Cornell ITlniversit^ 
 
 OF THE 
 
 mew 19orft State CoUeae of agriculture 
 
 %.4r.3.ao i.5jbrfi3. 
 
 584 
 
Cornell University Library 
 S 523.C99 
 
 [Scientific lectures 
 
 3 1924 000 919 997 
 
The original of tliis book is in 
 tlie Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000919997 
 
LECTURES 
 
 PliN 
 
 TS, 
 
 FEpUZATIOfi 
 
 INSECTS, FORESTRY, 
 
 Farm Homes, Etc. 
 
 By HIRAM A. CUTTING, M. D., Ph. D., 
 
 Secretary of Board <>f Agriculture. 
 
 MONTPELIER, VT.. 
 
 FREEMAN STEAM PRINTING HOUSE AND BINDERY. 
 
 1882. 
 
V^ ILD FLOWERS AND OBNOXIOUS PLANTS. 
 
 BT DR. HIRAM A. CUTTING. 
 
 OTIK FRONTISPIECE. 
 
 Through the generosity of James Vice, that noted and honorable 
 dealer in plants and flower seeds at Rochester, N. Y., we are enabled 
 to give in this volume a frontispiece of early spring flowers, found 
 wild in Vermont, yet of surpassing loveliness. How eagerly the 
 youth of our State search for those first flowers on May day. Those 
 brave little fellows that, unheeding frosty nights, herald the ap-- 
 proach of summer. Some do not claim to love nature ; but who 
 among us, when spring is long delayed, does not welcome the first 
 fiowers as they would the sight of long- absent friends ? Even the 
 symplocarpus, or " skunk-cabbage," has a cordial greeting. But, 
 wherever it ^rows, the epigcea repens — " May-flower," or " trailing 
 arbutus," as it is commonly called — is loved, and not alone for its 
 beauty. Often seen double (it is represented in both forms in the 
 plates), and varying in tint through the various shades of pink, and 
 so fragrant as to be eagerly sought by all, it is truly a gem. The 
 flower-buds are formed in autumn, and when the weather is mild 
 during the winter, they seem ready to burst, standing in the midst 
 of snow, expectant for the first soft breezes of spring-time. 
 
 The cultivation of the trailing arbutus has often been attempted 
 with unsatisfactoiy results, and it is a plant that can never be packed 
 and expressed over the country with hope of changing its nature ,- 
 but it is not wholly untractable to proper efforts. It is a wild plant 
 and it will remain essentially so, but this delicately tinted, sweet- 
 scented blossom can be made a companion of man. To have it 
 flourish in your care you must have a little grove of trees, not too 
 shady or yet too open, but just shady enough to break the scorching 
 rays of the sun, which will burn up those rich evergreen leaves, 
 and yet admitting sun enough to prevent that white growth that so 
 often makes your lilacs look as though flour had been sprinkled 
 upon them, and yet which no rain can wash away, known as " egg 
 mould," on account of its peculiar appearance when magnified. It 
 must be undisturbed by scythe or rake, or any gardening tool, and 
 the spot where it is' planted must be profusely supplied with plenty 
 of leaf mold like that found in its native haunts. . After all this has 
 been prepared for it, it must be removed from its native spot with 
 great care, and with as much soil as possible upon its roots, with a 
 good sprinkling of water now and then ; they must be otherwise let 
 alone and allowed to repair damages as they see fit. "With this 
 attention only, it will take kindly to your care, and if not trampled 
 
upon or treated unkindly it will come to stay. Rose Terry, one of 
 our own poets, says of it : 
 
 Darling of the forest ! 
 
 Blossoming alone 
 When earth's grief is sorest 
 For her jewels gone — 
 Ere the last snow-drift melts, your tender buds have blown. 
 
 Tinged with color faintly, 
 
 Like the morning sky. 
 Or more pale and saintly, 
 
 Wrapped in leaves ye lie, 
 EW-en as children sleep in faith's simplicity. 
 
 There the wild wood-robin 
 
 Hymns your solitude. 
 And the rain comes sobbing 
 
 Through the budding wood. 
 While the low south wind sighs, but dare not be more rude. 
 
 Were your lips fashioned 
 
 Out of air and dew : 
 Starlight unimpassioned. 
 
 Dawn's most tender hue — 
 And scented by the woods that gathered sweets for you ? 
 
 Fairest and most lovely, ; 
 
 From the world apart. 
 Made for beauty only. 
 
 Veiled from nature's heart. 
 With such unconscious grace as makes the dream of art I 
 
 Were not mortal sorrow 
 
 An immortal shade. 
 Then would I to-morrow 
 Such a flower be made, 
 And live in the dear woods where my lost childhood played. 
 
 THE WINTEEGREEN. 
 
 Gaulthciiii procumbens, or checkerberry, with its globular red 
 beirios ami evergreen, shining, spicy leaves, so fragrant, and yet the 
 fragrance belongs to the evergreen leaf itself and not to the flower. 
 It IK well represented in the plate. It is a first cousin to the arbu- 
 tus, and they often gTow near each other, as though the aroma ex- 
 haled by one could be enjoyed by the other, yet the first exhales 
 from the flowers only and the latter from its leaves. Upon the left 
 of the plate may be seen the 
 
 LIVEKLEAT. 
 
 Hepatica triloba. The leaf from which this plant takes its name 
 being three lobed, and often of a dark purplish color on the under- 
 side. Like the others aLready noticed it is evergreen. The flowers, 
 like those of the arbutus, vary from pink to white, and also 
 like them attempts the multiplication of its petals, and as 
 bluish double flower as a result may often be seen growing side 
 by side with a single white one. The common name is 
 not an attractive one, hence it is in some sections better 
 known as the Uverleaf anemone, as it is to botanists to be 
 
known in the future under its first name given by Linnseus, anemone 
 hepatica — perhaps that is the most appropriate. Vick in his lllus 
 trated Monthly says of it : 
 
 "This plant takes to garden cultureas kindly as the arbutus persist- 
 ently refuses it, and it is not at all necessary to provide it with shade. 
 It will flourisli and bloom in profusion year after year with the most 
 indifferent attention ; it is easily transplanted, and is a geiu in the 
 garden in early spring, showing its bloom before any other flowers 
 make their appearance, except the little snowdrop that appears in 
 the plate just underneath it. One who has not hunted for native 
 wild flowers in early spring will be surprised to learn how many 
 make their appearance soon after those of the first arbutus and liver- 
 leaf. If we could only bring the various kinds together into the 
 garden it would be greatly enriched and beautified at a time when, 
 as usually seen, it is stark and poverty stricken. With the liverleaf 
 appears the little spring beauty, or olaytonia, of which there are 
 two species, bearing, however, a close resemblance to each other. 
 And then follow in quick succession many others, one of which is 
 the blood root, sanguinaria Canadensis, the large white flowers rep- 
 resented in the plate. It is certainly vei^y admirable and is capable 
 of being enjoyed to advantage, for it does not complain of removal 
 from its wild haunts on the borderR of the woods and along the 
 fence sides. Now we might mention the trilliums and eiythroniums, 
 or dog's tooth violets, the bellworts, or uvularias, the toothworts, or 
 spring cresses, the dicentras, and manj' others. We have a wealth 
 of native fl-owers, and many more of them should find places in the 
 garden than usually do ; but especially do the veiT early spring 
 flowering plants, perfectly hardy and adapted to the climate, demand 
 more attention. It would be a surprise to many of our readers to 
 learn how great a number of our native plants are cultivated in Eng 
 lish and European gardens, that in this countrj' are seldom seen 
 away from their native haunts. The hardy, beautiful, native orchi- 
 daceous plants alone, that may be cultivated, would make a glad siu-- 
 prise in any garden if properly managed. We are aware that a 
 great variety pf the native plants are in cultivation, but it is by the 
 few comparatively, not generally and according to their real worth. 
 But gradually, as their merits become better known, they vrill be 
 more highly prized. The little daphne cneorum, which also has ever- 
 green foliage, vei-y properly accompanies the native flowers exhibited 
 in the plate, since in the garden it blooms about the same time. 
 Wherever this plant will succeed it is most charming. It grows 
 only about a foot in height, having a procumbent habit with age and 
 thus spreading laterally but not growing upwrards. When thriving 
 it blooms profusely, the flowers being a little larger than here rep 
 resented ; besides then- attractive color set off by the rich green foli 
 age, they emit the sweetest perfume. Although this plant vvdll suc- 
 ceed fairly well in most soils, it has a decided preference, to be sure 
 not so positive as that of the arbutus, still strong, foi' i soil com- 
 posed in great part of vegetable matter and with comparatively little 
 lime. Besides, if it can have shelter from the sun by a position on 
 the north side of a group of evergreens, or even low- branched de- 
 
6 
 
 ciduous Bhnibs, it will be better suited than elsewhere. Any of theBe 
 plants can be transplanted in the fall after the first of October. 
 
 SO-CALLED POISONOUS PLANTS. 
 
 In almost every locality the farmers have peculiar notions about 
 poisonous plants ; as direct experiments have been made by myself 
 and others upon some of them, I pass several in review. Perhaps 
 the one generally considered injurious to horses, and known as 
 horsetail, has laid to its charge as many injurious effects as any 
 plant well can have. It is said to produce scourincf by some, heaves 
 by others, and still others believe it produces various ill effects, un 
 til nearly every disease in the catalogue of horse ailments is charged 
 to it. 
 
 WOOD HORSETAU,, 
 
 Or equisetum sylvaticum, is the most usual variety, and grows on 
 almost all natural grass lands, hking dampness, if not excessive. 
 
Wood HorBetall. 
 
8 
 
 In the cut, at a, may be seen a fertile shoot not containing 
 ohlorophyU, Isearing the sporangia at its summit ; b, a fertile green 
 shoot ; between these a sterile green shoot. These three kinds of 
 Bhoots do not always occur, and yet they do quite frequently, but 
 the brown color of the fertile stems is at once distinguishable. The 
 other variety 
 
 EQUISETUM OEVENSE, 
 
 grows on dry ground, and is specially found on railroad embank- 
 ments, holding possession for several years before it is crowded out 
 by any other plant. The fertile stems first appear, and are from six 
 to eight inches high. The sterile stems are rather higher than the 
 fertile, and remain through the season, after the fertile ones have 
 decayed. At each joint is a whorl of simple rough branches. This 
 is the " field horsetail," and either of the two mentioned varieties 
 are very common through the State. 
 
 Now, from what description I have given, I think all will know the 
 plant, though in some sections it is called foxtail, in others, meadow 
 pine, ground pine, horse rush, etc. It is the prevaling opinion that 
 colts fed upon it will sicken and die, and that all horses are injured. 
 I have frequently heard it asserted that no colts could be raised that 
 fed upon it even in small quantities. Tradition says it scours horses, 
 but facts do not verify any assertion made. I raise hay for the 
 market, and also keep stock, and as hay containing it does not sell 
 as well, I feed it, selling the clear hay. I have raised colts upon 
 that mixed hay and they came up sound and all right, making 
 valuable horses. 
 
 I did not know but that when green, as it contained so much silex, 
 it might scour horses, so I have fed it green to horses in stable, and it 
 has no bad effect. I believe it entirely harmless. It does not 
 afford much nourishment, and is not desirable on that account. 
 
 Prof. Asa Gray says of those plants that he has never known any 
 injury from them, and suspects, notwithstanding the tradition, that 
 they are quite innocent of any harm. 
 
 From my own experience, and all I can learn of the experience of 
 others, I believe them innocent and harmless food, of no special 
 value, yet without danger in the use of hay containing them. In 
 medicine a variety of this order known as the 
 
 SCOURING HUSH, 
 
 or " eqmsetum hyemale," is used as a diuretic ; but this property 
 even IS so slight that it is disputed, and many physicians do not ever 
 use it, as they think it of no value. This further shows that this 
 order of plants while nearly worthless are not injurious. 
 
Fool's parsley. 
 
 Aethusa, or fool's parsley, is not very common in the State, yet I 
 find several towns which are troubled with it. It has an acrid taste, 
 and many farmers believe it poisonous to cattle. I do not find that 
 cattle will eat it, either' green or dry, and hence were it a poison it 
 cannot do harm. While some farmers fence otf the fields where it 
 grows, neither using them for meadow or pastuie, I deem this bad 
 practice, for it is a weed hard to eradicate and the seeds grown on 
 waste land are almost sure to find root elsewhere. I have allowed 
 it to go into my hay, cautiously at first, but finding it does no hai-m 
 I pay no attention to it. Early and continuous cutting vyill kill it 
 as it will any foul weed. The appearance of the plant may be seen 
 in the cut. It is found on semi moist, stony places, but by certain 
 marks its identity can be established fi-om all other plants having 
 the same habit. Each partial umbel of flowers terminating the stalk 
 has, at its base, three approximate narrow pointed bracts, or floral 
 leaves, which hang vertically downward as seen in the cut, where its 
 leaf is also well represented. Its flavor and odor are unpleasant, and 
 its seeds nauseous. It grows from two to three feet high, and has 
 a peculiar shade of green. Flowers small, white, !«nd in clusters, as 
 shown in the cut 
 
 sometimes called "succory," is the cichorium intyhua of the botan- 
 ist, a plant so hardy that it is likely to become naturalized wherever 
 it is introduced. In some sections of Vermont its showy sky-blue 
 flowers on hard branching stalks from one to two feet high are all 
 too numerous, by the roadsides, in pastures, and on tillage land. 
 It is a native of Europe ; was first used in France to adulterate cof- 
 fee, and the peculiar bitter of its root wueu properly prejjared, 
 together with the extraordinary cheapness of its production, and 
 withal its tonic and alterative effect, recommended it not only to the 
 trade, who by its use gained much larger profits, but to the consumer, 
 who had at his command a very cheap substitute for that expensive 
 beverage 'that was becoming so common in all households. Perhaps 
 I ought also to state that popular as it is, it does not contain any of 
 
10 
 
 the essential ingredients of coflfee, though the use of it to adulterate 
 that article has become world wide. As it has a hard stalk with few 
 leaves, it is almost worthless for hay, and on the whole is one of the 
 most pernicious weeds that the farmer has to contend with. It has 
 doubtless been brought into the State as a gai'den plant, that farm- 
 ers might raise it and use it in place of coifee. But as it soon escapes 
 from the garden, I trust in future, should any be foolish enough to 
 plant it, that they wiU guard it with jealous care. 
 
 Next to this, perhaps, comes the daisy, the bellis perennis of 
 botanists, so called from, the Latin work " bellus " — pretty ; yet that 
 fatal beauty has ciu'sed New England with one of the worst of for- 
 eign weeds. At first cultivated in the flower gai'den for its showy 
 white flowers, sometimes single, at others quilled or double, it at 
 length escaped from the conti'ol of the garden to be naturalized in 
 all parts of New England ; and it will soon be so over the whole 
 northern United States. . Like the chicoory it has a hard stalk, but 
 will rapidly creep in as other plants die out ; and as no soil is too 
 poor for it, the thriftless fanner finds little else to make hay of, and 
 it is well for him that it makes a very good food for his cattle. It is 
 easily pushed out by tlie various grasses on rich soil, and under the 
 hoe it is not a hard weed. With many it is a question whether we 
 are the worse for it ; but I think that is easily settled by the testi- 
 mony of those that have it. Though I have asked the opinion of 
 hundreds, I have never found a man but what would say that if he 
 did not have it he would use his utmost endeavors not to get it on 
 to his farm. 
 
 CATCH-FLT. 
 
 Another specimen, which I am glad to say does not greatly abound 
 in Vermont as yet, is a great pest in Canada and in Em-ope. It i^ 
 usually called bladder campion, or catch-fly, but to the botanists is 
 known as silena inflata. Like the others it came from Europe, but un 
 like them it seems never to have been utilized for any purpose, and 
 as its seed balls are not only numerous, but contain many seeds, it 
 seems to spread with a rapidity that astonishes all farmer. It is 
 from one to two feet high, with a small white flower ; and is worth- 
 less and noxious everywhere. It is found scattered over Europe, 
 Asia, Afi-ica, Canada, and is creeping into Vermont. It will soon be 
 world-wide, and though judicious laws may check it, it will doubt- 
 less over-ride all sanitaiy regulations and gain foothold in the end. 
 
 Por all this, judicious legislation should check the ravages of 
 many of our noxious insects, as well as pernicious plants, and we 
 trust that the present legislatm-e may make a beginning by passing 
 laws against some at least, if not all of our pests. 
 
PLANT GROWTH AND FERTILIZATION. 
 
 BY DR. HIKAM a.. CUTTING. 
 
 To the farmer the soil has a certain importance. It is the home 
 of the roots of all his crops, and there, unseen, they work for his 
 advantage, giving him large profits ; or by refusing to perform their 
 accustomed labor, mete out to him losses and poverty. Through 
 this soil alone can he influence the amount of vegetable production, 
 for the atmosphere which furnishes so large a share of the plant ; or 
 the sun that by its light and heat perfects the growth, are altogether 
 beyond his control. 
 
 The science of agriculture is in the proper culture of the field, as 
 it is only through the soil that the plant can be fed. The value of 
 the field lies in the quality of its soil, and the successful farmer is 
 the one that can judiciously, without too great expense, not only 
 hold the present fertility of the soil, but continually increase it, so 
 that his increased profits will more rapidly accumulate, and his land 
 also become more valuable. 
 
 As Prof. Johnson says : " No study can have a grander material 
 significance than the one which gives us a knowledge of the causes 
 of fertility and barrenness, a knowledge of the means of economizing 
 the one and overcoming the other, a knowledge of those natural 
 laws which enable the farmer so to modify and manage his soil that 
 all the deficiencies of the atmosphere, or the vicissitudes of climate 
 cannot deprive him of a suitable reward for his exertions." 
 
 The amount of rainfall or sunshine is beyond our control, but we 
 may so prepare our land that we can mitigate the evils and gain 
 benefit from the good. 
 
 This is a great study for the husljandman. We can hardly blame 
 the average man that he shrinks from grappling with the unseen, 
 and I had almost said unknown. But, thanks to modern science ; 
 thanks to the energy of the men who till the soil with an obsei-ving 
 eye, it is not all unknown. That there is much to learn is true, but 
 much has been already wrenched from nature, and man can soon 
 say that he has dominion over the soil of the fields, as well as the 
 beasts he feeds with the product thereof. 
 
 It was Jansen, who by reflection and deep thought upon the mag- 
 nifying power of a drop of water, which Imd pieviutitily I)een ob- 
 served for centuries, that gave us the microscope, and improvements 
 upon the same have given us great knowledge, previously un- 
 thought of. 
 
 It was the almost accidental reasoning of a watch maker that 
 gave us the telescope, and the improvements made thereon have re- 
 vealed the wonders of the heavens. 
 
12 
 
 It was Isaac Watts' half muddled mind that instigated him to 
 snatch the flask containing boiling liquid from the fire, and thus re- 
 veal the power of steam, which with the improvements after applied 
 gives us the most powerful servant of man. 
 
 It was Baron Liebig that first directed thought to supplying con 
 centrated fertilizers to the growing plant. The improvements have 
 given us many advantages, yet so little actual experiment has been 
 had with the plant itself that we are in the midst of improvement, 
 and it is with the hope of advancing general knowledge by stimula- 
 ting the mind of man to investigate further, that I speak of my own 
 experiments in connection with the investigations of others, hoping 
 I may at least direct the inquiring mind towai-ds success. 
 
 First we need know what we wish to noiuish ; and how we can do 
 it. You may say that we well know it. The plant, the stalk of com 
 or grain is comj)osed of some thirteen different materials, and yet 
 only from one to five per cent come fi'om the earth. This is true, 
 and of the sixty-five elements existing on eai-tb, the plant is in real 
 ity mainly made up of thirteen. Occasionally others are found, but 
 the elements that are considered essential are carbon, oxygen, 
 hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, iron, 
 sulphur, phosphorus, silicon and chlorine. 
 
 The first four, which constitute the bulk of the jjlant, are, as I be- 
 lieve, wholly obtained fi'om the atmosphere, yet many pretend to 
 supply nitrogen through nitrogenous material, but I do not believe 
 it usually necessaiy to spend money in that direction, as will be seen 
 fui'ther on. 
 
 But while we are well acquainted -nith the part of the plant that 
 is above the ground we seldom take trouble to examine the roots, 
 and when we do examine, as a rule we pull up the plant knd hv that 
 act strip off and destroy all the little mouths which fed the plant, 
 leaving them in the soU. It is little that we pull up but the branch- 
 ing stem of the plant, destined by nature to hold it in proper posi- 
 tion, that it grow erect, that it may develop the seeds. The in- 
 numerable little rootlets are not seen, and it is those rootlets that 
 contain the mouths we desire to feed, and they are much more 
 abundant and reach further from the plant than most of us have any 
 idea. 
 
 One of the fii-st investigators was the scholarly Schubart, and to 
 gain an idea of those little feeders he made an excavation in his field 
 six feet deep, and still wider ; excavating in such a way that he had 
 a drain for water used, and then by forcing a stream of water 
 against the bank washed the dirt away, revealing the rootlets. His 
 first experiment was in a field of rye, then in one of beans, to be fol- 
 lowed by one of garden peas. They all presented, when two or 
 three inches of dirt was washed away from the side of the perpen- 
 dicular bank a complete network of fibres Hke felt, covering the face 
 of his excavation to full four feet &'om the sui-faee of the ground. 
 He afterwards obsei-ved the roots of winter wheat seven feet be- 
 neath the surface, and only forty-seven days after sowing. The roots 
 of clover one yeai- old penetrated to a perpendicular depth of three 
 and a half feet, and aftei-wards increased with its age. Hellriegel 
 
13 
 
 also studied them and says that the rootlets are innumerable, and 
 yet constantly branching until every crevice and pore of the soil is 
 full of them. After careful investigation he believed that the oat, 
 barley and other grains had, including the branches, from one to two 
 hundred feet in length of roots. 
 
 Prof. Atwater of Wesleyan University says : " I have some roots 
 of timothy, clover and other plants, dug from a verj' heavy clay 
 soil, a good quality of brick clay, so compact and hard that a sharp 
 knife in cutting it leaves a svirface as smooth and shiny as it would 
 on the end of a pine board, and yet the roots of timothy penetrated 
 to the depth of two feet four inches and the clover three feet and 
 two inches in this soil." J. Stanton Gould says he traced roots of 
 Indian corn seven feet beneath the sui-face, and Prof. Johnson has 
 not only found them several feet beneath the surface, but in a light, 
 sandy soil extending fifteen feet from the corn stalk. Prof. Stock 
 bridge washed out clover roots one year old in the alluvial soil of the 
 Connecticut, finding them to extend perpendicular eight feet below 
 the surface 
 
 Lucern roots are stated to have reached the depth of thirty feet, 
 and parsnips have been dug thirteen feet six inches in length, and I 
 have found that the common blood beet sometimes equals that in 
 length of tap root, yet it usually extends but four or five feet, throw- 
 ing out many branches. The dra\vings made from actual roots 
 washed from the soil (as well as all others presented), and drawn by 
 Miss Florence M. Cassiuo of Salem, Mass., show definitely the con- 
 dition of the roots at difleient stages of two, four and six weeks 
 from planting, the largest having a tap root twenty-nine inches long. 
 
 The different stages of growth are represented by figures 1, 2 
 and 3. 
 
 That the exact condition of the rootlets might be obtained they 
 were put in a glass jar of water, and in that way they seemed to as- 
 sume natui'al positions, and the drawings, by the skilled artist as she 
 was, were absolutely perfect. 
 
14 
 
 Beet Roots. 
 
16 
 
 It would be more interesting- if we could have the same root rep- 
 resented in the three different stages, so that the change could be 
 noted, but as that could not be, I have endeavored to obtain health- 
 ful, srood-looking plants. Of course the roots are covered with 
 minute hairs which are too fine for the pencil to represent, constitut- 
 ing so many mouths to feed the plant. 
 
 Our next representation is of Indian com, and is of the greater 
 interest as all previous figures used in various books seem to have 
 been made by guess work. In the American Agriculturalist for 
 1880, are various figures of the rootlets of Indian com, but all fail 
 in showing it as I find it by washing out the same. 
 
 Indian corn. 
 A sprouted— B where stalk ia two Inches hig-h. 
 
16 
 
 At A, the com is represented as just sprouted, the plumule, or 
 stalk, tending upward and the tap root directly downward. In a 
 few hours after sprouting, little rootlets extend from the end of the 
 kernel that aid in the rapid growth of the young plant, and in devel- 
 oping the first tier of sucker roots, which are sent out a few days 
 later. The kernel with its rootlets thus attached may be seen at B. 
 A few days later the roots assume the appearance seen in the sec- 
 ond cut, when the stalk is about five inches high. 
 
 Corn roots at a growth of five inches of stalk. 
 
17 
 
 The first tier of sucker roots are extended as seen at A, and the 
 tap root has progressed to the length of ten or twelve inches, and 
 has sent out hundreds of feeders in every direction. The stalk is 
 now about five inches high and is prepared for growth, as the roots 
 extend surprisingly, gathering in the food in large quantities, push- 
 ing the stalk rapidly upward. The little rootlets are so small that 
 they are hardly visible to the naked eye, and as the com approaches 
 maturity they really fill the ground, so that there is hardly a square 
 inch of it that is not permeated by the hungry mouths of the corn 
 plant. 
 
 It is advisable for every farmer to examine these representations, 
 or what is better, wash out and examine the roots themselves, and 
 they will then better understand the care of their com fields. Most 
 farmers have noted how after weeding with the hoe, plowing between 
 the rows, as usual, that their corn stands still, as they express it, for 
 a day or two ; and when cultivated with the Thomas smoothing har- 
 row it seems to grow right along. The reason is evident ; the plow 
 and hoe disturb more dirt and injure more rootlets, and put the 
 others further from the air and sunlight than before. The harrow 
 disturbs only the surface, letting air and light into the soil, injuring 
 slightly, it is true, some of the stalks, yet leaving the ground undis- 
 turbed except at surface ; hence the corn grows on as though not 
 molested. 
 
 Farmers are agreed that the best com is from that planted on 
 level, with a planter, and hence no raised hills. It wUl be seen that 
 this method leaves the roots in a way less likely to be disturbed, 
 and as a plant taking on such rapid growth needs a multitude of 
 rootlets it grows faster if they are not injured. 
 
18 
 
 bo 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 o 
 
19 
 
 Next in interest, perhaps, comes the potato. The early sprout 
 every farmer is familiar with, hence it is of the single potato plant, 
 when three or four inches high, before there is any attempt to "set," 
 as it is termed, (when the new tubers begin to show themselves) 
 that I speak. You can readily see that the roots tend downward, 
 and the plant is shaped like a hUl, as you might say. Hence as it is 
 deep rooted as it advances from the stalk, hoeing would be different 
 in. effect from what it would to hoe com ; hence potatoes grow 
 faster by hoeing, and yet they are so sensitive in their nature that 
 if hoed just before they set and an extra growth of tops stimulated, 
 it is at the expense of the tubers, and the yield is injured. Unlike 
 the com plant, the roots do not much extend after the tops blossom 
 and the tubers set, but they develop tubers, which perhaps in some 
 way aid the action of the roots, as they stimulate the tops to extra 
 exertion. In a large crop of tubers the tops are sometimes so taxed 
 that the seed falls off before ripe, or in other words the more pro- 
 ductive varieties develop tubers to the detriment of seeds, and hence 
 the saying that potatoes do not ripen seeds as formerly is true. I 
 trust the farmer will study the fibrous roots of all the plants we pass 
 in review, that he may better understand how to supply their wants, 
 and especially to avoid the dangers in fertilization which I shall soon 
 point out. 
 
 Root of herds grass. 
 
20 
 
 In the line of grasses, perhaps the one of greatest interest is the 
 timothy, or herds grass. This is the grass most admired in New 
 England, and perhaps is the most hardy in our variable climate. It 
 wiU be seen from the above representation (which as I desired to 
 show the bulb in sufficient size does not represent the full length of 
 root), that there are secondary branches. At F, you will see 
 them represented, and it is a peculiarity of this plant that all the 
 rootlets at the end branch as at F ; and those secondary branches 
 branch also at their ends, and thus the little mouths are immensely 
 multiphed. 
 
 Those roots, by means of the little hairs upon their sides, take in 
 nomishment, but by far the larger share is taken in within an eighth 
 of an inch of the very end ; hence the more terminations the greater 
 the feeding power of the plant. The stalk bulb may be seen at E. 
 As all well know, the blossom and leaf buds upon our fruit trees set 
 in August, for the ensuing year ; so the herds grass sets its stalk 
 bulb in autumn, which lives through the winter, producing the seed 
 stalks of the ensuing year. This is why timothy meadows cannot 
 be closely fed in autumn without injury. If this new stalk is bitten 
 off after the set ior the ensuing year it lets in water, which injures 
 the bulb by freezing, and the top of the bulb will be killed and hence 
 fail to produce the seed stalk the coming summer. For this reason 
 meadows thus fed will produce peihaps a short, thick grass, but the 
 heads will be scattering and short, also. I hear farmers say of such 
 fields thai they are " bound out ; " a more proper expression would 
 be " fed out." If from any canse this gets too much of a start in 
 autumn it is also killed in the same way, as will be further spoken 
 of when we speak of fertilization. 
 
 Somewhat similar to this is the oat, the root of which is here 
 shown. 
 
21 
 
 Root of the oat. 
 but it is different in its capabilities. It throws out many feeders all 
 along the line of roots, sometimes in bunches as well, feeding the 
 plant vigorously until past blossom ; they then die, leaving the roots 
 nearly inactive, and the kernel is ripened by the nutrition in the 
 straw. From this it is reasonable to infer that cutting before quite 
 ripe, or as soon as full in the dough, would both improve the straw 
 and kernel, as it would complete the process of ripening in the shade, 
 and as the root does nothing would improve upon the wetting and 
 drying process, from dews, rain, etc., which injures the straw in the 
 same way it does grass when cut, and all know washed hay both less 
 palatable and nutritious. For this reason the root does not sprout, 
 as it is literally dead, its whole power of nutrition being exhausted. 
 Yet it has the appearance of life, as the subdivisions of the stalk 
 which send out the little rootlets are still green. 
 
 Quite different from this is the root of the 'clover. As we see it 
 when pulled up in the ordinary way it looksjlike the root represent 
 ed at C, but when carefully washed out it is found to be one of the 
 most beautiful and intricate roots of the field. 
 
22 
 
 Clover roots. 
 
 At D may be seen one of the branches of rootlets which are so 
 numerous and extensive that they usually extend several feet — some- 
 times several yards, and permeate the soil so completely that it 
 would seem nothing could escape them ; little tubers are also quite 
 abundant, and under certain conditions reproduce the plant, yet are 
 usually killed when the roots are with ice and freezing, but aid in 
 spreading the plant when all is vigorous. They also, in my opinion, 
 act as storehouses of nutrition, aiding the ripening of the seed, etc., 
 but different investigators have different views. Be it as it may. 
 
23 
 
 while most of our cultivated plants can gain no nutrition below 
 where the atmosphere can penetrate the soil, the clover can ; as by 
 experiments I have found a root capable of sustaining a plant after 
 passing through five inches of solid clay into an alluvial soil below 
 where the roots expanded extensively. Every other plant tried, failed 
 to push rootlets through the clay. Yet this, while it shows what 
 clover can do, does not as fully show that other plants cannot, as it 
 is only negative testimony in the experiment. 
 
 As clover has a fleshy root, full of nutrition, it is doubtless the 
 best plant to use for green manuring, but often hard to get rooted 
 on soil not in good condition ; and I find if the seed is wet and 
 mixed with fine bone dust it will greatly aid it in taking root, even if 
 no more than fifty pounds of dust be used to the acre, if that is wet 
 and fully mixed with the seed so as to adhere when sowing. 
 
 There are other peculiar rooting plants. One is the bean family. 
 It vrill be seen from the cut that it sends down a tap root. 
 
 Root of bean. 
 
 and all the rootlets are throvirn out as branches. It has, however 
 when carefully washed out, a very large root for the size of the 
 plant ; and when we think of the great weight of beans that may be 
 gathered from so small a plant we can readily see the need. They 
 often extend deep into the ground and supply a complete network 
 of branchlets. 
 
24 
 
 After lookiiig thus &r into the root formation' of plants, let us see 
 what the roots do. We have already stated that they have little 
 mouths whereby they take food, but they are so small tiiat they can 
 admit nothing unless it is fully dissolved in water, and as this solution 
 to oui- senses must be very weak indeed, so much so that we are in 
 clined to call it pure even, it will be seen that to get a little of what 
 the plant desires it must distill much, which is in reality true. The 
 amount of water thus evaporated through the aid of vegetation 
 much exceeds our expectations. Though it is a familiar fact that 
 the leaves of plants exhale moisture few consider how much. Hales, 
 the earliest accurate observer of whom we have record, found a sun 
 flower, whose foliage had thirty-nine square feet of leaf surface, 
 evaporated or distilled through its leaf pores three pounds of water 
 daily. A cabbage, with a leaf surface of nineteen square feet, ex- 
 haled as much as the sunflower with thirty-nine square feet ; thus 
 showing a veiy large difference in the power of different plants. 
 Schleiden found every square foot of gi-ass sod to exhale one and 
 one-half pounds of water every day. But I have found that a clover 
 sod exhales at least twice and a half as much when in vigorous 
 growth, and another observer, Schubler, states that he has found 
 pasture grass to exhale five and one-half pounds to the square foot 
 daily. The bean in Knop's experiment exhaled about one half the 
 entire weight of the plant each day, and the Indian corn even more 
 than that ; and various grains and grasses exhale more than their 
 weight each day. Let us think of this. Think how there is taken 
 out of the soil of our meadows three tons of water daily for a good 
 crop, or ten tons for a corn crop when in full growth, and you will 
 see that one of the great requirements is water. Water enough to 
 dissolve the plant food needed, and when we think that our hardest 
 minerals and most solid rocks are gradually worn away by this very 
 water, and then think how small an amount of food from the soil is 
 necessary for the growth of a plant that may take from ninety five, 
 to ninety-nine per cent, of its substance from the atmosphere and 
 does take more than ninety-five per cent, from that source in all 
 cases ; and what farmer may not be encoiuraged by the small amount 
 of such food he need supply. Then when he divides this small 
 amount into nine parts and becomes assured that at least half of 
 these will never be in part even exhausted ; and in the poorest Ver- 
 mont soil that it is probable no more than one or two are partially 
 exhausted, he can at once see how little he has to supply. Yet that 
 little is just as necessary as the little cog, on the least wheel of his 
 watch, is to it as a timekeeper. Without all the wheels and cogs it 
 can never be a perfect watch, and without all the ingredients neces- 
 sary to the plant we cannot have a perfect plant. But yon mav say, 
 how do we know what to supply ? The chemist talks of substances 
 which we do not understand ; what do we need ? I will tell you. 
 We need no spoken language ; we need no articulate sounds ; we 
 need no chemist with his mystic charges, and ruinous bills to pay ; 
 we need only the silent plant given by God, for man's benefit, and 
 the soil in which we wish to cultivate it. In that soU we will put 
 the seeds of what we wish to raise. It is all a mysteiy. We cannot 
 
25 
 
 understand the little germ that produces the plant. We no more 
 can understand the method by which it takes its food, yet we know 
 it feeds ; and sixteen years ago, when I first commenced my experi- 
 ments on plant growth, I had many theories which seemed reasona- 
 ble, and I believed them ; but I have seen some of them flatly con- 
 tradicted by the plant, and all modified more or less. It is true I 
 understand it better. It is true that by patient search with the 
 microscope, days of toil and investigation have lent aid, until I have 
 been able to perfect crops at small expense, compared with days gone 
 by ; but I do not for a moment believe that I have reached the end 
 of investigation, and I am very sorry to give you only partial results 
 from yet unfinished experiments. 
 
 From the foregoing remarks you have doubtless anticipated the 
 fact that as plants require so little and so largely reduced solutions, 
 that the tendency is to fertilize our land too much, or if not too much 
 as a whole too much at a time, {ind not often enough. Upon this in 
 my opinion rests the great secret of success in agriculture. 
 
 Many a man supposes he cannot manure too heavily. But vrith 
 the investigations I have made upon the rootlets of plants, I find if 
 any fertilizer is too easily soluble or put on in excessive amounts, that 
 wliile we may get better crops than we should without it, we could 
 do much better by using less. All farmers know that a small amount 
 of salt is beneficial on our Vermont soils, but all equally well know 
 that a slight excess will injure the crop, and much will kill it. Now 
 what is true of salt is just as true of all fertilizers. All farmers know 
 that the water that leaches from a manure heap will kill grass if 
 strong, and if as much was applied to the whole farm he knows it 
 would destroy all crops. Now I have found that a crop may be injured 
 with kindness and yet not destroyed. If the water in contact with the 
 little mouths of the rootlets is too strongly impregnated even with food 
 they are killed, and so much of the capability of nourishment of 
 the plant is cut off. Hence if the fertilizer, let it be what it will, is in 
 bunches in the soil, many plants are injured by it while others grow 
 much better, because where the lumps or piles are, rain dissolves too 
 much, and the rootlets there are destroyed, while others may be de- 
 prived of what they need. Hence you see how necessary it is to 
 have your fertilizers and soil perfectly mixed. 
 
 Again some materials may be put upon the soil that are not them- 
 selves plant food, yet their action may be very beneficial. They may 
 by their effect release plant food already there, from the soil, or by 
 forming new combinations, liberate the same ; or they may simply 
 like charcoal dust hold plant food by absorption, to be given up when 
 the plant demands it. 
 
 Hence the range for experiment is very great. Now for the test 
 system. Let us measure off our soil, into as many plots as we wish 
 to try experiments on, (one tenth of an acre is a very good size), and 
 to have them long and narrow I find best, with at least three or four 
 feet between them. Let us put on carefully and evenly broadcast, 
 on the ground, which has been carefully prepared for the seed, such 
 fertilizers as we decide to experiment with ; let it be yard manure, 
 ashes, bone dust, plaster, superphosphate, salt, guano or humus, as 
 
26 
 
 the case may be. As our plants feed largely near the surface, let 
 the food be there. After the fertilizer has been placed, harrow lightly 
 if you choose, or let it remain as sown. The idea that what you de- 
 sire will evaporate is as fallacious as that your maple sugar will go 
 off from your sap by evaporation. Cultivate as usual and note the 
 results. Without further troubling the reader I will say that I have 
 tried numerous experiments in various ways, manuring at all seasons 
 and noting the results, and from those experiments I deduce the fol- 
 lowing statements, that on my land seem to be facts : 
 
 That if we desire the best possible crop we must fertilize ev- 
 ery year, but never enough to lodge our crops. 
 
 Tuat we usually fertilize too much, especially wth nitrogenous 
 fertilizers, as they are but little needed. 
 
 That the amount necessary should be carefully determined by ex- 
 periment. 
 
 That on all ordinary land three gqod loads of stable manure to 
 the acre, applied in the winter, will furnish all the nitrogen and most 
 other fertilization that is needed for a three and a half ton hay crop, 
 and alternate years ten bushels of ashes, or 200 pounds of plaster 
 (if benelicial,) in place of the manure ; this on my land is amply 
 sufficient. I presume it to be so on' most land where potash is 
 needed. 
 
 I find that with the exception of ashes, the best time to fertilize is 
 in the winter on the snow. I must again refer to the rootlets for my 
 reason. 
 
 I find with grass as with trees the plants prepare themselves for 
 winter. Now if you fertilize in the fall there is likely to be rains 
 and warm days ; the plant food dissolved from your fertilizer runs 
 into the soil stimulating the mouths of the little rootlets to action, 
 and they force an abnormal growth too late in the season, and the 
 new rootlets formed are almost sure to be destroyed by the frosts of 
 winter, and the entire plant very much weakened. If your fertilizer 
 is put on when all the roots are locked in frost, the plant food is 
 dissolved by spring rains and carried to them just in the time of 
 need, and they awaken to a perfect and rapid growth, and the snow 
 water and the rain distribute the plant food more evenly than it can 
 be done by the lesser rains of summer. 
 
 Of all seasons I find the spring time, when fertilizers are usually 
 applied, the poorest, as there is not sufficient rain to dissolve and 
 render them available. It cannot be perfectly distributed and it 
 comes to the plant in irregular supplies, more so than at other sea 
 sons, and the consequent damage to the rootlets is very great. 
 While we obtain a benefit, it is scarcely one-fourth what we ought 
 to get from our outlay. 
 
 I have now a word about chemical fertilization. I do not con- 
 demn it. Such fertilizers are useful but they cost too much. The 
 manufactiu-er usually prepares them in such a way that they will bene- 
 fit all lands ; hence a large majority of farmers not only pay for what 
 they do not need, but for what injures them, more or less, though 
 the benefit may be the greatest. For example : a fai-mer needs 
 superphosphate of lime; under that name he buys a so-called super- 
 
27 
 
 phosphate that contains, and he pays for it, ten dollars' worth of 
 nitrogen per ton. He puts it on corn ; the nitrogen is not needed 
 — it actually damages his crop ten dollars to the acre, or, as he will 
 put his ton on perhaps five acres, he is damaged fifty dollars 
 and pays ten dollars for tbat damage. His soil requiresthe super- 
 phosphate, and had he bought in such form as his land needed, he 
 would have been benefitted perhaps one hundred dollars by it, but 
 the nitrogenous material which has damaged' him makes it doubtful 
 whether the fertilizer he bought has paid cost. 
 
 So he discards commercial fertilizers without reason. If he buys 
 a pure superphosphate and his land requires it he usually uses too 
 much, or puts it in the hill, or does not distribute it evenly, and does 
 not get the benefit he ought. 
 
 Moderately speaking, one ton of fine ground bone (dust) has, in 
 my experiments, been worth more than any four tons of such super- 
 phosphates as I have been able to purchase, and that, too, used with- 
 out any preparation. But in my experiments I have found the 
 following simple formula costing, according to circumstances, from 
 eight to ten dollars per ton, the best of anything I have used. 
 
 FORMULA. 
 
 Take two hundred pounds of bone meal (dust), the finer the better. 
 Sift, if you can get a fine sieve, so as to save one hundred pounds 
 of the finest. Put the coarsest part of it into a tub or box, and wet 
 with water so it is moist ; it will take three or four pails full ; then 
 slowly add two gallons of sulphuric acid, which weighs at least four- 
 teen pounds to the gallon. Stir continuously. It will foam and 
 boil ; let it stand twelve hours, then add another gallon of acid as 
 before, and while it is hot, so the lumps break easily, add the other 
 hundred pounds of bone meal. This will then weigh about three 
 hundred and fifty pounds ; add to it immediately sixteen hundred 
 and fifty pounds of dry loam, woods dirt, muck, or if inconvenient 
 to get, you may add sand, though I like woods dirt or muck best. 
 This of course has been previously pulverized and sifted ; should 
 you choose, put all together, mix perfectly, and you have a ton. It 
 has cost you about eight dollars and, as far as my experiments go, 
 and others that have tried the same say, it is equal to any ton of 
 nitrogenous fertilizer used. 
 
 I use about two hundred pounds of this'to the acre and find it as 
 good as any fertilizer I ever used costing $45 per ton. I find it bet- 
 ter than bone out with sulphuric acid until it contains fifteen per 
 cent, of soluble phosphoric acid, such as Prof. Sabin in his address- 
 es has put down as the most valuable superphosphate. 
 
 I arrived at this formula by experiments, against reason, as a 
 chemist would say ; but as I have explained, it is just the mixture 
 that is acceptable to the little rootlets of various plants. Next to 
 this I find from seventy-five to one hundred pounds of bone dust to 
 the acre, without any preparation, only to mix with dry woods dirt 
 so it can be evenly distributed, say one hundred and fifty pounds of 
 dust to five hundred pounds of loam, and then apply broadcast, as 
 before, putting this amount on two acres. 
 
28 
 
 ANOTHEB FEBTILIZEB 
 
 which I have found of superior value has been made from bones and 
 ashes, and where potash is needed is very valuable. Take old 
 bones and burn them, if you please, so they will crush easily, or fill 
 them into S, barrel whole, tamping in, in alternate layers double their 
 bulk of hard wood ashes. Put them in the cellar so as not to freeze, 
 and wet down now and then, as much as you can without leachingr, 
 and at the end of a year take into the barn floor and mix with muck 
 or loam as most convenient, so that you can evenly spread over as 
 many acres as you have barrels of bone and ashes. Bone meal can 
 be treated in this way and used in two months after. Use in same 
 way as the bones. The bones will be fine and all right as the meal 
 if they have the year for it. 
 
 If I did not otherwise use salt in my fertilizers I think I should 
 add a bushel of salt to a ton of this mixture. 
 
 Plaster may also be added to the bones previously cut with acid, 
 according to. the first formula, but not with the ashes in the last. 
 
 SOLUBLE SUPEEPHOSPHATES. 
 
 If you desire a soluble superphosphate such as the best that can 
 be made from bones (not best for the land as I find, but best from a 
 chemical standpoint), it can be made as follows : 
 
 Take 200 pounds of bone dust and 80 pounds of commercial sul- 
 phuric acid, which is about sis gallons, yet it sometimes requires 
 nearly eight gallons, as the acid will not be sta,ndard. Moisten the 
 bone meal as in the first formula, and add the acid slowly, and when 
 the bone is dissolved, having stood 24 or 36 hours, it can be dried, 
 if water is in excess, by any dryer you choose ; but the bone dust is 
 the best, and you have a superphosphate that will contain about 14 
 per cent of soluble phosphoric acid. There is no trouble in making 
 it ; not half the trouble there is in making soft soap, and yet if that 
 is wanted, and you can be sure you get what yon purchase, it may 
 be as well to buy it. 
 
 WHAT IS SUPERPHOSPHATE? 
 
 I have often been asked this question, and so answer by telling 
 what I suppose the farmer wants to know, though it does not exactly 
 answer the question, but I will try and tell you in language that may 
 be understood, something of it. 
 
 Phosphate of lime, as it is found in bones, is composed of one 
 atom of phosphoric acid and three atoms of lime. The so called 
 superphosphate is composed of two atoms of water, one atom of 
 lime, and one atom of phosphoric acid. 
 
 The first is insoluble in pure water, but slowly soluble in water 
 containing carbonic acid. The last is soluble in pure water. 
 
 To convert the insoluble into the soluble we in reality have to take 
 away two atoms of hme. Now sulphuric acid in chemical language 
 has a stronger affinity for lime than the phosphoric acid has. So it 
 has the power to take away two atoms or parts of the lime, and you 
 
29 
 
 have left all the phosphoric acid, but it has united with the remain- 
 ing one atom of lime and two atoms of water, and in that new form 
 is easily dissolved in wa,ter. 
 
 The sulphuric acid has taken two atoms of lime unto itself, and 
 that new combination is sulphate of lime, called also gypsum or land 
 plaster. 
 
 Either of these new compounds are harmless to seeds, and can be 
 drilled in with them. If your bone dust was made from raw bones 
 it will still contain nitrogen in small amounts, but not enough to in- 
 jure seeds, or at least I have not found them injured by it. If made 
 from steamed bones it is doubtless better, yet the difference is so 
 slight that it is not observable in bone dust usually purchased, as 
 bones cannot be easily made very fine unless they are boiled, steamed 
 or burned at least in part. 
 
 If you should wish to reduce bone meal fully, I believe it most 
 easily done by mixing in the following proportions : 4.0 pounds bone 
 dust, 30 pounds water, and 30 pounds sulphuric acid. First mix 
 dust with the water, then add the acid slowly, and dry with woods 
 dirt or finely sifted loam 12 hours after mixing. 
 
 I with every farmer, however, to bear in mind the fact that the 
 insoluble phosphate of lime, though not soluble in pure water, is 
 slowly soluble in water containing carbonic acid ; and as the soU 
 contains considerable carbonic acid, the rootlets of the plants do, as 
 I find by experiment, get the phosphoric acid desired from the insol- 
 uble bone dust, and with a small percentage of soluble phosphoric 
 acid, according to the first formula, and a larger per cent of insolu- 
 ble, the plants mature much better in my experiments, and so I ask 
 all to try for themselves and see if I am not right about it. See if 
 you cannot get more actual advantage from one ton costing ten dol- 
 lars than you can-lrom one ton costing forty-five dollars. If you can 
 you have thirty-five dollars more profit. Is it not worth your trials ? 
 If you fail you have not lost. If you find it as I have, it gives you 
 the highway to success. Some soils may require more than mine 
 does and some less; this you can easily ascertain by plot experiment. 
 But remember that too much not only costs more than it should, 
 but does you actual injury by giving you unhealthy rootlets, and 
 hence damage to the plants. 
 
 This damage may appear by the plants lodging, rusting, forming 
 imperfect kernels, or in a drying off rather than ripening, which 
 gives you shrunken grain or seeds. 
 
 Remember a lodged crop is always a poor one, or at least if your 
 soU was perfectly fertilized it would not lodge. I have this year 
 weighed off three and two-thirds tons of merchantable hay per acre, 
 composed of herds grass and red top, from several acres of my land, 
 treated by the previous formula, without its being lodged. Red top 
 heads could be found one foot long, and herds grass heads eight and 
 a half inches. The grasses were in perfection, made so by the fer- 
 tilization I have spoken of. So it is no myth, but absolute certainty. 
 
30 
 
 NITKOGEN. 
 
 It is conceded that if we buy a fertilizer of any grade in tlie market 
 we should have what it contains at market v§,lue, and what Vermont 
 farmers desire to purchase is usually phosphoric acid and potash. To 
 this list is added in most advertisements nitrogen. Nitrogen is by 
 far the most costly ingredient, and yet has at most a very doubtful 
 value. With me it never paid half its cost, and many times injures 
 the crop materially. J. W. Sanborn, farm superintendent of the 
 New Hampshire Agricultural College in 1879, found his corn crop 
 diminished by its use, and in 1880 materially injured by it. He 
 writes Prof. Atwater of the Wesleyan University, that in his exper- 
 iments he finds it "worse than useless," and that the experiments 
 show more unfavorable results every year they are repeated. 
 
 In the Connecticut Agricultural Report of 1880 and 1881. in refer- 
 ence to nitrogen Prof. Atwater says : 
 
 " The experiments are numerous and decisive enough to warrant 
 the inference, that, as corn is commonly grown, nitrogenous fertil- 
 izers in any considerable quantity would be rarely profitable." In 
 other cases they show an increased crop, but not sufficient to pay the 
 cost of such a high priced fertilizer ; rarely it does pay its cost, and 
 sometimes a small percentage of profit even. Yet I am of the opin- 
 ion that the less of it I have the better. 
 
 But you desire to know the form in which it comes to you. Per- 
 haps in your experiments the sulphate of ammonia will be the best 
 form to use. But in commercial fertilizers it is often supplied by 
 fish cake, or from flesh of animals that die, or other decomposing 
 animal refuse. I am told it is sometimes done by adding the liquor 
 which comes from the steaming of bones, using that instead of water 
 to wet the bone meal with. These methods of course give the fer- 
 tilizer a very disagreeable smell. Prof. Collier says of it when 
 speaking of the same: 
 
 " That the condition of the valuable constituents which are pres- 
 ent in fertilizers emit no odor whatever ; although an idea seems to 
 prevail among many farmers that a fertilizer is not worth much un- 
 less it smells bad. This offensive smell which is given off by many 
 fertilizers, good and bad alike, is of itself exceedingly undesirable 
 and of no value whatever as evidence in deciding between different 
 fertihzers, since it arises from animal matter present in the mass 
 and which are added for the nitrogen they generally contain through 
 often in very small quantity." 
 
 SOITBOES OF ERKOE. 
 
 All farmers are aware of the increased growth of crops. especiallT 
 the grass crop, in wet weather, but most farmers have noticed that 
 hay g:rown m wet weather shrinks badly when cut, and that bulk for 
 bulk It does not feed as much stock, and their loads do not weish as 
 heavy as m diy seasons. The reason is, the plants have large hol- 
 low stalks and the growth contains very much more water Ar- 
 tificially the same results may be brought about by fertilization. De 
 
31 
 
 SansBure observed that plants growing on a dry lime soil contained 
 less water than those from a loam. 
 
 Ritthausen gives a, statement from experiment upon clover 
 raised on good sandy loam that is very conclusive. The field was 
 divided into four plots with soil and sod all in the same condition, 
 and one plot was fertilized with plaster, one with ashes, and two left 
 without any fertilization. Off from the plot manured with ashes 
 the green crop weighed 14903 pounds, when dry 5182 pounds. 
 [Jnmanured, 12880 " " 5418 
 
 Manured -with plaster, 22256 " " 4800 
 
 Unmanured, 18815 " " 5190 
 
 Yet the plots fertilized were taller, darker green, and looked better 
 than the unfertilized. 
 
 The same was true of com which I fertilized with nitrogen, six 
 years ago. It was taller, looked darker and better, but produced 
 less amount of corn and less dry stover than the same land where 
 no nitrogen was used. 
 
 My experiments with sulphate of lime (plaster) and with ashes have, 
 however, given me much better crops ; yet the shrikage in drying 
 has been in greater proportion than on the plots not so fertilized, 
 but the experiments of Ritthausen as well as my own, in connec- 
 tion with Prof. Atwater an ,i others, show the necessity of actual 
 weight and measure in determining results ; and I trust all will ex- 
 periment' with like exactness so that their results become at once 
 intelligible and reliable. The eye being often deceived, it makes it 
 necessary that the scale should determine all results, and a written 
 record book in which all experiments are entered is also indispens- 
 able. It matters not how good a memory a man may have, he can- 
 not carry on a series of experiments from year to year and derive 
 all the benefit therefrom that he can if he keeps a full written 
 record. 
 
 For more full information, I would refer all to the late agricultural 
 reports of Connecticut, where numerous experiments showing widely 
 different results are reported ; yet the inevitable conclusion must be 
 that the iarmer need not buy much if any nitrogen or nitrogenous 
 materials for fertilizing his land^ As that is the most costly ingre- 
 dient which has been supposed necessary to proper fertilization, it 
 will be seen that by the use of such materials as I have urged for 
 your consideration, and the judicious use of the manures about the 
 farmyard, it will not need to be purchased. The saving of purchase 
 money will be something, and the increased value of crops that pro- 
 duce well and do not lodge, will be much more. 
 
 PRICES OP MATERIAL. 
 
 I condense from Prof. Goessman's report the following on prices 
 of the material used in fertilizers. As the consumption of commer- 
 cial fertilizers is still increasing from year to year throughout the 
 entire country, the tendency of a gradual but steady rise in the cost' 
 of various kinds of crude stock used for their manufacture is a 
 noticeable feature in the history of the trade. The prices of the 
 
32 
 
 potassa and of the nitrogen in particular have been higher than in 
 previous years, whilst those of the dififerent forms of phosphoric 
 acid have remained as a general rule more stationary. The higher 
 grades of potassium chloride (muriate of potash) have brought a 
 higher price, whilst the kainits and the higher grades of potassium 
 sulphate have been sold at previous rates or for less. A continua- 
 tion of this condition may have its effect in the future on the com- 
 position of the compound fertilizers to meet their customary retail 
 market prices per ton, by lowering their nitrogen percentage, and in- 
 creasing that of phosphoric acid. The lately reduced importation 
 of genuine Peruvian guano, as well as the smaller supply of Menha- 
 den fish refuse, has no doubt exerted a serious injfluence on the en- 
 tire trade, and may in part at least account for the increased cost of 
 aU our ammoniated superphosphates. I have taken particular pains 
 to obtain at various times during the past year, until quite recently, 
 reliable market reports from Boston and New York. A digested 
 abstract of the information obtained in this connection will be found 
 here. The figures in that price hst refer in either case to the cost of 
 the articles delivered at the respective local railroad depots, in case 
 of cash payments. As the cost of distribution must vary more or 
 less in each case, it has, for obvious reasons, been left to the good 
 judgment of the consumer to decide whether in his own locality the 
 price asked for the fertilizer he bought is a fair oneft According to 
 the best information obtained, it seems quite admissable to expect in 
 the retail trade in the majority of instances, an advance of from 
 twenty to twenty-five per cent above first cost at the works. 
 
 During the past year the following prices may be c -nsidered a fair 
 basis for the valuation of the essential constituents of fertilizers ; 
 only specified foiTQs of the guaranteed composition have received a 
 particular consideration in the valuation ; and in case of inferior 
 mechanical condition of the fertilizers the customary lower rates 
 has been adopted : 
 
 Per pound 
 in cents. 
 
 Nitrogen in form of nitric acid 25 
 
 Nitrogen ra form of actual ammonia ' 26 
 
 Nitrogen in form of animal matter \\\\ 24 
 
 Soluble phosphoric acid \\\ jg.S 
 
 Reverted phosphoric acid 9 
 
 Insoluble phosphoric acid 6 
 
 Potassium oxide in muriate of potash 5 
 
 Potassium oxide In kainit '. 5 
 
 Potassium oxide la high grades of sulphate of potassa. ....... ."..'.".! 7 
 
 It is well for farmers to consider that the manufacturers are only 
 obliged to furnish the lowest percentage guaranteed in their state- 
 ment of composition ; and that the insoluble phosphoric acid in many 
 of our ammoniated superphosphates consists of fine ground mineral 
 phosphates, which are less efficient and consequently less worth than 
 that in the form of bones and of animal and vegetable matter. 
 
 IMce per pound 
 
 I. Nitrogen. In form of nitric acid.... ""^'^*^- 
 
 In form of ammonia .".'!!!!!!!.! 26 
 
33 
 
 In form of dried ground meat and blood, finely pulverized 
 steamed Bones, finely ground flsh guano, Peruvian 
 
 guano, urates, poudrettea, and artificial guano. 24 
 
 In form of finely ground bones, and bat guano 22 
 
 In form of flue ground horn, wood dust, etc 15 
 
 In form of coarsely ground bones 18 
 
 In form of horn shavings and woolen rags, human excre- 
 tions and baniyard maniire, flsh scraps, animal refuse 
 matter from glue factories and tanneries, etc 12 
 
 II. Phosphoric acid soluble in water as contained in alkaline 
 
 phosi)hat«s and suijerphosphates 11.5 
 
 In Peruvian guano and urates 9 
 
 In form of so-called reduced or reverted acid 9 
 
 In precipitated bone phosphate, steamed fine bones, flsh 
 
 guano, according to size and disintegration from . . ■ 6. — 6.5 to 8 
 
 In form of bone black waste, wood ash, Caribbean guano, 
 
 f round bone ash, coarsely ground bones, poudrette, 
 arnyard manure, etc 4 
 
 In form of finely ground South Carolina and Nevassa phos- 
 phate 3 
 
 III. Potassium oxide. In form of muriate of potash or 
 chloride of potassium 6 
 
 In form of sulphate of potassa in natural and artiflciaJ 
 
 kainits 5 
 
 In form of higher grades of sulphate of potassa 7. to 7.5 
 
 NAME OF MATERIAL. 
 
 Sulphate of ammonia, containing from 24 to 25 per 
 cent of ammonia 
 
 Mtrate of soda (Chili saltpetre,) containing 95 per 
 cent of that compound 
 
 Nitrate of potassa, containing 94 to 96 per cent of that 
 compound 
 
 Dried blood, yielding from (a) 15 to 17 per cent of am- 
 monia, (black), , 
 
 (b) 12 to 14 per cent of ammonia, (sof tired), 
 
 (c) 10 to 12 per cent of ammonia ! 
 
 Dried meat, yielding from 14 to 15 per cent of ammo- 
 nia 
 
 (}astor pomace (ground), yielding 5 to 6 per cent of 
 ammonia 
 
 Cotton sged meal, yielding from 7 to 8 per cent of am- 
 monia 
 
 Fine ground lione (steamed), yielding from 3.5 to 4.5 
 per cent of ammonia, and containing from 50 to 
 .55 per cent of bone phosphate 
 
 Bone black (waste material), containing from 30 to 34 
 per cent of phosphoric acid 
 
 South Carolina phosphate (ground), containing from 
 25 to 28 per cent of phosphoric acid 
 
 Navassa phosphate (ground), containing from 25 to 28 
 per cent of phosphoric acid 
 
 Canadian spatite (ground), containing from 30 to 35 
 per cent of phosphoric acid 
 
 Superphosphate of lime, containing from 15 to 16 per 
 cent of soluble phosphoric acid 
 
 Acid phosphate, containing from 12 to 14 per cent of 
 soluble phosphate acid 
 
 Lobos guano, yielding from 4 to 6 per cent of ammo- 
 nia, and containing from 18 to 20 per cent of 
 ■ phosphoric acid 
 
 Peruvian guano (guaranteed), yielding from 6 to 8 per 
 cent of ammonia, and containing from 12 to 14 
 per cent of phosphoric acid 
 
 3 
 
 Price per 
 ton of 2,000 
 tbs. in dol- 
 lars. 
 
 Price per 
 pound in 
 case of 
 from 100 to 
 200 lbs., in 
 cents. 
 
 95 to 105 
 
 4.75 to 5.5 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 
 3.75 
 
 4.5 
 
 166 
 
 170 
 
 9 
 
 9.5 
 
 65 
 55 
 45 
 
 75 
 60 
 50 
 
 3.5 
 
 2.75 
 
 2.25 
 
 4 
 
 3.25 
 
 2.75 
 
 50 
 
 55 
 
 3 
 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 1.5 
 
 2 
 
 33 
 
 55 
 
 1.75 
 
 2.25 
 
 38 
 
 45 
 
 2 
 
 2.5 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 1.75 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 1.25 
 
 1.5 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 1.25 
 
 1.5 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 1.5 
 
 2 
 
 •30 
 
 35 
 
 1.5 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 1.5 
 
 1.75 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 3 
 
 3.5 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 3.25 
 
 8.5 
 
34 
 
 Muriate of potash, containing from 80 to 85 per cent 
 of that compound, equal to from 50 to 53.7 per 
 cent of potassium oxide 42 45 3 
 
 Muriate of potash (Douglass hall), containing 80 per 
 cent of that compoimd, equal to 50 per .cent of 
 potassium oxide and about 10 per cent of sulphate 
 of magnesia 45 50 2.5 
 
 Sulphate of potassa, containing 80 per cent of that 
 compound, which is equal to 43.3 per cent of po- 
 tassium oxide 65 4 
 
 Sulphate of potassa, containing from 60 to 65 per cent 
 of that compound, which is equal to from 32.3 to 
 .S5 per cent of potassium oxide 55 60 3.5 
 
 German potash salt, containing from 28 to 32 per cent 
 of 3ulj>hate of potassa, which is equal to from 15 
 to 17.3 per cent of potassium oxide 18 20 1.25 
 
 Kainit, low grade, containing 22 to 26 per cent of sul- 
 IJhatc of potassa, which is equal to from 11.9 to 14 
 per cent of potassium oxide 12 15 .75 1 
 
 Sulphate of magnesia (kieserite), containing from 60 
 
 to 70 per cent of that comjjound 20 25 1.25 1.5 
 
 Sulphate of magnesia, containing from 50 to 55 per 
 
 cent of that compound 14 16 .8 
 
 Fine ground gypsum, containing from 95 to 98 per 
 
 cent of that compound 9 10 .5 
 
 ANALYSIS OF FEBTILIZEKS. 
 
 The following analyzed fertilizers are those generally met with in 
 the State. The analysis was conducted by Prof. A. H. Sabin, 
 chemist of the Agricultural College at l5urlington. " The samples for 
 analysis were purchased by farmeis in different parts of the State, 
 and by them sent to the laboratory.'' 
 
 ANALYSES. 
 
 Bradley's XL. Superphosphate. 
 
 Total phosphoric acid (P 2 O 5) 11.18 per cent. 
 
 Soluble phosphoric acid 6!93 " " 
 
 Reduced phosphoric acid 2.25 " " 
 
 Insoluble phosphoric acid 2. '• <• 
 
 Total nitrogen 2! ■' " 
 
 Potassium oxide \ 2 •' " 
 
 Loss by drying '.' s'g " 
 
 Sand, etc 883 " a 
 
 Organic matter .'.'. 72.19 " " 
 
 100.00 " " 
 Soluble Pacific Guano. 
 
 Total phosphoric acid 10.91 per cent. 
 
 Soluble phosphoric acid 4 85 " " 
 
 Reduced phosphoric acid 4 08 " " 
 
 Insoluble phosphoric acid I'gg •■ " 
 
 Total nitrogen '" ^'^ .. >i 
 
 Potassium oxide 3' 03 .. n 
 
 Lossbydrying 3" 
 
 Sand, etc Ill " " 
 
 Organic matter 68!85 " " 
 
 100.00 " " 
 
35 
 
 Darling's Animal Fertilizer. 
 
 Total phosphoric aoid 13.37 per cent. 
 
 Soluble 1. " " 
 
 Beduced 6.37 " " 
 
 Insoluble 6. " " 
 
 Total nitrogen 4.55 " " 
 
 Potassium oxide 2.92 " " 
 
 Loss'.by drying 10.53 " " 
 
 Sand, etc 3. •' " 
 
 Organic matter 65.63 " " 
 
 100.00 " " 
 
 Stockbridge Corn Fertilizer. 
 
 Total phosphoric acid 10.46 per cent. 
 
 Soluble 3.75 " " 
 
 Reduced 4.31 " 
 
 Insoluble 2.4 " " 
 
 Total nitrogen 5.88 " " 
 
 Potassium oxide 39 " " 
 
 Loss by drying 16.8 " " 
 
 Sand, etc 12.2 " " 
 
 Orgauic matter 54.27 " " 
 
 100.00 " " 
 
 Stockbridge Potato Fertilizer. 
 
 Total phosphoric acid 9.17 per cent. 
 
 Soluble " " 3.75 " 
 
 Reduced " " 4.52 " " ' 
 
 Insoluble " " 0.9 " " 
 
 Total Nitrogen 2.94 " 
 
 Potassium oxide 76 " " 
 
 Loss by drying 18.5 " " 
 
 Sand, etc 3.9 " " 
 
 Organic matter 64.73 " " 
 
 100.00 " " 
 
 Stockbridge Onion Fertilizer. 
 
 Total phosphoric aoid 4.99 per cent. 
 
 Soluble " " 3.65 " " 
 
 Reduced " " 64 " " 
 
 Insoluble " " 7 " 
 
 Total nitrogen 3.5 " " 
 
 Potassium oxide 8.16 " " 
 
 Loss by drying 19.01 " " 
 
 Sand, etc 2.74 " " 
 
 Organic matter 61.60 " " 
 
 100.00 •• 
 
 Bowker's HQl and Drill Fertilizer. 
 
 Total phosphoric acid 8.68 per cent. 
 
 Soluble phosphoric acid 6.85 " 
 
 Reduced " " 98 ~ " 
 
 Insoluble " " SSft" 
 
 Total nitrogen 3.08 " 
 
 Potassium oxide 1.45 " 
 
 Loss by drying 16.78 " 
 
 Sand, etc ^ 3.72 " 
 
 Organic matter '66.29 " 
 
 100.00 " 
 
36 
 
 The valuation of these, according to accepted standards, per ton 
 of 2000 pounds is as follows : 
 
 Bradley's XL. Superphosphate. 
 
 138.6 tbs. ol soluble phosphoric acid ^^l ni 
 
 45.0 " reduced " " * "° 
 
 40.0 " insoluble " " 2 In 
 
 40.0 " nitrogen ° *" 
 
 40.0 " potassium oxide ^ "" 
 
 Total $35 17 
 
 Soluble Pacific Guano. 
 
 97.0 lbs. of soluble phosphoric acid *13 12 
 
 81.6 " reduced " " J °^ 
 
 39.6 " insoluble " " ^ ^o 
 
 62.2 " nitrogen .- W o^ 
 
 99.9 " potassium oxide ' 49 
 
 Total «*2 39 
 
 Darling's Animal Fertilizer. 
 
 20.0 ms. of soluble phosphoric acid S 2 50 
 
 127.4 " reduced " •' 11 47 
 
 120.4 " insoluble " " 7 20 
 
 91.0 " nitrogen 19 U 
 
 58.4 " potassium oxide 4 38 
 
 Total $44 66 
 
 Stockbridge Corn Fertilizer. 
 
 75.0 tbs. of soluble phosphoric acid » 9 37 
 
 86.2 " reduced " " 7 76 
 
 48.0 " insoluble " " 2 88 
 
 117.6 " nitrogen 24 60 
 
 7.8 " potassium oxide 58 
 
 Total S45 19 
 
 Stockbridge Potato 'Fertilizer. 
 
 75.0 tbs. of soluble phosphoric acid $ 9 37 
 
 90.4 " reduced " " 8 14 
 
 18. " insoluble " " 1 08 
 
 58.8 " nitrogen 12 35 
 
 15.2 " potassium 114 
 
 Total f32 08 
 
 Stockbridge Onion Fertilizer. 
 
 73.0 tbs. of soluble phosphoric acid $ g 12 
 
 12.8. " reduced ^' " 115 
 
 14.0 " insoluble " " 84 
 
 70.0 " nitrogen 14 70 
 
 163.2 " potassium oxide 11 24 
 
 Total $37 05 
 
 Bowker's Hill and Drill Fertilizer. 
 
 137.0 tbs. of soluble phosphoric acid $17 12 
 
 19.6 " reduced " " 1 irn 
 
 17.0 " insoluble " " .[', { q2 
 
 61.6 " nitrogen " 1294 
 
 29.0 " potassium oxide 2 17 
 
 Total $85 01 
 
37 
 
 The St. Johnsbury ground bone was examined only so far as to 
 find it to be pure bone meal ; it contains insoluble phosphoric acid 
 to the amount of about $27, and probably nitrogen to the amount 
 of about $10 or $12. 
 
 It is, however, rather coarsely ground, and would be much better 
 if it were finer. 
 
 In looking over these figures, it must be remembered that insol- 
 uble phosphoric acid is of comparatively little cost, and the nominal 
 value of the fertilizer, so far as phosphoric acid is concerned, is to 
 be found by looking to the amount of soluble and reduced acid. 
 Prom the published reports of other analyses of some of these fer- 
 tilizers, it would seem probable that the amounts of phosphoric 
 acid give a fair index of the comparative values of these as manures. 
 In several of these, perfectly clean, sharp sand was found, but as 
 the analysis shows, not in very large quantity. The amount of 
 moisture was found in another sample from the same bag of Dar- 
 ling's Animal Fertilizer to greatly exceed that given, but the general 
 appearance of the sample indicated the smaller amount as the more 
 nearly correct. In all cases of highly ammoniated manures the 
 amount of loss by drying is liable to include some ammonia ; it is, 
 however, dotibtful if it does in any of these cases." 
 
 This valuation is, of coarse, according to the ingredients contained 
 in the fertilizer, and does not tell the farmer what he needs. The 
 kind that figures the highest might not be worth to the farmer five 
 dollars per ton — -in fact might injure his crop ; while the lowest val- 
 ued one might be actually worth to him double its cost. 
 
 As I have before said, it is as necessary in feeding plants as it is 
 animals that their needs must be first consulted. You do not need 
 buy salt for cattle fed on salted hay, or buy it either as a fertilizer 
 to put on a salt marsh. See to it ijiat you first, by the plot system, 
 ascertain your wants, and then you can easily and cheaply supply 
 hem. 
 
IVOTES OIV INSECTS INJURIOUS AND BEN- 
 EFICIAL. 
 
 BY HIRAM A. CUTTTNG, PH. D., 
 
 Lecturer on Natural Science, Lewis College. 
 
 APHIDES. 
 
 Insignificant as may be a single aphis these insects, known as 
 " plant lice," are a pest everywhere that man cultivates, and may be 
 even considered injurious wherever plants grow. 
 
 They are also prolific almost beyond belief. As a rule insects 
 lay eggs, which hatch, pass through the larval stage, then the pupa, 
 and at last, after days or weeks, become perfect insects. But plant 
 lice, while they now and then lay eggs, and put up with the slow 
 process which is so fashionable, go as a general rule on a different 
 plan — retaining the egg and expelling impregnated females aUve. 
 
 A female aphis takes her place upon a branch, say of the young 
 shoot of the apple tree ; plunges her beak into the tender bark and 
 sucks sap. After a short time she begins to produce her young at 
 the rate of twelve to fifteen each day. These young are just like 
 their mother, and follow in her footsteps, getting their growth in a 
 few hours, and produce fresh young. As to the opposite sex it is no 
 business of theirs. Wood says he " wonders why the Shakers do 
 not adduce the aphides in support of their peculiar tenets." The 
 extent to which this remarkable increase can be carried may be im- 
 agined when investigation has shown that a single female, isolated 
 from the opposite sex, has produced impregnated females that have 
 gone on in a direct line of production, in the same way, for four 
 years. 
 
 It is in consequence of this remarkable mode of production that 
 the twigs and buds, as well as leaves, become so rapidly covered ; 
 the quickly- succeeding generations crawling over the backs of their 
 predecessors so as to find an unoccupied place to drive their beaks. 
 Thus it may be seen how a rose bush may have scarcely a plant louse 
 upon it on Monday, and yet within the week be so covered that no 
 bud will expand, or growth be made. It is the same with the hop ; 
 hence the first appearance of the louse causes the gravest apprehen- 
 sions, as, if the clays are cool or windy or showery so as to drive 
 away the insects that feed upon the louse, a few days will ruin the 
 crop" Of these enemies I will soon speak. 
 
 Those who have examined the aphis, whether winged or not, have 
 noticed that towards their tails there were two slender projections. 
 These are tubes through which the insect forces a sweet fluid. 
 
an 
 
 When trees are covered with the aphis, upon the leaves in the morn- 
 ing may be found drops of sweet liquid, called honeydew. It is this 
 exuded fluid from the aphis, and it attracts bees and flies, and often 
 bees collect enough of it to injure, if not destroy, the flavor of their 
 honey, as this honeydew has a strong, acrid taste that burns in the 
 throat after eating it Such trees are also ovenun with ants which 
 lick th^ sweet droppings from the leaves, and hold high revels on 
 this substance — the origin of which, to many, seems so mysterious. 
 But the ants go further than this. Not content with the sweet upon 
 the leaf they anticipate its fall and lap it oif when exuding. Neither 
 do they stop here ; but as man stables and herds his cows for milk, 
 so does the ant the plant louse that he may obtain the sweet. They 
 carry them bodily to their own nests, were they provide for them 
 much the same as we do lor our cows, using bits of thistle root and 
 other succulent vegetation to feed them upon. 
 
 This fact has been long known, but the notion of ants keeping 
 milch cows seemed so far beyond the capacity of an insect that many 
 persons refuse to believe such a romantic story. In substantiation 
 of what I know to be true I copy a letter published by Rev. J. G. 
 Wood, in his "Insects at Home." He says: 
 
 "Another odd station for aphides is on the roots of plants. I 
 have found them by hundreds on a thistle root, closely packed to- 
 gether and almost as white as snow. The other day I pulled up a 
 large thistle that grew on an ant hill, and thus I brought to light a 
 whole colony of aphides. I had long known the great value which 
 ants set on those httle • beasts,' so I shook down some dozens of them 
 from the thistle root among the ants, which were all a- swarm with 
 the damage I had done their dwelling. No sooner were the ants 
 aware of the presence of the aphides than they began to fondle them 
 with their legs, somtimes positively taking them round their necks to 
 tap them on their back with their antennae, and to lick them with 
 their tongues. They then took hold of them with their jaws and 
 lifted them from the ground, and carried them with the greatest care 
 into the recesses of their nest. 
 
 . " I walked by the same place three hours later ; all was quiet and 
 orderly about the nest and no aphis could be seen. So I went to 
 work with my knife and scraped down the side of the hill ; I soon 
 came to the aphides. They were clustered together on little bits of 
 thistle root which had been broken off by the ants. They were at- 
 tended by numbers of the ants, who, finding their cattle in jeopardy, 
 drew them gently from the roots and carried them further into their 
 nest." 
 
 Mr. Newman, a celebrated naturalist, says he has cut open apple 
 after apple to find the core filled with them, or the seeds covered. 
 There was no way for them to get in which he could discover. There 
 was no chance of their getting air through an mch of pulp, and more, 
 they soon died after exposure to the air, showing that it did not 
 agree with them. How they could get there is a subject of specu 
 lation. Now for 
 
40 
 
 THEIR ENEMIES. 
 
 A small ichneumon-fly uses them as hatching houses for its eggs, 
 the ants are often seen protecting the aphides from its attacks. As 
 soon as one has been stung, she leaves her feeding ground and 
 crawls to the under side of a leaf and there fixes herselt. Jler 
 body soon swells so as to be round as a shot ; she dies, and soon the 
 young ichneumon pushes himself out of the body, making thus his 
 escape into the world. These dead and empty skins may ever be 
 seen in abundance upon an infected tree. The 
 
 LADY BUGS, 
 
 V 
 
 Fig. 1. Lady Bug. 
 
 Belonging to the family Coccinellidoe, are not only things of beauty, 
 but they are among the great benefactors of civilized man, and pre- 
 serve many a harvest which, but for their aid, would be a hopeless 
 loss. 
 
 Few people would suppose when looking at the larva of the Lady 
 Bug what was his real condition of life. It looks as harmless as 
 you can imagine any insect to look, and as though he would be more 
 likely to be eaten himself than to eat others ; yet he is such a ruth- 
 less destroyer of the plant louse, that if but few of them be put 
 upon an infested plant in a day or two not an aphis will be left. 
 
 The mother Lady Bug lays her eggs in packets among the aphides 
 and as soon as the young insects hatch they commence feedmg on 
 the plant lice nearest them, and as they gain strength, keep on tours 
 of destruction until the branch is free from the lice. Next in its 
 destructive powers come the little 
 
 GOLDEN EYE. 
 
 Fig. 2. Golden Eve. 
 
 A fine name for a fly so small, yet the eye is like bright gold, and 
 its wings so beautiful ; and yet it is so common it hardly attracts 
 attention, and is called by the ' naturalist Chrysopa Vulgaris, or 
 Common Golden Eye (see Pig. 2). But it does not come into life as 
 such a fly, but as a worm, which cares only for food ; it is eat, eat 
 
41 
 
 all the time, and the food is the plant louse. As this little worm 
 eats out the juices it covers itself with their skins, and this droll 
 covering protects it from its enemies. For about two weeks 
 it goes on thus, then spins its cocoon of silk, and comes out of that 
 in due time a beautiful green fly, with the golden eyes which give its 
 name. Under the microscope those eyes are very beautiful, and 
 seem to be made up of emeralds, rubies and diamonds, sparkling and 
 changing all the time. It is sometimes called the Lacewing Fly, on 
 account of the peculiar delicacy of its wings. No fly takes more 
 pains to provide for its progeny. It selects a perfect leaf in a se- 
 cluded part of the plant where it drops a small drop of a white 
 substance, which the mother draws out into a stem near half an inch 
 long; and on the top of this stem it places the egg and cements it 
 on. They place large numbers of these eggs together, so the leaf 
 looks as though it bad a little forest growing upon it, and some very 
 good investigators described the forest of eggs as a species of para- 
 sitic plant, supposing the eggs the seed cups of the diminutive moss. 
 (Fig. 2). 
 
 But notwithstanding those insect friends man sometimes need com- 
 bat the louse, especially in gardens. Carbolic acid soap suds and a 
 syringe are usually efficacious. Tobacco- water is also death to them. 
 Smoke they do not like, and the fly powder {pyrethrum) is destruc- 
 tive to them. In Europe they often rub them off with a brush, 
 when on rose bushes or valuable plants. The only trouble is they 
 do not stay killed, as their capability for increase soon makes up their 
 loss. 
 
 Fig. 3. Fig. ♦. Fig. 6. Clothes Moth. 
 
 THE CLOTHES MOTH. 
 
 Our common clothes moth (Tinea flavifrontella) is of a uniform 
 buff color, with a silky iridescent lustre, the hind wings and abdo- 
 men being a little paler. The head is thickly tufted with hairs and 
 is a little tawny, and the upper side of the densely hirsute feelers 
 (j)alpi) is dusky. The wings are long and narrow, with the most 
 beautiful and delicate long silken fringe, which increases in length 
 near the base of the wing. 
 
 This is the description given by A. S. Packard, Jr., yet there are 
 several allied species which have much the same habits, except the 
 construction of cases, but they eat carpets, clothing, and various 
 
 4 
 
42 
 
 other things about a honse, like grain, articles of food, paper, objects 
 of natural history, etc. 
 
 There are several successive broods in a season, and slovenly 
 houses are often overrun with them. Very many do not recognize 
 these moths in their perfect stage they are so small, being about a 
 third of an inch only, while they often vent their wrath upon those 
 large millers that fly about lamps on warm smnmer evenings. But 
 these large millers 'ai-e as innocent of any harm to our woolen cloth- 
 ing as can be, though they may be guilty of mischief in our gardens. 
 The moth as we despise it, is a little pale, delicate worm, (Fig. 5) 
 about the size of a darning needle, and perhaps half an inch long, 
 vsith a pale horn colored head, and a ring next to it of same color. 
 It has sixteen feet, but the first six only well developed, and in almost 
 constant motion to draw its slender body in and out of its case. Its 
 head is armed with a formidable pair of jaws, with which it cuts its 
 way with great ease through any woolen fabric. 
 
 The case (Fig. 4) is really the most remarkable feature in its his- 
 tory, and is fonned of little bits of the fabric it eats, joined together 
 with the finest silk, and constructed into a tube or case nearly round, 
 but flattened slightly in the middle and contracted just a little at 
 each end. Both ends are always kept open. This he takes with him 
 wherever he goes, as it is his house, made to live in. But he feeds 
 voraciously, cutting without care for damage here and there, leaving 
 his hole behind him. But his house gets too small ; he applies his 
 shears to it, cutting it open at each end, and putting in a piece with 
 such perfect care that the joints can hai'dly be seen, even with mag- 
 nifying power. He thus finds room to grow until he is mature, when 
 he goes into his papa state as seen at (Fig. 3.) The pupa is consid- 
 erably curved and rounded. At first it is nearly white like the worm, 
 but just before its exclusion of the moth it is the color of varnish. 
 The torn cases are often seen. What is most wanted is the 
 
 whereby we may save ourselves from loss by their depredations. 
 These are many, and all are doubtless effective with careful hands. 
 Dr. T. W. Harris states that "black pepper powdered and put under 
 the edge of carpets will repel moths." 
 
 Tight cedar chests or closets are safe places for fabrics likely to be 
 injured. 
 
 Camphor gum and carbolic acid are good pi-eventives. Pyrethrum 
 powder imder carpets or sprinkled upon them is said to be effectual. 
 
 If a carpet or fabric of any kind be injured and the moths and 
 egg.=i already there, they may be killed by a careful ironing with a 
 hot flatiron. Such ironing becomes more effectual if a damp cloth 
 be used between the iron and carpet, as the steam permeates further 
 and more quickly than the dry heat of the ii-on. 
 
43 
 
 THE TIGER BEETLE. 
 
 or "Oicindela," is well niimecl, for it represents among ins3cts the 
 same character and ferocious habits that the tiger does among beasts. 
 They are also dressed in gay colors and have elegant forms. The 
 number of specie's is very great, and yet as they befriend man instead 
 of doing him injury they have been closely studied. They are usually 
 of some shade of green with metallic and purplish reflections, and 
 marked with brilliant or light colored dots and sliort curved lines. 
 These beetles abound in sunny paths, and breeds on the sandy shores 
 of rivers and ponds. The larva (Fig. 6) is a hideous fellow, witli 
 an enormous head and immense jaws, armed with teeth on the in- 
 wide, and a horn on the ninth segment of the curvei body, whicli 
 ends in a hook, which gives it a grotesque and ugly appearance. 
 
 Fig. 6. Larva of Tiger Beetle. 
 
 The hook aids it in climbing out of its deep hole, in which it lies 
 in.wait for weaker insects. The holes are sunk perpendicular in the 
 sand, and have no loose particles of sand or dirt about the opening. 
 
 The occupant may be drawn out by putting a piece of straw into 
 the hole, and the angry insect will fasten to the straw. The more 
 common forms are the "Ctcindella generosa" (Fig. 7) or common 
 tiger beetle, the "Oincindella hirticoUis" (Fig. 8) or hairy necked tiger 
 beetle, "Oincindella sex guttata" (Fig. 9) or the six spotted tiger 
 b?Htle. The last is often found in shady places not frequented by 
 the other species. 
 
 Tiger Beetle. 
 
 Fig.8, 
 Hairy.neokedTiger Beetle. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 6.Bpottea Tiger Beetle. 
 
ii 
 
 THE WATER BOATMAN. 
 
 This is the wonder and delight of all children, as they move so 
 lightly and prettilv upon the water as they row over the surface m 
 piu-suit of insects upon which they feed Notomecta undulata is the 
 scientific name for those most common through New England 
 (Fig. 1). 
 
 Fig.. 10. Water Boatman. 
 
 What attracts the attention of the young investigator is the ease 
 with which this boatman takes aboard his supply of air to breathe, 
 when be dives to the bottom. The deck of this boat (which means 
 the under side of his body as he swims on his back) has a ridge in 
 the middle and a depression between this and the edge of the body, 
 is bridged over from the head to the end of the abdomen by a layer 
 of coarse, oblique hairs, and a layer of less oblique hairs arise on 
 each side, frome the middle of the ridge. These hairs form what 
 we might call a false upper deck. Now when he rises to the surface 
 for air, he projects the end of the body slightly out of water, the air 
 passes up on each side along the tunnel iinder the hairs and collects 
 in bubbles above the base of the legs. Along this tunnel are six 
 pairs of spiracles (breathing tubes) into which the air passes. When 
 taken out of the water these breathing tubes are easily seen. Often 
 the air bubble he takes with him covers the whole under side of the 
 body, and in the water he looks as though he carried a globule of 
 quicksilver. It is reported that they can sting, and like a bee their 
 sting is aimed with poison. Such is not true, but he can bite, I as 
 sure you, and the pain from the bite is as severe as from a bee sting, 
 and it is reasonable to suppose he secretes a poison, which benumbs 
 the insects he preys upon ; but as no sack for any such secretion can 
 be found, it is beheved to be his saliva which must be an active 
 poison. 
 
 Another singular insect is the 
 
45 
 
 WATER SKATER, 
 
 Fig. U. Gerris. 
 
 called "Gerris poludum," and is commonly seen running over the 
 surface of streams and pools, marvels of mechanical skill and activ- 
 ity. This insect is sometimes called the "Wherryman," and it seems 
 that thousands of years ago he anticipated the racing boat and 
 wherries. Nature is full of v^onders, but before we leave the insects 
 that live about the water we must speak of the 
 
 DRAGON PLIES, 
 of which "Diplax Berenice" is a tine representative. 
 
 Fig. 12. Dragon Fly. 
 
 Here we have an insect type of all that is savage, relentless and 
 blood thirsty. From its birth to its death, which is about one year, 
 in all its changes whether larva, pupa or imago, it is literally a pit 
 fall for luckless aquatic insects. But when in its imago or perfect 
 state it is ever on the wing in pursuit of prey, and revels in glut- 
 tony and carnage. 
 
 We call it then "Devil's darning npcdlo,' very likely on account of 
 its unblushing and rapacious character. Could lie tell us the tales 
 of his life, rapine and murder surpassing the age of fable would be 
 revealed, but aside from his ugly name which is often a terror to 
 children, he is not injurious to man, but his whole life is benificent. 
 He is indeed a scavenger of no mean ardor, and his gay livery and 
 
46 
 
 beautiful ■wings challenge our admiration and lie gains respect. He 
 preys largely upon mosquitoes and the larva of equally noxious in- 
 sects. During his four weeks above the waters he is a continued 
 good to man, never doing harm. 
 
 But look at his enormous head with its jutting brows, retreating 
 face and heavy under jaws ; all eyes and teeth, and such a hunch- 
 back, long legs that look as though shrunken by disease, a very fiend 
 of the air and yet our friend. Let us never judge by appearances. 
 
 This dragon fly lays its eggs on rushes or weeds at the surface of 
 the water, where they are hatched by the warmth of the sun. 
 The larva is very active, and a great feeder. His jaws are gov 
 ered as it were with a mask to disguise its ugly mouth from his 
 prey, but woe to thej insect that gets within reach of his hooked 
 jaws. It is easy to rear them in an aquarium, but their long life tires 
 out the observer ; and not so much is known of their life in the water 
 as we could wish. There are several species of this insect. 
 
 Another peculiar fly is the 
 
 FORCEPS TAIL, 
 or Fanorpa rufescens (Fig, 13). 
 
 7S- 
 
 rig. 13. Forceps tail. 
 
 This, similar, to the species just described, is a great scavenger. 
 The males are armed at the extremity of the body with a peculiar 
 forcep like apparatus as seen in the cut. They are the friends of 
 man, and may be found about bushy fields, shrubbery, etc. 
 
 Fig. 14. Pirates. 
 
 Another valuable aid to the farmer as he causes the death of im- 
 mense numbers of Caterpillars and noxious insects is the 
 
47 
 
 PIRATES PICIPES. 
 
 Fig. 14. It is a kindred of his that destroys so many bed bugs 
 in Europe, and it is said that the pirates are not afraid of them. 
 
 I -will now tell you of some of the enemies of the ten-lined potato 
 beetle {Doryphora decemlineator). Of course all must be interested 
 as it makes a saving of oiu- time in fighting them to have insect aids. 
 
 Fig. IS. 9.spatted Fig. 16. Bippodamla. 
 Lady Bird. 
 
 Fig. 17. Many'banded 
 Robber. 
 
 ENEanES OF THE POTATO BEETJjE. 
 
 The lady birds — Coccinella 9 notata and pupa (Fig. 15), Hippo- 
 damia 13 punctata, larva and pupa (Fig. 16), destroy multitudes. 
 
 The eggs of the lady birds are very much like those of the potato 
 beetle in color, but are smaller, and not so many in a cluster, but 
 always laid in close proxity to those of some other insect. As soon 
 as they hatch they commence their war of exterminatidh, and, as 
 they are voracious feeders, they follow it up almost unceasingly. 
 This lady bird is about two-thirds the size of the potato beetle when 
 fully grown, of a yellowish red color, with two or more black mark- 
 ings on each wing- cover, being shorter and more thick set than the 
 potato beetle. In fine, they are about the size and the shape of a 
 half pea. (See Figs. 15 and 16). There are several varieties, but 
 all are the friends of the farmer, and should have special protection. 
 
 So of the many banded robber, Harpactor citictus (Fabr.), Fig. 
 17. It is ever actively on the lookout for food, and woe to the po- 
 tato beetle that falls into its sharp claws. 
 
 b 10 
 
 Spined Soldier Bug. 
 
 So of the spined soldier bug, Arma apinosa (Dallas), Fig. 18 ; a, 
 its beak ; o, the beak of the Enschistus punotipes (Say), both mag- 
 
48 
 
 nified, which closely resembles the Arma. Doubtless, both species 
 do a great work, as they are wholesome depredators, not alone upon 
 the potato beetles, but upon many farm pests. 
 
 Fig. 19. Lydella. 
 
 There is also a parasitic fly (Fig 19) Lydella-doryphoral, that not 
 only destroys myriads of the larvae of the potato beetle, but also 
 those of many other pests. The marks at the bottom of the cut 
 denote its actual size. 
 
 This is the only insect yet known that lives parasitically on the 
 potato beetle, but such is its voracity that Mr. Riley found it de- 
 stroyed fully ten per cent of the first brood and over fifty per cent 
 of the third brood of the potato beetle. For the last year those 
 enemies gained quite an advantage, as the less number of early bee- 
 tles indicated. 
 
 There is also another deadly foe in the Philonthus, which Dr. 
 Packard found to creep even into his hatching-cases and kiU not 
 only enough for food, but aU ; just as the weazel or mink will kill 
 more chickens than they need for food- This beetle is black, with 
 short wing cases, and is, perhaps, the most temble enemy of the 
 Colorado beetle. It is a member of -the family StaphylinidcB. 
 
 There ai-e, perhaps, no natural enemies that will entirely kill them 
 out, and so, like the farmers at the west, we are inclined to Paris 
 green or London purple. 
 
 THE BLISTERING BEETLES. Cantharidoe 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 Fig. M. 
 
 Fig. IS. 
 
49 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 These beetles are also great eaters of the potato plant. For sev- 
 eral years tbey have done great damage in New England, but only 
 in special localities. They have not become general. Those most 
 injurious are the striped Cantharis, Lytty vittata (Pabr.), Fig. 20, the 
 margined Cantharis. Vo/utharis marginata (Olivier), Fig. 21, the ash- 
 colored Cantharis Jjytty cinerea (Fabr.), Fig. 23, a, male, and the 
 black Cantharis, Ziytta murina (Leconte), Fig. 23, b / c and d show 
 the magnified imtennfe of the male and female, rendering it easy to 
 distinguish them. These beetles, while they make short work of 
 the potato leaves, when abundant, are not very fastidious about their 
 food. They ■will eat beets as soon as potatoes, and also pig weed, or 
 almost any kind of green leaves when the potatoes and beets fail. 
 
 There is another species, being a species of oil beetle, Meloe au- 
 gitsticoUis, Fig. 22, which when plenty are a great foe to potatoes, 
 tomatoes, beets, and various other vegetables ; but they are vulner- 
 able to insect enemies, and so are only now and then abundant. 
 They may be killed by Paris green as the potato beetle, but cannot 
 be picked oif, as they are too spry for the fingers. 
 
 Druggists are indebted to the insects of this order for the "Span- 
 ish fly," so called, which is used for blistering, and is in reality one of 
 the blessings in medical practice. Thus we are often indebted to 
 the humblest creatures for our greatest boons. To the ant we are 
 indebted for the discovery of chloroform. How this came about is 
 well told by Dr. Ijankester : 
 
 " Some years ago, whilst editing the correspondence of John Eay, 
 I was amused by the letters which passed between this great natural- 
 ist and Dr. Martin Lister of New York, on the subject of the ' acid 
 liquid of pismires.' It had been observed that whenever ants were 
 bruised their juices afforded an acid secretion, which substance was 
 afterwards known as formic acid. The attention of modern chemists 
 being directed to formic acid, Dumas discovered that it contained a 
 base, a compound radical, which he called formyle. This, with three 
 atoms of oxygen, forms the formic acid. Now Dumas not only found 
 this out, but he further discovered that the three atoms of oxygen 
 might be replaced with three atoms of chlorine. He thus obtained 
 terchloride of formyle. ft so happened that, when ether had been 
 employed as an anaesthetic, Dr. Simpson of Edinburgh was induced 
 to look for some agent that might act even more beneficially than 
 ether in this respect. He tried ihe terchloride of formyle, and found 
 
50 
 
 it to succeed; and this is the agent which under name of chloro- 
 form, has been the means of alleviating a vast amount ot human 
 misery ; and if occasionally it has destroyed life it has saved so much 
 that mankind owes a deep debt of gratitude to those who have suc- 
 cessfully introduced it into practice." 
 
 THE MOSQOITO. 
 
 Who has not watched the sluggish pool or even the barrels of 
 stagnant water that many a farmer keeps under his eaves, and 
 seen the tiny mosquito leap off from her little boat which was the 
 east off skin of the chrysalis in which she spent her early life 
 beneath the waters? As she sails away in the light of the fast 
 departing sun, she presents a movement full of ease and grace, 
 quite unsui-passed by her dipterous allies. Suppose she draws near 
 you, and with the softened melody of her wings views the sub- 
 lect'of her coming banquet? She settles on your hand, folds her 
 wings, and daintily sets down one foot after the other, unfolds 
 her lancet of marvelous fineness and of wonderful complexity and 
 fitness, and lifting one foot she drives it into the skin through 
 bleeding capillaries and shrinking nerves. Then she sips the nectar 
 of life, and while she is so doing let us suppose she is under the 
 microscope, and we are examining her head and lancet-like arrange- 
 ments as seen at Fig. 24. To use the description of Packard "The 
 head is rounded with the two eyes, 
 
 Fig. 24. MoBqnito's head. 
 
 occupying a large part of the surface, and nearly meeting on top of 
 the head. Out of the forehead, so to speak, grow the long delicate 
 hairy antennae (a), and just below arises the long beak which con- 
 sists of the bristles like moxHlaB (mx with their palpi mp) and man- 
 dibles (m) and the single hair like labrum, all which five brisUeB hke 
 organs are laid in the hollowed labium (1). 
 Thus massed into a single awl-Uke beak the mosquito, without 
 
SI 
 
 apparent effort, thrusts tliem into tlie flesh, and by aid of the sucker- 
 like expansion of tho end of the labium draws in the blood throuo^h 
 the channel formed by the &\6 bristles and their sheath. Her body 
 may be seen filling with blood until her appetite is satiated, and she 
 flies slowly away, I'requently to die as a result of her gluttony In 
 a moment the place of the bite begins to itch, and in those suscepti- 
 ble to the poison it is often almost intolerable sometimes a serious 
 matter. Multiply this mosquito by thousands, and no wonder they 
 are a pest indeed. Hence men avoid their haunts as they would the 
 haunts of hornets. 
 
 But let us return to their larva (Fig. 25, A), which is found in 
 pools, ditches, tubs, and everywhere where water is still and partial- 
 ly stagnant. They remain at the bottom, feeding upon decaying 
 matter, thus doing a little good to help compensate for their faults, 
 and perhaps to show that nothing is made in vain. The larva inhales 
 air through a single respiratory tube (c), situated near the tail. 
 When about to transform into the pupa state it contracts and 
 enlarges anteriorly near the middle, the larval skin is thrown off, and 
 the insect appears as at (Fig. 25, B). 
 
 Fig. 2-^. Larva of Mosquito. 
 
 The head and thorax are massed together, the rudiments of the 
 mouth paiis and wings and legs being folded upon the breast. There 
 are now two breathing tubes, d, situated upon the back instead of 
 the tail, which ends in two broad paddles,*, so that it comes to the 
 surface head foremost instead of tail first. This position accords 
 better with its increased age and experience. In a few days it is 
 born into its imago or perfect state, as described, and its wings ex- 
 pand for its marriage flight. The males are beautiful, as the good 
 ever are. They do not bite. They are more retiring than their 
 strong minded partners, and are very seldom seen in our dwellings, 
 but live quietly and honorably in the woods, where they may be found 
 if sought, but they never seek you. They may be easily distin- 
 guished as they have bushy, feathered antennae. 
 
 The female lays her eggs in bunches, upon the water ; they float 
 about and soon hatch to go through the metamorphosis spoken of. 
 Like other flies they grow in the larval and pupa state, and after they 
 acquire wings they do not grow, so the small midges are not young 
 mosquitoes, as some think. But how we can get along with them is 
 the question. If you go into the woods hunting or fishing you can 
 disgust them by using a solution of carbolic acid and oil of tar. 
 
52 
 
 Aftei this has been applied they will look you over to see if they can 
 find a place where that is not, but they refuse to eat if that is there. 
 Carbolic soap also answers a good purpose, and if used before you 
 retire, by washing yourself with the suds, it is said to pPK«ent the 
 bite of the flea and bed bug, also. 
 
 CABBAGE WORM. Pieris Rapm 
 
 Fig. 26, 
 
 Fig. 28. 
 
 Fig. 27, butterfly of the cabbage worm, male. Fig. 28, female. The female is distiti- 
 gnished from the male by having two round spots, rarely three, on the wings. The body 
 of this bntterfly is black above, with white wings, a, cabbage worm ; 6, chrysalis. 
 
 This worm, the product of the rape butterfly, is the great pest of 
 the cabbage grower, and doubtless the worst of all oui' imported in 
 sects. It was imported from England to Quebec in 1857, as it is 
 supposed, with a quantity of cabbages ; but it was so sparse that 
 none were seen until 1859, and so rapid was its increase that in 1864 
 it had extended at least forty miles in eveiy direction from Quebec, 
 and it was estimated that it caused the loss of a cabbage crop that 
 would have sold for at least $250,000. 
 
 In England and Europe it is the butterfly everywhere common ; 
 its larva is the dread of every cook, as she expects to cook several 
 with every cabbage, notwithstanding her utmost care. Its chrysal- 
 ides are so abundant ia the winter time that they seem present upon 
 everything that affords them the least protection ; even upon the 
 doors of dwellings in constant use several may often be found. 
 America had two native species, which sometimes appeared upon the 
 cabbage, but they were content with the outside leaves ; but while 
 this important species riddle the outsides leaves, they secrete them- 
 selves in the head also, and render it necessary to pull the same to 
 pieces before cooking, and then you are not sui-e,. for many times 
 
53 
 
 they appear cooked with the leaf. The color is so near that of the 
 leaf upon which they feed that they are ever liable to appear as un- 
 welcome visitants. The use of cabbage among all is rapidly decreas- 
 ing from this cause. It has already spread over large sections of 
 the country, being taken in Vermont in 1866, in Maine in 1868, and 
 around New York and Boston in 1870. It is now almost ap wide- 
 spread as the cabbage is cultivated. 
 
 The butterflies have their bodies black above, with wings white, as 
 may be seen in the cuts. 
 
 The female may be distinguished from the male by having two 
 round spots, rarely three, instead of one as in the male, upon the 
 front wings. Underneath both sexes are alike, and have two spots 
 on each front wing, but none on the back ones, which are usually 
 yellowish, yet sometimes with a greenish tint. They vary much in 
 color, but the above general description will be sufficient to enable 
 one to recognize them, as the first impression will be white or nearly 
 so, and the slight variations of tint, from yellow to green, will not 
 be likely to much confuse. 
 
 This butterfiy deposits eggs upon the leaves of the cabbage, 
 usually upon the under side. They are exceedingly beautiful when 
 magnified, having a delicate tint, variable as in the butterfiy, and 
 seemingly etched with a beautiful network of lines. The larva, as 
 seen in the cut at a, is pale green, finely dotted with black, with a 
 yellowish stripe down the back, and a row of yellowish spots alone 
 each side in a line with the breathing holes. As the stripes and 
 spots are somewhat obscure, some farmers do not notice them, and 
 think they have another variety, which is posr5ible, as we have two 
 native species that sometimes feed upon the cabbage, but they are 
 sparse in numbers, and seldom seen in Vermont. 
 
 When about to transform, it leaves the plant upon which it feeds 
 
 and takes shelter under the rails of fences, in stone walls, or any 
 
 place convenient, and changes to a chrysalis, which, though variable 
 
 in color, is usually pale, green, speckled with miaute black dots, as 
 
 ' seen at b. 
 
 The second brood pass the winter in this condition ; this species, 
 like our native ones, having two broods a year. 
 
 The first remedy that occurs to most when they see their cabbages 
 destroyed is to quit raising them, and starve them out. This cannot 
 be, as they feed upon several plants, and even upon the willow, when 
 other food is not at hand. 
 
 The first method of attack is to cover the young plant with mos- 
 quito netting, held off from the leaves by sticks, usually four of 
 them, set in the ground, and a piece of netting pinned on. This is 
 done in various ways, according to the tact of the person doing it, 
 and, when properly done, prevents the eggs being laid upon the 
 leaves, and so the cabbage grows in spouiity. This costs, besides 
 the labor, from one to two cents for each cabbage. 
 
 If this is not done, picking the eggs is the next method. They 
 can be easily found, and, if attended to, they may all be destroyed. 
 Children can easily do this, and are usually led to do it by the prom- 
 ise of a small reward for any certain number found. When the but- 
 
54 
 
 terflies are seen about your garden they can be easily caught in a 
 net, as they are slow, lumbering fliers, and easily killed, thus crush- 
 ing hundreds of eggs without hunting for them. 
 
 If the eggs have not been destroyed, poultry, if in numbers, will 
 pick off most of the worms, as they are considered by fowls as a 
 sweet morsel, very desirable. But we cannot fully depend upon 
 them to do the work, though they will help greatly. As they get 
 into the very heart of the cabbage head, hand picking will not amount 
 to much more, but yet it will decrease their numbers so that cab 
 bages can be raised. 
 
 Carbolic soapsuds are destructive to them, and if not too strong 
 will not injure the plant. Fine sawdust impregnated with carbolic 
 acid is one of the best things for their destruction. Superphosphate 
 of lime, fine salt, ashes and lime have all been used with effect, yet 
 nothing of the kind is sure to kill all the worms. Close attention 
 to the plant, or perfect protection by netting, as first spoken of, is 
 the sure way to secure a crop of cabbages. 
 
 If, as estimated, at least half a million dollars' worth of cabbaces 
 were destroyed by it around New York city alone, last year, and an 
 average of two hundred and fifty thousand dollars' worth are annu- 
 ally destroyed around Boston, Montreal and other cities, it shows 
 beyond question that we have, in spite of om- warfare upon it, an 
 implacable foe. 
 
 Wehave thus far but one insect that lends us substantial aid. 
 This is a species of chalcid fly, and so rapid has been iis work that 
 of one hundred and ten chrysalides, collected by F. W. Putnam of 
 Salem, Mass., at least two-thirds were infested, and brought forth 
 chalcid flies, instead of cabbage butterflies. In most sections, how 
 ever, this help has not yet arrived, but will become general, doubt- 
 less in a few years. 
 
 By placing boards elevated a few inches from the ground about 
 your cabbages, the worms will select these places for their change 
 to the chrysalis state ; and as those infested by the chalcid fly can 
 be easily distinguished by the livid and otherwise diseased appear- 
 ance of the body, and left to produce flies, while the healthy are 
 destroyed, you can aid your friends and destroy your enemies. If 
 the chrysalides are all found healthy,, you can make a general de- 
 struction. 
 
 Hot water poured upon the plant is recommended by some ; but 
 the plants will only stand water at 140 ° without injury, and that 
 will not kUl many of the worms. 
 
 One of the most effectual remedies is the insect powder (Pyreth- 
 rum). It can be diluted with flour at the rate of one ounce of the 
 powder to five ounces of flour, and dusted over the infested plants. 
 
 Another recommended by several the past season consists of 
 equal parts of saltpetre and salt dissolved in water and sprinkled 
 over the plant. Should sprinkle it on at about 140 degrees of tem- 
 perature. The quantity of the salts is one great spoonful of each to 
 ten quarts of water. 
 
 Paris green, London purple, or white hellebore will, of course 
 kill the worms, but should seldom be used, as it will lodge in the 
 
55 
 
 growing head and endanger the lives of those making use of the 
 cabbage. Dust sprinkled on it is also effectual, but will leave grit 
 in the head so as to injure it for eating, yet is without danger. 
 London Purple is the least dangerous, and may be used diluted with 
 flour before the heads begin to form, without any danger. Cayenne 
 pepper is also a severe dose for them, and harmless if used late in 
 the season. It may be diluted with flour. 
 
 Dr. Hoskins, of Newport, raises many cabbages, and he is of the 
 opinion if you plant early and use close heading varieties, you may 
 let the worms do their worst and you will get good cabbages. They 
 wouldn't look very well growing, and so I should recommend the 
 use of some death to worms. 
 
 THE CURRANT WORM. 
 
 Xemaiia ventricoms. Klug. 
 
 a, a, a, different stages of growth ;J6, a single segment of 
 the caterpillar magnified. 
 
56 
 
 Adult specimens enlarged. The marks at the side represent the actual measurement with 
 wings spread, a, male; b, female. 
 
 This worm is so common and so well known in Vermont 
 that it needs no description. It affords an excellent example of the 
 wonderful rapidity with which an important insect may increase and 
 flourish in this country. It was imj^orted from Europe in 1860, into 
 nurseries in Rochester, N. Y. Since that time it has not only spread 
 eastward throughout New England, but to the far west. It is a 
 dreadful pest to the currant and gooseberry bushes, and in sections 
 where it has been left to do its work unchecked such fruits are num- 
 bered as things of the past. 
 
 Though near fifty species of the JVematus are natives of this c jun- 
 try, this little foreigner has forced • himself so disagreeably to our 
 notice that we almost forget the ravages of the native varieties. 
 
 Though the worm is so well known, the fly that causes the mis- 
 chief is seldom noticed. The female is of a bright honey-yellow 
 color. The head is black, with all the parts belovr, as well as be- 
 tween, the origin of the antennae, except the tip of the jaws, a dull 
 honey-yellow. The antennae are brown black, often tinged with 
 reddish above, except toward the base, and beneath, entirely duU 
 reddish, except the two basal joints. They are four-fifths as long 
 as the body; the third joint, when viewed sideways, is four 
 times as long as wide ; the third, fourth and fifth joints slowly di- 
 minishing in length. On the thorax are four conspicuous black 
 spots and other smaller ones. The legs are bright honey-yellow ; 
 the hip joints whitish, with the exti-eme tips of the hind shanks, and 
 the whole of the hind toe joints are blackish brown. The wings are 
 glossy, with dark veins, and expand a little over one-half inch. It 
 is stated in the American Entomologist, that in Europe she is known 
 to lay eggs which have not been fertilized, and from them young cat- 
 erpillars are hatched. It is probable, however, that they do not have 
 the power of again propagating the race, and that the eggs hatch 
 
67 
 
 and the worms eat is just as likely as in the case of the silk- worm 
 and other moths, as well as of some insects, including the honey- 
 bee. 
 
 The male (Fig. 21, a) is rather smaller and is black. The head is 
 dull honey yellow. The antennse are brown-black, often a little red- 
 dish beneath, cxoept toward the base ; they are as long as the body ; 
 while longer than in the female, they are also somewhat flattened 
 out. The vmder side of tin: thorax and abdomen are honey yellow. 
 
 I have given this minute description of the fly, as, if seen and 
 killed, hundreds of the worms may be saved. The eggs are laid 
 about the 20th of May in Vermont, in regular rows, along 
 the under side of the veins of the leaf, at the rate of about two a 
 minute. The embryo escapes from the egg in from four to ten days, 
 and immediately commence feeding. They continue their work 
 upon the bushes until they are bare of leaves, and then, whether 
 fully grown or not, go down into the ground and form little black 
 pupae, varying in size according to the way the worm is fed. Emerg- 
 ing in about two weeks, they lay their second brood, which pass the 
 pupa state in in the ground, as before but do not emerge until the 
 following spring. The fly lives about nine days. 
 
 For their destruction, we first look to the birds. While a few 
 only will catch the fly, none are found to eat the worm. Thus we 
 are deprived of our most powerful ally. We never half realized the 
 good done by insectivorous birds untU we have an enemy they dis- 
 regard. Among the natural enemies of this pest are three kinds of 
 ichneumon flies, of which one is an egg parasite. From this aid 
 three-fourths of the eggs are destroyed ; but the other fourth give 
 us much trouble. ' 
 
 The first method of destruction is to pick off the worms and de- 
 stroy them. This, if there are but few bushes, can be done quite 
 easily, and is really the most practicable method. 
 
 The next in use is to dust on the leaves powdered white hellebore 
 from a muslin bag. Used in this way it is not sufficiently poisonous 
 to render dangerous the use of the fruit. This is recommended by 
 Walsh and Eiley. 
 
 A solution of a pound of copperas to six gallons of water has 
 been ttsed with success. It blackens the leaves but does no injury 
 to them. Suds made of carbolic soap may be sprinkled on from a 
 common sprinkler. Any dust that touches them is lodged in the 
 spiracles or breathing pores, and soon produces death. Dust from 
 the road, dried fine plaster of Paris, or any finely pulverized sixb 
 stance will answer. The Grafton fertilizer, which was finely pulver- 
 ized quartz, was the best material I ever saw for killing them. It 
 possessed the requisites of great fineness and perfect di-yness, so it 
 would make a dust easily. 
 
 Pulverized slate is excellent, also the insect powder "Pyrethrum" 
 before spoken of. It can be largely diluted with flour, and has 
 the advantage of not being poisonous. 
 
 Gum aloes are, when fine, equally penetrating, and less danger- 
 ous than the white hellebore. 
 By a little attention in time this pest can be easily stayed by 
 
 6 
 
58 
 
 any of the means spoken of, but The, Boston Journal of Chem- 
 istry says this worm can be immediately destroyed by the use of 
 carbolate of lime. This is certainly less costly and more agreea- 
 ble to use than the hellebore, so to those who must buy some- 
 thing to use, instead of using road dust I would recommend it. 
 With two or three applications the work would be done. 
 
 STRIPED SQUASH BEETLE. 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 DiabrotMca vittata. Fabr. 1. Back view of the grub that eats the root and stalk. 
 2. Sid? view : both magnified. The marks show the actual length. Beetle natural size. 
 
 This beetle appears on cucumber and squash vines as soon as they 
 are through the ground, and frequently they penetrate through the 
 cracks made in the ground by the swelling and sprouting of the 
 seeds of melons, cucumbers or squashes, and, biting off the young 
 sprout, destroy the plant before it is out of the ground. These 
 beetles need little description. The cut shows the beetle in outline, 
 and he is well known by the yellowish stripes upon his wing covers. 
 Their subsequent work, also, when the leaves appear above the 
 ground, is well understood, but the biting off the young sprout, thus 
 preventing the development of leaves, is frequently not known, and 
 the seeds are thought to be poor, or other causes are assigned for 
 their non appearance above ground. 
 
 The gardener watches his plants until he thinks them beyond 
 danger from this beetle, and then is surprised to see them wilt 
 and die without apparent cause. No wound or injury is found 
 above ground, and so the destruction is looked for in the root. 
 Here we soon discover the true cause of death, for the roots are 
 found to be pierced here and there with small holes. In fact so 
 many are found that the root presents a con-oded appearance. Upon 
 closer examination the authors of the mischief are easily detected, 
 either in the root or lurking in the corroded furrows. They are lit- 
 tle whitish worms, about the length of the lines beside the enlarged 
 view of the worms in this figure. 
 
59 
 
 They are, as found, about the thickness of a good sized pin. The 
 head is blackish, brown and horny, and there is a plate of the same 
 color on the last segment of the worm. These are the young of the 
 beetle or "striped bug," which was so troublesome on the leaves 
 earlier in the season, and the eggs from which they hatched were 
 laid low down on the stalk at that time. In this masked stage of 
 worm life they do more damage than when in the beetle form on the 
 leaves. When the worms are full grown, which is about a month 
 from the time they hatch, they forsake the root, and retiring to the 
 earth by continually turning around, they form for themselves a lit- 
 tle cavity or minute cave with solid earthy walls, in which they throw 
 off their skin and become a pupa. This pupa is much shorter and 
 thicker than the worm ; they remain inactive for about two weeks, 
 taking no food. At the end of this time they throw off their skin 
 again and the perfect beetle is seen, still however in a soft condition, 
 incapable of movement. Remaining in its cell till these soft parts 
 have acquired solidity and strength, it breaks through the walls of 
 its little house, and working itself slowly through the soil appears in 
 the light of day a perfect beetle. We have two generations each 
 year, the second remaining in its dormant or pupa state through the 
 winter. This generation, doing little damage, is not often noticed. 
 Many vines not killed by the worm are so much injured that their 
 value is nearly destroyed. 
 
 Covering the vines with a box covered on top with muslin has 
 been considered the only sure remedy, though powdered charcoal, 
 lime, and sometimes ashes can be used wth benefit. In many cases, 
 however, the material sprinkled on the leaf is as bad as the beetle. 
 If a handful of shavings be burned near the hills in the evening, 
 many of them will fly into the flames. After various experiments I 
 have become satisfied that covering the hills with common newspa- 
 pers is much the best means to be used ; besides, you get an accel- 
 erated growth of the plants. Just as soon as the seeds are planted, 
 or at any event a day or two before the plants appear, open a news- 
 paper to its full size and spread it over the hill, letting it lie close on 
 the ground, and fasten it in place by hoeing the dirt on the edges, 
 so that no gust of wind can disturb it. The plants thus covered 
 will grow at least a third faster than those not covered, are safe from 
 the beetle, and what is more, safe from the egg that produces the 
 worm or masked stage of the pest. The plants kept covered until 
 the danger is past are more healthy in every way, producing blos- 
 soms several days sooner than those not covered. It is seldom that 
 once covering will not answer all purposes, but should one be torn 
 off from any cause it can easily be replaced. I have tried different 
 colors of paper, and find white or blue paper best adapted to the 
 purpose. Other colors seem to give a pale green or sickly appear- 
 ance to the plants. Newspapers are easily obtained, and are just as 
 good as clear white paper. It will be seen, also, that this is a pro- 
 tection against late frosts, and I believe that every person who tries 
 this method of protection will ever use it with entire satisfaction. 
 
 Insect powder, before mentioned, will also kill them, and Paris 
 green or London purple, if combined with flour, can sometimes be 
 
60 
 
 tised by dusting the hills with a blower that sends it both sides of 
 the leaves. 
 
 TENT-CATEEPILLAR OF APPLE TREES. 
 Clisiocampa Amevicana (Harris). 
 
 sssia 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 AU natural eize; a, larva full grown, side view; 6, larva full grown, back view; c, clus 
 ter of eggs on a twig; d, cocoon. 
 
 What farmer in Vermont is not familiar with the web nests 
 of this caterpillar, glisteninjSf in the rays of the spring sun, before 
 the trees are in blossom 'I Yes, before the leaves are one-half grown, 
 these little white web nests speak volumes. They tell of a negli- 
 gent, slovenly farmer, whose spare hours are got rid of as useless 
 time, and the pests of his orchard revel in his neglected trees, among 
 which the caterpillar holds conspicuous place. This small, white 
 glistening web, if unmolested, soon spreads over several branches, 
 and the caterpillar strips the tree of its leaves, to the great damage 
 of it, if not entailing death, which is ever liable to occur from this 
 cause alone. 
 
 This cp.terpillar is well known to all, yet all do not understand its 
 habits. The eggs are laid by a night flying moth. Fig. 34. Its xsolor 
 is a dull, yellowish brown, or something inclined to the reddish 
 tint ; it is unsually thick-bodied and hairy. Its wings are character- 
 
61 
 
 ized chiefly 'by the front wings being divided into three parts, 
 by two transverse whitish or pale yellowish lines, and by the middle 
 space being paler than the rest of the wing, in the male, while it is 
 often the same color as the rest or even darker, in the female. 
 
 Riley says the color is very variable in the Western States. Dr. 
 Fitch notices great variations, but in this section I do not find the 
 variations very great, and think all will readily recognize the moth 
 from the foregoing description. 
 
 The moth here described lays her eggs in the night, when she may 
 bg found hovering about the tree, in August, or, in the southern part 
 of the State, doubtless in the last part of July. She lays her eggs 
 in oval rings round the smaller twigs, as seen in Fig. 33, c. These 
 rings contain some three hundred eggs each, and are covered over 
 with a mucilaginous coating which answers the double purpose of 
 keeping out the water and serving as food for the young when they 
 hatch, to give them sufficient strength to crawl down the limb to the 
 first fork, where, by crawling back and forth, they weave from a 
 spinneret in their mouths the tent in which they live. From this 
 tent they sally forth twice a ijay for food, eating voraciously. On an 
 average, each caterpillar will eat two apple leaves a day, and no tree 
 can long live under such a vital drain. As the weather gets warm, 
 when the return from a meal, instead of going into their tent, they 
 go to rest upon the outside, as a and h. Those coming in later and 
 finding room, will crawl over the sleepers, spinning all the 
 time, until they are covered, and another story is added to their 
 tent. 
 
 Thus from time to time it is increased with their growth, until 
 their food gives out, or their caterpillar life is spent, when they lose 
 their social habits, and wander off to find other food, which they are 
 seldom able to do, or find suitable places in which to spin their co- 
 coons. These are light colored, with a tinge of yellow, and may 
 generally be found attached horizontally to the under side of fence- 
 rails, or other protected places. They remain in these about three 
 weeks, when such as have not fallen a prey to the ichneumon fiy, as 
 many do, come forth to lay their eggs, as before described. 
 
 The question so often asked is, how to destroy them ■? I will first 
 tell you how you ought not. Some fiash gunpowder on their nests ; 
 others bum them with a torch ; while some put on kerosene and 
 burn ; and others saturate with oil to kill them. All these methods 
 are destructive to the trees, and should never be employed. Upon a 
 moment's reflection it will be seen that the easiest and quickest way 
 is to cut off the twig containing the eggs. 
 
 As they are laid in July or August, there is a long period in which 
 the farmer may destroy them ; and as they can be found upon small 
 twigs, near the end of a branch, they can be found with a little care- 
 ful looking, and cut off. After the leaves have fallen, on a frosty 
 morning the eggs may be readily seen as a dark band on the tvdgs, 
 as the frost does not so readily adhere to them. When you cut 
 ■ them off alway burn them. If this method is neglected, watch your- 
 trees when they first hatch, and with a stick remove the entire nest 
 early in the morning, or just at night, — as they feed, and are conse- 
 
62 
 
 quently scattered dver the branches, both in the middle of the after- 
 noon and the middle of the forenoon, and some stragglers are absent 
 all day. If they are still neglected, fts they should not be, there is 
 no sure way to rid your trees of them but to put on your gloves and 
 clean them off with your hands. You can kill by crushing, or have 
 ah attendant with a pail of hot water, and put in such branches as 
 you cut aw^y, or do not crash. Fvery tent found, whether on or- 
 chard or forest treie, should be destroyed. 
 
 The black cherry (Oerasus serotina), so common throughout the 
 State, is a favorite tree with this caterpillar. If I could have my 
 way in the matter, as they are a useless tree, I would cut them all 
 down, or else pass a law fining the owner of premises where the 
 caterpillars' nests were not destroyed. Concerted action would soon 
 put an end to its ravages ; and the thousands of bushels of apples 
 annually destroyed, together with damage to trees for the ensuing 
 crop, would well repay the amount of time and labor necessary for 
 their extermination. 
 
 "Where apple trees are ovennin, it will feed upon the plum, 
 thorn, rose, willow, common red cherry, poplar and white oak, and 
 even sometimes upon witch-hazel and beech trees. But it will 
 ever be found in the greatest numbers upon the black cherry and 
 apple trees. 
 
 FOREST TENT-CATBRPILLAE. 
 Clisiocampa Sylvatica (Harris). 
 
 Fig. 33. 
 
 <ii eggs; i. female moth, natural size; e, enlarged view of egg from top; d, enlarged view 
 
 of eggs from Bide. 
 
 This caterpillar. Fig. 35, the representation of which is a back 
 view, is often erroneously called the " army worm," and may some- 
 times be seen in vast numbers, marching along a hard road in the 
 
63 
 
 hot sun, or crawling in great ntunbers along the railroad track. 
 When closely examined it will be found to resemble the apple tree 
 tent caterpillar, and is often confounded with that, also. The fol- 
 lowing difference, however, will be apparent : 
 
 The eggs, as may be seen from the above cut (Fig. 36), are distin- 
 guished from the common tent caterpillar by being of uniform diam- 
 eter in the entire mass, which is docked off squarely at the ends. 
 They are usually composed of about four hundred eggs, the mass 
 being of a creamy white color. These eggs are deposited in circles 
 around the twig, and with each egg is deposited a brown varnish ; 
 the second circle is closely fitted into the first, so the eggs stand like 
 rows of cells in honey-comb. In this section the eggs are deposited 
 in July, or the first of August, the larvae are quite fully formed by the 
 time winter commences, and the warm days of spring bring them into 
 being, even before there are any leaves on the trees ; and it is a sin- 
 gular fact in their nature, that they may not only be frozen, but they 
 actually exist for two or three weeks without food, standing any 
 amount of inclement weather, waiting for the leaf-buds to develop 
 into leaves, which they then eat with hearty relish. As soon as they 
 are bom they commence spinning a thread wherever they go, yet as 
 the web is beneath them, close to the bark of the tree, it is often 
 overlooked. They live more or less in company, like the common 
 tent caterpillar, but go through four successive molts before they 
 arrive at maturity, and at such times huddle in bunches, remaining 
 for a day or two inactive. At their fourth molt, they quite unwit- 
 tingly court destruction by collecting in masses upon the trunks of 
 trees, often within a few feet of the ground. After this molt, it may 
 be seen (as before mentioned) wandering about to find a suitable 
 place to form its cocoon. Why it wanders in such places, and then 
 takes up with a leaf that it can draw together, or several leaves all 
 combined to cover it, we can hardly tell. It, however, frequently 
 spins its cocoons under fence-raUs, boards, or any sheltered protec- 
 tion. 
 
 The cocoon is much like that of the common tent caterpUlar. 
 Three days after its completion, the caterpillar again casts its skin, 
 and becomes a chrysalis, of a pale reddish brown color, dusted all 
 over with a pale powder and densely clothed with short and yellow- 
 ish hairs. In a couple of weeks more, or usually in this state from 
 the first to the tenth of July, the moth issues, being of a brownish 
 yellow, and having two oblique transverse lines across the front 
 wings. It is quite like the moth of the common tent caterpillar. 
 The most marked difference is, that the transverse bands upon the 
 front wings are darker in this, and lighter in the other species, 
 (b. Fig. 36.) 
 
 There is one noticeable fact about this pest ; that is, that for sev- 
 eral years we see few, if any, of them, find then there is a year or 
 two of great plenty. The reason of this is, that our insect friends, 
 and we fortunately have many that live upon this caterpillar, gain 
 ground upon it, and come near exterminating it ; but, with a dearth 
 of food, they die out also, and the caterpillar then gains again, to 
 become a prey to his persecutors. 
 
64 
 
 By their aid we get along nicely, only now and then a yeai-, when 
 we have to Mil them to save our trees. If you jar the tree or branch 
 upon which they are feeding, they will spin down a few inches, and 
 may then be picked off. At their foui-th molt, they may be killed as 
 they congregate upon the leeward side of trees, as before noticed ; 
 but, as they have already eaten up the foliage, it is not so necessary 
 to kill them as it was earUer, yet always kill them when you can. If 
 you search your trees for eggs in the winter, and destroy them, you 
 will never have much ti'ouble. 
 
 When one tree is denuded of foliage the caterpillar travels to an- 
 other and ascends it. This can be prevented by putting tar or 
 printers' ink upon a band about the trees not infested. The cocoons 
 may also be sought for and many killed. 
 
 WEB-WORM. Hyphantria Textor (Harris). 
 
 mki!kL:''d:'!0^; 
 
 mm 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 All natural size, a, caterpillar; b, chrysalis: c, motb. 
 
 One of the most common and destructive of our insect pests is 
 the little caterpillar known by the name of the "fall web-worm," or 
 perhaps more commonly as the "web-worm." The web of this, 
 which at first look seems an insignificant caterpillar, frequently, in 
 the months of July and August, covers the hmbs of many trees — a 
 web enclosing leaves seared and dead, from the ravages of this pest. 
 They are more often seen upon elm and apple trees, but other trees 
 are not exempt ; and often, towards the end of summer, most of our 
 fruit and shade trees show the ominous web enclosing dried leaves. 
 The eggs from which these ■ caterpillars proceed, are laid by the 
 parent moth in a cluster upon the end leaf of a brance. When these 
 eggs hatch they are generally on the third or fourth leaf from the 
 end of the twig, as since the eggs were laid the limbs have usually 
 extended their growth to that extent. 
 
 As soon as they hatch they begin to spin. To provide a shelter 
 for themselves, they cover the top of the leaf with a close web, which 
 is the result of their united labors. They feed in company beneath 
 this covering, devouring only the upper skin and pulpy portions of 
 the leaf, leaving the veins and lower side untouched. The leaf with- 
 
65 
 
 ers, and they enlarge their web, taking in other leaves, first to the 
 end and then downward on the branch, and taking in other branch- 
 es, — frequently destroying the entire amount of foliage on the tree. 
 
 When fully grown, this caterpillar measures a little more than one 
 inch in length, having a body rather more slender than other simi- 
 lar feeders, very sparsely covered with hairs of a grayish color, inter- 
 mingled with a few that are black. The general color of the body 
 is greenish yellow, dotted with black. There is a brown blackish 
 stripe along the top of the back, and a bright yellow stripe on each 
 side. The warts fi'om which the hairs proceed are black on the back 
 and r.usty yellow on the sides. The head and feet are black. Of 
 course their age has much to do with the distinctness of the mark- 
 ings, and the adult worm only vdll be found perfectly marked. 
 
 In the last of August, or more generally in the month of Septem- 
 ber, they leave the tree and disperse, wandering about, eating a little 
 of almost all plants they happen to find in their way, until they find 
 a suitable place for concealment, where they make their, almost 
 transparent cocoons, composed of a slight web of silk intermingled 
 with the cast-off hairs from their bodies. If this place is not found 
 they bury themselves just beneath the surface of the ground, where 
 they spin as before, and remain in all cases through the winter in 
 this latitude ; but farther south they are said to be two-brooded. 
 
 The pupae are transformed to moths in the ensuing June or July. 
 These moths are white and without spots in Vermont, but at 
 the south are said to possess rudimentary spots upon the first pair 
 of wings. The fore legs are tawny yellow, and their feet blackish. 
 Their wings expand about one and one-fourth inches. The antennae 
 and feelers do not differ from those of other moths ; but the females 
 have two rows of minute teeth beneath the antennae, which is a dis- 
 tinguishing feature (See Fig. 37.) 
 
 Prom the foregoing description of its habits and transformations, 
 it is evident that the time to exterminate these destructive insects is 
 when they are first hatched from the egg, or while but few leaves 
 are involved. This can be done at any time of the day, as they do 
 not go about the tree for food, like the tent caterpillars, but are 
 always on the leaves covered with the web. If you carefully pick 
 the leaves, it is sufficient ; or you can cut off the branch affected if 
 you choose. In any event they must be destroyed, and the surest 
 and best method is to burn them. Take a basket into your orchard, 
 gather in it all the leaves on which the web is found, take them to 
 your stove and bum them. Close attention to your premises for a 
 few years will almost entirely rid you of this pest. On no account 
 delay, as, if you do, they will slip through your fingers and very 
 much increase your labors the next season. If they are neglected 
 until they cover more than you desire to prune away, kill as you do 
 the tent caterpillar. 
 
 Some consider this the second brood of the tent caterpillar, but 
 from the foregoing account it will at once be seen how widely they 
 differ. It hibernates in the pupa state, they in the egg state ; it 
 appears in midsummer and fall, they in the spring ; its moth is pure 
 white, theirs reddish brown ; its eggs are deposited on the leaf and 
 
66 
 
 are hatched in a few days, theirs are deposited on the twig, so as to 
 jjass the winter on the tree ; this feeds solely upon the soft part of 
 the leaf under its web, they devour the whole leaf always on the out- 
 side of their tent. It will thus be seen that the only time and best 
 manner of extermination -must be as above given. 
 
 ROUND HEADED APPLE TREE BORER. 
 
 Saperda JSivittata. Say. 
 
 Fig. 38. 
 Figures all natural size, a, larva fall grown ; 6, pupa ; 
 
 , perfect beetle. 
 
 This is a native American, born and bred in the mountains, feed- 
 ing upon the wild crab, mountain ash, and various other trees. It 
 comes out of the trunk usually in -June and always by night, in its 
 perfect state. Resting by day, in the night time it flies from tree to 
 tree for food and companions. Though they feed upon the bark of 
 branches where it is tender and succulent, they lay their eggs on the 
 bark at the foot of the tree, where the young, as soon as hatched, 
 commence to burrow in the bai-k. For the first year they live mostly 
 in the bark, but towards the last of the season advance into the sap 
 wood. Frequently, in young trees the bark over them will crack 
 and allow their castings to fall out, and thus they may be detected. 
 They remain in the trees three years. As the time comes for their 
 exit, they eat their way to the baik, thin that somewhat, and go into 
 the pupa state to emerge perfected in about four weeks. Fifty years 
 ago large, thrifty, long lived apple trees were exceedingly common, 
 and were grown with comparatively little effort on the part of our 
 ancestors. This borer in the apple tree was then entirely unknown 
 to the farmer, and the first specimen ever seen was found and de- 
 scribed by Thomas Say in 1824 ; and it was not till some time after 
 that its destructive powers became evident in the apple tree. Yet it 
 is to this borer, almost entirely, that the short and precarious life of 
 the apple tree is due. 
 
 All understand this borer to be a dreadful pest, but how to deal 
 mth it is the question ; and to show more fully its habits and how 
 it may be exterminated, I will briefly review its history. The eggs 
 
67 
 
 when laid, as before mentioned, soon hatch, and the tiny worm, dif- 
 fering fi'om the adult in no essential point but size, eats into the 
 bai"k, and then follows between the bark and wood, sometimes enter- 
 ing the sap wood 1 ow dawn towards the root the first season. While 
 eatinsr its way in lengthy furrows beneath the bark, the bark some- 
 times cracks and the castings of the worm tumble out, revealing its 
 presence. When such is thc^ case they may be killed with a sharp 
 wire, or carefully out out with the point of a knife. If left alone 
 they will remain inactive through the winter, to commence their 
 work again early in the spring. The second season they spend 
 mostly in the sap wpod or near the bark, getting two-thirds their 
 size, and this year doing their greatest damage, as five or six of them 
 will frequently girdle or nearly girdle the tree, making death sure ; 
 they again winter low down in the body of the tree, and eat the next 
 season deeply into the wood, sometimes quite through the tree, fin- 
 ishing its gnawing work at the commencement of the third winter. 
 At the close of its work it extends its passage invariably to the bark 
 and thinning that somewhat, stuffing the upper end with wood, like 
 sawdust, and below with soft wood fibres, it rests from its labors, 
 remaining motionless as before through the vdnter. The following 
 spring it casts off its skin, be'ftoming a pupa ; rests in this condition 
 about three weeks ; and then as a beetle, gradually gets strength, 
 and after nearlj' two weeks more cuts its way through the sawdust 
 piled against the bark, and then the bark, to issue through a round 
 hole as an adult beetle, ready to propagate as before. The time 
 from its entry to its egress is about one month short of three years. 
 
 Few ever take the trouble to hunt for this beetle, and as it flies in 
 the night, lying concealed during the day, it is not often seen in the 
 adult state. As will be seen in the cut it has two stripes its entire 
 length, and is rather handsome. (Fig. 38). 
 
 There is still another species, called the flat-headed species, as the 
 head of the larva is flat, but as it is never very abundant and is of 
 small size, it seldoaa does much harm, and the same treatment is 
 destructive to both species. 
 
 The best remedy is to prevent the successful laying of eggs, which 
 may be done by smoothing and then soaping the bark. If such is 
 done near the ground only, they will lay their eggs at the juncture 
 of the largest limbs or higher up on the trunk, so scraping and soap- 
 ing must be thorough. If the borers are really in the trees there is 
 no way except to kill them, or cut them out one at a time. A small 
 jjiece of whalebone is the best to kill them with, by pushing it into 
 their holes. A piece of wire will answer. When the bark is killed 
 over them it is just as well to cut them out. The application of the 
 soap is necessary in May. Either soft or hard soap will do, but if 
 hard soap is used a thin piece had better be crowded down into each 
 principal crotch of the tree, so that the rain may wash it down the 
 trunk. Do this, of com-se, after hiving washed the tree with strong 
 suds. 
 
68 
 
 CODDLING-MOrH. Garpooapsa Pomonella (Linn.)- 
 
 Fig. 39. 
 
 "■ a, apple eaten by larva; 6, spot where egg is laid anrl the young worm enters; c, cavity 
 made by larva; d, chrysalis; e, larva full grown; /, moth with wings folded; g, moch with 
 wings expanded ; A, head and first joint of larva (enlarged) ; i, cocoon. 
 
 This insect is, doubtless, found everywhere, where apples are raised. 
 In the month of June, in this State, the night flying moth comes 
 from his silken cocoon, which was hid under some bit of bark, or 
 sliver, on the fence near by. After pairing, the female may be seen 
 in the dusk of night flitting around the^apple tree, laying her eggs 
 in the blossom- end of the little apples. 
 
 This is a most exquisitely colored insect, but a magnifying glass 
 and a good light are required in order to bring out all its beauties. 
 The upper wings are rich brown, banded at the base and tip with a 
 darker and warmer brown. In the dark band at the tip of the wing 
 is an oval mark of brilliant gold colored scales, having a very dark 
 center. In certain lights this dark center takes a reddish hue, while 
 a golden gloss pervades the whole of the wing. Even the outer 
 wings when viewed in a side light, shine as if made of the' richest 
 satin. By a proper adjustment of the light, a rather curious effect 
 can be produced. The wings of one side glittering and shining in 
 full splendor, while the corresponding wings of the other side are 
 nothing but dull grey, brown and black. So excellent a description 
 of the ravages of this little moth is given by Mr. E. Newman that I 
 will let him speak for himself : 
 
 " It is the most beautiful of the beautiful tribe to which it belongs ; 
 yet from its habits not being knovm, it is seldom seen in the moth 
 state, and .the apple grower knows no more than the man in the moon 
 to what cause he is indebted for his basketful of worm eaten wind- 
 falls in the stillest weather. 
 
 " To find the moth in the daytime, the trunks of the apple ti-ees 
 should be carefully looked over ; or if your orchard be surrounded 
 
69 
 
 by wooden fence, the moth may often be found sittinj^ against it, 
 with its pretty wings neatly folded round its body. Towards even 
 ing — in fact, at sunset — ^it begins to move, and may then be seen 
 hovering about the little apples which, by the time the moth leaves 
 the chrjsalis — the middle of June — are well knit, and consequently 
 fit for the reception of the eggs, which it lays in the eyes, one only 
 in each, by introducing its long ovipositos between the leaves of the 
 calyx, which forms a tent about it, that effectually shields it from 
 the inclemency of the weather, or any other casualty. 
 
 " As soon as the egg hatches, the little grub gnaws a hole in the 
 crown of the apple, and soon buries itself in its substance ; and it is 
 worthy of remark that the rind of the apple, as if to afford every 
 facility to the destroyer, is thinner here than in any other part, and 
 consequently more easily ipierced. The apple most commonly at- 
 tacked is the early sort, which ripens in August and September. 
 
 " The grub, controlled by an unvarying instinct, eats in the apple 
 obliquely downwards, and, by thus avoiding the core and seeds, in 
 no way hinders its growth. At first it makes but slow progress, 
 being but little bigger than a thread, but after a fortnight its size and 
 operations have increased ; it has now eaten half way down the ap- 
 ple, and the position of the hole at the top, if the apple continue 
 upright, or nearly so, is inconvenient for a purpose it has up to this 
 time been used for, that is, as a pass to get rid of its little pellets of 
 excrement, which are something like fine saw dust or coarse sand. 
 Another communication with the outer air is therefore required, and 
 it must be so constructed as to allow the power of gravity to assist 
 in keeping it clear : it is accordingly made directly downwards tow- 
 ard that part of the apple which is lowest, and thus the trouble of 
 thrusting the pellets upward through the eye of the apple is saved, 
 and a constant admission given to a supply of air without any 
 labor. 
 
 " The hole now made is not, however, sufficiently open for an ob- 
 server to gain by its means any knowledge of what is going on with 
 in ; this is only to be obtained by cutting open a number of the ap- 
 ples as they gradually advance towards ripeness ; tlTe hole is. 
 however, very easily seen, from its always having adhering to it on 
 the outside an accumulation of little grains which have been thrust 
 thi-ough. 
 
 " Having completed this work the grub returns towards the center 
 of the apple, where he feeds at his ease. When within a few days of 
 being full-fed he, for the first time, enters the core through a round 
 hole gnawed in the hard, homy substance which always separates 
 the seeds from the pulp of the fruit, and the destroyer now finds 
 himself in that spacious chamber which apples have in their center. 
 From this time he eats only the seeds, never again tasting the more 
 common pulp which hitherto has satisfied his unsophisticated palate ; 
 now notheing less than the high flavored, aromatic kernels will suit 
 his tooth, and on these for a few days he feasts in luxury. Somehow 
 or other the seeds of an apple are connected with its growth as the 
 heart of animal with its life ; injure the heart, an animal dies ; injure 
 the seeds, an apple falls. Whether the falling of his house gives the 
 
70 
 
 tenant warning to quit, I cannot say, but quit he does, and that al- 
 most immediately ; he leaves the core, crawls along his breathing 
 and clearing out gallery, the mouth of which, before nearly closed, 
 he now gnaws into a smooth, round hole, which will permit him free 
 passage without hurting his fat, soft, round body; then out he 
 comes, and for the first time in his Hfe finds himself m the open air. 
 He now wanders about on the ground till he finds the stem of a 
 tree ; up this he climbs, anri hides himself in some nice little crack 
 in the bark. 
 
 "I should remark that the fall of the apple, the exit of the grub, 
 and his wandering to this place of security, usuall take place in the 
 night time. In this situation he remains without stirring for a day 
 or two, as if to rest himself after the uncommon fatigue of a two 
 yards' march ; he then gnaws away the bark a little, in order to get 
 further in out of the way of observation ; and having made a smooth 
 chamber big enough for his wants he spins a beautiful little milk- 
 white silken case, in which, after a few weeks, he becomes a chrys- 
 alis, and in this state remains throughout the winter and until the 
 following June, unless some bird peeping into every cranny happen 
 to spy him, in which case he is plucked without ceremony from his 
 retreat, and his last moments are spent in the bird's crop ; but, sup- 
 posing no ill-fortune betide him, by the middle of June he is again 
 on the wing and hovering round the young apples on a midsummer 
 evening as before. 
 
 "By burning weeds in your garden at this time of year, you will 
 effectually drive away this little moth. If you have trees the crops 
 of which you value, make a smoking (mind! not a blazing) fire un- 
 der each ; it will put you to some inconvenience if your garden be 
 near your house, but the apples will repay you for that." 
 
 Despite these destructive habits of this insect— perhaps in conse 
 quence of them — I have always cherished a kindly reminiscence of 
 this moth. When I was a child there was a remarkably fine tree in 
 the garden, the fruit of which ripened early and was particularly 
 juicy. As children we were not allowed to gather the fruit at our 
 discretion, but were permitted to take that which fell, without any 
 unfair means being used, such as beating or shaking the branches. 
 Thanks to the codlin moth, a considerable number of apples always 
 did fall annually, having ripened much before their time, as is the 
 manner of fruit which will never come to perfection. 
 
 Like most larvae which never see the light until they are full fed, the 
 caterpillar of this insect is nearly colorless with the exception of the 
 head, which is brown black, hard and shining. Hogs in the orchard 
 in such numbers as to eat all the fallen fruit is a sure relief from the 
 depredations of this pest. Knocking off the wormy fruit with poles 
 is also a good practice, then pick up ana boil it. If this is not done, 
 cloths laid in the crotches of the branches to shelter the worms and 
 entice them to build their cocoons, wisps of hay or straw wound 
 round the trees, folded or twisted paper bands put around the trees, 
 or any attachment that will afford shelter to the worm and entice it 
 to spin its cocoon, in such a way that it can be destroyed, is bene- 
 ficial. These bands or cloths, after the cocoons are formed, should 
 
71 • 
 
 be burned so as to make the destruction sure. They should first be 
 placed about the trees about one month after the tree is in full blos- 
 som, and from this time to the time the apples are picked they should 
 be kept in order, being examined every week, and if cocoons are 
 found they should be at once destroyed and new bands put in their 
 places, or if but a few they may be crushed and the old protectors 
 remain. 
 
 In a letter received this season I am asked the philosophy of the 
 hay or straw bands. 1 can only say, with Prof. KUey, that the straw 
 or hay bands simply afford an enticing shelter for the worm when 
 seeking for a place to build its spun up house. The hay band is just 
 the thing wanted, as it affords the requisite shelter, and in ninety- 
 nine cases in a hundred will be accepted. There are many patent 
 traps for the same thing, but I am at least safe in saying that none 
 of them are any better than the straw band ; many not half as good. 
 
 Of the second ciop of wormy apples, which are found so often in 
 the barrels that find Their way to market, I can only say that a care- 
 ful examination in early spring of the barrels and the cellar in which 
 tbey are kept, and the careful killing of all the cocoons that are 
 found, will do much towards preventing the early brood. Though 
 they have a lew natural enemies, they are not in such abundance as 
 to allow the orchardist to depend upon them in the least, and so I 
 need make no mention of them. 
 
 COMMON HOUSE-FLY. Musca Domestica (Linn.). 
 
 Fig. 40 ; Tongue. 
 
 Fig. 41 ; Larva and Pupa. 
 
 This is the most persistent companion of man. It has followed 
 him everywhere, and is to be. found where he is found. 
 
 With the warmth of spring the fly begins to show his familiar 
 form in our dwellings, and to inspire the careful housekeeper with 
 dread, but where it comes from, or how it has passed the winter, is 
 usually unTmown. 
 
 Not all who have watched the fly make his toilet, or even looked 
 at him through a magnifying glass to see the little parasites upon 
 him, realize that once he was a disgusting- maggot as unlike his per- 
 
72 
 
 feet self as well can be. The eggs of the house fly are about four- 
 hundredths of an inch long and half as wide, white, pitted, and with 
 hexagonal depressions. They are mere white specks piled by the 
 parent on warm manure or decomposing vegetation — each female 
 laying several hundred. The excrements of the horse are the most 
 desirable, and yet they may, for want of that material, deposit them 
 on other refuse of the bam, and sometimes even on sand or loam that 
 is made rich by the wash of the buildings. The eggs hatch almost 
 immediately, producing a maggot, fleshy, smooth and shining, about 
 one-third of an inch long, and yellowish white (Fig. 41.) After feed- 
 ing for some time it goes into the pupa state, shortening up as in a 
 (Fig. 41.) It is a reddish brown case, two-thirds the length of the 
 maggot, and, as seen in the cut, thicker and stouter. In this transi- 
 tion case, it remains from six to ten days — according to the warmth 
 of the weather — emerging therefrom a perfect, full-grown fly. I 
 have frequently called the attention of the farmer to the pupa case 
 asking him what it was. He almost invariably answers that he sup- 
 poses them undigested oats that have passed his horse ; and in sev- 
 eral instances they were dosing horse for indigestion, having taken 
 these pupae for the signs of such. From inquiry thus, I have con- 
 cluded that most farmers notice the pupa cases, but do not under- 
 stand what they are. I have never Imown the house fly to lay its 
 eggs upon meat, or anything about the house, though they some- 
 times do about a sink-spout, or other places where slops are thrown 
 out. With a little concerted action among our population, the house 
 fly might be greatly decimated iu numbers. All barnyard fowls are 
 fond of the larva and the pupa also, and, if yarded where they have 
 full access to their breeding grounds, will greatly aid in their de- 
 struction. 
 
 There is in the study of the proboscis and tongue-like organ, as 
 seen in the cut above (Fig. 40), much for study. The maxillae are 
 minute, and their palpi (mp) are single -jointed, and the mandibles 
 (w) are comparatively uselesss, being very short and small compared 
 with the lancet-like jaws of the mosquito. But the structure of the 
 tongue itself (labium, I) is most curious. When the fly settles upon 
 a lump of sugar, or any other eatable sustance, it unbends its tongue, 
 extends it, and the broad, knob like end divides into two broad, flat, 
 muscular leaves (I) which thus present a sucker-like surface, with " 
 which the fly laps up his food. These two leaves are supported up- 
 on a frame-work of tracheal tubes, which act a set of springs to 
 open and shut the muscular leaves. These, it will be seen from the . 
 magnified cut, end in hairs projecting externally. Thus the inside 
 of this broad, fleshy expansion is rough, like a rasp, and so is easily 
 employed by the iasect in scraping or tearing delicate surfaces. It 
 is by means of this curious structure that the house fly occasions 
 much injury to to the covers of books, or any poHshed surface that 
 owes its polish to albuminous material. It is by means of these, 
 also, that it teases us in the heat of summer, when it alights upon 
 the hands or face, to sip the perspiration as it exudes from, and is 
 condensed upon, the skin. 
 
 Doubtless all have noticed that house flies are more numerous 
 
73 
 
 abont barns, but few trace the transformation. The bam and its 
 vicinity are usually its birth-place, and about such places may be 
 seen in June, now and then, stray flies, the remnant of last year's 
 brood, that have in some sheltered nook survived in a dormant state 
 the cold of winter. 
 
 If such outhouses were neat and clean as they should be, the num- 
 ber of flies could be greatly decimated. Is it not worth our while 
 to do the best we can to exterminate them 1 
 
FORESTRY. 
 
 By Dr. H. A. Ctjtting. 
 
 Vermont is not old in history. Almost within the memory of her 
 oldest inhabitant the State was a forest of valuable timber. Her 
 pine lands were among the most beautiful on the continent. Her 
 crystal streams were cold and very regular in their discharge of 
 water, forming fine mill sites, and her springs were trusty reservoirs 
 for household or pasture. But there has come a change. We are 
 no longer proud of her stately pines, and many mill streams have no 
 longer the wheiewith to turn a mill, and springs once never failing 
 are some of them numbered with childhood scenes that have long 
 ago departed. Let us glance at our timlier supply in Vermont at 
 present. From the forests in Franklin county the pine has been 
 mainly culled out, but hemlock still abounds. Thn lumber is worth 
 $8 to $10 per thousand, and bark perhaps $7 per cord. Basswood and 
 ash bring $10 to $20. The spruce is now being rapidly manufactured 
 into butter tubs, most of which are shipped west . On nearly all the 
 farms are orchards of the sugar maple, ranging from 100 to 1,000 
 trees. Those orchards are not only held at higher value than other 
 timber land, but in many cases biing more per acre than cultivated 
 lands of the same quahty. The forests, as near as I can ascertain, 
 yield 25 to 50 cords of wood per acre, worth from three to four dol- 
 lars per cord. It is thought by the farmers and with reason, that 
 the railroads with their great demand for w< lod will soon use up the 
 same, so as to make a scarcity and consequent increase in price, 
 unless measures be taken to reproduce a new gi'owth. The forests 
 in Chittenden county are already nearly all second gi-owth. There 
 are, however, some extensive tracts of cedai- ; also hemlock large 
 enough to peel bark, which is in good demand. In Essex much of 
 the original forest is left, but at the present rate of con- 
 sumption 20 years will denude it of all first growth timber, and some 
 think it wiU be done in much less time. Some tracts of timber now 
 yield 75 thousand to the acre, while the average of first growth will 
 doubtless fall below 20 thous.and. So with wood which ranges from 
 10 to 200 cords per acre. In Orleans coimty there is still much 
 original growth, but it is fast disappearing. The hills are largely 
 covered with hard wood, which in many places is almost wholly sugar 
 maple, the trees being from one to two and a half feet in diameter. 
 Land having from 50 to 100 trees per acre is worth as much as til- 
 lage land. The spruce is in great demand and is rapidly disappear- 
 ing. In LflmoiUe one-half of the forest land is soft timber, wh ch is 
 rapidly being cat off. Some maple orchards sell from one to two 
 hundred dollars per acre. The quality of sugar is excellent, selling 
 
75 
 
 from 10 to 15 cents per pound. Railroads and manufacturing estab- 
 lishments are fast stripping Caledonia county of all timber except in 
 inaccessible places. Good wood or timber land sells for $100 per 
 acre. The pine once so abundant is nearly all gone. That you may 
 the better compare in your mind's e5'e the different parts of the 
 State, I will give yoti the timber percentage of each county. I wish, 
 howevei-, to have you bear in mind that as I take this from the cen- 
 sus report it includes highways, water and ledges, swamps, etc., not 
 cultivated. Addison, '27 per cent; Bennington, 32; Caledonia, 34; 
 Chittenden, 22 ; Essex, 4'9 ; Franklin, 28 ; Grand Isle, 18 ; Lamoille, 
 43 ; Orange, 26 ; Orleans, 44 ; Rutland, 27 ; Washington, 32 ; 
 Windham, 28 ; Windsor. 24, which gives an average for the State of 
 30 per cent, which means about 25 per cent of actual forest, includ- 
 ing all second growth, which is about the average of the whole 
 United States. But at our present rate of consumption where shall 
 we be in 30 years ? Can any of you tell ? Tour legislature came 
 near passing a law that you should not use barbed wire fence at the 
 last session. As things are going now what will you fence with 30 
 years hence ? It is certainly worth your earnest consideration. I 
 am sorry Vermont did not lead in laws encouraging the planting of 
 trees. California pays a premium of $1 for each tree planted upon 
 her highways, if of reliable kind and in thrifty condition four years 
 after planting, the same to be shown by commissioners appointed for 
 the purpose. 
 
 Illinois, Missouri and Iowa encourage tree planting. Massachu- 
 setts offered a premium of one thousand dollars for the best planta- 
 tion of forest trees. This was won by Maj. B. P. Poore. State societies 
 have also in many states encouraged tree planting, but as yet there 
 has been no special advance. The general government has, however, 
 enacted some laws in relation to her public lands looking toward the 
 cultivation of forests, but as yet they have been any thing but efficient. 
 Still, under the laws of preservation and cultivation in Europe much 
 has been done, yet in Great Britain the forest area is but 5 per cent 
 of its domain. Her coal iields have thus far supplied her fuel, but 
 please tell me what she will do when they, too, are exhausted ? ' Cut 
 off her importations of lumber to day and make her dependent 
 upon herself, and what could be done even in her cities of brick and 
 stone ? Let us think. In the erecticm of the ordinary stone or 
 brick buildings, vfith wooden floors and joists, it is estimated that 
 the cost of lumber for sash, doors, roofing, flooring, etc., is an ex- 
 pense equal at least to the cost of brick and stone. The wood work 
 then represents one-half its value, but is that ail '? If the building 
 is one of brick the expense of the brick was one third in their burn- 
 ing. In like manner one-half the value of the lime was from the 
 wood in burning. It was a wooden wagon that took it to the kiln 
 and brought it from. 
 
 The brick maker, the li'ue burner, the stone mason, the brick 
 layer, the plasterer, the pai'iter, the carpenter, have all needed wood 
 in their dwellings, in their tools, in their work almost from beginning 
 to end it has been wood, incessantly wood. In every avocation of 
 life we can little more dispense with wood than we can with food. 
 
76 
 
 We raise and manufaotui'e large amounts of cotton, but three times 
 as many workmen are employed on wood. We have many mills that 
 produce flour, but we have thirteen times as many producing lum- 
 ber, and that, too, at a rapid rate. The lumbermen of Vermont 
 employ 4,500 men, and the value of their product is near three and 
 a half millions of dollars annually. 
 
 The time is close at hand when economy must commence because 
 of increase in prices. I cannot better illustrate the imminent danger 
 to our land by the destruction of forests than to use the words' of 
 that famous French potter, Bernard Pallissyj who died in the bastile 
 for his religion in 1589. Having expressed his indignation in no 
 measured terms at the wanton destruction of timber he says, "I 
 cannot enough detest this thing. I call it not an eixor, but a curse 
 to France ; for when forests shall be cut all arts shall cease, and 
 they who practice them shall be driven out to eat grass with 
 Nebuchadnezzar and the beasts of the field. I have divers times 
 thought to set down in writing the arts that shall perish when there 
 shall be no more wood, but when I had written down a great num- 
 ber I did perceive that there could be no end to my writing, and 
 having diligently considered, I found that there was not any that 
 could be followed without wood." But there are many persons who 
 have an idea that coal will take the place of wood, and so it may to 
 a great extent, but I have yet to learn how those using it can entirely 
 dispense with wood. Again, as the cost of mining coal increases 
 and one mine after another gives out as they surely must, will not 
 coal be an expensive fuel, at least to those removed from coal mines. 
 But hear what the London Times says in reference to a calculation 
 based on the English census reports and the uses of coal : "In 
 three generations, that is in the days of our children's children, we 
 are told that our supply of coal vrill be exhausted, if its use goes 
 on at the present increase of consumption. Coal is everythino- to 
 England. Without coal our furnaces will become idle, our factoiies 
 and workshops will be still as the grave, the locomotive will rust in 
 the shed, and the rail be buried in weeds. Our streets will be dark 
 our houses uninhabitable, our rivers will forget the paddle wheel! 
 and we shall again be separated from the United States ; by months 
 of time. Oui- arts and manufactories will fly the soil, and wise Eng- 
 land will then be like the silly virgin without oil in her lamp." 
 
 Should not such words as these arouse Vermonters to the value 
 of wood, which has a value here now of at least four times its value 
 for fuel. Our general government has no control over the wood 
 lands of Vermont, hence is it not the duty of every citizen to aid in 
 preventing waste? It is the duty of our State to aid in the develop- 
 ment of knowledge tod science, necessary to aid the husbandman to 
 do the best he can in the production of timber, because individual 
 experiments are not remunerative, and a unity of action is necessary 
 for great results. The general diffusion of knowledge is also the 
 duty of a State, but it is never done unless there is a demand for it, 
 and the demand must come from the people. 
 
 A vast mistake exists in the minds of many men as to the relative 
 values of different woods. As to their ability to produce heat cer- 
 
77 
 
 tain kinds of wood are preferred by the purchaser, because his father 
 used it, or because some friend told him it was best, und he will Mave 
 it at any price, and will buy only what he desires and his neighbors 
 do likewise, and so a whole village will settle down on beech, birch 
 or maple, and the producer cannot in consequence sell his other 
 wood and he burns it up in heaps. A wanton destruction. I there- 
 fore introduce from the carefully prepared tables of Maicus Bull, 
 upon the value and heat of American woods, the value of our more 
 common kinds, placing hickory as the best at 100. Of forty-six dif- 
 ferent kinds in common use here only five stood under 50, that is 
 only five that were not half as good. 
 
 These were Lombardy poplar, 40 ; Aspen poplar, 42 ; white pine, 
 43 ; basswood and white biich, 48. Rock maple or sugar maple is 
 only 60. Eighteen varieties are better than this maple, among which 
 were all the small-growing trees, like alder, yellow birch, whistle- 
 wood, mountain ash, cherry, etc., which are almost always destroyed 
 in heaps rather than burned as fuel. Red oak and red heart hickoi-y 
 were 81 j white oak and chestnut, 86, and pig nut hickory, 95. 
 
 In relation to oui' wood lots let us remove trees carefully, and for 
 the growth and protection of the remaining forest, taking such as 
 are likely to blow down or so near dead as to be slow growers. By 
 all means exclude domestic animals from the woods ; the damage 
 they do is irreparable. Encourage our farmers to study the value 
 and rapidity of growth, so they can properly cherish the reproduc- 
 tion of timber ; let them thin out the poorest trees where they stand 
 too thickly. Take away large branching, indifierent trees where 
 woods are sparse, and set young trees, or plant nuts of valuable va^ 
 rieties, in the area thus opened. This lets the sunshine in to start 
 them and they will grow rapidly. If you plant nuts and seeds of 
 trees in shady places, the seeds may not sprout for a thousand years 
 or never. 
 
 Our woods in Essex county, and I presume other sections of the 
 State, are filled with the seeds of the common wild cherry, and yet 
 not one starts until the old growth is cut away, when they come up 
 in countless numbers. If the four million farmers in this country 
 would each give an hour of real thought to this subject, and then 
 practice their own convictions, the result would profit this nation 
 hundreds of milhons of dollars. 
 
 Our farmers should consider the ultimate pecuniary benefit of such 
 a course, for themselves and their children after them, both in the 
 better incomes of their farms, and their greater value to thier fami- 
 lies if, in time, they should be sold. We are cutting down too much 
 of the timber for the benefit of our cultivated fields, we are thus 
 removing the extended and grand instrument which God uses in 
 nature for greatly controlling the extrciucs of temperature, and mod- 
 erating the violence of wind and irregular rainfall. 
 
 Cutting off timber to raise grain, will, when carried far enough, 
 change those rich fields to very moderate grass lands. The lesson 
 of the goose that laid the golden egg should check our thoughtless- 
 ness, and lead us to save our timber and even produce more, thus 
 preventing many diseases that will stab our loved ones as with a 
 
78 
 
 dagger, we could then cultivate with greater care and thoroughness 
 the present fields. Enery word that has or may be written or 
 spoken in this country on this subject will be a blessing. Every 
 man who has experimented to however small an extent, whether led 
 thereto by his own necessities for trees or by love for the enjoyment, 
 has been and is to-day a public benefactor. Like the cloud no big- 
 ger than a man's hand just rising from the sea, an awakening interest 
 will come on this subject, which as a question of political economy 
 will place the interests of cotton, wool, coal, iron, meat, and even 
 grain, beneath its feet. We can subsist without any one or all of 
 these, but without wood never. 
 
 But let us look at it as a profitable investment. Can we place 
 capital anywhere where it will increase as fast as here ? Let us for 
 a moment con.sider. If we count the rings of growth on the section 
 of a tree we find a series of cii'cles on the general average about 
 equal in width fi-om year to year. These counted from the middle 
 outward form a series 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc., corresponding with the years 
 of a tree's growth. The areas of these circles are as the squares of 
 these numbers, or 1, 4, 9, 16, 2.5, etc., and thus it will be seen that 
 the gain of growth from year to year is the difference of these sums, 
 or 3, 5. 7, 9, 11, 13, etc., an aritlametical series, having a common 
 difference of two. I will again ask what other investment pays such 
 rates as this ? Yet the truth is not yet half told, for I have said 
 nothing of the increasing height and consequent increased value in 
 that I. irection. 
 
 I need not, I trust, remind you that the importance of this subject 
 has long engaged the attention of foreign governments, and that 
 to day in every country of Europe they have some system of forest 
 management. The more elaborate systems are in Prance and Ger- 
 many. They have been perfected through centuries of experience. 
 They have their schools of forestry as we have our military schools, 
 under g ivernment instruction, and those instructed thus become 
 agents of government, subject to promotion, retirement, and after a 
 hfe in the service are pensioned. But I will not longer speak of the 
 tree's growth, but of the immense waste as we use our lumber. 
 Scarcely one half of the timber cut becomes availa .>le, the waste of 
 sawdust, shavings, pieces, are continual : when we burn it much goes 
 to waste in smoke and gas. 
 
 But as the demand, so is invention. A few years ago wood began 
 to be worked into paper pulp ; but it was selected wood, and had to 
 be first ground on grindstones, and like all other wood- working 
 machines, it made much waste ; but soon came another invention 
 which can be seen in operation in Gorham, ile., taking refuse wood 
 of all kinds, be it sawdust, shavings or twigs, even, and by the dis- 
 integration of fibre it converts it without any waste into pulp, from 
 which may be compressed any instrument made of wood ; let the arti- 
 cle be barrel, keg, pail, basket, carriage wheel, boat, chair, shovel handle, 
 or any finish about a house, or utensil made, it matters not what its 
 form the cast from the mold is perfect : much harder, and said to be 
 stronger and more compact than the original wood, consequently it 
 will take a higher finish, and as many articles have to be made from 
 
19 
 
 many pieces, while in this way it will be all in one piece, and hence 
 much stronger and entirely free from shrinkage, warping or crack- 
 ing, and as it has no pores, it will not watersoak. Aiter casting, it 
 can be turned and smoothed in a lathe as well as any wood. Though 
 the invention is a new one, the demand for articles thus made is very 
 extensive, and it is already an extensive industry. May all welcome 
 this invention, and hope that the time is near when all waste of wood 
 may cease. 
 
 Permit me further to mention an economy in the manufacture of 
 charcoal, which may be witnessed in an adjoining state. At an iron 
 furnace where large quantities of charcoal are required for smelting 
 ores, a chemical company has established works for saving the vola- 
 tile products from burning wood into charcoal, and turning them to 
 commercial account. The superintendent says that two months ago 
 his company paid twenty cents for smoke from every cord of wood 
 burned into coal, but since then smoke has risen, and the company 
 pay 31:J cents per cord. This would seem high for a waste product, 
 but the chemist informs us that from the smoke of every cord of 
 wood he gets two gallons of wood alcohol, worth 85 cents per gallon 
 and used for making shellac varnishes, etc.; and further, that the 
 acid residue after the distillation of the alcohol he neutralizes with 
 freshly slacked hme, and evaporated to dryness is worth 2^ cents 
 per pound. Prom a cord of wood the yield of charcoal averages 
 42 bushels, which is worth $3.00 ; ihe chemical products above, are 
 worth $6.70, making a value of $9.70 per cord for the wood. But 
 this is not all ; the combustible gases used for light and fuel supply 
 at least three fourths the cost of production, and might be turned to 
 more profitable account, but as it is you can see that smoke, the 
 waste product, is in reality worth more than double the charcoal. 
 
 I w:ould, if time permitted, tell you the great benefit to be derived 
 from the planting to timber of worn out and abandoned lands ; but 
 I will pass that to tell you the great changes to climate and country 
 the general cutting off of the forest produces. 
 
 We ought to learn from the experience of other nations great and 
 terrible lessons without madly insisting upon suffering the same dis- 
 aster ourselves. Tho history of the world presents to us a fearful 
 record respecting the destruction of forests. Palestine and Syria, 
 Egypt and Italy, France and Spain, have seen some of their most 
 populous regions turned into uninhabitable sections and their most 
 fertile lands into arid, sandy deserts. 
 
 The danger to our land is near at hand, nearer by many years than 
 the unthinking suppose. Theie are parts of Asia Minor, of Northern 
 Africa, of Greece, and even of Alpine Europe, where the operation 
 of causes set in action by man has brought the face of the earth to 
 a desolation almost as great as that of the moon, and that, too, in 
 the brief space of time known as the historic period. They are known 
 from historic record to have been covered with luxuriant woods ver- 
 dant pastures and fertile meadows ; they are now too far deteriorated 
 to be reclaimable by man. Nor can they be again fitted for any use 
 only by miraculous changes in nature under the hand of God, which 
 is not likely to ever be. The earth in fact from this vandal spirit m 
 
80 
 
 man, is fast becomino- an unfit home for its noblest inhabitant, and 
 another era of human depredation and improvidence like that of the 
 past would reduce our fertile land to the verge of starvation and 
 barbarism. But the time referred to here is not necessaiy for the 
 transformation, for the destructive changes occasioned by the agency 
 of man upon the flanks of the Alps, the Appenines, the Pyrenees, 
 and other mountain ranges in central and southern Europe, and the 
 progress of physical deterioration have become so rapid that in some 
 locations a single generUtion has witnessed the beginning and the 
 end of the melancholy revolution. It is as certain as that night 
 follows day that a desolation like thait which has overwhelmed many 
 once beaiitiful and fertile regions of Europe awaits an important 
 part of the United States, unless prompt measures are taken to 
 check the action of vandalism already in operation. Our free insti- 
 tutions of which we boast, and actual ownership of the soil which 
 we possess, gives little chance for the protection of actual law. The 
 only.legal provisions from which anything can be hoped are such as 
 to make it of private advantage to the land owner to spare the trees 
 upon his ground and promote the growth of wood, by exemption 
 from taxation, or otherwise of improving woodland. But the call 
 must come from the people. On no point of practical results are 
 both writers and observers more thoroughly agreed than in affirming 
 the value of forests as agents of at least local amelioration of cli- 
 mate. They also furnish an essential condition of the growth or 
 improvement of a soil by chemical decomposition of its elements, 
 and by the deposit in or on it of vegetable mold. The soil beneath 
 trees never dries as it does in cleared land. It is in a condition to 
 allow all water, whether from rain or snow, to permeate it. These 
 waters carry more or less ammonia with them, whice is a chief agent 
 of rock decomposition. The soil being deep holds water long, 
 yielding it slowly by evaporation, and by its equally slow drainage 
 establishes permanent springs. The fli'st result of too great and 
 general clearing of forest is to dry up the springs and small streams 
 or render them less permanent ; next, to harden the surface soil, 
 forming a stiff mass which sheds the water from ordinary rains, and 
 can only be fertile through tillage. When I was a boy only 35 years 
 ago, in my iiative town there was a meadow stream a mile long at 
 least, with dark, deep, still water, and ranged in width from 15 to 30 
 feet. The stream was large enough for a mill stream, and two saw 
 mills were upon it. Its tributaries- were in the forest, and two of 
 them were considerable streams. It was excellent fishing. Three 
 years since I looked over the same ground. The tributaries were 
 mostly through mowland, their deep channels had disappeared, the 
 streams were dry, and what astonished me most the meadow stream 
 was nearly dry also, and last season it was quite so. It was to me 
 a remarkable change. I visited also several springs that were for- 
 merly large and constant, but they were dry. So it is in Lnuen 
 burgh, also, and the decrease has in some instances been one-half in 
 twenty years. On the other hand by the cultivation and starting of 
 trees and shrubbeiy about Salt Lake the amount of rainfall increases, 
 and the surfiice of the lake is many feet higher than on the first set^ 
 
81 
 
 tlement of its shores. Humboldt, Herschel, Bonsingault, Marsh, 
 and other scientists understood and wrote of this same diminished 
 rainfall. Yet there is another change. After clearing the rain is 
 less equable and more deluging, as well as less in quantity. 
 
 Forty years ago large barges loaded with goods went up and down 
 Cuyahoga river in Ohio, but now a canoe can scarcely pass down the 
 stream. Mill Creek in Illinois once afforded water for mill purposes 
 the year around. Now it affords but little running water at any 
 time, and for many months each year it is dry. The waters of the 
 great western rivers are continually diminishing. Some flatter 
 themselves that they are deepening their channels in places and 
 widening them in others, but this is deception and untrue. The fact 
 is there. In Germany measurements have been made of the waters 
 of the Elbe for the last 80 years. The water now discharged is full 
 18 per cent less than at the beginning of the period. The reason is 
 that millions of acres of land at its head waters have been denuded of 
 timber. On an elev.ited plain in South America the chocolate plant 
 found its most congenial climate, and so the whole plain was robbed 
 of its forests to extend the plantation. The result was that the rains 
 almost ceased, and the cultivation of the plant had to be abandoned. 
 The trees were at length restored, and with their growth came the 
 usual rain. St. Helena became almost baiTen by cutting off its 
 forests. Thirty years ago they wei-e replanted, and during this time 
 the rainfall has more than doubled. 
 
 Fifty years ago Mehemet Ali planted fifty millions of trees in 
 Egypt. Previously there had been little rain, frequently none for 
 si.xteen or eighteen months ; for the last five years they have aver- 
 aged thirty days each year of rainfall. Mr. Tice attributes this 
 change to the electric influence of the trees. The rain clouds being 
 positive, while the trees are negative, they are attracted thither and 
 loose their water there. 
 
 Electricity everywhere mounts the highest points, and the trees 
 being above the surface of the plains seems to offer a reasonable ex- 
 planation. Sir Gustave Wex says that the change of woods into 
 cultivated laud has caused a considerable decrease in Danish rivers. 
 The royal board of canal directors in Norway, show that at two 
 water-gauge stations on the Glommen river, have, during thirty years, 
 shown a gradual decrease. In Italy, Mr. Farelli shows that by ac- 
 curate measuiement the discharge of the rivers is less by 33 per 
 cent than they were one hundred and fifty years ago. and last, but 
 not least, comes the records of China showing remarkable changes 
 from the same cause. 
 
 In the northern province of the Chinese empire, Shan Si, whose 
 capital is Tayeum is inclosed on all sides by high mountain raugew 
 which in early ages were covered with dense forests. At that time 
 it rained here every year ; the atmosphere was humid, and it be- 
 longed to the well cultivated and densely settled provinces of the 
 Chinese Empire. But the inhabitants of this once blooming and 
 happy country, through greed and in the endeavor to increase the 
 yield of these mountain slopes, cut off all the trees. The result is 
 that the rains have become fitful and uncertain, the atmosphere is 
 
82 
 
 dry, and that in consequence, the continued failure of crops has pro- 
 duced poverty and misery almost unheard of. In 1877 there was 
 almost a total failure, and in consequence thereof three millions of 
 souls perished. In the official report of the governor, Li Ho nien, 
 the following account appears : 
 
 During the first period of this unheard of famine the living sub- 
 sisted upon the corpses of the dead ; then later the weak were de- 
 voured by the strong ; now the misery has reached such a stage that 
 the people devour their own blood relations. History up to this 
 date has not shown a more horrid state of affairs than this, and un- 
 less measures for relief are promptly taken the entire population of 
 this section of the country will be destroyed. 
 
 The Catholic Bishop in a letter fi-om Tayeun, dated March 24, 
 1878, corroborates the description contained in the report of the 
 horrible scenes enacted during the faniine. 
 
 The ruinous results of clearing the forests are also subject of 
 record in various provinces of China, both by devastating floods 
 and drought. 
 
 But why multiply instances ? The world's history is full of them, 
 and we can choose between sunshine, rain and harvest, most boun- 
 tiful with protected forests, or fitful rains, long drouths, and ultimate 
 desolation without them. 
 
HYGIEINE OF FARM HOMES. 
 
 A lecture deliverecl at several meetings of the farmers by Hiram A. Cutting, 
 M. D., Secretary of the Board. 
 
 Who is there so much as the farmer that imperatively demands 
 good health ? The labor on the farm is exacting, requiring muscular 
 strength and activity, and it will admit of no postponement or delay. 
 When seed time comes the farmer must put in his seed or he will 
 have no harvest, when mature, his crops must be gathered or he sus- 
 tains loss, between seed time and harvest comes the hay crop, wliich 
 must be gathered in a given period or there is loss. Dr. Kedzie says, 
 "The operations on the farm have no season set apart for sickness ; 
 they march with every step by nature's side, and like the seasons 
 they brook no delay." 
 
 It is true that sickness injures the prosperity of any man, but the 
 laborer, the mechanic, the artisan, while disabled from that cause 
 lose only the days that their labor is not remunerative, but when able, 
 go to work with the simple loss of the time in which their labor has 
 not been counted for gain. Not so vnth the farmer. Other profes- 
 sions can put off the work they should do without bringing ruin to 
 their business, can work harder and catch up again,, but not so with 
 the farmer. The seasons cannot be put off with promises, and crops 
 to be of value must be first planted, and then looked after that the 
 tares do not creep in and multiply seven-fold, to the utter destruc 
 tion of their hopes and their crops together. The farmer must be 
 ready every time to take advantage of the seasons, if not they will 
 get the advantage of him, and "poverty" without "peace" will be his 
 portion. To do this requires good health "from New Year's bells to 
 Christmas chimes." 
 
 A HEALTHY CALLING. 
 
 Why should not farmers have good health ? The out-door life, 
 the good air, the delightful contact with nature in her purest and 
 noblest forms, the uniformity of their hours of labor, in fact of their 
 life, especially their hours of repose. That independence and self 
 reliance so different from the feelings of those that depend upon 
 others and meet with a continual round of disappointments from 
 faithless servants, makes farming, it would seem, one of the most 
 healthful as well as the most delightful occupation of earth. Why 
 should not farmers be healthier and longer lived than any others 1 
 
 We must admit that statistics are against us, for they are not, and 
 
84 
 
 figures don't lie. They say that lawyers, doctors, and ministers out 
 live the husbandman, and there must be a reason why. I know I 
 am treading on dangerous ground when I criticise your 
 
 HOME LIFE. 
 
 But I too well know that all through this State, which perhaps by 
 nature is as healthy a sscfcion as there is in the world, there are 
 among the farm homes a violation many times of the known laws of 
 health, even such laws as the school boy of sixteen well knows how 
 to rectify. Still those violations go on from generation to genera 
 tion, and death too often claims its victims unchallenged, and the 
 nuisance is unabated. I give you lair warning that I have not taken 
 this subject to tickle your fancy or flatter youi- vanity, and I propose 
 to speak "right out," let it hit who it will. I shall make this plea 
 for healthy homes for the sake of women ; for that saintly mother, 
 that Christian like brings up her children, suffering herself 
 without a murmur, watching by the bedside with her little one, 
 sick perhaps with diphtheria or typhoid fever, the result of sanitary 
 laws disobeyed. 
 
 Man's life is in the field where he breathes the pure air of heaven. 
 Woman's in the house where she is too often compelled to drag out 
 a life of ill health and discomfort, with disease fastened upon her by 
 her suiToundings, from which there is no relief only in the grave. 
 Oh ! husband, brother ! will you not think as you spend your life in 
 the broader, grander, more diversified farm life called "out doors" of 
 your wife, your sister in the unhealthful home tainted by the hog 
 pen or sink spout, that your careless neglect has so placed that it 
 contaminates the cellar, the rooms of the house, and perhaps 
 the very water they diink, thus insiduously conveying the seeds of 
 disease into their systems while you escape them. 
 
 As you come to your home hearty and bluff from the field to find 
 a beloved ^vife, or may be a sister, nervous, worried, and sick in an 
 unhealthy home, think of the possibility, nay probability, 
 that the pain, the suffering, the nervous debility may be 
 laid at your door, may result from your want of care, from jour 
 neglect. 
 
 SITE POE A HOUSE. 
 
 Much depends upon this. It should be a spot of natural beauty, 
 needing little labor to make it perfect. In this selection the farmer 
 has great advantage as he chooses from his broad acres, and there 
 are few farms that do not afford several beautiful building lots. 
 How different with the inhabitant of village or city that has to select 
 from such lots as may be purchased, and be crowded in close prox- 
 imity with others. Having no power over his neighbor's premises, 
 he is disabled at the start and must do the best he can, while the 
 farmer can take the ■ best there is in creation. Therefore let him 
 choose the site on a gentle swell of ground if need be, declining to 
 south or south-east, away fi'om all swamps and wet places, remem- 
 
85 
 
 bering that if you must support a frog pond that it should be as far 
 from your house aa possible, as it is quite certain that distance lends 
 enchantment, even to the croaking of frogs ; much more to the rising 
 mists and gases of such a marsh. 
 
 THE SOIL 
 
 should be dry, not only on the surface but in the sub soil. If when 
 you dig your cellar you find it damp change your site, for a damp 
 cellar should never be tolerated. The researches of Pettinkefer of 
 Germany, of Bowditch of Massachusetts, of Harris of New York, 
 and other sanitarians, all agree to the fact that there are close rela 
 tions between low forms of fevers and colds that bring consumption 
 in their train, and the water line in the soil. You can never build a 
 healthy home on a water soaked soil, no, not even on a sub soil in 
 that condition. Your only chance is by underdraining, and that 
 costs much money. But think ; are not funerals expensive ? Are 
 hearts robbed of their first love indicative of future happiness ? 
 Change your site for a dry one or underdrain if you prize life, health 
 and happiness. 
 
 Pure water is the necessary beverage of man. Before a blow is 
 struck on your house, and as soon as you have found your dry loca- 
 tion, look out for water. Here in Vermont the bubbling spring is 
 generally conveniently near, and the greatest of all luxuries is an 
 unfailing stream of soft water, but as you bring it, carry it away, 
 never allowing it to run waste near your house. If you are lees 
 fortunate dig a well ; but remember that wells usually drain a sur- 
 face in form of an inverted cone, the diameter of the base twice the 
 depth of the well, and its apex at the bottom of it, sometimes much 
 larger. See to it that it is so far removed from house or outbuild- 
 ings that by no possible chance sewage or other foul water can 
 ever get in it. I have examined well water from some of the best' 
 farms in Vermont to find them contaminated and really unfit for use. 
 But how disgusting to think that we make use under any circum- 
 stances of water contaminated with sewage or drippings from the 
 barnyard or stable. Do not say your water is clear and good. It 
 may be clear and not clean ; clearness is not test of purity. But 
 Dr. Kedzie gives a simple test ; try it and see for yourselves. 
 
 TEST FOR PDBE WATER. 
 
 " Pill a perfectly clean quart bottle two-thirds full with the water, 
 dissolve in this a teaspoonful of the purest white sugar, cork the 
 bottle and set away in a warm place two days. If it remains clear 
 and bright you need fear no evil ; but if it turns milky white and 
 gives off any offensive gases, beware how you drink the dirty stuff." 
 
86 
 
 This is applicable to old wells ; and the location of new ones should 
 be improved by paying due attention to the dangers of the old. 
 
 PLAN FOK A HOUSE. 
 
 I do not here expect to give anything but general directions. It 
 should be convenient in size and relation of rooms, and the kitchen 
 should always be the most pleasant room in the house. The house 
 should face southeast, that the sun should find easy entrance. But 
 you will say, how strange ! would you set the corner to the highway "? 
 8urely I would, and the back comer too, if necessary. Are we so 
 fearfidly a right angled people that we must sacrifice our health and 
 often our lives to that dogma. Let the house stand as it may, I 
 would have the living rooms upon the east or southeast, that the 
 early rays of the rising sun would penetrate that home and give life, 
 light and warmth to its inmates. Then it will be cooler in the after 
 part of the day when the warmth of the sun is not needed. Even 
 in the warmest summer time the mornings are often chilly in this old 
 Green Mountain state, when the hot afternoons with sun blazing 
 into our living rooms would be almost intolera,ble. Then our cold 
 winds of winter, usually from the northwest, would be shielded 
 from the living rooms which the sun would render more cheerful. 
 By proper arrangement of spacious grounds it does not matter how 
 the house stands with the highway, for to all it will be a beautful 
 spot. 
 
 SHADE TEEES. 
 
 Tbese are often condemned without a hearing. We sliould have 
 shade trees. No home without them is as healthful and pleasant as 
 with. But they should not shut out the sunlight, but be mostly on 
 the west, northwest and north of the house. Not too near, nor yet 
 too far. Not near enough to darken the windows when large, but 
 near enough to shield the house from northwest winds and give a 
 delightful coolness in summer. There may also be trees upon the 
 south, but not in such way that they will prevent the sun from shining 
 direct into the house as first mentioned. Damp cellars may be made 
 better by shade trees, as they evaporate much water from the soil. 
 Evergreen trees upon the northwest, if set so as to form a protection 
 from northwest winds, are very desirable. If your shade is too 
 great a dampness must and will come into your homes and the rem- 
 edy will be to lay the axe to the root of the offending trees, but I 
 would advise all to cut them with caution, for a good shade tree is 
 the product of years of growth and if cut away your lifetime can 
 seldom replace it. So cut no shade trees rashly away 
 
 MATERIALS FOK A HOUSE. 
 
 In this State, houses are usually built of wood ; yet a few are of 
 brick. Of coui'se the wood house is the cheapest, but for many rea- 
 
87 
 
 sons brick is the best, yet in consideration of the cost as yet wood 
 will be the usual material. A brick house is cooler in summer and 
 warmer in winter, is not so liable to be destroyed by fire, and if 
 properly built does not require so many repairs. I often hear said that 
 brick houses are the cheapest in the end. Again, as air passes very read- 
 ily through brick and less so through wood the brick is more conducive 
 to health for the reason that the walls ventilate the house to a cer- 
 tain extent. Bat you are surprised at the fact that air passes through 
 brick walls. If you will take the trouble to try a few experiments 
 you may be surprised at the results. Make a cylinder of common 
 lime mortar or of brick three inches in diameter and five or six inches 
 long. Cover' the sides with gummed paper ; make two tin caps to 
 go on the ends, and in the center of those caps have a tube the size 
 of a pencil. Make the caps air tight by putting around their edges 
 a strip of the gummed paper, sticking it to the paper on the cylin- 
 der. Now, blow in one tube and you will see that you can blow out 
 a candle placed at the mouth of the other, and shows 
 you how readily air passes through the brick walls of your 
 house, or the plastered walls of your room. 
 
 If you wet the brick or mortar little air will pass through, show- 
 ing one of the reasons why damp houses are unhealthy. 
 
 But this experiment may be much simplified. When I was a boy 
 I used to make blowpipes of tobacco pipes. Heat the end 
 of the pipe stem almost red hot, then crowd the heated end into 
 a lump of hard putty, and by a twisting motion you can closely fill 
 the stem. Take a fine needle and make a hole through the putty 
 when hot, and you get a good blowpipe jet. It is the boy's blow- 
 pipe everywhere; and is for most purposes as good as any. 
 
 After fixing a dozen pipes in this way fill the bowl of each half 
 full of wet tow, or a bit of wet sponge will do, then fill the bowl 
 full of well tempered lime mortar, and strike off even with the sur- 
 face, putting your pipes one side to dry. When fully dry take a 
 small flame and one of your pipes and see how much you can sway 
 the flame blowing through the mortar. If not too large you can 
 extinguish it. Now, wet the mortar and you cannot sway the flame, 
 as no air passes through plaster when wet. It has been estimated that 
 with a difference of 20 ° of temperature between the outside and 
 inside of a common plastered wall ten cubic feet of air each hour 
 may pass through every square yard when dry. 
 
 Prof. Marker and Shultz show that at least eight cubic feet in the 
 same time will pass through the walls of a brick house. Hence, it 
 may be seen that your walls breathe, thus giving you health through 
 pure air. 
 
 That air passes readily through plastered walls is demonstrated in 
 every home where the plastered surface has been undistirrbed by 
 whitewash for several years. As you look at that ceiling you can 
 see the outline of every lath by its ligher color, while the cracks be- 
 tween are several shades darker. The reason is that the plastered 
 wall acts as a filter, catching and holding upon its surface the parti- 
 cles of dust with which the room was filled, as all of you have 
 noticed when the last ray of sunlight came into your rooms, that 
 
88 
 
 particles of dust were dancing in it. This dust is left behind to color 
 your wall. Where the timbers are, the color will be still lighter, 
 showing that while the lath arrested the circulation much, the tim- 
 ber did more, and so the posts and braces can usually be made out 
 though entirely covered with mortar. Now let us take another pipe 
 and whitewash the surface of the mortar, while it is wet you cannot 
 force air through, when it dries you can, showing that whitewash 
 does not close the breathing pores of the mortar. 
 
 Let us take another pipe and kalsomine the surface of the mortar. 
 When dry we find we can blow through it slightly, but not as much 
 as before. So kalsomine keeps clean longer than whitewash because 
 it does not allow so much air to pass through it. Now, let us paper 
 one of our plastered pipes and we find whether wet or dry we can 
 force no air through it. Thus you may see why papered walls are 
 warmer than plastered walls, and yet are not as healthful. Dr. Ked- 
 zie say : " The tidy housewife looks with contempt upon whitewash, 
 because it gets dirty so quick, while she feels proud of her kalso- 
 mined waU because it keeps clean so long. The one gets dirty be- 
 cause it breathes, the other keeps clean because it does not breathe. 
 The dead baby's fingers when once washed keep clean, but the live 
 baby's forever find ditt." 
 
 Which is best I need not tell you. A healthy house needs breath 
 nearly as much as an animal. A papered wall, a painted wall and, I 
 will add, a kalsomined wall, is like the dead baby's hand. A' plas- 
 tered wall is a healthful wall. 
 
 Our skin is perforated by millions of holes which we understand 
 ventilate the body and our health depends upon keeping such pores 
 in perfect condition. It is true we have a "breathing apparatus upon 
 a large scale, and so a house needs a special ventilating apparatus. 
 Our clothing is all porous, and you can easily extinguish a light by 
 blowing through the thickest overcoat ; yet we can have rubber cloth- 
 ing, but all know how very uncomfortable it is. The reason is it is 
 not porous. Every healthy garment must be penetrated and washed 
 with air to preserve health. The house is only a huge overcoat. 
 I bring out the points in this way that they may be understood. 
 
 ^Vhile wood admits of the passage of air lengthwise, but little 
 passes through it sideways, and that little in our homes is usually 
 prevented by paint, but we depend upon the shrinkage and careless 
 joints of the carpenter for air, and he does not disappoint us ; yet 
 the walls of a house may be too open. They should breathe, but 
 never blow. 
 
 HOMES KAT PROOF. 
 
 When you build, always secure your structure against vermin ; 
 keep out surely the rat and mouse. They are not welcome visitors ; 
 are not conducive to health, and are also costly boarders. A little 
 care by putting an inch of mortar between your partitions and at 
 your ceiling is all that is usually needed. 
 
 But I am often asked how they can be kept out when a house is 
 not properly built. I had the misfortune to purchase such a house 
 
89 
 
 and after being tormented for years I put fine ground cayenne pep- 
 per in all their raceways, and the rout was complete. I do not often 
 renew it) perhaps once in five or six years), and have no trouble. I 
 think it a good remedy. 
 
 HALF ST0KIE8. 
 
 I should build no half stories to be like an oven in summer and 
 cold and damp in winter. It costs but very little more to build two 
 stories than a story and a half, and if you finish up, as some do, with 
 many angles in the roof, the cost is even greater on half stories. 
 In an ordinary farm house, fifty dollars will pay all the additional 
 cost. Then you will have the comfort of cool, airy chambers ; in 
 fact the second story will be the most pleasant part of the house. 
 
 VENTrLATION. 
 
 Plan for this as you would for your chimeys, and if you build 
 your chimneys large enough you can well ventilate into them ; but if 
 possible have a fireplace in your living room — ^not a fireplace to look 
 at, but to use. Nothing is more cheerful than a fireplace. " It fills 
 the humblest room with warmth and glory." It is the best ventila- 
 tion you can possibly have. The atmosphere of any room cannot 
 be impure with a fireplace in which there is a fire burning. In some 
 way ventilate every room in your house. I cannot do better than to 
 use the words of Dr. Kedzie, who says, in his lecture before the 
 Michigan State Board of Health : 
 
 " I ask you to do this, first, because there is plenty of raw mate- 
 rial for this purpose ; and, second, because it is necessary for health. 
 Think what an abundant circulating medium — current cy — we have 
 for this very purpose in atmospheric air. Fortunately, Congress 
 cannot expand or contract the circulating currency of life! This 
 ocean of air — an ocean without island or shore, with its restless tides 
 and currents, its waves of -continental size — is too vast and pure for 
 us to contaminate it in mass. We may pollute here and there a 
 puddle of it, but its massive purity is, like the love of God, too great 
 for human defilement. This purifying element penetrates, directly 
 or indirectly, every fibre of our being ; it washes, purifies, and saves 
 us every moment of our lives, from birth to burial. 
 
 Yet how we fight against this agent of purity ! In the arrange- 
 ment of our dress, in parlor and bed chamber, in school room, church 
 and hall we seek to exclude it, and to stifie it as if it were our deadly 
 foe. We breathe it only because we must, and most of us breathe it 
 as little as possible. Thousands of consumptives every day go 
 weeping to their graves only because they would not breathe enough 
 pure air to keep their lungs healthy. Yet this purifying and saving 
 element is ever seeking to enter our dwellings, rattling at our win- 
 dows, searching every crack and opening by which to enter to give 
 us life and health ; but if by chance it enters, we only complain of 
 10 
 
90 
 
 the draught ; if any friend opens a door or window to let in this 
 cheerful guest, we sarcastically ask him if " he was brought up in a 
 saw mill !" 
 
 Air once breathed is unfit to breathe again ; turn it out to grass, 
 like Nebuehadnezzai', that it may recover its soundness, for vegetable 
 life repairs the defilement and destruction caused by animal life, 
 and restores sweetness and health to polluted air. But this contam 
 inatdon of air by respiration is invisible ; neither sight nor 
 touch will revtal its presence. The black and sooty carbon, when it 
 has seized its two wings of oxygen, becomes totally invisible, and 
 floats unseen like a spiiit. If this carbon, thrown off from our lungs 
 in the form of carbonic acid, remained visble like lampblack, there is 
 hardly a housewife in the land who would not awake with a gasping 
 shudder to see her bed room filled with this black smoke sent off 
 from the lungs of the sleeper. " Up with the windows, and clear 
 out this horrible black dust!" 
 
 But because this dirt is invisible, she regards the air of her room 
 as clean. But though it lurk unseen, its power- for mischief is not 
 destroyed ; it is the accompaniment and evidence of contamination 
 which proves the unfitness of such air for respiration. The carbonic 
 acid itself " is a slow poison, and kiDs with indefinite warning." If 
 the housewife wash her hands in water, she does not say, "the water 
 does not look very dirty, ana I can use it again." No ! the water 
 was used to remove dirt, and has thereby become dirty, and she 
 throws it away. Shall she wash her hands five or six times a day 
 with clean water, and wash her lungs 28,000 times a day with dirty 
 air? ''Be ye clean," is the voice from heaven, sounding forever 
 through the ages. Tour bodies are the temples of God : " if any 
 man defile the temple of God, him shall God destroy," is a physical 
 as well as a spiritual truth, and millions upon millions of premature 
 graves bear witness to a judgment day already come, and to a doom 
 from which noi even the Infinite Father's love could deliver them. 
 " The soul that sinneth shall die," unless saved by Christ's love. No 
 less true is it that the body that sinneth shall die ; and to justify 
 this broken law and make it honorable, no Savior has been crucified. 
 If, while locked in the arms of sleep — the twin brother of death — 
 you constantly breathe deadly gases, instead of the breath of . life, 
 then shaU sleep hand you over to the embrace of his twin brother. 
 
 But you will say "How can we tell whether the air of oui- bed- 
 rooms is pui-e or not? We are not chemists to analyze the air." 
 Why, man ! woman ! You have the best apparatus in the world, and 
 one given you for that very purpose. Nature has given every one of 
 you a nose, and purposely placed it in advance of all the rest of the 
 body to give you warning of danger ; it is the advance guard of 
 safety ! If you will use this "one talent" which nature has given 
 you, and not "keep it wi-apped in a napkin," you may go safely. Use 
 youi- blessed nose for this pui-pose to morrow morning to test the aii- 
 of your bed-room. When you get up leave your room just as it 
 was ; go out into the pure morning air and breathe that till yom- 
 nose is wide awake, and then go back and take a few snuffs of your 
 bed-room air ; if it smells fresh and sweet hke out door air you have 
 
91 
 
 good ventilation, and have breathed the breath of hfe all the night. 
 But if it is close, musty and sickening, beware. Try the experiment by 
 all means, and see how much your nose can tell you. Perhaps it may 
 give you some idea of the cause of your waking with a headache and 
 languor, feeling that life is a burden. It is a burden when you carry 
 such a crushing and needless load. 
 
 But you will say, "What can I do ? There is not a ventilator in 
 my house." No ventilator! while that is one of the first things to 
 provide for in planning a house. What did you build your house for, 
 to live in, or smother in I Judged by what men aim at in house- 
 biiilding, we should conclude that houses are mainly planned for 
 smothering. But thanks to poor carpentry, which leaves cracks and 
 openings everywhere, thanks to the penetrating quaUty of air which 
 pierces brick, mortar, wood and everything of which houses are 
 built, except metals and glass, every house has some ventilation, how- 
 ever poor. But this is not enough, and we need by some more direct 
 means to cast an anchor of hope into the ocean of life outdoors. An 
 old writer says, '' When men lived in houses of reeds they had con- 
 stitutions of oak ; when they live in houses of oak they have consti- 
 tutions of reeds." 
 
 The patriarch, before the flood, whose life stretched out into cen- 
 turies, was a dweller in tents ; when we come down to the time 
 when men left the airy tent to dwell in ceiled houses, we are told 
 ''the days of our years are threescore and ten ; and if by reason of 
 strength they be fourscore yet is their strength labor and sorrow ; 
 for it is soon cut off and we fly away." Is this the final verdict in 
 the great chancery suit of Tent versus House 1 
 
 Look around your neighborhood and see how many men lived in 
 vigorous health while they lived in their poor houses, well ventilated 
 because poorly built, but when wealth accumulated and they built 
 good houses, they sickened and died. You say, " how sad that neigh- 
 bor .Jones, who was hale and hearty all his life, just after he moved 
 into his new house should die and leave all he worked so hard to 
 secure !" Yes, thanks to the skill of carpenter and mason, he smoth- 
 ered at last. 
 
 Every bed room has or should have a window : and when you 
 open the window you will find the out door air immediately on the 
 outside, and ready to enter at a moment's notice. " But we shall 
 freeze with the window open ! and then the night air !" As well 
 freeze as smother. Is your bedroom air, that you have breathed 
 over and over better than night an- f 
 
 Yet, as Angus Smith says, " a blast of cold air may kill like a 
 sword," and that is too true and between the two extremes it piay be 
 hard for some to hit the happy mean. To such I would say that 
 very good window ventilation can be obtained by raising a window 
 about four inches and placing under it a closely fitting piece of board. 
 This prevents any draft from coming directly upon any person in the 
 room, but the space between the glass and sash at the middle of the 
 window will bring in a current of pure air to mingle with the vitiated 
 air of the room and such ventilation is of great advantage. The 
 
92 
 
 growing of plants also, especially such as do not require a larjge 
 amount of water, are very beneficial, as thiifty growing plants give 
 off the oxygen which we so much desire and use up the carbonic 
 acid which we have no use for. Where you have ventilators see to 
 them that they ai-e in working order. A. majority of supposed ven- 
 tilators are 
 
 ■• As idle as a painted ship 
 Upon a painted ocean." 
 
 It is not necessaiy that they should be at the top of a room to 
 carry out all the warm air, but like a fire-place with good draft. 
 There are various means of ventilation and many hobbies connected 
 with it with which I do not care to quarrel, but allow me to say that 
 warm aii" is not vitiated air and it is not necessary to use any person's 
 patent to gain good ventilation when you build, but for houses 
 already built it is often a question of importance ; and I have found 
 that with the board under the windows and a grate connected with 
 the chimney draft where you would naturally put a fire-place, if you 
 had one, the cheapest and best airangement for the money. 
 
 A bed room in which there is a stove can be quite well ventilated 
 by putting a burning lamp just within the stove, with the stove door 
 open ; letting it bum through the night. The burning lamp causes 
 draft and that draft of course takes out the foul air while the plas 
 tered walls and the cracks left by the joiner supplies fresh. The 
 impurities in your living rooms, are usually caused from the cooking 
 of food, the expirations from your lungs, the decomposing vegetation 
 in your cellar, the lamps you bum, and the exhalations fi-om persons 
 occupying the rooms. Sometimes the cellar is foul fi'om other 
 causes. Carbonic acid collects to such a degree that a lamp placed 
 on the cellar bottom will burn dimly if at all, and the continued dif- 
 fusion therefrom makes the atmosphere in all your rooms deleterious. 
 Such contamination is controlled by laws of nature and not the rul 
 ing of man, as I ha-ve often found it worse where chemical rules 
 made by man should have it best; but jou may be always sure of 
 one thing, and that is that youi' cellar if not properly ventilated will 
 cause you much sickness and trouble. If you have a chimney in it 
 jsfehtUate into that surely, and provide some way for fresh air if pos- 
 sible. I have traced much disease to cellars, and I feel I cannot 
 enough condemn the filthy way in which many farmers allow their 
 cellars to be in. See to it, for it is much cheaper to keep your cellar 
 clean, your sink spout covered, and your house well ventilated than 
 to pay the doctor's bills and the bills for nursing, that bad cellars 
 and bad ventilation entail. Keep your cellars free from mould, lest 
 that mould seize upon the very sills of your house and spread rot- 
 tenness all thi-ough. A damp cellar and rotten timbers foretell wet 
 eyes up stairs. Drain and underdrain the soil about your house until 
 your surroundings are always dry. Use whitewash in which you put 
 sulphate of lime or some disinfectant until your cellar is the pattern 
 of purity. 
 
 If you neglect those things the angel of death will not pass you 
 by, but spread his wings over your household, and that mys- 
 
93 
 
 terious providence of which you speak will remove the loved ones 
 and bring sorrow. But do not charge it to providence, but to your 
 own laziness, that allowed diseases to be daily invited through your 
 slovenly neglect. " A prudent man foreseeth the evil and hideth 
 himself; but the simple pass on and are punished." But you say, 
 
 ABE FARMERS SINNERS 
 
 above all others ? Remember what I told you of statistics, that 
 show the average life of the professions are longer than yours. They 
 attend to those things better than you ; yet there is great chance for 
 improvement eveiywhere. But the hope of the republic is in the 
 farmers. It is there we look for recuperative power, and so there 
 more than elsewhere the great reformation should begin. 
 
 OUR FOODS 
 
 also need close attention ; that in what we buy, we may purchase 
 what we desire to eat. and not be paying for what we do not wish to 
 have. But the man that was hit when we spoke of adulteration one 
 day says, " There never was a time when pure articles could not be 
 purchased if we would pay for them." And that may be true ; but 
 does anybody know what glucose is good for '! So far as the pub- 
 lic is generally informed it is only used as an adulterant. Mixed 
 with sugar it makes an inferior article and enables the mixer to im- 
 pose upon the public and make money. The same is tnie of syrups. 
 The refuse from the glucose factory makes the cows give thin milk, 
 and we would like some one to tell us just wherein it is used for any 
 good purpose. Great factories are built for its manufacture, and 
 their proprietors appear to make a great deal of money, but the glu- 
 cose is not advertised for sale, nor does it appear in the open market 
 to any observable extent Those who buy and handle it seem to do 
 so in a surreptitious way. It travels under assumed names. It 
 goes in at the back door and never goes out at the fi-ont door until 
 it has changed both its character and name. The whole Amei-ican 
 people are said to be eating glucose, yet not one out of a thousand 
 ever saw or tasted it under that name. If it can build fifteen- 
 story builc^ngs and add millions to the fortunes of millionaires, why 
 should it hide its head in shame and avoid the scrutiny of the pub- 
 lic eye ! 
 
 We can buy piu-e sugar, but does the farmer always know that he 
 gets it ? 
 
 In a manual published by the " American Grocer Publishing As- 
 sociation," of New York, the writer says : ■' The adulteration of 
 goods of all kinds is extensively carried on, and so general has be- 
 come the practice that it is almost impossible to obtain pure manu- 
 factured goods. Even the articles used for 'adulterating purposes 
 are themselves adulterated, and the evil has no limit." But we will 
 pass a few in review : 
 
94 
 
 " This is largely adulterated with roasted chiecory, com, beans, 
 lupine seeds, peas, pulse, horse chestruits, spent coffee and various 
 roots, such as carrots, parsnips, beets, dandelion, etc., and it is said 
 spent tan bark and bullocks' liver are employed for the same pur- 
 pose." The test that farmers can use is as follows : " Scatter the 
 supposed coffee on water. If pure, it will mostly float on the sur- 
 face. If impure, the most of the impurities will sink in the water 
 and soon discolor it, while coffee discolors very little. So much for 
 ground coffee 
 
 Of course this would seem to show that it would be better to buy 
 the whole article. But P. H. Pelker, Esq., of Grand Rapidb, says : 
 " There is a machine patented in England for making spurious cof- 
 fee berries out of common vegetable substances," and we hear of 
 another producing glucose berries which are a perfect imitation. 
 Does this mean anything ? 
 
 TEA. 
 
 This is extensively adulterated in China by exhausted tea leaves, 
 and leaves of other trees, especially the willow ; to the amount of 
 millions of pounds annually. Mineral matters are also used for col 
 oring and facing teas, and coffee. China clay, fine sand, iron 
 filings, etc., are sometimes used, as the Grocer s Manual states, to 
 the amount of '' 20 to 40 per cent." 
 
 The adulteration may be determined by those who wish to examine 
 
 by soaking out the leaves and examining them, noting their shape, 
 
 etc., while the dirt and mineral matter will in part settle in the tea- 
 
 ' pot. Teas are also "' doctered," as it is termed, in this country, but 
 
 not to such an extent as in China. 
 
 CREAM TARTAR. 
 
 This is often largely adulterated with common land plaster. Test, 
 dissolve in water and note what is left, as the cream tartar will read- 
 ily dissolve, and the adulterant dissolves slowly. 
 
 Ginger is extensively adulterated with Indian meal, starch, wheat 
 flour, mustard husks, etc. It is then flavored with cayenne pepper 
 to give it apparent strength. The microscope detects the cheat very 
 easily as it does in all fine ground goods. 
 
 This is largely adulterated with buckwheat hulls finely ground, 
 and other worthless substances. The microscope is the sure de- 
 tective. 
 
96 
 
 Thus I might go on through the entire catalogue, but space for- 
 bids, and I will only say that even lard and butter are not exempt 
 from tlie general rule. The evil can be remedied by eveiT 
 fanner's demtinding a pure article and being willing to pay a fair 
 price for it. The grocers say they are compelled by competition 
 in prices to reduce the standard of their goods, and no man can ex- 
 pect to buy a cm-rent dollar for ninety cents. So leave off crowding 
 down prices and insist upon excellence instead, and you will be more 
 cheaply and better served. Buy of responsible parties, and then 
 insist on purity, and you will usually get vei-y good articles, at 
 least. 
 
 There is needed reform here. See to it that, while you are honest 
 yourselves, you insist upon honesty in others. If the articles you 
 sell are contaminated vfith fraud, first cast the beam from your own 
 eye that you may see clearly to cast the mote from your brother's eye. 
 
Mining in Vermont. 
 
 AN ADDRESS 
 
 liEBOllE A MEETING OF THE 
 
 tatelpfuif 0f J[,pcnllitw 
 
 MANUFACTURES AND MINING, 
 
 jiji? BTTK^Linsro-Tonsr, 
 
 HIEAM A. CUTTING, A. M., M. D., 
 
 STATE GEOLOGIST AND CUKATOR. 
 
 MONTPELIEE : 
 
 PoLANDs' Steam Printing Establishment. 
 
 1872. 
 
ADDRPJSS. 
 
 Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen : 
 
 111 the incetiiiii;s of this Board, though the principal inter- 
 ests are rightfully directed towards agriculture, as Vermont 
 is truly an agricultural state, yet, as \vc have a manufactur- 
 ing and mining interest, represented by a large and con- 
 stantly increasing capital, it is but just that they should 
 claim attention. It is of our mining interests that I shall 
 speak, not with the flattering terms of a speculator, or a 
 dealer in mining stocks, but with due regard to truth as un- 
 folded by geological science. And while I do not intend in 
 any way to prevent the due development of mines in Ver- 
 mont, I hope I may discourage useless expenditure, and 
 thus tend to elevate mining from a mere guess to what it in 
 reality is, a true science. 
 
 Our mining interests in marble and slate exceed that of 
 most other states ; perhaps 1 might say any others, but in 
 metallic ores, of which I shall- more especially speak, our 
 rocks are too old and compact, or too nearly connected with 
 the glacial drift, to have many mines of groat value or ex- 
 tent. Our mountaius of lead, silver or iron, notwithstand- 
 
4 MINING IN VERMONT. 
 
 ing their traditional substantiation, do not exist in fact. 
 The mining interest of Vermonters is, however, quickly 
 aroused. When I have made enquiries in a place in refer- 
 ence to any mineral, I have frequently heard some old le- 
 gend about an Indian that obtained lead for bullets from such 
 a mountaiii, or an old Spaniard who procured a great amount 
 of silver from a certain side hill that they had often looked 
 over in vain, yet believed there was truly a silver mine there. 
 The express frequently brings me sand containing yellow or 
 white mica, while the one sending it indulges the vain hope 
 that it is gold or silver ; and white and yellow pyrites in 
 schist rock is quite as often at hand. Now and then, how- 
 ever, a specimen reaches me that really contains galena, or 
 copper pyrites, and sometimes an almost microscopic sp)eck 
 of gold, but of such a quality, or so sparsely scattered, as 
 to be of no value whatever. Though we have much of the 
 early formation, or Bozoic rock, it is in Vermont that the 
 drift agencies come in full play, and it is difficult, many 
 times, to unravel, even by supposition merely, knotty ques- 
 tions that come up as we investigate the drift problems. 
 Drift scratches in the primary rock frequently cross each 
 other, at various angles, and the glacial and iceberg theories 
 must both be called in to remove the difficulties, and even 
 then lingering doubts will creep in that other forces, not 
 well understood, might cause the almost unexplained freaks 
 of geological contradiction. At Brandon the drift is frozen, 
 and after various opinions are expressed and ingenious prob- 
 abilities formed, such naturalists as Prof. Agassiz say "that 
 it is a fact standing forth, perhaps without true explanation 
 as yet." Here and there what might have been valuable 
 beds of ore, as in Arlington and Manchester, have by this 
 agency been torn from their original positions to be broken 
 and scattered in such small masses as to be nearly worthless, 
 
MINING IN VEBMONT. O 
 
 and well skilled miners are thus foiled, and capital many 
 times wasted. Mining for metallic ores in Vermont, as it 
 has been carried on, has hardly been far removed from a 
 game of chance, and I doubt if all the profits of the truly 
 productive mines would pay for one half of the time and 
 money expended to no purpote. Indications, that in some 
 sections of our globe would lead invariably to valuable mines, 
 pass for nothing in Vermont. Though we have the repre- 
 resentative rocks, from the Eozoic to the Tertiary period, 
 sufficient to indicate the possibility of finding any mineral, 
 with the exception of coal, yet they are so compact and 
 closely jointed that truly extensive beds of any ore must be 
 the exception instead of the rule, and for this reason ex- 
 treme caution is indicated in investments. 
 
 It is true that some mines of iron and copper have 
 at certain times, and do still, pay a profit to their own- 
 ers ; yet the record of disaster in comparison is fear- 
 fully large. In some sections much money has been ex- 
 pended in the vain search for workable ore in the drift 
 formation. In other sections shafts have been driven, as at 
 Ludlow, where the most common knowledge of geological 
 science would have saved thousands of dollars. With such 
 examples at hand it seems evident that the work of the ge- 
 ologist should be something more than to point out proba- 
 ble mines, and encourage capitalists to make investments for 
 developments, but rather should dissuade rash persons from 
 rushing blindly on, where experience has proved that fail- 
 ures must result. I would in no way depreciate mining 
 with a probability of success, but would reduce this needless 
 expenditure, which in Vermont has been fearfully large. 
 
 Gold is widely distriijuted over the globe, and occurs in 
 rocks of various ages, from the Eozoic to the Tertiary. 
 The schists that contain the auriferous veins were once sed- 
 
6 MINING IN VERMONT. 
 
 imentary beds of clay, sand, or mud, derived from the wear 
 of pre-existing rocks. Through some process in which heat 
 was concerned, the latter were metamorphosed into the hard 
 crystalline schists, and at the same time upturned and broken 
 and often opened between the layers, and then all the fis- 
 sures cutting across the layers and the openings, (made be- 
 tween the layers, and therefore conforming with the lamina- 
 tion,) became filled with the quartz veins containing gold.* 
 The quartz was brought into the intersecting fissures and 
 the interlaminated oTpen spaces, from the rocks either side, 
 by means of the permeating heated waters, at a temperature 
 probably much above that of boiling water, having thus 
 great decomposing and solvent powers, and carrying into 
 cavities whatever could be gathered up in this manner from 
 the rocks. Thus it will be seen that the gold of the veins 
 was derived from the rocks adjoining the openings, either 
 directly adjoining, or above or below them. According to 
 this idea, which is believed to be correct, it must have been 
 widely distributed through these rocks before they were 
 crystallized and the veins were made, although it existed in 
 so infinitesimal a quantity in a cubic foot, that the beds with- 
 out this metamorphision and the vein-making would have 
 everywhere been worthless mining ground. As we have 
 before said, gold exists more or less abundantly all over the 
 globe, and in most of the regions of crystalline rocks, espe- 
 cially those of the semi-crystalline schists, like th )se in cen- 
 tral and eastern Vermont, it is sometimes wrought with 
 profit. Those gold-bearing schists are interspersed with 
 quartzy seams and veins, in such a way that the gold miner 
 from Siberia, or even from the Sierra Nevada of our western 
 coast, would pronounce sure indications of richly product- 
 ive mines. Further, gold actually exists. In some towns 
 
 * S«« Dana's Mineralogy, page 7. 
 
MINING IN VERMONT. • ( 
 
 situated in the central talcose schist section, as Plymouth for 
 example, gold has been taken in paying quantities, yet iu 
 other sections with little or no success. In 1866, at Bridge- 
 water, quartz mining was carried on to some extent, and the 
 veins seemed more promising than any others in the State, 
 but they were soon given up, though assays from selected 
 ore show from f80 to $100 gold per ton of ore. A regular 
 yield of $10 per ton, with favorable rock to blast, would cer- 
 tainly be prafitable, but blasting was not a success in Ver- 
 mont. In 1868 and '69, certain parties in Lisbon, N. H,, on 
 the line of talcose schist, which I have spoken of as being 
 largely prominent in eastern Vermont, formed extensive min- 
 ing companies, which companies erected two mills, or crush- 
 ers, for the elimination of the gold from the quartz veins in 
 which it was found. The stories told of the amount of gold 
 obtained would do credit even to the gold regions of Cal- 
 ifornia ; yet after running a few months the proprietors be- 
 came involved, and their property was sold at auction at a 
 small percentage of its cost. The present proprietors, after 
 carefully looking over the mining prospect, turn their atten- 
 tion towards agriculture, and believing their interests lie in 
 that direction, crush the rock so poor in gold as to be worth- 
 less, and sell it to farmers as a plant food, superior to super- 
 phosphate or guano. That they now make profit I do not 
 doubt, but that farmers derive a benefit therefrom, at all 
 proportionate to the price paid, I do doubt, and if chemical 
 science is not in fault, the "Stevens Fertilizer," so called, 
 ground from this rock, is no better than so much fine sand.* 
 
 * In the Boston Journal of chemistry, page 89, the editor 
 says : "It seems the Lishon fertilizer is now fairly pitted against 
 the Grafton, and in the contest it will be interesting to learn 
 whether the silex of the former, or the dolomites of the latter 
 shall come out ahead. We give the analysis of these fertilizers, 
 for which we make no charge : 
 
 GRAFTON MINERAL FBBTILIZEK. 
 
 Silica 30.30 
 
8 MINING IN VERMONT. 
 
 Prof. Collier, in his analysis, may show the "Grafton fertili- 
 zer" of more worth.* 
 
 But the gold panic did not stop in Lisbon : almost every 
 man that owned a farm within the schist district, felt more 
 or less the gold fever, and nearly all wasted both time and 
 money in the fruitless search. Not because they did not 
 iitid gold, was it unprofitable, but because they did, and the 
 rocks so compact, with gold so scarce, that while it lured 
 many oa like a "will-o-thc-wisp," it kept up the excitement 
 in all, which has hardly subsided as yet. It is possible that 
 gold will be found in Vermont in workable quantities. If 
 so, it is probable it will be in the central district, or in sand 
 on the bed rock, as our quartz veins seem too hard to prom- 
 ise well. t-^ young man in Essex county, brought me a 
 
 Protoxide of iron 6.27 
 
 Lime 20.60 
 
 Magnesia 11.17 
 
 Carbonic acid 32.11 
 
 100.45 
 
 LISBON, OR STEVENS MINERAL FERTILIZKR. 
 
 Silica 90.60 
 
 Lime 3.27 
 
 Oxide of iron 3.06 
 
 Alumina 31 
 
 Magnesia 38 
 
 Carbonic acid 1.36 
 
 Water 1.06 
 
 Alkalies a trace. 
 
 100.03 
 (lood solid plant food truly. It would be as unreasonable for a 
 baby to turn away from cast iron, as for the grasses and cereal 
 plants to reject such delectable nutriment as is here aflforded." 
 
 *See Prof. Collier's analysis of the Grafton and Stevens min- 
 eral fertilizers, in Report of State Board of Agriculture, &c., 1872. 
 
 fGold has since been found near the village of Gaysville, and it 
 is said the washings pay, and are quite extensive, under the direc- 
 tion of Saltery & Smith, the lessees of an island in White river, 
 nt'ar the above mentioned village. 
 
 Assays of gold from localities in the vicinity of Gaysville show 
 it to be very pure, a sample from " Locust Creek " containing 
 O-t.74 per cent, of gold, and a sample from the " Island " contain- 
 ing 96.53 per cent of gold. P. C. 
 
MINING IN VERMONT. 'J 
 
 fine specimen of gold from a rollstoiie he found, while dig- 
 ging a well, and that spcoiiuen cost liiin much time and money, 
 yet he never after found twent^'-five cents worth of gold. 
 Of course it is possible that gold may be found in workable 
 quantities in the quartz ofVermout, but the probabilities 
 are greatly against it. Now when agriculture is as remu- 
 nerative as in this State, will any reasonable man take that 
 small chance of prospecting our rocks for gold ? Better 
 (than to largely invest in quartz mining,) plant corn and 
 use the poorest mineral fertilizer in place of guano, and at 
 the same price, if they must be humbugged. 
 
 Chalcopyrite or copper pyrites, a valuable ore in many 
 countries, as England, for the production of copper, has 
 been found in many sections of this State, and new veins 
 are liable to be discovered at any time. Its being wrought 
 with profit, however, in this section, is quite another thing, 
 as it requires the most favorable circumstances for success. 
 Where one venture has yielded a fair compensation, many 
 have been failures, even when the managers have supposed 
 every indication of a favorable character. There appears to 
 be three divisions or belts of copper bearing schists, extend- 
 ing into this State, one in the eastern, onedaentral, and one 
 western. The eastern belt, crossing the Connecticut in the 
 southern part of Essex county, was unknown until 1864, 
 when it was discovered at various points and rained in seve- 
 ral places. The most extensive mining operations were 
 carried on in the south part of Concord. A company of 
 New York men purchased the almost barren hill at a 
 cost of about thirty thousand dollars, erected buildings and 
 necessary machinery, expended twenty-five thousand dollars 
 more in mining, obtained about twelve thousand dollars' 
 worth of copper ore, and then abandoned the enterprise. 
 The vein was well situated, but quite variable in thickness, 
 
10 MINING IN VERMONT. 
 
 being sometimes six or seven feet, and again but a few 
 inches, with a haid quartzy, gaugue rock. At a depth of 
 about one liundrcd feet it seemed to run nearly out, or be' 
 found only in irregular lodes, and was given up. It is, 
 however, quite proba))le that other outcrops of Chalcopyritc 
 may be found in the copper divisions of Vermont, that can 
 be wrought with more or lets piofit, but the history of those 
 previously wrought should lead every one inclined to invest 
 to weigh well the probabilities and take counsel of past ex- 
 perience, as well as to obtain accurate information in rela- 
 tion to the character of the rock, and the probabilities of 
 success derived from geological science. There is an old 
 adage among miners, that " metals never grow in very hard 
 rocks." As is often the case with practical men, the fact, 
 as far as it affects mining, is correct ; but of the growth of 
 a mineral, of course, it is obsolete. 
 
 As tin, if found at all in Vermont, will doubtless be 
 found in connection with the copper mines, it will be well 
 here to direct our attention to that mineral. Many tin 
 mines now wrought in different sections of this globe were 
 explored for, and several wrought for copper; and in a 
 number of case^t was only several hundred feet from the 
 surface that tin was first met with. Some of the tin mines 
 of Cornwall, which are the richest in tin of any on the 
 globe, were first opened for copper, though after reaching 
 the granitic rock tin was found. In the Vershire copper 
 mine, when visited by myself in 1867, indications of tin in 
 the deepest shaft were quite prominent, and I find the same 
 opinion was expressed when the mine was examined by our 
 State survey in 1859. As a gentleman from Bradford 
 will present a full description of this mine before the meet- 
 ing, the present prospect of tin will doubtless be discussed. 
 
MINING IN VERMONT. 11 
 
 As tin in Vcrmoul can hardly be expected uuless at the 
 bottom of a copper mine, prospecting for tin on the surface 
 ■would be useless expenditure. 
 
 As regards lead, though we have certain indications 
 which would in some sections make probable the existence 
 of valuable nnnes when 0]ii'ncd, there is very little proba- 
 bility of any richly paying mines in this State. The sul- 
 phuret of lead is the principal ore from which the lead of 
 commerce is obtained. Doubtless the most important mines 
 to-day known are those in the Ktates of Illinois, Wisconsin, 
 Missouri, and Iowa. Lead i^ there found in a porous, mag- 
 nesian limestone, and all around, in and about that region, 
 it is fissured into caverns and openings of various kinds. 
 Frequently those caverns are Ibund incrusted with beautiful 
 crystals of sulphuret of lead in fantastic iorms. We have 
 in Vermont undisturbed beds of Silurian rocks, some of 
 which are nearly identical with the galena, or magnesian 
 limestone of the west ; but in these compact and compara- 
 tively undisturbed sedimentary rock formations of this 
 State, there is hardly a trace of lead. Some small veins of 
 sulphuret of lead ai-c, however, found in the metamorphic 
 rocks of the State, but in no case as yet in sufficient quan- 
 tity to warrant any great outlay for its extraction, and I 
 think the ill success of the Thetford hill mine, as well as 
 small veins elsewhere, that have taken tribute from men ex- 
 pecting riches from mining, should ))revent any furthci- i-ash 
 expenditures in this section. Yet as many lead mines exist 
 in metamorphic aiid even in igneous rocks, should sulphuret 
 of lead be found, it would be wSll to call science in to aid 
 ill an opinion as to its worth. 
 
 Silvef, if fvund in workable quantities, will doubtless be 
 ill connection with lead ; small grains of metallic silver 
 may, however, be found in quartzy veins, but cannot be ex- 
 
12 MINING IN VERMONT. 
 
 pected in workable quantities. A small quantity of silver 
 was found in the Thetford lead mine, and 1 have now speci- 
 mens from an unopened vein in Weathersfield that contain 
 silver as well as lead, but it is not in remarkable quantities 
 in either place. It would be well in all cases to assay for 
 silver as well as lead, and though these mines would hardly 
 pay to cupel for silver, others might, as I am informed that 
 one dollar and fifty cents per ton will pay the cost of the 
 Pattinson process. Yet 1 will further state that workable 
 mines of silver or lead are hardly probable, and all should, 
 therefore, invest with caution. I often have my attention 
 called to white iron pyi-ites under the supposition that it is 
 silver. That the schist rocks of Vermont will ever afford 
 in their substances large amounts of metallic silver is be- 
 yond the range of probability, and all that are sanguine 
 over such specimens would do well to inquire what Dr. S. 
 R. Hall means by "fools' silver,"* before they ask many 
 questions. Disappointments would then be more rare. In 
 quartzy sections the probabilities would be greater, but 
 mica there might lead astray. 
 
 As regards iron, it occurs in rocks of all ages in work- 
 able quantities, and in nearly every portion of the earth's 
 surface. Of course Vermont, with its mountains and val- 
 leys, and variously contorted strata of early formation, 
 would not be likely to be without it. Yet this very early 
 formation of sedimentary rocks tells somewhat against our 
 mines of iron even. It being itself sedimentary, and not at 
 that time as rapidly deposited as at some other periods, the 
 veins do not obtain that extent or thickness that they do in 
 many sections. Again many beds have in part been torn 
 away by drift agency, and broken and scattered by various 
 
 Sec Hall's Geology, Vermont. 
 
MINING IN VERMONT. 13 
 
 causes, until their extent is rendered problematical, and 
 many times the lode is so small that loss and disappointment 
 to the miner results, as at North Troy and other places. I 
 would also refer to Shaftsbury and Sunderland for fui'ther 
 examples, where beds have been nearly all swept away by 
 the drift. As might be expected, the more extensive veins 
 of New York, together with the alteration in character of 
 the ganguc rock, rendering the ore more easy of access, 
 and the ore itself less difficult to mine, tends to disparage 
 mining in Vermont. Many ores of iron are, however, found 
 in the State, and many mines have netted a profit to their 
 owners. Among the ores, I would mention the brown oxide 
 01' brown hematites, as the most valuable for smelting, and 
 in fine, it is most abundant. Earthy oxide or bog ore, is found 
 in almost every town, usually in small deposits, so small as 
 to be of no real value. We have also the red oxide or red 
 hematite, the black oxide or magnetic iron, as well as the 
 specular oxide, also sulphuret of iron, known as iron pyr- 
 ites, useless except for copperas and the sulphuric acid man- 
 ufactory, which brings so low a price in market that it is 
 seldom very profitable to manufacture. We have also 
 spathic ore, and the more valuable chromic iron, which 
 is really of as much value as pig iron, as it i-^ the base of 
 those fine paints known as chrome green, chrome yellow, 
 etc., as well as the bichromate of potash and other salts; it 
 is, however, useless for the furnace. This chrome ore is 
 nearly black ; having an uneven fracture, and a dull metal- 
 lic lustre, it closely resembles specular oxide. It is found 
 in connection with the serpentine of Vermont, or very near 
 it, generally, and I think always thus far, in small veins, or 
 crystalline masses. It seems moi'c abundant in the north- 
 ern part of the State, and all owning land over the serpen- 
 tine section would do well to keep an eye out for chromic 
 
14 MINING IN VERMONT. 
 
 iron. If found in sufficient quantity to warrant the manu- 
 facture of paints, tiie high \-alue of the ore would make 
 small beds profitable, as the ore could be sold without out- 
 lay for furnaces, etc., and wjien exhausted, no previous 
 expenditure would be lost. The iron ores of A'crmont, as 
 I before said, have been smelted with pi'ofit in several 
 places, as at Bi-andon and Plymouth ; yet there has, doubt- 
 less, been more time and money wasted in various attempts 
 to open productive mines. I'rotn worthless indications of iron, 
 than all that was ever realized by those that owned success- 
 ful veins. We can hardly expect to compete with the more 
 vaiualjle mines of Europe, or the mountains of iron in Mis- 
 souri ; yet as freight adds continually to the value of iron, 
 the time will come when wc can, probably, produce iron for 
 home consumption at reasonable paying raf.es. I have no 
 doubt but what many mines of iron now abandoned may 
 be wi-ought with profit in the future. But all should be- 
 ware of following worthless indications, or in any way 
 expending money, until science or experience show a prob- 
 ability of success. 
 
 Carburet of irou, or plumbago, improperly yet generally 
 known as "black lead," is found in several [daces in the 
 State, but in small quantities and very impure. Perhaps 
 tliere is lio mineral sought for witli sucti ill success as 
 plumbago. Thei'c is olten Ibimd (ju slate rocks a black tar- 
 nish which soils the fingers, and is taken by many,, when 
 found, as a sui'e indication of "black lead," (as it is term- 
 ed,) and the ledge is blasted at considerable trouble and ex- 
 pense, when they find less and less of the supposed mineral, 
 until at length the rock becomes compact, and all traces of 
 it are lost, having been at first produced by the decomposi- 
 tion of iron pyrites, which .may now be seen in shining cubes 
 in the compact state. Again, such stained places, when dry, 
 
MINING IN VERMONT. 16 
 
 have many times been supposed sure indications of coal, 
 and the ledge mined for tliat mincial with no better success. 
 
 It may be well to say that the early sedimentary rocks of 
 Vei-mont are altogether too old to contain coal, as they 
 were formed before there was a sufficient soil upon the earth 
 to give root to a vegetation luxuriant enough to leave the 
 debris sufficient to produce the beds of coal, as found in 
 other sections ; and our glacial drift period on the other 
 hand too recent to aid in any material formation of the kind. 
 
 Though we find at Brandon and some other places a faint 
 effort of recent drift in the production of a kind of lignite, 
 somewhat akin to coal, it is nowhere of great extent, and it 
 is plain that it is entirely useless to expend any money in 
 search of what cannot exist within our borders. Manga- 
 nese is found in many places in connection with iron ore, and 
 also separate therefrom, and is of use in the arts, bringing 
 a fair price in accordance with its purity. It can never be 
 any great source of profit to Vermont, as it is generally 
 abundant, and it is doubtful if its damage to the smelting pro- 
 cess, when mixed with iron ores, is not a greater injury than 
 its value can ever compensate. But the worth of Vermont 
 is not so much in its metallic ores as in its excellent soil, 
 which reaches to the top of all our hills, and I might al- 
 most say, our very mountains. In the valleys and in our 
 swamps is the best sphagneous muck, which needs only suf- 
 ficient 'trial to become popular as a fertilizer. If, as Dr. 
 Mason said at an agricultural meeting in New Hampshire, 
 " the rocks of New Hampshire are the wealth of the 
 State, as they only need to be pulverized to exceed the su- 
 perphosphates in fertilizing power," we can safely say the 
 same of our muck beds, which will do as much, and then 
 add the fact, that our rocks arc many times more valuable, 
 whether used as monuments, building stone, or as lime to 
 
16 MINING IN VERMONT. 
 
 burn and grind in a discarded gold crusher, to supply the 
 farming comoiunitj with a valuable, instead of a nearly worth- 
 less fertilizer. 
 
 I am asked if we need another geological survey of our 
 State ? I answer most emphatically that we do : not only 
 to point out where mining operations can be carried on 
 with success, hut where they cannot ; to enlighten the pop- 
 ular mind, so that the wild schemes of wealth from impos- 
 sible mines may be crushed, thus saving w^ste of time and 
 money, which might in agriculture give profitable results, 
 as well as to point out diiferences in soil in different sec- 
 tions, and act thus as an aid to the farmer in determining 
 what fertilizer is required to bring about the best possible 
 results ; to closely define the lines of division between 
 soils of diflerent characters, which can only be fully settled 
 by a close study of all the geological changes which gave 
 us this soil, though difiFering in diiferent sections, yet found 
 to possess extraordinary fertility everywhere within our 
 limits. 
 
REPORT 
 
 OF THE 
 
 STATE GEOLOGIST 
 
 AND 
 
 CUKATOR OF STATE CABmBT. 
 
REPORT 
 
 OF THE 
 
 STATE aEOLOGIST 
 
 AND 
 
 CURATOR OF THE STATE TABINET. 
 
 To His Excellency Julius Conversk, Governor of Vermont: 
 
 Sir: — I have the honor to present you herewith tlic report 
 of my management as State Geologist and Curator of llie 
 State Cabinet, since ray appointment in 1870. 
 
 Through the inadvertence of the Secretary of the Senate 
 for that year, the bill making a small appropriation for the 
 improvement of the Cabinet, after pass-ing both JTouse and 
 Senate, failed to reach the Governor in treason for liis si<>|ia- 
 ture and approval, thus apparently defeating the object in 
 view, which object was the preservation of sjiecimcns al- 
 ready in the Cabinet, and the addition of such specimens 
 as in my judgment I thought best to add thereto. Feeling 
 that the passage of this bill by the Assembly gave me a suf- 
 ficient guarantee, I have acted upon the intention of the 
 bill, doing such work as 1 deemed necessary to preserve the 
 specimens then in the Cabinet, and putting up in a pro[ior 
 manner as many specimens of the Ornithology, Oolosry, Cr.i- 
 niology, Entomology, Conchology and Mineralogy of the 
 State as I thought of sufficient value to warrant the oatlay. 
 
20 BERORT OP THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 
 
 until my prospective funds were exhausted. Of the birds 
 of Vermont I have added the following specimens : 
 
 <n 
 
 dl OBDEE 1. RAPTOEES, EOBBEES. 
 
 S Astur fttrlcaptllus Bon Gos Hawk. 
 
 2 ^alco Cooperi Thomp \. . .Cooper's Hawk. 
 
 1 " sparverluB Lin Sparrow Hawk. 
 
 1 '* nlger Wll Black Hawk. 
 
 a " boresUs Thomp Red tailed Hawk. 
 
 4 " pennsylvanicus Tliomp...-. Broad winged Hawk, 
 
 3 " leucocephalus Thomp Golden Eagle. 
 
 1 Acciplter fuscns l.ln Sharped shinned Hawk. 
 
 8 Pandlon carollnensls Bon American Fish Hawk. 
 
 2 Nyctala-acadlca ...Bon — ,...Saw whet OtcI. 
 
 2 Strix virfdniana, Thomp Great horned Owl. 
 
 1 " asio Thom p Screech Owl. 
 
 2 ** araerlcana Thomp Bam Owl. 
 
 2 " nyctea Thomp Snowy Owl, 
 
 9 .Symlum nebnloaum Gray Barred Owl. 
 
 ORDEE 2. SCANSOEES, CLIMBERS. 
 
 2 Coccygus erythrophthalmus Bon Black billed Cuckoo. 
 
 2 Picns villosus Lin Hairy "Woodpecker. M. & F. 
 
 2 *' pubcscens Lin Downy Woodpecker. 
 
 2 Spliyrapicus varius Balrd Yellow bellied "Woodpecker. M. & F. 
 
 4 Melanerpes erythrocephalus.. Swain v. Bed headed Woodpecker. M. & F. 
 
 1 Colaptea auratus... Swain Golden winged Woodpecker. 
 
 ORDER 3. INSESSORES, PERCHERS. 
 
 6 Trochllus Lin Hummingbird, M. & F. 
 
 3 Ghaetura pelasgia Steph... Chimney Swift. M. & F. 
 
 2 Autroetomus voclfenis Bon Whippoorwill, 
 
 3 Ceryle alcyon Boie Belted Kingfisher. Male. 
 
 1 Sayomis fuscus Baird Pewee, or Phebe-bird. 
 
 1. Empidonax minimus Balrd Small Flycatcher, 
 
 2 Turdus pallasil Cab Hermit Tlirush. M. Sc F. 
 
 1 " fuscescens Steph Wilson's Thrush. 
 
 2 " niigratorlus Lin Robin. M. & F. 
 
 1 Gallinula galeata. Bon Florida GalJInulefi, 
 
 I Slalia siallB Balrd Blue Bird. Female. 
 
 1 Pnrus atrlcapillus Lin Chickadee. 
 
 2 Sitta carollnensls Gmel ."White bellied Nuthatch., 
 
 2 .Certhia americaua Bon American Creeper. 
 
 1 Parula amerlcana Bon Blue yellow backed Warbler. 
 
 l;,.*i;^GeothlyplH trlchas Cab Maryland Yellow Tliroat. M. 
 
 1 Dcndrolca canadensis Baird........ Black throated Blue Warbler. 
 
it 
 
 REPORT OP THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 21 
 
 ORDER 3— Continued. 
 
 1 " eoronata Gray Yellow rumped Warbler. Male. 
 
 4 *' Blackburnlae Baird Blackburnian Warbler. M. 
 
 2 " striata Batrd Black poll Warbler. 
 
 1 .^utblypis cauadeiisiB Cab Canada fly-eatiug Warbler. 
 
 2 Setophaga rutSclUa Swain RedHtart. 
 
 2 Pyranga rubra Viell Scarlet Tanager. M. & F. 
 
 2 ......Hirundo lunifrons Say Cliff Swallow. 
 
 1 " bleolor : "Viell White bellied Swallow. 
 
 3 Progne subis Beard Purple Martin. M. & T. 
 
 2 Ampelis cedrornm Beard Cedar Bird, 
 
 1 CoUyrio borealis Beard Northern Shrike. 
 
 1 Vireo gllvus Bon Warbling Vireo. 
 
 I Plnlcol a cauadensis Cab Pine Grosbeak. 
 
 1 Carpodacus purpureas Gray Pui'ple Fincli. 
 
 4 Chrysomltris tristis Bon Yellow Bird. . 
 
 1 " pinus Bon Pine Finch. 
 
 2 Curvirostra americana Wll Red Crossbill. M. & P. 
 
 1 " Icucophrys Wil White winged Crossbill. 
 
 3 iEgiothus linaria Cab Lesser Redpoll. 
 
 1 Plectrophanes nivalis Meyer Snow Bunting. 
 
 1 Zonotrichia leucoprys Swain While crowned Sparrow. 
 
 1 " albicoUis Bon Wliite throated Sparrow. 
 
 1 Junco hyenialis, Scla Snow Bird. 
 
 1 Spizella socialis Bon Cliipplng Sparrow. 
 
 4 Melospiza melodia Baird Song Sparrow. 
 
 2 Gulraca ludoviciana Swain Rose breasted Grosbeak. 
 
 1 Cyanospiza cyanea Baird Indigo Bird. 
 
 5 Dolichonyx oryzivorus Swain Bobolink. 31. & P, 
 
 5 Agc'laius pbceniceus Vleil Red winged Blackbird. 
 
 2 Sturnella magna Swain Meadow Lark. 
 
 2 Icterus Baltimore Dan Baltimore Oriole. M. & F. 
 
 I Scolecophagus ferrugineus . . . .Swain Rusty Blackbird. 
 
 I Quiscalus purpnreus Licht Purple Grakle. 
 
 2 Corvus araericanus Aud Crow. 
 
 .'t Cyanurus crlstatus Swain Blue Jay. M. & V. 
 
 1 Perisoreus canadensis Bon Canada Jay. 
 
 1 Fringilla canariensis Vieill Canary Bird. 
 
 ORDEE 4. RASOEES, SCRATCHERS. 
 
 2 Ectopistes migratoria Swain Wild Pigeon. 
 
 1 Tetrao canadensis Lin Spruce Patridge. 
 
 2 Bonasa umbellus Steph Ruffed Grouse. 
 
 ORDER 6. GRALLATORES, WADERS. 
 
 1 Botaurus lentiginosus Steph Bittern. 
 
 Butorides vire^cens. Bon Green Heron. 
 
22 BEPOST OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 
 
 ■si 
 
 aS order o— CONTIITUED. 
 
 Is 
 
 CO 
 
 1 riiHoLela minor Gray American Woodcoct. 
 
 1 GaUlnago Wllsonll Bon Wilson's Snipe. 
 
 1 Gambetta melanoleuca Bon Teltale Taller. 
 
 1 AetUurus bartramlus Bon Upland Plover. 
 
 ORDER 6. XATATOKES, SWIMMERS. 
 
 2 Bemlcla canadensis Bole Canada Goose. M. & F. 
 
 1 Anas obscma Gmclln Black Duck. 
 
 1 Alx sponsa Bole Summer or Wood Duck. 
 
 ) Anas albeola Tliomp Dipper Duck. Female. 
 
 1 " persplcUlata Tlionip Butter Bill Duck. 
 
 1 Mcrgus amerlcanus Cas Slieldrake. 
 
 I Lanis marlnus Lin Great Gull. Female. 
 
 1 Clirolcocepbalus plilladelpliia. . .Law Bonaparte's Gull. 
 
 4 ColjTnbus torquatus Bnm Loon. M. & F. 
 
 1 " septentrlonalls Lin Bed throated Diver. 
 
 1 Podiceps grlselgena Gray Red necked Grebe. 
 
 DOMESTIC EOWLS. 
 
 l..,...Pavo crlstatus Peacock. Male. 
 
 1 Gallus Spanish Figbting Cock. 
 
 ] CoUimba Dove. 
 
 There are also a few specimens of value belonging to the 
 Thompson collection, but those are chiefly valuable, as be- 
 ing the specimens described in his work, as types of Ver- 
 mont birds at that time. Their plumage is somewhat fndcd, 
 ■ and as they were intended for scientific use, instead of ex- 
 hibition, they are not stuffed to nature, and are little better 
 than bird skins. Their age prevents the possibility of put- 
 ting them up in a manner for favorable exhibition, and for 
 that reason most of them are of small value to the cabinet. 
 As it is my intention to add types of all the species of Ver- 
 mont birds, any birds killed in the State not on this list, if 
 in good plumage, and not injured by shooting, I should lie 
 glad to receive, either by express or otherwise, for the cab-- 
 inct. Such as we have on this list not being of as much 
 value, I would request that the friends of this enterprise. 
 
BEPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 2S 
 
 would not forward them, unless in some way they were 
 thought to be very fine specimens. The express bills on 
 useless birds retard our work, as it is needless expense tar 
 ken from a limited fund. I will further state, for the benefit 
 of those interested, that birds to be of value as specimens 
 must be in winter plumage as much as possible, and our mi- 
 gratory birds must be killed as soon as possible after their 
 arrival, or just before their departure. Summer specimens 
 are of no value whatever. 
 
 OOLOGY. 
 
 Our collection of birds' eggs is limited, and we desire for 
 the present that all the friends of this collection would save 
 us as many eggs as possible. If the eggs are found 
 early it is but a minute's work to perforate the ends with a 
 needle and blow out the contents ; if incubation has progress- 
 ed so far that the contents cannot be blown out, with a sharp 
 pointed knife, oi' a thin fine file, a square can be cut out of 
 the side, and the contents broken up and washed out. The 
 piece of shell cut out can be put in place and held there with 
 a drop of mucilage applied inside, so as to flow around the 
 piece cut out ; a drop of varnish is even better. The shell 
 must be dry before the application of either. 
 
 CRANIOLOGT. 
 
 In this department I have added forty-five specimens. 
 With the exception of Canis lupus, Lin., (common Wolf;) 
 Felis concolor, (Catamount,) we have a complete set of the 
 skulls of Vermont mammals. Any one sending us either 
 of the skulls above mentioned will confer a great favor. 
 As we have only a limited number of the skulls of birds, 
 all will be acceptable for some years to come. To those 
 not accustomed to cleansing bones I would say, that af- 
 ter boiling in clear water for a suf&cient time to remove 
 
24 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 
 
 the muscles, they may be set away for a few days to soak 
 in a solution of sal soda and water, made' by dissolving four 
 ounces of salt to one gallon of thewater ; then after boiling 
 in the same until the bone seems to soften upon the outside, but 
 not enough to destroy any portion of its surface, wash out 
 and lay in the sun to bleach. For small skulls much less time 
 is required. 
 
 ENTOMOLOaY. 
 
 I have collected several hundred insects, and have receiv- 
 ed a few from other parties by exchanges. A full set of en- 
 tomological specimens representing Vermont species must be 
 the work of years, and I would ask the co-operation of all 
 within the State that are in any way interested in the work. 
 Full directions for mounting specimens will be sent when 
 wanted. To preserve such specimens from destructive in- 
 sects, it becomes necessary to poison them. This can be 
 best done by a solution of corrosive sublimate, which can be 
 applied to their bodies with a camel's hair pencil. It is begt 
 to use it as strong as may be without whitening the insects, 
 but if too much is added and the specimen whitened, it is 
 not spoiled; as it may be dissolved away with alcohol and 
 thus restored. Insects may be killed by the inhalation 
 of chloroform if desired, but for beetles and many other 
 small insects their immediate immersion in alcohol, in 
 which they can be kept for years, is the most desirable meth- 
 od for collectors. By this method a wide mouthed bpttle 
 which contains strong alcohol, in which specimens can be 
 put as soon as caught, is all that is necessary. After they 
 become fully saturated they can be taken out of the alcohol 
 and sent by mail in a small box without any injury. But as 
 butterflies and moths cannot be thus preserved, pinning is 
 sometimes necessary. Great care should be taken that spec- 
 
REPORT OP THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 25 
 
 imens pinned should be perfect, that their wings be fully ex- 
 tended and their antennae and limbs not allowed to curl up 
 as they are inclined to do, but dried in as natural a position 
 as possible. Constant care must be taken after the specimen 
 is put up to preserve it. Though poisoned, it is not free 
 from the depredations of some destructive insects, and must 
 be kept in a close box. Duot is also a great injury, as well 
 as light, so it is necessary to protect very nicely from all in- 
 iuries. The chrysalis and caterpillar should also be pre- 
 served ; the latter can usually be preserved in alcohol. 
 
 CONCHOLOGT. 
 
 An inland state like Vermont would seem a poor place 
 for a local collection of shells, but it is by no means 
 as deficient as it seems. I have been able already to collect 
 many species, and many more can be collected. To those 
 interested, I would say that I should like to have them col- 
 lect in their localities ten shells of a kind, if possible, if not, 
 as many as may bo, mai'king distinctly where found. If 
 they will send such collections to me for the use of the 
 cabinet, I will return them named samples of their collec- 
 tion, and, as soon as may be, place the others in the cabinet, 
 and to their credit if they wish, paying them in exchanges 
 as soon as our collection is large enough to supply them. I 
 should be glad to impress upon the public mind the great 
 scientific value of such a local collection, and attract their 
 attention to such an extent that persons finding shells in 
 Vermont would save them and forward by their town repre- 
 sentative to our cabinet. 
 
 MINEBALOGY. 
 
 In this department, as no geological survey is in progress, 
 and no authorized expense could be incurred in the field, for 
 the state no progress could really be made. I have, however. 
 
26 BEPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 
 
 added about two hundred specimens, many of them of inter- 
 est, having comparative value, or new representatiouis of 
 Vermont minerals not previously in the cabinet ; 1 li_ave 
 also re-arranged many specimens, preparing new labels, 
 using new cases, and in every way trying to utilize the lim- 
 ited space allowed. It will become immediately necessary, 
 if the specimens are all put on exhibition, to have more room. 
 I trust such want will be considered by ihe next session of 
 our legislature. In the meantime all collections made will 
 be cared for and held in readiness fur exhibition when 
 space shall be given them. Let this fact deter no one from 
 contributing thereto, as their contributions will be just as 
 valuable and will at proper time be placed on exhibition 
 in a favorable manner. 
 
 During the past year some mines in Vermont have been 
 wrought with profit, and the marble mterest was never lai'ger 
 or more profitable. At Gaysville, Saltery & Smith have 
 inaugurated extensive gold washing, which they claim thus 
 far profitable. As I have before expressed, it is still my 
 opinion, if gold ever pays in Vermont it will be like this at 
 Gaysville, from washing. Quartz mining in this section for 
 gold has always been a failure ; it is still my impression it 
 ever will be. At the present high price of metals, if long 
 continued, doubtless some mines in Vermont, now abandon- 
 ed, might be wrought with profit, and perhaps some new 
 veins now known may be opened, as well as other discoveries 
 made. When metals are as now high priced, and in active 
 demand, prospecting is usually prosecuted with more vigor 
 and efi'ect. 
 
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 
 
 Our acknowledgments to gentlemen in the State and out, 
 who have aided us in various ways, should be numerous, but 
 
KBPORT OP THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 27 
 
 only a few names can be mentioned. I would, however, make 
 particular mention of Prof. Peter Collier, of Burlington, 
 Hqn. Charles R^'ed, and T. C. Phinney, of Montpelier, 
 Prof. J. A. Allen, of Cambridge, Mass., Philip S. Sprague, of 
 Boston, Mass., and J. H. Huntington, of Hanover, N. H. 
 
 Our thanks in behalf of the State are especially due to 
 the management of the " Boston, Concord & Montreal and 
 White Mts. R. R.," "Conn. & Pass. Rivers & Massawippi 
 Valley R. R.," "Vermont Central R. R. and its branches," 
 " Concord Railroad and its branches,'' " Boston, Lowell & 
 Nashua R. R. and branches," and " Eastern Railroad and 
 branches," for free passes over their lines of road. 
 
 Hoping that the interest universally expressed in favor of 
 our Vermont scientific collection may increase, rather than 
 diminish, and that the ready assistance redered us in our 
 endeavors to obtain specimens of interest for this collection 
 may continue, and the results produced be worthy of our 
 "Green Mountain State," 
 
 I am respectfully yours, 
 
 HIRAM A. CUTTING, 
 State Geologist aud Curator State Cabinet. 
 
 Lunenburgh, Vt., November 18, 1872. 
 
 91 
 
REPORT 
 
 OF THE 
 
 Geologist and Cueator State Cabinet 
 
 FOR 1874 AND 1875, 
 
 WITH 
 
 DIRECTIOBTS FOR COLLECTING SPECIMENS 
 
 AND AN 
 
 A.IDDIIESS 
 
 Parasitic Insects of Domestic Animals, 
 
 6IVBN 
 
 Before a meeting of the State Board of Agriculture, Man- 
 ufactures and Mining, at Westminster. 
 
 Bt HIRAM A. CUTTING, A. M., M. D., 
 
 State Geologist and Curator. 
 
 MONTPELIER . 
 
 FREEMAN STEAM PRINTING HOUSE AND BINDERY. 
 1875. 
 
REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 
 
 To Bis Excellency Asahel Peck, Oevernor of Vermont : 
 
 SiH : — I have the honor to respectfully present the report 
 of the management of my department for the years 1873 
 and 1874. I have had so many applications to examine 
 mines, or localities where it was supposed minerals could be 
 found, at the expense of the State, I deem it advisable to 
 present Section 2, of Act No. 76, approved November 26, 
 1872, which is as follows : 
 
 " Sec. 2. It shall be the duty of the State Geologist to 
 give counsel respecting the openings to be made in mines 
 and quarries when desired by the owners thereof or any 
 person interested therein, and to faithfully advise and assist 
 all such persons as may employ him in any attempt to dis- 
 cover new mines and quarries, or to encourage the working 
 of those already discovered : provided, however, that in no 
 case and under no circumstances shall said geologist charge 
 to or receive from the State anything for services or expenses 
 except he is directly employed by the governor of the 
 State, but shall look to his employers for any compensa- 
 tion that he may reasonably deserve to have for any pro- 
 fessional services so by him rendered." 
 
 Agreeably to this act, I have replied to all letters, giving 
 my opinion in regard to all specimens sent me, and fre- 
 
4 
 quently their partial analysis, free of any charge whatever. 
 In only few instances has anything further been required. 
 I have also visited at my own expense several localities 
 where I was led to believe valuable minerals might be found, 
 as well as some localities not examined in our Geological 
 Survey, and hold myself in readiness ta make reports of 
 such examinations when desired. I have received several 
 letters from various parties thinking they had found. coal, 
 and I understand that one company have expended, or con- 
 tracted to expend, one thousand dollars in boring for it. I 
 take this opportunity to say, that all geologists agree, that no 
 coal in workable quantity can be found in this State. ji^The 
 geological periods here represented are either too old or too 
 recent to contain it. It is true that lignite tas been found 
 in small quantities, but can never be of much value. Some 
 of the specimens sent me for coal have been plumbaginous 
 slate, and others, varieties of manganese. 
 
 I have also received several specimens of plumbago. One 
 from a limestone ledge in Swanton, sent by C. H. Fonda, 
 would indicate that this vein might prove valuable. Speci- 
 mens from Troy, Richmond, and other places, would show 
 a possibility of workable veins. 
 
 I have received a large number of specimens of manga- 
 nese from Topsham, most of which were rhodonite, but 
 some were very good specimens of pyrolusite, and I intend, 
 as soon as the snow permits, to examine the locality in ques- 
 tion. As it is near the Montpelier and Wells River Rail- 
 road, it may be valuable. 
 
 I have partially examined extensive marl beds neaT the 
 Portland and Ogdensburgh Raalroad> in Danville and 
 Peacham, and find them of great extent and of the best 
 
ma(tcrial. I have no doubt but that marl can be taken 
 frowt them with profit. Similar beds also occur near the 
 Passtraapsic Railroad in Sutton. I also examined a deposit 
 of ochre on the farm of George Clarke, of that town. It' is 
 of saperior quality, bat hardly extensive enough to pay for 
 working. I also saw deposits of ochreous earth in Lyndon 
 and Newport. 
 
 Of the worth of the marble interests of the State, or of 
 their inexhaustible quantity, too much caanot be said. A 
 new quarry called the Central Vermont, at Pittsford, in 
 abundance, variety and excellence, can hardly be surpassed. 
 In Vermont is found, if we except a few localities on the 
 southern extension of the Alleghany Mountain belt, nearly all 
 of the first-class marble east of the Jtiocky Mountains, and . 
 almost every year develops extensive new quarries, not in- 
 ferior to the old. Large amounts of capital can now find 
 remunerative investment in openiug new localities, or by in- 
 creasing the work in quarries already opened. 
 
 The peculiar efiects in glacial and drift actions have re- 
 moved much of the loose and valueless stones, thus saving 
 great expenditure, and giving sound marble at little depth. 
 
 As regards durability, our marbles challenge comparison 
 with any Others known. As building stone they prove unu- 
 suaily durable, and the great extent of this marble belt is- 
 beyond question. 
 
 PETRIFACTION. 
 
 Ear the past two .years the newspapers of Vermont, as 
 well as other States, have recorded several cases of supposed 
 petcifactioR of the human body, aad as the belief thait such 
 may be the fact is so general, I have been requested to report 
 upoBSUch oases as I have examined. In the face of thes-e 
 
newspaper assertions, and also the affidavits of various reliable 
 individuals, I must state that fact does not substantiate such 
 reports. The petrifaction of any of the soft parts of a warm- 
 blooded animal is aa yet unknown to science. I have inves- 
 tigated seven cases of reported petrifaction of the human 
 body, where the testimony in each case was more than suf- 
 ficient to convict in any court at law. In one case the body 
 was pounded with a shovel ; in another several men witnessed 
 the drilling of it for hooks ; and in all the evidence was ap- 
 parently as reliable as human testimony could be, but upon 
 close re-examination, all proved to be remarkable cases of 
 preservation, by a change of the soft parts of the body to 
 adipocere j probably by their almost immediate immersion 
 in water. Pretended petrifactions have been exhibited, but 
 they were always statues cut from stone by some ingenious 
 rogue that wished to humbug some one, and has been too 
 often successful for a time, as with the CardiiF Giant, and 
 so-called Indian boy, recently exhibited in several of the 
 larger places of New England. 
 
 THE FROZEN WELL. 
 
 About a mile southwest of Brandon village there is a well 
 nearly forty feet deep, the water of which has the peculiarity 
 of freezing and remaining frozen, all the year. In 1858 the 
 owner of the property began the usual excavations for water. 
 After passing through soil and clay to the depth of fourteen 
 feet, a bed of frozen gravel, some fifteen feet in thickness, 
 was encountered. After passing the frost- and digging some 
 two or three feet, water was found. The excavation was then 
 carried deep enough to furnish sufficient water, and stopped 
 upon a clean pebbly bottom, into which an iron bar could be 
 crowded down its length. In 1859 two other wells were 
 
7 
 dug by the Boston Society of Natural History, peventy feet 
 south, and ako northwest, in one of which frost was found 
 in diflferent layers ; the first being no more than two inches 
 thick, while the last they did not pass through, but it must 
 have been several feet. 
 
 There is also a similar frozen well in Owego, N. Y., and 
 other places, both in this country and Europe. 
 
 These wells freeze over to great depth in the winter, and 
 ice fills in much above the surface of the water, coating the 
 stones upward, several feet, and they contain ice during all 
 the summer months. 
 
 Various theories have been given to account for this phe- 
 nomena, as by the sinking of cold air by its increased specific 
 gravity, by Prof. Loomis ; or the preservation of ice and 
 frozen material since the drift period, many thousands of 
 years ago, by Prof. E. Hitchcock ; as well as the refrigera- 
 tor opinion of A. D. Hager, all of which a few simple ex- 
 periments seem to disprove. It is a well known fact that the 
 natives of India have from ancient times produced ice in 
 elongated wells or deep ditches, by means of evaporation ; 
 placing water in small shallow dishes with straw around 
 them, more compact at the top, and then forcing a current 
 of air through (he straw, causing rapid evaporation and con- 
 sequent freezing of the water in these pans. The freezing 
 of water under the receiver of an air pump, by the evapo- 
 ration of ether, is also a familiar experiment ; and this 
 principle is carried out in the hygrometer, where the in- 
 creased cold by the evaporation of moisture from the wet 
 bulb of a thermometer shows the amount of such evapora- 
 tion, which often causes a difference of twelve degrees in 
 temperature. 
 
Believing that it was impossible that frost couljd kavc; re- 
 mainsd from the drift period, and that the specific, graifity of 
 cold air would be no greater in Brandon than elsewheire!^, aind 
 that all wells from that cause would be equally affected, and 
 that the coating of the stones with ice aboye. the water 
 would indicate freezing from evaporation, I suggested 
 that covering the well to prevent that continued exit of air 
 heavily charged with moisture, should prevent freezing, 
 and would do so to a great extent if the cold was caused 
 by evaporation. Last winter it was covered, and no ice 
 formed. One day in March, when it was not freezing cold, 
 the cover was left open and ice formed in the well; but 
 after closing it for a few days, it disappeared ; though during 
 the spring months ice could be, formed by leaving the 
 cover open. I think this solution to agree with philosophic 
 facts, and that the peculiar, porous nature of the soil in 
 which S'uch wells are situated, would allow evaporation at 
 great depths,- which would cause a freezing current of air to 
 pass underneath impervious strata, lifce clay beds, to find 
 exit in porous places. This would be ample cause for frost 
 as found. Other excavations have shown these clay beds in 
 patches and not continuous, which would show the theory 
 usstained by additional fact. 
 
 ADDITIOJSS TO THE CABINET. 
 
 By donations and otherwise several hundred specimens 
 have been added to our geological and historical eollection. 
 Through the courtesy and liberality of our railroads such col- 
 lections have been of but little expense to the State. I 
 should be glad to specify, did space permit, the many favors 
 received from individuals, as well as corporations ; hut feel- 
 
9 
 
 ing that all of our contributors are "friends to our cause, 
 rather than egotists, I would present the thanks of all in- 
 terested in science, and especially of those citizens of Ver- 
 mont that are interested in our collection, to those that have 
 80 liberally helped us on our way, to mai^e the Vermont 
 State Cabinet of true value as a State collection. 
 
 ORNITHOLOGY. 
 
 The following new specimens of birds have been added : 
 
 a 
 °| ORDER 1. RAPTORES, ROBBERS. 
 
 f5§, 
 IS 
 
 1 Aquila pisoatrix Vieillot Fish catching Eagle, 
 
 2 A.qaila ohrysaetos Wilson The Golden Eagle. 
 
 1 Falco coopern Bonaparte Cooper's Hawk. 
 
 2 Falco Bate»ides. Nnttall Bed shouldered Hawk. 
 
 1 Falco Hudsonius, Linn Marsh Hawk. 
 
 2 Strix braohyotus Linn Short eared Owl. 
 
 2 Strix otus Linn Long eared Owl. 
 
 ORDER 2. SCANSORES, CLIMBERS. 
 m 
 1 Cuicnlus, Americanus Linn Yellow Billed Cackoo. 
 
 ORDER 3. INSESSORES, PERCHERS. 
 
 1 Caprlmulgus vociferas Wilson Whippoonvill, 
 
 2 Caprimulgus americanus... Wilson Night Hawk.. 
 
 2 Muscapa crinita Linn Great"crested Flycatcher. 
 
 1 Muscicapa flavlventria Baird Yellow billed Flycatcher. 
 
 1 Motacilla aurooapilla Linn Golden crowned Thrush. 
 
 1 Turdus rnfus Linn Brown Thrnsh. 
 
 1 Motacilla calendula Linn Euby crowned Kinglet. 
 
 1 Parus atrioapiUus Linn Crested Titmouse Chiok-a-dee. 
 
 1 — ..Sitta canadensis Linn Red bellied Nuthatch. 
 
 2 '.Motacilla varia Linn Blackand White Creeper. M. and F- 
 
 1. Cistothorus stellaris Cahanis. ...Marsh Wren. 
 
 1 Sylvia domestiea Wilson House Wren. 
 
 2 Sylvia ruflcapiHa Wilson Nashville Warbler. 
 
 2 Sylvia vireus Wilson Black throated Green Warbler. 
 
 2 Sylvia castanea Wilson Bay breasted Warbler. 
 
 1 Sylvia plnus Wilson Pine creeping Warbler. 
 
 2 Sylvia Pennsylvanlca ^ Wilson Chestnut sided Warbler. 
 
 1...... Sylvia magnolia Wilson Black and Yellow Warbler. 
 
 1 Sylvia petechia Wilson Yellow Eedpoll. 
 
 1.. J. ..Sylvia minuta Wilson I'rairje Warbler. 
 
 2 Sylvia mitrata Nuttall Hooded Warbler. M.andF. 
 
 2 
 
10 
 
 da ORDER 3— Continued. 
 
 v 
 o> 
 
 03 
 
 1 Sylvia chrysoptera Wilson Golden winged Warbler. 
 
 1 Pipra polyglotta Wilson . ^. .. .Yellow breasted chat. 
 
 2 HIraado americana Wilson Barn Swallow. 
 
 2 Mnsoioapa olivacea Linn Red eyed Vireo. M. and F. 
 
 1 Mascioapa cantatrix Wilson White eyed Vireo. 
 
 1 vAlanda oomuta Wilson Slsylark. Shorelark. 
 
 1 Alauda alpestrls WilaoA, Brown Lark. 
 
 1 Poooaetes Baird Buff breasted Finch. 
 
 2 Fringilla tristis Linn Yellow Bird. 
 
 1 Fringilla arborea Wilson Tree Sparrow. 
 
 1 Fringilla pusilla Wilson Field Sparrow. 
 
 1 Fringilla palustris Wilson Swamp Span-ow. 
 
 2 Fringilla rnfa Wilson Fox colored Sparrow. 
 
 2 Fringilla pecoris .Gmelin Cow Bunting. 
 
 2 Fringilla canadensis Latham Tree Bunting. 
 
 3 Icterus spurius Bonaparte Orchard Oriole, 
 
 1 Corvus corax Wilson American Raven. 
 
 ORDER 5. GRALLATORES, WADERS. 
 
 1 Ardea Hcrodias Linn Great Blue Heron or Crane. 
 
 1, Botaurus lentiginosns — Stephens The Biteran Stakedriver. 
 
 1 Buteoides virescens Bonaparte The Green Heron. 
 
 1 Tringa macularia Linn Spotted Sandpiper. 
 
 2 Ralluscrepitans Gmelin Clapper Kail. M. and F. 
 
 1 Rallus virginianus Linn Virginia Bail. 
 
 ORDER 6. NATATORES, SWIMMERS. 
 1 Graculns carbo' Gray Cormorant. 
 
 We still desire specimens of rare birds killed in Vermont, 
 and wish such when killed sent to us immediately by ex- 
 press As there is an appropriation to pay express charges, 
 such charges need not be prepaid. Should it be the desire 
 of parties donating the birds that their name should appear 
 on the specimen, a letter stating that fact, with name and 
 residence, must be sent by mail. If birds are caught in 
 traps, do not send them alive, as their plumage will be spoiled, 
 but kill by pouring a spoonful of chloroform down their 
 
11 
 
 throats, and then wrap up in a paper before boxing, so as to 
 retain their feathers in the most natural position. 
 
 OOLOGY. 
 
 We'Still desire many more birds' eggs. It is absolutely 
 necessary for their preservation that the contents of the shell 
 be removed. If incubation has progressed so it cannot be 
 blown out in the usual way, the shell may be cut with a 
 three-cornered file, and a piece taken out, and after the 
 contents has been washed out and the shell dried , returned 
 in place, and held there by a drop of mucilage. 
 
 I will exchange for egg shells, minerals, or other speci- 
 mens, if desired. 
 
 CRANIOLOGY. 
 
 "We now desire, to complete our set of Vermont mammals, 
 the skull of the wolf, (canis lupus,) and catamount, (felis 
 concolor). If any party will furnish them, we will make fair 
 remuneration. 
 
 Thanks for skulls of birds received as donations, and more 
 desired. 
 
 CONCHOLOGY. 
 I have already secured quite a collection of Vermont 
 shells. E. M. Goodwin, Esq., of Hartland, has furnished 
 more than any other individual. We trust the fiiends of 
 this speciality will not forget that they can send them nicely 
 through the mail, and that we will exchange, giving speci- 
 mens from other localities, as soon as we can get them 
 named and in order for distribution. 
 
 ENTOMOLOGY. 
 As we now have a fine case for our entomological speci- 
 mens, we hope our collection may increase rapidly ; and that 
 
11 
 
 all friendly to the enterprise may collect understandingly, 
 we compile a few notes from Packard, Dimmock, and our 
 experience, for guidance. 
 
 At no time of the year need the entomologist rest from 
 his labors. In the winter under the bark of trees, and in 
 moss, he can find many species, or detect their eggs on trees, 
 etc. , which he can markfor observation in the spring when they 
 hatch out. He need not relax his labors day or night. Moth- 
 ing is night employment. Skunks and toads entomologize at 
 night. Early in the morning, when the dew is still on 
 the leaves, insects are sluggish and easily taken with the 
 hai;id ; so at dusk, when many species are found flying ; 
 and in the night, the collector will be rewarded with many 
 rarities, some species flying then that hide themselves by 
 dE^y, while many caterpillars leave their retreats to come out 
 and feed, when the lantern can be used with success in 
 searching for them. 
 
 A net is indispensable to the collector, and may be simply 
 made by making a loop of strong iron or brass wire, of about ■ 
 three sixteenths of an inch in thickness, so that the diame- 
 ter of the loop or circle will not exceed twelve inches, leav- 
 ing an inch to an inch and a half of wire at each end bent 
 at nearly right angles. Bind the two extremities of the' 
 wire together with smaller wire, and tin them by applying a 
 drop of muriate of zinc, then holding it in the fire or over 
 a gas flame until nearly red hot, when a few grains of block 
 tin or soft solder placed upon them will flow evenly over the 
 whole surface, and join them firmly together. Take a May- 
 nard rifle cartridge tube, or other brass tube of similar di- 
 mensions ; if the former, file off the closed end or perforate 
 it for the admission of the wire, and having tinned it in the 
 same manner on the inside, push a tight-fitting cork half 
 
13 
 
 way through, and pour into it melted tin or soft solder, and 
 insert the wires : if carefully done, you will have a firmly 
 constructed and very durable foundation for a collecting net. 
 The cork being extracted will leave a convenient socket for 
 inserting a stick or walking cane to serve as a handle. 
 
 Various kinds of forceps are used for handling ^iasects, 
 but practice will make any kind answer, even a home devised 
 pair made of a strip of sheet iron bent in the shape of spring 
 forceps will work very well. 
 
 KILLING INSECTS FOR THE CABINET. 
 
 Care in killing affects very sensibly the looks of the cabi- 
 net. If hastily killed and distorted by being pinched, with 
 the scales rubbed off and otherwise mangled, the value 
 of such a specimen is diminished either for study or the neat 
 appearance of the collection. 
 
 Besides the vapor of ether, chloroform, and benzine, the 
 fumes of sulphur readily kill insects. Large specimens 
 may be killed by inserting a pin dipped in a strong solution 
 of oxalic acid, j An excellent collecting bottle is made by 
 putting into a wide-mouthed bottle two or three small pieces 
 of cyanide of potassium, which may be covered with cotton, 
 about half filling the bottle. The cotton may be covered 
 with ] paper ^lightly attached to 'the glass," and ^pierced with 
 pin-holes ; this keeps the insects^ from being lost in the 
 bottles. ^J^For Diptera, Loew recommends^moistening the 
 bottom of the collecting box with creosote. .^This is excel- 
 lent for small flies and ^ moths, as the mouth of the bottle 
 can be placed over the insect while at^rest ; the insect flies 
 up into the bottle and is immediately suffocated. • A bottle 
 well prepared will last several months, even a year, and ia 
 
14 
 
 vastly superior to the old means of using ether, or chloro- 
 form. The inconvenience of taking small insects from a 
 net is well knovirn, as the most valuable ones usually escape ; 
 but by placing the end of the net, filled with insects, in a 
 wide-mouthed bottle, and putting in the cork for a few min- 
 utes, they will be suflfocated. 
 
 PINNING INSECTS. 
 
 The pin should be inserted through the thorax of most 
 insects. The coleoptera, however, should be pinned through 
 the right wing cover. 
 
 The specimens should all be pinned at an equal height, 
 80 that about one fourth of the pin will project above the 
 insect, — butterflies with their wings spread. 
 
 Large-mouthed bottles and tubes are indispensable for 
 preserving 'specimens, and while collecting, almost all kinds 
 of beetles can be advantageously thrown into alcohol, thus 
 taking up but little space. Afterwards they can be pinned 
 at leisure, or kept for exchange with other collectors. Care 
 should be taken to have the alcohol sufficiently strong when 
 the specimens are to be kept for a long time in it. When- 
 ever it is necessary to preserve specimens from different lo- 
 calities, in the same bottle, and be able to distinguish them, 
 they can be rolled up in thin, tough paper, on which may be 
 written, with a sharp pencil, whatever notes are necessary. 
 
 Specimens can be sent by mail in small glass bottles of 
 alcohol enclosed in wooden or tin boxes, with cotton or felt 
 about them. They can also be sent in tin boxes, by pack- 
 ing them with cotton, soft paper or cloth, and then pouring 
 just enough alcohol over them to saturate them. 
 
 Insects may be found in all localities, but to give the inex- 
 perienced collector a better chance of success, I add a list of 
 
15 
 
 names and localities which will often enable him to find what 
 he desires, and also serve as a partial guide in their classi- 
 fication. 
 
 LIST OF HABITATS, 
 
 CICINDELIDAE. OARABIDAE. 
 These are all predaceous, and are found in rarioua places and at 
 all seasons. 
 
 DYTISCIDAE. HYDROPHILIDAE. GYRINIDAE. 
 Feed upon carrion and insects about the water. 
 
 SILPHIDAE. 
 Feed upon carrion. 
 
 STAPHYLINIDAE. 
 
 These are found chieily upon decaying animals and vegetables, 
 
 and about excrement. They ai-e supposed to devour the larvae of 
 
 other insects. 
 
 HISTERIDAE. NITIDULIDAE. 
 
 Upon decaying animal and vegetable matter. 
 
 Lobiopa undulata. 
 Have been found under oak bark. 
 
 Amphotis ulkei. Phenolia grossa. 
 Found under butternut bark. 
 
 Ips sanguinolentus. Omosita colon. 
 Common about maple and birch sap, running from stumps. 
 
 Thymalus fulgidus. 
 The larvae feed upon a fungus, (Polyporus betulinus,) Mrhioh is 
 parasitic upon the trunks of white birch trees. 
 
 Catogenus rufus. 
 Under walnut and ash bark, early in the spring. 
 
16 
 
 Cucujus clavipes. 
 Uader butternut bark. 
 
 Brontes dubius. 
 Under chestnut bark. 
 
 DERMESTIDAE. BTRRHIDAE. 
 Among the species of these, are the notorious museum pests, 
 which devour the specimens in our museums of natural history. 
 They are not particular about their food, and take either animal or 
 vegetable matter. 
 
 Lucanusdama. 
 Larvae live in decaying oak wood and bark, about which the 
 beetles may be found. 
 
 Ceruchus piccus. 
 The larvae live in decayed chestnut and willow. 
 
 Passalus cornutua. 
 In several kinds of decayed wood. 
 
 Canthon. Copris. Phanaeus. Onthophagds. Aph- 
 ODius. Geotrupes. 
 All the species of these genera feed upon excrement, and among 
 them are the so-called tumble-bugs. 
 
 Trox. 
 Especially common about the hoofs and hair of decaying animals, 
 and the refuse of tanneries. 
 
 Dicbelonycha elongatula. 
 Upon chestnut and other leaves. 
 
 Serica trociformis. 
 Eats maiple and oak leaves . 
 
 Macrodactylus subspinosus. 
 Oh many kinds of leaves, but very common on those of the grape 
 and rose. 
 
 Anomala lucicola. Pelidnota punctata. 
 Common on grape leaves. 
 
Ootdpa lanigera. 
 The larvae feed ujign roots; the pe*f«st inseet on willow lea*es. 
 
 CorAebiiis ao>gitaa8. 
 About alder. 
 
 Brachys terminans. 
 On oak leaves. * 
 
 Alaus oculatuS'Cend^ to^c^s. 
 
 In pine stumps and wood. 
 
 Mdiaiiabas £ssilis wad oanunwais^ 
 In decaying pine and other wood. 
 
 CLTTRUS. 
 Several species are found about fresh cut {)ine wood daring the 
 warmest days in spring. 
 
 Often common about carrion. < 
 
 TENEBRIONIDAE. 
 These are usually found under bark and about fungus. 
 
 Tenebrio molitor. 
 This is the notorious meal beetle of Europe, and is very common 
 n most granaries. 
 
 Boletotherus cornutus. 
 
 Found upon fungus growing on decayed wood. 
 
 Hopliocephala bicooojig^ 
 On many species of fundus. 
 
 Hypophloeus parallelus. 
 Under pine bark. 
 
 Common upon flowers of many^ JmSe, eapciail^ -^we «if ittbe 
 meadow-sweet or tea-weed. (Spiraea.) 
 
 Ebipiphorus j)ectinat.ua. 
 Upon flowers of -mountain-mint. ( Pycnanthemum.) 
 
 Meloe angusticollis. Epicauta vittata and cinerea, 
 These usually feed upon the leaves of the potato, 
 
18 
 
 Epicauta pensylvanica. 
 Upon the flowers of the golden-rod. (Solickigo.) 
 
 Macrobasis fabricii. 
 Feeds npon the wild Indigo. (BapHsia Unatoria.) 
 
 Mycterus Scaber. 
 Common on tea-weed blossoms. 
 
 Boros unicolor. 
 This species is found under the bark of dead yellow pine, where 
 the bark is exceedingly loose. 
 
 Hylurgus terebrans. 
 Found about pine wopd, in which the larrae feed. 
 
 Cossonus platalea. 
 Found under chestnut and butternut bark. 
 
 Conotrachelus nenuphar. 
 This is the notorious plum weevil or curoulio. 
 
 Cryptorhynchus foveolatus. 
 Found upon the evening prim,rose. {(Enothera biennis.) 
 
 Pissodes strobi. Hylobius pales. 
 Common about pine. 
 
 Lixus concavus. 
 Feeds upon yellow dock. 
 
 Lepyrus geminatus. 
 This species is found on the willow. 
 
 Arrhenodes septentrionis. 
 Under the bark of dead oak trees. 
 
 Rhynchites bicolor. 
 Infests rose bushes, bath wild and cultivated. 
 
 Attelabus rhois. 
 This species rolls the leaves of the hazel. 
 
19 
 
 Cratoparis lunatus. 
 
 Often found upon a species of fungus growing on dead trees and 
 stumps. 
 
 Bruchus pisi. 
 
 Tliis is the common pea weevil. 
 
 Parandra brunnea. 
 
 Found in dead beech trees. 
 
 Orthosoma cylindricum. 
 The lai'vae live in pine wood. 
 
 Elaphidion villosum. Phymatodes variabilis. 
 The larvae feed upon oak wood. 
 
 Eriphus suturalis. 
 Found upon daisy blossoms. 
 
 Clytus robiniae. 
 
 The larvae feed upon locust wood. The beetles are often cotnmou 
 Upon yellow-weed blossoms. 
 
 Tetraopes tornator and canteriator. 
 Common upon milk- weed. {Asclepias.) 
 
 Saperda Candida. 
 The larvae bore the wood of apple trees. 
 
 Desraocerus cyaneus. 
 Found upon elder blossoms. 
 
 Bhagium lineatum. 
 Common under pine bark in the early spring. 
 
 Stkangalia. Leptuea. 
 The species of these genera live about many different kinds of 
 flowei's. 
 
 Lema trilineata. 
 Very common on the potato. 
 
 Uroplata quadrata. 
 The larvae mine in apple leaves. The beetles can be found on the 
 alder and the shad-bush. (Amelanchier canadensis.) 
 
29 
 
 Found- on: the potato. 
 
 Chelymorpha cribraria. 
 Common on the wild morniBg glory. 
 
 Deloyala clavata. 
 Feeds upon the potato. 
 
 Coptocycla sexpunctata. 
 Very common on the wild morning glory. 
 
 Galeruca tomentosa. 
 Upon tBe golden rod. 
 
 Galeruca sagittariae. 
 Common upon a water weed, the arroW-head. (Sagittaria.) 
 
 Diabrodca vittaita. 
 Very destructive to cucumber vines. 
 
 Diabrotica I2-punctefa. 
 This species i9^ fiwffid on the golden rod. 
 
 Disdfffcfta alfernata,. 
 Common on the willo1*i 
 
 DffefpFtaridii rlknsr. 
 Feeds upon the blossoms and leaves of annlach. 
 
 Labidomera trimsfieaJftto. 
 Upon milk-weed. (4saJ«pM)«.)r 
 
 OaJligf'iE^at ac»faim 
 Found on the elm. 
 
 Calligrapha spiraeae. 
 Feeds upon the leaves of the hazel. 
 
 Calligisa^ha phikfeiphica. 
 Feeds upon the leaves of osier. 
 
 Calligrapha bigabyana. 
 Upon willow leaves. 
 
21 
 
 Feeds upcHir the lea-wa of knotgrass. (Polygstmm avieulare. h 
 
 Gastrophysa vitellinae. 
 This species is common (m'tU« wilkwR 
 
 EamolptiEF aoxatusv 
 Very GiHninoin da ebe dogbane, MjHSJjwwns ewmmMimm.ji, 
 
 Heteraspis pabescens; 
 "VfefJ eomiHon on th© seaWsh. 
 
 dllamys plfcata. 
 Ob therswCBf fern. {Cbmptonia aspVefdfolia.y 
 
 COCCINELLIDAE. 
 
 Air the species of these are supposed to ftred upon other msects-anrf 
 tfteij eggs; wfththe exception of Epilacfma borealia, whi<A iasaiito 
 de'Wouv the leaves of the pumpkin. The Coeoin&lUdae ace. oftim 
 called lady bugp, or lady birds. 
 
 Lycoperdina- lirteata. 
 
 These wix often- VBTy common! and€ir boards and BtampB during ttoe 
 middle Of. the winter. I have nerrer found* then* except iit colft 
 ■readier. 
 
 When specimens are sent to aie with the request that I 
 tell something of their habits or history, they will receive 
 attention, and the reply returned as soon as possible* and 
 without charge. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 About three years ago a moose (Alee Ameficanus) , after 
 gassing through the north part of the State, was kiQed in 
 New Hampshire ; his horns may be found in the Cabinet, 
 whitsb are laarge but " in the velvet," as hunters say, as the last 
 relic of an animal that has left little more than his bonefl» to 
 attest his previous existence in the State. The skull with short 
 horns is the skull of the last rooose killed within our bor- 
 
22 
 
 ders, being killed with an engine on the Grand Trunk Rail- 
 road, near Island Pond, about fourteen years since. 
 
 EELIC FOUND. 
 
 Some twenty years ago, while a party were at work re- 
 pairing the Central Vermont Railroad at Swanton, one of 
 the workmen discovered a peculiar, white-looking stone, as 
 he supposed, in the bank. He struck it with his shovel and 
 picked it up. Its heft still further attracted his attention ; 
 and he threw it up to the overseer for his examination. The 
 overseer found it to be a chunk of lead, much corroded, and 
 covered with spruce gum upon the ends ; this he removed 
 with his knife and found the lead hollow, in the interior of 
 which he found a paper, rough and old , but written over on 
 one side with words which he could not fully make out, but 
 which were afterwards read, and a fac simile made of the 
 writing, a copy of which is now in the State Cabinet, where 
 the original was placed by Dr. Hall of Swanton, subject to 
 his control, and was by him taken and the fac simile left in 
 its place, in 1873. I understood from him that the owner 
 is a lady in Burlington, and it is to be hoped that she will 
 donate the same to the State Collection. The written man- 
 uscript, being in ancient English, reads as follows : 
 
 Nov. 29, A. D. 1564. 
 This is the solemn day. I must now die. This is the 
 , 90th day since we left the ship ; all have perished, and on 
 the banks of this river I die. So farewell. May future 
 posterity know our end. 
 
 John Gbaye. 
 
 Many suppose this the trick of some insane person or 
 rogue, and that it ought not to receive credence ; but the 
 arguments in its favor are, to many minds, conclusive as to 
 
23 
 
 its antiquity. It is deemed certain that it was honestly found 
 as above stated, and also found several feet from the surface. 
 Its exact history can probably never be known. 
 
 THE AX MAEK. 
 
 In January, 1872, Hosea Garfield cut a hemlock tree 
 about two and a half feet in diameler, on his place a mile 
 north of the village in Sheffield. It grew on the highland, 
 and was apparently sound, though somewhat shaky, as is 
 usual for hemlocks to be. When the tree fell, about eight- 
 een inches of the heart pulled out and remained hanging on 
 the stump, revealing ax marks at the upper end. Thledis 
 Mr. Garfield to investigate, and he cut out the mark. It 
 seems that when the tree was about four inches in diameter 
 it was cut more than half down with a sharp ax. This 
 came near destroying the life of the tree, and the growth is 
 marked by a hard, knurly growth rather than by regular 
 grains, until this mark was nearly healed ; outside of this 
 growth there were counted distinctly two hundred and fifty- 
 six grains. It seems probable that the mark was made two 
 hundred and seventy-five years ago, at least. This is ear- 
 lier than it is supposed that men with steel axes traveled in 
 Vermont, yet of course some ship's crew might have touched 
 upon the coast or been shipwrecked here, so as to give the 
 possession of an ax to the Indian. Be it as it may, it is an 
 interesting item in the ancient history of Vermont. This 
 ax mark may be seen in the State Cabinet. 
 
 Should other relics of ancient date be found, we trust the 
 friends of history will place them here also, that they may be 
 preserved. 
 
 Noticing with pleasure the increasing interest in this 
 
24 
 
 dcftaiitmefit lof ^aturai History, and ihopiog that our £u£m% 
 enteiwaFS ito fffocu'ise speearaeas of vsiiiie jaay., tteoHgb its 
 friends, be crawued with snceess, 
 
 I am respectfully yours, 
 
 HIRAM A. CUTTING, 
 iSfate Oealogist and Gurak>r of Ststte Osidmiit. 
 JUineabargh;, Wt,, Novemher 35, Ii874. 
 
PARASITIC INSECTS. 
 
 An Address given before a Meeting of the State BoiKD of 
 Agriculture, Manufactures and Mining, at Westminster. 
 
 Our subject of " Parasitic Insects," though perhaps not 
 as pleasant as many others, certainly demands the attention 
 of all agriculturists. They are in reality a pest that should 
 be guarded against, and though common practices may 
 prevent fatal effects, it is in my opinion necessary that 
 the best methods in all instances should be known, both 
 to prevent and exterminate them. The facts I present 
 are such as I have been able to glean from observation 
 and study, and although my views may in some points 
 need modification, I trust that in the main they are correct. 
 Where my own observations are imperfect, I have adopted 
 the opinions of the best observers and authors known to 
 me; and I am in such cases indebted to their labors for 
 statements perhaps more valid than my own. 
 
 Parasitic insects infesting farm stock are numerous, and 
 many times very injurious to the health of the animal in 
 which or on which they live. B^jt I can at this time speak 
 of only the best known and most injurious species, hoping 
 that by so doing I may incite some one to become a stu- 
 dent of natural history, pursuing closely his observations 
 on these domestic parasites, if T may so call them ; and 
 
thus not only add to our scientific knowledge, but greatly 
 benefit himself and the community at large. 
 
 LICE. 
 
 Perhaps more common than any other parasite is that 
 small, wingless, and disgusting insect thrust upon Egypt 
 as one of the great plagues of God to a disobedient peo- 
 ple : and which is today everywhere notorious. There 
 are several species of lice, or as naturalists call them, 
 Pediculi, which are found upon cattle. 
 
 The most common is Homaiopinus vitali, which is of a 
 palish brown color, sometimes slightly spotted with black, 
 having two radiant black eyes, and with one of the most 
 peculiar mouths that insects have ; when at rest its 
 mouth forms a protuberance on the front of its head 
 but contains a sucker which is forced out at will ; when 
 extended it terminates in several little pointed hooks 
 which aid it first in inserting its sucking tube, and then 
 by tiirning outwards, hold it with a tenacious grip in the 
 skin of its victim. Its abdomen is oomposed-of rings or 
 bands which extend round the insect. They have six legs, 
 each terminating in a strong nail that folds back into a 
 groove, thus forming a pincer that enables the louse to 
 cling to the hair with great tenacity. 
 
 Their reproduction from nits is well known. The female 
 glues its egg to the hair, at the time of its deposit, by a 
 fluid that almost instantly hardens, fixing the egg or nit so 
 firmly that the strength of the hair will hardly admit of its 
 removal. Prom four to ten days are required for the hatch- 
 ing, according to the warmth of the weather, and ten days 
 more for them to come to full maturity ; and yet their 
 
focundity is so great that it has been estimated that a sin- 
 gle pair in sixty days will literally cover a young creature 
 with those vermin. When stock is found to be so infested, 
 at once comes up the quesnon of a remedy. Soap suds, 
 oil, tobacco, kerosene, ashes, mercurial ointment, benzine, 
 turpentine, brine, and even alcohol, are r.ecommended, and 
 many times the creature has suffered much more from the 
 remedy than the louse. Every one can see that oil (whale 
 or lard oil) would be the most harmless remedy, and at the 
 same time it is the most effectual. The louse, like the ani- 
 mal on which it dwells, must breathe, but it breathes in a 
 very different manner, drawing its breath through spira- 
 cles on its sides. The air penetrates small tubes, called 
 trachea. The oil at once stops those i tubes, and as the 
 louse cannot breathe, it dies of suffocation. This is a sure 
 but perfectly harmless remedy. It need not be applied in 
 great abundance, but if whale oil is used, a little applied 
 the whole length of the back will be effectual, and at the 
 same time it helps allay the inflammatory action produced, 
 by the constant biting of the lice. Lard rubbed in the: 
 hair is equally effectual ; and I would here state as my opin- 
 ion that the use of the other remedies named is even more 
 dangerous to the health and growth of the animal than the 
 lice themselves. Though there are several .varieties of 
 lice, oil is equally effectual in all cases, the larger varie- 
 ties requiring more of it perhaps than smaller species. 
 
 TICKS. 
 
 We will next look after the diptera or fly tribe, so called, 
 yet the first specimen we will consider infesting sheep as 
 a tick, Melopliagus ovis, is not a fly. at all, but is assigned 
 to that class from a singular conformation, as the bed bue: 
 
is to the tribe of winged bugs, thcugli neither ever have 
 wings. There are, however, ticks infesting birds, which 
 have small wings that enable th«m :to fly short distances. 
 The fore part of the body of the sheep tick is small, the 
 thick, roundish abdomeu, however, is proportionally very 
 large, generally in circumference about the size of a mid- 
 dling-sized pea. Its color, in its younger daj-s, is pale red, 
 the abdomen lighter, with an irregular white line on each 
 side, and a red spot upon its back ; with nge comes a 
 darker hue. They are extremely common in pasture 
 grounds in early summer, and it is in such pastures that 
 shdep become infected. 
 
 The sheep tick lays but one egg, and that is not in 
 reality an egg, but a full grown pupa, which is fastened to 
 the wool of the sheep, being at first white, then brown, 
 from which the perfjct tick escapes. The pupa is nearly 
 as large as the whole insect at the tiii,e it is deposited, 
 and does not grow until the perfect tick comes forth. It 
 is furnished with a sucker of considerable length, yet it 
 is so greedy in sucking blood that it will almost bury its 
 head in the skin of the sheep or lamb on which it lives. 
 They are a great pest, as they not only suck blood, but 
 their bite is poisonous to a certain extent, as bunches can 
 be felt around their bites. This inflammation and pain 
 aids in the discomfiture, and sheep infested never do well 
 
 Various methods are recommended for their extermina- 
 tion, but it seems that a decoction of tobacco is the most 
 practical and successful method. After the sheep are' 
 sheared in the spring, most of the ticks left will take 
 refuge on the lambj, as their wool is then longer than 
 that of their parents. It is at this time that their destruc- 
 tion should be brought about by dipping the lambs. Two 
 
pounds of tobacco steeped in ten gallons of water is, per- 
 haps, the best proportion. The farmer should not buy the 
 poor, cheap, tobacco, which is a worthless preparation, 
 made to satisfy some one's appetite for copperas, but good 
 tobacco leaf. If he wishes other leaves and dirt with it, he 
 can add them afterwards. When this wash is properly 
 prepared, the lambs can be taken by their feet and dipped, 
 without trouble or danger. It is, however, necessary that 
 some one should keep their head out of the liqiiid, as it 
 frequently injures them if allowed to run into their ears. 
 
 In England, and in fine throughout Europe, they mostly 
 dip in the following preparation : A pound of arsenic is 
 boiled with a pound of soft soap and a pound of purified 
 potash in four gallons of water. The arsenic will be per- 
 fectly dissolved with the other ingredients. To this is 
 added forty gallons of water, and the sheep dipped therein, 
 the same as in the tobacco decoction spoken of. It is said 
 that the arsenic has no injurious efi"ect, and that it also pro- 
 tects from the bot fly. I have never known it tried in this 
 section. 
 
 BOTS. 
 
 The next of the dipterous insects to which I call your 
 attention are the flies whose larvte are known by the 
 name of bots, anJ a general description will, I think, 
 suffice for the whole. The perfect insect is perhaps a 
 little larger than the common meat fly ; they resemble 
 them somewhat in form, are very hairy, and have those 
 hairs colored in rings, like bumble bees. Different species 
 vary somewhat in their markings. Their life is very 
 short, seldom exceeding twelve hours. They are never 
 known to eat, and the whole aim and object of their 
 
existence seem to be to deposit their eggs. They are 
 known as bot flies, breeze flies, gad flies, &c., and their 
 larvEe are called bots in horses, maggots in the heads of 
 sheep, and wornils in the backs of cattle. There is 
 another fly in this section, the tabani, also known as the 
 gad fly, that bites horses and cattle, sucking their blood, 
 and from this cause cattle and sometimes horses seem 
 alarmed at the species which only hover around them to 
 deposit their eggs, though they are really incapable of 
 biting or stinging in any manner. 
 
 The sheep bot fly, (Estrus ovis, which is found all over 
 the Northern States, has a wonderful history. They are 
 of a general a^h color, spotted with black, with darker 
 bands than some other flies of this class. They appear 
 during the whole summer; their eggs are laid in the nos- 
 trils of sheep, from one to seven or eight in each individu- 
 al; those eggs almost immediately hatch, and their larva? 
 enter the frontal and maxillary sinuses and even the horns 
 and brain, feeding upon the secretions produced by their 
 presence. They attach themselves firmly by means of 
 their tentaculce or hooks, and it is almost impossible to dis- 
 lodge them. I'hey sometimes penetrate the brain, and 
 produce death ; and always doubtless produce much pain 
 and bad feeling about the head of the sheep. When the 
 larvae are young, they are perfectly wliite and transparent, 
 except two small, black, horny plates. As they increase 
 in size, the upper surface becomes marked with two trans- 
 verse brown lines on each segment, the anterior being 
 shorter and narrower than the posterior, and some spots 
 arc also observable on their sides. The body consists of 
 twelve segments beside the head. These larvae move with 
 considerable activity, holding with their teutaculse to a fixed 
 
point, and drawing up their body. Wlien full grown they 
 are about one inch long, and of a brownish white color. 
 They then leave the nostrils of the sheep and fall to the 
 ground, where on the earth or adhering to the side of a 
 blade of grass, they in the course of a couple of days 
 change to the pupa state in which they remain for about 
 two months, when the chrysalis opens and the fly makes 
 its appearance. 
 
 Every sheep-owner knows what a commotion the ap- 
 pearance of these flies causes among his flock. When a 
 fly touches their nostrils they shake their heads, strike 
 violently with their fore feet, hold their noses closely to 
 the ground, and often run back and forth over the pasture, 
 looking behind them now and then to see if their toi-ment- 
 ors are coming, thus endeavoring to rid themselves of the 
 fly which is trying to deposit its eggs in their nostrils. 
 They will often thrust their noses into the dry dirt or 
 soil, to prevent the insect from effecting a lodgment. It 
 is from this habit, or fact, that some sheep owners plow a 
 few furrows in their sheep pastures, thus furnishing the 
 sheep an opportunity to protect themselves. They will 
 sometimes assemble together, pushing their nostrils into 
 each others' wool, or very near the ground, and stand for 
 a long time, even in sultry weather. In this way only those 
 upon the outside are exposed. The amount of injury 
 caused by this parasite is in proportion to their number. 
 If but few are present in each sheep their effects are hard- 
 ly apparent, but if in large numbers, as is often the case, 
 they are very injurious, sometimes causing the death of 
 great numbers of sheep. The disease is frequently called 
 '' blind staggers." 
 
 There is no remedy, to my knowledge, that is entirely 
 
8 
 
 effectual in stopping the ravages of this parasite, but yet 
 almost all extensive sheep raisers have something that 
 they rely upon. Whatever will keep the fly from deposit- 
 ing its eggs will of course prove effectual. That it might 
 be possible to dislodge them, when small, by means of lime, 
 pepper or snuff, or any other substance to produce sneez- 
 ing, is quite probable, but after they are firmly attached, I 
 do not believe they can be successfully combated. What 
 in some cases proves effective, in others will be of no use. 
 I think the one admitted to be the best, and certainly the 
 one that looks to me most reasonable, is to smear the 
 sheep's nose with tar. If done often, I believe this to be 
 effectual. It is not disagreeable to the sheep, and I think 
 many times it feeems even agreeable. Do not smear their 
 faces up to their eyes, as I saw a flock last summer, but in 
 the vicinity of their nose, as near to their nostrils as pos- 
 sible. I have known some sheep raisers to bore large holes 
 in a log which they filled with salt, smearing the top of the 
 hole with tar now and then. In this way the sheep would 
 keep their noses well covered with tar in their endeavors 
 to get salt. The salt is also considered as an aid in pre- 
 vention. It has recentlybeen stated that a feather wet in 
 a solution of carbolic acid and run up the nose of the 
 sheep would dislodge the maggots, but I have never known 
 it tried. The carbolic acid, of necessity, must be a very 
 weak solution, else it would injure the sheep, and I there- 
 fore have great doubts of its success. 
 
 Another variety of bot fly, (Estrus hovis, having a very 
 hairy body, with a large head, yellowish face, brown eyes, 
 and black antennae, with wings of smoky brown, lays its 
 eggs on the backs of cattle, mostly on younger ones. They 
 seem apprehensive of trouble when the fly approaches, 
 
9 
 
 and if possible will get into water, and as it is one of the 
 peculiarities of this fly never to fly over water, the crea- 
 tures are there perfectly protected. Where those flies are 
 abundant, as in some parts of Europe, the cattle will be 
 perfectly furious, running or gadding away, as they call 
 it, which peculiar actions of the cattle led people to call it 
 the " gad fly." 
 
 In this country, the fly or perfect insect appears during 
 the summer season, from June to September, and the 
 females, after pairing, lay their eggs. in the hair, near the 
 skin, on the backs of the cattle. The eggs soon produce 
 larvffi which eat their way into the skin of the animal and 
 quite through into its flesh, where they remain during the 
 winter. 
 
 After entering in this manner they gradually incrfease 
 in size, in their burrows, eating, and in fact, living upon 
 the pus formed by the inflammation their presence excites. 
 In this way they produce abscesses under the skin, their 
 burrows running directly downward with the posterior 
 portion of the body, in which their breathing spiracles are 
 situated near the opening, so as to obtain the necessary 
 amount of air. The mouth is situated at the lower end of 
 the insect, and is furnished with minute suckers, by means 
 of which it sucks in the food upon which it lives, and 
 with which it is surrounded. 
 
 It is when nearly full grown in the spring of the year 
 that they are most commonly noticed. At this time they 
 can easily be removed by squeezing the flesh surrounding 
 them. They will be found more frequently npon year- 
 lings than upon any other cattle. Their color when young 
 is nearly white, but darker as they advance in age. When 
 full grown, which is late in the spring, they work them- 
 
10 
 
 selves out of their burrows backward, enlarging the hole 
 little by little every day until they get out, when they 
 fall to^the ground, and change in a day or two to the pupa 
 state, their dried up skin forming a black cover, or pupa 
 case. In this case, imbedded slightly in the earth, they 
 remain in the dormant state from six to ten weeks, when 
 the top of the case comes off and a full grown perfect, fly 
 comes forth, ready to deposit its eggs as before stated. 
 Farmers generally think that this bot is no real injury, 
 and do not much regard it, but it is quite otherwise. 
 
 The presence of a few larvas will do little or no harm, 
 but many times the creatures suffer to such an extent 
 that they will become poor, lose their appetite, and finally 
 die. The skin will be removed, hundreds of holes upon 
 the back will show what is beneath, yet the farmer will 
 remark: "It js always so," and believe some other disease 
 caused the creature's death, overlooking the real cause. 
 Some kill the maggot, or wornil, by inserting a hot wire, 
 but they can be as quickly squeezed out and much more 
 safely, or their deposit can be prevented by tobacco wash, 
 or any pungent smelling powder. In fact, it is stated that 
 a little brushing, even once in two or three days, while the 
 flies are about, will fully prevent the trouble. 
 
 Another fly of this species, (Estrus gasteropMlus equi, 
 has a large head, light yellow face and legs, antennee rust 
 colored, abdomen of a reddish yellow with black spots, its 
 wings whitish, having a golden tint. It deposits its eggs 
 upon the hair of the horse, and they are productive of the 
 bots in horses, but it is hardly yet settled whether it is 
 of any disadvantage to the horse. There are many books 
 however that consider the bots in horses a grave affair, 
 often producing sickness and death, yet it seems that 
 
11 
 
 scientific examination has shown a few facts, viz : that 
 the hot never gnaws or eats the horse's stomach until 
 after tlie horse is dead. Tiiat it subsists upon the juices 
 of the stomach alone, and though a largo number might 
 cause indigestion, to a certain extent, as a general thing 
 it is more nearly harmless than any other parasite. Mr. 
 Bracy Clark, whose careful and laborious investigations 
 entitle his opinion to great respect, believes the effect of 
 bots to be healthy rather than otherwise. 
 
 The female fly, in approaching the horse for the purpose 
 of laying its eggs, carries her body nearly upright in the 
 air, the protruded ovipositor, or egg-tube, being curved in- 
 ward and upward. Suspending herself for a few seconds 
 before the part of the horse on which she intends to de- 
 posit the egg, she suddenly darts upon it and leaves the 
 egg adhering to the hair ; she hardly appears to settle, but 
 merely touches the hair with the egg held out on the ex- 
 treme point of the ovipositor, the egg adhering by means 
 of a glutinous liquor with which it is covered. She then 
 leaves the horse at a small distance, prepares a second egg 
 and poising herself before the part, deposits it in the same 
 way. The liquor dries, and the egg becomes firmly ^lued 
 to the hair. This is repeated until four or five hundred 
 eggs are sometimes placed on one horse. The skin of the 
 horse is usually thrown into a tremulous motion on the 
 touch of the insect, which merely arises from the very 
 great irritability of the skin and cutaneous muscles at 
 this season of the year, occasioned by the heat and 
 continual teasing of the flies, till at length these muscles 
 appear to act involuntarily on the slightest touch of 
 any body whatever. The fly does not deposit its eggs 
 at random on the horse's body, but selects those parts 
 which are most likely to be nibbled by the horse. The 
 
12 
 
 inside of the kaee is frequently chosen. But all farmers 
 must have noticed how commonly the eggs of the hot are 
 deposited on that part of a horse's shoulder which he can 
 never reach with his mouth, and thus, to a casual observer, 
 it would seem that they must perish and fail in the object 
 for which their parent designed them. Now there is a 
 provision of nature that exactly counteracts this diffi- 
 culty. 
 
 When horses are together in a paisture, and one of them 
 feel3 an irritation on any part of the neck or shoulder 
 which he cannot reach with his mouth, he will nibble 
 another horse in the corresponding part of his neck or 
 shoulder, and the horse so nibbled, will immediately per- 
 form th3 kiiii ofH33 rj^'iire 1, anl b3giu nibbling away in 
 the place indicated. Horses when they become used to 
 this fly and find it does them no injury, by stinging or 
 sucking their blood, hardly regard it, and do not appear 
 to be aware of its object. When the eggs have remained 
 on the hairs four or five days, they become mature, after 
 which time the slightest application of warmth and 
 moisture is sufficient to bring forth in an instant the 
 latent larv». At this time if the lips or the tongue of the 
 horse touch the egg, its shell is thrown open and the 
 young larva liberated. This readily adheres to the moist 
 surface of the tongue, and is from thence conveyed with 
 the food to the stomach. The biting of other flies 
 frequently aid the propagation of the bot by causing the 
 horse to nibble the irritation they have caused. There is 
 hardly one larva in fifty that arrives safe in the ^stomach 
 of a horse, and yet if we were to open a horse the stom- 
 ach would often be found literally full of them. They are 
 of a reddish yellow, and each of their segments is armed 
 
13 
 
 at the posterior edge with a double row of triangular 
 spines, large and small alternately, yellow at the base and 
 black at the point, which is always turned backwards. 
 
 The head is furnished with two hooks which serve to 
 fasten the larvae to the interior coots of the stomach. The 
 spines with which the whole body is furnished contribute 
 to fix it more solidly, preventing the creatures from being 
 carried away by the food as it goes through the process of 
 digestion. 
 
 These larvae are nourished by the mucus secreted by the 
 stomich, and doubtless breathe the air swallowed by the 
 horse with its food, having the power of suspending its 
 respiration, like a frog, at its pleasure. It must be ac- 
 knowladg«d, however, that it must have a gaseoys atmos- 
 phere, as miny gises are generated in the stomach of the 
 horse. 
 
 Arrived at a state of complete development, the larva 
 lets go its hold and is carried with the food through the 
 intestinal canal, leaves it by the anal orifice, and on touch- 
 ing the ground at once begins to go through its metamor- 
 phoses. The skin then thickens, hardens and becomes 
 black. All the organs of the animal are composed of a 
 whitish pulp which soon assumes its destined form, and 
 the insect becomes porfect. It then lifts a lid at the an- 
 terior part of its cocoon, emerges, dries its wings, and flies 
 away. 
 
 As it may reasonably be supposed that bots are injuri- 
 ous, to some extent, in the horse ; in fine, that a horse 
 cannot be healthy when its stomach, as some express it; is 
 " full of them," it would be well to make use of a simple 
 and effectual preventive, that is, to remove or destroy 
 the eggs. Many drugs are recommended and in use to 
 
14 
 
 expel or kill them, but you may rest assured anything that' 
 will injure them will be quite as likely to injure the horse. 
 
 There is also the CrastropJiUus hamorrhoiddlis, or red- 
 tailed bot fly, which is a much smaller species than the 
 above, and much less common. This fly is of a grayish 
 black color, with a bright orange red tipped abdomen, 
 which gives it its specific name. The larvse have the same 
 general habits and are found in the same situations as the 
 common bot, but they are smaller and whiter. The pup» 
 are deep red and change from the larva in two days after 
 leaving the horse. In about two months the fly emerges 
 from the pupa case and deposits its eggs. The period of 
 time during which this fly is found is from June until cold 
 weather. This is the fly by which the horse is,often so 
 much frightened. 
 
 When the first named species is depositing its eggs on 
 his. legs he does not notice its presence, but let one of these 
 red-tailed flies come near, and he exhibits signs of the 
 utmost fear. This fly places its eggs upon the lips of the 
 horse, which is effected by darting suddenly forward and 
 almost instantly fixing the eggs to the hair, notwithstand- 
 ing the horse uses every means in his power to prevent it. 
 When a horse is seen to stamp violently, throw his head 
 up, down, and sideways, with a sudden motion, and run in 
 the pasture as if to get away from some pursuer, it is be- 
 cause of the presence of this fly. I have seen horses ex- 
 hibit such fear at the approach of one of these little in- 
 sects, that it was almost impossible to hold or control them. 
 
 There are also two other sppcies of bot flies which trou- 
 ble horses to some extent. These are called Gastrophilus 
 nusalist and Gastrophilus pecorum. Their habits and ap- 
 pearance are much like those of Gastrophilus equi, but 
 
15 
 
 they are smaller and not sufficiently numerous to cause 
 much trouble. From all these pests a little care and at- 
 tention, at the proper time, will keep the horse free. 
 
 Urging all farmers to use everj' available means, and to 
 use such means in season, and thus prevent parasites of 
 all kinds from injuring their stock, I will close without men- 
 tion of numerous smaller parasites, but yet, perhaps, of 
 sufficient interest to form the subject of another discourse 
 in the future. 
 
REPORT 
 
 iiti itiii liti 
 
 For 187B and 1876, 
 
 WITH SOME 
 
 SUGGESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS 
 
 AS TO HOW WE MAT 
 
 PROTECT OURSELVES AGAINST INSECT ENEMIES. 
 
 By HIRAM A. CUTTING, A. M., M. D., 
 
 STATE GEOLOGIST AND CURATOR. 
 
 EUTLAND: 
 
 TUTTLB & COMPANY, BOOK PRINTERS. 
 
 1876. 
 
TEN-LINED POTATO BEETLE— COLOEADO PO- 
 TATO BEETLE— DOEYPHOEA DECEM- 
 LmEATA.— Say. 
 a, a, eggs ; b, b, b, larvae of diflFereut ages ; c, pupa ; d, 
 perfect insect ; e, right wing cover enlarged ; f, leg enlarged. 
 
 See page 11. 
 
TENT CATERPILLAR OF APPLE TREES— CLISI- 
 OCAMPA AMERICANA.— //arm. 
 All natural size ; a, larva full grown, side view ; b, larva 
 full grown, back view ; c, cluster of eggs on a twig ; d, 
 cocoon. 
 
 Fig. 3. Moth, color, reddish brown. 
 
 See page 19. 
 
FOEEST TENT CATERPILLAE— CLISIOCAMPA 
 SYLYATICA.— iTan 
 Fig. 4. Caterpillar full grown ; natural size, 
 a, eggs ; b, female moth, natural size ; c, enlarged view 
 of egg from top ; d, enlarged view of eggs from side. 
 
 See page 21. 
 
WEB WORM— HYPHANTRIA TEXTOR.— ^«rns. 
 All natural size, a, caterpillar ; b, chrysalis ; c, moth. 
 
 See page 22. 
 
Fig. 1. 
 
 THE CUEEANT WOEM— :NEMATUS VENTEICO- 
 SUS.— x%. 
 
 a, a, a, different stages of growth ; b, a single segment of 
 the caterpillar magnified. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Adult specimens enlarged. The marks at the side repre- 
 sent the actual measurement with wings spread, a, male ; 
 b, female. See page 22. 
 
CABBAGE WORM— PIERIS RAP^. 
 Fig. 5. Butterfly of the cabbage worm, male. Fig. 6. 
 Female. The female is distinguished from the male by 
 having two round spots, rarely three, on the wings. The 
 body of this butterfly is black above, with white wings, 
 a, cabbage worm ; b, chrysalis. See page 23. 
 
CODLING MOTH— CARPOCAPSA POMONELLA. 
 
 — Linn. 
 
 a, apple eaten by larva ; b, spot where egg is laid and 
 the young worm enters ; c, cavity made by larva ; d, chrys- 
 alis ; e, larva full grown ; f, moth with wings folded ; g, 
 moth with wings expanded ; h, head and first joint oi larva 
 (enlarged) ; i, cocoon. 
 
 See page 24. 
 
EOUND HEADED APPLE TREE BORER— SA- 
 PERDA BIYITTATA.— /Say. 
 Figures all natural size, a, larva full grown ; b, pupa ; 
 c, perfect beetle. See page 25. 
 
REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 
 
 To His Excellency, Abahel Peck, 
 
 Governor of Vermont : 
 
 Sm: 
 
 I have the honor to present the following report 
 in relation to my department,,for the years 1875, and 1876. 
 As there is no appropriation by the Legislature, to enable 
 me to examine the mining sections of the State, or even 
 collect the statistics of the same, I am, of course, unable 
 to give a definite report. 
 
 The marble interests, notwithstanding the hard times, are 
 still, as they must be for years to come, on the increase. 
 They pay reasonable profits on investments made, and as 
 the marble improves with depth in most of the quarries, the 
 future prospect is flattering. 
 
 The quarrying of granite, and porphyry, has been on the 
 increase, and it is found that our granites when polished 
 are scarcely inferior' to the Scotch granites, so much used in 
 Europe, and recently in this country. Among the more 
 promising granite quarries may be mentioned those of Blue 
 Mountain in Eyegate, the quarries in Barre, Craftsbury, 
 Brownington, Newport, Kirby, Victory, and Brunswick. 
 Preparations are now being made to quarry porphyry in 
 St. Johnsbury, and Waterford. 
 
BIENNIAL REPOKT OP THE 
 
 During the two years here reported I have been conferred 
 with by letter, or otherwise, in one hundred and sixty-three 
 cases, in relation to supposed recent finds of minerals in 
 Vermont. In most cases the amount was too small to be of 
 value, but in some the ore was good, and appears to be in 
 sufficient quantity, and quality, to warrant further examin- 
 ation and development. This will in most cases doubtless 
 be made as soon as the revival of business and prices of 
 metals favor the outlay. An extensive bed of iron ore 
 (Magnetite) in Concord gives great promise. 
 
 There are, at present, enquiries by several parties for white 
 silicious earth, and as there m^ be various deposits unopened 
 in the State, I would suggest that parties owning such send 
 me samples ; and if of good quality, 1 may be able to put 
 them in communication with purchasers. 
 
 ADDITIONS TO THE CABINET. 
 
 We have been enabled to make the usual increase in our 
 specimens. Many of them have been through the courtesy 
 of friends, and we are still indebted to the various railroads, 
 not only in the State, but elsewhere, for their aid in bring- 
 ing those collections together. It would give us pleasure 
 to be more personal in our thanks, and give the names of 
 all rendering aid in tliis collection, but it is hardly possible. 
 
 MINEEAiOGY. 
 
 In this department we have received various specimens 
 from different localities in the State, and to aid in the col- 
 lection of Vermont specimens I have purchased some beau- 
 tiful geodes from Illinois, which I will give in exchange for 
 
STATE GEOLOGIST. 
 
 any Vermont specimens desired. It is often that, in the 
 homes of our citizens, I find a specimen or two that should 
 be in our State collection ; but they are unwilling to part 
 with them, as they are kept for their beauty. I shall now 
 be enabled to exchange, giving specimens foreign to Ver- 
 mont, and more beautiful to grace our homes, for specimens 
 desired in the State collection. 
 
 OKNITHOLOGT. 
 
 The following are the names of the birds, in part, that 
 have been added, or in other words are the specimens added 
 in 1875. Those of 1876 are not yet in order for names, 
 and as no full list can be given, I give none of this year's 
 acquisition. 
 
 No. 
 
 
 
 
 Speci- 
 mens. 
 
 OOMMOS NAMES. 
 
 SCIENTIFIC NAMES. 
 
 AUTHORITY 
 
 
 Bunting, Snow 
 
 Emberiza nivalis, 
 
 Linn. 
 
 
 Towhe 
 
 Fringilla, 
 
 Gm. 
 
 
 Bittern, Least 
 
 Ardea exilis-. 
 
 n 
 
 
 Bobolink, 
 
 Emberiza oryziyora, 
 
 Linn. 
 
 
 Cuckoo, 
 
 Coccygus American us, 
 
 Linn. 
 
 
 Duck, Oldwife 
 
 Anas glacialis. 
 
 Wilson. 
 
 
 " Velvet 
 
 " fusca, 
 
 Wilson. 
 
 
 " Ruddy 
 
 Erismatura rubida, 
 
 Bona. 
 
 
 " Barrows' 
 
 
 
 
 Golden eye 
 
 Bucephala Islandica, 
 
 Baird. 
 
 
 Eagle, Bald 
 
 Falco leucocephalus, 
 
 Linn. 
 
 
 '.' Osprey 
 
 '• haliaetus, 
 
 Linn. 
 
 
 Godwit, Hudsonian 
 
 Limosa Hudsonica, 
 
 Swainson. 
 
 
 Hawk, Pigeon 
 
 Falco columbarius. 
 
 Linn, 
 
 
 Kinglet, Golden 
 
 Regulus satrapa, 
 
 Coues. 
 
 
 Martin, Purple 
 
 Hirundo purpuria, 
 
 Linn 
 
 
 Meganser, Red- 
 
 
 
 
 breasted 
 
 Mergus serrator, 
 
 Linn. 
 
 
 Nuthatch, Redbellied 
 
 Sitta Canadensis, 
 
 Linn. 
 
 
 Owl, Acadian 
 
 Strix passerina. 
 
 Linn. 
 
 2 
 
 " Great horned 
 
 " Vivginiana, 
 
 Gm. 
 
BIENNIAL REPORT OF THE 
 
 No 
 Speci- 
 mens. 
 
 COMMON NAMES. 
 
 SCIENTIFIC NAMES. 
 
 AUTHOKITT 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Pewee, 
 
 " Wood 
 
 Muscicapa nunciola, 
 " virens, 
 
 Wilson. 
 Linn. 
 
 2 
 
 Plover, Piping 
 
 Charadrius hiaticula. 
 
 Wilson. 
 
 1 
 
 " Ringneck 
 
 Acgialitis semipal- 
 
 matus. 
 
 Coues. 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 Redpoll, Yellow 
 " Lesser 
 
 Fringilla linaria, 
 
 Linn. 
 
 1 
 
 Rail, Carolina 
 
 Porzano Carolina, 
 
 Saral. 
 
 1 
 
 Sparrow, Java 
 
 Fringilla, 
 
 Linn. 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 Sandpiper, Solitary 
 " Spotted 
 
 Fringa solitaria, 
 " macularia. 
 
 Wilson. 
 Wilson. 
 
 1 
 
 Teal, Green-winged 
 
 Anas crecca, 
 
 Wilson. 
 
 1 
 
 Tern, Least 
 
 Sterna minuta, 
 
 Wilson. 
 
 1 
 
 Thrush, Wilson's 
 
 Turdus mustelinus. 
 
 Wilson. 
 
 1 
 
 " Wood 
 
 u 
 
 
 1 
 
 Golden 
 
 
 
 
 crowned 
 
 Motacilla aurocapilla, 
 
 Linn. 
 
 1 
 
 Vires, Yellow- 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 throated 
 Warbler, Black and 
 
 Muscicapa sylvicola. 
 
 Wilson, 
 
 1 
 
 yellow 
 Yellow 
 
 Sylvia magnolia, 
 Motacilla petechia. 
 
 Wilson. 
 Linn. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Cape May 
 Yellow Bird, 
 
 Sylvia maritima, 
 Fringilla tristis. 
 
 Wilson. 
 Linn. 
 
 We still desire specimens of rare birds killed in Vermont, 
 and wish such when killed sent to us immediately by 
 express. As there is an appropriation to pay express charges, 
 such charges need not be prepaid. Should it be the desire 
 of parties donating the birds that their names should appear 
 on the specimens, a letter stating that fact, with name and 
 residence, must be sent by mail. If birds are caught in 
 traps, do not send them alive, as their plumage will be spoiled, 
 but kill by pouring a spoonful of chloroform down their 
 throats, and then wrap up in a paper before boxing, so as to 
 retain their feathers in the most natural position. 
 
STATE GEOLOGIST. 
 
 * OOLOGY. 
 
 Though we have much increased our collection of eggs, 
 more are wanted, and we should be glad to make arrange- 
 ments for the same in different parts of the State. As soon 
 as possible they will be mounted on the stands with the 
 birds, and we hope soon to show the egg of every species, 
 AB well as the nests. 
 
 Nothing forms a more attractive feature in a museum, or 
 IS more acceptable to amateurs, than the nests and eggs of 
 birds. These should be collected whenever they are met 
 with, and in any number procurable for each species, as they 
 are always in demand for purposes of exchange. Dozens of 
 eggs of any species with their nests (or without, when not 
 to be had) will be gladly received. 
 
 Nests require little preparation beyond packing so as to 
 be secure from crumbling or injury. Each one should be 
 placed in a box or ring of paper just large enough to hold 
 it. The eggs of each nest, when emptied, may be replaced 
 in it and the remaining space filled with cotton. 
 
 Eggs, when fresh, and before the chick has formed, may be 
 emptied by making small pin-holes on opposite sides, and then 
 blowing or sucking out the contents. Should hatching have 
 already commenced, an aperture may be made in one side 
 by carefully pricking with a fine needle round a small circle 
 or ellipse, and thus cutting out a piece. The larger kinds 
 should be washed inside, and all allowed to dry before pack- 
 
 » A pamphlet has been published by the Smithsonian Institution 
 in regard to the collecting of nests and eggs, which may be obtained 
 upon application. 
 
BIENNIAL REPORT OF THE 
 
 ing away. If the egg be too small for the name, a number 
 should be marked on it with ink corresponding to a memo- 
 randum list. Little precaution is required in packing, 
 beyond arranging in layers with cotton and having the box 
 entirely filled. It is always better to wrap each egg in a 
 loose coat of cotton before arranging in layers, and they 
 should be packed in small wooden boxes. 
 
 Cracked eggs should have strips of tissue paper pasted 
 over the line of fracture ; or the crack may be painted over 
 with collodion while the sides are pressed together. 
 
 CKANIOLOGY. 
 
 We now desire, to complete our set of Vermont mam- 
 mals, the skull of the wolf, (Canis lupus,) and catamount, 
 (Felis concolor). If any party wiU furnish them, we will 
 make fair remuneration. 
 
 CONCHOLOGY. 
 
 I am glad to report an increase in the number of our 
 shells, which will soon be arranged for exhibition. We have 
 now nearly one hundred named species. We trust the 
 friends of this specialty will not forget that they can send 
 them nicely through the mail, and that we will exchange, 
 giving specimens from other localities, as soon as we can get 
 them named and in order for distribution. 
 
 ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 In this department many additions have been made, and 
 as there is much interest in relation to injurious insects at 
 this time, I deem it best to answer in this report, in part at 
 least, the numerous letters I receive ; by a description of 
 
STATE GEOLOGIST. 
 
 such of our insect enemies as I am so often enquired of in 
 relation to ; and notices of such means of destruction as 
 are deemed best for their extermination. In a letter before 
 me, I am asked : " What is science good for, if scientific men 
 are bafiled by one little insect which they cannot devise 
 means to exterminate ?" 
 
 Science is not baffled, but, like Hercules in the old fable 
 of the wagoner, can help you, and will help you, only when 
 you help yourselves. I may now hear you ask : " How we 
 may help ourselves ?" or how Vermont alone can help her- 
 self. We may safely calculate that the insect ravages in 
 Vermont for the year 1877, will exceed three millions of 
 dollars. Now is it too much to say that a concerted action 
 on the part of all agriculturists would decrease this damage 
 one half? Did science have full control of our legislature, 
 law would require, and enforce, the necessary concert of 
 action ; and while agriculturists would groan under imagi- 
 nary tyranny, they would reap the reward. As the agricul- 
 tural interests control the legislature, ought they not and 
 will they not take their best interests under consideration, 
 and do something for themselves ? 
 
 First, then : A law should be passed authorizing the 
 selection, and providing for the payment, of a competent 
 commission ; perhaps of three persons, for this State ; to be 
 selected for their merit and ability for the work ; not for 
 political influence. This commission should sub-divide their 
 work in such manner as to thoroughly investigate the hab- 
 its, and times of appearance of agricultural pests ; the efifects 
 upon them of all cheap materials which have been, or may 
 be used as destroying agents ; and to fully determine the 
 
10 BIENNIAL REPOKT OF THE 
 
 proper times of applying the same. The members of this^ 
 commission should have sufficient remuneration for time and 
 labor, so that, if necessary, they could temporarily abandon 
 other pursuits without damage to their pecuniary interests. 
 
 It is only by the association of several careful observers 
 and investigators that the most useful results can be 
 obtained. 
 
 Secondly. When this information has been accumulated,, 
 it should, in compact form for easy reference, be widely pub- 
 lished in newspapers, and in pamphlets, for a general distri- 
 bution to all farmers. 
 
 Thirdly. When such information has been made general^ 
 compel by legislation, and impress the acts and the benefi- 
 cial results of the same upon the community, through your 
 agricultural societies, the Board of Agriculture, and the 
 newspapers of the State. You already protect your birds by 
 law, which is one step in the right direction. Can you, in 
 fact, find an intelligent farmer in the State to-day, that 
 would not cheerfully obey a judicious law to concertedly 
 counteract the injury of the advancing potato bug ? The 
 rights of the intelligent who are disposed to help themselves 
 and each other, can only thus bo protected against their 
 indolent neighbor who allows his fields to be the nursery of 
 insects of destructive tendency, which overrun surrounding 
 farms to such an extent that no industry can protect against 
 them. 
 
 This, then, allow me to say to tlie agriculturists of Ver- 
 mont ; that a successful campaign against your insect ene- 
 mies can only be brought about by the demand of your- 
 selves ; and that legislative enactments must furnish the 
 
STATE GEOLOGIST. 
 
 11 
 
 means and give the power of action. Further : It must also 
 protect this concerted action from the thriftless ignoramus 
 that don't care for himself or neighbors. The fact is, that 
 the ravages of hostile insects represent a condition of war, 
 and it is only by organization, and appropriate weapons, that 
 they can be conquered. The proper subjects for considera- 
 tion are the materials to be used, the best time to make the 
 attack in force, and the weapons to be employed. It is 
 entirely useless for us to fold our arms and exclaim : " It is 
 the will of God !" 
 
 The Colokado Potato Beetle. 
 
 Doryphora decemlineata, Say. 
 
 d \^^e 
 
 a, a, eggs ; b, b, larva iii different stages of growth ; c, the pupa ; d, 
 beetles; e, elytron magnified; f, leg raagnifled. 
 
 This pest is now really in our midst, and though not as 
 yet iti sufficient numbers to do much harm, its previous his- 
 tory ought to give us warning. The great interest felt on 
 account ot this intruder has been manifest by the countless 
 bugs of all descriptions that I have received by mail this 
 
12 BIEHmAI. REPORT OF THE 
 
 season, with the enquiry : " Whetlier it is a potato bug."' 
 Nine times out of ten I could say it was not; but the num- 
 ber of actual potato beetles has led me to the belief that 
 there is hardly a town in the State that has not in it the 
 dreaded pest ; in small numbers, it is true, but yet if not 
 immediately attended to, two seasons more will bliglit our 
 crop of potatoes as elsewhere. That all may recognize this 
 pest, I will give something of its appearance, history and 
 habits. 
 
 This bug, so called, is, strictly speaking, a beetle, and is 
 known to naturalists under the name of Doryphora decern- 
 lineata. Like other higher species Of the Coleoptera, it 
 passes through a complete metamorphosis, but, unlike many 
 other beetles, it confines itselt during its entire life to the 
 same species of vegetation, and, unhappily, selects as its first 
 choice the potato. This beetle, however, is not, like many 
 of our pests, an importation, but an original native of the 
 far West. Its name would indicate Colorado as its birth- 
 place, but historical facts do not confirm it, as the bug com- 
 mitted severe depredations in ISTebraska and Kansas before 
 it was ever seen in Colorado, and the farmers there consider 
 it of Eastern origin. It is, however, described by natural- 
 ists as a native of the Rocky Mountains, from whence it 
 came as soon as the cultivation of the potato ofiTered a step- 
 ping stone to civilized life. I am, however, from its history 
 which I have traced back as far as possible, of opinion that, 
 if it came from the Rocky Mountains, it came down the fer- 
 tile valley of the Missouri, or some of its branches, rather 
 than across the desert of near five hundred miles interven- 
 ing between the cultivated lands of Colorado, and the fertile 
 
STATE GEOLOGIST. 13 
 
 plains of Kansas ; and it is quite as likely that it had its 
 origin in some of the fertile yaUeys or grassy plains of 
 Nebraska. 
 
 That its native place is far west of the Mississippi no one 
 can doubt. That it is a great lover of the potato plant is 
 equally certain ; yet it can exist upon other food when pota- 
 toes fail, but first selects the tomato and other plants nearly 
 a,llied in properties to the potato leaf; but such plants are 
 seldom attacked until the potato fields are fully devastated. 
 The eggs of this beetle are deposited, to the number of seven 
 or eight hundred, by each female, at intervals during from 
 twenty-five to forty-five days, on the leaves of the potato, in 
 regiilarly arranged clusters of from twenty to thirty eggs 
 each. They are of an orange color, and always on the 
 under side of the leaf. In about one week after they are 
 deposited they hatch into larvae, which feed upon the foliage 
 about two weeks, though some fix the period at seventeen 
 days. Their growth is quite regular, and when full grown 
 they are three-eighths of an inch in length. Upon their 
 sides they have two rows of slight protuberances tipped with 
 black, ten in the lower row and nine in the upper ; when full 
 grown there is a faint trace of a third row below the 
 two, and four black dots, forming the back of the neck, or 
 thorax as it is more properly called in the insect. Its head 
 is also black, and it has a black ring round its thorax. It 
 has six legs, the first pair coming out of the thorax, and the 
 others immediately behind, or on the front part of the abdo- 
 men. Its body is cream color. When full grown they 
 descend to the ground, where they change into a pupa state 
 
14 BIENNIAL REPORT OF THE 
 
 near the surface. The perfect beetle appears in a little less 
 than two weeks, pairs when about one week old, and a week 
 later commences the deposits of eggs, as before described. 
 From three to four broods will be hatched in a season. The 
 statements of time are, however, liable to vary, being longer 
 or shorter, according as the weather is more or less favora- 
 ble to their development. 
 
 The mature beetle, as its name indicates, has ten lines of 
 black lengthwise of its wing covers, five on each side, the 
 ground being a medium yellow. It has several black spots 
 upon its head and thorax, also six legs, and pink gauze 
 wings under the striped wing covers described. It passes 
 the winter in the perfect beetle state, burrowing in the 
 ground beneath the frost, coming out unimpregnated in the 
 spring, just in season to lay its eggs on the young potato 
 plant. 
 
 Bad as these beetles are. they are not so bad as popular 
 opinion makes them. Their first onset is the most severe, 
 and farmers accustomed to give up to imaginary evils will 
 talk about the extermination of the potato. Of that there 
 is no danger from this cause. In Iowa, in 1870, the beetles 
 were very abundant, so much so that they swarmed over 
 barns and outhouses, and also entered dwellings so that you 
 could hardly sit down or walk without crushing them, yet 
 the crop of potatoes was the largest ever known, and they 
 were retailed in the streets for twenty-five cents per bushel. 
 This abundant crop was raised by every one planting in 
 anticipation of higl ^ .ices, thus bringing the opposite 
 result. 
 
 By some this beetle is considered poisonous, but from no 
 
BTATE GEOLOGIST. 
 
 15 
 
 just cause, as it can be picked from the potatoes day after 
 day, by whole families, with no bad result. Large quanti- 
 ties of them in the state of putrefaction, like all other ani- 
 mal matter, is disagreeable, and, doubtless, unhealthy, and 
 they should never be left to putrefy, but be burned or 
 destroyed with boiling water, and then buried. As they are 
 voracious feeders, they may be killed with poison, like 
 arsenic or Paris green, mixed with flour, and dusted on the 
 potato leaves. As these substances are very poisonous if 
 swallowed or inhaled, great care should be taken in their 
 use. 
 
 As regards their depredations in the New England States, 
 of course we have much to fear, and yet we have some 
 things in cm- favor. First, its natural enemies. The "lady 
 bird," which, perhaps, is more generally known as the lady 
 bug, has been very abundant this season, causing the destruc- 
 tion of myriads of plant lice, and they need but encourage- 
 ment to assist the farmer in the destruction of the potato 
 beetle, as they are a deadly enemy. The eggs of the " lady 
 birds " are very much like those of the potato beetle in 
 color, but are smaller and not so many in a cluster, but 
 always laid in close proximity to those of some other insect. 
 As soon as they hatch, they commence their war of exter- 
 mination, and, as they are voracious feeders, they follow it 
 up almost unceasingly. This lady bug is about two-thirds 
 the size of the potato beetle when fully grown, of a yellow- 
 ish red color, with two or more black markings on each 
 wing cover, being shorter and more thick-set than the 
 potato beetle. In fine, they are about the size and shape of 
 a half pea. There are several varieties, but all are the 
 
16 BIENNIAL REPORT OF THE 
 
 friends of the farmer, and should have special protection. 
 The spined soldier bug and the banded robber bug also 
 prey upon the larvae of the potato beetle, as well as at . 
 least six other cannibal foes common to New England, 
 although those enumerated are the most important. 
 
 Secondly. Our winters are more severe than the winters 
 West. Jack Frost creeps deeper into the ground, and must 
 overtake many of the ten liners that supposed themselves 
 safe from cold. This year brings skirmishing parties into 
 our midst, and in two years it is probable the main army 
 will test our potatoes and our climate, so let us be ready to 
 give them a warm, if not a welcome reception. 
 
 The material used in the warfare against this intruder 
 has generally been Paris green dusted on the leaves when 
 wet with dew, while the beetles are in their larval state, or 
 mixed with water at the rate of one tablespoonful of the 
 green to a pailful of water. When, applied dry it is better 
 to mix with ten parts of flour ; and great care should be taken 
 not to inhale the dust, as it is very poisonous. When in 
 solution it must be almost continually stirred, or the green 
 will sink to the bottom of the spriukler, as it is not soluble 
 in the water. 
 
 C. y. Riley, of Missouri, says that quite as good results 
 may be obtained in using the ingredients from which green 
 is made, as from the finished article. The Paris green 
 costs say 37^ cents per pound, and the demand is often so 
 great that it cannot be obtained just when wanted, espe- 
 cially in back towns. The following directions for making 
 green, from Brando's Chemistry, are practical : Dissolve 
 two pounds of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol, costing fif- 
 
STATE GEOLOGIST. 
 
 n 
 
 teen cents per pound, or thirty cents,) in a gallon of hot 
 water, keeping it in a stone jar. Dissolve in another large 
 jar, one pound of common white arsenic (costing about six 
 cents,) and two pounds of saleratus or pearlash, (cost six- 
 teen cents,) in forty-four pounds of hot water, stirring well 
 till thoroughly dissolved. These articles, costing fifty-two 
 conts, will make about five pounds of Paris green, costing 
 about $1.88. 
 
 This can be kept in solution and mixed in proportion of 
 one part of the first and five of the last solution, as they 
 are needed. The green immediately begins to precipitate 
 in a fine powder, and is much more convenient for use in 
 solution than the dry article. Prof. Riley says that Paris 
 green can be in this way used without danger, and all agree 
 that in solution or mixed with flour when dry and dusted 
 on it is the unfailing remedy. 
 
 Dr. Le Conte advises the use of large atomizers for not 
 only the destruction of the potato beetle, but of all insects 
 that can be killed by a solution. This idea is worthy of 
 consideration, and it may, doubtless, prove invaluable. 
 
 Next to the potato beetle in number of enquiries comes 
 the 
 
 Steiped Squash Beetle. 
 Diabrothica vittata, Fahr. 
 
 This beetle appears on cucumber and squash vines, as 
 soon as they are through the ground, and frequently devours 
 them all in spite of the usual preventives used. They need 
 little description, as they are well known by the yellovnsh 
 stripes upon each wing cover. They lay their eggs in June, 
 or soon after their appearance, and the larva arrives at ma- 
 
18 BIENNIAL REPORT Oi TilE 
 
 turity in about a month after the egg is laid. The larva 
 remains in the pupa state about two we 'ks. We usually 
 have but two generations in a season. It remains through 
 the winter in the pupa state. The grub often hollows out 
 the stem of the squash or cucumber vine, below the g ouLd, 
 the last of June or first of July, and sometimes eats the 
 upper portion of the root. Should this food get short thoy 
 may be found in the stem above ground. They, however, 
 do not do great damage either in the second generation, oi 
 in their grub life. Covering the vines with a box covered 
 on top with muslin, has been considered the only sure rem- 
 edy ; though powdered charcoal, lime, and sometimes ashes, 
 can be used with benefit. In many cases, however, the ma- 
 terial sprinkled on the leaf is as bad as the beetle. If a 
 handful of shavings be burned near the hills in the evening, 
 many of them will fly into the fiames. After various exper- 
 iments, I have become satisfied that covering the hills with 
 common newspapers, is much the best means to be used ; 
 besides, you get an accelerated growth of the plants. Just 
 as soon as they break ground, or, perhaps better, a day or 
 two before the plants appear, open a newspaper to its full 
 size, and spread it over the hill, letting it lie close on the 
 ground, and fasten it in place by hoeing the dirt on to the 
 edges, so that no gusts of wind can disturb them. The 
 plants thus covered will grow at least a third faster than 
 those not covered, are safe from the beetles, and more 
 healthy in every way, producing blossoms several days 
 sooner than those not covered. It is seldom that once cov- 
 ering will not answer all purposes, but should one be torn 
 off from any cause, it can easily be replaced. I have tried 
 
I' •>' 
 
 STATE GEOI.OGIST. 19 
 
 different colors of paper, and find white or blue paper best 
 adapted to the purpose. Other colors seem to give a paler 
 green or sickly appearance to the plants. Newspapers are 
 easily obiained, and are just as good as clear white paper. 
 It will De seen, also, that this is a protection against late 
 frost, and I believe that every person that tries this method 
 of protection will ever use it with entire satisfaction. 
 
 The Tent Caterpillar. 
 
 Clisiocampa Americana, Harris. 
 
 This caterpillar is well known to all, yet all do not under- 
 stand its habits. The eggs are laid by a night flying moth, 
 in August, or in the southern part of the State, doubtless, 
 in the last part of July, in oval rings, round the smaller 
 twigs. These egg rings contain some three hundred eggs 
 each, and are covered over with a mucilaginous coating 
 which answers the double purpose of keeping out the water, 
 and food for the young when they hatch, to give them suf- 
 ficient strength to crawl down the limb to the first fork, 
 where, by crawling back and forth, they weave from a spin- 
 neret, in their mouth, the tent in which they live. From this 
 tent they sally forth twice a day for food, eating vora- 
 ciously. On an average, each caterpillar will eat two apple 
 leaves a day, and no tree can long live under such a vital 
 drain. As the weather gets warm, when they return from 
 a meal, instead of going into their tent, they will go to rest 
 upon the outside. Those coming in later and finding no 
 room, will crawl over the sleepers, spinning all the time 
 until they are covered, and another story is added to their 
 tent. Thus from time to time it is increased with their 
 
20 BIENNIAL KEPOKT OF THE 
 
 growth until their food gives out, or their caterpillar life is 
 spent, when they lose their social habits, and wander off to 
 find other food, which they are seldom able to do, or find 
 suitable places in which to spin their cocoons. These are 
 light colored, with a tinge of yellow, and may generally be 
 found attached horizontally, to the under side of fence rails, 
 or other protected places. They remain in these about 
 three weeks, when such as have not fallen a prey to the 
 ichneumon fly, as many do, come forth to lay their eggs, as 
 before described. The question so often asked is: " How to 
 destroy them ? " I will first tell you how you ought not. 
 Some flash gunpowder on their nests ; others bum them 
 with a torch ; while some put on kerosene and burn, and 
 others saturate with oil, to kill them. All these methods 
 are destructive to the trees, and should never be employed. 
 Upon a moment's reflection it will be seen that the quickest 
 and easiest way is to cut off the twig containing the eggs. 
 After the leaves have fallen, on a frosty morning, the eggs 
 may be readily seen as a dark band on the twigs, as the 
 frost does not so readily adhere to them. When you cut 
 them off always burn them. If this method is neglected, 
 watch your trees when they first hatch, and with a stick 
 remove* the entire nest early in the morning, or just at 
 night, as they feed and are consequently scattered over the 
 branches both in the middle of the forenoon and middle of 
 the afternoon, and some stragglers are absent all day. If 
 they are still neglected, as they should not be, there is no 
 sure way to rid your trees of them but to put on gloves and 
 clean them off with your hands. Tou can kill by crushing, 
 or have an attendant with a pail of hot water, and put in 
 
STATE GEOLOGIST. 21 
 
 Biich branches as you can cut away, or do not crush. Every 
 tent found, whether on orchard or forest tree, should be 
 destroyed. 
 
 Nearly akin to this insect is 
 
 The Forest Tent Catekpillae. 
 
 Clisiocampa sylvatica, Harris. 
 
 This caterpillar, for some years past, has been destructive 
 to forest trees as well as apple orchards, yet what I have 
 previously said will equally well applj- to this species, only its 
 eggs which surround the twig in the same manner, form a com- 
 plete cylinder, holding its full size from one end to the other, 
 uniform in diameter, and cut off squarely at each end, 
 while the egg masses of the other are oval rings, rounded 
 at each end of the mass. They are a more hardy species, 
 and after having stripped one tree of its leaves, will travel 
 in troops to another, ascend, and there make their home. 
 This can easily be prevented by putting tar or printer's ink 
 about the trunks of trees not infested. The habits of this 
 insect are not the same as those of the other. While they 
 spin a thread they do not form a tent between the branches, 
 but, resting upon the smooth side of the trunk or branch, 
 their thread lies between and beneath them, so it does not 
 make much show. They feed night and morn, sometimes 
 in the night, and are more voracious than the former. 
 While the former appear almost every year, this species is 
 seldom plenty but a year or two at a time. They will 
 hardly be seen for three or four years, and then reappear in 
 abundance as before. 
 
 The reason for this seems to be that their natural ene- 
 
22 BIENNIAL REPORT OF THE 
 
 mies increase more rapidly upon abundance, than they do, 
 and, after overpowering them, almost die out also, and then 
 the caterpillar gains ground again. The same means of 
 killing should be employed as before. 
 J^ext to the caterpillar comes the 
 
 "Web Woem. 
 Hyphantria textor, Harris. 
 
 This is often supposed to be the second ^brood of the 
 Tent caterpillar, but is a different species altogether. The 
 last of July a small white moth lays her eggs upon the end 
 leaf of a branch, which soon hatch. The young enclose the 
 end of the branch in their web, feeding only upon the pulpy 
 parts of the leaf, leaving the skeleton behind. They extend 
 the web over other leaves as soon as they are needed for 
 food. When fully grown, they descend the tree, and pass 
 the winter in the pupa state in the ground. 
 
 The best way to rid your trees of this pest, is to clip off 
 the end of the branch as soon as the worm appears. On no 
 account delay, as if you do, they will slip through your fin- 
 gers, and much increase your labors the next season. If 
 they are neglected until they^cover more than you desire to 
 prune away, kill as you do the Tent caterpillar. This you 
 can do at any time, as they never leave their tent as the 
 others do, but extend it as they desire more food. 
 
 The Cuekant Woem. 
 Nematus ventricosus, Klug. 
 This, lik ■, the caterpillar, needs no description, as it may 
 be found in its season upon currant and gooseberry bushes, 
 in all parts of the State. 
 
STATE GEOLOOIST. 23 
 
 The perfected insect lays its eggs on the under side of the 
 leaves, generally beside the veins, but sometimes in clusters. 
 In from six to eight days, according to the weather, they 
 hatch, and commence feeding. They cdntinue their work 
 upon the bushes, until they are bare of leaves, and then, 
 whether fully grown or not, go down into the ground and 
 form little black pupffi,\Varying in size according to the way the 
 worm is'fed. Emerging in about two weeks, they lay J heir 
 second brood, which pass the pupa state in the ground as 
 before, but do not emerge until the following spring. Pow- 
 dered white hellebore is, perhaps, generally used for their 
 destruction, but is no better than any other dust. Any dust 
 that touches them is lodged in their spiracles, or breathing- 
 pores, and soon produces death. Dust from the road, dried 
 fine plaster of Paris, or any finely pulverized substance, will 
 answer. The Grafton fertilizer, which was Jinely pulverized 
 quartz, was the best material I ever saw {»r killing them. 
 It possessed the requisites of great fineness and perfect dry- 
 ness, so it would make a dust easily. The hellebore is an 
 excellent preparation for the purpose, but might poison the 
 fruit. Gum aloes is, when fine, equally penetrating, and 
 less dangerous. 
 
 Cabbage Woem. 
 Pieris rapw. 
 
 Twenty years ago this centennial year, this obnoxious Eu- 
 ropean insect landed in Quebec, and from that beginning 
 has made itself familiar with not only New England, but 
 most of the United States, as well as Canada. 
 
 It is susceptible to the dust treatment, but as that gets 
 into the cabbage head and injures it, it cannot be used to 
 
24 BIENNIAL REPOKT OF THE 
 
 advantage. There is, however, a little parasite, Pteromalua 
 puparurriy Linn., which deposits its eggs in the pupa of the 
 cabbage butterfly, and the young find food enough to 
 develop forty or fifty from one pupa, to again feed upon this 
 obnoxious insect. This parasite is not found in all places 
 where the cabbage worm is, as they are not so rapid travel- 
 ers, but, doubtless, soon they will be held in check by this 
 little friend of mankind. 
 
 The CoDLiNft Moth oe Apple Woem. 
 Garpooajpsa jpomonella, Linn. 
 This is another imported insect, but is, doubtless, found 
 everywhere where apples are raised, and so has become 
 domesticated in its American home. About the first of July, 
 in this State, the night flying moth comes from his silken 
 cocoon, which was hid under some bit of bark, or sliver on 
 the fence near by. After pairing the male dies, but the 
 female may be seen in the dusk of night flitting around the 
 apple tree, laying her eggs in the blossom end of the little 
 apples. 
 
 In about a week the egg hatches, and the worm eats his 
 way into the apple, where it lives for about a month, when 
 it bores its way out through the side, and escapes to some 
 sheltered place, where it builds its cocoon, as stated; but this 
 time coming out in about twelve days, laying eggs as before, 
 this brood giving us the wormy apples in the fall. What 
 worms survive build cocoons as before, to come out 
 perfected the next summer. The first brood is very small, 
 but the second is fifty to one of the first, or even more. 
 
 Our protection against this insect is very difficult, and so 
 most people do nothing. Putting wisps of straw round the 
 
STATE GEOLOGIST. 25 
 
 tree, to furnish shelter for cocoons, and then taking off and 
 burning, or scalding it ; removing all rubbish from near the 
 trees, which could afford shelter ; allowing cattle or pigs to 
 run in the orchard to pick up the fallen fruit, and many 
 other things are devised, but all fail in keeping them only 
 temporarily in check. It is a great task to do all this, but 
 in the spring the destruction of one cocoon, and many may 
 often be found where apples have been kept through the 
 winter, saves at least one hundred apples from contamina- 
 tion. It will be seen that their destruction is of great 
 importance. 
 
 The Apple Tube Boeee. 
 Saperda hivitata, Say. 
 
 This is a native American, born and bred in the moun- 
 tains, feeding upon the wild crab, mountain ash, and various 
 other trees. It comes out of the trunk, usually in June, and 
 always iu the night, in its perfect state. Resting by day, in 
 the night time it flies from tree to tree for food and compan- 
 ions. Though they feed upon the bark of branches where 
 it is tender and succulent, they lay their eggs on the bark at 
 the foot of the tree, where the young, as soon as hatched, 
 commence to burrow in the bark, l^'or the first year they 
 live mostly in the bark, but, towards the last of the season, 
 advance into the sap wood. Frequently in young trees the 
 bark over them will crack and allow their castings to fall 
 out, and thus they may be detected. They remain in the 
 tree three years. As the time comes for their exit, they eat 
 their way to the bark, thin that somewhat, and go into the 
 pupa state to emerge perfected in about four weeks. 
 
26 BIENNIAL REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.. 
 
 The best remedy is to prevent the successful laying of 
 eggs, which may be done by smoothing and then soaping 
 the bark. If such is done near the ground only, they will 
 lay their eggs at the junction of the largest limbs, or higher 
 up on the trunk, so the scraping and soaping wants to be 
 thorough. K the borers are really in the trees, there is no 
 way except to kill them, or cut them out one at a time. A 
 small piece of whalebone is the best to kill them with, by 
 pushing it into their hole. A piece of wire will answer. 
 When the bark is killed over them it is just as well to cut 
 them out. The application of the soap is necessary in May. 
 Either soft or hard soap will do, but if hard soap is used a thin 
 piece had better be crowded down into each principal crotch 
 of the tree, so that the rain may wash it down the trunk. 
 Do this, of course, after having washed the tree with strong 
 suds. 
 
 Though many other insects have been enquired after, the 
 foregoing are the principal ones. As in times past, I shall 
 be willing to give, by letter, to the enquirer, such informar 
 tion in relation to insects as I may be able to impart, yet 
 would advise that all study the habits of pests ; and when 
 they are enabled to fight one with success, let it be known 
 through the press, that all may profit thereby. 
 Most respectfully yours, 
 
 HIRAM A. CUTTING, M. D., 
 State Geologist and Curator State Cabinet. 
 
 Lunenburgh, Vt., August 31, 1876. 
 
ahii'Cfi 
 
 Mont- 
 
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 ^CLIMATOLOGY 
 
 s 
 
 3^ 
 
 '^"''VJ s\''"'''-^i^: "S^JP. \«;";:T1.7>;asT 
 
 si 
 
 Mean Aimual Rain-Fall. 
 BY DR, H. A. orrrTisG. 
 EXPLANATION. 
 
 The figures express the mean 
 amount of inches of rain falling an- 
 nually in the several areas indicated 
 
 by different colors. 
 
METEOROLOGICAL TABLES 
 
 AND 
 
 CLIMATOLOGY OF VERMONT, 
 
 WITH MAP SHOWING THE RAINFALL ; 
 
 ALSO, 
 
 SUGGESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS ABOUT 
 FORETELLING STORMS. 
 
 By HIRAM A. CUTTING, A. M., M. D., 
 
 STATE GEOLOGIST AND CURATOR. 
 
 MONTPELIER : 
 
 J. & J. M. POLAND, OFFICIAL STATE PRINTERS. 
 1877. 
 
 11 
 
CLIMATOLOGY OF VERMONT. 
 
 Observations made iu the interests of meteorology, and collected 
 and reduced under the patronage of our government, have shown that 
 though our storms are irregular, that our hills and valleys are rendered 
 fertile by the moisture brought from the Gulf of Mexico, by the great 
 south west current. This is modified by the phj^sical contour of the 
 country, and by the great atmospheric current coming from the Pa- 
 cific, which, though it loses most of its moisture before it reaches us, 
 it modifies our climate, as we get westerly winds at least three fourths 
 of the time ; and sometimes when we get falling weather, this wind, 
 meeting the moisture coming inland from the Atlantic, condenses it, 
 causing showers, and now and then extensive storms. Thus the at- 
 mospheric disturbances generated thousands of miles awa}^ give us in 
 connection with our local storms sufficient moisture to render our 
 State fertile, even to the mountain summits. 
 
 Through the investigations made by Prof. Joseph Henry, of the 
 Smithsonian Institute, we see that our great north east stonns have 
 their origin within the tropics. The great current of the south east 
 trade wind infiinges on the north east trade wind, and produces the 
 cyclones so destructive on the coast of Florida and the West Indies. 
 The cyclone thus generated moves along the coast with duninished 
 violence, producing our north east storms. Sometimes this disturb- 
 ance originates among the Rockj' Mountains, sweeping over the con- 
 tinent. This takes place oftener in August or midsummer ; while iu 
 autumn and winter we are more dependent upon the Gulf storms. 
 From observations of the Signal Service, it is shown that from seven 
 to thirteen areas of low barometer are developed per month within or 
 upon the borders of the United States. From one to three of those 
 pass directly over Vermont. As a rule rainfall increases as j^ou go 
 towards the equator, and decreases towards the poles ; thus we should 
 expect more rainfall in the southern part of the State, find such is 
 true, yet its geographical distribution depends somewhat upon the 
 contour of our State, as the map shows. Though they maj' receive 
 more rain, it is in no way certain that they may not more often suffer 
 from drought than other sections, as the nature of the soil and the 
 greater or less humidity of the atmosphere from surrounding forests 
 or ponds maj' much modify evaporation. The amount of vapor in the 
 atmosphere regulates the intensity of the sun's rays, as well as pre- 
 venting the radiation of the sun's heat from the earth, which radiation 
 rapidly aids evaporation of moisture. Thus in some sections crops 
 may severely suffer from drought, while in others they may not, yet 
 
the rainfall for the time may be equal. Thus it will be seen that the 
 preservation of vegetation upon our hilltops and mountains not onlj- 
 modifies the effects of drought, but, carrying out the same reasoning, 
 moderates the extremes of winter. In relation to soil, it is easy to 
 ascertain which will retain the most nloisture, by taking a given 
 amount that is perfectly dry, and see how much water you can add to 
 it without its leaching, and then how rapidly it loses it by evapora- 
 tion. These experiments show that while the usual soil of our hill- 
 sides is losing three fourths that of our valleys, which will not at first 
 retain as much, will lose nine tenths of what it at first absorbed, thus 
 showing why our hills are always green, and hill land more sure not 
 to suffer from drought. 
 
 The foregoing map shows, not only the annual aqueous precipitation 
 for the State, but for a large part of New Hampshire, and a part of 
 Massachusetts and New York. The greatest amount of annual rain- 
 fall seems to be about the highest of the Wliite Mountains. It is set 
 down at flftj'-five inches, but the rainfall for 1876 was seventy-eight 
 inches. It is probable that fifty-five inches is none too high for the 
 average. The next largest is in central New Hampshire and southern 
 Vermont, being from forty-four to fortj^-six inches, shading north- 
 ward in Vermont to thirty-eight, thirty-nine, and forty inches, while 
 an area west of Lake Champlain has but thirty-seven inches. 
 
 In comparison with other places, this seems a small amount. The 
 average annual rainfall in Calcutta is 118 inches. On the Amazon 
 river, 500 inches. In Guadeloupe, 282 inches. In Singapore, 190 
 inches, and many other places equally large, but the general summary 
 of observations throughout the world establishes the fact that within 
 the tropics the average amount is about 100 inches ; and the average 
 number of rainy days eight3^ In a belt, including the Southern 
 States, seventy inches in one hundred and twenty-five rainy days. 
 In a belt from the Southern States to northern Vermont, forty-five 
 inches in one hundred and fifty-six stormy days, while the average 
 fall in Siberia is only five and a half inches in two hundred stormy 
 days. A small amount of rain if at proper intervals is sufficient for 
 vegetation. Our amount of rainfall is as well calculated for produc- 
 tion as that of any section of the globe. It much exceeds many sec- 
 tions of the fertile West, and is much more constant from year to year. 
 
 The following table shows the amount of annual, as well as monthly, 
 rainfaU at forty-three stations, most of them being for a series of 
 years : 
 
< 
 
 <: 
 a: 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 < 
 
 w« Sin ® 5^ 
 
 I-ennny 
 
 IgC^TOgeOiONCOOlr; ^ _^^ ^ _w*- - w^ — — 
 
 .•niA 
 
 
 U3 C0-«O<HINAa>M 
 t« CQr-ICC t:^?4«0 inn 
 j-< Oi^H O >-< O OlOi- 
 
 aaOr-<oc4 
 
 
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 5 — (d^dtih 
 
 moonoScsc 
 
 Snijdg 
 
 OlOJOOOCO OAOSi- 
 
 i^coMootoecxsePTijiocje^eOiO^ 
 
 ^i pi oj OS « 1-5 fH ift (O O) oi Oi CTS 
 
 I-; ■* OO TO to lO eO rH ^ 
 
 TO TO ei CQ CO 
 
 c«cSneoo>o^eQo>oS(X}i-;^w^oo-^o 
 
 oNffiot-eooot-^o 
 
 
 M w TO ©J e>J iji eo M rt so ■* iQ ■* "d 
 
 ^eo^raeoco C4 
 
 Swtoo 
 
 2Sffi532«S:a£ 
 
 eccoiQeom'OwS'*^'*'^ 
 
 •Idas 
 
 OO-H-WOt^W'^'^rf 
 
 
 ^ COCOCOTOCO 
 
 -. -^--JOTOO-* 
 o tp iQ 0^ OS CO ^, ce 
 
 ^l w TO -^ CO w TO eo TO TO ■* « cii •* oJ 1-5 « ed N US 
 
 O TO 
 
 C4 eo 
 
 •any I 
 
 «s iH oa CO c^ -^ C4 1^ a» iqoooolo 
 
 apmosoo^cit-cia 
 
 ""*"■*•*(««-« 
 
 ■■iinf 
 
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 rH 06 ■Tt; TO •* m p- oi S tH «o o QC 
 U3 « aj ■* -^ tji id CO « CO ■«" w (^ 
 
 H 01004 03 19 b- 
 
 s « 
 
 t-; 00 K3 r-J ':D 1»; — _ 4Q O 
 
 S^^QO CQIAAOOO 
 
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 M(Ne>JcO'«*(N(?i"*« 
 
 OCeqt-c 
 
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 SOlCOtSh-CC 
 CO OOS OStP 
 
 o'ldijJ 
 
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 sa s a 
 
 OW**-* CO 
 
 llJdy 
 
 uss^oor-'CA eaomoo 
 
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 2 e* CO eg p Qg OS 00 CO 10 
 
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 Qoast— ff4r«>- 
 
Diagram 1 shows the fluctuations in the annual rainfall in the Atlan- 
 tic States,— Maine to Maryland,— from 1805 to 1867. It urill be no- 
 ticed that there are groups of years of unusual amount of rain, fol- 
 lowed by years of drouth ; showing that one follows the other with 
 something Hke regularity. As a whole it seems the amount of rain- 
 fall is increasing. The figures at the left are the percentage of the 
 mean amount. 
 
 Diagram 2 shows the fluctuations in the annual rainfall at Lunen- 
 burgh, and also shows the same groups of years. It is never certain 
 that a large amount of rainfall precludes the possibihty of droughts, 
 as it may not be well distributed through the -year. The year 1871 
 was remarkable for its dry summer, yet the amount of rainfall is above 
 the average. 
 
 Diagram 3 shows the fluctuations in the annual snowfall at same 
 place. The difference is much greater than the difference in rainfall. 
 The greatest amount, 167.5 inches, is more than twice as much as the 
 mean, which is 83.1 inches, and the least amount is less than half the, 
 mean, being only forty-one inches. Still the grouping of winters is 
 observable as in rainfall, yet shows no time where there was over three 
 consecutive years above the mean amount. 
 
 Diagram 4 shows the annual fluctuations of rainfall at Lake Vills^e, 
 N. H., from 1857 to 1873. It will be noticed that while the group- 
 ing is seen, that it is not as marked, or the fluctuation as great, as in 
 Connecticut river valley at Lunenburgh. 
 
 TEMPEKATUBE. 
 
 As the sun's rays are perpendicular at' the equator, and strike at a 
 regular increasing angle as we approach the poles, it would seem ce- 
 dent that there would be an equally decreasing degree of temperature, 
 yet such is not the case. We find that latitude is by no means a sure 
 criterion of heat and cold. The equator should thus be the warmest 
 section of earth, but such is not the case, the warmest place on either 
 continent being about ten degi-ees north of the real equator. Also 
 the cold at the poles, not as might be expected at the poles themselves, 
 but about fifteen degi-ees from them, and beyond that impenetrable 
 ice barrier is open sea. Again the lines of temperature are by no 
 means regular. England, six or eight degrees farther north than we 
 are, has a climate warmer than New York city. And Quebec, on the 
 St. Lawrence, has as cold a winter as the interior of Siberia ; while 
 Canada West, in higher latitude, is as warm as Massachusetts, and 
 the winter is full six weeks shorter than at Quebec. Still the sum- 
 mer at Quebec is as warm as the summer of Italy, where snow never 
 falls. Thus we see how the lay of the land, and the currents of air 
 and of water effect climate quite as much as latitude. In a hilly State 
 like Vermont the streams of cold in the winter are nearly as regular 
 as the streams of water in the summer. The air in contact with the 
 earth becomes colder, and for that reason heavier, and so flows down 
 our valleys like streams of water. In the Connecticut river valley 
 runs down a great stream of cold air, making quite regular tempera- 
 ture in winter the whole length of the State, and bending the annual 
 temperature Unes at least fifty miles further south in that valley than 
 on the hills. I give a table extending through three years, from ob- 
 servations at Woodstock and Luneinburgh. These tables show that 
 

 S £ ? 
 
 2 « < 
 
 S 3 s s 
 
 5 s a a 
 
 5 s a s s 2 
 
 ^ ^ « OJ ^ Q 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 t ) 
 
 1 -1- ' 
 
 
 j 
 
 i.lJ 
 
 yjli ! 
 
 1 \ 
 
 U 1 
 
 
 
 1 ; f 111! 
 
 
 ' J 
 
 ' J 1 
 
 f-ilU^- 
 
 .as 
 
 
 
 [^[^ ilili 
 
 
 ::i;; ii: iiii 
 
 ^3 
 
 -tfo 
 
 .TO 
 .AS 
 
 1 II 1 1 
 
 . \ \'. 
 
 
 m^tiefntiC Sea.' Coa^^ ,Z^'tti»%€ "to J^arijland.; 
 
 l.SOrjj- , .1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IJO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 . j 
 
 
 -"- 1 
 
 iiyiiyi IIIIII 
 
 -- 
 
 
 :: :::r 
 
 II mil 
 
 
 II 
 
 .. . 1 
 
 iillililliiiili 
 
 
 V3 o <i N K 
 
 3 S^ ^ 
 
 Tincitmtions in ^nnua.i j^ainfulf vf the t^pf»er 
 Connecticut- 'Wa.lieu j_fro7n OBsen^a-tionj Zn/ 
 JH ..13. ij«i*i-i»»p^, .Sr.xr,, 3^-unenhit.fff , Vt, 
 
 ^aU nJ j.a.Au- Vtlt^jr^; -from Ob- 
 
 
there is no great variation between them. Woodstock is 650 feet 
 above tide water, and the place of observation in Lunenburgh is 1,210 
 feet above, being six hundred feet higher than the Connecticut rivet 
 vaUey. The table also gives comparative rainfall. It is several de- 
 grees colder in winter in the river vaUey, two mUes from my station, 
 than here. 
 
 TABLES OF MONTHLY SNOW and RAINFALL, MONTHLY 
 MEAN, MAXIMUM, and MINIMUM TEMPERATURES. 
 
 Compiled from the Smithsonian and Observations by myself. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1868. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 l' 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 O 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 Snow,— Inches 
 
 Bain, or melt, snow 
 
 Date 
 
 M 
 SMI 
 
 3 
 49 
 
 13 
 
 -20 
 
 13.68 
 
 18.75 
 1.87 
 
 2 
 83 
 
 18 
 
 -16 
 
 12.2 
 
 i. 
 .04 
 
 21 
 
 4e 
 
 8 
 —33 
 
 10.29 
 
 14.60 
 1.46 
 
 20 
 37 
 
 34 
 -27 
 
 8.78 
 
 .17 
 
 22. 
 
 1, 
 
 
 
 
 
 4. 
 
 16. 
 
 26. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 27 
 53 
 
 1 
 -28 
 
 17.74 
 
 IS. 
 1.60 
 
 31 
 
 67 
 
 1 
 -12 
 
 27.93 
 
 16 
 70 
 
 10 
 —2.5 
 
 36.79 
 
 6.50 
 1.30 
 
 16 
 
 68 
 
 10 
 4 
 
 34. 
 
 29 
 77 
 
 4 
 
 28 
 
 62.41 
 
 18 
 87.5 
 
 3 
 35 
 
 63ai 
 
 13 
 96 
 
 27 
 46 
 
 71.81 
 
 3,1926 
 81 
 
 17 
 39 
 
 64.17 
 
 13 
 
 80 
 
 18 
 27 
 
 63.76 
 
 8 
 73 
 
 24 
 10.5 
 
 39.49 
 
 1 
 
 56 
 
 24 
 12 
 
 29.86 
 
 21 
 
 o, 
 
 H 
 CD 
 
 Thermom., max... 
 Date . . 
 
 38.6 
 25 
 
 § 
 
 Thermom., mln 
 
 Mean 
 
 ^ Snow,— inches 
 
 Rain, or melt, snow 
 
 -27 
 14.47 
 
 
 4.50 
 
 28 
 77 
 
 9 
 S2 
 
 62.48 
 
 4.40 
 
 18 
 87 
 
 3 
 36 
 
 62.15 
 
 4.62 
 
 13,16 
 75 
 
 28 
 
 63 
 
 71.58 
 
 1.81 
 
 3 
 85 
 
 17,28 
 49 
 
 66.73 
 
 8.08 
 
 12 
 80 
 
 18 
 25 
 
 64.58 
 
 1.30 
 
 7 
 66 
 
 30 
 16 
 
 41.6 
 
 7.15 
 
 1 
 54 
 
 17,30 
 14 
 
 29.60 
 
 2.46 
 
 p 
 
 Thermom., max . . . 
 Date 
 
 32 
 
 27 
 -30 
 
 13.82 
 
 lA 
 
 Thermom., min — 
 Mean 
 
 1869. 
 
 
 ■ Snow,— inches 
 
 22. 
 
 40. 
 
 26. 
 
 2. 
 
 6. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1.60 
 
 6. 
 
 14 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 2.94 
 1 
 
 Date 
 
 8 
 50 
 
 13 
 50,5 
 
 27 
 53 
 
 66 
 
 12 
 
 85 
 
 4 
 84 
 
 26 
 86 
 
 20 
 88 
 
 'if 
 
 14 
 73 
 
 4 
 59 
 
 o. 
 
 § 
 
 Thermom., max... 
 
 53 
 
 
 23 
 —26.6 
 
 8 
 -21 
 
 1 
 -28 
 
 U 
 17 
 
 1 
 23 
 
 7 
 32 
 
 6 
 40 
 
 8 
 86 
 
 28 
 31 
 
 28 
 18 
 
 26 
 7 
 
 8 
 —18 
 
 Thermom., min. . . . 
 
 ^ 
 
 Mean 
 
 19.08 
 
 18. 
 1.96 
 
 19.87 
 
 86. 
 8.67 
 
 17.74 
 
 19.6 
 2.6 
 
 39.71 
 
 3. 
 1.75 
 
 62.51 
 
 1. 
 
 2.75 
 
 69.84 
 
 65.22 
 
 61.69 
 
 69,12 
 
 41.86 
 
 3.5 
 7.72 
 
 30. 
 
 2.50 
 2. 
 
 22.44 
 
 
 ■ Snow,— inches 
 
 Bain, or melt, snow 
 
 > 
 
 5. 
 
 2.76 
 
 2.50 
 
 2.60 
 
 2.25 
 
 
 
 
 18,19 
 36 
 
 18 
 39 
 
 28 
 47 
 
 20 
 61 
 
 81 
 
 78 
 
 4 
 84 
 
 11 
 
 84 
 
 26 
 
 78 
 
 17 
 82 
 
 1 
 72 
 
 6 
 
 56 
 
 1 
 
 40 
 
 P- 
 
 Thermom., max — 
 
 ^ 
 
 Date 
 
 8 
 -20 
 
 8 
 —12 
 
 2 
 -28 
 
 6 
 20 
 
 1,4 
 
 6 
 46 
 
 1 
 52 
 
 81 
 48 
 
 28 
 86 
 
 28 
 21 
 
 26 
 13 
 
 8 
 -12 
 
 '< 
 
 Thermom., min — 
 
 kI 
 
 Mean 
 
 14.73 
 
 19.80 
 
 19.43 
 
 38.26 
 
 53.88 
 
 60.93 
 
 67.68 
 
 63.43 
 
 61.60 
 
 42.90 
 
 30.53 
 
 21.93 
 
 1870. 
 
 ^ 
 
 Snow,— inches 
 
 Bain, or melt, snow 
 
 26.89 
 6.20 
 
 36.60 
 5.12 
 
 24.50 
 2.60 
 
 3.50 
 8.27 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4. 
 3.80 
 
 2. 
 1.87 
 
 26.75 
 2.51 
 
 1.81 
 
 5.35 
 
 1.82 
 
 1.03 
 
 4.93 
 
 H 
 
 Date 
 
 23 
 62 
 
 12,18 
 46 
 
 30 
 67 
 
 28 
 78 
 
 16 
 83.5 
 
 26 
 91.5 
 
 24 
 90 
 
 9 
 91.5 
 
 1,2 
 
 86 
 
 16 
 
 70 
 
 9 
 61 
 
 23 
 61.6 
 
 § 
 
 Thermom., max. .. 
 
 
 14 
 —5 
 
 6 
 -14 
 
 4 
 
 -8 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 29.6 
 
 23 
 49 
 
 2 
 43 
 
 27 
 34 
 
 13 
 
 31.5 
 
 27 
 17 
 
 16 
 16 
 
 21 
 27 
 
 Thermom., min. . . . 
 
 g 
 
 Mean .' 
 
 23.60 
 
 16.07 
 
 23.66 
 
 42.04 
 
 64.05 
 
 68.04 
 
 70.10 
 
 65.61 
 
 57.01 
 
 46.71 
 
 34.17 
 
 16.49 
 
 
 Snow,— inches 
 
 Bain, or melt, snow 
 
 23.05 
 4.55 
 
 40. 
 4.10 
 
 17.26 
 4.52 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .60 
 3.96 
 
 9. 
 5.25 
 
 8. 
 1.30 
 
 >■ 
 
 2.50 
 
 4.00 
 
 3.6 
 
 4.66 
 
 6.42 
 
 3. 
 
 
 
 
 17 
 42 
 
 18 
 44 
 
 31 
 62 
 
 27 
 68 
 
 .y 
 
 29 
 94 
 
 24 
 89 
 
 9 
 90 
 
 4 
 
 80 
 
 12 
 79 
 
 9 
 66 
 
 2 
 40 
 
 sJ 
 
 Thermom., max... 
 
 
 
 14 
 —12 
 
 2 
 —13 
 
 12 
 
 -15 
 
 4 
 26 
 
 7 
 36 
 
 22 
 50 
 
 2 
 66 
 
 26 
 48 
 
 12 
 
 38 
 
 27 
 
 17 
 
 22 
 18 
 
 26 
 
 —18 
 
 i 
 
 Thermom., min. . . . 
 
 S. 
 
 Mean 
 
 21.88 
 
 16.23 
 
 23.73 
 
 42.70 
 
 53.43 
 
 68.68 
 
 72.57 
 
 67.26 
 
 69.75 
 
 46.20 
 
 33.66 
 
 21.66 
 
8 
 
 ^he following table shows temperature, rainfall, depth of snow, 
 relative humidity, and height of barometer, for the past year, ending 
 in June. This was a very dry season, and it will be noticed that the 
 rainfall is much below the average : 
 
 Months. 
 
 Mean 
 Barometer 
 
 Temperature. 
 
 Mean 
 
 relative 
 
 Humidity. 
 
 Total Bain 
 
 and 
 Melted Snow 
 
 Snow. 
 
 Mean. 
 
 Max. 
 
 Mln. 
 
 1876. 
 July 
 
 28.87 
 28.92 
 28.77 
 28.69 
 28.81 
 28.67 
 
 28.34 
 28.73 
 28.70 
 28.81 
 28.12 
 28.84 
 
 68.16 
 66.48 
 65.22 
 40.28 
 34.33 
 12.00 
 
 9.78 
 24.10 
 27.70 
 42.40 
 62.49 
 63.99 
 
 95 
 90 
 88 
 68 
 65 
 38 
 
 41 
 49 
 54 
 72 
 79 
 86 
 
 62 
 44 
 40 
 
 •20 
 10 
 
 —24 
 
 —14 
 
 6 
 27 
 34 
 42 
 
 81.54 
 88.67 
 86.39 
 90.41 
 88.64 
 80.16 
 
 78.17 
 76.67 
 76.98 
 81.28 
 77.68 
 83.85 
 
 6.22 
 1.26 
 5.90 
 1.60 
 1.67 
 2.81 
 
 2.16 
 .66 
 6.40 
 2.35 
 1.06 
 3.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 October 
 
 1.00 
 
 
 4.60 
 
 
 28.1P 
 
 1S77. 
 
 21.60 
 
 
 5.00 
 
 
 9.00 
 
 April 
 
 0.50 
 
 M^y, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sums 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 34.08 
 
 69.60 
 
 
 28.67 
 
 11.33 
 
 
 
 
 2.84 
 
 
 
 
 As I have a more extensive series of observations than any other 
 in the State, I add a table for twenty-nine years, showing average 
 temperature^ monthly and annually, also amount of rain and snow. 
 The rainfall for this period ranges from 33.50 to 60.91 inches, and the 
 snowfall from 41 to 167.50 inches. There is also, as will ibe seen, 
 much variation in annual temperature. 
 
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10 
 
 For this period the heat of summer has not exceeded 100 degrees, 
 and but twice has the thermometer touched that point. It has once 
 touched 45 degrees below zero. The extreme heat of summer rarely 
 exceeds 90 degrees, and the cold of winter is seldom greater than 25 
 degrees below zero. 
 
 The average number of stormy days in a year for this period- has 
 been 120, and the average mmiber of fair days 118, of cloudy days 127. 
 From this it is reasonable to infer that our time is pretty equally 
 divided into fair, cloudy, and stormy weather. In summer we have 
 an excess of fair weather while in winter there is an excess of 
 stormy or cloudy weather. 
 
 THE ATMOSPHERE. 
 
 It is desirable that aU should have a general understanding of our 
 atmosphere, and the laws by whicl^ our storms are regulated or pro- 
 duced, and to render such instructive I shall say something of the 
 history of Meteorological Science, and also of familiar signs as well 
 as instriunental observations. Two himdred and fifty years ago it 
 was not known that we had an atmosphere. All the phenomena it 
 produces were explained upon other principles, some of them show- 
 ing the wildest theories and the most absurd ideas. The creation of 
 the atmosphere as declared in Genesis, as the "firmament" dividing 
 the waters, was not understood. A vague and unmeaning explana- 
 tion was given it. When it was discovered that there was in reality 
 an seriform fluid surrounding the earth, possessing weight, color, power 
 of diffusing light and heat, and necessary to the existence of all ani- 
 mal and vegetable Hfe, it struck with wonder and- astonishment all 
 the learned throughout the world. So wonderful and incredible did 
 it at first appear, that it was not until after the lapse of several years, 
 till opinions which had prevailed for ages were overthrown, and the 
 most decisive experiments had been performed in every possible way, 
 that it was cordially received. This atmosphere is composed mainly of 
 two gases, nitrogen and oxygen. It was, however, less than eighty 
 years ago, supposed to be a simple body, but is now known to be com- 
 posed of about eighty parts by measure of nitrogen, and twenty parts 
 of oxygen. It may be necessary to offer a few remarks on these 
 gases, opposite in their nature ; entering into no chemical union, yet 
 being combined in so exact proportion as to support animal and veg- 
 etable hfe, and the smallest change, perhaps, detrimental to either. 
 Oxygen gas is eminently the supporter of combustion, and ignited 
 substances burn in it with the most intense briUiancy. Even shav- 
 ings of zinc and iron may be ignited, by dipping the ends in melted 
 brimstone, and introducing them into this gas while the brimstone is 
 on fire. They then burn with intense heat and give a peculiar Ught, 
 exemplifying the fact that if our globe was surrounded by an increased 
 amount of oxygen, many now incombustible substances could be 
 burned. 
 
 Nitrogen gas is exactly opposite in quality. It will extinguish fire 
 as well as water, and wiU soon kill any animal that breathes it uncom- 
 bined with oxygen. Yet four fifths of the air we breathe is this nox- 
 ious substance. 
 
 Oxygen is the life-giving element, and as this is largely consumed 
 
11 
 
 in combustion and respiration, and by those processes replaced by an 
 equal volume of carbonic acid, which is detrimental to animal life, it 
 would seem that the atmosphere would at length become deleterious. 
 This would be the case, were it not for vegetation, which by aid of 
 the sun's raj's, absorbs the carbonic acid, and gives off, after the 
 appropriation of the carbon, oxygen for the animal. Thus the animal 
 and vegetable mutually support each other ; I say support, as breath- 
 ing affords three fourths of our own nourishment ; leaving the other 
 quarter, only, to be supplied by food. With this unceasing meta- 
 morphosis in beings and things, goes on a continuous exchange, by 
 virtue of which the gases of the atmosphere take up their abode in 
 animal and plant. Each atom of air, therefore, passes from life to life 
 as it escapes from death after death, being in turn wind, flood, ani- 
 mal, plant, or flower, being successively employed in the composition 
 of thousands of plants and animals. 
 
 It is the inexhaustible source from whence everything that lives 
 draws much the largest share of its support, and into which every- 
 thing that dies contributes. Under its action vegetables and animals 
 are brought into existence and then perish. 
 
 Life and death are alike taken in at every respiration, and the 
 atom of oxygen which escapes from the blade of grass may find its 
 wa}!^ into the lungs of the infant in the cradle ; or the last sigh of a 
 dying man go to nourish the brilliant petal of a flower. 
 
 WIND AND STORM. 
 
 We know wind is air in motion ; this of course could not be known 
 when it was not known that we had an atmosphere, so by the ancients 
 entirely different causes were supposed to produce it. 
 
 Phny, one of our greatest historians, being thoroughly rehable as 
 regards the facts of his day, says, " In houses there be hollow places 
 devised and made by men's hands for receipt of wind, which being 
 enclosed with shade and darkness, gather their blasts." Thus in the 
 time of the ancient Greeks ; in the time of renowned men that invent- 
 ed an architecture, or manner of finish, which has been handed down 
 and used to the present day, building their houses and their stately 
 edifices, with curiouslj- contrived cavities on the outside, as a resting 
 place for wind. Wind to their minds was a spirit needing their pro- 
 tection, and one to which they did not wish to give offense. They 
 supposed his abode to be in the mountains of the North which divided 
 their country round about the Mediterranean, from the country of the 
 fabled Hj'perboreans, in the North, and that when displeased they 
 hurled down the North wind, which was chilly and cold to the in- 
 habitants of a more Southern chme. 
 
 Caves were places of superstitious dread, as they were supposed to 
 be the resting places of wind, and finally became of use to the free- 
 booters, as they were thus comparatively safe from the law. We 
 learn from many ancient histories similar facts. The origin of wind 
 as taught to their youth, and handed down to us in their ancient 
 manuscript school books is this : ' ' There be certain caves and holes 
 in the earth which breed wind continually without end. They have 
 wide mouths, and If you cast in anything of light weight, it will be 
 seen presently to come out with a stormy tempest. Thus you can 
 
12 
 
 see how all winds have a cause." That all winds have a cause we are 
 ready to admit, but that they understood that cause no one can now 
 believe. Even today we are in doubt about some of the causes of 
 atmospheric disturbances. "We know, however, that heat and elec- 
 tricity, as well as the revolution of the earth, and atmospheric tides, 
 aid in the development of winds and storms. 
 
 Though aU parts of the earth's surface have atmospheric currents of 
 more or less force, there is great contrast in different sections. The 
 Northern half of the Connecticut Eiver vaUey, shut out by the White 
 Mountains on the East from the oceanic cm-rents, and by the Green 
 Mountains on the West from the strong West winds of the continent, 
 have aerial currents strictlj' local, and of mild force. The winds pre- 
 valent around Lake Champlain even, would be considered extraor- 
 dinary gales here, while in many sections of our fertile West, the wind 
 blows every day so as seriously to impede, labor, while in many places 
 peculiar winds and violent hurricanes pass, frequently causing great 
 inconvenience, and many tunes fearful loss of life and property. 
 Though our quiet State is seldom visited by tornadoes, there has been 
 a sufflcieut number to show that we are not exempt. Upon the 3d of 
 July, 1842, there was a tornado in the town of Victory of remarkable 
 force. Its devastations commenced upon the top of a high hill in 
 that town, where its path was only a few rods wide, but it gi'adually 
 increased to about half a mile in width, sweeping everything before it 
 for about two miles, when it seemed to lose its power. Its track was 
 a forest, yet it not only tore up the trees, but the soil also, piling it 
 with the twisted and broken trees in huge rows near the place where 
 its fury seemed spent. The noise of this tornado was heard for more 
 than ten miles, and was supposed by many to be an earthquake. It 
 was accompanied by heavy thunder and incessant lightning, with tor- 
 rents of rain. 
 
 While tornados are rare, hail storms in some special sections of the 
 State are of more frequent occurrence, and are usually electrical. 
 But what electricity has to do with the foiTuation of hail storms is not 
 so clear. AU we know of the nature of electricity is that it is a mighty 
 force, called for the sake of convenience, a fluid. It appears to exist 
 in every substance in nature, in both solids and fluids, and may be 
 roused from its repose by a variety of causes, such as friction, heat, 
 and chemical action. But we are totally ignorant of the reason why 
 these causes excite it. When thus aroused it often displays tremendous 
 power, and sometimes produces the most destructive effects. 
 
 In the formation of a thunder shower two or more clouds wiU first be 
 seen, and seeming to attract each other, they approach within a certain 
 distance, when their electricity begins to accumulate on the sides 
 nearest each other. When this accumulation becomes sufficiently in- 
 tense to overcome the resistance of the atmosphere, discharges take 
 place, causing thunder and lightning. The same also frequentl}- takes 
 place between the clouds and the earth, in which case the hghtning 
 may pass both upward and downward. 
 
 The lightning is first seen, because light travels with immense 
 
 velocity, while sound travels only 1142 feet per second. Thus it may 
 
 be seen that if four and one half seconds intervene between the flash 
 
 and the report, one mile intervenes between the discharge and the 
 
 9 
 
13 
 
 observer. In this way the distance can always be ascertained unless 
 the cloud is more than ten miles distant, in which case, in ordinary 
 circumstances, no thunder will be heard. This sublime and terrific 
 phenomena is well known to every individual, as it is occasionally dis- 
 played in every region of the globe. A thunder storm usually hap- 
 pens in calm weather, though thej' are sometimes accompanied with 
 furious winds. The dust storms of Africa and India are also accom- 
 panied with much thunder and lightning. There is a peculiar cir- 
 cumstance sometimes attending thunder showers that converts them 
 into hail-storms as before mentioned. The clouds in some cases seem 
 to be very high, or carried up by the wind beneath, until, from their 
 elevation, the water they contain may become frozeA, and fall to the 
 earth as hail. They are sometimes frozen very rapidly, the hail fall- 
 ing in all possible shapes, but generally the hail-stones are round or 
 oblong in shape, and when broken open seem to be frozen round a 
 snowy nucleus, frequentlj' as well formed as a snow-flake, being star- 
 shaped, like a large varietj' of our snow storms, showing that snow 
 was first formed from a part of the water, ever}- flake forming a 
 nucleus for the formation of the water around it into a haU-stone. In 
 other cases the hail seems to result from a purely electrical condition 
 of the clouds, which in some way furnishes the cold necessary to freeze 
 the rain drops. 
 
 The atmosphere aided by \arious disturbing powers resulting in 
 wind, and its remarkable avidity for water known as evaporation ; 
 distributes moisture to the earth as dew or rain, rendering it fertile 
 wherever this moisture is deposited. The most simple form of de- 
 position is that of dew. This is the humidity of the atmosphere de- 
 posited on surfaces with which it comes in contact. During the daj' 
 the solid portion of the earth becomes more heated than the atmos- • 
 phere, and gives off moisture by evaporation. This continues to go 
 on until the solid ■ portion becomes cooler than the an-, then this 
 moisture is in part condensed on the solids, forming dew. Dew can 
 be artificiallj' formed at any hour of the daj^, as for instance : Take a 
 pitcher of ice water, or cold spring water, and place it in the open air, 
 or in a room in j'our dwelling, and the outside of the pitcher will in a 
 short time become covered with drops of water. The general term 
 given is that the pitcher sweats, and some even suppose that the wa- 
 ter sweats through the pores of the pitcher. But such is not the case ; 
 it is dew, the same as deposited on the grass or gTound, and from the 
 same cause. Wai-m daj's and cool nights are favorable for large dews. 
 I might almost say fair nights, for cloudy nights are always cooler, 
 and sometimes, and in fact often, cool the atmosphere as fast as the 
 earth cools, in which case there can be no dew. This shows an 
 atmospheric change likely to be followed by rain. The atmosphere 
 always contains more or less aqueous vapor in an invisible form. 
 This vapor is water dissolved in it, in the same manner as refined 
 sugar can be dissolved in water without changing its transparency.. 
 As warm water will dissolve more sugar than cold, so will a warm at- 
 mosphere dissolve more water, or in other words retain more vapor. 
 If the temperature is depressed, the vapor appears in the Conu of 
 clouds. If greatly cooled it will fall ;i.s rain, hail, or snow. This 
 principle of evaporation and deposit of moisture now so generally uu- 
 
14 
 
 derstood and so thoroughly demonstrated, was once like all other 
 points in meteorology considered as beyond comprehension ; and at- 
 tributed to supernatural causes. Horace speaks of dew as a gentle 
 evening shower without clouds. Vu'gil says that every night we have 
 a misty rain. Pliny, of the falling dew ; and even at the present day 
 how often do we hear the expressions about falling dew, showing that 
 though we understand the principle and manner of deposit, we are 
 not entirely free from the idiom of expression founded on the mythic 
 reasons of past ages. Some countries are rendered productive and 
 even fertile by dew alone, and doubtless this to the ancients being so 
 mj'sterious, being deposited in greatest abundance when most wanted, 
 and of vastly more importance to them than to us, caused them to re- 
 gard it as an express gift of God, as the manna in the wilderness, by 
 his hand, but not in accordance with the laws of nature. In the 
 minds of those people it possessed wonderful virtues. It was sup- 
 posed if man sipped the dew, and drank no other beverage he would 
 possess new vital energies, and live on the earth a very long period, 
 if not forever. Even up to the present time it is considered by some 
 to beautify the complexion and restore the charms of youth." While 
 by the alchemist of olden time it was supposed to be a solvent of 
 mysterious power. In fine almost everything possible or impossible 
 has been ascribed to its many virtues. In ancient philosophy it is 
 described as the tears of the gods, and by all ancient nations as a gift 
 from heaven. Thus we can see why, when the blessing of Isaac was 
 confeiTed upon his son Jacob he used the expression, " God give thee 
 of the dew of heaven." In the East it was much more abundant and 
 important than with us, although of great importance here. 
 
 It begins usually to be deposited as soon as the sun goes down, and 
 frequently before, and continues through the night. When the tem- 
 perature decreases during the night ix> the freezing point, the dew is 
 frozen, forming frost, its destructive powers being in proportion to the 
 intensity of the cold. The glistening appearance on the surface of 
 snow, are dewy particles frozen into beautiful prisms ; when the 
 sun shines upon them in the right direction they wiU reflect all the 
 colors of the rainbow. Dew is deposited in all the fertUe regions of 
 the earth, but in sandy deserts, where the heat of the sun is so in- 
 tense, the burning sands are never cool enough for its deposit. A 
 desert is, therefore, not only a rainless tract, but a dewless one. This 
 deposit not only varies greatly with the season, but indifferent sections 
 much in amount. 
 
 The dew in this section amounts to about three and a half inches of 
 water per annum. In Europe to about five. 
 
 Dew is, as we have seen, the most simple form of disseminated 
 moisture, yet simple as it is, it is very eflScient. Indeed, every shrub 
 and herb, every leaf and blade of grass, possesses according to its 
 wants a different power of radiation, go that each condenses as much 
 dew as is necessary for its own individual wants. Thus not even a 
 single dew drop seems to have been formed bj- the rude hand of chance, 
 but it is adjusted by the balance of infinite wisdom to accomplish a 
 definite and benevolent end. 
 
15 
 
 CLOUDS. 
 
 The next means of disseminating moisture is b}' clouds. Their for- 
 mation I have ah-eady explained. They are not vapor, as vapor is 
 invisible, but water. Not held in solution, but in minute particles, 
 supposed to be hollow globes, as fine as floating dust. In reality, wa- 
 ter pulverized,, — so light that they may be readily blown forward by 
 winds, yet ready to be condensed and precipitated as rain by the 
 slightest causes. This condensation is commonly produced by reduc- 
 tion of temperature, either by a cooler current of air or by electrical 
 changes. Clouds are continuallj' varying in their form and appear- 
 ance, but may be classed under four heads. 
 
 THE cnjKus 
 
 is a light fleecy cloud resembling a wisp of hair or bunch of feathers, 
 and is the highest of aU clouds. The water it contains is of course 
 frozen into snowy particles on account of its great elevation ; and fur- 
 ther, we know it is so, as aeronauts passing through it in their bal- 
 loons always find it so, and its peculiar appearance is owing to that 
 fact, as the wind blows the frozen particles about in long wavy lines. 
 When this cloud is seen, if it be watched, it wiU gradually change into 
 a sort of dappled sky or wavj' cloud, and disappear, or else the length 
 of the lines will increase and expand over the heavens ; in this section 
 the resolution into the mottled sky indicates fair weather, but the last 
 mentioned form indicates a storm, which will be likely to come in three 
 days or less. Still when we have had a storm, and those clouds are 
 seen, it is a sure indication that the storm is about to abate, and for 
 that reason they are termed by some fair weather clouds. Second, 
 
 THE CUMULUS 
 
 is the common cloud wafted about by the wind, sometimes piled up in 
 the horizon so as to look like snow-capped mountains, or like ocean 
 billows lashed with foam. If those clouds move off and appear high 
 above the mountains, fair weather may be expected, but if the lower 
 edges are smooth, and they hang around our mountains, look out for 
 storms, for they then have to settle but a few feet nearer the earth 
 to become rain clouds. In summer they produce many showers, 
 especially when the weather is hot ; as evaporation is rapid they in- 
 crease in size, and sinking nearer the earth they discharge their con- 
 tents with thunderi and lightning. You can usualh' tell something of 
 the state of the atmosphere and probabihties of a storm by watching 
 a small cloud of this description. If it increases in size and assumes 
 a darker tint, it indicates a storm ; if, on the other hand, it decreases, 
 it indicates fair weather, and if it be entirely dissipated"no storm ma_y 
 be expected, but if dissipated rapidly look out for showers, as the 
 electrical condition of the atmosphere is such that they maj' be pro- 
 duced as soon as evaporation supplies the requisite amount of mois- 
 ture. Third, 
 
 THE STRATUS 
 
 is a horizontal misty cloud, frequently observed in a summer evening 
 lying across the country, slightly elevated, and apparently having no 
 
16 
 
 motion, also along rivers and over ponds where it is known as fog. 
 It is usually dissipated by the sun in the earlj' morning, but some- 
 times is in sufficient quantity to produce rain, but in this section is 
 generally a fair weather cloud. Fourth, 
 
 THE KIMBTJS 
 
 or rain cloud has a uniform gray color, has fringed edges when they 
 are seen, but usually covers the entire sky, and the rapidity of the rain 
 depends on its thickness. The nearer the ground the greater its 
 probable thickness, and the more water contained within it. AH know 
 this cloud, in a moment, as it always produces rain. With us it is a 
 common cloud, but in many sections of om- globe it is never seen, as 
 extensive tracts of land exist where rain never falls. Some of this 
 land is rendered productive by the overflow, of rivers like Egypt, 
 others by copious dews like some parts of Arabia, but by far the 
 larger portion of the rainless districts are barren deserts like Chili and 
 Peru, or the great desert of Africa or Arabia. On the other hand 
 witliin the tropics where the great cloud belt that continually encircles 
 the earth swings gradually North and South, changing their seasons 
 from wet to dry, there are places where rain and mist continually faU, 
 but as those tracts are among islands or upon the ocean, they are of 
 little account. The island of Tahiti forms a striking example, rising 
 out of the tropical ocean to ten thousand feet above its smface, it 
 forms a nucleus for the condensation of clouds, and the thickly wood- 
 ed sides are well fitted for rapid evaporation by the hot winds of the 
 ocean, so there goes on with great power rapid evaporation and in- 
 cessant rain. The amount of rain which usually falls in Vermont, in 
 a rainy day, is seldom over one inch, and generally much less, the en- 
 tire fall of water including melted snow, is on an average about forty 
 inches. "We are, however, like other countries, liable to very great 
 
 rRBEGULARITT OF STOKMS, 
 
 and on some rare occasions as many as four inches have fallen in 
 twenty-four hours, as on.the 3d of October, 1869. "With this exception 
 we have not for twenty years had over two inches in twenty-four 
 hours, and that only seven tmies during this period. These were all 
 remarkable rains. As it takes a foot of snow to make an inch of wa- 
 ter, you can see our winter storms are much less than those of sum- 
 mer. Of remarkable storms I will notice, at CatskUl, N. Y., July 
 26th, 1819, eighteen inches of water feU in seven and a half hours, 
 making a flood which swept everything before it. Great numbers of 
 cattle and many buildings shared the devastation. "Whole forests were 
 uprooted and floated away. In California, July, 1862, thirty-two 
 inches fell in twelve hours. Though this was onlj^the case in a small 
 section of country, the ruin was almost without precedent. Large 
 brick buildings were carried away so the least trace of them could not 
 be found., old beds of rivers were filled up and new formed, and de- 
 vastation was the order of the day. This, in fine, was only one of 
 three floods that has visited that country since it became a part of the 
 United States. At Genoa, Oct. 25th, 1865, thirty-four inches of rain 
 fell in twelve hours, causing general destruction of property. These 
 
17 
 
 floods m teniperate ^otifis fit6 fflfe visitations, but not so in the torrid, 
 as liardly a single day passes but what a tornado, or deluge, takes 
 place on some limited portion of that section. Sometimes as many as 
 thirtj'-five inches of water fall in eight or nine hours, as was the case 
 in the Cuban tornado of 1867, which swept away almost eveiy thing 
 on the isla,nd, reducing the inhabitants to a state of starvation, 
 donations being sent out from New York and other cities for the 
 thousands of suffterers. Many instances are recorded of flsh, frogs, 
 and a great variety of animal and vegetable substances, falling from 
 the clouds. 
 
 These are sometimes taken up by waterspouts and whirlwinds, and 
 in countries where those are prevalent are of no rare occurrence. 
 Again, substances resembling flesh form in the atmosphere, as in the 
 Kentuckj' meat shower of 1876, which was this peculiar substance. 
 Or like the vegetable manna that fell in Russia in 1817, in sufficient 
 quantities to afford food for cattle, and even for man, and form an 
 article of traffic. Between twenty and thirty showers of blood are re- 
 corded in history, but when this blood has been examined bj' scien- 
 tists, it has been found to be red earth mixed in the rain drops, and 
 ■of course cannot be unusual where the bare red earth covered with 
 soil impregnated with iron, is exposed to violent winds, capable of 
 Taising the flne particles to be brought to earth in raindrops. 
 
 Showers of sulphur, so often recorded, are almost always the yellow 
 pollen of the birch or pine. But we will leave these curious freaks of 
 nature, and look more particularly to our own climate. 
 
 The Smithsonian Institute, with a corps of observers throughout 
 the world, endeavored to establish a theory by which coming storms 
 could be predicted. Though they failed in accomplishing all they 
 hoped to do, yet it became evident that by a series of observations 
 taken in different sections, by competent observers, much might be 
 gained, and by telegraphing such observations to a central point the 
 progress of storms could be known ; and the telegraph could convey 
 in advance the probable force and effect of coming storms. It was at 
 once seen that such an arrangement would greatly benefit the shipping 
 off our coasts, and the agriculturists of our country ; and the War 
 department in connection with the Postofflce department, organized 
 a service for the purpose of conveying such information over the coun- 
 try for the benefit of all. Though the appropriations have been en- 
 tirely inadequate for the work, much has been accomplished and mil- 
 lions of dollars saved. 
 
 As I have before stated, most of our storms commence far south or 
 west. "We frequently receive notice from the Signal Service, stating 
 that such a storm is coming, when the heavens are unclouded, and 
 nothing but a slight decline in the barometer indicates its approach. 
 Many of those storms expend their fury before reaching us, and a 
 cloudy day only will show their previous existence. 
 
 HOW TO FORETELL STOEMS. 
 
 To the agriculturalist the ability to foretell, even for a day, the ap- 
 proach of a storm, is many times of great advantage. I much regret 
 that all are not ablp to derive that knowledge from the Signal Service 
 reports, but as such cannot be at present, I wiU explain the uses of 
 .3 
 
18 
 
 such instruments as will aid in forming a reliable conclusion as to the 
 probabilities, many times amounting to an absolute certainty, of a com- 
 ing storm, and then mention the rehable signs, without instruments, 
 which my observations have established as worthy of note. 
 
 First, it is necessary to ascertain the amount of water held either 
 by saturation or clouds in the atmosphere. If the atmosphere in this 
 latitude is thoroughly saturated, it may contain about eight inches of 
 water, all invisible to the general observer, yet with such a degree of 
 saturation the heavenly bodies will appear somewhat dimly, and as 
 water is a much better conductor of sounds than air, sounds will be 
 more readily transmitted. People will notice the difference, and call 
 it the sign of a storm. It shows a fact, that is, that a large amount 
 of moisture is contained in the atmosphere. But as without instru- 
 ments the amount of moisture must become a Yankee guess, it will 
 not answer for the scientific observer. He must have something more 
 tangible. 
 
 With the common uses of the thermometer all are acquainted. At 
 first thought it would seem impossible that the thermometer could be 
 used to show the exact amount of moisture, as well as heat, in our at- 
 mosphere, yet such is the case. If we hang two thermometers side 
 by side, they will indicate the same temperature ; but if we cover the 
 bulb of one with fibres of silk, and saturate it with water, we shall 
 find that the evaporation of the water will produce a-greater degree of 
 cold, and that thermometer will fall, sometimes as much as 8° or 10°. 
 Now it is found that when the thennometers stand several degrees 
 apart that the atmosphere is very dry, and consequently evaporation 
 rapid ; but as it becomes saturated, and evaporation less rapid, the 
 thermometers will more nearly coincide, and when evaporation can go 
 on no longer, the atmosphere containing all the moisture it can, they 
 will then be exactly alike ; but of course rain must be imminent. 
 This instrument when put up in proper form, with tube to contain wa- 
 ter to keep the bulb of one thermometer constantly wet, is called a 
 psychrometer, and is an important instrument to the meteorological 
 observer. 
 
 Tables have been constructed so that the exact amount of moisture 
 contained in the atmosphere can, in connection with, this instrument, 
 be always known ; but as a large amount of moisture may be long re- 
 tained unless there is some decided change, we have to look to the ba- 
 rometer for guidance. With this instrument there is one general di- 
 rection, which if allowed to have full scope would obviate many diflfi- 
 culties. That is, the rise of the mercury from any point denotes less 
 wind, and a general improvement in the atmosphere, with less incUna- 
 tion to storm. A fall from any point indicates wind and storm, or a 
 condition of the atmosphere more favorable to such. But as wind, 
 rain or snow affect the barometer in the same manner, how are we to 
 prognosticate which will take place ? Here we receive aid from the 
 psychrometer. If, when the fall takes place, the atmosphere is fuUy 
 saturated with moisture, of a necessity this moistm-e will, in part at 
 least, 'be condensed and fall ; if, on the other hand, the atmosphere 
 contains but little moisture, wind only will result, j'et the fall may be 
 equally great. By this you wiU see that those two instruments' go 
 hand in hand if you would form a good judgment. Yet to the per- 
 
19 
 
 son possessing onlj- a barometer, I would say that a due reference to 
 the direction of the wind, the formation of the clouds, and the tem- 
 perature of the atmosphere, will give sufficient data upon which to 
 predicate a reliable opinion. 
 
 SIGNS OP KAIN ; VISIBLE AND INVISIBLE. 
 
 A hunter ere the sun dispels the fog of a mucky morn, builds Ma 
 camp-fire in the forest. The stifling smoke arises from damp and half 
 decayed fagots. His culinary duties release the fragrant odors, from 
 eggs and bacon, while frying onions still send forth their aroma, 
 mingled with the sweet wiUiams, violets and blue beUs, at his feet. 
 His dogs sniff the air, and from this medlej' of smells scent a fox, and 
 start upon its trail, while another follows a rabbit. In this is a lesson 
 for the thoughtful, humidity, smoke, stench and odors of a hundred 
 kinds, arise and impregnate the atmosphere which previously occupied 
 the whole space ; and many contend that the relative gases in the at- 
 mosphere are unchanged. Then we have the anomaly of a vessel a 
 hundred times fuU without once emptying. This also illustrates how 
 the atmosphere may become, all invisible to us, the vehicle for the con- 
 veyance of moisture. 
 
 It has been ascertained by experiment that when the atmosphere is 
 fully saturated, it may contain as much as thirteen grains of water to 
 the cubic foot ; aU invisible to the naked eye, if at eighty-six degrees 
 of temperature. Now, how shall we ascertain its presence ? The 
 barometer and psychrometer aid us but are not always at hand. Com- 
 mon observations have establishfed in the minds of all certain signs of 
 storm, which have in many cases a foundation in scientific fact. The 
 following lines first published many years ago, and emanating from an 
 unknown pen, embody many of those, and so I reproduce it as a text 
 upon which I can offer explanations : 
 
 " The hollow winds tegin to blow, 
 And the barometer is low. 
 The soot falls down, the spaniels sleep, 
 And spiders from their cobwebs peep. 
 Last night the sun went pale to bed, 
 The moon in halo hid her head. 
 The clouds look black appearing nigh, 
 And see, a rainbow spans the sky. 
 The walls are damp, the ditches smell. 
 Closed is the pink eyed pimpernel. 
 Hark how the chairs and tables crack, 
 Eheumatic joints are on the rack. 
 Loud quack the ducks, the sea fowl cry, 
 The distant hiUs are looking nigh. 
 How restless are the snorting swine, 
 The busy files disturb the kiue. 
 Low o'er the grass the swallow wings, 
 The cricket, too, how sharp he sings. 
 Puss on the hearth with velvet paws, 
 Sits wiping o'er her whiskered jaws. 
 The smoke from chimneys right ascends, 
 Then spreading back to earth it-bends. 
 The wind unsteady, veers around, 
 Or, settling in the south is found, 
 Through the clear stream the fishes rise, 
 And nimbly catch the incautious flies. 
 The glow worms numerous, clear and bright, 
 Illumed the dewy hill last night. 
 At dusk the squalid toad was seen 
 
20 
 
 Like quadrnped, Btalk on the green. 
 
 The whirling wind, the dust obeys 
 
 And in the rapid eddy plays. 
 
 The frog has changed his yellow vest, 
 
 And in a russet coat is dressed. 
 
 The sky is green, the air is still, 
 
 The mellow blackbird's voice is shrill. 
 
 Th^ dog so altered In his taste, 
 
 Quits usual food on grass to feast. 
 
 Behold the crows, how odd their flight 
 
 They imitate the gliding kite. 
 
 And seem precipitate to fall, 
 
 Ab if they felt the piercing ball, 
 
 Tlie tender colts on back do lie, 
 
 Nor heed the traveler passing by. 
 
 Thei rooks are seen in shade to sweat. 
 
 Although the sun is radiant yet. 
 
 In fiery red the sun doth rise. 
 
 Then wades through clouds to mount the skies. 
 
 'TwUl surely rain, we see it with sorrow 
 
 'Twill rain today and rain tomorrow." 
 
 As the "hollow winds" are South winds, which are productive of 
 moistvu-e, and are likely to cause a depression in the atmospheric 
 ocean, the barometer usually falls when they blow, and air of a cooler 
 temperature coming from the North to fill up that depression, usually 
 condenses the moisture, causing rain. The "soot falls down," as by 
 the absolution of water from the overcharged atmosphere, it is loosen- 
 ed and crumbles off. 
 
 Spiders on the alert for food, build their webs to catch flies ; and 
 as their hunger, like that of flies and fishes, becomes more intense 
 when a part of the atmospheric pressure is removed, they are very 
 impatient for food, and so peep out from their hiding places. Who 
 has not noticed spider webs in the fields flat, and also at different an- 
 gles, and heard the remark that when flat they denoted fair weather, 
 and otherwise foul weather. The spider, intent only upon his food 
 for the ensuing day, spins his web with instinct, almost reason. A 
 fine day is always preceded after midnight with perfect calm, and at 
 this time the si^ider builds his web flat. If a changfe of weather is in 
 progress, this calm does not exist, and a breeze is in its place. The 
 spider, knowing that rain-drops break his web, if flat, builds it at an 
 angle according to the amount of Wind, so the rain-drops will not 
 strike faMj' and break it. They sometimes fast, not building at all 
 when the storm is to be very violent. 
 
 Circles around the moon, or mock suns, known as sun dogs, show 
 that there is a largp amount of moisture in the higher atmosphere, and 
 are always brightest upon the sides of the sun from whence the wind 
 is blowing in the upper atmosphere. As an illustration, we reason 
 from this phenomeuon thus : It is winter, the sun dog is on the south 
 side of the sun, or brightest on that side. It shows south wind with 
 moisture, which indicates warmer weather, with rain or snow. If 
 upon the north side, cold winds with a small amount of snow. 
 
 Rainbows are formed by reflection of the sun's rays from faUing 
 drops of rain. If it rains in the morning when the sun's rays should 
 dissipate the clouds, if a fair day, it is quite likely to rain more or 
 less all day. From this the sajing so common, — 
 
 " A rainbow in the morning, 
 Sailors take warning; 
 A rainbpw at night, 
 Sailors take delight," 
 
21 
 
 is as a general, thing correct, showing foul weather if in the morning, 
 and a pleasant night, and perhaps for the next day, if seen at night. 
 
 "The walls are damp, the ditches smell." 
 
 In fair weather the atmosphere is usually more dense and the ba- 
 rometer higher, which shows the atmospheric pressure is greater ; the 
 gases which escape from foul places, rise high above our organs of 
 smell, as their specific gravity is nearly uniform, while before a storm 
 the atmosphere is less dense ; consequently, as the disagreeable gases 
 are the same heft, they float within range of our organs of smell, or 
 but httle, if any, higher than our heads. Thus they show by smell, 
 probable storm. 
 
 " Closed is the pink-eyed pimpernell." 
 
 There are five plants which have been observed from time im- 
 memorial as indications of weather changes. They are the dande- 
 hon, trefoil, pimpeTuell, chickweed, and Siberian thistle. 
 
 The down of the dandelion closes for bad weather, but expands 
 upon the return of sunshine. The trefoil is observed in Europe to 
 have swelled stalks before rain, and contracts its leaves before show- 
 ers. The pimpernel, which I suppose is the anagalUs arvensis of 
 Linnseus, is found in this country, and in some States grows in old 
 fields, and among grain, where I haive heard it called "devil weed." 
 It fiowers all summer, and when found in the morning with its red 
 flowers shut, it will be a foul day ; when fully open, a fair day ; par- 
 tially so, doubtful weather. Chickweed, which is common the world 
 over, is an excellent weather guide. When its flowers expand freely, 
 no rain may be expected for some hours ; if it continues open for 
 twenty-fom' hours, no rain for daj-s. Half open all the time, show- 
 erj^ uncertain weather ; closed, long continued rain. If the flowers of 
 the Siberian thistle are open all night, rain the next day is probable. 
 
 As regards the effect on animal hfe, what the coming storms have 
 to do with it, is not so clear ; yet the weather prognostics derived 
 from the animal kingdom are often more to be reUed upon than many 
 people imagine. The lassitude and indefinable anxiety of nervous 
 individuals before a thunder storm, the shooting pains in old wounds 
 or scars, the aching and pricking of chilblains and corns, the attacks 
 ' of headache or rheumatism, when a considerable change of the weather 
 is about to take place, entitle many sensitive persons to be called 
 living barometers, and so with the animal kingdom. I am inclined 
 to think that the changes in atmospheric pressure may have to do 
 with it, as it certainly does with the appetites of fishes and insects. It 
 is well understood that fish generally bite best before a storm, and it 
 is then that fishermen are about. They bite the best, as they feel a 
 peculiar hunger when the barometer is low, showing less pressure from 
 our atmosphere, and that is usually before a storm. 
 
 It is the same with insects. It would seem that at such times they 
 had extraordinary feelings of hunger. All have realized, more or less, 
 their greediness before a storm. 
 
 "Low o'er the grass the swallow wings." 
 
 It is a well known fact in natural history that certain insects have 
 an exact number of vibrations of the wing to the minute, and if they 
 
22 
 
 fly at all it is in the same manner. When the barometer is high, the 
 atmosphere near the surface of the earth is more dense, from the 
 increased pressure, and such insects consequently fly as high or higher 
 than our buildings. With less pressure, or a low barometer, they 
 will rise but a few feet above the ground. 
 
 The swallows that feed upon these insects, which they catch upon 
 the wing, fly at the height' that theu- food flies, which, on account of 
 their diminutive size do not attract our attention, while the swallows 
 readih' do. So even this sign has scientific fact for its basis. 
 
 Thus I might follow out line after line of the poem, showing its 
 agreement with well known facts ; bu.t I should risk tifing your 
 good nature in so doing, and as I have given you examples, will only 
 add that the sweating of rocks, so called, being frequently supposed 
 actual sweat, is only a deposit of dew ; and when deposited from the 
 atmosphere in the daytime, shows that there is a very large amount of 
 water held in saturation, and a change is likely to occur, causing it to 
 fall as rain. 
 
 Rain may be expected when the sun rises pale, or when, after set- 
 ting, clouds ascend in the part of the sky from whence the wind 
 blows. A red morning sky is usuallj' followed by rain ; a red evening 
 sky, by fair weather. For twenty-five years the probabilities in these 
 cases as true, have been as ten to one. This proves the old adage — 
 
 ■' Evening red and morning gray, 
 Will help the traveler on his way; 
 But evening gray and morning red, 
 Will bring down rain upon his head," 
 
 was founded on fact. When the moon is pale in color, with horns 
 blunt at first rising, the stars seeming large, dull and pale, with no 
 perceptible twinkle, or if encompassed with a circle, it indicates an 
 excess of moisture in the atmosphere, and probable rain. If mists 
 are attracted by tops of hUls or mountains after clear weather, expect 
 rain in a day or two. In dry weather, if mists ascend from woodland 
 or water, higher than usual in the morning, look out for immediate 
 rain ; but if such mists appear after sunset or before sunrise, it de- 
 notes-fair and warmer weather the next day. If the rain commences 
 an hour or two before sunrise, the clouds will probably be dissipated 
 by the heat of the sun, and it wiU clear up before noon. If it com- 
 mences an hour or two after sunrise, it will be hkelj' to rain all day. 
 A bright moon with sharp horns, or sharp definition if full, wind shift- 
 ing North, a sky full of bright twinkling stars, small clouds at North 
 and none at South, and perhaps appearing in heaps, denote colder 
 weather. The same with clouds and winds shifting South, indicate 
 warmer weather. 
 
 Whether a storm WiU clear off wai-m or cold is often a question of 
 moment, and must be ascertained from experience and observation. 
 From a long series of observations I would say that generalh' when 
 the clouds break up so that we can catch glances of the cirrus cloud, 
 if that is seen to move from the south or the southwest, the storm will 
 clear oS warm ; if from the opposite direction, it will clear ofi' cold. 
 Again, if the surface winds wheel round from the south to the west, 
 warm weather is indicated ; if from the north to the west, it will be 
 cooler. So in time of thunder showers, if they pass to the south of 
 
33 
 
 us,, the atmosphere will seem much cooler than if they pass to the north. 
 Again, the waves of temperature approach regularly. The old adage, 
 that one extreme follows another, is verified in fact ; and we usually 
 have gradually increasing cold followed by as regular an increase of 
 temperature. This is more readily discernible in the winter season, 
 as wiU be seen by every one who has a thermometer, and will take the 
 trouble to look at it. It is during this season that we have the greatest 
 atmospheric changes, sometimes even as great as 100" of temperature, 
 in twenty-four hours. 
 
 There is another class of signs which some believe in,_ that are 
 merely superstitions, having no foundation in fact. The Hindoos 
 have their rain gods, the South Sea Islanders their wind conjurers, 
 and the negroes of Africa their rain doctors ; and previously we had 
 our weather Almanacs and our Herschel's weather tables, one just as 
 good as the other. Not many years ago that celebrated Herschel's 
 weather table, which Herschel never saw, was considered almost in- 
 fallible, and Thomas' Almanac quite so ; but all enlightened people, 
 unless some whose age has outgrown science, discard them. For the 
 last thirty years our storms have taken place without regard to moon's 
 quarters. We have had 2,668 storms, divided as follows : at new 
 moon, 660; first quarter, 664; full- moon, 668; last quarter, 676. 
 This shows very plaintythat the moon has nothing to do with storms. 
 If the generally received idea was true, what little difi'ereuce there is 
 goes directly against it. The truth is that the moon has so little, if 
 any, influence upon the weather, that men have never found out which 
 way it is ; and I can say, without fear of contradiction, that rain and 
 wind doctors, and Hindoo gods, have just as much to do with the 
 weather as this weather table, and no more. 
 
 In snow storms the form of the flakes, if observed, will tell the 
 probable amount of the storm. Without cuts a description of the 
 shape would be useless, and I therefore ask all to observe for them- 
 selves. We see the intelligent laws of God displayed in the countless 
 myriads of show-flakes in any snow storm, usually all alike, and all 
 perfect. Being ice, yet falling with such fleecy lightness that it re- 
 quires one foot of recently fallen snow to be equal to one inch of rain. 
 We see different snow storms unlike in the form of flake, yet a large 
 majority of them will be stars of six points, bM there are more than 
 one hundred different manners of forming them. Why they have six 
 points instead of three, or five, no one can tell. That subtile sub- 
 stance which we call an electric fluid sometimes tinges those beautiful 
 snov-flakes with hght, rendering them distinct in the night, and shed- 
 ding a faint, ihough certain, hght around. Observation has led rhe 
 to believe that electricity is in fact a part and parcel of aU clouds, be- 
 ing necessary to their existence, and perhaps in a great degree aiding 
 or preventing their formation. If so we must expect that snow clouds 
 also share, and those beautiful tinted clouds of night, sometimes visible, 
 appearing as part of the Aurora Borealis, may be, and I think many 
 times are, the nucleus of coming storms. That the Aurora is in some 
 way connected with our atmosphere, no one now doubts. That the 
 same electricity which electrifles our storms produces it, is equally 
 certain ; then whjr may it not be instrumental in 'their production. 
 
 You will seldom see a brilhant display of the Aurora without a 
 
24 
 
 storm soon following it. Could we but know a little more we could 
 easily predict storms truthfully ; hut we must content ourselves with 
 the intellect God has given us, and praise him that we are enabled to 
 turn the lightning stroke from our dwellings, and harness the unknown 
 principle of electricity, causing it to convey our words to the farthest 
 points of earth, without delay. Yet we would fain know many things 
 of our atmosphere, its currents and its aqueous meteors, which time 
 will unfold. Should the next century bring with it as much science 
 as the last, the farmer will not be at a loss today about the weather 
 of tomorrow. Storms of intense thunder and lightning, with hail, will 
 be avoided altogether, and many present wonders of the atmosphere 
 will be understood. And the individual man will be gradually pre- 
 pared for the nobler contemplation of the works of G-od, of whose 
 greatness and goodness we cah form no adequate conception. 
 
oi 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
MICROSCOPIC REVELATIONS: 
 
 FUNGI — Rust, Smut, Mildew and Mould. 
 
 ANIMALCULES — Water Mites, Sugar Mites, and 
 
 Trichina Spiralis. 
 
 AN ADDEESS 
 
 DELIVERED AT ALBANY, TT., AT A MEETING OP 
 
 THE VERMONT BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 ALSO, REPORT OF CONDITION OF 
 
 State Cabinet of Natural History 
 
 1877 AND 1878. 
 
 By HIRAM A. CUTTING, A. M., M. D., 
 
 State Geologist and Cubatok. 
 
 MONTPELIER : 
 
 J. & J. M. Poland, Steam Book and Job Printers. 
 
 1878. 
 
MICKOSCOPIC KEYBLATIOKS. 
 
 FUNGI AND A:!raMAL0ULE8. 
 
 BY DR. HIBAM A. CUTTING, STATE GEOLOGIST. 
 
 This address was delivered at Albany at one of the meetings of the Board, for the 
 benefit of agriinltnre.* 
 
 At the present time, every one who possesses any love of nature, 
 or even a love simply for marvelous things, desires some knowledge of 
 the minute mysteries of nature. To follow out the peculiar character 
 of animal or plant when too small singly for the human eye to study 
 requires a microscope. At the prices they are now sold they are 
 within reach of almost every person. With our microscope complete 
 wherever we search, be it our own dwellings, the meadow or the 
 upland, the grasses or the forest, the ruin crumbling into dust or the 
 sands of the seashore, even in the waters of our marshes, rivers, 
 lakes or ocean, there may be discovered plants and animals which are 
 unknown to our unaided vision, yet endowed with organs perfectly 
 adapted to their respective necessities ; and with regard to the latter, 
 often if not always for their enjoyment. Even in the aqueous vapor 
 and dust of the atmosphere are germs of living beings, both animal 
 and \egetable, though the latter much predominate, that the micro- 
 scope alone enables us to contemplate with anj' satisfaction. 
 
 It is true that when near sundown a beam of sunlight struggles 
 through the thick foliage of a forest, or enters our room by means of 
 some small aperture, we can see floating in that beam of light, 
 numerous particles of apparent dust, yet what its form, or its ultimate 
 destination, our unaided eye could never inform us. It is the micro- 
 scope alone that gives us aid, and that shows us countless spores, or 
 seeds, to reproduce minute vegetation, as well as plants actually 
 flourishing in the atmosphere. Also the germs of animal life are 
 often, j'es, very often there ; and, judging from analogy, we find thus 
 an easy method to propagate by germs various diseases in the human 
 family ; and that such is often true is bej'ond reasonable doubt, 
 though such germs have never been fully identified. In our limited 
 survey of those wonders of life and organization, which are thus 
 revealed to us, it is natural to first turn our attention to the vegetable 
 kingdom. And the largest number, as well as the most interesting, of 
 the peculiar plants thus revealed in all their beauty ; yet perhaps the 
 most diflScult -to understand, on account of their varied appearance, 
 and intermediate forms, are the 
 
 *Thl8 lecture was illustrated by over 100 coloretl drawings representing the various stages of the 
 Fungi and animalcules, each being nearly two by three feet in size. 
 
4 Vekmont Board of Agkicultube 
 
 PtINGI. 
 
 Their sudden appearance and growth, their ephemeral nature, and 
 the multiplicity of their forms, have always been a source of trouble 
 to investigators, and even the most indefatigable of modern mycolo- 
 gists have been able to lift but partially the veil which hangs over the 
 life and development of these organisms. Almost everyone, however, 
 supposes that there can be no doubt as to what a toadstool, a mildew, 
 or a mould is ; and some may even correctly call them fungi, but 
 many others are entirely unacquainted with that Latin word which 
 denotes them. Eust on grain, and smut on Indian corn and other 
 cereals, are also familiar to farmers ; but a vast multitude of other aU 
 too numerous fungi are known only to the botanist by name, and only 
 to the mycologist in their habits and structures, and to him only after 
 long and patient study. In fact, it is to the researches of many 
 eminent men and women, in Europe, Great Britain, and in this 
 country, both among the dead as well as among the living, that the 
 structure, habits and mode of growth, relation to the various depart- 
 ments of industry, injurious effects and general utihty of these smaller 
 fungi in nature, are collected and known. As plants, although of a 
 low order of organization, thej' are of great interest as mere objects 
 of beauty ; but to attain a full comprehension of this fact we must 
 have recourse to the microscope, as the peculiar portions of these 
 structures are beyond the reach of unaided vision. No one that has 
 not had his eye upon them, aided by magnifying power, could possi- 
 bly conceive that the little specks of brown or black, seen on the 
 brilliant ripening foliage of the maple in September, and October, or 
 on the skins of apples, pears, and other fruit ; on the dry stalks bf 
 plants or straw, on old decaying matter, on the buildings and fence 
 rails, on the panes of the window, or the bodies of diseased insects, 
 like bees and house flies ; in fine, on almost everything ; are receptacles 
 of exquisitely sculptured and carved seed vessels, called spores; often 
 beaded thread-like strings of pearls ; again, consisting of myriads of 
 the most fantastic shapes, that the genius of man could imagine, but 
 could never imitate. 
 
 A subject so broad and so varied ; one which can be investigated 
 at any season of the year, inviting the naturalist, more especially the 
 botanist forth, from earliest spring to latest autumn, to search for 
 forms of beauty on every living or ripening leaf and fruit, and in 
 winter, rendering the evening lamp more attractive in studying the 
 collected treasures of the summer's' gleanings ; even if such collections 
 have not been made, the barn with its harvested treasures is at hand, 
 and from that may be taken specimens which can never fail to inter- 
 est as well as instruct every thoughtful person in some way or other ; 
 and would ever be of the greatest interest, if presented in an agreea- 
 ble manner, and shown with regard to their reference, or connection, 
 with the industrial pursuits of society. 
 
 Not only is such study of interest to the botanist, whose speciality 
 is the study of fungi, but it possesses more than ordinary interest to 
 the husbandman whose crops often lie at the mercy of some of this 
 class of parasites, and to his familj', as their welfare often depends 
 upon these minute organisms. Even a slight acquaintance with a 
 few of these wonderful little plants, would render the walk for exercise 
 
MiOBOsconc Revelations. 5 
 
 or pleasure ten times more valuable, and often remunerative. Who 
 even without special thought upon the subject has not noticed along 
 the roadside early as June, where blackberry bushes are found among 
 weeds and grass, that their leaves were powdered underneath with 
 rich golden dust, which might be shaken from little orange cups? 
 Many times from children, and often also from the middle aged and 
 old, has come the query as to what it was. On other bushes also, 
 when yielding fruit, even, to tempt women, men, boys and maidens ; 
 yet would they turn aside, because the dust was ominous, but in what 
 way or from whence it came none knew. 
 
 Those dusty looking lilac bushes, so dusty ere the close of summer 
 that no rain could wash them clean, nor ever will, so long as that 
 peculiar white egg-mould riots on the upper surfaces of their leaves. 
 
 The crystalline drops of permanent dew, on some refuse matter, 
 often attract attention as they glisten in the sun, but few stop to 
 examine and see the white threads in countless numbers that perme- 
 ate them. Though such things often attract attention, they are soon 
 forgotten when we know nothing about them, and no one is there to 
 tell an anecdote from their history. Cunningly, wisely and full of 
 secret hidden meaning, a thousand forms of lower vegetable life look 
 up into our faces, while we, with repressed curiosity and not quite 
 willing, tread them under our feet. How few even ever stop to think 
 that they are leaves in the great book of nature, and consequently 
 worthj' the reading, and that to every one who will study those pages 
 and translate the hieroglyphics, that the time and trouble of decipher- 
 ing would be richly rewarded by the knowledge obtained. 
 
 "How thankful I am to you," said a friend, "that you have told 
 me so much about the lichens in our pastures. They are now a great 
 source of happiness to me ; formerly I detested them. " 
 
 "The best lectures on botany," said a well known and liighly 
 appreciated educator, "are lessons upon every plant we meet." Yes, 
 within reach of all of us is study for a lifetime, and we may thus not 
 only please ourselves, but by and by be considered benefactors. 
 With an intention to introduce a few of these little parasitical growths 
 to the attention of the reader, and to make plain and easy what at 
 first seems so obscure and mysterious, I will bring forward some of 
 the more common species, and explaining by word and figure their 
 form and habits, endeavor to interest you to such an extent that you 
 will be willing at least to acknowledge their power for good or evil, 
 and know where to find jj^our enemy, when pet plants, or fields of 
 grain, grasses or potatoes, are hkely to fail under the evil so wide- 
 spread and fatal. 
 
 CLUSTER CUPS. 
 
 M. C. Cooke, the great English writer on fungi, divides them into 
 six families. In one of these famihes the spores are the principal 
 feature. This family is called the "dust fungi" {Coniomycetes) . Of 
 course it contains many groups, called families or orders, which are 
 analogous to the natural orders of flowering plants. Without enu- 
 merating any of the various characteristics of these orders, I will 
 select one typical plant. The spores are enclosed in a distinct perid- 
 ium (covering for the seeds) . This is a cup-shaped excrescence on 
 the infested leaves. This order is called ^cidiacei.- They are al- 
 
6 Veemont Board of AGRiCDLxtrRE. 
 
 ways developed on living plants, sometimes on the flowers, fruit, or 
 stems, but usually on the leaves ; occasionally on the upper surface, 
 but almost always on the under side of the leaf. 
 
 The different species are distributed widely over the entire world . They 
 may be found on every continent, and on almost every island. When 
 examined they look like minute cups upon the leaf, and hence we call 
 them "cluster cups." Besides the generic name they have also added 
 a specific name, generally derived from some plant they are known to 
 infest, but this must not lead the student to suppose that one species 
 is onlj' found on that particular plant, for most of them infest many 
 plants, yet some of course to a greater extent than others. 
 
 We must therefore look to the actual differences in the fungi, not 
 in the plants they infest. 
 
 The leaf may be truly said to be the lung of the plant. Through 
 the stomata (minute holes) on the under side of the leaf, the plant 
 obtains nourishment from the atmosphere, which is as necessary to 
 them as our breath is to us. i 
 
 An3'thing that clogs or injures the stomata of any plant directly 
 injures the growth of that plant. This little fungi, when the plant 
 has become infested, breaks through the epidermis, destroying many 
 of the breathing spores (stomata) , and also draws its own nourish- 
 ment from the life juices of the plant it infests. Before it breaks 
 through the under surface of the leaf, the infested leaf if closely 
 examined, will appear to be covered with little elevations or pustules, 
 paler at the apex ; these soon become ruptured, and the fungus 
 pushes its head through the opening, at the same time bursting by 
 radiating fissures. The teeth thus formed resemble those of the 
 peristome of some mosses. All around the orifice the teeth, or 
 fringe, becomes recurved, and the orange spores, (fungi seed,) are 
 exposed, crowded together within. At first, and in fact while con- 
 tained in the peridium (cup) , these spores are connected together as 
 a string of beads, but when dispersed they are scattered singly about 
 the orifice, often mixed with colorless cells arising from the partial 
 breaking up of the teeth, or fringe, of the peridium. Let us now for 
 a moment examine the manner in which these cups are distributed 
 upon the leaf. They are scattered without any apparent order over 
 the under surface, with now and then one upon the upper surface, 
 but they nowhere touch each other, unless at the margins of the leaf, 
 but then they are never joined, only crowded. Generally there is a 
 space greater than the width of the cups between them. The leaf is 
 not thickened by their growth, and the uppfer surface gives you no 
 indication of what is going on beneath. If a leaf be taken fresh, and 
 the epidermis from the under side be stripped off, as itis often easy to do, 
 the orifices through which the fungi have burst will appear in irregular 
 holes, and the fungi will be left rooted still upon the leaf, showing that 
 they are not confined to the surface, and thus we see why the damage 
 is so great to the plant upon which they subsist. 
 
 The spores in this species are orange in color, but variable both 
 in size and form, though the majority are comparatively large. Each 
 of these spores is capable of reproducing its species, and if we 
 compute two thousand cluster cups as occurring on each leaf, and 
 many leaves have double this number, and supposing each cup to 
 
MiCKOSCOPIC Eevblation8. 7 
 
 contain two hundred and fifty thousand spores, which again is much 
 below the actual number, then we shall have not less than five 
 hundred millions of reproductive bodies on one infested leaf, to furnish 
 a crop of parasites for the plants of the succeeding year. As we 
 thus so soon reckon by millions, our figures and capacities fail in 
 appreciating the mjTiads of spores which compose the orange dust 
 produced from one infected cluster of plants. Nor is this all, for it 
 is found that one of these spores is not only capable of producing a 
 plant, but is in itself a bundle of vegetative spores, which are exceed- 
 ingly minute, and yet small as they are, they have the capability to 
 produce fresh crops of cluster cups. 
 
 Naturally enough, oui reader will ere this be debating in his own 
 mind how these spores, which we have seen are shed in such profu- 
 sion, can enter the tissues of the plants which give subsequent 
 evidence of infection, as I have described. In fact, how the yellow 
 dust with which the atmosphere may be filled today can inoculate the 
 young plants of next year. If one or two of these spores are sprin- 
 kled upon the cuticle which has been removed from the leaf, as we 
 have before indicated, it will be seen that they are very much larger 
 than the stomata, or breathing pores, which stud the cuticle ; hence 
 it is clear they cannot gain admittance there. There remains but one 
 other portal to the interior of the plant, and that is through the ex- 
 tremities of the roots. Here another difficulty arises ; for the spores 
 are as large as the cells through which they would there have to pass. 
 This difficulty is however much lessened when we remember that 
 these spores are a bundle of infinite particles, each particle of which 
 is probably capable of infesting a plant. Even under this considera- 
 tion, there is much need of an active imagination, to invent hypoth- 
 eses, to cover the points upon which we as yet know nothing definite. 
 
 "The Rev. M. J. Berkeley, proved many years ago that the spores 
 of bunt, for example, may be caused to infect all the plants the seeds 
 of which had been placed in contact with them." But this did not 
 prove that the seeds absorbed them, as it is probable they did not, 
 but they would adhere to the seed and thus be conveyed to the 
 ground, where infection to the sprout would be probable. Much has 
 been done to elucidate this mystery, but much remains a mystery 
 stUl. No spores have ever been seen traversing the tissues of grow- 
 ing plants. 
 
 The stems and leaves of violets, sweet-scented and scentless all 
 alike, are often distorted and ruined altogether by a variety of cluster 
 cups ; the stinging nettle does not escape ; the hardy dock, the useful 
 currant, the wUd geraniums, alike feed with their juices fungi of this 
 description. 
 
 It has long been a popular belief in England, (says F. B. Hough in 
 his report on Forestry,) that the barberry bush {Berberis vulgaris) 
 has some agency in the propagation of rust in wheat and other grain, 
 and the researches of botanists have somewhat tended to confirm this 
 belief. The spores from grain rust {Pucdnia graminis) are said to 
 find their way to the leaves of the barberry, germinate, and form 
 cluster cups on the under surface of the leaves, and the spores from 
 these in turn germinate on the grain by alternate generation. The 
 fact that rust sometimes appears in fields where there are no barberry 
 
Vermont Board of AGRicuLTtfRE. 
 
 bushes capable of bearing the intermediate form, appears to indicate 
 that there are other plants having the same capabiUty of bearing the 
 intermediate growth. The clearing off of barberry, or other plants 
 or bushes, near wheat fields, has it is claimed been productivfe of good 
 results ; and if it should be proved beyond doubt that there is a direct 
 relation between this and grain rust, the use of the barberry as a 
 hedge plant, as well as that of other bushes, should be discontinued. 
 Cook, on the other hand, says that while this statement long ago had 
 credit among the people, it has no foundation in fact, as the genera 
 are distinct and perfect in themselves ; while some others, perhaps 
 equally eminent, claim intermediate and spurious forms. Professor 
 CErsted, it is said, has recently determined their identity as one and 
 
 the same plant. ' In this figure (fig. 
 1), a shows a leaf of the barberry, 
 with cluster cups upon it {JEcidium 
 herberidis) ; &, a portion of the leaf 
 magnified ; c, the same fragment 
 seen sidewise. 
 
 The leaves of the pear show other 
 species, and very singular and curi- 
 ous clusters of excrescences occur 
 on the leaves of the apple tree and 
 mountain ash, and are also very 
 prominent on the leaves of the quince 
 tree, and especially of the wild apple 
 tree of the west, consisting of large 
 peridia, pointed at the tops, and so 
 swollen below as to bear a rude re- 
 semblance to urns, the edges split 
 into long, contorted threads. They 
 are a species of Bcestelia. The B. 
 lacerata is seen in Fig. 2. a, nat- 
 
 ural size, living on the leaves and 
 fruit of the hawthorn ; 6, a portion 
 magnified. The spores are also of a 
 light orange color, but the plant by 
 comparison, or even by comparison 
 of the cuts, may be seen to widely 
 differ in its appearance. The fir and 
 pine also suffer, as they are often 
 attacked by the Periderminum, which 
 changes the foliage, and spoils the 
 effect of their branches, rendering 
 them unsightly. Unfortunately but 
 little is known of this fungus, but it 
 is well worthy of attention from those 
 that are interested in the minute as- 
 pects of nature, and those who can 
 recognize the hand 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 "That sets a sun amidst the firmament, 
 
 Or moulds a dewdrop, and lights up its gem." 
 
Microscopic Revelations. 9 
 
 To this we can add our hearty assent, and only wish that investigation 
 and studies so prolific of gratification were more universal, especially 
 among the young. 
 
 But we must not stop for reflection, but slightly notice another 
 class. The spores of the smaller fungi have thus far been spoken of 
 as seeds, but this is not strictly true, and several novel and interest- 
 ing points for consideration and inquiry arise. 
 
 If we should place some of the yeUow dust, which fills the cup 
 shaped peridia, in a drop of water, and prevent its evaporation by 
 covering it with a watch crystal, or any other glass would do as well, 
 we should find in a few hours that each particle of the dust had 
 swollen, and bursting at some point had given out a little thread, at 
 the apex of which it is crowned with delicate curved appendages, 
 which soon become connected by lateral threads, thus forming a kind 
 of .latticed network, and from the sides of these filaments little cells 
 sprout, which in turn germinate and reproduce the plant. Those 
 of our readers who are familiar with the early stages of the ferns, can 
 trace a striking analogy in the process. 
 
 In many of the smaller fungi the spore is present in another form, 
 constituting what is termed the spermogone (pustules and depres- 
 sions like pockets) often in shape of a minute dot near the peridium, 
 and sometimes on the other side of the leaf. In fact it may be like a 
 little blister filled with threads, throwing ofi" little curved bodies 
 called spermatia (germinating filaments), which escape through an 
 orifice provided for the purpose. 
 
 Before the nature of these singular objects was known, sperma- 
 gones were mistaken for distinct kinds of fungi, and many species 
 were thus described. In the Peridermmum Pini before spoken of 
 they are white, few in number, and are developed not only in the 
 spring, but sometimes reappear in the autumn upon the same leaves 
 that produced them at the commencment of the year. The evident 
 eflfort of nature, then, in this process, is to produce an ultimate condi- 
 tion of fungal life, which shall be sure to continue indefinitely the 
 presence of the parasites upon the leaves and other parts of the higher 
 plants. And this is done with certainty by the mycelium, a system 
 of the most subtile threads, which can enter the tissues by attacking 
 the seed when sown, and whose persistence of vitality enables it to 
 endure the most trying circumstances unharmed. So vitalized indeed 
 is the mycelium, that any fragment of it will vegetate and grow after 
 long periods of desiccation. And its luxuriance of growth is in no- 
 wise dependent on any higher development, such as were it the stems 
 and leaves of a flowering plant would be necessary to cause it sooner 
 or later to push forth blossoms and fruit. 
 
 This wonderful vitality is taken advantage of in the cultivation of 
 the edible fungi, such as the mushroom for example, where lumps of 
 dry earth permeated by the mycehum, or " spawn," as it is called, 
 are planted in prepared soil and a good crop realized. It is familiar 
 to nurserymen, and all those who cultivate trees for shade or other- 
 wise, that |hey often languish and die, owing to their roots reaching 
 spots deep in the ground, where decayed wood or other vegetable 
 remains are filled with this subtle fungal spawn, which inoculates the 
 tree with the destructive fungus, causing its death. Fortunately the 
 
10 Vermont Board of Agriculturb. 
 
 awakening and full vigor depends much upon the atmospheric condi- 
 tion, else we should live in fear that every plant would be blasted. 
 From this cause fungi of every form are often regarded as meteor- 
 ological phenomena, and wet and foggy weather are complained of as 
 harbingers of various fungoid evils. 
 
 MILDEW OR RUST. 
 
 Peculiar hot and damp days will be dreaded by nearly all on 
 account of "mildew," but "mildew" is one of those loose terms that 
 represents no definite idea, or a very different one to various individuals. 
 
 Talk of mildew of grain to a farmer, and he tells you of the rust 
 which appears in lines or irregular spots upon the wheat stalk, indi- 
 cating Pucdnia graminis, which is known to him and generations 
 before him in many sections as mildew. 
 
 Talk to a New England housewife of mildew, and she will describe 
 a minute species of fungus which attacks damp linen, as true mildew, 
 and will ask if you know what will remove the spots occasioned by it. 
 • Ask the hop grower of New York about mildew, and he will point 
 out a species of mould that infests the hop vine, but which differs as 
 much from the mildew of the South as does the mildew of linen. The 
 librarian will tell^you of mildewed books and papers, and the house- 
 maid of mildewed cellars, — all meaning a fungus growth, but as wide 
 in their significance as the poison hemlock, and hemlock tree. 
 
 Mildew in England means in literature but one thing, and that is 
 the rust upon wheat and other grain, known scientifically as Pucdnia 
 graminis. 
 
 But let us look into the history of this pest. In view of a clearer 
 understanding of this peculiar pest, so long supposed to be several 
 separate species, and which under the present light of science seems 
 fast merging into one. We will suppose a fine day in June dawns 
 upon our resolve to learn of mildew, or rust, and we stray away from 
 the village to gain the chance to examine a wheat field. Having 
 reached the field, there is no appearance of anything but a healthy 
 crop ; we walk into it perhaps fifteen or twenty yards before we find 
 a single fungus of which we are in quest. But let us look closely 
 down at the green leaves at the very bottom of the wheat plant, and 
 we are soon rewarded, as we shall find one or two that look rusty. 
 The surface seems powdered with red ochre, and to have grown sickly 
 under the operation. Pluck it carefully, and examine it with low 
 magnifying power ; a pocket lens will do. Already the cuticle of 
 the leaf is traversed with numerous longitudinal cracks or fissures, 
 within which and around which you discern an orange powder, to 
 which the rusty appearance on the leaf is due. Further examination 
 reveals also portions in which the cuticle is distended into yellowish 
 elongated pustules, not yet ruptured, and which is an earlier stage of 
 this same disease. This is the Rust of the New England agriculturist, 
 the Trichobasis rubigo-vera of the botanist, or the fii-st phase of mildew. 
 
 To know more of this parasite we must take it to our microscope, 
 and by careful manipulation we shall find that the vegetative system 
 of this, as well of all similar fungi, consists of a number of delicate 
 simple or branched threads, often intertwining and even uniting one 
 to the other by little branchlets. These threads as we have before 
 
MiCEOscopic Revelations. 
 
 11 
 
 explained are called the mycelium ; they penetrate the intercellular 
 spaces and insinuate themselves in a complete network among the 
 cells of which the leaf or other diseased portion of the plant is com- 
 posed. We may regard the whole mycelium of one pustule, or pore 
 spot, as the vegetative system of one fungal plant. At first it might 
 have originated as several individuals, which afterward become com- 
 bined as one, for the production of fruit, and by their combined effort 
 a cluster of fruit, or spore spot, is produced. 
 
 In the first instance a number of minute, transparent, colorless 
 cellules are developed from the mycelium ; these enlarge and are 
 fiUed with an orange colored endochrome, and appear beneath the 
 leaf as yellowish spots. As a consequence of this increase of bulk, 
 the cuticle becomes distended in the form of a pustule over the yellow 
 cellules, and at length, unable to withstand the pressure from beneath, 
 ruptures in irregular, but more or less elongated fissures, and the 
 yellow bodies which I will call spores, break from their short pedicels 
 and escape ; to the naked eye presenting the appearance of an orange 
 powder. 
 
 On the first of August we will again visit our wheat field. Rusty 
 leaves are more common than before; A little careful examination, 
 and here and there we shall find a leaf or two with decidedly brown 
 pustules intermixed with the rusty ones. If we remove from the 
 browner spots a little of the powder by means of a sharp-pointed 
 knife, and place it in a drop of water, and cover it with a thin glass, 
 and place it under our microscope, a different series of forms wiU be 
 observed. There will still be a portion of one-celled yellow spores, 
 but the majority will be elongated, mostly with short stalks, and 
 either decidedly two-celled or a tendency to be so. 
 
 These two-celled spores are another form of the mildew called 
 Puccinia graminis, which may be produced in the same pustules and 
 from the same mycelium as the rust previously described, and is 
 generally considered at the present time to be 
 the same fungus. Other grain and various other 
 plants are likewise affected. 
 
 Fig. 3 represents at a, wheat straw infested with 
 this rust ; 6, cluster of spores magnified ; c, single 
 spore magnified 300 diameters. 
 
 This rust is so common and so much alike on 
 aU plants that this plate will answer to represent 
 the fungus wherever found. 
 
 Let us now for the third time visit our wheat 
 field. It Is ripe, or else much damaged, possibly 
 destroyed by the fungi. 
 
 On the straw we shall find black lines, or black- 
 ish spots, from the size of a pin's head to an inch 
 in length ; this is the mildew, rust, or Puccinia — 
 it matters not what name it is called, in fuU ma- 
 turity, and when once seen it is never forgotten. 
 Botanists may dispute about its intermediate 
 stages ; — may give it different names when found 
 on other plants, — but it still remains the great 
 pest of the husbandman. There are no lingering 
 
12 Vermont Board of Agkicolture. 
 
 doubts in the minds of the agriculturists, botanists, savans of science, 
 or laborers, that the rust is not injurious, because the most casual 
 observation shows it in the sickly condition of all plants affected 
 through the season. 
 
 The manner of impregnation is unknown, or if known is in dispute. 
 Some believe as the stomata or breathing pores of the plant are open 
 in damp weather, that the infinitesimal germs enter these pores and 
 gain a foothold, and push their rootlets into the cellular tissue of the" 
 plant. Others think they enter from the ground through the roots, and 
 others still do not believe that they enter the plant at all, but that the 
 seeds are poisoned by the touch of their spores. Be it as it may, we 
 well know that it exists, and of course desire to have as little damage 
 from it as possible. Observation has shown that rich land, or that 
 manured by old manure, is much more likely to have the grain crop 
 injured than land not so rich, or manured by green manure, or some 
 of our fertilizers. This should teach care in the preparation of our 
 land. Some claim that an admixture of sulphur in sowing, and 
 others that if it is sifted on the leaves is a preventative. Careful 
 experiments have shown all such remedies useless. Ashes are good 
 to produce a healthy condition of the crop while they have 'no effect 
 upon the fungi. 
 
 The state of the atmosphere conducive to very rapid growth, is 
 usually liable to develop the pest. We believe that all straw infested 
 to a large extent should be burned, and all grasses and weeds stand- 
 ing around such fields should share the same fate. In this way the 
 principal danger might be avoided. 
 
 Another instance of the two-formed condition of the smaller fungi 
 can be traced in the delicate condition of mouldiness which frequently 
 covers the leaves of the lilac, the grape, the fruit of the gooseberry, 
 and various other plants. It looks like strings of beads made of col- 
 orless cells. In this condition it is known and described as "Oidium." 
 
 Fig. 4. a, tufts of conida of the Oidium 
 Monilioides ; 6, portion of grass leaf with same 
 species of blight, the spores being the self- 
 same beads and egg-shaped bodies, whence 
 the generic name, but careful observation 
 will show us that this ig not its perfect con- 
 dition; and when later in autumn these 
 threads become more compact, and are sur- 
 mounted on their horizontal surfaces by 
 shining black capsules, or perithecia, each of 
 which is filled with elegant eUiptical and 
 elongated cells, and each in turn contain- 
 ing several spores, we shall find in Erisyplie 
 that we have arrived at the conclusion of the 
 dimorphism of this fungus, so injurious in its effects. 
 
 The famous grape mildew so destructive to the grapes of Europe, 
 and known as Oidium Tuckeri, is also only an imperfect form of some 
 common Erisyphe ; so of the grape fungi of New England, as well as 
 of various other fungal plants. 
 
 Even the cluster cup first described, is quite likely to turn out but 
 one form of the rust, on some other plant. Some, as I have before 
 
Microscopic Revelations. 13 
 
 said, even now suppose it identical with the puccinia, and with good 
 reason. 
 
 SMUTS. 
 
 Another of the fungal diseases of grain, long and widely known 
 among agriculturalists, is here called smut. Different names have 
 been given it in different localities. In some it is "dust brand," in 
 others, "bunt ear," black ball," etc. All the names refer to the 
 blackish, sootlike dust with which the infested and abortive heads are 
 covered. This fungus in New England does not generally excite 
 much alarm among the farmers, yet it often injures the crop. Per- 
 haps it is not so extensively injurious as rust, yet it destroys every 
 infested head of gi-ain upon which it estabhshes itself, and is also 
 thought to be poisonous to people, or animals, that feed upon it. In 
 Johnson's work on the grasses of Great Britain, he says "that diseased 
 wheat examined by Sir H. Davy, when good, had an average of .955 
 parts of nutritive matter to the 1000 : sometimes from disease, or 
 smut, rust, or mildew, it was reduced as low as .210 in 1000." The 
 consequence of using such diseased wheat for food would be a step 
 towards starvation, even though no greater evil resulted. It is, how- 
 ever, well known to be highly prejudicial to health ; and the higher 
 standard of living among the poorer classes of our population, com- 
 pared with those of some continental countries, is the only cause of 
 their exemption from the dreadful diseases resulting from the use of 
 bad grain. That such diseases might occasionally prevail among 
 them here, from similar causes, under a more restricted diet, is evi- 
 dent from a record in the Philosophical . Transactions for the year 
 1762. The case in question occurred in the village of Wallisham, 
 about fifteen or sixteen miles from Bury, St. Edmond's, Suffolk, and 
 the report of it was forwarded to the Royal Society by Dr. WoUaston, 
 attested by the Rev. Mr. Bone, the curate of the parish, and is 
 abridged as follows : — Some of the wheat belonging to a farmer in 
 the neighborhood, being laid or beaten down by bad weather, and 
 diseased, the grain much damaged in consequence, it was collected and 
 threshed apart from the remainder. Being unfit for the market, it 
 was sold at a low price to any of the farm laborers, and other people 
 of the village, who would purchase. The sale of this wheat commenced 
 about Christmas, and to one poor family, whose chief and possibly 
 sole support it was for some time, the result was most alarming and 
 unparalleled. It appears that the consumption of this poor wheat hj 
 the father, mother, and five children, was about two bushels in a fort- 
 night ; the same being eaten in the form of bread and puddings, both 
 of them very indifferent in quality. 
 
 But to poverty, cheapness and suflSciency of food are always 
 irresistible inducements, and this unwholesome fare was continued 
 without intermission until the mother and her children were attacked 
 within a few days of each other with a gangreneous disease. The 
 first indication of the disease was intense pains in the lower limbs. 
 It first occurred on the tenth of January, and was thought to be. 
 rheumatism, but when this pain subsided it was followed by numb-' 
 ness and insensibility of the parts which terminated in mortification. 
 The condition of the family at the time Dr. Wollaston made his 
 report to the society is here subjoined : 
 
14 Vermont Board of AGRicuLTtrRE. 
 
 "Mary, the mother, aged forty. Right foot off at ancle ; left leg 
 mortified, a mere bone but not off. 
 
 "Elizabeth aged thirteen. Both legs off below the knee. 
 
 " Sarah aged ten years. One foot off at ancle. 
 
 "Robert aged eight. Both legs off below the knee. 
 
 " Edward aged four. Both feet off at ancles. 
 
 " An infant aged four months. Dead. " 
 
 The father was not attacked until about a fortnight after his wife 
 and children, and in a slighter degree. In his case the pain was 
 confined to two fingers of his right hand, which turned blackish and 
 withered. Another laboring man in the same parish, who had eaten 
 of this bread, suffered from numbness in both his hands for upwards 
 of a month. They were constantly cold, and his finger ends peeled ; 
 one thumb he says remains without any sensation. 
 
 In several instances where bread made from the same wheat was 
 eaten in the farmer's own family, as well as by other persons, no 
 prejudicial effects were noticed, probably in consequence of such 
 bread being used only occasionally, and as an adjunct to other and 
 more wholesome food. The nature of the disease with which the 
 wheat was affected does not appear to have been fully ascertained, 
 but the circumstances are well authenticated. It is of course possible 
 that the want of proper nourishment in the wheat may have had a 
 share to do with the disease ; but smutty and mildewed grain has 
 always been considered unhealthy to man, and many cases of disease 
 in animals has often been traced to this cause. 
 
 With such examples before us, too great caution cannot be used 
 regarding the use of grain and fiour of suspicious character. 
 
 This fungi, like many of the others that infest our fields and 
 gardens, belongs to the family in which the spores are the distinctive 
 feature, and is regarded as fixed in the genus Ustilago, (or smut of 
 grain), and the specific name segetum, (standing). So we have the 
 name Ustilago segetum, or the smut of standing grain. 
 
 Another kind of smut known in this country is Ustilago magdis, 
 (the maize smut) . It is even more common than the other, as no 
 cornfield is without more or less of it. It forms a peculiar thickened 
 and abnormal growth, that is full of the characteristic black spores 
 represented as magnified four hundred diameters in Figure 5. 
 
 The spores in this fungus are very numerous, simple, yjg 5 
 
 deeply serrated, springing from delicate threads or in 
 closely-packed cells, ultimately breaking up into a 
 powdery mass. A species of this smut affects some 
 grasses slightly in this country, but in France it fre- 
 quently affects grass to such an extent as to pro- 
 duce disastrous consequences on the hay makers, 
 such as violent swellings of the head and face, with 
 poisonous irritation over the whole system. Threshers are sometimes 
 thus affected in this country, when at work on smutty oats, although 
 not all are equally affected. 
 
 The spores of this species are so immense in number, that it would 
 seem impossible to guard corn or other grain against its ravages, but 
 it seems like others of this class — they are quite easily destroyed, and 
 in that way are kept in check. They adhere to the grain in threshing, 
 but if the grain is washed with clean water, and then with a solution 
 
Microscopic Revelations. 15 
 
 of Glauber's salts, and while still moist dusted with quicklime, these 
 spores win be destroyed, and the rust spores also, and the crop will 
 be improved, as the caustic soda is set free by the sulphuric acid 
 of the salts combining with the lime, and converting it into sulphate 
 of lime (plaster of paris) which is beneficial to the young sprout, 
 while the caustic soda is fatal to the spores of rust and smut. 
 
 Other washes, as of chloride of lime, at the rate of one ounce to the 
 gallon of water, or of aqua ammonia in same proportions, are proba- 
 bly also beneficial to kill the spores, and aid germination of the grain- 
 Experience has also taught us that a wet season is much more prolific 
 of fungi than a dry one ; and thick-sown grain than thin-sown. 
 
 The direction of the wind when grain is sown is of no effect, not- 
 withstanding old people many of them think that an east wind is 
 deleterious. 
 
 THE ONION SMUT. 
 
 This fungus, called by Prof. C. C. Frost of Brattleboro, Urocyslis 
 Cepulw, since its first appearance in New England in 1870 has caused 
 much damage to that crop. It is thought to be allied to the rust on 
 Indian corn, but not exactly the same. The damage caused to 
 single towns in Massachusetts from this smut alone is estimated at 
 several thousands of dollars. There is as yet very little known about 
 the development of this fungus. It has never been known in Europe, 
 and is supposed to originate from some of our wild species of onions, 
 and of course is as yet but imperfectly known here. It changes the 
 onion to the peculiar dark sooty powder so well known as smut, and 
 the infested onions at once cease to grow, and though the black may 
 often be peeled ofi" apparently with one or two of the layers of the onion, 
 they are not considered healthy, and great loss is entailed to those 
 raising them. As the spores doubtless remain in the ground, and 
 nothing put on the ground would be likely to eradicate them, the 
 only known help is to change the locality, giving the onions ground 
 on which they have not been previously raised, and using the onion 
 bed for other purposes, or for such crops as the spores would not 
 injure. 
 
 After a time, perhaps four or five years, the old beds might proba- 
 bly be again planted, as doubtless the spores would have lost their 
 vitality. 
 
 As this smut at the present time is principally confined to 
 Massachusetts and Connecticut, with a little care on our part, it will 
 be a long time before Vermont will materially suflfer from this fungi. 
 
 Should it appear among us it should be at once stamped out by 
 burning over the land, and not trying to raise onions on it for at least 
 four years, as a trial would not only be useless but would endanger 
 whole townships by the increase of the spores. 
 
 It should as much be the law to stamp out by legal proceedings 
 such pests, as to keep small pox out of our towns, as the diseases 
 resulting to the human family are none the less to be dreaded because 
 slow and insidious in their workings. 
 
 Those who desire to know more of this disease we will refer to the 
 Massachusetts Agricultural Report for 1876-7, where it is fully 
 described. •' 
 
16 
 
 Vermont Board of Agbictiltdee. 
 
 "WHITE EDST. 
 
 The idea we have thus far of rust and smut is that it is dark colored, 
 or like the rust of iron, but as I speak of white rust that opinion must 
 be overthrown, as the white rust of the cabbage, turnip, and all sim- 
 ilar plants is one that the gardener has often to contend with. I bring 
 it in to show that fungi must be looked for in every place and under all 
 colors. This white rust is called Oystopus candidus. It is represented 
 in Figure 6 as it occurs on shep- Pig g 
 
 herd's purse, a showing the fruit 
 with the rust upon it ; b, portions 
 of the cabbage leaf with the same 
 species upon it ; and c, conidia of 
 the same. (See Cook's treatise on 
 Fungi.) 
 
 Upon the leaf of the cabbage it 
 appears as engraved, in white 
 patches; the leaves become de- 
 formed and swollen or blistered, 
 even before we can make out fully 
 the cause of the mischief outside. 
 These blistered pustules have a mi- 
 nute system of branching threads, 
 which traverse the pulpy parts of the 
 leaves, and which threads insinuating 
 themselves between the cells that 
 constitute the pulp, take their nu- 
 triment at the expense of the grow- 
 ing foliage. 
 
 It is after the pustules assume the white color and are visible on 
 the skin or cuticle that the reproductive parts termed conidia can be 
 detected. See figure 6. From the multitudes of these beads or 
 spores forming the white powdery dust, the term conidia is applied, 
 which means dustlike. Other plants, besides, are often affected as 
 the watercress, pepper grass, mustard, radish and even the weed 
 purslane does not escape its ravages. Its mode of vegetation is one 
 of peculiar interest, in fine one of the most curious phenomena of 
 plant life, and indicates in this low order of vegetation a relation to.^ 
 higher structural forms, not only in plants but even in animals. 
 Thus, if a few particles of the white dust be immersed in a drop of 
 water, and examined under the microscope the}' will be seen to 
 rapidly absorb water, and swelling, a large and obtuse papilla resem- 
 bling the neck of a bottle is produced, and a seeming empty space is 
 formed in the contents of each spore. As these disappear the whole 
 granular substance becomes separated by fine lines into five to eight 
 portions each, with a small, faintly colored, empty space in the 
 center. These portions are so many zoospores. These are soon 
 expelled one by one, and soon afterwards begin to move, being 
 provided with seeming fins or fringes by which they are enaiiled to 
 swim about like an animalcule : but they are only buds endowed with 
 motion, same as many other plants have. These of course are 
 capable of infecting plants, as we have seen. 
 
 The prodigal provision of nature is here, as everywhere, especially 
 
Microscopic Revelations. 17 
 
 in its lower orders signally manifested, when we are told that the 
 immense number of zoospores capable of being produced from a single 
 infested plant is almost beyond calculation. It is easy for a million 
 of conidia to be developed from one such plant, each producing five 
 to eight zoospores. It can scarcely be considered marvelous that the 
 white rust should be so common on plants favorable to its develop- 
 ment, the marvel being rather that any escape. 
 
 THE POTATO DISEASE. 
 
 Mould is a word in common use, and aU will tell you what mould 
 is, yet each will perhaps tell you of a different kind. This very nu- 
 merous family are called Hyphomycetes, that is, fungi that grow by 
 throwing out delicate threads. 
 
 Of course there are several distinct groups. 
 
 To the common eye, unaided by the microscope or observation, 
 mildews, mouldiness, and similar microscopic plants, would be readily 
 confounded. But the mildew is a much more highly developed fungus, 
 and though apparently ^s dangerous, is not so to the same extent. 
 The egg mould (Oidium) which covers and suffocates the young 
 gooseberry, or the grape, readily yields to agents which will destroy 
 it, and set free from its threads the swelling fruit ; but the potato 
 mould for instance, is the inception of the potato rot, which is so 
 dreaded. The "moulds," then, as Eussell says, "are fearful parasitic 
 plants, which riot on the tender tissues of other plants and eventually 
 cause their death." There is in this country as many as ten known 
 fungi infesting the potato. It is on this account that those attempt- 
 ing to describe the potato disease have differed so widely from each 
 other, while all have brought up some facts. The true potato mould, 
 causing so much mischief, is now generally admitted to be the Pero- 
 nospora infestans, and were it not for its effects it would be regarded 
 as a thing of beautJ^ Were the flies or insects, which are so liberally 
 endowed with eyes, and quite unconcerned about crops, — to investi- 
 gate ; the leaves of the potato would be quite a pretty set of objects to 
 examine, presenting white, many branched, and beaded twigged 
 plants, with egg-shaped seed bodies on the tips of the branches. 
 These vegetable growths issue from the stomata (breathing pores) of 
 the leaves, choke up the internal and external passages, and prevent 
 a healthy, action from being maintained. Soon the leaves become 
 paler, or yellow, then discolored spots appear, and the stems are 
 covered with dark patches ; even the stalks are filled with clotted 
 substances, and sooner or later putrify, and lastly the tuber suffers, 
 and the rot rapidly increases. 
 
 It was toward the close of the summer of 1845 that the world 
 awakened to what they supposed a new disease in the potato crop ; 
 and one which threatened its entire destruction. Early in September 
 its ravages in Ireland threatened starvation to the people. It ex- 
 tended to Scotland, England and the continent, and rewards were 
 offered for detection of the cause, and a host of observations were made 
 with no valuable results. 
 
 It is only by long years of patient study that nature's works are 
 found out, and it will be longer still before any sure preventative wUl 
 be reached. There are however some things that tempt this fungus 
 o 
 
18 Vermont Boakd of Agriotilttire. 
 
 growth that is so destructive ; as close planting, damp land, weeds 
 that shade the crop, etc. 
 
 As there are some differences of opinion in relation to the actual 
 condition of the potato, favorable or otherwise, to the rot, I copj- 
 from the observations of others. 
 
 "Some eminent chemists, such as Dr. Lyon Plaj'fair, believe that 
 the potato plant when healthy, is not subject to attacks from fungi. 
 In a lecture delivered by the Doctor before the Royal Agricultural 
 Society of England, December 9, 1845, he remarked that 'much had 
 been said and written with regard to the source of the disease, and 
 since minute fungi had been assigned as its cause, potatoes, apples, 
 and other fruits had been inoculated with fungus spores, and had 
 become diseased ; but if there was not some previous disease in the 
 potato itself, how was it that some varieties of potatoes escaped while 
 growing in the immediate vicinity, while others were attacked?'" 
 The disease, he believed, arose from structural or chemical causes. 
 
 When a decayed potato was examined it was found that the 
 diseased spots were always in the region of the spiral vessels, whose 
 function it is to carry air into the tissue of the plants. He believed 
 the disease originated in the oxidation of the tissue. The Rev. M. 
 J. Berkeley, the leading mycologist of England, on the other hand, 
 contends that the fungus Botrytis infestans, or, as now classed under 
 the new genus, Peronospora infestans, will attack the healthy tubers ; 
 but the question arises just at this point, what means have we of 
 ascertaining the perfectly healthy structure, and chemical state of 
 tubers. Every farmer plants what he deems sound tubers, yet in the 
 majority of cases, since 1845, the crop during very moist seasons has 
 been more generally affected than it was prior to that date. 
 
 The severity of attacks of fungi on plants will depend in some cases 
 on the density of their organic structure and the solubility of their 
 nitrogenous matter. The nitrogenous principle of potatoes, for ex- 
 ample, is soluble in water, that of turnips nearly insoluble. The 
 former, therefore, ferments more readily than the latter. The leaves 
 of a healthy peach tree, when placed in a moist atmosphere at about 
 75° F., resist fungoid fermentation for months, while those of a peach 
 tree affected with the "yellows," placed under the same general con- 
 ditions, will quickly ferment and become covered with the fruit of the 
 fungus mucor. The first possess an antiseptic property, the second 
 are deficient in it. If two blocks of wood, one of boxwood and the 
 other of soft pine, are placed in a fungoid solution, the first will resist 
 the action of the mycelium for a long time because of its density, 
 while the second will quickly deca3'. The fli-st absorbs very little 
 water, the second a great deal. A certain amount of moisture is al- 
 ways necessary to the growth of fungi. The presence of an excess of 
 water is highly favorable to the growth of the common moulds and 
 some other forms of fungoid plants. 
 
 In years previous to the noted potato rot of 1845, the average 
 amount of water found in healthy potatoes, according to Professor 
 Playfair, was 72 per cent. ; that of unhealthy tubers since that date, 
 80 per cent. The tendency to ferment is therefore increased. It was 
 observed by Professor Playfair, in his lecture alluded to, that a pe- 
 culiar state of the weather ,had been observed all over the north of 
 
Microscopic Rkvelation8. 19 
 
 Europe where the disease had been seen, as well as in America. The 
 wide-spread use of the potato as an article of diet, especially among 
 the laboring classes throughout Europe, must have led to the exten- 
 sive planting of diseased potatoes in 1846, because healthy seed 
 could not be found. Indeed, Professor Playfair, in his second lecture 
 of the 10th of December, 1845, recommends "the planting of diseased 
 potatoes as seed rather than none." He further states that there was 
 no prospect of obtaining healthy seed from abroad, and that he had 
 permission of the late government authorities for stating that this was 
 the result of their consular returns. The unavoidable adoption of 
 this advice tended to establish hereditary disease in after years, 
 whether it arose from chemical, structural, or fungoid conditions. 
 
 K a healthy potato is so dug out on its opposite ends that it will 
 resemble a double egg cup, and placed erect on one end for about six 
 days in an atmosphere at the temperature of 70° F., its under cavity 
 will become covered with mildew, and its fruit will appear in the form 
 of blue mould, PenicilKum glaucum. In this case the inverted cavity 
 will retain the moisture, and as a consequence slight fermentation will 
 ensue, the fungus deriving it nutriment from the potato ; but the 
 upper surface, although fully exposed to the floating germs in the 
 atmosphere, will not sustain a fungus growth, in consequence of the 
 free evaporation of the moisture from it. This form of fermentation 
 should not be confounded with that produced by the fungus of 
 potato rot, Peronospora infestans. The chemical action of the blue 
 mould fungus is slow, and its odor is simply that of sour paste, while 
 the destructive action of the potato rot is very rapid, producing a higher 
 state of decomposition and very offensive odors. The myceUum and 
 fruit of each fungus also differ essentially from each other. Both 
 forms of fungus produce oxidation of the cellulose structure, but with 
 very different results. Consequently potato rot consists of more than 
 the "mere decay of the tissue by its absorption of oxygen." The 
 purely fungoid theory, on the other hand, will not account for the 
 many exceptions pointed out by those who favor the chemical theory ; 
 since it may be shown that as the chemical constitution and density 
 of any vegetables vary, so will the genus and species of fungi be found 
 to vary with the proximate principles of the plants on which they 
 subsist." 
 
 If there is truth in these remarks, the value of sound, hearty seed 
 is one great preventative. Farmers should therefore exercise great 
 care in their selection, and never plant a diseased tuber. Yet to my 
 mind the fungus is the chief mischief, and so plenty of room, good 
 care, and I might add, early planting, should go hand in hand with 
 the selection of seed. RusseU says entire destruction by Are of all 
 diseased tops should be imperative. 
 
 THE BRISTLE MOULD. 
 
 One more species of mould known as the "buttercup blight" is so 
 common and so peculiar in its growth, that I cannot pass it by. 
 It is represented in Fig. 7. 
 
20 Vermont Boabd of Aqeiculttjrk. 
 
 a, conceptacle of Erisyphe communis ; Pig 7 
 
 6, sporangium of the same highly mag- 
 nified. Its varieties are all known as 
 bristle mould, and attack damp paper 
 or books ; damp specimens in the collec- 
 tions of our botanists are frequently 
 nearly ruined, and like other fungi they 
 are dreaded pests. 
 
 RAPID GROWTH OF FUNGI : YEAST PLANT. 
 
 Yeast is a well known substance to 
 all housekeepers, but all do not know 
 that it is a plant that thrives on sugar 
 or nitrogenous matter. When the plant 
 
 is examined under the microscope it is found to be composed of myr- 
 iads of minute cells, about ^^Vir of ^^ iiich in diameter. During the 
 progi'ess of fermentation these cells rapidly increase in number, until 
 all the material necessary to their growth is used up. Its rapid 
 growth, and the evolution of carbonic acid gas, from such growth, 
 makes it convenient for the housewife to raise her bread. She pre- 
 pares her material, puts in her seedj which is some of the spores of the 
 plant ; either dry or in fluid, they immediately commence their growth. 
 
 The cells grow together in chains, and when stirred they sometimes 
 appear like threads, which are in reality bundles of the fibers of the 
 yeast plant. 
 
 K the yeast is not used in this condition, the plant nourishment is 
 soon used up, putrefaction commences, and with it comes a swarm of 
 animalcules, countless as they are minute, and voraciously devouring 
 all in their way, until they also die from want of food, changing the 
 yeast frequently to a mass of animal and vegetable putrefaction. 
 This soon subsides and vinegar is the result. 
 
 This can be more fully exemplified by milk yeast, which sooner as 
 every housewife knows, passes through its various stages, and some- 
 times is not baked until the putrescence is such as to be hardly 
 endurable to many persons. 
 
 With this example of fungus growth before their eyes, who can 
 wonder that the various fungi in the State of Vermont alone cost the 
 agriculturist many millions of dollars. They blight his fruit trees 
 from the seed ; they blight his grain crop more or less every year ; 
 they blight his fruit from the blossom to its end, pursuing it with a 
 determined hate ; they mildew his beans and peas ; they impair his 
 corn and potatoes ; they poison his hay, and disease his cattle ; they 
 destroy his loved ones, often with insidious disease, and then rot out 
 his store houses, his dwelling, and even fastening upon himself, claim 
 him at last as fit ground on which to ripen their spores for deadly- 
 work on others. No pest is so deadly, none so insidious in its 
 workings, none so varied, meeting us everywhere and under almost 
 all conditions. Insignificant in themselves, their very obscurity gives 
 them the best chances to do us injury. 
 
 They have their enemies, countless animalcules feed upon their 
 various forms, yet no family is rendered extinct. The very atmos- 
 phere we breathe is often hazy with the spores of various fungi. The 
 
Microscopic Revelations. 
 
 21 
 
 only wonder is, why anything, or any condition of plant or atmos- 
 phere can hold the various families of fungi in check. Some suppose 
 them of spontaneous growth. Whj' is there need of such a supposi- 
 tion when their minute spores capable of producing their like cannot 
 even be excluded wherever the atmosphere is present? The wonder 
 is quite the other way, for it is a wonder that they don't' destroy 
 more than they do. 
 
 ANIMALCULES. 
 
 It is but a step from the microscopic plant to the animal. The 
 
 varietj' of form peculiar to microscopic Kfe is truly wonderful. It is 
 
 so different from what we have been accustomed to meet in our 
 
 visible world that we are at once struck with its peculiar varieties. 
 
 The number of these creatures exceeds all human calculation. In 
 
 every pond and ditch, and almost every puddle, in vegetable infusions, 
 
 in paste and vinegar, on honej', sugar and all sweet substances, on 
 
 almost every leaf and flower, even on those fungi only visible through 
 
 the microscope, and in rivers, seas and oceans these creatures are 
 
 found in such numbers and varieties as to almost exceed belief. 
 
 "The shapely limb and lubricated joint, 
 Within the small dimensions of a point, 
 Muscle and nerve, miraculously span 
 Hii mighty work, who speaks, and it is done, 
 The invisible in things scarce seen revealed 
 To whom an atom is an ample field." 
 
 Of these wonderful creations I will only bring forward a few examples. 
 
 THE MITE FAMILY. 
 
 Comparatively few naturalists have studied up the habits and 
 peculiarities of the mite family. But few of our readers in natural 
 history text books, learn from their pages anything definite in rela- 
 tion to them, either regarding the affinities of these humble creatures, 
 their organization and frequently singular metamorphosis. We shall 
 therefore only mention a few typical fonns which we have had the 
 pleasure of examining. 
 
 Mites are lowly organized Aracluieds. 
 four famihes, viz : the Scorpions, 
 Spiders, Harvestmen, and Mites ; 
 the scientific name of which is Aca- 
 rina. They have a rounded oval 
 body, without the usual division be- 
 tween the head and abdomen observ- 
 able in spiders ; the head, thorax, 
 and abdomen being merged in a sin- 
 gle mass. When mature, there are 
 four pairs of legs, and the mouth part 
 consists, as seen in the adjoining fig- 
 ure of a young tick, of a pair of max- 
 illse (c), which in the adult termi- 
 nates in a two or three jointed feelers ; 
 a pair of mandibles (6), often cov- 
 ered with several rows of fine teeth, 
 and ending in three or four larger 
 hooks, and a serrated labium, (a) . 
 
 This order is divided into 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 Young Ixades albipictut. 
 
 These parts form a beak which 
 
22 
 
 Vermont Boakd of AGEicuLTUEtE. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 the mite can insinuate into the flesh of its host, upon the blood of 
 which many species subsist. 
 
 "While very many of the mites are parasitic on animals, some devour 
 eggs of insects. The Ifotherus (Fig. 9) destroys millions of the eggs 
 of the canker worm, and it is said that it also sucks the eggs of the 
 Chinch bug. 
 
 A few of this species are injurious to man, as 
 the Sarcoptes, that burrows under the skin of 
 filthy people, causing a disease once so common — 
 the Itch. The cheese mites, that swarm over 
 the cheeses in our cities, and sometimes in the 
 country, have six legs when young, but eight 
 after a moult. I have ■ scraped a full pint of 
 them off of a single cheese in Boston, and put- 
 ting my hand into the mass I could distinctly 
 feel the animal heat produced by aggregate 
 millions of living, burning furnaces, the same as 
 from higher organizations. 
 
 The Harvestmen, known in this section as "Daddy Longlegs," 
 almost always have numerous parasites belonging to the mite family. 
 They also live parasitic ou various water insects, and on the gills of 
 the fresh water mussel. 
 
 These species are very minute in size. Some species have been 
 found in the lungs and blood vessels of various animals. 
 
 THE SUGAR MITE. 
 
 Many people have been startled by statements sometimes read, or 
 that they have heard from authoritative sources, as to the immense 
 number of mites, {Acarus Sacchari, Fig. 10,) j.j ^q 
 
 found in unrefined or raw sugar, but those state- 
 ments generally fall below rather than above the 
 truth. 
 
 Dr. Hassel, who first discovered them, found 
 them upon sixty-nine out of seventy-two sam- 
 ples, and found sixty or seventy mites to one 
 grain of sugar, in most of the samples. Mr. 
 Cameron counted five hundred on ten grains, 
 which would be one hundred thousand to the lb. 
 This would really be quite an adulteration, but 
 under favorable circumstances, that is with 
 warmth and moisture, I have seen one half the 
 bulk, at least, animal life. This would, however, only be the case 
 upon small lots of sugar. When in barrels their number is 
 frequently immense, but they are much more plentiful at the top of 
 the barrel, or nearest the light, though light is in no way necessary 
 to their production. 
 
 The disease known as "grocer's itch," is undoubtedly due to the 
 presence of this mite, which may now and then work its way under 
 the skin of the hand. 
 
 Plentiful as these mites are on the damp brown sugars, I have 
 never detected them on dry white sugar, though I almost always find 
 them on figs, dates, honey, if grained, and often on the comb when 
 
Microscopic Revelations. 23 
 
 not ; in fine they may be found on all sweet substances that are suffi- 
 ciently exposed. 
 
 They are a jolly, playful race of beings, and seem to live and eat 
 for enjoyment ; when frightened they play dead, curhng up their legs, 
 and remaining inactive for some time. 
 
 Another singular mite, and of the lowest order, burrows in the 
 skin of dogs, and also in the diseased follicles of the human face, and 
 more especially the nose of man. j,. ,j 
 
 See Fig. 11. ^' ' 
 
 It is a long slender wormlike form, with 
 eight short legs, "though like many other 
 mites it has but six in the larval state. 
 Washing the face in water to which has been added one teaspoonful 
 of strong aqua ammonia to the quart will usually remove them. 
 
 WATER ANIMALCULES. 
 
 Perhaps no class of objects that are visible to us only through the 
 microscope engage our attention so often, or amaze us so much, as 
 the various forms and peculiar habits of the water animalcules. 
 
 For the first time it is an amazing spectacle to view an assemblage 
 of dissimilar forms in a drop of stagnant water. They are from one 
 thousanth to one ten thousanth of an inch in diameter, and I once 
 saw them so crowded that the spaces between them were not much 
 larger. Several hundred forms have been studied and discribed, but 
 I shall only mention three or four of the more common species. 
 Remember while pond or river water will contain now and then speci- 
 mens, that it is stagnant water alone that is crowded, and the pure 
 spring water of Vermont never contains any animal life. 
 
 The motions of these creatures are varied, I might say almost 
 endless in variety, but amid their diversified gambols all have the 
 power of avoiding obstacles in their course, and their neighbore, 
 which are in such close proximity to them. Some species are far 
 more common than others, but the more uncommon varieties may 
 frequently be obtained in midsummer, by exposing a decoction of any 
 dried leaves to the sun for three or four days ; such exposure must 
 be in the open air. A few species I will describe. 
 
 The Rotifer, or wheel-bearing animalcules, are so tenned from the 
 appearance of certain wheels, often seen rapidly rotating in various 
 situations ori the anterior part of the body near the mouth. We say 
 wheels because they were so considered by early microscopic observ- 
 ers who could not account for the motion in any other way ; but an 
 improvement in instruments has shown that it is an incessant muscu- 
 lar action, giving an apparent rotation ; but that wheels could revolve 
 in any part of an animate body, would be quite inconsistent with the 
 laws of animal organization. These wheel-shaped muscles are used 
 to aid in the motion of the animalcule and in supplying its food. 
 They are entirely subservient to the power of will, as they can stop 
 the motion instantly or increase it as they choose. 
 
 Their body, though so small, in one species, is shielded by a shell 
 into which this rotating apparatus can be drawn at will. It is by the 
 whirlpool, formed by the before described rotations, that its food is 
 drawn into its mouth as a vortex, where it is masticated by three tiny 
 
24 Vebmont Boakd of Agkicultuke. 
 
 teeth, and swallowed into a prepared receptacle where it is ground by 
 muscles working vigorously on each other. Minute and curious as 
 these organs are, the animalcule is so small that like all other micro- 
 scopic creatures they are transparent, and with a moderately high 
 magnifying power this can as well be seen as the workings of a steam 
 engine made of glass. 
 
 This species enjoy sunshine, and on darji cloudy days are only 
 found at the bottom of the pond or ditch in which they reside. Again 
 another of this same species called Tardigrade, have so great a tenac- 
 ity for life that they may be put upon a glass slide and dried for days, 
 yes for months or years, and then at once resuscitated by a drop of 
 water. Dr. Carpenter, one of the most renowned microscopists of 
 Europe, states that their tenacity of life goes even further, as he 
 has kept them in a vacuum for thirty days with sulphuric acid and 
 chloride of calcium, thus causing them to suffer the most complete 
 desiccation that the chemist can effect, and yet they have not lost 
 their capability of revivification. For this reason they have been 
 styled the resurrectionists, and it seems for good cause. This won- 
 derful power of resuscitation, and the fact that the rapidity of their 
 reproduction as estimated by Professor Erenberg, being from the egg 
 at the rate of seventeen millions per month, is certainly sufficient for 
 their remarkable appearance in almost every situation, and under 
 almost all circumstances. 
 
 It has been supposed by some that they were the result of sponta- 
 neous production, but from what I have said you can see there is no 
 necessity for such a conclusion. The many curiosities connected 
 with the life and introduction of the Rotifer, into almost all places, of 
 course will excite the amateur in microscopical investigation to search 
 for them. That he may not be disappointed I will state that in the 
 leaf cells of the Spagnum, generally known as Bog moss, there is a 
 very curious departure from the ordinary type of vegetable gi'owth. 
 Instead of the usual cell tissue their leaves contain spiral fibres, 
 loosely coiled in their interior, and in the membraneous covering of 
 the stem, there are nicely rounded holes, or apertures, by which there 
 is free communication with the interior, as well as with each other. 
 These natural caverns are appropriated by the Rotifer, and used as 
 dwelhngs. 
 
 It is here you are sure to find them at home. 
 
 Another species, ■called Aurelia, are covered with cilia, or minute 
 hairs around the mouth in a circle ; by their agitation animalcules 
 much smaller are drawn into their mouths and devoured. 
 
 Again the Hydra, which may be found in ponds and rivulets ad- 
 hering to the leaves of aquatic plants, or twigs and sticks that have 
 fallen into the water, is a wonder among wonders. 
 
 It may be subdivided many times and yet every part will in a few 
 hours become a perfect Hydra. This name is given them because 
 they have many long arms, which were supposed to resemble the 
 heads of the fifty-headed water serpent, called Hydra, which fabulous 
 history informs us was destroyed by Hercules, in the lake of Lema. 
 They are by no means vegetarians, and have the capability of swal- 
 lowing creatures as large as themselves. 
 
 In the ordinary mode of multiplication little budlike protuberances 
 
MlCKOSCOt-IC REVEtATIONS. 25 
 
 are developed on their external surface, which are soon observed to 
 resemble the parent in character, possessing a digestive sack and 
 mouth. 
 
 For a time however this cavity is connected with that of the parent, 
 but at last the communication is cut off, and the young Hydra qnits 
 its attachment and goes in quest of its own maintenance. 
 
 A second generation of buds are however frequently seen on the 
 young before quitting its parent, and I have counted as many as 
 eighteen in difi'erent stages of development on one original stock. 
 Again in taking its food, it sometimes happens that the same morsel 
 will be seized upon by two Hydra, when a struggle for the prey 
 ensues, in which the strongest gains the victory. Sometimes each 
 will begin to swallow the same morsel, until the mouths of the pair 
 come in actual contact, when if the morsel does not break, the larger 
 deliberately swallows his opponent, sometimes partially, so as to 
 compel the discharge of the food by the smaller, but frequently the 
 entire polyp is engulfed. But Hydra is no fit food for Hydra, and 
 his capacity for endurance saves him from a living tomb, for after a 
 time when the food is sucked out of his mouth, the sufferer is dis- 
 gorged with no other loss than his dinner. 
 
 Yet perhaps the greatest curiosity is in the reproduction of its parts. 
 Split one open and the separate parts will soon take food, and in 
 twenty-four hours are as perfect as ever. 
 
 Strange as it may seem all these processes can be watched with 
 unerring certainty, and so interesting are the developments, that I 
 always dislike to close the scene, though aching eyes will at length 
 gain the mastery. 
 
 TRICHINA SPIRALIS. 
 
 As the Trichina Spiralis is an animalcule liable to infest man to 
 his injury, and often a disease of swine, rendering the pork dangerous 
 to the consumer, I have selected it as of peculiar interest. It is a 
 small spiral worm, like a pin worm, which has ever been found now 
 and then in muscles of various animals. It is supposed by some to 
 originate in the rat, and to have been from them spread over the 
 country as they gained a foothold, as it is often found in their mus- 
 cles, and frequently in those of cats that devour them. How it comes 
 to infest pork is uncertain, but probably by their food, as a hog is 
 none too particular upon what it feeds, and might eat portions of rats 
 or any other dead animal. 
 
 The immature parasites, as seen in muscle under the microscope, 
 are worms about ^ of an inch in length, spirally coiled up within 
 globular, oval, or lemon-shaped transparent cysts, which, according 
 to the length of time they have been formed, are more or less covered 
 with calcareous matter. 
 
 From various experiments I have been led to believe that after 
 they are completely covered with this calcareous concretion, sealed as 
 it were in a stone sarcophagus, that they are destroyed ; such flesh 
 containing them will not contaminate other individuals, as I have fed 
 young rats with it without effect, when they were always contaminated 
 when fed with diseased meat, in which the cysts were not calcareous, 
 though the cysts themselves are to be considered rather as abnormal- 
 i 
 
26 
 
 VERMoire Board of Ageiouitdre 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 ities, developed some little time after the larvae have reached their 
 destination, as hundreds of specimens have been seen to coexist 
 entirely free from cji-sts. 
 
 Fig. 12 shows the Trichina when thus incysted 
 in the muscles, (magnified). 
 
 The number found in any one subject varies, but 
 Leuckart estimated that one ounce of cat flesh which 
 he observed must have harbored more than 300,000 
 parasites. Even if we assume that the forty-five 
 pounds of muscle which an ordinarily healthy man 
 possesses were infested with only 50,000 Trichinae 
 to the ounce, they would still contain more than 
 thirty millions. 
 
 The ad;iilt Trichina magnified 
 is shown in Fig. 13. 
 
 The sexually mature male 
 Trichina, according to Cobbold, 
 is about tV of an inch long, while the adult female 
 is i ; the body is rounded and slender, and the 
 head very narrow and sharply pointed. The mode 
 of reproduction is viviparous. The muscular par- 
 asite, when introduced, into the alimentary canal 
 of man or animal, is set free in the process of di- 
 gestion, and in two days' time reaches the adult 
 condition. Leuckart states that in six days more 
 the female brings forth a numerous brood of mi- 
 nute hairlike larvae ; these soon begin their wanderings by piercing 
 the intestinal walls, after which they proceed through the system till 
 they reach the muscles, into which they penetrate ; here they develop 
 so that in two weeks more, that is, in about three weeks from the 
 time the infested food was taken, they present the appearance of the 
 ordinary muscular Trichina Spiralis, as shown in Fig. 12. 
 
 The sexually mature worms probably produce more than one brood 
 of j'oung^ they have been found alive in the intestines eight weeks 
 after the injestion of the flesh in which they were contained. The 
 larvae remain in the muscles they have reached, and shortly become 
 encysted as heretofore mentioned. Smoking the meat does not kill 
 the parasites it contains ; brine, if A'ery strong and long applied, 
 probably does ; thorough cooking certainly does. Time also has its 
 effect on them, though they are endowed with wonderful vitality. In 
 some healthy subjects who died from accident, the larvae and their 
 inclosing cysts have been found to have undergone calcareous degen- 
 eration ; but it is probably months, and even years, before death of 
 the parasite occurs ; in illustration of which, Virchow states that in 
 one case he found them alive eight, and in another thirteen and a 
 half years after infection. 
 
 When a person is infected, which infection usuall}' takes place from 
 eating partiallj' cooked sausages or raw bacon, in three or four days 
 there is lassitude, depression, sleeplessness, loss of appetite, and fever. 
 Then there supervenes excessive pain in the muscles, especially of 
 the limbs, contractions of the knee and elbow, sweUing of the limbs 
 with apparent pneumonia, and frequently mania with death. 
 
MiCKOSCOPic Revelations. 27 
 
 On postmortem examinations, the muscles are found crowded with 
 the parasites, and to be in a state of fatty degeneration. If they 
 recover, after three or four weeks of the same symptoms, with less 
 severity, convalescence commences, and in six or eight weeks more 
 tlie patient is quite well, and the encysted Trichinae seem to give 
 him no further trouble. The virulence of the attack seems to depend 
 considerably on the number of parasites introduced into the patient's 
 stomach, yet the previous constitution and strength of the patient, 
 has much to do with final recovery. 
 
 The true safeguard is to eat no pork unless thoroughly cooked, yet 
 microscopic examination will reveal the disease, even if ever so small a 
 section of a muscle be examined, and it should be incumbent upon 
 all butchers here, as iu Germany, to make such examination, and 
 they should be punished here, as there, for selling Trichinaeous meat. 
 
 For this time I will present no further microscopic wonders. What 
 I have said is sufficient to show you, that around us all exist immense 
 fields of study, easy of access, and yet pregnant with wonderful facts, 
 with but few of which we are as yet conversant. 
 
 "Has any seen 
 The mighty chain of beings, lessening down 
 From infinite perfection to the brink 
 Of dreary nothing?" 
 
 Until we have, let us be ever ready to grasp truth, wherever found, 
 and lend idle hours to investigation. 
 
REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST 
 
 CURATOK STATE CABINET OF NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 To his Eaxellency, Horace Fairbanks, 
 
 Governor of Vermont : 
 
 Sir — I have the honor to submit the following report upon the con- 
 dition of the collections in the several departments of the State Cabi- 
 net of Natural History for the years 1877, and 1878 : 
 
 The collections constituting the " State Cabinet," with the excep- 
 tion of a portion of the Thompson collection, that have been ruined 
 by the unavoidable dampness of the room, are in good condition, 
 though the limited amount of space prevents their proper classifica- 
 tion and arrangement. The older collection of minerals should be re- 
 labelled to correspond with the recent changes in nomenclature adopted 
 by our best mineralogists, but the limited appropriation has thus far 
 made such change impossible. We trust soon to be able to accom- 
 plish it. This change will make the geological collection much more 
 valuable to the student, and at the same time more available to the 
 people who visit the museum for comparisons, as well as to the casual 
 observer. 
 
 The mineralogical collection consists of from eighteen to twenty 
 thousand specimens, including additions, many of which possess rare 
 value, as showing the geological structure of the State, and the forms 
 under which its minerals are usually found. 
 
 Noticeable in the collection of fossils is the Fossil Whale, (Beluga 
 Vermontana,) found in Charlotte, Vt., in August, 1849, during the 
 excavation for the Rutland & Burlington Railroad. It was found in 
 blue clay, lying from ten to fourteen feet below the surface, the head 
 almost four feet higher than the tail. Its length is about fourteen 
 feet, and what is very remarkable is that it is more nearly allied to 
 the living than fossil species, thus presenting an almost insurmounta- 
 ble argument in support of the quite recent submergence of the valley 
 of Lake Champlain beneath the ocean. (For full description, see 
 Geology of Vt., page 162, or the Appendix of Thompson's Nat. Hist, 
 of Vermont.) 
 
 Also fossil tusks, tooth and bones of an elephant found at Mt. 
 Holly, (see page 933 of the Geology,) as well as fossil fruits and 
 seeds found at Brandon, and the usual Champlain fossils found in the 
 valley of that lake. 
 
30 Vermont BoAKb of Agricttltoke. 
 
 Nearly one hundred specimens of polished Vermont marble show 
 the variety and excellence of the marbles of the State to be unsur- 
 passed on the continent. 
 
 INDIAN RELICS. 
 
 Some twelve hundred Indian relics, all kinds included, belong to 
 the collection, but only four or five hundred of the best are displayed 
 in the case. Dr. J. M. Currier, of Castleton, presented a large col- 
 lection of fragments of Indian work to the Cabinet last year, for want 
 of room only a few are put on exhibition. Our collection consists of 
 arrow points, pestles, boiling stones, knives, gouges, hoes, &c., as 
 usually found ; and quite a number of the peculiar tubes from the In- 
 dian burying ground in Swanton. They are of a drab color, doubt- 
 less made of clay and sand, and baked, some of them very hard, while 
 others are baked harder on one side than the other, with now and 
 then one quite soft. Perhaps forty in all have been found, one half 
 of which are still in Vermont. Of the use the Indians put them to, 
 we are in doubt. By one accustomed to blow the old fashioned stage 
 horn they can be blown as a horn, and the noise they make is so 
 similar to the call of a moose for its mate, that many suppose them 
 intended for that purpose, as by their use the moose could doubtless 
 be captured with ease. 
 
 Other articles from the graves mentioned are also on exhibition, 
 and those who desire a full description will find the same in the 
 " Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of 
 Science," of 1873, in an exhaustive article written by Prof. Geo. H. 
 Perkins, of Burlington. 
 
 FISH AND REPTILES. 
 
 This collection is the " Thompson" collection of Vermont fishes, 
 described in his " Natural History of Vermont." The dampness of 
 the State House is fast destroying them. This dampness originates 
 during the period of nearly two years that intervenes without artificial 
 heat of anj' kind being introduced into the house. The same injury 
 is apparent in every room in the fli'st story, and is injuring the house 
 as well as the specimens in the Cabinet. 
 
 Our iish commissioners propose to furnish specimens of all the food 
 fishes of Vermont, as soon as the State provides place for them, which, 
 I trust, our next Legislature will do. 
 
 Additional room is also needed for arrangement and classification 
 of the reptiles. Specimens, however, are thankfully received, as they 
 can be preserved in alcohol until put on exhibition. 
 
 BOTANY. 
 
 The specimens of the grasses, sedges, &c., of Vermont, presented 
 by Z. E. Jameson, are still in the Cabinet, and will be shown to those 
 that wish to examine them, but as they are liable to damage are not 
 on public exhibition. 
 
 INSECTS. 
 
 About one thousand specimens of Vermont insects are on exhibition. 
 All new or peculiar insects are desired, and may be sent by mail as 
 
Report of State Geologist. 31 
 
 heretofore. We would present thanks to those that have kindly 
 contributed. 
 
 BIRDS. 
 
 About seventy-flve specimens have been added since my last report. 
 Our collection now contains most of our Vermont birds. Many be- 
 longing to the "Thompson Collection," not being properly prepared, 
 have gone to decay, and have been replaced by new specimens as far 
 as possible. Some three hundred species are represented by nearly 
 four hundred specimens. It is still advisable that more should be 
 added and that both male and female should be represented. To 
 this end I shall collect as fast as possible. 
 
 ELGIN MARBLES. 
 
 In the drawers of the case, under the Indian relics, may be seen 
 some casts of some of the celebrated Elgin marbles in the British Mu- 
 seum. This collection of ancient sculpture shows the highest devel- 
 opment of Greek art in its maturity. As types of beauty they have 
 never been surpassed, and the}' afford models of form, which have 
 been used on vases and superb pottery to the present time, and these 
 forms are so perfect that modern art has never even equalled them. 
 The casts here seen are mostly from the frieze around the interior 
 space in the Parthenon, and represent the combat of the Centaurs, 
 the Panatheniac procession, the procession of cattle for sacrifice, and 
 the various races and games of the times when they were made. 
 They are in low relief, and represent some of the most perfect sculp- 
 ture in the entire collection, which collection cost Lord Elgin fifty 
 thousand pounds sterling, and was sold by him to the British govern- 
 ment for thirty -five thousand pounds, and is now valued as the rich- 
 est collection of sculpture in the world. 
 
 GEOLOGICAL WORK. 
 
 Having been called upon a number of times since my last report to 
 make examinations of special localities, I would, for want of space, 
 simply say that no great value of mineral worth has been found. 
 
 The Slate Quarry belonging to Charles T. Sabin of Montpelier, has 
 also been surveyed, and finding it of a very superior quality, I 
 thougt a few facts in relation to the same would be of interest. It is 
 situated on the line of the Montpelier & Wells River, also Central 
 Vermont railroad, the outcrops of slate forming the hill next bej'ond 
 Seminary Hill, from the village. Tracing the probable extent of the 
 slate by the outcrops, we have no doubt but that at least seventy-five 
 acres can be easily available. The outcrops are about 136 feet above 
 the valley below, thus easily supplying an inexhaustible amount of 
 slate above the line of easy drainage, and the vallej' also furnishes 
 ample room for the refuse material. Mr. Sabin has opened this 
 quarry about half way up the hillside, and from the very first the 
 slate has split with good rift, and perfectly flat. The slate taken 
 from the quarry at this time is very tough, and can be split in tablets 
 two feet square and one eighth of an inch in thickness. It is of a 
 dark rich color that does not fade, is even in shade, very free from 
 iron pyrites, and in every way a good slate for roofing purposes. 
 
32 Vermont Board of AcaacuiTDRE. 
 
 XJNITBD SIATBS COAST SDRVBT. 
 
 I am happy to state that the "United States Coast Survey," 
 through your application, is to allow a portion of the appropriation 
 for the execution of the Geodetic triangulation of said survey to the 
 State of Vermont. 
 
 I trust that by the aid of our State or her people, in erecting the 
 proper signals in every town, that has a high hill, or mountain, that 
 at least one point in each town may be fixed by the survey. 
 
 Agreeable to the law, I took pleasure in recommending the ap- 
 pointment of Prof. Volney G-. Barber, of the University of Vermont, 
 to take charge of, and execute the survey in this State. As the exe- 
 cution of the survey will be placed in able hands we expect the best 
 results. 
 
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT. 
 
 Our special thanks are due to many that have aided ua in saving 
 various specimens of natural history, by sending them to us by ex- 
 press or mail, or writing us about them, so we could look after them. 
 Our thanks in behalf of the State, and more especially of those inter- 
 ested in science, are due to the railroads, for their favors, in transpor- 
 tation, and otherwise. 
 
 From them we have received suitable accommodations for work in 
 hand ; and in behalf of those interested in science, we express to one 
 and all, that have aided our work, appreciative thanks, for favors. 
 It would only be just to the donors, and a pleasure to us, did we 
 have space granted in our report, to mention the name at least, of 
 every one aiding by donation or otherwise the increase of our collec- 
 tion : but such space not being allowable we can only express in a 
 general way what we should be glad to make personal. 
 
 I am respectfully yours, 
 
 HIRAM A. CUTTING, 
 
 State Geologist and Curator State Cabinet. 
 
 Lunenburgh, Vt., Sept. 3, 1878. 
 
NOTES 
 
 ON 
 
 BUILDING STONES 
 
 ALSO ON 
 
 PLANT GROWTH, 
 
 HIRAM A. CUTTING, A. M., Ph. D., 
 
 State Geologist, Vermont. 
 
 MONTPELIER, VT.; 
 
 FREEMAN STEAM PRINTING HOUSE AND BINDERY. 
 1880. 
 
BUILDING STONES. 
 
 WEIGHT, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, RATIO OF ABSORPTION. 
 AND CAPABILITIES OF STANDING HEAT OF VARIOUS 
 BUILDING STONES. 
 
 By HIRAM A. CUTTING, Ph. D., State Geologist, Vermont. 
 
 Having during the past pear instituted and carried out a series of 
 experiments to ascertain as near as possible the capabilities of the 
 various materials used in the construction of so-called fire-proof 
 buildings to stand heat, I submit in tabulated form the result of 
 such experiments, hoping they may be of use to the architects, 
 quarrymen and insurance companies of our country, and also of 
 some interest to others. 
 
 In connection with the capabilities of the various building stones 
 to stand fire and water, I have taken their specific gravity and 
 weight per cubic foot, so that the identity of the various stones 
 could at any time be compared, and if in the working of a quarry 
 there was a change in gravity, or weignt, that it could be easily de- 
 tected, and thus all who choose could know whether the tests given 
 would apply or not. 
 
 I have procured sample specimens of the most important build- 
 ing stones in the United States and Canada, and after dressing 
 them into as regular form as possible, three by four inches, and two 
 inches in thickness, I have taken their ratio of absorption, which 
 ratio I have expressed in units of weight, according to the amount 
 of water taken up. If 450 units of stone absorbed one unit of 
 water, I have expressed it Ihus: 1+450, meaning that the stone 
 weighed 450 units when immersed, and 451 when taken from the 
 water. 
 
 To accelerate the process of absorption, I have placed the speci- 
 mens in water under the exhausted receiver of an air pump. I find 
 that in this way as much water is absorbed in a few minutes as in 
 1 
 
days of soaking. When specimens were removed from the water, I 
 have before weighing, dried their outside with blotting paper. 
 
 In relation to the specific gravity, I have not followed Gilmore's 
 rule in full. He weighed the specimens in aii', immersed them in 
 water, and allowed them to remain until bubbling had ceased and 
 then weighed them in water, after which he took them from the 
 water, dried them- outside with bibulous paper, and weighed them 
 again in air. From this last weight he subtracted the weight in 
 water, dividing the dry weight by the difference. 
 
 This gave a specific gravity subject to two sources of error. I 
 have followed the more frequent custom of weighing the dry stone, 
 using pieces of two or three pounds in weight, and then immersing 
 them in water. After the usual saturation I have taken their weight 
 in water, subtracting it from the dry weight in air, and then divid- 
 iag the dry weight by the difference. This gives the specific gravity 
 of the rock itself, as usually found, which is what we desire, and I 
 beUeve as it would usually be in buildings constructed of the given 
 material. The specimens were previously dried by long exposure 
 to a temperature not exceeding 200 degrees Fah. To verify this I 
 have taken specimens from the quarries direct, and after weighing, 
 have brushed them over with paraffine dissolved in naphtha, weigh- 
 ing them again so as to ascertain the exact amount of paraffine, 
 which made no visible change in the stone, other than to keep out 
 water. I have then weighed in the usual way, and thus obtained the 
 exact specific gravity of the stone as in the quarry, and I find my 
 method, used as stated, to give the best results, and so have adopted 
 it. 
 
 After this I have placed them in a charcoal furnace, the heat of 
 which was shown by a standard pyrometer. In many instances I 
 have placed them side by side with dry specimens, but have been 
 unable to note any marked difference in the action of heat, beyond 
 this, that the dry specimens became sooner heated. I have, however, 
 no doubt that the capacity of a stone to absorb water is against its 
 durability, even in warm climates, and vastly more so in the change- 
 able and wintry climate of New England. It is here often frozen 
 before any considerable part of the moisture from autumn rains 
 can be evaporated. , 
 
 When the specimens were heated to 600 -degrees Fah., I have im- 
 mersed them in water, also immersing others, or the same, if unin- 
 jured, at varying temperatures up to 800 and 900 degrees, that is, if 
 they are not spoiled at less temperatures. I find that all these 
 samples of building stones have stood heat without damage up to 
 
500 degrees. At 600 degrees, a few are injured ; but the injury in 
 many cases commences at or near that point. When cooled without 
 immersion, they appear to the eye to be injured less, but are ready 
 to crumble, and I think they are many times nearly as much im- 
 paired, and always somewhat injured, where water produces any in- 
 
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 i would remark that my experiments with granite show that there 
 is quite a raiige iri their capability of standing heat — a range, in fact, 
 much greater than I anticipated. With the sandstones the differ' 
 ence is also marked as is their power of absorption. When exposed 
 to heat wet, they show a marked difference in the time required to 
 heat them, the saturated ones seeming to resist the heat for a time ( 
 but when equally hot they crumble the same as those not previously 
 saturated. Their relative worth can be seen by the tables. The con- 
 glomerates stand heat badly while the limestones and marbles stand 
 best of all (up to the point where they by continued heat are chang- 
 ed to quicklime), except soapstone, and a species of artificial stone 
 made under the McMurtire & Chamberlain patent. 
 
 The indications are from this and other samples that it may be 
 possible to make an artificial stone cheaper and better for fire-proof 
 buildings than our native quai-ries furnish, and we hope this possibil- 
 ity may receive attention. But comments are useless, as the facts 
 set forth in the tables speak for themselves. 
 
CURIOSITIES OF PLANT GROWTH 
 
 AND THE AVORTH OF SUCH OBSERVATIONS TO THE 
 
 FARMER. 
 
 By Dr. HIRAM A. CUTTING, State Geologist. 
 
 It has been ascertained by a multitude of observations, that the 
 plants which we meet in every section and which become so familiar 
 to every person, while they are in most instances rooted in the soil, 
 derive 95 per cent, or more, of their actual weight from the atmos- 
 phere. While the food derived by the plant from this atmosphere is 
 beyond our control, the small portion of its food derived from the 
 soil is of very great importance, as a proper condition of the soil is 
 always necessary to enable the plants which are of the greatest value 
 to man to take such an amount of food from the atmosphere as to 
 bring them to a perfect maturity. To thus adapt the soil, so as to 
 enable the plant to perfect itself and thus give a more vigorous off- 
 spring, is the science of agriculture. To perfect ourselves in that 
 science we must be observers of nature, and then turn our own ob- 
 servations, or the observations made by others to account. We all 
 know that plants grow, and that vegetable growth is the develop- 
 ment of the several parts of a plant, according to a definite, pre-de- 
 tei-mined plan, as regards general form, size and other characteristics 
 of the species under consideration. We further know, that that con- 
 dition is the result of an active, inherent force called life. When we 
 by aid of high magnifying power seek that force, or that principle, of 
 life, to our view it is presented to us as a cell, and when we magnify 
 further we find that cell of growth contains a substance which is 
 called protoplasm, of which I shall speak by-and-by. 
 
 Thus we find that whether animal or vegetable, the first origin of 
 life is a simple cell. This is in fact fully shown by the microscope, 
 yet when Dr. Wm. Harvey of England-first announced this fact in 
 1650, and also that blood circulated in the arterial system of all the 
 animal creation, instead of air, which was previously supposed to 
 permeate our system as it does the bodies of birds, it was viewed 
 with astonishment by all, and doubted by many. From this begin- 
 ning the true principles of circulation have been shown to originate 
 
in the germ, or cell, whether animal or vegetable, and on that circu- 
 lation the growth depends. Harvey commenced his observations on 
 embryology by observing the development of the embryo in eggs, 
 which he kept for the purpose under a setting hen in the chamber of 
 a friend. For more than 200 years this study has received the at- 
 tention of scientific men, some devotees observing embryol develop- 
 ment in many thousand cases, yet all have failed in the main points, 
 though much has been learned. If the inquiry into the origin of 
 life is so baffled concerning the changes which occur in the almost 
 transparent material of an egg, out of which the varying organs and 
 fluids of the complete animal are developed, can we expect success 
 when we attempt the study of the reproduction, and growth of plants ? 
 The hardness and opacity of the seeds, the complex chemical consti- 
 tution, and exceeding simplicity of its cellular tissue, within whose 
 secret chambers the processes of vegetation are carried on, all con- 
 spire to discourage and b'ewilder the investigator. 
 
 Some seeds retain their vital energies but a few hours, as the 
 seeds of the willow, while others retain that vitality for centuries, 
 like the wild cherry, or even our cultivated wheat. If two ripe seeds 
 from the catkin of a willow are taken, and one placed in suitable 
 earth, and the other in a diy room, both change rapidly. In 12 hours 
 the one in earth is ready to burst its integuments, and in 18 it is 
 sending its roots downward according to the law of gravitation, but 
 its plumule, or stalk, upwards, towards light and air, in opposition 
 to the same law. Yet the difference is so sHght in the willow, that 
 after the stem of the tree is formed, it may be inverted, and its 
 limbs nourish the roots, which send forth leaves. Then re-inverted 
 with the same result, not only once each year, but once in from 4 to 
 6 weeks, the entire growing season. Of our other seed, in a few 
 hours it has lost its vitality without much apparent change. If now 
 placed in the earth it absorbs moisture as before, but only to hasten 
 its decay, as from some unknown cause that germ known as life has 
 departed. 
 
 Our growing willow increases in size until autumn. Its leaves 
 then fall, but not from cold, but because a period of rest is needed, 
 similar in some respects to the hibernation of animals. This annual 
 cessation of growth is essential to the health of most species, yet in 
 some, like the orange or lemon, it is not so apparent. From this 
 requirement, more than any other, the failuie to blossom arises in 
 our hot-house plants, because that period of rest, either from cold 
 in northern sections, or from drouth in tropical countries, is not 
 given them. During that period of rest most trees contain less 
 
13 
 
 water, or sap, and seem to harden in all their tissues. But what is 
 this growth of which we have spoken, and as we shall show in our 
 most fragile plants, so considered, is capable of raising tons ? Of 
 course it is from the nourishment received in some way by the plant, 
 and it requires only limited .observation to decide that it must in the 
 main be through the rootlets and annual leaves ; as the animal takes 
 food through its mouth, so does the plant through its little rootlets, 
 some too small even to be seen by the naked eye. As the animal 
 breathes so does the plant, in a manner peculiar to itself through its 
 leaves, which have large numbers of stomata, or breathing pores, 
 usually most numerous on the under side. The leaf of the lilac has 
 none on the upper surface, but as many as one hundred and fifty 
 thousand to every square inch of its under surface. These breath- 
 ing pores are so constructed that when the atmosphere is dry they 
 nearly close, and open wide when it is damp, but always remain shut 
 except under the stimulus of light. Thus a tree in dry weather, by 
 keeping these pores shut, retains the water otherwise evaporated 
 from the sap through the leaf, and thus prevents drying up and 
 cracking ; but its growth is also checked, as it is through the leaf 
 that the excess of water is disposed of, and the valuable plant food 
 taken up as dissolved by the water, retained, and appropriated to 
 cellular growth. 
 
 In regard to the size of these vegetable cells, it is difficult to ob- 
 tain a correct conception, unless the reader is conversant with the 
 use of the microscope. In every cubic inch of maple wood, for ex- 
 ample, there are doubtless no less than one hundred millions of cells 
 of the varioas tissues. Tas average diameter of plant cells is usually 
 less than one four-hundredth of an inch, and even the ducts or con- 
 tinuous tubes are not usually much larger, and are often much small- 
 er than this. Prof. Gray says, " that in these tubes, in basswood, 
 which is one of our less compact woods, that sap must pass through 
 2,000 partitions in every inch of its ascent." In this way it must in 
 an ordinary tree pass milHons of such membranous walls in passing 
 from the rootlet that takes it in to the topmost leaf by which the 
 moisture may be exhaled. The vegetable kingdom was created for 
 evident purpose, as on that depends not only all the food, but all the 
 vital air, which is indispensable to animal life. Every growing plant 
 is a machine, converting mineral matter into digestive substances, 
 which may be eaten, and nourish various animals, and at the same 
 tirae exhaling continually under the stimulus of sunlight, from its 
 myriads of stomata, pure vapor of water and oxygen gas, indispens- 
 able to the life of all animals. Why do not ungrateful persons con- 
 
14 
 
 sider this wonderful work of the Creator 1 But this is not a!l, ae 
 the plant gives food to man, and an atmosphere on which his life de- 
 pends, it takes substances deleterious to the animal from the atmos- 
 phere, appropriatiug them to its own use. The substance taken 
 chiefly is carbonic acid gas ; this is absorbed by the green parts of 
 the plant through pores for the purpose, and nearly one half of the 
 weight of dry vegetable matter is thus obtained. 
 
 Vegetable growth, as derived from the two sources named, is an 
 increase in size and weight, in consequeuce of the multiplication and 
 enlargement of cells, and occurs chiefly in the vicinity of the cam- 
 bium layer, so called, which in the growing ssason envelops every 
 root, stem and branch between the wood and bark, and permeates 
 between the two outside layers of every leaf. The mode of this cell 
 development has been carefully studied by the aid of the micro- 
 scope, and may best be observed in aquatic plants. 
 
 The vital fluid, corresponding somewhat to the blood of animals, 
 and existing in every growing vegetable cell, is called protoplasm. 
 This is usually thin, and sometimes nearly colorless, and encloses a 
 minute globule, called a nucleus, which often contains other nuclei 
 more minute. The contents of each ceU show motion, usually cir- 
 cular, within its walls. The contents of adjoining cells frequently 
 having motion in opposite direction. There are two general modes 
 of growth. In simple plants, it is common for the protoplasm to 
 gather itself in two portions within the parent cell, and develop a 
 nucleus membrane for each. These young cells then grow, burst or 
 absorb the membrane of the original cell, thus becoming independent. 
 In all our 'higher plants a different process is observed. The proto- 
 plasm first begins to contract in the central portion, and thus divides 
 or develops a new protoplasm, for the cell about to be formed. Each 
 portion then grows, the new cell repeating the process. Thus the 
 plant goes on increasing both above and below the ground. 
 
 In a growing plant the cells are first formed at the tip of the stem 
 and subdivision there goes on during the period of growth ; but it is 
 believed that all vegetable material is primaiily formed in the leaves, 
 or green parts, of ordinaiy plants, and then passes, by circulation, 
 to the point of growth. If so, it is of course transferred in liquid 
 form, but just the process is as yet hidden from human eye. We, 
 however, are led by reason, to admit that life as developed in the 
 plant is a molecular force, capable of exerting great power. In- 
 crease of wood cells may sometimes take place under great pressure, 
 as in my native town 1 have visited, fi-equently, a large yellow birch 
 that rests upon a big rock, sending its roots down to the soil for 
 
15 
 
 nourishment, and annually producing its regular growth ; yet the 
 whole tree, which must weigh at least four tons, is raised as regu- 
 larly the thickness of the grain of new growth formed upon those 
 roots, each year, which is about a quarter of an inch. Since my ob- 
 servations commenced upon it, the entire tree has thus been raised 
 four inches. This in no way interferes with the statement of facts 
 made by Prof. Asa Gray, and other eminent botanists, that two points 
 in a vertical line on the trunk of a tree will not separate as the trunk 
 enlarges, as no tree is raised by its growth more than half the di- 
 ameter of the roots, and only thus, when a tree stands upon a solid 
 foundation. When therefore, any writer asserts, as has often been, 
 that carving or letters made by him years before, are high above his 
 reach, it has no foundation in fact. 
 
 The following illustrations show this point more fully: At Walton 
 Hall, in England, in 1833, was to be seen a filbert tree, the seed of 
 which was plante;] in ths central hole of a millstone in 1812. This 
 tree had grown until it had completely filled the hole in the stone, 
 and standing upon a rock beneath, its growth then raised the mill- 
 stone full 2 inches from the ground. In Middlesex, Vt., there now 
 stands an elm beside the highway, with a large rock beneath it, and 
 a rock weighing some 30 pounds, (which was doubtless rolled against 
 the tree'when young) imbedded in the tree, and raised nearly four 
 inches from the ground. Thus the growth of a tree raised not only 
 ts own weight but that of a foreign body by its annual growth. In 
 Concord, Vt., a spruce tree growing near a large granite boulder, 
 sent a root under it, and thus raised this boulder on the side next 
 the tree, 4 inches, though it had no other rest upon that side than 
 the root which grew between that and the rock beneath. The amount 
 of stone raised by this root is not less than 5 tons. From the above 
 examples it is clearly demonstrated that the power of vegetable 
 growth can lift not only trees but the additional weight of large 
 stones, whenever the roots cannot be depressed in the soil by reason 
 of having a solid substance benea th them. 
 
 But we will now consider this power in smaller plants. It is a 
 well known fact that beans, corn and other vegetables, wiU lift a con- 
 siderable weight in coming up through the ground, providing they 
 meet with such obstmction as a stone or lump of dried dirt. Mush- 
 rooms have great lifting power, and sometimes raise door steps and 
 arge flagging stone j. Recently in*Worcester, England, a gentleman 
 noticing a lirge stone in his walk raised somewhat, sent for the po- 
 lice, thinking burglars had been at work. The stone was taken up 
 
16 
 
 and the rogues were discovei-ed in the shape of three giant mush- 
 rooms, which had raised at least about 80 pounds. 
 
 But the expansive power of vegetable growth has been more fully 
 illustrated by Prof. W. S. Clark of Amherst, Mass., who has grown 
 a squash in harness, or in other words, when subjected to a pressure 
 of over 4,000 pounds. This squash after obtaining its growth under 
 immense pressure, (commencing its life under a pressure of 60 
 pounds, which was gradually increased to upwards of 4,000) weigh- 
 ed 47 pounds. This is not only proof positive of the great power 
 of vegetable growth, but certainly shows a great capability of exer- 
 tion under difficulties, which might be a comparative lesson even for 
 man. 
 
 Another capability of vegetation, often overlooked, is the immense 
 expansion of root. 
 
 With a few exceptions from the first development of the plant the 
 roots tend downwards, seemingly in accordance with the laws of 
 gravitation, until from their need of food, or otherwise from the 
 compact nature of the soil, or from rocks, they expand in all direc- 
 tions. Their growth is in great part by lengthening, and very slow- 
 ly in size. The point of growth in a root is not, as in a twig, at the 
 very end, but a short distance from it, perhaps in our common culti- 
 vated plants about one- sixth of an inch. In transplanting trees this 
 end is quite likely to be broken off, and if so the root broken never 
 extends itself ; hence may be seen the absolute necessity, (if you 
 would have your trees thrive well), of transplanting with care, and 
 as such growth continues in a direct line, unless some obstruction 
 turns it one side, you can see the necessity of straightem'ng out and 
 thus directing the rootlets of the tree you transplant, as by so doing 
 you will forward its growth, by one-half, for the first five years, at 
 least. 
 
 In a large tree and, in fact, with most plants, not all that branch- 
 ing portion beneath the ground are true roots ; they are subdivisions 
 of the stem to hold it erect, or in a solid position. The nourish- 
 ment is in the main received from the rootlets that are no larger than 
 knitting needles, and smaller. 
 
 It is an erroneous opinion with those who think that nourishment 
 is only taken in at the end of the rootlet, for none is there taken, 
 but it is taken all the way its entire length, unless it is old and cov- 
 ered with a bark quite like the jmrt above ground. The rootlets 
 that assimilate food when examined by a microscope are seen cover- 
 ed with minute hairs, which are tubular elongations of the external 
 root cells, and are all bo many mouths to fcupply the plant with 
 
17 
 
 proper nourishment. They are in reality innumerable, or, in other 
 words, beyond the power of the human mind to comprehend their 
 number. Their length is also simply beyond computation. 
 
 The root of the elm has been dug out of the soil in its healthy 
 state 40 feet below the surface. I have seen the roots of a maple 
 tree which stood 65 feet from a grave, which was 5 1-2 feet deep, and 
 where the burial had taken place 15 years before, not only enclose 
 the coffin with hundreds of rootlets, but to completely fill it with a 
 network of the fibrous rootlets no larger than ordinary threads. Of 
 course all the remains the coffin formerly contained had been stolen 
 away to make up the tree growth. Clover roots have frequently been 
 washed out of a sandy soil on the banks of streams in New England 
 from 4 to 9 feet in length. Parsnips have been dug out of alluvial 
 soil in California, 14 feet long, and by Mr. Dixon of Riven Hall, 
 England, 13 1-2 feet long. Of the two last named plants, the roots 
 run perpendicular into the soil. 
 
 Many supposed cases of fossil wood, found 40 or 50 feet below 
 the surface, are shown by the microscope to be roots of trees vege- 
 tating on the surface. Such supposed fossils were a few y^ars ago 
 found 35 feet beneath the surface at Burlington, Vt., but by recent 
 examination I find these fossils, so called, to be elm roots. But this 
 seemingly incredible length of root in this section is not only doubled 
 but even twice as long in warmer countries. In India, roots of plants 
 and trees are frequently dug up for economical purposes, to the 
 depth of 60 or 70 feet, and in South America, even deeper, without 
 in either case reaching the end of the roots. Elm roots have been 
 known in Randolph, Vt., to obstruct an aqueduct for conveying water 
 370 feet from the tree, and it has recently been stated in an Eno-lish 
 agricultural paper, that a tile drain was obstructed by the roots of 
 an elm 450 feet from the trunk of the tree. 
 
 The rootlets of Indian corn may be found any season on good 
 soil from 4 to 10 feet fi'om the plant, and in my cornfield this year 
 with hills 4 feet apart each way, when you look 1 inch below the 
 surface you cannot find a cubic inch in the field which is not perme- 
 ated with the rootlets for at least 10 inches in depth. This demon- 
 strates fully the folly of using phosphate or any other fertihzer in 
 the hill, for you cannot hide it in your field where the rootlets will 
 not find it ; and how much better to have your plants find a regular 
 supply for the season, and consequently mature the fruit, than to be 
 stimulated into a rapid growth the first part of the season to be 
 blighted for want of nourishment when maturing fruit. If I put but 
 100 pounds of phosphate or other concentrated manure upon an 
 
18 
 
 acre, I should sow it broadcast, as by so doing your plants find a 
 regular supply for the season, and not an excessive one for a short 
 time, which, when exhausted, leaves the plant in a worse condition 
 than it would have been if it had never had it. I have spoken of 
 com, but other plants have similar rootlets and are subject to the 
 same laws ; as shown by Prof. Clark of Amherst, the roots of the 
 squash have a length almost incredible, as one grown in a hot house 
 box by him had an aggregate length of over 2,000 feet. 
 
 It is well understood by all that the water and plant food taken 
 up by the rootlets circulates as sap through the tree and as in the 
 animal a life principle is necessary, for that circulation, yet just how 
 it is accomplished is a mystery. I shall lay down no regular rule 
 for nature to work by ; as I belieije that the circulation of sap in all 
 plants may not be produced in the same manner ; I shall speak of 
 observations made by myself, and others, illustrative of facts in such 
 circulation in plants and trees most familiar to all. In 1720 Rev. 
 Stephen Hales, of England, observing a grape vine bleeding 
 abundantly, and fearing injury endeavored to stop the flow by tying 
 a piece of bladder over it. This was forcibly distended, and he at- 
 tached a gauge and by a series of experiments determined that the 
 pressure from the end of a grape vine would equal the pressure of 
 a column of water 43 feet high. Almost all writers on plant growth 
 since that time have said something about this experiment, but a 
 large majority have spoken of this vine as an exception to the pres- 
 sure exerted generally in sap cii-culation in different plants. 
 
 Led by the great flow of maple sap in 1853 to investigate spe- 
 cially the sugar maple, I found that by screwing a stop cock, ^vith a 
 pipe attached, into a tree that the sap would rise in the tube to the 
 top of the highest branch on the tree subjected to the experiment, 
 and sometimes a few inches higher. Finding also thatthe propor- 
 tionate amount of sap discharged was according to the height above 
 the tapping, as though the sap stood on pressure in the tree, I was 
 led to examine farther into the circulation and found, after freezing, 
 a microscopic change in the sap wood, showing rupture of the mem- 
 branous partitions and enlargement of the ducts themselves. This 
 is doubtless the result of freezing and as the outside of the tree 
 freezes first there is a pressure also exerted by the expansion of the 
 sap tending to force it in towards the centre of the tree, and a 
 greater amount of sap is found after a severe freeze in the heart 
 wood than at any other time. In this way it will be seen that the 
 sap may in reality be held in large part on pressure and leak as it 
 appears to, in the maple, from the ducts cut off in tapping, as fast 
 
19 
 
 as their capacity will admit of. The variation is however very great. 
 Dr. Williams, in his history of Vermont, says : " A man much em- 
 ployed in making maple sugar, found that for 21 days together a 
 maple tree discharged 7 1-2 gallons per day." This would make a 
 total of 157 gallons from a single tree. An American agricultural 
 journal in 1842 stated that 20 gallons of sap was drawn in 18 hours 
 from a single maple tree, 2 1-2 feel in diameter, in Warner, New 
 Hampshire; Emerson in his ''Trees of Massachusetts " mentions a 
 maple 6 feet in diameter which yielded a barrel of sap in 24 hours, 
 and of another tree that yielded 175 gallons in course of the sea- 
 son. A maple tree in this town for several years yielded on the 
 average 30 pounds of sugar, which would necessitate about 600 
 pounds of sap per annum. In 1860 the owner of the sugar place in 
 which this tree was situited mada 2,160 pounds from 200 trees and 
 the tree before mentioned produced 42 pounds. Last spring, Mr. 
 Eeed, who carries on this sugar place, though the number of trees 
 has increased by the addition of secon 1 growth trees, averaged 
 6 pounds to a tree, and a large second gt'owth tree in an open 
 field, owned by a Mr. Lamson, was tapped and the sap boiled at the 
 house, and run in small cakes for sale ; their weight was 21 pounds. 
 The sugar made in that locality is very free from the malleate of lime, 
 or sugar sand, so called, that is so common in many sections. I 
 have consequently examined the sugar place and section round about 
 and found no visible cause why maple trees should run so much 
 more sap in this special location ; yet such is a fact. I have carried 
 on some experiments elsewhere to see what fertilizing substance, if 
 any, would increase the flow and sweetness of sap. I have met 
 with signal success, and find that wood ashes vrill not only double 
 the usual amount of sap, but will make it much sweeter. To have 
 a marked effect a dozen bushels should be strewn about the tree ex- 
 tending some 5 rods from it in every direction. There need be none 
 put within 8 or 10 feet of the tree. Tuey should be put on in the 
 summer previous, but the effect is for years. Plaster of Paris also 
 will increase the flow. So will stable manure, or any other fertilizer, 
 but not as much as ashes alone. The malleate of lime, which is such 
 a bane to sugar makers, does not seem to be increased in amount by 
 fertilizing. 
 
 I have found maple sap to flow at aU seasons after sufficient cold 
 to freeze the outside grains of wood, followed by a day in which the 
 warmth would thaw the tree. During the past 25 years this has 
 taken place here as early as September 20th, and as late in the spring 
 as June 14, in which freeze the entire foliage of the maples were 
 
20 
 
 killed. The second crop of leaves came rapidly forward but were 
 about one-half the usual size. Many plants and trees when they 
 awake from their winter repose shed sap freely when punctured, and 
 by experiments carried out by Prof. Clark, president of the Massa- 
 chusetts agricultural college, it ■seems they show variety of pressure,, 
 and after a time the maple and some other trees will take in by suc- 
 tion large amounts of water which go into the circulation. In my 
 own experiment I have endeavored to have coloring material ab- 
 sorbed in this way, but with slight exceptions have failed in the at- 
 tempt, yet alkaline and brackish waters will be absorb:!d, resulting 
 in all my experiments in the death of the tree. In lelation to this 
 subject thousands of queries naturally arii's which are in the gieatei' 
 part, as I have before said, unanswere I. 
 
 The reason why the maple secreterj cane sugar, and birch grape 
 sugar, or how any sugar at all is secreted, are some of the questions 
 easily asked but not so easily raiswered. There is but a step in 
 chemistry fi'om starch to sugar, and that the elaborated sap of au- 
 tumn would contain starch, and th i fact that sidphate of lime in the 
 soil will increase the sweetness ol: the sap, leaves us a chance for 
 conjecture, that the change may be in accordance with well known 
 chemical laws ; yet just bow it is accomplished may ever remain a 
 mystery. How the sap is taken up and fuch a pressure maintained 
 by the rootlets, which at the same time have the capability of invert- 
 ing their power of work, is unknown. If a sprout from a root 
 have the root extending from it cut close to the sprout, and then 
 brought above the surface, the end cut at the sprout will not only 
 discharge sap, but convey nourishment taken from the tree through 
 other rootlets, thus showing its double action. Trees that do not 
 shed much sap, may even be inverted when of considerable size, and 
 the limbs answer as roots, and \ice versa, showing double action. 
 Some have accounted for the circulation of sap by capillary attrac- 
 tion and osmose action, as well as by various theories ; but might it 
 not be as well to allow something for the life action of the plant, as 
 to try and account for it by theories that are not only unreasonable, 
 but inefficient 1 
 
 There must be a vital action of the hfe principle of the plant in 
 some direction, or else we could not distinguish the dead from the 
 living. May it not be as with the animal to secure its food ; and may 
 not different plants, as well as different animals, feed not only on 
 different substances, but in various manners ? 
 
 The immense amount of water taken up by the rootlets, and con- 
 taining but little plant food, must be in some way expelled so the 
 
21 
 
 proper material may be used to increase the tree. This is evaporated 
 through the leaves, and it will be seen that a large tree must evapo- 
 rate hundreds of gallons every day when growing with rapidity. 
 This then affects the atmosphere, giving an excess of moisture to the 
 atmosphere in wooded countries. 
 
 There is much to study in reference not only to the flow of sap, 
 or the manner of growth of the plants we raise for the use of man, 
 but for our advantage it should be directed to the best and most 
 economical manner of giving to each plant its proper food. I am 
 now carrying on various experiments in that direction, and shall 
 be glad to correspond with any persons interested in the same subject. 
 
[From the Proceedings of llie American Association for tlie AtlTancement of Science. 
 Poi-tland Meeting, August, 1873.] 
 
 DiKECTioN OF Wind in Local Thcnder Stokms. By IIiram A. 
 Cutting, of Lunenburgh, Vermont. 
 
 In July, 1850, at Franconia, N. H., 1 was exposed in a buggy to 
 the furj' of one of those local showers that pour rain in torrents, 
 accompanied by some hail and much thunder and lightning. 
 
 As I was riding leisurely along I observed a small black cloud 
 almost directly overhead. It increased with great rapidity, and 
 in ten minutes the torrent came down. The wind was in gusts 
 from all points of the compass, demolishing my umbrella in a twink- 
 ling, leaving me to the mercy of the elements. I was drenched ' 
 in a moment and in an incredibly short space of time the body of 
 the buggy was full and overflowing, though nearly four inches in 
 height. 
 
 The roads were like rivers and everything was flooded. In 
 driving north three and one-half miles I passed entirely out of 
 the limit of the storm of hail and rain, but the wind for two miles 
 further had been violent from the south, prostrating corn and 
 some trees and blowing down one barn. The next morning I re- 
 passed the ground and found that the southern limit of the storm 
 was about six miles from its northern limit, and that at that part 
 the wind was strong from the north, doing, some damage. 
 
 In the afternoon, I visited the iron ore hill in Lisbon, which lies 
 west of the centre of the shower, and found the wind there had 
 been strong from the east. Upon my return I examined carefully 
 by the plants and trees, and by inquiry, into the direction of the 
 wind and found it upon the westerly side, in every instance direct 
 from the storin and all described it as cool, though the forenoon of 
 the day of the shower was verj' hot and sultry with so little wind, 
 that I was unable to leara its direction. 
 
51 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 
 
 As the eastern limit of the storm was towards the White Moun- 
 tain range and a wilderness, I could get no information of its extent 
 or severity, onl3' by the rise of the streams fed by it, which was 
 very great on all little streams, within or running through the 
 limit of a circle six miles in diameter. 
 
 Upon my return home to Concord, Vt., I resolved to investigate 
 fully the next storm of similar import. I soon removed to Lunen- 
 burgh, where I now reside, but saw nothing of similar storms 
 until June 80, 1856. The morning was sultry, the forenoon hot, 
 with thermometer at 98°. The wind was unsteady, but from south- 
 erly points. At about noon a dark low cumulus cloud appeared 
 in the west, which rapidly increased in size, until it hung with 
 inky blackness over the east part of Concord about five miles 
 awaj'. At noon, there was a strong breeze from the east, setting 
 directly towards this cloud and quite steady. At one o'clock 
 p. M., there was a hard gusty wind blowing directly from the 
 shower, feeling quite chilly after the forenoon heat and causing 
 the thermometer to fall in a few minutes to seventy degrees. 
 
 The cloud hung over the same place for half an hour longer, 
 when it became lighter and was soon broken up in fragments and 
 ■ dissipated. During the afternoon, small showers came up round 
 about and at three it rained slightly at Lunenburgh. 
 
 The next morning, hearing reports from the hail storm, I went 
 to the field of disaster. I found the storm of great severit3' but of 
 limited extent, being all within the radius of one-half mile. When 
 within a mile of the storm there were indications of a strong wind 
 from the west (I was approaching from the east) sufficiently so 
 to blow down many trees beyond the limit of the hail and rain. 
 I found, upon examination, some trees blown down upon every 
 side of the storm, yet the wind invariably from the storm cloud. 
 Upon inquiry, I found the wind, as far as noticed before its com- 
 mencement, blew directly towards it from all quarters. The storm, 
 though so limited, was of unusual violence, in fact almost without 
 precedent in this section. The lightning was terrific, striking 
 trees, etc. The testimonj'' showed the thunder the iieaviest ever 
 known and almost incessant. 
 
 The cloud, to the parties living there, seemed, as it appeared to 
 me five miles distant, to form directly overhead, the atmosphere 
 seemed very sultrj' while it was forming, with hardly a breath of 
 air. I could not learn that there was any special direction of the 
 
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. OZ 
 
 wind and think there was not enough to note. The cloud formed 
 so rapidly, that the farmers in their fields did not leave their work 
 until an almost total darkness settled down upon them, yet with 
 the opportunity of seeing a band of clear sky in all directions, at 
 the horizon. There was a strange feeling of oppressiveness in 
 the atmosphere. When the, storm commenced at one o'clock p. m., 
 a complete deluge of water first came down, followed almost 
 immediately by hail stones and chunks of ice several inchen in di- 
 ameter which seemed pressed to earth with a violent wind crushing 
 branches down from the trees with fearful violence. The duration 
 of the storm was no more than thirty minutes, yet in a circle one 
 mile in diameter no green thing was left. The leaves, branches 
 and even the bark, were stripped from the orcliards and shade trees. 
 A sugar orchard standing in the storm was destroyed in the same 
 manner. The shingles from the roofs and some boards were bat- 
 tered from the buildings and broken in pieces by the ice. The 
 glass and sashes were all broken. The grass crop was entirely 
 destroyed so that the grass fields looked like ploughed ground and 
 it was next to impossible to find straws more than two inches long. 
 What became of the heavy crop of grass, ready for the harvest, I 
 cannot say. 
 
 Potatoes well hilled up by twice hoeing were destroyed and the 
 ground levelled as though it had been done with a roller, and no 
 stalks of potatoes or corn could be found upon all the ground. 
 The hail stones and masses of ice were piled up like snow drifts 
 in winter ; and twenty-four hours after the storm, in one drift by 
 actual measurement there were over twenty-five cords. Upon the 
 outer edge of the storm where the outward wind was strong there 
 was onlj' rain, and a mile from the centre there was only wind, 
 which extended at least from five to eight miles away ; how much 
 farther I cannot say. The section, over which the hail fell, was 
 left without a particle of verdure. No green leaves could be 
 found. It presented a state of devastation, as though the trees 
 had all been stripped and the earth ploughed, and then pounded 
 clown. 
 
 During the ensuing week, there were several storms similar in 
 their formation, and all accompanied with vivid lightning, heavy 
 thunder, hail and rain, but of much less severity than the one de- 
 scribed. 
 
 After this peculiar series of storms, there w.ere no marked in- 
 
53 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 
 
 stances of storms of this character until 1872. August 14th, of 
 that year the town of Sheffield, Vt., was visited by a local storm of 
 great severity. From the oppressive heat and calm of the morning 
 clouds rapidly formed and hanging stationary overhead the storm 
 between nine and ten a. m. burst upon the place. 
 
 This storm was of much greater extent, covering a section of 
 country five or six miles in diameter. These clouds continued to 
 send down their deluge of rain and hail for three hours. Small 
 brooks were changed to streams ten or twelve feet deep. The 
 bridges were all swept away. The lightnings struck several times 
 and several farms had fields of acres in extent washed away, and 
 other land was covered by the debris to the depth of six or eight 
 feet. 
 
 In the central part of the storm the wind blew in gusts from all 
 points of the compass, and outside of the storm the wind first set 
 towards the cloud from all points ; then from it, as before described, 
 seeming very cool. During the afternoon, showers spread about 
 the country in all directions, but in usual form and not of unusual 
 severity. 
 
 Sept. 8th, a similar storm came directly under my observation 
 in the northern part of Lunenburgh. Though of great violence 
 one mile north of my place, I was enjoying sunshine. As in other 
 cases, it seemed to form overhead and remain stationary. The 
 weather as before described. No perceptible wind but vane point- 
 ing southwest. At the first formation of the cloud, the wind set 
 towards it in a steady breeze; then 'from it cool and gusty. In 
 the area of the storm the rain and hail fell in torrents and the 
 darkness was almost like that of night. 
 
 Having been led, by former observations, to know what I might 
 expect, I was on the ground almost as soon as the rain ceased. I 
 found fiftj' rods within the storm the roads washed out so as to be 
 impassable, and leaving my horse, I walked where water would 
 permit. The apples and most of the leaves were knocked off the 
 apple trees by the hail though the hail stones were not large. 
 Grain not harvested was spoiled. Lightning struck but once 
 within the area of the storm, though the flashes were described as 
 incessant. Everything showed a great waterfall though it was 
 nowhere measured ; around the skirts of the storm the wind was 
 cool and outward blowing quite a gale for several miles. A por- 
 tion of the storm cloud passed off to the southwest, showering 
 moderately. 
 
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTET. 54 
 
 These of course are marked instances, yet many have noticed a 
 tendency to first an inward and then an outward wind in hard 
 showers, while those passing rapidly over the country, as the 
 saying is, pass against the wind. It however shifts a few minutes 
 before the rain falls. After a shower has passed, it frequently 
 leaves a delightful cool breeze blowing from it. At the sides 
 of those showers, however, the wind is fitful and gusty, seldom 
 blowing directly to or from them. 
 
 I respectfully present these facts for consideration, hoping that 
 others may observe them until the theory of hail storms and local 
 showers of great severitj' is better understood. 
 
 I give no theory but let the facts stand out for consideration as 
 to whether they may not lead to a better understanding of the 
 formation of such storms. 
 
 [Printed at tlie Salem Puess, Nov., 1873.] 
 
AN ADDRESS 
 
 FARM PESTS, 
 
 INCLUDING 
 
 INSECTS, FUNGI, AND ANIMALCULES, 
 
 DELIVERED AT A MEETING OF THE 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE, 
 
 HIRAM A. CUTTING, A. M., M. D., 
 
 STATE GEOLOGIST OF VEEMONT. 
 
 MANCHESTER, N.H.: 
 
 PRINTED BY JOHN B. CLARKE. 
 
 1879. 
 
PESTS OF THE FARM, 
 
 INCLUDING INSECTS AND MICROSCOPIC FUNGI* 
 
 BY DR. HIRAM A. CUTTING, LUNENBURG, VT. 
 
 INSECT PESTS. 
 
 It seems proper, as an introduction to the study of farm pests, 
 that I should say something of the general nature of the objects 
 of which I speak. As I first speak of the visible pests called 
 insects, I will define them. Perhaps it would seem almost 
 superfluous to define the meaning of the word " insect," yet I 
 seldom find among the young a perfect understanding of the 
 classifications of life as found in the animal kingdom. This 
 kingdom is divided into four great classes : — 
 
 1. Animals of all kinds that have back-bones, or " Verte- 
 brata," and then again they are subdivided into four classes ; 
 viz., mammals, birds, reptiles, and fishes. 
 
 2. Animals made up of segments or joints, "Articulata." 
 These are again subdivided into — 
 
 " Insects," a term from the Latin that signifies " cut into," 
 which expresses that peculiar segmented form. They generally 
 have six legs when adult. 
 
 " Arachnida," as spiders, mites, etc., having eight legs. 
 
 * This lecture was illustrated by nearly two hundred colored drawings, two 
 by two and one-half feet in size, several of which have been engraved for 
 this work. 
 
" Crustacea," as crabs, lobsters, etc., with from ten to four- 
 teen legs. 
 
 " Myriapoda," as thousand-legged worms, or those having 
 more than fourteen legs. 
 
 " Annelida," or true worms without legs, as the earth-worm. 
 
 3. Animals with soft bodies, called " Mollusca." These are 
 without distinct joints, and have no internal or external skeleton. 
 
 4. Animals that radiate from a central point like stars, 
 called " Radiata." 
 
 But we will return to our special class. Insects are further 
 known by having their bodies divided into three distinct parts, 
 as follows : The head, containing the organs of sense ; the 
 thorax, which bears the organs of locomotion ; and the abdomen. 
 They also undergo a series of molts or changes, and usually 
 exist in four distinct stages, known as the egg ; next as the 
 " larva/' or masked or hidden form, usually so unlike as not to 
 be known by its appearance, though an active stage of its life ; 
 then, as the " pupa " or "chrysalis," which is an inactive state ; 
 and lastly, as the " imago," or perfect and usually beautiful 
 insect. 
 
 To sum up, an insect is a thirteen-jointed, six-legged animal, 
 divided into three distinct parts, as above described, and may 
 be with or without wings ; with an external skeleton, and under- 
 going transformations, breathing through little breathing-holes 
 in its sides, known as " spiracles," which lead to air tubes, 
 answering to our lungs, and known as trachea. 
 
 This short explanation shows how we may best prepare our- 
 selves to fight this common enemy. If we can in any way stop 
 their breath, by dust or any viscid substance that stops the 
 spiracles by filling them, we drown them as we would drown in 
 water. With many, this method is very effective, as breath is 
 much more necessary than food. In fact, to the adult insect 
 food is not always necessary, while breath ever is. 
 
 But our insect is further classified : — 
 
 I. " Hymenoptera," meaning clear or membrane winged, as 
 flies, bees, etc. Some insects of this order have mouths fitted 
 for biting and sucking, with a complex structure, as the honey- 
 bee. 
 
2. " Coleoptera," meaning sheathed or covered wings. 
 These are l^nown as beetles, and go through a complete trans- 
 formation. The " Colorado potato-bug " is a beetle of this 
 class. 
 
 3. " Lepidoptera," meaning scale wings, or wings with 
 microscopic plumage, as butterflies and moths ; transformations 
 also complete. 
 
 4. " Hemiptera," or half-winged. The insects of this order 
 are known as bugs. Some have no wings, or only rudimentary- 
 ones, while others are winged and feed upon plants only. 
 
 5. " Diptera,'" meaning twice-winged or two-winged. This 
 order is very troublesome to man, and is found everywhere upon 
 the earth's surface where inhabitable ; the mosquito, gnat, 
 wheat-midge, cabbage-maggot, onion-maggot, etc., belonging to 
 this order. 
 
 6. " Orthoptera," or straight wings, meaning straight-winged 
 insects, including grasshoppers, locusts, etc. 
 
 7. " Neuroptera," or nerved-winged insects, their wings 
 resembling net-work, as the dragon-fly. 
 
 Many of this order are beneficial, and few really injurious, to 
 man. 
 
 The time was when any person that attempted the study of 
 the insect world was derided and laughed at ; the derisive term 
 of " bug-hunter " was applied to him, and every person supposed 
 that to run after and catch bugs was the insane idea in his life. 
 
 More than a century ago, the Swedish authorities became 
 greatly alarmed at the fearful destruction of the timber in their 
 dock-yards by a minute boring-beetle. They at length applied 
 to that renowned " bug-hunter,'' Linnffius. He told them that 
 the perfect beetle, that laid the eggs for the borer, only appeared 
 in the month of May, and if they would submerge their timber 
 that month, they would be free from its ravages. The govern- 
 ment did this, and by this simple and inexpensive method saved 
 their timber, and at the same time brought the " bug-hunter " 
 into respect as an entomologist, a term from the Greek, mean- 
 ing " one who discourses upon insects," or treats of them and 
 their habits. 
 
 In Prussia and Germany the rudiments of entomology are 
 
6 
 
 taught in their common schools, and I would ask if, in a country 
 where the damage from insects is variously estimated from one 
 hundred million to one billion of dollars per annum, and the 
 extermination of insect pests becomes almost imperative, it is 
 not worth while for us to look about us for the necessary 
 information to intelligently fight our foes ? 
 
 In a letter before me, I am asked, " What is science good 
 for, if scientific men are baflSed by one little insect which they 
 cannot devise means to exterminate ? " 
 
 Science is not baffled, but, like Hercules in the old fable of 
 the Wagoner, can help you and will help you, only when you 
 help yourselves. I may now hear you ask, How may we help 
 ourselves ? or. How can New Hampshire alone help herself ? 
 We may safely calculate that the insect ravages in New Hamp- 
 shire for one year will exceed three millions of dollars. Now is 
 it too much to say that a concerted action on the part of all 
 agriculturists would decrease this damage one-half ? Did 
 science have full control of our legislatures, law would require 
 and enforce the necessary concert of action ; and while agricul- 
 turists would groan under imaginary tyranny, they would reap 
 the reward. As agriculturists control the legislature, ought 
 they not to take their best interests under consideration, and 
 do something for themselves ? 
 
 Concerted action is the only way to combat insect foes, and 
 the law must protect this concerted action from the thriftless 
 ignoramus that don't care for himself or neighbors. The fact 
 is, that the ravages of hostile insects represent a condition of 
 war, and it is only by organization, and appropriate weapons, 
 that they can be conquered. The proper subjects for considera- 
 tion are the materials to be used, and the best time to make the 
 attack in force, and the weapons to be employed. It is entirely 
 useless for us to fold our arms and exclaim, " It is the will of 
 God ! " 
 
 It is to lead the farmer to realize his position, and to show 
 him how easy it is to study natural history for his personal 
 benefit, that I presume to stand before you to-night. I will first 
 introduce to you the ten-lined potato-beetle. 
 
TEN-LINED POTATO-BEETLE — COLORADO POTATO-BEETLE. 
 Doryphora Decemlineata. Say. 
 
 <*i ^» eggs ; 2, 2, hi larvae of difEerent ages ; c, pupa ; d^ perfect insect ; «, right wing-cover 
 enlarged ; _/J leg enlarged. 
 
 This bug, SO called, is, strictly speaking, a beetle, and is 
 known to naturalists under the name of Doryphora decemlineata. 
 It was first described by Thomas Say, who was then with Long's 
 exploring expedition to the Rocky Mountains. The specimens 
 from which his description was written, were collected in the 
 region of the upper Missouri, and it was found there quite 
 common. Its food in its native place was the wild potato, so 
 common to this mountainous region. 
 
 As civilization advanced toward this far western section, 
 carrying the cultivated potato within its reach, this insect 
 acquired the habit of feeding upon it ; it even seems to thrive 
 upon the cultivated potato better than upon the wild ones, and, 
 as aresult, its numbers vastly increased. In 1859, it had spread 
 eastward to a point one hundred miles west of Omaha city, in 
 Nebraska. Prof. Riley says that in 1861 it had invaded Iowa, 
 and during the next four years it had reached the Mississippi 
 River. In 1864 and 1865, it crossed that river, invading Illinois, 
 from which time it has gradually but surely spread over all the 
 Middle and Northern States. 
 
The first account of its destructive propensities was published 
 in the Prairie Farmer for August 27, 1861. From this time un- 
 til the present, frequent reports and descriptions have been pub- 
 lished. 
 
 In 1874, it was found upon the sea-coast in New Jersey, but it 
 was in 1876 that the advance guard invaded New England. 
 
 Like other higher species of the Coleoptera, it passes through 
 a complete metamorphosis, but, unlike many other beetles, it 
 confines itself during its entire life to the same species of vege- 
 tation, and, unhappily, selects as its first choice the potato. 
 This beetle, however, is not, like many of our pests, an importa- 
 tion, but an original native, of the Far West. Its name would 
 indicate Colorado as its birthplace, but historical facts, as I 
 have before stated, would indicate upper Missouri. Yet Prof. 
 Riley thinks it also existed in Colorado. It, however, seems 
 true that this beetle committed severe depredations in Nebraska 
 and Kansas before it was ever seen by the farmers of Colorado, 
 and when it infested that section the people there considered it 
 of eastern origin ; but its exact birthplace does not matter. 
 
 That it is a great lover of the potato-plant is certain ; yet it 
 can exist upon other food when potatoes fail, but first selects 
 the tomato and other plants nearly allied in properties to the 
 potato-leaf ; but such plants are seldom attacked until the po- 
 tato-fields are fully devastated. The eggs of this beetle are 
 deposited, to the number of seven or eight hundred, by each 
 female, at intervals during from twenty-five to forty-seven days, 
 on the leaves of the potato, in regularly arranged clusters of 
 from twenty to sixty eggs each. They are of an orange color, 
 and always on the under side of the leaf. In a week after they 
 are deposited they hatch into larvs, which feed upon the foliage 
 about two weeks, though some fix the period at seventeen days. 
 When full grown they descend to the ground, where they change 
 into a pupa state near the surface. The perfect beetle appears 
 in a little less than two weeks, pairs when about one week old, and 
 a week later commences the deposit of eggs, as before described. 
 From two to four broods may be hatched in a season. The 
 statements of the time are, however, liable to vary, being longer 
 or shorter, according as the weather is more or less favorable to 
 their development. 
 
9 
 
 The mature beetle, as its name indicates, has ten lines of 
 black lengthwise of its wing-covers, five on each side, the 
 ground being a medium yellow. It has several black spots upon 
 its head and thorax, also six legs, and pink gauze wings under 
 the striped wing-covers. It passes the winter in the perfect 
 beetle state, burrowing in the ground beneath the frost, coming 
 out in the spring, just in season to lay its eggs on the young 
 potato-plant. 
 
 The statement is sometimes made that the mature beetle does 
 not feed, and that they infest the potatoes as soon as they break 
 through the ground to lay eggs only. This is untrue. The bee- 
 tles do feed, not as ravenously as the larvse, but coming upon 
 the young plant just as it breaks ground, it has little to eat to 
 spoil the crop, and if in abundance it will certainly do so, as the 
 crop of larvffi from the eggs come on so soon that what they 
 leave is at once appropriated by them. It is at this stage of the 
 crop that the farmer needs to be on the alert ; though more 
 numerous later in the season, when the tops are mature, they 
 do very little damage. 
 
 Bad as these beetles are, they are not as bad as popular opin- 
 ion makes them. Their first onset is the most severe, and farm- 
 ers accustomed to give up to imaginary evils will talk about the 
 extermination of the potato. Of that there is no danger from 
 this cause. In Iowa, in 1870, the beetles were very abundant, 
 so much so that they swarmed over barns and outhouses, and 
 also entered dwellings so that you could hardly sit down or walk 
 without crushing them ; yet the crop of potatoes was the largest 
 ever known, and they were retailed in the streets for twenty-five 
 cents per bushel. This abundant crop was raised by every one 
 planting in anticipation of high prices, thus bringing the opposite 
 result. 
 
 By some this beetle is considered poisonous, but from no just 
 cause, as it can be picked from the potatoes day after day, by 
 whole families, with no bad results. Large quantities of them 
 in a state of putrefaction, like all other animal matter, are disa- 
 greeable, and doubtless unhealthy, and they should never be 
 left to putrefy, but be burned or destroyed with boiling water 
 and then buried. As they are voracious feeders, they may be 
 
10 
 
 killed with poison like Paris green, mixed with flour, and dusted 
 on the potato-leaves. A much better way is to brush them off 
 into a tin " catcher," made on purpose, to encircle half the hill. 
 We have much in New England to favor us in our persecution 
 of this pest, by way of its natural enemies. 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 ENEMIES OF THE POTATO-BEETLE. 
 
 The lady-birds, — Coccinella q-notata and pupa (Fig. 2), Jlip- 
 podamia \2,-punctata, larva and pupa (Fig. 3), — destroy multi- 
 tudes. 
 
 The eggs of the lady-birds are very much like those of the 
 potato-beetle in color, but are smaller, and not so many in a 
 cluster, but always laid in close proximity to those of some other 
 insect. As soon as they hatch they commence their war of 
 extermination, and, as they are voracious feeders, they follow 
 it up almost unceasingly. This lady-bird is about two-thirds 
 the size of the potato-beetle when fully grown, of a yellowish 
 red color, with two or more black markings on each wing-cover, 
 
11 
 
 being shorter and more thick-set than the potato-beetle. In fine, 
 they are about the size and the shape of a half pea. (See Figs. 
 2 and 3.) There are several varieties, but all are the friends of 
 the farmer, and should have special protection. 
 
 So of the many-banded robber, Harpador cinctus (Fabr.) 
 (Fig. 4). It is ever actively on the lookout for food, and woe 
 to the potato-beetle that falls into its sharp claws. 
 
 So of the spined soldier-bug, Arma spinosa (Dallas) (Fig. 5 ; 
 a, its beak) ; c, the beak of the Enschistus punctipes (Say), which 
 closely resembles the Arma. Doubtless, both species do a 
 great work, as they are wholesale depredators, not alone upon 
 the potato-beetles, but upon many farm pests. 
 
 There is also a parasitic fly (Fig. 6), Tachia, that not only de- 
 stroys myriads of the larvae of the potato-beetle, but also those 
 of many other pests. The marks at the bottom of the cut denote 
 its actual size. 
 
 There is also another deadly foe in the Philonthus, which 
 Dr. Packard found to creep even into his hatching-cases and 
 kill not only enough for food, but all ; just as the weasel or mink 
 will kill more chickens than they need for food. This beetle is 
 black, with short wing-cases, and is, perhaps, the most terrible 
 enemy of the Colorado beetle. It is a member of the family 
 Staphylinida. 
 
 There are, perhaps, no natural enemies that will entirely kill 
 them out, and so, like the farmers at the West, we are inclined 
 to Paris green. It is, however, much more dangerous here than 
 there. All know it is a deadly poison, and not rendered inert 
 by being eaten by the beetles. Showers wash it from our hill- 
 sides, together with the dead beetles, into our streams, where it 
 kills the fish and doubtless poisons the water, so that cattle are 
 more or less injured by it. On level land it can be used with 
 much greater safety. If used at all it should be dusted on the 
 leaves when wet with dew, while the beetles are in their larval 
 state, or mixed with water at the rate of one tablespoonful of the 
 green to a pailful of water. When applied dry it is better to mix 
 with ten parts of flour, by weight ; and great care should be taken 
 not to inhale the dust, as it is very poisonous. When in solu- 
 tion it must be almost continually stirred, or the green will sink 
 
12 
 
 in the bottom of the sprinkler, as it is not soluble in the 
 water. 
 
 Prof. Riley, of Missouri, says that quite as good results may 
 be obtained in using the ingredients from which green is made 
 as from the finished article. The Paris green costs, say thirty- 
 seven and one-half cents per pound, and the demand is often so 
 great that it cannot be obtained just when wanted, especially in 
 back towns. The following directions for making green, from 
 Brande's Chemistry, are practical : Dissolve two pounds of sul- 
 phate of copper (blue vitriol, costing fifteen cents per pound, or 
 thirty cents) in a gallon of hot water, keeping it in a stone jar. 
 Dissolve in another large jar, one pound of common white arsenic 
 (costing about six cents) and two pounds of saleratus or pearl- 
 ash (costing sixteen cents) in forty-four pounds of hot water, 
 stirring well till thoroughly dissolved. These articles, costing 
 fifty-two cents, will make about five pounds of Paris green, which 
 would cost $1.88. 
 
 This can be kept in solution and mixed in proportion of one 
 part of the first and five of the last solution, as they are needed. 
 The green immediately begins to precipitate in a fine powder, 
 and is much more convenient for use in solution than the dry 
 article. Prof. Riley says that Paris green can be in this way 
 used without danger ; and all agree that in solution, or mixed 
 with flour when dry and dusted on, it is the unfailing remedy. 
 
 Dr. Leconte advises the use of large atomizers, for not only 
 the destruction of the potato-beetle, but of all insects that can be 
 killed by a solution. This idea is worthy of consideration, and 
 it may doubtless prove invaluable. 
 
 When this beetle first came among the farmers, all birds, like 
 themselves, were suspicious of it, and it has often been reported 
 that no bird would touch them. Such is not true. Ducks will de- 
 vour them greedily. Turkeys and all fowls soon learn to like 
 them for food, and chickens frequently take them in preference to 
 any other insects. The crow not only takes the beetles and 
 larvse from the vines in great numbers, but late in the season 
 digs for the beetles in the ground, and captures thousands of 
 them. The rose-breasted grosbeak and many other birds have 
 also a great liking for them. Skunks, toads, and snakes, even, 
 
13 
 
 prey upon them ; then our winters are more severe than the 
 winters West. Jack Frost creeps deeper into the ground, and 
 must overtake many of the ten-liners that supposed themselves 
 safe from cold. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 THE BLISTERING BEETLES. Cantharida. 
 
 These beetles are also great eaters of the potato-plant. 
 For several years they have done great damage in New England, 
 but only in special localities. They have not become general. 
 Those most injurious are the striped Cantharis, Lytta vittata 
 (Fabr,) (Fig. 7), the margined Cantharis, Cantharis marginata 
 (Olivier) (Fig. 8), the ash-colored Cantharis, Zjvto dnerea(¥?Lhr.) 
 (Fig. 9, a, male), and the black Cantharis, Lytta marina (Lecoute) 
 (Fig. 9, 3) ; iT and d show the magnified antennse of the male and 
 female, rendering it easy to distinguish them. These beetles, 
 while they will make short work of the potato-leaves, when 
 abundant, are not very fastidious about their food. They will 
 eat beets as soon as potatoes, and also pig-weed, or almost any 
 kind of green leaves when the potatoes and beets fail. 
 
 There is another species, being a species of oil-beetle, Meloe 
 
14 
 
 angusticollis (Fig. lo), which when plenty are a great foe to po- 
 tatoes, tomatoes, beets, and various other vegetables ; but they 
 are vulnerable to insect enemies, and so are only now and then 
 abundant. They may be killed by Paris green as the potato- 
 beetle, but cannot be picked off, as they are too spry for the 
 fingers. 
 
 I 
 
 Fig. II. 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 STRIPED SQUASH-BEETLE. Diabrothica Viiiata. Fabr. 
 
 1. Back view of the grub that eats the root and stalk, a. Side view; both magnified. The 
 marks show the actual length. Beetle natural size. 
 
 This beetle appears on cucumber and squash vines as soon as 
 they are through the ground, and frequently they penetrate 
 through the cracks made in the ground by the swelling and 
 sprouting of the seeds of melons, cucumbers, or squashes, and, 
 biting off the young sprout, destroy the plant before it is out of 
 the ground. These beetles need little description. The cut 
 shows the beetle in outline, and he is well known by the Jrellow- 
 ish stripes upon his wing-covers. Their subsequent work, also, 
 when the leaves appear above the ground, is well understood, 
 but the biting off the young sprout, thus preventing the devel- 
 opment of leaves, is frequently not known, and the seeds are 
 thought to be poor, or other causes are assigned for their non- 
 appearance above ground. 
 
 The gardener watches his plants until he thinks them beyond 
 danger from this beetle, and then is surprised to see them wilt 
 
15 
 
 and die without apparent cause. No wound or injury is found 
 above ground, and so the destruction is looked for in the root. 
 Here we soon discover the true cause of death, for the roots are 
 found to be pierced here and there with small holes. In fact so 
 many are found, that the root presents a corroded appearance. 
 Upon closer examination the authors of the mischief are easily 
 detected, either in the root or lurking in the corroded furrows. 
 They are little whitish worms, about the length of the lines beside 
 the enlarged view of the worms in this figure. 
 
 They are, as found, about the thickness of a good-sized pin. 
 The head is blackish, brown and horny, and there is a plate of 
 the same color on the last segment of the worm. These are the 
 young of the beetle, or " striped bug," which was so troublesome 
 on the leaves earlier in the season, and the eggs from which 
 they hatched were laid low down on the stalk at that time. In 
 this masked stage of worm life they do more damage than when 
 in the beetle form on the leaves. When the worms are full 
 grown, which is about a month from the time they hatch, they 
 forsake the root, and retiring to the earth, by continually turn- 
 ing around they form for themselves a little cavity, or minute 
 cave, with solid earthy walls, in which they throw off their skin 
 and become a pupa. This pupa is much shorter and thicker than 
 the worm ; they remain inactive for about two weeks, taking no 
 food. At the end of this time they throw off their skin again, 
 and the perfect beetle is seen, still however in a soft condition, 
 incapable of movement. Remaining in its cell till these soft 
 parts have acquired solidity and strength, it breaks through the 
 walls of its little house, and working itself slowly through the 
 soil, appears in the light of day a perfect beetle. We have two 
 generations each year, the second remaining in its dormant or 
 pupa state through the winter. This generation, doing little 
 damage, is not often noticed. Many vines not killed by the 
 worm are so much injured that their value is nearly destroyed. 
 
 Covering the vines, with a box covered on top with muslin, has 
 been considered the only sure remedy, though powdered char- 
 coal, lime, and sometimes ashes can be used with benefit. In 
 many cases, however, the material sprinkled on the leaf is as bad 
 as the beetle. If a handful of shavings be burned near the hills 
 
16 
 
 in the evening, many of them will fly into the flames. After 
 various experiments I have become satisfied that covering the 
 hills with common newspapers is much the best means to be 
 used; besides, you get an accelerated growth of the plants. 
 Just as soon as the seeds are planted, or, at any event, a day or 
 two before the plants appear, open a newspaper to its full size, 
 and spread it over the hill, letting it lie close on the ground, and 
 fasten it in place by hoeing the dirt on the edges, so that no gust 
 of wind can disturb it. The plants thus covered will grow at least a 
 third faster than those not covered, are safe from the beetle, and, 
 what is more, safe from the egg that produces the worm, or 
 masked stage of the pest. The plants kept covered until the 
 danger is past are more healthy in every way, producing blos- 
 soms several days sooner than those not covered. It is seldom 
 that once covering will not answer all purposes, but should one 
 be torn off from any cause, it can easily be replaced. I have 
 tried different colors of paper, and find white or blue paper best 
 adapted to the purpose. Other colors seem to give a pale green 
 or sickly appearance to the plants. Newspapers are easily ob- 
 tained, and are just as good as clear white paper. It will be 
 seen, also, that this is a protection against late frosts, and I be- 
 lieve that every person who tries this method of protection will 
 ever use it with entire satisfaction. 
 
 TENT-CATERPILLAR OF APPLE-TREES. Clisiocampa Americana. 
 
 Harris. 
 
 What farmer in New Hampshire is not familiar with the web 
 nests of this caterpillar, glistening in the rays of the spring sun, 
 before the trees are in blossom ? Yes, before the leaves are 
 one-half grown, these little white web nests speak volumes. 
 They tell of a negligent, slovenly farmer, whose spare hours are 
 got rid of as useless time, and the pests of his orchard revel in 
 his neglected trees, among which the caterpillar holds conspicu- 
 ous place. This small white glistening web, if unmolested, soon 
 spreads over several branches, and the caterpillars strip the 
 tree of its leaves, to the great damage of it, if not entailing 
 death, which is ever liable to occur from this cause alone. 
 
 This caterpillar is well known to all, yet all do not understand 
 
17 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 All natural size ; a, larva full grown, side view ; ^, larva full grown, back view ; tr, cluster 
 of eggs on a twig ; d^ cocoon. 
 
 its habits. The eggs are laid by a night-flying moth (Fig. 14). 
 Its color is a dull, yellowish brown, or something inclined to the 
 reddish tint ; it is unusually thick-bodied and hairy.'HIts wings 
 are characterized chiefly by the front wings being divided into 
 three nearly equal parts, by two transverse whitish or pale 
 yellowish lines, and by the middle space being paler than the 
 rest of the wing, in the male, while it is often the same color as 
 the rest, or even darker, in the female. 
 
 Riley says the color is very variable in the Western States. 
 Dr. Fitch notices great variations, but in this section I do not 
 find the variations very great, and think all will readily recog- 
 nize the moth from the foregoing description. 
 
 The moth here described lays her eggs in the night, when she 
 may be found hovering about the tree, in August, or, in the 
 
18 
 
 southern part of the State, doubtless in the last part of July. 
 She lays her' eggs in oval rings, round the smaller twigs, as seen 
 in Fig. 13, c. These rings contain some three hundred eggs 
 eac}Ji and are covered over with a mucilaginous coating which 
 answers the double purpose of keeping, out the water, and 
 serving as food, for the young when they hatch, to give them 
 sufficient strength to crawl down the limb to the first fork, where, 
 by crawling back and forth, they weave from a spinneret in 
 their mouths the tent in which they live. From this tent they 
 sally forth twice a day for food,, eating voraciously. On an 
 average, each caterpillar will eat two apple-leaves a day, and no 
 tree can long live under such a vital drain. As the weather 
 gets warm, when they return from a meal, instead of going into 
 their tent, they go to rest upon the outside, as a and b. Those 
 coming in later and finding no room, will crawl over the sleef)ers, 
 spinning all the time, until they are covered, and another story 
 is added to their tent. 
 
 Thus from time to time it is increased with their growth, 
 until their food gives out, or their caterpillar; life is spent, when 
 they lose their social habits, and wander off to find other food, 
 which they are seldom able to do, or find suitable places in 
 which to spin their cocoons. These are light-colored, with a 
 tinge of yellow, and may generally be found attached horizontally 
 to the under side of fence-rails, or other protected places. They 
 remain in these about three weeks, when such as have not fallen 
 a prey to the ichneumon-fly, as many do, come forth to lay their 
 eggs, as before described. The question so often asked is. How 
 to destroy them .? I will first tell you how you ought not. Some 
 flash gunpowder on their nests ; others burn them with a torch ; 
 while some put on kerosene and burn ; and others saturate with 
 oil to kill them. All these methods are destructive to the trees, 
 and should never be employed. Upon a moment's reflection it 
 will be seen that the easiest and quickest way is to cut off the 
 twig containing the eggs. 
 
 As they are laid in July or August, there is a long period in 
 which the farmer may destroy them ; and as they are found upon 
 small twigs, near the end of a branch, they can be found with a 
 little careful looking, and cut off. After the leaves have fallen. 
 
19 
 
 on a frosty morning the eggs may -be readily seen as a 4ark 
 band on the twigs, as the frost does ' not so readily adheir^ to 
 them. When you cut them off always burn them. If this 
 method is. neglected, watch your trees when they first hatch, and 
 with a stick remove the entire nest early in the morning, or just 
 at night, — as they feed, and are consequently scattered over 
 the branches, both in the middle of the afternoon and the middle 
 of the forenoon, and some stragglers are absent all day. If they 
 are still neglected, as they should not be, there is no sure way 
 to rid your trees of them but to put on gloves and clean them 
 off with your hands. You can kill by crushing, or have an 
 attendant with a pail of hot water, and put in such branches as 
 you can cut away, or do not crush. Every tent found, whether 
 on orchard or forest tree, should be destroyed. 
 
 The black cherry (Cerasus serotina), so common throughout 
 the State, is a favorite tree with this caterpillar. If I could 
 have my way in the matter, as they are a useless tree, I would 
 cut them all ..x^own, or else pass a law fining the owner of 
 premises where the caterpillars' nests were not destroyed.. Con- 
 certed action would soon put an end to its ravages ; and the 
 thpusands of bushels of apples annually destroyed, together 
 with damage to trees for the ensuing crop, would well repay the 
 amount of time and labor necessary for their extermination. 
 
 Where apple-trees are overrun, it will feed upon the plum, 
 thorn, rose, willow, common red-cherry, poplar and white-oak, 
 and even sometimes upon witch-hazel and beech trees. But it 
 will ever be found in the greatest numbers upon the black- 
 cherry and apple trees. 
 
 FOREST TENT-CATERPILLAR. Clisiocampa Sylvattca. Harris. 
 
 This caterpillar (Fig. 15), the representation of which is a 
 back view, is often erroneously called the "army-worm," and 
 may sometimes be seen in vast numbers, marching along a 
 hard road in the hot' sun, or crawling in great numbers along 
 the railroad track. When closely examined it will be found to 
 resemble the apple-tree tent^caterpillar, and is often confou,nded 
 with that also. The following difference, however, will be 
 apparent : — t 
 
20 
 
 Fig 1 6. 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 a, eggs ; 6, female moth, natural size ; f , enlarged view of egg from top ; dt enlarged view of 
 
 eggs from side. 
 
 The eggs, as may be seen from the above cut, are distin- 
 guished from the common tent-caterpillar by being of uniform 
 diameter in the entire mass, which is docked off squarely at the 
 ends. They are usually composed of about four hundred eggs, 
 the mass being of a creamy white color. These eggs are de- 
 posited in circles around the twig, and with each egg is deposited 
 a brown varnish ; the second circle is closely fitted into the first, 
 so the eggs stand like rows of cells in honey-comb. In this 
 section, the eggs are deposited in July, or the first of August, 
 the larvae are quite fully formed by the time winter commences, 
 and the warm days of spring bring them into being, even before 
 there are any leaves on the trees ; and it is a singular fact in 
 their nature, that they may not only be frozen, but they actually 
 exist for two or three weeks without food, standing any amount 
 of inclement weather, waiting for the leaf-buds to develop into 
 leaves, which they then eat with hearty relish. As soon as they 
 are born they commence spinning a thread wherever they go, 
 yet as the web is beneath them, close to the bark of the tree, it 
 is often overlooked. They live more or less in company, like 
 the common tent-caterpillar, but go through four successive 
 molts before they arrive at maturity, and at such times huddle 
 in bunches, remaining for a day or two inactive. At their fourth 
 
21 
 
 molt, they quite unwittingly court destruction by collecting in 
 masses upon the trunks of trees, often within a few feet of the 
 ground. After this molt, it may be seen (as before mentioned,) 
 wandering about to find a suitable place to form its cocoon. 
 Why it wanders in such places, and then takes up with a leaf 
 that it can draw together, or several leaves all combined to 
 cover it, we can hardly tell. It, however, frequently spins its 
 cocoons under fence-rails, boards, or any sheltered protection. 
 
 The cocoon is much like that of the common tent-caterpillar. 
 Three days after its completion, the caterpillar again casts its 
 skin, and becomes a chrysalis, of a pale reddish brown color, 
 dusted all over with a pale powder, and densely clothed with 
 short and yellowish hairs. In a couple of weeks more, or 
 usually in this State from the first to the tenth of July, the moth 
 issues, being of a brownish yellow, and having two oblique 
 transverse lines across the front wings. It is quite like the 
 moth of the common tent-caterpillar. The most marked differ- 
 ence is, that the transverse bands upon the front wings are 
 ■darker in this, and lighter in the other species. 
 
 There is one noticeable fact about this pest ; that is, that for 
 several years we see few, if any, of them, and then there is a 
 year or two of great plenty. The reason of this is, that our 
 insect friends, and we fortunately have many that live upon this 
 caterpillar, gain ground upon it, and come near exterminating 
 it ; but, with a dearth of food, they die out also, and the cater- 
 pillar then gains again, to become a prey to his persecutors. 
 
 By their aid we get along nicely, only now and then a year, 
 •when we have to kill them to save our trees. If you jar the 
 tree or branch upon which they are feeding, they will spin down 
 a few inches, and may then be picked off. At their fourth molt, 
 they may be killed as they congregate upon the leeward side of 
 trees, as before noticed ; but, as they have already eaten up the 
 foliage, it is not so necessary to kill them as it was earlier, yet 
 always kill them when you can. If you search your trees for 
 ■eggs in the winter, and destroy them, you will never have much 
 trouble. 
 
 When one tree is denuded of foliage the caterpillar travels to 
 another and ascends it. This can be prevented by putting tar 
 
9.9 
 
 or printers' ink upon a band about the trees not infested. The 
 cocoons may also be sought for and many killed. 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 WEB-WORM. Hyphantria Textor. HARRIS. 
 
 All natural size, a, caterpillar; h^ chrysalis; c-, moth. 
 
 One of the most common and destructive of our insect pests 
 is the little caterpillar known by the name of the " fall web- 
 worm," or perhaps more commonly as the "web-worm."' The 
 web of this, which at first look seems an insignificant caterpil- 
 lar, frequently, in the months of July and August, covers the 
 limbs of many trees — a web enclosing leaves seared and dead,, 
 from the ravages of this pest. They are more often seen upon 
 elm and apple trees, but other trees are not exempt ; and often, 
 towards the end of summer, most of our fruit and shade trees 
 show the ominous web enclosing dried leaves. The eggs from 
 which these caterpillars proceed, are laid by the parent moth in 
 a cluster upon the end leaf of a branch. When these eggs 
 hatch, they are generally on the third or fourth leaf from the end 
 of the twig, as since the eggs were laid the limbs have usually 
 extended their growth to that extent. 
 
 As soon as they hatch they begin to spin. To provide a shel- 
 ter for themselves, they cover the top of the leaf with a close 
 web, which is the result of their united labors. They feed in 
 company beneath this covering, devouring only the upper skin 
 and pulpy portions of the leaf, leaving the veins and lower side 
 untouched. The leaf withers, and they enlarge their web, tak- 
 ing in other leaves, first to the end and then downward on the 
 branch, and taking in other branches, — frequently destroying 
 the entire amount of foliage on the tree. 
 
23 
 
 When fully grown, this caterpilla,r measures a little more than 
 one inch in length, having a body rather more slender than other 
 similar feeders, very sparsely covered with hairs of a grayish 
 color, intermingled with a few that are black. The general color of 
 the body is greenish yellowj dotted with black. There is a brown- 
 blackish stripe along the top of the back, and a bright yellow 
 stripe on each side. The warts from which the hairs proceed 
 are black on the back and rusty yellow on the sides. The head 
 and feet are black. Of course their age has much to do with 
 the distinctness of the markings, and the adult worm only will 
 be found perfectly marked. 
 
 In the last of August, or more generally in the month of 
 September, they leave the trees and disperse, wandering about, 
 eating a little of almost all plants they happen to find in 
 their way, until they find a suitable place for concealment, where 
 they make their thin, almost transparent cocoons, composed of 
 a slight web of silk intermingled with the cast-off hairs from 
 their bodies. If this place is not found they bury themselves 
 just beneath the surface of the ground, where they spin as be- 
 fore, and remain in all cases through the winter in this latitude ; 
 but farther south they are said to be two-brooded. 
 
 The pupae are transformed to moths in the ensuing June or 
 July. These moths are white and without spots in New Hamp- 
 shire, but at the South are said to possess rudimentary spots 
 upon the first pair of wings. The fore legs are tawny yellow, 
 and their feet blackish. Their wings expand about one and 
 one-fourth inches. The antennae and feelers do not differ from 
 those of other moths ; but the females have two rows of minute 
 teeth beneath the antennae, which is a distinguishing feature. 
 
 From the foregoing description of its habits and transforma- 
 tions, it is evident that the time to exterminate these destructive 
 insects is when they are first hatched from the egg, or while but 
 few leaves are involved. Thjs can be done at any time of the 
 day, as they do not go about the tree for food, like the tent-cat- 
 erpillars, but are always on the leaves covered with the web. If 
 you carefully pick the leaves, it is sufficient ; or you can cut off 
 the branch affected, if you choose. In any event they must be 
 destroyed, and the surest and best method is to burn them. 
 
24 
 
 Take a basket into your orchard, gather in it all the leaves on 
 which the web is found, take them to your stove and burn them. 
 Close attention to your premises for a few years will almost en- 
 tirely rid you of this pest. On no account delay, as, if you do, 
 they will slip through your fingers and very much increase your 
 labors the next season. If they are neglected until they cover 
 more than you desire to prune away, kill as you do the tent-cat- 
 erpillar. 
 
 Some consider this the second brood of the tent-caterpillar, 
 but from the foregoing account it will at once be seen how wide- 
 ly they differ. It hibernates in the pupa state, they in the egg 
 state ; it appears in midsummer and fall, they in the spring ; its 
 moth is pure white, theirs reddish brown ; its eggs are deposited 
 on the leaf and are hatched in a few days, theirs are deposited 
 on the twig, so as to pass the winter on the tree ; this feeds 
 solely upon the soft part of the leaf under its web, they devour 
 the whole leaf always on the outside of their tent. It will thus 
 be seen that the only time and best manner of extermination 
 must be as above given. 
 
 CODLING-MOTH. Carpocapsa Pomonella. LiNN. 
 
 a, apple eaten by larva ; hj spot where egg is laid and the young worm enters ; f , cavity 
 made by larva ; d^ chrysalis; «, larva full grown ; y, moth with wings folded ; f, moth with 
 wings expanded ; h^ head and first joint of larva (enlarged) ; i, cocoon. 
 
26 
 
 This insect is, doubtless, found everywhere, where apples are 
 raised. In the month of June, in this State, the night-flying 
 moth comes from his silken cocoon, which was hid under some 
 bit of bark, or sliver, on the fence near by. After pairing, the 
 female may be seen in the dusk of night ilitting around the 
 apple-tree, laying her eggs in the blossom-end of the little 
 apples. 
 
 There are two broods each season. The first brood is very 
 small, but the second is fifty to one of the first, or even more. 
 
 The worm when young is whitish, with usually an entirely 
 black head, and a black shield on the top of the first segment. 
 When fully grown it acquires a flesh-colored or pinkish tint, espe- 
 cially on the back, and the head and top of first segment, as at 
 h, become more brown. It is sparsely covered with very minute 
 hairs, which take their rise from little elevated points, of which 
 there are eight on each segment. The cocoon is invariably of 
 a pure color on the inside, but is disguised on the outside by 
 being covered with minute fragments of whatever substance the 
 worm happens to spin to. The chrysalis is yellowish brown, 
 with rows of minute spines upon its back, by the aid of which 
 it is enabled to partly push itself out of its cocoon, when its 
 time to issue as a moth arrives. 
 
 The moth is a beautiful object, yet from its habits not being 
 known it is seldom seen in this State ; and the apple-grower, as 
 a general thing, knows no more of the insect that gives him so 
 many wormy apples than he does of men in the moon. Its fore 
 wings are marked with alternate, irregular, transverse, wavy 
 streaks of ash-gray and brown, and have, on the inner hind an- 
 gle, a large, tawny-brown spot, with streaks of bright bronze or 
 gold. As apples are raised in almost all sections of our coun- 
 try, and wherever apples are raised this insect is a dreadful pest, 
 it becomes us to be well acquainted with its habits, and I shall 
 therefore speak more at length of it than of most other insects. 
 
 Riley says, that in Missouri, as well as elsewhere, it is mostly 
 two-brooded ; the second brood of worms hibernating in the 
 larval state, inclosed in their snug little silken home, under 
 some fragment of bark or other protection. The spring weather 
 that causes our apple-trees to burst into blossom, releases this 
 
26. 
 
 imagp from its pupal tomb, and though its wings ■ are at first 
 damp, they soon dry under the rays of the sun that waked them 
 into their full existence, and they seek their companions. They 
 soon pair, when the male dies, and the female deposits, as be- 
 fore stated, thousands of tiny yellow eggs. As the fruit begins 
 to formj the egg hatches, and the worm develops in the little 
 apple. In from one month to six weeks it has become full 
 grown. Eating its way out^ as may be seen in the plate, it 
 leaves the apple, and, spinning its cocoon in some crevice, 
 changes in about three days to a chrysalis, and issues in about 
 two weeks as a moth, same as before, only this time they do not 
 always lay their eggs at the calyx, as they are often found now 
 to enter at the side of the apple. This brood causes the wormy 
 apples in the fall of the year. This second brood always passes 
 the winter in a larval state, either as a worm in the apple, or as 
 a cocoon, and it makes no difference with the time of its matur- 
 ity whether it goes into its cocoon in September or any time in 
 the fall, or not until spring. Neither does it matter whether it 
 is in a warm room, or frozen, as in proper time, — that is, when 
 the trees are in blossom, — it comes forth to propagate its kind. 
 
 Riley says, that when in a warm room they are active enough 
 in winter, and will always fasten up any cuts made in their co- 
 coons, though the cuts may be often repeated. These active 
 worms perfect themselves at the proper season, just as well as 
 those that have had a dormant stage, so we may conclude that 
 the dormant stage is not a necessity with this insect. 
 
 As this pest destroys millions of dollars' worth of fruit every 
 year, of course it is worth our while to do all in our power to 
 rid ourselves of it. This is a somewhat difficult thing to do, 
 but a great deal can be done to mitigate the evil. 
 
 Various authors recommend catching the moth with plates of 
 sweetened vinegar or sweetened water, to be left standing about 
 the trees in spring-time. A few may thus be caught, but at 
 least twenty of our friends may be caught, and usually are, to 
 one of our enemies, so that method is useless. 
 
 The first crop of worms, as I have before said, is much the 
 smaller, and as the development within the little apple prevents 
 the full development of the apple, it withers and at length drops 
 
27 
 
 off, usually before the worm leaves it. If this apple could al- 
 ways be destroyed, of course the worm would reap the same 
 destruction. Hogs in orchards in sufficient numbers would do 
 this, by eating all the little windfalls, but hogs are not always at 
 hand. A much better way is to spread a large cloth, prepared 
 for the purpose, beneath the tree, just as the first apples begin 
 to fall, and then by jarring the tree most can be jarred off, and 
 then boil them. This operation, repeated once in three or four 
 days, for, say three times each season, will destroy almost all the 
 first brood, and prevent further trouble that year. 
 
 No definite date can be given for this treatment, as some years 
 the season varies many days ; watching the fruit, and gath- 
 ering as directed, as soon as the first signs of exit of the worm 
 can be found, or as soon as they begin to fall, will be sufficient 
 direction. 
 
 Another method, as given in the Country Gentleman^ June 15, 
 187 1, is also valuable. The writer recommends knocking them 
 off with a pole. He says : " Two men with poles usually knock 
 ofif the wormy specimens about as fast as one boy can gather in 
 a basket." I suspect that this would usually be done too late, 
 as after the worm has eaten its way out of the apple, thus show- 
 ing the wormy ones, they might as well remain, for the worm is 
 what we want to destroy, not its home. The exudations re- 
 ferred to are not indications of the presence of the worm, but, 
 on the contrary, are sure indications that it is not there. I will 
 observe that the gathering of the withered fruit in New Hamp- 
 shire would probably always need to be in the month of July, 
 and, to do good, must always be before the exit of the worm. If 
 this is not done, cloths laid in the crotches of the branches to 
 shelter the worms and entice them to build their cocoons, wisps 
 of hay or straw wound round the trees, folded or twisted paper 
 bands put around the trees, or any attachment that will afford 
 shelter to the worm and entice it to spin its cocoon, in such a 
 way that it can be destroyed, is beneficial. These bands or 
 cloths, after the cocoons are formed, should be burned, so as to 
 make the destruction sure. They should first be placed about 
 the trees about one month after the tree is in full blossom, and 
 from this time to the time the apples are picked they should 
 
28 
 
 be kept in order, being examined every week, and if cocoons 
 are found they should be at once destroyed, and new bands put 
 in their places, or if but a few they may be crushed, and the old 
 protectors remain. 
 
 In a letter received this season, I am asked the philosophy of 
 the hay or straw bands. I can only say, with Prof. Riley, that 
 the straw or hay bands simply afford an enticing shelter for the 
 worm when seeking for a place to build its spun-up house. The 
 hay band is just the thing wanted, as it affords the requisite 
 shelter, and in ninety-nine cases in a hundred will be accepted. 
 There are many patent traps for the same thing, but I am at 
 least safe in saying that none of them are any better than the 
 straw band ; many not half as good. 
 
 Of the second crop of wormy apples, which are found so 
 often in the barrels that find their way to market, I can only say 
 that a careful examination in early spring of the barrels and the 
 cellar in which they are kept, and the careful killing of all the 
 cocoons that are found, will do much towards preventing the 
 early brood. Though they have a few natural enemies, they are 
 not in such abundance as to allow the orchardist to depend upon 
 them in the least, and so I need make no mention of them. 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 ROUND-HEADED APPLE-TREE BORER. Saperda Bivittata. Say. 
 Figures all natural size, tz, larva full grown ; b, pupa ; c^ perfect beetle. 
 
 This is a native American, born and bred in the mountains, 
 feeding upon the wild crab, mountain ash, and various other trees. 
 It comes out of the trunk, usually in June, and always by night, 
 
29 
 
 in its perfect state. Resting by day, in the night-time it flies- 
 from tree to tree for food and companions. Though they feed 
 upon the bark of branches where it is tender and succulent, they 
 lay their eggs on the bark at the foot of the tree, where the 
 young, as soon as hatched, commence to burrow in the bark. 
 For the first year, they live mostly in the bark, but, towards the 
 last of the season, advance into the sap-wood. Frequently, in 
 young trees, the bark over them will crack and allow their cast- 
 ings to fall out, and thus they may be detected. They remain 
 in the trees three years. As the time comes for their exit, they 
 eat their way to the bark, thin that somewhat, and go into the 
 pupa state, to emerge perfected in about four weeks. Fifty years 
 ago, large, thrifty, long-lived apple-trees were exceedingly com- 
 mon, and were grown with comparatively little effort on the part 
 of our ancestors. This borer in the apple-tree was then entirely 
 unknown to the farmer, and the first specimen ever seen was 
 found and described by Thomas Say, in 1824; and it was not 
 till some time after, that its destructive powers became evi- 
 dent in the apple-tree. Yet it is to this borer, almost entirely, 
 that the short and precarious life of the apple-tree is due. 
 
 All understand this borer to be a dreadful pest, but how to 
 deal with it is the question ; and to show more fully its habits, 
 and how it may be exterminated, I will briefly review its history. 
 The eggs when laid, as before mentioned, soon hatch, and the 
 tiny worm, differing from the adult in no essential point but 
 size, eats into the bark, and then follows between the bark and 
 wood, sometimes entering the sap-wood low down towards the 
 root the first season. While eating its way in lengthy furrows 
 beneath the bark, the bark sometimes cracks, and the castings 
 of the worm tumble out, revealing its presence. When such is 
 the case, they may be killed with a sharp wire, or carefully cut 
 out with the point of a knife. If left alone they will remain in- 
 active through the winter, to commence their work again early 
 in the spring. The second season they spend mostly in the sap- 
 wood, or near the bark, getting two-thirds their size, and this 
 year doing their greatest damage, as five or six of them will fre- 
 quently girdle or nearly girdle the tree, making death sure ; they 
 again winter low down in the body of the tree, and eat the next 
 
30 
 
 season deeply into the wood, sometimes quite through the tree, 
 finishing its gnawing work at the commencement of the third 
 winter. At the close of its work it extends its passage invaria- 
 bly to the bark, and thinning that somewhat, stuffing the upper 
 end with wood, like sawdust, and below with soft wood fibres, it 
 rests from its labors, remaining motionless as before through the 
 winter. The following spring it casts off its skin, becoming a 
 pupa ; rests in this condition about three weeks ; and then, as a 
 beetle, gradually gets strength, and after nearly two weeks more, 
 cuts its way through the sawdust piled against the bark, and then 
 the bark, to issue through a round hole as an adult beetle, ready 
 to propagate as before. The time from its entry to its egress, is 
 about one month short of three years. 
 
 Few ever take the trouble to hunt for this beetle, and as it 
 flies in the night, lying concealed during the day, it is not often 
 seen in the adult state. As will be seen in the cut, it has two 
 stripes its entire length, and is rather handsome. 
 
 There is still another species, called the flat-headed species, 
 as the head of the larva is flat, but, as it is never very abundant 
 and is of small size, it -seldom does much harm, and the same 
 treatment is destructive to both species. 
 
 The best remedy is to prevent the successful laying of eggs, 
 which may be done by smoothing and then soaping the bark. 
 If such is done near the ground only, they will lay their eggs at 
 the juncture of the largest limbs, or higher up on the trunk, sO 
 scraping and soaping must be thorough. If the borers are 
 really in the trees, there is no way except to kill them, or cut 
 them out one at a time. A small piece of whalebone is the best 
 to kill them with, by pushing it into their holes. A piece of 
 wire will answer. When the bark is killed over them it is just 
 as well to cut them out. The application of the soap is neces- 
 sary in May. Either soft or hard soap will do, but if hard soap 
 is used a thin piece had better be crowded down into each prin- 
 cipal crotch of the tree, so that the rain may wash it down the 
 trunk. Do this, of course, after having washed the tree with 
 strong suds. 
 
31 
 
 THE CURRANT-WORM. Nematus Ventricosus. Klug. 
 a, II, Li, different stages of growth ; b, a single segment of the caterpillar magnified. 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 Adult specimens enlarged. -The marks at theside represent the actual measurement with 
 wings spread, a, male ; h, female. 
 
 This worm is so common and so well known in New Hamp- 
 shire that it needs no description. It affords an excellent ex- 
 ample of the wonderful rapidity with which an important insect 
 
32 
 
 may increase and flourish in this country. It was imported from 
 Europe in i860, into nurseries, in Rocliester, N. Y. Since that 
 time it has not only spread eastward throughout New England, 
 but to the Far West. It is a dreadful pest to the currant and 
 gooseberry bushes, and in sections where it has been left to do 
 its work' unchecked such fruits are numbered as ' things of the 
 past. 
 
 Though near fifty species of the Nematus are natives of this 
 country, this little foreigner has forced himself so disagreeably 
 to our notice that we almost forget the ravages of the native 
 varieties. 
 
 Though the worm is so well known, the fly that causes the 
 mischief is seldom noticed. The female is of a bright honey- 
 yellow color. The head is black, with all the parts below, as 
 well as between, the origin of the antennas, except the tip of the 
 jaws, a dull honej'-yellow. The antennje are brown-black, often 
 tinged with reddish above, except toward the base, and beneath, 
 entirely dull reddish, except the two basal joints. They are four- 
 fifths as long as the body ; the third joint, when viewed side- 
 ways, is four times as long as wide ; the third, fourth, and 
 fifth joints slowly diminishing in length. On the thorax are 
 four conspicuous black spots and other smaller ones. The legs 
 are bright honey-yellow ; the hip joints whitish, with the extreme 
 tips of the hind shanks, and the whole of the hind toe joints 
 are blackish brown. The wings are glossy, with dark veins, and 
 expand a little over one-half inch. It is stated in the American 
 Entomologist, that in Europe she is known to lay eggs which 
 have not been fertilized, and from them young caterpillars are 
 hatched. It is probable, however, that they do not have the 
 power of again propagating the race, and that the eggs hatch 
 and the worms eat it just as likely as in the case of the silk-worm 
 and other moths, as well as of some insects, including the 
 honey-bee. 
 
 The male (Fig. 21, a) is rather smaller and is black. The 
 head is dull honey-yellow. The antennas are brown-black, often 
 a little reddish beneath, except toward the base ; they are as 
 long as the body; while longer than in the female, they are 
 also somewhat flattened out. The under side of the thorax and 
 
83 
 
 abdomen are honey-yellow. I have given this minute description 
 of the fly, as, if seen and killed, hundreds of the worms may 
 be saved. The eggs are laid about the 20th of May in New 
 Hampshire, in regular rows, along the under side of the veins 
 of the leaf, at the rate of about two a minute. The embryo 
 escapes from the egg in from four to ten days, and immediately 
 commences feeding. They continue their work upon the bushes 
 until they are bare of leaves', and then, whether fully grown or 
 not, go down into the ground and form little black pupae, vary- 
 ing in size according to the way the worm is fed. Emerging in 
 about two weeks, they lay their second brood, which pass the 
 pupa state in the ground, as before, but do not emerge until the 
 following spring. The fly lives about nine days. 
 
 For their destruction, we first look to the birds. While a few 
 only will catch the fly, none are found to eat the worm. Thus 
 we are deprived of our most powerful ally. We never half 
 realized the good done by insectivorous birds until we have an 
 enemy they disregard. Among the natural enemies of this pest 
 are three kinds of ichneumon-flies, of which one is an egg 
 parasite, From this aid three-fourths of the eggs are destroyed ; 
 but the other fourth give us much trouble. 
 
 The first method of destruction is to pick off the worms and 
 destroy them. This, if there are but few bushes, can be done 
 quite easily, and is really the most practicable method. 
 
 The. next in use is to dust on the leaves powdered white helle- 
 bore, from a muslin bag. Used in this way, it is not sufficiently 
 poisonous to render dangerous the use of the fruit. This is 
 recommended by Walsh and Riley. 
 
 A solution of a pound of copperas to six gallons of water has 
 been used with success. It blackens the leaves, but does no 
 injury to them. Suds made of carbolic soap may be sprinkled 
 on from a common sprinkler. Any dust that touches them is 
 lodged in the spiracles, or breathing-pores, and soon produces 
 death. Dust from the road, dried fine plaster of Paris, or any 
 finely pulverized substance will answer. The Grafton fertilizer, 
 which was finely pulverized quartz, was the best material I ever 
 saw for killing them. It possessed the requisites of great fine- 
 ness and perfect dryness, so it would make a dust easily. 
 3 
 
o4 
 
 Gum aloes are, when fine, equally penetrating, and less danger- 
 ous than the white hellebore. 
 
 By a little attention in time this pest can be easily stayed, by 
 any of the means spoken of, but The Boston journal of Chemis- 
 try says this worm can be immediately destroyed by the use of 
 carbolate of lime. This is certainly less costly and more agree- 
 able to use than the hellebore, so to those that must buy some- 
 thing to use, instead of using road-dust, I would recommend it. 
 With two or three applications the work would be done. 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 CABBAGE-WORM. Pieris Rapce. 
 
 Fig. 23, butterfly of the cabbage-worm, male. Fig. 24, female. The female is distin- 
 guished from the male by having two round spots, rarely three, on the wings. The body of 
 this butterfly is black above, with white wings. 0, cabbage-worm ; ^, chrysalis. 
 
 This worm, the product of the rape-butterfly, is the great pest 
 of the cabbage-grower, and doubtless the worst of all our 
 imported insects. It was imported from England to Quebec in 
 1857, as it is supposed, with a quantity of cabbages ; but it was 
 so sparse that none were seen until 1859, and so rapid was its 
 increase that in 1864 it had extended at least forty miles in 
 every direction from Quebec, and it was estimated that it caused 
 
35 
 
 a loss of the cabbage crop that would have sold for at least two 
 hundred and fifty thousand dollars. 
 
 In England and Europe, it is the butterfly everywhere common ; 
 its larva is the dread of every cook, as she expects to cook 
 several with every cabbage, notwithstanding her utmost care. 
 Its chrysalides are so abundant in the winter-time that they seem 
 present upon everything that affords them the least protection ; 
 even upon the doors of dwellings in constant use several may 
 often be found. America had two native species, which some- 
 times appeared upon the cabbage, but they were content with 
 the outside leaves ; but while this important species riddle the 
 outside leaves, they secrete themselves in the head also, and 
 render it necessary to pull the same to pieces before cooking, 
 and then you are not sure, for many times they appear cooked 
 with the leaf. The color is so near that of the leaf upon which 
 they feed that they are ever liable to appear as unwelcome 
 visitants. The use of the cabbage among all is rapidly de- 
 creasing from this cause. It has already spread over large 
 sections of the country, being taken in Vermont in 1866, in 
 Maine in 1868, and around New York and Boston in 1870. It 
 is now almost as wide-spread as the cabbage is cultivated. 
 
 The butterflies have their bodies black above, with wings 
 white, as may be seen in the cuts. 
 
 The female may be distinguished from the male by having 
 two round spots, rarely three, instead of one as in the male, 
 upon the front wings. Underneath both sexes are alike, and 
 have two spots on each front wing, but none on the back ones, 
 which are usually yellowish, yet sometimes with a greenish tint. 
 They vary much in color, but the above general description will 
 be sufficient to enable one to recognize them, as the first 
 impression will be white or nearly so, and the slight variations 
 of tint, from yellow to green, will not be likely to much confuse. 
 
 This butterfly deposits its eggs upon the leaves of the cabbage, 
 usually upon the under side. They are exceedingly beautiful 
 when magnified, having a delicate tint, variable as in the butter 
 fly, and seemingly etched with a beautiful network of lines. The 
 larva, as seen in the cut at a, is pale green, finely dotted with 
 black, with a yellowish stripe down the back, and a row of yel- 
 
36 
 
 lowish spots along each side in a line with the breathing-holes. 
 As the stripes and spots are somewhat obscure, some farmers do 
 not notice them, and think they have another variety, which is 
 possible, as we have two native species that sometimes feed 
 upon the cabbage, but they are sparse in numbers, and seldom 
 seen in New Hampshire. 
 
 When about to transform, it leaves the plant upon which it 
 feeds and takes shelter under the rails of fences, in stone-walls, 
 or any place convenient, and changes to a chrysalis, which, 
 though variable in color, is usually pale green, speckled with 
 minute black dots, as seen at b. 
 
 The second brood pass the winter in this condition, this 
 species, like our native ones, having two broods a year. 
 
 The first remedy that occurs to most when they see their 
 cabbages destroyed, is to quit raising them, and starve them 
 out. This cannot be, as they feed upon several plants, and 
 even upon the willow, when other food is not at hand. 
 
 The first method of attack is to cover the young plant with 
 mosquito-netting, held off from the leaves by sticks, usually four 
 of them, set in the ground, and a piece of netting pinned on. 
 This is done in various ways, according to the tact of the person 
 doing it, and, when properly done, prevents the eggs being laid 
 upon the leaves, and so the cabbage grows in security. This 
 costs, besides the labor, from one to two cents' for each cab- 
 bage. 
 
 If this is not done, picking the eggs is the next method. 
 They can be easily found, and, if attended to often, they may all 
 be destroyed. Children can easily do this, and are usually led 
 to do it by the promise of a small reward for any certain number 
 found. When the butterflies are seen about your garden they 
 can easily be caught in a net, as they are slow, lumbering fliers, 
 and easily killed, thus crushing hundreds of eggs without hunt- 
 ing for them. 
 
 If the eggs have not been destroyed, poultry, if in numbers, 
 will pick off most of the worms, as they are considered by fowls 
 as a sweet morsel, very desirable. But we can not fully depend 
 upon them to do the work, though they will help greatly. As 
 they get into the very heart of the cabbage-head, hand-picking 
 
37 
 
 will not amount to much more, but yet it will decrease their 
 numbers so that cabbages can be raised. 
 
 Paris green or white hellebore will, of course, kill the worms, 
 but should never be used, as it will lodge in the growing head 
 and endanger the lives of those making use of the cabbage. 
 Dust sprinkled on it is also effectual, but will leave grit in the 
 head so as to injure it for eating, yet is without danger. 
 
 Carbolic soap-suds|are destructive to them, and if not too 
 strong will not injure the plant. Fine sawdust impregnated 
 with carbolic acid is one of the best things for their destruction. 
 Superphosphate of lime, fine salt, ashes, and lime have all been 
 used with effect, yet nothing of the kind is sure to kill all the 
 worms. Close attention to the plant, or perfect protection by 
 netting, as first spoken of, is the only way to secure a crop of 
 cabbages. 
 
 If, as estimated, at least half a million dollars' worth of 
 cabbages were destroyed by it around New York City alone, 
 last year, and an average of two hundred and fifty thousand 
 dollars' worth are annually destroyed around Boston, Montreal, 
 and other cities, it shows beyond question, that we have, in 
 spite of our warfare upon it, an implacable foe. 
 
 We have thus far but one insect that lends us substantial aid. 
 This is a species of chalcid-fly, and so rapid has been its work 
 that of one hundred and ten chrysalides, collected by F. W. Put- 
 nam, of Salem, Mass., at least two-thirds were infested, and 
 brought forth chalcid-flies instead of cabbage-butterflies. In 
 most sections, however, this help has not yet arrived, but will 
 become general, doubtless, in a few years. 
 
 By placing boards elevated a few inches from the ground 
 about your cabbages, the worms will select these places for their 
 change to the chrysalis state ; and^as those infested by the chal- 
 cid-fly can be easily distinguished by the livid and otherwise 
 diseased appearance of the body, and left to produce flies, while 
 the healthy are destroyed, you can aid your friends and destroy 
 your enemies. If the chrysalides are all found healthy, you can 
 make a general destruction. 
 
38 
 
 Fig. z6 ; Larva. 
 Fig. 25 ; Tongue. 
 
 COMMON HOUSE-FLY. Musca Domestica. Linn. 
 
 This fly, in fact, needs no introduction, as it is well known 
 everywhere, so I do not as much as give its portrait. 
 
 There is, however, in the study of the proboscis and tongue- 
 like organ, as seen in the cut above (Fig. 25), much for study. 
 The maxillae are minute, and their palpi {mp) are single-jointed, 
 and the mandibles ini) are comparatively useless, being very 
 short and small compared with the lancet-like jaws of the mos- 
 quito. But the structure of the tongue itself {labium, l) is 
 most curious. When the fly settles upon a lump of sugar, or 
 any other eatable substance, it unbends its tongue, extends it, 
 and the broad, knob-like end divides into two broad, flat, muscu- 
 lar leaves (/), which thus present a sucker-like surface, with 
 which the fly laps up its food. These two leaves are supported 
 upon a frame-work of tracheal tubes, which act as a set of 
 springs to open and shut the muscular leaves. These, it will be 
 seen from the magnified cut, end in hairs projecting externally. 
 Thus the inside of this broad, fleshy expansion is rough, like a 
 rasp, and so is easily employed by the insect in scraping or tear- 
 ing delicate surfaces. It is by means of this curious structure 
 that the house-fly occasions much injury to the covers of books, 
 or any polished surface that owes its polish to albuminous mate- 
 rial. It is by means of these, also, that it teases us in the heat 
 of summer, when it alights upon the hands or face, to sip the 
 perspiration as it exudes from, and is condensed upon, the skin. 
 
 Doubtless all have noticed that house-flies are more numerous 
 
39 
 
 about barns, but few trace the transformation of the fly. Where 
 the house-fly comes from, is often asked, yet seldom answered, 
 as its habits have not been much observed. The barn and its 
 vicinity are usually its birthplace, and about such places may be 
 seen in June, now and then, stray flies, the remnant of last year's 
 brood, that have in some sheltered nook survived in a dormant 
 state the cold of winter. The excrements of the horse are the 
 most desirable on which to deposit its eggs, and yet they may, 
 for want of that material, deposit them on other refuse of the 
 barn, and sometimes even on sand or loam that is made rich by 
 the wash of the buildings. The eggs hatch almost immediately, 
 producing a maggot, fleshy, smooth, and shining, about one- 
 third of an inch in length, and yellowish white (Fig. 26). 
 After feeding for some time it goes into the pupa state, shorten- 
 ing up as in a (Fig. 26). It is a reddish brown case, two-thirds 
 the length of the maggot, and, as seen in the cut, thicker and 
 stouter. In this transition case it remains from six to ten days, 
 — according to the warmth of the weather, — emerging there- 
 from a perfect, full-grown fly. I have frequently called the 
 attention of the farmer to the pupa case, asking him what it 
 was. He almost invariably answers that he supposes them un- 
 digested oats that have passed his horse ; and in several 
 instances they were dosing horses for indigestion, having taken 
 these pupse for the signs of such. From inquiry thus, I have 
 concluded that most farmers notice the pupa cases, but do not 
 understand what they are. I have never known the house-fly 
 to lay its eggs upon meat, or anything about the house, though 
 they sometimes do about a sink-spout, or other places where 
 slops are thrown out. With a little concerted action among our 
 population, the house-fly might be greatly decimated in numbers. 
 All barnyard fowls are fond of the larva and the pupa also, and, 
 if yarded where they have full access to their breeding-grounds, 
 will greatly aid in their destruction. As fowls are given to 
 much wandering, they will seldom eat the pupa unless shut up 
 in a yard where the manure from the barn is thrown, or where 
 it usually lies ; as the dirt in such locations is rich enough in the 
 necessary larval food to produce them if no manure is at hand. 
 We will now turn our attention to microscopic pests. 
 
40 
 
 MICROSCOPIC PESTS. 
 
 At the present time, every one who possesses any love of na- 
 ture, or even a love simply for marvelous things, desires some 
 knowledge of the minute mysteries of nature. To follow out 
 the peculiar character of animal or plant when too small singly 
 for the human eye to study, requires a microscope. At the prices 
 they are now sold for, they are within reach of almost every one. 
 With our microscope complete, wherever we search, be it our 
 own dwellings, the meadow or the upland, the grasses or the 
 forest, the ruin crumbling into dust or the sands of the sea- 
 shore, even in the waters of our marshes, rivers, lakes or ocean, 
 there may be discovered plants and animals which are unknown 
 to our unaided vision, yet endowed with organs perfectly adapted 
 to their respective necessities ; and with regard to the latter, of- 
 ten, if not always, for their enjoyment. Even in the aqueous 
 vapor and dust of the atmosphere are germs of living beings, 
 both animal and vegetable, though the latter much predominate, 
 that the microscope alone enables us to contemplate with any 
 satisfaction. 
 
 It is true that when near sundown a beam of sunlight strug- 
 gles through the thick foliage of a forest, or enters our room by 
 means of some small aperture, we can see, floating in that beam 
 of light, numerous particles of apparent dust, yet what its form, 
 or its ultimate destination, our unaided eye could never inform 
 us. It is the microscope alone that gives us aid, and that shows 
 us countless spores, or seeds to reproduce minute vegetation, as 
 well as plants actually flourishing in the atmosphere. Also the 
 germs of animal life are often, yes, very often, there ; and, judg- 
 ing from analogy, we find thus an easy method to propagate by 
 germ various diseases in the human family ; and that such is 
 often true is beyond reasonable doubt, though such germs have 
 never been fully identified. In our limited survey of those won- 
 ders of life and organization, which are thus revealed to us, it is 
 natural to first turn our attention to the vegetable kingdom. 
 And the largest number, as well as the most interesting, of the 
 peculiar plants thus revealed in all their beauty, yet perhaps 
 
41 
 
 the most difficult to understand, on account of their varied ap- 
 pearance and intermediate forms, are the 
 
 FUNGI. 
 
 Their sudden appearance and growth, their ephemeral nature, 
 and the multiplicity of their forms, have always been a source 
 of trouble to investigators, and even the most indefatigable of 
 modern mycologists have been able to lift but partially the veil 
 which hangs over the life and development of these organisms. 
 Almost every one, however, supposes that there can be no doubt 
 as to what a toadstool, a mildew, or a mold is, and some may 
 even correctly call them fungi, but many others are entirely un- 
 acquainted with that Latin word which denotes them. Rust on 
 grain, and smut on Indian corn and other cereals, are also familiar 
 to farmers ; but a vast multitude of other all too numerous fungi 
 are known only to the botanist by name, and only to the mycol- 
 ogist in their habits and structures, and to him only after long 
 and patient study. In fact, it is to the researches of many emi- 
 nent men and women, in Europe, Great Britain, and in this 
 country, both among the dead as well as among the living, that 
 the structure, habits and mode of growth, relation to the various 
 departments of industry, injurious effects and general utihty of 
 these smaller fungi in nature, are collected and known. As 
 plants, although of a low order of organization, they are of great 
 interest as mere objects of beauty ; but to attain a full compre- 
 hension of this fact we must have recourse to the microscope, 
 as the peculiar portions of these structures are beyond the reach 
 of unaided vision. No one that has not had his eye upon them, 
 aided by magnifying power, could possibly conceive that the lit- 
 tle specks of brown or black, seen on the brilliant ripening fo- 
 liage of the maple in September and October, or on the skins of 
 apples, pears, and other fruit ; on the dry stalks of plants or 
 straw, on old decaying matter, on the buildings and fence-rails, 
 on the panes of the window, or the bodies of diseased insects, 
 like bees and house-flies, — in fine, on almost everything, — are re- 
 ceptacles of exquisitely sculptured and carved seed-vessels, 
 called spores ; often beaded thread-like strings of pearls ; again. 
 
42 
 
 consisting of myriads of the most fantastic shapes that the 
 genius of man could imagine, but could never imitate. 
 
 A subject so broad and so varied, one which can be investi- 
 gated at any season of the year, inviting the naturalist, more es- 
 pecially the botanist, forth from earliest spring to latest autumn, 
 to search for forms of beauty on every living or ripening leaf 
 and fruit, and in winter rendering the evening lamp more at- 
 tractive in studying the collected treasures of the summer's 
 gleanings ; even if such collections have not been made, the 
 barn with its harvested treasures is at hand, and from that may 
 be taken specimens which can never fail to interest as well as in- 
 struct every thoughtful person in some way or other ; and would 
 ever be of the greatest interest, if presented in an agreeable 
 manner, and shown with regard to their reference, or connec- 
 tion, with the industrial pursuits of society. 
 
 Not only is such study of interest to the botanist, whose spe- 
 cialty is the study of fungi, but it possesses more than ordinary 
 interest to the husbandman whose crops often lie at the mercy 
 of some of this class of parasites, and to his family, as their wel- 
 fare often depends upon these minute organisms. Even a slight 
 acquaintance with a few of these wonderful little plants, would 
 render the walk for exercise or pleasure ten times more valuable, 
 and often remunerative. Who, even without special thought 
 upon the subject, has not noticed along the roadside early as 
 June, where blackberry-bushes are found among weeds and grass, 
 that their leaves were powdered underneath with rich golden 
 dust, which might be shaken from little orange cups ? Many 
 times from children, and often also from the middle-aged and old, 
 has come the query as to what it was. On other bushes also, 
 when yielding fruit, even, to tempt women, men, boys, and 
 maidens ; yet would they turn aside, because the dust was omi- 
 nous, but in what way or from whence it came none knew. 
 
 Those dusty-looking lilac-bushes, so dusty ere the close of 
 summer that no rain could wash them clean, or ever will, so long 
 as that peculiar white egg-mold riots on the upper surfaces of 
 their leaves. 
 
 The crystalline drops of permanent dew, on some refuse mat- 
 ter, often attract attention as they glisten in the sun, but few stop 
 
43 
 
 to examine and see the white threads in countless numbers that 
 permeate them. Though such things often attract attention, 
 they are soon forgotten when we know nothing about them, and 
 no one is there to tell an anecdote from their history. Cun- 
 ningly, wisely, and full of secret hidden meaning, a thousand 
 forms of lower vegetable life look up into our faces, while we, with 
 repressed curiosity and not quite willing, tread them under our 
 feet. How few even ever stop to think that they are leaves in 
 the great book of nature, and consequently worthy the reading, 
 and that to every one who will study those pages and translate 
 the hieroglyphics, that the time and trouble of deciphering would 
 be richly rewarded by the knowledge obtained. 
 
 " How thankful I am to you, " said a friend, " that you have 
 told me so much about the lichens in our pastures. They are 
 now a great source of happiness to me ; formerly I detested 
 them." 
 
 " The best lectures on botany," said a well-known and highly 
 appreciated educator, " are lessons upon every plant we meet." 
 Yes, within reach of all of us is study for a life-time, and we may 
 thus not only please ourselves, but by and by be considered 
 benefactors. With an intention to introduce a few of these little 
 parasitical growths to the attention of the reader, and to make 
 plain and easy what at first seems so obscure and mysterious, I 
 will bring forward some of the more common species, and, ex- 
 plaining by word and figure their form and habits, endeavor to 
 interest you to such an extent that you will be willing at least to 
 acknowledge their power for good or evil, and know where to 
 find your enemy, when pet plants, or fields of grain, grasses, or 
 potatoes, are likely to fail under the evil so wide-spread and 
 fatal. 
 
 CLUSTER CUPS. 
 
 M. C. Cooke, the great English writer on fungi, divides them 
 into six families. In one of these families the spores are the 
 principal feature. This family is called the " dust fungi " 
 {Coniomycetes). Of course it contains many groups, called 
 families or orders, which are analogous to the natural orders of 
 
44 
 
 flowering plants. Without enumerating any of the various 
 characteristics of these orders, I will select one typical plant. 
 The spores are inclosed in a distinct peridium (covering for the 
 seeds). This is a cup-shaped excrescence on the infested leaves. 
 This order is called yEcidiacei. They are always developed on 
 living plants, sometimes on the flowers, fruit, or stems, but 
 usually on the leaves ; occasionally on the upper surface, but 
 almost always on the under side of the leaf. 
 
 The diiierent species are distributed widely over the entire 
 world. They may be found on every continent, and on almost 
 every island. When examined they look like minute cups upon 
 the leaf, and hence we call them " cluster cups." Besides the 
 generic name they have also added a specific name, generally 
 derived from some plant they are known to infest ; but this must 
 not lead the student to suppose that one species is only found 
 on that particular plant, for most of them infest many plants, 
 yet some, of course, to a greater extent than others. 
 
 We must therefore look to the actual differences in the fungi, 
 not in the plants they infest. 
 
 The leaf may be truly said to be the lung of the plant. 
 Through the stomata (minute holes) on the under side of the 
 leaf, the plant obtains nourishment from the atmosphere, which 
 is as necessary to them as our breath is to us. 
 
 Anything that clogs or injures the stomata of any plant 
 directly injures the growth of that plant. This little fungi, when 
 the plant has become infested, breaks through the epidermis, 
 destroying many of the breathing-pores (stomata), and also 
 draws its own nourishment from the life-juices of the plant it 
 infests. Before it breaks through the under surface of the leaf, 
 the infested leaf, if closely examined, will appear to be covered 
 with little elevations or pustules, paler at the apex ; these soon 
 become ruptured, and the fungus pushes its head through the 
 opening, at the same time bursting by radiating fissures. The 
 teeth thus formed resemble those of the peristome of some 
 mosses. All around the orifice the teeth, or fringe, become re- 
 curved, and the orange spores (fungi seed) are exposed, crowded 
 together within. At first, and in fact while contained in the 
 
45 
 
 peridium (cup), these spores are connected together as a string 
 of beads, but when dispersed they are scattered singly about 
 the orifice, often mixed with colorless cells arising from the 
 partial breaking up of the teeth, or fringe, of the peridium. Let 
 us now for a moment examine the manner in which these cups 
 are distributed upon the leaf. They are scattered without any 
 apparent order over the under surface, with now and then one 
 upon the upper surface, but they nowhere touch each other, 
 unless at the margins of the leaf, but then they are never joined, 
 only crowded. Generally there is a space greater than the width 
 of the cups between them. The leaf is not thickened by their 
 growth, and the upper surface gives you no indication of what is 
 going on beneath. If a leaf be taken fresh, and the epidermis 
 from the under side be stripped off, as it is often easy to do, the 
 orifices through which the fungi have burst will appear in 
 irregular holes, and the fungi will be left rooted still upon the 
 leaf, showing that they are not confined to the surface, and thus 
 we see why the damage is so great to the plant upon which they 
 subsist. 
 
 The spores in this species are orange in color, but variable 
 both in size and form, though the majority are comparatively 
 large. Each of these spores is capable of reproducing its 
 species, and if we compute two thousand cluster cups as occur- 
 ring on each leaf, and many leaves have double this number, 
 and supposing each cup to contain two hundred and fifty thou- 
 sand spores, which again is much below the actual number, then 
 we shall have not less than five hundred millions of reproductive 
 bodies on one infected leaf, to furnish a crop of parasites for the 
 plants of the succeeding year. As we thus so soon reckon by 
 millions, our figures and capacities fail in appreciating the 
 myriads of spores which compose the orange dust produced from 
 one infected cluster of plants. Nor is this all, for it is found 
 that one of these spores is not only capable of producing a 
 plant, but is in itself a bundle of vegetative spores, which are 
 exceedingly minute, and yet, small as they are, they have the 
 capability to produce fresh crops of cluster cups. 
 
 Naturally enough, our reader will ere this be debating in his 
 
46 
 
 own mind how these spores, which we have seen are shed in 
 such profusion, can enter the tissues of the plants which give 
 subsequent evidence of infection, as I have described ; in fact, 
 how the yellow dust with which the atmosphere may be filled 
 to-day can inoculate the young plants of next year. If one or 
 two of these spores are sprinkled upon the cuticle which has 
 been removed from the leaf, as we have before indicated, it will 
 be seen that they are very much larger than the stomata, or 
 breathing-pores, which stud the cuticle ; hence it is clear they 
 cannot gain admittance there. There remains but one other 
 portal to the interior of the plant, and that is through the 
 extremities of the roots. Here another difficulty arises ; for the 
 spores are as large as the cells through which they would there 
 have to pass. This difficulty is, however, much lessened when 
 we remember that these spores are a bundle of infinite particles, 
 each particle of which is probably capable of infecting a plant. 
 Even under this consideration, there is much need of an active 
 imagination, to invent hypotheses to cover the points upon 
 which we as yet know nothing definite. 
 
 " The Rev. M. J. Berkeley proved many years ago that the 
 spores of bunt, for example, may be caused to infect all the 
 plants the seeds of which had been placed in contact with 
 them." But this did not prove that the seeds absorbed them, 
 as it is probable they did not, but they would adhere to the 
 seed and thus be conveyed to the ground, where infection to the 
 sprout would be probable. Much has been done to elucidate 
 this mystery, but much remains a mystery still. No spores 
 have ever been seen traversing the tissues of growing plants. 
 
 The stems and leaves of violets, sweet-scented and scentless 
 all alike, are often distorted and ruined altogether by a variety 
 of cluster cups ; the stinging nettle does not escape ; the hardy 
 dock, the useful currant, the wild geraniums, alike feed with 
 their juices fungi of this description. 
 
 It has long been a popular belief in England (says F. B. 
 Hough in his report on Forestry), that the barberry-bush {Ber- 
 beris vulgaris) has some agency in the propagation of rust in 
 wheat and other grain, and the researches of botanists have 
 
47 
 
 somewhat tended to confirm this belief. The spores from grain- 
 rust {Puccinia graminis) are said to find their way to the leaves 
 of the barberry, germinate, and form cluster cups on the under 
 surface of the leaves, and the spores from these in turn germi- 
 nate on the grain by alternate generation. The fact that rust 
 sometimes appears in fields where there are no barberry-bushes 
 capable of bearing the intermediate form, appears to indicate 
 that there are other plants having the same capability of bearing 
 the intermediate growth. The clearing off of barberry, or other 
 plants or bushes, near wheat-fields, has, it is claimed, been pro- 
 ductive of good results ; and if it should be proved beyond 
 doubt that there is a direct relation between this and grain-rust, 
 the use of the barberry as a hedge-plant, as well as that of other 
 bushes, should be discontinued. Cooke, on the other hand, says 
 that while this statement long ago had credit among the people, 
 it has no foundation in fact, as the genera are distinct and per- 
 fect in themselves; while some others, perhaps equally eminent, 
 claim intermediate and spurious forms. Professor CErsted, it is 
 said, has recently determined 
 their identity as one and the 
 same plant. In this figure 
 (Fig. 27), a shows a leaf of the 
 barberry, with cluster cups upon 
 it iyScidium herberidis) ; b, a 
 portion of the leaf magnified ■. 
 c, the same fragment seen side- 
 wise. 
 
 The leaves of the pear show 
 other species, and very singular 
 and curious clusters of excres- 
 cences occur on the leaves of 
 the apple-tree and mountain 
 ash, and are also very promi- 1,,^ ^^ 
 
 nent on the leaves of the quince-tree, and especially of the wild 
 apple-tree of the West, consisting of large peridia, pointed at 
 the tops, and so swollen below as to bear a rude resemblance to 
 urns, the edges split into long, contorted threads. They are a 
 
48 
 
 species of Rastelia, The R. Icuerata is seen in Fig. 28, a, 
 
 natural size, living on the leaves 
 and fruit of the hawthorn ; b, a 
 portion magnified. The spores 
 are also of a light orange color, 
 but the plant, by comparison, or 
 even by comparison of the cuts, 
 may be seen to widely differ in 
 its appearance. The fir and 
 pine also suffer, as they are 
 often attacked by the Perider- 
 minum, which changes the foli- 
 age, and spoils the effect of their 
 branches, rendering them un- 
 F'g- 28. sightly. Unfortunately but little 
 
 is known of this fungus, but it is well worthy of attention from 
 
 those that are interested in the minute aspects of nature, and 
 
 those who can recognize the hand 
 
 " 'I'hat sets a sun amidst the firmament, 
 Or niold.s a dewdrop, and lights up its gem.'" 
 
 But we must not stop for reflection, but slightly notice another 
 class. The spores of the smaller fungi have thus far been 
 spoken of as seeds, but this is not strictly true, and several novel 
 and interesting points for consideration and inquiry arise. 
 
 ;If we should place some of the yellow dust, which fills the 
 cup-shaped peridia, in a drop of water, and prevent its evapora- 
 tion by covering it with a watch-crystal, or any other glass would 
 do as well, we should find in a few hours that each particle of 
 the dust had swollen, and bursting at some point had given out 
 a little thread, at the apex of which it is crowned with delicate 
 curved appendages, which soon become connected by lateral 
 threads, thus forming a kind of latticed network, and from the 
 sides of these filaments little cells sprout, which in turn germi- 
 nate and reproduce the plant. Those of our readers who are 
 familiar with the early stages of the ferns, can trace a strikfiiig 
 analogy in the process. 
 
 In many of the smaller fungi the spore is present in another 
 form, constituting what is termed the spermagone (pustules and 
 
49 
 
 depressions like pockets), often in shape of a minute dot near 
 the peridium, and sometimes on the other side of the leaf. In 
 fact it may be like a little blister filled with threads, throwing 
 off little curved bodies called spermatia (germinating filaments), 
 which escape through an orifice provided for the purpose. 
 
 Before the nature of these singular objects was known, sper- 
 magones were mistaken for distinct kinds of fungi, and many 
 species were thus described. In the Periderminum Pint, before 
 spoken of, they are white, few in number, and are developed not 
 only in the spring, but sometimes re-appear in the autumn upon 
 the same leaves that produced them at the commencement of 
 the year. The evident effort of nature, then, in this process, is 
 to produce an ultimate condition of fungal life, which shall be 
 sure to continue indefinitely the presence of the parasites upon 
 the leaves and other parts of the higher plants. And this is 
 done with certainty by the mycelium, a system of the most sub- 
 tile threads, which can enter the tissues by attacking the seed 
 when sown, and whose persistence of vitality enables it to 
 endure the most trying circumstances unharmed. So vitalized 
 indeed is the mycelium, that any fragment of it will vegetate 
 and grow after long periods of desiccation. And its luxuriance 
 of growth is in nowise dependent on any higher development, 
 such as, were it the stems and leaves of a flowering plant, would 
 be necessary to cause it sooner or later to push forth blossoms 
 and fruit. 
 
 This wonderful vitality is taken advantage of in the cultiva- 
 tion of the edible fungi, such as the mushroom for example, 
 where lumps of dry earth permeated by the mycelium, or 
 " spawn," as it is called, are planted in prepared soil and a good 
 crop realized. It is familiar to nurserymen, and all those who 
 cultivate trees for shade or otherwise, that they often languish 
 and die, owing to their roots reaching spots deep in the ground, 
 where decayed wood or other vegetable remains are filled with 
 this subtile fungal spawn, which inoculates the tree with the 
 destructive fungus, causing its death. Fortunately, the awaken- 
 ing and full vigor depends much upon the atmospheric condi- 
 tion, else we should live in fear that every plant would be 
 blasted. From this cause fungi of every form are often regarded 
 4 
 
50 
 
 as meteorological phenomena, and wet and foggy weather are 
 complained of as harbingers of various fungoid evils. 
 
 MILDEW OR RUST. 
 
 Peculiar hot and damp days will be dreaded by nearly all on 
 account of " mildew," but " mildew " is one of those loose terms 
 that represents no definite idea, or a very different one to vari- 
 ous individuals. 
 
 Talk of mildew of grain to a farmer, and he tells you of the 
 rust which appears in lines or irregular spots upon the wheat- 
 stalk, indicating Puccinia graminis, which is known to him and 
 generations before him in many sections as mildew. 
 
 Talk to a New England housewife of mildew, and she will 
 describe a minute species of fungus which attacks damp linen, 
 as true mildew, and will ask if you know what will remove the 
 spots occasioned by it. 
 
 Ask the hop-grower of New York about mildew, and he will 
 point out a species of mold that infests the hop-vine, but which 
 differs as much from the mildew of the South as does the mildew 
 of linen. The librarian will tell you of mildewed books and 
 papers, and the housemaid of mildewed cellars, — all meaning a 
 fungous growth, but as wide in their significance as the poison- 
 hemlock and hemlock-tree. 
 
 Mildew in England means in literature but one thing, and that 
 is the rust upon wheat and other grain, known scientifically as 
 Puccinia graminis. 
 
 But let us look into the history of this pest. In view of a 
 clearer understanding of this peculiar pest, so long supposed to 
 be several separate species, and which under the present light 
 of science seems fast merging into one, we will suppose a fine 
 day in June dawns upon our resolve to learn of mildew, or rust, 
 and we stray away from the village to gain the chance to exam- 
 ine a wheat-field. Having reached the field, there is no appear- 
 ance of anything but a healthy crop ; we walk into it perhaps 
 fifteen or twenty yards before we find a single fungus of which 
 we are in quest. But let us look closely down at the green 
 leaves at the very bottom of the wheat-plant, and we are soon 
 
51 
 
 rewarded, as we shall find one or two that look rusty. ^ The sur- 
 face seems powdered with red ochre, and to have grown sickly 
 under the operation. Pluck it carefully, and examine it with 
 low magnifying power ; a pocket lens will do. Already the cuti- 
 cle of the leaf is traversed with numerous longitudinal cracks 
 or fissures, within which and around which you discern an orange 
 powder, to which the rusty appearance on the leaf is due. 
 Further examination reveals also portions in which the cuticle is 
 distended into yellowish elongated pustules, not yet ruptured, 
 and which is an earlier stage of this same disease. This is the 
 rust of the New England agriculturist, the Trichobasis rubigo 
 vera of the botanist, or the first phase of the mildew. 
 
 To know more of this parasite we must take it to our micro- 
 scope, and by careful manipulation we shall find that the vege- 
 tative system of this, as well as of all similar fungi, consists of a 
 number of delicate simple or branched threads, often intertwin- 
 ing and even uniting one to the other by little branchlets, These 
 threads, as we have before explained, are called the mycelium ; 
 they penetrate the intercellular spaces and insinuate themselves 
 in a complete network among the cells of which the leaf or other 
 diseased portion of the plant is composed. We may regard the 
 whole mycelium of one pustule, or spore-spot, as the vegetative 
 system of one fungal plant. At first it might have originated 
 as several individuals, which afterward become combined as 
 one, for the production of fruit, and by their combined effort a 
 cluster of fruity or spore-spot, is produced. 
 
 In the first instance, a number of minute, transparent, color- 
 less cellules are developed from the mycelium ; these enlarge, 
 and are filled with an orange-colored endochrome, and appear 
 beneath the leaf as yellowish spots. As a consequence of this 
 increase of bulk, the cuticle becomes distended in the form of 
 a pustule over the yellow cellules, and at length, unable to with- 
 stand the pressure from beneath, ruptures in irregular, but more 
 or less elongated fissures, and the yellow bodies, which I will 
 call spores, break from their short pedicels and escape ; to the 
 naked eye presenting the appearance of an orange powder. 
 
 On the first of August we will again visit our wheat-field. 
 Rusty leaves are more common than before. A little careful 
 
52 
 
 examination, and here and there we shall find a leaf or two 
 with decidedly brown pustules intermixed with the rusty ones. 
 If we remove from the browner spots a little of the powder by 
 means of a sharp-pointed knife, and place it in a drop of water, 
 and cover it with a thin glass, and place it under our microscope> 
 a different series of forms will be observed. There will still be 
 a portion of one-celled|yellow spores, but the majority will be 
 elongated, mostly withfshort stalks, and either decidedly two- 
 celled or a tendency to be so. 
 
 These two-celled spores are another form of the mildew called 
 Puccinia graminis, which may be produced in the same pustules 
 and from the same mycelium as the rust previously described, 
 and is generally considered at the present time to be the same 
 fungus. Other grain and various other plants are likewise 
 affected. 
 
 Fig. 29 represents at a, wheat-straw inefcted 
 with this rust ; b, cluster of spores magnified ; 
 c, single spore magnified 300 diameters. 
 
 This rust is so common and so much alike 
 ' on all plants, that this plate will answer to rep- 
 resent the fungus wherever found. 
 
 Let us now for the third time visit our wheat- 
 field. It is ripe, or else much damaged, possi- 
 bly destroyed, by the fungi. 
 
 On the straw we shall find black lines, or 
 . blackish spots, from the size of a pin's head to 
 an inch in length ; this is the mildew, rust, or 
 Puccinia, — it matters not what name it is 
 called, — in full maturity, and when once seen 
 it is never forgotten. Botanists may dispute 
 about its intermediate stages ; may give it dif- 
 J^g-^g- ferent names when found on other plants, — 
 
 but it still remains the great pest of the husbandman. There 
 are no lingering doubts in the minds of agriculturists, bot- 
 anists, savans of science, or laborers, that the rust is not injuri- 
 ous, because the most casual observation shows it in the sickly 
 condition of all plants affected through the season. 
 
 The manner of impregnation is unknown, or, if known, is in 
 
53 
 
 dispute. Some believe, as the stomata or breathing-pores of 
 the plant are open in damp weather, that the infinitesimal germs 
 enter these pores and gain a foothold, and push their rootlets 
 into the cellular tissue of the plant. Others think they enter 
 from the ground through the roots, and others still do not be- 
 lieve that they enter the plant at all, but that the seeds are poi- 
 soned by the touch of their spores. Be it as it may, we well 
 know that it exists, and of course desire to have as little dam- 
 age from it as possible. Observation has shown that rich land, 
 or that manured by old manure, is much more likely to have the 
 grain crop injured than land not so rich, or manured by green 
 manure or some of our fertilizers. This should teach care in 
 the preparation of our land. Some claim that an admixture of 
 sulphur in sowing, and others that if it is sifted on the leaves, is 
 a preventive. Careful experiments have shown all such reme- 
 dies useless. Ashes are good to produce a healthy condition of 
 the crop, while they have no effect upon the fungi. 
 
 The state of the atmosphere conducive to very rapid growth, 
 is usually liable to develop the pest. We believe that all straw 
 infected to a large extent should be burned, and all grasses and 
 weeds standing around such fields should share the same fate. 
 In this way the principal danger might be avoided. 
 
 Another instance of the two-formed condition of the smaller 
 fungi can be traced in the delicate condition of moldiness 
 which frequently covers the leaves of the lilac, the grape, the 
 fruit of the gooseberry, and various other plants. It looks like 
 strings of beads made of colorless cells. In this condition it is 
 known and described as Oidium. 
 
 Fig. 30, a, tufts of conidia of the Oid- 
 ium Monilioides ; b, portion of grass leaf 
 with same species of blight, the spores 
 being the self-same beads and egg-shaped 
 bodies, whence the generic name, but 
 careful observation will show us that this 
 is not its perfect condition ; and when, 
 later in autumn, these threads become 
 more compact, and are surmounted on 
 their horizontal surfaces by shining black 
 
54 
 
 capsules, or perithecia, each of which is filled with elegant 
 elliptical and elongated cells, and each in turn containing sev- 
 eral spores, we shall find in Erisyphe that we have arrived at the 
 conclusion of the dimorphism of this fungus, so injurious in its 
 effects. 
 
 The famous grape mildew, so destructive to the grapes of Eu- 
 rope, and known as Oidium Tuckeri, is also only an imperfect 
 form of some common Erisyphe; so of the grape fungi of New 
 England, as well as of various other fungal plants. 
 
 Even the cluster cup first described is quite likely to turn out 
 but one form of the rust, on some other plant. Some, as I have 
 before said, even now suppose it identical with the Puccinia, 
 and with good reason. 
 
 SMUTS. 
 
 Another of the fungal diseases of grain, long and widely 
 known among agriculturists, is here called smut. Different 
 names have been given it in different localities. In some it 
 is "dust-brand," in others, "bunt-ear," "black-ball," etc. All 
 the names refer to the blackish, sootlike dust with which the 
 infested and abortive heads are covered. This fungus in New 
 England does not generally excite much alarm among the farm- 
 ers, yet it often injures the crop. Perhaps it is not so extensively 
 injurious as rust, yet it destroys every infested head of grain 
 upon which it establishes itself, and is also thought to be poison- 
 ous to people, or animals, that feed upon it. In Johnson's work 
 on the grasses of Great Britain, he says " that diseased wheat 
 examined by Sir H. Davy, when good, had an average of .955 
 parts of nutritive matter to 1,000 : sometimes from disease, or 
 smut, rust, or mildew, it was reduced as low as .210 in 1,000." The 
 consequence of using such diseased wheat for food would be a 
 step towards starvation, even though no greater evil resulted. 
 It is, however, well known to be highly prejudicial to health ; 
 and the higher standard of living among the poorer classes of 
 our population, compared with those of some continental coun- 
 tries, is the only cause of their exemption from the dreadful 
 diseases resulting from the use of bad grain. That such dis- 
 eases might occasionally prevail among them here, from similar 
 
55 
 
 causes, under a more restricted diet, is evident from a record in 
 iht Philosophical Transactions iox ihe. year 1762. The case in 
 question occurred in the village of Wallisham, about fifteen or 
 sixteen miles from Bury, St. Edmond's, Suffolk, and the report 
 of it was forwarded to the Royal Society by Dr. Wollaston, 
 attested by the Rev. Mr. Bone, the curate of the parish, and is 
 abridged as follows : — Some of the wheat belonging to a farmer 
 in the neighborhood, being laid or beaten down by bad weather, 
 and diseased, the grain much damaged in consequence, it was 
 collected and threshed apart from the remainder. Being unfit 
 for the market, it was sold at a low price to any of the farm la- 
 borers, and other people of the village, who would purchase. 
 The sale of this wheat commenced about Christmas, and to one 
 poor family, whose chief and possibly sole support it was for 
 some time, the result was most alarming and unparalleled. It 
 appears that the consumption of this poor wheat by the father, 
 mother, and five children, was about two bushels in a fortnight j 
 the same being eaten in the form of bread and puddings, both 
 of them very indifferent in quality. 
 
 But to poverty, cheapness and sufficiency of food are always 
 irresistible inducements, and this unwholesome fare was con- 
 tinued without intermission until the mother and her children 
 were attacked within a few days of each other with a gangre- 
 nous disease. The first indication of the disease was intense 
 pains in the lower limbs. It first occurred on the tenth of Jan- 
 uary, and was thought to be rheumatism, but when this pain sub- 
 sided it was followed by numbness and insensibility of the parts 
 which terminated in mortification. The condition of the family 
 at the time Dr. Wollaston made his report to the society is here 
 subjoined : — 
 
 " Mary, the mother, aged forty. Right foot off at ankle ; left 
 leg mortified, a mere bone but not off. 
 
 " Elizabeth, aged thirteen. Both legs off below the knee. 
 
 " Sarah, aged ten years. One foot off at ankle. 
 
 " Robert, aged eight. Both legs off below the knee. 
 
 " Edward, aged four. Both feet off at ankles. 
 
 " An infant, aged four months. Dead." 
 
 The father was not attacked until about a fortnight after his 
 
56 
 
 ■wife and children, and in a slighter degree. In his case the 
 pain was confined to two fingers of his right hand, which turned 
 blackish and withered. Another laboring man in the same par- 
 ish, who had eaten of this bread, suffered from numbness in 
 both his hands for upwards of a month. They were constantly 
 cold, and his finger-ends peeled ; one thumb he says remains 
 without any sensation. 
 
 In several instances where bread made from the same wheat 
 was eaten in the farmer's own family, as well as by other per- 
 sons, no prejudicial effects were noticed, probably in conse- 
 quence of such bread being used only occasionally, and as an 
 adjunct to other and more wholesome food. The nature of the 
 disease with which the wheat was affected does not appear to 
 have been fully ascertained, but the circumstances are well au- 
 thenticated. It is of course possible that the want of proper 
 nourishment in the wheat may have had a share to do with the 
 disease ; but smutty and mildewed grain has always been con- 
 sidered unhealthy to man, and many cases of disease in animals 
 have often been traced to this cause. 
 
 With such examples before us, too great caution cannot be 
 used regarding the use of grain and flour of suspicious character. 
 
 These fungi, like many of the others that infest our fields and 
 gardens, belong to the family in which the spores are the dis- 
 tinctive feature, and is regarded as fixed in the genus Ustilago 
 (or smut of grain), and the specific name segetum (standing). So 
 we have the name Ustilago segetum, or the smut of standing grain. 
 
 Another kind of smut known in this country is Ustilago mag- 
 dis (the maize smut). It is even more common than the other, 
 as no corn-field is without more or less of it. It forms a peculiar 
 thickened and abnormal growth, that is full of the characteristic 
 black spores represented as magnified four hundred diameters in 
 
 Fig. 31- 
 
 The spores in this fungus are very numerous, 
 simple, deeply serrated, springing from delicate 
 threads or in closely-packed cells, ultimately 
 breaking up into a powdery mass. A species of 
 this smut affects some grasses slightly in this 
 country, but in France it frequently affects grass 
 
67 
 
 to such an extent as to produce disastrous consequences on the 
 hay-makers, such as violent swellings of the head and face, with 
 poisonous irritation over the whole system. Threshers are some- 
 times thus affected in this country, when at work on smutty oats, 
 although not all are equally affected. 
 
 The spores of this species are so immense in number, that it 
 would seem impossible to guard corn or other grain against its rav- 
 ages, but it seems like others of this class — they are quite easily 
 destroyed, and in that way are kept in check. They adhere to 
 the grain in threshing, but if the grain is washed with clean 
 water, and then with a solution of Glauber's salts, and while 
 still moist dusted with quicklime, these spores will be destroyed, 
 and the rust spores also, and the crop will be improved, as the 
 caustic soda is set free by the sulphuric acid of the salts com- 
 bining with the lime, and converting it into sulphate of lime 
 (plaster of Paris) which is beneficial to the young sprout, while 
 the caustic soda is fatal to the spores of rust and smut. 
 
 Other washes, as of chloride of lime, at the rate of one ounce 
 to the gallon of water, or of aqua ammonia in same proportions, 
 are probably also beneficial to kill the spores, and aid germination 
 of the grain. Experience has also taught us that a wet season is 
 much more prolific of fungi than a dry one ; and thick-sown 
 grain than thin-sown. 
 
 The direction of the wind when grain is sown is of no effect, 
 notwithstanding old people, many of them, think that an east 
 wind is deleterious. 
 
 THE ONION SMUT. 
 
 This fungus, called by Prof. C. C. Frost, of Brattleborough, Vt., 
 Urocystis Cepulce, since its first appearance in New England in 
 1870 has caused much damage to that crop. It is thought to be 
 allied to the rust on Indian corn, but not exactly the same. The 
 damage caused to single towns in Massachusetts from this smut 
 alone is estimated at several thousands of dollars. There is as 
 yet very little known about the development of this fungus. It 
 has never been known in Europe, and is supposed to originate 
 from some of our wild species of onions, and of course is as yet 
 
58 
 
 but imperfectly known here. It changes the onion to the pecu- 
 liar dark sooty powder so well known as smut, and the infected 
 onions at once cease to grow ; and though the black may often 
 be peeled off apparently with one or two of the layers of the 
 onion, they are not considered healthy, and great loss is en- 
 tailed to those raising them. As the spores doubtless remain in 
 the ground, and nothing put on the ground would be likely to 
 eradicate them, the only known help is to change the locality, 
 giving the onions ground on which they have not been previously 
 raised, and using the onion-bed for other purposes, or for such 
 crops as the spores would not injure. 
 
 After a time, perhaps four or five years, the old beds might 
 probably be again planted, as doubtless the spores would have 
 lost their vitality. 
 
 As this smut at the present time is principally confined to 
 Massachusetts and Connecticut, with a little care on our part, it 
 will be a long time before New Hampshire will materially suffer 
 from this fungi. 
 
 Should it appear among us, it should be at once stamped out 
 by burning over the land, and not trying to raise onions on it 
 for at least four years, as a trial would not only be useless but 
 would endanger whole townships by the increase of the spores. 
 
 It should as much be the law to stamp out by legal proceed- 
 ings such pests, as to keep small-pox out of our towns, as the 
 diseases resulting to the human family are none the less to be 
 dreaded because slow and insidious in their workings. 
 
 Those who desire to know more of this disease we will refer 
 to the Massachusetts Agricultural Report for 1876-77, where it 
 is fully described. 
 
 WHITE RUST. 
 
 The idea we have thus far of rust and smut is, that it is dark 
 colored, or like the rust of iron ; but as I speak of white rust 
 that opinion must be overthrown, as the white rust of the cab- 
 bage, turnip, and all similar plants is one that the gardener has 
 often to contend with. I bring it in to show that fungi must be 
 looked for in every place and under all colors. This white rust 
 
59 
 
 is called Cystopus candidus. It 
 is represented in Fig. 32 as it 
 occurs on shepherd's-purse, a 
 showing the fruit with the rust 
 upon it ; b, portions of the cab- 
 bage-leaf with the same species 
 upon it ; and c, conidia of the 
 same. (See Cooke's treatise on 
 fungi.) 
 
 Upon the leaf of the cabbage 
 it appears as engraved, in white 
 patches ; the leaves become de- 
 formed and swollen or blistered, 
 even before we can make out 
 fully the cause of the mischief 
 outside. These blistered pus- 
 tules have a minute system of * ^^' 
 branching threads, which traverse the pulpy parts of the leaves, 
 and which threads, insinuating themselves between the cells that 
 constitute the pulp, take their nutriment at the expense of the 
 growing foliage. 
 
 It is after the pustules assume the white color and are visible 
 on the skin or cuticle that the reproductive parts termed conidia 
 can be detected. (See Fig. 32.) From the multitudes of these 
 beads or spores forming the white powdery dust, the term coni- 
 dia is applied, which means dust-like. Other plants, besides, 
 are often affected, as the water-cress, pepper-grass, radish, and 
 even the weed purslane does not escape its ravages. Its mode 
 of vegetation is one of peculiar interest, in fine one of the most 
 curious phenomena of plant life, and indicates in this low order 
 of vegetation a relation to higher structural forms, not only in 
 plants but even in animals. Thus, if a few particles of the white 
 dust be immersed in a drop of water, and examined under the 
 microscope, they will be seen to rapidly absorb water, and swell- 
 ing, a large and obtuse papilla resembling the neck of a bottle 
 is produced, and a seeming empty space is formed in the con- 
 tents of each spore. As these disappear, the whole granular 
 substance becomes separated by fine lines into five to eight por- 
 
60 
 
 tions each, with a small, faintly colored, empty space in the 
 center. These portions are so many zoospores. These are soon 
 expelled one by one, and soon afterwards begin to move, being 
 provided with seeming fins or fringes by which they are enabled 
 to swim about like an animalcule ; but they are only buds en- 
 dowed with motion, same as many other plants have. These of 
 course are capable of infecting plants, as we have seen. 
 
 The prodigal provision of nature is here, as everywhere, espe- 
 cially in its lower orders, signally manifested, when we are told 
 that the immense number of zoospores capable of being pro- 
 duced from a single infected plant is almost beyond calculation. 
 
 It is easy for a million of conidia to be developed from one 
 such plant, each producing five to eight zoospores. It can 
 scarcely be considered marvelous that the white rust should be 
 so common on plants favorable to its development, the marvel 
 being rather that any escape. 
 
 THE POTATO DISEASE. 
 
 Mold is a word in common use, and all will tell you what 
 mold is, yet each will perhaps tell you of a different kind. This 
 very numerous family are called Hyphomycetes ; that is, fungi that 
 grow by throwing out delicate threads. 
 
 Of course there are several distinct groups. 
 
 To the common eye, unaided by the microscope or observa- 
 tion, mildews, moldiness, and similar microscopic plants would 
 be readily confounded. But the mildew is a much more highly 
 developed fungus, and though apparently as dangerous, is not 
 so to the same extent. The egg-mold {Oidiuni), which covers 
 and suffocates the young gooseberry, or the grape, readily yields 
 to agents which will destroy it, and set free from its threads the 
 swelling fruit ; but the potato-mold, for instance, is the inception 
 of the potato-rot, which is so dreaded. The " molds," then, as 
 Russell says, "are fearful parasitic plants, which riot on the 
 tender tissues of other plants and eventually cause their death." 
 There are in this country as many as ten known fungi infesting 
 the potato. It is on this account that those attempting to 
 describe the potato disease have differed so widely from each 
 
61 
 
 other, while all have brought up some facts. The true potato- 
 mold, causing so much mischief, is now generally admitted to 
 be the Peronospora infesians, and were it not for its effects it 
 would be regarded as a thing of beauty. Were the flies or 
 insects, which are so liberally endowed with eyes, and quite 
 unconcerned about crops, — to investigate, the leaves of the 
 potato would be quite a pretty set of objects to examine, 
 presenting white, many branched, and beaded twigged plants, 
 with egg-shaped seed bodies on the tips of the branches. These 
 vegetable growths issue from the stomata (breathing-pores) of 
 the leaves, choke up the internal and external passages, and 
 prevent a healthy action from being maintained. Soon the 
 leaves become paler, or yellow, then discolored spots appear, 
 and the stems are covered with dark patches ; even the stalks 
 become filled with clotted substances, and sooner or later 
 putrefy, and lastly the tuber suffers, and the rot rapidly increases. 
 
 It was towards the close of the summer of 1845 that the world 
 awakened to what they supposed a new disease in the potato 
 crop ; and one which threatened its entire destruction. Early 
 in September its ravages in Ireland threatened starvation to the 
 people. It extended to Scotland, England, and the continent, 
 and rewards were offered for detection of the cause ; and a host 
 of observations were made with no valuable results. 
 
 It is only by long years of patient study that nature's works 
 are found out, and it will be longer still before any sure pre- 
 ventive will be reached. There are, however, some things 
 that tempt this fungous growth that is so destructive ; as close 
 planting, damp land, weeds that shade the crop, etc. 
 
 As there are some differences of opinion in relation to the 
 actual condition of the potato, favorable or otherwise, to the 
 rot, I copy from the observations of others. 
 
 " Some eminent chemists, such as Dr. Lyon Playfair, believe 
 that the potato-plant when healthy, is not subject to attacks 
 from fungi. In a lecture delivered by the doctor before the 
 Royal Agricultural Society of England, December 9, 1845, ^^ 
 remarked that ' much had been said and written with regard to 
 the source of the disease, and since minute fungi had been 
 assigned as its cause, potatoes, apples, and other fruits had been 
 
62 
 
 inoculated with fungous spores, and had become diseased ; but if 
 there was not some previous disease in the potato itself, how 
 was it that some varieties of potatoes escaped while growing in 
 the immediate vicinity, while others were attacked ? ' " The 
 disease, he believed, arose from structural or chemical causes. 
 
 When a decayed potato was examined it was found that the 
 diseased spots were always in the region of the spiral vessels 
 whose function it is to carry air into the tissue of the plants. 
 He believed the disease originated in the oxidation of the tissue. 
 The Rev. M. J. Berkeley, the leading mycologist of England, on 
 the other hand, contends that the fungus Botrytis infestans, or, 
 as now classed under the new genus, Peronospora infestans, will 
 attack the healthy tubers ; but the question arises just at this 
 point, What means have we of ascertaining the perfectly healthy 
 structure, and chemical state of tubers ? Every farmer plants 
 what he deems sound tubers, yet in the majority of cases, since 
 1845, the crop during very moist seasons has been more 
 generally affected than it was prior to that date. 
 
 The severity of attacks of fungi on plants will depend in some 
 cases on the density of their organic structure and the solubility 
 of their nitrogenous matter. The nitrogenous principle of 
 potatoes, for example, is soluble in water ; that of turnips nearly 
 insoluble. The former, therefore, ferments more readily than 
 the latter. The leaves of a healthy peach-tree, when placed in 
 a moist atmosphere at about 75° Fahrenheit, resist fungoid fer- 
 mentation for months, while those of a peach-tree affected with 
 the " yellows," placed under the same general conditions, will 
 quickly ferment and become covered with the fruit of the fungous 
 mucor. The first possess an antiseptic property, the second are 
 deficient in it. If two blocks of wood, one of boxwood and the 
 other of soft pine, are placed in a fungoid solution, the first will 
 resist the action of the mycelium for a long time because of its 
 density, while the second will quickly decay. The first absorbs 
 very little water, the second a great deal. A certain amount of 
 moisture is always necessary to the growth of fungi. The 
 presence of an excess of water is highly favorable to the growth 
 of the common molds and some other forms of fungoid plants. 
 
 In years previous to the noted potato-rot of 1845, the average 
 
63 
 
 amount of water found in healthy potatoes, according to Professor 
 Playfair, was 72 per cent; that of unhealthy tubers since that 
 date, 80 per cent. The tendency to ferment is therefore in- 
 creased. It was observed by Professor Playfair, in his lecture 
 alluded to, that a peculiar state of the weather had been 
 observed all over the north of Europe where the disease had 
 been seen, as well as in America. The wide-spread use of the 
 potato as an article of diet, especially among the laboring 
 classes throughout Europe, must have led to the extensive 
 planting of diseased potatoes in 1846, because healthy seed could 
 not be found. Indeed, Professor Playfair, in his second lecture 
 of the loth of December, 1845, recommends " the planting of 
 diseased potatoes as seed rather than none." He further states 
 that there was no prospect of obtaining healthy seed from 
 abroad, and that he had permission of the late government 
 authorities for stating that this was the result of their consular 
 returns. The unavoidable adoption of this advice tended to 
 establish hereditary disease in after years, whether it arose from 
 chemical, structural, or fungoid conditions. 
 
 If a healthy potato is so dug out on its opposite ends that it 
 will resemble a double egg-cup, and placed erect on one end for 
 about six days in an atmosphere at the temperature of 70° Fahren- 
 heit, its under cavity will become covered with mildew, and its fruit 
 will appear in the form of blue mold, PenicilUum glaucum. In 
 this case the inverted cavity will retain the moisture, and as a 
 consequence slight fermentation will ensue, the fungus deriving 
 its nutriment from the potato ; but the upper surface, although 
 fully exposed to the floating germs in the atmosphere, will not 
 sustain a fungous growth, in consequence of the free evaporation 
 of the moisture from it. This form of fermentation should not 
 be confounded with that produced by the fungus of potato-rot, 
 Peronospora infestans. The chemical action of the blue-mold 
 fungus is slow, and its odor is simply that of sour paste, while 
 the destructive action of the potato-rot is very rapid, producing 
 a higher state of decomposition and very offensive odors. The 
 mycelium and fruit of each fungus also differ essentially from 
 each other. Both forms of fungus produce oxidation of the cel- 
 lulose structure, but with very different results. Consequently 
 
64 
 
 potato-rot consists of more than the " mere decay of the tissue 
 by its absorption of oxygen." The purely fungoid theory, on 
 the other hand, will not account for the many exceptions pointed 
 out by those who favor the chemical theory ; since it may be 
 shown that as the chemical constitution and density of any veg- 
 etables vary, so will the genus and species of fungi be found to 
 vary with the proximate principles of the plants on which they 
 subsist. 
 
 If there is truth in these remarks, the value of sound, hearty 
 seed is one great preventive. Farmers should therefore exer- 
 cise great care in their selection, and never plant a diseased tu- 
 ber. Yet to my mind the fungus is the chief mischief, and so 
 plenty of room, good care, and, I might add, early planting, 
 should go hand in hand with the selection of seed. Russell 
 says entire destruction by fire of all diseased tops should be 
 imperative. 
 
 THE BRISTLE MOLD. 
 
 One more species of mold, known as the "buttercup-blight," 
 is so common and so peculiar in its growth, that I can not pass 
 it by. 
 
 It is represented in Fig. 33. Its 
 varieties are all known as bristle 
 mold, and attack damp paper or 
 books ; damp specimens in the col- 
 lections of our botanists are fre- 
 quently nearly ruined, and like 
 other fungi they are dreaded pests. 
 
 RAPID GROWTH OF FUNGI : YEAST- 
 PLANT. 
 Fig. 33- 
 
 a, conceptacie of Erisy^he cammunU; Yeast is a well-kno wn substancc 
 
 |,jporangmm of the same highly magni- ^^ ^,j housekeepers, but all do not 
 
 know that it is a plant that thrives on sugar or nitrogenous mat- 
 ter. When the plant is examined under the microscope it is 
 found to be composed of myriads of minute cells, about one 
 twenty-four-hundredths of an inch in diameter. During the 
 progress of fermentation these cells rapidly increase in number, 
 
65 
 
 until all the material necessary to their growth is used up. Its 
 rapid growth, and the evolution of carbonic acid gas from such 
 growth, makes it convenient for the housewife to raise her bread. 
 She prepares her material, puts in her seed, which is some of the 
 spores of the plant either dry or in fluid, and they immediately 
 commence their growth. 
 
 The cells grow together in chains, and when stirred they some- 
 times appear like threads, which are in reality bundles of the 
 fibers of the yeast-plant. 
 
 If the yeast is not used in this condition, the plant nourish- 
 ment is soon used up, putrefaction commences, and with it comes 
 a swarm of animalcules, countless as they are minute, and vo- 
 raciously devouring all in their way, until they also die from 
 want of food, changing the yeast frequently to a mass of animal 
 and vegetable putrefaction. This soon subsides, and vinegar 
 is the result. 
 
 This can be more fully exemplified by milk-yeast, which 
 sooner, as every housewife knows, passes through its various 
 stages, and sometimes is not baked until the putrescence is such 
 as to be hardly endurable to many persons. 
 
 With this example of fungous growth before their eyes, who 
 can wonder that the various fungi in the State of New Hampshire 
 alone cost the agriculturist many millions of dollars. They blight 
 his fruit-trees from the seed ; they blight his grain crop more or 
 less every year ; they blight his fruit from the blossom to its 
 end, pursuing it with a determined hate ; they mildew his beans 
 and peas ; they impair his corn and potatoes ; they poison his 
 hay, and disease his cattle ; they destroy his loved ones, often 
 with insidious disease, and then rot out his store-houses, his 
 dwelling, and even fastening upon himself, claim him at last as 
 fit ground on which to ripen their spores for deadly work on 
 others. No pest is so deadly, none so insidious in its workings, 
 none so varied, meeting us everywhere and under almost all con- 
 ditions. Insignificant in themselves, their very obscurity gives 
 them the best chances to do us injury. 
 
 They have their enemies, — countless animalcules feed upon 
 their various forms, yet no family is rendered extinct. The very 
 atmosphere we breathe is often hazy with the spores of various 
 S 
 
66 
 
 fungi. The only wonder is, why anything, or any condition 
 of plant or atmosphere, can hold the various families of fungi in 
 check. Some suppose them of spontaneous growth. Why is 
 there need of such a supposition, when their minute spores ca- 
 pable of producing their like cannot even be excluded wherever 
 the atmosphere is present ? The wonder is quite the other way, 
 for it is a wonder that they don't destroy more than they do. 
 
 ANIMALCULES. 
 
 It is but a step from the microscopic plant to the animal. 
 The variety of form peculiar to microscopic life is truly wonder- 
 ful. It is so different from what we have been accustomed to 
 meet in our visible world that we are at once struck with its pe- 
 culiar varieties. The number of these creatures exceeds all 
 human calculation. In every pond and ditch, and almost every 
 puddle, in vegetable infusions, in paste and vinegar, on honey, 
 sugar, and all sweet substances, on almost every leaf and flower, 
 even on those fungi only visible through the microscope, and in 
 rivers, seas, and oceans, these creatures are found in such num- 
 bers and varieties as to almost exceed belief. 
 
 " The shapely limb and lubricated joint, 
 Within the small dimensions of a point, 
 Muscle and nerve, miraculously span 
 His mighty work, who speaks, and it is done. 
 The invisible in things scarce seen revealed 
 To whom an atom is an ample field." 
 
 Of these wonderful creations, I will only bring forward a few 
 examples. 
 
 THE MITE FAMILY. 
 
 Comparatively few naturalists have studied up the habits and 
 peculiarities of the mite family. But few of our readers in nat- 
 ural history text -books learn from their pages anything definite 
 in relation to them, either regarding the affinities of these hum- 
 ble creatures, their organization, or frequently singular meta- 
 
67 
 
 Fig. 34- 
 Young Ixades A IbipicUu. 
 
 morphoses. We shall, therefore, only mention a few typical 
 forms which we have had the pleasure of examining. 
 
 Mites are lowly-organized Arachneds. This order is divided 
 into four families ; viz., the scorpions, spiders, harvestmen, and 
 mites ; the scientific name of 
 which is Acarina. They have a 
 rounded oval body, without the 
 usual division between the head 
 and abdomen observable in spi- 
 ders ; the head, thorax, and ab- 
 domen being merged in a single 
 mass. When mature, there are 
 four pairs of legs, and the mouth 
 part consists, as seen in the ad- 
 joining figure of a young tick, 
 of a pair of maxillse (c), which, 
 in the adult, terminate in two 
 or three jointed feelers ; a pair 
 of mandibles (^), often covered with several rows of fine teeth, 
 and ending in three or four larger hooks, and a serrated labium 
 {a). These parts form a beak, which the mite can insinuate 
 into the fiesh of its host, upon the blood of which many species 
 subsist. 
 
 While very many of the mites are parasitic on animals, some 
 devour eggs of insects. The Notherus (Fig. 35) destroys mil- 
 lions of the eggs of the canker-worm, and it is said that it also 
 sucks the eggs of the chinch-bug. 
 
 A few of this species are injurious to 
 man, as the Sarcoptes, that burrows under 
 the skin of filthy people, causing a disease 
 once so common, — the itch. The cheese- 
 mites, that swarm over the cheeses in our 
 cities, and sometimes in the country, have ' 
 six legs when young, but eight after a molt. 
 I have scraped a full pint of them oil a sin- 
 gle cheese in Boston, and, putting my hand 
 into the mass, I could distinctly feel the an- 
 imal heat produced by aggregate millions of living, burning fur- 
 naces, the same as from higher organizations. 
 
 Fig- 35- 
 
68 
 
 The harvestraen, known in this section as " daddy-long- 
 legs," almost always have numerous parasites belonging to the 
 mite family. They also live parasitic on various water insects, 
 and on the gills of the fresh-water mussel. 
 
 These species are very minute in size. Some species have 
 been found in the lungs and blood vessels of various animals. 
 
 THE SUGAR MITE. 
 
 Many people have been startled by statements sometimes 
 read, or that they have heard from authoritative sources, as to 
 the immense number of mites {Acarus Sacchari, Fig. 36,) found 
 in unrefined or raw sugar, but those state- 
 ments generally fall below rather than above 
 the truth. 
 
 Dr. Hassel, who first discovered them, 
 found them upon sixty-nine out of seventy- 
 two samples, and found sixty or seventy 
 , mites to one grain of sugar, in most of the 
 samples. Mr. Cameron counted five hun- 
 'dred on ten grains, which would be one 
 hundred thousand to the pound. This 
 ^*'*' would really be quite an adulteration, but, 
 
 under favorable circumstances, that is, with warmth and moist- 
 ure, I have seen one-half the bulk, at least, animal life. This 
 would, however, only be the case upon small lots of sugar. 
 When in barrels, their number is frequently immense, but they 
 are much more plentiful at the top of the barrel, or nearest the 
 light, though light is in no way necessary to their production. 
 
 The disease known as "grocer's itch," is undoubtedly due to 
 the presence of this mite, which may now and then work its 
 way under the skin of the hand. 
 
 Plentiful as these mites are on the damp brown sugars, I have 
 never detected them on dry white sugar, though I almost always 
 find them on figs, dates, honey, if grained, and often on the 
 comb when not ; in fine, they may be found on all sweet sub- 
 stances that are sufficiently exposed. 
 
 They are a jolly, playful race of beings, and seem to live and 
 eat for enjoyment ; when frightened they play dead, curling up 
 their legs, and remaining inactive for some time. 
 
69 
 
 Another singular mite, and of the lowest order, burrows in the 
 skin of dogs, and also in the diseased follicles of the human 
 
 face, and more especially the nose of .Jic A^*^ 
 
 man. (See Fig. 37.) It is a long, slen-^ ai^wiilloi^^^^ 
 
 der, wormlike form, with eight short Fig. 37. 
 
 legs, though like many other mites it has but six in the larval 
 state. Washing the face in water to which has been added one 
 teaspoonful of strong aqua ammonia to the quart, will usually 
 remove them. 
 
 WATER ANIMALCULES. 
 
 Perhaps no class of objects that are visible to us only through 
 the microscope engage our attention so often, or amaze us so 
 much, as the various forms and peculiar habits of the water 
 animalcules. 
 
 For the first time it is an amazing spectacle to view an as- 
 semblage of dissimilar forms in a drop of stagnant water. 
 They are from one thousandth to one ten-thousandth of an inch 
 in diameter, and I once saw them so crowded that the spaces 
 between them were not much larger. Several hundred forms 
 have been studied and described, but I shall only mention three 
 or four of the more common species. Remember, while pond or 
 river water will contain now and then specimens, that it is stag- 
 nant water alone that is crowded, and the pure spring-water of 
 New Hampshire never contains any animal life. 
 
 The motions of these creatures are varied, I might say almost 
 endless, in variety ; but amid their diversified gambols all have 
 the power of avoiding obstacles in their course, and their neigh- 
 bors, which are in such close proximity to them. Some species 
 are far more common than others, but the more uncommon vari- 
 eties may frequently be obtained in midsummer, by exposing a 
 decoction of any dried leaves to the sun for three or four days ; 
 such exposure must be in the open air. A few species I will 
 describe. 
 
 The Rotifer, or wheel-bearing animalcules, are so termed from 
 the appearance of certain wheels, often seen rapidly rotating in 
 various situations on the anterior part of the body near the 
 
70 
 
 mouth. We say wheels, because they were so considered by 
 early microscopic observers who could not account for the motion 
 in any other way ; but an improvement in instruments has 
 shown that it is an incessant muscular action, giving an appa- 
 rent rotation ; but that wheels could revolve in any part of an 
 animate body, would be quite inconsistent with the laws of ani- 
 mal organization. These wheel-shaped muscles are used to aid in 
 the motion of the animalcule and in supplying its food. They 
 are entirely subservient to the power of will, as they can stop 
 the motion instantly or increase it as they choose. 
 
 Their body, though so small, in one species, is shielded by a 
 shell into which this rotating apparatus can be drawn at will. 
 It is by the whirlpool, formed by the before-described rotations, 
 that its food is drawn into its mouth as a vortex, where it is mas- 
 ticated by three tiny teeth, and swallowed into a prepared 
 receptacle where it is ground by muscles working vigorously on 
 each other. Minute and curious as these organs are, the ani- 
 malcule is so small that like all other microscopic creatures they 
 are transparent, and with a moderately high magnifying power 
 this car. as well be seen as the workings of a steam engine made 
 of glass. 
 
 This species enjoy sunshine, and on dark, cloudy days are 
 only found at the bottom of the pond or ditch in which they 
 reside. 
 
 Again another of this same species, called Tardigrade, have 
 so great a tenacity for life that they may be put upon a 
 glass slide and dried for days, yes, for months or years, and then 
 at once resuscitated by a drop of water. Dr. Carpenter, one of 
 the most renowned microscopists of Europe, states that their 
 tenacity of life goes even further, as he has kept them in a 
 vacuum for thirty days with sulphuric acid and chloride of cal- 
 cium, thus causing them to suffer the most complete desiccation 
 that the chemist can effect, and yet they have not lost their 
 capability of revivification. For this reason they have been 
 styled the resurrectionists, and it seems for good cause. This 
 wonderful power of resuscitation, and the fact that the rapidity 
 of their reproduction, as estimated by Prof. Erenberg, being 
 from the egg at the rate of seventeen millions per month, is cer- 
 
71 
 
 tainly sufficient for their remarkable appearance in almost every 
 situation, and under almost all circumstances. 
 
 It has been supposed by some that they were the result of 
 spontaneous production, but from what I have said you can see 
 there is no necessity for such a conclusion. The many curiosi- 
 ties connected with the life and introduction of the Rotifer, into 
 almost all places, of course will excite the amateur in micro- 
 scopical investigation to search for them. That he may not be 
 disappointed, I will state that in the leaf-cells of the Spagnum, 
 generally known as bog-moss, there is a very curious departure 
 from the ordinary type of vegetable growth. Instead of the 
 usual cell-tissue their leaves contain spiral fiber, loosely coiled 
 in their interior, and in the membranous covering of the stem 
 there are nicely rounded holes, or apertures, by which there is 
 free communication with the interior, as well as with each other. 
 These natural caverns are appropriated by the Rotifer, and used 
 as dwellings. It is here you are sure to find them at home. 
 
 Another species, called Aurelia, are covered with cilia, or mi- 
 nute hairs around the mouth in a circle ; by their agitation ani- 
 malcules much smaller are drawn into their mouths and de- 
 voured. 
 
 Again the Hydra, which may be found in ponds and rivulets 
 adhering to the leaves of aquatic plants, or twigs and sticks that 
 have fallen into the water, is a wonder among wonders. 
 
 It may be subdivided many times and yet every part will in a 
 few hours become a perfect Hydra. This name is given them 
 because they have many long arms, which were supposed to re- 
 semble the heads of the fifty-headed water-serpent, called Hy- 
 dra, which fabulous history informs us was destroyed by Her- 
 cules, in the lake of Lerna. They are by no means vegetarians, 
 and have the capability of swallowing creatures as large as 
 themselves. 
 
 In the ordinary mode of multiplication little budlike protu- 
 berances are developed on their external surface, which are soon 
 observed to resemble the parent in character, possessing a di- 
 gestive sack and mouth. 
 
 For a time, however, this cavity is connected with that of the 
 parent, but at last the communication is cut off, and the young 
 
72 
 
 Hydra quits its attachment and goes in quest of its own main- 
 tenance. 
 
 A second generation of buds are, however, frequently seen on 
 the young before quitting its parent, and I have counted as many 
 as eighteen in different stages of development on one original 
 stock. Again, in taking its food, it sometimes happens that the 
 same morsel will be seized upon by two Hydrae, when a struggle 
 for the prey ensues, in which the strongest gains the victory. 
 Sometimes each will begin to swallow the same morsel, until the 
 mouths of the pair come in actual contact, when, if the morsel 
 does not break, the larger deliberately swallows his opponent, 
 sometimes partially, so as to compel the discharge of the food 
 by the smaller, but frequently the entire polyp is engulfed. But 
 Hydra is no fit food for Hydra, and his capacity for endurance 
 saves him from a living tomb, for after a time, when the food is 
 sucked out of his mouth, the sufferer is disgorged with no other 
 loss than his dinner. 
 
 Yet perhaps the greatest curiosity is in the reproduction of its 
 parts. Split one open, and the separate parts will soon take 
 food, and in twenty-four hours are as perfect as ever. 
 
 Strange as it may seem, all these processes can be watched 
 with unerring certainty, and so interesting are the developments, 
 that I always dislike to close the scene, though aching eyes will 
 at length gain the mastery. 
 
 TRICHINA SPIRALIS. 
 
 As the Trichina Spiralis is an animalcule liable to infest man 
 to his injury, and often a disease of swine, rendering the pork 
 dangerous to the consumer, I have selected it as of peculiar 
 interest. It is a small spiral worm, like a pin-worm, which has 
 ever been found now and then in muscles of various animals. 
 It is supposed by some to originate in the rat, and to have been 
 from them spread over the country as they gained a foothold, 
 as it is often found in their muscles, and frequently in those of 
 cats that devour them. How it comes to infest pork is uncer- 
 tain, but probably by their food, as a hog is none too particular 
 upon what it feeds, and might eat portions of rats or any other 
 dead animal. 
 
73 
 
 The immature parasites, as seen in muscle under the micro- 
 scope, are worms about one twenty-fifth of an inch in length, 
 spirally coiled up within globular, oval, or lemon-shaped trans- 
 parent cysts, which, according to the length of time they have 
 been formed, are more or less covered with calcareous matter. 
 
 From various experiments, I have been led to believe that 
 after they are completely covered with this calcareous concre- 
 tion, sealed as it were in a stone sarcophagus, that they are 
 destroyed ; such flesh containing them will not contaminate 
 other individuals, as I have fed young rats with it without effect, 
 when they were always contaminated when fed with diseased 
 meat in which the cysts were not calcareous, though the cysts 
 themselves are to be considered rather as abnormalities, de- 
 veloped some little time after the larvae have reached their 
 destination, as hundreds of specimens have been seen to co-exist 
 entirely free from cysts. 
 
 Fig. 38 shows the Trichina when thus in- 
 cysted in the muscles (magnified). 
 
 The number found in any one subject varies, 
 but Leuckart estimated that one ounce of cat- 
 flesh which he observed must have harbored 
 more than 300,000 parasites. Even if we as- 
 sume that the forty-five pounds of muscle 
 which an ordinarily healthy man possesses 4/ 
 were infested with only 50,000 Trichinae to the 
 ounce, they would still contain more than 
 thirty millions. Fig jg. 
 
 The adult Trichina magnified is shown in 
 
 Fig. 39- 
 
 The sexually mature male Trichina, accord- 
 ing to Cobbold, is about one-eighteenth of an 
 inch long, while the adult female is one-eighth ; 
 the body is rounded and slender, and the head 
 very narrow and sharply pointed. The mode 
 of reproduction is viviparous. The muscular 
 parasite, when introduced into the alimentary 
 Fig. 39- canal of man or animal, is set free in the 
 
 process of digestion, and in two days' time reaches the adult 
 
74 
 
 condition. Leuckart states that in six days more the female 
 brings forth a numerous brood of minute, hairlike larvae ; these 
 soon begin their wanderings by piercing the intestinal walls, 
 after which they proceed through the system till they reach the 
 muscles, into which they penetrate ; here they develop so that 
 in two weeks more, that is, in about three weeks from the time 
 the infested food was taken, they present the appearance of the 
 ordinary muscular Trichina Spiralis, as shown in Fig. 38. 
 
 The sexually mature worms probably produce more than one 
 brood of young ; they have been found alive in the intestines 
 eight weeks after the infection of the flesh in which they were 
 contained. The larvae remain in the muscles they have reached, 
 and shortly become incysted as heretofore mentioned. Smoking 
 the meat does not kill the parasites it contains ; brine, if very 
 strong and long applied, probably does ; thorough cooking 
 certainly does. Time also has its effect on them, though they 
 are endowed with wonderful vitality. In some healthy subjects 
 who died from accident, the larvae and their inclosing cysts have 
 been found to have undergone calcareous degeneration ; but it is 
 probably months, and even years, before death of the parasite 
 occurs ; in illustration of which, Virchow states that in one case 
 he found them alive eight, and in another thirteen and a half, 
 years after infection. 
 
 When a person is infected, which infection usually takes place 
 from eating partially cooked sausages or raw bacon, in three or 
 four days there is lassitude, depression, sleeplessness, loss of 
 appetite, and fever. Then there supervenes excessive pain in 
 the muscles, especially of the limbs, contractions of the knee 
 and elbow, swelling of the limbs with apparent pneumonia, and 
 frequently mania with death. 
 
 On post-mortem examinations, the muscles are found crowded 
 with the parasites, and to be in a state of fatty degeneration. If 
 they recover, after three or four weeks of the same symptoms, 
 with less severity, convalescence commences, and in six or eight 
 weeks more the patient is quite well, and the incysted Trichinae 
 seem to give him no further trouble. The virulence of the at- 
 tack seems to depend considerably on the number of parasites 
 introduced into the patient's stomach, yet the previous constitu- 
 
75 
 
 tion and strength of the patient have much to do with final 
 recovery. 
 
 The true safeguard is to eat no pork unless thoroughly cooked > 
 yet microscopic examination will reveal the disease, even if ever 
 so small a section of a muscle be examined, and it should be in- 
 cumbent upon all butchers here as in Germany, to make such 
 examination, and they should be punished here, as there, for 
 selling Trichinous meat. 
 
 For this time I will present no further microscopic wonders. 
 What I have said is sufficient to show you, that around us all 
 exist immense fields of study, easy of access, and yet pregnant 
 with wonderful facts, with but few of which we are as yet con- 
 versant. 
 
 " Has any seen 
 
 The mighty chain o£ beings, lessening down 
 
 From infinite perfection to the brink 
 
 Of dreary nothing ? " 
 
 Until we have, let us be ever ready to grasp truth, wherever 
 found, and lend idle hours to investigation. 
 
BIENNIAL REPORT 
 
 FISH COMMISSIONERS 
 
 STATE OF VERMONT, 
 
 1881-82. 
 
 POST OFFICE ADDRESS OF COMMISSIONERS : 
 
 HIRAM A. CUTTING, M. D., Lunenburgh. 
 
 HERBERT BRAINERD, . . St. Albans. 
 
 MONTPELIER : 
 
 WATCHMAN & JOURNAL PRESS. 
 1882. 
 
Senate Chamber, 1 
 
 Nov. 15, 1882. J 
 
 Laid before the Senate, and, on motion of Mr. Hogan, ordered to 
 lie, and the Secretary directed to procure the printing of 1000 copies 
 for the use of the General Assembly. 
 
 A. K. BEOWN, Ass't Sec'y. 
 
REPORT 
 
 To His Excellency, John L. Barstow, Governor of the State of 
 Vermont : 
 
 Hon. Sir : — We, the undersigned, Fish Commissioners for the 
 State, would respectfully report that we have, as far as practicable, 
 looked up the results of the previous stocking of ponds and streams, 
 and also the demands of the people, that we might be the better able 
 to judge in relation to the practicability of stocking ponds and streams 
 as before done, or of using other varieties instead, of fish and spawn 
 as formerlj' distributed, and also that we might judge understandingly 
 of the wants of the people, as what is done without their concurrence 
 better not be done at all. 
 
 It is a conceded fact, established by the usage of European nations, 
 that every acre of water may become more valuable for its product of 
 fish than an equal number of acres of our best land for the products 
 of the same. 
 
 It is, however, necessary for the best results that streams and ponds 
 once stocked should not be left without oversight, and the fish be al- 
 lowed to starve or to be caught by unlawful means ; but that, when 
 necessarj', food fish should be supplied to them, that the fish we desire 
 to raise be not forced to prey upon each other or starve ; and that 
 proper protection be oflfered the law-abiding citizen that the lawless 
 class may not have any advantage that as now enables them all to 
 often deplete ponds and streams in the most wanton manner. Be- 
 sides the various streams in this State, all of which are capable of 
 yielding many fish, we would specially call your attention to the fol- 
 
lowing ponds, made as correct in name and area as possible from the 
 data in our hands. We would, however, request such persons as no- 
 tice errors in this list, to notify us of the same, that we ma}' correct 
 as far as possible, and thus have a more reliable data to predicate our 
 judgment upon in the distribution and care of the Fisheries of the 
 State : 
 
 Names of Towns, Names of I'oiids. Area in Acres. 
 
 Albany Great Hosmer Pond 600 
 
 Arlington Duck Pond 75 
 
 Athens Atheris Pond 50 
 
 Averill Great Averill Pond 1500 
 
 " Little Averill Pond 1000 
 
 " Leach Pond 600 
 
 Barton Crystal Lake 1400 
 
 " May Pond 100 
 
 " Fuller Pond 60 
 
 Barnard Silver Lake 200 
 
 Barnet Harvey's Pond 300 
 
 " Warden's Pond 100 
 
 Benson Sunset Lake 300 
 
 " Little Pond 100 
 
 Berlin Berlin Pond 650 
 
 Bolton Hinkson Pond 100 
 
 Braintree Mud Pond 75 
 
 Brighton Island Pond 1500 
 
 " Spectacle Pond 500 
 
 " Black Pond 100 
 
 Bristol Bristol Pond 300 
 
 " GilmorePond 50 
 
 " North Pond 50 
 
 Brookfield Freeman's Pond 100 
 
 " Colt'sPond 75 
 
 " North Pond 75 
 
 " South Pond 75 
 
 Brownington Brownington Pond 500 
 
 Canaan Leed's Pond 1500 
 
 Cabot Mollie's Pond 200 
 
 " Joe's Pond 600 
 
 Calais Bliss Pond 300 
 
 " No. 10 Pond 350 
 
Names of Towns. Names of Ponds, Area in Acres. 
 
 Calais Nelson's Pond 300 
 
 " Curtis Pond 200 
 
 Castleton Bomoseen Lake 10,000 
 
 Charleston Echo Pond 600 
 
 " Pensioner Pond 100 
 
 Colchester Colchester Pond 200 
 
 Concord Mile's Pond 400 
 
 " Hall's Pond 250 
 
 Coventry Memphremagog Lake 8000 in Vt 
 
 Craftsbur}' Large Hosmer Pond 800 
 
 " Little Hosmer Pond 900 
 
 " EUigoPond 150 
 
 Danby Danby Pond 400 
 
 Danville Joe's Pond 1000 
 
 Derby Derby Pond 1000 
 
 " Salem Pond 1000 
 
 Dorset North Dorset Pond 260 
 
 Eden Eden Pond 300 
 
 " South Pond 250 
 
 " Belvidere Pond 100 
 
 Elmore pjlmore Pond 300 
 
 East Montpelier HoUister Pond 75 
 
 Fairfield Fairfield Pond 3000 
 
 Fairhaven Inman Pond 100 
 
 P'airlee Fairlee Lake 1500 
 
 " E^airlee Pond 600 
 
 Ferdinand Milligan Pond 200 
 
 " New Found Pond 300 
 
 " Trout Pond 75 
 
 Fletcher Metcalf Pond 500 
 
 " Half Moon Pond 200 
 
 Franklin Franklin Pond 2000 
 
 Glover Parker Pond 300 
 
 " Stevens Pond 200 
 
 " Daniels' Pond 150 
 
 " Clark's Pond 75 
 
 " Sweeney Pond 100 
 
 Goshen Dutton's Pond 76 
 
 Greensboro Caspian Lake 3000 
 
 " Long Pond 700 
 
Names of Towns. Names of Ponds. Area in Acre 
 
 Greensboro Eligo Pond 300 
 
 " Mud Pond 75 
 
 Groton Groton Pond 1200 
 
 " Wells River Pond 250 
 
 " Kettle Pond.' '. 250 
 
 " Lund's Pond 100 
 
 " Levi Pond 100 
 
 Hancock Dunham Pond 75 
 
 Hinesburg Hinesburg Pond 400 
 
 " Little Pond 75 
 
 Holland Holland Pond 600 
 
 " Beaver Pond 75 
 
 Hubbardton Sunset Lake 2000 
 
 " HortonPond 200 
 
 " BeebePond 150 
 
 " Keeler's Pond 100 
 
 Huntington Gillett's Pond 200 
 
 Hj-de Park Green River Pond 300 
 
 " " Clear Pond 100 
 
 " " George's Pond 200 
 
 " '• ZacksPond 100 
 
 " " Mud Pond 75 
 
 Harris Gore Pigeon Pond 150 
 
 Irasburg Kidder Pond 75 
 
 Jamaica Jamaica Pond 50 
 
 " Adams Pond 50 
 
 Kirbj- Kirby Pond 100 
 
 Leicester Lake Dunmore 3000 
 
 " Little Pond 300 
 
 SilverLake 100 
 
 " Mud Pond 100 
 
 Londonderry Deny Pond 200 
 
 " Lillie Pond 100 
 
 Lowell Walter's Pond 150 
 
 Ludlow Ludlow Pond 200 
 
 Lunenburgli Neal's Pond.. 450 
 
 Maidstone Maidstone Lake 1000 
 
 Marlboro North Pond 500 
 
 " Marlboro Pond 500 
 
 Marshfield Niggerhead Pond 100 
 
Names ol" Towns. Niimos of Poiitis. Areu In Acres. 
 
 Mai'shfield Kettle Pond 75 
 
 Mud Pond 50 
 
 Manchester Equinox Pond 50 
 
 Milton Long Pond 75 
 
 " Round Pond 50 
 
 Monkton Monkton Pond 350 
 
 Morgan Seymour Lake 5000 
 
 Mount Holly Patch Pond 150 
 
 " ' • Jackson's Pond 75 
 
 Newark Newark Pond 150 
 
 " Centre Pond 150 
 
 Newbury Hall's Pond 300 
 
 " Round Pond 100 
 
 " Harriman's Pond 100 
 
 Newport Memphreraagog Lake 10,000 
 
 Norton Norton Pond 300 
 
 Norwich Tilden Pond 75 
 
 Orwell Smith's Pond 160 
 
 " Sunset Lake 600 
 
 '' Mud Pond 75 
 
 Peru Buffam's Pond 100 
 
 Peacham Peacham Pond 700 
 
 Foster's Pond 150 
 
 " Martin's Pond 150 
 
 Plymouth Plymouth Pond 250 
 
 " Woodward's Pond 160 
 
 Black Pond 100 
 
 " Reading Pond 100 
 
 Reading Reading Pond 100 
 
 Readsboro Readsboro Pond 75 
 
 Richmond Gillett's Pond 150 
 
 " Richmond Pond 75 
 
 Richford Hill Pond 100 
 
 Ryegate Syme's Pond 700 
 
 " Tickleneck Pond 300 
 
 " Coburn Pond 75 
 
 Salisbury Lake Dinsmore 3000 
 
 Sharon Standing Pond 75 
 
 " Bush Pond 50 
 
 Sheffield Bruce Pond 100 
 
8 
 
 Names of Towns. Names of Ponds. Area In Acres. 
 
 Sheffield Duck Pond 100 
 
 " Long Pond 100 
 
 " Round Pond 100 
 
 Shelburne Shelburne Pond 600 
 
 Shrewsbury Patch Pond 360 
 
 Stamford Stamford Pond 100 
 
 Sucker Pond 125 
 
 Strafford Miller's Pond 100 
 
 Stratton Grout's Pond 100 
 
 Jones Pond 100 
 
 Sudbury Hinkson Pond 200 
 
 ■' Lake Hastonia 500 
 
 " Burr Pond 100 ■ 
 
 " High Poi4d 75 
 
 Sunderland Bourn Pond 150 
 
 Sutton Duck Pond 150 
 
 ■' Big Fish Pond 300 
 
 " Blake Pond 150 
 
 Tinmouth Chipman Pond 4^00 
 
 Vernon White Lily Pond 100 
 
 Walden Coles Pond. 300 
 
 " Lyford's Pond 300 
 
 Wallingford Spectacle Pond 350 
 
 " FoxPond 100, 
 
 Little's Pond 100 
 
 Waterford Stiles Pond • 150 
 
 Wells Lake Austin 3000 
 
 Westmore Willoughby Lake 3800 
 
 " Long Pond 300 
 
 " Bold Hill Poud 300 
 
 Westminster Lily Pond 50 
 
 Weston Reservoir Pond 100 
 
 Williston Hinesburgh Pond 600 
 
 Wheelock Wheelock Pond 100 
 
 " Chandler Pond 75 
 
 Whitingham Sadawga Pond 300 
 
 " Robert's Pond 100 
 
 " Jacksonville Pond 75 
 
 Wilmington Ray's Pond 150 
 
 " ...Hay Stack Pond 75 
 
Names of Towua. Niiiuea of Ponds. Area in Acres, 
 
 Wolcott Wolcott Pond 150 
 
 Woodford Big Pond 100 
 
 " LittlePond 75 
 
 Woodbury East Long Pond 300 
 
 West Long Pond 300 
 
 Nichol's Pond 100 
 
 Dog Pond 75 
 
 Buck Pond 75 
 
 Sabin's Pond 600 
 
 Nelson's Pond 75 
 
 Slaj'ton's Pond 50 
 
 We find by the previous reports of the Commission and by corres- 
 pondence that the following waters have been stocked either bj- the 
 planting of fry or the introduction of mature fish. 
 
 In 1873 there were consigned to Vermont by the United States' 
 Fish Commissioners one hundred and thirty- thousand eggs of the 
 Penobscot salmon (Salmo salor), which were hatched at the Cold 
 Spring trout ponds in Charlestown, N. H., and distributed as follows, 
 together with thirty thousand procured at Bucksport, Me. : 
 
 May 20, 1874, 15,000 put in White Eiver Eoyalton. 
 
 " 70,000 " Lamoille Eiver.. Georgia. 
 
 June 15, " 60,000 " Dog River Northfield. 
 
 15,000 " Conn. River Weathersfleld. 
 
 There were also placed in the Connecticut river by the aid of the 
 Commissioners of Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Hampshire, and 
 Vermont, nine hundred and twenty thousand of the same. 
 
 Of these, however, ninety thousand were put in the tributaries, as 
 follows : 
 
 10,000 in Saxton's Eiver Rockingham. 
 
 20,000 in Passumpsic Eiver Wheelock. 
 
 10,000 in Moose Eiver Concord. 
 
 50,000 in Wells Eiver Newbury. 
 
 There was also, through the aid of the United States' Commission- 
 ers, a quantitj' of shad deposited in our waters, as follows : 
 
10 
 
 100,000 in West River Brattleboro. 
 
 100,000 in Saxton's Eiver Bellows Falls. 
 
 100,000 in Otter Creek '. Vergennes. 
 
 100,000 in Winooski River Burlington. 
 
 There was, also, the same j-^ar deposited by the Vermont Commis- 
 sion, as follows i 
 
 1874. 
 
 June 27. 150,000 in Otter Creek Vergennes. 
 
 Julj' 15. 215,000 in Connecticut River Bellows Falls. 
 
 27. 140,000 " " 
 
 Aug. 1. 120,000 " 
 
 6. 30,000 " " 
 
 11. 120,000 in Winooski River Winooski. 
 
 This made eleven hundred and seventy-five thousand shad depos- 
 ited in our waters. They have been quite successful in their increase, 
 but do not meet with great pra,ise, as thej' are not generally consid- 
 ered desirable either to catch with hook and line or for table use, 
 though I find in some sections they are regarded with much favor. 
 
 While the salmon have grown up to a maturity of ten or twelve 
 pounds, they do not seem to return or increase, and are seldom 
 taken even near the sea, and the people prefer black bass as a rule, 
 though the worth of the salmon is never called in question. 
 
 In 1875 and '76, the following plants were made : 
 
 1875. SALMON. 
 
 May 22. 50,000 in Lewis Creek Ferrisburgh. 
 
 BLACK BASS. 
 
 28. 50,000 in Battenkill River Manchester. 
 
 May 20. 26 in Hall's Pond Newbury. 
 
 11. 44 in Long Pond Groton. 
 
 11. 47 in Fairlee Lake Fairlee. 
 
 Sept. 25. 6 in West River Weston. 
 
 1876. 
 
 May 24. 5 in Ponds in Plymouth. 
 
 May 30. 20 in Crystal Lake Barton. 
 
 June 8. 20 in Memphremagog Lake Newport. 
 
11 
 
 June 8. 17 in Joe's Pond Danville. 
 
 8. 12 In Berlin Pond Berlin. 
 
 8. 5 In Martin's Pond Calais. 
 
 8. 7 in Elmore Pond Elmore. 
 
 8. 30 in Ray Pond Wilmington. 
 
 8. 30 in North Pond Marlboro. 
 
 8. 80 in Monkton Pond Monkton. 
 
 Oct. 20. 16 in Sucker Pond Stamford. 
 
 20. 20 in Dorset Pond Dorset. 
 
 1879. 
 
 June 6. 50 in Reservoir Pond Bennington. 
 
 10. 50 in Berlin Pond Berlin. 
 
 1882. 
 
 June 10. 17 in Newark Pond Newark. 
 
 10. 17 in Benn's Pond Sutton. 
 
 POTOMAC BASS. 
 
 Oct. 28. 127 in Otter Creek Clarendon. 
 
 30. 75 in Passumpsic River St. Johnsbury. 
 
 30. 75 in Winooski River Montpelier. 
 
 30. 18 in Black River Cavendish. 
 
 LAND LOCKED SALMON. 
 
 April 19. 5,000 in Fairfield Pond Fairfield. 
 
 May 2 . 5 ,000 in Franklin Pond Franklin. 
 
 3. 5,000 in Lake Dunmore Salisbury. 
 
 5. 6,000 in Winooski River Essex. 
 
 11. 1 ,000 in Kettle Pond Harris Gore. 
 
 15. 1,500 in Barton Pond Barton. 
 
 15. 1,000 in Harvey's Pond Barnet. 
 
 19. 1,500 in Seymour Lake Morgan. 
 
 19. 10,000 in Orwell Ponds Orwell. 
 
 19. 2,000 in County Pond Bennington. 
 
 Sept. 1. 2,000 in South Pond Marlboro. 
 
 These have not increased as was anticipated, though they are fre- 
 quently caught of considerable size. Those caught are supposed to 
 be the same as planted, as small ones are not often seen ; it is be- 
 lieved that they are not a success. 
 
12 
 
 WALL EYED PIKE. 
 
 May 26. 20 in Black River Pond Ludlow. 
 
 1878. 
 
 May 2. 50 in White River White Riv'r June. 
 
 3. 50 in Connecticut River Bellows Falls. 
 
 6. 50 in White River Hartford. 
 
 7. 50 in Winooski River Jonesville. 
 
 7. 50 in Dog and Onion Rivers Montpelier. 
 
 1879. 
 
 May 8. 50 in Otter Creek Pittsford. 
 
 10. 50 in White River Royalton. 
 
 12. 50 in Long Pond Groton. 
 
 13. 50 in Berlin Pond Berlin. 
 
 14. 50 in Colchester Pond Colchester. 
 
 15. 50 in Shelburne Pond Shelburne. 
 
 16. 100 in Plymouth Pond Ludlow. 
 
 28. 50 in St. Catharine Lake Wells. 
 
 Oct. 15. 50 in Lake Bomoseen Castleton. 
 
 These have in several ponds increased wonderfull}', and are liked 
 by some, and condemned by others. There is no doubt but what 
 thej' are a success in ponds well suited to them, and hence are wor- 
 thy of attention. 
 
 1878. OSWEGO BASS. 
 
 Nov. 8. 50 in Chiptnan Pond Tinmouth. 
 
 15. 50 in Patch Pond Mt. Holly* 
 
 1879. 
 
 Sept. 13. 50 in Londonderry Pond Londonderry. 
 
 17. 150 in Little Pond Plymouth. 
 
 18. 300 in Plymouth and Tyson Ponds . . Plymouth. 
 
 19. 150 in Reservoir Pond Ludlow. 
 
 19. 50 in Black River Ludlow. 
 
 25. 300 in Island Pond Brighton. 
 
 17. 50 in Danby Pond Danby. 
 
 1881. 
 
 Sept. 17. 20 in Hall's Pond Concord. 
 
 17. 25 in Joe's Pond Cabot. 
 
 1878. ROCK BASS. 
 
 Nov. 29. 50 in Cook's Pond Shrewsbury. 
 
 30. 50 in Lord's Pond Shrewsbury. 
 
13 
 1879. 
 
 Aug. 28. 50 in Patch Pond Mt. UoUj. 
 
 29. 100 in Pl3'mouth Pond Plymouth. 
 
 Sept. 12. 25 in Londonderry Pond Londondery. 
 
 Oct. 17. 50 in Danby Pond Danby. 
 
 17. 50 in Chipman Pond Tinmouth. 
 
 1881. 
 
 Oct. 17. 20 in Hall's Pond Concord. 
 
 1 7. 20 in Miles' Pond Concord. 
 
 17. 25 in Newark Pond Newark. 
 
 17. 25 in Joe's Pond Cabot. 
 
 17. 25 in Crystal Lake Barton. 
 
 1878. ' WHITE FISI-I. 
 
 Nov. 12. 50 in Long Pond Hubbardton. 
 
 13. 50 in Horton Pond Sudbury. 
 
 14. 50 in Beebe Pond Hubbardton. 
 
 21 . 50 in Lake Dunmore Salisbury. 
 
 22. 50 in Lake St. Catharine Wells. 
 
 1879. ROCK PIKE. 
 
 Jan. 4. 50 in Eeservoir Pond Plj-mouth. 
 
 1879. SMELTS. 
 
 Mar. 9. 100 in Plymouth Pond Plymouth. 
 
 9. 50 in Ludlow Pond Ludlow. 
 
 18. 50 in Berlin Pond Berlin. 
 
 20. 50 in Peacham Pond Peacham. 
 
 21. 50 in Colchester Pond Colchester. 
 
 26. 150 in Fairfield Pond Fairfield. 
 
 26. 250 in Niggerhead Pond Fairfield. 
 
 April 4. 100 in Shrewsbury Pond Shrewsbury. 
 
 9. 150 in Groton Pond Groton. 
 
 10. 150 in Memphremagog Lake Newport. 
 
 1879. YELLOW PERCH. 
 
 Sept. 25. 150 in Island Pond Brighton. 
 
 The bass in suitable ponds have all been a success, and are much 
 called for by the people, as they are a good table fish, of rapid growth 
 
 and increase ; they are doubtless as desirable as any fish we have. 
 
14 
 
 We have not only visited many ponds, but have had extensive 
 eoi-respondence with people interested in the proper stocking of ponds 
 and streams, and not only find much interest expressed, but have 
 received many urgent requests for black bass, trout, longe, etc., also 
 urgent requests for protection of fish already in the ponds and 
 streams, and in our opinion such requests should be heeded. That 
 it may be seen what is desired by those interested, we append 
 extracts from varioiis letters received and petitions sent us in relation 
 to the ponds and streams of our State. 
 
 Albany. — "Great Hosmer and Little Hosmer Ponds and our 
 streams are well stocked with pike and trout ; what we need is proper 
 protection by such laws as can be enforced." 
 
 AvERiLL. — '■ The ponds have not been stocked, but we want good 
 fish in them. Black bass desired." 
 
 Barton — "Crystal Lake was stocked with black bass three years 
 ago. It is thought that they lack food, and suitable food fish for 
 them is much desired. There is muskallonge caught also, but rock 
 bass and protection is desired." 
 
 Barnard. — Stebbens' Pond or Silver Lake has only cat fish and a 
 few pickerel. Bass are asked for if, after a proper survey of the 
 Pond, it is thought they will thrive. " Trout in our small streams 
 need protection." 
 
 Barnet. — " Harvey and Eoss Ponds were stocked with land locked 
 salmon. They are occasionally caught of good size, but no young 
 are seen. Bass are desired." 
 
 " All are much interested in improvement." 
 
 Bolton — " Hinkson Pond is well stocked with bass. Thej' are a 
 success, }-et are fished without regard to law. Pi-otection is desired 
 by a law that can easily be enforced." 
 
 Brighton — "Island, Spectacle and Black Ponds have had some 
 fish introduced, but all are anxious for improvement, and desire a 
 survey of their waters, and such fish as are suitable introduced. 
 They are ver}' anxious for protection of their fish by laws easily en- 
 forced against worthless men that never have any money to pay fines. 
 Such men wantonly destroy the fish out of season." 
 
15 
 
 Cabot. — " MoUie's Pond : Black bass have been introduced here, 
 with success." Survey of other ponds asked, and such plants as seem 
 desirable ; also protection. 
 
 Castleton. — Bomoseen Lake has had land locked salmon in con- 
 siderable quantities, but they do not succeed. Oswego bass, white- 
 fish and rock bass succeed well and are plenty. More efficient laws 
 are needed, such as will imprison if fines are not paid ; especially 
 laws against netting, spearing and dead lines. Anj' good laws for 
 protection are desirable, but penalties that cannot be escaped are 
 desired. 
 
 Charleston. — " Echo Pond and Pensioners' Pond have never been 
 stocked with success, if at all, and there is an urgent demand for the 
 survey of the waters, and proper stocking of the same. Laws for 
 the protection of fish, easily enforced, with no escape for the culprit, 
 are desired." 
 
 "The waters are clear, and in our opinion well calculated for black 
 bass. If so, they are much desired." 
 
 Concord. — " Miles' and Hall's Ponds have recentlj* been stocked, 
 but no survey made. Such is earnestl}' requested, that the best pos- 
 sible fish may be introduced, and it is hoped we may have better, 
 laws for protection of what we do have." 
 
 Craftsbdry. — "Three large ponds have not been stocked, but 
 bass are earnestlj' desired if, in the opinion of the Commission, they 
 will thrive." 
 
 Danville. — "Joe's Pond has been stocked with black bass, but as 
 yet few are caught. Protection to fishing out of season is desired." 
 
 Dorset. — North Dorset Pond has been stocked with black bass 
 with great success. Protection during spawning season is all that is 
 desired. 
 
 Eden. — "Three ponds — black bass are called for. Muskallonge 
 now in the ponds do not thrive well. Protection against men with- 
 out money desired." 
 
 Fairfield. — "Fairfield and Metcalf Ponds were stocked with 
 landlocked salmon, but few are caught and no young seen. They 
 are not considere4 a success. Earnest requests to survey and stock 
 ponds." 
 
16 
 
 Fairhaven. — " Inman Pond was stocked with landlocked salmon, 
 perch, pike and black bass. The bass are a perfect success, increas- 
 ing wonderfully. Protection in close season needed, by laws that 
 any one can enforce and no one escape the penalty." 
 
 Hancock. — Hancock Pond is a trout pond, and it is very desirable 
 to increase this supply. Troiit spawn or fry are much desired. 
 
 LuNENBURGH. — Neal's Pond contains a great many perch, and is 
 doubtless an excellent pond for bass. The people much desire to 
 have it stocked, and the law enforced in the close season. 
 
 MoNKTON. — "Has been stocked with bass which have become 
 abundant and permanent. Protection desired." 
 
 Morgan. — Sej'mour Lake was stocked with landlocked salmon, 
 and though a few have been caught they are not thought a success, 
 and black bass are desired if, in the opinion of the commission, they 
 will thrive. Muskallonge are sometimes caught but are not abundant. 
 
 Nbvtark. — Newark Pond had a few black bass put in in 1881, but 
 more are desired, as they have not been seen. Better protection 
 laws are also asked for. 
 
 Newport. — A request to examine the lake, and stock as thought 
 best. 
 
 Ryegate. — Symes and Tieklenecked. The last named we are 
 petitioned to stock vrith black bass. The other is stocked with pike, 
 which give good satisfaction. 
 
 Sheffield.- — Long Pond has been stocked with salmon, which 
 have not been a success. Black bass are earnestly called for, if after 
 a survey thej' are thought to be desirable for the pond. 
 
 Strafford. — Miller's Pond ; petition to stock with black bass, or 
 such fish as best. 
 
 Stratton. — Two ponds, the stocking of which is much desired. 
 
 Sudbury. — Black bass asked for, with protection. 
 
 TiNMOUTH. — Chipman Pond was stocked with bass : doing well. 
 Protection against men unable to paj' fines asked for. 
 
 Vernon. — White Lily Pond. A survey desired, and such fish as 
 will give best returns, with rigid protection. 
 
17 
 
 Walden. — "Desire black bass for their ponds, if they are suit- 
 able, and protection." 
 
 Wilmington. — " Kay Pond stocked with black bass with great 
 success. Hay Stack Pond has no fish in it. It is reported that none 
 can live there. If there can, it is a desirable pond, but none are now 
 fcmnd, either in the pond or in the stream that runs from it, until 
 you get at least one fourth mile away. The water seems all right, 
 but no fish." 
 
 We have selected the foregoing statements from some five hundred 
 different letters received, as showing the general expression of all. 
 They show a great desire on the part of the people to have our 
 waters made more productive. There is also in connection with the 
 desire to stock ponds, a general desire expressed for more trout in 
 our brooks ; and it is the opinion of your Commissioners that three 
 or four cheap trout hatcheries would be of great benefit, as through 
 them our brooks could be restocked, and the fishing greatlj' enhanced, 
 and the result would be a large profit on the outlaj'. 
 
18 
 
 OUR LAKE CHAMPLAIN FISHERIES. 
 
 This is one of the finest lakes for the raising of fish on the conti- 
 nent, and is very well stocked. It should be the great sporting 
 ground for those that delight in such sport, as our Vermont hotels are 
 ample and first class, and the various camping grounds about the 
 lake also numerous at the present time, yet they might be more so. 
 Protection is everywhere called for, and that too of the most string- 
 ent kind. In the spring of 1882, during the close season, the 
 Burlington Clipper reports that from twenty to fifty barrels of lake 
 fish have been shipped daily from the two stations of Alburgh and 
 Swanton. The fish taken are pike perch, commonly called wall-eyed 
 pike by the fishermen ; one of the very best, if not the best, fish for 
 the table the lake affords. The flesh of the fish is firm, white, and 
 well-flavored, and it frequently attains the weight of six pounds. 
 These flsh are caught in nets in open violation of the laws of New 
 York, Canada, and Vermont. The New York and the Canada au- 
 thorities vigorously enforce the law, but in Franklin and Grand Isle' 
 counties of this State the law has been grossly violated. 
 
 Missisquoi bay is the great spawning bed of the lake, and from that 
 bay, and along the shores of Maquam bay and Alburgh, untold quan- 
 tities of these valuable flsh are dragged from their spawning beds 
 every year by a comparatively few pot-house fishermen. They catch 
 them in their fyke nets, which stretch across every avenue whereby 
 the fish pass to and from their spawning beds ; they take them in 
 barrel nets, the arms of which reach out and guide them into these 
 prisons, and they drag the beds themselves with seines. Even late in 
 the winter these outlaws ply their unlawful calling ; cutting trenches 
 
19 
 
 and drawing their seines under the ice, and also operating their fyke 
 and barrel nets, often with more destructive results than is possible 
 when the lake is clear of ice. The flsh caught in this way are almost 
 invariablj'^ female fish, and just readj' to spawn, so that as they are 
 drawn in the water will be full of ripe spawn which they have shed. 
 Imagine the destruction which ensues. The law imposes a fine of 
 $10 for every fish thus ^ught, with confiscation of the nets. 
 
 But it is a law not easily enforced, and that the present Legislature 
 will make it much better, we earnestly hope. The Argus says : 
 
 If the wall-eyed pike should be protected from capture during the 
 spawning season for even five j'ears, the lake would swarm with these 
 flsh, so that thej' could be taken with the hook and line in large num- 
 bers at all the fishing grounds along our shores, from Alburgh to the 
 head of the lake. Under the imperfect , protection of the last few 
 years these pike have sensibly increased in numbers, and if the fish 
 law could onlv be sternlj' enforced during the months of April and 
 Ma}', the lake in ten 3'ears would swarm with these fish, that have 
 always been more numerous in our waters than the black bass, th*e 
 only fish of our lake that compares with it in value for the table. 
 The black bass is a fish of different habit from the wall-eyed pike, 
 and is not so much exposed to capture by netting as the pike ; com- 
 paratively few bass are taken in the seine, but the pike is the easy 
 prey of the poachers and pot-hunting loafers that lawlessly plunder 
 our waters with their nets in the spawning season, In contrast with 
 our wicked waste of fish, we have only to look at Scotland. A good 
 salmon river there returns from $65,000 to $100,000 annually. These 
 are the figures for the river Tweed. We presume the figures for the 
 Tay would be even higher. Now the protection of our lake fish is 
 practically the protection of the food suppl}- and sport of the whole 
 .people, not of any favored class, as in England. The best fishing 
 waters in Lake Champlain are so situated that they are open to all 
 who choose to occupy them, and it is strange that our people who 
 rush to the sea shore for blue fish, or to the Adirondacks, Maine, or 
 Canada for trout, should take no pains to protect the fishing grounds 
 along the shores of Lake Champlain, grounds that in point of beauty, 
 accessibility, and the sport afforded, are quite equal to the places we 
 have named. A three-pound black bass affords as good sport to the 
 angler as trout, and properly cooked is an excellent table fish. Lake 
 Champlain is full cf beautiful fishing grounds, that only need to be 
 protected in the spring to furnish plenty of sport for the angler. At 
 the West the people seem more keenly alive to the wickedness and 
 folly of wantonl}' wasting the wealth of nature than we are in the 
 East. New York, however, does fairly protect its fish and game from 
 depletion, as compared with Vermont, for the reason that not only is 
 there more to protect, but because a few earnest men have succeeded 
 
20 
 
 in rousing a strong public opinion in favor of using the wealth of 
 nature with reasonable prudence and thrift. In Europe public senti- 
 ment is strong on the subject of wasting eithei the material wealth or 
 simple beauty of nature. 
 
 From the Montpelier Watchman, 
 
 The elaborate legislation which the State has devised for the pro- 
 tection of fish in the lakes and large streams is non-effective because 
 the Legislature seems to have lacked the courage, foresight, or dispo- 
 sition, to make the laws eflfective by attaching to their violation the 
 only reasonable, sensible penalty — arrest, prosecution and punishment 
 as for theft. By means ef seines, fyke nets, and the various contriv- 
 ances employed by mercenarj' fishermen for capturing fish by shoals, 
 pike and other varieties have been taken from the mouth of the Mis- 
 sisquoi at the rate of from thirty to forty barrels a day. At this 
 season these fish ascend to their spawning grounds, and are an easy 
 prey to piratical assailants. Fish are deposited in those waters by 
 the Fish Commissioners at the expense of the State. It is permitted 
 to take them at the proper time in a proper way, such an one as will 
 not defeat the design to stock the waters of tiie State with food-fish ; 
 but to take them in this murderous manner, and at their spawning sea- 
 son, is an outrageous offence against nature as well as the laws. For 
 this unnatural procedure the laws demand a fine of $10 for each fish 
 so caught or in the possession of a person, and the deliverj' of the 
 nets to the town treasurer living nearest the locality where they were 
 taken. As the fishermen are usually impecunious individuals, the 
 penalty can rarelj' be enforced, and the law is practically of no avail 
 against evil doers. There are varying penalties for specific viola- 
 tions, but thej' differ from the above in degree rather than in kind. 
 In other parts of the lake, and doubtless in other localities in the 
 State, similar depredations are being committed. Fish are being 
 taken out of the public waters more rapidly than the Commissioners 
 can put them in. The fish laws will require the addition of a penalty 
 sufficiently deterrent in its character to secure their reasonable ob- 
 servance, and the next Legislature should be called upon to make the 
 requisite amendment. 
 
 The foregoing selections from leading papers are only the echoes 
 from the people that demand proper protection for their fishing 
 grounds, and it is hoped that these notes of warning will not only 
 arouse the legislature to provide wholesome fish and game laws, but 
 to awaken an increasing interest in that too long neglected source of 
 profit to our State — her fisheries. 
 
21 
 
 FISH COMMISSIONERS. 
 
 We append the following list of the different Commissioners on 
 Fisheries for the Provinces, States and Territories of North America, 
 from the Forest and Stream, corrected by correspondence to date : 
 
 Dominion of Canada. — W. F. Whitcher, Commissioner, Ottawa, 
 Ontario. 
 
 Province of New Brunswick. — W. H. Venning, Inspector of 
 Fisheries, St. John. 
 
 Province of Nova Scotia. — W. H. Rogers, Inspector, Amherst. 
 
 Province of Prince Edward Island. — J. II. Diivar, Inspector, 
 Alberton. 
 
 Province of British Columbia. — A. C. Anderson, Victoria. 
 
 The United States. — Prof. Spencer F. Baird, Washington, D. C. 
 
 Alabama. — C. S. G. Doster, Prattville ; D. B. Huntlej', Courtland. 
 
 Arizona. — John J. Gosper, Prescott ; Richard Rule, Tombstone ; 
 Dr. J. H. Taggart, (Business Manager) Yuma. 
 
 Arkansas. — John E. Reardon, Little Rock ; James H. Hornibrook, 
 Little Rock; H.H. Rottaken, Little Rock. 
 
 California — S. R. Throckmorton, San Francisco ; J. D. Farwell, 
 Niles, Alraeda county ; W. W. Traylor, San Francisco. 
 
 Colorado. — Wilson E. Sisty, Idaho Springs, 
 
 Connecticut. — Dr. Wm. M. Hudson, Hartford ; Robert G. Pike, 
 Middletown ; George N. Woodruff, Sherman. 
 
 Delaware. — Enoch Moore, Jr., Wilmington. 
 
 Georgia. — J. T. Henderson (Commissioner of Agriculture and ex 
 officio Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries), Atlanta; Dr. H. H. 
 Gary (Supt.), La Grange. 
 
 Illinois. — N. K. Fairbank, President, Chicago ; S. P. Bartlett, 
 Quincy ; S. P. McDoel, Aurora. 
 
 Indiana. — Calvin Fletcher, Spencer, Owen County. 
 
22 
 
 Iowa. — B. F. Shaw, Anamosa ; A. A. Mosher (Assistant), Spirit 
 Lake. 
 
 Kansas. — Hon. D. B. Long, Ellsworth. 
 
 Kentucky. — Wm. GriflBth, President, Louisville ; Hon. John A. 
 Steele, Versailles ; Dr. Wm. Van Antwerp, Mount Sterling ; A. H. 
 Goble, Catlettsburg ; Hon. C. J. Walton, Munfordville ; Dr. S. W. 
 Coombs, Bowling Green ; John B. Walker, Madisonville ; P. H. 
 Darby, Princeton ; Hon. J. M. Chambers, Independence, Kenton 
 county ; W. C. Price, Danville. 
 
 Maine. — E. M. Stilwell, Bangor ; Henry O. Stanley, Dixfield. 
 
 Maeyland. — -Thomas Hughlett, Easton ; G. W. Delawder, Oak- 
 land. 
 
 Massachdsetts. — E. A. Brackett, Winchester ; Asa French, South 
 Braintree ; F. W. Putnam, Cambridge. 
 
 Michigan. — Eli R. Miller, Richland ; A. J. Kellogg, Detroit ; Dr. 
 J. C. Parker, Grand Rapids. 
 
 Minnesota. — 1st District — Daniel Cameron, La Crescent ; 2d 
 District — Dr. Wm. M. Sweney, Red Wing ; 3d District — Dr. Robert 
 Ormsby Sweney, St. Paul ; 4th District — No appointment until Jan- 
 uary ; 5th District — No appointment until January. 
 
 Missouri. — Dr. J. G. W. Steedman, Chairman, 2803 Pine street, 
 St. Louis ; John Reid, Lexington, Lafayette county ; Dr. J. S. 
 Logan, St Joseph. 
 
 Nebraska. — W. L. May, Fremont ; R. R. Livingston, Platts- 
 mouth ; R. E. B. Kennedy, Omaha. 
 
 Nevada. — Hon. Hubb G. Parker, Carson Ci-tj'. 
 
 New Hampshire. — Edward Spalding, Nashua ; Luther Hayes, 
 Milton ; Albina H. Powers, Grantham. 
 
 New Jersey. — Dr. Benjamin P. Howell, Woodbury ; Maj. Edward 
 J. Anderson, Trenton ; Theodore Morford, Newton. 
 
 New York. — Hon. R. Barnwell Roosevelt, 76 Chambers street, 
 New York; Edward M. Smith, Rochester; Richard U. Sherman, 
 New Hartford, Oneida County ; Eugene G.Blackford (Fulton Mar- 
 ket, New York citj',) 809 Bedford avenue, Brooklyn. 
 
 North Carolina. — S. G. Worth, Raleigh. 
 
 Ohio. — Col. L. A. Harris, President, Cincinnati ; Charles W. 
 Bond, Treasurer, Toledo ; Halsej' C. Post, Secretaiy, Sandusky. 
 
 Pennsylvania. — Hon. H. J. Reader, Easton ; Hon. B. L. Hewit, 
 Hollidaysburgh ; James Duffy, Marietta ; John Hummel, Selings- 
 grove ; Robert Dalzell, Pittsburgh ; G. M. Miller, Wilkesbarre. 
 
 Rhode Island. — Alfred A. Reed, Providence ; Newton Dexter, 
 Providence ; John H. Barden, Rockland. 
 
23 
 
 South Carolina. — A. P. Butler, Commissioner of Agriculture, 
 and ex-officio of Fish and Fisheries, Columbia ; C. J. Huske, Super- 
 intendent, Columbia. 
 
 Tennessee. — W. W. McDowell, Memphis ; H. H. Sneed, Chatta- 
 nooga ; Edward D. Hicks, Nashville. 
 
 Texas. — E. ]l. Robertson, Austin. 
 
 Utah. — No appointment since the death of Prof. J. L. Barfoot, 
 in April last. 
 
 Vermont. — Hiram A. Cutting, Lunenburg ; Herbert Brainerd, 
 St. Albans. 
 
 Virginia. — Col. M. McDonald, Berrjville. 
 
 West Virginia. — Henry B. Miller, President, Wheeling; C. S. 
 White, Secretaiy, Eomney ; N. M. Lowry, Hinton. 
 
 Wisconsin. — The Governor, ex-officio, Madison ; Philo Dunning, 
 President, Madison ; C. L. Valentine, Secretary and Treasurer, 
 Janesville ; J. V. Jones, Oshkosh ; John F. Antisdel, Milwaukee ; 
 Mark Douglas, Melrose ; Christopher Hutchinson, Beetovvn. 
 
 Wyoming Territory. — Dr. M. C. Barkwell, Chairman and Super- 
 intendent, Cheyenne ; Otto Gramm, Secretary, Laramie ; Hon. N. L. 
 Andrews, Johnson county ; Hon. E. W. Bennet, Carbon count3- ; 
 Hon. P. J. Downs, Uinta county ; Hon. T. W. Quinn, Sweetwater 
 county. 
 
 Respectfully submitted, 
 
 HIRAM A. CUTTING, M. D., 1 ^ , 
 HERBERT BRAINERD, | '^^^ ''•'• 
 
 MoNTPELiER, Vt., Nov. 15, 1882. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 LAWS FOR THE PRESERVATION AND PROPAGA- 
 TION OF FISH, GAME AND BIRDS. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 LAWS FOR THE PRESERVATION AND PROPAGA- 
 TION OF FISH, GAME AND BIRDS. 
 
 FISH COMMISSIONERS. 
 
 Sec. 3867. The governor may appoint two persons, to be styled 
 fish commissioners, who shall confer with the fish commissioners of 
 the New England states and Canada, direct and superintend, in their 
 discretion, the construction of flshways, and, at the expense of the 
 state, introduce shad and salmon, or other good varieties of fish, into 
 such streams, lakes or ponds as thej- deein suited to the successful 
 cultivation of such fish. But the expense incurred under this section 
 shall not exceed one thousand dollars annualh'. 
 
 Sec. 3868. Said commissioners shall hold their offices for five 
 years, and the governor may fill vacancies. 
 
 Sec. 3869. Natural ponds covering an area of seventy-five acres 
 or more, not private property, shall be considered public waters, into 
 which the fish commissioners may introduce choice varieties of fish. 
 
 Sec. 3870. When the fish commissioners place fish in a pond or 
 stream, they may post on the banks a notice that fishing therein, or 
 in specified portions thereof, is prohibited for a period not to exceed 
 three years, and they shall give like notice in a newspaper published 
 in the county ; and if a person fishes, or attempts to fish in said waters 
 
28 
 
 within the time so specified, he shall be fined ten dollars, with costs, 
 if the prosecution is commenced within six months after the offence 
 is committed, and the penalty shall go to the state ; and the prosecu- 
 tion may be commenced on the complaint of a fish commissioner. 
 
 FISH WARDENS, 
 
 Sec. 3871 is amended to read as follows : 
 
 The selectmen of any town may appoint and remove at pleasure, a 
 person to be fish warden in their town, who may arrest on any of the 
 waters, public or private, of this state, or on the waters of Lake 
 Champlain, or on the shores thereof, any person found violating the 
 provisions of chapter 170, Revised Laws, or any amendment thereof, 
 and prosecute such offender before the proper tribunal. Such fish 
 warden shall have the same right that a sheriff would have, to demand 
 and receive assistance in the discharge of his duty under the provis- 
 ions of this chapter. Any person refusing to aid such fish warden on 
 demand in the name of the state, b}^ such warden, shall be liable to 
 the penalties provided for in section 4285, chaj)ter 200, Revised Laws, 
 which is as follows : 
 
 " A person being required in the name of the state, by a sheriff", 
 deputy sheriff, high bailiff, deputy bailiff, or constable, who neglects 
 or refuses to assist such officer in the execution of his office, in a 
 criminal case, or in the preservation of the peace, or the apprehen- 
 sion and securing of a person for a breach of the peace, or in a case 
 of escape or rescue of persons arrested upon civil process, shall be 
 fined not more than five hundred dollars." 
 
 GENERAL LAWS FOR THE PROTECTION OF FISH. 
 
 Sec. 3872. A person who takes or catches a trout, land-locked 
 salmon, salmon-trout or longe in any of the waters of the state, or 
 has in his possession any such fish captured in the state, between the 
 first day of September in one year and the first day of May of the 
 next 3'ear, shall be fined not more than ten dollars for each fish so 
 taken, caught or possessed. 
 
 Sec. 3873. A person who takes or catches a black bass in any of 
 the waters of the state, or has in his possession any such fish captured 
 in the state, between the fifteenth day of May and the first day of 
 July in any j'ear, shall be fined not more than five dollars for each fish 
 so taken, caught or possessed. 
 
29 
 
 Sec. 3874. A person who takes or catches a white fish or lake 
 shad in any of the waters of the state, or has in his possession any 
 such fish, taken in the state, between the first day of November and 
 the fifteenth day of the same nlonth in any j'ear, shall be fined not 
 more than ten dollars for each fish so taken, caught or possessed. 
 
 Sec. 3875. A person who takes or catches a wall-eyed pike 6r 
 pike-perch in any of the waters of the state, or has in his possession 
 any such fish taken in the state, between the twentieth day of April 
 and the twentieth day of May of any year, shall be fined not more 
 than five dollars for each fish so taken, caught or possessed. 
 
 Sec. 3876. The penalties provided in the four preceding sections 
 fehall go one-half to the person who makes the complaint and one-half 
 to the state. 
 
 Sec. 3877. Nothing in sections 3870, 3872, 3873, 3874 and 3875 
 shall prevent a person from fishing with hook and line at any time in 
 the waters of lake Champlain, or streams emptying into such lake 
 within ten miles from the mouth of said streams. 
 
 Sec. 3878. A person who takes or catches a trout, land-locked 
 salmon, salmon, salmon-trout, black bass, or longe, in any of the 
 waters of the state, except by hook and line shall, unless liable to a 
 greater penalty under the provisions of sections 3879, 3882, 3883, 
 be fined twenty dollars. 
 
 Sec. 3879. All pound-net, trap-net, gill-net, set-net and fyke 
 fishing in the public waters of this state are hereby prohibited ; and 
 any person or persons who shall be found fishing with any such pound- 
 nets, trap-nets, gill-nets, set-nets or fykes, shall be punished by a 
 fine of one hundred dollars ; and any person discovering any such 
 net or nets thus set for fishing contrary to the provisions of this sec- 
 tion may seize the same ; and the nets so seized shall go to the 
 treasury of the town nearest which the seizure is made. 
 
 Sec. 3880 is amended to read as follows : 
 
 All pound-net, trap-net, gill-net, set-net and fyke fishing, or any 
 other device for entrapping or ensnaring fish in the waters of Lake 
 Champlain or of the rivers emptying into said lake not to exceed ten 
 miles from the mouth of said river are hereby prohibited ; and any 
 person or persons who shall fish in said waters with any such pound- 
 nets, trap-nets, gill-nets, set-nets, fykes, or any other device for en- 
 snaring or entrapping fish shall forfeit the sum of one hundred dol- 
 
30 
 
 lars, to be recovered in an action on the case founded on this section, 
 one half to be paid to the treasurer of the state and one half to the 
 informer and prosecutor. 
 
 Any person discovering any such net, or nets, or devices for en- 
 snaring fish, set or being used in the waters hereinbefore described, or 
 on the shores thereof contrary to the provisions of chapter 170, Re- 
 vised Laws, or any amendment thereof, may seize the same, and the 
 nets or devices so seized shall be confiscated for the use of the state, 
 and destroyed by the persons seizing the same. Provided, seine fish- 
 ing shall be allowed during the month of October and the first fifteen 
 days of November in each j'ear, and provided this section shall not 
 be construed to prohibit the capture of minnows for bait, and pro- 
 vided this section shall not be construed to prohibit fishing in said 
 waters with a hook and line, as hereinafter provided- 
 
 Any person who takes or catches any black bass, pike, wall-eyed 
 pike, shad, or pond pickerel from any of the waters, public or private, 
 of this state, or from the waters of Lake Champlain, or has any of 
 said fish in his possession between the first day of January and the 
 first day of May in each year shall forfeit the sum of five dollars for 
 each fish so caught, taken or possessed, to be recovered in an action 
 on the case founded on this section, one half to go to the treasurer of 
 the state and one half to the prosecutor. Provided, this act shall not 
 be construed to prohibit the catching of any kind of fish in the waters 
 of Lake Champlain with a hook and line or with a spear. 
 
 Sec. 3881. A person who fishes for white fish or lake shad, or for 
 wall-eyed pike or pike-perch with a seine whose meshes are less than 
 one and one-half inches in extension knot to knot, shall be fined 
 twenty-five dollars, one-half of the penalty to go to the complainant 
 and one-half to the state ; and shall forfeit the net so illegally used 
 to the state. 
 
 Sec. 3882. A person who catches, kills or destroys fish in waters 
 other than private preserves by the use of gunpowder or other explo- 
 sive material shall be fined twenty-five dollars for the first ofiense, 
 double that sum for the second, and treble that sum for each succeed- 
 ing offense, to which may be added, in either case, imprisonment not 
 exceeding ninety days. 
 
 Sec. 3883. A person who throws into waters other than private 
 preserves, India coccle {Coculus Indicus), or other drug or poison. 
 
31 
 
 for the purpose of catching, killing or destroying fish, shall be fined 
 not less than ten dollars and not more than twenty dollars, to be paid 
 one-fourth to the person who makes the complaint and three-fourths 
 to the town in which the offense is committed. 
 
 Sec. 3884. A person who engages in stocking any of the waters 
 of the state with pickerel shall be punished by a fine of one hundred 
 dollars, or by six months imprisonment, or both. 
 
 Sec. 3885. A person found on the public waters of the state or 
 the shores thereof, or on private waters or the shores thereof without 
 the consent of the owner or occupier thereof, in the possession of a 
 net, fish-trap, spear, jack, light or gun, with intent to use the same 
 for the capture or destruction of fish, contrary to law, shall be pun- 
 ished by a fine not exceeding ten dollars, or by imprisonment not 
 exceeding thirtj"^ days, or both. 
 
 EXCEPTIONS TO THE PRECEDING PROVISIONS, 
 
 Sec. 3886. The fish commissioners may take fish at any time for 
 stocking ponds, lakes and rivers, and for maintaining and cultivating 
 fish artificially, and for no other purpose, and may grant permits in 
 writing for other persons to capture fish for artificial propagation and 
 maintenance in private ponds, anything in the preceding sections of 
 this chapter to the contrary notwithstanding. 
 
 Sec. 3887. A person engaged in the artificial culture and mainte- 
 nance of fish may take them in his own waters, how and when he 
 pleases, or take them in other waters for breeding purposes, if he gets 
 the written permit of the fish commissioners to do so, and the consent 
 of the owner or occupier of the land, anything in the preceding sec- 
 tions of this chapter to the contrary notwithstanding ; but he shall 
 not sell them for food at seasons when their capture is prohibited by 
 this chapter. 
 
 PROTECTION OF FISH IN PRIVATE PRESERVES. 
 
 Sec. 3888. A person who catches, kills or destroys a fish in pri- 
 vate preserves where fish are being bred artificially, without the con- 
 sent of the owner thereof, shall be fined five dollars for each fish so 
 caught, killed or destroyed. 
 
 Sec. 3889. A person engaged in the culture of fish in piivate 
 preserves may put up notices at convenient places on the premises. 
 
32 
 
 prohibiting fishing on said premises. After such notice is publicly 
 given, a person who enters upon said premises and catches any fish, 
 or fouls the water thereof with any substance injurious to the life and 
 growth of the fish, or breaks or destroys a dam, reservoir or embank- 
 ment, or diverts the water, or does any damage to said premises, 
 shall be fined one hundred dollars or imprisoned not more than six 
 months, and shall be also liable to the owner thereof for the damages. 
 
 PROTECTION OF GAME AND BIRDS. 
 
 Sec. 3890. A person who, prior to the first daj' of November, 
 1886, pursues, takes or kills, within the state, a wild deer, or has in 
 his possession a wild deer or part thereof so taken or killed, shall be 
 fined fifty dollars. And the possession of the meat or hide, or any 
 part of a wild deer, shall be presumptive evidence that the person 
 having it in his possession is guilty of a violation of this section. 
 
 Sec. 3891. In prosecutions for offenses under the preceding sec- 
 tion it shall not be necessary *to state in the complaint, nor prove, in 
 what town of the county the offense was committed. 
 
 Sec. 3892. It shall be lawful to kill a dog found pursuing wild 
 deer prior to November, 1886, if such dog is killed while in the actual 
 pursuit of deer. 
 
 Sec. 3893. A person who kills, catches or destroys a mink, 
 beaver, fisher or otter between the first day of April and the first day 
 of November in any year, shall be fined twenty dollars, to be recov- 
 ered before a justice, one-half to go to the person who makes the 
 complaint and one-half to the state. 
 
 Sec. 3894. A person who kills by poison a wild deer or felk, mink, 
 beaver, fisher or otter shall be fined not less than ten dollars for each 
 animal so destroyed. 
 
 Sec. 3895 is amended to read as follows : 
 
 No person shall take or kill within the state a quail, woodcock, or 
 ruffed grouse commonly called partridge, between the first day of 
 February and the first day of September in each year, nor a woodcock 
 between the first day of February and the fifteenth day of August in 
 any year, nor a wild goose or wild duck, other than a wood duck, be- 
 tween the first day of May and the first day of September in any year, 
 nor have in his possession a woodcock, quail, partridge, goose or duck 
 
33 
 
 taken or killed in violation of this section ; nor shall a person at any 
 time within the state take or destroy the eggs of either of such birds 
 or have in his possession any such eggs taken in violation of this sec- 
 tion or take any such bird by means of a snare, net or trap. A per- 
 son violating any of the provisions of this section shall forfeit ten 
 dollars, one-half to go to the informer and one-half to the state. 
 
 BIRDS. 
 
 Sec. 3896. A person who intentionally shoots or otherwise 
 wounds, kills or destroys, entraps, ensnares or captures, a robin, blue 
 bird, yellow bird, cherrj' or cedar bird, cat bird, king bird, sparrow, 
 lark, bobolink, thrush, chickadee, peewee, wren, warbler, woodpecker, 
 martin, swallow, night-hawk, whippoorwill, ground bird, linnet, plo- 
 ver, tatler, phoebe, creeper, bunting, or humming bird, or destroys 
 the nest or eggs of any of said birds, shall forfeit ten dollars, which 
 may be recovered in an action of debt, with costs, by an}' person who 
 sues for the same. 
 
 POSTING LANDS. 
 
 Sec. 3897. When the owner of enclosed land conspicuous^ posts 
 on the same a notice that shooting, trapping or fishing thereon is pro- 
 hibited, if a person thereafter wilfully enters upon such land without 
 the permission of the owner, for the purpose of shooting, trapping or 
 fishing, the owner may recover against such person, in an action of 
 trespass for such entry, a penalty of ten dollars, in addition to the 
 damages thereby sustained. 
 
 Sec. 3898. The notice mentioned in the preceding section shall be 
 given by erecting and maintaining signboards, not less than two feet 
 long b}- one foot wide, in at least two conspicuous places on the prem- 
 ises, which notices shall have appended thereto the name of the owner 
 or occupant. A person who breaks down, defaces or injures such 
 signboard shall be fined ten dollars. 
 
 Sec. 3899. The presence of a person, without permission of the 
 owner, and with the implements of shooting, trapping or fishing, 
 upon land so posted shall be taken as p?-jma/ac7'e evidence of a wilful 
 entry by him thereon, for the purpose of shooting, trapping or fishing. 
 
 [justices to have jurisdiction.] 
 
 Sec. 3900. Justices of the county shall have concurrent jurisdic- 
 tion with the county court of offenses under this chapter. 
 
 5 
 
34 
 
 PRIVATE BILL. 
 
 It is hereby enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Vermont : 
 
 Sec. 1. It shall not be lawful for a person to catch flsh in the 
 waters of Lake Bomoseen in the town of Castleton bj' the use of any 
 seines, nets, spears, or other device for entrapping or ensnaring flsh. 
 A person who violates the provisions of this act shall forfeit ten dol- 
 lars for each flsh so illegally caught, to be recovered in an action on 
 the case founded on this statute, one-half to be paid to the treasurj- of 
 the town where the complaint is made and one-half to the informer 
 and prosecutor. Provided, this act shall not be construed to prevent 
 a person from flshing in said waters at any time with a hook and line. 
 
 Sec. 2. A person found on the waters of Lake Bomoseen or the 
 shores thereof in possession of a net, fish-trap, spear, jack, or any 
 other device for entrapping or ensnaring flsh, contrary to the provis- 
 ions of this act, it shall be taken as prima facie evidence of the wilful 
 intent of such person to violate the provisions of section 1 of this act, 
 and such person so found shall be punished by a fine not exceeding 
 ten dollars, or by imprisonment not exceeding thirty days, or both. 
 
 Sec. .S. This act shall take effect from its passage. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Adulteration of Poods • 93 
 
 Analysis of Fertilizers .'.... 34, 35 
 
 Aphides 38 
 
 Apple tree borer 66 
 
 Bean root 23 
 
 Beet root 14 
 
 Blister beetle 48 
 
 Bone meal 27, 37 
 
 Cabbage worm 52 
 
 Catch fly 10 
 
 Change of climate by cutting forests 80 
 
 Chloriform discovered 49 
 
 Chiccory ; .' g 
 
 Clover roots 22 
 
 Clothes rnoth 41 
 
 Coddling moth 68 
 
 Currant worm 55 
 
 Daisy 10 
 
 Dragon fly 45 
 
 Enemies to the potato beetle 47 
 
 Errors in observation on plants 30 
 
 Evaporation by plants 24 
 
 Fertilization 11 
 
 Fertilizers, how made 2y, '2S 
 
 Fertilizers, value of. 36 
 
 Fertilizers, analysis of 35 
 
 Forceps tail 46 
 
 Forestry 74 
 
 Forest tent caterpillar Gz 
 
 Forest, percentage in Vermont 75 
 
 Fool's parsley 9 
 
 Frontispiece described 3 
 
98 
 
 Golden eye 40 
 
 Herdsgrass roots 19 
 
 Health 83 
 
 Homelife 84 
 
 House fly 71 
 
 Hygiene of farm "homes 83 
 
 [ndian corn rodts 15, 16 
 
 Lady bugs 40 
 
 Liver leaf. 4 
 
 Lodged crops poor 29 
 
 May flower 3 
 
 Mosquito 60 
 
 Nitrogen 30 
 
 Notes on insects 38 
 
 Oat roots 21 
 
 Our foods 93 
 
 Pirates * 46 
 
 Plot system 25 
 
 Plant growth '. 11 
 
 Potato roots. . , 18 
 
 Poisonous plants 6 
 
 Prices of fertilizing materials r. , 31-34 
 
 Remedy for 'plant lice ' 39 
 
 Remedy for clothes moth 42 
 
 Remedy for cabbage worm 53 
 
 Remedy for squash beetle 59 
 
 Remedy for current worm 57 
 
 Remedy for tent caterpillar. 61 
 
 Robber bugs 47 
 
 Roots 14-23 
 
 Roots injiu:ed by,;manure 25 
 
 Scouring rush 8 
 
 Site for a house 84 
 
 Shade trees 86 
 
 Soluble superphosphates 28 
 
 Spices adulterated. . .'. 94 
 
 Soldier bug 47 
 
 Squash beetle ; 58 
 
 Superphosphate, what is it ? \ 28 
 
 Tent caterpillar 60 
 
 Test (uv pure water 85 
 
 Tiger beetle 43 
 
99 
 
 Valuation of fertilizers 36 
 
 Ventilation 89 
 
 Water boatman 44 
 
 Water skater. . ; 45 
 
 Web worm 64 
 
 Wintergreen 4 
 
 Wild flowers and obnoxious plants 3 
 
 Wood horsetail 6 
 
 Wood, value of as fuel 77 
 
 Addresses, etc., Paged Separately, as Follows: 
 
 An Address, "Mining in Vermont," and Report on the State 
 
 Cabinet for 1872. 
 Address on "Parasitic Insects of Domestic animals." 
 List of "Habitats of insects." 
 Petrifaction of Human bodies. 
 The Frozen well at Brandon. 
 Report of State Cabinet for 1875. 
 Address on our "Insect enemies." 
 Report of State Cabinet, 1876. 
 Address on Climatology of Vermont in 1877. 
 How to fortell Storms, etc. 
 Address on " Microscopic Fungi," Rust, Smut, Mildew and 
 
 Mould ; also, Animalcules, Water Mites, Sugar Mites and 
 
 Trichina Spiralis. 
 Report of State Cabinet for 1878. 
 Notes on Building Stones and Lecture on " Plant Growth," 
 
 1880. 
 Notes on a Hail Storm in Concord, Vt.