been obtained from a quarry 
 at Balgeddie, near Kinnesswood. Traces of fish have also been 
 detected in the zone of white and yellow sandstone above referred 
 to as lying immediately below the cornstone. 
 
 While occasional sections of the strata may be seen in the brooks 
 that traverse the plain of Kinross, the best and most continuous 
 exposures will be found along the sides of the Lomond, Bishop, 
 and Benarty hills, and more especially in the water-courses by 
 which these slopes have been channelled. The best section in the 
 district, and one of the most instructive in Scotland for showing the 
 general characters of the Upper Old Bed Sandstone and its relations 
 to the overlying Carboniferous system, will be found in the course 
 of the Glen Burn just referred to. Issuing from the hollow 
 between the West Lomond and Bishop's Hill this stream has cut 
 a succession of picturesque little ravines through different portions 
 of the strata. Prom its junction with the Eden near Burnside it 
 has laid open an almost continuous section up to its source. The 
 slopes which it traverses are only thinly covered with drift. The 
 boulder-clay, indeed, now exists here in mere scattered patches, 
 though abundant blocks of Highland rocks, dispersed over the sur- 
 face of the ground, show that it may once have been deeper and 
 more continuous. 
 
 Well-bedded red, grey, purple, and white sandstones, with thin part- 
 ings of red shale or marl, may be seen for nearly two miles up the Glen 
 Burn. These strata are often flaggy or false-bedded, and many of 
 them are crowded with " galls " or flat pellets of red or purple clay. 
 Some of the beds of this character contain plentiful fragments of 
 Holoptychius, which may be readily detected by their white or 
 yellowish colour on the dark ground of the stone. A good locality 
 for searching for ichthyolites will be found at the upper end of the 
 Gospetry fir-wood, above the road that passes by Moors of Kinness- 
 wood and Lappiemoss. A thin band of yellowish sandstone, well 
 charged with clay-galls and containing fragmentary fish-remains, 
 crops out at the foot of the scar on the left bank. A hundred 
 yards further up, similar remains occur in a band of red sandstone 
 at the bottom of the low cliff. 
 
 The sandstones become more massive and false-bedded as they 
 ascend in the series, till at a point in the stream a little more than 
 
Upper Old Eed Sandstone. 35 
 
 a mile south-east from Easter Gospetry they are succeeded by the 
 thick zone of soft white and yellow sandstones already mentioned. 
 These differ considerably from the strata below them, not merely 
 in colour, but in texture, composition, and structure. They are, as 
 a whole, coarse in their material, which consists of well-rounded 
 grains of quartz, not infrequently blue, and of' rolled grains of 
 felspar. The coarser layers show well the composition of the sedi- 
 ment, which must have been derived from the decay of rocks 
 wherein water-clear and also blue hyaline quartz, as well as white 
 and pink felspar, abounded. So felspathic and decayed are some 
 bands of these sandstones that, when a handful of their substance is 
 thrown into water, a white cloud of clay particles immediately 
 appears. A distinctive feature of this group of strata is to be 
 found in their remarkable false bedding. One bed may be seen 
 with its current lamination inclined towards north-west at 35°. 
 This lamination terminates upward along a sharply-defined plain 
 forming the bottom of another bed in which the layers dip south- 
 ward at 3°. These, again, are truncated in the same sharp way by 
 another bed in which the layers dip northward at 5°, while above 
 it lies a band in which the laminae are inclined in the same direc- 
 tion at 15°. These structures furnish a suggestive picture of the 
 shifting water-currents by which this group of pale sandstones was 
 accumulated. 
 
 These white and yellow sandstones appear to form the upper- 
 most zone of the " Dura Den beds " of the Bast of Fife. Though 
 they have not yielded here the same remarkable assemblage of 
 fishes as that for which Dura Den itself has long been celebrated, 
 they contain fish-remains, as was recently ascertained by Mr. B. 
 N. Peach. They perhaps only need to be quarried and laid open in a 
 fresh and unweathered condition to supply a similar series of 
 ichthyolites. 
 
 These sandstones continue for about 900 yards up the stream, 
 and in this space almost every one of their beds is exposed in 
 natural section, either in the bed of the water-course or in weathered 
 scarps and cliffs on either side. They are probably from 200 to 
 250 feet thick. At the head of a narrow gorge which the stream 
 has cut in them, and which ends at a waterfall, they contain sandy 
 nodular cornstone bands, of which as many as eight may be counted 
 in a thickness of 20 feet of soft white sandstone. Some of the 
 sandstone beds are also crowded with small concretions of sand 
 grains held together by a calcareous cement, and weathering out in 
 small pea-like aggregates. There can be little doubt that this zone 
 represents the cornstone which has been so generally found to 
 mark the upper limit of the Upper Old Eed Sandstone. It is 
 succeeded by a representative of the Cement-stone group at the 
 base of the Carboniferous system, to be afterwards described. 
 
 One of the important features of the section in the Glen Burn 
 is the short space of conformable strata which intervenes between 
 the Upper Old Eed Sandstone, with its peculiar fish-fauna, and the 
 Carboniferous series, where the fishes are so remarkably different. 
 
36 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 It is true, as will be afterwards pointed out, that the lowest sub- 
 division of the Carboniferous system, the Oalciferous Sandstones, is 
 abnormally thin in this district, and that a vast period of geological 
 time must here be unrepresented by stratified deposits. Never- 
 theless, even where the Oalciferous Sandstones attain their maximum 
 development, their fauna presents so great a contrast to that of 
 the Upper Old Eed Sandstone as to show either that the two 
 formations were really separated by a great interval of time, or that 
 the physical conditions under which they were respectively 
 accumulated were so entirely different as to involve a wide diverg- 
 ence in organic forms. 
 
 To the east and west of the admirable section in the Glen Burn, 
 the same strata may be examined in numerous less extensive and 
 continuous exposures. Immediately to the east of the gorge last 
 referred to, the white and yellow sandstones project in a succession 
 of rounded buttresses from the heathery slopes of the West 
 Lomond. The Kilgour Oraigs, further east, lie along the same 
 outcrop, and still further, in the same direction, a good section of the 
 strata from the black shales near the base of the Carboniferous 
 system down into the red sandstones of the Upper Old Red 
 Sandstone, will be found in the Maspie Den, above Falkland 
 House. 
 
 On the west side of the Glen Burn, the upper white and yellow 
 sandstones, with the red series below them, continue to show 
 themselves along the slopes of the Bishop Hill and Benarty. In 
 this part of the district, the cornstone zone has been specially well 
 developed, and the calcareous parts of it have been sufficiently 
 pure to have led to the opening of the rock in former years 
 along a line of shallow quarries and pits. Its outcrop may thus 
 be traced along the northern front of Benarty Hill from 
 above East Brackly to West Mains, and again on the south 
 side of the hill above Ballingry. The seam lies on white and 
 yellow sandstones, and is much brecciated and in places 
 strongly nodular. It is occasionally so exceedingly compact as to 
 give sparks when struck with a steel hammer. No trace of fossils 
 has been noticed in it. It is overlain by a black shale, and that 
 by greenish and blueish shales and clays, with cement-stone 
 nodules and bands of the true Cement-stone type of the Carboni- 
 ferous system. 
 
 To the south of Benarty Hill the regularity of the stratigraphical 
 .succession has been interrupted by a line of powerful dislocation, 
 which, by throwing down the Carboniferous formations on the 
 south side, has in some places brought the higher parts of the 
 Carboniferous Limestone series, and even a portion of the Coal- 
 measures, against the Upper Old Bed Sandstone. This fault 
 probably attains its maximum amount of throw about a mile to 
 the south-east of the southern end of Loch Leven, where the dis- 
 placement must exceed the total thickness of all the subdivisions 
 of the Carboniferous system up to the lower members of the Coal- 
 measures — that is, probably between 4000 and 5000 feet. 
 
Upper Old Red Sandstone. 37 
 
 On the north side of this great line of fracture, the higher portions 
 of the Upper Old Red Sandstone and their passage into the base of 
 the overlying system can be well seen at several places. On the south 
 side of Benarty Hill, for example, the yellow sandstones, together 
 with the overlying cornstone, so well exposed on the north side, 
 reappear for a short distance between the outcrop of the Carboni- 
 ferous strata and the line of the fault. But nine miles further to 
 the west, some more important exposures may be examined in the 
 Gairney Glen, and in the ravine of the Biver Devon below Caldron 
 Linn. The cornstone is there well developed between Mossendgreen 
 and the Devon, near Muckart, passing under the clays and sandstones 
 of the Carboniferous basement group and overlying the white and 
 red sandstones of the Upper Old Bed Sandstone. 
 
 In the midst of this tract there rises to the surface, at the 
 Monk's Grave, a small knob of the volcanic series of the Lower Old 
 Bed Sandstone already described. The presence of this inlier 
 shows on what an unconformable and uneven surface the Upper Old 
 Bed Sandstone must be resting. Instead of attaining a thickness 
 of 1500 or 2000 feet, as in the Lomond development, the formation 
 cannot be here more than 500 feet thick, and is possibly a good 
 deal less. This detached portion of Upper Old Bed Sandstone is 
 about two miles long and half a mile broad. On the north side it 
 passes conformably below the Cement-stone group, which is 
 immediately thrown down against the volcanic series by the great 
 boundary fault already referred to. On the south side it is cut off 
 by another powerful dislocation, which brings against it the higher 
 parts of the Carboniferous Limestone and the Millstone Grit. 
 
 The area of Upper Old Bed Sandstone, already alluded to, on 
 the north side of the Ochil chain, lies rather beyond the limits of 
 the district described in the present volume. It will be more appro- 
 priately treated in a subsequent Memoir dealing with the ground to 
 the north. 
 
38 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 CHAPTEE V. 
 
 The Carboniferous System — Calciferous Sandstone Series. 
 
 This assemblage of formations is the most important in the 
 whole district, from an industrial point of view, while in geological 
 variety and interest it surpasses all the others. In the following 
 account of it, a general table of its subdivisions will first 
 be given, and each of these will then be described _ in 
 order, beginning with the lowest. One of the most striking 
 features of the Carboniferous system as developed in Fife 
 is the enormous amount of igneous material associated with it. 
 This material may be conveniently arranged in two divisions — (1st) 
 that which was erupted contemporaneously with the strata among 
 which it lies, and (2nd) that which was intruded into the strata 
 after their deposition. The former division will be taken together 
 with the strata among which its several members occur, so that the 
 continuous geological history of the formations may be satisfactorily 
 followed. The latter division will come more conveniently for 
 description after an account has been given of all the sedimentary 
 formations in which the intrusions have taken place. 
 
 Table of the Carboniferous System in Central and 
 Western Fife. 
 
 Sign on 
 Map. 
 
 Groups of Strata. 
 
 Localities. 
 
 d 5 ' 
 d 5 
 
 Coal-Measubes. 
 
 b. Red, purple, and white sand- 
 stones, fireclays, shales and 
 marls, "with plant-remains and 
 thin coals. 1000 feet. 
 (This group appears to be equiva- 
 lent to the "Middle Coal- 
 measures" of England.) 
 
 a. White and grey sandstones, 
 black shales, oil-shales, iron- 
 stones, fireclays, and workable 
 coal-seams. 1750 feet. 
 (This division may be equivalent 
 to the "Lower Coal-measures" 
 of England. 
 
 Coast between Wemyss Castle and 
 Scoonie Links. Not seen in any 
 other part of the district, except 
 in a small outlier near Kinglassie. 
 
 Coast from west of Dysart to Wemyss 
 Castle and inland by Thornton to 
 Markinch, Kennoway, and Lundin, 
 and westward beyond Kinglassie. 
 
 d* 
 
 Millstone Grit. 
 
 White, grey, and reddish sand- 
 stones, fine quartz-conglome- 
 rates, and seams of black shale. 
 700 feet. 
 
 Coast for a length of 450 "yards 
 between Pathhead and Dysart, 
 whence the strata strike inland to 
 Markinch ; not well shown else- 
 where in the interior. 
 
The Carboniferous System — Galciferous Sandstone Series. 39 
 
 Sign on 
 Map. 
 
 d 2 
 
 Groups of Strata. 
 
 Cabbonifeeous Limestone Seeies. 
 
 v. Group of sandstones and shales, 
 with upper thin marine lime- 
 stones (Levenseat seam, Gair 
 or Janet Peat seam, and 
 Index seam) and thin seams of 
 coal. 1000 feet. 
 
 b. Group of white and yellow sand- 
 stones, shales, and fireclays, 
 with a number of workable 
 coals ("edge seams") and 
 ironstones. 1000 feet. 
 
 a. Group of sandstones and shales, 
 with lower marine limestones 
 (Hosie Hurlet). 
 
 Localities. 
 
 Coast at east end of Pathhead ; thence 
 north to Stenton and westward by 
 Kinglassie to Capeldrae. 
 
 Coast from Pathhead to the Tyrie 
 Bleach Works ; thence inland 
 through the collieries of Kirk- 
 caldy, Clunie, Cardenden, Auchter- 
 derran, Capeldrae, Lochgelly, 
 Kelty, Cowdenbeath, Pordel, Hal- 
 beath, Dunfermline, Saline, Oak- 
 ley, and Torryburn. 
 
 Coast between Kinghorn and Tyrie 
 Bleach Works ; thence inland by 
 Tough to Lochgelly, and Cullalo 
 Hills to Parkend, Duloch, Dun- 
 fermline, Charlestown, Lath- 
 almond, Cowdens, Roscobie, Craig- 
 luscar, Scaurhill. 
 
 Calctferous Sandstone Seeies. 
 
 6. Burdiehouse Limestone and Oil- 
 shale group, composed of white 
 sandstones and black shales, 
 with the Bivrdiehonse or Burnt- 
 island Limestone. In the part 
 of the district between Burnt- 
 island and Seafield this group 
 has its sedimentary deposits 
 in large measure replaced by 
 contemporaneous lavas ana 
 tuffs. At the top of this 
 group on the shore east of 
 Kinghorn some bands of lime- 
 stone full of marine fossils 
 (Abden Limestones) make 
 their appearance. They under- 
 lie the Hurlet Limestone, which 
 is taken as the base of the 
 Carboniferous Limestone series, 
 but they are really parts of 
 that series rather than of the 
 present group. 
 
 a. Cement-stone group, consisting 
 of red, yellow, and mottled 
 sandstones, red and green 
 sandy clays or marls, and thin 
 seams of cement-stone. This 
 group is the eastward ex- 
 tension of the " Ba) lagan 
 Beds" which underlie the 
 volcanic sheets of the Campsie 
 Hills. The extreme eastward 
 prolongation of the Campsie 
 volcanic series is found above 
 this group in the present 
 district. At the bottom of 
 the red sandstones lies a 
 remarkably persistent corn- 
 stone or sandy limestone, 
 which in central Scotland is 
 taken as the summit of the 
 Upper Old Red Sandstone and 
 base of the Carboniferous 
 system. 
 
 Coast from Seafield, by Kinghorn, 
 Pettycur, Burntisland, St. David's, 
 and Inverkeithing to Charlestown ; 
 inland in a small inlier between 
 Loch Fitty and the Roscobie Hills. 
 
 Ravine of the Devon below Rumbling 
 Bridge, Gairney Glen, northern 
 and eastern slopes of the Cult Hill 
 to the north of Saline, and the 
 northern slopes of the ridge which 
 includes Wether Hill, Scaur 
 Hill, and the western flanks of the 
 Cleish Hills to near Hardistown. 
 
 On the north side of the Ochil chain 
 at East Dron, near Bridge of Earn, 
 
40 Geology of Central and Western fflfe and Kinross-shire. 
 
 Calciferous Sandstone Series. 
 
 I. Cement-stone Group. 
 
 This characteristic subdivision attains a great development 
 beneath the volcanic plateau of the Campsie Hills (Sheets 30, 31, 
 and 39), but is lost under the Carboniferous Limestone series brought 
 against it by a fault near Kilsyth, and under the plain of the Forth 
 around Stirling. On the north side of the Oampsie Hills it 
 gradually disappears beneath the volcanic plateau, either because it 
 thins away towards the east or because it has been overlapped by 
 the lavas. About 17 miles further to the east, however, it comes 
 once more to the surface in the ravine of the Eiver Devon, where 
 it has been exposed as the result of extensive denudation coming 
 after a powerful fault, which has thrown out nearly all the great 
 thickness of strata between this group and the Millstone Grit. 
 The Cement-stone group retains here its normal lithological 
 characters, which are well seen both in the course of the Devon, 
 and in the tributary stream which flows through the Gairney Glen. 
 At the base, several bands of reddish nodular cornstone (4 in Pig. 
 4), with purple and red calcareous sandstones, form the character- 
 istic upper limit of the Old Eed Sandstone, and pass under green 
 shales and marls, with thin courses of cement-stone. These strata 
 (5 in Fig. 4) dip in a northerly direction at angles of from 12° to 
 20°, and are interrupted by the thick doleritic sill (7 in Fig. 4), 
 which forms the waterfall of the Caldron Linn. Above that 
 igneous mass they again appear in the river-bed with a dip of not 
 more than 8°-10°, until they are thrown down by the fault which 
 brings them against the volcanic series of the Lower Old Red 
 Sandstone (1 in Fig. 4) at Dalkeith, a little below the Bumbling 
 Bridge. 
 
 Fig. 4. — Section of the ground to the south of the Rumbling Bridge. 
 1. Volcanic agglomerates, and 2, Andesite lavas, of the Lower Old Red Sandstone 
 series of the Ochil chain. 3. Upper Old Red Sandstone. 4. Cornstone. 
 5. Cement-stone group. 6. Millstone grit. 7. Dolerite sill. ff. Faults 
 
 East of this section the ground is obscured by drift, but two 
 miles further on excellent exposures of the group have been cut 
 open by the streams which descend the northern slopes of the Cult 
 Hill and of the hills between Meadowhead and Hardistown. 
 The actual base of the strata is not seen here. The slopes are 
 somewhat obscured with drift, and, besides, the fault along the 
 base of these slopes cuts out more and more of the Carboniferous 
 strata as it goes eastward. Possibly the Upper Old Red Sandstone 
 may be represented by some red sandstones which crop out at the 
 bottom of the northern declivity of the Cult Hill above Pow. 
 
The Ca/rboniferous System — Cahiferous Sandstone Series. 41 
 
 The most interesting sections of the Cement-stone group in this 
 part of the district are to be found in the water-course which 
 descends from Scaur Hill and in the Georgetown Burn, which 
 reaches the plain east of Hardistown (Fig. 5). In the lower part 
 of the Scaur Hill Burn, green, blue, and red clays or shales, with 
 bands and nodules of cement-stone and beds of white sandstone, 
 display the typical characters of this gnrap. Though on the whole 
 unfossiliferous, they have furnished to the Survey Collector, Mr. D. 
 Tait, some ostracods, including Leperditia Olceni, and a Beyrichiopsis, 
 and some fish-scales belonging to Elonichthys. These strata are 
 succeeded by and pass up into well-bedded dull green tuffs, which 
 have a total thickness of more than 100 feet, and seem to be made 
 up mainly of decomposed andesitic material, but include abundance 
 of pieces of cement-stone, cornstone, sandstone, and other sedi- 
 mentary rocks. The fine vesicular pumice, so characteristic of the 
 tuffs in the Burdiehouse Limestone and Carboniferous Limestone 
 groups, has not been recognised here. 
 
 The upper part of the tuff is calcareous, and includes a thin 
 limestone which has once been worked on the slope of Cult Hill. 
 Immediately above this part of the section, the stream is crossed by 
 a large fault which comes from the southern end of Cult Hill and 
 throws down the rocks to the south (8 in Pig. 5). It here brings the 
 Hurlet Limestone of the Scaur Hill Quarry on a level with the 
 tuffs just described. But as it slants a little to the south-east, it 
 allows a higher part of this volcanic series to be seen at the north 
 end of that quarry. The Hurlet Limestone, with its overlying 
 shales and doleritic sill, is there abruptly truncated and brought 
 down against a rock of felsitic or rhyolitic character, belonging to 
 the lavas which, in the section in the Georgetown Burn, lie 
 immediately upon the tuffs. The rock is here so much decomposed 
 that fresh determinable specimens can hardly be procured. It is 
 yellowish, greyish, and pinkish in colour, according to its degree 
 of weathering, meagre and trachyte-like. It presents plentiful 
 lines of flowstructure, which are sometimes curved. A thin section 
 was made from one of the freshest pieces of the rock that could be 
 procured and was examined by Mr. Kynaston, whose description 
 of it will be found in the Appendix (p. 260). 
 
 Fig. 5. — Section from Aldie Castle to Scaur Hill. 
 Volcanic series of Lower Old Red Sandstone. 2. Upper Old Red Sandstone. 
 3. Cement-stone group. 4. Tuffs with shaly intercalations. 5. Rhyolitic 
 and basaltic lava's. 6. Burdiehouse Limestone group. 7. Hurlet Lime- 
 stone. 8. Black shales. 9. Dolerite sill of Scaur Hill. ff. Faults. 
 
42 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-sUre. 
 
 This zone of lava can be followed along the hillside by means of 
 occasional protruding knobs for nearly a mile, till it is cut by the 
 ravine of the Georgetown Burn east of Hardistown (Fig. 6). In 
 this course, owing to the general dip of the strata, it gradually 
 descends the slope, and sinks gently under a group of white and 
 yellow sandstones (6 in Fig. 6), which form a well-marked platform 
 at the base of the Burdiehouse Limestone group of this district. 
 These strata followed the eruption of the lava below them, since 
 they contain pebbles of it. Further down the stream a remarkable 
 bed of coarse conglomerate occurs (No. 5 in Fig. 6), the precise 
 stratigraphical position of which is not clearly displayed in the 
 water-course. It appears to be quite local, and not improbably is 
 an expansion of the pebbly zone at the base of the sandstones just 
 referred to. It is about 12 or 15 feet thick, and consists of well- 
 rounded stones chiefly derived from the underlying felsitic lava.* 
 Some of these blocks are well-worn boulders three feet in length. 
 
 The occurrence of this conglomerate indicates an interesting 
 episode in the history of early Carboniferous sedimentation in this 
 district. It shows that the underlying lava must have been 
 exposed to denudation for a considerable interval, during which its 
 detritus was thoroughly ground down and its blocks were converted 
 into rounded boulders. No similar evidence of strong wave- or 
 current-action has been met with in any other part of the region, 
 the sediments generally indicating comparatively gentle conditions 
 of accumulation. 
 
 Fig. 6.— Section in Georgetown Bum, west end of Cleish Hills. 
 1. Volcanic series of Lower Old Red Sandstone. 2. Cement-stone group. 
 3. Tuffs and shales. 4. Felsitic (Rhyolitic) and Basaltic lavas. 5. Very 
 coarse conglomerate. 6. Yellowish sandstone (Burdiehouse Limestone group). 
 /'. Reversed Fault. /. Fault. 
 
 The lava-zone is well exposed at, and for some distance above, a 
 waterfall in the Georgetown Burn (No. 4 in Fig. 6). It shows 
 considerable variation in external aspect of its component rocks. In 
 some places these are compact and blue, in others they weather into 
 spheroidal forms, with a dull green outside, like many basalts and 
 dolerites. Again they resume their felsitic or rhyolitic character 
 with flow-structure. There are probably at least two flows 
 comprised within the sheet, which is not more than 15 or 20 feet 
 thick. As fresh specimens as could be procured from two distinct 
 types of the rock were examined under the microscope by Mr. 
 
 some S of 4ese Moctal' 261) fOT Mr ' Kynaston ' a de80ri Pti°n of the microscopic structure of 
 
The Carhoniferous System — Calciferous Sandstone Series. 43 
 
 Kynaston, who found that one of them was a compact felsite with 
 small pink crystals of orthoclase, while the other was more closely 
 related to the basalts.* It is interesting to find representatives 
 both of the acid and basic lavas within such a thin volcanic zone. 
 
 This lava-sheet rests upon the tuffs (No. 3 in Fig. 6). At the 
 waterfall it is ruptured by a small reversed fault, and other signs of 
 disturbance may be observed. The tuffs are here exceedingly fine 
 in texture and are interleaved with layers of dark-purple and grey 
 shales. So rapidly do the volcanic and ordinary sediments alternate 
 that in 14 inches of strata 10 layers of tuff may be observed, 
 ranging from less than a line to an inch in thickness. Below these 
 alternations the ordinary dull green granular tuff sets in, followed 
 by the Cement-stone group, until the Carboniferous rocks are 
 brought by the fault to abut against the andesites of the Lower 
 Old Ked Sandstone (No. 1 in Pig. 6). 
 
 The stratigraphical position of this volcanic intercalation can be 
 precisely fixed. The tuffs overlie and are interstratified with the 
 Cement-stone group. They contain abundant fragments of the 
 strata of that group, the older parts of which must thus have been 
 blown out by the explosions that discharged the tuffs. Again, 
 immediately above the lava that overlies the tuffs, come the yellow 
 sandstones at the base of the Burdiehouse Limestone group. 
 These volcanic rocks thus occupy a position similar to that of the 
 volcanic plateau of the Campsie Hills, and it is not improbable that 
 they may be an eastward extension of that volcanic area. They 
 are undoubtedly the oldest Carboniferous volcanic rocks yet 
 detected in Fife. The next in point of antiquity are those of the 
 Burntisland district, which belong to the Burdiehouse Limestone 
 group. 
 
 Unfortunately, in none of these sections at the west end of the 
 Cleish Hills is the Cornstone to be observed, which forms so 
 convenient a downward limit to the Carboniferous system. But a 
 few miles to the east, as has been already stated, this important 
 stratigraphical horizon crops out in full force on the northern and 
 southern slopes of Benarty Hill. Only the very base of the 
 Cemem>stone group is there visible. At the west end of Navity 
 Hill, and due north from Ballingry House, where the clays and 
 cement-stones make their appearance, they have been found by 
 Mr. Peach and Mr. Grant Wilson to include some thin inter- 
 calations of volcanic tuff, which are evidently a prolongation of the 
 more fully developed volcanic group at the west end of the Cleish 
 Hills. This outcrop is the most easterly limit to which the 
 volcanic eruptions of the Campsie platform have been traced. 
 
 East of Navity Hill the Cement-stone group rapidly thins 
 away. On the Bishop and West Lomond Hills, its position is 
 indicated by the occurrence of green clays and decomposing 
 cement-stones immediately above the cornstone. The slopes 
 are, unfortunately, so obscured by landslips and herbage that 
 
 * Appendix, page 260. 
 
44 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 continuous sections are hardly to be found. But between the 
 top of the Oornstone and the base of the black shales which 
 underlie the Hurlet Limestone there can scarcely be more than 
 about 60 or 70 feet of strata, of which some part consists of the 
 sandstones of the Burdiehouse Limestone group. The cement- 
 stones have not been recognised further east, though possibly a 
 careful search among the gullies and water-courses along the hill- 
 slopes may yet reveal a still more attenuated representation of 
 them. 
 
 II. Burdiehouse (Burntisland) Limestone and Oil-shale Group. 
 
 This subdivision presents greater variety than any other in the 
 Carboniferous system of Fife, on account of the remarkable 
 succession of contemporaneous volcanic rocks which it includes. 
 As shown on the map (Sheet 40) it is developed along the coast on 
 either side of Burntisland, whence it stretches inland for five miles. 
 It continues westwards along the coast as far as Charlestown 
 (Sheet 32). The cause of this distribution will be at once under- 
 stood by a reference to the geological structure of Midlothian, 
 on the opposite side of the Firth of Forth. In that region an 
 important anticlinal fold coincides with the general line of the 
 Pentland Hills, along which Upper Silurian and Lower Old Bed 
 Sandstone rocks are brought up to the surface, while the various 
 members of the Carboniferous system are thrown off on either side. 
 This axis is prolonged across the firth, and, bending a little 
 west of north, reaches the Fife coast at Burntisland. It then 
 turns round towards N.N.E. and runs for at least twelve miles 
 inland till it is lost among the hills beyond Markinch. 
 
 It is by means of this structure that the area of the Burdie- 
 house Limestone group is so sharply defined. The anticlinal 
 fold, in gradually "nosing out" towards the north, allows the 
 Hurlet Limestone (which marks the upper limit of the group) 
 to completely encircle the Raith Hills, north-west from Kirkcaldy. 
 But the anticline continues to be traceable in the higher 
 members of the system, which are folded over it. Thus, the 
 Limestone series is prolonged in a tongue up to Stenton. The 
 Millstone Grit in like manner is extended up to Markinch, 
 while the Coal-measures are thrown westwards into the detached 
 basin of Kinglassie. It is deserving of note, however, that 
 just before the fold ceases to be satisfactorily traceable it seems 
 to increase in its effects, for at Markinch it brings up once more 
 to the surface a portion of the strata below the Hurlet Limestone, 
 including a seam of oil-shale 6 inches thick. But this apparent 
 increase may be mainly or entirely due to the influence of one of 
 the _ largest dislocations in the district which, bounding the northern 
 limit of the Kinglassie coal-field, stretches by Markinch, where it 
 throws the Coal-measures against the Hurlet Limestone and 
 Burdiehouse Limestone group, to the sea at Scoonie Links. 
 
 It will be seen from the map that the composition of the 
 
The Carboniferous System — Galciferous Sandstone Series. 45 
 
 Burdiehouse Limestone and Oil-shale group is strikingly different 
 on either side of a line drawn from Burntisland north-westward to 
 Beverkae. On the east side it is made chiefly of volcanic rocks 
 which replace the sedimentary strata, while to the west it contains 
 hardly any volcanic intercalations, though it has been invaded by 
 a number of intrusive sills and bosses. The contrast between 
 these two types of the formation will be appreciated by comparing 
 Figures 7 and 8. The former of these diagrams represents the 
 sequence of strata to the west of Burntisland, along a line which is 
 free from volcanic intercalations, while Fig. 8 is drawji through 
 the very heart of the volcanic development. It will be convenient 
 to take first the western or more usual sedimentary development of 
 the group. 
 
 A. DISTRIBUTION TO THE NORTH AND WEST OF BURNTISLAND : 
 SEDIMENTARY DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 Nowhere in this part of the district is the bottom of the group 
 exposed. Possibly the whole visible thickness of strata may amount 
 to 2000 feet. The lowest rocks now to be seen are those on which 
 the town of Burntisland is built. They consist of sandstones, 
 shales, and thin impure limestones, but not of the Cement-stone 
 type. They are invaded by three thick sills, which will be 
 subsequently referred to in connection with the intrusive rocks. 
 These strata are seen both below and above the middle sill, greatly 
 indurated by the eruptive rock. They dip towards the north-west 
 under the alluvium between Seamills and Colinswell, and on the 
 north side of the bay are succeeded by other sandstones and shales, 
 with seams of coarse nodular limestone. One of these limestones, 
 well exposed in the railway at Colinswell, consists of several bands, 
 having a total thickness of about six feet and intercalated among 
 black shales containing plant-remains. Its bands are finely 
 
 Fig. 7. — Diagram-section of the ground to the west of Burntisland. 
 1. Sandstones, shales, &c, of Burdiehouse Limestone group. 2. Burdiehouse or 
 Burntisland Limestone. 3. Hurlet Limestone at the base of the Carboniferous 
 Limestone series. 4. Coal-bearing measures of the Dunfermline Coal-field. 
 5. Sills of dolerite, &e., the highest of which forms the range of the Cullalo 
 Hills. 
 
 laminated and display a remarkable brecciated structure, the 
 laminae having been curved, broken up, and re-cemented in similar 
 limestone. Other limestones, formerly exposed close to the 
 roadside leading east from Burntisland, contain Myalina and other 
 marine organisms. A considerable thickness of yellow shaly 
 sandstones, with dark carbonaceous layers, now supervenes. These 
 strata have been laid open in the quarries of Kilmundy and 
 
46 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 Grange. Their most interesting geological feature is the fact that 
 they include the horizon of the Burdiehouse Limestone, represented 
 here by at least three bands, of which the two lower are inter- 
 calated in an arenaceous instead of, as usual, in an argillaceous 
 succession of deposits. The section through the two quarries is 
 represented in the following table, though some of the ground 
 being concealed, certain parts of the thickness can only be given in 
 approximate numbers : — 
 
 Black shale. 
 
 White sandstone of Grange Quarry (100 feet or more). 
 
 Shales and ironstones (a few feet). 
 
 Limestone (Grange or Burntisland Limestone, 18 feet). 
 
 Shales and sandstones (a few feet). 
 
 White false-bedded sandstone of Kilmundy Quarry (perhaps 30 feet). 
 
 Limestone like that above (7J feet). 
 
 Sandstone (6 feet). 
 
 Limestone of the same character (2 feet). 
 
 Sandstone. 
 
 These limestones present the closest lithological resemblance to 
 the typical rock of Burdiehouse. They are fine-grained dull grey 
 or cream-coloured, often well banded with layers of darker car- 
 bonaceous material. They abound in remains of fragmentary plants, 
 together with entomostraca and the scales, teeth, and bones of small 
 fishes. These fossils likewise agree with those of the Burdiehouse 
 seam. They consist chiefly of plant-remains, especially Calym- 
 matotheea (Sphenopiteris) affinis, S. erassa, Lepidodendron velthei- 
 rnianum, Lepidostrobus variabilis, Lepidophloios intermedins, 
 Lepidophyllum lanceolatum, Asterocalamites scrobiculatus, and other 
 forms, which will be found more fully enumerated in the Appendix. 
 Besides the vegetable-remains a limited fauna has also been 
 obtained. It includes Leperditia scoto-burdigalensis, L. suborbiculata, 
 8pirorbis carbonarius, Eurynotus crenatus, fflonichtliys Bobinsoni, 
 Rhadinichthys ornatissimus, Megalichthys, BMzodus, Gyracanthus 
 rectus, &c. 
 
 The thickest limestone has been extensively worked in this 
 neighbourhood, both in open quarries and by mines. Beginning 
 on the west at Dalachy a continuous line of excavations has been 
 carried on by Newbigging, Kilmundy, and Grange, until the lime- 
 stone is cut off by the agglomerate of The Binn. On the 
 east side of that interruption the workings were resumed to the 
 west of Brosyhall Quarry, and carried eastwards and then south- 
 wards by Dodhead until the series passed under the strip of blown 
 sand below King Alexander's Crag. But these quarries have long 
 been disused. The upper part of the limestone and its overlying 
 black shales are well seen in the old quarry east of Dodhead. An 
 interesting feature in this section is the occurrence of a thin sill of basic 
 intrusive material, so evenly intercalated among the shales that it 
 might at first be mistaken for a harder rib of sediment. But at the 
 southern end of the quarry the really intrusive nature of the sill is 
 shown by its descending abruptly as a tortuous vein which traverses 
 the shales (Pig. 16). Numerous other intrusions of similar material 
 
The Carboniferous System — Calciferous Sandstone Series. 47 
 
 occur throughout the tract through which the outcrop of the lime- 
 stone runs. The relations of these injections are well seen on the 
 low cliff to the south of Dodhead farm, where an irregular sheet of 
 basalt has invaded and baked a set of shales and sandstones lying 
 below the main limestone (Fig. 17.) Two thin limestones may there 
 also be seen, the upper partly cut out by the igneous rock, and the 
 lower surmounted by a thin sill which runs parallel with its outcrop. 
 
 So much have the strata of this district been invaded by igneous 
 rocks and displaced by faults that it is difficult to make out the 
 structure of all parts of the ground, and to place separate outcrops in 
 their proper stratigraphical position. Thus, 500 yards to the north- 
 east of the Grange Quarry, a limestone has been extensively quarried 
 behind The Binn. It is a yellowish well-banded rock, containing 
 cyprids and interleaved with ashy seams. A thinner seam of 
 sandy limestone and calcareous conglomerate, with layers of tuff, 
 crops out a little to the west at Silverbarton. These limestones lie 
 among sandstones like those of Grange and Kilmundy, from which, 
 however, they differ in their inclusion of volcanic detritus, due 
 possibly to greater proximity to a volcanic orifice. It may be 
 that these more northerly outcrops belong really to the Grange and 
 Kilmundy seams, brought up again by some large east-and-west 
 fault, the exact position of which has not been determined. On 
 the other hand, there are undoubtedly various limestones on 
 horizons in the Burdiehouse Limestone group other than those 
 of the Grange and Kilmundy seams. Eeference has already been 
 made to the limestones of Colinswell and those with Myalina 
 which underlie these seams. Another limestone, probably on a 
 higher horizon, may be seen immediately underlying the tuff at 
 Dunearn Cottage ; still another, to be immediately more specially 
 referred to, occurs at Port Haven and on the shore of Braefoot 
 Bay, west of Aberdour. It will be shown also that among the 
 sedimentary interstratifications in the great volcanic pile between 
 Burntisland and Seafield seams of limestone make their appear- 
 ance on different platforms. 
 
 Above the main Burntisland Limestone, at a distance of about 
 150 feet, a seam of oil-shale occurs which has been worked over the 
 ground to the east of The Binn. It was found to dip a little to 
 the west of north at an angle of about 10°, and was followed by a 
 mine driven a little east from Binnend along the dip for about 900 
 yards to a point about 200 yards N.E. from the farm buildings of 
 Common. At a distance of about 350 yards from the mouth of 
 the mine a fault was encountered, running' in an E.N.B. direction, 
 with a downthrow of 10 fathoms to the south. About 330 yards 
 further north another dislocation was met with, trending B. and 
 W., with a downthrow of 8£ fathoms to the south. The shale was 
 worked eastwards as far as the Gallowhill Plantation, where it was 
 found to be inclined towards E.S.B. under the volcanic ridge. 
 
 The crop of this seam can be followed from the eastern margin of 
 The Binn agglomerate parallel with that of the limestone below it. 
 It is thrown down to the side of the high road by a fault which 
 
48 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 runs in a north-easterly direction from the old limestone quarry 
 of Brosyhall, where its position is seen, to the lava-sheets at Rodan- 
 braes. But the outcrop immediately resumes its previous course, 
 until below Whinnyhall it wheels round with the limestone and 
 strikes southward in the direction of the shore at Kingswood 
 Cottage. 
 
 Some miles to the west a group of black shales, which may be 
 the same as those of The Binn, are exposed in a cutting of the 
 old mineral railway about a mile north from St. David's. They 
 include a seam of oil-shale, believed to be the Dunnet shale of the 
 Lothian fields. If these are a prolongation of the Burntisland 
 shales, the limestone should pass somewhere through the Doni- 
 bristle grounds. But it has not yet been traced there. The shore- 
 section between Aberdour and Donibristle House presents an 
 undulating succession of strata, consisting chiefly of sandstones 
 with thin shales and several thick intrusive sheets of coarsely 
 crystalline dolerite. These strata dip northwards at Whitesands 
 Bay. They are folded into an anticline in Barnhill Bay and Port 
 Haven over the sill of Charles Hill, into a syncline in Dalgety Bay, 
 and once more into an anticline at Donibristle. There can thus 
 be no great thickness of strata exposed in this part of the shore- 
 line. 
 
 Perhaps the most interesting stratum in this coast-section is a 
 thin limestone which is exposed upon the beach at Port Haven. 
 It has yielded species of Lepidodendron, Lepidophyllum, Lepido- 
 strobus, Trigonocarpon, several ostracods, Lingula mytiloides and 
 L. squamiformis, some Schizodus-like lamellibranchs not yet deter- 
 mined, Eurynotus crenatus, and Elonichthys, sp. What may be a 
 continuation of the same seam crops out on the shore of Braefoot 
 Bay. 
 
 Where the sandstones and black shales turn over with a westerly 
 dip at Donibristle they continue to incline in that direction, 
 broken through by the massive east and west dyke of Downing 
 Point, until they plunge rather steeply, and with some confusion of 
 their bedding, under the tuff of St. David's — a remarkable deposit, 
 of which an account will be given in the description of the volcanic 
 series which is developed to the north and east of Burntisland (p. 76.) 
 
 To the west of St. David's some strata, still dipping to the north- 
 west, and thus presumably higher than those that overlie the tuff, 
 are exposed on the shore below Seafield Cottage. They include an 
 interesting intercalation of one of the marine platforms which 
 occur at intervals throughout the Calciferous Sandstone series. 
 Besides plant-remains, together with shells of Naiadites, Myalina, 
 and other forms that may mark lagoon conditions of sedimentation, 
 there occur such unequivocally marine types as Nautilus or Biscites?, 
 Orthoceras, Goniatites, Bellerophon, Murahisonia, and Pleurotomaria. 
 Plates of fishes are intermingled with the other organisms. 
 
 The huge dolerite sill which occupies the coast from Seafield 
 round to St. Margaret's Hope, and on which North Queensferry 
 and Inverkeithing are built, stretches northward to the great 
 
The Gwrboniferous System — Galciferous Sandstoyie Series. 49 
 
 alluvial plain of the old sea-terrace beyond Inverkeithing. It lies 
 in a synclinal trough. On its western margin, sandstones and shales 
 emerge from under the igneous sheet. At Rosyth, the dip turns 
 over towards the west, and then the strata continue to undulate as 
 far as Charlestown, where they pass under the Hurlet Limestone. 
 They include some thin limestones, one bed of which covers a broad 
 space of the foreshore west of Rosyth Castle. Among their fossils 
 Serpula? and Anthracoptera obesa have been noted. 
 
 It will be observed that a large fault is shown on the map (Sheet 
 32) as traversing the hollow from Little Couston to the alluvial 
 plain north of Inverkeithing Junction. The effect of this disloca- 
 tion is to cut off the Calciferous Sandstone series towards the north 
 by bringing down against it the Carboniferous Limestone series 
 with its coals. The continuation of the fault in a westerly direc- 
 tion has not been satisfactorily traced. Possibly the faulted strata 
 on the beach to the west of Rosyth may mark where it passes 
 under the firth. But the amount of its throw seems to be 
 lessening in that direction. 
 
 An interesting section showing the nature of the strata in the 
 upper part of the Burdiehouse Limestone group was obtained in 
 1892 by means of a boring made at the Elgin Bleachfield, near 
 Dunfermline, by Messrs. Thomson Brothers, who have been good 
 enough to supply the following journal of the strata passed 
 through : — 
 
 
 Fms. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 Surface 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 Sandy clay 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 Sand and gravel 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 Blaea (shale) 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 Coal 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 Fakes ( shaly sandstone) 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 Blaes 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 Fakes and sandstone 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 Sandstone 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 Limestone (Hosie) 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 Limey Fake (calcareous shale) ... 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 Limestone 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 Sandstone 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 Fakes 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 Fakey blaes and balls (ironstone) 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Blaes and balls 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Limestone (Main or Hurlet) 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Blaes 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 Fakes 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 Coal 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 Fireclay 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 Light fakes 
 
 Fakes and fireclay 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 Coal 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 Fireclay 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 Coal 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 Fakes and blaes 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Sandstone 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Fakes 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Sandstone 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
50 Geology of Western and Central Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 
 Fms. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 P abbot Coal — Irony B.B. (Ironstone) 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Fakes and sandstone 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 Blaes and sand-rib 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 Blaes 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 Fakes and sandstone 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Blaes 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 Coal 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Fakes and sandstone 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 Sandstone ... 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 Blaes 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 Limestone 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 Coal 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Sandstone 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 Fakes and sandstone 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 Fakes 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 Fakey blaes and iron-ribs 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 Blaes 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 Limestone 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 " Whinstone" (the name popularly given 
 
 
 
 
 to most igneous rocks in Scotland) . . . 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Limestone 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 Blaes and balls 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 Limey fakes 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 Coal ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 Fakes and fireclay 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 Fakes and sandstone 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 Fakes and sandstone 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 Red and blue fakes and fireclay 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 Fakes and sandstone 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 Fireclay and balls 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 Limey fakes 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 Total 
 
 95 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 It will be seen from this section that below the Main or Hurlet 
 Limestone, which was found to be 24 feet thick, two or possibly 
 three other seams of limestone occur in a total thickness of about 
 300 feet of strata, together with no fewer than seven thin seams of 
 coal. The lowest limestone lies immediately below a sheet of 
 igneous material, which is probably an intrusive sill of dolerite. 
 Whether this is a distinct limestone or is a portion of the seam 
 above, separated by the injection of the sill, has not been deter- 
 mined. The limestones and coals pierced in this bore probably lie 
 nearly on the same horizons as those which emerge from below the 
 Hurlet Limestone on the coast to the east of Kinghorn. As will 
 be more fully stated in the sequel, these limestones of the shore- 
 section abound in fossils of the Carboniferous Limestone series, to 
 which palseontologically they undoubtedly belong. But the Hurlet 
 seam forms a horizon so well denned and so easily traced that, 
 although it does not always mark the beginning of the distinctively 
 marine type of sedimentation of the Carboniferous Limestone 
 series, it has been found to be the most generally convenient line 
 that could be adopted in mapping the base of that series through- 
 out Central Scotland. 
 
 Eeturning now to the outcrop of the Burdiehouse Limestone 
 
The Carboniferous System — Calciferous Sandstone Series. 51 
 
 near Burntisland, and tracing the succession of strata in an inland 
 direction, we find no continuous sections over the ground that lies 
 to the north-west of the last appearance of the limestone at 
 Dallachy, though the underlying rocks protrude through the drift 
 in many places. Most of the exposures are of sandstone, on the 
 whole inclined towards north and north-west. The strata are seen 
 in the Humbie Wood; at many points between Montquey and 
 Croftgarrie, especially on the farm of Balram, where they are 
 interrupted by a number of sheets of tuff and small protrusions of 
 basalt. A large dolerite sill is intercalated among them between 
 the Burntisland reservoir and Whitehill, and other sills are 
 interposed between Montquey and Crossroads. The most im- 
 portant zone among these sandstones is that in which the 
 extensive quarries of Cullalo have been opened. This white 
 sandstone forms a valuable building stone. It crops out along the 
 Cullalo ridge, and stretches south-westward in the direction of 
 Whitehill, though concealed in the southern part of its course 
 under a slope of drift. At the farm of Cullalo it plunges beneath 
 another sill, to the north of which white sandstones reappear with 
 the same northerly dip at Cottown. These sandstones sink rather 
 steeply below a group of black carbonaceous shales and ironstones, 
 which may be seen by the side of the high road dipping north- 
 west at from 30° to 50°. Towards their junction with another sill, 
 the shales beneath it are much baked. This sheet of dolerite 
 begins to the west of Otterston Loch, about a mile and a half north 
 from St. David's, and runs continuously for six miles, when it 
 unites with other intrusive masses about Auchtertool. The shales 
 among which it has been injected, on the high road between 
 Stewart's Arms Inn and Cottown, form the base of the Carboni- 
 ferous Limestone series, for the Main or Hurlet Limestone lies 
 there immediately on the top of the sill. As this band of lime- 
 stone is traceable almost continuously round the volcanic area to 
 the sea near Kinghorn, it forms a clearly marked limit to the 
 Burdiehouse Limestone group. 
 
 Before considering the volcanic development of this group, which 
 forms so striking a feature in the geology of the ground to the 
 east and north of Burntisland, we may briefly notice the distribution 
 and characters of the sedimentary phase of the group in other 
 parts of the district. Two miles to the north of Dunfermline, owing 
 to the uprise of a small dome of the lower part of the Carboniferous 
 formations, the Burdiehouse Limestone group has been brought to 
 the surface over a space of rather more than a square mile. The 
 southern side of the dome is truncated by a large dislocation which 
 coincides with the longer axis of Loch Fitty, and brings down 
 towards the south the coal-bearing strata of the Dunfermline 
 coal-field. The western side has been much invaded by intrusive 
 igneous rocks. But round the north and east margins the upper 
 limit of the group is defined by a nearly continuous outcrop of the 
 Hurlet Limestone. Only the upper parts of the group are here 
 exposed, consisting of sandstones and black shales. They are best 
 
52 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 seen in the Meldrumsmill Burn, between Balmule Lodge and the 
 alluvial plain at the upper end of Loch Fitty. 
 
 Reference has already been made to the appearance of a small 
 inlier of the strata below the Hurlet Limestone at Markinch, 
 brought up on the crest of the great anticline. The same limestone 
 is continuously exposed for many miles along the higher slopes of 
 Bishop Hill and the Lomonds, and again near Freuchie and 
 Pitlessie. But though there is an unbroken and conformable 
 sequence of strata along this escarpment from the limestone down 
 into the Upper Old Red Sandstone, the Oalciferous Sandstones 
 are not well represented there. It has been already pointed out that 
 the Cement-stone group may still be recognised on the slopes above 
 Loch Leven, but in a greatly attenuated form. Immediately upon 
 the green clays and decomposing cement-stones, which show the 
 presence of that group, comes a series of black shales and seams 
 of ironstone with lenticular courses of white or yellow sandstone. 
 These strata contain abundant remains of plants, and evidently do 
 not belong to the marine type of sedimentation, like the overlying 
 Hurlet Limestone. They are a little more than 100 feet thick, 
 and they not improbably represent the Burdiehouse Limestone 
 group, which thus, like the cement-stones below, is rapidly 
 dwindling away towards the east. But, besides diminishing in 
 thickness, the group changes its lithological characters and its 
 fossil contents. Its place in the east of Fife is taken by a very 
 distinct series of strata which contain many marine limestones 
 lying far below the Hurlet seam. 
 
The Ca/rboniferous System — Calciferous Sandstone Series. 53 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 The Calciferous Sandstone Series — continued. 
 
 b. burdiehouse limestone group to the e 4 st of burntisland — 
 Volcanic Development. 
 
 Having considered the western or sedimentary development of the 
 Burdiehouse Limestone group, we may now proceed to discuss the 
 volcanic development of the group in the area lying to the east 
 and north of Burntisland. 
 
 Instead of an essentially sedimentary succession, that area pre- 
 sents us with an assemblage of rocks almost wholly of volcanic 
 origin, among which the sedimentary materials form only occasional 
 and subordinate interstratifications. These intercalations, however, 
 are of extreme interest and importance, for they show that during 
 the intervals between the eruptions sedimentation of the usual 
 kinds took place within as well as without the volcanic area, and 
 they furnish stratigraphical horizons by which the geological age 
 of the volcanic history can be definitely fixed. 
 
 The volcanic rocks of the Burntisland district consist of three 
 distinct groups. 1st, sheets of lava and tuff which were ejected 
 from neighbouring volcanic vents at the time that the Burdiehouse 
 Limestone group was in course of deposition. 2nd, masses of 
 agglomerate and tuff filling up the actual orifices or chimneys of 
 the volcanoes. 3rd, sills or intrusive sheets, bosses, and dykes of 
 dolerite, basalt, or other basic igneous rock which never reached 
 the surface, but were injected among the sedimentary and volcanic 
 rocks at a greater or less depth and which have been at last exposed 
 by the processes of denudation. 
 
 (i.) bedded lavas and tuffs. 
 
 The Lavas of this volcanic series are all of basic composition, 
 and may be included in the family of basalt, but they manifest 
 various divergences of internal composition and structure, which, 
 according to the classification of Dr Hatch,* may be grouped under 
 at least two types. 
 
 (a) The Dalmeny type — olivine-basalts with a ground-mass that 
 shows granular or idiomorphic augite and encloses as porphyritic 
 constituents abundant olivine, less augite, and little or no felspar. 
 This variety, which is one of the most abundant among the Car- 
 
 * Given with modifications by Mr. W. W. Watts, in Ancient Volcanoes of Britain, Vol. 
 I., p. 418. 
 
54 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 boniferous puy-eruptions of Central Scotland, constitutes the great 
 majority of the lavas of the Burntisland district. Admirable 
 examples of it, both in the fresh and in the decayed condition, may 
 be seen in the coast-section between Pettycur and Kmghorn. 
 
 (b) The Picrite type. Occasionally the basalts assume a still 
 more basic character and approach picrites in composition. But 
 no sharp line can be drawn between them and the others, the 
 difference being for the most part discernible only with the 
 microscope. The rocks of the present type present a ground-mass 
 of granules of augite set among lath-shaped felspars, and as a 
 porphyritic constituent contain much more olivine than augite. 
 A rock of this type may be seen among the Abden reefs to the 
 east of Kinghorn. The lowest basalt of King Alexander's Crag, 
 west of Pettycur, approaches the same type, which it serves to con- 
 nect with that of Dalmeny. Other types of composition and 
 structure are found among the intrusive rocks, as will be explained 
 in the sequel. 
 
 w Kmg Alexander's Crag 
 
 Scafieldl^ver 
 
 Fig. 8. — Diagram-section of the ground to the East of Burntisland. 
 1. Sandstone and shale of Burdiehouse Limestone group. 2. Burdiehouse Lime- 
 stone. 3. Basalts and tuffs with occasional intercalations of sandstone, shale, 
 coal, and cyprid limestone. 4. Marine limestones of the coast east from 
 Abden Rocks. 5. Hurlet Limestone. 6. Coal-bearing measures of the 
 Kirkcaldy coal-field. 7. Volcanic neck south of Dodhead. 8. Burntisland 
 sills of dolerite (as in Fig. 7). 
 
 The characters of the lavas in the field will be best understood 
 from the detailed account of them, which will be given in subse- 
 quent pages, when the coast>section between Burntisland and 
 Kirkcaldy is described. It may be enough to state here that a 
 large number of them are thoroughly vesicular from top to bottom, 
 and now exist as dull dirty-green amygdaloids. These may be 
 conveniently termed Earthy Basalts from their decayed condition. 
 Others are fresh compact blue or black basalts, with a jointed struc- 
 ture which sometimes passes into well-developed columns. Some 
 sheets consist partly of the earthy vesicular and partly of the fresh 
 compact rock, the fresh portions being usually surrounded by the 
 more decayed amygdaloid. In most cases, the top and bottom of 
 the lava-sheets are strongly vesicular, often passing into a rough 
 slaggy or clinker-like structure. A remarkable feature of many of 
 them is their subdivision into large irregular sack-like or pillow- 
 shaped blocks, which may have their central portions more largely 
 vesicular than the rest. (Fig. 13.) These ellipsoids were formed 
 during the flow of the still moving lava along the floor of the 
 lagoon or sea. The interstices between them have often been filled 
 in with fine tuff, which was stratified horizontally from side to side 
 in the fissures before the lava was covered by the next outflow of 
 molten material. In some cases portions of still fluid lava in the 
 
The Carboniferous System — Oalciferous Sandstone Series. 55 
 
 heart of the mass were forced into the interstices, and now appear 
 as veins of finely cellular basalt. The lava-sheets range from 8 or 
 10 to 40 feet or more in thickness.* 
 
 In the inland tract of country lying to the north-east of The 
 Binn of Burntisland, and stretching to Kirkcaldy, it is not always 
 possible satisfactorily to discriminate between true lavas and intru- 
 sive sills, inasmuch as the lithological characters of many of the 
 rocks are sometimes so similar, and there is so great an absence of 
 clear sections, which would allow the stratigraphical relations of the 
 successive sheets to be ascertained. Hence, it may eventually be 
 discovered, when better evidence is available, that the igneous rocks 
 cover even more space than has been allotted to them on the map, 
 and that portions of them which have been coloured as contemporan- 
 eous lavas are really sills and vice versd. Among such changes may 
 be the transference of one of the sheets south of Balwearie Castle, 
 two miles west of Linktown, from the lavas to the sills. It has been 
 mapped as a lava from its amygdaloidal character and general 
 external resemblance to the undoubted lavas of the clear shore- 
 section. But its internal structure, as revealed by the microscope, 
 shows it to differ from the other lavas and to belong to a type which is 
 characteristically represented in the intrusive sill of Binny Crag, in 
 West Lothian. It contains no olivine, but presents a ground-mass 
 consisting of granular augite, felspar-needles, and magnetite, with 
 some interstitial matter, while felspar and occasionally a little 
 augite are dispersed porphyritically through the rock. The dis- 
 tinctions that may be drawn between sills and lavas will be more fully 
 considered in a later part of this volume. 
 
 The Tuffs of the Burntisland district are characteristically 
 basic, seeing that they have been derived from the explosion and 
 trituration of such rocks as now form the interstratified lavas. 
 Their most abundant and conspicuous lapilli consist of a pale grey, 
 whitish, or greenish basic pumice, crowded with cells or pores 
 which are often so minute and closely aggregated that in a thin 
 section under the microscope the material looks like the finest 
 thread-lace. Sometimes the tuffs contain a good deal of what must 
 have been originally a basic glass, but which has been altered into 
 a dull palagonitic substance. They vary in texture from the finest 
 volcanic dust up to coarse agglomeratic or brecciated masses. As 
 might be expected where such materials have been showered over 
 a water-basin, on the floor of which ordinary mechanical sediment 
 was accumulating at the time, the tuffs frequently contain an 
 admixture of such sediment, and by the cessation of their volcanic 
 ingredients they pass naturally and insensibly into sandstone, shale, 
 fireclay, and limestone. 
 
 In connection with these pyroclastic materials, reference may be 
 made here to a specially interesting indication of volcanic activity 
 
 * For accounts of ellipsoidal structure in basalts and diabases see P. L. Bansome, 
 Bull. Qeol. Univ., California, No. 7 (1894) ; J. J. H. Teall and H. Fox, Quart. Journ. 
 Geol. Soc, xlix. (1893), p. 211 ; A.G., Ancient Volcanoes of Britain, vol. i., pp. 25, 184, 
 193 ; J. Clements Morgan, Monograph, No. xxxvi., of U.S. Qeol. Sun. (1899), p. 112. 
 
56 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 which may from time to time be observed as the cliffs and shore- 
 sections are denuded.) Ejected volcanic blocks may be noticed, 
 which have fallen into ordinary sandy or muddy sediment, and 
 have, by their weight and the force with which they reached the 
 water-bottom, crushed in the layers of soft strata below them, 
 while the layers above them pass on undisturbed. A good illustra- 
 tion of this structure, which was observed in the year 1864, is 
 represented in Pig. 10. Another example was noted in the year 
 1879 on the shore at Pettycur and is shown in Fig. 8 a . The block 
 
 Fig. 8a. — Ejected Volcanic Block in Shales, Shore, Pettycur, Fife. 
 
 of basalt here figured measured 17 inches long by 15 inches broad 
 and 12 inches thick. It must have descended with considerable 
 impetus upon the still soft sediments, which have been consequently 
 broken through and contorted. 
 
 The lowest lavas of the great volcanic pile, which extends to the 
 east and north of Burntisland, are met with a little above the 
 horizon of the oil-shale and black shales which overlie the Grange 
 Limestone. They begin on the coast at Kingswood Cottage, 
 beyond the- east end of Burntisland, and with a general easterly dip 
 continue eastward until they pass under the Hurlet Limestone. 
 They thus form a total mass of about 1500 feet of volcanic material, 
 lying between that limestone at the top and the Burdiehouse 
 Limestone below. They are admirably exposed on the sides and 
 escarpments of the hills, and still more clearly along the shore, 
 where they form low cliffs and tide-washed reefs. Almost every 
 bed in the whole series can thus be examined. As this section is 
 undoubtedly the most instructive in Britain for the history of 
 volcanic action during the Carboniferous period, it may be useful 
 to give here a detailed account of it, bed by bed. 
 
 Unfortunately, the very bottom of the volcanic pile is concealed 
 by blown sand at Kingswood Cottage. But probably only a few 
 yards are here lost to view. The first rocks that can be seen 
 are lavas, and from where they make their appearance the sequence 
 of beds is continuous in the following ascending order :* — 
 
 * This interesting coast-section was briefly described by Br. P. Neill in his translation 
 of Daubaisson's Basalts of Saxony, Edinburgh 1814, note f., p. 215, but, being wedded to 
 the Wernerian doctrines, he enumerates the successive beds without any reference to 
 their volcanic character. A more just appreciation of the history of the rocks was formed 
 by Ami Boue' in his Esquisse Giologiqve sur VBcosse, Paris (about 1820), p. 471, and by C. 
 Maclaren in his Geology of Fife and the Lothians (1839), pp. 82, 107. For the sake of 
 convenient reference, the several beds of rock in the section are numbered consecutively 
 
The Carboniferous System — Caleiferous Sandstone Series. 57 
 
 5. Basalt, of specially basic composition (picrite-type). In 
 some places the rock has a more closely crystalline texture, and is 
 dark and comparatively fresh; elsewhere it assumes the dull 
 greenish, earthy aspect, so characteristic of many of the lavas of 
 this coast. It is highly amygdaloidal, especially towards the top. 
 Its hard, black, compact portions break with a splintery fracture, 
 and show on their freshly-fractured surfaces abundant grains of 
 olivine. The coarser parts include large masses of more compact 
 basalt,t the two varieties of texture passing insensibly into each 
 other, as in the Tertiary lavas of Auvergne and in the coulees , of 
 many still active volcanoes, masses of compact, black solid material 
 are wrapped round in, and shade off into the rough scoriaceous 
 portions. It is thus interesting to recognise, one after another, the 
 various types of structure of recent volcanic rocks among these 
 ancient lavas of the Fife coast. 
 
 The outflow of this basalt was marked by a pause in the erup- 
 tions which is recorded in an intercalation of muddy sediment. 
 
 6. Blue Shale. This band is not continuous, for it thins away 
 higher up in the cliff, thereby allowing the basalt beneath it to be 
 covered directly by the next lava above. The shale is not altered 
 at its junction with the basalt on which its rests. But it is 
 traversed and slightly indurated by veins of a soft earthy decaying 
 material which have evidently descended from the overlying sheet. 
 Beyond the part of the section where the two lavas come together, 
 the shale re-appears at the west end of the cliff, associated with 
 some grey shaly sandstone which lies on a hard rudely columnar 
 basalt that assumes the earthy condition at the top. 
 
 7. Basalt, dull, green earthy, and amygdaloidal, 35 or 40 feet 
 thick towards the east end of the cliff, but diminishing westward 
 to not more than 8 or 10 feet, where it is surmounted by an 
 inconstant parting of 
 
 8. Green Shale (6 to 12 inches), not seen towards the east; 
 much altered and involved above by the next outflow of lava. 
 
 9. Basalt, hard, black, crystalline, full of olivine; rudely 
 columnar and weathering with a rough surface. Near the west end 
 of the cliff, the top of this sheet sinks into a hollow in which a little 
 shale and limestone have been deposited, but which is mainly filled 
 up by the succeeding lava. 
 
 10. Earthy Basalt, greenish and amygdaloidal. In rocks of 
 this frequently recurring type the abundant amygdaloidal vesicles 
 present extremely irregular forms, and vary in size up to nearly a 
 foot in length by two or three inches in breadth. The kernels that 
 line or fill them consist for the most part of calcite, while 
 
 from below upward, and the same numeration is adopted as is given in the abstract of 
 the section published in my "Ancient Volcanoes of Britain," Vol. I., p. 470. It should 
 be added that in that abstract No. 1 includes the strata below the Burdiehouse Lime- 
 stone ; No. 2 is the Burdiehouse Limestone of Grange, Kilmundy, Dodhead, &c. ; No. 3 the 
 black shales overlying the limestone ; No. 4 the thick white sandstones of Grange, &c. 
 The volcanic part of the section begins with No. 5. 
 
 tBoue" has noticed this feature — "C'ette roche empate des masses d'un produit 
 basaltique noiratre qui ont tous les caracteres d'etre de formation contemporaine avcc 
 l'amygdaloide," p. 473. 
 
58 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 chalcedony, crystallised quartz, and green earthy _ decomposition 
 products occasionally occur. Harder portions of this rock show on 
 their weathered surfaces a vast number of minute round cavities 
 which bear a striking resemblance to the vesicular pores of the 
 harder portions of some of the Auvergne lavas. The term "earthy 
 basalt," as above stated, is used here to discriminate the dull, 
 decomposed, amygdaloidal lavas from the black, fresh, compact 
 varieties. The two kinds of rock doubtless indicate some original 
 difference in the condition of the magma at the time of outflow. 
 But they pass into each other even in the same sheet, as in the case 
 of the band now under consideration, which, like the lower sheet 
 above referred to, includes large lenticular masses of good hard 
 normal black basalt, which remains tolerably fresh, while the 
 surrounding general body of the sheet has undergone decomposi- 
 tion. 
 
 The upper part of this sheet is highly amygdaloidal, the vesicles 
 being sometimes drawn out parallel to the upper and under 
 surfaces, and again seeming to bend round a spheroidal mass or 
 clustered irregularly in the spheroid itself. The upper surface is 
 rough and slaggy, with a few large amygdales of calcite. It is 
 covered by another intercalation of 
 
 11. Black Shale (5 or 6 inches to less than one inch in thick- 
 ness). This layer of sediment, marking another pause in the 
 discharge of lava, is dull and earthy. It appears to have suffered 
 a good deal from the action of the basalt above it, which 
 occasionally descends and cuts it out entirely. Some of its layers 
 are seamed by thin lenticular calcareous laminas, with thicker 
 partings of limestone that run parallel to the planes of bedding, but 
 also ramify downwards into the earthy basalt below. When lava 
 again began to flow over this ground it took the form of 
 
 12. Basalt, which now extends in a well-marked columnar sheet, 
 from 12 or 15 to 25 feet thick, consisting of a compact, hard blue 
 or black rock, containing grains of olivine.* It is sparingly 
 amygdaloidal, though showing a few large cavities filled with 
 calcite. Its columnar structure is more distinctly perceived from 
 a little distance, when the characteristic dull, brownish colour of the 
 rock contrasts well with the pale-green of the earthy amygdaloids 
 below and above. Its under surface is irregular, corresponding 
 partly to the inequalities of the dull green lava over which it flowed, 
 but partly also belonging to itself, for it cuts out portions of the 
 underlying shale, and sometimes rests directly on the amygdaloid. 
 The portions of the rock near the bottom lose their hard compact 
 texture, become dull, greenish, earthy, and weather into rough 
 spheroidal masses, which in these respects closely resemble the 
 earthy sheets already described. This change sometimes extends 
 upward for more than a foot, but in other places not more than two 
 or three inches. The upper surface of the basalt presents a 
 
 * BouS describes this rock as "une couehe epaisse d'un basalte noiratre a structure 
 columnaire, prismatique, si distincte qu'on. croirait etre sur un pavS basaltique du 
 Viyarais." Essai, p. 473. 
 
The Carboniferous System — Calciferous Sandstone Series. 59 
 
 remarkably rough and scoriaceous aspect, knobs of irregular and 
 even fantastic forms extending upwards into and being enveloped 
 in the lower part of the overlying sheet (.Pig. 9). The bottom of 
 
 Fig. 9. — Solid black basalt with its rugged upper surface overlain by " earthy 
 basalt," east of King Alexander's Crag, Burntisland. 
 
 the sheet also presents a repetition of the frequent association of 
 the hard black basalt, intermingled with the dull earthy green 
 variety. 
 
 13. Earthy Basalt, dull, highly amygdaloidal, of a light 
 greenish grey colour, and strongly calcareous, calcite showing both 
 in kernels and veins. This sheet is the roughest and most slag- 
 like mass in the whole cliff. The scoriaceous aspect of its upper 
 surface is truly remarkable, while the whole rock, even the harder 
 portions of it, is strongly vesicular. From its light green colour it 
 forms a marked zone along the cliffs, when seen from a distance. 
 Above it an interesting intercalation of sedimentary layers marks 
 a somewhat more prolonged interval of quiescence in the volcanic 
 activity. 
 
 14. Shaly and other Sediments, forming an intercalation 
 about 12 feet thick, composed of the following strata in ascending 
 order : — 
 
 Black carbonaceous shale, almost a coal in places, forming an inconstant 
 
 seam on the surface of No. 13. 
 Brown, shaly fireclay, about 5 inches thick, full of rootlets ; covered by 
 Coal, about 5 or 6 inches, some of its laminas being good bituminous coal, 
 
 while others are brown and earthy and pass into shale. 
 Fireclay, green, ashy, and crumbling, about 12 inches thick ; full of 
 rootlets. In the year 1864 an extremely interesting occurrence was visible 
 in this bed.* An angular block of a pale felspathic diabase or basalt, 
 different from the lavas of the cliff, and about 9 or 10 lbs. in weight, was 
 
 observed to be imbedded in 
 the fireclay, the layers of 
 which, for an inch or two from 
 the bottom of the bed, were 
 bent down on either side of 
 the stone, while the coal below 
 was also compressed (Fig. 10). 
 The fireclay was heaped up 
 round the upper part of the 
 stone until it was covered, 
 when the layers of sediment 
 ran on in unbroken horizon- 
 tality. This stone was evi- 
 dently an ejected block shot 
 from some neighbouring vent 
 at the time when a muddy 
 deposit, no doubt partly due 
 to the discharge of volcanic 
 dust, was gathering over a 
 
 Fig. 10. — Volcanic Block ejected during 
 the deposition of a group of sedimentary 
 strata among the Burntisland lavas. 
 
 1. Brown shaly fireclay with rootlets. 
 2. Impure coal. 3. Green ashy fireclay, 
 the lower layers pressed down by the 
 stone, while the upper layers rise over it. 
 4. Green and black ashy shale. 
 
 * Geo. Mag., Vol. I., p. 22. 
 
60 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 submerged sheet of still soft vegetation. When it fell it sank into the 
 yielding silt, which was depressed by its weight. But the same kind 
 of deposit continued after the fall of the stone, which was finally entombed 
 under the latest layers of silt. 
 
 Dark greenish and black shale, with plants, &c. (about 6 inches), passing into 
 the fireclay below. 
 
 Green ashy shale (about 3J feet). Some parts are fine and marly, like 
 the "Houston marls" of West Lothian ; others contain coarser volcanic 
 detritus, and pass into a fine marly tuff. The seam includes also bands of 
 ordinary blue shale without any marked admixture of ashy material. 
 Cyprids and fragments of plants abound in some of the layers. 
 
 Green ashy sandstone (6 inches), full of brown and black plant-stems and 
 cyprid cases, with small specks of coal. 
 
 Green ashy shale (14 inches), with brown plants and coprolites. Somebands 
 of fine tuff are intercalated in the deposit, while the lower part consists of 
 blue and fissile shale. 
 
 Blue shale (about 18 inches), full of cyprids and fragmentary plants, together 
 with fish-remains. Some interstratified bands of cyprid limestone consist 
 of little else than entomostracan valves, mingled with a little argillaceous 
 matter, streaks of coal, and carbonised plants. 
 
 Green shales, 4 feet thick, including a band of coarse argillaceous limestone, 
 2 inches thick, close to the top at one part of the section. These shales 
 contain some bands of sandy green tuff. Their green colour and felspathic 
 composition are no doubt mainly due to the quantity of volcanic dust 
 which they contain. Cyprids and plant-fragments abound in some of the 
 bands. 
 
 15. Basalt (about 15 feet), rough, scoriaceous, and earthy on 
 the top, the central portion being compact, fine-grained, of a 
 blackish-blue colour, with visible grains of olivine, while towards 
 the base the rock again becomes earthy, of a dirty brown colour, 
 and strongly amygdaloidal. The amygdales (chiefly calcite) are for 
 the most part small ; yet a few also occur of larger size, oblong, an 
 inch or two in length, and g-th to half-an-inch broad. These are 
 chiefly remarkable for being drawn out eastwards and sloping up 
 in that direction from the base of the bed at various angles from 
 positions nearly parallel to the plane of bedding up to 45° or even 
 more. So abundantly vesicular and amygdaloidal is the whole 
 mass that it must have rolled along as a stream of open, highly 
 porous and cavernous slag. Prom the fact of the elongation of the 
 vesicles we may infer that the lava moved in an easterly direction. 
 The crater of eruption may therefore be supposed to have lain to 
 the westward. There are indeed other reasons for believing that 
 one of the main vents lay either on the site of The Binn or 
 somewhere in its near neighbourhood. 
 
 At the east end of the cliff of Kingswood End some stratified 
 seams appear which are not seen to the west. They consist of 
 
 16. Black and grey Shales lying immediately above the last 
 basalt and close to the summit of the precipitous cliff at the east 
 end of King Alexander's Crag. Their thickness cannot be 
 precisely ascertained. 
 
 A few yards from the edge of the cliff some green earthy 
 stratified tuff makes its appearance, containing rounded and sub- 
 angular fragments of basalt, limestone, shale, and sandstone. The 
 relations of this tuff will be immediately noticed. The next member 
 of the series here visible consists of sandstone, partially seen in an 
 old quarry and apparently only a few feet in thickness. These 
 
The Carboniferous Ok/stem — Calciferous Sandstone Series. 61 
 
 strata pass under another great group of lavas. But before 
 following further the upward volcanic succession we may pause to 
 consider some interesting particulars connected with the tuff just 
 referred to. 
 
 When looked at from a distance, as from the low-water edge of 
 the beach or from the sea, the escarpment of King Alexander's 
 Crag, with its prominent ribs of basalt, is seen to end off rather 
 abruptly towards the east, and to be replaced by a slope of blown 
 sand covered with grass. A closer inspection shows this trunca- 
 tion to be not less complete in reality than in appearance. The 
 ends of the sheets of basalt, as well as of their intercalated shales, 
 are cut off nearly vertically and are wrapped round by a mass of 
 coarse agglomerate, consisting of a dull, earthy, greenish paste, in 
 which are embedded blocks of basalt, shale, limestone and 
 sandstone, of all sizes up to masses a yard or more in width. 
 There is no trace of stratification in this rock, the oblong blocks 
 being in many cases stuck upright in the matrix. The vertical 
 margin of the agglomerate can hardly have been determined by a 
 line of fault, seeing that the sheets which overlie the tuff and form 
 the upper part of the hill are not displaced, and the peculiar pale, 
 earthy basalt that overlies the columnar basalt of the crag is 
 prolonged at its proper level on the east side. These appearances 
 point to the existence here of a vent, in which the agglomerate 
 consolidated, and from which the overlying tuff was probably ejected. 
 The tuff consists of finer material than the agglomerate, and has 
 been spread out in a stratified manner around the vent. The two 
 materials, however, pass into each other. It would thus seem 
 that while coarser detritus fell back into the vent and finally 
 accumulated there as a tumultuous unstratified mass, that which 
 was thrown further and settled down on the surrounding lagoon- 
 bottom was there assorted into layers previous to the deposition of 
 the sandstone above it and to the eruption of the sheets of lava 
 that supervene. The lower basalts which have been blown out by 
 the explosions that produced the vent are less compact at the edge 
 of the vent than they are a little distance away from it, and they, as 
 well as all the adjacent rocks, as so often happens in such circum- 
 stances, are bent down at a tolerably sharp angle towards the vent. 
 , ? On the east side of the 
 
 '^iUUiillijIlilll i « ,,,, agglomerate, the basalt 
 
 ^^^^^^^^^si^ik which overlies the ashy 
 
 ■'"' ^-; . • S '"V' < shales and limestones above 
 
 '/ ". ° o _ ?\J; V:' described is seen on the 
 
 ._ j ",?•, ... •• -■ "N--. roadside, with its character- 
 
 ise "° ."■"J./jTI 1 lf*iV. v istic hard, black centre, and 
 
 -^ — j ° *'' — ' 'i — ***"> rough, green scoriaceous top. 
 Fig. 1 1. —Section of Vent filled with agglome- It is truncated abruptly by 
 erate, east end of King Alexander's Crag, the agglomerate, the hade 
 Burntisland. bei to the wegfc at a hi h 
 
 1. Basalt lavas. 2 Black shales, thin tuffs , d fa h th 
 
 and seams of cyprid limestone. S. Agglo- & ' 
 
 merate of the vent. 4, Stratified tuffs. other Side of the vent, 
 
62 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 At this part of the coast we must leave the hill-slopes and inland 
 escarpments, which now descend to the beach, where they present 
 a continuous and clear series of sections, both in shore-clifls and 
 in reefs between tide-marks. It should be mentioned that here a 
 gentle synclinal fold of the rocks, clearly visible from a distance 
 at sea, prolongs the same sheets which have now been described, 
 so that for perhaps half a mile we do not reach any higher horizon. 
 The most westerly rocks that rise from the beach in a range of 
 picturesque crags are a continuation of the lower basalts above 
 described. But they display still better some of the characteristics 
 of these lavas. The earthy varieties are often quite slaggy. 
 They exhibit also the ellipsoidal structure already referred to, 
 examples of which will repeatedly occur in the following descrip- 
 tion of the coast-section further to the east. This well-marked 
 " pillow-structure " appears to indicate that, while still moving as 
 molten masses, they separated into irregularly ovoid, sack-like, or 
 pillow-shaped blocks of all sizes, from less than a foot to 5 or 6 
 feet in length. (See Pig, 13.) These blocks are frequently most 
 cellular in the centre, the vesicles being there largest in size and 
 most crowded together. In other cases, the vesicles are grouped 
 around the margin and sometimes more particularly along one 
 side of each ellipsoid. In the interstices between the blocks 
 fine tuff or ashy sandstone may sometimes be seen, showing that 
 the rude boulder-like masses were more or less separated from 
 each other, so as to allow fine sediment to be dropped into 
 the interspaces. This sediment is stratified horizontally, or in 
 the same direction as the general bedding-plane of the lava in 
 which it lies. Other varieties of this structure will be noticed in 
 the sequel. 
 
 As they rolled along over the lagoons and pools of the time, the 
 basalts, now exposed on the shore west of Pettycur, caught up and 
 involved large quantities of the muddy and calcareous sediments 
 which lay in their way. On the shore at the base of the cliffs lie 
 numerous blocks of a pale limestone, which may have fallen out of 
 these basalts. They have been derived from a bed apparently 
 about two or three feet thick, and probably of local and lenticular 
 development. This limestone band has not been met with in situ 
 in the district. It is especially distinguished by the number 
 and exquisite preservation of the plants which it encloses. It 
 probably accumulated in some pool, into which the vegetation of 
 the surrounding ground was blown or washed, in an interval of 
 volcanic quiescence. Attention was first called to the remarkable 
 perfection of the fossils of this limestone by the late Mr. Grieve, 
 who supplied specimens of them to the late Professor Williamson. 
 Several of them were described in the Professor's monograph " On 
 the Organisation of the Possil Plants of the Coal-measures."* 
 Further research into the structure of these organisms is at present 
 being carried on by Mr. E. Kidston and Dr. Scott. Mr. Kidston 
 
 * Published in Phil. Trans., Vols. 162-186 (1877 to 1896). 
 
The Carooniferous System — Galciferous Sandstone Series. 63 
 
 has meanwhile been kind enough to furnish the following provi- 
 sional list of the species hitherto obtained : — 
 
 Raohiopteris duplex, Will. 
 
 Raohiopteris (allied to R. Oldhamium). 
 
 Raohiopteris, sp. 
 
 Annulate fern-sporangia. 
 
 Heterangium Grievii, Will. 
 
 Lyginodendron, sp. 
 
 Bornia. 
 
 Lepidodendron brevif olium, Will, (not Ett. ) 
 
 Lepidophloios scoticus, Kidston. 
 
 Stigmaria. 
 
 Cheirostrobus Pettyourensis, Scott. 
 
 Lepidooarpon. 
 
 Some farther interesting features in the structure of the Car- 
 boniferous lavas are well exposed on this part of the beach. The 
 cellular character of some of the basalts is largely developed and 
 presents here some peculiarities. In a few of the sheets the 
 crowded vesicles have been elongated and arranged vertically, like 
 rows of worm-burrows, and, as they are filled with white calcite, 
 their contrast with the dark ground of the basalt makes them con- 
 spicuous. They stop short at the top of their own sheet and are 
 directly overlain by the next compact blue basalt. 
 
 The last tuff referred to in the description of the continuation 
 of King Alexander's Crag as being lost under the sandy and 
 grassy slope may possibly lie on or about the same horizon as some 
 shales and limestones exposed in the railway cutting to be 
 immediately described. But it should be understood that, through- 
 out this volcanic series, both the lavas and the interstratified tuffs 
 and other sediments are remarkably inconstant and local in their 
 extension. Even from where they attain an unusual thickness, 
 they may be found to die out rapidly. 
 
 17. Shales and Limestone bands (8 or 10 feet in the railway 
 cutting), grey, fissile, and full of cyprids and plants. Like the 
 thick limestone of Burntisland, these bands, in their lithological 
 character and fossil contents, closely resemble the typical limestone 
 of Burdiehouse. They occur in balls, in lenticular seams, and in 
 more continuous bands, one of which is about 4 feet thick. The 
 material is yellowish, finely stratified, in layers of lighter and 
 darker colour. This band of strata, as displayed in the cutting, is 
 immediately overlain by a rough scoriform basalt, and this again, 
 close to the tunnel, by some higher bands of cyprid limestone, the 
 upper part of which is concealed by the grass of the embankment. 
 
 Let us now take up the continuous shore-section from the har- 
 bour of Pettycur eastwards to where the Hurlet Limestone closes 
 the Burdiehouse Limestone group on the beach at Seafield. The 
 lowest lava of the railway cutting is a dull, green, earthy vesicular 
 basalt, enclosing and passing into masses of hard black, sometimes 
 rudely columnar, basalt. Nowhere is the intimate mixture of the 
 two phases of these lavas better displayed than here, 
 
64 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 When the band of shale and limestone (No. 17) which overlies this 
 basalt in the cutting is followed southwards, it is seen to undergo 
 rapid lithological change. The limestones thin away and give 
 place to greenish sandy and ashy shale, black shale, and shaly 
 sandstone, with remains of Sphenopteris, &c. A sheet of basalt 8 
 feet thick intervenes in the middle of the band, but rapidly dies out 
 northward. At a part of its course the sedimentary band is com- 
 pletely cut out by the coming together of the basalt below with 
 that above (No. 18). 
 
 18. Basalt, resembling that below the shales and limestones in 
 the commingling of dull, greenish, earthy amygdaloidal portions 
 with others in which the rock is comparatively compact and fresh. 
 This lava as it rolled over the bottom of the water appears to have 
 caught up much shale and ironstone and to have carried along these 
 foreign materials embedded in its mass. In some of the enclosed 
 ironstone balls the coprolitic enclosures are still well preserved. 
 On one part of the cliff by the roadside, east from the harbour, the 
 quantity of involved shale is so great as to constitute nearly half 
 of the basalt. The whole sheet is vesicular, while some parts are 
 scoriaceous or almost brecciform — a structure especially prominent 
 towards the top, where the shale fragments, together with balls of 
 coarse limestone and ironstone, become exceedingly abundant. 
 Here and there amid the multitude of included fragments 
 detached pieces of Lepidodendron-stems appear embedded in the 
 igneous rock. 
 
 In this lava the ellipsoidal structure is well marked, and the 
 interstices between the blocks are in some cases filled in with iron- 
 stone which has either come in from above before the next lava 
 was poured out, or, what is more improbable, was soft enough when 
 ploughed up from the bottom of the water to mould itself to the 
 shape of the interstices between the lava-blocks. Here again the 
 
 large size and crowding of 
 the steam-vesicles in the 
 centre of the ellipsoids is 
 conspicuous. These cavi- 
 ties have been first lined 
 with crystals of calcite and 
 then filled in with a fibrous 
 form of the same mineral. 
 
 19. Basalt, dull brown- 
 ish-green or dirty-black, 
 full of calcite amygdales 
 and veins, and arranged 
 in harder and softer bands 
 which, like the general 
 succession of rocks here, 
 dip eastward at 20° or 25°. 
 It is surmounted by 
 
 20. Basalt (3 to 6 feet), 
 hard, blue, fine-grained, 
 
 Fig. 12. — Section showing ramifying veins of 
 finely stratified tuff, from less than a line to a 
 foot or more in width, filling up the interstices 
 of a basalt lava. Pettycur. 
 
6 inches. 
 
 3 
 
 H 
 
 6 
 
 JJ 
 
 6 
 
 )S 
 
 12 
 
 iJ 
 
 10 
 
 it 
 
 4 
 
 It 
 
 The Carboniferous System — Calciferous Sandstone Series. 65 
 
 full of olivine. In this sheet the interstices between the "pillows " 
 have been sometimes filled in with chert. 
 
 21. Basalt (20 feet), like the bed below, but consisting partly of 
 strongly amygdaloidal or slaggy portions, enclosing solid blue fresh 
 masses. In some of the interstices in the slaggy parts of this 
 sheet, ironstone has been deposited ; into others an extremely fine 
 volcanic silt has made its way and filled them up. This 
 material has been laid down in thin layers, which extend from side 
 to side of the crevices, and lie in the same plane as the general 
 bedding of the surrounding rocks (Mg. 12.) 
 
 22. Green Tuff (12 feet), fine-grained and well stratified. On 
 the shore the lower part of this ash becomes very shaly, and con- 
 tains one band of black carbonaceous shale, which, however, may 
 be the same as part of No. 23. 
 
 23. Black Shale, Coal, and Fireclay, arranged in the 
 following order, immediately above the green tuff (No. 22) and 
 below No. 24 : — 
 
 Black shale ... 
 Coal (splint) ... 
 Dark fireclay 
 
 Coal 
 
 Dark fireclay ... 
 
 Coal (splint) 
 
 Fireclay, resting on No. 22 
 
 This alternation of old soils and terrestrial vegetation marks an 
 episode of quiescence between the showers of fine volcanic ashes 
 represented by Nos. 22 and 24. 
 
 24. Green sandy Tuff, with limestone and shale, fine-grained 
 and well stratified (total thickness not seen), coarsest in texture 
 towards the top, where it contains small basic lapilli and blocks or 
 bombs of highly vesicular basalt. The shore-section of this band in 
 front of the old inn admirably exhibits its alternation of coarser 
 and finer layers, the fine-grained character of the whole, the alterna- 
 tion of calcareous and argillaceous with the volcanic sediments > 
 and the absence of stones. The following section displays the 
 remarkable alternation of volcanic and sedimentary conditions 
 recorded by the band, in a thickness of less than two feet of 
 deposit : — 
 
 Tuff 
 
 Limestone 
 
 Tuff 
 
 Shale 
 
 Tuff .. 
 
 Shale and tuff 
 
 Shale 
 
 Limestone 
 
 Shale full of volcanic dust 
 
 Shaly limestone 
 
 Laminated tuffaceons limestone 
 
 Limestone in thin bands, with thin laminee of tuff 
 
 Granular tuff 
 
 Argillaceous limestone, with diffused tuff 
 
 Fine granular tuff 
 
 1*5 inch. 
 
 0-2 
 
 H 
 
 0-5 
 
 J) 
 
 0-2 
 
 1) 
 
 o-i 
 
 J» 
 
 10 
 
 1) 
 
 0-2 
 
 )) 
 
 0-5 
 
 ») 
 
 3-5 
 
 )) 
 
 1-5 
 
 )) 
 
 2-0 
 
 it 
 
 0-8 
 
 it 
 
 o-o 
 
 )» 
 
 0-9 
 
 it 
 
 0-7 
 
 s» 
 
66 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 Argillaceous limestone, with diffused tuff ... 1 - 5 inch. 
 
 Laminated limestone ... ... ... ••• 0"1 .. 
 
 Limestone, with parting of granular tuff in middle 0-9 
 
 Tuffaceous shale 
 
 Limestone 
 
 Shalytuff ... 
 Laminated limestone 
 Tuff 
 
 2-0 
 
 0-4 
 
 1-25 
 
 0-1 
 
 1-2 
 
 21 - 65 inches. 
 
 25. Basalt (12 to 16 feet) lying irregularly on the tuff (No. 
 24) and partly cutting it out. The lower portion of this rock is 
 firm and compact, with small vesicles. Further up it becomes 
 more solid and less vesicular, passing into a hard black basalt, with 
 abundant olivine. The upper part, rough, earthy, and brecciform, 
 has the usual greenish hue. 
 
 26. Black Shale and fine Tuff, with fragmentary plants 
 (about 3 feet), covered by 
 
 27. Basalt (about 30 feet), the most beautiful lava of all this 
 volcanic series. Its base, which rests not very unevenly on the 
 shales (No. 26), is for three or four inches upwards broken, or 
 brecciform, with the usual earthy texture and dirty-green colour. It 
 then becomes firm and compact, though still remaining of a greenish 
 hue, but slowly shades up into its prevailing character of a dark, 
 hard, flinty, regularly columnar basalt, with olivine. The columns 
 reach to within a foot of the bottom of the bed and are often 
 perfectly symmetrical, their hexagonal prisms rising up along the 
 face of the cliff or exposed as a rough tesselated pavement on the 
 shore. They are liable, however, to sudden cessation. At a part 
 of the cliff close to the east end of the old inn a portion of the bed, 
 with its regular columns, is sharply cut off by an overlying mass of 
 amorphous basalt, which in its progress laterally becomes itself 
 columnar, and then the pillars of the lower sheet are continuous 
 through the united mass to the top of the cliff. Though not 
 perfectly straight, but rather curved and slightly sinuous, the 
 columns show none of that confused assortment at different angles 
 which characterises the basalt of King Alexander's Crag. Towards 
 the top of the bed the columns cease, and for the upper 10 or 20 
 feet the rock is massive, weathering on the shore into rude 
 spheroids, with a good many vesicles, which are drawn out parallel 
 to the plane of the bed in a north and south direction. The upper 
 surface of the sheet, which assumes the same pale-green and 
 earthy texture as the bottom, is somewhat rough and uneven, and 
 passes under 
 
 28. Black Shales (12 to 14 feet), with plants, becoming green 
 and ashy towards the top. These shales are surmounted by a 
 band of 
 
 29. Coarse green sandy and ashy Limestone (irregularly one 
 foot), covered by a few inches of 
 
 30. Green Shale like that below the limestone. This is over- 
 lain by another 
 
The Carboniferous System — Calciferous Sandstone Series. 67 
 
 31. Basalt. Upwards from the bottom, for from six to twelve 
 inches, this sheet is rough, green, and earthy. It then passes into 
 a firm, dark crystalline rock, while towards the top it assumes the 
 same slaggy aspect as at the bottom. It passes under another 
 
 32. Basalt, firm and compact, like the last. Above this bed a 
 space of 15 or 20 feet occurs on the shore covered by sand and 
 boulders. But some fine tuff can be detected at one part of the 
 gap. 
 
 33. Basalt, very slaggy below, as seen on the shore, becoming 
 firm and solid higher up. It is covered by a further 
 
 34. Basalt, strongly slaggy, for some yards from the bottom. Its 
 central part is firmer, darker, and fresher, but towards the top the 
 usual rough texture, greenish tint, and more decomposed character 
 of the parts next the cooling surfaces, are resumed, and the 
 rock becomes similar to the peculiar earthy basalts of King 
 Alexander's Crag. This sheet is of considerable thickness. It is 
 covered by 
 
 35. Tuffaceous Sandstone and Shale (6 or 8 feet), green and 
 fine-grained, without included stones, possibly a continuation of 
 some red and green shale seen below a basalt near the eastern 
 entrance of the railway tunnel. 
 
 36. Basalt (fully 30 feet). Its upper part has a highly earthy 
 and amygdaloidal texture, some of the vesicles being large and 
 filled with quartz or with calcite. There may be more than one 
 flow here, as is suggested by the fine ashy sediment that has filled 
 in the sutures between the huge "pillows" on the beach. 
 
 37. Green Tuffaceous Shale, with bands of fine green tuff 
 (about 7 or 8 feet), dipping easterly at 33°. The lower beds consist 
 of a kind of gravelly tuff, with large bombs in the lower part. Those 
 in the middle are more argillaceous, but with still a considerable 
 intermixture of volcanic dust, whilst for a foot or two from the top 
 they again become ashy, forming a kind of sandy tuff. Even in 
 the finest bands of this intercalation there occur occasional 
 angular and subangular lapilli and larger blocks of finely vesicular 
 slag. 
 
 38. Basalt. The under part of this lava is very brecciform and 
 scoriaceous. Its vesicles are drawn out round irregular masses 
 more solid, fresh, and black than the surrounding parts. 
 
 39. Basalt, with a most irregular bottom, corresponding to the 
 uneven top of the underlying sheet (No. 38). This is one of the 
 most compact lavas of the whole series. It consists of a dark 
 black fine-grained basalt, remarkably fresh and hard, and showing 
 on its weathered surface a spotted character that suggests a vario- 
 litic internal arrangement, which, however, has not been recognised 
 under the microscope. It is a rock of the Dalmeny type, and has 
 been studied by Mr. H. J. Seymour, who finds that " the ground-mass 
 contains abundant augite in small crystals, which show a tendency 
 to idiomorphism. The plagioclase laths associated with the augite 
 present a more or less marked flow-orientation. The porphyritic 
 constituents are olivine and augite, the former being most abundant 
 
68 Geology of Cental and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 in well-formed crystals, which occasionally attain a length of 
 2 millimetres. They are mostly altered to greenish and yellowish- 
 brown serpentinous material. Augite is less conspicuous as 
 phenocrysts. The rock contains a little residual glass." 
 
 This basalt is not columnar, but is abundantly traversed by joints 
 or divisional planes, which, though parallel, on the whole, to the 
 planes of cooling, frequently coalesce, and thus give rise to large 
 lenticular beds or cakes. The lower black jointed part of the sheet 
 is fully 30 feet thick. The higher portion, about 8 or 10 feet, is 
 freckled with red, owing to the decomposition of some of the ferro- 
 magnesian constituents, and passes up into a mass of the usual 
 scoriform character. 
 
 40. Brick-red Clay or Bole, of which only a few inches are 
 seen below the next lava. This intercalated layer is cut off by 
 basalt before it ascends the beach to high water-mark; but its 
 disappearance may be due to a small fault. 
 
 41. Basalt, firm and compact in the lower half, the rest being 
 dull green, earthy, scoriaceous, and amygdaloidal. 
 
 41a. Coarse Tuff or Agglomerate, greenish in colour, made 
 up of finely cellular lapilli or pumice, as so many of the tuffs are, 
 and showing the pumiceous character with marked distinctness. 
 The material becomes finer in grain above, passing upwards into a 
 red bole-like substance. 
 
 42. Basalt (14 or 15 feet), strongly amygdaloidal throughout, 
 but especially towards the top and bottom. It contains some 
 curious bands like intruded veins of a finer and more minutely 
 amygdaloidal texture than the main mass, which is distinctly 
 crystalline in texture. Some calcite veins or partings run in 
 parallel layers in a line with the dip of the mass and tend to give 
 the whole a bedded aspect. The sheet occupies the lower part of 
 the prominent crag or headland called Kinghorn Ness. 
 
 43. Basalt (at least 40 feet), very compact, hard, and crystalline, 
 weathering with a rich reddish-brown surface and running out to 
 sea as the promontory of Kinghorn Ness. The weathered surface 
 with its small empty vesicles strikingly recalls the finely carious 
 or minutely cellular structure of many Tertiary lavas, such as the 
 older coulees of Auvergne. The under portion of the sheet 
 presents the usual scoriaceous and amygdaloidal structure, but the 
 rest of it is for the most part a compact, solid basalt. Its line of 
 demarcation from the next basalt is not clearly marked, and there 
 may be some doubt whether the small creek immediately under the 
 garden of Rossness House should be regarded as having been 
 excavated between two basalts or only in the mass of the rock just 
 described. In the latter case the sheet would be 70 or 80 feet 
 thick. This more easterly basalt, whether regarded as a separate 
 flow or as an upper part of No. 43, is admirably exposed 
 along the coast, which here bends round to the north so as to 
 correspond with the strike of the beds. The basalt, in rough 
 scoriaceous masses that occasionally look like coarse volcanic 
 agglomerate, forms a steep irregular cliff and a series of craggy 
 
The Carboniferous System — Cakiferous Sandstone Series. 69 
 
 rocks along the shore. In no part of this coast-section can some 
 of the distinctive features of these basaltic lavas be so easily 
 studied as in this sheet. The " pillow structure " is well displayed. 
 
 The accompanying dia- 
 gram represents a surface 
 of the sheet about 1 2 feet 
 wide by 10 feet high. 
 Some of the blocks are 
 four or five feet long. 
 Their abundant, and often 
 large, amygdales consist 
 mostly of calcite, but 
 sometimes of zeolites. 
 The interstices between 
 the blocks are in some 
 places filled mainly with 
 calcite; in others with 
 
 Fig. 13.-Ellipsoidal Basalt ("pillow-structure"), chalcedony, or with fine 
 west side of Kinghorn Bay. green _ stratified tuff, 
 
 having its laminae parallel 
 to the dip of the sheet. But here and there the infilling material 
 has been a close-grained basalt, which has been subsequently 
 minutely intersected with threads of calcite. Like the bands that 
 occur in the lava No. 42, these ramifying basalt veins may perhaps 
 represent portions of the still molten rock which, as the mass 
 moved on, were injected into the fissures between the already 
 congealed ellipsoids. 
 
 But the most singular characteristic of the basalt now described 
 is the abundance of the included foreign fragments. These 
 consist of vitreous quartz, vitrified quartzite or grit, chert, jasper, 
 and other rocks. Most of the stones are angular. Many of them 
 are evidently portions of sandstone seams. But among them are 
 not a few well-rounded pebbles of quartz, which have manifestly 
 been derived from some conglomerate. All of them have under- 
 gone intense induration, the quartzite being vitrified into a glass- 
 like substance, the limestone changed into marble, while through 
 some of the finer siliceous pebbles run threads of basic igneous 
 rock, which seem to incorporate and shade off into the surrounding 
 stone. 
 
 This metamorphism appears to be much greater than would be 
 likely to be superinduced upon fragments of rock or pebbles caught 
 up by a cooling lava as it rolled over the bottom of the water. 
 Moreover, there are no known conglomerates in any part of the 
 Burdiehouse Limestone group of this neighbourhood that might 
 have lain at the surface as loose shingle when this basalt was 
 erupted. More probably the included stones were borne up by the 
 ascending lava-column from a considerable depth and were 
 immersed for a long time in a bath of thoroughly liquid rock. 
 The large well-rounded and smoothed pebbles of quartz resemble 
 those of the conglomerates of the Lower Old Red Sandstone. If 
 
70 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 they came from that source they must have been carried upward 
 from a depth of several thousand feet. They seem to have been 
 detached from a particular part of the volcanic funnel, for they 
 are chiefly found along a band not far from the top of the basalt, 
 where they are crowded together in patches. 
 
 43a. Green ashy Shale and Tuff. Above the interesting basalt 
 just described lies an inconstant band of green shale and fine tuff. 
 In some places it is two feet thick, but quickly dies out, to come in 
 again on the same horizon further along the shore. Here and 
 there the tuff is full of vesicular bombs and smaller lapilli. 
 
 44. Basalt, a black, solid, compact rock in large irregular 
 columns. Its bottom, for about a foot or so upward, presents the 
 characteristic broken, dull, earthy, and amygdaloidal structure. 
 This prominent sheet forms the crag called the Carlinhead Rocks, 
 on the west side of Kinghorn Bay, and is seen in detached outliers 
 along the beach towards the north resting on the shale and basalt 
 below. 
 
 A sandy bay now intervenes forming the harbour of Kinghorn. 
 It has been hollowed out of a softer series of rocks. 
 
 45. Sandstones and Shales (about 200 feet). This thick 
 intercalation of sedimentary material marks a prolonged interval of 
 volcanic quiescence, when the floor of the lagoon-waters continued 
 to sink and to receive deposits of sand and mud from some neigh- 
 bouring land. These strata are full of remains of terrestrial 
 vegetation. Near their top a seam of " gannister," or hard 
 quartzose sandstone, may be noticed to be crowded with Stigmaria. 
 
 46. Basalt. This sheet, representing the renewal of volcanic 
 activity in the district, forms a reef which runs out to sea on 
 the north-east side of Kinghorn Bay. Dark, solid, and amygda- 
 loidal, it mainly differs from the basalts already described in 
 possessing a more coarsely crystalline or doleritic texture. But it 
 is obviously a true lava. The same texture recurs frequently 
 among the sheets to the east of this point. From the time of this 
 Kinghorn basalt onward a change must have taken place in the 
 condition of some part of the magma which supplied the lavas. 
 
 47. Green Tuffaceous Shale or Marl (1 foot), like that of 
 the Carlinhead Bocks. It passes beneath 
 
 48. Basalt, distinguished by a reversal of the usual arrange- 
 ment of parts, for its centre is highly amygdaloidal, while the 
 bottom and top are compact. There may, however, be three beds, 
 two firm and close-grained, separated by one of an opener and more 
 cellular texture. 
 
 49. Sandstone and Shales, with plants (about 25 feet). 
 
 50. Earthy Basalt,* pale green, amygdaloidal. 
 
 51 . Quartzite|, or hard white sandstone. This band is inconstant, 
 
 * Bou6 calls it " une amygdalo'ide a base de wacke"." Essai, p. 475. 
 
 fThe occurrence of quartzite among the basalts of this coast-section attracted atten- 
 tion during the famous controversy between the.Neptunists and Plutonists a century ago. 
 MacCulloch, in his paper on Quartz-rock (Trans. Geol. Soc., Vol. II. 1814, p. 455), 
 remarked that "neither is the perfect crystalline texture of quartz any proof of a, 
 primitive formation ; since flie strata of Kirkcaldy, which belong to the Floetz and Coal 
 
The Carboniferous System — Galciferous Sandstone Series. 71 
 
 for, while sometimes three or four feet thick, it thins away towards 
 the north and thereafter thickens again below the cliff. Owing to 
 the denuding action of the sea the basalt below this bed has been 
 worn into peaks and bosses, several of which have outliers of the 
 quartzite resting upon them. This quartzite lies unevenly on the 
 basalt below, some parts of it being wanting altogether. 
 
 52. Basalts. The beach for a space of fully 300 yards is now 
 occupied by a series of igneous rocks which are not easily separable 
 into distinct bands, though they may reach a total thickness some 
 300 feet. At their base lies a basalt with a highly amygdaloidal 
 bottom which rests on No. 51. This band forms the Abden Eocks 
 to the east of Kinghorn. Further east, partings of sandstone and 
 quartzite serve to separate some of the igneous masses, which may 
 possibly include one or two sills. Among the bands, some are of a 
 markedly basic or picrite type, in which porphyritic olivine is 
 more common than augite, and appears in a groundmass of augite 
 granules set among lath-like felspars. 
 
 Above this thick mass of erupted material we next come upon 
 
 53. Fissile sandy Shale (12 or 14 feet) ripple-marked, light- 
 grey, and enclosing plants. 
 
 54. Basalt (8 or 9 feet), vesicular and amygdaloidal at bottom 
 and top, more close-grained in the centre. The lower and the 
 upper surface of this sheet pass into a parting or layer of red and 
 green clay or bole, such as is so commonly to be observed in this 
 coast-section. That this substance must sometimes at least arise from 
 the decomposition of the lava in situ, seems to be indicated by the 
 fact that the disseminated crystals and amygdales of the present 
 basalt occur, as if in their natural positions, in the red seam overlying 
 it. The appearances here, as well as at the Carlinhead Bocks and 
 other parts of the coast-line, suggest that certain basalts under- 
 went a peculiar modification along the contact of their bottom with 
 the sediments over which they flowed. No connection has been 
 traced between the occurrence of the bole and any particular kind 
 of pavement, for the layer sometimes occurs on one kind of sedi- 
 ment, sometimes on another, and even between two sheets of basalt. 
 Possibly the modification may be due to some special peculiarity 
 in the composition or behaviour of certain lavas as they rolled along 
 the sea-floor.* At the top of this basalt an inconstant parting of 
 fine tuff separates it from the more solid sheet above it. 
 
 55. Basalt, highly amygdaloidal for a foot or two from the 
 bottom, when it passes into a dark, compact, solid rock, here and 
 
 formation, contain beds of highly crystalline and translucent quartz, alternating -with 
 coal and organic limestones." Boue" would not admit that the rock owed its present 
 texture to the induration caused by eruptive rocks. He speaks of "un gres eompacte, 
 fanssement qualifie" de gres endurci par les sectateurs de Hutton." Essai, p. 475. In 
 judging of the effects of the igneous rocks on the sandstones, we should take note of the 
 fact that some of these strata are gannisters or exceedingly hard siliceous sandstones, 
 which owe nothing to induration by igneous rocks, as in the group of strata No. 46. 
 
 *Boue", describing bands 54 and 55 as ' ! uno amygdalo'ide abase de wacke"," remarks 
 that this amygdaloid contains "un lit peu epais d'une substance hrune rougeatre appro- 
 chant de la nature de la wacke" et contenant de tres petits noyaux de la meme nature 
 que la base." Essai, p. 475. 
 
72 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 there rudely columnar. This sheet shows well the passage of 
 irregular masses 'of hard blue basalt into the soft, dull, earthy, 
 scoriform condition. The top becomes dull, green, earthy, and 
 amygdaloidal. Here and there the steam- vesicles of this sheet are 
 as much as two feet long. These are sometimes merely lined with 
 calcite crystals, sometimes entirely filled with that mineral, which 
 can be extracted in large milky-white rhombohedra. 
 
 In this basalt we again meet with evidence of the intrusion of 
 other basalt. Veins of a fine green minutely vesicular basalt have 
 been injected in the same way as those in Sheet 43. The vesicles 
 are filled with soft green decomposition products. As already 
 suggested, it seems most probable that such veins represent some 
 portions of the sheet which were the last to solidify, and which 
 were forced into the crevices between the already solid "pillows." 
 
 Reference has already been made to the occurrence of bands of 
 limestone containing marine fossils on various horizons in the 
 Burdiehouse Limestone group. These bands show that, though 
 the estuarine conditions of sedimentation prevailed during the 
 accumulation of the group, as shown by the abundant land- 
 plants, the occasional seams of coal and oil-shale, the cyprid- 
 limestones and shales, and the distinctive fish-fauna, there 
 were occasional intervals during which the waters of the 
 opener sea made incursions into the lagoons or estuary, and 
 carried thither another type of organisms. We are now arrived 
 at some of the more interesting platforms in the coast- 
 section where this intercalation of marine life is presented. The 
 Abden shore presents a succession of shales and limestones con- 
 taining the same fossils as are found in the Hurlet Limestone, 
 which, for the reason already assigned, is taken as the base of the 
 Carboniferous Limestone series. It will here be seen that the con- 
 ditions under which the Hurlet seam was accumulated had already 
 arisen in the higher part of the Oalciferous Sandstone series. 
 
 56. Dark Shales (3 feet). Near the base of this band lies a 
 " bone-bed," an inch thick, which has yielded numerous remains of 
 fishes, including Hurynotus crenatus, ElonicMhys pectinatus, and 
 remains of Goelacanthus, Megalichthys, Rhizodopsis, &c. Higher up 
 comes a band (M/aZma-bed), from which Mr. James Bennie 
 obtained Naiadites (Myalina) crassa, Naiadites, large sp., 
 Aviaulopeclen omatus, Pteronites persulcatus, Sanguinolites abdenensis. 
 The same observer detected higher up another marine band (Pecten- 
 bed), containing IAngula squamiformis, Aviculopecten omatus, 
 Myalina sublamellosa, and some of the same species of shells as 
 were_ found in the band below. Throughout the dark shales 
 remains of plants occur, including Calymmatotheca (Sphenopteris) 
 affinis and also fragments of scorpion. 
 
 57. Soft pale marly Shale or Fireclay (18 inches), with 
 fragmentary plants. 
 
 58. Dark Shale (18 inches). This thin band has furnished a 
 large number of fossils, including species of Endothyra, Stacheia, 
 Valvulina, Bairdia, Beyrichia, Leperdiiia, Lingula, Prodmtus 
 
The Carboniferous System — Calciferous Sandstone Series. 73 
 
 Aviculopeden, Udmondia, Myalina, Pteronites, Sanguinolites, 
 Adisina, Murchisonia, Gonularia, Orthoceras, &c. The upper 
 surface of the bed is crowded with Productus and other shells in 
 a fragmentary condition. The fossils have obviously undergone a 
 good deal of movement in the water, such detachable portions as 
 the spines of Produatus lying scattered about. 
 
 These bands of black shale (Nos. 56 and 58), in affording the first 
 indication of thoroughly marine conditions which has occurred 
 throughout our traverse of the volcanic pile, clearly indicate that 
 the physical geography of the district was now undergoing 
 considerable change. The lagoon phase, so long continued, began 
 to give place to inroads of the clearer and more open sea beyond. 
 But the volcanic energy, though drawing to a close, was not yet 
 exhausted, as the overlying strata show. 
 
 59. Green and red Tuffs (6 feet) in bands of varying texture, 
 but generally exceedingly fine. The same strata are also exposed 
 in the railway cutting. They indicate a prolonged discharge of 
 the lightest volcanic ashes. Some hard calcareous bands at the top 
 mark the beginning of the sedimentary conditions under which the 
 overlying limestone (No. 61) was deposited. 
 
 60. Shale (1 foot), with nodules of limestone largely composed 
 of aggregated crinoid-stems. This thin bed has yielded a large 
 number of species of marine organisms. (See Appendix, p. 240.) 
 Among these are various forms of Endothyra, Valvulina, and 
 Bairdia, together with species of Archcecdiscus, Climacam/mina, 
 Ghonetes, Orthis, Spirifera, Archcsocidaris, &c. 
 
 It will be observed that the bands of marine limestone generally 
 lie on a pavement of blue calcareous shale, in which some of the 
 fossils found in them are already present. The cessation of the 
 transport and deposit of mud allowed these organisms to flourish 
 more abundantly, and as the water cleared they were enabled by the 
 aggregation of their remains to build a layer of limestone upon the 
 sea-bottom. 
 
 61. Limestone (10 feet, 1st Abden Limestone) in several seams, 
 of which the lowest is about three feet thick, separated by thin 
 shaly partings. This is a characteristically marine limestone, full 
 of corals, crinoids, brachiopods, &c. (See Appendix, p. 240.) 
 
 62. Dark calcareous Shale (2 or 3 feet) passing up into dull 
 green marl or fine tuff. 
 
 63. Earthy Basalt, amygdaloidal throughout a large part of 
 its course and presenting an irregular bottom, which has rolled over 
 and caught up portions of the underlying shale and tuff. 
 
 64. Tuffaceous red Marl and Tuff (3 or 4 feet). The lower 
 part is a blotched grey agglomerate, made up of basalt-slags, 
 wrapped in a paste of green tuff. The upper finer red portion is 
 crowded with small pieces of finely cellular lava or pumice. Here 
 both the tuff-matrix and the enclosed pieces of basalt have decom- 
 posed into red bole. These ferruginous layers have thus been derived 
 both from lava and from pyroclastic material. They remind one of 
 the bands of bole, lithomarge and bauxite among the Tertiary 
 
74 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 basalts in Antrim and the Inner Hebrides, and also of the Indian 
 
 laterites. . . 
 
 65. Basalt with a somewhat coarsely crystalline or doleritic 
 texture, like that already noticed in the case of No. 46. That this 
 sheet, however, is a true superficial lava and not an intrusive sill is 
 abundantly evident from its structure. It is thoroughly slaggy 
 and vesicular, and displays in great perfection the arrangement in 
 pillow-shaped blocks, especially in the upper part. These ellipsoids 
 are strongly amygdaloidal, and the interstices between them have 
 been filled in from above with fine green and red tuff stratified 
 parallel to the plane of dip of the sheet. This tuff, as usual, is 
 made of a fine basic pumice. Calcite has likewise played its part 
 in filling up the interspaces. 
 
 The change in the crystalline character of the lava already 
 noticed under No. 46 now becomes more marked among the last 
 sheets of the series. This feature, when the rocks are not so 
 well exposed that their relation to the adjacent strata can be ascer- 
 tained, sometimes makes the discrimination of sills from lava-flows 
 a little difficult, though attentive examination will generally suffice 
 to distinguish the sills by their more coarsely crystalline texture, 
 their greater homogeneity, their close-grained texture at top and 
 bottom next the surfaces of most rapid cooling, and the small size 
 and comparative uniformity as well as rarity of their amygdaloidal 
 cavities. 
 
 66. Red and green Marl or fine Tuff (20 feet). This deposit 
 presents another good example of a rock formed by the discharge of 
 fine volcanic ashes, and their settlement under water. It closely 
 resembles the well-known " Houston Marls " of West Lothian, 
 which had a similar origin. It rapidly thins away northward and 
 is only some 6 feet thick in the railway cutting. 
 
 67. Dark Shales and Fireclay (8 or 10 feet). This zone 
 consists of the following subdivisions in descending order : — 
 
 Soft blue shale (i feet) containing corals, crinoids, entomostraca, Disciita, 
 Lingula, Orthis, Productus, Streptorhynchus, Ai'icvlopecten, Nucnla, 
 Macrochilina. 
 
 Hard black shale (4 feet) containing some of the same fossils with species of 
 Myalina, Bdlerophon, and Orthoceras. 
 
 Thin parting (1 inch) containing Myalina. 
 
 Light fireclay (2 feet). 
 
 By increase of calcareous material the shale passes upward into 
 the overlying limestone. 
 
 68. Limestone (about 14 feet, 2d Abden Limestone) composed 
 of a number of separate bands, each from 6 inches to a foot in 
 depth. One of the lower bands is full of Lithostrotion irregulare ; 
 above it comes another abounding in L. junceum. This limestone 
 is also seen in the neighbouring railway cutting. (For list of 
 fossils see Appendix, p. 240.) 
 
 69. Shales and reddened Sandstone, overlying the limestone 
 and including a thin seam of coal. There may be 100 feet of these 
 strata. They are invaded by two dolerite sills, by which the 
 
The Carboniferous System — Gahiferous Sandstone Series. 75 
 
 contiguous sediments are much hardened. These two intrusive 
 sheets are the lowest of a series which has been injected among the 
 strata further to the east, and which will be again referred to in the 
 account of the Kirkcaldy coal-field. 
 
 70. Limestone (Hurlet Seam, altogether about 50 feet thick), 
 seen on shore near Seafield Tower. At the base lies a carbonaceous 
 black shale, with a thin parting of coal and an underlying fireclay, 
 which may represent the coal so often found in this position 
 throughout Scotland. This shale belongs to the non-marine or 
 lagoon sedimentation. But it passes up into grey calcareous shale, 
 with nodules of limestone, and abounding in fossils. Among these 
 are Zaphrentis, Productus longispinus, P. semireticulatus, Spirifera 
 duplicicosta, S. trigonalis, &c. The same organisms appear in the 
 overlying limestone, which has been built out of their crowded 
 remains. Thoroughly marine conditions were now for a 
 considerable time established. The thick Hurlet Limestone points 
 to a prolonged period of clear sea, when little sediment was carried 
 from the land, and when the characteristic marine fauna of the 
 Carboniferous Limestone was allowed to flourish unchecked. 
 
 Higher strata in the upward stratigraphical succession continue 
 to crop out upon the beach beyond this limestone; but as we have 
 now reached the top of the Calciferous Sandstone series, the 
 further description of the coast-section will be deferred until we 
 have to consider the Carboniferous Limestone (p. 91.) Before quitt- 
 ing, however, the consideration of the lavas and tuffs associated with 
 the Burdiehouse Limestone group, we may take note of their 
 distribution elsewhere than along the coast-section which has now 
 been described. 
 
 In the interior of the country, though no continuous section can 
 be found, the rocks appear in many places at the surface. The 
 ridges within the limits of the volcanic area, as already stated, are 
 generally formed by the hard basalts and dolerites, while the 
 hollows between them, for the most part, mark the position of 
 intercalated sedimentary bands (including tuffs), which, offering 
 less resistance, have been more readily eroded by denudation. 
 Unfortunately, a good deal of drift lies in these hollows, and this 
 in large measure conceals what would probably be found to be 
 the records of many interesting episodes in the volcanic history. 
 
 To the north-east of The Binn of Burntisland the lavas and tuffs 
 extend from the coast for about three miles inland until they pass 
 under the Hurlet Limestone at Invertiel. Their general disposi- 
 tion, their variations, and their rapid westward attenuation will be 
 best understood from an inspection of the map. It will be 
 noticed, for instance, that while on the shore the volcanic material 
 immediately below the limestone is mainly basalt, with only a 
 thin and inconstant band of tuff at the top, at Invertiel, little 
 more than a mile inland, there must be from 250 to 300 feet 
 of well-stratified tuff between the limestone and the lavas, as shown 
 in the section in the Tiel Burn. Again, to the north and west 
 of The Binn of Burntisland, a thick and extensive mass of tuff lies 
 
76 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 immediately above the sandstones and limestones. In the eastern 
 part of the volcanic district the tuffs play a quite subordinate part 
 to the lavas, but to the west of The Binn they become the only 
 representatives of the volcanic activity, for no true lavas have been 
 observed there, though intrusive sheets are frequent enough. The 
 most westerly tuffs in this district are those of St. David's, which 
 for a third of a mile are so admirably displayed both in a cliff 
 section and on the beach. It is difficult to fix precisely their 
 stratigraphical position in the Burdiehouse Limestone group, as 
 the limestone is not seen in that part of the district. They are 
 well-bedded, and their component strata, though inclined on the 
 whole to the west, have been thrown into a number of folds, 
 sometimes with inclinations of 45°. Owing to these plications 
 and a number of faults no satisfactory estimate can be formed of 
 the thickness of this mass of tuff. It is probably not less than 300 
 or 4.00 feet. 
 
 This characteristic mass of pyroclastic material has the usual 
 dull green colour, and contains abundant pale pumiceous lapilli 
 and pieces of pale highly amygdaloidal basalt, varying in size up 
 to blocks a foot in diameter, also fragments of sandstone and black 
 shale, abundant pieces of an older fine-grained tuff, and occasional 
 angular chips of coniferous wood, as at St. Magdalens, near Linlith- 
 gow. In many respects this rock recalls the characters of the material 
 that often fills up the volcanic vents of the region, and to which 
 further reference will immediately be made. The fragments of 
 fine tuff in it suggest the disruption of the consolidated detritus 
 round the sides or within the crater of a volcanic cone, and 
 though the general bedded structure of the St. David's rock marks 
 it out as probably a mass interstratified with the neighbouring 
 sandstones and shales, it probably lies not far from the site of the 
 actual vent from which its materials were discharged. 
 
Volcanic Development of the Burdiehouse Limestone Group. 77 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 The Volcanic Development of the Burdiehouse Limestone Group 
 
 — continued. 
 
 (ii.) VOLCANIC NECKS. 
 
 An interesting feature in the volcanic district of Burntisland is 
 the occurrence of a number of the vents from which the lavas and 
 ashes described above were probably ejected. The actual chimneys 
 have been closed up with erupted material, generally agglomerate 
 or tuff, sometimes basalt, and occasionally both kinds of rock 
 together. These filled-up funnels are known as Volcanic Necks.* 
 
 A group of vents lies around Burntisland. On the east side a 
 good example of them may be seen by the side of the road to the 
 west of Kingswood Cottage (shown in Fig. 8), where a boss of 
 coarse unstratified agglomerate, about 200 yards in diameter, rises 
 through the sandstones, which may be traced close up against it on 
 the east and west sides. The constituents of this rock are 
 thoroughly volcanic, seeing that they consist almost entirely of 
 detritus of fine green basic pumice and dull earthy basalt. Some of 
 the stones are so vesicular as to be true slags. Blocks 3 feet long 
 may be noticed in the mass. Pieces of limestone and black shale 
 are plentiful in some places, while marcasite has been abundantly 
 deposited in the interstices among the lapilli. Another neck 
 pierces the strata above the limestone at Kilmundy, and is filled 
 partly with agglomerate, in which palagonite is well represented, 
 and partly with basalt. What is doubtless a neck of fine tuff 
 has been pierced in the underground limestone workings at 
 Newbigging, and abundant pieces of the rock have been thrown 
 out with the other rubbish of the mine. But the largest and 
 by far the best exposed and most instructive vent in the district 
 is that of The Binn of Burntisland. This conspicuous hill, rising 
 almost from sea-level to a height of 631 feet, affords a fuller 
 insight into the interior of a volcanic chimney than any other 
 example in the district, or perhaps even in the British Islands. 
 A detailed description of its structure will therefore serve as an 
 explanation of this type of geological structure. 
 
 As expressed on the map, the shape of the mass of material forming 
 The Binn is somewhat irregular. It seems to consist of two masses 
 joined together, the smaller of which forms an oval boss, 
 
 *In Chapter XV. a general and more systematic account will be given of the 
 Volcanic Necks, Sills, Bosses, and Dykes of the Carboniferous system as a whole, where 
 their connection with any special volcanic period cannot be so satisfactorily determined, 
 as in the case of the Burntisland series described above. 
 
78 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 measuring perhaps 1500 feet from west to east, and 700 feet 
 from north to south. The larger boss is more nearly circular m 
 outline, with a diameter of about 1500 feet. Not impossibly 
 each of these eminences may mark a separate orifice, once active 
 during the volcanic period, but the material that fills them has 
 coalesced along their adjacent margins, so as to form now one 
 continuous mass. 
 
 It will be observed that each of the bosses rises abruptly through 
 the surrounding strata, which have been so entirely removed 
 that their truncated ends now abut against the walls of the 
 volcanic funnel. On the east side, for example, the limestone, 
 with its overlying shales and oil-shale, has been, as it were, 
 punched out of the earth's crust. On the west side the _ same 
 effect can be still more clearly seen, where the limestone, with its 
 overlying sandstones and shales, has been in like manner blown 
 away, and where the geologist, tracing the sedimentary rocks up 
 against the tuff, may follow the actual boundary of the vent up 
 the southern slope and round the declivity on the north side of 
 the crest. 
 
 The material that fills this important orifice consists of tuff 
 and agglomerate, pierced by a few veins of basalt. ^ It has been 
 laid bare in a range of picturesque precipices, which descend 
 from the summit of the hill into the screes and brushwood that 
 cover their base. A walk along the bottom of these cliffs with 
 occasional ascents into then- gullies will reveal to the geologist 
 the internal economy of a volcanic chimney. 
 
 The tuff is of the usual dull green colour, and is made up of the 
 detritus of the basalt-lavas, with abundant pumiceous lapilli, such as 
 have already been described. It varies in texture from point to 
 point, some parts being fine compacted volcanic dust or sand, while 
 others are so crowded with blocks as to become coarse agglome- 
 rates. The enclosed stones mainly consist of compact dark blue 
 basalt, and of the pale earthy scoriae and amygdaloids. They 
 vary in size up to blocks a yard in diameter, and are angular, sub- 
 angular, and rounded in shape. With these stones occur also 
 fragments of the strata through which the vent was drilled. 
 Pieces of limestone and shale are conspicuous, and show no trace 
 of alteration, for they still retain, in perfect preservation, their 
 cyprids and fish-coprolites, the latter still showing enclosed glisten- 
 ing minute fish-scales and bones. A single block of limestone full 
 of cyprids and plants was found to measure some 9 feet long by 
 from 2 to 3 feet broad, and to be planted vertically in the rock so 
 as to project on the face of the cliff. 
 
 Much of the coarser parts of the rock is a tumultuous agglomerate, 
 with no perceptible arrangement of its component materials. 
 But even there, occasional more or less distinct traces of bedding 
 can be detected, usually placed at high angles of inclination. 
 Among the finer portions of the tuff, stratification is more dis- 
 tinctly traceable, though it rapidly disappears with increasing 
 coarseness of the material. Strata of alternate finer and coarser 
 
Volcanic Development of the Burdiehouse Limestone Group. 79 
 
 tuff may be seen standing on end with an east and west strike, 
 while further up the cliff they dip towards north-east at 40°, the 
 intermediate and surrounding portions of the mass being destitute 
 of arrangement, but showing their projecting blocks imbedded 
 utterly without order. 
 
 This occasional stratification, the strikingly disordered condition 
 of the beds, and their steep angles of inclination are characteristic 
 features of the tuffs and agglomerates that occupy old volcanic 
 vents. The materials ejected from a volcano acquire a more or 
 less distinctly stratified arrangement when they fall on the inner 
 slopes of the crater, and during subsequent explosions and sub- 
 sidences much dislocation and disturbance of them must take place. 
 As blocks of consolidated tuff drop down into the vent they will 
 generally or often come to rest in vertical or steeply inclined posi- 
 tions, and will be surrounded by more irregular and unassorted 
 material. Such seems to be the explanation of this internal struc- 
 ture of The Binn. 
 
 Another characteristic volcanic feature of the precipices of this 
 hill is the manner in which dykes of dark basalt run up their faces. 
 These dykes sometimes die out before reaching the top of the cliff, 
 ramify in the tuff, and project above it as hard outstanding ribs. 
 Some of them are columnar, the columns being arranged 
 horizontally between the two walls, so that when the surrounding 
 tuff has weathered away the side of the dyke presents a wall built 
 up of the close-fitting ends of the columns. 
 
 Standing on the brink of one of the deep semicircular chasms, 
 which the rains and frosts of long centuries have sculptured down 
 the front of The Binn, the geologist needs little effort of the 
 imagination to realise what must have been the condition and 
 aspect of the ancient volcano. He can readily fancy that the steep 
 rugged walls around him, studded with their projecting blocks 
 and bombs, furnish a close parallel to what must have been the 
 form of the inside of the crater. The greenish-grey ash-like tuff, 
 resolved by the action of the atmosphere into its original condition, 
 crumbles into loose detritus, and sends its screes of rubbish 
 down the slopes, filling up the rain-channels, till the next storm 
 once more clears them out, and sweeps the ruin of the cliffs down to 
 the plain below. 
 
 There appears to be little room to doubt that The Binn of Burnt- 
 island marks the position of the chief centre of eruption in the 
 
 Fio. 14. — Section to show the connection of the Volcanic Vent of the Binn of 
 Burntisland with the surrounding lavas and tuffs. 
 
 1. Burdiehouse Limestone group. 2. Burdiehouse Limestone seam. 3. Inter- 
 stratified lavas and tuffs, with included shales, coals, sandstones, and lime- 
 stones. 4. Agglomerate and tuff of the vent of the Binn. 5. Basalt veins, 
 
80 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 district during the period of the Burdiehouse Limestone group, and 
 that from this centre the lavas and tuffs of the surrounding 
 country were discharged. Eeference has already been made to 
 certain indications that the volcanic materials of the coast-section 
 came from some source lying towards the west. A section drawn 
 across the hill in an easterly direction to the lavas of King Alex- 
 ander's Crag and Kinghorn, and in a northerly direction to those 
 which lie between The Binn and Auchtertool, explains this relation 
 of the vent. (Fig. 14.) 
 
 Necks filled with lava-form rocks are hardly to be distinguished 
 from bosses that may never have had any communication with the 
 surface. But in some cases the position of the supposed neck amid 
 tuffs and lavas, and the composition of its infilling material may 
 afford a strong presumption in favour of its volcanic origin. An 
 instance of this somewhat doubtful kind is supplied by Dunearn 
 Hill, a mile and a half to the north-west of Burntisland. Eising 
 to a height of 730 feet, it forms an eliptical eminence that 
 measures about 1500 feet in length from west to east, and 1000 
 feet in breadth from north to south. It consists of a basic basalt 
 of the limburgite (p. 82) or picrite type and appears in the midst 
 of a wide expanse of volcanic tuff. If the immediately surrounding 
 portions of this tuff could be proved to have the neck-like characters 
 of that of The Binn, there would be no doubt about the origin of 
 Dunearn Hill. The petrographical relations of its basalt link it 
 with the volcanic series and with some of the rocks that occur 
 intrusively in the agglomerates of necks. 
 
 (iii.) SILLS, BOSSES, AND DYKES. 
 
 The third type of structure in which the igneous rocks associated 
 with the Burdiehouse Limestone group are found is one that has 
 been determined by the manner in which molten material has been 
 injected into the earth's crust. The shape assumed by the material 
 on cooling has in this type depended on the form of the cavity into 
 which it has been propelled. Where the injection has taken place 
 between the planes of stratification, fiat tabular masses or sheets of 
 igneous ro<5k, known as Sills, have been produced. Where the 
 channel of escape has been an orifice drilled through the earth's 
 crust the resultant shape assumed by the molten rock is an 
 irregular column which terminates at the surface in a variously 
 shaped eminence known as a Boss. But many so-called bosses are 
 really more of the nature of sills (or laccolites), from which the 
 original overlying sheet of rock has been removed and which have 
 been carved by denudation into forms entirely different from their 
 first contours. 
 
 The Sills and Bosses that traverse the Burdiehouse Limestone 
 group of the Burntisland district may belong to a much later time 
 than the lavas, tuffs, and necks that have been described in the 
 foregoing pages, and might be most logically included with the 
 others to be described in Chapter XV. But, for the sake of com- 
 
Voleamio Development of the Burdiehouse Limestone Group. 81 
 
 pleting the account of this interesting district, an account of them 
 is inserted here. Some of them, indeed, are not improbably 
 underground intrusions from the same great magma which sup- 
 plied the volcanic eruptions that reached the surface. 
 
 The intrusive rocks around Burntisland are all basic, and belong 
 to the family of the dolerites and basalts. They maybe arranged 
 m two groups, one of which is free from olivine, while the other 
 contains that mineral. But it is noticeable in this district, as 
 in that upon the south side of the Firth of Forth, that there 
 has sometimes been a segregation of the ferro-magnesian minerals 
 towards distinct parts of the sills, so that one portion of a sheet 
 may be highly basic, becoming even a picrite or limburgite, while 
 in its main mass felspar may predominate to the partial or entire 
 exclusion of olivine. 
 
 i. Olivine-free Kocks. — These are all dolerites, and may be 
 divided petrographically into the following groups according to 
 the classification of Dr. Hatch and Mr. Watts, already referred 
 to:— 
 
 (a) The Ophitic type. — In this variety there is no ground-mass. 
 The felspar and augite occur in ophitic intergrowth, and there are 
 present also apatite and iron-ores and usually some decomposition 
 products (chlorite, &c). As an example, the uppermost of the 
 three Burntisland sills may be cited. 
 
 (b) The Burntisland type. — Occasionally some interstitial altered 
 glass remains as a ground-mass, sometimes a little quartz. Granular 
 augite is present, together with a mesh of rather large lath-shaped 
 felspars, which here and there penetrate another unstriated felspar 
 (not orthoclase). The typical examples are the lowest and middle 
 sills on which Burntisland is built ; others are to be seen at 
 Oolinswell, on the shore a little west of Burntisland, and in one of 
 the sheets exposed upon the shore, on the east side of the cave near 
 the Poorhouse, between Kinghorn and Seafield. 
 
 (c) Bowden Hill type. — In this variety the dolerites unite some 
 of the characters of basalts. While in appearance somewhat 
 coarsely crystalline dolerites, examined microscopically they show 
 a ground-mass which is more plentiful than in the two previous 
 types, and which often occurs in large patches. The felspar and 
 augite are related subophitically when together, but the augite 
 shows crystalline contours where it is in contact with the ground- 
 mass. There are also present some interstitial quartz and 
 unstriated felspar. This type is illustrated by the huge sill which 
 stretches northward from North Queensferry. 
 
 ii. Olivine-bearing Books. — Of these, four types in this district 
 may be distinguished by petrographical characters. 
 
 (a) Tlie Oallaston type. — These rocks are olivine-dolerites. They 
 are holo-crystalline, and show a subophitic ground-mass, through 
 which the lath-shaped felspars partly penetrate the augite. The 
 porphyritic mineral is olivine, not felspar. The typical rock of 
 this variety has been quarried at the Gallaston whinstone quarry, 
 Kirkcaldy. 
 
82 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 (b) The Dalmeny type, which has already been described as the 
 prevalent variety among the basalts of the lava-sheets. Some of 
 the basalts which have risen intrusively through the tuffs or 
 agglomerates of necks belong to this type. 
 
 (o) The Piarite type, which has also been above referred in the 
 account of the lavas. The basalt of Dunearn Hill may be cited as 
 an example. 
 
 (d) The Limburgite type. — The rocks included in this sub- 
 division are olivine-basalts, presenting a ground-mass of idiomorphic 
 augite, imbedded in felspathic material which is not present in 
 great quantity. As a porphyritic constituent, olivine is more 
 common than augite. An example of this type is found in the 
 intrusion of basalt which has risen through the neck that forms 
 the Hill of Beath, three miles to the north-east of Dunfermline. 
 But a more interesting instance is to be found in the great 
 dolerite sill which has been injected into the Carboniferous Lime- 
 stone series to the north of Inverkeithing. Though this sill lies 
 on a higher platform than the igneous rocks with which we are 
 particularly concerned in the present section of this volume, it is 
 noticed here, as it not improbably belongs to the same series as 
 that which runs through the Burdiehouse Limestone group. At 
 Pitadro, near Fordel Castle, the upper part of this sill, assuming a 
 more basic character than the other parts, passes into the Lim- 
 burgite type. 
 
 The Sills and Bosses that traverse the Burdiehouse Limestone 
 group in the Burntisland district lie chiefly in the western or 
 non-volcanic ground, though, as has been stated above, they may 
 prove to be more numerous in the volcanic series to the east than 
 has yet been ascertained. The three sills of Burntisland are 
 excellent examples of this kind of geological structure. Their 
 intrusive nature is well displayed along the upper surface of the 
 middle sill, where the dolerite has invaded and baked the sand- 
 stones and shales beneath which it has been injected, as may be seen 
 in the railway cutting and along the upper part of the beach to the 
 west of Seamills. The sill seen in the railway at Colinswell is a 
 dull green decomposing rock, which for two or three inches above 
 its pavement of shale passes into the decayed and altered condition 
 
 known as " white 
 _ n-t'AiMty'A trap." On a much 
 
 v^Jte+X ; T_iX' 1 ■ ° C^-W more extensive scale 
 
 *££?^'£?&&&/A N K(l arethedolerite-sills 
 
 that rise along the 
 western side of the 
 district. One of 
 these begins near 
 the railway, a mile 
 and a half to the 
 north of St. David's, 
 Fig. 15.— Intrusive Sills, Hawk Craig, Aberdour. and extends north- 
 
 Sandstone. 6. Shale, c. Dolerite. d. Boulder-clay, eastwards for some 
 
Volcanic Development of the Burdiehouse Limestone Group. 83 
 
 six miles, until it is lost among other sills around Auchtertool. It 
 will be seen that this sheet of igneous material, which may be 200 
 feet thick, though it approximately coincides with the general strike 
 of the strata, as shown by the outcrop of the Hurlet Limestone, 
 does not strictly adhere to one plane. Near Stewart's Arms Inn, 
 while keeping its own dominant trend, it breaks across some 400 or 
 500 feet of strata, so as actually to reach the Hurlet Limestone. 
 
 Perhaps the most instructive examples of sills in the Burntisland 
 district are those laid bare along the shore between Aberdour and 
 Dalgetty Bay. The Hawk Craig at Aberdour (Fig. 15), which 
 reveals both the upper and under surfaces of an intrusive sheet, 
 shows how the molten material has separated into distinct though 
 connected sills and veins, and affords illustrations of the induration 
 produced by the contact of the heated material with the strata. A 
 little further west, three parallel dolerite sills are successively 
 exposed along the shore. The lowest of them has been folded 
 along the line of an anticlinal arch, of which it forms the axis. It 
 is first seen at Port Haven, where the strata dip away from it 
 towards E.S.B. At the Bellhouse Bocks the sandstones are 
 jointed in such a way as to weather into irregular columns — 
 possibly a result of the influence upon them of the underlying 
 dolerite. Immediately to the west of the sill, the sandstones may 
 be seen dipping north of west along the shore of Barnhill Bay. 
 The sill is best exposed at the south end of that inlet, where it 
 forms the headland of Charles Hill. The rock is there seen to be 
 strongly amygdaloidal, its cavities being filled with calcite, quartz, 
 and chalcedony. It often encloses fragments of highly indurated 
 sandstone and shale. It is somewhat decomposed, and weathers 
 into spheroidal blocks. Immediately above it, on its western side, 
 a band of cyprid limestone like those of Burntisland supervenes, 
 and dips westward under a series of sandstones and shales, among 
 which lies the second sill, exposed on the beach at the southern 
 end of Braefoot Bay. A further group of sandstones and black 
 shales lies above this intrusive sheet, and continues the westward 
 dip at an angle of 25°, until it quickly passes under the third and 
 thickest sill of crystalline dolerite, which forms the promontory of 
 Braefoot Point. Thence this sheet of intrusive material stretches 
 inland for upwards of a mile and a half to the village of Aberdour. 
 It has a breadth of outcrop amounting to from 1000 to 1800 feet. 
 At its seaward end it measures 1100 feet across, and if we take 
 its angle of dip to be the same as that of the neighbouring strata, 
 viz., 25°, it must be at least 450 feet thick. Its actual top is 
 concealed by the accumulations of the beach. 
 
 Opposite to the sills just described lies the island of Inchcolm, 
 where sandstones, shales, and limestones of the Burdiehouse 
 Limestone group are invaded by other sills consisting in part 
 of a beautiful picrite, which has been several times described 
 and is now well known to petrographers.* The adjacent 
 
 * See Trans. Roy, Soc, Edin., vul. xxix (1879), p. 506. Teall's Britith Petrography, 
 p. 94, 
 
84 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 islands and those above Queensferry are likewise portions of 
 sills. 
 
 The olivine-free dolerite mass of North Queensferry, along its 
 natural escarpments and in numerous artificial excavations made 
 in quarries and railway cuttings, displays a series of instructive 
 sections with regard to the internal structure and variations of a 
 great sill. 
 
 To the north and east of Burntisland a number of irregular 
 intrusions have taken place, some of which may be described as 
 Bosses, while others unite certain of the features of sills, bosses, 
 dykes, and veins. As good examples of bosses, reference may be 
 made to Dunearn Hill and the group of eminences which lie to the 
 eastward of it and stretch behind The Binn. Of the more tortuous 
 shapes assumed by the intrusive materials some admirable illustra- 
 tions may be studied in the Dodhead limestone quarry, in the cliff 
 to the south-west of Dodhead, and in the old limestone quarry of 
 Kilmundy (Figs. 16 and 17). 
 
 In the Dodhead quarry the thin sill occurs which has been 
 already referred to as interstratified among the shales, like a 
 thicker band of sediment. Its truly intrusive character, however, 
 is revealed at the end of its course, where the structure is presented 
 
 -Sill among the shales above the Burdiehouse Limestone, 
 Dodhead Quarry, Burntisland. 
 1. Limestone. 2. Shale. 3. Sandstone. 4. Sill and dyke. 
 
 which is shown in Fig. 16. The intrusive rock is a dull yellow, 
 earthy basalt, crowded with small amygdales of calcite While 
 burrowing its way between the shales it sends tongues into them 
 from its upper surface and splits up horizontally into two sheets, 
 which die out among the shales. Moreover, a portion of its lower 
 surface, probably marking the line of rupture up which the molten 
 material ascended, branches off as a vein or dyke which breaks 
 obliquely across the limestone and shales, crumpling them in its 
 progress , As usual, where one of the basic eruptive rocks comes in 
 
Volcanic Development of the Burdiehouse Limestone Group. 85 
 
 contact with carbonaceous strata, this rock assumes the soft, 
 bleached, earthy condition known as " white trap." 
 
 Another instance of irregular injection may be seen on the face 
 of the cliff between Dodhead and the high road half-a-mile east 
 from Burntisland. There the basalt has been thrust among the 
 limestones and shales, partly as a sill which projects an offshoot into 
 them, and partly as a dyke-like mass which ascends vertically 
 through them, sends a tongue into them, and has involved portions 
 of them within its mass (Fig. 1 7). 
 
 Fig. 17. — Basalt invading strata of the Burdiehouse Limestone group, 
 
 cliff west from Dodhead Quarry, Burntisland. 
 1. Shale and limestone-ribs. 2. Limestone and shale. 3. White 
 sandstone. 4. Basalt. 
 
 Dykes and Veins are illustrated by some good examples in this 
 district. The largest and most conspicuous dyke is that which 
 extends in an east and west direction for nearly a mile on the 
 coast at St. David's. It has a breadth of about 100 feet, and 
 has risen through sandstones and the sheet of tuff which there 
 overlies them. It projects eastward in the promontory of Downing 
 Point, and the white sandstone on either side of it can there be 
 seen to have been disrupted and indurated. The rock of which 
 it consists belongs to the Bowden Hill type of the olivine-free 
 dolerites. Though its direction might lead to the inference that 
 it may belong to the Tertiary system of dykes, its internal 
 composition and the absence of any other probably Tertiary dyke 
 in its neighbourhood suggests that it may rather be assigned to 
 the much older igneous phenomena of this district. 
 
 The dykes and veins of The Binn, which have been already 
 mentioned, may be cited as typical examples of this kind of 
 geological structure. They occur in the neck, which probably 
 marks the position of the chief vent from which the Burntisland 
 volcanic series was ejected. But except in the orifices of discharge, 
 the Carboniferous volcanoes of this district do not seem to have 
 given rise to dykes of normal character. Some of the subter- 
 ranean extravasations of molten material took the form of irregular 
 tortuous veins, of which a characteristic instance may be seen in 
 an old limestone quarry at Kilmundy, half-a-mile to the north-west 
 of Burntisland (Tig. 18). There a dyke of dull, earthy basalt 
 may be seen to rise up through the limestone, turn along 
 
86 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 laterally between the limestone and the overlying black shales, 
 then strike upward for a few inches and apparently end off. That 
 
 4, >; 
 
 .i«£=^— _ 
 
 Fig. 18. — Interrupted Basalt-vein cutting strata of the Burdiehouse 
 Limestone group, Kilmundy Quarry, Burntisland. 
 1. Limestone. 2. Shale and thin limestone bands. 3. Shaly-limestone 
 and shale. 4. Sandstone. 5. Basalt ("white trap"). 
 
 the molten material, however, continues its ascent probably behind 
 the face of the quarry, is shown by its resumption in the shales a 
 little higher up. It then rises as a somewhat tortuous vein, until 
 is has crossed the rest of the black shales, when it bends at almost 
 a right angle to the left in the overlying, grey calcareous shales 
 and winds across these to the top of the section. This rock furnishes 
 a further illustration of the change which basic igneous rocks 
 undergo when they come in contact with carbonaceous materials. 
 It has been changed into "white trap," and now appears as a 
 dull, pale, argillaceous substance, which in a hand-specimen might 
 be taken for a clay rather than an eruptive rock. 
 
The Carboniferous Limestone Series. 87 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 The Carboniferous Limestone Series. 
 
 In Scotland this important^ division of the Carboniferous system 
 displays in great perfection the two distinct types of sedimentation 
 already noticed, which may be called the Lagoon or Coal-measure 
 type and the Marine or Limestone type. 
 
 In the first of these, the strata are chiefly sandstones and shales, 
 with seams of coal, fireclay, and ironstone. Fossils are abundant, 
 and comprise a considerable variety of terrestrial vegetation, 
 including ferns, calamites, lepidodendroid plants, and some coni- 
 fers. The animal remains are distinctive. The fishes comprise 
 the Selachian genera Gyracanthus, Tristichius, and Ctenoptychius, 
 and numerous ganoids, among which may be mentioned Rhizodus 
 Hibberti, Megalichthys, Bhadinichthys tenuicauda, several species of 
 Elonichthys, Gonatodus,~Uurynotus, and Nematoptychius Greenoekii. 
 Mollusca are generally absent, but they appear in occasional bands 
 of shale or limestone, and comprise some of the characteristically 
 marine forms of the Carboniferous Limestone. This assemblage of 
 organisms seems to have lived in enclosed basins or lagoons of sea- 
 water, in which the land-plants grew, as mangroves do along 
 tropical shores at the present day, but to which the open sea found 
 occasional access. 
 
 In the second type, the strata include bands of limestone, 
 which accumulated in clear sea, since they are entirely built up of 
 corals, crinoids, polyzoa, brachiopods, and other unequivocally marine 
 forms of life. With these limestones are associated calcareous 
 shales, full of the same fossils and marking the influx of muddy 
 sediment from the land. In the following pages many illustrations 
 will occur of the remarkable way in which these two very dis- 
 tinct phases of sedimentation alternated with each other during 
 the deposition of the Carboniferous Limestone series. As a good 
 example of this feature, the following section may be given of the 
 strata that immediately overlie the Main or Hurlet seam of lime- 
 stone at the Cults Limeworks, above the village of Pitlessie : — 
 
 Thick group of dark shales. 
 
 Coal, 1 foot to 1 foot 3 inches. 
 
 Fireclay, with ironstone balls, 1 foot 6 inches, marking the soil on which the 
 
 vegetation grew that formed the overlying coal. 
 Limestone composed of crinoids and numerous other marine organisms, 2 
 
 feet 6 inches. 
 Coal, 10 inches. This seam of compressed land-vegetation is immediately 
 
 overlain by the limestone. 
 Fireclay, with rootlets, 2 feet. 
 
88 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 Sandstone, with streaks of carbonised plants, 10 inches to 1 foot. 
 
 Fireclay, 6 inches. 
 
 Blue shales and fireclays, 8-10 feet. 
 
 Calcareous shale or shaly limestone, crowded with crinoids, &c, 1 foot 6 
 
 inches. 
 Blue shale, 1 foot 3 inches. 
 Calcareous shale, richly fossiliferous, 1 foot, passing down into the limestone 
 
 below. 
 Thick Limestone, with an abundant series of characteristically marine 
 
 organisms. This is the Hurlet seam, and a list of its fossils will be found 
 
 in the Appendix, p. 244. 
 
 In this section at least two layers of terrestrial vegetation 
 alternate with limestones formed entirely of organisms that lived 
 in the sea. Each coal-seam has its old soil underneath it, and in 
 the case of the lower seam no layer of other sediment intervenes 
 between the coal and the marine limestone. We may suppose 
 that the whole series of strata was deposited during a time of 
 intermittent subsidence, and that the downward movement between 
 the accumulation of the coal and that of the limestone was 
 comparatively rapid, or at least that it carried the submerged 
 vegetation out of reach of the muddy deposits of the lagoon, so 
 that in clear water the crinoids, corals, polyzoa, and mollusks could 
 begin to live, and to accumulate their remains immediately above 
 the drowned lepidodendra, sigillarise, and ferns. 
 
 Viewed broadly, the Carboniferous Limestone series in Scotland 
 presents us with the records of three distinctly marked periods in 
 the geological evolution of the country. In the first of these, the 
 marine type was prominent, but with alternations of the lagoon 
 type. In the second period, the lagoon type prevails to the almost 
 total exclusion of the other. In the third period, the marine type 
 returned, but on a less extensive scale, and with a much greater 
 development of the lagoon type. 
 
 This geographical history is briefly summarised in the threefold 
 stratigraphical arrangement into which the series naturally divides 
 itself, as shown in the table already given on p. 39. We shall 
 consider each of the three groups in consecutive order, beginning 
 with the lowest. 
 
 I. The Lower Limestones (Hurlet and Hosies). 
 
 Eeference has been made in the foregoing pages to the Hurlet 
 Limestone as marking the upper limit of the Surdiehouse Lime- 
 stone group. It is the thickest zone of limestone in the Scottish 
 Carboniferous formations, but varies greatly in development, 
 sometimes diminishing to only 15 feet or less and sometimes swell- 
 ing out to more than 100 feet. It is a thoroughly marine deposit, 
 which was laid down in a tolerably clear sea, and was built up 
 almost entirely of the remains of marine calcareous organisms. 
 Lists of these fossils from different parts of Fife are given in the 
 Appendix. It may be sufficient to mention here that they include 
 more than a dozen genera of corals (Lithostrotion, Zaphrentis, 
 Clisiophyllum, Favosites, Dibunophyllum, Palceaais, &c.) : crinoids of 
 
The Carboniferous Limestone Series. 89 
 
 the genera Poteriocrinus, Platycrinites ; sea-urchins (Archmocidaris) ; 
 holothurians ; trilobites (Griffithides) ; polyzoa (Fenestella, &c.) ; 
 numerous brachiopods, especially of the genera Productus (P. 
 semireticulatus, longispinus, giganteus), Spirifera (S. bisulcata, 
 glabra, trigonalis), Bhynchonella, Streptorhynchus, Aihyris, Lingula, 
 and Piscina; lamellibranchs (Aviculopeden, Gypricardella, Ed- 
 mondia, Nucula, Sanguinolites, Myacites) ; gasteropods (Bellero- 
 phon, Macrochilina, Loxonema, Pleurotomaria, JEuomphalus, &c); 
 pteropods (Gonularia) ; cephalopods (Orthoceras, several species, 
 Goniatites, Nautilus) ; and fishes, chiefly selachian (Oochliodus, 
 Gladodus, Pristodus, Psammodus, Megalichthys, &c). 
 
 The Hurlet Limestone generally rests on shales among which, 
 throughout Central Scotland, a seam of coal of variable thickness 
 and quality extends, and has in some places been worked. The 
 limestone is overlain with shales which point to the inroad of 
 muddy sediment, by which the life of the organisms and the 
 aggregation of their remains into a tolerably pure calcareous 
 deposit were arrested. That many of the organisms, however, 
 were able for some time to survive this unfavourable change of 
 conditions is shown by their remarkable abundance and perfect 
 preservation in the overlying shales. 
 
 We may now follow the outcrop of this seam in its course from 
 the shores of the Firth of Forth at Oharlestown eastward through 
 the interior until it bends round again to the coast near Kirkcaldy. 
 The Hurlet Limestone has long been extensively worked and 
 shipped at Oharlestown, where fine sections of it have been laid 
 open in the Glen quarries. It is here 40 feet thick and rests on a 
 series of shales (some of which, as at Campsie and elsewhere, are 
 pyritous), with seams of sandstone and some thin coals. It is 
 overlain by other dark shales and sandstones. While the general 
 dip of the seam is towards the north-east, the bedding is a good 
 deal disturbed, being sometimes inclined at angles of more than 
 60°. The prolongation of the crop eastward has not been traced, 
 owing to absence of exposures, and to the depth of the superficial 
 deposits which here obscure the geology of the ground. The 
 sandstones and shales that lie below the limestone are well displayed 
 along the beach for several miles to the east of Oharlestown, but the 
 limestone does not make its appearance there. At Kosyth, 
 indeed, a crinoidal limestone, accompanied with shale, a thin 
 coal and fireclay, may be seen at high-water mark and can be 
 followed for a short distance on the beach. But these strata 
 probably lie in the Calciferous Sandstone series. The black 
 shales a little further west are greatly disturbed and even placed 
 on end. The main crop of the Hurlet seam, if it follows the 
 general trend of the Hosie limestones above, should turn inland 
 towards Dunfermline. Its course, however, is here lost for some 
 miles. 
 
 We next meet the undoubted outcrop of this seam at Sunny- 
 bank, a mile to the north of Inverkeithing, where, under the 
 drift covering, 8 feet of limestone were quarried, resting upon 
 
90 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 18 inches of black shale, below which lay the Hurlet coal 1 foot 
 thick. Further to the east, at Parkend, the seam has been quarried 
 with a westerly dip of 30°- Only its upper portion, with the 
 overlying shales, is now visible. About a mile further north it 
 has been laid open in the Bucklyvie quarry, dipping with an 
 inclination towards W.N.N, at 25°, under fossiliferous calcareous 
 shales. Above the limestone an impure cannel or parrot coal was 
 pierced in a shaft at Easter Bucklyvie mill-dam. In the field 
 immediately to the north, the limestone has been reached in bores 
 at depths of from 15 to 30 fathoms. The outcrop here must bend 
 sharply to the east, for the limestone is next seen close to where the 
 great sill crosses the road, a little to the south-east of Stewart's 
 Arms Inn. Keeping to the outside of the tract of igneous rocks, 
 the seam strikes to the north-east, and has been formerly worked in 
 a succession of quarries as far as Chapel, at the extreme north-east 
 point of its course. The coal below the limestone was cut in the 
 railway half a mile to the south-east of Easter Lochhead. In the 
 large quarries at Chapel and Bogie, the dip of the limestone veers 
 first to the north and then to the east, and the strike consequently 
 swings round at a right angle to its previous course. The Hurlet 
 Limestone must here either split into two bands or a lower seam 
 must come in among the sandstones and igneous rocks below. 
 This lower calcareous horizon may be seen in the form of a sandy, 
 fossiliferous limestone overlying black shale by the side of the road 
 which leads north-west from the farm of Torbain, three-quarters of 
 a mile to the south-west of Chapel. A lower band of limestone, 
 containing Productus giganteus, has also been worked at the Foul- 
 ford Limeworks interposed among the igneous rocks, about a mile 
 south of Chapel. 
 
 The intrusive dolerites and basalts of this part of the district 
 have introduced some confusion and disturbance in the strike of 
 the strata. They occur as important sills, which, though on the 
 whole coinciding with the general direction of the bedding of the 
 limestone series, break here and there across it and send tongues 
 into it. Small isolated dykes and veins also occur, like that met 
 with in the Bogie lime-quarry. Moreover, some dislocation of the 
 strike has been effected by faults, of which a large example cuts off 
 the limestone to the south of Bogie, and sweeping seawards shifts 
 the coal-seams and sills at Pathhead. South of this fault, from 
 old pits on the shales overlying the Hurlet Limestone at Pot- 
 metal Plantation, near Bogie Mains, a large collection of fossils 
 was obtained by the Geological Survey. (Appendix p. 213.) The 
 intrusive position of the sill in these strata is here well exemplified, 
 the shales being caught between two portions of the eruptive 
 material. The dolerites are thickest in Raith Park and thin 
 away southward, but reach the shore, where they appear on two 
 horizons, of which the lower lies below the Hurlet Limestone, as 
 already alluded to, while the upper is intercalated among the 
 Hosies Limestones. A limestone which overlies the Tiel Burn 
 tuff (ante, p. 75) has been extensively worked at Invertiel. Thence 
 
The Carboniferous Limestone Series. 91 
 
 it continues southward. If not the Hurlet seam, it may be the 
 limestone numbered 68 in the detailed section described on p. 74 
 as visible on the beach near the Kirkcaldy Poorhouse. This seam 
 is undoubtedly, as far as palseontological evidence goes, an integral 
 part of the Carboniferous Limestone series, and ought properly to 
 be included in this place. But as the Hurlet Limestone has been 
 taken as a convenient base for that series, we may regard any lower 
 bands as local forerunners of the more widespread Hurlet seam, and 
 keep them among the strata of the Calciferous Sandstone group. 
 
 The Hurlet Limestone, as displayed on the. beach immediately to 
 the west of Seafield Tower, is about 50 feet thick, and consists of a 
 number of bands separated by interstratifications of blue shale. At 
 the base, comes a band of grey calcareous shale, 2 or 3 feet thick, 
 with Spirifer trigonalis and many other fossils. This band passes 
 down into the black carbonaceous shale already noticed (No. 69, 
 p. 74), and shows how the marine conditions gradually established 
 themselves while the muddy sediment still continued to be 
 deposited. Above it the limestone begins in several bands, alto- 
 gether about 10 feet thick, containing Produdus giganteus, and separ- 
 ated by shaly partings. The clear water in which the calcareous 
 organisms abounded and built up the limestone was occasionally 
 invaded by more serious and prolonged inroads of mud, now repre- 
 sented by grey shale or clay. But a large number of the organisms 
 continued to live at the bottom upon which the muddy sediment 
 settled down, for their remains are abundant in the shale. Alterna- 
 tions of limestone and calcareous shale continue until the highest 
 limestone band is reached, which is strongly fossiliferous and about 
 three feet thick. It is surmounted by three or four feet of a shale 
 that passes under the thick mass of pink sandstone on which 
 Seafield Tower stands. 
 
 We shall now trace the outcrop of the Hurlet Limestone on the 
 north side of the irregular trough into which the Carboniferous 
 rocks have been thrown. Throughout the western part of the 
 ground, this outcrop is extremely inconstant and irregular, owing 
 to faulting and plication, and partly also to the intrusion of igneous 
 rocks. The furthest appearance of the seam towards the north- 
 west is at Scaurhill, at the western end of the Cleish Hills. It is 
 only seen at the limeworks, and now to but a small extent, as the 
 workings have been long abandoned and are now filled up. It 
 dips in an easterly direction at 10°-15° under about 50 feet of black 
 shales, which are overlain by a dolerite sill. It is cut off to the 
 north by the fault already referred to (p. 41 and Fig. 5), while to 
 the east and south-west its place is at once taken by masses of 
 igneous rock. The relations of this detached outcrop are thus 
 obscured, nor has the seam been detected anywhere among the 
 rock-exposures in the chain of hills lying to the east. 
 
 The next outcrops of the limestone are found rising in a singu- 
 larly disrupted manner on a dome about two miles to the north of 
 Dunfermline. On the north side of the powerful fault which 
 runs westward from Loch Fitty and throws down the Dunfermline 
 
92 Geology of Genital and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 coals, the Hurlet seam has been worked on a great scale at the 
 Lathalmond limeworks, where it dips under its overlying^ shales 
 and ironstones at 15°, and at the Eoscobie limeworks, a little to 
 the north, where the average dip is towards north-east. From the 
 shales above the limestone at these places and at Gask a large 
 series of well-preserved fossils has been collected. (See 
 Appendix.) 
 
 The easterly dip brings on higher members of the Carboniferous 
 Limestone series, and the Hurlet seam does not rise to the surface 
 again until it is brought up at the end of the great anticline, and 
 cut through by the fault at Markinch. Underneath that village, 
 a little south of the Parish Church, in excavations for drainage, the 
 limestone was found to be 15 feet thick and to be underlain by 
 shales, including a layer of oil-shale 6 inches thick and a coal-seam 
 of 3 inches. In the present district no further evidence has been 
 found of the position of the limestone beyond this point ; the seam, 
 no doubt, folds round the end of the anticline and returns south- 
 ward against the fault. 
 
 The most continuous visible line of outcrop of the Hurlet Lime- 
 stone is that which circles round the great escarpment of the 
 Lomond Hills for about twelve miles, and runs thence by Freuchie 
 and Cults, until it is cut off by a large mass of intrusive dolerite 
 to the south-west of Cupar. It was formerly much quarried 
 on the Bishop and the two Lomond Hills, and even where no 
 artificial openings have been made, the outcrop of limestone 
 above its platform of black shale, and beneath its cover of 
 shales and white sandstones, can readily be followed. It has 
 been much invaded by the dolerite of the great Lomond sills, 
 and portions of it have been caught up and isolated in 
 the midst of the igneous rock. In one of the largest of these 
 detached areas of limestone, extensive quarries were opened at 
 Clatteringwell, on the Bishop Hill, from which a good collection of 
 fossils was made by the Geological Survey. (See Appendix.) 
 Immediately to the south of these quarries, along the main outcrop 
 of the seam, two beds of limestone may be seen separated by white 
 sandstone. The reader will best be able to understand from the 
 map the effects of the injection of the great dolerite sheets of the 
 Lomonds in disrupting the Hurlet Limestone and isolating it in 
 separate areas far to the south of the northern or main line of out- 
 crop. These detached outliers have once been extensively quarried 
 in three localities — Easter Glasslie, Pitkevy, and Balgeddie. The 
 old workings have partly fallen in, and are now obscured by grassy 
 vegetation. At Glasslie a good face of a strong blue crinoidal 
 limestone in five seams may be seen to a depth of 10 feet 6 inches. 
 A similar limestone of the same thickness, but in three seams, is 
 met with at Newbiggate quarry, close to Balgeddie, where the rock 
 formerly worked open-cast is now mined. It is covered by a thick 
 mass of black shale. The uprise of the Hurlet Limestone in this 
 part of Fife suggests that the Calciferous Sandstones may 
 immediately underlie the dolerite to the west of Leslie. 
 
The Carboniferous Limestone Series. 93 
 
 At the Forthar limeworks, near Freuchie, limestone was quarried 
 on a large scale, but the increasing depth of " cover/' as the seams 
 were worked to the dip, combined with the mischief done by a 
 large number of small faults, caused the works to be abandoned 
 more than 25 years ago. The following table will show the alter- 
 nation of strata at this place above the Hurlet Limestone : — 
 
 Feet. Inches. 
 
 Blue clay or shale (till) . . ... ... 8 
 
 Limestone ... ... ... ... 4 
 
 Shale ... ... ... ... ... - 2 
 
 Limestone ... ... ... ... ... 6 
 
 Sandstone ... . . ... ... ... - 9 
 
 Shale ... ... ... ... ... - 5 
 
 Hard sandstone ... ... ... ... - 2 
 
 Soft do. ... ... ... ... 1 2 
 
 Blue clay or shale (till) ... ... ... - 4 
 
 Sandstone ... ... ... ... ... - 2 \ 
 
 Coal ... ... ... ... ... - | 
 
 Red limestone ... ... ... ... 2 
 
 Coal ... ... ... ... ... - \ 
 
 Freestone ... ... ... ... ... 5| 
 
 Strong clay (till) ... ... ... ... - 7 
 
 Main limestone (Hurlet) ... ... ... 18 
 
 Clay or shale (till) ... ... ... ... - 3 
 
 Coal ... ... ... ... - J 
 
 Freestone ... ... ... ... ... 5 
 
 Further east the Hurlet Limestone has long been exten- 
 sively worked in a line of quarries, stretching for about two 
 miles, and containing the limeworks of Pitlessie and Cults (ante, 
 p. 87). Large quantities of burnt lime are sent off from here, 
 chiefly to Dundee and the north-east of Scotland. 
 
 Beyond the Cults limeworks, in an easterly direction, the 
 outcrop of the Hurlet Limestone becomes difficult to trace. A lime- 
 stone was once quarried at Clatto Barns, about a mile south from 
 the Cults limeworks, which may possibly have been this same 
 seam. About three miles further east a number of quarries have 
 been opened in limestone involved among the igneous rocks. One 
 of these lies to the north ofHilltie (Sheet 41). Immediately to 
 the north, a line of old quarries, in what is probably the same seam, 
 may be traced between two sills from Backbraes north-eastward 
 for three-quarters of a mile to Bankhead. This limestone dips 
 gently south-eastward under the great sill of the Garr Hills. Less 
 than a mile further to the north-east, a limestone has been largely 
 quarried near Newbigging of Craighall. It is from 10 to 12 
 feet thick, dips to the north of east, at 15° to 18°, below black 
 calcareous shales surmounted by white sandstone, and is under- 
 lain in the Craighall Burn by black shales and sandstones. 
 There can hardly be any doubt that this is the Hurlet seam. It 
 runs westward by Craighall Castle, plunging under another sill, 
 the edge of which it follows nearly as far as Teassesmill. 
 Further north it must run against a large fault, which, at Ceres, 
 throws down the coal-bearing part of the series against the 
 Calciferous Sandstones. 
 
94 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 In Eastern Fife the Hurlet Limestone continues as a persistent 
 seam, notwithstanding the complicated geological structure of 
 that district. Its distribution and development in that part of 
 the country will be described in a subsequent Memoir. 
 
 The Hosie Limestones form a group of sometimes as many as 
 five thin limestones, which are separated from the Hurlet seam 
 by a variable thickness of sandstones, shales, and other sediments. 
 This group affords a remarkable example of the alternation of 
 marine and fluviatile or terrestrial conditions. The limestones 
 are made up of crinoids, corals, and other marine organisms ; 
 but between them lie sandstones and shales full of land-plants, 
 and even seams of coal, with fireclay-pavements crowded with the 
 rootlets of plants that grew on the spot where their matted 
 remains now lie. These limestones are well seen on the shore 
 north of Seafield, between Kinghorn and Kirkcaldy. Tour or 
 five separate seams may there be observed in about 150 feet of 
 sandstones and shales. 
 
 It will be remembered that above the Hurlet Limestone at 
 Seafield Tower a thick band of pinkish sandstone supervenes. 
 The usual large development of black shales above the limestone 
 is there absent, or is represented by only some 3 or 4 feet of 
 strata. The sandstone which replaces these argillaceous sediments 
 is succeeded by blue shales, with nodules of cement-stone, and 
 in some places crowded with fossils of marine type, yet includ- 
 ing a sandy stratum, full of worm- burrows and remains of 
 terrestrial vegetation. Among the shaly sandstones which 
 succeed these shales, another interesting illustration of the 
 alternation of contrasted sediments presents itself. Above a bed 
 of fireclay full of rootlets lies a thin seam of coal representing 
 the vegetation which grew on that soil and sent its roots down- 
 ward into it. The coal is one foot thick at the south end of its 
 outcrop on the beach, but thins away northward. It is covered 
 by 2 or 3 inches of dark fireclay, above which lies a prominent 
 bed of hard sandstone, full of vertical worm-burrows. This 
 seam, about 2 feet thick, becomes calcareous in its upper portion, 
 and is there crowded with fragmentary crinoid-stems and covered 
 with well-marked Gauda-galli or sea-weed impressions. This 
 calcareous top of the bed contains numerous calcareous concretions, 
 which eventually coalesce and form a thin continuous band of 
 limestone. Numerous corals lie here, evidently in their original 
 positions of growth. In one place may be seen a group of 
 Lithostrotion irregulwre ; in another a large bunch of L. junceum. 
 Cup-corals also occur. The transition from the evidence of a surface 
 of terrestrial or at least lagoon vegetation to such a clear sea as 
 allowed crinoids and corals to live is completed within a vertical 
 space of not more than 2 feet. 
 
 Above these strata lies the lowest of the Hosie Limestones, 
 which is here between 2 and 3 feet thick. Again we find 
 similar evidence of the rapid alternation of physical conditions, 
 for immediately below the grey fossiliferous shale that underlies 
 
The Carboniferous Limestone Series. 95 
 
 this limestone comes a thin streak of coal, with the usual fireclay- 
 pavement. The limestone has been disrupted by three reversed 
 faults or thrust-planes, which will be described in the account 
 to be given of the dislocations of the region. 
 
 The Hosie Limestones have yielded a large number of fossils. 
 But though the species are generally the same as those of the 
 Hurlet Limestone, the individual forms are, as a whole, smaller, 
 as if the organisms had been dwarfed by conditions of life less 
 favourable than those that prevailed when the more massive 
 limestone was laid down. Lists of the fossils of the Hosie Lime- 
 stones, as developed in different parts of Fife, will be found in the 
 Appendix (p. 246.) 
 
 The Hosie Limestones have been worked at various places inland, 
 and may be seen well exposed in some natural sections. One of 
 them has been quarried east and south of Lochgelly and at 
 Parkend. Eepresentatives of the group have been laid open in the 
 streamlets by the side of the Great North Road near Fordel Castle, 
 in the Lyne Burn above Touch Mill, below Touch Bridge, and above 
 Brucefield House. An excellent section of one of the seams may 
 be found in the ravine which winds round the old abbey of Dun- 
 fermline. The limestone there exposed is nearly flat, about two 
 feet thick, resting on sandstone and covered with sandy shales. ' 
 Two seams are well seen in the stream which issues from the peat 
 moss on the east side of Eoscobie Moor. They are separated by 
 about 25 feet of sandstone and shale, and the lower seam, 2 or 3 
 feet thick, lies upon blue shale, with a thin coal. Good sections of 
 one of the seams are to be seen to the west of Roscobie Hill, in the 
 stream at Linn Bridge, and in the line of quarries to the westward. 
 Some excellent exposures of the Hosie seams may be studied on 
 the shore to the west of the great display of the Hurlet Limestone 
 at Charlestown. The strata that overlie that limestone form low 
 ledges along the beach. First come the black shales, followed by 
 fissile and carbonaceous sandstone, having a general WJSLW. dip 
 at angles of from 5° to 10° for some three hundred yards. The 
 strata then begin to undulate and to dip towards a mass of green 
 tuff which appears near low- water mark. This is not improbably a 
 volcanic neck, but its structure and its relations to the surrounding 
 rocks are much obscured by the accumulation of estuarine mud 
 and gravel on the flat beach. On the west side of the muddy flat 
 of Ironmill Bay two or perhaps three thin limestones represent 
 part of the Hosie group. They are seen at Kinniny Point, where 
 they have been invaded by some basalt protrusions, the shales in 
 contact with which are twisted. From this point the limestones 
 can be followed westwards along the beach for nearly a mile. The 
 subjoined table shows, in descending order, the association of 
 strata at the Chalybeate Spring : — 
 
 Feet. Inches. 
 Black shale, with nodules and bands of clay ironstone ... 6 - 
 
 Limestone 2 
 
 Black pyritous shale 1 
 
 Coal (pyritous) , ... - 3to4 
 
96 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 Feet. Inches. 
 
 Black sandy shale 6 
 
 Black pyritous shale, with nodules of clay-ironstone and 
 an eight-inch sandy, ferruginous band, with concre- 
 tions of ironstone ... ... ... ... ... ... 2 - 
 
 Fissile ripple-marked yellow sandstone, with plant- 
 remains 5 
 
 Black shale 
 
 The internal structure of this band of limestone is here well dis- 
 played, and may be illustrated by the following section, which 
 brings before us the biological conditions in which these calcareous 
 deposits were accumulated : — 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Hard black limestone, with Cauda-galli on surface, and con- 
 taining abundant crinoid joints and fragments of shells 9 
 
 Band of Lithostrotion, the stems mostly prostrate or slightly 
 
 inclined, with a few Producti, &c. ... ... ... 3to4 
 
 Limestone, made up of fragmentary Lithostrotion, Crinoids, 
 
 Producti, he. ... ... ... ... ... ... 2 to 3 
 
 Bands of Lithostrotion, thickly matted together, the stems 
 
 inclining upwards ... ... ... ... ... ... 3 to 4 
 
 Limestone, full of crinoid joints and fragmentary shells, 
 
 becoming shaly at the base 4 
 
 Shale pavement, including calcareous bands covered with 
 Cauda-galli 
 
The Carboniferous Limestone Series. 97 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 The Carboniferous Limestone Series — continued. 
 
 II. The Lower Coals. 
 
 The assemblage of strata now to be described is distinguished 
 by including a number of valuable seams of coal and ironstone. 
 It forms the whole of the coal-fields of Fife to the west of Dysart, 
 and includes the most valuable minerals. It follows conformably 
 on the top of the Hosie Limestones, while its upper limit is fixed 
 by the Index Limestone, which is the lowest of a group of two or 
 three marine limestones that form the uppermost subdivision of the 
 Carboniferous Limestone series. The total thickness of the whole 
 group of coal -bearing strata from the uppermost Hosie Limestone 
 to the Index seam may be set down as about 1000 feet. 
 
 It will be seen from the map that the lower coal group (Edge-Coals 
 of Midlothian) extends in a north-easterly direction, between the 
 Burntisland district on the one side and the line of sills which rise 
 above the Old Red Sandstone on the other, but that its distribution 
 has been made singularly complicated by plication and faulting. 
 Beginning on the shore at Kirkcaldy, the series continues compara- 
 tively regular with an easterly and north-easterly dip until it bends 
 round into the main syncline at the Clunie Colliery. But 
 thereafter all is apparent disorder. No member of the series can 
 be followed far on any continuous line. The crops are shifted by 
 innumerable dislocations, but, what is more important, the strata 
 have been thrown into many minor basins, so that the outcrops 
 are repeated again and again, not only along the length, but also 
 across the breadth of the main synclinal fold. The district has 
 been so long explored in mining operations that its exceedingly 
 complex structure is now fairly well known, though there are still 
 minor areas respecting which further information is desirable. The 
 most convenient mode of describing the ground will probably 
 be to divide it into a few districts, which may be grouped as 
 follows: — 1, the Dunfermline field; 2, the Lassodie and Kelty 
 fields ; 3, the Lochgelly field ; 4, the Kirkcaldy field ; 5, the 
 Markinch and Balbirnie fields; 6, the Rameldry field; 7, the 
 Kilmux field ; and 8, the Saline, Oakley, and Torryburn fields, 
 which geologically form part of the Clackmannan Coal-field. It 
 will be understood that in these several districts we are at present 
 only concerned with the coal series between the lower and upper 
 group of limestones. The coals in the latter group will be taken 
 
 G 
 
98 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 by themselves in connection with the limestones among which 
 they lie. The fields of coal above the Millstone Grit will come 
 into a still later section of this volume. 
 
 i. THE DUNFERMLINE FIELD. 
 
 One effect of the plication and faulting above alluded to has 
 been to throw the strata into a number of more or less distinct 
 basins or "coal-fields." The Dunfermline field maybe regarded 
 as beginning about Carnock and stretching thence eastwards 
 to Moss Morran, where it merges into the Lochgelly field. Its 
 southern limit is defined by the outcrop of its lowest coal-seam, and 
 its northern margin by a series of powerful faults which throw out 
 the coals in that direction. To the west of this field another basin 
 begins in which the strata dip westward to form the outer margin 
 of the Clackmannan and Stirlingshire Coal-field. The portion of 
 the eastern lip of that basin which comes into Fife will be described 
 at the end of the account of the other Fife fields. 
 
 The history of the working of coal around Dunfermline takes us 
 back to the earliest mention of this subject in any Scottish 
 chronicle, though from the language employed in regard to it we 
 may infer that the working of coal was familiar in Scotland long 
 before the end of the 13th century. In the year 1291, William de 
 Oberwill, Laird of Pittencrieff, an estate adjoining the town and 
 abbey of Dunfermline, granted to the abbot and convent of Dunferm- 
 line a carbonarium, or coal-work, in his lands of Pittencrieff. The 
 ecclesiastics were to be at liberty to open the carbonarium 
 wherever they pleased, save on arable ground, and when it was 
 exhausted they were to be entitled to open another as often as they 
 judged expedient, it being understood that while they might take 
 what coal was necessary for their own use, they were not to sell it 
 to others. They had likewise authority to quarry stones for their 
 own use on any part of the estate, except on arable ground ; and 
 they were to have free use of all the roads and pathways on the 
 estates of Pittencrieff and G-allowridge. The original mode of 
 working coal, as the language of this Charter plainly shows, was to 
 quarry it along the crop and to abandon the excavation when, 
 owing to the increase of water, or otherwise, it became too deep to 
 be further worked. Nor was any other method available before the 
 invention of pumping machinery, and it continued in use until 
 almost our own day. The surface of the ground would thus be 
 pitted over with holes, and as the coal could only be gained when 
 it reached or came near the surface, these old workings would 
 commonly be situated along the banks of a river where the strata 
 might be seen cropping out. The broken form of the ground on 
 some parts of the bank of the South Bsk, in Midlothian, and similar 
 traces along the ravine of the Tower Burn and its vicinity at Dun- 
 fermline, may indicate some of these most ancient diggings for coal 
 in Scotland. 
 
 The succession of strata and the names of the principal seams of 
 
The Carboniferous Limestone Series. 99 
 
 coal are shown in descending order in the accompanying vertical 
 section of the field : — 
 
 Feet. 
 LOOHGELLY BLACK-BAND IRONSTONE 2 
 
 Strata 60 
 
 Little Splint Coal 4 
 
 Strata 18 
 
 Fourteen-foot Coal 6 
 
 Strata ...' 35 
 
 Six-foot Coal of Townhill 6 
 
 Strata 50 
 
 Cairncubbie (Duddy Davy, Dean) Coal 3 
 
 Strata 70 
 
 SWALLO WDRUM COAL 7 
 
 Strata 100 
 
 Eight-foot Coal 8 
 
 Strata 120 
 
 Five-foot Coal 5 
 
 Strata 50 
 
 Two-foot Coal 2 
 
 Strata 15 
 
 Splint Coal 4 
 
 Strata ... 70 
 
 Stink Coal 2 
 
 Strata 130 to 200 
 
 Limestone (Hosie) 3 
 
 Strata 100 to 250 
 
 Limestone (Hurlet) — 
 
 Splint COAL. — This, which is the lowest workable seam in 
 the Dunfermline coal-field, has long been celebrated as a steam- 
 coal. It has sometimes been known as the Four-feet coal, its 
 thickness varying between three and four feet and sometimes 
 exceeding the latter number. An analysis of it from Lassodie, 
 made by Dr. Percy at the Royal School of Mines, gave the follow- 
 ing result : — 
 
 Carbon ... ... ... ... 8L21 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 Oxygen and Nitrogen 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 Ash 
 
 4-40 
 
 12-56 
 
 ■52 
 
 1-31 
 
 10000 
 
 Coke, per cent. ... ... ... 58 '00 
 
 Evaporative power calculated from the composition, for lib. of 
 coal 13 321bs. of water. 
 
 An analysis of the same coal from the Elgin Colliery, by Dr. 
 Anderson of Glasgow, gave the subjoined result :— 
 
 Carbon 
 
 81-20 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 5-16 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 0-84 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 1-33 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 10-61 
 
 Ash 
 
 -86 
 
 100-00 
 Over a great part of the field the Splint Coal has been worked 
 out. It is the deeper parts, and more particularly the ground to 
 
100 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 the north-east, which has been comparatively recently opened up, 
 that yield the present supply. 
 
 As the crop of the Splint Coal defines the southern edge of the 
 Dunfermline field, and serves to show, by its frequent dislocation, 
 the general effect of the numerous faults that traverse the basin, it 
 may be usefully traced here from the western to the eastern end of 
 the field. Though, of course, the coal itself has long been 
 exhausted in the southern shallow parts of the basin, which have 
 been longest worked, its outcrop can be occasionally seen, and can 
 generally be satisfactorily made out from the coal-smuts that 
 mark old crop-workings, as well as from bores and pits. 
 
 Beginning, then, at the western end, we may note that this coal 
 seam has in recent years been proved to lie in a separate little 
 basin beyond the main field, on the south side of the railway near 
 Carnock, as shown on the map, where also it will be seen that this 
 detached basin, about a mile in diameter, is cut off by a large east 
 and west fault. The seam probably crops out again a little further 
 west, near Pitdinnie. It comes in still further west with a westerly 
 dip, but this extension belongs to the western or Clackmannan 
 basin. 
 
 The most westerly outcrop of the Splint Coal in the Dunfermline 
 basin must begin on the south side of the great line of fault which 
 extends westward from Loch Fitty by the reservoirs into the western 
 or Clackmannan basin (Pig. 19). Prom the workings in the Elgin 
 Colliery the outcrop may be inferred to pass in a southward direction 
 from a point near the Compensation Reservoir, by Bonnyton, to a 
 line of fault, which, like most of the faults in the field, runs in a 
 north-westerly direction. The effect of this fault is to throw down 
 the strata 50 fathoms to the south, so that the outcrop of the Splint 
 Coal is here shifted considerably to the west. The seam must 
 cross the railway not far from Backmuir (where some of the over- 
 lying strata with their coals may be seen dipping east at 10°), until 
 it is once more dislocated by the great east and west fault, or 
 " Whitemyre dyke," which has a downthrow of 35 fathoms to the 
 north. Several other smaller faults contribute to break the 
 continuity of the outcrop. 
 
 Prom the southern end of the Dean Plantation, the crop may be 
 followed by means of the traces of old shallow pits in an easterly 
 direction, along the north side of the igneous mass of Knockhouse 
 Hill. It is seen at the surface in the Colton incline. The old pits 
 at the Pittencrieff sandstone quarry show how it comes eastward, 
 that sandstone being the thick " freestone post " lying between the 
 Splint and the Pive-feet seams. The crop then turns northward, 
 descending into and crossing the ravine of the Tower Burn, 
 keeping to the east of Beveridge-well, and bending along the foot 
 of the declivity in front of Springbank, until it reaches a fault 
 which has the usual north-westerly trend. The coal is here thrown 
 down 29 fathoms to the south-west. On the other side of the 
 dislocation it is traceable in the same north-easterly direction to 
 the quarry on the east side of Venturefair, where the same thick 
 
The Carboniferous Limestone Series. 
 
 101 
 
 ■%„, 
 
 O 
 
 CO 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 I 
 
 OS 
 
 fa 
 
 sandstone between the Splint and Five-foot 
 seams has been worked. Another fault 
 occurs at this point on the northern side of 
 the quarry throwing the coal down 24 fathoms 
 to the north. Along the hollow, between the 
 Town Loch and Wester Whitefield, traces of 
 old pits probably indicate approximately the 
 crop of the Splint Coal. To the south of the 
 tram-road near Whitefield, and on the west 
 side of the road leading from Whitefield to 
 Touch Bridge, both the Five-foot waste and 
 the Splint seam (probably a pillar) were got 
 in two bores. No record, remains of these 
 workings. The coals are here to the south 
 of the proper line of their outcrop. There is 
 therefore either a small outlier detached from 
 the main field, or more probably it is a small 
 area thrown down to the south by a fault. 
 If the fault from Venturefair were prolonged 
 in this direction it would account for this' 
 outlying piece of coal. 
 
 The further course of the Splint-coal crop 
 eastwards must be nearly coincident with the 
 black patches of coal-dust in the fields where 
 there have been old shallow or crop-workings 
 of coal. From such traces it appears to run 
 by Buckieburn, and thence by Halbeath 
 Station and Morningside, until it comes 
 against a powerful east and west fault, which 
 runs through the Fordel Colliery and has a 
 downthrow to the south of 60 fathoms. The 
 crop is thus thrown far to the east. It can 
 be taken up again by the evidence of old 
 crop-workings near Drumcooper, whence, 
 turning more to the south and even to south- 
 by-west, it extends in a singular tongue-like 
 projection into the trough formed by the 
 northward horse-shoe-shaped prolongation of 
 the Inverkeithing doleritic sill. Bending 
 northwards again, the outcrop of the Splint 
 Coal keeps to the east of the Heathermount 
 Plantation, until it again encounters the great 
 east and west fault. Beyond that interrup- 
 tion it was found on the east side of the road 
 at the cottages called Earl's Kow. Two 
 faults, one of 20 the other of 10 fathoms, 
 successively throw the coal up to the north 
 at the Cuttlehill Tileworks. The crop then 
 continues in a north-north-east direction 
 into the Donibristle Colliery, passing under 
 
102 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 Moss Morran at its southern extremity. There it is interrupted 
 by two powerful faults. The first of these has a downthrow to the 
 south, which at the crop amounts to 20 fathoms, but which in- 
 creases north-westwards as the workings are pursued under the 
 moss, until it is 40 fathoms. The second dislocation, known as the 
 Moss Morran Dyke, has in the north-western part of its course a 
 downthrow to the south-west usually of about 20 fathoms. The 
 Splint Coal on the further side of these displacements stretches 
 north-eastward into the Lochgelly field. 
 
 At the western side of the coal-field in the Wallsend Pit the 
 Splint coal was 3 feet 8 inches thick, and had a pavement of 
 sandstone 10 feet thick and a cover of 6 feet of shale. In 
 the Victoria Pit, which lies 450 yards to the east-south-east 
 of the Wallsend Pit, the coal was found to be 3 feet 10 inches in 
 thickness. In the Wellwood Tom Pit, 330 yards further in the 
 same direction, its thickness is 3 feet 5 inches ; while in the 
 Beveridge Pit, a little to the south, it was 4 feet. Further east, at 
 Janefield, near the Town Loch, it was 3 feet 7 inches. Thus, the 
 seam remains tolerably uniform in thickness over a large part of 
 the basin near Dunfermline. 
 
 As shown upon the maps, the Fife coal-fields are plentifully 
 interspersed with intrusions of igneous material, but the masses 
 which appear at the surface do not represent by any means all 
 that affect the coal-seams. A number of them do not reach the 
 surface at all, and their existence has only been detected by the 
 alteration which they have superinduced upon the coals near them. 
 As an illustration, which can actually be seen, the accompanying 
 
 diagram is given. One of 
 the upper coal-seams has been 
 worked along the outcrop 
 where a section has been laid 
 open of a basalt intrusion, 
 part of which overlies and 
 cuts out the coal, while another 
 part has been thrust below 
 the underlying pavement of 
 sandstone. The coal has been 
 much burnt and rendered un- 
 workable. A much larger 
 and not impossibly connected 
 mass of basalt maybe seen 500 
 yards to the east in the Town- 
 hill Wood, where it has been quarried. Some parts of the 
 Dunfermline field have suffered considerably from these intrusions 
 of igneous material, as will be immediately pointed out. 
 
 Although the injected material has destroyed the coals in close 
 proximity to them, it has not infrequently spread out laterally for 
 a considerable distance without injuring the seams that lie 
 far enough above or below it. It is thus often possible actually 
 to work a coal below one of these intrusive sheets. Around 
 
 Fig 
 
 20. — Intrusion of Basalt into a Coal 
 seam, TWnhill, Dunfermline. 
 1. Sandstone. 2. Coal. 3. Intrusive 
 basalt. 
 
The Carboniferous Limestone Series. 103 
 
 the actual pipe or dike by which the igneous mass rose, the 
 coal can hardly escape, but where the basalt has been injected 
 between the strata, a coal-seam lying at a sufficient distance below 
 or above it may still be workable. In the instance just cited, at 
 Townhill, a pit was sunk immediately in the basalt, which was 
 passed through and found to be 33 feet thick, while coal-bearing 
 strata were met with underneath it. More rarely the influence of 
 the intrusive rock has actually been beneficial by giving the coal 
 a somewhat anthracitic quality and converting it into a better 
 steam coal. An instance of this kind will be cited in connection 
 with the- coal-field to the north of that of Dunfermline. 
 
 Even when the igneous rock has not been actually reached in 
 underground workings, its proximity may be indicated by some 
 change undergone by the coal. A striking example of this 
 alteration was encountered in the workings in the northern part of 
 the Wellwood Colliery. The Splint Coal was there found to have 
 been converted into a kind of " blind coal," or coarse anthracite, 
 and to have become useless. It was in the operations from the 
 Leadside Pit, as they were carried north and west, that the change 
 was discovered. " The deterioration commenced always next the 
 roof or at the top of the seam, and increased downwards as the 
 workings advanced, until the whole seam was affected — the coal 
 first losing its brilliancy, and assuming a blueish-black tint, and then 
 accompanied by a very soft and dangerous shale roof, in which the 
 lines of fracture were reversed, gradually losing also the hardness 
 and lamification of Splint Coal, until it passed into an entire 
 cinder. At this stage the working ' faces ' were stopped, and a 
 trial-mine, about six feet in width, was driven for several hundred 
 yards to near the north march of Mr. Wellwood's coal-field, where 
 it adjoins Lord Elgin's coal, lying under the lands of Colton, but 
 without coming to anything better — the seam being still at the 
 ' face ' of the mine in the state of a soft and comparatively worth- 
 less anthracite. The Splint Coal-seam, for nearly the whole of 
 the north part of Leadside farm, is in this state, and also to the 
 west, with the exception of a portion adjoining the Elgin field."* 
 No igneous rock is visible either in the workings or at the surface 
 in any part of the Wellwood Collier}', nor were the seams above the 
 Splint Coal altered. The cause of the deterioration of the coal 
 must have acted from below upward. To the east of Leadside the 
 seam resumed its usual excellent character in the Townhill 
 Colliery. 
 
 The Dunfermline basin deepens towards the north-east, where 
 the Splint Coal attains its greatest depth, and is surmounted by 
 the largest number of workable coals. This deepening is not the 
 result merely of the inclination of the strata, but is largely brought 
 about by a series of powerful faults. Some of the more important 
 of these are represented on the map, but they are too numerous to 
 be all shown there. A fault, with a downthrow of 22 fathoms to 
 the north, runs westward from the Halbeath Colliery, and enters 
 
 * Chalmers 5 Dunfermline, ii., p. 83. 
 
104 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 the Townkill Wood, a little south of the pit above referred to as 
 having been started on the basalt. About 50 yards further north, 
 a parallel fault, also coming out of the Halbeath ground, has a 
 northerly downthrow of 40 fathoms. Hence, in the Muirheath 
 Colliery, only half a mile further north, the Splint Goal has not 
 been reached until a depth of 150 fathoms of strata has been 
 passed through. 
 
 The progressive deepening of the field and increase of the 
 distance of the Splint Coal from the surface is abruptly changed by 
 another north-westerly fault, which runs from the Hill of Beath to 
 the upper end of Loch Fitty, where it no doubt abuts against the 
 great dislocation which underlies that sheet of water. The amount 
 of throw of this fault has not been ascertained, but that it must be 
 enormous is shown by the fact that the Splint Coal, which is 150 
 fathoms deep only 400 yards to the south of the line of fracture, 
 is actually at the surface on the north side, where the fault runs 
 under the alluvium of Loch Fitty. 
 
 The great Loch Pitty fault may be taken as a convenient 
 boundary for the Dunfermline field on the north side. The ground 
 beyond it has been carefully explored by boring. As the valuable 
 lower seams of the Dunfermline field began to approach exhaus- 
 tion, the results of the exploration proved these coals to stretch 
 much further to the north. Though in some places greatly inter- 
 rupted by faults and intrusions of igneous rock, yet elsewhere 
 the seams were workable, and retained the same good quality for 
 which they had obtained their reputation. This great extension of 
 the coal-field connected the Dunfermline area with that of Kelty. 
 It will be convenient to take the area north of the Loch Fitty fault 
 together with the Kelty ground in the next division of this 
 narrative. 
 
 The description which has now been given of the outcrop of the 
 Splint Coal will afford some idea of the general structure of the 
 Dunfermline field, so that a briefer account of the rest of the seams 
 may suffice. In resuming the upward sequence of strata, we next 
 come to the 
 
 Two-foot coal. — Above the Splint Coal, and separated from it 
 by some 10 or 15 feet of black carbonaceous and sandy shales, lies 
 the seam known as the Two-foot coal. In the Victoria Pit this 
 seam consisted of the following divisions : — 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Inches 
 
 Shale (roof) 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Coal 
 
 1 
 
 114 
 
 Fireclay ... 
 
 1 
 
 i* 
 
 Coal 
 
 1 
 
 
 "Bands" (pavement) 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 In the Wallsend Pit it was only 1 foot 3 inches thick. This seam 
 appears to have been worked to a considerable extant in former 
 times by shallow pits sunk along its outcrop, but it is not now 
 used. 
 
 One of the most prominent of the strata between the Splint Coal 
 
The Carboniferous Limestone Series. 
 
 105 
 
 and the next seam of importance, known as the Five-foot Coal, is 
 the thick mass of white and yellow sandstone, or " freestone-post," 
 already referred to. It is seen at Pittencrieff Quarry, at Venture- 
 fair, and between Whitefield and Halbeath. It occurs in all the 
 pits and bores that have been sunk down to the Splint Coal. In 
 the Victoria Pit it was 45 feet thick in one massive " post," but 
 eastwards it becomes more split up with seams of shale and thin 
 coals. In a bore to the north of the Townhill Loch it was only 14 
 feet thick, and it becomes still more interleaved with shales and 
 fireclay as it goes eastward. 
 
 Five-foot coal. — This seam is one of the most valuable in the 
 field. It lies about 10 fathoms above the Splint Coal, and its 
 outcrop follows generally that of the latter seam. In the deep 
 basin at the Elgin Colliery this coal had the following structure : — 
 
 Feet. Inches. 
 Shale (roof) ... ... ... ... 3 5 
 
 Coal 
 
 Carbonaceous shale or stone 
 
 Coal 
 
 Shale (pavement) 
 
 3 
 10 
 
 The seam in this part of the field has all been worked out. In 
 the Victoria Pit it was 4 feet thick, in the Tom Pit (Wellwood) 3 
 feet 6 inches, with a 3-inch parting of stone. Eastward, on the 
 lands of Jeanfield, it reached a thickness of 4 feet 2 inches, with a 
 2-inch parting of black shale. 
 
 The outcrop of the Five-foot seam, keeping parallel with that of 
 the Splint Coal, can be traced round the basin on the south side. 
 In the Fordel Colliery, where it is 5 feet thick, it has been known 
 as the Coal Thief. 
 
 The Five-foot seam of the Elgin Collieries gave the following 
 
 Carbon .. 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 Sulphur ,. 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Oxygen ... 
 
 Ash ... 
 
 80-93 
 
 5-21 
 
 063 
 
 1-57 
 
 1091 
 
 -75 
 
 
 100-00 
 
 71-35 
 
 Proportion of Coke ... 
 
 The Five-foot seam at Lassodie, according to an analysis by Dr. 
 John Percy, is as follows : — 
 
 Carbon ... 
 
 80-99 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 5-61 
 
 Oxygen and Nitrogen 
 
 1035 
 
 Sulphur ... 
 
 -58 
 
 Ash 
 
 2-47 
 
 Coke 
 
 100-00 
 57-40 
 
 Evaporative power calculated from the composition for 1 lb. of coal, 
 14-63 lbs. of water. 
 
106 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 The Five-foot and Splint seams of the Dunfermline Coal-field 
 have long enjoyed a wide reputation as steam-coals, and also for 
 gas-making. They have been extensively used by navigation 
 companies, and were placed on the list of coals used by the Navies 
 of this and other countries. In the " Second Eeport on the Coals 
 suited to the Steam Navy, 1849," the following results were given 
 from the Wellwood Coal * : — 
 
 II — 
 
 -COMPOSITION OF AVERAGE SAMPLE OF 
 
 THE COAL. 
 
 Sp. Gr. of 
 Coal. 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Hydro- 
 gen. 
 
 Nitro- 
 gen. 
 
 Sulphur. 
 
 Oxygen. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 Per centage 
 of Coke left. 
 
 1-27 
 
 81-36 
 
 6 -28 
 
 1-53 
 
 1-57 
 
 6-37 
 
 2-89 
 
 59-15 
 
 
 II. — ECONOMIC VALUE OF 
 
 THE COAL. 
 
 
 Economic eva- 
 porating power, 
 or number of lbs. 
 of water evapor- 
 ated from 212 by 
 1 lb. of Coal. 
 
 Weight of 1 cubic 
 foot of the Coal 
 as used for fuel. 
 
 Result of experi- 
 ments on cohesive 
 
 power of the 
 Coal (per centage 
 of large Coals). 
 
 Space occupied 
 by One Ton in 
 cubic feet (econo- 
 mic weight). 
 
 Pounds of 
 
 clinker per ton 
 
 of CoaL 
 
 8-24 
 
 52 6 lbs. 
 
 80-0 
 
 42-58 
 
 28-5 
 
 Subsequently the coal was tried at the Woolwich Dockyard with 
 the subjoined results : — 
 
 Pounds of water evaporated 
 to 1 lb. of Coal consumed, 
 
 calculated from 100° 
 
 constant temperature of 
 
 Feed Water. 
 
 Cubic feet of Water eva- 
 porated per hour, cal- 
 culated from 100° constant 
 temperature of the 
 Feed Water. 
 
 Per centage of Clinker. 
 
 7-97 
 
 50-25 
 
 1-05 
 
 Bight-foot COAL. — This seam, the next of importance above the 
 last-named, is separated from it by about 20 fathoms of various 
 strata, which include some thin coals and clay-ironstones. The 
 Bight-foot seam in the Townhill Colliery consists of the following 
 subdivisions : — 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Inches 
 
 Shale and balls of clay-ironstone (roof). 
 
 
 Coal, soft and foul 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 ,, clean 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 Hard sandstone rib 
 
 1 
 
 _ 
 
 Fakes (shaly sandstone) 
 
 ... 
 
 8 
 
 Coal, soft and foul 
 
 _ 
 
 10 
 
 Coal, splinty 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 ,, parrot 
 
 ... 
 
 9 
 
 ,, splinty 
 
 1 
 
 6i 
 
 Hard sandstone (pavement). 
 
 
 
 , * "Second Report on the Coals suited to the Steam Navy," by Sir Henry De La Beche, 
 C.B., F.R.S., and Dr. Lyon Playfair, F.R.S., presented to both Houses of Parliament 
 by command of Her Majesty, 1849. Appendix, pp. 49, 57. 
 
The Carboniferous Limestone Series. 107 
 
 At Halbeath the seam is split up by a still greater thickness of 
 intercalated strata into two leaves, an upper 3 feet 4 inches thick, 
 separated by from 10 to 18 feet of sedimentary material from a 
 lower, 3 feet 9 inches. 
 
 The crop of the Eight-foot seam, on the west side of the 
 Dunfermline field, appears to the west of the Wallsend trough, 
 whence it is probably traceable by some, of the numerous old 
 shallow workings visible from fallen- in pits between Eosebank 
 and Drumtuthil. Circling round the deep Wallsend trough, it then 
 bends to the north-east, keeping between the Wellwood Tom Pit 
 and Baldridge Farm, its dip being thus north-westward into the 
 trough, with an angle of inclination of about 20°. Keeping still to 
 the north-east through the Wellwood Colliery, its outcrop was 
 found a little to the north-east of the Waterloo Pit. Thence it 
 runs eastward through the lands of Janefield, the coal having there 
 been worked up to the clay cover. In the Townhill Colliery this seam 
 forms the lowest in a small basin, which is truncated on the north- 
 east side by a strong north-west to south-east fault, having a down- 
 throw of 30 to 32 fathoms to the south-west. The Eight-foot seam 
 crops out a little to the west of the farm of Easter Colton, and 
 circles round by the north-east corner of the Town Loch. It is 
 found a little further east at Halbeath, and again to the south of 
 Crossgates. As the effect especially of two faults with a down- 
 throw to the south, the one of 25 fathoms (passing through 
 Crossgates), the other of 40 fathoms (running through the Cuttle- 
 hill Colliery), the crop of this coal comes once more to the surface 
 some way to the north, and is seen in the railway cutting 300 
 yards to the south-west of the bridge at Crossgates Station. 
 
 While the great value of the Dunfermline Splint Coal has led to 
 its identification in other fields, and to the ready acceptance of its 
 name as that of a coal well known and recognised in the commercial 
 world, there has not been the same reason for adopting the local 
 names of any one field for some of the higher seams, save where the 
 same obvious inducements have come into play. These local names 
 were of course given long ago, before any connection had been 
 established between the different fields, or any attempt had been 
 made to correlate the various seams throughout the whole region. 
 Consequently what may be the same continuous coal may go by a 
 different name in every field. This local terminology has intro- 
 duced some apparent confusion into the stratigraphical succession 
 in the different parts of the great coal-field. When the nature of 
 the sedimentary strata undergoes considerable modification it is 
 not always easy to be sure of the precise equivalents of any one 
 seam in the different districts. Thus, the Eight-foot coal ceases to 
 bear that name to the east of Halbeath and assumes the name of 
 the Glassee Coal. The Blawlowan coal of Fordel appears to be 
 the same seam. 
 
 In following the strata eastward various changes are observable 
 in them, particularly as regards the number, thickness, and quality 
 of the coal-seams which they include. In the Dunfermline field, 
 
108 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 as above mentioned, various thin seams of coal are intercalated 
 between the Five-foot seam and the Eight-foot seam. One of 
 these, which is only 15 inches thick, increases towards the east, until, 
 in the Donibristle Colliery, it becomes a workable seam five and a 
 half feet thick, known as the Mynheer. The Bight-foot Goal takes 
 the name of the Glassee in that district, where it consists of two 
 bands, the upper being 5 feet 2 inches thick, the lower 2 feet 4 
 inches, with a parting between them of fireclay, 1 foot 9 inches. 
 
 Swallowdrum cojl. — About 100 feet above the Bight-foot 
 seam, a coal has received the name of the Swallowdrum, from a 
 farm on the Elgin Colliery. In the Townhill Colliery, where it is at 
 present worked, it is 4 feet 2 inches thick, and not always even of fair 
 quality. Traced eastwards it is found to change its character and 
 to become partly a cannel or parrot coal, which is the Parrot seam 
 of Halbeath and the eastern collieries. Lying at Halbeath, about 
 17 fathoms above the Glassee seam, it is nearly 4 feet thick, con- 
 sisting of an upper seam of rough coal, 1 foot 2 inches, separated by 
 9 inches of fireclay from a lower seam of parrot coal, 1 foot 10 inches. 
 In the Donibristle Colliery it attains a considerable development, 
 and begins to include the well-known Lochgelly Splint and 
 Parrot seam. It is there composed of the following subdivisions : — 
 
 Shale (roof) ... 
 
 Coal 
 
 Blaes (shale) 
 
 Coal 
 
 Band 
 
 Coal (Craw) ... 
 
 Blaes (shale) 
 
 Coal (Lochgelly Splint) 
 
 Blaes and bands 
 
 Coal (cherry) 
 
 Dugger 
 
 Coal (parrot) 
 
 Blackband Ironstone . . . 
 
 Freestone (pavement)... 
 
 This combined seam crops out about 130 yards to the south-east 
 of the Isabella Pit, in the Donibristle Colliery, whence it ranges 
 north-eastwards under Moss Morran into the Lochgelly field, 
 where it is known as the Lochgelly Splint and Parrot. 
 
 Cairncubbie (ddddy davy, dean) coal. — At Townhill, above 
 the Swallowdrum seam, lies another good coal, 2 feet 8 inches 
 thick, which goes by the names of Cairncubbie, Dainty Davie, or 
 Dean. This seam is also worked further east at Muircockhall 
 Colliery, where it is 3i feet thick. What appears to be the same 
 seam has been called No. 3 coal in the Cuttlehill Colliery, further 
 to the east, where it is one of the seams which have been exposed 
 to view in the railway cutting to the west of Crossgates Station. 
 _ In the Donibristle ground a seam known as the Duddie Davie 
 lies 70 feet above the Splint and Parrot seam. It is 3 feet thick, 
 rests on a pavement of fireclay 8 feet thick, and is overlain with 
 19 feet of freestone. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Inches 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 6 
 
 _ 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 - 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 _ 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 _ 
 
 - 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 - 
 
 1 
 
 
 21 
 
 - 
 
The Carboniferous Limestone Series. 109 
 
 Six-foot coal of Townhill.— This seam, 4 feet thick at Townhill, 
 with another seam known as the Bride Coal (4 feet 3 inches), are 
 the two highest workable coals in the deep, little trough of 
 Townhill. The Six-foot seam is also worked further north at the 
 Muirheath and Muircockhall Collieries, where it is from 3 to 5J feet 
 thick. 
 
 Fourteen-foot coal of Cuttlehill, Donibristle, and Lochgelly. — 
 This seam may possibly be the equivalent of the higher coals of 
 Townhill. It crops out in the railway cutting west of Crossgates 
 Station, and again at the Ashley Pit of the Donibristle Colliery. 
 It is thus absent from the southern part of the field, but underlies 
 the centre of Moss Morran, where it is thrown down to the south 
 by two large faults of 30 to 40 fathoms. The outcrop again comes 
 to the surface at the east side of the moss, about 600 yards to the 
 south of Thistleford, whence it ranges north-eastward into the Loch- 
 gelly field. 
 
 Little splint coal. — This seam comes in about 18 feet above the 
 Fourteen-foot coal, and, so far as known, is confined to the eastern 
 part of the field. It crops out in the railway cutting west of 
 Crossgates Station, north of which it is thrown out by a fault with 
 a downthrow of 20 fathoms to the south. It appears again 
 beyond Moss Morran and extends into the Lochgelly field. It is 
 about 4 feet thick. 
 
 Lochgelly blackband ironstone. — This seam lies about 60 feet 
 above the Little Splint Coal, and has a thickness of 2 feet and 
 upwards. It appears to come only into the extreme east of the 
 Dunfermline field. Its outcrop was cut by the railway immediately 
 to the west of the Bridge at Crossgates Station, beyond which it is 
 thrown out by the large fault just referred to in connection with 
 the Little Splint seam. This ironstone, together with the higher 
 members of the series, will be more particularly referred to in the 
 account of the Lochgelly field, where it has long been worked. 
 
 A coal-field which has been worked for so many centuries as that 
 of Dunfermline must necessarily be exhausted over at least those 
 parts of its area where the coals lie nearest the surface. That 
 portion of the ground lying to the north and west of the town is 
 practically worked out. But much energy has been shown in 
 exploring the surrounding districts, so that within the last thirty 
 or forty years new tracts have been discovered and profitably 
 worked. The whole district from the Townhill Colliery north-east- 
 ward to Loch Fitty and thence to Blairadam and Kelty has in this 
 way been added to the coal-producing area of the country. 
 
 ii. THE LASSODIE AND KELTY FIELDS. 
 
 We may now trace the distribution of the coal-seams beyond the 
 limits of the Dunfermline basin as defined on the north by the great 
 Loch Fitty fault. The Splint Coal having been worked under the 
 loch, the position of the fault has been proved in the underground 
 workings. The downthrow of this important dislocation, as has 
 
110 Geology of Centred and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 been stated, is towards the south, but its amount is evidently 
 gradually diminishing eastwards. At Loch Pitty the fault shifts the 
 crop of the Splint coal for a distance of half a mile further east on 
 the north side. This crop must rise to the surface some 500 or 
 600 yards from the lower end of the lake. It then strikes north- 
 west by Bentymires, whence it bends round in the direction of 
 Braehead, so as to form the lip of another small basin of the Dun- 
 fermline coals. The whole district between Loch Pitty, Blairadam, 
 and the Kelty field has been extensively explored by bores as well 
 as by pit-workings during the last thirty or forty years, and a large 
 addition has thereby been made to the area of workable coal in 
 Pife. The ground has been found to be traversed, like the Dun- 
 fermline field, by a series of north-westerly faults with a down- 
 throw sometimes to the one side, sometimes to the other, and 
 likewise to be much troubled in some parts by irruptions . of 
 igneous material, more especially along a strip between Brae- 
 head and Windyedge, where even at the surface abundant outcrops 
 of dolerite may be seen. Nevertheless, some tracts of excellent 
 coal have been found, more particularly the Dunfermline Splint and 
 Five-foot seams. The basin deepens eastwards, until only about a 
 mile from the outcrop of the Splint coal at Bentymires, that seam 
 has gone down to 124 fathoms, a little east of Lassodie Mains. The 
 Lassodie seams have been found to possess qualities similar to those 
 for which the Dunfermline field has been celebrated, as the sub- 
 joined analyses by Dr. John Percy will show: — 
 
 Carbon, 
 Hydrogen, . 
 Oxygen and Nitrogen, 
 Sulphur, 
 Ash, 
 
 Coke, 
 
 Lassodie 
 Splint Coal. 
 
 Lassodie 
 5-Foot Coal. 
 
 81-21 
 4-40 
 
 12-56 
 
 •52 
 
 1-31 
 
 80-99 
 561 
 
 10-35 
 
 •58 
 
 2-47 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 58-00 
 
 57-40 
 
 Evaporative powers calculated from the composition are, respectively, for 
 lib. of Lassodie Splint, 13-321bs., and Lassodie 5-foot, 14-631bs. of water. 
 
 To the north-west of the Lassodie area, an outlying basin of the 
 lower Dunfermline coals occurs, overlain by the great dolerite sill 
 or " whin-float" of Blairadam. This basin has a breadth of more 
 than a mile on the Blairadam estate. The position of its coals can 
 be satisfactorily fixed, inasmuch as underneath them the Hosie 
 Limestones are found, exactly as at Dunfermline. Two of these 
 limestones crop out in the Lochornie Burn, as shown on the map, 
 and the same seams have been proved in a series of bores as far 
 south as the Blairadam Brick and Tile works. The position of 
 these limestones fixes the southern and south-eastern limits of the 
 
The Carboniferous Limestone Series. Ill 
 
 basin. By the help of the sections in the brooks and the evidence 
 of the bores, we can trace approximately the outcrops of some of the 
 coal-seams. That of the Dunfermline Splint Coal has not been 
 detected beyond the mosses that lie to the east of Loch Glow, but 
 from that ground it probably ranges southward across the 
 Lochornie Burn, a little to the east of the limestones. It then 
 circles round the southern end of the great sill, and bending north- 
 eastward, makes for the Glen Burn, south of Blairadam House, where 
 some of the coals have been worked in former times by openings 
 along the outcrop. Traces of such shallow pits may be seen in 
 this glen on both sides of the sill. On the west side, a seam 
 supposed to have been the Eight-foot Coal was mined, where the 
 strata have a dip of 15° to the east. On the east side, the dip is 
 north-westerly under the sill at the Kiery Craigs, and it is there 
 evident that several seams crop out and have once been mined. 
 Two seams in particular have been worked rather extensively to the 
 north-east of Blairadam House. The lower of these is 4 feet thick 
 and the upper 10 feet. They dip towards the north-west, and the 
 workings were in that direction. In the stream that flows close to 
 the north side of the high road, a little south from Kinnaird, one or 
 two bands of volcanic tuff occur, containing calcareous layers which 
 may represent the position of the Index Limestone. 
 
 That there is a basin of coal under the Blairadam doleritic sill 
 admits of no doubt. How far the coal has escaped damage by the 
 igneous material can only be ascertained by means of trial bores. 
 
 Immediate to the east of this basin the coal seams are folded 
 over an anticlinal arch, and then dip towards the east to form the 
 Kelty Coal-field. This arch is not improbably broken by one or more 
 faults. In a boring put down a little more than 500 yards north- 
 east from Blairenbathie, the strata were found to be on edge. One 
 side of the fold can be easily made out in the Glen Burn. Only 
 600 yards to the east of the old coal-workings just referred to as 
 visible on the eastern side of the sill,- a seam of limestone 4 feet 
 thick may be seen dipping to the south-east at 26°. The return 
 north-westerly dip of this seam further up the glen is not visible ; 
 possibly it may be cut out by a fault. But the general structure 
 of the ground can be understood. There can be little doubt that 
 this limestone is one of the uppermost Hosie bands and that the 
 strata which overlie it correspond to the lower part of the 
 coal-bearing series of Dunfermline. This is a point of con- 
 siderable interest and importance, for a reason which will now be 
 stated. 
 
 The coal-seams in the Kelty coal-field, laid open at the crop by 
 the Kelty Burn and the Drumnagoil Burn, which flow in an easterly 
 direction across the field, must early have attracted notice, and were 
 no doubt dug out in surface-openings at a remote date. When 
 pumping machinery came into use, and more extensive mining 
 operations became practicable, these seams were penetrated to 
 greater depths, and gradually the whole series of coals in this 
 detached locality was ascertained, Local nameswere given to these 
 
112 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 seams, and as the field lay at some distance from any other the 
 idea of comparing and identifying the coals with those of other 
 places was not at first likely to occur to the coal-owners. It is not 
 many years since the Kelty coal-field still retained this isolation, and 
 seemed to find no definite place among the coal-fields of Fife. No 
 one ventured to correlate its seams with those even of the neigh- 
 bouring districts. At last, as the mining of the Lochgelly Iron- 
 stone continued to be prosecuted vigorously towards the north, that 
 seam was found on the east side of the Kelty field, and obviously 
 overlay the coals of that part of the district. It was thus clear that 
 the Kelty coals must represent those of Dunfermline and Doni- 
 bristle. On the other hand, the observation of the Hosie Lime- 
 stone in the Blairadam Glen proved the Keltie coals to lie 
 immediately above that seam. Their general identity with those 
 of the fields to the south was thus demonstrated. 
 
 Yet, when we come to compare the Kelty coals with those of the 
 Dunfermline field, we cannot but be struck with certain notable 
 variations. Of course the local names are entirely different, but 
 the seams themselves and the strata between them have undergone 
 a good deal of change in the intervening two or three miles. The 
 following generalised table gives the names and thicknesses of the 
 seams and their associated strata : — 
 
 Table of the Kelty Coals. 
 
 Feet. Inches. 
 
 Freestone ... ... ... ... 87 
 
 Shales ... ... ... ... ... 12 
 
 Rough Coal with a parting of 12 inches ... ... 6 
 
 Sandstones with some bands of shale ... ... 100 
 
 Black-band Ikonstone (Lochgelly Ironstone) ... 1 
 
 Shales and thin coals ... ... ... 25 
 
 Main Coal ... ... ... ... ... 4 3 
 
 Sandstone and shale ... ... ... 14 
 
 Jersey Coal in two leaves separated by a 10-inch 
 
 stone parting ... ... ... ... 6 
 
 Shales and sandstones ... ... ... 65 
 
 Splint Coal (=Kinglassie Splint) ... ... 3 
 
 Dark freestone and shales ... ... ... 86 
 
 Bank Coal (=Lochgelly Splint) ... ... ... 3 9 
 
 Strata, chiefly shales, with a thin clay-ironstone 
 
 (4 inches), and 12-inch coal below it ... 100 
 
 Loohy Coal (? Eight-foot of Dunfermline) ... ... 5 
 
 Strata, chiefly shaly sandstones, with some 
 
 shales ... ... ... ... ... 55 
 
 Coal (Two-foot) ... ... ... ... 2 11 
 
 Strata (chiefly sandstones, generally shaly, with 
 
 black shales and ironstones) ... ... 70 
 
 Gin Coal (?= Five-foot of Dunfermline) ... 4 3 
 Strata (chiefly white freestone, with two coal- 
 seams of 1 foot 4 inches and 1 foot 7 inches) 45 
 Coal (?=Two-foot of Dunfermline) ... ... 2 
 
 Strata (freestone and shales with a thin, incon- 
 stant parrot-coal and ironstone of poor 
 
 quality) ... ... ... 45 
 
 Coal, Sprint (Dunfermline Splint) ... ... 4 
 
 White fireclay ... ... ... ... 2 
 
 The western part of the Kelty field, which, being nearest to the 
 outcrop, was the first to be worked, differs in one important respect 
 
Hie Carboniferous Limestone Series. 113 
 
 from the Dunfermline field. The largest fault met with in it had a 
 throw of only 8 feet. As the explorations have proceeded east- 
 wards and southwards, however, much more powerful dislocations 
 have been encountered. One of these, running in a north-westerly 
 direction between Hilton and Shiells, has a downthrow of 16 fathoms 
 to the south-west. Another having a similar trend increases 
 greatly in its amount of displacement as it goes south-eastwards, till 
 it has a throw of 40 fathoms to the south-west. Another important 
 fault runs in a nearly east and west direction from Netherton 
 to Cocklaw, and throws down the strata 25 fathoms to the south, 
 thereby bringing the crops of the coals back again further west. 
 
 In the southern part of the field at the Lassodie Mill Colliery no 
 fewer than seven of the seams are profitably worked. Of these the , 
 lowest or Dunfermline Splint (4 feet 3 inches) affords an excellent 
 household coal. The Five-foot seam of Dunfermline is here 5£ 
 feet thick. Next above comes the Mynheer (3 feet), followed in 
 succession by the Glassee (5 feet), Bank Coal or Lochgelly Splint 
 (5 feet), Cairncubbie (3 feet 3 inches), and Main Coal (4 feet). 
 
 Besides dislocations, the Kelty field is not wholly free from 
 intrusions of igneous rock. A thin but persistent sill extends for 
 more than a mile, a little to the east of the crop of the Rough Coal, 
 and dips eastward, like the strata among which it lies. It crops 
 out to the surface in the quarries to the west and north-west of 
 Shiells, and it appears to be brought up again by the effect of a 
 fault at Shiells Farm. It has been met with in several bores in 
 the neighbourhood. 
 
 The effect of these intrusions of igneous material upon the coal 
 seams, though sometimes disastrous, is occasionally serviceable, from 
 an economic point of view, as has been found in the Kelty Coal-field. 
 At the Aitken Pit the Splint Coal and the Gin seam, or Dunfermline 
 Five-foot Coal, have been converted into a kind of anthracite, and 
 have thus become, for steam purposes, almost equal to Welsh 
 coal. The Splint Coal, or " Aitken Wallsend House Coal," as it 
 is termed for sale purposes, has been examined by Mr. G. R. 
 Hislop, F.C.S., at the Paisley Gas Works, and he has made the 
 following Report regarding it to the Fife Coal Company, by whom 
 it is worked : — 
 
 "The coal is black and possesses high lustre; fracture irregular and partly 
 defined by thin deposits of charcoal ; cross fracture angular and highly crystalline 
 to serai-resinoid and of very uniform composition and density ; mean specific 
 gravity being 1247 (water 1000) ; weight of one cubic foot, 77 '93 pounds The 
 coal is moderately cohesive, but very compact and without a trace of lime or 
 pyritio impurities. Its composition is as follows : — 
 
 Volatile Matters... 
 Fixed Carbon 
 
 Ash 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 Water at 112° Fahr. 
 
 24 '27 per cent. 
 73-56 „ 
 1-42 „ 
 
 •27 „ 
 
 •48 „ 
 
 100-00 
 Heating power of the coal as determined by Thomson's calorimeter, 1 lb. of the 
 coal by perfect combustion evolves heat sufficient to convert 14-98 lbs. of water 
 
 from 212 Fahr. into steam. 
 H 
 
1 14 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 The Five-foot seam has also been analysed for the Fife Coal 
 Company by Messrs. Tatlock, Eeadman, & Thomson, city analysts, 
 Glasgow, with the following results : — 
 
 ( Gas, Tar, &c. 
 Volatile Matter \ Sulphur ... 
 
 (Water ... 
 
 f Fixed Carbon 
 Coke ... ...\ Sulphur ... 
 
 Ash 
 
 31 36 1 
 •24 ^33-30 
 
 Specific Gravity ... 
 
 Weight of 1 cubic foot in lbs. ... ••• ••• 
 
 Heating power— practical— (lbs. of water evaporated by 1 lb. coal) 
 
 100- 
 
 1-24 
 
 77-5 
 9-24 
 
 The coal from the two seams, mixed in equal proportions of each, 
 is sold as " Aitken Navigation Coal." 
 
 South of the Netherton-Cocklaw fault, which forms the southern 
 boundary of the Kelty field, a fresh field has been opened up by 
 the Rosewell Gas Company on the ground near Lassodie Mill. 
 The Rough and Jersey Coals of the Kelty field are here worked. 
 The Jersey seam is 6 feet 6 inches thick, and a good household 
 
 Fig. 21.— Reversed Fault in the Kelty Coal-field. 
 Line of reversed fault. It will be seen that in such dislocations a vertical 
 shaft may pass twice through the same seam, and that the workings in the 
 seam on one side of the fault may actually overlie those on the other side. 
 
 coal, though somewhat soft. A remarkable north and south 
 fault, diverging from the boundary fault of the Kelty field, runs 
 through the Lassodie Mill field. It has a low grade with a 
 down throw to the west. It is what is known as a " reversed 
 fault," consequently the two coals are worked on both sides of 
 it, those on the upthrow side actually overlying those on the 
 downthrow side. 
 
The Carboniferous Limestone Series. 
 
 115 
 
 CHAPTEE X. 
 
 The Lower Coals — continued. 
 
 111. THE LOCHGELLY FIELD. 
 
 This district of the Fife Coal-field extends from Moss Morran 
 northwards to the valley of the River Ore at Colquhally and eastwards 
 to Cardenden beyond Lochgelly. The portion of the coal-bearing 
 series which it contains includes all the seams from those that 
 come immediately above the Lochgelly Black-band Ironstone 
 down to the very base of the series. The following table shows 
 the succession and thicknesses of the several seams, and of their 
 intermediate strata, at the deepest part of the field : — 
 
 Various strata 
 
 Coal 
 
 Strata 
 
 Coal 
 
 Strata 
 
 Coal (Willow Bush) 
 
 Strata 
 
 Coal (Rough or Splint) 
 
 Strata 
 
 Lochgelly Black-band Ironstone 
 
 Strata 
 
 Coal, 3 inches to 3 feet 
 
 Strata 
 
 Coal (Little Splint) 
 
 Strata 
 Coal (Fourteen-foot), varying from 10 to 15 
 feet, divided by thin ribs of stone in 
 the north part of the field, but south- 
 ward these ribs increase in thickness 
 so as to divide the coal into five 
 workable seams in 60 feet of the 
 
 section 
 
 Strata 
 
 Splint Coal (Lochgelly Splint) 
 
 Shales from 6 inches to 6 feet in thickness, 
 
 with an irregular seam of ironstone, 
 
 which is sometimes 15 inches thick .. 
 
 Coal (Lochgelly Parrot), the parrot ranges 
 
 from 6 inches to 3j feet in thichness . . 
 
 Strata 
 
 Coal (Glassee) 
 
 Strata 
 Coal (Mynheer of Fordel) 
 
 Strata 
 Coal (Upper Five-foot) 
 
 Strata 
 
 Coal (Lower Five-foot) 
 
 Strata 
 
 Coal (Main Splint, Dunfermline Splint) 
 
 Strata •■ 
 
 Coal (Smithy, partly blind and mixed with 
 blaes) 
 
 Feet. 
 30 
 
 5 
 24 
 
 3 
 40 
 
 4 
 20 
 
 3 
 42 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 60 
 
 3 to 4 
 
 18 
 
 15 
 
 110 
 
 5 to 7 
 
 Inches. 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 130 
 
 3 to 5 
 
 50 
 
 3 ft. 3 in. to 4 
 
 60 
 
 3 
 
 54 
 
 4 
 
 65 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
116 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 In several respects the Lochgelly field presents a geological 
 arrangement of the strata, which marks ' it off on the whole 
 from the other fields in Fife. Even more than elsewhere, the 
 strata have here been thrown into a succession of troughs and 
 arches, so that the levels in the coals, instead of following 
 straight lines, deflected only by faults, curve round into ellipses. 
 Hence, apart from the influence of dislocations, the seams lie at 
 remarkably variable depths according to the position and magni- 
 tude of the plication. The same seam which may in one place 
 crop out at the surface round the summit of an arch or dome will 
 be found at a distance of only a few hundred yards 60 fathoms 
 deep or more. 
 
 The unequalities of position are still further increased by a 
 number of faults, some of considerable size, by which the field 
 is traversed in a west-north-west direction. A description of the 
 outcrop of one particular seam will best illustrate this structure. 
 For this purpose the combined seams of the Lochgelly Splint 
 and Parrot and the Black-band Ironstone may be selected. 
 
 Taking the outcrop of these seams where it comes from the 
 north-eastern margin of the Donibristle Colliery, we find it to 
 run in a tolerably straight north-easterly course, until it abuts 
 against a powerful fault, which towards the west is said to have 
 a downthrow of 100 fathoms. This fault passes with an easterly 
 course by the Cowdenbeath Station, on the old Edinburgh, Perth, 
 and Dundee Railway, and appears to diminish rapidly in its 
 effects as it goes eastward. The outcrop of the Splint and 
 Parrot seams is probably not much shifted by it, but continues 
 in the same general direction to Loch Gelly, on the northern 
 shore of which it appears, and whence it runs onward against a 
 large fault close to the farm of Muirhead. Its further progress 
 is continuous into the Cardenden and Kirkcaldy field, to be after- 
 wards described. So far the structure is quite regular. The 
 seams dip towards the north-west, are not seriously displaced 
 from their course by faults, and show no tendency to go into 
 troughs or arches. 
 
 But only a short distance towards the west, this regularity is 
 exchanged for a much more complex structure. The Splint and 
 Parrot seams are brought up to the surface, and over part of the 
 ground have been entirely removed from it by denudation. To the 
 north of the Cowdenbeath Station fault, above alluded to, a section 
 on the railway, two-thirds of a mile north-east from Thistleford, 
 shows the crop of the Fourteen-foot Coal and the overlying strata, 
 which dip towards N.N.W. at 8° to 10°. Immediately to the west, 
 the rocks have been thrown into a trough, so that the Splint and 
 Parrot, instead of continuing to sink further, are brought up to 
 within 14 fathoms from the surface at the east side of Cowdenbeath 
 Bog. But the trough soon dies out, and the strata resume their 
 north-westerly dip. In the village of Cowdenbeath they are 
 already 55 fathoms deep, while only 400 yards further west they 
 have sunk to 90 fathoms, with a dip of about 10°. The position 
 
The Carboniferous Limestone Series. 117 
 
 of these seams must lie far below the great dolerite sill of the Beath 
 Hills. How large a portion of the coal-bearing series has been 
 preserved under this sill has been experimentally proved by a deep 
 shaft sunk close to the edge of the sill at Dalbeath to a depth of 
 more than 1000 feet. It passed through about 70 fathoms of strata, 
 including a few thin coals, above the position of the Lochgelly 
 Black-band Ironstone, and then through the seams of the Loch- 
 gelly, Halbeath, and Dunfermline fields down to the Dunfermline 
 Splint Coal, which was found to be 4 feet 3 inches thick. 
 
 To the north of Cowdenbeath another great fault, said to have a 
 downthrow of 50 to 100 fathoms to the northward, strikes in an 
 E.S.B. direction from the sill in the direction of Easter Lochhead. 
 Beyond this dislocation the folding of the strata begins rapidly to 
 increase. The Splint and Parrot seams do not here reach the 
 surface, but the map shows, by the crop of the Ironstone, how the 
 plication advances. The latter seam follows the normal north- 
 westerly dip on the north side of the fault, and crops out along the 
 east side of Blackdean Hill, while the Splint and Parrot are there 
 70 fathoms below ground. The Ironstone, however, rolls over to 
 the east and is caught in a little basin at Newton, of which the 
 northern lip is cut off by a fault that brings up lower strata again 
 on the north side. The outcrop of the seam is thus shifted to the 
 west upwards of 400 yards. 
 
 An attentive examination of the map will show that from this 
 part of the field northwards to its furthest limits, the strata have 
 been upraised into a broad dome or arch, which becomes narrower 
 and more defined towards the north. The shape of this fold and 
 the manner in which it has been affected by faults are admirably 
 illustrated by the outcrop of the Ironstone, and are further 
 explained in Pig. 22. We may follow that outcrop and trace it 
 
 Fig. 22. — Section across the Lochgelly Coal-field from South Lumphinnans 
 on the west to near Lochgelly House on the east. 
 
 from the fault last mentioned northwards by Viewfield House to 
 another west-north-west dislocation (shown in Fig. 22), which 
 passes to the south of South Lumphinnans and throws down the 
 rocks 40 fathoms to the south. The outcrop is consequently 
 shifted a little to the west. The angle of inclination of the strata 
 here rises to 35° or more, and the outcrops of the several seams are 
 thus brought closer together. A minor curve on the flanks of the 
 main arch throws the outcrop of the Ironstone round for a short 
 distance to the east, until it is abruptly cut off by a powerful fault, 
 which, running in a north-westerly direction from the village of 
 Lochgelly towards Easter Cartmore, effectually ruptures the arch 
 
118 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 on its western side. The effect of this fault is to bring up 
 lower parts of the coal series on the north side, and to throw 
 the outcrop of the Ironstone a long way to the north-west. 
 We catch the fault again near Easter Cartmore, striking 
 north-eastward by Grainger's Square to Wester Colquhally, 
 where it is once more shifted, this time for a distance of 
 about 900 yards to the west. As the angle of inclination has 
 here lessened to only 10°, the faults produce a great horizontal 
 effect on the outcrops. We have now reached the northern end of 
 the dome, where the dip becomes northerly, then north-easterly and 
 easterly, the successive seams folding round and taking their places 
 along the east side. This arrangement is well exemplified by the 
 outcrop of the Ironstone. From the River Ore below Olochrat 
 Bridge, this seam strikes eastward and then south-eastward to near 
 Easter Colquhally, where it bends to the south, until at the Loch- 
 gelly Brick Works it is slightly ridged up along the side of the 
 dome, so that the crop makes a bulge towards the east. A large 
 fault then shifts it to the west, but thereafter it continues in the 
 southerly direction, until, as the arch flattens down, it bends 
 sharply to the east and runs parallel with the outcrop of the 
 Splint and Parrot already noticed as striking eastward from Loch- 
 gelly- 
 
 But a little further study of the map will show that the dome or 
 arch which we have been tracing is not a mere simple fold of the 
 strata, but becomes complicated into a series of folds as it gradually 
 dies out towards the south. We have seen this structure to be 
 well illustrated by the Ironstone near Blackdean Hill. It is even 
 better displayed by the behaviour of the Splint and Parrot. At 
 the south end of the village of Lochgelly, a larger fold in the series 
 of plications has upraised the strata into an elliptical dome about 
 half a mile long, with its longer axis ranging nearly north and 
 south. On the crest of this arch (Pig. 22) the outcrop of the 
 Mynheer Coal comes out to the surface and forms an oval ring, 
 followed by the larger ellipse of the outcrop of the Glassee Coal, 
 which lies about 50 feet higher in the series. The Splint and 
 Parrot outcrop then makes its appearance, forming a yet wider and 
 more irregular oval, which, however, does not quite close at the 
 northern end, on account of the 40-fathom fault coming from 
 South Lumphinnans. Not only is the dome there broken through, 
 but the strata are so upraised on the north side that the coals 
 below the Mynheer seam are brought up to the surface, and the 
 outcrop of the Splint and Parrot is shifted westward for about 700 
 yards. 
 
 Beyond the powerful dislocation above noticed as coming from 
 the direction of Easter Cartmore, the outcrop of the Splint and 
 Parrot has been traced round the northern end or nose of the main 
 anticline, and down the eastern side until it runs into the ellipse 
 south of Lochgelly village. This eastern outcrop is much less 
 affected by faults than the western. But it has been singularly 
 disturbed by the effects of folding. The strata have undergone a 
 
The Carboniferous Limestone Series. 119 
 
 series of minor plications or puckerings, of which the longer axes 
 trend towards N.B. along the eastern slope of the main arch. 
 Consequently the strike is made to undulate and the outcrop 
 makes a series of waves or wriggles to the north of Lochgelly. 
 
 iv. THE KIRKCALDY FIELD. 
 
 This portion of the district includes all the collieries which lie 
 beyond Lochgelly and south of the River Ore as far east as 
 Glunie, and thence to the sea at Kirkcaldy. The same series of 
 coals and intervening strata is here presented as in the fields 
 further west, but with some local variations. The general 
 succession of measures in the western part of the field is shown in 
 the subjoined table of the strata passed through in the Panny Pit 
 of the Dunnikier Colliery : — 
 
 Feet. Inches. 
 
 Various strata ... ... ... 180 
 
 Upper Smithy Coal ... ... ... 2 9 
 
 Strata ... ... ... ... 150 
 
 Coal (rough and parrot) and Shale (= position 
 
 of Lochgelly Black-band Ironstone) ... 3 9 
 
 Strata ... ... ... ... 50 
 
 Coal ... ... ... ... ... 2 2 
 
 Strata 
 Coal (coarse) 
 
 Whinstone 
 
 Freestone 
 Coal 
 
 Strata 
 Coal 
 
 Strata 
 Black Coal ] 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 24 
 
 10 
 9 10 
 
 1 4 
 
 17 8 
 
 4 
 
 Strata ... WLochgelly Splint and Parrot) ... 2 4 
 
 ParrotCoalJ ... ... ... ... 2 6 
 
 Strata (including some thin coals and 
 
 40 feet of whinstone) ... ... 200 
 
 Cardenden Coal (? Glassee Coal of western 
 
 fields) .. ... ... ... 4 
 
 Strata ... ... ... ... 21 
 
 Gibbs Hall Coal (Mynheer) ... ... 2 1 
 
 Strata ... ... ... ... 25 
 
 The various seams of the Lochgelly field stretch north-eastward, 
 having a gentle northerly dip of only 8° or 10°. In their extension 
 in that direction, they are much less folded and faulted, though 
 here and there they include intrusive sills of igneous rock. A 
 good section of the series of strata from the uppermost Hosie 
 Limestone to the Lochgelly Black-band Ironstone has been cut by 
 the stream that has excavated the Carden Den between Shaws Mill 
 and Cardenden Station. The thin Hosie Limestone crops out at 
 Bairns Bridge. Above it, on the main stream, about 100 yards 
 below Shaws Mill Bridge, the Dunfermline Splint and Five-foot 
 seams cross the bank on the left side of the stream. The seam 
 known in this district as the " Gibbs Hall Coal," probably the same 
 as the Mynheer seam further west, makes its appearance under the 
 ruins of Carden Tower, and the Carden Coal, which may be a 
 
120 Geology of Central and Western Mfe and Kinross-shire. 
 
 continuation of the Glassee seam, appears 100 yards lower down 
 the ravine. The Lochgelly Splint and Parrot seams crop out _ at 
 an old sandstone quarry a few yards further on upon the right side 
 of the stream, and, owing to their low angle of inclination, wind 
 along the Den for 300 yards of its course. The outcrop of the 
 representative of the Lochgelly Black-band Ironstone comes in 
 opposite Hyndloup, and the so-called Smithy Ooal of the Kirkcaldy 
 field crops out on the left bank at Cardenbank. Beyond that 
 point we reach ground obscured by the alluvium of the Ore valley. 
 But in the course of a streamlet, half a mile to the west, overlying 
 coarse sandstones, with bands of black shale and ironstone, 'may 
 be seen, still dipping at only 8° to N.W. 
 
 Several of the large faults from the Lochgelly field extend east- 
 wards and enter the Dundonald Colliery. One of these passes 
 a little north of Muirhead and south of Shaws Mill. To the 
 south of it another dislocation occurs, and between the two no 
 coals have been met with. Another east and west fault, with a 
 downthrow of 8 fathoms to the north, runs by the north end 
 of the Muir plantation. 
 
 The outcrops of the lower Dunfermline seams of coal have not 
 been traced through the Kirkcaldy field. The lowest seams that 
 have been followed are the Gibbs Hall and Carden seams, which, as 
 they approach Kirkcaldy, are known as the Lower and Upper 
 Smithy seams. The Black Ooal and Parrot (or Lochgelly Splint 
 and Parrot) crop out at the edge of the Sunnyside sill, which they 
 underlie. These seams were formerly worked in shallow pits sunk 
 through the basalt, while the Carden seam was also similarly 
 worked to the east of Clunie Square, at depths of not more than 
 16 to 19 fathoms. The Black Coal and Parrot continue in a south- 
 easterly course beyond the end of the basalt-sheet at Mutton Hall, 
 and crop out in the dell of the Chapel Burn a little below Smeaton 
 Eow, in the old Dunnikier Colliery. The strata are traversed 
 immediately to the south of that section by a powerful fault which, 
 throwing them down to the south, strikes from the middle of the 
 Pathhead Sands north-westwards to beyond Bogie Parks. The effect 
 of this dislocation is to shift the outcrops 600 yards to the west. 
 Another intercalated basalt, which now begins to make its appear- 
 ance on the same platform as the Sunnyside sheet, south of Clunie, 
 increases in thickness, and has been exposed in the railway cutting 
 north of Kirkcaldy Station with the outcrops of the two coal seams 
 coming out from under it. Though owing to the depth of super- 
 ficial deposits no further exposures of the strata are to be seen 
 between the railway and the sea, it is not improbable that the 
 igneous rock just referred is prolonged to the south and forms the 
 long narrow tidal reef known as the Long Craig, lying to the east 
 of Invertiel. 
 
 The Splint and Kough coal-seam of the Dundonald and 
 Cardenden Collieries is known as the Clunie Coal, when it comes 
 east into the Clunie Colliery. From Hyndloup, where it appears 
 in the ravine, its outcrop runs eastward by Clunie Square, Coalden, 
 
The Ga/rboniferous Limestone Series. 1 21 
 
 and Begg, till it begins to bend with the other coals south-eastwards 
 to the sea. The combined seam can be mapped as two separate 
 beds in the latter part of its course. The two seams have their 
 outcrop in the ravine of the Dunnikier Colliery, a little further down 
 than those of the Black Coal and Parrot. 
 
 The Smithy Coal of Dundonald and Cardenden, from its outcrop 
 at the foot of the Carden Den, strikes eastward into the Clunie 
 Colliery and is exposed for 350 yards along the sides of the Clunie 
 Den. Throughout all this part of the field the strata dip at low 
 angles towards the north, and are not seriously dislocated by faults. 
 So gentle is their inclination that 800 yards north from its outcrop 
 the Clunie Coal is only 19 fathoms below the surface. Unless 
 there is much disturbance and invasion by igneous rocks, of which 
 there are no superficial indications, the Kirkcaldy and Dunfermline 
 coals, or at least seams representing them, ought to be found over 
 the ground to the north of the River Ore. 
 
 The pit-workings north of Pathhead show the strata to be 
 remarkably regular and undisturbed. The working level runs in 
 the Black Coal and Parrot for a mile to the north-west of the 
 Panny Pit, and shows only one serious displacement caused by a 
 fault with a downthrow of 6 fathoms to the north. This pit, the 
 section of which has already been given, lies immediately to the 
 north of Pathhead. It struck the Rough and Splint seams at 57 
 fathoms and the Parrot at 90 fathoms. The levels in the pits 
 further to the north-west show the same undisturbed course. In 
 the St. Clair Pit, to the west of Dunnikier House, the Parrot seam 
 was reached at 66 fathoms, and in the Lina Pit, 350 yards to the 
 north-west, at 74 fathoms. In the latter shaft some igneous rock 
 was met with at a distance of 5 fathoms above the coal. It should 
 be added that all the shallower part of the Kirkcaldy field has long 
 been worked out. 
 
 It is a curious fact that, notwithstanding the comparative 
 regularity of the strata in this field, and the small number of serious 
 dislocations, a number of sills have been injected into the coal- 
 bearing measures on several horizons. Two of these are shown in 
 the sections of the Panny Pit (Figs. 24, 25). It will be recollected 
 that two thin sills occur on the beach below the Hurlet Limestone, 
 near Seafield Tower, and swell out to a considerable breadth as they 
 run inland. Above these, two other sheets of dolerite have 
 been intruded above the Hosie Limestones at Tyrie Bleach 
 Works. On the coast they are mere thin seams, but they swell 
 out as they advance into the interior towards Raith Lake. "What 
 appears to be the same sheet of eruptive material, shifted by the 
 great Kirkcaldy fault, extends northwards to Bogie. The intru- 
 sive nature of this sheet can be demonstrated at many parts of its 
 course. Thus, immediately to the east of Tyrie, in the cutting of 
 the old disused tramway line, the top of the dolerite may be seen 
 thrusting itself under a mass of black shale. The rock assumes the 
 usual close texture and passes into the bleached condition so 
 generally observable where one of these basic rocks has come in 
 
122 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 contact with carbonaceous materials. It is finely amygdaloidal, the 
 kernels consisting of calcite encased in a coating of marcasite. It 
 can be observed not to keep the same level, but to break across the 
 shales, sometimes in an upward, sometimes in a downward, direc- 
 tion. 
 
 Still more instructive is the section of the same intrusive mass 
 laid open a little further inland in the cutting of the North British 
 Railway. The dolerite has not only been injected between the 
 shales and sandstones, but has broken through them, sent tongues 
 
 U$i*«^&- x^^jtrA . 
 
 Fio. 23. — Section of Intrusive Dolerite invading Shales and Sandstones, 
 Railway Cutting one mile south of Kirkcaldy. 
 
 into them, and caught up and enclosed large pieces of them. The 
 accompanying diagram of the structure exposed in the railway 
 cutting will make these features clear. 
 
 A mile further east, still another sill has insinuated itself among 
 the strata below the Duddie Coal-seam, and may be seen in the rail- 
 way cutting immediately north from Kirkcaldy Station. A mile 
 and a half to the north-west of that section, a sill crops out at the 
 surface at Mutton Hall and stretches thence into the Sunnyside 
 sill already mentioned. This intrusive mass, the outcrop of which 
 has been traced for about three miles, has made its way among the 
 strata between the Black Coal and Parrot seams below, and the 
 Rough and Splint coals above. Not far below the highest strata 
 in the field a sill has been traced for nearly a mile to the north- 
 west of Dunnikier Muir. 
 
 Fie. 24.— Section of Sill met with in the workings of the Panny Pit, Kirkcaldy. 
 (Communicated by Messrs Herd, Dunnikier Colliery.) 
 A. The Black Coal. B. The Parrot Coal. s. The Sill. 
 
 It is obvious that such important injections of molten rock cannot 
 have invaded the coal-field without doing it harm. While in many 
 cases pits have been sunk through the sills and have reached the 
 coals uninjured below, because these lay far enough from contact 
 with the dolerite to escape, some cases have occurred, as at Kelty, 
 where the coal has been altered into a commercially more valuable 
 
The Carboniferous Limestone Series. 
 
 128 
 
 substance, though for the most part where the intrusive material 
 has approached near to or has actually invaded the coal, the latter 
 has been seriously damaged or destroyed. Thus, in the Panny Pit, 
 already alluded to, one of the sills, four to five fathoms thick, has 
 been thrust along a line immediately below the Parrot Coal, into 
 which, and into the overlying Black Goal, it sends tongues. 
 (Fig. 24.) 
 
 Lena Pit 
 
 PajHTjrPit 
 
 Fio. 25. — Section of Sill and Reversed Fault in the workings between the Panny 
 Pit and the Lena Pit, Kirkcaldy. (Communicated by Messrs Herd, Dunni- 
 kier Colliery. ) 
 
 a. Black Coal. B. Parrot Coal. f. Reversed Fault, six fathoms down to north. 
 
 s. Sill. 
 
 Reference may here be made to another form of intrusion which 
 has been met with in the workings in the same two seams between 
 the Panny and Lena pits. In this case the sill appears to split into 
 two sheets, one of which keeps above the coals, while the other lies 
 below but invades them. (Pig- 25.) It may be remarked that a 
 reversed fault occurs at this place which appears to cut the sills. 
 The dislocation of the ground would thus seem to have occurred 
 after the injection of the igneous rock. 
 
124 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 The Lower Coals — continued. 
 
 V. THE MARKINCH AND BALBIRNIE FIELD. 
 
 A small disturbed basin of coal lies to the north-west of Markinch, 
 over the estate of Balbirnie, but it appears to be now practically- 
 worked out. The seams which were met with represent the lowest 
 of the Dunfermline series, for they are underlain by the Hosie and 
 Hurlet Limestones. The section at the Balbirnie Engine Pit was 
 as follows : — 
 
 Feet. Inches. 
 
 Surface and rock ... ... ... ... 18 
 
 Craw Coal ... ... ... ... ... 1 6 
 
 Freestone ... ... ... ... ... 60 
 
 Little Coal ... ... ... ... ... I 6 
 
 "Brats and blaes'' ... ... ... ... 18 - 
 
 Main Coal ... ... ... ... ... 4 9 
 
 White stone and blaes ... ... ... ... 42 
 
 Under Coal ... ... ... ... ... 1 10 
 
 Fireclay ... ... ... ... ... 12 
 
 The Main Ooal here is believed to represent the Dunfermline 
 Splint, while the Under Coal lies in the position of the Stinking 
 Ooal of the Dunfermline field. These two seams have been proved 
 by bores and pits all over the Balbirnie estate. As shown on the 
 map, they are disposed in a somewhat irregularly shaped trough, of 
 which the south-eastern lip runs in a straight north-easterly line, 
 the strata on that side being thrown steeply against the flank of 
 the great anticline already described. On the north-western 
 margin, where the angles of inclination are less, the seams are bent 
 over a subsidiary arch, one limb trending north-westwards by Ooul, 
 the other north-eastwards, keeping to the east of Balfarg. Over 
 this arch any bores that have been put down have failed to find the 
 coals. Within the coal-basin the levels in the various pit-workings, 
 as shown on the mining plans, curve about in such a way as to 
 indicate how much the strata have been disturbed. Various 
 igneous intrusions have still further injured the value of this little 
 coal-field. To the west lie the huge eruptive masses that stretch 
 up into the Lomond Hills. A sill follows the course of the river 
 Leven from Balbirnie Mills for nearly a mile up to Auchmuty Mill, 
 where it crosses the stream and turns northward, and where the 
 strata that underlie it can be seen dipping to the west. Another 
 narrower intrusive sheet lies among the steeply inclined strata near 
 Balbirnie Mills, where it has been quarried. As will be seen from 
 
The Carboniferous Limestone Series. 125 
 
 the map, this outlying portion of the coal-bearing series is abruptly 
 cut off to the south by the great fault which here brings the Coal- 
 measures against the Calciferous Sandstones. 
 
 vi. THE RAMELDRY FIELD. 
 
 This isolated tract of coal-bearing strata lies a mile to the south- 
 east of the village of Kettle, where, as will be seen from the map, 
 it has been brought down by a large fault against the Calciferous 
 Sandstones. It has been so much invaded by eruptive rocks that 
 the coals in parts of the field have been rendered useless and 
 unworkable. The seams that occur here are given in the following 
 section of the strata : — 
 
 TJppeb or Main Coal, with a parting in the middle 
 one inch and a half thick ... 
 
 Strata 
 Smithy Coal ... 
 
 Strata 
 Parrot Coal, with two inches of soft coal 
 
 Strata 
 
 Feet. Inches. 
 
 3 6 
 60 
 
 1 9 
 
 24 
 
 4 2 
 60 
 
 These seams are disposed in the form of the segment of a basin 
 whereof the remaining lip circles round from Bowden Hill, on the 
 north-east to the ridge of Parkwell, on the south-west. The out- 
 crop of the Parrot and Smithy seams lies close to the top of the 
 great dolerite that comes in at Parkwell. It then turns north- 
 eastward by Coaltown of Burnturk to the flanks of another great 
 mass of dolerite that stretches from Bowden Hill for two miles and 
 a half to the south. The field is traversed by a dyke and fault 
 that run between the two igneous masses from Honeyhall towards 
 Parkwell, and on the south side of this interruption the coals come 
 in again with a southerly dip, but their further progress in that 
 direction has not yet been traced. 
 
 The Parrot seam south of Burnturk affords another example of a 
 coal becoming "blind," or anthracitic, no doubt in consequence of 
 the action of igneous intrusions upon it. Two seams of blind 
 coal have been worked from the Burnturk and Downfield Pits in 
 the angle between the main mass and the projecting tongue of 
 dolerite. These were formerly supposed to lie below the Parrot 
 Coal, but they are now regarded as more probably the Smithy and 
 Parrot seams in an altered condition. They are worked in the 
 southern part of the field, all that part lying to the north of Eamel- 
 dry being either exhausted or too poor to be mined. There are 
 only two pits now in use, situated to the south and south-east of 
 Rameldry farm-house, and the coal obtained from them is almost 
 wholly employed for burning limestone at the lime-works to the 
 south of Pitlessie. 
 
 The exact position of these seams in the coal series of Fife has 
 not been ascertained. They may be surmised to belong to a low 
 platform, though the absence of the limestones here deprives us of 
 the useful key which they furnish in regard to the stratigraphy of 
 
126 Oeology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 the region. From Honeyhall the outcrops run southward against 
 a broad arm of the dolerite at Devon, and a two-feet coal crops out 
 in the streamlet to the west of Devon Common, with a dip towards 
 N.N.W. at 5°. But nothing is known of the ground beyond. 
 Several miles to the south-west some thin coals have been found 
 by boring in the neighbourhood of the Oarriston water-reservoir. 
 
 About a mile to the east of the Eameldry field, and on the farther 
 side of the great sheet of igneous material, numerous shallow work- 
 ings of coal may be traced around Olatto. To the north-west of 
 the farm a shaft was sunk close to the edge of the dolerite to a 
 depth of 32 fathoms. Two coals, 7 and 8 feet thick respectively, 
 were found to be greatly broken up and burnt. Several old gin- 
 pits may be observed half a mile to the east of Clatto, but no 
 record appears to exist of them. A coal, 2 feet thick, which was 
 formerly worked to the south of the farm is supposed to overlie the 
 two thick seams just mentioned. A seam of parrot coal, 4 feet 10 
 inches thick, is said to underlie what was called the Main Coal of 
 this field. 
 
 vii. THE KILMUX FIELD. 
 
 On the south side of the great dolerite intrusion which extends 
 for so long a distance southwards from the Eameldry field, another 
 small coal tract was formerly worked at Kilmux, two miles to the 
 north-east of Kennoway. It contains the following seams com- 
 prised within a depth of 50 fathoms of strata : — 
 
 Three-foot Coal. 
 Four-foot Coal. 
 Six-foot Coal. 
 
 Instead of lying by themselves in a small basin, these seams 
 rise at the edge of a wide tract of ground which they no doubt 
 underlie. They abut along the north against the dolerite, from 
 which they dip south-eastwards at an angle of 35°, but bending 
 round with a south-westerly dip so as to run back by Shepherd's 
 Neuk, at nearly a right angle to their previous course. In the pit 
 close by the roadside at the 10th milestone from Kirkcaldy, the 
 Four-foot coal was met with at 58 fathoms. A day-level runs from 
 this pit to the stream near Burnside. A seam of splint coal, 2 
 feet thick, was found on the south side of the high road, 100 
 yards south-west from Letham Feus, dipping in a westerly direc- 
 tion, thus indicating a rise of the strata to the east, and a possible 
 narrowing of the Kilmux field in that quarter. The field has not 
 been worked for some years. A considerable amount of limestone 
 was quarried upwards of 20 years ago in Kilmux Den, but it was 
 eventually exhausted, when it proved to have been only a large 
 detached and transported mass lying on boulder-clay. 
 
 viii. THE SALINE, OAKLEY, AND TOREYBDRN FIELDS. 
 
 The portion of the Fife Coal-field now to be described lies on the 
 
The Carboniferous Limestone Series. 127 
 
 extreme western borders of the county, and its strata dip west- 
 wards under the higher portions of the Carboniferous system, 
 which form the coal-field of Clackmannan. In a geological sense, 
 therefore, the Saline, Oakley, and Torryburn ground belongs to 
 that coal-field, rather than to that of Fife. But this tract lies well 
 within the limits of the county, displays so fully the coal-series 
 between the lower and upper limestones, and contains, moreover, 
 points of such special interest, that a place must be found for it 
 in any account of the geology of Fife. 
 
 An examination of the map will show that the tract we have 
 now to consider forms a strip of ground which begins on the north 
 at the Outh Hill, one of the western eminences of the Cleish ridge, 
 and stretches in a south-westerly direction to the sea at 
 Torryburn. If the dip and strike continued regular, this strip 
 would be about a mile broad. Owing partly to the thick cover of 
 superficial deposits obscuring the strata, partly to the want of 
 evidence from borings and pit-shafts, there are parts of the strip 
 about which little can be said. Only over three sections of its 
 course is information tolerably full. These are the Saline, Oakley, 
 and Torry mineral-fields. We shall take them in this order, and 
 trace the strip of coal-bearing strata from north to south. 
 
 The Saline field differs from the others which have been 
 described in the nature and relations of its associated igneous rocks, 
 which will be more particularly referred to after the sedimentary 
 strata have been discussed. At North Lethans the coals are cut 
 off to the north by a large fault, which skirts the farm and runs 
 thence westwards by Hillside. From this line the seams are 
 traceable for two miles to the south and have been extensively 
 worked. They comprise those enumerated in the subjoined table : — 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Index Limestone, position of this" seam in 
 
 the volcanic tuff at west end of 
 Saline Hill 
 
 Strata ... 30 to 40 
 
 Four-foot Coal ... 
 
 Strata ... ... ... ... 39 
 
 Eight-foot Coal ... 
 
 Strata ... ... ... ... 54 
 
 Three-foot Coal... 
 
 Strata ... ... ... ... 144 
 
 Upper Ironstone ... ... ... ] Lochgelly Ironstone, 
 
 Strata ... ... ... ... 54 V position of Possil 
 
 Lower Ironstone .., ... ... J Ironstone. 
 
 Strata ... ... ... ... 216 
 
 Coal (3 feet) I Jersey and Main 
 
 Thin Strata \ y Co!lla _ 
 
 Parrot Coal ... ... ... ... ) 
 
 Strata ... ... ... 80 to 100 
 
 Five-foot Coal ... 
 
 Strata ... ... ... ... 90 
 
 Two-foot Coal ... 
 
 Strata ... ... ... ... 30 
 
 Splint or Four-foot Coal (Dunfermline 
 
 Splint) ... ... 
 
 Strata 
 Hosie Limestone... 
 
128 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 There can be little difficulty in correlating some at least of these 
 seams with those in the Dunfermline field immediately to the east. 
 The lowest of the list is undoubtedly the Dunfermline Splint Coal. 
 The Upper and Lower Ironstones represent the Lochgelly Ironstone, 
 and occupy the position of the Possil Ironstone. 
 
 The outcrops of some of the Saline coals appear in the course of 
 the Black Devon Water below Outh Bridge. The Parrot, for 
 example, may be seen on a line due south from North Lethans 
 Farm. Southward some interesting variations of the outcrops 
 may be observed. Thus, round the volcanic neck of the Knock 
 Hill, which has pierced them, they diverge from each other, the 
 Parrot or Gas Coal swinging round the east side of the obstruction, 
 while the ironstones curve round the west side, followed in the 
 same direction by the upper coals. These latter seams plunge 
 under the edge of the great mass of tuff that forms Saline Hill. 
 They are cut off towards the south-west by a fault which brings 
 down the tuff against them. This fault, where it crosses the 
 ravine of the Saline Burn, bends round to the south-east, and 
 breaks across an axis on which the Gas Coal crops out with an 
 easterly dip. 
 
 The lower seams pass to the west of The Bents, and hold on 
 south-westwards in the direction of Bandrum. But some of them 
 must roll over and form detached basins to the east of the main 
 outcrop, as we have seen to be the case also along the western 
 margin of the Dunfermline field. One of these little troughs is 
 formed by the Splint Coal to the south of the intrusive boss of 
 Dunny Gask, to the south-east of Knock Hill. Nearly two miles 
 further south, some of the lower coals have been worked to the east 
 of Luscar House. The Five-foot Coal is said to have been found in 
 a " blind " state in a pit by the side of the road that leads from the 
 south end of Carnock Moor to the high road. 
 
 The Tuff which covers so large a part of the Saline field is 
 generally a well-bedded deposit of volcanic detritus, which has 
 been ejected from probably more than one neighbouring vent 
 during the deposition of the Carboniferous Limestone series of this 
 district. Some of these eruptions appear to have preceded the 
 deposition of the Index Limestone, but the volcanic activity 
 continued at least as late as the time of the Gair Limestone. As 
 the tuffs of Saline are so closely connected with the working of the 
 coals and ironstones, an account of them may be conveniently 
 given here. But they will be further referred to in relation to the 
 upper group of limestones. 
 
 The great Saline tuff has been laid open in some fine natural 
 sections, where its characteristic features may be conveniently 
 studied. The most northerly exposure extends for nearly a mile 
 along the course of the Black Devon above Sheardrum. At the 
 upper end of this section, shales and ironstones have been faulted 
 against the tuff, which dips away from them down the stream. 
 At the lower end, the uppermost layers of the tuff dip west- 
 wards at about 15°, and are overlain by grey shaly sandstone 
 
The Carboniferous Limestone Series. 
 
 129 
 
 nclined in the same direction at similar low angles. Where 
 best stratified, the tuff sometimes contains calcareous layers, 
 and on the north-west flank of Saline Hill includes a limestone 
 which is probably the Index seam. The finely-bedded, green, 
 granular tuff contains rounded balls of an older tuff and of pale 
 earthy basalt. Some of the bands are much coarser in texture, 
 enclose larger fragments, and pass into volcanic conglomerate. 
 Here and there, however, the stratification disappears, and the 
 rock, assuming a tumultuous, structureless condition, becomes a 
 true agglomerate. One of the largest included fragments may 
 
 be seen in the tuff immediately above 
 where a portion of the underlying 
 yellow sandstones appears in the 
 stream to the north-west of South 
 Lethans. It is an irregularly shaped 
 angular block of black shale, measuring 
 18 feet long by 8 feet high. 
 
 Possibly some of the coarser un- 
 arranged parts of the rock either mark 
 the sites of vents or lie not far from 
 these. As a corroboration of this 
 suggestion, it should be noted that a 
 number of dykes and veins of basalt 
 occur at these agglomeratic centres. 
 Some larger bosses of similar intrusive 
 material may also be seen. The Knock 
 Hill has already been referred to as 
 marking the position of a vent. The 
 Saline Hill probably stands on the site 
 of one or two vents, round which the 
 volcanic ashes erupted from them 
 still partly remain, resting on the 
 sedimentary platform on which they 
 were deposited. The coals which 
 have been worked under this outer 
 envelope of encasing tuff will doubt- 
 less be found to have been destroyed 
 around the plugs or volcanic chimneys 
 that are believed to descend from the 
 summits of the Easter and Wester 
 Cairns. Another picturesque gorge 
 in the same tuff has been cut by the 
 Saline Burn a little above the village. 
 A cliff of undulating well-bedded tuff 
 forming the Eaven's Craig extends 
 between the two faults already men- 
 tioned. 
 
 These sections in the Saline district 
 are of peculiar interest to the geolo- 
 gist, inasmuch as they reveal to him 
 
130 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 the most perfect and extensive proofs in the whole region of the 
 renewal of volcanic activity during the time of the Carboniferous 
 Limestone series, after its cessation in the Burntisland district 
 about the close of the Calciferous Sandstone period. We shall find 
 other and later evidence of similar action within the time of the 
 Carboniferous Limestone series, much further east in the Kenno way- 
 district, but on a considerably smaller scale. These Saline Hills, 
 however, must be regarded as the typical region for this special 
 period of volcanic activity in the western half of Fife. 
 
 The various mineral seams in the Saline field have not been 
 continuously worked into the Oakley district, but there can be 
 no doubt that they extend across the intervening space. About 
 530 yards to the east of Blairsgreen, a pit has been sunk 
 to the Dunfermline Splint seam, which has been found at 
 a depth of 70 fathoms. In recent years a number of 
 bores, put down between Saline and Oakley, have passed 
 through all the measures down to what is probably the Hosie 
 Limestone. The lower Dunfermline seams appear to thin out 
 in that part of the district, although their position can be fairly 
 well identified. South-east from the farm-steading of Sunnyside, 
 a mile and a half south-south-west from the village of Saline, 
 the Hosie Limestone was reached at a depth of 252 fathoms from 
 the surface. What was believed to be the position of the Dun- 
 fermline Splint Coal lay at a depth of 207^ fathoms, but the seam 
 was only 16 inches thick. A seam of coal, 2 feet 7 inches thick, 
 with two partings of shale and supposed to be the Mynheer seam, 
 was met with at a depth of 179 fathoms. What was thought to 
 be the Glassee seam occurred at 157 fathoms, but was only 16 
 inches thick. A splint coal, 2 feet 7 inches thick, possibly the 
 Kinglassie Splint or Duddy Davie seam, lay at a depth of 116 
 fathoms. What was regarded as the Jersey Coal was pierced at 
 103 fathoms, but was only 3 feet 5 inches thick, including two 
 partings. Some thin coals, interstratified with shales and iron- 
 stones, which were reached at 64 fathoms, may perhaps represent 
 the Lochgelly Black-band ironstone. A limestone, 8 inches thick, 
 lying among shales and fireclays, possibly the Index seam, was met 
 with at a depth of 21 \ fathoms.* 
 
 The seams which occur at Oakley and Comrie are shown in the 
 subjoined table : — 
 
 Castlecary Limestone = Levenseat Limestone 
 
 Strata... ... ... ... ... ... 400-500 feet. 
 
 Janet Peat Limestone = Gair or Calmy Limestone ... about 7 feet. 
 
 Strata... ... ... ... ... ... 10 to 20 feet. 
 
 Janet Peat Coal ... ... ... ... ... about 6 feet. 
 
 Strata... ... ... ... ... ... 18 feet. 
 
 Overton or Oakley Parrot Coal (only 10 inches of 
 
 parrot) . ... 2 feet 1 inch. 
 
 Strata / ^ w0 coals wrought in this series, one named 1 Ann cflf . .„. 
 
 (strata | Cadell's ParVot Coal... J 400-500 feet. 
 
 Index Limestone ... 
 
 Strata . ... ..'. "! about 300 feet. 
 
 * The journal of this bore has been kindly supplied by the Oakley Colliery Company. 
 
The, Ga/rboniferous Limestone Series. 
 
 131 
 
 o 
 
 '• J 
 
 about 240 
 feet. 
 
 59 feet. 
 141 feet. 
 78 feet. 
 84 feet. 
 
 Upper Black-band Ironstone (Oakley (Position 
 
 and Comrie) Strata ... ... i of Possil 
 
 Lower Blaok-band (Oakley and Comrie) [ Seams 
 
 Strata ... 
 Ontake Coal 
 
 Strata ... 
 Three-foot Coal ... 
 
 Strata ... 
 Six-foot Coal (Jersey Coal) . 
 
 Strata ... 
 Four-foot Coal (Duddy Davie Coal) 
 
 Strata, unknown thickness, but probably about 300 
 feet, in which lie the positions of the Dunferm- 
 line Splint Coal and Stinking Coal 
 Hosie Limestones ... 
 
 The various seams in the Oakley field crop out to the north-west 
 of the Forth Ironworks. The Upper Ironstone crosses the stream- 
 let in the Bickram Wood, south of Sunnyside. The Lower Ironstone 
 crops out 200 yards lower down and crosses over into Perthshire 
 under the farm of Topitlaw. The Ontake Coal comes out on the 
 bank of the burn at the Muirside sandstone quarry, while the 
 Three-foot seam appears in the stream immediately above Comrie 
 Bridge. These seams are powerfully affected by several large 
 faults which traverse the Oakley field. The most northerly dislo- 
 cation may possibly be a continuation of the great Loch Fitty 
 fault, which makes the northern boundary of the Dunfermline 
 field. It appears to enter the Oakley field in an east and west line, 
 somewhere to the north of Blair House, and it passes into Perth- 
 shire among the ironstone pits to the north-west of Topitlaw, 
 where it has a downthrow of 10 fathoms to the south. A much 
 more effective fault, a little further south, runs in an east and west 
 direction from the ironworks for half a mile west of the county 
 boundary, when it bends towards the north-west and, passing 
 under the Mains of Comrie, appears to unite with the fault just 
 referred to. The throw of this dislocation is about 70 or 80 
 fathoms to the south, and it shifts the outcrops of the strata for 
 about two-thirds of a mile to the east. The Ironstone is at the 
 surface immediately to the west of the ironworks. To the south 
 of the Oakley Station another fault brings up the Ontake Coal, 
 which crops out at the west end of the South Oakley Cottages. 
 At the road on the south side of these cottages, another east and 
 west fault throws down the strata 27 fathoms to the south. The 
 Ironstones have been found in bores and pits all over the ground 
 to the west, and southwards to the coast at Torry. The Upper 
 Ironstone has been reached at a depth of 90 fathoms in a pit on 
 the Perthshire side of the county-boundary, 700 yards due south 
 of Bonnie's Walls. 
 
 An important boring (Blairhall Diamond Bore) has been made 
 by the Coltness Iron Company about a mile west of Oakley Station 
 and close to Bonnie's Walls. The journal of this bore has been 
 courteously communicated to the Geological Survey by the Manager 
 of the Company, and is given at the end of the Appendix to the 
 present Memoir. At a depth of 350 fathoms a limestone 8 feet 
 
132 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 thick was pierced, which is probably one of the uppermost Hosie 
 seams. Nearly 40 fathoms higher up, at a depth of 311 fathoms, 
 a coal-seam 3 feet thick was met with, which is believed to be the 
 Dunfermline Splint. At 295 fathoms a coal (4 feet 11 inches) 
 with a number of partings was taken to represent the Five-feet 
 seam. The Blairhall Main Ooal (2 feet 10 inches) was met with 
 at 92 fathoms, and a seam of Black-band Ironstone, 15 inches thick 
 (Inzievar or Blairhall seam), about 10 fathoms higher up. 
 
 There is probably a good deal of disturbance between Longleas 
 and the coast. A large mass of intrusive rock extends inland in a 
 northerly direction for more than a mile from the shore at Torry 
 to near Over Inzievar, and a smaller protrusion lies a little further 
 west. A seam of Black-band Ironstone, 10 inches thick, crops out 
 in the Bluther Burn, about 400 yards above Newmills Bridge, and 
 another, three inches thick, appears at the Flour-mill immediately 
 above that bridge. 
 
 Below these ironstones the Oakley and Saline Goals make their 
 appearance and strike southward under the beach to Preston Island. 
 They were formerly extensively worked here and had local names, 
 as will be seen from the following table of them, given in descend- 
 ing order : — 
 
 Feet. Inches. 
 Index Limestone 
 
 Strata ... ... ... ... ... 200 to 300 
 
 Black-band Ironstone (position of Possil Iron- 
 stone) 
 
 Strata ... ... ... ... .. about 30 
 
 Loweie Graham's Coal 
 
 Strata ... ... ... ... ... 130 
 
 Coal ... ... ... ... ... 3 6 
 
 Strata ... ... ... ... ... 50 
 
 Coal ... ... ... ... ... 2 
 
 Strata ... ... ... ... ... 30 
 
 Coal ... ... ... ... ... - 9 
 
 Strata ... ... ... ... ... 90 
 
 Coal ... ... ... .. ... 9 
 
 Strata ... .. ... ... ... 80-85 
 
 Coal ... ... ... ... ... 5 
 
 Strata ... ... ... ... ... 30 
 
 Coal ... ... ... ... ... 2 6 
 
 Strata of unknown thickness, containing the 
 position of the Dunfermline Splint Coal . . . 
 Hosie Limestone 
 
 Some coals have also been worked further east between Torry 
 and Torryburn. A seam 6 feet thick and another 4 feet crop out 
 in the field to the west of the latter village. 
 
The Carboniferous Limestone Series. 133 
 
 CHAPTEE XII. 
 
 The Carboniferous Limestone Series — continued. 
 
 III. The Upper Limestones. 
 
 Throughout the centre of Scotland the Carboniferous Limestone 
 series terminates upward in a group of strata consisting chiefly of 
 sandstones and shales with coal-seams, but including as their 
 distinguishing feature certain bands of marine limestone, which in 
 many respects resemble the limestones below the coal-bearing 
 series. Where fully developed the group is arranged as follows : — 
 
 Feet. 
 Limestone, Levenseat or Castlecary seam ... ... 4 to 16 
 
 Strata ... ... ... ... ... 350 to 500 
 
 Limestone (Calmy, Gair, Arden, or Janet Peat seam) ... 3 to 8 
 
 Strata ... ... ... ... ... 400 to 500 
 
 Limestone (Index seam) ... ... ... ... 2 to 4 
 
 As developed in the centre and west of Fife, a marked feature of 
 this group of limestones is the association of volcanic rocks with 
 them. The Index Limestone in this district is sometimes found 
 lying in the midst of tuffs, as at Saline (p. 129). The Gair Lime- 
 stone was deposited, while in some places eruptions were in pro- 
 gress. The volcanic activity, however, seems everywhere in this 
 part of Scotland to have died out before the time of the highest or 
 Levenseat seam. 
 
 From their comparative thinness these limestones have been less 
 worked than those of the lower group, and they are not all seen in 
 any continuous section in this district, though one or other of them 
 may be detected in many natural exposures, as well as in occasional 
 artificial openings. The Index seam, however, is visible at the 
 surface only in one or two places, though it is met with in pits and 
 bores. 
 
 The fossils of the Upper Limestones, though often abundant, 
 both in the limestones and their associated shales, are on the whole 
 less varied, as well as smaller in size, than those of the Hurlet seam, 
 as if the conditions of life had been somewhat less favourable than 
 they were during the accumulation of that seam. 
 
 The Index Limestone contains among its fossils numerous 
 ostracods, such as species of Bairdia, Beyriehia, Bythocypris, 
 Bythocythere, Cytherella, and KirJcbya; brachiopods, as Streptor- 
 hynchus crenistria, Terebratula sacculus; small lamellibranchs, as 
 species of Nuculana and Schizodus, and the gasteropod Bellerophon. 
 The complete list will be found in the Appendix (p. 248). 
 
134 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 In the coast-section east of Pathhead, where the higher part of 
 this group, as well as the Millstone Grit and the Coal-measures, are 
 so well displayed, the Index Limestone is unfortunately concealed, 
 as it is so generally elsewhere in Fife. But the two higher seams 
 may be examined on the beach to the east of the old Castle of 
 Eavenscraig. Above the position of the Index Limestone at this 
 place, a thick and remarkably false-bedded yellow sandstone, with 
 large tree-trunks, forms the promontory which runs seawards from 
 the ruins of that castle. This sandstone, in cutting out the shales 
 underneath it, supplies an excellent example of " contemporaneous 
 erosion." It probably lies on the same platform as the well-known 
 sandstone of Bishopbriggs and other quarries around Glasgow. 
 
 After passing over some further sandstones and shales in the 
 same shore-section, we come upon the Gaik Limestone, which is 
 here composed of the following subdivisions : — 
 
 Black shale, with a large number of ironstone nodules and bands, 18 feet, 
 
 passing down into 
 Grey calcareous shale (3 or 4 inches) with marine fossils, forming the roof of 
 
 the limestone. 
 Limestone, 3 to 5 inches. 
 
 Calcareous shale, crowded with small fossils, 8 inches. 
 Limestone, 15 inches, made up organisms, mostly dwarfed forms. 
 Black shale, crowded with small ironstone nodules. 
 
 The limestone at this place has yielded a considerable number 
 of fossils, which include Fenestella sp., Discina nitida, Productus 
 longispinus, P. semireticulatus, Spirifer trigonalis, Fdmondia unioni- 
 formiSjE.Josepha, &c. ; Nuculana attenuata, Pleurotomaria monilifera, 
 Narica variata, Bellerophon deaussatus, B. Urei, B. leveillanus, 
 Orthoceras sulcatum. (For a full list see Appendix, p. 248.) This 
 seam is here separated from the uppermost limestone by a group 
 of about 350 feet of strata, consisting chiefly of yellow and white 
 sandstone, with some shales and thin seams of coal. Some of the 
 sandstones are crowded with remains of plants, and again display 
 proofs of erosion of the underlying strata. One particularly remark- 
 able example may be observed not many yards above the Gair 
 Limestone, where almost every bed cuts across the laminse of the 
 bed below. Among the strata one noticeable member is a reddish 
 coarse pebbly sandstone, with abundant clay-galls and fragments of 
 fishes, which forms a cliff and runs out as a promontory east of the 
 Dove Cot in front of the Three Tree Park of Dysart. These 
 numerous pellets of clay were evidently one of the results of the 
 erosion of the already deposited sediments. 
 
 On the coast-section west of Dysart the uppermost or Levenseat 
 Limestone has its outcrop 200 yards to the east of the Gair seam. 
 It is here composed as follows : — 
 
 Blue shales and shaly sandstones (lagoon or Coal-measure type). 
 
 Blue shale, crowded with marine fossils, 2 or 3 inches. 
 
 Limestone, 3 feet, consisting of three bands, each mainly made up of the 
 
 ossicles of small crinoids. 
 Blue shale, 6 inches. 
 
The Carboniferous Limestone Series. 135 
 
 Limestone, 3 feet, with large cavities lined with cockscomb-barytes. 
 
 Blue shale, 8 feet, with marine organisms, especially at the base, where they 
 
 abound, and the shale becomes highly calcareous. 
 Limestone, 18 to 20 inches, crowded with fossils somewhat larger than the 
 
 same forms in the limestones above. 
 Grey calcareous shale, 6 to 8 inches, with marine fossils, passing down into 
 Black highly carbonaceous shales (lagoon or Coal-measure type). 
 
 Here an interval of 18 feet of marine sediments is intercalated 
 between two deposits of black carbonaceous sediment, which, mark 
 the lagoon type of conditions. These limestones possess the 
 characteristic white colour of the typical Castlecary Limestone. 
 They weather yellow, and show in their exposed surfaces well- 
 preserved Caudo>gaMi markings, crowded crinoids, and other 
 organisms. 
 
 This seam contains many of the same fossils as the Gair seam. 
 A list of them will be found in the Appendix (p. 249). 
 
 Among the inland exposures of the Upper Limestones reference 
 may first be made to those that continue the outcrop of the shore- 
 section. The Levenseat seam has been quarried at Stenton, five 
 miles north from Kirkcaldy. It there consists of several leaves, 
 and its weathered surfaces disclose abundant crinoids and Produdi, 
 &c. About 16 feet of the seam are visible. The same limestone 
 was cut a third of a mile further west in making a deep drain south 
 of Caskieberran, and two thick coals were there also intersected. The 
 westward continuation of the outcrop has been inserted on the map 
 almost entirely from information derived from borings for minerals. 
 Limestone has here and there been actually got at the surface, as on 
 the farms of Manorleys and Wester Balbedie, and it was formerly 
 worked in a quarry close to Kirkness House. There may be some 
 doubt whether these localities do not include the outcrops of both 
 the Gair and Levenseat seams. 
 
 To the north of the Dysart Coal-field several good exposures are 
 to be seen of one or other of the group of Upper Limestones. One 
 of these lies in the ravine above the village of Kennoway, where the 
 Levenseat seam, about 6 feet thick, together with its overlying 
 shales, emerges from under the coarse yellow sandstones and fine 
 conglomerates of the Millstone Grit, and where also the Gair seam, 
 4 feet 6 inches thick, comes in its due place below Teuchat Head, 
 carrying with it its overlying shales, one of which is a pyritous or 
 "alum-shale." A seam of coal, which may be noticed among the 
 yellow sandstones between them, is about three feet thick, and thirty 
 years ago was worked by an ingoing eye from the bank. There is 
 also a seam of poor hematite iron-ore (reddle or keel), of which a 
 small ship-load was shipped at Leven. 
 
 Two miles to the east of Kennoway, the members of this group 
 are partly laid open in the dell below Aithernie Castle. One seam 
 of limestone is there visible, the precise horizon of which is not 
 quite certain. It can hardly be the Levenseat seam, which should 
 lie further down the stream and may be concealed under drift at 
 the south end of the ravine. It may be the Gair Limestone or 
 perhaps the Index seam. It is about three feet thick. Among 
 
136 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 the sandstones above it, a coal may be seen, followed by shales and 
 ironstones, while below it another coal-seam crops out among sand- 
 stones. To the coals of this group of strata more special reference 
 will be made a little further on. 
 
 An interesting feature of this burn-section is the intercalation of 
 a band of volcanic material about 130 feet thick, which lies 
 immediately underneath the lower of the two coal-seams. This 
 band consists of a fine red and green sandy tuff, well stratified, 
 and dipping, like the strata above and below it, in a south- 
 easterly direction at 15° to 25°. It includes a central zone of 
 fine compact blue basalt. The tuff resembles some of those 
 already referred to as occurring on the coast west of Seafield, 
 near Kinghom. This volcanic intercalation belongs to a remark- 
 ably persistent zone of tuff, which, beginning on the western 
 borders of Fife, in the Saline district, is traceable eastwards to 
 Largo and possibly further. It indicates that widespread 
 renewal of volcanic activity, which has been above referred to 
 as having taken place during the period of the Upper Limestones. 
 The eruptions for the most part consisted almost entirely of 
 discharges of ashes, though occasional streams of basalt were 
 emitted, as in the instance now under consideration. This 
 volcanic zone reaches its greatest development in the parish of 
 Saline, as has been pointed out on p. 128. 
 
 It may be further remarked that in the district around 
 Kennoway several large masses of volcanic tuff have been mapped. 
 Some of these are no doubt necks, though it is possible that 
 other portions of the tuff may belong to the volcanic zone just 
 referred to. One of these masses of tuff makes its appearance 
 at Drummaird, another forms Longside Hill, both a little to the 
 north of Kennoway, while a third has been proved by bores at 
 Letham, a mile further to the north-east. It cannot be con- 
 clusively shown that any of these areas of tuff are necks and 
 show the sites of vents which were active during the Carboniferous 
 Limestone period, still less that any one of them supplied the 
 volcanic materials that are interstratified beneath the seam of 
 limestone in the Kennoway Den. Further reference will be made 
 to this subject in Chapter XVI., dealing with the intrusive rocks 
 in the Carboniferous Limestone series and Coal-measures of Fife, 
 when it will be pointed out that the necks undoubtedly belong to 
 several different periods of volcanic activity. 
 
 As further evidence of the extension of the vents during this 
 latest epoch of Carboniferous volcanic action in Fife, allusion may 
 again be made to the section already (p. Ill) cited from the brook 
 by the roadside near Kinnaird, on the north of the Kelty 
 Coal-field, where one or two bands of green tuff and a bed of 
 earthy decomposed basalt, probably belonging to the persistent 
 volcanic zone just referred to, are found associated with what may 
 be the Index Limestone. The tuff of Cowden Hill to the north- 
 west of Blairadam may form part of the same zone, though its 
 relations to the Upper Limestones have not been determined. This 
 
The Carboniferous Limestone Series. 137 
 
 hill contains a plug of basalt, and not impossibly includes the 
 actual neck or vent from which the tuff was discharged. 
 
 But it is in the west of Fife that the latest Carboniferous 
 volcanoes have left the most abundant records of their activity. 
 An account has already been given of the great masses of tuff 
 in the Saline district. It was shown that these thick accumula- 
 tions began to be piled up after the Saline coals and ironstones 
 had been deposited, and that they continued beyond the time of 
 the Index Limestone. That they lasted still longer, though in an 
 
 Pig. 27.— Section of Volcanic Vent near Grange, Oaklev. 
 (Mr. B. N. Peach.) 
 1. Three-feet Coal. 2. Ontake Coal. 3. Upper and Lower Black-band Ironstones. 
 4. Index Limestone. 5. Gas Coal and Janet Peat Coal. 6. Calmv or Gair 
 
 Limestone. 7. Volcanic Neck. 
 
 enfeebled condition, is impressively illustrated by a section of a 
 remarkable vent or neck which has been exposed in a cutting of 
 the railway a mile west of Oakley, and of which the eastern edge 
 is exposed on the border of the Survey Map (Sheet 40). It has 
 been mapped by Mr. Peach, who constructed the accompanying 
 section of it (Fig. 27) partly from the exposure laid open in the 
 cutting and partly from the mining-plans of the surrounding coal- 
 and ironstone-pits. He found it to measure 2000 feet in dia- 
 meter from north to south and 1500 feet from east to west, to 
 have been drilled through the strata, including and overlying the 
 Index Limestone, and to be filled with crumbling clays, enclosing 
 fragments of sandstone, shale, and coal. These clays contain many 
 of the fossils of the next limestone (the Gair or Oalmy seam), and 
 seem to have been washed into the submarine volcanic orifice at 
 the time that these organisms were living on the surrounding 
 sea-floor. 
 
 CAPELDRAE COAL-FIELD. 
 
 Though coal-seams occur in the group of Upper Limestones over 
 Central Scotland, it is seldom that they possess either thickness or 
 quality sufficient to admit of their being profitably worked. But a 
 notable exception to this general rule is afforded by the remarkable 
 Capeldrae district, which lies close to the edge of the Car- 
 boniferous region beyond the east end of Benarty Hill, and 
 
138 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 little more than a mile to the south of Loch Leven. By- 
 reference to the map it will be observed that the great arch which 
 has been described as running through the Lochgelly field is 
 prolonged northward, and that the Carboniferous Limestone series 
 projects in a tongue as far as the alluvial plain of the River Leven, 
 limited on the west side by the great boundary fault, and on the 
 east by the Coal-measure basin of Kinglassie. This prolongation 
 forms the Capeldrae field now to be considered. 
 
 Two features in this field deserve attention. In the first place, 
 there is the value of the seams of coal and ironstone found here 
 in a group of strata which is not usually distinguished for 
 its industrial capabilities. In the second place, the com- 
 mercial importance of this greater excellence of the seams 
 has been considerably impaired by several causes, especially by 
 intrusive igneous rocks, to which further reference will be made 
 further on. A considerable part of the thickness of rock pierced 
 in the bores and pits has been "whinstone." 
 
 When the Capeldrae field was first opened up great doubt was 
 felt as to the position of its coals in the general coal series of Fife, 
 and many conjectures were hazarded on the subject. The extensive 
 borings and pit-workings of more recent years have proved con- 
 clusively that this field belongs to the Upper Limestone group. 
 The Index Limestone has been met with in boring, and found to 
 lie about 35 fathoms below the Lochore Parrot Coal and about the 
 same distance above the Lochgelly Black-band Ironstone. The 
 Capeldrae strata dip below another thin limestone, the outcrop of 
 which has been chiefly traced by means of bores. The distance 
 between this limestone and the Capeldrae Parrot Coal is said to be 
 from 80 to 100 fathoms, of which thickness of rock 60 fathoms are 
 made up of " whinstone." As already remarked, some doubt has 
 been felt as to the position of this upper limestone. If it is the 
 Grair seam there must still lie a certain thickness of strata above 
 it until we reach the Levenseat seam, which forms the summit of 
 the Carboniferous Limestone series. If it is itself the Levenseat 
 seam, as seems most probable, the Gair limestone does not appear 
 to have been yet detected here. Unfortunately, the surface of the 
 ground is much obscured with drift. The band of limestone in 
 question, as stated on p. 135, has been worked at Kirkness House. 
 
 The general succession of the strata in and below the Capeldrae 
 field is given in the subjoined table, the seams worked being the 
 Craig Coal, Capeldrae Parrot, Lochore Parrot, and Bowsebank 
 Coal :— 
 
 Feet. Inches. 
 Craig Coal ... ... ... ... ... 4 6 
 
 Strata, of which more than half is " whinstone," one 
 band being 174 feet thick 
 Capeldrae Parrot Coal, with cherry and foul coal 
 
 Strata ... 
 Coal (with 7 inches of Parrot and 2 inches of Splint) 
 
 Strata... ... ... ... ... ... 18 
 
 Capeldrae Ironstone ... ... ... ... 1 
 
 Strata, including some thin coals... ... ... 280 
 
 560 
 
 4 4 
 
 37 6 
 
 2 5 
 
The Carboniferous Limestone Series. 
 
 139 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Inches 
 
 Lochore Parrot Coal 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Strata ... 
 
 18 
 
 
 Coal, Splint 
 
 3 
 
 _ 
 
 Strata, with some thin coals 
 
 ... 180 
 
 _ 
 
 Limestone, " Index " Seam ... 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 Strata ... 
 
 60 
 
 
 Parrot Coal and Black-band Ironstone 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 Sandstones, &c. ... 
 
 42 
 
 
 Coal 
 
 4 
 
 
 Sandstone 
 
 24 
 
 _ 
 
 Coal 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 Sandstone and ' ' faikes "... 
 
 9 
 
 
 Coal, soft 
 
 3 
 
 _ 
 
 Strata, chiefly sandstone ... 
 
 40 
 
 _ 
 
 Black-band Ironstone (Lochgelly Seam) 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 The Lochore Parrot Coal is composed of the following sub- 
 divisions : — 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Fakes and fireclay roof 
 
 
 
 Coal, "daugh" 
 
 
 1 
 
 Parrot „. 
 
 - 
 
 11 
 
 Ironstone ... 
 
 - 
 
 1 
 
 Coal, "spratt" ... 
 
 ... 
 
 5 
 
 Ironstone ... 
 
 ... 
 
 3 
 
 Coal, " spratt" 
 
 ... 
 
 3 
 
 Coal, rough 
 
 Fakes and sandstone pavement 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 The Capeldrae Ironstone is made up of the following component 
 layers : — 
 
 Black shale roof ... 
 Black-band ironstone, hard 
 » D soft 
 
 Fireclay ... 
 
 Black-band ironstone, soft . . . 
 Fireclay pavement 
 
 Inches. 
 
 7 
 2 
 4 
 4 
 
 The Capeldrae Parrot seam is composed of the layers shown in 
 the subjoined table : — 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Inches 
 
 Black shale roof 
 
 
 
 Cherry coal 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Parrot No. 2 ... 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 Parrot No. 1 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 Fireclay pavement 
 
 
 
 As will be understood from the map, the prolongation of the 
 Lochgelly anticline northwards throws the strata of the Capeldrae 
 field into a central arch, with a long trough on the west side. The 
 shape of this trough is best seen from the mapping of the outcrop 
 of the Parrot Coal. It will be observed that this seam, following 
 those of the Lochgelly field, runs northward for fully a mile from 
 the Eiver Ore, along the west side of the arch, and, folding over 
 near Rosewells, returns down the east side to near Glencraig, and 
 
140 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 then, bending eastward, runs parallel with the river and dips north- 
 ward under the long string of the Auchterderran sills. To the 
 west of the arch, the outcrop of the seam turns northward with an 
 easterly dip from the intrusive mass of Olune Craig across the 
 dried-up bed of the old Loch Ore, so as to form a long trough 
 enclosing the sills of Crosshill and Lochcraig. This basin extends 
 with a tolerably uniform breadth as far as Thishalaw, where it 
 begins to flatten and die out. The outcrop of the Capeldrae Parrot 
 or gas-coal swings round the southern end of the Capeldrae sill, 
 and nearly reaching Lochore House, turns to the north-east and 
 continues that course to the far end of the coal-field at Manorleys. 
 It then probably curves round, with first a northerly then a north- 
 westerly dip, and passing somewhere near Kirkness House, runs 
 up against the great boundary fault not far from Navity Hill. 
 Borings for minerals have shown that what appears to be the 
 uppermost or Levenseat Limestone in this part of the district bends 
 round the end of another arch which must lie on the west side of 
 the Capeldrae field. Hence it may be inferred that the strata 
 below it do the same, but there does not seem to be enough of 
 space left for any valuable extension of the Capeldrae minerals in 
 that direction before they are cut off by the great fault. 
 
 The outcrop of the Lochore Parrot seam, which lies more than 
 50 fathoms below the Capeldrae Parrot, follows the western outcrop 
 of the latter coal, and keeping to the west of Lochore House, 
 bends north-eastwaids to near Ballingry. The highest or Craig 
 Coal crops out along the base of the line of sills by Pitcairn and 
 Auchterderran at least as far as Balgreggie, beyond which its 
 position has not been precisely ascertained. 
 
 Owing to several causes the working of the Capeldrae field, 
 including the Lochore basin and the ground eastward to Auchter- 
 derran, has been rendered expensive and troublesome. The 
 district has been disrupted by some powerful faults ; it has been 
 invaded by igneous sheets which have damaged or destroyed the 
 minerals, and some of the coals are of poor quality, owing to an 
 original intermixture of impurities at the time of deposition. 
 
 With regard to the faults, a glance at the map will show how 
 greatly the field has been sliced into sections by them. Thus, 
 immediately to the north of the farm of Capeldrae, a north-west 
 and south-east dislocation throws the rocks 40 fathoms down 
 to the_ south. The next large slip, immediately south of the old 
 coal-pit, has the same direction of strike and throw, and displaces 
 the strata 60 fathoms. To the north another similar fault has a 
 throw of 25 fathoms, and others follow, one of them bringing the 
 crop of the Parrot Coal against the great Capeldrae sill, which lies 
 some 200 feet above it. It will be noticed that in this instance 
 also the intrusion of molten material has preceded the general 
 faulting of the coal-field, for the sill itself has been dislocated by 
 the faults. 
 
 Though numerous masses of igneous rock are shown upon the 
 map as having been intruded into the rocks of this field, they 
 
The Carboniferous Limestone Series. 141 
 
 probably do not include all that reach the surface, for some may 
 be concealed under superficial deposits, and they certainly do not 
 embrace all that have been injected among the strata underneath. 
 They are of two kinds. In the first place, several tracts of volcanic 
 tuff have been met with, which doubtless form part of the persistent 
 volcanic zone amongthe Upper Limestones, and which are not improb- 
 ably connected with, if they do not themselves mark the sites of, 
 volcanic necks. One of these areas lies at Kildounies Hill, a little 
 to the north-west of Lochore House. Another patch has been found 
 in a boring immediately to the west of Ballingry Church. In the 
 second place, and far more abundantly, come the sills of dolerite 
 and basalt. Where these have been injected among the strata at 
 a sufficient distance above or below the coals or ironstones, they 
 have not injured the commercial value of these seams. But where 
 they have touched or come too near the minerals, there has been a 
 more or less complete destruction of that value. In 1888 the 
 Capeldrae part of the field was abandoned, as the water had risen 
 so seriously in the old and extensive workings. 
 
 In the Lochore part of the field, which has been proved by crop- 
 mines and shafts, the successful working of the minerals has been 
 much hindered by the occurrence of many " troubles " and " wants," 
 where the seams were either imperfectly deposited at first, or have 
 since been broken up by small faults. In the Eosewells portion of the 
 field, the quality of the Parrot Coal was found to be excellent 
 towards the south, but to fall off in value to the north around 
 Flockhouse, owing to the appearance in it of abundant coprolites 
 and " clay-galls," whereby its gas-producing properties were seriously 
 reduced. Here a second gas-coal, known as the Wee Parrot, lying 
 14 fathoms below the Capeldrae seam, has been worked to a small 
 extent on either side of the anticlinal fold, along the centre of 
 which it crops out. 
 
 The eastward prolongation of the Capeldrae Parrot seam to 
 Auchterderran has been proved by numerous borings. But in 
 almost every case it has been found to be either " burnt " through 
 the effects of the igneous rocks, or it has gone into the poor 
 condition known in mining language as "wild parrot." In the 
 same part of the field the Craig Coal, which there lies in some 
 places, as at Pitcairn, between two sills, has also been found to be 
 burnt, though it was formerly worked to a small extent on the 
 east side of Balgreggie. 
 
 In the Lochgelly and Dunfermline fields, the upper limestones 
 appear to have been entirely removed by denudation even from the 
 deepest parts of their basins. At least, these seams have not been 
 recorded in any of the borings or pit-shafts with which the 
 Geological Survey has become acquainted. That they once 
 covered the whole of the strata in that wide district is shown by 
 their reappearanee to the west, when the westward dip of the 
 strata beyond Saline, Oakley, and Torryburn allows them to take 
 their usual place. The Index Limestone crops out in the 
 Bluther Burn above the coals and sills at Torryburn. It is 
 
142 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 found again in the stream to the west of Oakley Station, 
 and further north near Sunnyside, and again close to Saline. 
 
 The Gair or Janet Peat Limestone reappears in the same part 
 of the district, while the Levenseat Limestone has likewise been 
 traced by a number of exposures along the west side of the 
 Carboniferous Limestone region, of which it forms the boundary 
 from near Cult Hill on the north to the shores of the Firth 
 west of Culross. 
 
The Millstone Grit. 143 
 
 CHAPTEE Xin. 
 
 The Millstone Grit. 
 
 The next division of the Carboniferous system, known as the Mill- 
 stone Grit, is not well seen in Fife, except on the coast, and, owing 
 to the peculiar geological structure of the county, is confined to a 
 comparatively restricted area. As the name denotes, this series of 
 strata consists principally of coarse sandstones. In some parts of 
 Central Scotland, where it comes immediately to the surface, it forms 
 tracts of barren moor, and has been named the Moor-rock. But in 
 Fife its inland extension is so generally buried under drift that it 
 only comes there to the surface in the water-courses. By far the best 
 section of it, not only in Fife, but in Scotland, is to be seen along 
 the shore of the Firth of Forth between Pathhead and Dysart, 
 where every member of the series is laid open to view. The section 
 that has been cut by the Biver Bsk in the Midlothian Coal-field, 
 between Boslin and Lasswade, is much longer and more picturesque, 
 but it does not supply so complete an exposure of the whole strata 
 that form the Scottish Millstone Grit as is done by the coast-section 
 in Fife. 
 
 Beginning on the beach, 400 yards due east from the promontory 
 of the Bavens Craig, we start from the summit of the Carboniferous 
 Limestone Series marked by the Levenseat Limestone, and pass 
 over a "continuous sequence of sandy strata, dipping eastwards at 
 25° to 30° for about 500 yards, when black shales and thin coals 
 make their appearance. No very clearly marked line can be drawn 
 either at the base or the top of this sandy series to separate it from 
 the strata below and above it, for they graduate insensibly into 
 each other. But measuring from the limestone seam as a base, 
 it will not be an exaggeration to set down the thickness of the 
 Millstone Grit here as about 700 feet. 
 
 Immediately above the shales that overlie and belong to the 
 Levenseat Limestone sandy strata begin to make their appearance, 
 but intermingled with shaly layers, showing how gradually the 
 arenaceous replaced the argillaceous sediment. After about 40 feet 
 of such intermingled materials the sandstones set in, and continue 
 to form practically the whole of the strata for a depth of more than 
 250 feet, though an occasional band of shale may be observed 
 among them. They are then interrupted by from 30 to 40 feet of 
 argillaceous sediments, comprising, besides shales and fireclays, one 
 or two thin seams of coal and several layers of shaly sandstone. 
 Another group of sandstones follows this central zone of shaly and 
 carbonaceous bands, for a thickness of more than 250 feet. Above 
 
144 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 these the arenaceous sediment becomes more and more interleaved 
 with shales and fireclays, while the sandstones themselves become 
 increasingly shaly, until the ordinary type of Coal-measure strata is 
 entered. 
 
 Many of the sandstones are more or less blotched or stained red. 
 This colouring seems rather a subsequent effect than an original 
 tint taken at the time of deposition. Its frequent occurrence all 
 over Fife suggests the possible former extension of some red forma- 
 tion across the region, though all trace of that formation has been 
 since removed. This question will be more fully discussed in the 
 Memoir on Eastern Fife, where the materials for its consideration 
 are more ample. The texture of the sandstones of the Millstone Grit is 
 sometimes tolerably coarse, though of those exposed along the shore 
 hardly any deserve the name of conglomerates. The predominant 
 ingredient is quartz in pea-like granules, varying up to a quarter of 
 an inch or more in diameter. These, though mostly water-clear, are 
 interspersed with grains of the blue opaline variety so abundant in 
 the Lewisian gneiss of the north-west of Scotland. The grains are 
 in general not well rounded, but rather angular. Associated with 
 them there is usually a smaller proportion of decayed felspar and 
 some white mica flakes. In some bands, where the proportion of 
 felspar increases, the stone weathers into a kind of sandy clay. One 
 of the coarsest bands lies near the top of the series. As usual, it is 
 spotted red and contains grains of quartz, more or less angular in 
 shape, which occasionally measure half an inch across. 
 
 It will be seen from the map that the Millstone Grit strikes 
 inland from the coast, lessens in its angle of dip so as to broaden 
 in its outcrop, and holds on as a border or frame to the Dysart and 
 Leven Coal-field. Between the shore and the River Leven near 
 Markinch hardly any openings in this frame are to be met with. To 
 the south of Markinch Station, the upper part of the sandstones 
 has been quarried above Parley Brae. The strata are there inter- 
 leaved with black shales, include a thin basalt-sill, and dip to the 
 east at 60°. By a large fault which runs from Markinch to the sea 
 the outcrop of the strata is shifted about two miles to the east. On 
 the north side of this interruption a good section of the series may 
 be seen in the Den of Kennoway above the outcrop of Levenseat 
 Limestone already alluded to. Coarse yellow and white sandstone, 
 reddish sandstones, and fine quartz-conglomerates have there been 
 eroded by the stream. They are pierced by a small volcanic neck 
 of tuff, which proves the continuance of volcanic activity here at 
 some time later than the Millstone Grit. Another powerful disloca- 
 tion, which runs from beyond Kennoway to the coast, again shifts 
 the outcrop of the Millstone Grit for more than a mile and a half. 
 The grits are next seen in the Scoonie Burn near Blacketyside, 
 where coarse pink sandstone and fine conglomerates have been laid 
 bare in the water-course. Beyond this point the Millstone Grit 
 does not appear at the surface further eastward, inasmuch as 
 another of the series of great dislocations cuts it off by bringing 
 down the Coal-measures against the Carboniferous Limestone Series 
 
The Millstone Grit. 145 
 
 Keturning now to that part of the inland frame of Millstone Grit 
 where the outcrop is broadest, we may note that this widening 
 arises not merely from the lessening of the angle of dip, but also 
 from the fact that the strata are here folded over the great anticline 
 which runs from Burntisland to beyond Markinch. The Levenseat 
 Limestone which fixes the base of the Millstone Grit occurs at 
 Stenton, and has been traced by means of borings to Inchdairnie 
 Park. The Millstone Grit no doubt turns westward here also on 
 the west side of the anticline and dips under the Kinglassie Coal- 
 field. But the ground is so obscured with drift that in the absence 
 of reliable information the series has not been indicated on the map 
 beyond Kinglassie. There can hardly be any doubt, however, that 
 it continues to the south-westward as a border round the little coal- 
 field, though possibly in a locally attenuated condition. 
 
 Towards the western boundaries of Fife the Millstone Grit 
 reappears in its proper place above the Levenseat Limestone, and 
 broadens out over a wide tract of country on the east side of the 
 Clackmannan Coal-field, where its outcrop at one part of its course 
 attains a width of six miles. 
 
146 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 The Coal-measures. 
 
 Following conformably on the top of the Millstone Grit, as 
 above stated, comes the thick and important division of the true 
 Coal-measures. In Fife, as in the rest of Scotland, it is easily- 
 capable of a two-fold grouping. The lower and main portion of 
 the series consists of a succession of white and yellow sandstones, 
 dark grey and black shales, and other sedimentary strata which 
 include a number of workable coal-seams. The upper subdivision 
 is composed mainly of red and purple sandstones, shales, and 
 clays, with only a few thin coal-seams. Each of these two 
 groups will be separately described. 
 
 The recent researches of Mr. Kidston among Carboniferous 
 fossil plants indicate from the evidence of the fossil flora that 
 the lower or coal-bearing group of Scotland is probably the 
 equivalent of the lower division of the Coal-measures of England, 
 while the upper or red group represents the English Middle 
 Coal-measures. There does not appear to be any equivalent in 
 Fife, or indeed in Scotland, so far as at present known, of the 
 highest division in England, so well displayed in the Bristol 
 and Somerset Coal-field. 
 
 At the outset it is deserving of remark that the development 
 of the Coal-measures in Fife, though not more extensive or 
 better characterised than in other parts of central Scotland, 
 offers this great advantage for observation and study, that it is 
 exposed along a continuous coast-section, where almost every 
 individual stratum may be seen and measured. For a distance 
 of seven miles this section continues to display the strati- 
 graphical succession on the beach and along a range of low 
 cliffs. Hence both for the geologist and for the mining engineer 
 who may wish to familiarise himself with the typical characters 
 of Coal-measure strata there are few such natural sections in 
 Britain. Certainly there is none to be compared with it in 
 Scotland. The Clyde and its tributaries have often cut highly 
 picturesque gorges through the Lanarkshire Coal-measures, as the 
 Esk has done through those of Midlothian, but while supplying 
 much interesting and important geological detail, they fail to afford a 
 continuous and complete presentment of the whole of the highest 
 division of the Scottish Carboniferous system. 
 
The Coal-measures. 147 
 
 I. Lower or Coal-bearing Group. 
 
 This group of strata is composed mainly of sandstones and 
 shales, with a number of seams of workable coal. It has a total 
 thickness of about 1750 feet. 
 
 The flora of the Fife Coal-measures agrees with that obtained 
 from the corresponding strata in other parts of the country. It 
 includes such well-known and characteristic plants as Gordaites 
 boras sifolius, Gordaianthus (Antholites) Pitcaimice, Galamocladus 
 (Asterophyllites) equisetiformis, Galamites Suckowii, C. varians, 
 Mariopteris muricata, Neuropteris gigantea, N. heterophylla, 
 Sphenopteris latifolia, Lepidodendron ophiurus, Trigonocarpus. 
 
 The fauna assumes two types.* Throughout the Coal-measures 
 the common lamellibranchs are forms of Carbonicola (Anthra- 
 cosia), G. acuta, G. aquilina, Naiadites (Anthracoptera), and 
 Anthracornya ; the usual annelid is Spirorbis pusillus ; the ostracods 
 comprise one or two species of Garbonia; fishes are represented 
 by Megalichthys Hibberti, Strepsodus sauroides, Diplodus gibbosus, 
 and species of Gtenodus, Godacanthus, Rhizodopsis, Acantliodes, 
 Pleur ■acanthus, &c. ; amphibians by Loxomma Allmanni and 
 Anthracosaurus Busselli. This is the prevalent and typical fauna 
 of the true Coal-measures, and has been regarded as indicative of 
 somewhat shallow, brackish or estuarine waters, in the lagoons of 
 which the matted vegetation grew and accumulated which now 
 forms the coal-seams. 
 
 Mr. Kirkby, however, has observed, as had previously been 
 found in Lanarkshire and in various parts of England, that on at 
 least one platform in the Coal-measures of Fife there is a recurrence 
 of the more obviously marine fauna of the Carboniferous Limestone. 
 Above the highest of the workable coals, and not far from the top 
 of the group of strata now in question, he detected, in a band of 
 black, brown, or purple shale, specimens of crinoid stems, lAngula, 
 Discina, Productus semireticulatus, Aclisina (Murchisonia) striatula, 
 Bellerophon TJrei, Orthoceras, and Discites, together with various 
 fishes (p. 250). The recurrence of these Carboniferous Limestone 
 forms points to the occasional access of the opener sea to the more 
 land-locked lagoons in which the Coal-measures seem to have been 
 for the most part deposited. 
 
 As shown upon the map, the lower group of the Coal-measures of 
 Fife occupies a compact and connected area, which extends along 
 the coast from a point a little west of Dysart eastwards to Wemyss 
 Castle — a distance of nearly three miles. Thence it stretches 
 inland to Markinch, and returns to the coast north-east of Leven. 
 Like the Millstone Grit and Carboniferous Limestone, the Coal- 
 measures fold over the great anticline that runs by Markinch, and 
 extend as a strip on its northern side, expanding westwards to form 
 the detached little coal-basin of Kinglassie. They do not reappear 
 
 * See an interesting and important paper by Mr. J. W. Kirkby, who first'established 
 this point for the Fife coal-Held. Quart. Juurn. Oeol. Soc., xliv. (1888), p7 747. The 
 facts given in the text are taken from this paper. 
 
148 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 further to the west until, beyond the limits of the county of Fife, 
 they enter the Clackmannan Coal-field. 
 
 i. THE DYSART, WEMYSS, AND LEVEN COAL-FIELD. 
 
 Under the title of the Dysart, Wemyss, and Leven Coal-field may 
 be included all the area of the coal-bearing part of the Coal- 
 measures from Dysart to Wemyss on the coast, inland to Markinch, 
 and northwards to Durie and Leven. Within this compact area 
 there are numerous collieries, with sometimes tracts of still little 
 explored ground between them. But the whole forms really one 
 coal-field, which has long been known under the name of its chief 
 town, Dysart. 
 
 A generalised summary of the coal-seams in the field, with the 
 average thicknesses of intervening strata, is given in descending 
 order in the subjoined Table : — 
 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Strata below the Upper barren red group of the Coal- 
 
 
 
 measures ... 
 
 
 280 
 
 - 
 
 In these strata at a height of 210 feet above the Barn- 
 
 
 
 craig Coal lies the band of 
 referred to. 
 Wall-Coal 
 
 Lingida-shale above 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 Strata ... 
 
 
 100 
 
 __ 
 
 Barncraig Coal ... 
 
 
 6 
 
 _ 
 
 Strata ... 
 
 
 85 
 
 _ 
 
 Upper Coxtool Coal 
 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 Strata ... 
 
 
 30 
 
 _ 
 
 Lower Coxtool Coal 
 
 
 3 
 
 _ 
 
 Strata ... 
 
 
 36 
 
 _ 
 
 Den Coal ... 
 
 
 2 
 
 _ 
 
 Strata ... 
 
 
 120 
 
 _ 
 
 Chemtss Coal 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 Strata ... 
 
 
 60 
 
 _ 
 
 Bush Coal 
 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 Strata ... 
 
 
 350 
 
 _ 
 
 Parrot Coal 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 Strata ... 
 
 
 37 
 
 
 Wood Coal 
 
 
 3 
 
 _ 
 
 Strata ... 
 
 
 37 
 
 _ 
 
 Earl's Parrot Coal 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 Strata ... 
 
 
 47 
 
 _ 
 
 Bowhouse Coal 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 Strata ... 
 
 
 42 
 
 _ 
 
 Brankstone Coal ... 
 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 Strata ... 
 
 
 57 
 
 
 More Coal 
 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 Strata ... 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 Mangie Coal 
 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 Strata ... 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 Sand well Coal 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 Strata ... 
 
 
 200 
 
 
 Dysart Main Coal 
 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 Strata ... 
 
 
 75 
 
 
 Seven-foot Coal ... 
 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 Strata to top of Millstone Grit 
 
 
 200 
 
 
 Before proceeding to consider more in detail the composition and 
 distribution of these coal-seams it may be convenient to take notice 
 
The Goalr-measures. 
 
 149 
 
 a 
 S 
 a 
 3 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 I 
 
 
 here of some important features in the 
 general structure of the field, more especially 
 as these must be understood before the mean- 
 ing of an apparently anomalous disposition 
 of the outcrops can be appreciated. 
 
 Although the coast-section supplies a 
 fairly complete and unbroken section of the 
 strata, it will be seen from the map that this 
 regularity disappears in the inland part of 
 the district, that the superficial breadth of 
 the strata greatly expands, and that instead 
 of the single outcrops that emerge on the 
 coast, some of the seams have two outcrops. 
 This structure arises from a combination of 
 plication and dislocation. Less than a mile 
 from the shore a double fold, complicated by 
 a powerful fault,. begins to make its appear- 
 ance. The outcrops of the lower coals in this 
 group, that is, those up to and including the 
 More Coal, continue their normal direction 
 towards N.N.W. But the higher coals, from 
 the Brankstone seam upwards, turn off sharply 
 to the north-east, and the space between the 
 main outcrops of the two groups continues to 
 widen, until two seams which are only distant 
 from each other about 1200 yards on the shore 
 are separated by an interval of more than two 
 miles. If there were only curvature in ques- 
 tion, and if we could strip off all the overlying 
 cover of drift, it would be seen that the Coal- 
 measures have here been ridged up into an 
 anticlinal and a synclinal fold, the axes of 
 which run in a N.N.E. and S.S.W. direction. 
 In consequence of this plication some of the 
 upper coals would be found to lie in a basin 
 or trough on the west side, and some of the 
 seams below them to crop out along the sides 
 or crest of the arch. Unfortunately the 
 ground is too much concealed by superficial 
 deposits to permit an actual sight of this 
 interesting structure, which has only been 
 made known by the bores and underground 
 workings of the coal-pits. 
 
 From the same sources of information we 
 learn that the anticline has been ruptured by 
 a powerful fault which still further compli- 
 cates the structure (Kg. 28). The position 
 of this fault has been proved in the southern 
 part of its course between Boreland and 
 Cowdenlaws. It must run on in a nearly 
 
150 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 northerly direction, probably increasing in magnitude as it goes, 
 until it ends off against the great fault between Markinch and the 
 sea. The effect of this dislocation is to throw down the strata on 
 its western side. Hence the lower coals, which run continuously 
 from the sea to Markinch along their normal outcrop and ought 
 to be deep underground in the centre of the coal-field, are actually 
 brought up to the surface on the east side of the fault, and though 
 it has not been actually identified, there is reason to suppose that 
 at least the upper part of the Millstone Grit may also come up 
 above ground towards the valley of the Leven. 
 
 While the dislocation of the coal-field is under description, refer- 
 ence may be made to the other more important faults by which 
 the coal-seams have been displaced. One of these passes in a 
 south-easterly direction through Earl's Seat, a mile to the east of 
 Thornton Junction, and shifts the outcrops of the Seven-foot and 
 Dysart Main coals about 400 yards, with a downthrow to the west. 
 Another still more powerful fault strikes from this last one near 
 Earl's Seat, and runs in an E.N.E. direction to the sea at Broad- 
 hill Eocks, near Buckhaven. It is said to have a southward down- 
 throw of 60 or 70 fathoms, which increases eastward to 100 
 fathoms. It will be seen from the map to shift the outcrops of 
 the coals westwards for fully three-quarters of a mile. Another 
 fault, lying somewhat further north and running inland from a little 
 south of Methil by Muiredge and The Maw, has a downthrow to 
 the south of 30 to 45 fathoms. Further north lie the great 
 parallel faults already mentioned as cutting the coal-field and the 
 Millstone Grit into slices, with a persistent downthrow to the 
 south. 
 
 We may now examine in further detail the succession of the coal- 
 seams enumerated in the Table on p. 148. A few seams of coal 
 only an inch or two in thickness come below the Seven-foot Seam, 
 which is the lowest of the workable coals. At the Sweet Dub Pit, 
 Gallatown, Dysart, that seam had the following composition : — 
 
 
 Feet. Inches 
 
 Hard grey stone roof 
 
 
 Coal 
 
 1 3 
 
 Stone 
 
 1 
 
 Coal 
 
 2 4 
 
 Fireclay 
 
 .2 6 
 
 Coal, rough ... 
 
 1 8 
 
 Coal, Parrot 
 
 8 
 
 Coal, rough ... 
 
 8 
 
 
 9 2 
 
 Shale pavement 
 
 
 This seam is overlain by about 10 or 12 fathoms of strata 
 including at the base about 7 feet of shales and thin clay-band iron- 
 stones, and nearly 50 feet of sandstones towards the top. Then 
 comes the Dysakt Main Coal — the thickest seam in any part of 
 Fife. This coal is subject to local variations in the number and 
 
The Goal-measures. 
 
 151 
 
 arrangement of its component bands. In the Frances Colliery, a 
 mile and a half north of Dysart, it is constituted as follows : — 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Inches 
 
 Roof-coal (coarse) 
 
 4 
 
 _ 
 
 Stone 
 
 - 
 
 1 
 
 Spar Coal ... 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 Spar Stone ... 
 
 - 
 
 1 
 
 Head Coal ... 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 Clean Coal ... 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 Stone 
 
 
 4 
 
 Splint Coal ... 
 
 ■ ■ 
 
 10 
 
 Stone 
 
 — 
 
 3 
 
 Nether Coal 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 Stone 
 
 
 1 
 
 Ground Coal 
 
 '.'.'. 3 
 
 7 
 
 Stone 
 
 — 
 
 9 
 
 Thief Coal ... 
 
 '..'. 5 
 
 
 23 7 
 
 The top and bottom of the coal are not usually worked. As the 
 seam runs inland towards the north and north-east it becomes 
 thinner. At Lochhead, two miles to the north-east of Dysart, it 
 has the following structure: — 
 
 Shale roof 
 
 Coal 
 
 Stone 
 
 Coal 
 
 Stone 
 
 Coal 
 
 Stone 
 
 Coal 
 
 Stone 
 
 Coal 
 
 Stone 
 
 Coal 
 
 Shale pavement 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Inches 
 
 2 
 
 _ 
 
 _ 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 - 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 11 
 
 - 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 - 
 
 20 
 
 ] 
 
 Thus in a distance of two miles there is an appreciable diminu- 
 tion in the proportion of coal and increase in that of the sedimentary 
 partings. The coal continues to become thinner both to the north 
 and east. In a boring little more than a mile to the north- 
 north-west of Lochhead, the seam was found to be only 10 feet 
 thick. Again at Cameron Bridge, three miles to the north-east of 
 Lochhead, its thickness was also 10 feet. The seam has not been 
 worked to the east of the Isabella Pit (Muiredge Colliery), and 
 nothing appears to be known of its occurrence in that direction, 
 nor whether any of the workable seams below the Parrot Coal are 
 available in that part of the field. 
 
 The Dysart Main Coal from the coast-line inland to Markinch has 
 all been worked out down to the water-level. It was found to run 
 on steadily along the line of outcrop traced upon the map. The 
 present workings lie to the east, where some of the coals are won 
 
152 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 under the sea. At Wells Green the Dysart Main Coal was reached 
 at a depth of 83 fathoms, and the Parrot seam was also passed 
 through. 
 
 Three or four comparatively unimportant seams of coal, which 
 have received local names, are intercalated in the 65 fathoms of 
 strata that lie between the Dysart Main seam and the next thick 
 seam, which is known as the Bowhouse Coal. In the Victoria 
 Pit, West Wemyss, this seam was found to consist of the following 
 
 members : — 
 
 Feet. Inches. 
 Shale roof 
 
 Coal 4 
 
 Shale ... ... 6 
 
 Coal ' 
 
 Shale 
 
 Coal 
 
 Shale pavement 
 
 This coal must be present in the trough above described as 
 lying on the west side of the field, but its limits there have not been 
 ascertained. Its normal outcrop stretches from the coast near 
 Dysart to the large fault that runs out to sea near Buckhaven, and 
 the seam is found again on the north side of that dislocation. 
 
 The Earl's Parrot Coal in the Victoria Pit, West Wemyss, has 
 the arrangement shown in the subjoined Table : — 
 
 Feet. Inches. 
 Shale and hands (roof) 
 Coal, Parrot ... ... ... ... 1 2 
 
 Coal, rough ... ... ... ... 1 2 
 
 Shale pavement 
 
 The Wood Coal lies about 64 feet above the Earl's Parrot seam and 
 has a thickness of three feet. From the shale and sandstone bands 
 forming the roof of this seam at the Pirnie Colliery, Leven, Mr. 
 Kirkby has obtained a number of fossils, of which he has been so 
 good as to supply the following list : — Gordaianthus (Antholites) 
 Pitcaimice, L. & H.; Alethopteris lonchitica, Sch.; Calamocladus 
 equisetiformis, Calamites, sp., G. Suchowii, Brong.; C. approximate/,, 
 Brong.; Garpolithes sulcosa, L. & H.; Cordaites borassifolius, Sternb.; 
 Mariopteris muricata, forma nervosa; Myriophyllites gracilis, 
 Neuropteris gigantea, Sternb ; N. heterophylla, L. & H.; Sphenopteris 
 latifolia ?, L. & EL; Sphenophyllum, sp.; Trigonocarpus, sp. 
 
 The Parrot Coal in the section obtained from the same pit is 
 
 composed as follows : — 
 
 _, , Feet. Inches. 
 
 Sandstone ... ... ... ... 58 
 
 H 
 
 Shale 
 
 1 Black Shale 
 Parrot Coal 
 Black Shale 
 Stone 
 Coal 
 
 Brown Stone 
 Coal 
 Shale 
 
The Coal-measures. 153 
 
 As shown upon the map, a small basin of this seam has been 
 detected on the west side of the anticline. The main outcrop 
 begins on the shore immediately to the west of Blair Point, and 
 runs on with the other seams in a continuous line until it strikes 
 against the Earl's Seat-Buckhaven fault. 
 
 Mr. Kirkby has kindly furnished the following list of fossils found 
 by him in the Parrot Coal at Pirnie Colliery, Leven : — 
 
 Amphibia. — Anthracosaurus Russdli, Huxley; Loxomma Allmanni, Huxley. 
 
 Pisces. — Acanthodes, sp. ; Codacanlhus elegans, Newberry ; Sphenacanlhus, sp. ; 
 Ctenodus, 8p. ; Diplodus gibbosus, Ag. ; Helodus, sp. ; Megalichthys Hibberti, Ag. ; 
 Pleuracanthus Icevissimus, Ag. ; Bhizodopsis sauroides (Williamson) ; Slrepsodus 
 sauroides (Binney) ; Coprolites. 
 
 Mollusca. — Anthracomya, sp. 
 
 Crustacea. — Carbonia fabvlma, Jones & Kirkby ; O. rankiniana, J. & K. 
 
 Annelida. — Spirorbis pusillus (= S. carbonarius, Murch) ; worm tracks. 
 
 Plants. — Cordaianihus Pitcairnice, Lindley & Hutton ; Catamites, sp. ; Cor- 
 daites, sp. ; Halonia, sp. (=Lepidophloios, sp.) ; Lepidodendron, sp. ; Sigillaria, 
 sp. — encrusted with Spirorbis pusillus ; Sigillaria, sp. ; Stigmariajicoides, Brong. ; 
 Macrospores. 
 
 Mr. Kirkby has also been so good as to supplement his list with 
 some notes in regard to the occurrence of the organisms. " These 
 fossils," he remarks, " were found in all parts of the seam and in 
 the black shale or 'rhums' overlying it, though oftenest in the 'brown 
 stone' or black-band in the centre. The plants were of much rarer 
 occurrence than the fish-remains — Stigmaria excepted. Of the 
 latter, those of Strepsodus sauroides and Megalichthys Hibberti were 
 found most frequently, though nowhere plentiful. The remains of 
 Strepsodus — bones and plates of the head, with the teeth in the 
 jaws, vertebras, and scales, all more or less out of place, though 
 close together, have been traced over surfaces 'of the brown stone 
 for five or six feet, thus indicating individuals of considerable 
 magnitude. Some of the Megalichthys have also evidently been 
 big fish, from the size of the scales and head-plates, and from 
 the extent of surface which their fragmentary remains cover. 
 In two instances nearly perfect examples of small Megalichthys 
 were found — about 12 inches in length. 
 
 " The amphibian remains were rare, and comprised portions of 
 the head, ribs, and vertebrae. 
 
 " With the exception of the Stigmarice, the plants were evidently 
 all of them drifted specimens, the Sigillarice being in some cases 
 encrusted with Spirorbis pusillus. Bather curiously, examples of 
 that usually rare species Cordaianihus (Antholites) Pitcairnim 
 occurred fully as often as any of the others. Ferns were never 
 found. The Stigmarice were always in the upper portion of the 
 seam and in the rhums above. They were not drifted specimens, 
 but with rootlets attached to the roots and spread out on each 
 side, as though having grown where found. In fact, they most 
 likely came down into the coal as roots of the Sigillaria or 
 other trees that existed during the deposition of the overlying 
 shales, and are thus not exactly contemporaneous with the 
 fossils associated with them." 
 
154 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 The Chemiss Coal has a thickness of nine feet, and lies between 
 a shale pavement and roof. It is now worked under the sea. 
 The level driven in it in the workings at Wemyss lies 90 fathoms 
 below high-water mark. At the Rosie Pit, half-way between East 
 Wemyss and Buckhaven, the seam was found at a depth of 98 
 fathoms, dipping towards E.S.E. at 10°. North of the Earl's Seat- 
 Buckhaven fault this seam is worked in the strip of ground that 
 intervenes between that dislocation and the Muiredge north fault 
 at depths of from 70 to 80 fathoms, and again to the north of the 
 last-named fault between Methilhill, where it crops out, and the sea. 
 This coal being now the chief workable seam in this part of 
 the field is locally known as the Main Coal. 
 
 From the shale forming the roof of the Chemiss Coal at 
 Muiredge Colliery, Buckhaven, Mr. Kirkby has collected 
 Alethopteris lonchitica, Sch.; Calamites, sp.; Lepidodendron 
 elegans, L. longifolium, Sternb.; Mariopteris muricata, forma nervosa, 
 Sch. (Spirorbis pusillus attached); Sphenopteris, sp. ; Trigono- 
 carpus, sp. 
 
 In the district around Leven the Chemiss or Main Coal is 
 succeeded (after an interval in which the Den Coal is represented) 
 by the Six-foot and Eight-foot seams, which no doubt 
 represent the Coxtool and Barncraig seams of the Dysart 
 district. These seams, together with the Chemiss, are worked 
 in the Methil Pit. Further on, about 300 yards to the north- 
 east of Kirkland Farm and 100 yards south of the Leven Road, 
 a sinking has been put down by the Fife Coal Company by 
 which the same three seams are worked. The Chemiss Coal is 
 there 144 fathoms below the surface. 
 
 The same seams crop out on the north side of the Leven 
 River between Kirkland and Banbeath, until they abut against 
 the large fault that strikes out to sea at Scoonie Links, and 
 has a throw of 130 fathoms. On the north side of that fault, 
 but at some distance eastward, their outcrops have again been 
 traced. At the Durie Colliery the Main Coal was found at 60 
 fathoms, the Six-foot seam at 33, and the Eight-foot at 28 
 fathoms. In the new Scoonie Pit, which is close to the first 
 milestone on the high road from Leven to St. Andrews, the 
 Chemiss seam lies at a depth of 99 fathoms. 
 
 From waste-heaps of the roof of the Six-foot or Upper 
 Coxtool Coal at the East Newton Pit, near East Wemyss, Mr. 
 Kirkby collected Alethopteris lonchitica, Lepidodendron longi- 
 folium, Sternb. ; Lepidostrobus, sp. (large) ; Mariopteris muricata, 
 Schl ; ditto var. nervosa ; Neuropteris auriculata, Brong. ; 
 Neuropteris, two species ; Eremopteris artemisicefolia, Sternb. ; 
 Sphenopteris latifolia, Brong. ; 8., sp. ; Sphenophyllum cuneifolium, 
 and other species. 
 
 The same diligent and accurate palaeontologist has obtained 
 from the roof of the Eight-foot Coal — consisting of dark shale and 
 ironstone bands — at the Durie and Leven Collieries, the following 
 series of organisms : — Oarbonicola (Anthracosia) acuta, Sow.; G. 
 
The Coal-measures. 155 
 
 aquilina, Sow.; Anthracomya Wardi, Salter ; Anihracoptera 
 cminata, Sow.; Megalichthys Hibberti, Ag. — scales and teeth ; 
 Strepsodus sauroides (Binney) — teeth; Carbonia fabulina, J. & K.; 
 Spirnrbis pusillus, Murch.; along with stray plant- remains. 
 
 In furnishing the Geological Survey with these lists Mr. Kirkby 
 accompanied them with the following notes on the mode of 
 occurrence of the fossils, and thus supplied information that could 
 only be obtained by an observer long resident on the ground : — 
 
 "The Garbonicolce (Anthracosice) and other shells occur in great 
 abundance at the last-named pits, as well as at others at West 
 Wemyss, East Wemyss, Muiredge, Denbeath, and Scoonie where 
 the coal (Eight-foot) is or has been wrought. They form, in fact, 
 a well-marked and constant horizon in the Pifeshire Coal-measures. 
 
 "The other coals worked in the Wemyss and adjoining coal-fields 
 have roofs either almost barren of fossils or contain only plant- 
 remains. Sometimes the latter fossils are fairly plentiful and well 
 preserved, though never constantly so, so as to characterise the 
 coal throughout its range. For instance, the roof of the Upper 
 Coxtool, at the East Newton Pit, was full of finely preserved ferns 
 and other plants, whereas further to the east, at the Muiredge and 
 the Leven Pits, where the same coal is now wrought under the 
 name of the Six-foot, there is not a fossil worth collecting. In the 
 same way there are areas in the shale forming the roof of the 
 Chemiss Coal at the Muiredge, Leven, and Durie Pits that are fairly 
 full of plants, though such are exceptional. The roof of the Wood 
 Coal contains good plants in moderate abundance at Pirnie Colliery, 
 along with numerous upright stools of trees — the ' pot-bottoms ' 
 of the colliers. In fact, plants in this district occur in much the 
 same partial way as in other coal-fields, being local in their distribu- 
 tion rather than persistent and general over wide areas, as in the 
 case of the ' mussel-bands ' of the Anthracosice and allied shells. 
 
 " Another well-marked horizon forming the roof of a coal is that 
 lying immediately above a thin seam (which is never wrought) high 
 in the series, and just below the base of the red beds. This shale 
 contains a suite of marine fossils belonging to Biscites, Bellerophon, 
 Murchisonia, Productus, Lingula, and other genera." This is the 
 horizon already referred to on p. 147 as containing marine shells. 
 It occurs at a height of 210 feet above the Barncraig Coal. It is a 
 carbonaceous black, brown, or rather purple shale, and encloses flat 
 concretions or galls of soft red ironstone which enclose well- 
 preserved Lingulce. Its outcrop may be seen on the beach a little to 
 the east of Wemyss Castle, also 500 yards to the north of East 
 Wemyss in the ravine known as Wemyss Den, which is the 
 channel of the Kingslaw Burn. The seam was passed though in 
 sinking the shaft of the Denbeath Colliery between Methil and 
 Buckhaven.* 
 
 It has already been mentioned that in the case of the Dysart 
 Main Coal a perceptible diminution of the coaly part of the seam, with 
 
 * For fuller details see Mr. Kirkby's paper already cited on p. 147. 
 
156 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 a corresponding increase in the accompanying partings of sedi- 
 mentary material, could be traced in the eastward extension of the 
 workings. But as the rocks have been followed still further in the 
 same direction a diminution in the thickness of the whole group of 
 strata has been ascertained. Thus near Wemyss the thickness of 
 measures lying between the Chemiss Coal and the base of the over- 
 lying red group is about 500 feet. At Muiredge, little more than a 
 mile to the east, this thickness has diminished to about 325 feet. 
 Still further towards the north-east, in the Leven section, it appears 
 to be not much more than 250 feet, while beyond that point it has 
 shrunk at Durie to only about 175 feet. That this diminution is 
 not due to any unconformability or overlap of the red upper 
 measures on the coal-bearing series is shown by measurements of 
 the thickness of strata between two such well-known seams as the 
 Chemiss and Eight-foot or Barncraig. This intercalated group of 
 sediments is about 230 feet thick at Wemyss. It gradually lessens 
 in the collieries lying to the east until at Durie it is only about 120 
 feet. 
 
 From the foregoing account it will be evident that while most of 
 the coal-field has been exhausted in those parts which have been 
 long worked, there is probably still a large tract of coal to be won 
 in the deeper portion of the field that lies towards the sea, north- 
 east of Dysart. All the coals, or at least the horizons they occupy, 
 run under the Firth of Forth, on the southern side of which they 
 reappear in the Midlothian Coal-field. Already they have been 
 followed under the sea. At West Wemyss the workings in the 
 Parrot Coal have been pushed more than half a mile from the 
 shore. "The Chemiss Coal," to quote from a statement supplied by 
 Mr. Kirkby, "is at present being worked beneath and beyond tide- 
 marks at the Rosie, Denbeath, and Leven Collieries. At the two 
 former, I understand, it is fairly good coal ; but at the latter nearly 
 all the dip workings are (and have been for years) in very foul stuff 
 — bits of stone where the coal should be, then a patch of coal, 
 perhaps full height, perhaps not, time after time : just as though a 
 very flat hitch, or a reverse fault, or a thrust on a large scale had 
 continued in the coal over a large area. And at the Durie Colliery, 
 further to the east, the same coal is found rising to the east 
 (instead of dipping), and so foul that it has never been worked." 
 
The Coal-measures, 157 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 The Coal-bea/rmg Group of the Coal-measures — continued. 
 
 ii. THE KINGLASSIE COAL-FIELD. 
 
 The structure of this field has long been difficult to understand. 
 The coals in it did not seem to fall into any recognisable associ- 
 ation with those of any other part of Fife, though, as the Carboni- 
 ferous Limestone series lies immediately to the north, they were 
 at one time supposed to belong to that division of the 
 Carboniferous system. There can be no doubt, however, that they 
 must be classed in the true Coal-measures. In recent years the 
 extent to which the district has been explored by boring has 
 thrown fresh light on its geological structure, and Mr. James 
 Grant Wilson, of the Geological Survey, has availed himself of 
 this fresh information to delineate the area as it is now represented 
 in the last edition of the Geological Survey Map (Sheet 40). 
 
 It will be seen from that map that the great fault which, coming 
 up from the Clackmannan Coal-field, runs across Fife and brings 
 the Carboniferous against the Old Red Sandstone rocks, either by 
 itself or by a subsidiary branch enters the Carboniferous region to 
 the south-east of Loch Leven and makes its way across to the sea 
 north of Leven. This great dislocation forms the northern 
 boundary of the Kinglassie field. As it proceeds eastwards it 
 almost cuts out the whole of the Coal-measures, so as to reach the 
 Millstone Grit. But a narrow strip of the upper series succeeds 
 in escaping westward by Inchdairnie and expands eventually into 
 a basin about 2£ miles long by a mile and half broad. It is this 
 basin which makes the Kinglassie field. 
 
 Until a few years ago coal-mining had not been carried on with 
 much energy, and for a while the only pit in operation ceased to be 
 used. Since that time the ground has been largely explored and 
 has been opened up to a considerable extent. The coal-seams of 
 the Dysart field have been found in it, though with such variations 
 in thickness and character and such differences in the nature and 
 depth of the intervening strata that identifications of the individual 
 seams with those of Dysart are perhaps somewhat doubtful. In 
 particular the sedimentary strata between the separate coals appear 
 to be much thinner than in the main coal-field. The following 
 succession has been ascertained to exist : — 
 
158 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 Strata 
 Coal 
 
 Strata 
 Coal 
 
 Strata 
 Coal 
 
 Strata 
 Coal 
 
 Strata 
 Coal 
 
 Strata 
 Coal 
 
 Strata 
 Coal 
 
 Strata 
 Coal 
 
 Strata 
 Black-band Ironstone 
 Coal 
 
 Strata 
 Coal 
 
 Strata 
 Coal 
 
 These coals are disposed in a synclinal trough which is truncated 
 on the north by the great fault. Its western lip begins about 500 
 yards to the west of the farm of Kinninmonth, whence it strikes 
 from the fault-boundary in a south-westerly direction to near 
 North Bogside, when it turns round under Boglochty and bends 
 northwards on the west side of Whinnyhall. There may possibly 
 be another smaller basin of coal in the same field, somewhere to the 
 south of Kinglassie. But the mineral capabilities of the ground 
 can only be determined by boring exploration. The high strati- 
 graphical position of the Coal-measures of this field is shown by 
 the occurrence of some of the red strata of the upper group, to 
 which further reference will be made on a later page. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Inches 
 
 3 
 
 - 
 
 100 
 
 - 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 170 
 
 - 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 18 
 
 - 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 54 
 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 120 
 
 - 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 30 
 
 - 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 15 . 
 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 150 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 90 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 II. Upper or Barren Eed Sandstone Group. 
 
 Throughout the central region of Scotland, wherever the highest 
 portion of the coal-bearing division of the Coal-measures is met 
 with, it is found to be covered with another group of strata, evidently 
 Carboniferous, for it contains the characteristic plants of the system. 
 In the south-western or Ayrshire district this higher group appears 
 to rest unconformably on the other Carboniferous formations. 
 But in Fife no such break has been traced. The group of red 
 strata follows on with apparently unbroken continuity upon the 
 top of the coal-bearing group, there being a perfect passage of the 
 one into the other. Again, in regard to this further portion of the 
 Carboniferous system, the coast-section of Fife stands conspicuous 
 above the other exposures of the same part of the system in Sco1> 
 land. For a distance of four miles along the shore from Wemyss 
 Castle to Leven the strata are displayed with hardly a gap in the 
 series, so that their minutest details from the bottom up to the 
 highest accessible members can be fully seen and studied. 
 
The Coal-measures. 159 
 
 It is well that so admirable a section should have been laid open, 
 for the group can be examined nowhere else in the whole district. 
 The map will show what a narrow strip is occupied by these red 
 measures. Had there been no faults the outcrop of these highest 
 Carboniferous strata might possibly have been laid open by the 
 streams, as has happened inland to the other divisions of the system. 
 But the effect of the dislocations is to shift the outcrop seaward by 
 successive steps, and thus to prevent the strata from ever getting 
 more than about half a mile from the coast-line. 
 
 The only inland locality where this group has been detected has 
 been already alluded to in connection with the Kinglassie field, in 
 which a small basin of the red sandstones and shales has been pre- 
 served. But even there only one trifling exposure of it has been 
 detected by Mr. Grant Wilson in a water-course. 
 
 The strata that compose this group consist of red, purple, grey, 
 yellow, white, and variegated sandstones, shales, clays, and marls, 
 with some thin limestones and poor coals. The bottom, passing 
 down into the lower group, crops out on the beach a few yards to the 
 east of the Lingula-shale. The lower red sandstones, full of false- 
 bedding and in places coarse and gritty, with quartz-pebbles, 
 extend for nearly two miles along the beach, the trend of which 
 nearly coincides with their strike. Beyond the Wemyss and 
 Buckhaven Gasworks a thick mass of red, purple, yellow, white, 
 and variegated clays comes in, followed by* the red and purple 
 sandstone of Buckhaven Harbour. Along the beach in front of 
 the village, another zone of similar clays and shales alternating with 
 sandstones is exposed. In its upper part it includes two seams of 
 ochre, which was formerly worked and shipped. These strata are 
 generally unfossiliferous, but Mr. Kirkby obtained remains of 
 Calamites from one of the shales. Beyond their outcrop further 
 sandstones, one of them a calcareous band, make their appearance, 
 and are eventually succeeded by two thin coals underlying red 
 sandstones. At this point the continuity of the section is broken 
 by the large fault already referred to as striking from Earl's Seat to 
 the coast at Broadhills Bocks. Several other faults cross the beach 
 to the north of Buckhaven Links, and the two thin coals can be 
 traced between them, the outcrops of these seams being successively 
 shifted seawards. At last, about 560 yards to the south-west of 
 Methil Harbour, the last fault is crossed and the regularity of the 
 section is resumed. The two coals, of which the lower is three to six 
 inches thick, and the upper from one to two inches, can now be traced 
 obliquely across the beach to high water-mark nearly as far as the 
 begining of the village. This platform is the most interesting in 
 the group, so far as regards fossils. While the whole succession of 
 strata is for the most part barren in organic remains, the series of 
 shales among which these coals lie, and which may have a total 
 thickness of about 70 feet, have been found by Mr. Kirkby to-con- 
 tain a number of vegetable and animal organisms. Among the 
 shales lie some thin bands of impure limestone and a seam of 
 reddle (keel) or haematite. 
 
160 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 Each of the impure coarse coal-seams rests on a fireclay full of 
 rootlets, and the upper seam passes seawards into black-band iron- 
 stone eight inches thick, with abundant valves of Leaia and other 
 entomostraca. The upper coal has a shale roof, from which Mr. 
 Kirkby obtained a cousiderable number of fossils, including several 
 fishes (Sphenacanthus, Biplodus, Gtenodus, Megalichthys, Strepsodus), 
 crustaceans (Bellinurus, Eurypterus, Prestwichia, Leaia, Garbonia), 
 molluscs represented by Anthracomya, and a number of plants 
 (Calamities Suckowii, Calamocladus equisetiformis, Cordaites, sp.; 
 Lepidodendron, sp.; Sigillaria camptotcenia, Trigonocarpus, Neuropteris 
 rarinervis, &c* 
 
 In a recent communication received from Mr. Kirkby he remarks 
 with reference to the circumstances in which he obtained this 
 remarkable assemblage of fossils : — "It is unfortunate that the 
 locality where these fossils were collected is virtually a lost one, 
 for the beds are now covered many feet deep with the spoil 
 excavated from the new dock at Methil, and standage sidings for 
 coals laid upon the new land thus made. The same strata are again 
 seen near the Broadhill Eocks, on the west side of the Buokhaven 
 Links fault, but less developed, and much less fossilferous." 
 
 Where the lower of the two seams of coal passes into black-band 
 ironstone it contains a number of entomostraca (Leaia Leidyi, 
 Garbonia, several species), also Spirorbis pusillus (carbonarius), 
 fish-remains, and stigmarian rootlets. The band of reddle is 
 composed of the entomostracan Garbonia, rankiniana, together 
 with occasional scales and spines of fishes. Below it lies a dark 
 shale full of fish-remains. 
 
 Above this fossiliferous platform comes another succession of red, 
 pink, purple, and greenish clays and shales, sometimes enclosing 
 remains of Neuropteris and other plants, and alternating with sand- 
 stones, which increase in proportion higher in the section until 
 they form almost the whole of the strata. The actual top of the 
 group is nowhere seen, having been removed by denudation. The 
 total visible thickness of the group cannot be much less than 
 1000 feet. 
 
 On the shore at Lundin Links the uppermost group of the 
 Carboniferous system is pierced by a volcanic neck, which proves 
 that eruptions took place after the Coal-measure period (p. 165). 
 
 In the Kinglassie field, the section, only some 200 yards in 
 length, which has been exposed in a small outlier of this group 
 between Kinninmonth and Redwalls, has been found by Mr. Grant 
 Wilson to expose red sandstones, red and variegated clays, and 
 thin limestone. The strata are said to include also a seam of blind 
 coal. 
 
 * See Mr. Kirkby's paper, from which these details are taken. The full list is given 
 in the Appendix to the present volume (p. 250). 
 
Intrusive Igneous Boohs in the Carboniferous System. 161 
 
 CHAPTEE XVI. 
 
 Intrusive Igneous Rocks in the Ca/rboniferous System. 
 
 In the account of the Lower Old Red Sandstone given in the 
 early part of this volume, the intrusive rocks, obviously forming 
 part of the volcanic history of that region, were referred to in 
 connection with the pile of andesitic lavas, tuffs, and volcanic 
 conglomerates which constitute so vast a proportion of this 
 division of the geological record in the Ochil Hills. Likewise in 
 the description of the Carboniferous volcanic district of Burnt- 
 island, the various intrusive sheets and bosses of that part of the 
 district were considered, together with the undoubtedly volcanic 
 rocks to the age of which they may reasonably be referred. But 
 there occur throughout the Carboniferous area of Central and 
 Western Fife numerous intrusive rocks the geological date of 
 which cannot be fixed further than that they must be younger 
 than the strata into which they have been injected. To these 
 rocks frequent allusion has had to be made in the preceding pages, 
 but a more special and detailed account of them must now be 
 given. Though almost entirely confined to the Carboniferous 
 region, they are not entirely so, for, as has been pointed out, the 
 Old Red Sandstone tract is traversed by a series of long dolerite 
 dykes. But these must almost certainly be much later than the 
 great mass of eruptive material that has invaded the Carboniferous 
 formations. They will be considered by themselves as probably 
 referable to the Tertiary system of dykes so abundantly developed 
 in Scotland. 
 
 We have seen that in the Carboniferous strata of Fife two 
 distinct series of igneous rocks occur, of which one was erupted 
 contemporaneously with the sedimentary strata among which its 
 members are intercalated, while the other has been intruded 
 subsequently to the deposition of these strata. Throughout the 
 foregoing chapters the former series has been taken together with 
 its including and associated strata, so that a continuous record 
 might be presented of the successive volcanic episodes in the 
 geological history of this region. If these episodes be now 
 arranged in stratigraphical sequence, it will be found that they 
 group themselves into the following volcanic periods : — 
 
 Coal-measures ... ... No contemporaneous volcanic rooks. 
 
 Millstone Grit ... ... Do. do. do. 
 
 Carboniferous Limestone Series — 
 
 c. Upper Limestone group ... Tuffs of East Grange, Saline Hills, Cow- 
 den Wood, Lochore House, Aithernie 
 Den (pp. 128, 133, 136, 141). 
 
162 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 b. Workable Coal group . . . No contemporaneous volcanic rocks in 
 
 Central and Western Fife. 
 
 a. Lower Limestone group ... Lavas and tuffs of Seafield, which are a 
 
 continuation of those in the Burdie 
 House Limestone group below (p. 74). 
 
 Calciferous Sandstone Series — 
 
 b. Burdie House Limestone group Almost entirely volcanic in the Burnt- 
 
 island district, not elsewhere in 
 this region (pp. 53-86). 
 a. Cement- stone group ... Volcanic tuffs of Cult Hill and George- 
 
 town Burn, a prolongation and 
 dying out eastward of the great 
 plateau - lavas and tuffs of the 
 Canrpsie Hills (p. 41). 
 
 The eruptions in the Cement-stone group belonged to a volcanic 
 centre lying among the Campsie Hills, far to the west of our 
 region. Those in the Burdie House Limestone group began 
 not long after that limestone was deposited at Burntisland, and 
 continued with great vigour there until after the earlier of the 
 marine limestones of the Carboniferous Limestone series were laid 
 down. They discharged more lava than tuff, and continued 
 intermittently active until they had piled up a succession of 
 volcanic sheets to a depth of from 1500 to 2000 feet. There was 
 then a protracted pause. In the long stretch of coal-field from 
 Kirkcaldy westwards by Cardenden, Lochgelly, Loch Fitty, Kelty, 
 Dunfermline, and Torryburn there is no evidence of any interrup- 
 tion of the coal-growths by volcanic action, though indications of 
 such interruption appear to exist in Eastern Fife. But once more 
 during the time of the Upper Limestone group the subterranean 
 forces broke forth, though with rather less intensity. This time 
 they discharged far more tuff than lava. They piled up the thick 
 tuffs around the Saline Hills and the thinner prolongations towards 
 the east. After these later eruptions, which seem to have ceased 
 before the time of the uppermost or Levenseat Limestone, volcanic 
 activity appears to have remained quiescent during the rest of the 
 Carboniferous period. 
 
 In the present chapter we shall consider those igneous rocks 
 in the Carboniferous system of Central and Western Fife regarding 
 the age of which it is impossible to attain certainty. They are 
 intrusive, and therefore necessarily younger than the rocks which 
 they traverse. They embrace two distinct types that differ from 
 each other greatly in structure, and probably also in age. One of 
 these types is that of the Volcanic Necks, and the other that of the 
 Sills, Bosses, and Dykes. 
 
 i. VOLCANIC NECKS. 
 
 Under this term are comprised the orifices from which volcanic 
 discharges have taken place, and which are now filled up with some 
 variety of rock, almost always of volcanic nature. The county of 
 Fife is one of the best districts in the British Isles for the study of 
 this variety of geological structure, inasmuch as the number of 
 
Intrusive Igneous Rocks in the Carboniferous System. 163 
 
 necks there preserved probably exceeds a hundred. Some examples 
 have already been referred to in Chapter VII. in connection with 
 the volcanic history of the Burntisland district, but a more 
 systematic account of this type of geological structure has been 
 reserved for the present chapter, more especially with reference to 
 the evidence which it furnishes of a volcanic series later than the 
 Carboniferous period. 
 
 The general type will be understood if the necks are conceived as 
 having been originally funnels, pipes, or chimneys which have been 
 blown out of the earth's crust by volcanic explosions. In ground- 
 plan they are circular, elliptical, or irregular. Not infrequently they 
 coalesce as if two vents had adjoined, or as if a vent had slightly 
 shifted its position. They vary in size from a diameter of only a few 
 yards up to half a mile or more. 
 
 In accordance with the material which has solidified in the funnels 
 the necks may be arranged in the following groups : — 
 
 1. Those in which the vent has been filled in chiefly, or entirely, 
 with non-volcanic material. 
 
 2. Those in which the vent has been filled entirely with tuff or 
 agglomerate. 
 
 3. Those in which molten lava rising in the chimney has 
 penetrated the tuff or agglomerate in dykes, or as a plug. 
 
 4. Those in which the fragmental material, if it ever filled the 
 vent, has been blown out and a column of basalt or other lava has 
 solidified in the pipe. 
 
 Examples of each of these four types may be found in the county 
 of Fife. In the first type, we have a spiracle or blow-hole made by 
 the convulsive discharge of volcanic vapours, without the expulsion 
 of ashes and stones, or at least with so little as to be hardly 
 appreciable. The interesting vent at East Grange described on 
 p. 137 is a good illustration. 
 
 The second type is exhibited in most of the smaller necks, and 
 even in some of large size. As examples may be cited the small 
 vents at Berrylaw, Cowdenend, Kingswood Cottage, near Burnt- 
 island, and Kennoway Den. 
 
 The third type includes the more important vents of the district, 
 and indicates a more energetic exhibition of volcanic activity, when 
 not merely ashes and stones were ejected, but when lava rose and 
 eventually solidified in fissures of the fragmentary material within 
 the funnel. The most perfect illustration of this structure is 
 presented by the Binn of Burntisland, which has been described in 
 Chapter VII. Other examples are the Saline Hills (Fig. 26), Hill 
 of Beath, and Longside Hill, to the north-west of Kennoway, where 
 the basalt shows beautiful columnar structure. Another example is 
 probably supplied by the mass of tuff which has been discovered in 
 the course of some boring operations at Letham, nearly two miles 
 to the north-east of Kennoway. The mass, more than 3000 feet 
 broad, as shown on the map, contains what appears to be the true 
 neck of a vent, for while it is surrounded with sandstones which 
 
164 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 crop out at the surface, -a bore was put down inside the volcanic 
 boundary to a depth of nearly 300 feet, and passed only through 
 tuff. Abundant pieces of basalt gathered from the surface point to 
 the existence of one or more plugs or dykes of material in the 
 vent. This ground was examined and mapped by Mr. J. S. Grant 
 Wilson, who examined the cores of the borings, and has stipplied 
 the information here given. 
 
 The fourth type is the least easy of all to discriminate satis- 
 factorily, for a difficulty must obviously arise in distinguishing 
 between a boss which never communicated with the surface and one 
 which was actually formed by the solidification of molten material 
 within a volcanic pipe. Indeed, unless some remains of the 
 fragmentary discharges have been left, either along the walls of the 
 chimney or around it outside, there may be no possibility of satis- 
 factorily determining whether or not a given mass of basalt marks 
 a true volcanic orifice, or has been injected independent of any 
 superficial volcanic manifestation. A number of isolated basalt 
 bosses in Central and Western Fife may thus be necks, though this 
 origin for them cannot be proved. Probably some of the basalt 
 eminences that rise amid the tuffs around Dunearn do really indicate 
 the position of orifices connected with the eruptions of the Burnt- 
 island volcanic area. 
 
 While in the account given in Chapters VI. and VII. of the 
 interstratified or contemporaneous volcanic rocks of the Burdie 
 House Limestone group, it was convenient to take notice of the 
 probable vents from which these rocks were discharged, 
 a place must now be found for a number of necks about the 
 age of which no such presumptive evidence of the period of the 
 eruptions is to be obtained. They have risen through the Car- 
 boniferous system, and all that can be affirmed about their date 
 is that they must obviously in each case be later than the particular 
 subdivisions of that system in which they are found. Even when 
 they rise at some distance from any of the Carboniferous lavas or 
 tuffs, they may in some cases be associated with more or less 
 confidence with these volcanic zones. Those which pierce the coal- 
 bearing strata of the Dunfermline Coal-field, for example, cannot 
 be so old as the Burntisland lavas and tuffs, but not improbably 
 may belong to the volcanic eruptions of the Upper Limestones. 
 On the other hand, there is no absolute proof that they may not 
 be of a much younger date. 
 
 That volcanic action in this region did not finally cease with the 
 eruption of the tuffs intercalated among the higher limestones is 
 made quite certain by some of the necks now to be considered. 
 But no interstratified lava or tuff has yet been detected above these 
 limestones in any part of the Carboniferous system of Central and 
 Western Fife. So far as the Carboniferous record of volcanic 
 activity goes, it must in the meantime be regarded as having been 
 definitely closed before the 'end of the Carboniferous Limestone 
 period. 
 
 But there are some vents that mark the renewal of the eruptions 
 
Intrusive Igneous Rocks in the Carboniferous System. 165 
 
 at one or more periods long subsequent.* One of these was de- 
 tected by Mr. James Bennie and mapped by Mr. Grant Wilson. It 
 rises through the Millstone Grit near Kennoway, where, as 
 already mentioned, the coarse pebbly sandstones of that subdivision 
 are well seen in the ravine called Kennoway Den, dipping towards 
 S.S.E. (p. 144). At the south end of the village, below the school, 
 they are pierced by a neck of dull green agglomerate. The rela- 
 tions of this mass to the surrounding strata are only partially 
 visible, but the neck must be at least 100 yards in diameter. 
 Among its component lava-fragments, pieces of finely vesicular basic 
 pumice may be detected. It has enclosed some large masses of 
 black shale and thin coal, one of which may be traced for several 
 yards as a continuous layer in the volcanic rock. These portions 
 of the neighbouring sedimentary rocks may possibly have fallen in 
 from a higher part of the vent. The sandstones on the south 
 side have been much disturbed. It may be added that among the 
 fragments imbedded in this agglomerate, carbonised coniferous 
 wood has been detected. Such fragments are of frequent occurrence 
 in the volcanic vents of Fife and the Lothians. 
 
 Still more striking is the evidence supplied on the shore at 
 Lundin Links (Sheet 41). Immediately to the west of the village 
 the very highest portion of the Coal-measures of Fife, that is the 
 red and purple sandstones and shales of the Methil shore, 
 described on p. 159, are pierced by a volcanic neck which 
 is well exposed on the beach. It is approximately circular 
 in form, and has a diameter of about 170 yards. Round 
 this vent, as may usually be observed when such good sections of 
 the margin are accessible, the strata are much broken and 
 indurated, and have been made to dip sharply into the sides of the 
 neck, though their general inclination is eastwards at 10°-15°. 
 The material of the vent consists in large measure of the debris of 
 the surrounding and underlying red sandstones, clays, and shales. 
 These materials are specially abundant towards the walls of the 
 vent, and may indicate the first gaseous explosions by which the 
 volcanic chimney was drilled to the surface. The later discharges, 
 when lava had risen some way up in the pipe and had been blown 
 into dust and lapilli, may be represented by the pale green fine- 
 grained tuff which fills up the centre, and is full of fragments of 
 altered shales and sandstones. Some of the latter have been indu- 
 rated into quartzite. Through these various fragmentary mateiials 
 veins of a compact flinty basalt have risen, which pass into a black 
 basalt-glass. These veins, however, have not been confined to the 
 neck, but may be seen traversing the strata around it, and 
 indurating them. The shales have been hardened into a porcellanite, 
 and the sandstones into quartzite. 
 
 This neck lies properly in the eastern division of Fife, and will 
 be more specially referred to in the Memoir on that part of the 
 
 * A neck of tuff is said to have been encountered in digging the foundations for the 
 
 fasometer at Kirkcaldy. This position is among the lower coals above the Hosie 
 limestones. 
 
1 66 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 county. It is cited here on account of the importance of its 
 evidence in regard to the volcanic history not only of Fife, but of 
 Central Scotland as a whole. The great value of its testimony 
 will be at once recognised from the fact that it has been blown 
 through the very uppermost part of the upper division or barren 
 red group of the Coal-measures. It demonstrates that volcanic 
 action was manifested here at some time later, and possibly much 
 later, than that in which these Coal-measure strata were deposited. 
 Neither in this instance nor in that of the little vent at Kennoway 
 have any tuffs or lavas survived that were discharged over the 
 surface, so that no evidence remains that will serve to fix the 
 date of the eruptions. But if one of the necks can thus be proved 
 to be later than Coal-measure time it is obviously quite possible 
 that some of the others which stand equally detached may belong 
 to the same period, even though they only pierce the Car- 
 boniferous Limestone series. A large number of vents is scattered 
 all over the east of Fife from Largo to St. Andrews, drilled through 
 the Calciferous Sandstone and the Carboniferous Limestone series. 
 These do not come into the district described in this volume, and, 
 as they will be fully described in the Memoir of Eastern Fife, 
 further reference to them need not be inserted here. They form a 
 remarkably interesting assemblage, and though their geological 
 age cannot be absolutely determined, plausible arguments may be 
 assigned for regarding at least some of them as not improbably 
 belonging to the Permian volcanic period, when so much subter- 
 ranean activity was manifested in the south-west of Scotland.* 
 
 ii. SILLS AND BOSSES. 
 
 By far the largest proportion of intrusive igneous rocks in the 
 Carboniferous region of Fife consists of sills and bosses of dolerite 
 and basalt. 
 
 A Sill, as already explained, is a mass of molten material which 
 has been injected between the bedding-planes of strata, and has 
 solidified there as a bed or sheet. A Boss is the top of a column or 
 irregular mass of igneous material which descends from the 
 surface into the interior of the earth's crust. Where an intrusive 
 mass has accumulated above the platform on which it rests so as 
 to form a dome, and sometimes to ridge up the superincumbent 
 strata as an overlying mantle, it is known as a Laccolite. When 
 denudation removes the mantle but does not reveal the underlying 
 platform, it is not possible to discriminate between a laccolite and 
 a boss. Many bosses, if we could see beneath them, might be 
 found to possess a laccolitic structure. It is often difficult also, or 
 impossible, to distinguish bosses from sills where only surface 
 indications are available. A sill may often be such a short thick 
 (laccolitic) cake, or may be so reduced at the surface, that it looks 
 like a true boss Though the two types may be differentiated in 
 theory, they may obviously pass into each other ; and every sill must 
 
 * See Ancient Volcanoes of Britain, Vol. II., Chap. XXXT. 
 
Intrusive Igneous Rocks in the Ca/rboniferous System. 167 
 
 have been connected with some boss or dyke that supplied its 
 material. 
 
 Sills vary indefinitely in thickness and extent. Examples will 
 be found in the present region of this wide diversity. Thus, from 
 the limestone quarry of Dodhead, near Burntisland, a sill has 
 already been cited (p. 84 and Fig. 16) only a few inches thick, 
 which has been thrust so regularly along the stratification of the 
 shales that it might at first sight be mistaken for a seam of 
 sandstone. From this minute scale we may trace the same 
 phenomena in every degree of magnitude up to sheets that must 
 be several hundred feet thick, and, like those of the Lomond Hills, 
 may extend over many square miles. 
 
 Sills are sometimes so regularly intercalated that their really 
 intrusive origin might not at first be apparent to the casual 
 observer. Such interstratified sheets are not unfamiliar to the 
 miners among the coal-fields of Fife, who know them by the name 
 of " whin-floats " or " floating whin." An attentive examination of 
 them will often enable the observer to detect evidence of their true 
 intrusive nature. In the first place, he will notice that the strata 
 in contact with them are generally more or less hardened and even 
 baked. Shales have been converted into a flinty jasper-Hke 
 substance, while sandstones have been changed into quartzite. 
 Still more marked is the alteration superinduced upon carbonaceous 
 strata, more particularly upon seams of coal. These may be found 
 in the state of " blind coal " or anthracite, or burnt into a mere 
 cinder or soot. The distance to which the effects reach seems 
 to vary within wide limits and under conditions not yet well 
 understood. Much would obviously depend upon the size of 
 the mass of invading lava. A thick sheet would no doubt alter 
 the strata more and to a greater distance than a thin sheet. 
 But there may have been circumstances connected with the 
 temperature, percentage of dissolved water-vapour, and other 
 conditions of the intruded material that had a powerful influence 
 on the nature and extent of the metamorphism. 
 
 Reference has already been made to the remarkable altera- 
 tion induced in basic igneous rocks, such as basalt, when they 
 have come in contact with coal or carbonaceous shale. They 
 then lose their dark colour and compact texture, and pass into 
 a kind of pale clay known as " white trap." Yet even in the 
 bleached, hydrated, and carbonated material, the decayed felspars 
 may be recognised still in their original positions. Another 
 change undergone by intrusive igneous rocks has been caused 
 by their rapid cooling next the chill rocks with which they 
 have come in contact. They present there a close-grained or 
 chilled edge which is thoroughly characteristic and quite different 
 from the rugged slaggy top and bottom of a lava poured out 
 at the surface. 
 
 Again, the intrusive character of the sills may often be 
 detected by their cutting through the strata among which they 
 have been injected. In the case of the little sill at the Dodhead 
 
168 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 Quarry (Fig. 16), it may be seen to form part of a vein which 
 has risen from below and has then spread out between the 
 layers of shale. Other examples of this structure have been 
 cited in previous pages (see Figs. 15, 17, 20, 23, 24, and 25), 
 and innumerable further illustrations might be gathered from 
 all parts of Fife. Even where no actual sections can be seen 
 that show the transgression of the igneous material across the 
 bedding of the stratified rock, we can often be quite certain 
 of such transgression by observing that a sill varies its horizon, 
 either rising or descending so as to cut across strata, and then 
 to run on upon a higher or lower platform than before (see Figs. 15 
 17, and 25). Good examples of this habit are to be met with in 
 the great sills of the Lomond Hills. 
 
 It is obvious that sills do not in themselves supply evidence of 
 the geological epoch of their intrusion. If our knowledge of 
 igneous rocks were so minute as to enable us to decide their age 
 by special characters of structure or composition, we might be able 
 to use these characters, as we do fossils, to determine the dates of 
 successive igneous protrusions. But no such convenient and 
 generally applicable method of chronological classification has yet 
 been discovered. All that in the meantime can be asserted in 
 regard to the geological date of intrusive igneous rocks is that they 
 must be later than the rocks through which they have risen. 
 There may be grounds from other evidence, such, for instance, as 
 the petrographical characters of an associated volcanic series the 
 age of which is known, to assign some more or less definite 
 geological date to intrusive masses, but in the present state of 
 science this can hardly be done merely from the evidence furnished 
 by the intrusive rocks themselves. We shall return to this question 
 in connection with a consideration of the various platforms on 
 which the Fife sills have been intruded. 
 
 The sills in the region with which this volume deals consist 
 either of somewhat coarsely crystalline dolerite (" greenstone ") or 
 of some form of basalt. Their general petrographical characters 
 have already been described (p. 81). As they appear at the 
 surface, they usually form hummocky eminences on which the 
 naked brown decomposing rock protrudes, and which are separated 
 by grassy slopes and hollows. At their edges, where the strata 
 underneath them come to the surface, they not infrequently form 
 escarpments or lines of cliff. The great rocky scarps of the 
 Lomond and Benarty sills are the finest examples of this structure 
 in the district. But many others on a smaller scale might be cited 
 from the ground to the north-west of Kirkcaldy, from Auchter- 
 derran, and from the Oleish Hills. 
 
 On examination of the map (Sheet 40) it will be found that the 
 sills are distributed in two belts or bands which run parallel with 
 each other in a general north-easterly direction. The more 
 southerly of these bands belongs to the Burntisland district, and 
 has already been considered in Chapter VII., together with the 
 volcanic rocks of that part of Fife. The other or northerly 
 
Intrusive Igneous Rocks in the Carboniferous System. 169 
 
 tract is of much greater extent and importance. What is seen of 
 it in Central and Western Fife is only a part of a far larger band 
 of sills, for it stretches to near St. Andrews on the one side and 
 into the Clackmannan coal-field on the other. Far beyond the 
 limits of that coal-field it reappears at Stirling and sweeps west- 
 ward by the southern side of the Campsie Hills. In a more broken 
 line it can be traced beyond Glasgow into Eenfrewshire. 
 
 Throughout this strip of country for a length of nearly 80 miles 
 htindreds of sills have been injected into the Carboniferous forma- 
 tions, more particularly about the base of the Carboniferous Lime- 
 stone series. The broadest part of the belt lies in Fife, and there 
 perhaps the phenomena of sills can be most fully studied. The 
 thickest and broadest development of the intruded material is to be 
 seen in the area of the Lomond Hills. Two sills have there been 
 thrust between the strata near the base of the Carboniferous Lime- 
 stone series. Bach of them varies in thickness, but their average 
 dimensions may range between 250 and 300 feet. Owing to extensive 
 
 ' Fig. 29. — Section across the West Lomond Hill to show the intrusive nature 
 
 of the Dolerite Sills. 
 
 1. Upper Old Red Sandstone. 2. Calciferous Sandstone series. 3. Hurlet 
 
 Limestone. 4. Lower sill. 5. Upper sill. 
 
 denudation, the upper sheet has been much reduced and now forms 
 the capping which crowns the summits of the Bast and West 
 Lomonds. The lower sill covers a larger area and has protected 
 the limestone and shale below it, which crop out from under its 
 escarpment. In following that escarpment we may convince our- 
 selves that although the igneous rock looks at first as if it were 
 regularly bedded with the strata among which it lies, it neverthe- 
 less gradually passes from one stratigraphical platform to another 
 (Fig. 29). Thus, on the northern front of the West Lomond, its 
 base gradually descends, cutting out successively the black shales 
 and sandstones between the Hurlet Limestone and a higher lime- 
 stone seam, then the Hurlet Limestone itself, and then a part of 
 the shales underneath that seam. It then gradually ascends again 
 until it regains its previous horizon. On the Bishop Hill it some- 
 what undulates in its stratigraphical level, but towards the south 
 end of the ridge it quickly cuts out the strata overlying the lime- 
 stone and then still more quickly mounts to a higher platform 
 above a limestone that overlies the Hurlet seam. The great 
 Benarty sill, which lies about three miles to the south-west, is 
 probably a continuation of the Lomond sheet, but it descends to 
 a still lower platform, for it has invaded the Calciferous Sandstones 
 near their bottom and actually crosses the basement cornstone so 
 as at last to lie upon the Upper Old Bed Sandstone. 
 
170 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 It is seldom possible to detect the dyke or pipe up which the 
 material of the sills rose. Not improbably some of the isolated 
 bosses that lie around the sills may mark the sites of such 
 channels of supply. There is no system of dykes in connection 
 with the sills, so that it may be inferred that they were injected 
 from orifices or chimneys like those of the necks, rather than from 
 fissures. Still there may be dykes as well as neck-like columns of 
 dolerite or basalt concealed underneath the sills themselves. 
 
 The extravasation of such an enormous volume of molten material 
 is one of the most striking as well as one of the most difficult pro- 
 blems in Scottish geology. The vertical thickness of the successive 
 sills on different horizons, if they could be placed one above another, 
 would amountto several thousandfeet. In theLomonds alone the two 
 sills make a combined mass some 500 or 600 feet thick. It is difficult 
 to realise the mechanical process by which such prodigious quan- 
 tities of molten rock were thrust between the planes of the strata 
 over such wide areas, and under the pressure of so thick an over- 
 lying mass of the terrestrial crust. Was this process part of a 
 volcanic episode ? If so, were any lavas and tuffs then emitted ? 
 No evidence has yet been forthcoming satisfactorily to connect the 
 great belts of sills with any volcanic action in the geological 
 history of the country. Then arises the question as to the time 
 when the sills were injected. Do they all belong to one period or 
 were there successive epochs of intrusion ? 
 
 In considering the question of the date of the sills we have first 
 to take note of the stratigraphical position of the formations into 
 which they have been introduced. It will be noticed that none 
 appear in the Old Red Sandstone, with the exception of the end 
 of the Benarty mass above referred to. Yet we know that every 
 one of them must be connected with a channel of communication, 
 which in providing a passage for their material, necessarily came 
 through the Old Eed Sandstone as well as all other rocks of the 
 district which underlie the Carboniferous formations. As above 
 mentioned, the sills are most numerous and thickest in the lower 
 part of the Carboniferous Limestone series, which seems to have 
 been a favourable horizon for them all the way from St. Andrews 
 to the hills of Renfrewshire. But they are not equally developed 
 in all the districts where that portion of the Carboniferous system 
 is displayed. Though not confined to the northern belt they are 
 chiefly displayed there, while the same formations a few miles to 
 the south are almost free of them. 
 
 If, however, we examine that northern belt a little more 
 attentively we shall find that the sills are far from being confined 
 within any narrow stratigraphical limits in the Carboniferous 
 system. They invade every group of strata successively from the 
 very base of the Calciferous Sandstones up to the, top of the Upper 
 Limestone group. Not only so, but they ascend into the higher 
 subdivisions of the system. At Auchterderran and Marlrinch they 
 come through the Millstone Grit. The Coal-measures in the 
 Dysart field are singularly free from them. This area, indeed, is 
 
Intrusive Igneous Rocks in the Carboniferous System. 171 
 
 the largest extent of Carboniferous strata in Fife which has escaped 
 invasion by intrusive sheets of dolerite or basalt. Had no other 
 evidence been forthcoming an inference might have been drawn 
 from the negative testimony of the Dysart field that the injection 
 of the sills took place prior to the Coal-measure period. But that 
 such an inference would have been fallacious is clearly shown by 
 that portion of the Coal-measures which lies to the west of the 
 anticline and*expands into the Kinglassie coal-field. There the 
 strata come within the belt of sills and have been pierced by the 
 eruptive material of which at least half a dozen different intrusions 
 have been observed. 
 
 There is, of course, no proof that all the sills belong to one period 
 of injection. Those in the Burntisland district and to the north- 
 west of Kirkcaldy may not improbably have been connected with 
 the volcanic phenomena of the time of the Calciferous Sandstones. 
 Others may have formed part of the long and vigorous eruptions 
 of the Carboniferous Limestone period. But having found no 
 means of discriminating them, we must in the meantime leave the 
 question of their age undetermined. 
 
 While there can be no doubt that some of them are later than the 
 Coal-measures, it by no means follows that only those are so recent 
 which actually pierce Coal-measure strata. It is possible that 
 many others belong to the same late period. This problem, how- 
 ever, is too wide to be adequately discussed here. It involves a 
 consideration of the whole evidence of the intrusive sheets of the 
 Scottish Coal-measures, and of the proofs of volcanic activity in the 
 country subsequent to the Carboniferous period. 
 
 With regard to the Bosses of the district, perhaps enough has 
 already been said about them in connection with the necks and 
 sills. Some of the eminences of igneous rock which look like 
 bosses may, as has already been explained, be small or denuded 
 sills. Thus the two conical knobs that form the summits of the 
 Bast and West Lomond Hills, though they might be taken at a 
 little distance for obvious bosses, are nevertheless only portions of 
 sills which have been reduced by denudation to mere outliers 
 (Fig. 29). Of the true bosses, some, as we have seen, may mark 
 the sites of the funnels up which the material rose that formed the 
 neighbouring sills. Such, possibly, is the history of a few of those 
 in the districts of the Cleish Hills and of Kinglassie. Others, again, 
 are more probably connected with volcanic action and may mark 
 the positions of true vents, as above mentioned. Of these the 
 Burntisland district perhaps supplies a few instances. 
 
 iii. DYKES. 
 
 In previous pages reference has been made to various dykes and 
 veins of intrusive material which rise through the Carboniferous 
 system. They are specially abundant in the necks of tuff. Admir- 
 able examples of them have been cited in Chapter VII. from the great 
 precipices of the Binn of Burntisland. These, there can be little 
 
172 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 doubt, belong to the vents themselves and form part of the volcanic 
 history of each orifice. With the exception of such cases, and a few 
 thin veins sometimes connected with sills in the Burntisland district 
 (Fig. 18), there are hardly any dykes to be seen in the Carboni- 
 ferous region of Central and Western Fife. The most important 
 of them, that of St. David's, has already been described in connec- 
 tion with the volcanic rocks' of the Burntisland district. But it 
 differs so much from the other forms assumed by the igneous rocks 
 around it that it may possibly belong to a much later series of 
 dykes of which some account will now be given. 
 
 One of the most remarkable features in the geological structure 
 of the southern half of Scotland is the number of parallel dykes of 
 dolerite, basalt, or andesite, which run across the country in an east 
 and west or south-east and north-west direction. These dykes are 
 not all of precisely the same age, for some are found to intersect 
 others. Such intersection is of course quite compatible with the idea 
 that the the whole assemblage of them belongs to a single geological 
 period, during which the uprise of molten material in fissures took 
 place at various intervals. On the other hand, a long succession of 
 geological periods may possibly have intervened between the 
 production of the earliest and the latest dykes. Of the date of the 
 earliest we know nothing definite, but that of the latest series can 
 be more precisely fixed, for these dykes cross all the formations that 
 lie in their way and traverse even the most gigantic faults without 
 deviation. Beginning in the north of England, where they traverse 
 the Jurassic rocks, they increase in development north-westward, 
 and attain their greatest number among the Tertiary volcanic 
 plateaux of the Inner Hebrides. It is now generally agreed that 
 this system of dykes belongs to the history of these plateaux, and 
 dates from older Tertiary time. At least four examples of dykes 
 which may probably belong to this late series come into the region 
 described in this volume. They will be seen to be confined to the 
 area of the Ochil Hills, unless the St. David's Dyke, just referred 
 to, be included among them. 
 
 The most southerly of the number may be traced along the 
 southern slopes of the hills, from Dochrie in an E.N.B. direction to 
 Tilliery Hill at a height of 1080 feet. It is then lost for a little 
 more than a mile, either because the igneous rock does not there 
 rise to the surface, or because it is concealed under the drift 
 deposits of the intervening valley. We catch it up again on the 
 east side of Langside Plantation, and can follow it by the farm of 
 Carmore, where it crosses into a bay of the Upper Old Red Sand- 
 stone. Holding still along the same straight line it runs for more 
 than 11 miles into the hills beyond Auchtermuchty. But it 
 stretches much further than the limits of the present map, for it 
 extends to Balgarvie, near Cupar, and it is not improbably 
 continued in the conspicuous dyke of Strathkinness and Kinkell, 
 near St. Andrews — a total length of more than 30 miles. 
 
 The second example is much shorter and does not run quite in 
 the same direction. It is exposed in quarries on either side of the 
 
Intrusive Igneous Rocks in the Carboniferous System. 173 
 
 road south of Damhead, Glen Farg, and can be followed for five 
 miles in a slightly sinuous line nearly due west to Auchtenny 
 Wood. A few small dykes of dolerite, not impossibly connected 
 with this member of the series, may be observed in the ground on 
 either side of it. Such subsidiary dykes along the course of a 
 main one are not infrequent in the Tertiary dyke-system. 
 
 The third dyke .runs for a mile and a half through the tuffs and 
 lavas of the hills on the north side of the Water of May above Path 
 of Condie, and strikes a little south of west. 
 
 Two dykes cross the line of the Dunning road on the north and 
 south sides of Cockersfauld. The more northerly of these is here 
 much more persistent than its neighbour, for it has been followed 
 for about seven miles from Barnhill on the Water of May to the 
 Pairney Burn, south-east of Auchterarder, following a direction 
 from a little north of east to a little south of west. 
 On the same line of strike what is not improbably a continua- 
 tion of the same dyke is well seen in a large quarry close 
 to the Auchterarder Station of the Caledonian Railway. The 
 central portion of this dyke, as there displayed, is a coarsely 
 crystalline olivine-dolerite with sub-ophitic structure, but towards 
 the margin the rock becomes much closer-grained, and finally 
 passes into a selvage of black basalt-glass, which is 1"5 centimetre 
 broad. Inside this selvage the rock is distinctly micro-crystalline, 
 and rapidly assumes its ordinary coarsely granular texture. 
 
 The more southerly and apparently less important dyke of 
 Cockersfauld cannot be so continuously traced for some distance to 
 the west, but a little further in that direction (in Sheet 39) what 
 may be the same dyke has been followed for a length of nearly two 
 miles. It is not impossible, however, that though their prolonga- 
 tion has not been detected at the surface, one at least of these two 
 dykes may have a much longer course, for some five or six miles 
 beyond the point to which it has been mapped a similar dyke 
 begins on the west side of the Tullibardine Wood and runs west- 
 ward for at least nine miles. 
 
 Still more remarkable is the persistence of a third dyke which 
 also crosses the Dunning Burn immediately above Pitincailow, but 
 has not been detected further east. From this point, however, with 
 occasional intervals of space where it is lost, it may be detected in 
 many natural and artificial openings westward through the peat- 
 covered hills above the Braes of Doune (Sheet 39), across Uam Var 
 and the great Highland fault into the Highland schists to the 
 north of Callander. It then turns south-westward among these 
 ancient crystalline rocks, crosses the Pass of Leny, likewise Lochs 
 Vennachar, Ard, and Lomond. Thereafter climbing the lofty 
 ridge north of Luss, it descends into Loch Long, reappears on the 
 further side of that fjord, traverses Glen Finart and Loch Bck, and 
 only ceases to be recognisable among the hills of Cowal. Its 
 total traceable length is thus between 60 and 70 miles. 
 
174 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 CHAPTEE XVII. 
 
 Faults. 
 
 The more important faults and their effects on the geological 
 structure of the region have been described in the previous pages, 
 but some generalised account of the dislocations may be of service 
 here. 
 
 At first it might seem as if no system could be made out of the 
 faults ; they appear to run in all directions. Yet a little attention 
 will show that this confusion is more in appearance than in reality. 
 
 The first impression on the mind of anyone who looks over the 
 map will probably be that the Carboniferous district has been far 
 more dislocated than that of the Old "Red Sandstone, and that of 
 the whole Carboniferous fields those containing the workable coals 
 have suffered far more than the rest. Yet such an impression 
 would on further consideration be found to have no adequate founda- 
 tion. The faults represented on the map are those which have 
 been ascertained to exist. The great majority of them make no 
 sign at the surface, but on the contrary are concealed under the 
 widespread accumulation of superficial deposits by which the rocks 
 below are so generally hidden from view. They have been 
 detected in the underground workings of the coal-pits. If there 
 had been any similar subterranean explorations in the Old Red 
 Sandstone, we should doubtless have found that region just as much 
 faulted as the coal-fields. 
 
 It is certainly noticeable that those portions of the coal-fields 
 which have been equally well explored are not all dislocated to the 
 same extent. The Kelty coal-field, for instance, has to a large extent 
 escaped the fracturing which has befallen the neighbouring fields, 
 though even there faults occur, and these include at least one case 
 of a thrust or reversed fault. Again, the southern half of the 
 Dysart field, though traversed by some large faults, has not been 
 sliced into strips as the northern half has been, or as the group of 
 lower coals between Cardenden and Carnock. 
 
 The great faults that have so largely determined the geological 
 structure of Scotland have followed a general north-easterly trend, 
 sometimes veering rather more to north and south, and sometimes 
 more to east and west. The course of the two great lines of dis- 
 location that have defined the limits of the Midland Valley are 
 examples of this north-easterly strike. From Stonehaven to the 
 Clyde the fault that separates the crystalline schists on the one side 
 from the Old Red Sandstone on the other marks out at the same 
 
Faults. 175 
 
 time the boundary between Highlands and Lowlands. One of 
 the dominant lines of dislocation which, by bringing two forma- 
 tions together, define the limits of two types of scenery, has been 
 already described as crossing the breadth of Fife. (Sheets 39 and 
 40.) It begins in the neighbourhood of Stirling, and runs thence 
 in a direction a little north of east along the base of the Ochil Hills, 
 by Menstrie, Alva, Tillicoultry, and Dollar. Its effect there has been 
 to depress the Coal-measures of the Clackmannan Coal-field against 
 a low part of the Lower Old Red Sandstone. The extent of the dis- 
 placement here amounts to nearly the total thickness of the Lower 
 Old Red Sandstone and the Carboniferous system, and can hardly be 
 set down as less than 10,000 feet. The striking influence of this 
 fault on the scenery of the district is shown by the abrupt rise of 
 the great wall of the Ochil chain above the Coal-measure plain in 
 front. 
 
 This powerful fault continues in full force as far as Dollar, after 
 which it rapidly lessens in the amonnt of its throw and appears 
 to split into two branches. One of these turns off to the south- 
 east and can be traced for some four miles into the ground south of 
 Cult Hill (Sheet 40), which we have already dealt with. The 
 effect of this branch dislocation is to bring down the Millstone 
 Grit against the Upper Old Red Sandstone and Calciferous Sand- 
 stones. The other branch is more distinctly a continuation of the 
 main line of fracture. It turns somewhat to the south-east, bring- 
 ing down the Calciferous Sandstones against various subdivisions 
 of the Upper and Lower Old Red Sandstone. Keeping eastwards by 
 Cleish to the north end of the Kelty coal-field, it begins thereafter 
 to return more to its original trend — a little north of east. Beyond 
 Navity Hill, its further progress eastward for some miles has not 
 been definitely ascertained. Not impossibly the fault may branch 
 here, as has been suggested on p. 157. One branch may perhaps 
 skirt the southern edge of the alluvial plain of the Leven River, 
 and following the line of the valley may join the great dislocation 
 which has been proved to exist to the south of Markinch and to 
 run thence eastward to the sea. No actual proof, however, has 
 been obtained of this route of the fault. On the other hand it can 
 be shown that either the main dislocation or an important branch 
 from it strikes eastward from the end of Navity Hill and passes 
 along the north side of the Kinglassie coal-field. This fault can 
 actually be seen near Kinninmonth. But its course to the east of 
 the coal-field is not known, though a conjectural line has been 
 put for it on the map to define the limits of the several subdivisions 
 of the Carboniferous system in that part of Fife. There can be no 
 doubt of the position and trend of the great fault which passes 
 from Markinch to the sea near Leven, for these have been fixed by 
 bores and pit-workings. 
 
 To this important boundary-fault frequent allusion has been 
 required in previous chapters. About the western end of the 
 Cleish Hills, it throws out a large part of the Calciferous Sandstones 
 and all the Upper Old Red Sandstone — that is, it produces a dis- 
 
176 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 placement of more than 2000 feet. Further east, on the flanks of 
 Benarty Hill, it brings down some of the higher coals of the field 
 against the Upper Old Bed Sandstone, and must thus effect a shift 
 amounting to the whole depth of strata from these coals to the 
 very bottom of the Carboniferous system, that is, at least 3000 feet. 
 A little further on, this throw is increased where a portion of the 
 actual Coal-measures of the Kinglassie field is thrown against the 
 fault. From this point to the sea, the line of fracture is no longer 
 a boundary between distinct geological systems, but runs entirely 
 between the various subdivisions of the Carboniferons series. At 
 Markinch, as we have seen, the north end of the great anticlinal 
 arch is broken through, and the Millstone Grit is faulted against 
 the Calciferous Sandstones, which must mean a displacement there 
 of more than 1500 feet. From that locality eastward, the amount 
 of throw gradually diminishes until, where only a higher part of 
 the Coal-measures is brought against a lower, the fault runs out 
 to sea with a displacement of perhaps not more than 500 feet. 
 
 Next in magnitude to this great boundary-fault we should pro- 
 bably place the dislocation which runs in a similar E.N.E. direction 
 from Loch Fitty into the Oakley coal-field. As we have seen, it 
 limits the Dunfermline field on the north, inasmuch as it throws 
 out the coal-bearing strata in that direction and brings them down 
 against the Lower Limestones and Calciferous Sandstones. Its 
 throw there cannot be less than 600 feet. 
 
 It will be observed from the map that the prevalent trend of the 
 faults in the lower coal-bearing group from Kirkcaldy westward 
 into the Oakley field is along W.N.W. lines, that is, rather oblique 
 to the greater faults just referred to. Where they run against the 
 latter they are arrested by them, as may be seen along the south 
 side of the Loch Fitty fault. 
 
 In the Dysart field a general east and west direction will be 
 noticed to have been taken by most of the larger faults. On the 
 north side of the great boundary dislocation, which diverges across 
 the coal-field to the sea, there are two large parallel faults, whereby 
 the outcrops of the Carboniferons formations have been consider- 
 ably shifted. The smaller faults follow more divergent lines. 
 That which strikes the coast close to Buckhaven trends along an 
 E.N.E. line, and has a throw which increases seaward to 600 feet. 
 The anticlinal fault between Milltown and Dysart follows a nearly 
 north and south line. 
 
 With regard to the direction of downthrow it may be observed 
 that there is a predominant tendency towards the south. This is 
 most distinctly seen in the Dysart field, where each of the long 
 parallel east and west faults depresses the strata on its southern 
 side. But the same predominance may be traced among the 
 numerous W.N.W. faults from Cardenden to Oakley. These 
 dislocations have undoubtedly broken up the coal-fields, damaged 
 the coals, and complicated the underground workings. On the 
 other hand, but for them a great deal of the coal would have been 
 buried to a profound depth and would have needed deeper pits and 
 
Faults. 177 
 
 more costly pumping machinery. We have only to study the 
 manner in which, by means of the faulting, the coals are again and 
 again brought up towards the surface, to be enabled to realise 
 that the dislocations have not been altogether without their 
 economic value. 
 
 The faults now described are what are known as normal disloca- 
 tions, that is, they " hade " or slope towards the side which has 
 sunk down. They may have resulted from the mere subsidence of 
 one side of a rent in the earth's crust, or one side may have been 
 pushed up, or the two movements in opposite directions may both 
 have occurred. They do not necessarily imply any serious 
 horizontal or tangential thrust of one part of the crust over 
 another. The Carboniferous rocks of Fife, however, present a 
 number of cases where such a horizontal push has taken place, and 
 where the hade, instead of being vertical as in most ordinary 
 normal faults, is inclined at a low angle. Such thrust-planes or 
 reversed faults indicate considerable lateral pressure within the 
 crust. An instance of the structure has been already cited from 
 the Kelty Coal-field (Fig. 21) and another from the Kirkcaldy pits 
 (Fig. 25). But reference may be made to several examples which 
 the observer can easily examine for himself. They occur among 
 the Hosie Limestones on the shore south of the Tyrie Bleach 
 
 Fio. 30. — Section of Thrust-plane or Reversed Fault in one of the Hosie Lime- 
 stones, Shore, south of Tyrie Bleach- works, Kirkcaldy. 
 1. Shale. 2. Limestone. 
 
 Works, near Kirkcaldy. In one of them, as represented in Fig. 30, 
 a seam of limestone, between two and three feet thick, has been 
 shoved horizontally over itself, so that the underlying shales come 
 to lie above one part of the seam. A vertical shaft would here 
 pierce the seam twice — which could never happen in the case of a 
 normal fault. The undermost part of the limestone has been 
 partially brecciated and striated or " slick en-sided " by the rubbing 
 of the overlying mass upon it, and the movement appears to have 
 been in a direction from E. 10° N. to W. 10° S. 
 
 The question of the age of the faults in the region raises many 
 difficulties which at present cannot be solved. The dislocations not 
 improbably belong to more than one period of earth-movement. 
 The E.N.E. series, which includes the great boundary faults, is 
 probably the oldest. The W.N.W. series is obviously later, and 
 may possibly have resulted from one continuous succession of 
 subterranean stresses. Probably most if not all of the faults are 
 later than the sills. They can often be seen to have dislocated 
 them, as is well shown at Capeldrae. Perhaps this relation would 
 
 M 
 
178 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 be more frequently observed than it has been if there were more 
 evidence on this subject available from the records of coal-mining. 
 No essential difference can be perceived between the faults in the 
 higher and those in the lower part of the Carboniferous system. 
 We may legitimately infer that they are of later date than 
 even the uppermost Coal-measures. 
 
The Glaciation and the Glacial Deposits. 179 
 
 CHAPTER XVm. 
 
 The Glaciation and the Glacial Deposits. 
 
 Central and Western Fife have shared in all the changes of 
 climate and geography which marked the passage of the Ice Age 
 in the middle of Scotland. The region was entirely overflowed by 
 the sheet of ice that descended from the mountains of the Highlands 
 and left a characteristic impress everywhere on the solid rocks. 
 When the ice melted away from the lowlands, the valleys, 
 and at least the bases of the hills, remained buried under the 
 boulder-clay and other deposits that were left behind. Towards 
 the end of the time, the country lay 100 feet lower in level than it 
 is to-day, and the memorials of the coast-line of that period are still 
 distinct, while there remain also traces of some of the stages in 
 the gradual elevation of the land into its present position. The 
 records from which this interesting part of the geological history 
 is compiled are to be found in the following sources of evidence. 
 No strictly chronological order of these materials can be followed, 
 seeing that several of them were partly contemporaneous ; but the 
 earliest are placed at the bottom of the list, while some of the 
 youngest are ranged at the top : — 
 
 (6) Raised beaches and terraces of different ages. 
 
 (5) Ancient lakes. 
 
 (4) Sands and gravels — Kame or Esker series. 
 
 (3) Erratic blocks. 
 
 (2) Boulder-clay. 
 
 (1) Ice-worn rock-surfaces. 
 
 The boulder-clay, erratics, sands and gravels have been classed 
 together under the general name of Glacial Drift. The rock- 
 surfaces on which they rest are often found to be smoothed, 
 polished, and striated, and present an impressive picture of the 
 extent and erosive power of the ice. The seaward edges of the 
 Drift have been cut into terraces by the sea, and the oldest of 
 these terraces or raised beaches undoubtedly belong to the Ice 
 Age. 
 
 (1) Ice-WOEN Eock-SURFACES. — Though the general contour of 
 the ground still retains much of the rounded form imprinted on it 
 by the grinding action of the ice-sheet which for many ages moved 
 over it, the finer markings on the rock-surfaces have generally 
 disappeared in exposed situations. But wherever the covering of 
 superficial deposits has protected them, these markings may be 
 found as fresh as at the time when they were originally engraved 
 
180 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 by the sand and stones that were pressed along between the ice 
 and the bottom over which it slid. A study of them reveals the 
 magnitude of the ice-sheet, and shows the direction in which it 
 moved across the district. They have been found high on the Ochil 
 range, and their evidence, combined with that of the blocks of rock 
 transported from the Highlands, shows that range of heights to 
 have been entirely buried under a mass of ice which moved dowti 
 from the mountains of Perthshire, over-rode the Ochils, and passed 
 eastwards into what is now the basin of the North Sea. A few of 
 the observed directions of the strise on the rocks will here be given, 
 from which the march of the ice has been determined. 
 
 Over the hilly ground to the south and east of Dunning, the ice 
 has moved in a general E.S.B. direction. On the ice-worn surfaces 
 of andesite at Glencarnhill, the direction is B. 25° S.; on Fordel 
 Hill, half a mile west of Lustylaw, B. 29° S. ; on the north slope of 
 the Black Hill of Kippen, about a mile to the south-west of 
 Dunning, B. 35° S. ; at Craig Bakie, three miles south of Dunning, 
 E. 35 S. ; on Dochrie Hill, about three miles north-west of 
 Milnathort, on a well ice-worn ridge, E. 45" S, ; half a mile north- 
 east from Heatherieleys, B. 40° S. On the hills to the north-west 
 of Damhead the roches rnoutonnees are abundant and well preserved, 
 the strise pointing generally towards the S.E. The ice has moved 
 along grooves probably worn by itself in the igneous rocks, and has 
 sometimes striated even a vertical face of rock. Owing to the form 
 of the ground the lower parts of the ice were sometimes embayed 
 and made to follow directions not quite the same as the general 
 movement. Thus while on Dochrie Hill, at a height of nearly 
 1000 feet, the top of the ridge has been scored towards E. 45° S., 
 the strise in the hollow to the west, a hundred feet lower, are 
 pointing to S. 25° E. But as soon as the southward slope of the 
 hills was reached, the bottom ice resumed the normal trend, so that 
 a mile to the south-east the strise near Craigowmeio-le have become 
 E. 30° S. 
 
 As the ice-sheet descended from the Ochil chain into the lower 
 grounds of Fife and Kinross, it began to bend round more to the 
 east, and eventually round to the north of east, as it approached the 
 sea. There are traces of this change of direction even on the 
 flanks of the Ochils. Thus close to Douranside, two miles north- 
 westof Milnathort, the strise point to E. 15° S. To the west of the 
 district described in this volume, well-marked striae have been 
 preserved on the sandstones of the Coal-measures and Millstone 
 Grit to the north of Kincardine-on-Eorth pointing a few degrees 
 south of east. The same direction continues eastward through the 
 centre and south of Fife. Thus near Cattle Moss, 3£ miles north 
 of Culross, near the edge of Sheet 39 of the map, the striee point 
 to E. 5° S. But as the ice descended further from the hills and 
 was able to spread out more upon the lower grounds, it engraved 
 the strias more towards the east and then towards the north of east. 
 At Bochend Quarry, a mile north of Dunfermline, the markings 
 left on the surface of one of the intrusive sheets point to E. 10° N., 
 
Th.e Glaciation and the Glacial Deposits. 181 
 
 and on the coast to the west of Pettycur the basalts have been 
 scored in a similar direction. Many miles to the east the same 
 trend is displayed on the well ice-worn surface of a dolerite sheet 
 which is quarried near Oraigrothie, a little to the west of the village 
 of Ceres. 
 
 (2) Boulder-clay. — This deposit has been left by the ice over 
 almost the whole of the ground, from nearly the crest of the Ochil 
 chain down to below sea-level. It varies in character according to 
 the nature of the rocks of the district in which it lies. This varia- 
 tion is best seen in its colour, which depends upon the prevalent tint 
 of the surrounding rocks. Thus, where derived from the Old Red 
 Sandstone, the boulder-clay is red; in a Carboniferous district, where 
 its materials have come from the carbonaceous shales, coals, and 
 fireclays of the Carboniferous system, it is dark blue or nearly black. 
 The texture and composition in like manner are determined by the 
 materials out of which it has been formed. When these have moved 
 from a region of sandstone it is of a loose sandy texture ; where, on 
 the other hand, the rocks have been largely argillaceous, it becomes 
 a stiff clay. 
 
 Throughout the matrix of the deposit are irregularly scattered 
 nitmerous pebbles, boulders, and large blocks of rock. These, when 
 of a nature to receive and retain any markings engraved upon them, 
 are found to be smoothed, polished, and striated in the same way as 
 the solid rocks have been treated over which the ice-sheet moved. An 
 examination of the stones in the boulder-clay shows that the great 
 majority have been derived from the neighbouring region, while a 
 small proportion has come from greater distances, sometimes 30 
 miles or more. By fixing the sources from which the boulders have 
 come we are enabled to follow the direction in which the transport of 
 material has been effected, and we find that this kind of evidence is 
 in entire harmony with that of the striation of the solid rocks. The 
 two kinds of proof furnish an impressive demonstration of the 
 existence, mass, and movements of the great ice-sheet. 
 
 In the part of the Ochil chain which has been described in this 
 volume the boulder-clay ascends to a height of at least 1250 feet 
 above the sea. As it was there pushed along under the ice from a 
 north-westerly direction it has especially accumulated on the 
 lee-sides of the valleys. This is well seen in the traverse of the 
 hills described at p. 18. On the west side of the Glendey Valley, 
 which runs nearly north and south, the boulder-clay is at least 
 100 feet thick and runs far up the slope, while on the east side it 
 is comparatively scant, and the naked rock appears in many places. 
 
 The magnitude of the boulder-clay as a superficial deposit is 
 impressively displayed in these Ochil valleys. Its smoothed and 
 rudely terraced surface can be traced by the eye up to the heads of 
 the comes, where it is trenched by the descending streams. Eaw 
 scars of it, laid open at first by the rains and runnels, are often in 
 the end grassed over and become steep verdant banks, while new 
 scars are cut above or below them. Where the clay fills up the 
 bottom of a valley, the stream may be seen to wind about between 
 
182 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 a succession of these grassy slopes, with here and there a fresh face 
 where the vegetable cover has been dislodged by landslips, and 
 the boulder-clay is laid open to the air. In such places the 
 channel of the water-course is often heaped with boulders that 
 have fallen out of the clay during the gradual erosion of the valley. 
 
 In the lowlands the boulder-clay has frequently been laid down 
 in ridges, or what are called "drums" or "drumlins," which 
 coi'respond in general direction with the trend of the stride on the 
 rocks. Long ridges of the same material may be observed on the 
 lee of the hills and crags, pointing away from the quarter 
 from which the ice moved. 
 
 Although itself an unstratified deposit, the boulder-clay here 
 and there includes layers of stratified sand, gravel, and clay. 
 Conspicuous examples of this nature occur in the Glendey "Valley 
 just referred to. There are occasional indications of a difference 
 in colour, texture, and contents between the lower and upper parts 
 of the boulder-clay, pointing to variations in the direction of 
 movement of the ice-sheet. As the deposit is traced upwards into 
 the higher valleys of the Ochils it becomes loose and earthy, and 
 then resembles the ordinary moraine-stuff of local glaciers. 
 
 Throughout the hilly tracts and the lowland south of the Howe 
 of Fife, the boulder-clay occupies the lower ground, and creeps up 
 the slopes of the hills, sometimes almost to their tops on the lee-side. 
 Thus, on the Lomonds, while the north-west front, facing the direc- 
 tion from which the ice came, is nearly bare of boulder-clay above 
 a height of 500 or 600 feet, the southern or lee side shows this 
 deposit ascending to heights of more than 1000 feet. It has 
 accumulated to a considerable depth in some parts of the Howe of 
 Fife. Thus, on the steep slopes of the recess in the great line of 
 escarpment, between the Cults Lime Works and the plain, it is 
 more than 15 feet thick, as has been shown by the cutting made in 
 it by the tramway from these lime-works. The boulder-clay spreads 
 over the plains towards the sea, where it has been cut back by the 
 waves at the time of the 100 and 50 feet raised beaches. Such 
 ancient sea-carved cliffs of boulder-clay, masked under grassy 
 vegetation or blown sand, may be seen at various points along the 
 coast, between Torry and Queensferry, and between Dysart and 
 Leven. But the deposit descends beneath sea-level, and lies 
 deeply over the bed of the Firth of Forth. This extension may 
 have considerable industrial importance in the future. As the 
 coal seams are worked under the firth, the presence of a thick 
 impervious clay above the Carboniferous strata will permit the 
 mining operations to be carried on with little or no risk of any 
 inrush of the sea from above. 
 
 (3) Erratic Blocks. — Under this name are classed the boulders 
 which do not belong to the rocks on which they lie, but have come 
 from a greater or less distance. There can be no doubt that a 
 large proportion of them are relics of the boulder-clay. They serve 
 to show how greatly this deposit has been wasted since it was laid 
 down. Some of them, however, may have been carried on the 
 
The Glaciation and the Glacial Deposits. 183 
 
 surface of the ice-sheet and have been dropped when the ice 
 melted. They are strewn by thousands all over the region from 
 the crests of the highest ridges down to below sea-level. As 
 already mentioned, the testimony which they bear to the march 
 of the ice-sheet completely harmonises with and corroborates that 
 of the striae on the solid rock. These boulders demonstrate that 
 the transport of detritus has been from the Highlands in a south- 
 easterly direction, and from the Ochils towards the east, and then 
 to the north of east. 
 
 The most striking erratics are those which can be proved to have 
 come from the greatest distance, and these include a large variety 
 of boulders from the Southern Highlands. The gneisses, phyllites, 
 schists, greywackes, pebbly grits, epidiorites, and other rocks of 
 the mountains between Loch Katrine and the valley of the Tay 
 are strewn in countless numbers over the Ochil chain far east 
 along the estuary of the Tay and to the south upon the hills 
 and plains down to the margin of the Firth of Forth. Some 
 illustrative examples of these " foundlings ' r may here be given. 
 
 Perhaps the largest transported mass which has yet been 
 observed in Fife is the limestone already referred to (p. 126) 
 as having been worked in Kilmux Den. It was so large as to 
 have been opened out for a lime-work, and was extensively 
 quarried for years until it was exhausted, and found to have 
 been only a large boulder lying on boulder-clay. It had been 
 carried by the ice from some of the outcrops of limestone some 
 miles to the westward. 
 
 On the slope of Boghall Hill, nearly two miles to the south-east of 
 Dunning, a block which may have come from one of the basic 
 sills in the mountains between Ben Ohonzie and Aberfeldy is 
 known as The Grey Mare. It measures upwards of 300 cubic 
 feet, and has probably travelled at least 20 miles across the 
 plain of Strathearn. In the valleys of Glendey and Glen Farg, 
 which have been described at pp. 20, 25, the burns are some- 
 times choked up with Highland boulders. On the hills above 
 the Devon, a mile to the north of the Yetts of Muckhart, many 
 boulders of mica-schist, gneiss, and other crystalline rocks are 
 strewn over the ground at a height of 1000 feet above the sea. 
 Again, on Third Hill, five miles south of Dunning, among a 
 group of Highland boulders lying at a height of 1200 feet a 
 block of grit may be noticed which measures 36 cubic feet. 
 
 On the Cleish Hills, blocks from the Highlands are of common 
 occurrence. Thus, on the north shores of Loch Glow, boulders from 
 that region may be seen at a height of nearly 900 feet above the sea. 
 These stones have been carried not only across Strathearn, but com- 
 pletely across the chain of the Ochil Hills and the plain of Kinross. 
 They may be followed down even to the margin of the Firth. 
 At Cairneyhill, 150 feet above the sea, lies a block of gneiss 
 measuring 96 cubic feet, and the train of Highland erratics may 
 be traced to the far eastern headland of Fife. 
 
 These stones are easily noticeable from the contrast they present 
 
184 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 to the rocks of the district. They are hard and durable, and hence 
 have survived their journey better than most of the younger rocks 
 would have done. ' But we have also evidence of the transport of 
 boulders from the Ochils towards the south-east and from the 
 doleritic sills of the Cleish and Lomond Hills to the sea. About a 
 mile to the south-west of the Dunfermline Compensation Reservoir 
 a boulder of andesite has come from the Ochils. By the side of the 
 stream west of Aberargie House, near Dunning, a large block of 
 red sandstone, which has been striated lengthwise, has been trans- 
 ported from probably the further side of Strathearn. The shores 
 all along the firth are strewn with boulders of dolerite and basalt 
 derived from the sills and bosses lying to the north-west and west. 
 
 While dealing with the question of the distribution of material 
 foreign to the district along the coast-line of Fife, we must bear in 
 mind an important risk of error into which inexperienced 
 observers may not unnaturally fall. So long as we have only to 
 consider the erratics of the inland we are on perfectly safe ground. 
 And even on the shore, when the boulders are of large size, 
 weighing many tons, we are equally secure. But it must be 
 remembered that a large quantity of foreign stones is every year 
 brought to these shores by vessels from abroad. For many genera- 
 tions an active export of coal has been carried on from the Fife 
 ports. The ships engaged in this trade often bring no cargo, but 
 arrive in ballast, which they discharge. As they sail from all parts 
 of the European sea-board, the blocks of stone which they bring 
 represent the geological formations of various Continental countries. 
 The trade is especially brisk with Scandinavia and the Baltic ; 
 hence an abundant assemblage of the rocks of that part of Europe 
 has been strewn along the shores of Fife. Immediately to the west 
 of the harbour of Dysart a great accumulation of this foreign 
 material has been thrown down, and is now being distributed along 
 the beach by waves and tidal currents. Abundant chalk-flints may 
 indicate a trade with the south-east of England. But Scandinavia 
 and the Baltic shores are unmistakably represented by the great 
 variety of crystalline rocks. Those include various types of 
 granite, gneiss, augen-gneiss, mica-schist, hornblende-schist, 
 chloritic schist, phyllite, epidiorite, quartz-felsite, serpentine, and 
 many more. There are likewise examples of the characteristic 
 " sparagmite " of Norway and Sweden, while not improbably the 
 volcanic geology of Iceland may be represented by large pieces of 
 highly vesicular lava crowded with large and fresh olivine. This 
 part of the shore may be commended to the attention of young 
 petrographers, who will find here, within the compass of a few 
 hundred yards of beach, a greater variety of rock-types than they 
 could find in situ without many hundreds of miles of travelling. 
 
 (4) Sands and Gravels, Kame or Esker Series. — Over the 
 low grounds that slope to the sea, and on the plains of the interior, 
 extensive deposits of sand and gravel have been laid down upon the 
 boulder-clay. These materials are well water-worn, and plainly 
 indicate that the ice-sheet which produced the boulder-clay no 
 
The Glaciation and the Glacial Deposits. 185 
 
 longer completely buried the country, but that running water 
 carried along and laid down rolled shingle, gravel, and sand. But 
 the ice had not entirely retreated ; it still probably lingered upon 
 the hills and even sometimes re-descended to lower levels. 
 
 The sands and gravels are much more restricted in their distribu- 
 tion than the boulder-clay. They ascend Strath Eden and the 
 Howe of Fife, and pass westwards into the plain of Kinross, where 
 they attain their chief development in this district, and whence they 
 stretch westward into the basin of the Devon River. From the 
 Eden Valley they may be traced through the hollows of the Ochil 
 chain on the one side, and those of the Benarty, Lomond, and 
 Kirkforthar Hills on the other. They fill the valley of the Leven 
 up to its head or near it, and down to the sea across the lower 
 ground by Markinch, Kennoway, and Largo. Over most of their 
 extent they do not exceed a height of 450 feet above the sea, and 
 are generally considerably below that level. In the plains of 
 Kinross, where they form so wide an area, they keep generally 
 below the 450-feet contour-line. Westwards, however, as they 
 approach the Ochil Hills, they gradually rise towards these uplands 
 until they reach a height of 800, and in the valley of the Queich 
 Water even 1000 feet. 
 
 On the Kinross plain, the tendency of these deposits to assume 
 the form of kames is most conspicuously exhibited. All round 
 Loch Leven, but more especially in the tract stretching west from 
 the lake to the Crook of Devon, the sands and gravels have been 
 arranged in long, narrow, undulating ridges having a general east 
 and west trend, and separated by narrow hollows which were once, 
 no doubt, lakes-, but are now filled with peat. One of the most 
 persistent of these ridges, known locally as the Drungie Knowes, 
 runs for about two miles, varying from only a few yards to 150 
 yards or more in breadth, and rising 30 or 40 feet above the plain 
 on either side of it. Immediately below the sand and gravel, 
 boulder-clay is to be seen wherever a cutting has been made, and 
 its presence, even where no section reveals it, may generally be 
 inferred from the stiff, retentive soil which overlies it. The 
 presence of this impervious substratum here has no doubt served to 
 retain the surface drainage, so as to give rise originally to many 
 tarns and lakes, most of which have now disappeared. 
 
 (J>) Ancient Lakes. — One important result of the general 
 glaciation of the country was to leave numerous basins on the 
 surface which, when the ice-sheets melted away, became filled with 
 water and remained as lakes. These basins were of two kinds. 
 On the one hand, some of them, especially those of smaller size 
 among the high grounds, were scooped out of the solid rock by the 
 long continued erosive action of the ice. On the other hand, by 
 far the most abundant and largest owed their origin to the 
 irregularities of surface left by the drift-deposits when the ice 
 melted. Of the rock-basins, Loch Glow, among the Cleish Hills, 
 is probably an example. Loch Leven is the most conspicuous 
 instance of the other type. 
 
186 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 Of the lakes left behind when the ice disappeared only a mere 
 remnant is now extant. A vast number have vanished, partly 
 from the natural processes of denudation and deposition, partly 
 from having been drained by man. This subject will be more 
 fully discussed in the following chapter, 
 
 There can be no doubt that both the remaining lakes of the 
 region, as well as the large number which no longer exist, date 
 back to the Glacial Period. Hence, if we could thoroughly explore 
 the deposits left on the bottom of these existing and extinct sheets 
 of water, we might expect to find in the lowest strata relics of the 
 plants and animals which flourished at the time of the Arctic 
 climate. One such exploration has fortunately been made, and it 
 affords much encouragement to undertake other similar investiga- 
 tions. During the digging of the railway cutting at Dronachy, 
 about a mile west of the village of Auchtertool, the bed of an 
 ancient lake was laid open, and was carefully studied by Mr. 
 James Bennie, of the Geological Survey of Scotland. Lying upon 
 the boulder-clay for a distance of 300 yards a series of lacustrine 
 deposits was found to present the following section : — 
 
 Feet. Inches. 
 (4) Surface soil ... ... ... ... ... 1 
 
 (3) Brown earthy silt, with Lepidurus (Apus) 
 
 glacialis, Salix herbacea, Betula nana ... 3 
 
 (2) Marl with Ly mnsea, Pisidium, &c. ... 1 6 
 
 (1) Running sand and mud ... ... 4 or 5 - 
 
 The marl (No. 2) with its fresh-water shells affords clear indica- 
 tion of the former presence of a lake on this spot, but throws no 
 light on the climate of the time when this lake existed, for the 
 shells are widely diffused species. But the silt (3) proves that the 
 climate of Fife at that period was one of Arctic severity, for it 
 contains remains of the Arctic willow and birch, together with a 
 profusion of the remains of a small crustacean (Lepidurus or Apus) 
 which is now confined as a living form to the fresh-water pools of 
 Spitzbergen and Greenland, only thawed during the brief summer 
 of those Arctic lands. Besides the plants above mentioned there 
 were found also Salix polaris, 8. reticulata, Ranunculus aqxudilis, 
 Menyanthis trifoliata, Empetrum nigrum, two species of Potamegeton, 
 two species of Scirpus, and other plants. The animal remains 
 included eggs of Baphnia pulex, jaws of a beetle, and portions of a 
 spider. (For a list of the fossils found, see Appendix.) 
 
 (6) Kaised Beaches and Terraces. — During the Glacial Period 
 Britain stood for a time at a lower level above the sea than it does 
 now. Its elevation was effected by an upward movement marked 
 by several long pauses at different levels. These intervals of 
 cessation or diminution of the upheaval are marked along the 
 coast by terraces or platforms, of which two remain prominent in 
 this district, the 100-feet and 25-feet beaches. These terraces are 
 partly platforms cut by the sea out of the rocks of the land, 
 especially out of the boulder clay, partly strips of sand, gravel, or 
 clay deposited by the sea. 
 
The Glaciation and the Glacial Deposits. 187 
 
 The 100-feet terrace or beach belongs to a time when the 
 climate of the country was still Arctic, and when abundant glacier 
 mud was carried down into the estuaries by the rivers that escaped 
 from the melting ends of the ice. Hence the deposits of this 
 highest terrace include characteristic finely-levigated clays (" gutta- 
 percha clays ") as well as sand and gravel. They are generally 
 poor in fossils. 
 
 The inner edge of this terrace is often marked by a more or less 
 steep bank cut out of boulder-clay, occasionally out of solid rock. 
 The platform itself has suffered much from denudation, so that it 
 exists only in fragments. But in this fragmentary form it may 
 be followed along most of the coast of Fife. Beginning at the 
 west end we find it well developed at Torry, where it runs for 
 more than four miles up the valley of the Bluther Burn. East- 
 ward it expands behind Torryburn, and then returns to within 300 
 yards of the present coast, with which it runs parallel for a short 
 distance beyond Crombie Point. It can be easily traced here by 
 the notch or shelf which has been cut out of the inland slopes of 
 boulder-clay. To the west and north of Inverkeithing it stretches 
 a long way inland. When the land stood a hundred feet lower 
 the hilly ground about Inverkeithing and North Queensferry 
 formed an island or group of islands, while the sea filled the valley 
 followed by the line of railway between Dunfermline and 
 Burntisland. The terrace can be traced at Aberdour, and again 
 behind Burntisland. At the east end of King Alexander's Crag 
 between Burntisland and Kinghorn the following succession of 
 strata represents this terrace : — 
 
 Blown sand. 
 
 Faintly-stratified sand, 3 feet. 
 
 Dark black, stiff, sandy clay, 2 feet. 
 
 Brown sandy and pebbly silt with angular stones at the bottom. 
 Basalt of the cliff, descending to the roadway. 
 
 The terrace is lost upon the rocky promontory of Kinghorn, but 
 further north it comes out well as a level platform which stretches 
 inland behind Kirkcaldy northwards to Pathhead. It is well 
 displayed about Leven, whence it extends up the valley of the 
 Leven River. Traced inland it appears in some places to shade 
 away into the sandy and gravelly drift of the interior. Its best 
 development in Fife, however, is to be found in the eastern 
 districts from Largo round by Anstruther, Crail, and St. Andrews 
 to Cupar, as will be more specially described in the Memoir on 
 the East of Fife. 
 
 Here and there traces remain of the 50-feet terrace which forms 
 so conspicuous a feature along the west coast of Scotland. But 
 much of it appears to have been removed by denudation before the 
 uprise of the next platform. 
 
 The 25-feet beach in the far north-west of Scotland was formed 
 when the glaciers of Sutherland came down to the edge of the sea. 
 In central Scotland, however, it was made by the sea long after the 
 
188 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 ice had disappeared from the lowlands. It may be included here 
 with the account of the Drift deposits, for it chronicles the last 
 stage in that uprise of the land which took place mainly during 
 the Glacial Period. 
 
 This terrace may be traced intermittently along the whole of the 
 shores of Fife. Beginning at the extreme western border we find 
 it presenting a distinct feature at Torryburn. Thence it runs to 
 Crombie Point, passing by Charlestown and Limekilns, and gener- 
 ally keeping close to the present shore-line, sometimes retiring 
 where it was once indented by a small bay, and again coming down 
 close to the existing high-water mark. In some places the breadth 
 of the terrace is so narrow as to leave little more than room for a 
 roadway between high-water mark and the foot of the inland 
 slope, as may be seen between Kosyth and Limpet Ness. Else- 
 where even this scanty remnant has disappeared. There can be 
 no doubt that, just as the 50-feet terrace was eroded, so large slices 
 of this newer terrace have been cut away by the sea since 
 the last rise of the land. Its soft sands and gravels offer but 
 a feeble resistance to the waves, so that its breadth has been 
 diminished, and even here and there it has been entirely removed, 
 the present coast-line having been advanced into the area of the 
 100-feet terrace, and even beyond that limit into the higher ground 
 behind. The general progress of the sea in the recession of the 
 shores of Fife will be referred to in the following chapter. 
 
 The same terrace, as we follow it eastward, may be seen encir- 
 cling the Inner Bay of Inverkeithing. It reappears in Dalgety Bay 
 and in Barnhill Bay. At Burntisland, which is partly built on it, 
 its position has been considerably obscured by blown sand. It 
 forms the platform on which the lower or seaward parts of Kirk- 
 caldy stand. It comes out again beyond the rocky coast of Path- 
 head and Dysart, and may be observed at Buckhaven, whence it 
 stretches to Largo under links of blown sand. Its inner slope is 
 often well defined by a steep slope of stiff, stony boulder-clay 
 which marks the line against which the sea broke at high water 
 when the land stood some 25 feet lower than it does to-day. 
 
Recent Deposits and Latest Changes. 189 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 Recent Deposits and Latest Changes. 
 
 In this chapter we may consider the youngest geological formations 
 of the region, and the results of the latest geological changes which 
 have taken place over the surface and along the coast-line of the 
 country. It will be convenient to take note first of the effects of 
 denudation in the deposition of alluvium along the margins of the 
 streams, next the evidence for the infilling and disappearance of 
 former lakes, and the influence of marshy vegetation in forming 
 tracts of peat. We may then mark the results of wind-action 
 in piling up tracts of blown sand along the shores, and lastly the 
 proofs that the sea is making inroads on the land in some parts of 
 the coast and making additions to the land in others. 
 
 Biver Terraces and Alluviom. — Most of the streams in 
 Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire, like those of the rest 
 of the lowlands of Scotland, have one or more terraces which they 
 have formed by the deposit of their sediment. In the great 
 majority of cases there is only one such terrace, which forms the 
 flat meadow or haugh through which a stream winds. Even the 
 smallest burn will be found to present this common result of the 
 action of running water. Where a stream descends from a slope 
 to level ground its velocity and consequently its carrying power 
 are lessened, and it throws down some of the sand and gravel which 
 it was bearing from the higher land. Along the flanks of the Ochil 
 chain many instances of such a cone of sediment may be observed. 
 In like manner, where a stream enters a lake its capacity to 
 transport sediment is checked, and its silt and sand sink to the 
 bottom. Hence small deltas are formed, and the upper ends of 
 the lakes are filled up with flat alluvium. Loch Fitty may 
 be cited as a good illustration of this phase of the operation of 
 streams. 
 
 But the larger streams not only present the usual flat meadow 
 raised slightly above the surface of their waters and liable to be 
 inundated in floods. They not infrequently display two or more 
 terraces at higher levels. As the alluvial deposits of the rivers are 
 expressed on the map by a pale yellowish tint which contrasts with 
 the heavier colouring of the rocks underneath, it will be seen at once 
 how each of the streams winds to and fro across an alluvial tract of 
 its own making. The Eden, Leven, Ore, and Devon may be cited as 
 illustrative examples. An examination of the deposits of one of 
 these water-courses will show how the succession of terraces is 
 formed. During floods, when the water, charged with mud and 
 
190 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 sand, overspreads its "flood-plain," some of the sediment _ is left 
 behind on the inundated ground. The water is checked in its flow 
 by spreading over the flats, and part of its sediment is dropped, 
 while more of the fine silt is arrested by the vegetation, which acts 
 as a kind of filter. At the same time the stream may be busy 
 scouring out its main channel. Hence in the end the water can 
 no longer, even in flood-time, spread over the alluvial plain. 
 But the erosion of its channel still goes on, and the banks are 
 eaten away, now on one side, now on the other. The same pro- 
 cess of inundation and deposit is repeated at a lower level. The 
 old terrace is left, and a new platform is levelled out a few feet or 
 yards beneath the old one. In this way a succession of alluvial 
 terraces, marking former levels of a river in its gradual erosion 
 of its valley, may be left rising one above another, and sloping 
 gently with the same general inclination as the bed of the present 
 stream. 
 
 The rivers of Fife are too small, rise from too low an elevation, 
 and flow with too gentle a gradient to afford good illustrations of 
 this process of erosion and deposit. The best examples will be 
 found among the higher grounds, and especially in the course of 
 the Devon and its tributaries which descend from the high ridges 
 of the Ochils. 
 
 On a small scale no better instance can be quoted than one 
 which may be seen in the Glendey Burn, the tributary which flows 
 into the Devon down the valley described already at pp. 181, 183. 
 The stream in this valley is only a small burn, but it descends 
 from altitudes of between 1100 and 1200 feet, and has a fall of 
 about 500 feet in less than a mile. It becomes a furious torrent 
 iu times of heavy rain, and has cut for itself a deep passage through 
 the boulder-clay. In an early part of its history it flowed over a 
 flat of that glacial deposit 150 feet above its present channel. At 
 that time it spread out its debris from side to side as a layer of 
 shingle and sand. But since then it has cut its way down through 
 the boulder-clay, and now fragments of its old alluvium may be seen, 
 on either side of the valley, 150 feet above the channel in which it 
 at present flows. 
 
 The operations of the River Devon have been on a larger scale. 
 This stream carries down the drainage of some of the highest 
 ground in the Ochils. It has a swift current, and in times of spate 
 sweeps down a large body of water and much sediment from the 
 hills. When it began its history after the melting of the ice, it 
 encountered a rock barrier at the present Rumbling Bridge. There 
 may have been a ponding-back of the water there, with the con- 
 sequent formation of a lake. The river began to spread out 
 its alluvium at a height of 500 feet above the sea and 
 formed a platform which is now to be seen in the flat alluvial 
 terrace that runs eastward from the Rumbling Bridge. But 
 in flowing over the rock-barrier it began to cut it down, and 
 thus lowered the level of its own channel and laid bare the higher 
 alluvial terrace. It then accumulated a second platform at a height 
 
Recent Deposits and Latest Changes. 191 
 
 of about 450 feet above the sea, which exists as a well-marked 
 terrace on the south side of the river between the Devil's Mill and 
 Fossa way Bridge. By degrees the river has cut through the 
 agglomerate a gorge, which at the Rumbling Bridge is 135 feet 
 deep, and it is now spreading out its alluvium beyond the mouth of 
 this ravine at a height of 300 feet above the sea. This picturesque 
 piece of river-scenery is thus entirely the work of the Devon itself, 
 and has been produced by uninterrupted erosion ever since the 
 Glacial Period. 
 
 Disappearance of Lakes. — We have seen that the existing 
 lakes of the region came into existence when the ice-sheets of the 
 Glacial Period melted away, that they are only the last survivors 
 of innumerable others which have disappeared, and that the same 
 processes which have caused their extinction are still at work. 
 The rains and streams which wash the disintegrated rock from the 
 surrounding ground are continuously engaged in filling up the 
 lakes, and we can, as it were, watch the process of extinction in its 
 various stages. In the deeper lakes, its progress is slower, but in 
 those that are shallow, the change can be appreciated even within 
 the lifetime of one or two generations. When a lake is finalty 
 effaced, its place is taken by a flat sheet of alluvium. Not infre- 
 quently marshy vegetation has played a part in the conversion of 
 the water into land ; the lake has passed into the condition of a 
 marsh before it finally became solid ground. The sites of such 
 ancient sheets of water may be recognised by the black peaty soil 
 which covers their flats of alluvium. 
 
 Many of the lakes of Fife and Kinross had no doubt passed away 
 before historic times, by the natural play of geological forces. 
 Since then many others have vanished partly or mainly by the 
 help of man, who by draining them has turned their bottoms into 
 fertile fields. In proof of the comparative rapidity of these 
 topographical changes, reference may be made to the maps and 
 descriptions of the ground that were prepared a century or two ago. 
 It is interesting, for example, to compare Timothy Pont's map of 
 Fife, published at Amsterdam as part of Blaeu's " Atlas " in the 
 year 1662, with the present Ordnance Survey one-inch maps. 
 The larger lakes are shown in both ; a few appear on the modem 
 map which, with other particulars of the topography, have been 
 omitted by Pont, but the following list shows a number given by 
 him which during the intervening two centuries have disappeared, 
 their sites being now peat-mosses or alluvial plains under culti- 
 vation : — 
 
 " Dow Loch," north of Inverkeithing ; its site is perpetuated 
 
 in the name of the mansion-house of Duloch and the 
 
 farm of Mid-Duloch. 
 " Oarnok Loch," immediately to the east of Carnock Church. 
 "Black Loch," three miles north of Dunfermline, still exists, 
 
 but is represented as having been much larger in Pont's 
 
 time than it is now. 
 
192 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 A lake is shown by Pont lying immediately to the south of 
 Stevenson's Beath : this may have been a part of Moss 
 Morran, then existing as a sheet of water surrounded by 
 encroaching bog. No lake is to be seen there now. 
 
 "Loch Orr" (Inchgall Loch). This was a large lake, repre- 
 sented now by the alluvial plain, two miles long and more 
 than half a mile broad, which stretches eastwards from 
 the north end of the Kelty coal-field, and through which 
 the Eiver Ore flows in a straight artificial cut. The 
 name of the vanished lake is preserved by the adjacent 
 Lochore House. When this sheet of water existed the 
 site of the ancient camp perched on the promontory of 
 Chapel Farm ■ must have been chosen for its easily 
 defensible position, and Lochore Castle, now a ruin 
 standing on a mere hummock in the midst of the alluvial 
 plain, originally occupied an islet in the midst of the 
 water. 
 
 " Bog Lochty " — the name given by Pont to a sheet of water 
 which he places a little to the west of Kinglassie Village. 
 It was probably, from its name, a morass in his time. 
 It is now a drained and cultivated alluvial flat rather 
 more than a mile long and from two to three furlongs 
 broad. 
 
 " L. Balfarrig " is shown half a Scots mile to the north of 
 Balbirnie. There is a farm still called Balfarg a little to 
 the north of Balbirnie House ; but Pont probably meant 
 the site of the present Star Moss about a mile and a 
 quarter to the east of that farm. Between the two places 
 there is still a Lochmuir Wood. 
 
 "Loch Bossy." Next after Loch Leven this must have been 
 the largest lake in this part of the country, for it covered 
 an area of more than two square miles. Like Loch 
 Leven, it lay among the mounds of the sandy drift. It 
 has long disappeared, and is now represented by the 
 alluvial flat which extends for nearly three miles close to 
 the village of Auchtermuchty, with a breadth of about a 
 mile. The Biver Eden flows along its southern edge. 
 
 " Swan Loch." This sheet of water appears to be now 
 replaced by the small alluvial flat at Myreside, three miles 
 south-west from Ferry-Port-on-Craig. 
 
 Historical evidence, though interesting and valuable, is not 
 necessary for the purpose of mapping out the former lakes of Fife. 
 A reference to the Geological Survey Map will show numerous 
 alluvial tracts and peat-mosses which mark the sites of lakes. 
 Thus the Star Moss north of Markinch represents an ancient sheet 
 of water that lay in a hollow of the boulder-clay and sandy drift. 
 It has been silted and choked up with marshy vegetation, which 
 now forms a deposit of peat said to have an average depth of 20 
 feet. But beyond the limits of the moss a considerable tract of 
 
Recent Deposits and Latest Changes. 193 
 
 surrounding alluvium indicates that the lake was of still larger 
 size. 
 
 Again, Moss Morran may be cited as a peat-moss occupying 
 the area of another lake, while to the north of Dunfermline a 
 considerable number of former sheets of water are similarly 
 indicated by flats of peat or alluvium. 
 
 Loch Leven supplies an interesting example of the union of the 
 natural and artificial processes of denudation. By the cuttings 
 made at the outlet of the lake the level of the water was lowered 
 four and a half feet, and the millowners have the power of still 
 further lowering it two and a half feet, which gives a total fall of 
 the surface of the lake amounting to seven feet since the beginning 
 of this century. 
 
 But this diminution is slight compared with that which the 
 lake had undergone in earlier times by the action of its own 
 outflow in cutting down the barrier at the south-east corner. The 
 flat terraces around it, over which it once spread, rise to a height of 
 at least 60 feet above the existing level of the water, and extend 
 far beyond its present limits. The lake must once have been at 
 least half as large again as it is to-day, for it spread from Milna- 
 thort to its exit at the defile of Auchmoor — a distance of six 
 miles. 
 
 Loch Fitty has lost fully half a mile of its former length by the 
 silting up of its upper end. The disappearance or diminution of 
 the abundant sheets of water scattered all over Fife after the close 
 of the Glacial Period is perhaps the most striking change which in 
 the interval has taken place in the topography of the district. 
 
 Peat-Mosses. — As has been already mentioned, one prominent 
 cause of the infilling and disappearance of the shallower lakes has 
 been the gradual creeping of marshy vegetation over their surface. 
 The plants as they die furnish a constant precipitation of peaty 
 matter to the bottom. The growing plants convert the sheet of 
 water by slow degrees into a marsh, and the marsh eventually 
 becomes a peat-bog. Thereafter as the water is more and more 
 excluded, the bog-plants die out and give place to heaths, and 
 sometimes to willows, alders, and even to gorse and fir-trees. In 
 this way the surface of Fife and Kinross was eventually dotted over 
 with innumerable tracts of peat-moss. The same artificial causes 
 which have led to the diminution of the number of the lakes have 
 contributed also to the disappearance of the former abundant 
 mosses. For generations peat continued to be the principal fuel 
 even in the tracts where coal is now so plentiful and cheap. Large 
 tracts of moss were thus deprived of their peaty covering and came 
 in the end to be ploughed as arable land. Other areas where the 
 peaty covering was thin were cultivated by being merely drained 
 and ploughed, but the peaty nature of their soil may be readily 
 recognised by the black colour of the fields when bare of vegetation 
 in spring. 
 
 Considerable tracts of peat-moss, however, still remain to show 
 how the surface of much of the region looked not many generations 
 
 N 
 
194 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 ago. Some of them have been already alluded to in connection 
 with the lakes which they have replaced, such as Moss Morran and 
 the Star Moss. The largest continuous area of peat-covered ground 
 is to be seen on the southern side of the Cleish Hills, where a 
 succession of connected mosses covers a space about three miles 
 long by two miles broad. Some of these tracts are known by 
 special names, as the Din Moss, Black Eig Moss, and Tipperton 
 Moss. Coal has so completely become the fuel of the whole district 
 that little or no peat is now dug, except for use at the distilleries 
 (p. 208). 
 
 Just as the lakes go back to the Glacial Period for their origin, so 
 many of the accumulations of peat may' have begun when the 
 climate of the country was still Arctic. No absolute proof of this 
 antiquity has yet been found in any of the peat-mosses of the 
 district. But it is much to be desired that every fresh exposure of 
 the bottom of a peat-moss should be carefully examined with the 
 view of detecting traces of such an Arctic vegetation as that which 
 was met with in the old lake of Dronachy already described (p. 186). 
 
 Blown Sand. — Along the estuary of the Forth, east of the 
 narrows at Queensferry, the shores, where sandy and liable to be 
 exposed and dried by the wind, are sometimes fringed with con- 
 siderable tracts of blown sand. Above Queensferry the beaches are 
 too much covered by the mud of the river to afford the necessary 
 conditions for the blowing of sand inland. As far down as Burnt- 
 island, however, these conditions are fulfilled, and a patch of blown 
 sand has there been accumulated across part of the raised beach on 
 the links, against the southern front of Bang Alexander's Craig, 
 and on the hill-slopes between Pettycur and Kinghorn. A more 
 continuous strip of the same material stretches from Methil to 
 Largo, and includes the links of Leven, Scoonie, and Lundin. 
 
 In the Firth of Tay, which is narrower, has more of a fiuviatile 
 character, and receives a far larger land-drainage than that of the 
 Forth, the space between tide-marks is mainly overspread with 
 mud. Consequently no accumulations of blown sand are there 
 possible. It is not until the estuary opens out beyond Broughty 
 Ferry, and the action of the open sea comes into play in scouring 
 the coast and spreading out wide sandy flats below the line of high 
 water, that sand-dunes can be formed in that part of the country. 
 
 In connection with the drifting of sand along the shore, allusion 
 may here be made to the effects of this action on the rocks over 
 which the sand grains are driven by the wind. The surfaces of 
 even the hardest rocks are smoothed, polished, and worn into fine 
 irregular ruts and grooves trending in the direction in which the 
 wind blows. Some beautiful examples of the results of this process 
 may be seen to the west of Pettycur where the spurs of the basalt- 
 cliffs descend upon the beach. Every knob and face of rock within 
 two or three feet above the surface of the sand has been worn down 
 in this way by the prevalent blasts from the south-west. 
 
 Action of the Sea on the Coast. — Even within the compara- 
 tively sheltered limits of an estuary, such as that of the Firth of 
 
Recent Deposits and Latest Changes. 195 
 
 Forth, the waves are making noticeable progress in the wasting of 
 the coast-line. On the shores of Fife at many places the progress 
 of this destruction may be watched. Fortunately the barriers 
 opposed to the sea consist mainly of solid rocks, so that the rate of 
 waste is comparatively slow. But that the land is in many parts 
 losing ground may be seen in the projecting cornice of soil and 
 turf which often overhangs the rocks below, and of which 
 large recently detached fragments may sometimes be found lying 
 on the beach below. Where the waves have had only the 
 boulder-clay, or still more the incoherent deposits of the last raised 
 beaches, to oppose their advance, the rate of destruction has been 
 much more marked. Hence only fragments of the twenty-feet 
 beach have survived. On the more exposed situations, this terrace 
 has been entirely cut away. There is historical evidence of part of 
 the progress of this destruction. Thus before the 1 7th century the 
 grassy links which cover the twenty -five-feet terrace are said to have 
 reached as far as the Black Rocks, half a mile from the present 
 shore at Burntisland.* But all that extent of ground has for 
 several generations been covered by the sea at high water, and but 
 for the protection of a strong embankment, the terrace would 
 doubtless ere now have been still more reduced. 
 
 The action of the sea along the shores of Fife is not all of a 
 destructive nature. In favourable localities the waves cast ashore 
 the sediment they have derived from the waste of other places. 
 Unfortunately the balance is largely on the side of loss. Where 
 blown sand accumulates we may generally infer that no serious 
 erosion is in progress, but that the sea provides a protection against 
 its advance by drifting sand to these parts and supplying the 
 material that is blown inland by the wind. In certain places the 
 land may thus actually be gaining instead of losing. 
 
 The material accumulated by the sea along its margin is classed 
 together under the name of Marine Alluvium. The character of 
 this material constantly varies according to the nature of the 
 sources from which it is derived and the force of the waves and 
 currents by which it is carried and deposited. In the estuary of 
 the Forth above Queensferry, the alluvium consists chiefly of the 
 mud brought down by the Forth, Garron, and other streams. 
 Large tracts of this soft, tenacious mud or " slob " may be seen 
 fronting Torryburn, Oharlestown, and Rosyth. In the Firth of 
 Tay, as already remarked, the muddy type of marine deposit is still 
 more abundantly represented. Below Queensferry, however, where 
 the Firth of Forth opens widely to the influence of winds, waves, 
 and tidal currents, much greater variety of material is laid down 
 by the margin of the land. Though the estuarine mud may be 
 found in patches even as far east as Kirkcaldy, the finer sediment 
 is generally sand, and becomes cleaner the further east it is 
 examined. 
 
 * Sibbald's "Fife and Kinross" (1710), p. 152. A. Geikie's "Scenery of Scotland," 
 3rd Edit., p. 59. The waste of the shores of Fife will be more fully discussed in the 
 Memoir on Eastern Fife, where the proofs are still more abundant. 
 
196 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 One of the largest tracts of tidal sand has been gathered into the 
 recess of the coast between Burntisland and Pettycur. A sandy- 
 beach fronts the shore from Tyrie to Pathhead, and again from 
 Methil to near Largo. As the shores are not exposed to any long 
 " fetch " of the waves, there are no prominent storm-beaches of 
 coarse shingle. Most of the shores are strewn with boulders derived 
 from the waste of the boulder-clay. 
 
Economic Minerals. 
 
 197 
 
 CHAPTEE XX. 
 
 Economic Minerals. 
 
 The county of Fife has long been noted for the abundance and 
 variety of its useful minerals. Throughout its whole length, from 
 near St. Andrews to its western border, coal and ironstone are 
 abundantly distributed, and have long been worked. The sand- 
 stones of the Carboniferous system furnish excellent building stone. 
 The same series of strata supplies limestone, fire-clay, and oil-shale. 
 Prom the general diffusion of igneous rocks through the region, 
 varieties of road-metal are to be found in every district. Among 
 the superficial deposits brick-clay, shell-marl, sand, gravel, and 
 peat are obtainable in different parts of the county. 
 
 In the present chapter some details will be given regarding the 
 industries connected with these various groups of mineral sub- 
 stances. We shall begin with the most important industry, that 
 of coal-mining. In previous pages an account has been given of 
 the succession of strata and general geological structure of the 
 various coal-fields. We have now to deal with the coals from an 
 economical or commercial point of view. The following particulars 
 regarding the seams at the different collieries have been collected 
 and arranged by Mr. J. S. Grant Wilson from information supplied 
 to him by the lessees and proprietors : — 
 
 Coal. 
 
 Name of Colliery. 
 
 Name of Coal. 
 
 Thick- 
 ness. 
 
 Class. 
 
 Blairadam Colliery, 
 (Fife and Kinross 
 Coal Co.) 
 
 Bowhill Colliery, 
 
 Cowdenbeath Colliery, 
 
 Main Coal. 
 Kinglassie Splint. 
 Coal (not identified). 
 Coal (not identified). 
 
 Duddy Davie Coal. 
 Lochgelly Splint Coal. 
 
 Lochgelly Parrot Coal. 
 Five-foot Coal. 
 
 Dunfermline Splint Coal. 
 
 Foul Coal. 
 Splint Coal. 
 Fire-clay. 
 Coal. 
 
 Parrot Coal. 
 Coal. 
 
 Lochgelly 
 Splint and 
 Parrot Coal. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Good. 
 Fair. 
 
 Good. 
 
 Poor. 
 Good. 
 
 Excellent. 
 
 2 
 5 
 1 
 
 -! 
 
 2 
 1* 
 
 Steam. 
 Splint. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 Good Steam, 2nd 
 class Household. 
 Cas. 
 
 2nd class House- 
 hold. 
 Best Household. 
 
 ) Household 
 ( Coal. 
 Gas Coal. 
 Household Coal. 
 
198 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 Name of Colliery. 
 
 Name of Coal. 
 
 Thick- 
 ness. 
 
 _i_ 
 
 Quality. 
 
 Class. 
 
 Cowdenbeath Colliery 
 — continued. 
 
 Donnibristle Colliery, 
 
 Dundonald Colliery, 
 
 Dunnikier and 
 Collieries, 
 
 Fordel Colliery, 
 
 Halbeath Colliery, 
 
 Mynheer Coal. 
 
 Five-foot Coal. 
 
 Dunfermline Splint Coal. 
 
 Lochgelly Splint. 
 Lochgelly Parrot. 
 
 Mynheer Coal. 
 
 Five -foot Coal. 
 
 Dunfermline Splint Coal. 
 
 (There are three third-class 
 seams of steam coal at 
 this colliery which have 
 not been worked. ) 
 
 Smithy Coal. 
 Fourteen-foot Coal (Upper 
 
 Leaf). 
 Fourteen-foot Coal (Lower 
 
 Leaf). 
 Duddy Davie Coal. 
 
 Lochgelly Splint Coal. 
 Lochgelly Parrot Coal. 
 Glassee Coal. 
 
 Mynheer Coal. 
 
 Rough Coal. 
 Black Coal. 
 
 Parrot Coal. 
 Glassee Coal. 
 Mynheer Coal. 
 
 Lochgelly Splint Coal. 
 
 Lochgelly Parrot Coal. -J 
 I 
 
 Blawlowan Coal. 
 Mynheer Coal. 
 Five-foot Coal. 
 Dunfermline Splint Coal. 
 
 1 Ft. In, 
 
 4} 
 
 5 
 
 5 - 
 
 7 - 
 H - 
 
 5 - 
 
 to 
 
 C Upper Leaf. 
 
 Cairncubbie 
 
 Coal. | Lower Leaf. 
 
 Upper Eight-foot Cool. 
 Lower Eight-foot Coal. 
 
 28 
 
 2| 
 
 f 
 
 2 
 
 31 
 
 2 
 
 6* - 
 
 to 
 61 
 
 na 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 7 
 
 3§ 
 to 
 
 ?: 
 
 to 
 5 - 
 
 4 - 
 
 to 
 *i ~ 
 
 1 5 
 1 11 
 
 1st class. 
 
 (and 2nd 
 
 [•Good. 
 
 2nd class. 
 1st class. 
 
 Ordinary. 
 Good. 
 
 Fair. 
 
 Good. 
 
 Very good 
 
 Good. 
 
 Very good 
 
 2nd class. 
 1st „ 
 
 2nd 
 Is* „ 
 2nd ,, 
 
 Good. 
 
 Fair. 
 
 Good. 
 
 Steam and 
 Household. 
 
 Steam and 
 Household. 
 
 Household. 
 
 Steam, 
 class Cannel). 
 Household. 
 
 Friable, 
 cherry. 
 Splinty, 
 hard, 
 f Splinty, 
 \ hard. 
 / Not so 
 (. hard. 
 
 Steam. 
 Household and 
 
 Steam. 
 Steam. 
 
 Household and 
 
 Steam. 
 Household. 
 
 „ (Splint). 
 Household and 
 
 Steam. 
 Household. 
 
 Steam (Cherry). 
 Steam and 
 
 Household. 
 Gas Coal. 
 Steam (Cherry). 
 Smithy Coal. 
 
 Household and 
 Steam. 
 
 Household and 
 Steam, with 6 
 to 8 in. Parrot 
 and Steam. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 Household and 
 Steam. 
 
 Household and 
 Steam. 
 
 Household. 
 
 Fair Steam. 
 
 2nd class House- 
 hold. 
 
Economic Minerals. 
 
 190 
 
 Name of Colliery. 
 
 Name of Coal. 
 
 Thick- 
 ness. 
 
 Quality. 
 
 Class. 
 
 Halbeath Colliery- 
 conbinued. 
 
 Hill of Beath 
 Dalbeath, 
 
 and 
 
 Kelty Collieries, 
 
 Kinglassie Coal-field, 
 
 Lassodie Colliery, 
 
 Lassodie Mill Colliery, 
 
 Upper Five-foot Coal. 
 Lower Five-foot Coal. 
 
 Dunfermline Splint Coal. 
 
 Fourteen-foot Coal. 
 Duddy Davie Coal. 
 
 ( Coal. 
 
 L ° Ch g Coal SpUnt "! Stone - 
 
 I Coal. 
 Glassee Coal. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 3 
 
 to 
 6 
 
 5 1 
 3 9 
 
 to 
 
 Five-foot Coal. 
 
 / Ironstone. 
 \Coal. 
 Dunfermline Splint Coal. 
 
 Main Coal. 
 
 Leven, Durie, and 
 Wollsgreen Collieries, 
 
 TRoof Coal. 
 "(.Good Coal. 
 ("Coal. 
 Jersey Coal. ■! Stone. 
 (.Coal. 
 Bank Coal (Lochgelly 
 
 Splint). 
 Five-foot Coal. 
 
 Dunfermline Splint. 
 
 No. 1 Coal. 
 
 No. 2 Coal (Leven 6 ft.). 
 
 No. 3 Coal. 
 
 No. 4 Coal. 
 
 No. 5 Coal. 
 
 No. 6 Coal (Muiredge 4 ft.). 
 
 No. 7 Coal. 
 
 No. 8 Coal. 
 
 at n n i f BB Ironstone. 
 No.9Coal.| Coal 
 
 No. 10 Coal. 
 
 No. 11 Coal (Dysart Main). 
 
 No. 12 Coal. 
 
 Six-foot Coal. 
 
 Cairnoubbie (Upper Leaf). 
 Bight-foot Coal. 
 Five-foot Coal. 
 Dunfermline Splint Coal. 
 
 Main Coal. 
 
 Cairnoubbie Coal. 
 
 Bank Coal (Lochgelly 
 
 Splint). 
 Glassee Coal. 
 Mynheer Coal. 
 Five-foot Coal. 
 Dunfermline Splint Coal. 
 
 Eight-foot I Roof Coal. 
 Coal. \ Good Coal. 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 5 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 8* 
 
 5 
 3 
 ok 
 
 Bright, 
 soft. 
 
 '(-Partly 
 J. splint & 
 I soft. 
 ("Hard 
 J splint, 
 1 with soft 
 L portion. 
 
 Good. 
 
 Good. 
 
 Good. 
 
 Good. 
 
 Soft. 
 
 1st class. 
 
 2nd class. 
 1st class. 
 2nd class. 
 
 1st class. 
 
 Good Steam. 
 
 1st class Steam, 
 2nd class 
 Household. 
 
 1st class House- 
 hold. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 Household. 
 Bunker Coal. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 Steam and 2nd 
 Household. 
 
 Steam and 2nd 
 Household. 
 
 Best Household. 
 
 Household. 
 
 Good Household. 
 
 Inferior Steam. 
 
 Household and 
 Steam. 
 
 Household. 
 
 Steam. 
 Household. 
 
 > Steam. 
 
200 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 Name of Colliery. 
 
 Name of Coal. 
 
 Thick 
 ness. 
 
 Quality. 
 
 Class. 
 
 
 
 Ft. In 
 
 
 
 Leven, Durie, and 
 
 fCoal. 
 
 
 
 ) 
 
 Wellsgreen Collieries 
 
 Six-foot Coil. 
 
 \ Stone. 
 
 
 > Steam. 
 
 — continued. 
 
 
 1 Coal. 
 
 2| 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 ' Crow Coal. 
 
 1 
 
 Not" 
 worked. 
 
 
 
 
 Parting. 
 
 - n 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 Chemiss Coal. 
 
 Splint Coal 
 Parting. 
 
 z }\ 
 
 
 Good Household. 
 
 
 
 Binks Coal 
 
 2i - 
 
 
 Steam. 
 
 
 
 Stone. 
 
 "I ~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Coal. 
 
 H - 
 
 
 Steam. 
 
 
 Parrot Coal. 
 
 3 
 
 
 Gas Coal. 
 
 
 'Coal. 
 
 2 - 
 
 JNot 
 f worked. 
 
 
 
 
 Stone. 
 
 - u 
 
 
 
 
 Coal. 
 
 -i - 
 
 
 
 
 Stone. 
 
 - 2 
 
 
 
 Dysart Main 
 Coal. 
 
 Coal. 
 
 Stone. 
 
 Coal. 
 
 14 - 
 
 - 5 
 3 I " 
 
 
 
 
 
 Stone. 
 
 — 4, 
 
 Y Worked. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 
 
 Coal. 
 
 34 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 Stone. 
 
 - 1 
 
 
 
 
 VCoal. 
 
 -i - 
 
 - 
 
 
 Lochgelly Colliery, 
 
 Little Splint Coal. 
 Fourteen-foot Coal. 
 
 3 - 
 10 - 
 
 Good. 
 
 2nd class Steam. 
 
 
 Duddy Davie Coal. 
 
 3 - 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 Lochgelly Splint Coal. 
 
 5 - 
 
 !t 
 
 1st class Steam. 
 
 
 Lochgelly Parrot. 
 
 3J - 
 
 3) 
 
 2nd class Gas 
 Coal. 
 
 
 Glassee Coal. 
 
 3 
 
 
 2nd class Steam. 
 
 
 Mynheer Coal. 
 
 34 - 
 
 " 
 
 1st class House- 
 hold. 
 
 
 Five-foot Coal. 
 
 i - 
 
 
 1st class Steam. 
 
 
 Dunfermline Splint Coal. 
 
 i - 
 
 >> 
 
 1st class House- 
 hold. 
 
 Lochore and Caple- 
 
 Capledrae Gas Coal. -J 
 
 2 
 
 1st class. 
 
 Top of\ 
 Seam 1 Gas 
 
 drae Colliery, 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 2nd class. 
 
 Bottom (Coal, 
 of Seam J 
 
 Lumphinnans Colliery, 
 
 'Foul Coal. 
 
 2 - 
 
 
 
 
 Lochgelly ! 
 Splint and \ r 
 Parrot Coal. \ 
 
 plint Coal, 
 "ire-clay. 
 Joal. 
 'arrot Coal. 
 
 5 - 
 1 - 
 
 _3 _ 
 
 2* 
 
 
 1 Household 
 J Coal. 
 
 Gas Coal. 
 
 
 u 
 
 Joal. 
 
 14 - 
 
 
 Household Coal. 
 
 
 Mynheer Coal. 
 
 4 - 
 
 
 Steam and 
 Household. 
 
 
 Five-foot Coal. 
 
 *i - 
 
 
 Steam and 
 
 
 Dunfermline Splint Coal. 
 
 i 
 
 
 Household. 
 Household. 
 
 Muircockhall Colliery, 
 
 Six-foot Coal. 
 
 5i - 
 
 Fair. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 
 Caiincubbie Coal. 
 
 34 - 
 
 >j 
 
 2nd class House- 
 hold. 
 
 
 Three-foot Coal. 
 
 3 - 
 
 
 Steam, 
 
 
 Bight-foot Coal. 
 
 4* 
 
 >> 
 
 
 Muiredge, Denbeath, 
 
 ( 
 
 5 
 
 Splint 
 and 
 
 \ 
 
 Rosie, and Cameron 
 
 Bight-foot Coal. 
 
 to 
 
 [Household and 
 
 Collieries, 
 
 Six-foot Coal. 
 
 
 6 - 
 6 - 
 
 cherry. 
 
 J Steam. 
 Steam. 
 
Economic Minerals. 
 
 201 
 
 Name of Colliery. 
 
 Name of Coal. 
 
 Thick- 
 ness. 
 
 Quality. 
 
 Class. 
 
 Muiredge, Denbeath, 
 Rosie, and Cameron 
 Collieries — contd. 
 
 Muirheath Colliery, 
 
 Oakley Steam Colliery 
 Oakley, Kiueddar, 
 
 Rosebank Colliery, 
 (Dunfermline). 
 
 Rosewells Colliery, 
 
 Steel-end Mines, Saline, 
 
 Chemiss Coal. 
 
 Parrot Coal. 
 Dysart Main Coal. 
 
 Six-foot Coal. 
 Cairncubbie Coal. 
 
 Three-foot Coal. 
 
 Bight-foot /Upper Leaf. 
 Coal. \ Under Leaf. 
 Five-foot Coal. 
 Dunfermline Splint Coal. 
 
 Five-foot Coal. 
 Kineddar Splint Coal. 
 
 Upper Eight-foot Coal in 
 two leaves, each from 
 
 Upper Swallowdrum Coal. 
 
 LowerSwallowdrumCoal. 
 
 Under Bight-foot Coal in _ 
 two leaves, each from 
 
 Five-foot Coal. 
 
 Two-foot Coal. 
 
 Four-foot Coal. 
 
 Brown Cannel. 
 Boghead Cannel. 
 (This is the Capledrae 
 Gas Coal.) 
 
 Bight-foot Coal. 
 
 Three-foot Coal. 
 
 Coal. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 7 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 11 
 t( 
 
 3 
 
 to 
 
 10 
 
 Splint 
 and 
 free. 
 
 Ironstone 
 
 and 
 
 cannel. 
 Cherry 
 
 and 
 
 splint. 
 
 Good. 
 
 2 
 to 
 
 2 6 
 4 - 
 
 to 
 4 6 
 4 - 
 
 to 
 4 6 
 
 3 - 
 to 
 
 to 
 4 6 
 2 - 
 
 to 
 2 3 
 2 
 
 to 
 2 6 
 
 2A 
 
 to 
 4 - 
 2i - 
 
 to 
 21 
 
 Very good 
 Fair. 
 
 } Household and 
 Steam. 
 
 Gas Coal. 
 
 (Household and 
 f Steam. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 2nd class House- 
 hold. 
 
 Gas Splint, 6 in. 
 1st class Cannel 
 on bottom of 
 Coal. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 1st class House- 
 hold. 
 
 Steam. 
 Household. 
 
 Steam and 
 Caking. 
 
 2nd class. 
 1st class. 
 
 Inferior. 
 Very good 
 
 Good. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 Gas Coal. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 Steam and 
 Smithy. 
 
202 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 Name of Colliery. 
 
 Name of Coal. 
 
 Thick- 
 ness. 
 
 Quality. 
 
 Class. 
 
 Steel-end Mines, Saline 
 — continued. 
 
 Townhill Colliery, 
 (Dunfermline). 
 
 Parrot Coal. 
 Five-foot Coal. 
 
 Two-foot Coal. 
 
 Splint or Four-foot Coal. 
 
 Bride Coal. 
 
 Six-foot Coal. 
 Cairnoubbie Coal. 
 Swallowdrum Coal. 
 
 Ell Coal. 
 
 Upper Eight-foot Coal. 
 Lower Eight-foot Coal. 
 Five-foot Coal. 
 Dunfermline Splint Coal. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 4 6 
 
 Coal 
 
 14 - 
 Fire-cl'y 
 
 4 - 
 
 Coal 
 
 1| 
 
 to 
 2* 
 
 i 
 28 
 
 4 
 
 f 
 
 Bastard 
 Parrot. 
 
 Fair. 
 
 Fair to 
 
 good. 
 Good. 
 Excellent. 
 Fair to 
 
 poor. 
 Poor. 
 Fair. 
 
 )> 
 Excellent, 
 
 Steam. 
 
 Splint 
 Steam. 
 Steam. 
 Household. 
 Steam. 
 
 Household. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 Household. 
 
 and 
 
 Ironstone. 
 
 The iron-ores obtained in Fife occur as beds or as nodules of 
 argillaceous carbonate of iron intercalated among the shales and 
 coal-seams of the Carboniferous system. The most valuable, known 
 as Black-band, contain a considerable admixture of carbonaceous 
 material and can readily be calcined. A more abundant but less 
 valuable kind, called Clay-band, is plentiful among the black shales 
 in nodular concretions (" balls "), in thin partings and in thicker 
 seams. It contains little of the carbonaceous ingredient of the 
 Black-band, and thus requires more coal in its calcination. Only the 
 first variety is worked in Fife at present, and to a less extent 
 than formerly, some of the blast-furnaces having been disused and 
 even removed. 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Class. 
 
 Quality. 
 
 Loehgelly and Lumphinnans Collieries, 
 
 (Not worked at present. The 
 furnaces at these two collieries 
 are not now in blast.) 
 
 2 ft. 
 
 Black-band 
 Ironstone. 
 
 2nd class. 
 
 Hill of Beath and Dalbeath (Fife Coal 
 Co.), 
 
 8 in. 
 
 Black-band. 
 
 2nd class. 
 
 (The Stone on the top of the 
 Five-foot Coal is at present 
 worked. ) 
 
 
 
 
Economic Minerals. 
 
 203 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Class. 
 
 Quality. 
 
 Halbeath Colliery (Kingseat Pits), 
 
 6 in. to 8 in. 
 
 Black-band. 
 
 2nd class. 
 
 (The upper part of Lower Five- 
 foot Coal. ) 
 
 
 
 
 Kinglassie Coal Field, 
 
 1 ft. 8 in. 
 
 Black-band. 
 
 
 (Worked about 30 years ago.) 
 
 
 
 
 Tillybreck Pits (Wemyss Estate), 
 
 2 ft. 
 
 Clay-band. 
 
 Good. 
 
 (Worked about 40 years ago. ) 
 
 
 
 
 Kilmure Colliery (North of Kennoway), 
 (Worked from 1870 to 1872.) 
 
 1 it. 6 in. to 
 2 ft. 
 
 Black-band. 
 
 Good. 
 
 With the ironstones that have been mined as a source of the 
 metal may here be included those earthy varieties which have 
 been worked chiefly as materials for pigments. The most notable 
 of these is the Ochre referred to on p. 159 as occurring in the 
 red measures at the top of the Carboniferous system of Fife. It is 
 a yellow, soft, decomposing material, consisting of clay or fine sand 
 largely intermixed with hydrous ferric oxide. Three beds of this 
 substance may be seen in the coast-section west of Drumochy, and 
 one lies about 117 fathoms above the Chemiss Coal on the shore 
 to the west of Methil. The seam which lies 60 fathoms above 
 that coal-seam was worked to a considerable extent about 40 years 
 ago in the neighbourhood of Leven. It was reached by a day- 
 level at the foot of Muiredge Den, and also by a pit situated 300 
 yards to the north-east of the old Scoonie Pit. The grinding mills 
 were in Leven, and the ground pigment was shipped to Leith for 
 sale. The following remarks on this material, which is not now 
 worked in the district, are taken from Landale's " Geology of the 
 East of Fife Coal-field." * " The ochre is next seen and wrought a 
 little north from Methil, after being thrown forward by the fault 
 B. It is then wrought north from the town of Leven, after 
 being thrown forward by the fault; and lastly it is seen above the 
 coals at Drumochy. This peculiar substance, so extensively used 
 as a pigment, has not, to my knowledge, been analysed. It appears 
 to be a very fine clay or shale, coloured bright yellow by oxide of 
 iron. It is a most variable substance ; sometimes it diminishes in 
 thickness to three or four inches, and then swells out again to as 
 many feet. It is very difficult to be got free of sand, which renders 
 it nearly useless. At Wemyss Castle it is not sufficiently coloured 
 for use ; at Buckhaven it approaches to the nature of sandstone ; 
 at Methil it is sometimes pure, and a few yards farther it is 
 
 * Prize Essays and Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scot- 
 land. Vol. XI. (1837), p. 279. 
 
204 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 impregnated with sand ; to the north of Leven it is even more 
 irregular ; and at Drumochy it is quite arenaceous and useless." 
 
 Another ore of iron, which occurs in Kennoway Den, is a good 
 haematite from nine inches to a foot in thickness, which was worked 
 about 30 years ago by means of an " ingoing eye." It has a fine 
 red colour, and was shipped to England as reddle or keel for mark- 
 ing sheep. 
 
 Galena. 
 
 In various parts of Fife, veins or strings of galena have been 
 met with, some of which have been worked, but none of them 
 appear to be sufficiently thick and persistent to be worth further 
 exploration. Dr. Heddle states that "many years ago a vein 
 of galena was worked at Blebo [a few miles to the south-west of 
 St. Andrews], and another near 'North Queensferry, where it 
 occurred in fine cubo-octahedral crystals. It is accompanied by 
 small quantities of blende at the first of these localities." * 
 
 Another vein occurs at Hanging Myre, half a mile to the south 
 of the summit of the Bast Lomond Hill. The trend of the lode is 
 from south-west to north-east. It cuts the limestone which has 
 there been quarried, and runs into the hill at the farm-house. No 
 record has been found of the workings, but in Buist's manuscript 
 Geology of Fife the following information is given : — " The mine 
 was wrought in 1780 by Stewart of East Conland for galena and 
 silver. A considerable quantity of metal was smelted on the spot 
 and silver said to have been extracted. Six tons of ore were sent 
 to Perth for shipment. The vein runs N.E. and S.W. through 
 sandstone and limestone." 
 
 Fire-Clay. 
 
 Throughout the coal-bearing portions of the Carboniferous 
 system of Fife seams of fire-clay are frequent intercalations. A good 
 many of these are worked, but many more are available for future 
 use. The following list comprises some of the more important 
 seams at present employed for the manufacture of bricks, pipes, 
 and various kinds of sanitary appliances : — 
 
 At Townhill Colliery, Dunfermline, a parting of fire-clay in the 
 Swallowdrum Coal has a variable thickness from 10 inches to 
 several feet. It is of good quality, and is made into bricks and 
 pipes. But it is only taken out in order to work the overlying 
 coal. 
 
 At Lochead, to the north of Dunfermline, a large fire-clay work 
 has long been established, where all classes of bricks, pipes, and 
 sanitary goods are manufactured. The stratigraphical position of 
 the seam of fire-clay, which is here wrought on the ground, is not 
 certain. It occurs on the south side of the Loch Fitty fault, and 
 the pit-workings to the south show the ground to be very much 
 " troubled " by numerous faults. 
 
 * "Fife ; Pictorial and Historical," p. 21. 
 
Economic Minerals. 205 
 
 The Fife Coal Company have an extensive manufacture of bricks, 
 pipes, fire-bricks, and sanitary goods at Hill of Beath. The clay 
 used there is partly brought from the company's Durie Colliery, 
 Leven, taken from under the Bight-foot Coal, there 18 inches thick, 
 and partly from the Fourteen-foot Coal at Hill of Beath, where a 
 fire-clay 15 inches thick forms the roof of that coal. 
 
 At Dundonald Colliery, Cardenden, a bed of fire-clay 3 feet thick 
 lies above the Glass Coal. It is not worked at present, but was 
 formerly used for fire-bricks. 
 
 The Wemyss Coal Company employ the Burncraig seam, which 
 is of good quality, for the manufacture of bricks. 
 
 At Muiredge, Buckhaven, the Six-foot Coal is separated into two 
 leaves by a band of fire-clay of fair quality from 18 to 24 inches 
 thick, which is employed in the manufacture of good hard bricks, 
 sewage pipes, vent-linings, chimney-cans, &c. 
 
 At the Kingseat pits of the Halbeath Colliery a seam of good 
 fire-clay 1 foot thick lies underneath the Cairncubbie Splint Coal, 
 and is used for making fire-bricks. With the Upper Five-foot 
 seam a bed of excellent pipe-clay 2 feet 9 inches thick is employed 
 for the manufacture of pipe-clay goods. 
 
 Oil-Shale. 
 
 Bituminous shales which can be used for the distillation of 
 mineral oil occur in different parts of the Carboniferous series of 
 Fife. They were formerly mined to a considerable extent, but the 
 fall in the price of oil and the residual products has led to the 
 abandonment of this part of the mineral industries of the district. 
 The shale above the Burdiehouse Limestone at Binnend, Burnt- 
 island, was extensively worked by three principal mines, of which 
 the longest extends northwards for a distance of 900 yards. The 
 works, which were closed about ten years ago, manufactured crude 
 and refined oil, "scale," and sulphate of ammonia. The "scale" 
 was made into candles in the factory at Kinghorn Loch. 
 
 The same or a similar seam of oil-shale runs westward with the 
 crop of the limestones, and is seen on the declivity at the north 
 end of Whitesands Bay. An oil-shale, believed to be the Dunnet 
 seam of the Lothians, has already been referred to as seen to 
 the north of St. Davids. There can be little doubt that should 
 the price of mineral oil rise sufficiently to warrant further 
 search in this district, workable tracts of oil-shale might be found 
 in the tract between Burntisland and Inverkeithing, though no 
 doubt much of the material has been destroyed by the intrusive 
 igneous rocks which there abound. 
 
 Another dismantled oil-work, where oil was made from a much 
 higher horizon in the Carboniferous rocks, may be seen at 
 Westfield, Kinglassie. At the base of that coal-field, 26 fathoms 
 below what is believed to be the Dysart Main Coal, and 1 fathom 
 above the Levenseat Limestone, a seam of Parrot Coal 4 feet 
 thick is surmounted by 2 feet 8 inches of foul soft coal. This 
 
206 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 Parrot seam was mined and distilled here about 18 years for the 
 production of crude oil. Throughout the coal-fields seams of 
 bituminous shale and coal, which are not now worked, might be 
 mined for the manufacture of oil, if a sufficient and permanent rise 
 in the price of the commodity were to take place. 
 
 Building-Stone. 
 
 There is an inexhaustible supply of good building-stone in the 
 county of Fife. Most of it is to be found among the thick 
 intercalations of sandstone in the Carboniferous system. Some of 
 these bands consist of excellent freestone, capable of being cut in 
 any direction, and therefore well suited for architectural purposes. 
 The most close-grained, firm, and durable stone is to be met with 
 in the Burdiehouse Limestone group, which is chiefly developed 
 between Burntisland and Inverkeithing. The quarries of Grange, 
 Kilmundy, and Oullalo have long been known, but new openings 
 might be made in almost any part of that ground. 
 
 The sandstones of the other divisions of the Carboniferous series 
 are, on the whole, softer, more open in texture, and coarser in 
 grain, so that they are less well adapted for polished ashlar-work, 
 but they yield good material for the construction of walls. 
 
 The Carboniferous sandstones are generally grey, white, or 
 yellow. In parts of the Millstone Grit group they have a purplish- 
 red tint, and in the highest sub-division of the series from Wemyss 
 to beyond Leven they are generally of a brick-red colour. 
 
 The Upper Old Red Sandstone contains some good red freestone, 
 which has been worked in quarries between Loch Leven and Cupar. 
 
 The abundance of sandstones in the district, their excellent 
 quality, and the ease with which they can be dressed have led to 
 their being almost the only building-stones made use of. But 
 many of the igneous rocks are capable of being employed for some 
 of the same purposes. Though these materials cannot be dressed 
 freely on account of their hard, splintery character and abundant 
 concealed joints, they have been largely quarried for walls and 
 field-fences. Where they are close-grained and can be split along 
 clean, smooth joints they can be substituted for freestone even in 
 the front walls of houses. Some of the dolerites and basalts are 
 more particularly serviceable for such a purpose. Occasionally 
 also the coarse-grained dolerites can be quarried in large quad- 
 rangular blocks suitable for piers and harbour works, where 
 strength and durability are required. The great sill of Queensferry 
 is an example of this kind of stone. 
 
 Limestone. 
 
 The county of Fife possesses an ample store of limestone. In 
 former years, when it was the practice to make much more 
 abundant use of lime in agriculture than is now the case, lime- 
 quarries and kilns were at work all over the region. Most of 
 these are now disused. 
 
Economic Minerals. 207 
 
 Considerable variety in the nature of the stone marks the 
 different seams of this material. The lowest in stratigraphical 
 position is the Oornstone described in Chapter V. It is a somewhat 
 sandy and siliceous limestone, and was formerly extensively worked 
 along the northern slopes of Benarty Hill. It could be obtained 
 in large quantity from its outcrop between Mossendgreen and 
 Muckart near the Bumbling Bridge. 
 
 The Cement-stone group, as its name denotes, includes bands 
 and nodules of argillaceous and ferruginous limestone from which 
 cement can be manufactured. This group, however, is not well 
 developed in the West of Fife. Its calcareous members are best 
 displayed in the valley of the Devon at Muckhart Mill. 
 
 The Burdiehouse Limestone group includes a number of seams 
 of limestone, of which the thickest and most valuable has long been 
 worked between Burntisland and Aberdour. This seam is a 
 remarkably fine-grained and pure limestone, well suited as a flux 
 for iron-furnaces. Unfortunately it is confined to the limited tract 
 of ground between Dodhead and Whitesands Bay. It was formerly 
 worked open-cast, but it is now mined and removed by railway. 
 As explained at p. 46, there are several bands of the limestone 
 intercalated among sandstones and shales, but it is the thickest of 
 them which is worked. 
 
 The Carboniferous Limestone series includes numerous bands of 
 limestone, from the Hurlet seam at the base to the Levenseat seam 
 at the top. The Hurlet is the thickest and on the whole most 
 valuable band. It has formerly been extensively worked along its 
 crop, and is still largely quarried at a few places. Some of the 
 most extensive openings in it are to be seen at Charlestown, 
 Koscobie, Chapel, north of Leslie, and south of Pitlessie. The 
 Hosie Limestones have also been worked on a considerable scale. 
 Their general characters can be conveniently seen in the shore 
 section east of Seafield Tower. 
 
 The higher limestones are seldom to be seen at the surface owing 
 to the covering of drift. The best sections of them are those on 
 the coast east of Pathhead, where the two highest, the Gair and 
 Levenseat seams, are exposed (ante, pp. 133-137). These limestones, 
 being thinner and more impure than the Hurlet seam, have not 
 been generally opened up for industrial purposes. 
 
 Road Metal. 
 
 Owing to the abundance of igneous rocks distributed all over Fife, 
 materials for the construction and repair of roads are almost every- 
 where obtainable. These rocks vary greatly in their hardness and 
 durability. In general they decay for a distance of less than an inch 
 up to several feet or yards from the outer surface, so that their true 
 characters are not always to be judged of from the shallow exposures 
 of them to be seen in roadside quarries, and still less from the 
 weather-beaten crags in which they so frequently rise above ground. 
 
 The amygdaloidal andesites of the Ochil Hills have frequently a 
 weathered outer layer which can be easily dug or picked away, and 
 
208 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 which without further treatment is available for road purposes. 
 More durable are the solid, undecayed, and least amygdaloidal 
 portions of these rocks when broken up into fragments. But the 
 porphyritic and non-amygdaloidal varieties, both of the lavas and 
 sills, supply the best road-making materials. Excellent examples 
 of these rocks may be seen at Newburgh and in Glen Farg. None 
 of them, however, possesses qualities sufficient to make them sought 
 after for more than merely local demand. It will be seen 
 that the whole of the northern half of Fife can be supplied 
 from this source. Quarries may be opened almost anywhere on the 
 andesite ground close to some road, so that the material is accessible 
 with no great cost of transport. 
 
 The tuffs scattered in separate patches over Fife are not well 
 adapted for roads : they are too crumbling, and soon get crushed 
 into dust and mud under wheel-traffic. 
 
 Undoubtedly the best materials for road-construction are the 
 various basalts and dolerites so abundantly distributed in sills, 
 bosses, and dykes. The advantages of these rocks, from their 
 durability, accessibility, and ease of working, have long been 
 recognised in the district, and innumerable quarries have been 
 opened in them, chiefly for local use. Some of them, however, are 
 suitable for wider sale. The great dolerite sill of North Queens- 
 ferry has long been worked on an extensive scale, its closeness to the 
 shore facilitating its shipment to a distance. The extent to which 
 Fife has now been opened up by railways has brought almost every 
 part of the county within reach of the shipping ports. It is 
 probably not too sanguine an anticipation to look forward to a 
 time when some of the innumerable masses of basalt and dolerite 
 of the interior will be turned to account for more than merely local 
 consumption, and will be shipped to some of the great towns of the 
 country for causeways and kerbstones. 
 
 Peat. 
 
 Until the development of the coal-fields, peat was the general 
 fuel used in Fife, as in the rest of Scotland. Much of the old 
 mosses has disappeared, though, as described in the previous 
 chapter, a few tracts remain as memorials of what was once the 
 condition of many of the lower levels of the region. Peat is still 
 dug in a few places, as at Moss Morran in the parish of Beath, and 
 at the Star Moss in the parish of Kennoway. It is chiefly 
 employed in the distilleries to give the peculiar smoky flavour to 
 whisky. 
 
 Shell-Marl. 
 
 The beds of some of the vanished lakes are underlain with a 
 deposit of lacustrine shells, forming a marl which was once sought 
 after as a manure for soils. A layer of this nature, from two to 
 three feet deep, and covering an area of twenty acres, occurs at 
 Inchrye, a little south of Newburgh, and other examples have been 
 noted in different parts of the county. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 Part I. PaljEontological. 
 
 Note by B. N. Peach. 
 
 A. List of Localities from which fossils have been 
 
 obtained.' 
 
 B. General List of Fossils arranged in their systematic 
 
 order. 
 0. Special Lists of Fossils found in each of the sub- 
 divisions of the Stratigraphical series. 
 
 Part II. Petrographical. 
 
 Part III. Bibliographical. 
 
 Part IV. Journal of Blairhall Bore, Oakley. 
 
Appendix. 2 1 1 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 PART I. PAL^EONTOLOGICAL. 
 
 The first collection of fossils from Fife and Kinross, made by the 
 Geological Survey, consisted of specimens gathered by the late B. Gibbs 
 and named by J. W... Salter. Lists of Carboniferous fossils, based on 
 this collection, were inserted on the margin of Sheet 40 of the One-inch 
 Map, which was published in 1867. Only a few of the specimens from 
 which these lists were drawn up have been available for the purposes 
 of this Appendix. 
 
 Most of the fossils enumerated in the following lists were collected 
 by Mr. James Bennie, and were determined by Mr. R. Etheridge, jun., 
 when acting as Palaeontologist to the Geological Survey of Scotland, 
 with assistance from the following specialists : — Dr. Traquair, the late 
 Professor H. Alleyne Nicholson, Professor T. Eupert Jones, Mr. J. W. 
 Kirkby, and the late Mr. Herbert Carpenter. Recently additions 
 have been made to the collections by Mr. D. Tait, Fossil Collector of 
 the Survey. 
 
 In view of the preparation of the present Memoir on Central and 
 Western Fife, the fossils from this region (Sheet 40) in the collection of 
 the Geological Survey of Scotland have been largely re-examined 
 under my supervision, and the fossil lists have been revised and added 
 to. Several specialists have kindly given their valuable assistance in 
 this work. The list of Fishes has been prepared for this volume by Dr. 
 Traquair ! that of the Ostracods by Professor T. Rupert Jones and 
 Mr. J. W. Kirkby ; that of the Lamellibranchs by Dr. J. Wheelton 
 Hind ; that of the Palseozoic Plants by. Mr. R. Kidston ; and that of 
 the Post-tertiary Plants by Mr. Clement Reid. 
 
 In addition to the valuable services which have been acknowledged 
 in the body of the present Memoir, a special debt of obligation is due 
 to Mr. Kirkby for his help in the preparation of this Appendix. He 
 has generously placed at our disposal copious lists of fossils collected by 
 himself from the Carboniferous rocks. His materials are embodied in 
 the following pages. 
 
 The various lists have been drawn up by me, with the assistance of 
 Mr. D. Tait. They are three in number. The first is a list (A) of the 
 localities from which fossils have' been obtained ; the second (B) is a 
 general list of all the fossils which have been collected, arranged in 
 their botanical and zoological grades, with an indication of the Strati- 
 graphical series in which they occur ; the third (C) is an enumeration 
 of the main Stratigraphical groups, with the fossils which have been 
 obtained from each of their subdivisions. 
 
 BEN. N. PEACH. 
 
212 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shin 
 
 A. List of Localities 
 
 From which fossils have been obtained by the Geological Survey and 
 Mr. J. W. Kirkby in Central and Western Fife and parts of the 
 Counties of Perth, Clackmannan, and Kinross. (Sheet 40 and 
 part of Sheet 32.) 
 
 Upper Old Red Sandstone. 
 
 I. From a wall S. side of Kinross, Loch Leven. 
 II. Balgeddie, by Kinnesswood. 
 
 III. Quarry at side of burn, between Wester Gospetry and Moors of 
 
 Kinnesswood. 
 
 IV. Glen Burn, between Lappie and Easter Gospetry, near Burn- 
 
 side. 
 
 V. Glen Burn, ^-mile above road, 2 miles north of Kinnesswood. 
 
 VI. Easter Gospetry, 3 miles N. of Kinnesswood. 
 
 VII. Easter Cash, 1 mile S.E. of Strathmiglo. 
 
 VIII. Falklandwood Farm, in old quarry W. of, 1 mile N.W. of 
 Falkland. 
 
 IX. Quarryhaugh, N. side of R. Eden, at Pitlessie Mill. 
 
 Carboniferous. 
 
 1. Charleston Quarry, 4 miles W. of Inverkeithing. 
 
 2. Rosyth, W. of Queensferry. 
 
 3. St. David's, W. of, on shore under Seafield Cottage. 
 3a. Port Haven, |-mile S.W. of Aberdour. 
 
 4. Oakley Railway Cutting, 1| miles W. of, 6 miles W. of Dun- 
 
 fermline. 
 
 5. Creechy Pit, 1| miles N.W. of Oakley, 6 miles N.W. of Dun- 
 
 fermline. 
 5a. Burn at Moreland, 2| miles S.S.E. of Crook of Devon. 
 
 6. Scaurhill Limeworks, 3 miles S.W. of Cleish, 6 miles N.W. of 
 
 Dunfermline. 
 
 7. Berrylaw Colliery, 1 mile W. of Dunfermline. 
 
 8. Berrylaw Quarries, 1 mile W. of Dunfermline. 
 
 9. Lochornie Burn, Blairadam, 2 miles S.S.E. of Cleish, shale above 
 
 1st Limestone. 
 
 da. Lochornie Burn, shale above 2nd Limestone. 
 
Appendix. 213 
 
 10. Lathalmond Quarry, 4 miles N.W. of Dunfermline. 
 
 11. Roscobie Quarry, 4 miles N. of Dunfermline. 
 
 12. Dolly Limestone Quarry, near Drumfod, 4 miles N.W. of Dun- 
 
 fermline. 
 
 13. Linn Quarry, 4 miles N.W. of Dunfermline. 
 
 14. Cowdens Quarry, 3 miles N.W. of Dunfermline. 
 
 15. Craigluscar Quarry, 3 miles N.W. of Dunfermline. 
 
 16. Lochhead Fireclay Works, 2 miles N. of Dunfermline. 
 
 17. Craigduckie Quarry, N. of Loch Fitty. 
 
 18. Lassodie Quarry, N. of Loch Fitty. 
 
 18«. Touch Mains, right bank of burn below Touch Bleachfield. S.E. of 
 Dunfermline. 
 
 19. Sunnybank Quarry, Dunfermline. 
 
 20. Blacklaw Quarry, 1 mile S.E. of Dunfermline. 
 
 21. South Fod Quarry, 2 miles E. of Dunfermline. 
 
 22. Duloch Quarry, E. of Dunfermline. 
 
 23. Woodend Quarry, Parkend Farm, S. of Fordel, 5 miles E. of Dun- 
 
 fermline. 
 
 24. Easter Bucklyvie Quarry, Donibristle, 5 miles E.N.E. of Dun- 
 
 fermline. 
 
 25. Cowdenbeath Colliery, No. 2 Pit, south side of railway, 5 miles 
 
 N.E. of Dunfermline. 
 
 26. Kirkford Colliery, Cowdenbeath. 
 
 27. Lochgelly Ironworks, No. 16 Pit, E. of Ironwork, 7 miles N.E. of 
 
 Dunfermline. 
 
 28. Kelty Colliery, Lindsay Pit, Lochgelly, B.B. iron. 
 
 29. Capeldrae and Rosewell Collieries, E. of Ballingry, 1 mile S.E. of 
 
 Loch Leven. 
 
 30. Clattering Well, Bishop Hill, Kinnesswood, 
 
 31. Kilmundy Limestone Quarry, Burntisland. 
 
 32. Kilmundy Sandstone Quarry, Burntisland. 
 
 33. Cullalo Quarry, 2 miles N. of Aberdour. 
 
 34. Walton Quarry, 1 mile S. of Lochgelly, shale above No. 1 Lime- 
 
 stone. 
 
 35. Little Raith, 1 mile N.W. of Auchtertool. 
 
 36. Glenniston Quarry, 4 miles N.W. of Kirkcaldy. 
 
 37. Shaws Mill Quarry, 4 miles N.W. of Kirkcaldy. 
 
 38. Leslie Limeworks. 
 
 39. Chapel Quarry, 3 miles N.W. of Kirkcaldy. 
 
 40. Potmetal Plantation, 2£ miles N.W. of Kirkcaldy. 
 
 41. Bogie Quarry, 2 miles N.W. of Kirkcaldy. 
 
214 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 42. Dodhead Limestone Quarry, N.E. of Burntisland. 
 
 43. Newbigging Limeworks, 1£ miles W. of Burntisland. 
 
 44. Binnend Shale Works, Burntisland. 
 
 45. The Binn, S.E. side of, near Burntisland. 
 
 46. Grange Quarry, Burntisland. 
 
 47. Brosyhall Limestone Quarry, 1 mile N.E. of Burntisland. 
 
 48. Brosyhall Sandstone Quarry, ,, „ 
 
 49. Pettyeur, S. of Kinghorn. 
 
 50. \ Abden, Kinghorn — Abden Limestone, lowest limestone E, of 
 50a.) Kinghorn. (List supplied by Mr. J. W. Kirkby.) 
 
 506. Abden, Kinghorn — The same as above, limestone and shale. 
 
 50c. „ ,, — "White shale immediately under No. 1 Lime- 
 
 stone. 
 
 50a". Abden, Kinghorn — Blue shale below No. 1 Limestone. 
 
 50e. „ „ — Productus bed (above Pecten bed) below 
 
 No. 1 Limestone. 
 
 50/. Abden, Kinghorn — Shale below ash beds under No. 1 Limestone, 
 Abden. 
 
 50;;. Abden, Kinghorn — Bed above Pecton bed under No. 1 Limestone, 
 Abden. 
 
 50h. Abden, Kinghorn — Pecten bed, above Myalina bed, under No. 1 
 Limestone, Abden. 
 
 50i. Abden, Kinghorn — Myalina bed, under No. 1 Limestone, Abden. 
 50j. „ „ —Fish bed, „ „ „ 
 
 f Abden, Kinghorn — 2nd Limestone on shore E. of Kinghorn. 
 „ ,, — „ band, No. 3 of section. 
 
 No 4 
 
 „ „ — No. 2 Limestone on shore W. of Seafield 
 
 Tower ; shale below. 
 25 ft. Limestone, E. of Kinghorn. (List supplied by Mr. Kirkby.) 
 
 52. Kinghorn — 3rd Limestone on shore E. of, and W. of Seafield Tower; 
 
 shale above limestone. 
 
 52a. Kinghorn —3rd Limestone ; shale below limestone. 
 
 53. Kinghorn, Seafield Tower — Shale above sandstone on which tower 
 
 is built. 
 
 54. Kinghorn, E. of Seafield Tower — Top of 2nd Limestone above 
 
 Seafield Tower sandstone. 
 
 55. Pathhead, on shore near — Lower Limestone (Gair). (List supplied 
 
 by Mr. Kirkby.) 
 
 55a. Pathhead, on shore near — Lower Limestone (Gair.) ; from shale 
 above limestone. 
 
 556. Pathhead, on shore near — Lower Limestone (Gair) ; from shale 
 between limestone. 
 
 51. < 
 
Appendix. 215 
 
 55c. Pathhead, on shore near — Lower Limestone (Gair) ; from shale 
 below limestone. 
 
 56. Pathhead, on shore near — Upper Limestone (Levenseat), 200 
 
 yards E. of Lower Limestone. 
 
 57. Carberry Quarry, Dunnikier, \\ miles N. of Pathhead. 
 
 58. Invertiel Quarry, W. of Linktown, Kirkcaldy. 
 
 59. Dysart. 
 
 60. Dysart Harbour. 
 
 61. Blair Point, on shore between Dysart and West Wemyss. 
 
 62. West Wemyss. 
 
 63. East Newton Pit, near East Wemyss. 
 
 64. East Wemyss. 
 
 65. Muiredge Colliery, Buckhaven, S.W. of Leven. 
 
 66. Methil, on shore W.' of (red beds). 
 
 67. Pirnie Colliery, Leven — Wood coal, from bands forming roof. 
 
 68. „ „ —Parrot Coal. 
 
 69. Durie Colliery — Roof of Chemiss Coal. 
 
 70. Leven Colliery — Chemiss Coal horizon. 
 
 71. Durie and Leven Collieries — Boof of Eight-foot Coal. 
 
 72. Methil and Leven marine bands. (Mr. Kirkby's list.) 
 
 73. Kennoway Den. 
 
 74. Porthai Lime works, \\ miles S. of Kettle. 
 
 75. Pitlessie and Cults Limeworks — Shale and shaly limestone above 
 
 the Hurlet Limestone. 
 
 76. Pitlessie and Cults Limeworks — From a reddish shale bed some 
 
 little distance above the Hurlet Limestone. 
 
 Post-Tertiary. 
 
 Dronachy Burn, at railway cutting W. of Auchtertool. 
 
216 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 B. General List of all the Fossils 
 
 Obtained from Central and Western Fife and Kinross, arranged in 
 botanical and zoological grade, with their position in the Strati- 
 graphical series, and the localities from which they have been 
 obtained. 
 
 
 Lower. 
 
 Upper. 
 
 
 
 
 Carb. Limest. 
 
 
 
 IB 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 Series. 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 0) 
 
 
 
 cd 
 
 i 
 
 
 SPECIES. 
 
 o 
 
 13 
 
 oj 
 
 
 
 
 | 
 
 1 
 
 *e1 
 
 Locality Number. 
 
 
 a 
 
 5 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 eg 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 v> 
 
 w 
 
 co 
 
 "S ■ 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 0> 
 
 g 
 
 O 
 O 
 
 1 
 
 >-5 
 
 C5 
 G 
 
 •a 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 -a 
 
 CD 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 h 
 
 CD 
 
 fen 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 "c3 
 
 I 
 
 t3 
 
 S 1 
 
 3 
 
 ■5 
 
 o 
 
 •6 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 J 
 
 - 
 
 & 
 
 a 
 
 J 
 
 S 
 
 
 FlLICALES. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sphenopteridea. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Adiantiles, Qoeppert 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, antiquus, Ett. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 46, 50<7. 
 
 Calymmatotheca, Stwr. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, affinis, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 L. and H. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 31, 32, 42, 44, 
 46, 47, 50/. 
 
 ,, bifida, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 L. and H. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 46. 
 
 Cardiopteris, Schimp. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ sp 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 ff . 
 
 Eremopteris, Schimpei' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, artemisisefolia, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Slernb. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 63, 69, 70. 
 
 Eaohiopteris, Will. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, duplex, Will. ... 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 49. 
 
 „ allied to Old- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 hamium, Will. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 49. 
 
 Renaultia, Zeiller 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , , Footneri, Marrat ..." 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 61. 
 
 ,, microcarpa, Lesqx. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 61. 
 
 sp 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 49. 
 
 Sphenopteris, Brongt. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, acutifolia, Brongt. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 61. 
 
 ,, crassa, L. and H 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 31. 
 
 ,, Dunsi, Kidston 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 31, 46. 
 
 ,, fureata, Brongt. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 61. 
 
 ;> (Rhodea) Hoch- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 stetteri, Slur. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 46. 
 
 ,, latifolia, Brongt. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 61, 63. 
 
 ,, Laurenti, Anarw 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 61. 
 
 ,, (Rhodea) mora- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 vioa, Ett. ... 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 31, 46. 
 
 ,, obtusiloba, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Brongt. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 61, 67. 
 
 ,, Schillingsi, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Andrea 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 61. 
 
 sp 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 25, 50<7, 65. 
 
Appendix. 
 
 217 
 
 Carb. Limest. 
 Series. 
 
 Locality Number. 
 
 Filioales — continued. 
 
 Pecopteridece. 
 Dactylotheca, Zeiller 
 
 ,, plumosa, Artis ; 
 
 forma erenata, 
 L. and H. ..: 
 Mariopteris, Zeiller 
 
 ,, muricata, Schl.... 
 
 ,, muricata, forma 
 
 nervosa, L. and 
 
 H. 
 
 Peeopteris, Brongt. 
 
 ,, (?) Miltoni, Artis 
 
 Alethopteris, Sterrib. 
 
 ,, aquilina, Schl.... 
 
 ,, decurrens, Artis 
 
 ,, lonchitica, Schl. 
 
 Newropterideat. 
 Neuropteris, Brongt. 
 
 ,, gigantea, Sternb. 
 
 ,, heterophylla, 
 
 Brongt. 
 ,, rarinervis, 
 
 Bunbury 
 ,, Scheuchzeri, 
 
 Hoffm. 
 
 Lyginodehdrea. 
 Heterangium, Oorda 
 
 Grievi, Will. ... 
 Lyginodendron, Will., not 
 Oowrlie 
 » sp 
 
 Equisetales. 
 
 Calamariece. 
 Annularia, Stemb. 
 
 ,, radiata, B-rongt. ... 
 Asteroealamites, Schimper 
 
 ,, sorobioulatus 
 
 Sch. 
 Calamites (Suckow), Schlotheim 
 Group I. — Calamitina, 
 Weiss 
 , , varians, Stemb. . . . 
 
 Group II. — Eucalamites, 
 Weiss 
 ,, ramosus Artis = 
 
 nodosus, L. <£• H. 
 Group lit. — Stylooala- 
 mites, Weiss 
 
 63. 
 61. 
 
 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67. 
 
 66. 
 
 64. 
 
 61, 63, 65, 67. 
 
 67. 
 
 61, 63, 67. 
 
 49. 
 49. 
 
 61. 
 
 31, 32, 33, 42,46,(?)49. 
 
 67. 
 
 61, 66. 
 
218 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 
 Lower. 
 
 Upper. 
 
 
 
 
 Oarb. Limest. 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 Series. 
 
 
 =5 
 
 ! 
 
 
 SPECIES. 
 
 o 
 
 R 
 
 C 
 O 
 CO 
 
 oi 
 
 C 
 o 
 to 
 
 TS 
 
 i 
 a 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 Locality Number. 
 
 
 co 
 g 
 
 0} 
 
 13 
 
 "3 
 
 o 
 D 
 
 g 
 3 
 
 O 
 
 CD 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 © 
 
 CD 
 
 St 
 
 CD 
 
 o 
 
 o> 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 '3 
 
 '3 
 
 o 
 
 
 fi- 
 
 sjjj 
 
 I 
 o 
 
 -d 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 1-J 
 
 3 
 
 ts 
 
 a 
 
 J 
 
 a 
 
 
 Equisetales — continued. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Calaraites Cisti, Brongt. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 69, 70. 
 
 ,, Suckowi, Brongt. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 61, 63, 66, 67, 68, 69, 
 
 70. 
 55c, 65, 66, 67. 
 
 „ sp. ... 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Calamocladus, Sckimper 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , , equisetif ormis, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Schl. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 61, 63, 66, 68. 
 
 Pateostachya, Weiss 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, pedunoulata 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Will. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 61. 
 
 Sphenophyllales. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Spkenophyllalece. 
 Sphenophyllum, Brongt. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, cuneifolium, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sternb. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 61, 63. 
 
 ,, (?) emargina- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tum, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Brongt. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 66. 
 
 ,, insigne, W. & 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 49. 
 
 ,, tenerrimum, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ett. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 46, 47. 
 
 „ sp 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 67. 
 
 Cheirostrobus, Scott 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, petty curensis, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Scott 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 49. 
 
 » sp 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 49. 
 
 Ltoopodiales. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lepidodendron, Stemb. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, ophiurus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Brongt. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 65, 66, 68. 
 
 ,, (?) rimosum, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Stemb. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 66. 
 
 ,, veltheimianum, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sternb. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3a, 81, 32, 42, 43, 46, 
 49. 
 
 ,, sp 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 8, 25, 27, 49, 63. 
 
 Lepidophloios, Stemb. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, acerosus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 L. and ff, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 59. 
 
 , , scoticus, Kidston 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 31, 42, 46, 47, 49. 
 
 Lepidophyllum, Brongt. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, lanceolatum, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 L. and H. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 81, 46, ,66. 
 
 „ sp 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3a. 
 
 Lepidostrobus, Brongt. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, comosus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 L. and H. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 31, 42, 46. 
 
Appendix. 
 
 219 
 
 
 Lower. 
 
 Upper. 
 
 
 
 
 Oarb. Limest 
 
 
 
 o5 
 
 
 
 
 Series. 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 § 
 
 -*3 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SPECIES. 
 
 ffl 
 
 ■a 
 a 
 
 co 
 
 09 
 
 3 
 O 
 U 
 
 a 
 o 
 to 
 a> 
 
 a 
 
 " 3 
 
 to 
 
 O 
 O 
 
 0} 
 
 B 
 O 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 43 
 
 o 
 
 CD 
 
 a 
 
 01 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 ■a 
 
 o 
 O 
 •a 
 
 a) 
 
 M 
 
 Locality Number. 
 
 
 CD 
 
 "3 
 
 % 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 in 
 
 Eh 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 •6 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 - 
 
 » 
 
 S 
 
 |J 
 
 s 
 
 
 Lycopodiales— continued. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lepidostrobus variabilis, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 L. and H. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 31, 32, 42, 46, 61, 66. 
 
 » sp 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 3a, 31, 43, 47, 63, 68. 
 
 Sigillaria, Brongt. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sec. I. — Clathrariaa 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ Brardi, Brongt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 63. 
 
 Sec. II. — Leiodermarias. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ oamptotsenia, Wood ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 66. 
 
 Sec. III. — Rhytidolepis. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, scutellata, Brongt. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 63. 
 
 » sp 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 68. 
 
 Stigmaria, Brongt. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ fiooides, Sternb. ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 61, 68. 
 
 „ sp 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 8, 43, 46, 49, 55c. 
 
 Maorospores of Lepidoden- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 droid (?) plants 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 68. 
 
 Sporangia 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 49. 
 
 ^COBDAITEiE. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cordaianthus, Grand'Eury 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Pitoairnise, L. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and H. ; sp. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 68, 69, 70. 
 
 Cordaites, Unger 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, principalis, Germar ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sp. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 61. 
 
 ,, sp 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 42, 46, 66, 68. 
 
 Rhabdocarpus, Gopp. & Berger 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, sulcatus, Presl. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 66. 
 
 Trigonocarpus, Brongt. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Parkinsoni, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Brongt. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 61, 67. 
 
 ,, Parkinsoni, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 forma olivse- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 formis, L. &H. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 66. 
 
 >, sp 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 3a, 65. 
 
 Various rootlets. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pinnularia, L. and H. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, capillacea L. <!) H. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 61, 65, 67, 68. 
 
 FORAMINIFERA. 
 
 
 "» 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Archteodiscus, Brady 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ Karreri, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H. B. Brady 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14, 50c. 
 
 Climacammina, Brady 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, antiqua, 
 
 H. B. Brady 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50c, 50d, 51. 
 
 Endothyra, Phillips 
 
 , , Bowmani, Phi 11. . . . 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 11, 50/, 51, 55a. 
 
220 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 
 Lower. 
 
 Upper. 
 
 
 
 
 Carb. Limest. 
 
 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 
 
 Series. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 P 
 
 s 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 0) 
 
 g 
 
 1 
 
 QJ 
 
 S 
 13 
 
 
 SPECIES. 
 
 0) 
 
 
 m 
 
 Locality Number. 
 
 
 C 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 0) 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 in 
 
 cr 
 
 "m 
 
 ■1- 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 to 
 
 "3 
 o 
 
 
 © 
 
 *^ 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 3 
 
 O 
 
 3 
 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 '3 
 3 
 
 O 
 
 a) 
 bo 
 
 n 
 
 0J 
 
 Pi 
 
 o 
 
 tn 
 3 
 
 u 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 - 
 
 E> 
 
 a 
 
 iJ 
 
 S 
 
 
 Foeaminipeba — continued. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Endothyra crassa, H. B. Brady 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50c, 50d, 51, 58. 
 
 ,, globulus, d'Eiehw. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 50c, 50d, 51, 53, 55a, 
 556. 
 
 , , maeella, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IF. B. Brady 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50d. 
 
 ,, obliqua, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 W. B. Brady 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14, 50d. 
 
 ,, ornata, W. B. Brady 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50d. 
 
 ,, radiata, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 W. B. Brady 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 50c, 50a*, 55a. 
 
 Nodosinella, H. B. Brady 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, concinna, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H- B. Brady 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14. 
 
 Saccammina, Sars. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 19. 
 
 Staeheia, H. B. Brady 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 congesta, H. B. Brady 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50c, 53. 
 
 ,, fusiformis, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IT. B. Brady 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14. 
 
 ,, polytrematoides, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H. B. Brady 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 36, 50/. 
 
 „ pupoides, S. B. Brady 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 11, 14, 50, 53, 58. 
 
 sp 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 55a. 
 
 Textularia, Deframce 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, cximia, d'Eiehw. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 51. 
 
 „ gibbosa d'Ori. '.,. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50d. 
 
 Troehammina, Parker & Jones 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, anceps, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H. B. Brady 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 53. 
 
 ,, incerta, d'Orb. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 1, 11, 14, 19, 36, 50a-, 
 53, 55a, 555, 58. 
 
 Valvulina, d'Orbigny 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 j , decurrensj Brady. . . 
 
 X 
 
 y. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 14, 50c, 50d, 50/, 55a, 
 556. 
 
 ,, palseotrochus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H. B. Brady 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 11, 14, 19, 50c, 50a', 
 50/ 51, 58. 
 
 ,, palseotrochus, var. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 compressa, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n. B. Brady 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 11, 19, 53. 
 
 ,, plicata, H. B. Brady 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50c, 50<Z. 
 
 ,, rudis(?), H. B.Brady 
 
 {!) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50d. 
 
 „ Youngi, H. B. Brady 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 14, 50c, 50c, 58. 
 
 , , , , var. contraria, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H.B.Brady 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 14. 
 
 Onion-liko bodies (Poramini- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fera?) 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50d 58. 
 
 PORIFEEA. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aeanthospongia, M'Goy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Smitlii, Young 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 11. 
 
 Ascodictyon, Nic. and Eth. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, radians, N. and E. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11, 23. 
 
Appendix. 
 
 221 
 
 
 Lower. 
 
 Upper. 
 
 
 
 
 Carb. Limest. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Series. 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 0> 
 
 
 
 en 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 l 
 
 
 
 
 
 h 
 
 | 
 
 
 SERIES. 
 
 *c 
 a 
 
 ci 
 
 m 
 
 a 
 S 
 
 m 
 
 X 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 to 
 
 -*3 
 
 •c 
 
 i 
 
 CO 
 
 s 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 Locality Number. 
 
 
 g 
 
 n 
 
 •s 
 
 "3 
 
 S 
 3 
 
 u 
 
 V 
 
 1 
 
 *<3 
 o 
 o 
 
 & 
 s 
 
 <v 
 
 E 
 3 
 
 u 
 a> 
 ft 
 ft 
 
 5 
 
 0> 
 
 fl 
 O 
 ■*= 
 W 
 
 *3 
 
 ■3 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 T3 
 
 <u 
 
 C 
 
 hi 
 
 o 
 ■a 
 
 
 
 o • 
 
 ij 
 
 3 
 
 t> 
 
 i 
 
 j 
 
 S 
 
 
 PoniFEBA— continued. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hyalostelia, Zittel 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, (Hyalonema) paral- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lels, M'Coy ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 1, 11, 40, 41, 55a, 58, 
 75. 
 
 Peronidella, Zittd 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, sparsa, Hinde ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 23. 
 
 Sponge borings in Chonetes 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and Oinoids 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10, 11, 22. 
 
 Htdbozoa. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Palseocoryne, Dune, and Jenk. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 » sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 1, 11, 17, 40, 55a, 
 556. 
 
 ACTINOZOA. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Amplexu8, Sowerby 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ coralloides, Sow... . 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 52. 
 
 ,, ibicinus, Fisch. ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22. 
 
 , , spinosjis, de Kon. . . . 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,(?)11,13, (?)20,22. 
 
 „ sp. ..." 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11, 37, 41. 
 
 Aspidophyllum, Thompson 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 41. 
 
 Aulopora, Qoldfim 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ campanulata, M'Coy 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22. 
 
 „ sp 
 
 Chsetetes, Fischer 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22. 
 
 ,, tumidus, PMU. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 11, 14, 29, 54, 74. 
 
 „ sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 10, 17, 18, 22, 52, 
 53, 58. 
 
 Cladooonus, M'Coy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ Micnelini, Edw. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and Haime ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22. 
 
 Clisiophyllum, Dana 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, coniseptum, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eeyser. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 41.* 
 
 „ turbinatum, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M'Coy 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 39, 58. 
 
 sp 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11, 22, 50a, 51, 52, 
 58. 
 
 Cyathaxonia, Michelin 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, cornu, Mich. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10, 14, 21. 
 
 Cyathophyllum, Qoldfuss 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Campophyllum] 
 paracida, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M'Coy 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 41. 
 
 Cyclophyllum, Duncan and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 'Thompson 
 „ (Aulopnyllum) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fungites, Flem. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 34, 41, 51. 
 
 Dibunophyllum, Thompson 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 » sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 41. 
 
222 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 
 L0WEK. 
 
 Upper. 
 
 
 
 
 Oarb. Limest. 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Series. 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 <a 
 
 
 
 ai 
 
 l 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 s 
 
 
 SPECIES. 
 
 
 o5 
 
 
 CD 
 
 S3 
 
 
 I 
 
 "eS 
 
 Locality Number. 
 
 
 1 
 
 03 
 
 5 
 
 ts 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 43 
 
 1 
 
 O 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 09 
 
 3 
 o 
 u 
 
 1 
 
 •3 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 c 
 
 •a 
 
 o 
 D 
 
 CD 
 
 
 
 "3 
 
 ■a 
 
 % 
 o 
 
 w 
 
 *4 
 ft 
 
 o 
 m 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 H? 
 
 u 
 
 & 
 
 a 
 
 ri 
 
 a 
 
 
 Aotinozoa — continued. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Favosites, Lamarch 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ parasitica, Phill. ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11,22, (?)58. 
 
 Heterophyllia, M'Ooy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ granulata, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Duncan 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. 
 
 ,, Lyelli, Duncan 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. 
 
 Lithostrotion, Lhwyd. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ irregulars, Phill. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 51, 52. 
 
 ,. jjnoeum, Flem. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 39, 41. 
 
 » sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,9. 
 
 Lonsdaleia, M. Edw. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 » sp ;• 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. 
 
 Lophophyllum, Edw. and Haime 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, eruca, M'Ooy 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22. 
 
 ,, parvulum, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thorn. & Nich. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, (?) 21. 
 
 ,, sp., No. 2* ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. 
 
 ,, sp., No. 4* ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 
 
 ,, sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 41,58. 
 
 Michelinia, de Eon. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, near megastoma, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phill. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22. 
 
 Palseacis, Edw. and Haime 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, compressa, Meek and 
 
 Worth. 
 „ cyolostoma, Phill.... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10, 13, 23. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 10, 11, 13, 14, 19, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20, 21, 22, 23, 36, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 52! 
 
 Syringopora, Ooldfuss 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 » sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. 
 
 Zaphrentis, Rafinesque 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, near centralis, E. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and H 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22. 
 
 , , cliffordiana, E. & H. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 10, (?) 11, 13, 21. 
 
 , , Enniskilleni, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M . Edw. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 11, 22, 34, 52,T>2(j. 
 
 „ Griffithsi, M. Edw. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11. 
 
 „ Phillipsi, M. Edw. 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 73. 
 
 „ sp 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9a, 41, 50a, 58. 
 
 Corals indet 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 55a, 74, 75. 
 
 BOHINODERMATA. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Crinoidea. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aetinocrinus, Miller 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ sp 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 
 72. 
 
 Cupressocnnus, (foldfuss 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, impressus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M'Ooy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (=Poterio- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 erinus 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 'Coy anus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 de Kon. and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Le Hon.) ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 31. 
 
 * M.S. Eth., jr., in Geological Survey List Books. 
 
Appendix. 
 
 223 
 
 
 
 Lower, 
 
 est. 
 
 Upper.. 
 
 
 
 
 Carb. Lim 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Series. 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 OT 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 a 
 
 
 SPECIES. 
 
 
 <u 
 
 
 <D 
 
 
 1 
 
 •a 
 
 Locality Number. 
 
 
 02 
 m 
 
 § 
 
 1 
 
 01 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 D 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 3 
 
 4= 
 
 c 
 
 0) 
 
 a 
 
 •3 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 <v 
 
 u 
 
 0) 
 
 bo 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 42 
 
 u 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 '3 
 "3 
 
 o 
 
 s 
 
 
 = 
 
 % 
 
 o 
 
 ■d 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 >-3 
 
 2 
 
 P> 
 
 a 
 
 J 
 
 S 
 
 
 BOHINODBEMATA— cont'd. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hydreionocrinus, de Kon. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, globularis, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 de Kon. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11, (?) 22, 51. 
 
 » sp 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (?) 1, (?) 14, 58. 
 
 Platyorinus, Miller 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, near arenosus ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11. 
 
 ,, ., trigintidactylus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A-ust. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 11, 14. 
 
 „ . sp. _ 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 38, 52, 58, 73. 
 
 Poteriocrinus, Miller 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, crassus," Miller 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 10, (?) 11, 22, 29, 34, 
 
 58. 
 
 ,, near crassus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Miller 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22. 
 
 , , nucif ormis , M l Coy 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 21, 22. 
 
 ,, tenuis, Miller... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. 
 
 ,, sp. near ventri- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cosus 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 57. 
 
 , , new sp. allied to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 P. nuciformia 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22. 
 
 ,, . sp 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 (?) 14, 56, (?) 72, 73. 
 
 Crinoid ossicles... 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 4, 6, 10, 13, 17, 34, 
 36, 39, 40, 41, 50c 
 50a - , 51, 53, 55a 
 556,57,72,75,76 
 
 Blastoidea. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Astroerinites, Austin 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Benniei, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 R. Eth., jr. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11, 58. 
 
 Echinoidea. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Archa;ocidaris, M'Goy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Urei, Flem. ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 11, 75. 
 
 sp 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 10, 17, 22, 23, 34, 
 36, 41, 50c, 50d, 
 51, 53, 55, 55a, 
 556, 58. 
 
 Holothuridea. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Achistrum, R. Eth., jr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Nicolsoni, R. Eth., jr. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 23. 
 
 Cheirodota, Eschscholtz 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ Traquairi. R. Eth. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 jr. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 23. 
 
 Holothurian remains 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10, 11, 19, 36. 
 
 Annelida. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ortonia, Nicholson 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, carbonaria, Young ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 55a, 58. 
 
 „ sp 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 53, 556. 
 
 Serpulites, M'Leay 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ carbonarius, M'Ccy 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10, 11, 13, (?) 22, 51 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 52a, 56, 58. 
 
224 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 
 Lower. 
 
 Upper. 
 
 
 
 
 Carb. Limest. 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 CD 
 
 
 
 
 
 Series. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 CD 
 
 •a 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 £ 
 
 s 
 
 5 
 
 a 
 
 
 SPECIES. 
 
 □5 
 
 
 CO 
 
 Locality Number. 
 
 
 i 
 
 GO 
 
 CO 
 
 g 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 a) 
 
 .9 
 
 CD 
 
 la 
 o 
 O 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 i v 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 0> 
 
 
 
 05 
 
 
 5> 
 bo 
 
 hi 
 01 
 
 1 o 
 
 u 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 o 
 "3 
 
 o 
 
 « 
 
 ft 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 •d 
 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 ij 
 
 ' 
 
 S 
 
 i "a 
 
 ►J 
 
 a 
 
 
 Annelida — continued. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Serpulites ? membranaceus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M'Coy 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22. 
 
 sp. ... ' 
 
 x 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 1, 3, 55c. 
 
 Spiroglyphus, M'Coy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 » sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22. 
 
 Spirorbis, Lamarck 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, ambiguus, Flem. ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 11, 75. 
 
 ,, caperatus, M'Coy ... 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 506?, 51, 58, 75. 
 
 ,, globosus, M'Coy ... 
 ,, (carbouarius, Mvrch.) 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 = pusillus, Martin 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 •23,28,43,65,68,71. 
 
 ,, spinosus, de Eon. ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11, 17, 34. 
 
 ,, sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 14, 53, 55a, 55c. 
 
 Vermilia, Lamarck 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22. 
 
 Various tracks 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 68. 
 
 Arthropoda. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ostracoda. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Argilloecia, Sars 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , , secjualis, Jones and -Kirhhy 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3a. 
 
 Bairdia, M'Coy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ ampla, Reuss 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50d, 53, 5S, 75. 
 
 ,, brevis, J. and K. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 50c, 50d, ZOff, 53, 
 58, 75. 
 
 ,, eurta, M'Coy 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 50/, 58, 75. 
 
 „ „ var 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50c, 50g, 58. 
 
 „ grandis, J. and K. ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 58. 
 
 Hisingeri, Munster ... 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 19, 50c, 50d, 50/, 
 50O-/51, 58, 75. 
 
 ,, plebeia, Reuss 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 1, 34, "50c, 50d, 50/ 
 50(7, 51, 53, 55a, 58. 
 
 „ ,, . var 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. 
 
 ,, subcylindrica, Munster 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50d. 
 
 ,, subelongata, J. and K. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 1, 50c, 50<7, 51, 55a, 
 556, 58, 75. 
 
 , , submucronata, /. & K. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 1, 19, 23, 50c, 50d, 
 50a, 51, 55a, 58. 
 
 „ „ var. ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 19. 
 
 .. sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 26, 34, 55a. 
 
 Beyriohia, M'Coy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ bradyana, J. and K. 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 26. 
 
 „ fastigiata, J. & K. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3a. 
 
 „ tuberculospinosa, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J. and K. 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 29. 
 
 , , radiata, J. and K. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 19, 20, 23, 29, 73. 
 
 „ varioosa, /. and K. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 36. 
 
 „ sp 
 
 Beyriohiella, /. and K. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 19, 29, 36, 50/ (?) 55a. 
 
 , , ventricornis, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J. & E. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 14, 58. 
 
Appendix. 
 
 225 
 
 
 
 Lower, 
 
 Upper. 
 
 
 
 
 Garb. Limest. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Series. 
 
 
 
 | 
 
 
 
 a 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 = 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SPECIES. 
 
 IB 
 
 0) 
 
 
 0) 
 
 
 3 
 
 "3 
 
 Locality Number. 
 
 
 1 
 
 O 
 
 ™ 
 
 o 
 
 +3 
 m 
 
 ■a 
 
 0) 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 3 
 
 s 
 
 .■a 
 
 at 
 
 "a 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 bo 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 0} 
 
 5 
 
 g 
 
 ■a 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 0) 
 
 « 
 
 u 
 O 
 
 
 
 '3 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 - 
 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 hJ 
 
 a 
 
 
 Aetheopoda — continued. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Beyrichiopsis, J. and E. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, fimbriata, J. &E. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3a. 
 
 „ var.... 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3a. 
 
 Bythocypris, Brady 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, cornigera, /. cmd E. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 14, 19, 36, 50d. 
 
 ,, (Cy there) cuneola, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J. and K. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 23, 26, 29, 50c, 50g, 
 73. 
 
 ,, near cuneoJa 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, cuneola 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 36, 50/, 55a. 
 
 ,, phillipsiana, var. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 carbonica, /. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and K. 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 26, 29, 73. 
 
 Bythocythere, Sars 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, ? youugiana, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /. and K. 
 
 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 
 
 
 26. 
 
 Carbonia, Jones 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, fabulina, /. and E. 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 27, 66, 68, 71. 
 
 ,, rankiniana, J. and E. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 66, 68. 
 
 ,, secans, J. and K. ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 66. 
 
 Cypridina, M. Edwards 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >, sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20. 
 
 Cythere, Muller 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, ? superba, /. and E. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3a. 
 
 „ sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14, 19, 23, 53. 
 
 Cytherella, Jones 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, attenuata, J. & E. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3a. 
 
 , , Benniei, /. and E. 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 26, 73. 
 
 ,, extuberata, J. & E. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3a. 
 
 , , recta, J.,K.,andB. 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 29, 73. 
 
 ,, sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 1, 14, 26. 
 
 Kirkbya, Jones 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , costata, M'Goy 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 75. 
 
 
 , obsoleta, /. and E. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 53. 
 
 
 , permiana, Jones 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 14,29, 36,50d,58,75. 
 
 
 , „ var. 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 73. 
 
 
 , plicata, /. and, E.... 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3a. 
 
 
 , rigida, /. and E. ... 
 , scotica, J. and E. ... 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 29. 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 26. 
 
 
 , spinosa, /. and E.... 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 50a", 55a. 
 
 
 , spiralis, J. and E.... 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5a. 
 
 
 , striolata, ? d'Eieh ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 53. 
 
 
 , umbonata, d'Eichw. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,14. 
 
 
 Urei. Jones 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 19, 23, 36, 50a*, 53, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 58, 75. 
 
 „ sp 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 29, (!) 55a, 73. 
 
 Leperditia, Roualt. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, acuta, /. and K.... 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 29. 
 
 „ armstrongiana, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /. and E. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 75. 
 
 ,, ? inomata, M'Goy 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 29. 
 
 ,, Okeni, Milnst. ... 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 5a, 19, 20, 23, 29, 34, 
 36, 38, 43, 50a, 
 50a-, 50/, 63, 73, 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 75. 
 
226 Geology of Central and Western Fife and, Kinross-shire. 
 
 
 Lower. 
 
 Upper. 
 
 
 
 
 Oarb. Limest. 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 a) 
 
 
 
 
 Series. 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 oi 
 
 i 
 
 
 SPECIES. 
 
 o 
 
 c 
 
 QJ 
 
 | 
 
 S- 
 
 CO 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 B 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 Locality Number. 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 "3 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 
 "3 
 o 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 fco 
 
 
 o 
 
 Li 
 <3 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 la 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 Arthropoda — continued. 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Leperditia Okeni, var. acuta, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J. and K. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 58. 
 
 ,, vars. 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 5a, 29, 36. 
 
 , , scotoburdigalensis, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hibbert 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 43, 46. 
 
 „ suborbiculata, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Munst. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 43, (?) 50/ 
 
 ... S P- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ulrichia, Jones 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , , (Beyrichia) bitubercu- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lata, M'Goy 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 26. 
 
 Youngia, J. and K, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, rectidorsalis, /. & K. 
 
 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 
 
 
 (?) 73. 
 
 Ostracoda indet. 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 27, 28. 
 
 Phyllopoda. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Leaia, Jones 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Leidyi, Lea 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 66. 
 
 Phyllocarida. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dithyrocaris, Scouler 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ sp 
 
 
 7. 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 
 
 
 9a, 12, 14, (?) 55a. 
 
 Trilobita. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phillipsia, Portloch 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Eichwaldi, Fisch.... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30, 75. 
 
 ,, ,, var.mucro- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 nata, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M'Coy 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 10, 11, 38, 41, 57, 
 (?)58, 73, 75. 
 
 » sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 10, 17, 40 55a. 
 
 Merostomata. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Belirmrus, Kbnig 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ trilobitoides, Buckl. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 66. 
 
 Prestwichia, H. Woodward 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, anthrax, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H, Woodward 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 66. 
 
 Eurypterus, Dekay 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ mammatus, Salter 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 66. 
 
 Arachnida. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eoscorpius, Meek and Worthen- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , , anglicus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H. Woodward 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 61. 
 
 ,, tuberculatus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B. N. Peach 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 61. 
 
 sp 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50/. 
 
 Myriapoda. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Myriapod sp 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 61. 
 
 * Mr. Bennie, by means of washing, has found that fragments of scorpion skin are plentiful 
 in coaly seams throughout all the horizons of the Carboniferous system in Scotland. 
 
Appendix. 
 
 227 
 
 
 Lower. 
 
 Upprr. 
 
 
 
 
 Carb. Limest. 
 
 
 
 QJ 
 
 
 
 
 Series 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 a 
 o 
 +^ 
 m 
 
 V 
 C 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 +5 
 
 tn 
 
 CD 
 
 u 
 
 3 
 (3 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 SPECIES. 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 OT 
 
 3 
 
 CO 
 
 Locality Number. 
 
 
 § 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 i 
 
 "S 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 ho 
 
 -a 
 13 
 
 rJ 
 
 & 
 
 0> 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 hi 
 
 <o 
 
 1 
 
 (S 
 o 
 
 
 POLTZOA. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Calamopora, Ooltlfuss 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, (Carinella) sp. ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 54. 
 
 Ceriopora, Goldfuss • ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, interporosa, Phill. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 53. 
 
 ,, similis, PoHl. 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 73. 
 
 » sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 38, 74, 75. 
 
 Diastopora, Lamoaroux 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ megastoma, M'Coy 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 1, 10, 11, 53, 73. 
 
 » sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 11, 20, 22, 55a, 57, 
 58. 
 
 Fenestella, Lonsdale 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Morrisi, M'Coy ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 75. 
 
 „ multiporata, M'Coy 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 38. 
 
 ,, plebeia, M'Coy ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30, 40, 41, 74, 75. 
 
 ,, undulata, Phill.... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 75. 
 
 » sp 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 1, 10, 11, 14, 40, 50e, 
 52, 52a, 53, 54, 
 55a, 55'', 58. 
 
 Glauconome, Goldfuss 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, elegantula, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 jB. Ether. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 54. 
 
 ,, pulcherrima, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M'Coy 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30. 
 
 » sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 1, 10,- 11, 14, 40, 41 
 53, 55a, 556, 58 
 74, 75. 
 
 Goniocladia, 72. Ether., jun. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, cellulifera, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . i2. Ether., jun. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 14, 55a. 
 
 , , cellulifera, or nov. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14. 
 
 » sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14, 54. 
 
 Hippcthoa, Lamouroux 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Hincksi, m.s., 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 R. Ether., jun. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11. 
 
 Hyphasmopora, R. Ether., jun. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ (Vinoularia) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Benniei, R. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ether., jun. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22. 
 
 ,, (Rhcmbopora ?) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Buski, R. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ether , jun. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50c, 50<2, 53. 
 
 Polypora, M'Coy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ tuberculata, Prout 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 41, 75. 
 
 » sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 58. 
 
 Rhabdomeson, Young 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, gracile, Phill. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 53, 54. 
 
 ,, rhombiferum, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phill. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11, 54. 
 
 „ sp 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 10, 50c, 50a\ 58. 
 
 Rhombopora, Meek. (See 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hyphasmopora). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 » sp 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50d. 
 
228 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 
 IjOWER. 
 
 Upper. 
 
 
 
 
 Carb. Limest. 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 
 3erieE 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 U5 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 £-c 
 
 1 
 
 
 SPECIES. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 «3 
 
 Locality Number. 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 <L> 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 02 
 
 Tfl 
 
 CO 
 
 "S 
 
 ^ 
 
 a 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 3 
 O 
 
 0) 
 
 a 
 
 u 
 0) 
 
 *c3 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 bo 
 
 
 5 , 
 o 
 
 ■a 
 
 o 
 U 
 
 u 
 
 0) 
 
 QJ 
 
 « 
 hi 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 '3 
 
 •5 
 o 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 -d 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 rf 
 
 - 
 
 D 
 
 S 
 
 hj 
 
 § 
 
 
 Poltzoa — continued. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sulooretepora, D'Orbigny 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ parallela, Phill. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50c, 50d, 58. 
 
 » sp 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 11, 38, 41, 51, 54, 
 58. 
 
 .Thamniscus, King 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, pustulosus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B. Ether., jun. 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 
 
 
 (?) 55a, 58. 
 
 Polyzoa indet. . , 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6. 
 
 Braohiopoda. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Athyris, M'Coy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, ambigua, Sow. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 1, 11, 29, 30, 34, 41, 
 50e, 53, 55c, 57, 
 74, 75. 
 
 ,, Roysii, Leveiltt 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 1, 11, 14, 22, 29, 
 34, 38, 39, 41, 58, 
 73, 74, 75. 
 
 „ sp 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18a. 
 
 Chonetes, Fischer 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, buehiana, de Kim. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,74. 
 
 ,, comoides, Sow. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. 
 
 „ laguessiana, de Kon. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 1, 10, 11, 20, 23, 29, 
 34, 38, 40, 51, 55, 
 55c, 56, 57, 58, 
 74, 75. 
 
 ,, polita, M'Coy 
 
 (?) 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 34, 38, 40, 50o\ 75. 
 
 „ sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 34. 
 
 Crania, Retzius 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, quadrata, M'Coy 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 34, 53. 
 
 . ,,. sp 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 51. 
 
 Discina, LamwA'ch 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ nitida, Phill. 
 
 X 
 
 V 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 10, 11, 13, 24, 29, 34, 
 50a, 505, 51, 55, 
 55a, 55c, 56, 72, 
 74, 75. 
 
 T . » , S P 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 39, 40. 
 
 Lingula, Bruguiere 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, mytiloides, >?o?'\ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 3a, 10, 13, 20, 40, 
 50a, 506, (?) 50e, 
 55, 55a, 55c, 56, 
 58, 72, 75. 
 
 „ squamiformis, Phill. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 3a, 10, 11, 20, 24, 
 50g-, 50h, 50/, 51, 
 72. 
 
 7. 
 
 „ ,, var. 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 » S P 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 1, 14, 29, 506, 50g, 
 
 Orthis, Dalmam 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Miohelini, LlveilU 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 1, 11, 14, (?) 21, 41, 
 
 50e, 57, 58. 
 
 esupinata, Martin ... 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 1, 13, 29, 34, 35, 41, 
 50a, 51, 55, 55a, 
 55c, 74, 75. 
 
Appendix. 
 
 229 
 
 
 Lower. 
 
 Upper. 
 
 
 
 
 Carb. Limest. 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 Series. 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 c3 
 
 S 
 
 ■a 
 
 
 SPECIES. 
 
 CD 
 
 a 
 
 
 ED 
 
 4) 
 
 Locality Number. 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 en 
 
 <n 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 
 
 ED 
 
 3 
 O 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 "3 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 a) 
 c 
 
 "5 
 o 
 
 ■a 
 
 
 
 IV 
 
 8 
 
 I 
 
 u 
 
 2? 
 
 © 
 
 CO 
 
 
 o 
 id 
 
 
 
 1i 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 £ 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 g 
 
 
 Beaohiopoda— cont'd. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Orthis, sp. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 24, 50d, 51, 55a, 55c. 
 
 Productus, Sowerby 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, aculeatus, Martin 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 11, 41, 53, 58, 74. 
 
 , , compleetens, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 R. Ether., jwn. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 11, CO 18, 51, 55a, 
 
 (?) 58. 
 1, 13, 18a, (?) 41, 51, 
 
 ,, oostatus, Sowerby... 
 
 (?) 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 55. 
 
 ,, near costatus 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ elegans, M' Coy ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40. 
 
 ,, fimbriatus, Sow. ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 41, (?) 58. 
 
 ,, giganteus, Martin 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 41, 556, 58. 
 
 ,, latissimus, Sow. ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 41, 55, 75. 
 
 ,, longispinus, Sow 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 
 18a, 20, 21, 22, 
 23, 24, 29, 30, 34, 
 35, 37, 38, 40, 41, 
 50a, 506, 50c, 51, 
 (?) 52, 52a, 53, 54, 
 55, 55a, 58, 74, 75. 
 
 ,, near margaritaceus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phill. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. 
 
 ,., mesolobus, Phill.... 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 50c. 
 
 ,, punctatus, Martin 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 6, 11, 22, 30, 40, 
 41, 51, 52, 58, 74, 
 75. 
 
 , , pustulosus, Phill. . . . 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 40, 41. 
 
 ,, scabriculus, Martin 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 1, 11, 29, 30, 40, 506, 
 (?) 55c, (?) 58, 75. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, semireticulatus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Martin 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 11, 13, 18a, 22, 34, 
 35,38,40,41,50a, 
 506, 50c, 51, 52, 
 58, 73, 74, 75. 
 
 ,, ,, var. concinnus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sow. 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 73. 
 
 ,, ,, ,, Martini, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sow. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 40, 52a, 72. 
 
 ,, sinuatus, de Kon. 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 56. 
 
 ,, joungianus, Dav ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 35, 40, 41, 58, 75. 
 
 sp- • 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 6, 15, 21, 50d, 50a, 
 556, 57. 
 
 Retzia, King 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, radialis, Phill. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14, 41. 
 
 Rhynehonella, Fischer 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, pleurodon, Phill. 
 
 X 
 » 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 11, 14, 18a, 29, 38, 
 41, 50a, 506. 
 
 „ sp 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 21, 50c, 55a, 55c. 
 
 Spirifera, Sowerby 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, (?) carlukensis, Dav. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22, 41. 
 
 ,, duplioicosta,PAt'H. ... 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,40,41,51, 52a. 
 
 ,, near erassa, de Kon. 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 41. 
 
 ,, glabra, Martin 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, (?) 11, 22, 41, 58. 
 1, 11, 41, 53,58,74 
 
 ,, lineata, Martin 
 
 
 X 
 
 x 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 75. 
 
230 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 
 Lower. 
 
 Upper. 
 
 
 
 
 Oarb. Limest. 
 
 
 
 0> 
 
 
 
 d 
 o 
 
 
 Series 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 V 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 
 SPECIES. 
 
 V 
 
 
 GO 
 
 c 
 
 Locality Number. 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 to 
 
 -g 
 
 +3 
 
 a 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 3 
 p 
 
 53 
 
 0) 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 0> 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 <s 
 ha 
 
 0) 
 
 s 
 
 u 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 "3 
 o 
 O 
 
 0J 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 '8 
 
 o 
 
 § 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 T3 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 J 
 
 - 
 
 P 
 
 % 
 
 J 
 
 H 
 
 
 Beaohiopoda— cont'd. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rpirif era lineata, var 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22. 
 
 ,, ovalis, Phill. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 
 
 
 (?) 1, (?) 29, 38, 40, 
 41, 75. 
 
 ,, pinguis, Sow. 
 
 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 
 
 
 29. 
 
 ,, trigonalis, Martin ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 6, 11, 15, 22, 29, 38, 
 40, 41, 52a, 54, 
 74, 75. 
 
 ,, ,, var. bisul- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cata, Soiv. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 1, 11, 22, 55, 73. 
 
 „ ,, var. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 29, 53, 55a, 55c, 58. 
 
 ,, Urei, Flem. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 21, 
 22, 23, 24, 38, 50a, 
 556, 56, 57. 
 
 sp 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13a, 34, 39, 50c, 50e, 
 50/, 51. 
 
 Spiriferina, D'Orbigny 
 
 , , cristata, Schloth. . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 11, 14, 38, 40, 41, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 51, 58, 74, 75. 
 
 ,, ,, var. ootoplioata, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sow. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 (?) 6, 14, 41, 55. 
 
 » sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10. 
 
 Streptorhynchus, King 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, (Orthotetes) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 crenistria, Phill. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 1, 5, 14, 18a, 29, 30, 
 34, 38, 40, 41, 50e, 
 51, 55, 55a, 55c, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 58, 73, 74, 75. 
 
 ,, ,, var. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 58. 
 
 sp 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22, 50a\ 
 
 Strophomena, Rafinesqite 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 ,, analoga, var. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 distorta, Sow. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14. 
 
 Terebratula, Llhwyd 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, hastata, Sow. ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 38, 41 75. 
 
 ,, saeculus, Mwiin 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5, 10, 41. 
 
 ,, ,, var. ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 22. 
 
 „ vesioularis, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Be Eon. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 41. 
 
 sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11, 58. 
 
 Lamellibranchiata. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Monomyaria. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 Avioula, Klein 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .. sp 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 506. 
 
 Avieulopecten, M'Coy 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 ,, arenosus, Phill. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 
 
 
 (?) 55, 76. 
 
 ,, coelatus, M'Ooy 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 11, 40, 506. 
 
 ,, conoavus, M'Coy 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30, 40. 
 
 ,, dissimilis, Phill. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 11, 40, 505, 58. 
 
 ,, docens, M'Coy 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40, 58. 
 
 ,, fimbriatus, Phill. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 75. 
 
 ,, (?) granosus, Sow. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 24, 51. 
 
Appendix. 
 
 231 
 
 
 Lower. 
 
 Upper. 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 Carb. Limest. 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 
 Series. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 G 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 CD 
 CD 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SPECIES. 
 
 T3 
 
 CO 
 
 35 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 I 
 
 "e8 
 
 Locality Number. 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 a> 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 & 
 
 so 
 
 ta 
 
 ta 
 
 +3 
 
 s 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 3 
 O 
 
 »4 
 
 4 
 
 i-5 
 
 "3 
 o 
 D 
 
 B 
 
 3 
 
 c 
 
 "3 
 o 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 'G 
 
 Li 
 
 1 
 
 0) 
 fcD 
 
 u 
 
 J* 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 1-3 
 
 = 
 
 t3 
 
 i 
 
 ►j 
 
 S 
 
 
 Lamellibranchia t a— cont'd. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aviculopeoten (Peoten) hemis- • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^hasrious, Phil . 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 51. 
 
 „ interstitialis, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Piatt. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 38,. 506. 
 
 ,, omatus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 R. Mh., jim. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 (?) 9a, 40, 506, 50#, 
 50fc, 60s, 51, 55c, 
 58. 
 
 , , planoradiatus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M'Goy 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 58. 
 
 ,, (Entolium) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sowerbyi, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M'Goy - 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16, 34, 50e, 58. 
 
 „ subconoides, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 R. Mh., jim. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 506, 50e. 
 
 sp 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 18, 30, 38, 41, 50;, 
 51, 53, 55a, 56, 
 58, 75, 76. 
 
 Pecten, Miiller 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18a. 
 
 Pinna, Linnceus 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ flabelliformis,Jlfart™... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11, 40, 41, 58. 
 
 Posidcmomya, Bronn 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ corrugata, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 R. Eth.,jun. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11. 
 
 sp 
 
 Pterinea, Qoldfuss 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ sp 
 
 (?) 
 
 (?) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (?) 40, 506. 
 
 Pteronites, M'Coy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, persulcatus, M'Coy 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 50e, 50^, 50A, 50s, 
 55c. 
 
 ,, sulcatus, M'Coy ... 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 506, 55c 
 
 „ sp 
 
 X 
 
 (?) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3, (?) 40, 51, 58. 
 
 Dimyaria. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Allorisma, King 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, maxima. (See San- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 guinolites) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Anthraoomya, Salter 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Isevis, var. scotica, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 R. Eth.,jun. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 48, 49. 
 
 ,, modiolaris, Sow. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 66. 
 
 * ,, Phillipsi, Will. 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 11, 27, 28. 
 
 Wardi, Eth. ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 66, 71. 
 
 ,, Williamsoni, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Brown 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 62. 
 
 » sp 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 62, 68. 
 
 Anthroxoptera. (See Naiadites) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Carbonioola, M'Coy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, acuta, Sow. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 62, 71. 
 
 ,, aquilina, Sovj. ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 71. 
 
 ,, turgida, Brown... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 62. 
 
 Cardiomorpha, de Kon. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ oblonga, Sow. 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 55. 
 
 sp 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 •55c, 73. 
 
 * Dr. Wheelton Hind remarks that the slab containing these fossils is like the Bassey mine 
 ironstone of North Staffordshire Coal-field, and is filled with the same compressed shell. 
 
232 Geology of Central and Western Mfe and Kinross-shir 
 
 
 Lower. 
 
 Upper. 
 
 
 
 
 Oarb. Limeat. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Series. 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 c 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SPECIES. 
 
 % 
 
 v 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 | 
 
 73 
 
 Locality Number. 
 
 *v 
 
 1 
 
 CQ 
 
 o 
 
 tri 
 
 O 
 
 :g 
 
 0) 
 
 o 
 D 
 
 
 
 (0 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 O 
 
 a) 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 "3 
 
 •a 
 
 a) 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 D 
 
 3 
 
 u 
 
 0) 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 P3 
 
 H 
 O 
 
 
 
 "G 
 
 o 
 
 
 ft 
 ft 
 
 ;={ 
 
 1 
 
 ■0 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 1-5 
 
 - 
 
 P 
 
 § 
 
 »3 
 
 g 
 
 
 Lamellibranchiata— cont'd. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Conocardium, Brorm. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, aliforme, Sow. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40, 41, 58, 75. 
 
 „ sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 58, 73. 
 
 Ctenodonta, Salter 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, sinuosa, de Kon. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 20, 55a, 55c. 
 
 Cypricardella, Hall 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >; (?) (Cypricardia) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 acuticarinata, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Anns. 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (?) 11. 
 
 ,, eoneentrica, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hind 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40, 75. 
 
 , , parallela, Phill. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11, 21, 22, 58. 
 
 , , rectangularis, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M' Coy 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 (?) 40, 41, 73. 
 
 „ sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11. 
 
 Edmondia, de Kon. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Josepha, de Kon. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 11, 506, 55c, 56. 
 
 ,, Lyelli, Hind 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 506, 55c. 
 
 ,, radis, M' Coy 
 
 (?) 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 38, (?) 50c, %, 55, 
 55a, 55c. 75. 
 
 „ soalaris, M'Coy ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11, (?) 40. ' 
 
 ,, sulcata, Phill. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 41, 58, 75. 
 
 ,, unioniformis, Phill. 
 
 (?) 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 1 (?), 11, 24, 38, 40, 
 (?) 50e, 55, 55c, 
 (? 56. 
 
 „ sp 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40, 50a 58. 
 
 Lithodomus, Cmier 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, carbonarius, Hind 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 506, 50;. 
 
 ,, lingualis, Phill. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40. 
 
 ,, lithodomoides, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 R. EtJi.Jr, ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40. 
 
 Modiola, Laniard 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, elongata, Phill. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 75. 
 
 „ ». S P 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5a, 41, 506. 
 
 Myalma, de Kon. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ Flemingi, M 'Coy, ... 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 506, (?) 55c. 
 
 , , sublamellosa, R. Eth. , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 jun. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 506, 50a, 50ft. 
 
 » sp 
 
 Mytilomorpha 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 3,11, 50/j, 51, 55c, 58. 
 
 „ rhombea, Phill. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 58. 
 
 Naiadites, Dawson 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, (Anthracoptera) oari- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 nata, Sow. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 71. 
 
 ,, (Myalina) crassa, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Flem. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50i, 75, 76. 
 
 ,, modiolaris, Sow. ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 62. 
 
 ,, obesa, R. Eth, jun. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2. 
 
 „ quadrata, Sow. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 62. 
 
 >, sp 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3, 50i. 
 
 Nuoula, Lamarck 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, acuta, Sow. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (?) 10, 38. 
 
 ,, near acuta, Sow. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10. 
 
Appendix. 
 
 233 
 
 
 Lower. 
 
 Upper. 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 Carb. Limes!: . 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 CD 
 
 
 
 
 Series. 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 a! 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 CD 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SPECIES. 
 
 09 
 
 
 
 BO 
 
 
 3 
 
 "3 
 
 Locality Number. 
 
 
 i 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 m 
 
 t» 
 
 O 
 
 go 
 
 t -*a 
 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CD 
 
 0) 
 
 •a 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 s? 
 
 J 
 
 t-. 
 
 ■ V 
 
 5 
 
 0) 
 
 G 
 o 
 
 -*3 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 D 
 
 fa 
 CD 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 "3 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 ft 
 
 .ft 
 
 if 
 
 O 
 
 T3 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 j 
 
 2 
 
 ,p 
 
 S 
 
 ^ 
 
 S 
 
 
 Lamellibranchiata— cont'd. • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nuoula gibbosa, Flem. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 1, 9a, 10, 13, 19, 20, 
 21, 22, 23, 29, 38, 
 50e, 55, 55c, 56» 
 57, 73. 
 
 ,, laevirostrum, Portl. ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 (?) 10, 20, 22, 24, 73. 
 
 ,, lineata, Phill. = N. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 scotica 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22, 23. 
 
 ,, luciniformis, Phill. ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 20. 
 
 „ sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 36, 39, 58. 
 
 Nueulana, Link 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, attenuata, Flem. ... 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 1, 10, 11, 12, 18, 14, 
 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 
 24, 29, 38, 40, 50, 
 (?) 51, 55, 55a, 55c, 
 56, 73. 
 
 ,, brevirostrum, Phill. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13, 20, 22, 23. 
 
 ,, (intermedia, R. Eth., 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 jwn.) = lasvistriata, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Meek and Worthen 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 5, 10, 11, 13, 29, 55, 
 55c. 
 
 ., sp 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 51, 55. 
 
 Parallelodon, Mor. & Lye. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , , (Area) bistriatus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Portl. 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (?) 40. 
 
 ,, ,, divisus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M'Coy 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 506, 58. 
 
 ,, ,, semicosta- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tus, M'Coy 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 22, 38, 73, 75. 
 
 ,, ,, sp. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 38, 40, 50d, 52a, 73, 
 75. 
 
 Protoschizodus, de Kon, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, axiniformis, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Portl. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, =P. carbon- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 arius, Portl. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 24, 38, 40, 506, 55, 
 55c, 73, 75. 
 
 ,, obliquus, M'Coy 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 24, 55e. 
 
 » sp 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (?)3. 
 
 Sanguinolites, M'Coy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, abdenensis, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 R. Eth.,jun. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3a, 506, 50#, 50A, 50i, 
 50/. 
 
 ,, angustatus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phill. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 24. 
 
 ,, (Allorisma) maxi- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 mus, Portl.... 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 506. 
 
 „ (Leptodomus) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 costellatus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 il/'Coi/ 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 11, 12, 13, 14, 20, 
 23, 24, 75. 
 
 , , iridinoides, M'Coy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 = S. plicatus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Portl. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 74, 75. 
 
 „ oblongus, PorW. 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (?) 40. 
 
234 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 • 
 
 Lower. 
 
 Upfbe. 
 
 
 
 
 Oarb. Limest. 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 a 
 o 
 -^> 
 co 
 
 1 
 
 Series. 
 
 
 CO 
 
 3 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 03 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 
 SPECIES. 
 
 C 
 
 s 
 
 CO 
 
 cu 
 
 H 
 O 
 m 
 
 Locality Number. 
 
 
 3 
 
 O 
 u 
 
 <31 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 D 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 5 
 g 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 0) 
 
 a) ■ 
 o 
 
 bo 
 
 0) 
 ft 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 Hi . 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 j 
 
 i 
 
 
 Lamellibranchiata — cont'd. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sanguinolites striato-lamellosus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 de Kon. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 38, 506, 55c. 
 
 • ,, striatus, Gold/. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 75. 
 
 ,, tricostatus, Portl. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18a, 40, 75. 
 
 ,, visetensis (?), 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 de Kon. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11. 
 
 „ sp 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 3, 11, 58, 72. 
 
 Schizodus, King 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, deltoideus, Portl. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (=Protosehizodus 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 axiniformis, Portl.) 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 24, 38, 40, 506, 55, 
 55c, 73, 75. 
 
 „ sp 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 
 
 
 5, 40, 51, 55c- 
 
 Sedgwickia, M'Coy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ (?) gigantea, M'Coy 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 58. 
 
 „ suborbicularis, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M'Coy 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40, 506, 51, 52a, 58. 
 
 Solenomya, Lamarck 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, excisa, de Kon. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11. 
 
 ,, primsBva, Phill. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11, 505. 
 
 „ .sp 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 39, 506. 
 
 Solenopsis, M'Coy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 minor, M'Coy 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 55a. 
 
 „ sp 
 
 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 
 
 
 (?) 55, 55c. 
 
 Gasteropoda. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aclisina, de Kon. . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, elongata, Flem. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 75. 
 
 ,, gracilis, Salt. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40. 
 
 „ (Mnrchisonia) striatula, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 de Kon. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 1, 50, (?) 53, 55, 55a, 
 58, 72. 
 
 Acroeulia, Phill. (= Platyceras, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Con. = Capulus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mont.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ neritoides, Phill. ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 41, 73. 
 
 ,, vetusta, Sow. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 75! 
 
 „ sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 29, 58. 
 
 Bellerophon, Montfort 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, decussatus, Flem. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 3, 5, 6, 10, 11, 13, 
 18a, 20, 21, 23, 
 36, 40, 50c, 51, 
 55, 55a, 55c, 72, 
 73, 75. 
 
 , Dumonti, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F. d'Orb. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50a. 
 
 ,, leveilleanus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 de Kon. 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 55, 73. 
 
 „ Oldhami, Portl, . . . 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 6, 13, 15, 20, 23. 
 
 ,, striatus, Flem. ... 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 13, 505, 55c, 75. 
 
Appendix. 
 
 235 
 
 
 Lower. 
 
 Upper. 
 
 
 
 
 Carb. Limest. 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 
 Series. 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 B 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 c 
 
 cS 
 CH 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 '2 
 O 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 tn 
 a> 
 
 u 
 
 I 
 
 at 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 3 
 1 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 u 
 
 
 SPECIES. 
 
 0) 
 
 a 
 
 u 
 
 0} 
 
 
 a 
 s 
 
 DO 
 
 o 
 D 
 
 ■u 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 0} 
 
 e 
 
 Locality Number. 
 
 
 03 
 
 "3 
 
 -3 
 
 o 
 
 
 & 
 J? 1 
 
 o 
 .2 
 
 m 
 o 
 
 o 
 ■6 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 >^ 
 
 - 
 
 & 
 
 1 
 
 h) 
 
 3 
 
 
 Gasteropoda — continued. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 Bellerophon Urei, Flem. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 6, 10, 15, 20, 21, 22, 
 23, 24, 29, 38, 40, 
 506, 50(7, 55, 55a, 
 55c, 72, 73, 75. 
 
 ,,. sp. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14, 41, 51. 
 
 Dentalium, Linnceus 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ingens, deEon. ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10, 13, 19, 20, 21, 23. 
 
 ,, inornatum, M'Ooy, 
 
 
 X' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20. 
 
 ,, ornatum, de Eon. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11. 
 
 ,, priscum, Qoldfuss 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 55, 73. 
 
 „ new sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11. 
 
 >> sp 
 
 (?) 
 
 X 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 
 
 
 10, 13, 19,20, 21,23. 
 
 Eulima, Risso 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, phillipaiana, de lion. 
 Euomphalus, Sowerby 
 
 
 X' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, carbonarius, Sow. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10, 11, 13, 20, 21, 22, 
 23, 50c. 
 
 ,, radians, de Eon. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10, 11, (?) 13, 20, 23. 
 
 „ (?) serpens, Phill. 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 73. 
 
 ,, tuberculatus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Flem. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 33. 
 
 » sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40. 
 
 Loxonema, Phill. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, eonstriotum, Sow. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11, 75. 
 
 ,, elongatum, de Eon. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11. 
 
 ,, Lefebvrei, LeveilU 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 75. 
 
 ,, rugiferum, Phill. .. . 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11, 21, 22, (?) 74, 75. 
 11, 23, 55, 73, 75. 
 
 ,, seal aroid cum, Phill. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 » sp 
 
 (?) 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 1, 18, 34, 36, 38, 40, 
 41, 50g, 55a, 58. 
 
 Maeroohilina, Phill. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, acuta, Sow, 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 51, 56, 73, 75. 
 
 ,, fusiformis, Sow. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 29, 38, 55, 73. 
 
 ,, imbricata, Sow... 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 13, (?)22, 38, 51, 55, 
 73, 75. 
 
 ,, michotiana, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 de Eon. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 56, 73, 75. 
 
 „ sp 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10, 11, 14, 18a, 19, 
 20, 21, 22, 23, 40, 
 506, 50ff, 51, 55a, 
 55c, 58. 
 
 Microdoma, Meek and Worthen 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, (Trochus) biserrata, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phill. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 76. 
 
 Mureh isonia, d'Arch. & de Vera. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, , angulata, Phill. 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 73. 
 
 (Hypergonia) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 quadricarinata, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M'Coy 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 73, 75. 
 
 ,, (Aclisoides) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 striatvla ; (see 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aelisina) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ tricincta, M'Coy 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 73. 
 
 „ sp 
 
 (?) 
 
 X 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 
 
 
 3, 40, 556, 76. 
 
236 Geology of Central and Western M/e and Kinross-shire. 
 
 
 Lower. 
 
 Upper. 
 
 
 
 
 Carb. Limest. 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 Series. 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 CD 
 
 9 
 
 
 SPECIES. 
 
 a 
 
 
 r/i 
 
 Locality Number. 
 
 
 OQ 
 
 s 
 
 CO 
 
 JS 
 
 O 
 
 ■*i 
 
 V 
 
 S 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 
 
 CO 
 £3 
 
 a 
 
 el 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 "rt 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 5 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 bo 
 
 3 
 
 u 
 
 0) 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 P3 
 u 
 O 
 
 " 
 
 
 o 
 "3 
 
 O 
 
 T3 
 
 
 t» 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 J 
 
 2 
 
 & 
 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 i 
 
 
 Gasteropoda — continued. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Narica, Rectus 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, elliptica, Phill. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 76. 
 
 ,, variata, Phill. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X ' 
 
 
 
 
 18a, 506, 55a, 75. 
 
 „• sp 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 505. 
 
 Naticopsis, M'Goy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ ampliata, Phill. ... 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 (?) 55. 
 
 ,, elongata, PAUL ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 40, 73. 
 
 ,, om a liana, de Kon. 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 73. 
 
 „ plioistria, Phill. ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 38, 40, 73, 75. 
 
 „ large sp 
 
 ' 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 41. 
 
 „ sp 
 
 Pleurotomaria, Defiance 
 
 V 
 
 X 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 
 
 
 41, 50e, 50/, 55c, 58. 
 
 ,, (Ptychomphalus) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 atomaria, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phill. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10, 11, 13, 23. 
 
 „ contraria, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 de Kon. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 40, 73. 
 
 ,, monilif era, Phill. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 29, 56, 73, 75. 
 
 ,, (Baylea) Yvani, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lev. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 75. 
 
 „ sp 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 1, 3, 4, 11, 17, 20, 22, 
 36, 40, 50&, 53, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 55a, 56, 57, 58, 
 
 Poroellia, LeveilU 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 75. 
 
 ,, armata, Verneuil 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 73. 
 
 Subulites, Conrad 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, (Polyphemopsis) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fusiformis, Sow... 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 55, 55c. 
 
 Pteropoda (?). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Conularia, Miller 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ quadrisulcata, Sow. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 13, 20, 22. 
 
 „ sp 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 23, 50g. 
 
 Cephalopoda. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Actinoceras, Brown 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ giganteum, Sow. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22, (!) 23. 
 
 » sp 
 
 Cyrtooeras, Goldfuss 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (?) 11. 
 
 „ rugosum, Flew,. ... 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 11, 13, 22, 23, 50ft, 
 
 ,, unguis, Phill. ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 73. 
 11. 
 
 „. » sp 
 
 Discites, M'Ooxf 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10, 22. 
 
 ,, (Nautilus) leveilleanus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 De Kon. 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 75. 
 
 ,, „ nodiferus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Armsl. 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 73. 
 
Appendix. 
 
 237 
 
 
 Lower. 
 
 Upper. 
 
 
 
 
 Carb. Limest- 
 
 
 
 DO 
 
 a> 
 
 
 
 
 
 Series. 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 o5 
 
 a 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SPECIES. 
 
 ■3 
 
 01 
 
 
 D3 
 
 1> 
 
 
 3 
 
 *C3 
 
 Locality Number. 
 
 
 02 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 s5 
 
 CD 
 
 o 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 .■a 
 o 
 
 CD 
 
 B 
 
 u 
 
 Ft 
 
 1 
 
 ■a 
 
 o 
 
 V 
 
 bo 
 
 3 
 
 •1 
 
 Sri 
 
 CD 
 
 5 
 
 CO 
 
 a 
 o 
 m 
 
 -3 
 o 
 O 
 
 Sri 
 
 a) 
 
 1 
 
 » 
 O 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 3 
 
 : 
 
 P 
 
 1 
 
 j 
 
 H 
 
 
 Cephalopoda — ccmiimied. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Discites (Nautilus) quadratus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Flem. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 20, 
 39, 40, 56, 58. 
 
 ,, ,, rotifer, Salt. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X ' 
 
 
 72. 
 
 „ ,, subsulcatus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PHll. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13. 
 
 ,, ,, suloatus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sow. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30, 40, 75. 
 
 „ „ sp. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 22, 506, 72. 
 
 Goniatites, Be Haan 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, striolatus, Ptuitt. ... 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 56. 
 
 » sp 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 3, 9a, 10, 11, 13, 20, 
 (?) 22, 50/, 57. 
 
 Nautilus, Sreyn. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, canaliculatus, 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 75. 
 
 ,, globatus, Sow. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 75. 
 
 ,, notiiferus(see Discites) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sp 
 
 X 
 
 (?) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3, 20, 50/. 
 
 Orthooeras, Breyn. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, attenuatum, Flem. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 
 38, 56, 72, 73. 
 
 ,, oylindraceum, Flem. 
 ,, (?) laterale, PUll. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11, (?) 13. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (= ovale, Phill.) 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50a. 
 
 ,, lineal o, de Kon. ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 38. 
 
 ,, pyramidale, Flem. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11, (?) 13. 
 
 ,, sulcatum, Flem. ... 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 1, 3, 10, 11, 12, 13, 
 14, 20, 21, 22, 24, 
 29 506, 51. 
 
 ,, ,, var. ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20, 23. 
 
 ,, undatum, Flem. ... 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 51, 74, 75. 
 
 sp 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 ic" 
 
 
 
 
 15, 17, 18a, 19, 40, 
 (?) 50e, 50#, 52, 
 55c, 58. 
 
 PISCES. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Flasmobranchii 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — Ickthyotomii 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Diplodus, Agassiz 
 
 ,, gibbosus, Ag. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 66, 67, 68. 
 
 „' parvulus, Traq. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50;. 
 
 Pleuracanthus, Agassi: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ laevissimus, Ag. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 68. 
 
 Selachii. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Callopristodus, Traq. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, pectinatus, Ag. 
 
 X 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 
 
 
 
 (?) 16, 43, 50; 
 
 Cladodus, Agassia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, mirabilis, Ag. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50;, 75. 
 
 „ striatus, Ag. 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (?) 11. 
 
 „ sp 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. 
 
 Cochliodont teeth 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 58. 
 
238 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 
 Lower. 
 
 Upper. 
 
 
 
 
 Garb. Limest. 
 
 ' 
 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 
 Series. 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 6 
 a 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 CD 
 
 <s 
 
 CO 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 
 SPECIES. 
 
 C 
 
 o 
 
 
 IB 
 
 c 
 
 Locality Number. 
 
 
 CO 
 
 tn 
 
 ■si 
 
 to 
 
 ■+i 
 
 a 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 CU 
 
 °o 
 
 a 
 u 
 
 CO 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 D 
 
 fcJD 
 
 (0 
 
 1 
 u 
 a> 
 
 Sr 
 
 ! s 
 
 (!) 
 
 c 
 
 O 
 
 is 
 
 o 
 D 
 
 1 
 
 ■a 
 
 OJ 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 pj 
 
 - 
 
 t> 
 
 S 
 
 j 
 
 s 
 
 
 Pisces — continued. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ius, Agassiz 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " lobatus, R. Eth., 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 jwn. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,58. 
 
 ,, serratus, Owen 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11, 22, 58. 
 
 ,. sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 23. 
 
 Euphyacanthus, Traquair 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ semistriatus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Traq. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50;. 
 
 Gyracanthus, Agassiz 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, rectus, Traq. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 43. 
 
 Helodus, Agassiz 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 » sp 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 68. 
 
 Oracanthus, Agassiz 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, armigerus, Traq. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '50/. 
 
 Petalodus, Owen 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ acuminatus, Ag. ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 11, 13, 22, 41. 58, 
 74, 75. 
 
 V sp 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 72. 
 
 Petalorhynehus, Agassiz 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, psittacinus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ag. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 41. 
 
 „ sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 75. 
 
 Pleuroplax, A. S. Woodward 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <> sp- 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pcecilodus, Agassiz 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Jonesi, M'Ooy ... 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,41. 
 
 » sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 21, 
 
 Pristodus, Davis 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Benniei, R. Eth., 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 jun. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 58. 
 
 „ falcatus, Ag. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 41. 
 
 „ sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. 
 
 Psammodus, Agassiz 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ rugosus, Ag. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 75. 
 
 ,, ,, var. poro- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sus, Ag. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. 
 
 Psephodus, Agassiz 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, magiras, Ag. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 74. 
 
 sp 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22. 
 
 Sphenacanthus, Agassiz 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ hybodoides, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Egerton 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 66, 68. 
 
 » sp 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 68. 
 
 Tristychius, Agassiz 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, arcuatus, Ag. ... 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50/. 
 
 „ sp. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 AcantJiodei. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aoanthodes, Agassiz 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sp 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 50/, 60, 66, 68. 
 
 Dipnoi — Sirenoidei. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ctenodus, Agassiz 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 » sp 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 66, 68. 
 
Appendix. 
 
 239 
 
 SPECIES. 
 
 Lower. 
 
 Carb. Limest. 
 Series. 
 
 Locality Number. 
 
 Pisobs— continued. 
 
 Ostracodermi. 
 Bothriolepis, Eichwald * 
 
 Teleostomi — Crossopterygii. 
 Holoptychius, Agassiz. . . * 
 
 ,, nobilissimus, A g. 
 
 Ccelaeanthus, Agassiz 
 
 ,, abdenensis, Traq. 
 
 ,, elega,ns,Jfewberry 
 
 „ sp 
 
 Megalichthys, Agassiz 
 
 „ Hibberti, Ag. ... 
 
 „ sp. 
 
 lihizodoj wis, Huxley 
 
 ,, sauroides, Will. ... 
 sp 
 
 Rhizodus, Owen 
 
 ,, sp 
 
 Strepsodus, Hux. and Young 
 
 ,, sauroides, Ag., m.s. 
 
 „ striatulus, Traq.... 
 
 A ctinoplerygii. 
 Cheirodus, M'Goy 
 
 „ orassus, Traq. 
 
 Eloniohthys, Giebel 
 
 ,, pectinatus, Traq. 
 
 ,, Robisoni, Hibbert 
 
 „ sp 
 
 Eurynotus, Agassiz 
 
 ,, crenatus, Ag. 
 
 Nematoptyehius, Traquair 
 
 ,, Greenocki, Ag. 
 
 Rhadiniohthys, Traq. 
 
 , ; ornatissimus, Ag. 
 
 Palaeomscid scales 
 
 Coprolites (of fish ?) 
 
 AMPHIBIA. 
 
 Labyrinthodontia. 
 Anthracosaurus, Huxley 
 
 ,, Russelu^M.-!;. 
 
 Loxomma, Huxley 
 
 ,, Allmani, Hux. 
 
 1., 
 
 HI. 
 
 , iv 
 
 , v., VI., 
 
 
 Vll. 
 
 , Vll] 
 
 ., IX. 
 
 50; 
 60, 
 
 '68. 
 
 23, 
 
 505. 
 
 
 66, 
 43, 
 
 67, 68, 
 50/, 76. 
 
 71. 
 
 (?) 23, 
 10, 20 
 50;, 
 
 50J, 
 22 
 72. 
 
 60, 68. 
 25, 50^, 
 
 13, 
 
 25, 
 
 42. 
 
 
 60, 
 
 50/ 
 
 66, 
 
 68, 
 
 71, 72. 
 
 50/. 
 
 50/. 
 
 32, 42, 46. 
 
 3a, 5a, 31. 
 
 3a, 31, 46, 50;. 
 
 25, 46. 
 
 31, 46. 
 66, 72. 
 25, 29, 66. 
 
 68. 
 
 ' : Upper Old Red Sandstone. 
 
240 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 C. Special List of the Fossils 
 Found in each of the Subdivisions of the Stratigraphical Series. 
 
 Upper Old Red, Sandstone. 
 
 Holoptychius, Agasriz 
 
 „ nobilissimus, Agassiz 
 
 Bothriolepis, Eichwcdd 
 
 1., 111., IV., V., VI., VU., VIM., IX. 
 
 ii. 
 
 Calciferous Sandstone Series. 
 
 
 at 
 1 
 
 | 
 
 
 CD 
 
 1 
 
 | 
 
 
 o . 
 
 » 
 
 A a to 
 
 a> . 
 
 
 
 •sg 
 
 Hi 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 ■OOH 
 
 3 i 
 
 
 
 fl a> 
 
 CO 
 
 M-£ a 
 
 BtH 
 
 cos 
 
 
 |3 
 
 g 
 
 ■s 
 
 lis 
 
 3l 
 
 ■5 § 
 
 
 O 
 
 M 
 
 <B 
 
 
 CO 
 
 ■a 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 m --I 
 
 r-l 
 
 c* 
 
 Adiantites antiquus 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 Aaterooalamites serobiculatus 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Calymmatotheca affinia 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 „ bifida 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 Cardiopteris, sp. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Cheirostrobus pettyourensis 
 
 „ sp., No. 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 sp., No. 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Cordaites sp 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 Heterangium Grievi 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Lopidodendron veltheimianum 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 „ sp 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Lepidophloios sooticus 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Lepidophyllum lanoeolatum 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 „ sp 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lepidostrobus comosus 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 „ variablis 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 .. sp : 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 Lyginodendron sp 
 
 Raohiopteris duplex 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 ,, allied to Oldhami 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 „ , » S P 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Sphenophyllum insigne 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 „ tenerrimum 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 Sphenopteris crassa 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Dunsi 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 „ (Rhodea) Hoohstetteri 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 ,, moravioa 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 sp 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Stigmaria sp 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Sporangia 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Trigonocarpus sp 
 
 Arohseodiseus Karreri 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
Ajopendix. 
 
 241 
 
 £3 
 
 ■9 S» 
 
 v d a) 
 "P 2 a 
 
 a v <d 
 
 S g'O 
 
 ■s3«] 
 
 CM 
 
 OJ 
 
 31 
 
 Calcifbrous Sandstone— cont'd. 
 
 Climaeammina antiquua 
 
 Endothyra Bowmani 
 
 „ orassa 
 
 „ globulus 
 
 „ macella 
 
 „ obliqua 
 
 j, ornata 
 
 „ radiata 
 
 , Staoheia oongesta 
 
 „ pupoides 
 
 „ polytrematoides 
 
 Textularia eximia 
 
 „ gibbosa 
 
 Trochammina incerta ... 
 Valvulina decurrens ... 
 
 ,, palfeotrochus 
 
 „ plicata 
 
 „ rudis 
 
 „ Youngi 
 
 Onion-like bodies (? foraminifera) . . . 
 
 Olisiophyllum sp. 
 
 Cyolophyllum fungites 
 
 Lithostrotion irregulare 
 
 Zaphrentis sp 
 
 Crinoid remains 
 
 Archieocidaris (plates and spines) . . . 
 
 Hydreionoorinus globularis 
 
 Serpulites carbonarius 
 
 sp 
 
 Spirorbis caperatus 
 
 ,, pusillus 
 
 Argillsecia aequalis 
 
 Bairdia ampla 
 
 ,, brevis 
 
 ,, ourta ... _ 
 
 „ „ var. 
 
 ,, elongata 
 
 ,, Hisingeri 
 
 „ plebeia 
 
 „ suboylindrica 
 
 subelongata 
 
 „ submueronata 
 
 Beyriohia fastigiata .. 
 
 a P- •■ 
 
 Beyrichiopsis fimbnata 
 
 var. 
 
 Bythoeypris oornigera 
 
 „ euneola 
 
 Cythera superba ... 
 
 Cy therella attenuata 
 
 „ extuberata 
 
 Kirkbya permiana 
 
 „ plieata 
 
 „ spinosa 
 
 ,, spiralis 
 
 Q 
 
 (?) 
 
 X 
 
242 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 
 0> 
 
 CO 
 
 g 
 
 a 
 o 
 m 
 
 I'S-S 
 
 ■flam 
 
 S 
 
 2 
 
 m 
 
 CD 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 
 •5 ® 
 
 s 
 
 •8 d 2 
 
 TJ CD S 
 
 5J tri 
 •§■3 
 
 si 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 0) 
 
 
 3j 
 am 
 
 3.3 
 
 ace 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 a & Si 
 
 « S3 
 
 £•0 
 
 3 § 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 V 
 
 ■** -*3 
 
 ■*& 
 
 T3 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 CO 
 t-i 
 
 a 
 
 CN 
 
 Calciferous Sandstone — cont'd. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kirkbya Urei 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Leperdifcia Okeni . . 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 ,, seotoburdigalensis 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 „ suborbioulata 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 (?) - 
 
 
 Eoscorpius sp. . . . 
 
 
 
 
 X " 
 
 
 Eenestella sp 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Hyphasmopora Buski 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Rhabdomeson sp. ... ... 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Sulooretepora parallela 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 „ sp 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 Athyris ambigua 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Chonetes laguessiana 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 „ .polita 
 
 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 
 Crania sp. 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 Discina nitida ... 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Lingula my tiloides 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 „ squamif ormis . . . 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 „ sp 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 X 
 
 Orthis Miohelini 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 ,, resupinata 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 » sp 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X. 
 
 Productus eomplectens 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 „ costatus 
 
 
 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 ,, longispinus 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 ,, mesolobus ... 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 „ punotatus 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 ,, scabriculus 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 „ semireticulatus 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 „ sp 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Rhynchonella pleurodon* 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 ,. sp 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Spirifera duplioicosta 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 „ Urei 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 „ sp 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Spirit erina cristata 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 Streptorhynchus orenistria 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 „ sp 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Allorisma maxima 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Anthracomya laevis, var. sootica 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Avicula sp., (? new) 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Aviculopecten ccelatus 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 ,, dissimilis 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 ) 
 
 granosus 
 
 
 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 , 
 
 hemisphEericus 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 , 
 
 interstitialis 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 , 
 
 ornatus 
 
 
 
 
 x 
 
 x 
 
 , 
 
 Sowerbyi 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 ) 
 
 subconoides ... 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 .) =jj 
 
 Edmondia Josepha 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 x 
 
 x 
 
 „ Lyelli 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 „ rudis or unionif ormis (?) 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 ., sp 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Lithodomus oarbonarius 
 
 
 
 
 x 
 
 
 Modiola 
 
 sp 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 * Very common. 
 
Appendix. 
 
 243 
 
 331 
 
 •g a) a 
 
 5 a 
 
 am 
 
 ■8-g 
 
 Calcifebotts Sandstone- 
 
 Myalina Flemingi 
 
 „ sublamellosa 
 
 .. »P 
 
 Naiadites craasa 
 
 -cont'd. 
 
 » sp 
 
 Nucula gibbosa i 
 
 Nuoulana attenuata 
 
 » sp 
 
 Parallelodon divisus 
 
 » sp 
 
 Protoschizodus axinif ormis . . . 
 
 j» sp - 
 
 Pterinea(?) 
 
 Pteronites persulcatus 
 
 (young of ?) 
 „ suloatus 
 
 sp 
 
 Sanguinolites abdenensis 
 
 „ striatolamellosa 
 
 sp 
 
 Schizodus sp 
 
 Sedgwiokia auborbioularis 
 
 Solenomya primasva 
 
 sp 
 
 Aclisina striatula 
 Bellerophon decussatus 
 
 „ Dumonti 
 
 „ striatus 
 
 ,, Urei 
 
 sp 
 
 Dentalium sp 
 
 Euomphalus carbonarius 
 
 Loxonema sp 
 
 Maoroohilina acuta 
 
 „ inibrieata 
 
 ,, sp 
 
 Murohisonia sp. 
 
 Narica variata 
 
 ., sp 
 
 Natieopsis sp 
 
 Pleurotomaria sp. 
 
 Conularia sp 
 
 Cyrtooeras rugosum 
 
 Disoites sp 
 
 Goniatites sp 
 
 Nautilus sp 
 
 Orthoceras laterale 
 
 „ sulcatum 
 
 „ undatum 
 
 sp 
 
 Acanthodes sp 
 
 Callopristodus pectinatus 
 
 Cheirodus crassus 
 
 Cladodus mirabilis 
 
 (?) 
 
 (?) 
 
 (?) 
 
 (?) 
 x 
 
 (?) 
 
 X 
 
 (?) 
 
 (?) 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 X 
 X 
 X 
 
 (?) 
 
244 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 to °> 
 1*1 
 
 at 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 c 
 
 1 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 ~ - r. 
 
 S ' 
 
 
 
 Is 
 
 a 
 
 ■2 rt a 
 
 T3 oj " 
 
 .i-s 
 
 as 
 
 
 ■si 
 
 « 
 
 
 3j 
 
 3 J 
 
 
 s 8 
 
 CO 
 
 C M 
 
 g m 
 
 
 I 3 
 
 01 
 
 
 O 
 
 .a 
 '•3 
 
 a o) in 
 
 sis 
 
 ■§■§ 
 2 
 
 AT) 
 
 
 ffl 
 
 
 1 S 
 
 CO 
 
 c 
 
 Calciheeous Sandstone— cont'd. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cladodus sp. 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Coelaoanthus abdenensis 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 » sp 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Diplodus parvulus 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Eloniohthys pectinatus 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 ,, Robisoni 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 ... sp. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 Euphyacanthus semistriatus ... , 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Eurynotus erenatus 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Gyracanthus rectus 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 Megalichthys sp. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Nematoptychius Greenocki 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 Oracanthus armigerus .. 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Pleuroplax sp 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Rhadinichthys ornatissimus 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 Rhizodopsis sauroides 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 „ sp. 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Rhizodus sp. 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Strepsodus striatulus 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Tristychius arcuatus 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Fish-remains (obscure) 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Palaxmiscid scales 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 Shark shagreen 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coprolites 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hurlet Limestone. 
 
 Endothyra Bowmani. 
 
 ,, crassa. 
 
 Stacheia polytrematoides. 
 
 „ pupoides. 
 Troehammina incerta. 
 Valvulina palseotrochus. 
 
 ,, „ var. compressa. 
 
 Youngi. 
 
 „ „ var. oontraria. 
 
 Onion-like bodies. 
 Acanthospongia Smithi. 
 Ascodictyon radians. 
 Hyalostelia parallela. 
 Sponge borings in Chonetes. 
 Pala^ocoryne. 
 Araplexus coralloides. 
 
 ,, spinosus. 
 
 „ sp. 
 Aspidophyllum sp. 
 Aulopora sp. 
 Chaetetes tumidus. 
 Clisiophyllum coniseptum. 
 ,, turbinatum. 
 
 Cyathaxonia cornu. 
 Cyathophyllum paracida. 
 
 Cyclophyllum fungites. 
 Dibunophyllum sp. 
 Favosites parasitica. 
 Heterophyllia granulata. 
 
 „ Lyelli. 
 
 Lithostrotion junceum. 
 Lonsdaleia sp. 
 Lophophyllum parvulum. 
 
 „ sp. 
 
 Palasacis compressa. 
 
 „ cyclostoma. 
 Syringopora sp. 
 Zaphrentis cliffordiana ? 
 
 „ Enniskilleni. 
 
 ,, Griffithsi. 
 
 „ sp. 
 
 Archseocidaris Urei. 
 Astrocrinites Benniei. 
 Cupressocrinus impressus ? 
 Hydreionocrinus globularis. 
 
 " S P- 
 
 Platycrinus, near arenosus. 
 
 s> trigintidactylus. 
 
 >> sp. 
 
 Poterioorinus crassus. 
 
Appendix. 
 
 245 
 
 Poteriocrinus tenuis. 
 Holothurian plates, etc. 
 Ortonia carbonaria. 
 Serpulites earbonarius. 
 
 „ -sp. 
 Spirorbis ambiguus. 
 „ caperatus. 
 ,, spinosus ? 
 .. sp. 
 Bairdia ampla. 
 „ brevis. 
 „ ourta. 
 „ curta var. 
 „ grandis. 
 „ Hisingeri. 
 , , plebeia. 
 „ „ var. 
 
 „ subelongata 
 „ subraucronata. 
 „ sp. 
 Beyrichia radiata. 
 Beyriohiella (?) ventricornis. 
 Bythocypris cornigera. 
 Cypridina sp. 
 Cytherella sp. 
 Kirkbya costata. 
 „ permiana. 
 umbonata. 
 „ Urei. 
 Leperditia armstrongiana. 
 Okeni. 
 ,, ,, var. acuta. 
 
 Phillipsia Eichwaldi, 
 
 ,, „ var. mucronata. 
 
 Ceriopora sp. 
 Diastopora megastoma. 
 
 „ new sp. 
 
 Fenestella Morrisii. 
 „ multiporata. 
 „ plebeia. 
 
 undulata. 
 ,, new sp. 
 Glauconome pulcherrima. 
 Hippothoa Hincksi, m.s. 
 Polypora tuberculata. 
 
 V sp ' 
 Rhabdomeson rhombiferum. 
 
 „ sp. 
 
 Sulcoretepora parallela. 
 
 Thamniscus pustulosus ? 
 
 Athyris ambigua. 
 
 „ Roysii. 
 
 Chonetes buchiana. 
 
 „ comoides. 
 
 , , laguessiana. 
 
 „ polita. 
 
 sp. 
 
 Crania quadrata. 
 
 Diseina nitida. 
 
 Lingula mytiloides. 
 
 „ squamiformis. 
 
 » sp. 
 
 Orthis Michelini. 
 
 „ resupinata. 
 
 „ sp. 
 
 Productus aculeatus. 
 
 „ complectens. 
 
 Productus, near costatus. 
 „ fimbriatus. 
 „ giganteus. 
 ,, latissimus. 
 
 longispinus. 
 ,, margaritaceus. 
 
 „ mesolobus. 
 „ punctatus. 
 ,, pustulosus. 
 ,, seabriculus. 
 , , semireticulatus. 
 
 „ „ var. Martini. 
 
 „ youngianus. 
 Retzia radialis. 
 Rhynchonella pleurodon. 
 Spirifera carlukensis ? 
 duplioicosta. 
 glabra, 
 lineata. 
 ovalis. 
 trigonalis. 
 
 ,, var. bisulcata. 
 
 ,, var. 
 Urei. 
 Spiriferina cristata. 
 
 ,, var. octoplicata. 
 sp. 
 Streptorhynchus crenistria. 
 
 » „ var. 
 
 Terebratula hastata. 
 , , sacculus. 
 
 vesicularis. 
 „ sp. 
 
 Anthracomya Phillipsi. 
 Aviculopecten arenosus. 
 coelatus. 
 concavus. 
 dissimilis. 
 docens. 
 fimbriatus. 
 granosus ? 
 interstitialis. 
 ornatus. 
 planoradiatus ? 
 Sowerbyi. 
 sp. 
 Conocardium aliforme. 
 
 „ sp. 
 
 Ctenodonta sinuosa. 
 Cypricardella acutocarinata ? 
 ,, ooncentrica. 
 
 , , parallela. 
 
 ,, rectangulario. 
 
 „ sp. 
 
 Edmondia Josepha. 
 ,, rudis. 
 „ scalari s. 
 
 ,, sulcata? 
 
 ,, unioniformis. 
 Modiola elongata. 
 
 „ sp. 
 Myalina sp. 
 Mytilomorpha rhombea. 
 Naiadites crassa. 
 Nucula acuta. 
 , , near acuta. 
 „ gibbosa. 
 
246 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 Nucula lsevirostrum. 
 ,, luciniforrais. 
 Nueulana attenuata. 
 ,, brevirostrum. 
 ,, lcevistriata. 
 Parallelodon divisus ? 
 
 „ aemicostatus. 
 
 „ sp. 
 
 Pinna flabelliformis. 
 Posidonomya corrugata. 
 
 „ sp. 
 
 Protoschizodus axiniformis. 
 
 „ obliquus. 
 
 Pteronites sp. 
 Sanguinolites angustatus. 
 „ costellatus. 
 
 , , iridinoides. 
 
 ,, striatolamellosus. 
 
 ,, striatus. 
 
 , , tricostatus 
 
 „ near visetensis? 
 
 Sedgwiokia gigantea ? 
 
 „ suborbicularis. 
 
 Solenomya excisa. 
 
 ,, primaeva. 
 
 Aolisina elongata. 
 „ striatula. 
 Acroculia neritoides. 
 ,, vetusta. 
 sp. 
 Bellerophon decussatus. 
 ,, Oldhami. 
 
 „ striatus. 
 
 ,, Urei. 
 
 Dentalium ingens. 
 ,, inornatuni. 
 
 ornatum. 
 ,, new sp. 
 
 Eulima phillipsiana. 
 Euomphalus carbonarius. 
 , , radians. 
 
 „ tuberculatus. 
 
 Loxonema constriotum. 
 ,, elongatum. 
 
 „ Lefebvrei. 
 
 ,, rugiferum. 
 
 „ sealaroideura. 
 „ sp. 
 Macrochilina acuta. 
 
 Macrochilina fusif ormis. 
 ,, imbricata. 
 
 „ michotiana. 
 
 Microdoma (Trochus) biserrata. 
 Murchisonia quadriearinata. • 
 Narica elliptica. 
 
 , , variata. 
 Naticopsis plicistria. 
 
 sp. 
 Pleurotomaria atomaria. 
 , , monilif era. 
 
 ,, Yvanii. 
 
 sp. large. 
 Conularia quadrisuleata. 
 Aetinooeras ? 
 Cyrtoceras rugosum. 
 
 „ unguis. 
 Discites leveilleanus. 
 ,, quadra tus. 
 , , subsulcatus. 
 „ suleatus. 
 Goniatites sp. 
 Nautilus canaliculars. 
 
 , , globatus. 
 Orthoceras attenuatum. 
 ,, cylindraceum. 
 
 , , lineale. 
 
 ,, pyramidale. 
 
 , , sulcatum. 
 
 ,, ,, var. 
 
 „ undatum. 
 
 Cladodus mirablis. 
 ,, striatus? 
 sp. 
 Cochliodont teeth. 
 Ctenoptychius lobatus. 
 ,, serratus. 
 
 Megalichthys sp. 
 Petalodus acuminatus. 
 Petalorhynchus psittaeinus. 
 
 sp. 
 Pcecilodus Jonesi. 
 Pristodus Benniei. 
 ,, falcatus. 
 „ sp. 
 Psammodus rugosus, var. porosus. 
 Psephodus magnus. 
 Rhizodopsis sp. 
 
 Hosie Limestones. 
 
 Archaaodiscus Kerreri. 
 Endothyra globulus. 
 , , obliqua. 
 
 Nodosinella concinna. 
 Saccammina sp'. 
 Stacheia congesta. 
 
 ,, fusrformis. 
 
 ,, polytrematoides ? 
 
 ,, pupoides. 
 Trochammina anceps. 
 ,, incerta. 
 
 Valvulina decurrens. 
 
 palseotrochus. 
 
 „ var. compressa. 
 
 Youngi. 
 ,, ,, var. contraria. 
 
 Ascodictyon radians. 
 Hyalostelia parallela. 
 Peronidella sparsa. 
 Sponge borings ? 
 Palseocoryne sp. 
 Amplexus ibicinus. 
 
Appendix. 
 
 247 
 
 Amplexus spinosus. 
 Aulopora oampanulata. 
 
 „ sp. - 
 Chsetetes tumidus. 
 
 „ sp. 
 Oladoohonus Michelini. 
 Clisiophyllum ? 
 Cyathaxonia cornu 1 
 Favosites parasitica. 
 Lophophyllum eruca. 
 
 „ parvulum ? 
 
 Lithosirotion sp. 
 Michelinia, near megastoma. 
 Pala^acis compressa. 
 
 „ cyolostoma. 
 Zaphrentis, near centralis. 
 „ „ cliffordiana. 
 
 ,, Enniskilleni. 
 
 Archjeocidaris plates and spines. 
 Hydreionocrinus globularis ? 
 Poteriocrinus crassus. 
 
 ,, nuciformis. 
 
 ,, new sp. near nuciformis. 
 
 Platycrinus trigintidactylus. 
 Achistrum Nicolsoni. 
 Cheirodota? Traquairi. 
 Ortonia ? 
 Serpulites carbonarius. 
 
 „ membranaceus. 
 Spiroglyphus sp. 
 Spirorbis globosus. 
 
 „ pusillus. 
 
 „ spinosus. 
 Vermilia sp. 
 Bairdia ampla. 
 
 „ brevis. 
 
 „ plebeia. 
 
 „ submucronata. 
 
 „ „ var. 
 
 Beyrichia crinita ? 
 ,, radiata. 
 ,, varicosa. 
 Beyrichiella ventricornis. 
 Bythocypris cornigera. 
 „ cuneola. 
 
 ,, cuneolina. 
 
 Cythere sp. 
 Cy therella ? 
 Kirkbya obsoleta. 
 
 , , permiana. 
 
 , , striolata ? 
 
 „ umbonata. 
 
 , , Urei. 
 Leperditia Okeni. 
 Dithyrocaris (mandibles), 
 Phillipsia sp. 
 
 Calamopora (Oarinella) sp. 
 Ceriopora interporosa. 
 Diastopora megastoma. 
 Fenestella sp. 
 Glauconome elegantula. 
 
 » sp. 
 
 Goniocladia cellulifera. 
 
 „ „ ? or a new form. 
 
 " sp " 
 Hyphasmopora (Bhombopora) Benniei. 
 
 ,, Buski. 
 
 Rbabdomeson gracile. 
 
 ,, rhombiferum. 
 
 Sulcoretepora ? 
 Athyris ambigua. 
 
 „ Roysi. 
 Chonetes laguessiana. 
 
 ,, polita. 
 Crania quadrata. 
 Discina nitida. 
 Lingula mytiloides. 
 Ortnis Michelini. 
 ,, resupinata. 
 Productus aculeatus. 
 
 „ complectens. 
 
 , , costatus. 
 
 ,, longispinus. 
 ,, punctatus. 
 
 ,, pustulosus. 
 
 scabriculus. 
 ,, semireticulatus. 
 „ „ var. Martini. 
 
 „ youngianus. 
 sp. 
 Betzia radialis. 
 Rhynchonella pleurodon. 
 
 sp. 
 Spirifera carlukensis. 
 „ duplieicosta. 
 „ glabra. 
 
 lineata, var. 
 ovalis. 
 , , trigonalis. 
 „ ,, var. bisulcata. 
 
 „ Urei. 
 sp. 
 Spiriferina cristata. 
 
 ,, ,, var. octoplicata. 
 
 Streptorhynchus crenistria. 
 Strophomena analoga, var. distorta. 
 Terebratula sacculus, var. 
 Aviculopecten coelatus. 
 , , concavus. 
 
 „ dissimilis. 
 
 „ docens. 
 
 „ ornatus? 
 
 , , Sowerbyi. 
 
 Conocardium aliforme. 
 Cypricardella concentrica. 
 „ parallela. 
 
 ,, rectangularis ? 
 
 Cyprioardia sp. 
 Edmondia unioniformis. 
 „ near scalaris. 
 sp. 
 Lithodomus lingualis. 
 
 ,, lithodomoides. 
 
 Nucula gibbosa. 
 „ lrevirostrum. 
 „ lineata=N. scotica. 
 Nuculana attenuata. 
 „ brevirostrum. 
 „ la3vistriata. 
 Parallelodon bistriatus ? 
 ,, semicostatus. 
 
 „ new sp. 
 
 Pecten sp. 
 
248 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 Pinna flabelliformis. 
 Protoschizodus axiniformis. 
 Pterinea or Pteronites. 
 Sanguinolites costellatus. 
 
 ,, oblongus? 
 
 „ tricostatus? 
 
 Schizodus sp. 
 
 Sedgwickia suborbicularis. 
 Aelisina gracilis. 
 Bellerophon decussatus. 
 
 „ Oldhami. 
 
 „ striatus. 
 
 „ Urei. 
 
 Denta Hun) ingens. 
 
 „ sp. 
 Euomphalus earbonarius. 
 
 „' radians. 
 
 » sp. 
 
 Loxonema rugiferum. 
 
 ,, soalaroideum. 
 Macrochilina imbricata ? 
 
 „ sp. 
 
 Murchisonia striatula ? 
 
 „ sp. 
 
 Narioa variata. 
 
 Naticopsis elongata. 
 ,, plioistria. 
 Pleurotomaria atomaria. 
 „ contraria. 
 
 Conularia quadrisulcata. 
 
 sp. 
 Aotinoceras giganteum. 
 Cyrtoceras rugosum. 
 
 » S P- 
 Discites quadratus. 
 „ subsuloatus. 
 „ sulcatus. 
 „ sp. 
 Goniatites ? 
 
 Orthoceras cylindraceum or pyramidale. 
 ,, sulcatum. 
 „ sp. 
 Ccelacanthus sp. 
 Ctenoptychius serratus, var. 
 
 sp. 
 Petalodus acuminata. 
 Poecilodus sp. 
 Rblzodus sp. 
 Rhizodopsis sp. 
 Psephodus sp. 
 
 Lepidodendron sp. 
 Sphenopteris sp. 
 Stigmaria sp. 
 Spirorbis pusillus. 
 Carbonia fabulina. 
 Entomostraca. 
 
 Edge Coal Series. 
 
 Lingula squamiformis var. 
 Anthraeomya Phillipsi. 
 Callopristodus pectinatus ? 
 Nematoptychius Greenocki. 
 Rhizodopsis sp. 
 Rhizodus sp. 
 
 Index Limestone. 
 
 (Chiefly supplied by Mr. J. W. Kirkby.) 
 
 Bairdia sp. 
 Beyrichia bradyana. 
 Bythocypris cuneola. 
 
 „ phillipsiana, var. carbonica. 
 
 By thocy there youngiana ? 
 Oytherella Benniei. 
 ., sp. 
 
 Kirkbya scotica. 
 Ulrichia bituberculata. 
 Streptorhynchus crenistria. 
 Terebratula sacculus var. 
 Nuculana lsevistriata. 
 Schizodus (?), small. 
 Bellerophon decussatus. 
 
 Gair Limestone. 
 
 Calamites sp. 
 Stigmaria sp. 
 Endothyra Bowmani. 
 
 ,, globulus. 
 
 ,, radiata. 
 Stacheia sp. 
 Trochammina incerta. 
 Valvulina decurrens. 
 Hyalostelia parallela. 
 Palseocoryne. 
 
 Monticulipora tumida. 
 Poteriocrinus crassus. 
 Archa^ocidaris sp. 
 Ortonia carbonaria. 
 
 „ sp. 
 Serpulites sp. 
 Spirorbis sp. 
 Bairdia plebeia. 
 
 ,, subelongata. 
 
 ,, submucronata. 
 
Appendix. 
 
 249 
 
 Bairdia sp. 
 Beyriohia radiata. 
 
 ,, tuberculospinosa. 
 sp. 
 Bythooypris ouneola. 
 ,, cuneolina. 
 
 „ phillipsiana, var. carboniea. 
 
 Cytherella reota. 
 Kirkbya permiana. 
 ,, rigida. 
 „ spinosa, 
 Leperditia acuta. 
 ,, inornata? 
 9 Okeni. 
 
 „ „ vars. 
 
 Dithyrocaris 1 
 Phillipsia sp. 
 Diastopora sp. 
 Fenestella sp. 
 Glauconome sp. 
 Goniocladia cellulifera. 
 Thamniscus pustulosus ? 
 Athyris ambigua. 
 
 ,, Roysii. 
 Chonetes laguessiana. 
 Diseina nitida. 
 Lingula mytiloides. 
 
 „ sp. 
 Orthis resupinata. 
 
 „ sp. 
 Productus oompleotens. 
 „ costatus. 
 „ giganteus. 
 , , latissimus. 
 „ longispinus. 
 „ scabriculus. 
 ,, semireticulatus. 
 Rhynchonella pleurodon. 
 
 .. sp. 
 
 Spirifera trigonalis. 
 
 „ var. bisuloata. 
 
 „ „ var. 
 
 , , ovalis or pinguis. 
 ,, Urei. 
 Spiriferina oristata, var. octoplicata. 
 
 Streptorhynchus crenistria, 
 Aviculopecten arenosus ? 
 „ ornatus. 
 
 „ sp. 
 
 Cardiomorpha oblonga. 
 Ctenodonta sinuosa. 
 Edmondia Josepha. 
 ,, Lyelli. 
 ,, rudis. 
 ,, unioniformis. 
 Modiola Macadami. 
 Myalina Flemingi 1 
 
 ,, sp. 
 Nucula gibbosa. 
 Nuculana attenuata. 
 
 ,, lfevistriata. 
 Protoschizodus axiniformis. 
 
 , , obliquu8. 
 
 Pteronites persulcatus. 
 
 ,, sulcatus. 
 
 Sanguinolites striatolamellosa, 
 Schizodus ? 
 Solenopsis minor. 
 Acroeulia sp. 
 Bellerophon decussatus. 
 „ leveilleanus. 
 
 „ striatus. 
 
 „ Urei. 
 
 Dentalium priscum. 
 
 „ sp. 
 
 Loxonema scalaroideum. 
 
 sp. 
 Macroohilina fusiformis. 
 „ imbricata. 
 
 Murchisonia striatula. 
 
 sp. ? 
 Narica variata. 
 Naticopsis ampliata ? 
 
 sp. 
 Pleurotomaria inonilifera. 
 Subulites (Polyphemopsis) fusiformis. 
 Orthoceras sulcatum. 
 
 „ sp. 
 
 Coprolites. 
 
 Levenseat Limestone. 
 
 Zaphrentis Phillipsi. 
 Platycrinus sp. 
 Poteriocrinus ventricosus ? 
 
 „ sp. 
 
 Serpulites carbonarius. 
 Beyriohia radiata. 
 Bythooypris cuneola. 
 
 „ phillipsiana var. carboniea. 
 
 Cytherella Benniei. 
 
 , , recta. 
 Kirkbya permiana, var. 
 Urei. 
 „ sp. 
 Leperditia Okeni. 
 Youngia rectidorsalis ? 
 Phillipsia Eiohwaldi var mucronata. 
 
 Ceriopora similis. . 
 Diastopora megastoma. 
 
 sp. 
 Athyris ambigua. 
 
 „ Roysii. 
 Chonetes laguessiana. 
 Diseina nitida. 
 Lingula mytiloides 
 Orthis Michelini. 
 
 Productus semireticulatus var. concinnus. 
 ,, sinuatus. 
 sp. 
 Spirifera trigonalis var. bisuloata. 
 
 ,, Urei. 
 Streptorhynchus crenistria. 
 Aviculopecten sp. 
 
250 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 Cardiomorpha sp. 
 Conooardium sp. 
 Cypricardella recfcangularis. 
 Edmondia Josepha. 
 
 ,, unioniformis 1 
 
 Nuoula gibbosa. 
 
 ,, lsevirostrum. 
 Nuculana attenuata. 
 Parallelodon semicostatus. 
 
 sp. 
 Protoschizodus axiniformis. 
 Acroculia neritoides. 
 Bellerophon decussatus. 
 
 „ leveilleanus. 
 
 „ Urei. 
 
 Dentalium priscum. 
 Euomphalus serpens ? 
 Loxoneraa scalaroideura. 
 Macrochilina acuta. 
 
 Maoroohilina fusiformis. 
 ,, imbrieata. 
 
 „ michotiana. 
 
 Murohisonia angulata. 
 
 „ quadrioarinata. 
 
 ,, tricinota. 
 
 Natieopsis elongata. 
 „ omalina. 
 
 „ plicistria. 
 
 Pleurotomaria contraria. 
 „ monilifera. 
 
 sp. 
 Porcellia armata. 
 Cyrtoceras rugosum. 
 Discites quadratus. 
 Goniatites striolatue. 
 
 „ sp. 
 Nautilus (Discites) nodiferus. 
 Orthoceras attenuatum. 
 
 Coal Measures.— The equivalents 
 (chiefly supplied 
 
 Alethopteris decurrens. 
 ,, lonchitica. 
 
 Armularia radiata. 
 Calamites Cisti. 
 „ nodosus. 
 , , ramosus. 
 , , Suckowi. 
 , , varians. 
 sp. 
 Calamocladus equisetiformis 
 Cordaianthus Piteairniaa. 
 Gordaites principalis. 
 
 sp. 
 Dactylotheea plumosa, forma crenata, 
 Eremopteris artemisiaefolia. 
 Lepidodendron ophiurus. 
 
 „ " sp. 
 Lepidophloios acerosus. 
 Lepidostrobus variabilis. 
 
 „ sp. 
 
 Mariopteris muricata, forma nervosa. 
 Neuropteris gigantea. 
 
 , , " heterophylla. 
 Palaiostaehya pedunculata. 
 Pinnularia capillacea. 
 Renaultia Footneri. 
 
 „ microearpa. 
 Sigillaria Brardi. 
 „ scutellata. 
 „ sp. 
 Sphenophyllum cuneifolium. 
 
 sp. 
 Sphenopteris aoutifolia. 
 ,, furcata. 
 
 „ latifolia. 
 
 „ Laurenti. 
 
 „ obtusiloba. 
 
 , , Schillingsi. 
 
 Stigmaria ficoides. 
 Trigonocarpus Parkinsoni. 
 
 „ sp. 
 
 Microspores. 
 Actinocrinus ? (stems). 
 
 of "The Lower Ooal Measures" of England 
 by Mr. J. W. Kirkby). 
 
 Spirorbis pusillus. 
 Carbonia fabulina. 
 
 rankiniana. 
 
 Eoscorpius anglicus. 
 
 ,, tuberculatus. 
 Myriapod. 
 Discina nitida. 
 Lingula mytiloides. 
 
 ,, squamiformis. 
 Productus semireticulatus var. Martini. 
 Anthracomya Wardi. 
 
 „ William soni 
 
 sp. 
 Carbonicola acuta. 
 „ aquilina. 
 
 „ turgida. 
 
 Naiadites (Anthracoptera) carinata. 
 „ modiolaris. 
 ,, quadrata. 
 Sanguinolites sp. 
 Aclisina (Murchisonia) striatula. 
 Bellerophon decussatus. 
 
 „ Urei. 
 
 Discites rotiferus. 
 
 „ sp. with longitudinal ribs. 
 „ sp. smooth. 
 Orthoceras attenuatum ? 
 Acanthodes sp. 
 Coelacanthus elegans. 
 Ctenodus sp, 
 Diplodus gibbosus. 
 Helodus sp. 
 
 Megalichthys Hibberti. 
 Pleuracanthus laevissimus. 
 Rhizodopsis sauroides. 
 
 „ sp. 
 
 Sphenacanthus sp. 
 Strepsodus sauroides. 
 Anthracosaurus Russelli. 
 Loxomma Allmani. 
 Coprolites. 
 Various tracks. 
 
Appendix. 
 
 251 
 
 Red Coal Measures.— The equivalents of " The Middle Coal Measures ' 
 of England (supplied by Mr. J. W. Kirkby). 
 
 Alethopteris aquilina. 
 Calamines ramosus. 
 
 , , Suckowii. 
 
 „ sp. 
 Calamoeladus equisetiformis. 
 Cordaites sp. 
 Lepidodendron ophiurus. 
 
 „ c/f. rimosum. 
 
 Lepidophyllum lanceolatum. 
 Lepidostrobus variablis. 
 Mariopteris muricata. 
 Neuropteris rarinervis. 
 
 ,, Scheuchzeri. 
 Peoopteris Miltoni. 
 Rhabdocarpus sulcatus. 
 Sigillaria camptotaenia. 
 
 „ monostigma. 
 Sphenophyllum emarginatum (?}. 
 Trigonocarpus Parkinsoni, 
 forma olivEeformis. 
 
 Bellinurus trilobitoides. 
 Eurypterus mammatus. 
 Carbonia fabulina. 
 
 „ rankiniana. 
 
 , , secans. 
 Leaia Leidyi. 
 Prestwiehia anthrax. 
 Anthraoomya modiolaris ? 
 
 ,, Wardi. 
 
 Acanthodes sp. 
 Ctenodus sp. 
 Diplodus gibbosus. 
 Megalichthys Hibberti. 
 Palaeoniscid scales. 
 Petalodus sp. 
 Rhizodopsis sp. 
 Sphenacanthus hybodoides. 
 Strepsodus sauroides. 
 Coprolites. 
 
 Post-Tertiary. * — Glacial Lake deposits exposed in Railway cuttings near 
 Dronachy Burn, about 1 mile west of Auchertool. 
 
 Amblystegium fluvitans. 
 Aulacomnium turgidum. 
 Distichium capillaceum. 
 Thalictrum flavum ? 
 Ranunculus aquatilis. ^ 
 Viola palustris ? 
 Hippuris vulgaris. 
 CEnanthe. 
 
 Menyanthes trifoliata. 
 Betula nana. 
 Salix herbacea. 
 
 „ polaris. 
 
 „ reticulata. 
 Empetrum nigrum. 
 
 Potamegeton 2 sp. 
 
 Eleocharis palustris. 
 
 Scirpus pauciflorus. 
 „ fiuitans ? 
 
 Carex 2 sp. 
 
 Daphnia pulex (eggs of). 
 
 Beetle, (jaws of). 
 
 Erigone sp. (spider). 
 
 Apus (Lepidurus) glacialis. — Many speci- 
 mens consisting of detached mandibles, 
 maxillae, body segments, etc. 
 
 Pisidium sp. 
 
 Lymnea sp. 
 
 * See " The Origin of the British Flora," by Clement Reid, p. 65. 
 
252 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 PART II. PETROGRAPHICAL. 
 
 Notes on the Petrography of the Igneous Rocks of the Lower 
 Old Red Sandstone of the Eastern Ochil Hills. Bt 
 Herbert Kynaston, BA. 
 
 I. Lavas. 
 (a) Andesites. 
 
 [8765.]* 350 yards north of Bein Inn, Glen Farg. A dark purplish 
 pyroxene-andesite, with amygdules of silica. Phrenocrysts of plagioclase, 
 and enstatite with bronze-like lustre, may be seen with the naked eye. 
 Under the microscope the felspar is seen to occur in elongated lath- 
 shaped individuals, often with rather ragged outline, which are slightly 
 decomposed and much cracked. They are probably labradorite. The 
 pyroxene phenocrysts appear to be mainly represented by greenish 
 bastite-like pseudomorphs after enstatite, which show transverse cracks, 
 a distinct pleochroism, and straight extinction, The distinctness of the 
 pleochroism may possibly indicate an enstatite slightly more ferriferous 
 than that usually characteristic of the pyroxene-andesites. The ground- 
 mass consists of lath-shaped plagioclases, augite grains, magnetite, and 
 some greenish alteration-products. This is rather a basic type of 
 Andesite. 
 
 [8766.] Same locality. A similar rock. The green fibrous pseudo- 
 morphs after enstatite are well seen, and the pleochroism is well marked. 
 Enstatite- A ndesite . 
 
 [8768.] Roadside, a little north of sill (see No. 8767) and south of 
 where the road crosses the Parg in Glen Farg. A dark purple andesite, 
 rich in plagioclase phenocrysts. The phenocrysts consist of lath-shaped 
 crystals and crystal-groups of labradorite, and pale greenish pseudo- 
 morphs after olivine (?), showing good idiomorphism and irregular cracks 
 filled with iron-ore. The groundmass consists of felspar microlites, 
 small pyroxene granules, and magnetite. 
 
 [8771.] A sample of the prevalent type of andesite in Glen Farg. 
 This again is rather a basic andesite. It contains phenocrysts of 
 plagioclase (labradorite), some augite and olivine (?) pseudomorphs, 
 in a fine microlitic groundmass. There are also some small amygdales 
 containing silica. 
 
 [8868.] Chief quarry at west end of Newburgh, Fife. The phenocrysts 
 consist of elongated crystals of plagioclase (labradorite), pale greenish 
 fibrous pseudomorphs after enstatite, giving slight pleochroism, and a 
 pale brownish augite in irregular grains. The groundmass is decidedly 
 more coarse-grained than is usual in the andesites. It is micro- 
 crystalline, and consists mainly of plagioclase, small augite grains, and 
 some interstitial quartz. There also seems to be a small quantity of 
 
 * The numbers prefixed to the descriptions of the rocks refer to the microscopic slides 
 in the collection of the Geological Survey. 
 
Appendix, 253 
 
 interstitial alkali-felspar. Iron-ores (magnetite and hematite) are 
 accessory. The rock may be called an Enstatite-augite-andesite. 
 
 [8869.] Lowest lava behind Newburgh. A similar type of andesite 
 to the last, but apparently richer in ferromagnesian constituents. A 
 good deal of alteration has taken place, with the production of car- 
 bonates. The plagioclase phenocrysts are similar to those of the pre- 
 ceding rock. The ferromagnesian phenocrysts consist of pseudomorphs 
 after augite and enstatite (?). The latter do not show the characteristic 
 fibrous structure, but are of a yellowish colour, and give a minute 
 aggregate polarisation between crossed nicols, probably being altered 
 into carbonates and limonite. The groundmass is micro-crystalline, 
 and consists of plagioclase, some interstitial alkali-felspar (?), and 
 quaitz. Iron-ores are also present. The rock is a Pyroxene-andesite. 
 
 [8870.] Andesite, east of Lighthouse, Tayport. A much more com- 
 pact type of andesite, but rather decomposed. The microscope shows 
 small plagioclase phenocrysts and altered pyroxenes in a groundmass 
 consisting of numerous plagioclase microlites, embedded in a brownish 
 interstitial matter, which was probably originally glassy. Iron-ores are 
 accessory, and often occur in irregular patches. Pyroxene-andesite. 
 
 [8871.] Andesite, Jock's Hole, west of south end of Tay Bridge. 
 Consists of numerous lath-shaped plagioclases of both larger and smaller 
 varieties, and irregular grains of altered pyroxene, in a brownish glassy 
 base. Amygdales of varied shape are also seen, filled with silica and- 
 carbonates. Pyroxene-andesite. 
 
 [8872.] Andesite, of the prevalent type of the district, Upper Coul, 
 east of Auchterarder, Perth. The phenocrysts consist of plagioclase, 
 augite, enstatite, and olivine pseudomorphs. The augite has been a 
 good deal altered into carbonates. The enstatite is in small crystals, 
 showing slight pleochroism. The olivine pseudomorphs are more or less 
 idiomorphic, and the alteration is that characteristic of the more 
 ferruginous varieties met with in the more basic andesites. The ground- 
 mass consists mainly of small felspar microlites and a greyish brown 
 interstitial matter. Enstatite-augite-andesite. 
 
 [8873.] Shore, 200-300 yards from where railway leaves cutting, west 
 of Tayport ; specimen taken from centre of flow. The slide shows no 
 conspicuous felspar phenocrysts. Fairly numerous reddish and reddish- 
 yellow pseudomorphs after olivine (?) are seen in a groundmass consist- 
 ing of small plagioclase laths, altered pyroxene grains, magnetite, and 
 brownish interstitial matter. There is a rude tendency to flow-structure 
 observable in the arrangement of the plagioclases of the groundmass. 
 
 [8874.] Platy rock showing flow-structure, West Lighthouse, Tayport. 
 A very compact and rather basic type of andesite. Under the micro- 
 scope there are no signs of definite phenocrysts, except an occasional 
 pseudomorph apparently after pyroxene. The rock consists essentially 
 of small plagioclase microlites and small brownish granules, probably 
 pyroxene. Flow structure is indicated by the orientation of the 
 felspars. Magnetite is accessory, and frequently forms irregular 
 patches. 
 
 [8875.] Basic Andesite (?). Quarry opposite Freeland Lodge, Forgan- 
 denny, Perth. A fine-grained basic type of andesite. Under the 
 microscope the rock is seen to consist of larger and smaller lath-shaped 
 plagioclases, greenish and slightly fibrous pseudomorphs after pyroxene, 
 possibly enstatite, and small augite granules, belonging to the generation 
 of the smaller felspars. A few larger grains of unaltered augite are 
 
254 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 also present, and magnetite grains are fairly numerous. The smaller 
 plagioclase individuals are closely packed together with their long axes 
 arranged more or less parallel, indicating flow structure. 
 
 [8876.] From the top of one of the andesite flows, Shore, Tayport. 
 A fine-grained dark purplish rock. A basic type of andesite without 
 porphyritic felspars, but containing phenocrysts of pseudomorphs 
 apparently after olivine. The groundmass consists of plagioclase 
 microlites, showing flow structure, augite grains, magnetite, and some 
 brownish undifferentiated matter, which was probably originally glassy. 
 
 [8877.] From quarry on roadside, Balhelvie, east from Newburgh. 
 The microscope shows phenocrysts of altered plagioclase in a ground- 
 mass of felspar microlites embedded in a brown (glassy ?) base. The 
 rock is too decomposed for the recognition of the ferromagnesian con- 
 stituents. A few amygdales are also present. 
 
 [8880.] Mount Stewart, west from Bridge of Earn. This rock 
 consists essentially of larger and smaller plagioclase crystals embedded 
 in a fine dark-grey dusty-looking matrix, which may have been origin- 
 ally in part glassy. The rock contains frequent irregularly shaped 
 flakes of biotite, which would appear to be secondary, and are often 
 included in the felspars. The form of the magnetite frequently 
 suggests that it is intimately associated with the pseudomorphosis of a 
 ferromagnesian mineral. In the thinner portions of the section the 
 groundmass is seen to be full of minute dark greenish granules, probably 
 pyroxene. Is it possible that this rock could have been affected by 
 contact metamorphism ? 
 
 (b) Felsitic Bocks. 
 
 [8883.] Acid lava, including a more basic fragment, Craig Rossie, 
 opposite to Upper Coul, east from Auchterarder, Perthshire. A 
 purplish rock showing porphyritic white felspars and some flakes of 
 biotite. The felspar is much decomposed, but some proportion of it 
 certainly appears to be orthoclase. The biotite is poorly represented in 
 the slide, and is usually more or less obscured by secondary magnetite. 
 A few small corroded quartz-grains are present, but not in sufficient 
 quantity to rank as an essential constituent. The groundmass consists 
 of smaller idiomorphic felspars in a felsitic matrix, containing ill-defined 
 patches of quartz. There are also some irregular vesicles containing 
 silica. The darker portion of the section — probably representing a 
 caught-up fragment — is too much altered for satisfactory recognition. 
 Its margin is sharply defined. It appears to have been to some extent 
 silicified, while portions are obscured by magnetite dust. It does not 
 resemble any of the more basic rocks from this district that I have seen. 
 
 [8884.] Craig Rossie (lowest sheet), opposite Upper Coul, Auchterarder. 
 A fairly similar rock to the last, but paler in colour. The felspar 
 phenocrysts include both simply-twinned crystals and individuals 
 twinned on the albite plan, probably indicating orthoclase and an acid 
 plagioclase. A few small rounded quartz-grains are present, but their 
 proportion is insignificant. Biotite flakes are more numerous than in 
 the preceding rock, and frequently show replacement by iron-oxide in 
 the manner characteristic of the biotites in the hornblende-andesites 
 and trachytes. The groundmass contains numerous small idiomorphic 
 felspars embedded in a matrix consisting of a confused aggregate of 
 microcrystalline quartz and felspar and felsitic material. 
 
Appendix. 255 
 
 [8885.] Oraig Rossie, Auchterarder. Similar in composition to the 
 last two, but showing a well-defined flow-structure. Plagioclase is 
 probably slightly in excess of orthoclase. The biotite is almost entirely 
 replaced by iron-ore. The groundmass is crowded with more or less 
 lath-shaped felspars, the matrix in which they lie being compact and 
 felsitic, and showing a banded structure due to flow, well seen in the 
 hand-specimen. 
 
 [8886.] Acid lava, Oraig Rossie. A very similar rock to 8884. 
 The felspar phenocrysts are very numerous, and an acid plagioclase 
 would certainly appear to be the predominant type. The groundmass 
 is mainly felsitic-. 
 
 [8887.] From one of the ellipsoidal kernels filling a cavity in the 
 lava of Oraig Rossie. A compact siliceous rock, consisting of whitish 
 and cream-coloured portions. The latter appears to consist of an 
 exceedingly minute quartz-aggregate, throughout which are scattered 
 ill-defined flecks of a reddish material, probably iron-ore. The whiter 
 portion is a less fine-grained quartz-mosaic. Secondary silicification 
 appears to have taken place. 
 
 [8889.] From a sheet interstratified among sandstones and con- 
 glomerates, west point of Wormit Bay, Tay Bridge. Pale reddish 
 felsitic lava. The microscope shows felspar crystals (phenocrysts) 
 which are probably orthoclase, but owing to decomposition cannot be 
 identified with certainty, in a brownish felsitic matrix, showing a 
 tendency to flow-structure.*' 
 
 [8782.] Stone in bedded agglomerate, Craigend, Monk's Grave, east 
 from Rumbling Bridge. A pale felsitic rock with banded structure, due 
 to flow. The microscope shows more or less tabular decomposed felspars 
 with their longer axes arranged parallel to the banding of the rock, and 
 an occasional flake of altered biotite, in a felsitic base, consisting of 
 alternating lighter and darker bands. 
 
 [8888.] Stone from conglomerate, railway cutting, near Wormit, Tay 
 Bridge. Consists of numerous phenocrysts of plagioclase, and possibly 
 also some alkali-felspar, but in no great quantity, and an occasional 
 bleached biotite flake, in a felsitic base in which small felspar microlites 
 may be recognised. This is a rather less acid type than the Craig Rossie 
 lava. 
 
 [8892.] Block in conglomerate, Wormit, Tay Bridge. Shows a few 
 conspicuous felspar phenocrysts, some of which are simply twinned and 
 appear to be orthoclase, while others rather suggest an acid plagioclase. 
 The groundmass consists of numerous small idiomorphic felspars, mostly 
 showing albite-twihning, and some irregular patches and vesicles filled 
 with quartz, in a felsitic base showing a rude flow-structure. An 
 occasional biotite flake may also be observed. 
 
 [8893.] Block in conglomerate, near tunnel, Wormit, Firth of Tay. 
 The microscope shows phenocrysts of clear felspar, most of which shows 
 albite-twinning, probably representing an acid plagioclase (oligoclase) 
 and a few flakes of biotite, in a felsitic matrix containing small idio- 
 morphic felspars and irregular elongated vesicles filled with crystalline 
 quartz. The arrangement of the vesicles indicates flow-structure. 
 These blocks rather resemble some portions of the Craig Rossie rock. 
 [8890.] From thin bed of felspathic sandstone in conglomerate 
 
 * The following six specimens show that these more acid rocks were true lavas con- 
 temporaneously ejected among the conglomerates and sandstones, which contain frag- 
 ments and are sometimes entirely composed of their detritus. — A. G. 
 
256 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 immediately east from the south end of Tay Bridge. A pale pinkish 
 fine-grained rock showing lamination. Under the microscope the rock 
 is seen to be almost entirely made up of small fragments of felsitic 
 material, no doubt derived from some of the more acid lavas, such as 
 No. 8889. A few small rounded quartz-grains and felspars may be 
 recognised. There are also some darker fragments obscured by iron 
 oxide. Most of the fragments appear to be more or less rounded, 
 though many are quite angular. t 
 
 [8891.] Felspathic sandstone, top of bank a little west of Jock s Hole, 
 Wormit Bay, near Tay Bridge. Consists of numerous more or less 
 angular grains of quartz, felspars, small colourless and greenish flakes, 
 probably representing altered biotite, and fragments of lava, in a fine 
 dusty-looking matrix, probably consisting for the most part of volcanic 
 material. The rock is traversed by occasional narrow veins of calcite. 
 
 II. Sills connected with the Andesite Lavas. 
 
 [8767.] From a sill at its junction with an andesite lava, railway 
 cutting south from where line crosses the Farg, Glen Farg. The 
 contact between the two rocks is exceedingly sharp and well defined. 
 The andesite is of a basic type, contains small pseudomorphs after 
 idiomorphic olivine, showing the ferruginous type of alteration, and 
 presents as its groundmass a microlithenfelz, which contains a consider- 
 able quantity of iron-ore. The sill appears to represent the same magma 
 as this lava, there being a strong family likeness between the two rocks. 
 It shows a well-marked chilled edge at the contact. Besides the 
 plagioclase phenocrysts, which are similar to those of the lava, we find 
 olivine-pseudomorphs and a few more or less rounded grains of augite. 
 The olivine-pseudomorphs show a thick border of deep red iron-oxide 
 and irregular cracks filled with the same material. They probably 
 represent a ferruginous variety (hyalosiderite). The reddish coloured 
 portion often shows a distinct pleochroism. The rock might be termed 
 an intrusive Olivine- Augite- Andesite. 
 
 [8769.] From the same sill as the last. The specimen is from the 
 more central portion of the sill. The microscope shows plagioclase 
 phenocrysts, granular aggregates of almost colourless augite, and 
 pseudomorphs after idiomorphic olivine, showing a deep black border 
 and irregular cracks filled with iron-oxide. The olivine occasionally 
 occurs as inclusions in the augite. The groundmass consists of smaller 
 lath-shaped plagioclases, augite grains, magnetite, and some greenish 
 decomposition products. The rock is evidently of a basic type, and 
 approaches the porphyritic basalts. 
 
 [8878.] Sill, White Craig, above Newburgh, Fife. The largest sill 
 yet observed in the Ochil Hills (see p. 30). This rock is very similar 
 to some of the lavas above described. It consists essentially of small 
 lath-shaped felspars, showing flow-structure, altered pyroxene grains, 
 and magnetite granules. Phenocrysts are scarce, and consist of usually 
 clearer felspars than those of the main mass of the rock. 
 
 [8879.] Quarry, Pairnie, east from Auchterarder, Perthshire. This 
 is perhaps a slightly more acid type of sill than the preceding. The 
 felspars of the earlier generation are of shorter and more tabular habit, 
 resembling oligoclase, and the ferromagnesian constituents are 
 apparently scarce and obscured by decomposition. The groundmass 
 appears to be mainly felspathic. 
 
Appendix. 257 
 
 [8775.] Sill or intrusive boss, above Pottie Mill, Glen Farg. This 
 rock presents no very marked distinction between phenocrysts and 
 groundmass. it consists essentially of larger and smaller more or less 
 idiomorphic plagioclases, amongst which a more acid felspar appears to 
 be sometimes present, a few small bastite-pseudomorphs after a slightly 
 pleochroic enstatite, and some brownish interstitial matter. Magnetite 
 is accessory. The rock appears to be allied to the enstatite-bearing 
 intrusive series (8770 and 8772), but is much poorer in the ferro- 
 magnesian element, and rather suggests a porphyrite modification, of 
 rather more acid tendency, of the same group of rocks. 
 
 III. Bosses. 
 
 [8770.] From the boss at Corb Bridge, five miles south from Dunning. 
 A medium -grained dark purplish rock of doleritic texture. Under the 
 microscope the rock is seen to be composed essentially of plagioclase and 
 enstatite. The plagioclase is more or less idiomorphic, and resembles 
 that characteristic of the enstatite-andesites already noticed. The 
 enstatite has a fibrous structure from alteration, and occurs in groups 
 and isolated, more or less corroded, grains, but occasionally shows 
 crystal form. It is distinctly pleochroic (yellowish green to pale green). 
 Augite appears to be almost entirely absent. There is a very small 
 quantity of interstitial quartz and unstriped felspar. Magnetite is 
 accessory. This rock is allied to hyperite and enstatite- diorite. It 
 resembles in many respects the quartz-norites (Teller and von John) of 
 Klausen in the Tyrol, and is doubtless the deep-seated representative of 
 the enstatite-andesites. It might perhaps be termed hyperite or norite 
 (in Rosenbusch's sense), since it is composed essentially of plagioclase 
 and a rhombic pyroxene. 
 
 [8772.] Boss, south from Damhead. This rock is slightly more acid 
 than 8770, the proportion of ferromagnesian constituents being 
 decidedly smaller. There is a high proportion of plagioclase (probably 
 labradorite), which is for the most part clear and more or less idio- 
 morphic. Besides the ordinary albite lamellation, pericline-twinning 
 may sometimes be observed. Some crystals also exhibit a zonal 
 structure. The ferromagnesian minerals lie associated together in 
 groups of irregular grains, and consist of augite, altered enstatite, and a 
 small quantity of biotite. The latter is very strongly dichroic — pale 
 straw colour to a deep rich red brown. Occasionally, in the interspaces 
 between the plagioclase crystals, small patches of unstriped felspar, 
 probably orthoclase, may be seen ; while a small quantity of quartz 
 occurs interstitially, and is usually associated with the orthoclase. 
 Magnetite and apatite are accessories. The rock is closely allied to the 
 enstatite-diorites and quartz-norites. 
 
 IV. Dykes. 
 
 [8773.] Dyke, below Corb Bridge, five miles south from Dunning. 
 This belongs to the more acid or intermediate intrusive series. A dark 
 brownish rock of rather compact appearance, with small felspar 
 phenocrysts and dark greenish patches. It is rather too decomposed 
 for satisfactory description. The microscope shows both larger and 
 smaller felspar phenocrysts, greenish pseudomorphs after a ferro- 
 magnesian mineral, and irregular vesicles, in an ill-defined brownish 
 R 
 
258 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 felsitic matrix containing minute lath-shaped felspars. The felspars of 
 the earlier generation are mostly plagioclase ; some unstriped individuals 
 also occur, possibly representing orthoclase. The ferromagnesian 
 mineral is too much altered for precise determination ; some of the 
 pseudomorphs suggest a rhombic pyroxene. A greenish material is also 
 found in some of the vesicles together with silica. As plagioclase is the 
 predominant felspar, the rock may be termed a Porphyrite. 
 
 [8776.] Dyke in the boss at Coil) Bridge, south from Dunning. 
 A dull reddish porphyritic rock, with phenocrysts of felspar and a green 
 mineral suggesting hornblende. The microscope shows numerous 
 idiomorphic felspars, crystals and crystalline aggregates of altered 
 hornblende, and accessory magnetite grains in a brown felsitic matrix. 
 A few small granular aggregates of quartz are present, but appear to 
 represent infilled vesicles. Among the felspars, individuals of shorter 
 and more stumpy habit maybe recognised — probably orthoclase — as well 
 as plagioclase. The latter, however, is evidently in excess, so that the 
 rock is more nearly allied to the hornblende-porphyrites than to the 
 felspar-porphyries. 
 
 [8780.] Dyke below roadside, north of Corb Bridge. The microscope 
 shows numerous small phenocrysts of felspar, some of which is apparently 
 orthoclase, in a compact felsitic matrix. The structure of the ground- 
 mass is not uniform throughout, but appears to consist in part of small 
 bodies like spherulites (microspherulitic), and in part somewhat resembles 
 perlitic cracking. The two portions are sometimes rather sharply 
 marked off from one another. The original unaltered rock was possibly 
 allied to pitchstone. 
 
 [8881.] Dyke in sandstone quarry, east from Corbiehill, south of 
 Balmerino. The rock consists essentially of elongated crystals of 
 plagioclase (probably labradorite) and greenish irregularly-shaped 
 pseudomorphs after pyroxene, possibly in part representing enstatite. 
 The rock resembles in structure and general appearance some of the 
 plagioclase-enstatite boss-intrusions. Hyperite (?), compare No. 8775. 
 
 [8784.] Dyke, roadside near Ferniehill, Queich Water (Sheet 39). 
 The microscope reveals numerous felspar phenocrysts, flakes, and 
 ■ hexagonal plates of biotite, and a few small quartz-grains in a felsitic 
 base, showing a rude flow-structure. The felspar is too decomposed for 
 determination ; from its short stumpy habit probably a good deal of it 
 is orthoclase. The rock might be termed a Biotite-Felspar-Porphyry, or 
 Orthophyre. 
 
 [8785.] Dyke, same locality. Shows similar features under the 
 microscope as the preceding. 
 
 General Remarks. 
 
 The ro'cks from the Ochil Hills here examined fall into two well-marked 
 divisions — the one more basic, the other more acid, with one or two 
 transitional types, each division being characterised by both extrusive and 
 intrusive groups. 
 
 The most typical rocks of the more basic division are enstatite- 
 andesites, some of which closely resemble the more basic varieties of the 
 Lome series. They appear to be slightly more basic than the typical 
 Cheviot andesite. Olivine-bearing varieties also occur, in which olivine 
 takes the place of enstatite, and- these are also found at a low horizon 
 among the Lome rocks. 
 
Appendix. 259 
 
 Among the andesitic lavas a fairly basic type seems to predominate, 
 in which pseudomorphs after olivine may occasionally be recognised. 
 The groundmass in some of the coarser varieties becomes holocrystalline, 
 but is usually of the more typically andesitic type, and contains a 
 varying proportion of glassy base. Small pyroxene grains are usually 
 present in the groundmass, as well as the characteristic lath-shaped 
 plagioclases. An approach to the trachytic type of groundmass is also 
 sometimes seen, but the presence of pyroxene distinguishes it from the 
 groundmass of a typical trachyte. Flow-structure is often indicated by 
 the orientation of the small plagioclase laths. Some of the rocks are 
 crowded with conspicuously porphyritic felspars, while others again 
 appear to be very poor in felspars of the earlier generation. 
 
 Among the more acid lavas the Craig Rossie lock is decidedly 
 characteristic. It appears to be intermediate in character between 
 andesite and rhyolite, with affinities to dacite and trachyte. The rock 
 doubtless represents the more acid expression of the andesitic magma. 
 The presence of orthoclase and the occasional occurrence of quartz- 
 grains ally the rock to the rhyolites and liparites; the groundmass is 
 also rather of the devitrified rbyolitic type than the trachytic. The 
 orthoclase, however, does not appear to exceed the plagioclase in amount, 
 and plagioclase decidedly predominates over orthoclase in some of the 
 more acid lavas from near Wormit [8888], thereby proclaiming the 
 andesitic relationships of the rocks. 
 
 Several of these more acid lavas resemble some of the banded felsitic 
 rocks of Lome.* The latter are probably rhyolitic forms of a some- 
 what acid biotite-andesite, allied to trachyte. The typical " trachytic " 
 groundmass, however, is not seen in either the Lome or the Ochil rocks. 
 Among the intrusive rocks we have some porphyrites, though not 
 typical ; but the majority belong rather to the orthoclase-porphyries or 
 orthophyres. The porphyritic structure is often not very conspicuous. 
 
 The intrusive bosses are interesting, and evidently represent the more 
 deep-seated phase of the magma from which the lavas were derived. 
 They appear to vary somewhat in the relative proportion of the 
 different constituents. On the whole, they may be said to belong to a 
 group of enstat.ite-diorites, closely related to the quartz-norites of Teller 
 and von John, occurring at Klausen in the Tyrol, which are really of a 
 more intermediate type (generally containing a certain proportion of 
 quartz and alkali-felspar) than the truly basic norites (in Rosenbusch's 
 sense). They may also be compared with the hyperites described by 
 Mr. Teall as associated with the granite mass of Loch Dee.t This 
 would be a penological point in favour of the Old Red Sandstone age of 
 the Galloway granites. 
 
 I suppose the granophyric enstatite-diorite mapped by Mr. Peach, 
 above Tillicoultry, and the hyperite from near Dunning, examined by 
 Mr. Watts, belong to the same group.J In connection with the above 
 rocks I have used the term " enstatite " as applying rather to the group 
 of rhombic pyroxenes than to any particular species. In many cases, 
 owing to the distinct pleochroism, the mineral probably belongs to a 
 more ferriferous type than enstatite proper. 
 
 Among the dykes and sills the great intrusive sheet of Newburgh 
 closely resembles many of the andesitic lavas (8878), while 8879 
 
 * Summary of Progress of Geological Survey for 1898, p. 84. 
 
 t Ann. Rep. Geological Survey for 1896, p. 41. 
 
 j Ancient Volcanoes Great Britain, Vpl. I., pp. 277, 278. 
 
260 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 appears to be of a slightly more acid type. The dyke (8881) is a 
 peculiar rock, and appears to be allied to the boss-like intrusions, con- 
 sisting of plagioclase and enstatite, already noticed from other parts of 
 the district. 
 
 Notes on some Volcanic Rocks from the Lower Carboniferous 
 Series at the West End of the Cleish Hills. By Herbert 
 Kynaston, B.A.* 
 
 [8774.1 Above waterfall, Georgeton Burn, south-east of Bumbling 
 Bridge, west end of Cleish Hills. A dark-grey very fine grained rock 
 weathering rusty brown, and showing a few phenocrysts of felspar. 
 The microscope shows phenocrysts of a clear glassy felspar, and a few 
 altered pyroxene (?) grains in a groundmass of felspar microlites, 
 pyroxene granules, and magnetite. The clear felspar sometimes shows 
 a fine striation (which can be seen with the lower nicol only) at right 
 angles to the normal albite lamellation. Possibly this represents 
 pericline-twinning. The albite lamellae are often wanting in some parts 
 of the crystal, and present in others. Occasionally they are not seen at 
 all, and twinning on the Carlsbad plan is sometimes present. Most of 
 the individuals are traversed by irregular cracks, which in the more 
 weathered portion of the rock show ferruginous staining. On the whole 
 the rock appears to be too basic for a trachyte. The groundmass and 
 the mode of weathering suggest rather that of a basalt. 
 
 [8778.] Scaur Hill, west end of Cleish Hills, east of Rumbling 
 Bridge, Fife. A purplish felsitic rock, showing small pink felspars and 
 a well-marked flow-structure. Under the microscope one portion of the 
 slide is seen to possess flow-structure, while the other portion is 
 brecciated. The unbrecciated portion shows brownish, turbid, more or 
 less tabular crystals of simply twinned orthoclase, having a well-marked 
 cleavage embedded in a felsitic matrix showing fluidal structure. Small 
 irregular grains of quartz are also present, and some irregular patches 
 resembling detached fragments. The brecciated portion shows angular 
 fragments of the same rock, broken felspars and quartz-grains, without 
 apparently any definite arrangement. The rock is morenearly allied to 
 rhyolite than trachyte. 
 
 ■ [8781.] Scaur Hill, south-east of Rumbling Bridge, Fife. The rock is 
 much decomposed, and similar to- 8778, but shows no marked flow- 
 structure or any signs of brecciation. 
 
 [8783.] Below waterfall, Georgetown Burn, Hardiston, east of 
 Rumbling Bridge. Compact felsite, with small pink felspars. The rock 
 belongs to the same group as 8781 and 8778. The section shows felspars 
 of tabular habit in a felsitic base, containing some calcareous alteration 
 products. The felspars are more or less turbid from alteration, but 
 sometimes partially clear (sanidine), and show Carlsbad twinning. The 
 pink colour of the felspar in the hand specimen, which appears brown 
 in thin section, is probably due to infiltration of iron-oxide along the 
 cleavage cracks. 
 
 * These rocks form a remarkable group in the Calciferous Sandstone Series, and then- 
 general characters and stratigraphical relations are enumerated in Chapter V. The 
 specimens examined and described by Mr. Kynaston come from the band of lavas which 
 overlies a thick belt of fine tuffs and forms the uppermost part of the group. As already 
 stated, the numbers within square brackets refer to the microscopic slides in the collec- 
 tion of the Geological Survey.— A. G. 
 
Appendix. 261 
 
 [8777.] Block in conglomerate overlying felsitic lava, Georgetown 
 Burn, Hardiston, Fife. A decomposed felsitic rock showing small 
 phenocrysts of altered felspar, some of which show simple Carlsbad 
 twinning (orthoclase), in a brownish patchy and discoloured felsitic 
 base. A good deal of free silica has been liberated in the groundmass. 
 The darker discoloured patches appear to be due to ferruginous stain- 
 ing. They sometimes enclose clearer areas containing a clear mineral, 
 possibly tridymite. The rock is apparently an altered felsitic lava. 
 
 [8779. J From block in conglomerate overlying felsitic lava, George- 
 town Burn, above Hardiston, Fife. The rock is very similar to 8777, 
 and shows the discoloured patches, due to infiltration of iron-oxide, 
 more distinctly. The porphyritic felspars are more numerous and 
 clearer, but evidently much decomposed, and give merely a fine dark 
 dusty -looking polarisation between crossed nicols. The angles of the 
 crystals are more or less rounded from corrosion. The dark irregular 
 patches usually enclose a clear mineral, with a low refractive index and 
 weak double refraction. The appearance is that of colourless patches 
 broken up by a network of deeply stained cracks. Some portions 
 behave isotropically, while others give merely greyish polarisation 
 tints. This suggests tridymite. Possibly the patches represent infilled 
 drusy cavities. 
 
262 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 PART III. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 List of Writings hating Reference to the Geology of 
 Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 1774. Pennant, T. " A Tour in Scotland." 3rd ed., Vol. I., p. 80 ; 
 Vol. III., p. 202. 
 
 1785. Hutton, James. " Theory of the Earth ; or an Investigation of 
 the Laws observable in the Composition, Dissolution, and 
 Restoration of Land upon the Globe." Edin. Boy. Soc. Trans., 
 Vol. I, p. 209. 
 
 1795. Hutton, James. " Theory of the Earth." Vol. L, p. 73 ; Vol. 
 II., p. 166. 
 
 1820. Boue, Ami. " Essai Geologique sur l'Ecosse," p. 471. 
 
 1831. Fleming, John. "On the Occurrence of the Scales of Verte- 
 brated Animals in the Old Red Sandstone of Fifeshire." 
 Edin. Jour. Nat. Geog. Sri., Vol. III., p. 81. 
 
 1835. Landale, David. " Report regarding a Portion of the Fife Coal- 
 field." Highland Soc. Trans., new series, Vol. IV., p. 411. 
 
 1837. Landale, David. " Report on the Geology of the East of Fife 
 Coal-field." Highland Soc. Trans., new series, Vol. V, p. 265. 
 
 1837. Anderson, John. " Organic Remains in the Old Red Sandstone 
 
 of Fife." Edin. New Phil. Jour., Vol. XXIIL, p. 137. 
 
 1838. Cunningham, R. J. H. " Essay on the Geology of the Lothians," 
 
 p. 123. 
 
 1838. Fleming, John. " A few Brief Remarks on the Trap Rocks of 
 
 Fife." Geol. Soc. Proc, Vol. III., p. 10. 
 
 1839. Maclaren, Charles. " The Geology of Fife and the Lothians." 
 
 1st ed., Edinburgh, 1839. 
 
 1840. Leighton, J. M. "Fife Illustrated, with a History of the 
 
 County," Vol. I., p. 219 (3 vols.), Glasgow, 1840. 
 
Appendix. 263 
 
 1841. Chalmers, Eev. Peter. " Mineralogical and Geological Report 
 on the Dunfermline Coal-field." Highland Soc. Trans., Vol. 
 XIII., p. 298. 
 
 1841. Anderson, John. "On the Geology of Fifeshire." Highland 
 Soc. Trans., Vol. XIII., p. 376. 
 
 1848. Chambers, Robert, " Ancient Sea Margins," pp. 52-68. 
 
 1854. Balfour, John Hutton. "On certain Vegetable Organisms 
 found in Coal from Fordel." Edin. Roy. Soc. Trans., Vol. 
 XXI., p. 187. 
 
 1858. Allman, George James. " Notice respecting the Remains of a 
 Seal in the Pleistocene of Fifeshire." Edin. Roy. Soc. Proc, 
 Vol. IV., p. 99. 
 
 1858. Brown, Thomas. "On a Section of a Part of the Fifeshire 
 Coast." The Geologist, Vol. I., p. 258, and Quwt. Jour. Geol. 
 Soc., Vol. XV, p. 59. 
 
 1860. Brown, Thomas. "Notes on the Mountain Limestone and 
 Lower Carboniferous Rocks of the Fifeshire Coast from 
 Burntisland to St. Andrews." Edin. Roy. Soc. Trans., Vol. 
 XXIL, p. 385. 
 
 1860. Davidson, Thomas. " The Carboniferous System in Scotland 
 
 characterised by its Brachiopoda." The Geologist, Vol. III., 
 p. 258. 
 
 1861. Geikie, [Sir] Archibald. "The Chronology of the Trap Rocks 
 
 of Scotland." Edin. Roy. Soc. Trans., Vol. XXIL, p. 633. 
 
 1862. Powrie, James. " The Old Red Sandstone of Fifeshire." Quart. 
 
 Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. XVIIL, p. 427. 
 
 1863. Walker, Robert. "On the Skeleton of a Seal (Phoca Green- 
 
 landica) and the Cranium of a Duck from the Pliocene Beds 
 of Fifeshire." Ann. Nat. Hist., third series, Vol. XII., 
 p. 382. 
 
 1864. Geikie, [Sir] Archibald. ",On some Special Indications of 
 
 Volcanic Action in the Carboniferous Period at Burntisland, 
 Firth of Forth." Geol. Mag., Vol. I., p. 22. 
 
 1864. Geikie, [Sir] Archibald. " On the Progress of the Geological 
 Survey in Scotland." Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., Vol. V. 
 
264 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 1865. Geikie, [Sir] Archibald. " The Scenery of Scotland," pp. 52, 
 
 274, 27$, 296, and 324. 
 
 1866. Maclaren, Charles. " A Sketch of the Geology of Fife and the 
 
 Lothians." Second edition. 
 
 1867. Geikie, [Sir] Archibald. Address to Section C of the British 
 
 Associatio Report, Sections, p. 50. 
 
 1871. Lyon, George. " On a New Species of Rhizodus." Edin. Geol. 
 Soc. Trans., Vol. II., p. 125. 
 
 1871. Carruthers, William. "On the Vegetable Contents of Masses 
 of Limestone occurring in Tra.ppean Rocks in Fifeshire, and 
 the Conditions under which they are preserved." Brit. Assoc. 
 Rep. (Edinburgh meeting), p. 94. 
 
 1871. Peach, Charles William. "On the Fossil Plants from the 
 
 Calciferous Sandstone around Edinburgh and Burntisland." 
 Edin. Bot. Soc. Trans., Vol. XIII., p. 46. 
 
 1872. Williamson, William Crawford. " On the Organisation of the 
 
 Fossil Plants of the Coal-measures " (part 3). Phil. Trans. 
 Roy. Soc, Vol. CLXIL, p. 283. 
 
 1872. Ballingall, W, "The Shores of Fife" (with chapter on the 
 
 Mineralogy by M. F. Heddle), pp. 109-114. Edinburgh, 1872. 
 
 1873. Williamson, W. C. "On the Organisation of the Fossil Plants 
 
 of the Coal-measures" (part 4). Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, 
 Vol. CLXIII., p. 394. 
 
 1873. Etheridge, Robert, jun. "Description of a Section of the 
 Burdiehouse Limestone and connected Strata at Grange 
 Quarry, Burntisland." Edin. Geol. Soc. Trans., Vol. II., 
 p. 273. 
 
 1875. Davidson, Thomas ; A. Somervail, and others. " Catalogue of 
 the Brachiopoda of the Lothians and Fife, prepared by the 
 Society's Lothians and Fife Palseontological Committee." 
 Edin. Geol. Soc Trans., Vol. III., p. 68. 
 
 1875. Etheridge, Robert, jun. "Notes on Carboniferous Lamelli- 
 
 branchiata." Ann. Nat. Hist., ser. 4, Vol. XV., p. 427. 
 
 1876. Etheridge, Robert, jun. " Notes on Carboniferous Lamelli- 
 
 brannhjata." Ann. Nat. Hist , ser. 4, Vol. XVIII., p. 96. 
 
 1876. Etheridge,. Robert, jun. "Notes on Carboniferous Mollusca. 
 Geol. Mag., new series, Dec. 2, Vol. III., p. 150. 
 
Appendix. 265 
 
 1876. Pratt, Arthur. " Notes on Crinoids from Inverteil, Fifeshire." 
 
 Glas. Geol. Soe. Trams., Vol. VI., p. 25. 
 
 1877. Etheridge, Robert, jun. "Further Contributions to British 
 
 Carboniferous Palaeontology." Geol. Mag., Dec. 2, Vol. IV., 
 pp. 241 and 306. 
 
 1878. Etheridge, Robert, jun. "Notes on Carboniferous Mollusca." 
 
 Ann. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, Vol. IT., p. 30. 
 
 1878. Etheridge, Robert, jun. " Further Remarks on Adherent Car- 
 boniferous Productidse." Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc, Vol. 
 XXXIV., p. 498. 
 
 1878. Etheridge, Robert, jun., and Henry Alleyne Nicholson. "On 
 
 the Genus Pakeacis and the Species ocourring in the British 
 Carboniferous Rocks." Ann. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, Vol. I., 
 p. 206. 
 
 1879. Macadam, William Ivison. " On the Chemical Composition of a 
 
 Nodule of Ozokerite found at Kinghorn Ness." Edin. Geol. 
 Soc. Trans., Vol. III., p. 272. 
 
 1879. Geikie, [Sir] Archibald. " On the Carboniferous Volcanic Rocks 
 in the Basin of the Firth of Forth ; their Structure in the 
 Field and under the Microscope." Edin. Roy. Soc. 
 Trans., Vol. XXIX., p. 437, and Edin. Roy. Soc. Proc, 
 Vol. X., p. 65. 
 
 1879. Jones, T. Rupert, and James W. Kkkby. " Description of the 
 Species of the Ostracodous Genus Bairdia (M'Coy) from the 
 Carboniferous Strata of Great Britain." Quar Jour. Geol. 
 Soc., Vol. XXXV., p. 565. 
 
 1879. Jones, T. Rupert, and James W. Kirkby. "Notes on the 
 
 Palaeozoic Bivalved Entomostraca (No. XII.) ; some Carboni- 
 ferous Species belonging to the Genus Carbonia." Ann. Mag. 
 Nat. Hist., ser, 5, Vol. IV., p. 28. 
 
 1880. Etheridge, Robert, jun. " On the Occurrence of a Small Natici- 
 
 form Gasteropod showing Colour Bands in the Cement-stone 
 Group of Fifeshire." Edin. Roy. Phys. Soc. Proc., Vol. 
 V, p. 161. 
 
 1881. Etheridge, Robert, jun. "On the Presence of the Scattered 
 
 Skeletal Remains of Holothuridea in the Carboniferous Lime- 
 stone Series of Scotland." Edin. Roy. Phys. Soc. Proc, 
 Vol. VI., p. 183. 
 
266 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 1882. Binney, Edward W., and James W. Kirkby. "On the "Upper 
 
 Beds of the Fifeshire Coal-measures." Quart. Jour. Geol. 
 Soc, Vol. XXXVIII., p. 245. 
 
 1883. Henderson, John. " On a Calcareous Deposit at Starleyburn, 
 
 Fifeshire." Edin. Geol. Soc. Trans., Vol. IV., p. 346. 
 
 1886. Anderson, William. " Notes on the Fish-remains from the 
 Bone Bed at Abden, near Kinghorn." Edin. Geol. Soc. 
 Trans., Vol. V., p. 310. 
 
 1888. Kirkby, James W. " On the Occurrence of Marine Fossils in 
 the Coal-measures of Fife." Quart. Jour. [Geol. Soc, Vol. 
 XXIV., p. 747. 
 
 1890. Scott, Thomas. " Preliminary Notes on a Post Tertiary Fresh- 
 water Deposit at Kirkland, Leven, and at Elie, Fifeshire.'' 
 Edin. Boy. Phys. Soc. Proc, Vol. X., p. 334. 
 
 1892. Geikie, Sir Archibald. "Presidential Address to Geological 
 
 Society." Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc, Vol. XLVIIL, pp. 62-93, 
 104-143, 147-159. 
 
 1893. Kidston, Robert. " On the various Divisions of British Carboni- 
 
 ferous Rocks as determined by their Fossil Flora." Edin. 
 Soy. Phys. Soc. Proc, Vol. XII., p. 201. 
 
 1894. Hind, Dr. Wheelton. "Monograph on Carbonicola, Anthra- 
 
 comya, and Naiaditesr Palmontographical Soc, Vol. 
 XLVIIL, p. 8. 
 
 18^5. Ibid., Vol. XLIX., p. 166 (vertical section of Fifeshire Coal- 
 measures given). 
 
 1895. "Geological Survey — Annual Report for 1894." (Dronachy 
 
 Arctic Lake), p. 287. 
 
 1896. Bennie, James. "Arctic Plant Beds in Scotland." Ann. Scot. 
 
 Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 53. 
 
 1897. Geikie, Sir Archibald. "The Ancient Volcanoes of Great 
 
 Britain." 2 vols. Lond., 1897. Chapters XIX., XXV., 
 XXVI., XXVIL, XXVIIL, XXXL, and XXXIV. 
 
 1897. Traquair, Ramsay ^H. "List of the Fossil Fish-remains 
 occurring in the Bone Bed at Abden, near Kinghorn, Fife- 
 shire." Proc. Geol. Assoc, Vol. XV., p. 143. 
 
Ajopendix. 267 
 
 1897. Scott, D. H. " On the Structure and Affinities of Fossil Plants 
 
 from the Palaeozoic Rocks ; on Cheirostrobus, a new Type oi 
 Fossil Cone from the Lower Carboniferous Strata." (Calci- 
 ferous Sandstone Series.) Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, Vol 
 CLXXXIX., B. p. 1. 
 
 1898. .Tones, T. Rupert, James W. Kirkby, and John Young. " Or 
 
 Cwrbonia, its Horizons and Conditions of Occurrence ii 
 Scotland, especially in Fife." Edyn,. Geol. Soc. Trans. 
 Vol. VII., p. 420. 
 
 1899. Reid, Clement. " The Origin of the British Flora," p. 65. 
 
268 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 Journal op Blairhall Diamond Bore made by the Coltness Iron 
 Company, Ld., on North Side of Boad, about 200 Yards East 
 of Bennie's Walls, and a Mile West of Oakley Station. 
 
 Fras. 
 
 Surface, - 1 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 Faky sandstone, 2 
 
 Hard sandstone, 
 
 Fakes and do. , 1 
 
 Fakes, - 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 1 
 Broken do. and blaes, 
 
 Coal ("Coal Crumpy"), 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 Fireclay, 
 
 Fakes, . 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 Coal, - - o 
 
 Coaly blaes, 
 
 Faky fireclay, 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 Coarse sandstone, 5 
 
 Waste, - 
 
 Fireclay, 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 Fakes, - 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 Coal, • 
 
 Dark sandstone, 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 Fakes, - 
 Blaes and ironstone balls, 
 
 Black coaly blaes, 
 Light fireclay, 
 Coal, 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 Fakes and sandstone, 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 Ironstone-rib, 
 
 Irony fake, 
 
 Dark sandstone, 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 Fakes and sandstone, 
 
 Hard sandstone, 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 Fireclay, 
 
 Hard sandstone, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 5 
 
 3 6 
 
 
 4 6 
 6 
 
 2 4 
 4 2 
 
 3 6 
 3 2 
 1 
 2 
 
 2 2 
 
 3 8 
 10 
 9 
 
 1 1 
 
 3 3 
 
 2 6 
 1 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 4 
 
 
 1 8 
 3 
 9 
 
 Carry forward, 23 6 
 
 Fms. 
 
 Brought forward, 23 
 
 Fakes and sandstone, 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 Limestone fakes, 
 
 Dark fakes, - 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 Faky fireclay, 
 
 Sandstone fakes, 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 Dark blaes, - 
 Dark fakes and balls, 
 
 and coal-strains, - 
 
 Faky sandstone, 
 
 Black blaes, 
 
 Ikons-tone, o 
 
 Black blaes, 
 
 Coal, . o 
 
 Faky sandstone, 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 Faky sandstone, 
 
 Blaes and iron-balls, - 
 
 Fakes and sandstone,- 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 Coal, - o 
 
 Coaly blaes, - 
 
 Dark fireclay and balls, 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 Coal, - . o 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 Faky sandstone, 
 
 Waste, o 
 
 Faky sandstone, 
 
 Sandstone, ■- 1 
 
 Fakes, - o 
 
 Black blaes and iron-ribs, 
 
 Ironstone, , 
 
 Black blaes, o 
 
 Ironstone, - o 
 
 Fakes, o 
 
 Coaly blaes, o 
 
 Coal, - o 
 
 Faky fireclay and balls, 
 Hard fakes and sandstone, 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 Ft In. 
 
 6 
 
 1 5 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 1 1 
 
 2 6 
 
 1 11 
 5 4 
 3 6 
 1 
 
 9 
 3 5 
 
 3 10 
 
 3 
 
 4 4 
 3 11 
 
 1 8 
 3 7 
 
 6i 
 
 2| 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 4 6 
 
 3 
 
 3 8 
 
 Carry forward, - 38 3 
 
 
 
Appendix. 
 
 269 
 
 
 Fms. Ft. In. 
 
 
 Fms. Ft. In. 
 
 Brought forward, 
 
 38 3 
 
 
 
 Brought forward, 
 
 70 1 7 
 
 Sandstone (hard), 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 Fakes and sandstone 
 
 1 1 7 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Fakes and fireclay, 
 
 2 5 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 Sandstone (hard), 
 
 2 8 
 
 Coal, 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 2 7 
 
 Fireclay and coal-strains, 
 
 3 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 14 
 
 Fireclay, 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Coal, 
 
 1 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 Fakes, fireclay, and balls, 1 10 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Coal, 
 
 1 4 
 
 Coal, 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 Dark sandstone (soft), 4 6 
 
 Blaes and coal-strains, 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Light do., do. 
 
 1 5 4 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 Soft coal and blaes, 
 
 1 
 
 Coal and blaes, 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 9 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 Coal, 
 
 3 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 1 1 6 
 
 Faky sandstone, 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 Hard fakes, 
 
 4 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 .015 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 6«3 2 7 
 
 Coal, 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 Parrot Coal, 
 
 330 o 4 
 
 Fireclay, 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Ironstone (Black- 
 
 M « 
 
 Fakes and sandstones, 
 
 3 3 
 
 3 
 
 band), 
 
 ggO 1 3 
 
 " M 30 3 
 
 Dark fakes, 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 Coal, 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 Ironstone (Black- 
 
 $m 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 band), 
 
 SH0 1 
 - M ffl 1 1 9 
 
 Blaes and balls, - 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 Parroty blaes, 
 
 Hard fake, 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 Coal, 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Faky blaes, 
 
 1 1 8 
 
 Fakes and sandstone, 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 Fakes and sandstone 
 
 1 9 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 1 
 
 Coal, 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Coal, 
 
 5 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 0J 
 
 Fakes and sandstone, 
 
 I 
 
 9 
 
 Coal, 
 
 5J 
 
 Faky blaes and balls, 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 Blaes and balls, 
 
 3 10 
 
 Hard sandstone, 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 4 
 
 Faky blaes, 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 3 
 
 Coal, 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 Coal, 
 
 1 5 
 
 Coal and blaes, 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Fireclay and blaes, 
 
 9 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 Fakes and sandstone 
 
 2 5 6 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 5 
 
 I 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 1 11 
 
 Coal, 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 4 4 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 1 1 
 
 7 
 
 Ironstone-rib, 
 
 1 
 
 Blaes and balls, 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 3 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 Ironstone-rib, 
 
 1 
 
 Coal, 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 1 
 
 Fakes and sandstone, 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 Coal (Blairhall Maii 
 
 r 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 Coal), - 
 
 2 10 
 
 Hard sandstone, 
 
 1 2 
 
 10 
 
 Fireclay and coal-stra 
 
 ins, 12 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 8 
 
 Blaes and balls, 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 Coal, 
 
 3 
 
 Limestone fakes, 
 
 go o 
 go 
 
 3 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 8 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 5 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 3 8 
 
 Limestone fakes, 
 
 1° ! 
 
 2 
 
 Fakes and sandstone, 
 
 2 2 11 
 
 Fakes and blaes, and 
 
 a 
 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 3 
 
 balls (limy), 
 
 ^2 5 
 
 
 
 Parroty blaes, 
 
 1 
 
 Fireclay, blaes, and 
 
 
 
 Coal, 
 
 3 
 
 balls, 
 
 Ha * 
 
 
 
 Fakes and bfcies, 
 
 2 11 
 
 Limestone fakes, 
 
 go 1 
 
 2 
 
 Coal, 
 
 5 
 
 Limestone, 
 
 hO 
 
 4 
 
 Soft fireclay, 
 
 2 
 
 Blaes and balls, 
 
 - 2 2 
 
 8 
 
 Faky fireclay, 
 
 4 3 
 
 Coal, 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 4 2 5 
 
 Fireclay, - 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 5 
 
 Fakes and fireclay, 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 Coal, 
 
 Carry forward, 
 
 8 
 
 Carry forward, 
 
 70 1 
 
 7 
 
 102 1 
 
270 Geology of Central and, Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 
 Fms. Ft. In. 
 
 
 Fms. Ft. In. 
 
 Brought forward, 
 
 102 1 
 
 Brought forward, 
 
 124 5 1 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 1 10 
 
 Coal, 
 
 8 
 
 Hard fake, 
 
 8 
 
 Coaly blaes, 
 
 2 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 5 9 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 7 
 
 Coaly blaes, 
 
 3 
 
 Coaly blaes, 
 
 3 
 
 Coal, 
 
 7 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 12 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 3 
 
 Coaly blaes, 
 
 3 
 
 Sandstone fakes, 
 
 5 3 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 18 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 4 4 
 
 Coaly blaes, 
 
 4 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 4 
 
 Coal, 
 
 7 
 
 Coarse sandstone, 
 
 2 2 
 
 Fake, 
 
 1 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 12 
 
 Coaly blaes, : 
 
 1 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 4 10 
 
 Ironstone, 
 
 6 
 
 Blaes and ironstone, - 
 
 o o 24 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 13 
 
 Ironstone, - 
 
 1£ 
 
 Coal, 
 
 2 
 
 Black faky blaes, 
 
 4 11 
 
 Sulphury ball (ironstone), 2 
 
 Ironstone, 
 
 1 
 
 Coal, 
 
 3 
 
 Coaly blaes, 
 
 2J 
 
 Brown stone, 
 
 o 04 
 
 Coal, 
 
 O 4| 
 
 Coal, 
 
 o i 14 
 
 Blaes and balls, 
 
 18 
 
 Fake (coaly), 
 
 14 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 5 10 
 
 Coal, 
 
 2 14 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 7 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 2 11 
 
 Fakes and balls, 
 
 11 
 
 Hard sandstone, 
 
 2 8 
 
 Ironstone, 
 
 6 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 10 7 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 17 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 2 1 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 6 
 
 Coal, 
 
 o 44 
 
 Brown faky fireclay, 
 
 
 Coaly blaes, 
 
 o 04 
 
 spotted, - 
 
 2 
 
 Coal, 
 
 5 
 
 Coal, 
 
 10 
 
 Coaly blaes, 
 
 1 
 
 Coaly blaes, 
 
 04 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 4 
 
 Coal, 
 
 1 li 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 2 
 
 Light brown stone, 
 
 2 
 
 Ironstone-rib, 
 
 1 
 
 Coal; 
 
 2 
 
 Fakes and blaes, " - 
 
 18 
 
 Faky fireclay, 
 
 7 
 
 Coal, 
 
 14 
 
 Faky sandstone, 
 
 2 8 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 5 7 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 2 2 
 
 Fakes and sandstone, 
 
 3 6 
 
 Blue blaes, 
 
 2 3 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 10 9 
 
 Blank blaes, 
 
 6 
 
 Hard sandstone, 
 
 110 
 
 Irony fake, 
 
 1 
 
 Faky do., 
 
 2 7 
 
 Black blaes, 
 
 3 2 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 2 3 
 
 Ironstone (Black-band), - 
 
 1 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 11 
 
 Parroty blaes, 
 
 3 
 
 Coal, .... 
 
 2 
 
 Ironstone (Black-band), - 
 
 5 
 
 Ironstone (Black-band), 
 
 o 24 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 11 
 
 Coal, - - 
 
 o 04 
 
 1 1 
 
 Ironstone (Black-band), 
 
 74 
 
 Blaes (black), - 
 
 Coal, 
 
 3 
 
 Coal (Parrot, coarse), 
 
 13 
 
 Fireclay, - 
 
 9 
 
 Ironstone (Black-band), 
 
 o o 114 
 o o 04 
 
 1 11 
 
 Fakes and fireclay and 
 
 
 Black blaes, 
 
 balls, 
 
 4 
 
 Faky fireclay, - 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 4 4 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 5 9 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 2 3 7 
 
 Dark blaes, 
 
 2 6 
 
 Blaes and coal-strains, 
 Fakes, 
 
 9 
 2 
 
 Ironstone (Black-band), 
 Blaes, - 
 
 1 
 4 
 
 Fireclay and coal-strains, 10 
 Fireclay, - - 4 
 
 Ironstone (Black-band), 
 Blaes (irony), - 
 
 1 
 3 
 
 Fakes, 
 Blaes, 
 
 5 
 9 
 
 Ironstone (Black-band), 
 Coal, 
 
 3 
 2 
 
 Coal (slaty), - 
 Coal and Blaes, 
 
 8J 
 2 
 
 Fakes and fireclay and 
 balls, 
 
 18 
 
 Fireclay, 
 
 5 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 3 3 4 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 3 4 10 
 
 Coal, 
 
 9 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 17 
 
 Fireclay, 
 
 Carry forward, 
 
 18 
 
 Carry forward, 
 
 124 5 1 
 
 141 2 6 
 
Appendix. 
 
 271 
 
 Fms. Ft. In. 
 
 . 
 
 Fms. Ft. In. 
 
 Brought forward, - 
 
 141 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 Brought forward, 
 
 177 
 
 1 1 
 
 Sandstone fakes, 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 Stone, 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Coal, 
 
 
 
 1 6 
 
 Hard faky sandstone, 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 Daugh, 
 
 
 
 o 04 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 Coal, 
 
 
 
 i 104 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 Faky fireclay, 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 Hard fake, 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Hard faky sandstone, 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 
 
 1 3 
 
 Faky blaes, 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 
 
 1 7 
 
 Coal, 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 
 
 2 9 
 
 Coaly blaes, 
 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 Coal, 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Hard sandstone, 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Fireclay, 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Coal, 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 Coaly blaes, 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 Fireclay, - 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Hard faky sandstone, 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Dark sandstone, 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 Hard sandstone fakes, 
 
 
 
 3 4 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 Calmy whinstone, 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 Parrot Coal (irony), 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Whinstone, 
 
 17 
 
 2 2 
 
 Ironstone (Blaek-band), - 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Parrot Coal, - 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Coal (burnt), 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Coal, 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 Dark fakes, 
 
 
 
 1 4 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Coaly blaes, 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 Dark blaes, 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Ironstone, 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Hard sandstone fakes, 
 
 
 
 5 9 
 
 Fireclay, 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 
 
 2 10 
 
 Blaesj 
 
 
 
 2 8 
 
 Hard faky sandstone, 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 Ironstone, 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Faky sandstone, 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 Black blaes, 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Whinstone (light), 
 
 
 
 1 7 
 
 Hard broken sandstone 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Coal (burnt), 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 Faky fireclay and balls, 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 Coal mixed with whinstone 
 
 , o 
 
 6 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 
 
 4 8 
 
 Fakes and fireclay, 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Coarse sandstone, 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 
 
 1 11 
 
 Hard sandstone, 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 Dark Fakes, 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 Softer sandstone, 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 Coal, 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 Coaly blaes, 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 Blaes and balls (ironstone), 
 
 4 5 
 
 Fakes and sandstone, 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 
 
 3 8 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 Dark blaes, 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 Fakes and sandstone, 
 
 1 
 
 1 8 
 
 Coaly blaes (burnt), - 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 
 
 3 1 
 
 Whinstone, 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 Black blaes, 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 Black blaes, 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Coal, 
 
 
 
 1 10 
 
 Coal (burnt, hard), - 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 Fake, 
 
 
 
 1£ 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 Coal, 
 
 
 
 1 6 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 Fake, 
 
 
 
 o 14 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 Coal, 
 
 
 
 1 6 
 
 Coaly blaes, 
 Coal, * 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 1 
 
 1 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Do. and fakes, - 
 
 
 
 4 2 
 
 Coaly blaes, 
 Coal, 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Dark fakes and blaes, 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 Ironstone (Mussel-band), 
 
 0| 
 
 Slaty coal, 
 Coal, 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 Dark fakes and blaes, 
 
 2 
 
 1 6 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 Faky sandstone, 
 
 
 
 1 7 
 
 Coaly blaes, 
 Faky fireclay, 
 Fakes, 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Hard do. , 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 Fakes and do., - 
 
 
 
 5 3 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Blaes with coal- strains, 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 Blaes and balls, - 
 
 1 
 
 1 11 
 
 Coal, 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 1 
 
 Ironstone balls, - 
 
 Carry forward, - 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Carry forward, ■ 
 
 177 
 
 1 
 
 224 
 
 2 4J 
 
272 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire 
 
 
 Fras. Ft. In. 
 
 
 Fms. Ft. In. 
 
 Brought forward, 
 
 224 2 44 
 
 Brought forward, 
 
 263 5 04 
 
 Dark blaes, 
 
 4 4' 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 2 1 
 
 Ironstone-rib, 
 
 1 
 
 Fakes and sulphur balls, 4i 
 
 Dark blaes, 
 
 10 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 14 
 
 Irony fake, 
 
 1 
 
 Coaly blaes, 
 
 1 3" 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 1 11 
 
 Dark sandstone, 
 
 1 4 3 
 
 Hard fakes, 
 
 9 
 
 Whinstone, 
 
 1 4 8 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 1 9 
 
 Black fakes, 
 
 15 
 
 Hard fakes, 
 
 1 9 
 
 Hard sandstone, 
 
 4 5 1 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 10 4 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 3 6 
 
 Dark fakes, 
 
 3 9 
 
 Blaes and balls, - 
 
 3 7 
 
 Hard fakes, 
 
 10 
 
 Coal, 4" soft on top, 
 
 12 
 
 Dark fakes, 
 
 1 5 
 
 Faky fireclay, - 
 
 10 
 
 Black blaes, 
 
 4 I 
 
 Dark blaes and balls, - 
 
 1 9 
 
 Hard fakes, 
 
 6 
 
 Coal, 
 
 2 3 
 
 Dark blaes, 
 
 2 1 
 
 Coaly blaes, 
 
 1 
 
 Hard sandstone, 
 
 2 2 11 
 
 Coal, 
 
 11 
 
 Sandstone fakes (hard] 
 
 ,048 
 
 Faky fireclay, 
 
 8 
 
 Hard sandstone, 
 
 1 3 5 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 4 2 
 
 Hard fakes, 
 
 1 10 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 3 8 
 
 Hard sandstone, 
 
 2 2 
 
 Hard fake, 
 
 3 
 
 Hard fakes, 
 
 3 4 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 1 5 6 
 
 Hard sandstone, 
 
 5 2 4 
 
 Hard sandstone and 
 
 
 ■Coal, 
 
 1 
 
 fake beds, 
 
 1 1 9 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 3 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 3 7 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 3 3 7 
 
 Hard fake, 
 
 2 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 3 
 
 Dark blaes, 
 
 3 8 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 2 3 
 
 Light fakes, 
 
 1 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 6 
 
 Irony fake, 
 
 o o 24 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 4 2 
 
 Coal, 
 
 1 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 1 1 
 
 Coal and Ironstone, 
 
 1 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 3 4 
 
 Coal, 
 
 2 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 3 
 
 Fireclay, 
 
 8 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 3 10 
 
 Blaes with coal-strains 
 
 10 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 4 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 2 10 
 
 Dark blaes (parroty), - 
 
 6 
 
 Hard fakes, 
 
 4 
 
 Parrot Coal, 
 
 1 6 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 4 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 o 14 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 12 
 
 Coal, 
 
 34 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 2 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 10 9 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 5 6 
 
 Dark blaes, 
 
 5 1 
 
 Fakes and sandstone, 
 
 13 1 
 
 Parroty blaes, 
 
 3 
 
 Dark fakes, 
 
 3 10 
 
 Dark blaes, 
 
 5 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 112 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 2 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 2 
 
 Coal, 
 
 2 
 
 ■ Blaes, 
 
 10 4 
 
 Fireclay, - 
 Fakes, 
 
 9 
 1 10 
 
 Hard Stony Coal, . > 
 Coal, 
 
 4 
 11 
 
 $0 04 
 
 °0 2 04 
 ^0 1 
 -go 64 
 
 SO 34 
 
 50 6 
 
 ^0 1 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 4 6 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 1 9 
 
 Stone, 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 1 11 
 
 Coal, 
 
 Sandstone, 
 Fakes, 
 
 5 1 
 1 2 
 
 Stone (coaly), 
 Coal, 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 4 1 
 
 Heavy Close - Grained 
 
 Dark blaes, 
 Fake (irony), 
 
 11 
 3 
 
 Coal, 
 Coal, 
 
 Coal, 
 
 7 
 
 Stone, 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 11 
 
 Coal, 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 Coaly blaes, 
 
 4 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 4 
 
 Coarse sandstone, 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 2 3 
 
 2 4 
 
 1 8 
 
 Faky sandstone, 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 Blaes, 
 
 16 
 
 3 7 
 
 1 3 5 
 
 14 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 2 
 
 Irony fake, 
 
 Carry forward, 
 
 Carry forward, 
 
 263 5 04 
 
 300 3 34 
 
Appendix. 
 
 273 
 
 
 Fms. Ft. In. 
 
 Fms. Ft. In. 
 
 Brought forward, 
 
 300 
 
 3 3J 
 
 Brought forward, 313 
 
 4§ 
 
 Dark blaes, 
 
 
 
 4 3 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 1 
 
 94 
 
 Sulphur-rib, 
 
 
 
 o oj 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 
 
 1 8 
 
 Dark blaes, 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 1 
 
 3 4 
 
 Ironstone (Clay-band), 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Blaes and sulphur-ribs, 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Black blaes, 
 
 
 
 2 2 
 
 Black blaes, 
 
 
 
 1 4 
 
 Coal, 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 Blaes and sulphur balls, 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Ironstone (coaly) 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Dark fakes, 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 Coal, 
 
 
 
 1 11 
 
 Blaes and sulphur balls, 
 
 
 
 2 11 
 
 Faky fireclay, 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 
 
 5 2 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 
 
 4 2 
 
 Fakes and sandstone, 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 Coal, 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Calmy fakes, 
 
 
 
 4 6 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 
 
 2 6 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 
 
 4 2 
 
 Coal, 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 Dark fakes, 
 
 
 
 5 6 
 
 Whinstone, 
 
 19 
 
 3 10 
 
 Sandstone (hard), 
 
 
 
 3 5 
 
 Calmy fakes, 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 
 
 2 5 
 
 Coarse sandstone, 
 
 
 
 1 6 
 
 Fakes and sandstone, 
 
 3 
 
 1 6 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 
 
 5 9 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 
 
 3 7 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 Faky sandstone, 
 
 
 
 2 4 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 
 
 2 3 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 
 
 4 9 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 
 
 4 1 
 
 Faky blaes, 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Irony fake, 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Dark blaes, 
 
 2 
 
 1 1 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Coal, 
 
 
 
 1 64 
 
 Parroty blaes, 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 
 
 o 24 
 
 Parrot Coal, 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Coal, 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Coal, 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Blaes and sulphur balls, 
 
 
 
 1 8 
 
 Coal (Slaty), 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Limestone (Hosie), 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 
 
 2 3 
 
 Black blaes and balls, 
 
 
 
 3 5 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 Limy fakes, blaes, and 
 
 
 
 Coaly blaes, 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 sulphur, 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 Faky sandstone, 
 
 
 
 2 1 
 
 Black blaes, 
 
 
 
 1 6 
 
 Blaes with coal-streak 
 
 !, 
 
 7 
 
 Limestone mixed with 
 
 
 
 Fakes and sandstone, 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 blaes, 
 
 
 
 1 9 
 
 Fakes and blaes, 
 
 
 
 4 6 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 1 
 
 2 2 
 
 Blaes, 
 
 1 
 
 4 11 
 
 Dark sandstone mixed 
 
 
 
 Coal (Dunfermline Splint 
 
 
 with calm, 
 
 1 
 
 1 10 
 
 Coal), - 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fakes, 
 
 
 
 o 04 
 
 Total depth, 
 
 356 
 
 3 11 
 
 Carry forward, - 
 
 313 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 Explanation of Scottish Mining Terms. 
 
 Balls, nodular concretions; Blaes, argillaceous shale; Calm, hard white 
 clay, often calcareous ; Daugh, tough clay ; Fakes, shaly or micaceous 
 sandstone, or sandy shale; Iron-balls, nodules of clay -ironstone ; Iron-ribs, 
 thin layers of clay-ironstone; Mussel-band, clay -ironstone containing 
 lamellibranch shells; Parrot- coal, cannel-coal, gas-coal; Sulphur-balls, 
 pyritous concretions ; Whinstone, any hard stone, but specially applied 
 to the basalts and dolerites which occur as dykes, sills, and bosses. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Abden Shobe Reefs (Kinghorn), lava- 
 sheets of, 54, 71. 
 
 Limestones, 39, 72, 214; list of 
 
 fossils from, 240. 
 
 Aberargie, 27. 
 
 Aberdour, 4, 7, 47, 48, 82, 83, 187, 207, 
 212. 
 
 Aberfeldy, 183. 
 
 Abernethy Glen, 28. 
 
 Agglomerate, volcanic, 13, 17, 18, 20, 
 53, 61, 77, 78, 129, 163, 165. 
 
 Agriculture, progress of, in Ochil district, 
 9 ; in Fife generally, 10, 
 
 Airthrey Castle, 16. 
 
 Aithernie (Scoonie), 135, 161. 
 
 Aldie Castle (Fossaway), 41. 
 
 Alluvium, 12, 189 ; replaces former 
 lakes, 191 ; formed by the sea, 195. 
 
 Alum-shale, 135. 
 
 Alva, 174. 
 
 Amphibian remains in Coal-measures, 
 147 153 239. 
 
 Amyg'dales, 16,' 28, 57, 60, 64, 67, 69, 
 72. 
 
 Amygdaloidal structure, 16, 54, 57-74. 
 
 Analcime, 28. 
 
 Andesite, 13; characters of, 16; occur 
 rence of, 20, 27; dykes of, 172; as 
 material for road-making, 207; petro- 
 graphy of," 252. 
 
 Anderson, Dr. Thomas, 99, 105. 
 
 Anstruther, 187. 
 
 Anthracite, conversion of coal into, 
 103, 113, 125, 167. 
 
 Anticlinal axis of Ochil chain, 15, 18, 
 21, 25; of Midlothian prolonged into 
 Fife, 44, 145, 147. 
 
 Arctic climate, relics of, in Fife, 186, 
 187, 194, 251. 
 
 Ard, Loch, dyke at, 173. 
 
 Arden Limestone. See Gair Lime- 
 stone. 
 
 Argyllshire, Carboniferous rocks in, 27. 
 
 Auchmoor (Leslie), 193. 
 
 Auchmuty (Balbirnie), 124. 
 
 Auchtenny Wood (Ochils), 9, 173. 
 
 Auchterarder, 15, 16, 17, 21, 23, 173, 
 254, 256. 
 
 Auchterderran, 5, 6, 39, 140, 168, 170. 
 
 Auchtermuchty, 3, 30, 32, 172, 192. 
 
 Auchtertool, 4, 6, 80, 186, 213, 215. 
 
 Augite, 16, 29, 53. 
 
 Auvergne, lavas of, compared with those 
 of Carboniferous age in Fife, 57, 58. 
 
 Ayton House (Strathearn), 27, 28. 
 
 B 
 
 Backbkaes (Ceres), 93. 
 
 Backmuir (Dunfermline), 100. 
 
 Bairns Bridge (Abbotshall), 119. 
 
 Balbedie (N.E. from Ballingry), 135. 
 
 Balbirnie Coal-field, 97, 124 ; peat-moss 
 near, 192. 
 
 Balfarg (Markinch), 124, 192. 
 
 " Balfarrig Loch," 192. 
 
 Balgarvie (Cupar), 172. 
 
 Balgeddie (Kinross-shire), 34, 212. 
 
 (Leslie), 92. 
 
 Balgreggie (Auchterderran), 140, 141. 
 
 Ballast, discharge of, on Fife coast, 184. 
 
 Ballingry, 36, 43, 141. 
 
 Balmerino, 8, 28, 258. 
 
 Balmule Lodge (Loch Fitty), 52. 
 
 Balquhandy Burn (Dunning), 22. 
 
 Balram (Aberdour), 51. 
 
 Baltic, stones from, brought in ballast 
 to the shores of Fife, 184. 
 
 Balwearie Castle (Linktown), 55. 
 
 Bandrum (Saline), 128. 
 
 Bank Coal (Lochgelly Splint), 112, 199. 
 
 Bankhead (Ceres), 93. 
 
 Barncraig Coal (Dysart), 148, 154, 156. 
 
 Barnhill Bay (Aberdour), 48, 83, 188. 
 
 Basalt, 13; in Cement-stone group, 43; 
 in Burdiehouse Limestone group, 
 classification of, 53 ; occurs in inter- 
 stratified sheets of lava, 53, 57-74, 
 136; earthy forms of, 54, 57-74; 
 ellipsoidal or "pillow" structure of, 
 54, 62, 64, 69, 72, 74; foreign inclu- 
 sions in, 69; intrusive development 
 of, 80, 166, 172; veins of, in sheets of 
 basalt-lava, 68, 69, 72; as material 
 for road-making, 208. 
 
 Basalt-glass at the edge of a dyke, 173. 
 
 Beaches, deposits of, 12; raised, 12 - ; 
 25-feet terrace, 127; 50-feet terrace, 
 26, 187 ; 100-feet terrace, 26, 187. 
 
 Beach, Hill of, 82, 104, 163. 
 
 Begg and Dunnikier Collieries, 121, 198. 
 
 Bellhouse Rocks (Aberdour), 83. 
 
 Benarty Hill, 3, 4, 6, 9, 14, 34, 36, 43, 
 137, 168, 169, 170, 176, 185, 207. 
 
 Ben Chonzie, 183. 
 
 Bennie, Mr. J., 72, 165, 186, 211. 
 
 Benty mires (Loch Fitty), 110. 
 
 Berrylaw (Dunfermline), 163, 212. 
 
 Beveridge-Well (Dunfermline), 100. 
 
 Beverkae (Moss Morran), 45. 
 
 Bibliography of the geology of central 
 and western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 262. 
 
276 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shin 
 
 Binn of Burntisland, 4, 46, 47, 75, 163, 
 
 171, 213; description of, 77. 
 Binnend (Burntisland), 47, 205. 
 Binny Crag (West Lothian), 55. 
 Biotite-felspar-porphyry, 258. 
 Birch, Arctic, found fossil in Fife, 186. 
 Birkhill (Firth of Tay), 8. 
 Bishopbriggs Sandstone, 134. 
 Bishop Hill, 3, 4, 34, 36, 43, 52, 92, 169. 
 Bishop's Muir, 10. 
 Black-band Ironstone, 99, 108, 202. 
 
 See Lochgelly Black-band Ironstone. 
 Black Coal (Kirkcaldy), 119. 
 Black Devon Water, 128. 
 Blacklaw Quarry (Dunfermline), 213. 
 Black Loch (Dunfermline), diminution 
 
 of, 191. 
 Black Rig Moss, 194. 
 Blacketyside (Scoonie), 144. 
 Blaeberry, 22. 
 Blaeu's Atlas cited, 191. 
 Blairadam, 4, 5, 109, 110, 136, 197, 212. 
 Blairenbathie (Blairadam), 111. 
 Blairhall Diamond-bore (Oakley), 131 ; 
 
 journal of, 268. 
 Blair Point (Dysart), 153, 215. 
 Blairsgreen (Oakley), 130. 
 Blawlowan Coal, 107, 198. 
 Blebo (W. of St. Andrews), 204. 
 Blende, 204. 
 
 "Blind Coal," 103, 113, 125, 128, 167. 
 Blown sand, 7, 10, 12, 188, 194. 
 Bluther Burn (Tolry), 132, 141, 187. 
 Bog Lochty, 192. 
 Bogie lime-quarries (Kirkcaldy), 90, 
 
 121, 213. 
 Bole, 68, 71. 73. 
 Bone-bed in Burdiehouse Limestone 
 
 group, 72. 
 Bonnyton (Dunfermline), 100. 
 Bosses, definition of, 80; described, 166, 
 
 171 ; examples of, in Lower Old Red 
 
 Sandstone, 17, 18, 21, 28, 29, 257; 
 
 in Calcif erous Sandstone series, 80 ; in 
 
 Carboniferous Limestone series, 164, 
 
 166, 171. 
 Bora, Ami, cited, 56, 57, 58, 70, 71. 
 Boulder-clay, 8, 10, 12, 34, 179-181. 
 Boulders, frequent source of, 182, 196. 
 Bowden Hill-type of dolerite, 81, 85. 
 Bowhill Colliery, 197. 
 Bowhouse Coal (Dysart), 148, 152. 
 Bowsebank Coal (Capeldrae), 138. 
 Brachiopods, fossil, 48, 72, 74, 89. 
 Brackly, East (Loch Leven), 36. 
 Braefoot Bay (Aberdour), 47, 48, 83. 
 Braehead (Loch Fitty), 110. 
 Braes of Doune, dyke in, 173. 
 Brander Pass, Carboniferous rocks at, 
 
 27. 
 Brankstone Coal (Dysart), 148. 
 Breociation of lavas, 20. 
 Bride Coal, 109, 202. 
 Bridge of Allan, 15, 16, 25. 
 Bridge of Earn, 15, 26, 39, 254. 
 Brosyhall (Burntisland), 46, 48, 214. 
 Broughty Ferry, 194. 
 Brucefield House (Dunfermline), 95. 
 Buckhaven, 7, 150, 152, 154, 155, 159, 
 
 160, 176, 188, 203, 205. 
 
 Buckieburn (Dunfermline), 101. 
 
 Bueklyvie (Moss Morran), 90, 213. 
 
 Building-stone, 206. 
 
 Burdiehouse or Burntisland Limestone, 
 46, 78. 
 
 Limestone group, 12, 39, 44; 
 
 evidence of powerful wave-action in, 
 42; mCleish Hills, 42; sedimentary 
 development of, in Fife, 45; marine 
 zones in, 48, 50, 72; volcanic develop- 
 ment of, 53-86, 162; bone-bed in, 
 72; volcanic necks in, 77; sills, bosses, 
 and dykes in, 80 ; oil-shale in, 205 ; 
 building-stone in, 206 ; limestones of, 
 207 ; list of fossils from, 240. 
 
 Burnside (Strathmiglo), 34. 
 
 Burntisland, 7, 39, 44, 45, 47, 53, 77, 
 81, 82, 168, 171, 172, 187, 188, 194, 
 195, 196, 205, 206, 207, 213. 
 
 type of dolerite, 81. 
 
 Bush Coal (Dysart), 148. 
 
 Cadell's Parrot Coal, 130. 
 
 Cairncubbie Coal, 99, 108, 113, 198, 199, 
 200, 201, 202, 205. 
 
 Cairneyhill (Torryburn), 183. 
 
 Calciferous Sandstone series, 12, 39; 
 Cement-stone group of, 40; Burdie- 
 house Limestone and Oil-shale group 
 of, 44, 45, 53; volcanic development 
 of, 53-76, 77-86; intrusive rocks in, 
 80, 170, 171; building-stone in, 206; 
 list of fossils from, 240. 
 
 Calcite, 28, 57. 
 
 Caldron Linn, 37, 40. 
 
 Callander, 173. 
 
 Calmy Limestone. See Gair Limestone. 
 
 Cameron Bridge, 151 ; Colliery, 200. 
 
 Camilla Loch, 7. 
 
 Campbeltown, Carboniferous rocks at, 
 27. 
 
 Campsie Hills, 40, 43, 169. 
 
 Cannel Coal, 108 (see Lochgelly Splint 
 and Parrot seam), 125. 
 
 Capeldrae Coal-field, 39, 137, 200, 213. 
 
 Carberry Quarry (Dunnikier), 215. 
 
 Carboniferous Limestone series, 12, 39, 
 87; two types of sedimentation in, 
 87; three marked sub-divisions of, 
 88 : the Lower Limestones of, 88 ; the 
 Lower Coals in, 97 ; volcanic series in, 
 128, 133, 136, 140; Upper Limestones 
 of, 133 ; no volcanic rocks in workable 
 coal group of, 162; volcanic series in 
 Lower Limestone group of, 162 ; sills 
 intruded into lower part of, 170; 
 economic limestones in, 207. 
 
 system, 12 ; its possible extension 
 
 over part of the Highlands, 27 ; sub- 
 divisions of, in Fife, 38. 
 
 Carden Coal, 119, 120. 
 
 Cardenden, 39, 115, 116, 119, 120, 121, 
 174, 176, 205. 
 
 Carmore (Strathmiglo), 29, 172. 
 
 Carnock, 9, 98, 100, 128, 174. 
 
 Loch, disappearance of, 191 
 
 Carpenter, H., 211. 
 
Index. 
 
 211 
 
 Carriston Reservoir (Rameldry), 126. 
 
 Carse-lands, 25. 
 
 Carse of Gowrie, 25, 26. 
 
 Cash, Easter (Swathmiglo), 34, 212. 
 
 Caskieberran, 135. 
 
 Castleoary Limestone. See Levenseat 
 Limestone. 
 
 Cauda-galli impressions, 94. 
 
 Causeways, materials in Fife for the 
 construction of, 208. 
 
 Celadonite, 28. 
 
 Cement-stone group, 12, 39 ; in Strath- 
 earn, 26; on Lomonds, 35, 43; near 
 Rumbling Bridge, 40 ; in Cleish Hills, 
 41; detailed description of, 40; vol- 
 canic zone in, 41, 42, 162, 260; 
 economic minerals of, 207. 
 
 Cephalopods, fossil, 48, 73, 74, 89. 
 
 Ceres, 1, 93, 181. 
 
 Chalcedony, 28, 58. 
 
 Chalcocite, 29. 
 
 Chalk-flints on shores of Fife, 184. 
 
 Chalmers' Dunfermline, quoted 103. 
 
 Chapel (Kirkcaldy), 90, 207. 
 
 Charles Hill (Aberdour), 48, 83. 
 
 Charlestown, 39, 44, 49, 89, 95, 188, 
 195 207 212. 
 
 Chemlss Coal (Dysart), 148, 154, 156, 
 200, 201. 
 
 Chert in ellipsoidal basalts, 65. 
 
 Chrysocolla, 29. 
 
 Clackmannan Coalfield, jt, 5, 10, 15, 97, 
 98, 100, 127, 145, 169, 175. 
 
 Clashbennie, 26. 
 
 Clatchard Hill (Newburgh), 31. 
 
 Clatteringwell Quarries (Lomond Hills), 
 92, 213. 
 
 Clatto, 93, 126. 
 
 Clay-band Ironstone, 202. 
 
 Clay-galls in sandstone, 34. 
 
 Cleish Hills, 3, 4, 6, 7, 39, 43, 91, 127, 
 168, 171, 175, 183, 184, 194, 260. 
 
 Clements Morgan, Mr. J., 55. 
 
 Clochrat Bridge (Ballingry), 118. 
 
 Clune Craig (Ballingry), 140. 
 
 Clunie Colliery, 97, 119, 120. 
 
 Clyde, Coal-measure sections laid open 
 by, 146. 
 
 Coal, earliest working of in Fife, 98; 
 analyses of, 99, 105, 106, 110, 113, 
 114; alteration of, by igneous rocks, 
 102, 103, 113, 122, 124, 125, 126, 138, 
 140, 141, 167 ; chief seams of, at 
 present in commercial use in Fife, 197. 
 
 Coalfields of Fife, 97, 137, 147, 157, 197. 
 
 Coal-growths, 153. 
 
 Coal-measures, 12, 38, 146; English 
 equivalents of Scottish development 
 of, 146 ; Lower or Coal-bearing group 
 of, 147; flora of, 147, 159; fauna of, 
 147, 159 ; marine fossils in, 147, 155 ; 
 Upper or Barren Red Sandstone group 
 of, 158 ; no volcanic rocks associated 
 with, 161 ; intrusive rocks in, 165, 
 171 ; list of fossils from, 250. 
 
 Coal Thief (Fordel), 105. 
 
 Coalden (Clunie Colliery), 120. 
 
 Coast-line of Fife, 7, 45, 48, 56-76, 82, 
 82, 89, 91, 134, 143, 146, 158, 182, 
 186, 194 ; erosion of, 8, 188, 194, 195. 
 
 Cockersfauld (Dunning), 22, 173. 
 Coldrain (Kinross), 10. 
 Colinswell (Burntisland), 45, 47, 81, 82. 
 Colquhally (Auchterderran), 115, 118. 
 Colton (Dunfermline), 100, 103, 107. 
 Columnar structure in basalts, 54, 57- 
 
 74, 163. 
 Common (Burntisland), 47. 
 Compensation Reservoir (Dunfermline), 
 
 100. 
 Comrie Bridge (Oakley), 131. 
 Condie, Mains of, 3; Path of, 173. 
 Cones of detritus at the foot of slopes, 
 
 189. 
 Conglomerate, volcanic, 13, 17, 31 ; in 
 
 Calciferous Sandstone group, 42; in 
 
 Millstone Grit, 144. 
 Coniferous wood in volcanic tuffs, 76, 
 
 165. 
 Contemporaneous erosion, 134. 
 Copper, native, 29. 
 Corals, fossil, 88, 94. 
 Corb Bridge (Dunning), 18, 21, 257, 258. 
 Cornstone, 35, 36, 40, 43, 44, 207. 
 Cottown (Aberdour), 51. 
 Cowal, dyke traced into, 173. 
 Cowden Hill, 136, 161. 
 Cowdenbeath, 5, 39, 116, 197, 213. 
 Cowdenend, 163. 
 Cowdens Quarry, 39, 213. 
 Coxtool Coal (Dysart), 148, 154, 155. 
 Craig Coal. (Capeldrae), 138, 140, 141. 
 Craigduckie Quarry, 213. 
 Craigend (Rumbling Bridge), 19. 
 Craighall Castle, 93. 
 Craigluscar (Dunfermline), 39, 213. 
 Craigowmeigle (Ochil Hills), 180. 
 Craig Rossie (Auchterarder), 16, 17, 21, 
 
 23, 25, 254. 
 Crail, 187. 
 Craw Coal (Dunfermline), 108. 
 
 — — (Balbirnie), 124. 
 
 Croftgarrie (Aberdour), 51. 
 
 Crombie Point, 187, 188. 
 
 Crook of Devon, 20, 185. 
 
 Crossgates, 107, 108, 109. 
 
 Crosshill, 140. 
 
 Crossroads (Aberdour), 51. 
 
 Cullalo (Aberdour), 4, 5, 39, 51, 206, 
 
 213. 
 Culross, 142, 180. 
 Cult Hill (west end of Cleish Hills), 4, 
 
 39, 40, 41, 142, 175. 
 Cults Limework, 87, 92, 93, 182, 215. 
 Cupar, 1, 3, 34, 92, 172, 187, 206. 
 Cuprite, 29. 
 Cuttlehill Colliery, 101, 107, 108, 109. 
 
 D 
 
 Dacites, 16. 
 
 Dalbeath Colliery, 117, 198, 202. 
 
 Dalgety Bay, 48, 83, 188. 
 
 Dalkeith (Rumbling Bridge), 18, 40. 
 
 Dallachy (Burntisland), 46, 51. 
 
 Dalmeny type of basalt, 53, 67, 82. 
 
 Damhead (Glen Farg), 3, 26, 29, 173, 
 
 180, 257. 
 Datolite, 29. 
 
278 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 Daubtjisson, Neill's translation of, 56. 
 Dean Coal, 99, 108. 
 
 Plantation, 100. 
 
 De la Beche, Sir Henry, Report on 
 
 coals by, 106. 
 Deltas in lakes, 189. 
 Denbeath Colliery, 155, 200. 
 Den Coal (Dysart), 148, 154. 
 Denudation, results of, 5, 6. 
 Devon River, 6, 18, 20, 37, 39, 40, 183, 
 
 185, 189, 190, 207. 
 Devil's Mill (River Devon), 191. 
 Diabase, 13, 18. 
 Din Moss (Saline), 194. 
 Dochrie (Oohil Hills), 172, 180. 
 Dodhead (Burntisland), 46, 47, 84, 167, 
 
 168, 207, 214. 
 Dolerite, 13 ; petrographical characters 
 
 of, 81, 173 ; occurs intrusively in 
 
 sills, bosses, and dykes, 166, 168, 172 ; 
 
 as material for building, 206 ; suitable 
 
 for road-making, 208. 
 Dollar, 174. 
 Donibristle (Dalgety), 48. 
 
 Colliery, 101, 108, 109, 116, 198. 
 
 Douranside (Ochil Hills), 180. 
 Dow Loch, disappearance of, 191. 
 Downing Point, St. David's, 48, 85. 
 Drift deposits, 6, 10, 12, 179, 184. 
 Dronachy (Auchtertool), 186, 215, 251. 
 Dron, East (Strath Earn), 26, 39. 
 Drumcooper (Dunfermline), 101. 
 Drumfod (Dunfermline), 213. 
 Drumochy (Leven), 203, 204. 
 Drummaird (Kennoway), 136. 
 Drumnagoil Burn (Kelty), 111. 
 Drums or drumlins of boulder-clay, 182. 
 Duddy Davy Coal, 99, 108, 130, 131, 
 
 197 198 199 
 Duloc'h (Inverkeithing), 39, 191, 213. 
 Dumyat. (Oehils), 17. 
 Duncrevie (Glen Farg), 17, 29. 
 Dundonald Colliery, 120, 121, 198, 205. 
 Dunearn Hill (Burntisland), 4, 47, f?-0, 
 
 84, 164. 
 Dunfermline, 39, 49, 51, 91, 95, 180, 
 
 184 187 193 
 Dunfermline Coalfield, 97, 98, 141, 164, 
 
 176, 197-202, 204, 212. 
 Dunnet Shale, 205. 
 Dunnikier Colliery, 119, 120, 121, 122, 
 
 198. 
 Dunning, 3, 15, 18, 22. 23, 173, 180, 
 
 183, 184, 257. 
 Dunny Gask, 128. 
 Dura Den, 34, 35. 
 Durham, Mr. James, 16. 
 Durie Colliery, 148, 154, 155, 156, 198, 
 
 205, 215. 
 Dykes in Old Red Sandstone, 18, 21, 
 
 22, 29, 172, 257 ; in Carboniferous 
 
 formations, 48, 85 ; in volcanic necks, 
 
 79, 85, 129, 163, 165, 171 ; of probably 
 
 Tertiary date, 22, 29, 161, 172. 
 Dysart, 4, 38, 97, 134, 135, 143, 147, 
 
 148, 150, 156, 170, 176, 182, 184, 188, 
 
 215. 
 Main Coal, 148, 150, 155, 200, 
 
 201. 
 Muir, 10. 
 
 Dysart, Werayss, and Leven Coalfield, 
 148, 174, 176, 199, 200. 
 
 E 
 
 Earl's Parrot Coal (Dysart), 148, 152. 
 
 Row (Dunfermline), 101. 
 
 Seat (Dysart), 150. 
 
 Earn River, 3, 21, 26. 
 
 Eck, Loch, dyke at, 173. 
 
 Eden River, 3, 6, 10, 185, 189, 192. 
 
 Edentown, 33. 
 
 Edge-coals, 39, 97 ; list of fossils from, 
 
 248. 
 Eight-foot Coal (Dunfermline), 99, 106, 
 
 111, 198, 201, 202. 
 Elgin Bleachfield (Dunfermline), 49. 
 
 Colliery, 100, 105, 108. 
 
 Ellipsoidal or "pillow-structure" in 
 
 basalts, 54, 62, 64. 
 Enstatite, 16, 29. 
 
 andesite, 252. 
 
 -augite-andesite, 253. 
 
 diorite, 18, 257. 
 
 Epidiorite, brought in ballast to Fife, 
 
 184. 
 Erosion, examples of contemporaneous, 
 
 134. 
 Erratic blocks, 12, 179, 182. 
 Escarpments, 2, 22, 25, 30, 33, 56, 92, 
 
 169. 
 Eskers, 184. 
 Etheridge, Mr. R., junior, 211. 
 
 Falkland, 36, 212. 
 
 Faults have not seriously affected the 
 development of the topographical 
 features of Fife, 5 ; abundant in coal- 
 fields, 13 ; examples of, 18, 27, 36, 
 37, 40, 44, 49, 51, 91, 97, 98, 103, 104, 
 107, 109, 113, 114, 116, 117, 128, 131, 
 140, 144, 149, 150, 157, 159, 174, 175 ; 
 reversed, 42, 43, 95, 114, 123, 177 ; 
 date of production of, 140, 177 ; in 
 central and western Fife and Kinross- 
 shire, general account of, 174. 
 
 Felsite, 13, 16, 17, 21, 41. 42, 43; 
 petrography of, 254. 
 
 Ferny Braes (Dunning), 22. 
 
 Ferry-Port-on-Craig. See Tayport. 
 
 Fife, geographical position of, 1 ; 
 historical development of, 2 ; 
 general topography of, 2; streams 
 and valleys of, 3, 4, 6 ; glaciation of, 6, 
 179 ; lakes of, 6, 7, 189, 191 ^oast- 
 lines of, (see Coast-line) ; vegetation 
 and soils of, 8 ; muirs of, 10 ; geolo- 
 gical formations of, 12 ; Lower Old 
 Red Sandstone of, 15 ; Upper Old 
 Red Sandstone of, 33 ; Carboniferous 
 system in, 38 ; Cement-stone group 
 in, 40 ; oldest Carboniferous volcanic 
 rocks in, 43 ; Burdiehouse Limestone 
 group in, 44 ; Carboniferous Lime- 
 Btone group in, 39, 87 ; Millstone Grit 
 in, 143 ; Coal-measures in, 146, 157; 
 
Index. 
 
 279 
 
 intrusive igneous rocks of, 161 ; faults 
 in, 174 ; glaciation of, 180 ; boulder 
 clay of, 181 ; sands and gravels of, 
 184 ; vanished lakes of, 185 ; raised 
 beaches and terraces of, 186 ; river- 
 terraces and alluvium of, 189 ; dis- 
 appearance of lakes in, 191 ; peat- 
 mosses of, 193 ; blown sand dunes 
 and links, 194 ; action of sea on 
 coast of, 194 ; economic minerals of, 
 197 ; coals in use in, 197-202 ; iron- 
 stone-seams in, 202 ; galena in, 204 ; 
 fireclay in, 204 ; oil-shale in, 205 ; 
 building-stones in, 206 ; limestone in, 
 206 ; road-metal in, 207 ; peat-fuel in, 
 208 ; shell-marl in, 208. 
 
 Fireclay, 204. 
 
 Fishes, fossil, 26, 34, 46, 48, 72, 87, 89, 
 147, 153, 155, 160, 236. 
 
 Five-foot Coal (Dunfermline), 99, 112, 
 113, 115, 119, 132, 199, 200, 205. 
 
 " Floating Whin," 167. 
 
 Flood-plain of streams, 190. 
 
 Flow-structure in lavaB, 16, 19, 20, 23, 
 24, 41, 42 ; in bosses, dykes, and sills, 
 21, 28. 
 
 Fluor-spar, 29. 
 
 Fordel, 39, 82, 95. 
 
 Fordel Colliery, 101, 105, 107, 198. 
 
 Fordel Hill (Ochils), 180. 
 
 Forgandenny, 15, 27, 253. 
 
 Forteviot, 15. 
 
 Forth, Firth of, coast-line of, 7, 45, 48, 
 56-76, 82, 83, 89, 91, 134, 143, 146, 
 149, 158, 182, 186, 194; action of sea 
 on shores of, 8, 188, 194 ; islands of, 
 83 ; coal worked below, 156 ; alluvial 
 deposits on shores of, 195. 
 
 Forth Ironworks, 131. 
 
 Forthar Limeworks, 93, 215. 
 
 Forthridge Muirs, 10. 
 
 Fossaway, 20, 191. 
 
 Fossils. — A. List of localities from which 
 Fossils have been obtained in central 
 and western Fife and Kinross-shire, 
 212 : B. General List of Fossils, 
 arranged in systematic order, 216 : 
 C. Special Lists of the Fossils found in 
 each of the sub-divisions of the strati- 
 graphical series, 240. 
 
 Foulford Limeworks, 90. 
 
 Fourteen-foot Coal (Dunfermline, etc. ), 
 99, 109, 115, 116, 198, 199. 
 
 Fox, Mr. H., 55. 
 
 Freuchie, 34, 52, 92, 93. 
 
 G 
 
 Gairney Glen, 37, 39, 40. 
 
 Gair (Arden, Calmy, or Janet Peat) 
 Limestone, 39, 128, 130, 133, 135, 
 137, 138, 142, 207; description of, 
 134 ; list of fossils from, 248. 
 
 Galena, 204. 
 
 Gallaston type of dolerite, 81. 
 
 Gallowhill Plantation (Burntisland, 47. 
 
 Gannister, 70. 
 
 Garr Hills, 93. 
 
 Gask, 92. 
 
 Gasteropods, fossil, 48, 73, 74, 89, 133, 
 
 233. 
 Geological structure and topography, 5. 
 Georgetown Burn (Cleish Hills), 41, 42, 
 
 260. 
 Gibbs Hall Coal, 119, 120. 
 Gin Coal (Kelty), 112. 
 Glacial deposits, 179. See under Drift, 
 
 Boulder-clay, Sands and Gravels. 
 Glaciation of Fife and Kinross, 179. 
 Glasgow, 169. 
 Glass, basic volcanic, 55. 
 Glassee Coal, 107, 113, 119, 120, 130, 
 
 198, 199, 205. 
 Glassert Den (Auchtermuchty), 32. 
 Glasslie, Easter (Lomond Hills), 92. 
 Glen Burn (West Lomond Hill), 33, 34. 
 Glen Burn (Blairadam), 111. 
 Glencarnhill (Dunning), 180. 
 Glencraig (Capeldrae), 139. 
 Glendey Burn (Ochils), 20, 181, 183, 
 
 190. 
 Glen Farg, 3, 9, 16, 25, 28, 30, 173, 
 
 183, 208, 252, 256, 257. 
 Glen Finart, dyke at, 173. 
 Glenniston Quarry (Auchtertool), 213. 
 Glenross Burn (Ochils), 21. 
 Gneiss, fragments of, in ballast brought 
 
 to Fife, 184. 
 Gorges cut by rivers since the Glacial 
 
 Period, 191. 
 Gospetry (Strathmiglo), 34, 35, 212. 
 Grange (Burntisland), 46, 47, 56, 206, 
 
 214. 
 Grange (Oakley), 137, 161, 163. 
 Granite brought in ballast to Fife, 184. 
 Grant- Wilson, Mr. J., 43, 157, 159, 
 
 160, 164, 165, 197. 
 Greenend (Glen Farg), 3. 
 Greenhill (Dunning), 22. 
 "Greenstone," 17, 22, 168. 
 
 H 
 
 Hematite, 28, 135, 159, 204. 
 
 Halbeath, 5, 39, 101, 103, 105, 107, 198, 
 203, 205. 
 
 Hanging Myre (Lomond Hills), 204. 
 
 Hardistown (Cleish Hills), 39, 40, 42, 
 260. 
 
 Hatch, Dr. F., cited, 53, 81. 
 
 Hawk Craig (Aberdour), 83. 
 
 Heathermount Plantation (Dunferm- 
 line), 101. 
 
 Heatherieleys (Milnathort), 180. 
 
 Hebrides, Inner, abundant Tertiary 
 dykes of, 172. 
 
 Heddle, M. F., cited, 204. 
 
 Highlands and Lowlands, separated by 
 a fault, 174. 
 
 Highlands, boulders from, in Fife and 
 Kinross, 183. 
 
 Hill of Beath Colliery, 198, 202, 205. 
 
 Hill-ranges in Fife, 2, 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Hilltie (Ceres), 93. 
 
 Hind, Dr. J. Wheelton, 211. 
 
 Hislop, Mr. G. R, 113. 
 
 Holoptychius in Upper Old Red Sand- 
 stone, 26, 34, 240. 
 
280 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 Holothurians, fossil, 89, 223. 
 Hornblende-porphyrite, 258. 
 Hosie Limestones, 39, 49, 89, 99, 111,119, 
 
 127, 130, 131, 132, 177, 207 ; described, 
 
 94 ; list of fossils from, 246. 
 Houston Marls, 74. 
 Howe of Fife, 3, 4, 6, 10, 13, 26, 29, 33, 
 
 182, 185. 
 Humbie Wood, 51. 
 Hurlet Limestone, 39, 41, 44, 49, 50, 51, 
 
 52, 75, 83, 87, 99, 121, 133, 169, 207; 
 
 detailed account of, 88 ; list of fossils 
 
 from, 244. 
 Hydro-carbon compounds in rocks, 29. 
 Hyndloup (Cardenden Colliery), 120. 
 Hyperite, 18, 22, 257. 
 
 Ice Age, influence of, on topography of 
 Fife and Kinross-shire, 6 ; history of, 
 as recorded in the geology of the 
 district, 179. 
 
 Ice-marked rocks, 12, 179. 
 
 Igneous rocks, influence of, on topo- 
 graphy, 5, 9, 15; stratigraphical 
 position of, 13; interstratified, 13, 
 15-32, 53-76, 128, 136, 252, 260; 
 intrusive, 13, 17, 21, 28, 30, 40, 41, 
 45, 47, 51, 77, 80, 102, 103, 113, 117, 
 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 126, 138, 140, 
 141, 161, 166, 256, 257; altered by 
 contact with carbonaceous strata, 82, 
 85, 86, 121, 167 ; fine-grained or chilled 
 edge of intrusive, 167, 173; as materials 
 for building, 206, and for road-metal, 
 207. 
 
 Inchcolm, 83. 
 
 Inchdairnie, 145, 157. 
 
 Inchgall Loch, 192. 
 
 Inchrye (Newburgh), 208. 
 
 Index Limestone, 39, 97, 111, 127, 128, 
 129, 130, 132, 133, 137, 138, 141; 
 description of, 133; list of fossils 
 from, 248. 
 
 Intrusion of igneous rocks, proofs of, 
 167, 169. 
 
 Inverkeithing, 4, 10, 39,48, 82, '89, 187, 
 188, 206. 
 
 Invertiel (Kirkcaldy), 75, 90, 120, 215. 
 
 Inzievar, 132. 
 
 Ironmill Bay, 95. 
 
 Ironstone, black-band, 99, 108, 202. 
 
 Iserine, 29. 
 
 Janet Peat Coal, 130. 
 
 Limestone. See Gair Limestone. 
 
 Jersey Coal (Kelty, etc.), 112, 114, 127, 
 
 130, 131. 
 Jones, Professor T. Rupert, 211. 
 Judd, Professor, 16. 
 Jurassic rocks traversed by igneous 
 
 dykes, 172. 
 
 K 
 
 Kames, 184. 
 
 Katrine, Loch, 183. 
 
 Keel or Reddle, 135, 159, 160. 
 
 Kelty Coalfield, 39, 97, 109, 111, 174, 
 
 175, 177, 192, 198, 213. 
 Kennoway, 4, 38, 126, 135, 136, 144, 
 
 163, 165, 185, 204, 208, 215. 
 Kerbstones, materials for, in Fife, 208. 
 Kettle, 3, 125. 
 
 Kidston, Mr. R., 62, 146, 211. 
 Kildounies Hill (Ballingry), 141. 
 Kilgour Crags (Lomond Hills), 36. 
 Kilmundy (Burntisland), 45, 46, 47, 77, 
 
 84, 85, 206, 213. 
 Kilmure Colliery (north of Kennoway), 
 
 203. 
 Kilmux Den, transported mass of lime- 
 stone at, 126, 183. 
 Kilmux Coalfield, 97, 126. 
 Kilnockiebank (Glen Farg), 28, 
 Kilsyth, 40. 
 
 Kincardine-on-Forth, 180. 
 King Alexander's Crag (Burntisland), 
 
 7, 46, 54, 59, 60, 61, 66, 67, 80, 187, 
 
 194. 
 Kinghorn, 4, 7, 39, 53, 54, 80, 81, 136, 
 
 187, 197, 214. 
 Kinghorn Loch, 7. 
 Kinglassie, 38, 39, 44, 145, 192, 205. 
 Kinglassie Coalfield, 138, 157, 160, 171, 
 
 175, 176, 199. 
 Kinglassie Splint Coal, 112, 197. 
 Kingswood Cottag6 (Burntisland), 48, 
 
 56, 60, 77, 163. 
 Kinkell (St. Andrews), 172. 
 Kinnaird (Blairadam), 111, 136. 
 Kinnedar Colliery, 201. 
 Kinnesswood (Loch Leven), 34, 212. 
 Kinninmonth (Kinglassie), 175. 
 Kinniny Point (Charlestown), 95. 
 Kinross, 10, 185. 
 Kinross-shire, topography of, 2, 4 ; 
 
 streams and valleys of, 6; lakes of, 
 
 6 ; vegetation and soils of, 8 ; Lower 
 
 Old Red Sandstone of, 15 ; Upper 
 
 Old Red Sandstone of, 35 ; dykes in, 
 
 172 ; glaciation of, 179 ; recent 
 
 deposits in, 189. 
 Kippen, Black Hill of. 180. 
 Kirkby, Mr. J. W., 147, 152, 153, 154, 
 
 155, 156, 159, 160, 211. 
 Kirkcaldy, 4, 7, 39, 44, 55, 91, 97, 120, 
 
 122, 165, 168, 171, 176, 177, 188, 213. 
 Kirkcaldy Coalfield, 97, 116, 119, 177. 
 Kirkforthar, 185. 
 Kirkness House (Ballingry), 135, 138, 
 
 140. 
 Knock Hill (Saline), 128, 129. 
 Knockhouse Hill, 100. 
 Kvn aston, Mr. H., cited, 18, 22 -24 
 
 28, 29, 41, 43, 252, 260. 
 
 Labraooritk, 29. 
 
 Labyrinthodont remains, 117, 153, 239 
 
 Laccolites, 80, 166. 
 
Indi'.i;. 
 
 281 
 
 Lagoon-type in Carboniferous system, 
 87. 
 
 Lakes of Fife and Kinross, 6 ; dis- 
 appearance of, 7, 189, 191 ; traces 
 of ancient, 179, 185, 190, 191 ; 
 date from the Glacial Period, 186, 
 191. 
 
 Lamb Linn (South Queich Water), 21. 
 
 Lamellibranchs, fossil, 89. 
 
 Lanarkshire, Coal-measures of, 146. 
 
 Landaj.e, David, cited, 203. 
 
 Langside Plantation (Ochils), 172. 
 
 Lappiemoss (Strathmiglo), 34. 
 
 Largo, 7, 136, 166, 183, 187, 188, 194, 
 196. 
 
 Lassodie and Kelty Coalfields, 97, 109. 
 198, 213. 
 
 Lasswade (Midlothian), 143. 
 
 Lathalmond Limeworks, 39, 92, 213. 
 
 Laumontite, 28. 
 
 Lavas of Lower Old Red Sandstone, 13, 
 16 ; petrography of, 252 ; alternation 
 of basic and acid, 16, 17 ; brecciation 
 of, 20 ; of Burdiehouse Limestone 
 group, petrographieal characters of, 
 53, 260 ; detailed description of, 
 56-74. 
 
 Leadside (Dunfermline), 103. 
 
 Lena Pit (Kirkcaldy), sill in, 123. 
 
 Lendrick Hill (Ochils), 20. 
 
 Leny, Pass of, dyke at, 173. 
 
 Leslie, 92, 207, 213. 
 
 Letham (Kennoway), 136, 163. 
 
 Lethans (Saline), 127, 128, 129. 
 
 Leven, 4, 6, 7, 147, 148, 154, 155, 157, 
 182, 187, 194, 203, 204, 206. 
 
 , Durie, and Wellsgreen Collieries, 
 
 144, 198, 215. 
 
 River, 6, 10, 21, 144, 150, 154, 
 
 175, 185, 187, 189. 
 
 Levenseat or Castlecary Limestone, 39, 
 130, 133, 135, 140, 142, 143, 144, 145, 
 162, 205, 207 ; description of, 134 ; 
 list of fossils from, 248. 
 
 Limburgite type of basalt, 80, 82. 
 
 Limekilns, 188. 
 
 Limestone, breceiated, 45 ; large mass 
 of in boulder-clay, formerly worked 
 at Kilmux Den, 126, 183 ; economic 
 use of, 206. 
 
 Limestones, Lower (of Carboniferous 
 Limestone series), 88. 
 
 , Upper (of Carboniferous Lime- 
 stone series), 133. 
 
 Limonite, 29. 
 
 Limpet Ness (Inverkeithing), 188. 
 
 Lindores Loch, 7. 
 
 Links of blown sand, 7, 10, 194. 
 
 Linktown, 7, 55. 
 
 Linn Limestone Quarries (Dunferm- 
 line), 95, 213. 
 
 Littlerig (Ochils), 21. 
 
 Little Splint Coal (Dunfermline), 99, 
 109, 115. 
 
 Loehcraig, 140. 
 
 Loch Fitty, 7, 39, 51, 100, 104, 109 ; 
 silting-up of, 189, 193 ; great boun- 
 dary fault of, 91, 104, 109, 131, 176, 
 204. 
 
 LochGelly, 7, 116. 
 
 Loehgelly Black-band Ironstone, 99, 
 109, 112, 115, 116, 119, 120, 127, 130, 
 138. 
 
 Coalfield, 39, 97, 98, 102, 109, 
 
 115, 141, 200, 202, 213. 
 
 Splint and Parrot seams of coal, 
 
 108, 112, 113, 115, 116, 119, 120, 197, 
 198, 199, 200. 
 
 Loch Glow, 7, 111, 183. 
 Lochhead (Dunfermline), 204, 213. 
 
 (Dysart), 151. 
 
 , Easter (Abbotshall), 90. 
 
 Loch Leven, 3, 4, 5, 6, 21, 52, 157, 185, 
 
 193, 206. 
 
 Ore, 140, 141, 192. 
 
 Lochore and Capeldrae Colliery, 200. 
 
 House, 192. 
 
 Parrot Coal, 138, 139, 140. 
 
 Lochornie Burn, 110, 111, 212. 
 
 Lochy Coal, 112. 
 
 Lomond Hills, 3, 4, 6, 9, 26, 33, 34, 35, 
 
 36, 43, 52, 92, 167, 168, 169, 182, 184, 
 
 185, 204. 
 
 , Loch, dyke at, 173. 
 
 Long, Loch, dyke at, 173. 
 
 Craig (Kirkcaldy), 120. 
 
 Longleas, 132. 
 
 Longside Hill, 136, 163. 
 
 Lowlands and Highlands, separated by 
 
 a fault, 174. 
 Lowrie Graham's Coal, 132. 
 Lumphinnans Colliery, 117, 200, 202. 
 Lundin, 7, 38, 160, 165, 194. 
 Luscar, 5, 128. 
 Luss, dyke near, 173. 
 Lustylaw, 180. 
 Lyne Burn (Dunfermline), 95. 
 
 M 
 
 Macculloch, John, 70. 
 Maclakex, C., 56. 
 Magnetite, 29. 
 Malachite, 29. 
 Mangie Coal (Dysart), 148. 
 Manorleys, 135, 140. 
 Marine type in Carboniferous Lime- 
 stone series, 87. 
 Markinch, 4, 38, 44, 52, 92, 97, 124, 
 
 144, 147, 150, 151, 170, 175, 176, 185, 
 
 192. 
 
 and Balbimie Coalfields, 97, 124. 
 
 Maspie Den, 36. 
 
 Meadowhead, 40. 
 
 Meldrumsmill Burn, 52. 
 
 Mellock Hill, 21. 
 
 Menstrie, 174. 
 
 Methil, 150, 154, 155, 159, 160, 194, 
 
 196, 215. 
 Mica-schist in ballast brought to Fife, 
 
 184. 
 Midland Valley of Scotland, defined by 
 
 faults, 174. 
 Midlothian, great anticlinal axis of, 
 
 prolonged into Fife, 44, 145, 147 ; 
 
 coalfield of, 97, 143, 146, 156 ; old 
 
 coal- workings in, 98 ; Millstone Grit 
 
 of, 143. 
 
282 Geology of Central ami Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 Millstone Grit, 12, 38, 44, 135; 
 description of, 143 ; volcanic neck 
 piercing, 144; probably comes to 
 surface in heart of Dysart Coalfield, 
 150; no contemporaneous volcanic 
 rocks in, 161 ; sills in, 170 ; building- 
 stone in, 206. 
 
 Milnathort, 6, 180, 193. 
 
 Mining terms, explained, 273. 
 
 Monimail, 31. 
 
 Monk's Grave (Rumbling Bridge), 19, 
 37. 
 
 Montquey, 51. 
 
 Moor Rock, 143. 
 
 More Coal (Dysart), 148. 
 
 Morningside (Halbeath), 101. 
 
 Mossendgreen, 37, 207. 
 
 Moss Morran, 98, 102, 108, 109, 115, 
 192, 193, 194, 208. 
 
 Muckhart, 3, 15, 183, 207. 
 
 Muircockhall Colliery, 108, 109, 200. 
 
 Muiredge (Dysart Coalfield), 150, 151, 
 154, 155, 156, 200, 203, 205, 215. 
 
 Muirheath Colliery, 104, 109, 201. 
 
 " Muirs" of Fife and Kinross, 9-10. 
 
 Mull, Carboniferous rocks in, 27. 
 
 Mynheer Coal, 108, 113, 119, 130, 198, 
 199, 200. 
 
 Myrehaugh Hill (Ochils), 21. 
 
 N 
 
 Natbolite, 28. 
 
 Navity Hill (Ballingry), 43, 140, 175. 
 
 Necks, Volcanic. See Volcanic Necks. 
 
 Neill, Dr. P., 56. 
 
 Newbiggate (Leslie), 92. 
 
 Newbigging (Burntisland), 46, 77, 214. 
 
 of Craighall (Ceres), 93. 
 
 Newburgh, 8, 30, 208, 252, 253, 254. 
 Newmills Bridge (Torry), 132. 
 Newport (Firth of Tay), 8, 16. 
 Newton of Pitcairns (Dunning), 23. 
 Nicholson, H. Alletne, 211. 
 Norite, 18, 22, 257. 
 
 
 
 Oaklet Coalfield, 39, 97, 126, 130, 137, 
 141, 176, 201, 212. 
 
 Ochil Hills, topography of, 2; defined 
 by a fault on south side, 5, 15, 175 ; 
 north side of, 8 ; vegetation and soils 
 of, 8 ; geology of, 13, 15 ; lavas and 
 tuffs of, 16 ; traverse of, from Rumb- 
 ling Bridge to Dunning, 18 ; base of 
 volcanic series in, not exposed, 18 ; 
 top of volcanic series in, 23 ; acid 
 character of later lavas, 25 ; traverse 
 of, along Glen Farg, 25 ; chief centre 
 of eruption in, 25 ; possibly once 
 buried under later Palaeozoic rocks, 
 27 ; traverse of, between Newburgh 
 and Auchtermuchty, 30 ; largest sill 
 observed in, 30 ; dykes traversing, 
 172 ; glaciation of, 180 ; boulder-clay 
 of, 181 ; erratic blocks of, 183; sandy 
 drifts of, 184; stream-terraces of, 
 
 189; economic materials of, 207 ; 
 petrography of, 252. 
 
 Ochre, 159, 203. 
 
 Oil-shale, 44, 47, 48, 205. 
 
 group of Calciferous Sandstones, 
 
 44. 
 
 Old Red Sandstone, place of, in strati- 
 graphical order, 12 ; Lower, 15 ; 
 volcanic character of, 15; thickness 
 of, 15; lavas of, 16; tuffs and agglo- 
 merates of, 17; intrusive rocks of, 
 17, 18 ; Upper, 26, 29, 33; building- 
 stone in, 206 ; fossils from, 240. 
 
 Olivine, 29, 53, 81. 
 
 -augite-andesite, 256. 
 
 basalts, 53, 57-74, 81, 82. 
 
 -basalt in ballast brought to Fife, 
 
 184. 
 
 -bearing dolerites, 81, 173. 
 
 -free dolerites, 81. 
 
 Ontake Coal (Oakley), 131. 
 
 Ophitic type of dolerite, 81. 
 
 Ore River, 6, 118, 119, 120, 121, 139, 
 189, 192. 
 
 Orthophyre, 17, 19, 20, 258. 
 
 Otterstone Loch, 7, 51. 
 
 Outh Bridge, 128. 
 
 Hill, 127. 
 
 Overton or Oakley Parrot Coal, 130. 
 
 Pairnie (Auchterarder), 24. 
 Palseontological Appendix, 209. 
 Palagonite, 55. 
 Panny Pit (Kirkcaldy), sills in, 122, 
 
 123. 
 Parkend (Aberdour), 39, 90, 95, 213. 
 Parrot Coal, 108, 125; "wild," 141. 
 Pathhead, 7, 38, 39, 121. 134, 143, 187, 
 
 188, 196, 207, 214. 
 Peach, Mr. B. N., 35, 43, 137, 211. 
 Peat, 12 ; chief modern use of, in Low- 
 lands, 194, 208. 
 Peat-mosses, 191, 193. 
 Pentland Hills, 15, 16, 17, 21, 44. 
 Pekct, Dr. John, 99, 105, 110. 
 Permian volcanoes of Scotland, possibly 
 
 represented in Fife, 166. 
 Perthshire, coalfield in, 131. 
 Pettycur, 7, 39, 54, 56, 62, 63, 181, 194, 
 
 196, 214. 
 Phyllite, in ballast brought to Fife, 184. 
 Picrite type of basalts, 54, 57, 80, 82. 
 Pillow-structure in basalts. See under 
 
 Basalt. 
 Pirnie Colliery (Leven), 152, 153, 155. 
 
 215. 
 Pitadro (Fordel Castle), 82. 
 Pitcairn (Auchterderran), 140, 141. 
 Pitcairns Glen (Dunning), 23. 
 Pitincailow (Dunning), 23, 173. 
 Pitkevie (Leslie), 92. 
 Pitlessie, 34, 52, 87, 93, 125, 207, 212, 
 
 215. 
 Pittencrieff (Dunfermline), 98, 100, 105. 
 Place-names preserve a record of the 
 
 former aspect of the country, 10, 11. 
 Plagioclase, 29. 
 
Index. 
 
 283 
 
 Plantations of wood in Fife and Kinross- 
 shire, 9. 
 
 Plateaus, Lyon, 106. 
 
 Plication of strata, 97, 98, 138, 139, 149. 
 
 Polyzoa, fossil, 89. 
 
 Pont, Timothy, map of Fife by, 10, 
 191. 
 
 Porphyrite, 16, 258. 
 
 Port Haven (Aberdour), 47, 48, 83, 212. 
 
 Possil Ironstone, 127, 131, 132. 
 
 Potmetal Plantation (Kirkcaldy), 90, 
 213. 
 
 Pow (West of Cleish Hills), 40. 
 
 Prehnite, 28. 
 
 Preston Island, 132. 
 
 Prior's Muir (St. Andrews), 11. 
 
 Psilomelane, 29. 
 
 Pteropods, fossil, 89. 
 
 Pyrite, 29. 
 
 Pyroxene-andesite, 253. 
 
 Quartz, 28, 58. 
 
 felsite in ballast, 184. 
 
 norite, 18, 257. 
 
 Queensferry, 1, 4, 7, 48, 81, 84, 182, 
 
 187, 194, 195, 204, 206, 208. 
 Queich Water, 21, 185. 
 Quilts (Dunning), 22. 
 
 R 
 
 Raised beaches, 179, 186. 
 
 Raith, 4, 5, 44, 121, 213. 
 
 Rameldry Coalfield, 97, 125. 
 
 Ransome, Mr. F. L., 55. 
 
 Ravenscraig Castle, 134. 
 
 Recent deposits of Fife and Kinross, 
 
 189. 
 Reddle, or Keel, 135, 159, 160. 
 Red-staining of strata in Fife, 144. 
 Reid, Mr. Clement, 211. 
 Renfrewshire, 169, 170. 
 Rennie's Walls (Oakley), 131, 
 Rhyolites, 16, 41, 42. 
 River-terraces, 189. 
 Road-metal, materials available for, in 
 
 Fife and Kinross, 207. 
 Rock-basin lakes, 185. 
 Rodanbraes (Kinghorn) 48. 
 Roscobie (Dunfermline), 1, 5, 6, 39, 92, 
 
 95, 207, 2i3. 
 Rosebank Colliery, 201. 
 Rosie Colliery, 200. 
 Rosewells Colliery (Capeldrae), 139, 
 
 141, 201, 213. 
 Roslin (Midlothian), 143. 
 Rossie Law (Auchterarder), 16. 
 
 Loch (Auchtermuchty), 32, 192. 
 
 Rosyth, 49, 89, 188, 195, 212. 
 Rumbling Bridge, 14, 18, 19, 39, 40, 
 
 190, 207. 
 
 S 
 
 St. Andrews, 3, 4, 6, 11, 166, 169, 170, 
 187, 197, 204. 
 
 St. Davids, 7, 39, 48, 51, 76, 82, 85, 
 172, 205. 
 
 St. Margaret's Hope, 48. 
 
 Saline Hills, 4, 9, 19, 39, 128, 129, 161, 
 162, 163. 
 
 Coalfield, 97, 126, 142. ? 
 
 Salter, J. W., 211. 
 
 Sand, polishing effects of, on shore- 
 rocks, 194. 
 
 Sands and gravels (Drift), 12, 179, 
 184. 
 
 Sandstones, composition of, 35, 144 ; 
 alteration of, by intrusive igneous 
 rocks, 167. 
 
 Sandwell Coal (Dysart), 148. 
 
 Scandinavian stones brought in ballast 
 to the shores of Fife, 184. 
 
 Scaur Hill, 39, 41, 91, 212, 260. 
 
 Schist-fragments in ballast brought to 
 Fife, 184. 
 
 Scoonie, 7, 38, 44, 144, 154, 155, 194. 
 
 Scorpion, fossil, 72. 
 
 Scott, Dr. D. H, 62. 
 
 Sea, action of, on coast-line, 8, 188, 194; 
 gain of land from, 195. 
 
 -margins, deceptive resemblance 
 
 of andesite lava-escarpments to, 2. 
 
 -urchins, fossil, 89. 
 
 Seafield (Kirkcaldy), 39, 47, 81, 91, 94, 
 121, 136, 207. 
 
 (St. Davids), 48, 212. 
 
 Seamills (Burntisland), 45, 82. 
 
 Seaweeds, fossil, 94. 
 
 Serpentine brought in ballast to Fife 
 coast, 184. 
 
 Shale, alteration of, by intrusive 
 igneous rocks, 167- 
 
 , bituminous. See Oil-shale. 
 
 Shaws Mill, 119. 
 
 Sheardrum, 128. 
 
 Shell-marl, 208. 
 
 Sheriffmuir, 15. 
 
 Shorter Bridge, 22. 
 
 Sibbald's ' 'Fife and Kinross " cited, 
 195. 
 
 Sills, definition of, 80, 166 ; account of, 
 166; vertical range of, 170; in Old 
 Red Sandstone, 17, 29, 30; in Car- 
 boniferous system, 40, 41, 45, 46, 48, 
 51, 53, 55, 71, 74, 80, 90, 92, 110, 111, 
 113, 117, 120, 122, 124, 138, 140, 141, 
 144. 
 
 Silverbarton (Burntisland), 47. 
 
 Six-foot Coal (Townhill, Dunfermline), 
 99, 109. 
 
 Slaggy structure, 54, 57-74. 
 
 " Slob " of estuaries, 195. 
 
 Smithy Coal (Kirkcaldy), 120. 
 
 Southfod, 213. 
 
 Sparagmite, pieces of, in ballast brought 
 to Fife, 184. 
 
 Splint Coal (Dunfermline), 99, 112, 113, 
 115, 117, 119, 124, 127, 130, 132, 197, 
 198, 199, 200, 201. 
 
 Springbank (Dunfermline), 100. 
 
 Star Moss, 192, 194, 208. 
 
 Steam-coals, 106, 197. 
 
 Steel-end Mines (Saline), 201, 202. 
 
 Stenton, 39, 135, 144, 145. 
 
 Stevenson's Beath, 192. 
 
284 Geology of Central and Western Fife and Kinross-shire. 
 
 Stewart's Arms Inn (Moss Morran), 51, 
 
 83 90. 
 Stink Coal, 99. 
 Stirling, 40, 169. 
 Stonehaven, 174. 
 Strath Allan, 15, 30. 
 
 Earn, 15, 23, 25, 30, 183, 184. 
 
 Eden, 185. 
 
 Strathkinness, 10, 172. 
 Strathmiglo, 3, 10, 31, 34. 
 Strathmore, 30. 
 
 Sunnybank (Inverkeithing), 89, 213. 
 Sunnyside (Saline), 130, 131, 142. 
 Sutherland, raised beach in, 187. 
 Swallowdrum Coal, 99, 108, 201, 204. 
 Swan Loch, 192. 
 
 Tait, Mr. D., 41, 211. 
 
 Tatlock, Readman, and Thomson, 
 Messrs., 114. 
 
 Tay, Firth of, coast-line of, 8, 16, 17, 
 27, 30, 194 ; Highland boulders south 
 of, 183 ; muddy shores of, 194, 195 ; 
 sand-dunes of, 194. 
 
 Tayport (Ferry-Port-on-Craig), 29, 192, 
 253, 254. 
 
 Teall, Mr. J. J. H., 55. 
 
 Teassesmill, 93. 
 
 Tents Muir, 11. 
 
 Terraces, marine, 1-12, 26, 187. 
 
 Tertiary age of many dykes in Scot- 
 land, 172. 
 
 Teuchat Head (Kennoway), 135. 
 
 Thievesmill (Strathmiglo), 29. 
 
 Thishalaw (Capeldrae), 140. 
 
 Thistleford (Cowdenbeath), 109, 116. 
 
 Thornton Junction, 38, 150. 
 
 Tiel Burn (Kirkcaldy), 75, 90. 
 
 Tillicoultry, 174. 
 
 Tilliery Hill (Ochils), 172. 
 
 Tillybreck (Wemyss), 203. 
 
 Tipperton Moss, 194. 
 
 Thomson, Brothers, Messrs., 49. 
 
 Tongue Faulds (Dunning), 22. 
 
 Topography, relations of, to geology, 
 5 ; influence of igneous rocks on, 5, 9 ; 
 influence of stratified rocks on, 9 ; 
 influence of drift deposits on, 10. 
 
 Torbain (Abbotshall), 90. 
 
 Torryburn, 39, 97, 126, 127, 131, 132, 
 141, 182, 187, 188, 195. 
 
 Touch (Dunfermline), 95, 101, 213. 
 
 Tough (Kirkcaldy), 39. 
 
 Tower Burn (Dunfermline), 98, 100. 
 
 Townhill Colliery (Dnnfermline), 102, 
 103, 104, 106, 107, 108, 109, 202, 204. 
 
 Town Loch (Dunfermline), 101, 107. 
 
 Trachyte, 13, 17. 
 
 Trapmore Hill (Glen Farg), 28. 
 
 Traquair, Dr. R. H, 211. 
 
 Tuffs, volcanic, 13, 17, 18, 20, 41, 53, 
 55, 57-76, 77-80, 111, 128, 136, 140 ; 
 gradation of, into ordinary sediments, 
 55, 59, 65 ; as materials for road- 
 making, 208. 
 
 Tullibardine Wood (Ochils), 173. 
 Two-foot Coal (Dunfermline), 99, 104. 
 Tyrie (Kirkcaldy), 39, 121, 177, 196. 
 
 U 
 
 Uam Var, crossed by a dyke, 173. 
 Unreclaimed land, 9. 
 
 Valleyfield, 7. 
 
 Valleys in Fife, 3, 4, 6. 
 
 Veins, intrusive, 85, 172. 
 
 Vennachar, Loch, dyke at, 173. 
 
 Venturefair (Dunfermline), 100, 101, 
 105. 
 
 Vents, volcanic. See Volcanic necks. 
 
 Vesicular structure in lavas, 16, 54, 
 57-74. 
 
 Volcanic blocks in sedimentary 
 deposits, 56, 59. 
 
 Volcanic explosions, orifices drilled by, 
 163. 
 
 Volcanic history of Fife, successive 
 episodes of, 161, 164. 
 
 Volcanic necks, 77, 129, 137, 141, 144; 
 description of, 162 ; later than Mill- 
 stone Grit, 164 ; later than upper- 
 most Coal-measures of Fife, 165. 
 
 W 
 
 Wall Coal (Dysart), 148. 
 
 Water of May, 3, 9, 21, 173. 
 
 Watersheds, 21. 
 
 Watts, Mr. W. W., cited, 18, 53, 81. 
 
 Well's Green Colliery (Dysart), 152, 
 198. 
 
 Wellwood Colliery (Dunfermline), 103, 
 106. 
 
 Wemyss, 7, 38, 147, 148, 152, 154, 155, 
 156, 159, 203, 206, 215. 
 
 West Mains (Ballingry), 36. 
 
 Wether Hill (Saline), 39. 
 
 "Whin-float" (= sill), 110, 167. 
 
 Whinnyhall, 48. 
 
 " Whinstone," 50, 119, 138. 
 
 "White trap," 82, 85, 86, 121, 167. 
 
 Whitefield (Dunfermline), 101, 105. 
 
 Whitehill (Burntisland), 51. 
 
 Whitemire Dyke (Dunfermline), 100. 
 
 Whiteriggs (Ochil Hills), 20, 21. 
 
 Whitesands Bay (Aberdour), 48, 205, 
 207. 
 
 Williamson, Professor W. G, 62. 
 
 Willow, Arctic, found fossil in Fife, 186. 
 
 Willow Bush Coal (Lochgelly), 115. 
 
 Wind, influence of, in forming dunes 
 and links, 194 ; action of, in polish- 
 ing shore-rocks by moving sand, 194. 
 
 Windyedge (Lassodie), 110. 
 
 Wood Coal (Dysart), 148, 152, 155. 
 
 Woodend Quarry, 213. 
 
 Wormit Bay, 16, 17, 255. 
 
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