SMITH'S NEW GRAMMAR. ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PR0DUCTIV1-: SYSTEM: ITHOD OF INSTRITTIOS RErF.NTI.V ADOPTED IN GERMAXY AND SVITi'JtI.AXD. gcsioncd fov _^rhool'-. ami ^raiUmirs. ROSWELL C. SMITH. Al'TIIun OK A HRACTI'Ar. AN'Li MENTAr. ARITHMETIC. Kcvlscd Edition. nilL.ADELrHIA: PUBLISHED BY K. IT. BUTLER & CO. SOLD BY BOOKSKLLEKS GEN"ERAI.I.y THROUGUOUT THE UXITED STATES. CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Cornell University Library arV14224 English grammar, on the productive syste 3 1924 031 239 829 olin.anx Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31 924031 239829 SMITH'S NEW GRAMMAR. ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PRODUCTIVE SYSTEM. icsijgnd for Schools and %a&tmm. BY EOSWELL C. SMITH. NEW AND REVISED EDITION. PHILADELPHIA: PUBLISHED BY E. H. BUTLER & CO. 188 5. Copyright. E. H. BUTLEH & CO. 188 2. TO THE PUBLIC. QMITH'S English Grammar has been extensively ^ used for many years. During the entire time it has received the approval of teachers throughout the United States. Before electrotyping the work anew, it has been carefully and thoroughly revised. In presenting this edition, the hope is entertained that it will merit a continuance of the general favor which it has heretofore enjoyed. iii CONTEl^TS. PAGR Nouns 7 Number 7 Gender 8 Proper and Common Nouns 9 Person 10 Case 10 ARTlOIiES 13 Adjectives 15 Pronouns 17 Verbs 20 Indicative Mood — Tense 23 Potential Mood 28 Neuter Verb "To be" 31 Adverbs 33 Prepositions 35 Conjunctions 36 Interjections 39 Orthography 41 Etymology 41 Syntax 42 Nouns 42 Person 43 Gender 43 Number 45 Case 47 Declension of Nouns 47 Articles 49 Adjectives 51 Pbonouns 53 1* VI CONTENTS. PAGE Compound Personal FROtsovus 54 Adjective PEONorNS 55 Distributive Pronouns 56 Indbeinite Pronouns 56 Eelative Pronouns 58 Compound and Interrogative Pronouns 60 Verbs 62 Mood or Mode 63 Tense 66 Passive Verb 68 Auxiliary Verb 69 Signs op the Moods 69 Signs of the Tenses of the Indicative 70 Conjugation op Verbs 71 Irregular Verbs 80 Government of the Infinitive 83 Defective Verbs 90 Adverbs 92 Prepositions 93 Conjunctions 94 Interjections 95 Agreement of Nouns 96 Nouns used independently 99 Infinitive Mood 100 Exercises 102 Words used as different Parts of Speech 109 Contractions 112 Inverted Sentences 114 Syntax 117 Prosody 187 Pronunciation 187 Versification 187 Poetical Feet 188 Punctuation 188 Capital Letters 19^ ENGLISH GEAMMAK. I. OP THE NOUN. Q. "What is yDur name ? Q. What is the name of the town in which you live ? Q. What does the word noun mean ? Ans. The word noun means name. Q. What, then, may your name be called ? 1. A NOUN. Q. What may all names be called? 2. Nouns. Q. Baalon is the name of a place ; is Boston a noun ? and if so, why ? 3. Boston is a noun, because it is a name. Q. Hudson is the name of a river; is Hudson a noun, and why ? Q. Booh is the name of something to read in : is booJc a noun, and why? Q. Will you now inform me what a noun is ? 4. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing. Q. Will you mention two nouns the names of persons ? two, the names of things ? two, the names of different places ? Q. Will you tell me which words are the nouns in the following sentences, as I read them to you ? " Thomas and Joseph are in the house." " The horse and cow are in the lot." " The hawk and the eagle have ilown to the mountain." " Trees, corn, potatoes, and apples grow in the fields." II. NUMBER. Q. What is the meaning of the word number,- as, " The number of buttons on your coat" ? 5. Number means one or more. Q. What does the word singular denote? 6. It denotes one. Q. When, then, I speak of one thing only, as chair, what number is it ? 7. Singular number. Q. What, then, does the singulur number of nouns denote? 8. The singular number denotes but one thing. (7) 8 ENGI^ISH GRAMMAR. Q. Of what number is hook, and why ? 9. Book is of the singular number^ because it means but one. Q. Of what number is chair, and why ? Q. What does the yiord plural denote? 10. It denotes more than one, Q, Of what number is lamps, and why? 11. Lamps is of the plural number, because it means more than one. Q. Of what number is inkstand, and why? Q. By adding s to dove, and ea to box, we have doves and boxes. Kow, then, is the plural number of nouns usually fornaed ? 12. By adding s or es to the singular. Q. Will you spell the plural of ounce ^ glass? window? theatre? antece- dent? church? labyrinth? Q. How many numbers do nouns appear to have, and what are they? 13. Two — the singular and the plural. Q. Will you name a noun of the singular number? one of the plural number ? III. GENDER. Q. What does the word gender mean ? 14. Gender signifies sex. Q. What does the word inasculine mean ? 15. It means male. Q. John is the name of a male : of what gender or sex, then, is John f 16. Of the masculine or male gender. Q. What nouns, then, are said to be of the masculine gender ? 17. The names of males. Q. Of what gender, then, is man, and why? 18. Man is of the masculine gender, because it is the name of a male. ' Q. Of what gender is imcle, and why ? father? why ? Q. What iOQ^ feminine mean ? 19. It means /emaZe. Q. Snsnn is the name of a female : of what gender, then, is Susan f 20. Of the feminine gender. Q. What nouns, then, arc said to be of the feminine gender? 21. The names of females. Q. Of lyhat gender is icoiiiuu, and why ? 22. IVoinan is of the feminine gender, because it is the name of a female. Q. Of what gender is aunt, and why ? daughter f why ? Q. What does the word neuter mean ? 23. It means neither. Q. Chair is the name neither of a male nor of a female : of what gender, then, may it properly be called? 24. Of the neuter gender. Q. AVhat nouns, thou, may be said to be of the neuter gender ? NOUNS. 9 25. The names of objects that are neither males nor females. Q. Of what gender is iulcstand, and why ? 26. Of the neuter gender, because it is the name neither of a male nor of a female. Q. Of what gender is bench ? why ? chair f why ? Q. Parent, you know, is the name either of father or mother, that is, it is a Qume common tohoth: of what gender, then, shall we call sueh nouns as parent, bird, etc. ? 27. Of the common gender. Q. What nouns, then, may be said to be of the common gender? 28. The names of such animals as may be either males or females. Q. Of what gender is sheep, and why? 29. Sheep is of the common gender, because it is the name either of a male or of a female. Q. Of what gender is mbin, and why? Q. How many genders do nouns appear to have, and what are they? 30. Four — the masculine, the feminine, the neuter, and the common. Q. Will you name a noun of the masculine gender ? one of the feminine ? one of the neuter? one of the common ? Q. Will you name the gender and the number of each noun in the fol- lowing sentences, as I read them to you ? " James and William." " Slate and pencil." " John and the girls." " Women and birds." IV. PROPER AND COMMON NOUNS. Q. What is the meaning of the word common; as, "A common com- plaint" ? 31. Common means general. Q. Although there are a great many male children in the world, each one may be called by the general name of boy ; what kind of noun, then, would you call bny f 32. A common noun. Q. When, then, is a noun called common? 3'>. When it is a general name. Q. What does the word^ro^er mean ? 34. It means jit or 'particular. Q. John, you know, is the name of a particular boy : what kind of noun, then, may it be called? , 35. A proper noun. Q. When, then, may a noun be called proper? 36. when it is a particular name. Q. What kind of noun is Susan, and why ? 37. Susan is a proper noun, because it is a particular name. Q. What kind of noun' is John, and why ? 10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Q. What kind of noun is river, and why? 38. River is a common noun, because it is a general name. Q. How many kinds of nouns do there appear to be, and what are they ? Q. What kind of noun is girla ? Mary f town f New York ? London f boat ? chain ? Q. Will you tell me which words are the nouns in the following sen- tences ; which are proper, and which common ; also their gender and number? " Thomas and John." " King and queen." " Susan and Mary." " House and barn." V. PERSON. Q. Wten a person, in speaking, says, ^'I, John, will do it," what person do grammarians call John ? 39. The first person. Q. When, then, is a noun of the first person ? 40. When it is the name of the person speaking. Q. When I saj, " James, mind your studies," what person do gramma- rians call Jamen ? 41. The second person, being the person sjDoken to. Q. When, then, is a noun of the second person ? 42. Wlien it is the name of the person spoken to, or addressed. Q. " William, James has come." Of what person is Williamy and why ? 43. Of the second person, because William is spoken to. Q. When I say, "William, James has come," I am speaking to William about James : of what person, then, is JameSf and why ? 44. Of the third person, because James was spoken of; that is, I was talking about James. Q. When, then, is a noun of the third person ? 45. MTien it is spoken of. Q. " Thomas, Rufus is in the garden." Of what person is Thomas ? why ? Rnfns ? why ? Q. How many persons do nouns appear to have, and what are they ? 46. Three persons — the first, the second, and the third. Q. Will you inform me which of the following nouns are proper, which common ; also their gender, number, and person? *M, James, of Boston." "Boy and girl." " Henry, study your book." " William and his sister." YI. CASE. Q. We say of an animal, for instance a horse, when he is fat, that "He is in a good case;" and, when he is lean, that "He is in a bad case:" what, therefore, does the word case mean ? 47. Case means condition, state, etc. CASES. 11 Q. When I say, ''Charles strikes William," "William strikes Charles," you may perceive that the state or condition of Charles in the former ex- ample is quite different from his state or condition in the latter : in the one, Charles strikes ; in the other, he is struck : what, then, is meant by the dif- ferent cases of nouns? 48. The different condition or position they have in rela- tion to other words in the same sentence. Q. What does the word nominative mean? 40. Nominative means naming. Q. When I say, " John strikes," he evidently does something ; what, then, may .John be called ? 50. An actor or doer. Q. Well, then, as the actor or doer is considered the naming or leading nouu, in what case is John, when I say, "John strikes"? 51. In the nominative case. Q. What, then, does the nominative case of nouns denote? 52. The nominative case denotes the agent or doer. Q. When I say, " The dog runs," in what case is dn(j, and why ? 53. Dog is in the nominative case, because it is the agent, actor, or doer. Q. " The cat catches mice.'' In what case is cat, and why ? Q. When I say, "Thomas is pursuing the thief," what is the object here which Thomas is pursuing? 54. Thief. Q. What does the word objective mean? 55. It means belonging to the object Q, In what case, then, may thief be reckoned, in the phrase, " Thomas pursues the thief"? 56. In the objective case. Q. What, then, does the objective case of nouns denote? 57. The objective case denotes the object. Q. When I say, "William whips John," in what case is Johv, and why? 58. In the objective case, because John is the object. Q. What does the word poaeeaeive imply? 59. Possession, oioiership, property, etc. Q. When I say, "It is John's slate," I mean to say that John owns the si ate- : in what case, then, shall we reckon John' a f 60. In the possessive case. Q. What, then, does the possessive case of nouns denote? 6 1 . The possessive case denotes possession, property, etc. Q. When I say, "Peter's knife," who owns or possesses the knife? Q. In what case, then, is Peter's, and why? 62. In the possessive case, because Peter possesses the knife. Q. In the example, " John's slate,'' you perceive that John' a ends in a, with a comma before it: what is the comma, and what is the s, called in grammar? 63. The comma is called an apostrophe, and the s, an apostrophic s, Q. You also perceive that John's is singular : how, then, do nouns in the singular number usually form their possessive case? 12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 64. By taking after them an apostrophe with the letter s following it. Q. " On eagles' wings.*' Here eaf/les' is plural, and in the possessive case : how, then, do nouns in the plural usually form their possessive case ? 65. Simply by taking the apostrophe without the addi- tion of s. Q. But if the plural noun does not end in a, as, "men's concerns," how is the possessive case formed? 66. As the same case in the singular number is formed. Q. Prom the foregoing remarks, how many cases do nouns appear to have, and what are they ? 67. Three — the nominative, the possessive, and the ob- jective. Q. Decline sometimes means to vary the endings of a word: what, then, do I mean when I ask you to decline a noun ? 68. To tell its different cases or endings. Q. Will you decline John f 69. Nominative case, John. Possessive case, John's. Objective case, John. Q. Will you decline hoi/, in both numbers ? Singular. Plural. 70. Nom. Boy. Nom. Boys. Poss. Boy's. Poss. Boys'. Obj. Boy. Obj. Boys. Q. When I say, "William's coat," you perceive that the noun coat follows William's : by what is William's said to be governed, and why ? 71. By coojt, because it follows William's. Q. What, then, may be considered a rule for governing the possessive case? RULE I. The possessive case is governed by the following noun. Q. " William's hat." Is TFiWam'saproper oracommon noun? Why? (36.)* 9. What is its person? why ? (46. )» Its number ? why ? (8.)« Its gen- der ? why? (17. )» Its case? why? (61.)* What noun follows William's? What word, then, governs William's f What is the rule ? Q. When we mention the several properties of the different words in sentences, in the same manner as we have mentioned those of William's, above, what is the exercise called? 72. Parsing. EXEECISES IN PAESING. "John^s knife." •73. John's is a noun, because it is a name — proper, bo- cause it is a particular name — masculine gender ; it is the name of a male — third person ; it is spoken of — singular ♦Refer back to this number. ARTICLES. 13 number; it means but one — ^possessive case; it implies possession — and it is governed by the noun knife, accord- ing to Rule I. The possessive case is governed by the following noun. Knife is a noun ; it is a name — common ; it is a general name — neuter gender ; it is neither male nor female — third PERSON ; it is spoken of — singular number ; it means but one. IJ^^Let the learner prtrae the foregoinfj, till th-e mode of parsing the noun is BO familiar to him, that he can do it readily, without looking in the hook. He may then take the following exerciaea, which are to be parsed in a aimilar manner. EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. " Peter's cap." " Stephen's coat." " Brother's knife." " John's slate." " Father's house." " Boys' hats." VII. OF ARTICLES. Q. When I say, " Give mo a book," I evidently mean no particular book ; but when I say, " Give me the book," what do I mean ? 74. Some particular book. Q. Which are the words that make this difference in meaning ? 75. A and the. Q. What are these li^ttle words called ? 76. Articles. Q. What, then, are articles? 77. Articles are words placed before nouns to limit their meaning. Q. What is the moaning of the word definite ? 78. Definite means particular. Q. " Give me the book." Here a particular book is referred to : what kind of article, then, shall we call the article the ? 79. A definite article. Q. What, then, is a definite article ? 80. It points out what particular thing or things are meant. Q. The word in, when placed before words, frequently signifies not : what, then, will indefinite mean ? 81. Not definite. Q. When I say, " Give me a knife," no particular knife is meant : what kind of article, then, may a be called ? 82. An indefinite article. Q. Why is it so called? 83. Because it is not used before the name of any partic- ular person or thing. 2 14 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. Q. We say, "an apple," "an inkstand," etc., in preference to "a apple," " a inkstand," etc. : why is this ? 84. Because it is easier to speak, and also more pleasant to the ear. Q. What kind of letters do apple and inkstand begin with ? 85. Vowels. Q, In what cases do we use an instead of a f 86. Before words beginning with the vowels a, e, i, o, u. Q. In speaking, we say, "a man," not " an man:" when, then, do we use a ? 87. Before words beginning with consonants. Q. Which letters are consonants ? 88. All the letters of the alphabet, except the vowels, which are a, e, i, o, u; and also w and y, except at the beginning of words, when they are consonants. Q. How, then, do n and an differ? 89. Only in their use; a being used before consonants, and an before vowels : both are called by the same name. Q. How many articles do there appear to be, and what are they ? 90. Two — a or an, and the. Q. It is customary to say, "a boy," not "a hoys," also, "an inkstand," not " an inkstands :" of what number, then, must the noun be, before which the indefinite article is placed ? 91. The singular number. Q. What, then, is the rule for the indefinite article ? RULE II. The indefinite article A or an belongs to nouns of the singular number. Q. We can say, "the boy," and " the boys," using a noun of either the singular or the plural number after the : what, then, is the rule for the definite article ? RULE III. The definite article the belongs to nouns of the singular or the plural number. EXBECISES IN PARSING. ''The loij." 92. The is an article, a word placed before nouns to limit their meaning — definite ; it refers to a particular boy — and belongs to boy, according to RiTLE III. The definite article the belongs to nouns of the singular or the plural number. Boy is a noun ; it is a- name — common ; it is a general name — masculine gender ; it is the name of a male — TniRD PERSON ; it is spoken of — and singular number ; it means but one. ADJECTIVES. 15 EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. "A hand." "An eagle." "The man." "The boys' hats." "A man." "An insect." "The men." "A man's cap." "Amite." "An acorn." "The boys." "The girls' room." "A month." "An ounce." "The mice." "The lady's box." VIII. OF ADJECTIVES. Q. When I say, "John is an obedient, industrious, and good boy," I use certain words to describe boy : which are they ? 93. Industrious, obedient, and good. Q. When T say, "a good man," to what word is the describing word good joined or added ? 94. To the noun man, Q. What does the word (tdjcctire mean? 95. Joined or added to. Q. What, then, shall we call such describing words as good, obedient, in- duatrioua, etc. ? 96. Adjectives. Q. What, then, are adjectives? 97. Adjectives are words joined to nouns or pronouns to describe or qualify them. Q. " A wise man." Which word is the adjective here, and why ? Q. " Rufus is a good boy, but James is a better one." How are Kufus and James spoken of here? 98. In comparison with each other. Q. The adjectives in the last example are good and hetfer : can you tell me which of these words denotes a higher degree of excellence than the other? 99. The word better. Q. Of what degree of comparison, then, shall we call better? 100. Of the comparative degree. Q. What, then, does the comparative degree imply? 101. A comparison between two. Q. "William is tall, Thomas is tailor, but Rufus is the tallest boy in school." What is meant here by tallest ? 102. Exceeding all in height. Q. What does the word superlative mean? 103. Exceeding all; the highest or loivest degr-ee. Q. Of what degree of comparison, then, shall we call tallest? 104. Of the superlative degree. Q. What, then, does the superlative degree do ? 105. It iacreases or lessens the positive to the highest or lowest degree. Q. When I say, "James is a good boy," I make no comparison between him and any other; but simply assert, in a positive manner, that James is a good boy. What kind of sentence, then, would you call this? 106. A positive sentence. Q. Of what degree of comparison, then, shall we call good? 107. Of the positive degree. 16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Q. What, then, does the positive degree do ? 108. It merely describes, without any comparison. Q. Will you compare ^reaf? 109. "Pos. great ; Comp. greater ; Sup. greatest." Q. Will you compare loise in the same manner? Q. Wise and great are words of one syllable : how, then, are the compara- tive and superlative degrees of words of this sort formed? 110. By adding r or er, st or est, to the positive. Q. Will you in this manner compare small? high? mefm f Q. Will you compare henntiful ? 111. "Pos. beautiful; Comp. more beautiful; Sup. most beautiful." Q. How many syllables compose the "word beautiful ? 112. Three. Q. How, then, are words of more syllables than one usually compared? 113. By placing more and most before the positive. Q. Will you in this manner compare ij/(/n»ir/oi(s .? ingenious f dutiful? Q. Will you compare wise by using the words less and least ? 114. "Pos. wise; Comp. less wise; Sup. least wise." Q. Will you in like manner compare benevolent ? distinguished? dilatory? Q. " Good men, better men, best men." Which adjective here is the posi- tive, and why? (108.) Which the comparative? why? (101.) Which the superlative? why? (105.) Q. Good, you perceive, is not compared regularly, like great, beautiful, etc. ; and since there are many Words of this description, I will give you a list of the principal ones, together with others, regularly compared : will you repeat the comparative and superlative degrees, as I name the positive ? 115. Positim. Comparative. Superlative. Good, Better, Best. Little, Less, Least. Much, or many, More, Most. Bad, ill, or evil, Worse, Worst. Near, Nearer, Nearest, or next. Old, Older, Oldest, or eldest. Late, Later, Latest, or last. Q. From the foregoing, how many degrees of comparison do there appear to be, and what are they ? 116. Three — the positive, the comparative, and the super- lative. Q, Adjectives, you recollect, describe nouns or pronouns : to what, then, do they naturally belong ? RULE IV. Adjectives belong to the nouns or pronouns which they describe. EXERCISES IN PAESING. "A wiser cJiild." IIT. A is an article, a word placed before nouns to limit their meaning — indefinite ; it means no particular child — and belonfrs to child, according to Rule II. The indefinite article a or an belongs to nouns of the singular number. PRONOUNS. 17 Wither is an adjective, a word joined with a noun to de- scribe it — " Pos. wise ; Comp. wiser ; Sup. wisest" — in the COMPARATIVE DEGREE — and belongs to child, according to Rule IV. Adjectives belong to the nouns or pronouns which they describe. Child is a noun, it is a name — common ; it is a general name — common gender ; it may be either male or female — THIRD PERSON ; it is spoken of — and singular number ; it means but one. exercises in parsing continued. 12 3 " A dutiful son." " An ugly child." " The base man." "An idle boy." " An irksome task." "The whiter cloth." " A foolish son." " A mild reply." " The milder weather." 4. 5. "The greatest man." " The more (1) benevolent citizen." "The wisest prince." "The most (1) suitable method." "The noblest man," "The least (1) distrustful friend." 6. 7. "A large, convenient, and (1) "The last choice." airy habitation." "The best man." "The intelligent, industrious, "The nearest relations." obedient, and (1) docile " Johnson's (2) large dictionary." scholar." " Murray's small grammar." IX. OF PRONOUNS. Q. When I say, " John goes to school, John learns fast, and John will tx'-ul," how can I speak so as to avoid repeating John so often ? 118. By using the word he in its pliuv ; thus, "John goes to school, he learns fast, and he will excel." Q. What little word, then, may stand for John f 119. He. Q What does the word pronoun moan? 120. Standing for J a?- instead of, a noun, Q. What, then, shall we call the word he, above? 121. A PRONOUN. Q. What, then, is a pronoun ? 122. A pronoun is a word used for a noun, to avoid a repetition of the same word. Q. When James says, "I will study/' you perceive that / stands for the person speaking: what person, then, is it? (39.) Q. When I say, '* James, you must study," the word you evidently is ap- plied fo James, who is spoken to: what person, then, ought you to be? 123. The second person. 1. To be omitted in pjirslng;. 2. Johntton's is governed by dictionary, by Rule I. 2»- B 18 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. Q. When I say, " He (meaning William) should learn," what person ought he to be, and why ? 124. The third pei-son ; because it stands in the place of a noun which is spoken of. Q. If / invariably stands for the first person, j/ou for the second, and he for the third, how can we tell the different persons of pronouns ? 125. By the pronouns themselves. Q. What have these pronouns been called from this circumstance ? 126. Personal pronouns. ^^^ I will now give you a list of all the personal pronouns, which you must first examine carefully, and then answer such questions on them as may be asked you. DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PEONOUNS. FIRST PEESON. 127. Sing. Plur. Nom. I. We. Poss. My or mine. Ours or our. Obj. Me. Us. SECOND PERSON. Sing. Sing. Plur. Nom. Thou. ^ f Nom. You. Ye or you. Foss. Thy or thine, [ori Foss. Your or yours. Your or yours. Obj. Thee ) (ObJ. You. You. THIRD PERSON MASCULINE. Sing. Plur. Nam. He. They. Poss. His. Theirs or their. Obj. Him. Them. THIRD PERSON FEMININE. Sing. Plur. Nom. She. They. Poss. Hers or her. Theirs or their. Obj. Her. Them. THIRD PEESON NEUTER. Sing. Plur. Nom. It. They. Poss. Its. Theirs or their. Obj. It. Them. Q. Will you decline /in both numbers? thou or you f hef she? itt Q. In what person, number, and case is I? we ? my f mine ? our or ours ? Vief us f thou? ye f liia? they? them.? Q. In what gender, person, number, and ease is he? she? it? his? hers? her ? him ? Q. How many numbers do pronouns appear to have, and what are they? 128. Two — ^the singular and the plural. Q. How many cases, and what are they? 129. Three — the nominative, the possessive, and the objective. PRONOUNS. 19 Q. How many persons ? 130. Three — the first, the second, and the third. Q. How many genders ? 131. Three — the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. Q. How many pronouns are there in all, of the first person ? Q. How many of the second, and how many of the third ? Q. The pronouns of the nominative case, singular, are called leading pro- nouns; how many of these arc there? 133. Five — I, thou or you, he, she, it. Q. Why are not the possessive and objective cases of the singular and plural numbers, also the nominatives plural, reckoned in the number of the leading pronouns? 134. Because they are all considered as variations of the nominative singular. Q. To which of the pronouns is it customary to apply gender? 135. To the third person singular, he, she, it. Q Why are not the first and second persons each made always to repre- sent a different gender ? 136. The first and second persons being always present, their genders are supposed to be known. Q. If, !is we have seen, pronouns stand for nouns, what gender, number, and person ought they to have ? 137. The same as the nouns for which they stand. Q. What, then, may be considered ». rule for the agreement of the pro- nouns ? RULE V. Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand, in gender, number, and person. QUESTIONS ON PAESING. Q. How many diflferent sorts of words have we now found, and what are they ? 138. Four — the Noun, the Article, the Adjective, and the Pronoun. Q, The word ^iart^ you know, means divinuui ; and upeech, the pnwer of using tnorda^ of language; what, therefore, shall we call these grand divi- sions of words? 139. Parts op Speech. Q. When, then, I ask you what part of speech boy is, for instance, what do you understand me to mean? 140. The same as to ask me whether boy is a noun or not. Q. What part of speech, then, is Willmm, and why ? (36.) 1. "He went to school." 2. "She went to her task." 3. " William went to his play." 4. "John returned from his school." 5. " I request you to mind your studies." 6. " The book was mine, but now it is yours." Q. Will you nnme the i^rnnouns in the six foregoing examples? Q. How many are there in all ? Q. What are the gender, number, and person of the pronoun in the first example ? second ? third ? fourth ? fifth ? sixth ? 20 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. Q. What is the gender of Ai», in the fourth sentence? why? (137.) Its number? why? (137.) Its person? why? (137.) Its case? why? (61.) Q. Will you name the nouns in the lirst sentence? in the second? third? fourth? fifth? sixth? X. OF THE VERB. Q. When I say, "James strikes William," which word tells what James does? 141. Strikes. Q. The word verb means word ; and as the words in all sentences, which tell what the nouns do, are the principal ones, what shall such words be called ? 142. Verbs. Q. If, in the phrase, "William strikes James," we leave out the word strikes, you perceive at once that the sense is destroyed : what reason, then, can you give, for calling some words in a sentence verbs, and others by a dif- ferent name ? 143. The words which we call verbs are the most im- portant. Q. "William studies his lesson." Which word is the verb here, and why ? 144. Studies, because it tells what "William does. Q. When I say, " John dances," which word is the verb, and why ? Q. When I say, "James strikes John," which word shows that an action is performed ? 145. Strikes. Q. What kind of verb, then, shall we call strikes? 146. An active verb. Q. What kind of verb is walks, in this sentence, "John walks," and why? 147. Walks is an active verb^ because it expresses action. Q. "He beat William." Which word here is the verb ? Is William an agent or an object? 148. An object. Q. When I say, "The child walks," walks, it is true, is an active verb, but it has no noun after it for an object, as heat has, in the phrase above j neither can we supply onej for we cannot say, "The child walks" any thing : what, therefore, is to be inferred from this fact, in regard to the nature of active verbs ? 149. That some active verbs will take nouns after them for objects, and others will not. Q. We will next notice this difference. The term trausitive means paesivg over ; and when I say, " William whips Charles," the verb wj/njus shows that the action which William performs, ^jcrsses over to Charles as the object. What kind of verb, then, shall wo call whips f 150. An active-transitive verb. Q. What-, then, is on nctive-transitive verb ? 151. It is one that either has^ or may have, an object after it. Q. Wulks, we found, would not take an object after it; and, as intransitive means not passing over, what shall we call such verbs as walkts ? VERBS, 21 152. Active-intransitive verbs. Q. What, then, is an active-intransitive verb? 153. An active-intransitive verb is one that expresses ac^tion, but will not take an object after it. Q. When I say, " He eats it," " He beats him," we immediately determine that hettis and t<(t8 are active-transitive verbs, by the objects after them ; how, then, may trnnsitive and intransitive verbs be distinguished? 154. When we can place him or it after any active verb, and make sense, it is transitive ; otherwise, it is intransitive. Q. "James remains at home — sleeps at home — is at home." Which words are the verbs here ? 155. Remains, sleeps, and is, Q. These verbs do not imply action, like strikes, beats, etc. : what do they imply ? 156. Existence, rest, or being, in a certain state. Q. These verbs, and others of similar character, have been called neuter (signifying neither) by grammarians, because they are neither active nor passive. On a future occasion, I will make you fully acquainted with a pas- sive verb. It is sufficient for our present purpose, that you perceive the reason of the name of the neuter verb. What is a neuter verb ? 157. A neuter verb is one that simply implies being or existence In a certain state. Q. Will you inform mo now, in general terms, what is a correct definition of a verb ? 158. A verb is a word which signifies action or being. Q. AVhen I say, " I strike," of what number and person ia strike, and why? 159. Strilce is of the first person singular, because its agent, J, is of this person and number. Q. Hence you may perceive that verbs, in themselves considered, do not have person and number: why, then, are they said to have these properties at all? 160. On account of the connection which they have with their agents or nominatives. Q. Wo say, " I write," and " He writes ;" hence you perceive that the end- ing of the verb varies, as its agent or nominative varies: what, then, will ba the rule for the nominative case ? RULE VI. The nominative case governs the verb in number and person. Q. If the nominative case governs the verb in number and person, in what respect must the verb agree with its nominative case? RULE VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person. Q. When I say, *' James beats him," the pronoun him is the object of the action denoted by beats, and is, therefore, in the objective case: what, then, will be a good rule for the objective case after active verbs ? RULE VIII. Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case. 22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Q. I will now give you the different endings of the verb low, in its differ- ent numbers and persons. Will you repeat them ? Singular. Plural. 161. First person, I love. First person. We love. Second person, You love. Second person. You love. Third person. He loves. Third person, They love. Q. Will you repeat the variations of am? Singular. Plural. 162. 1 pers, I am. 1 pers. We are. 2 pers. You are. 2 pers. You are. 3 pers. He is. 3 pers. They are. Q. "Will you repeatj in the same manner, the variations of hate ? desire f read ? EXERCISES IN PAESING. "J study my lesson." 163. 7 is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — per- sonal ; it always denotes the same person (the first) — first PERSON ; it denotes the speaker — singular number ; it means but one— "iVbm. I" — in the nominative case to study, according to Rule VI. The nominative case governs the verb in num- ber and person. Study is a verb; it expresses action — transitive; it admits an object after it — " 1 Pers. I study" — in the first PERSON — SINGULAR NUMBER, because its nominative /, with which it aoTees, is, according to Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person. My is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — per- sonal; it always represents the same person — first person; it represents the person speaking — •" Nom. I, Poss. my, or mine" — in the possessive case — and governed by the noun lesson, according to Rule I. The possessive case is governed by the following noun. Lesson is a noun — common ; it is a general name — neuter gender ; it is neither male nor female — third person ; it is spoken of — singular number ; it means but one — and in the objective case ; it is the object of the verb study, and gov- erned by it, according to Rule VIII. Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case. exercises in parsing continued. Transitive Verbs. " I lament my fate." " He found a dollar " " You regard your friends." " She attends the school." " We desire your improvement." " It retards the work." " We love our children." " They shun vice." " You make a knife." " Ye derive comfort." VERBS. 23 " I love him." " She forsook you." " I lament her." " They annoy me." " You assist them." " We took it." " He struck her." " She relieved ua." '■'■John reads his book.'''' His is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — per- sonal ; it uniformly stands for the same person — masculine GENDER, THIRD PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, because the noun John, with which it agrees, is, according to Rule V. Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand, in gender, number, and person. "Nom. he ; Poss. his" — in the possessive case — and gov- erned by the noun 600^, according to Rule I. The possessive case is governed by the following noun. -8®=" The remaining words, book, reads, and Jo?tn, are parsed aa before. EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 3. " Mary studies her lesson." " Virtue rewards its followers." " The girls love their books." "A disobedient son grieves his "Good children mind their parents." parents." " The intemperate man loves his " Sin deceives its votaries." dram." JB^ In parsing personal pronouns, we do not apply Rule V. unless the nouns for which they stand are exjjresaed. Iiitraiuitive Verbs. 4. " I walk." " You smile." " John swims." "James runs." "They wink." "Birds fly." " William hops." " We dance." " Lions roar." Neuter Verbs. " William is (1) discreet." (2) " John's wife is fortunate." " James is happy." " John's brother is unhappy." "He was studious." "The eagle's flight was sudden." " He became intemperate." " The scholar's duty is plain." " Thou art wise." " The judge's pay is sufficient." XI. INDICATIYE MOOD— TENSE. Q. When James says, *' I will learn," ho evidently means, by his manner of speaking, to express his intention to learn; but when he says, "I can learn," what does he mean? (1.) h is a VERB ; it implies being — neoterj it is neither active nor pas- sive, but expresses being, merely — "Ipers,! am; 2 pern. You are; 3 per*. He, or William is" — in the third person singular, because William, its nominative, is, aud agrees with William, according to Rule VII. A rcrb must agree with its nominative case in number and person, (2.) Discreet belongs to William, by Rule IV. 24 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 165. That he has the ability to learn. Q, What does the word mood mean ? 166. Mood means manner, Q. What, then, does the mood of verbs denote? 167. The different manner of representing actions. Q. What does the word indicative mean ? 168. Declaring or showing. Q. When I say, "William has studied," I declare some fact: in what mood, then, shall we class has studied? 169. In the indicative mood. Q. When I say, " Has William studied ?" the only difference between this phrase and the foregoing consists in a change in the order of the words, to show that a question is asked : in what mood, then, shall we call has studied ? 170. iDdicative mood. Q, What, then, is the indicative mood used for? 171. The indicative mood is used for asserting, indi- cating, or declaring a thing, or for asking a question. Q. lu what mood is " They do"sing" ? Why? (171.) Q. What does the word tense mean ? 172. Tense means tinfie, Q, What does present mean ? 173. Present means now. Q. When I say, " The bird sings," I mean that the bird sings now : in what tense, then, is sings? 174. In the present tense. Q. What, then, is the present tense used for? 175. The present tense is used to express what is now taking place. Q. In what tense is " The dog runs" ? Why ? (175.) Q. " James wrote." "James has written." These phrases denote what is past : in what tense are they? 176. In the past tense. Q. What docs the word/»(ure mean ; as, "At some future time*'? 177. Jfhiture means yet to come. Q. In what tense are the phrases, " I will come," " I shall have come" ? 178. In the future tense. Q. How many grand divisions of time do there appear to be, and what are they ? 179. Three — the present, the past, and the future. Q. AVhen I say, "John wrote," is the action here spoken of past and finished? 180. It is. Q. What does in(jpe;/ee( mean? 181. Unfinished, or incomplete, Q. " John was writing when I saw him.'' This denotes an action unfin- ished in past time, and corresponds with what is usually denominated in L'atin the imperfect tense: hence the origin of the name selected by English gramma- rians to denote action past and finished ; a term not altogether significant of an action finished in past time: what, then, does the imperfect tense express? 182. The imperfect tense expresses what took place in past time, however distant. Q. " Peter wrote yesterday, and has written to-day." Here both acts of VERBS. 25 writing are past and finislicd; but wliicli has more immediate reference to tlic present time? 1j)siii mean ? 1 92. A concise and general view. Q. I will now present you with a synopsis of all the different tenses, illustrated by the verb leant : will you repeat it ? SYNOPSIS. 193. Pres. tense, 1 learn, or do learn. Imp. tense, I learned, or did learn. Perf. tense, I have learned. Plup. tense, I had learned. 1st Put. tense, I shall or will learn. 2(2 Put. tense, I shall have learned. ^^^ You shall next have the different variations of the foregoing verb, in each tense of the indicative mood : these I wish you to study very carefully, that you may be able to answer the questions which will then be asked you. 194. To learn. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1 Pers. I learn. 1 Pers. AVe learn. 2 Pers. You learn. 2 Pers. Yoii learn. 3 Pers. He, she, or it learns. 3 Pers. They learn. 3 26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. OK, When we wish to express energy or positiveness, thus- Singular. Plural. 1. I do learn. 1. We do learn. 2. You do learn. 2. You do learn. 3. He does learn. 3. They do learn. IMPERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I learned. 1. We learned. 2. You learned. 2. You learned. 3. He learned. 3. They learned. OR, Singular. Plural. 1. I did learn. 1. We did learn. 2. You did learn. 2. You did learn. 3. He did learn. 3. They did learn. PERFECT TENSE. Singular. Phiral. 1. I have learned. 1. We have learned. 2, You have learned. 2. You have learned. 3. He has learned. 3. They have learned. PLUPERFECT TENSE. Singular. Phiral. 1. I had learned. 1. We had learned. 2. You had learned. 2. You had learned. 3. He had learned. 3. They had learned. FIRST FUTURE TBNSB. Singular. Plural. 1. I shall or will learn. 1. We shall or will learn. 2. You shall or will learn. 2. You shall or will learn. 3. He shall or will learn. 3. They shall or will learn. SECOND FUTURE TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I shall have learned. 1. We shall have learned. 2. \'ou will have learned. 2. You will have learned. 3. He will have learned. 3. They will have learned. *jj,-^= For the benefit of those who choose to retain the second person singu- lar, as given in former treatises, the following synopsis is inserted. SYNOPSIS. 195. 2d Pers. Sing. Pres. Thou learnest, or dost learn. 2d Pers. Sing. Imp. Thou learnedst, or didst learn. 2d Pers. Sing. Perf. Thou hast learned. 2d Pers. Sing. Plup. Thou hadst learned. 2d Pers. Sing. \st Fut. Thou shalt or wilt learn. 2d Pers. Sing. '2d Fut. Thou wilt have learned. Q. In what mood is "I learn"? Why? (171.) In what tense? Why? (175.) In what mood and tense is "He learns"? " We learn" ? "I did learn"? "I have learned"? "I had learned"? "I shall or will learn"? " I shall have learned" ? Q. In what person and number is "I learn"? *' You learn"? " AVe learn"? "They had learned"? "He shall learn"? "We had learned"? Q. What does the word nnxUinry mean ? 196. Auxiliary means helping. VEEBS. 27 Q. In tho phrase, " I will sing," will, you perceive, is nsed to help form the future tense of einr/ : will is, therefore, called an auxiliary verb, and the verb liiiu/ is reckoned the principal verb : what, then, are auxiliary verbs ? 11)7. Auxiliary verbs are those by tlie help of which are formed the different tenses, moods, etc., of the principal verbs. Q. The auxiliary verbs are not unfrequcntly denominated the signs of the tenses, because each tense has, in general, an auxiliary peculiar to itseli : what, then, is the sign of the second future? 198. Shall have or will have. Q. What is the sign of the first future? 199. Shall or wiU. Q. What is the sign of the pluperfect ? 200. Had. Q. What is the sign of tho perfect? 201. Have. Q. What is the sign of the imperfect? 202. Did. Q. We onn say, "I did strike yesterday," or, "I struck yesterday:" how, then, can wo tell when a verb is in the imperfect tense without the sign did ? 203. If we can place yesterday after the verb, and make sense, it is in the imperfect tense. Q. What is the sign of the present tense? • 204. Do, or the first form of the verb. Q. From the foregoing, how many tenses does the indicative mood appear to have, and what are they ? 205. Six — the present, the imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, the first future, and the second future. EXERCISES IN PARSING. "37tei/ have arrived.'''' 206. They is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — PERSONAL ; it always represents the same person — third per- son ; it denotes the persons spoken of — ^plural; it means more than one — "Nom. he; Poss. his; Ohj. him. Plural. i\/bm. they" — in the nominative case to have arrived, according to Rule VI. The nominative case governs the verb in num- ber and person. Have arrived is a verb, a word that implies action or be- ing — ACTIVE ; it implies action — intransitive ; it does not admit of an object — indicative mood ; it simply indicates or declares a thing — perfect tense; it expresses what has just taken place — " 1. I have arrived ; 2. You have arrived ; 3. He has arrived. PluraJ,, 1. We have arrived; 2. You have arrived ; 3. They have arrived" — in the third person plu- ral, because its nominative they is, and agrees with it, ac- cording to Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person. 28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 1. "They had come." "The sun has risen." " We did go." " Dogs will fight." " The bird will return." " Lious will roar." 2. " James loves William." " Columbus discovered America." " Susan beats him." " Piety promotes our happiness." " I have beaten them." " He will learn his lesson." " She had beaten us." " John did make great progress." " You shall assist him." "They do study their lessons." " It did disturb me." " Boys love sport." 3. " Do I disturb you ?" "Shall I expect your assist- " Did they learn their lessons?" ance?" " Have they recited?" " Will a virtuous citizen commit " Does the instructor teach us?" such (1) acts?" " Had he dismissed him ?" " Have you found your knife 1" XII. POTENTIAL MOOD. Q, "What does " He may Tvrite" imply? 207. Permission or liberty to write. Q. What does "He must write" imply? 208. Necessity of writing. Q. What does " He can write" imply ? 209. Power or ability to Avrite, Q. What does "He should write" imply? 210. Duty or obligation to Avrite. Q. AVhat does " He would write" imply ? 211. Will or inclination to write. Q. What does the yvord poiential mean? 212. Able, OY 'pmoerful, Q. In what mood, then, do grammarians reckon can learn, may write, and, also, must write, should write, etc. ? 213. In the potential mood. Q. Why are all these different forms of representing actions considered to be in the potential mood, a name, as we have seen, peculiar only to that form of the verb which implies power? 214. To prevent multiplying moods to a great and almost indefinite extent. V- AVhat, then, does the potential mood imply? 215. The potential mood implies possibility^ liberty, po-wer, will, obligation, or necessity. Q. AVhat are the signs of thi-s mood? 216. May, can, mn.vf, mic/ht, could, would, and should, Q. What does the word cnijngatiun mean ? (1.) Adjective. VERBS. 29 217. UnUiiif), combhxing, ov joining together. Q. You recollect that, in varying the verb, we joined the pronoun's with it; hence, this exercise is called cimjugathnt : what, then, do you understand by the conjugation of a verb ? 218. The conjugation of a verb is the regular combina- tion and arrangement of its several moods, tenses, numbers, and persons. 219. Conjugation of the verb Learn. POTENTIAL MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plnml. 1. T may, can, or must learn. 1. We may, can, or must learn. 2. You may, can, or must learn. 2. You may, can, or nmst learn. 3. He may, can, or must learn. l-i. They may, can, or must learn. IMPERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or learn. sliould learn. 2. You miglit, could, would, or 2. You might, could, would, or should learn. should learn. 3. He might, could, would, or 3. They miglit, could, would, or should learn. should learn. PERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I may, can, or must have 1. We may, can, or must have learned. learned. 2. You may, can, or must have 2. You may, can, or must have learned. learned. 3. lie may, can, or must have 3. They may, can, or must have learned. learned. PLUPERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or have learned. should have learned 2. You might, could, would, or 2. You miglit, could, would, or should have learned. should liave learned. 3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or should have learned. should have learned. 220. Synopsis of the Second Person Singular, with Tiiou. Pres. Thou mayst, canst, or must learn. Itiijh Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst learn. Per/. Thou mayst, canst, or must have learned. Plwp. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, o?- shouldst have learned. Q. In what mood is " I may learn" ? AVhy ? (215.) Q. Will you repeat the synopsis with /.;* thouf he? we? yet yon? tliey ? Q. In what raood, tense, number, and person is " I can learn" ? " You may learn"? ''You might assist"? " They could have learned"? "He must study" ? Q. In what mood and tenso is " I have learned" ? " He shall run" 1 " William did sing" ? Q. Will you conjugate learn in the present tense, potential mood? Will 3* so ENGLISH GRAMMAR. you conjugate ?ore in the same mood, and imperfect tense? Strike, iu the perfect tense ? Come, in the pluperfect tense ? Q. How many tenses has the potential mood? EXERCISES IN PARSING. "J/e may return.'''' 221. He is a peonoun, a word used instead of a noun — PERSONAL ; it invariably represents the same person — mascu- line gendee ; it represents a male — thied person; it denotes the person spoken of — singular nujiber ; it implies but one — and in the nominative case ; it denotes the agent — " Nom. 7?e" — in the nominative case to Tnay return, according to Rule VI. The nominative case governs the verb in num- ber and person. May return is a verb ; it implies action or being — active ; it implies action — intransitive ; it does not admit an object after it — potential mood ; it implies po&pibility, liberty, etc. — present tense ; it denotes what maybe now — " 1. I may or can return ; 2. You may or can return ; 3. He may or can return" — in the third person singular, because its nomina- tive he, with which it agrees, is, according to Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person. exercises in parsing continued. 1. "He may come." " Boys may learn arithmetic.'' " He might retire." " The wind may have shaken the " .lohn can assist me." trees." " \\'ilH:im must obey his in- " The lady could have procured structor." her fan." " We may have erred." "James may catch the thief." " John's father would go." " They might learn." 2. " T do rejoice." " The committee will visit the " We do learn." school." " John will resume his task." " An idle boy will find pov- " An industrious boy will be rich." erty." XIII. CONJUGATION OF THE NEUTER VERB To be. 222. Whe-u I say, " I am at home," you know that am is a verb, because it implies being or existence; and since to be means to exiat, the verb am hag been called the verb to be 223. INDICATIVE MOOD. present tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I am. ]. We are. 2. You are. 2. You are. 3. He is. 3. They are. VERBS. 31 Singular. I was. Yuu were, lie was. Sinffutor. 1. I have been. 2. You have been. 3. He has been. Singulair. 1 . I had been. 2. You had been. 3. He had been. Sirigula/r. 1. I shall or will be. 2. You shall or will be. 3. He shall or will be. I3IPER.FECT TESrSE. Plural. 1. We were. 2. You were. 3. They were. PERFECT TENSE. Plural. 1. We have been. 2. You have been. 3. They have been. PLUPERFECT TENSE. Plural. 1 . We had been. 2. You had been. 3. They had been. FIRST FUTURE TENSE. Plural. 1 . We shall or will be. 2. You shall or will be. 3. They shall or will be. SECOND FUTURE TENSE. • Singula/r. Plural. 1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 2. You will have been. 2. Y'oii will have been. I'l. He will have been. 3. They will have been. POTENTIAL MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. ■ Plural. 1. I may, can, or must be. 1. We may, can, oi- must be. 2. You may, can, or must be. 2. You may, can, w must be. 3. He may, can, or must be. 3. Tliey may, can, («• must be. IMPERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or be. should be. 2. Y'ou might, could, would, or 2. Y'ou might, could, would, or should be. should be. 3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or should be. should be. PERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I may, can, or must have 1. We may, can, or must have been. been. 2. Y'ou may, can, or must have 2. You may, can, or must have been. been. 3. He may, can, or must have 3. They may, can, or must have been. been. PLUPERFECT TENSE. Singtilar. Plural. 1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or have been. should have been. 2. You might, could, would, or 2. You might, could, would, or should have been. should have been. 3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or should have been. shoidU have been. 32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 224. Synopsis of the Second Person Singular, with Thou. INDICATIVE MOOD. POTENTIAL MOOD. Pres. Thou art. Pres. Thou niayst, canst, or must be. Imp. Thou wast. Imp. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, Per/. Thou hast been. or shouldst be. Plup. Thou hadst been. Per/. Thou mayst, canst, or must IFut.Thon shalt or wilt have been. be. Plup. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 2 Put. Thou wilt have been. or shouldst have been. XIV. QUESTIONS ON THE FOREGOING CONJUGATION. Q. Why is am a verb? (168.) What is it sometimes called ? (222.) Why is it so called ? (222.) Q. Will you give the synopsis of the verb to be with /through the indica- tive mood ? Q. Will you conjugate om in the present indicative? Imperfect? Per- fect? Pluperfect? 1st Future? 2d Future? Present potential ? -Imperfect? Perfect ? Pluperfect ? Q. In what mood, tense, number, and person is "I am"? "Am I"? "You were"? "I have been"? "Have you been"? "He may or can be"? "We should be" ? " lie may have been" ? " They should have been" ? " Thou shouldst have been" ? " Thou mayst be" ? Q. Will you repeat the synopsis with tJiou f EXERCISES IN PARSING. "T/ie girls were- industrious.'''' 225. Were is a verb ; it implies action or being — neuter ; it is neither active nor passive, expressing simply being — INDICATIVE MOOU ; it simply indicates or declares a thing — IMPERFECT TENSE; it expresses past time — " 1. I was; 2. You were; 3. He was. Flur. I. We were; 2. You were; 3. They were, or girls were" — in the third person plural, because its nominative girls, with which it agrees, is, according to Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person. Industrious is an adjective, a word joined with a noun to describe it — " industrious, more industrious, most industrious" — in the positive degree ; it describes, without any compari- son — and belongs to the noun girls, according to Rule IV. Adjectives belong to the nouns or pronouns which they describe. ^S' For the and girls, apply Rules III. and VI. exercises IN PARSING CONTINUED. " William is attentive." " Am I young ?" "John is studious." " Was I wrong?" " We are je.alous." " Hh ve we been wicked ?" "Thou art dutiful." " Were they penitent?" ADVERBS. 33 " Mary has been intelligent.'' " Washington was patriotic." "The boys will have been dutiful." "Columbus was enterprising." " Their estate was small." " My wife's mother is sick." XV. OF THE ADVERB. Q. When I say, "The bird flies swiftly," I do not mean by swiftly to describe bird: what does swiftly describe? 226. The manner of flying. Q. To what part of speech is swiftly joined in the phrase, " The bird flies swiftly"? 227. To the verb flies. Q. What docs tho word adverb signify? 228. Joined to a verb. Q. What, then, shall wo call all such words as swiftly t 229. Adverbs. Q "John runs very swiftly.*' Which word here describes or shows how swiftly John runs ? 230. Venj, Q. What is tho word very called, and all such words as qualify or describe adverbs? 231. Adverbs. Q. " Industrious, more industrious, most industrious." What are more and vioat called hero, and why? te 232. Adverbs, because they describe or qualify adjectives. Q. From the foregoing particulars, what appears to be a proper definition (if adverbs ? 233. Adverbs are words joined to verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, to qualify or describe them. Q. ''John visits me ofteiij but Thomas oftener." In this example, we see that adverbs may be compared: will you, therefore, compare soon? 234. ^' Soon, sooner, soonest,'' Q. Will you compare wisely ? 235. " Wisely, more wisely, most wisely." Q. How do adverbs ending in ly appear to be compared? 236. ^Y the adverbs more and most, Q. Will you in this manner compare admirably ? foolishly ? Q. Many adverbs are compared like adjectives of one syllable, as soon above; but there is a very considerable number, the comparison of which is not regulated by any general rule. The following list embraces adverbs variously compared ; will you repeat the comparative and superlative of each, as I name the positive? 237. Positive, Comparative, Superlative. Often, oftener, oftenest. Much, more, most. Well, better, best. Soon, sooner, soonest. Justly, more justly, most justly. Wisely, more wisely, most wisely. Justly, less justly, least justly. Bfttilyj !?'■ ^jlj worse, worst. 84 ENGLISH GRAJV^MAB. 238. iVo^e.— Adverbs, thongli very numerous, may nevertheless be reduced to a few classea. You will now reiid with attention the foUnwing list, and 1 will then ask you Bome questions respecting each class. 1. Of number: as, "Once, twice, thrice," etc, 2. Of order: as, "First. Eccomlly, thirdly, fourthly, fifthly, lastly, finally," etc. 3. Of place and direclinn : fis, '-Here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, somewhere, nowhere, herein, whitJmr, hitliir, thither, upward, downward, forward, backward, whence, hence, thence, ^^hither3ol■ver," etc. ■i. Of time. Of time present : ns, " Now, to-day," etc. Of time past: as, "Already, before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, hitherto, long since, long ago," etc. Of tbne to come: as, "To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, henceforth, henceforward, by and by, instantly, presently, immediately, straightway," etc, Oi time indejinite: as, "'Oft, often, oittiines, .oftentimes, sometimep, Boon, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, always, when, then, ever, never, again," etc. 5. Of quantity : ag, " Much, little, sufficiently, how much, how great, enough, abun- dantly," etc. 6. Of manner OT quality : ns, " Wisely, foolishly, justly, unjustly, quickly, slowly," etc. Adverbs of quality are the most numerous kind ; and they are generally formed by add- ing the teroiinatiun 7.// to ail adjective or participle, ur changing /e iuto /(/; as, '"Bad, badly; cheerful, cheerfully ; able, ahly; admirable, admirably." 7. Of dnuht: as, "Perhaps, peradventurc, possibly, jif reliance." 8. Of affirmation: as, '■ S'erily, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless, certainly, yea, yes, surely, indeed, really," etc. 9. Of negation: as, "Nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, in no wise," etc. 10. Of interrogatimi: as, " How, whv, wberelore, wlietlier," etc. 11. Of com,pavisoH: as, *' More, must, better, best, worae, worst, less, least, very, almost, little, alike," etc, 'When Ji preposition suffers no chaoge, but becomes an adverb merely by its applica- tion: as. when we say, "He rides about;''* "He was «c(t7- falling;" "But do not after lay the blame on me." There are also some adverbs which are composed of nouns, and the letter a used instead of ai, ot?, etc.; as, "Aside, athirst, afoot, ahead, askt-p, aboard, ashore, abed, aground, afloat." Q, Will you name two adverbs of number? two of order? two of place? two of time j)rescnt ? two of time past? two of time to come? two of time indefinite? ^o of quantity? two of manner or quality? two of doubt? two of .nfGrmation? two of negation? two of interrogation? two of comparison? Q. Adjectives describe as well as adverbs: bow, tben, can you tell one from the other ? 239. Adjectives describe nouns, but adverbs describe or qualify verbs^ adjectives, and other adverbs. Q. This fnct should be remembered; you shall, therefore, have it in the form of a rule : will you repeat it ? RULE IX. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Q. From had we form the adverb badly : how, then, may a large class of adverbs be formed ? 240. By adding ly to adjectives. Q. Will you in this manner form an adverb from wise ? from gi-eat ? from eiii/ul f EXEECISES IN PAESING. "J7ie bird sings siceetli/.'^'' 241. Sweetly is an adverb, a word used to qualify a verb, adjective, or other adverb; in this example it qualifies the verb sing,^, according to Rule IX. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Shi(/, hird, and luc are parsed as before. PUEPOSITIONS. 35 EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. Adverbs qualify i)ig verbs. "The soldiers marched slowly.'' "They will return soon." " The girls sing delightfully." " The boys write admirably." " Henry improves rapidly." " Susan dances elegantly." Adverbs qualifying adjectives. " He was very attentive." " James is more studious." " John is quite busy." " Walter is most studiou.s.'' " William is really studious." " Ellen is less happy." Adverbs qualifying verbs and other adverbs. "You learn grammar very well." " Jameswrites most elegantly." " The boys write too fast." " I will assist you most cheer- " He will come much oftener." fully." Adverbs promiscuously used. " He has read once." " John is not happy." " I will first remind you." " Whither shall I fly ?" " I saw him yesterday." " My brother sends me the " I have eaten sufficiently." paper monthly." XVI. OF THE PREPOSITION. Q. To say, " The cider is — cellar," would make no sense : can you inform mo what would make sense ? 242. " The cider is in the cellar." Q. By placing the little word in after cider ia, and before cellar, the sen- tence is rendered complete : what office, then, does //( perform? 243. It connects words, and thereby shows the relation between them. Q, What does the word prepoaitinn mean ? 244. Something placed before. Q. What, then, may those words like in be called, as they are placed before other words to connect them with words preceding? 245. Prepositions. Q. What, then, are prepositions ? 246. Prepositions are words used to connect words, and thereby show the relation between them. 247. List of the principal Prepositions. Among at concerning near throughout around by down of touching amidst below except off up ath wart between excepting on upon after beneath for over under about behind from out of underneath against betwixt in respecting unto across beside into to with above beyond instead of towards within according to before notwithstanding through without Q. Wii: I you mention the prepositions beginning with a ? with bf c ? dt «?/? i! nt 0? rt tf «? w? 36 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. Q. Will you now repeat all the prepositions ? Q. Do wc say, " He works for I," or, " He works for me" ? Q, In what ease is me ? {127.) Q. What case, then, follows prepositions? 248. The objective case. Q. This fact is of sufficient importance to constitute a rule : will you, therefore, repeat RULE X. Prepositions govern the objective ease. EXERCISES IN PAESING. "John found his hat in the road.'" 249. 7?i is a preposition, a word used to connect words, and show the relation between them ; it here shows the re- lation between hat and road. Road is a noun ; it is a name — common ; it is a general name — neuter gender ; it is neither male nor female — third person; it is spoken of — singular number ; it means but one — OBJECTIVE case ; it IS the object of the relation denoted by the preposition in, and governed by it, according to Rule X. Prepositions govern the objective case.* EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. " John ran through the house " I will search the house dili- into-the garden." gently for him." " We have deceived him to our " We might learn the lesson he- sorrow." fore them." "We came in season." "Accoi'ding to my impression, " You study grammar for your he is in fault." improvement in language." " Notwithstanding his poverty, " From virtue to vice the progress he was the delight of his ac- is gradual." quaintances." "They travelled into France "On all occasions she behaved through Italy." with propriety." " He lives within his income." " Of his talents we might say " Without the aid of charity, he much." lived very comfortably by his " We may expect a calm after a industry." storm." XVII. OF THE CONJUNCTION. Q. When I say, "John his book," the sense, you perceive, is inoom- plete. Can you put a word into the blank which will complete the sense ? 250. " John j-eac?s his book." = The remaining words are parsed as before. CONJUNCTIONS. 37 Q. Can yoa inform mo what the foregoing expression is called? 2.51. A seutence. Q. What, then, is a sentence ? 252. A collection of words forming complete sense. Q. " Life is short." This expression is called a sentence : can you tell me what kind, and why ? 253. It is a simple sentence, because it makes sense, and has but one nominative and one verb. ' Q. What does the term compound mean ? 254. It means composed of two or more things. Q. " Life is short, and art is long." This sentence is made up of two sim- ple sentences : what, therefore, may it be called ? 255. A compound sentence. Q. What, then, is a compound sentence ? 256. A compound sentence contains two or more simple sentences connected together. Q, What does the term conjunction signify ? 257. Union, ov joining together. Q. In the compound sentence, *' John writes, and William learns," the simple sentences are joined together by the word and : what, then, may and be called ? 258. A Conjunction. Q. " The king and queen are an amiable pair." In this sentence, words and not sentences arc connected by aiid : can you poiat out the words so con- nected ? 259. King and queen. Q. From the foregoing particulars, what appears to be the use of the oon- junction ? 260. A conjunction is used to connect words or sentences. Q. When I say, " Five and four are nine," what do I mean ? 261. Five added to four make nine. Q, What, then, is implied by and ? 262. Addition. Q. When I say, " I will go, if you will accompany me," what does the con- junction if imply '! 263. Condition or supposition. Q. What does the word coptUntive mean? 264. Uniting, joining, or linking together. Q. And, if, etc., are called copulative conjunctions : can you tell me why ? 265. Because a copulative conjunction connects or con- tinues a sentence by expressing an addition, a supposition, a cause, etc. Q. The following are the principal conjunctions of this class: will you repeat them ? 266. "And, both, because, besides, for, if, provided, since, then, that, therefore, -wherefore." Q. When I say, " James and John will come," I mean both will come; but when I say, *• James or John will come," what do I mean ? 267. That either James or John — one or the other — will come. 4 38 ENGLISH GBAMMAR. Q. Arc the words in this sentence, then, joined or disjoined ? 268. Disjoined. Q. What word is it that expresses the disjoining ? 269. Or. Q. AVhat part of speech ia or ? 270. A conjunction. Q. What does the word disjunctive mean? 271. Disjoining or separating. Q. What kind of conjunction, then, shall we call or? 272. A disjunctive conjunction. Q. ** James will come, but Henry will not." Here'the two clauses of the sentence are opposed to each other in meaning, and the word hut separates these two clauses : what, then, does this word imply? 273. Opposition of meaning. Q. From the foregoing, what appears to be the use of the disjunctive con- junction? 274. The disjunctive conjunction connects sentences^ by expressing opposition of meaning in various degrees. Q. The following are the principal conjunctions of this class: will you repeat them ? 275. " Butj than, though, either, or, as, unless, neither, nor, less, yet, notwithstanding." Q. Prepositions, you recollect, connect words as well as conjunctions ; how, then, can you tell the one from the other ? 276. Prepositions show the relation between words, but conjunctions express an addition, a supposition, a cause, or an opposition of meaning. Q. " He and she write." In what case is hef she? Q. The pronouns he and she, you perceive, are both in the same case, and connected by the conjunction and: when, then, may nouns and pronouns be connected ? 277. When they are in the same case. Q. " She will sing and dances." How may this sentence be corrected? 278. " She will sing and dance." Q, In what mood and tense is *' She will sing"? Q. To say "She dance" is incorrect; dance, then, in this example, can- not be in the present tense: will you, then, inform me what " She will sing and dance" means, when fully expressed? 279. " She will sing and she will dance." Q. Here loi'll dance is in the future tense, as well as will sing : when, then, may verbs, in general, be connected ? 280. When they are in the same mood and tense. Q. From the foregoing particulars, what appears to be the rule for the use of conjunctions in connecting words? RULE XI. Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the same mood and tense, and nouns or pronouns of the same case. INTERJECTIONS. 39 EXEBCISES IN PARSING. "John assists Ms father and mother." 281. And is a conjunction, a word chiefly used to connect words or sentences — copulative ; it connects father and mother. Mother is a noun ; it is a name — common ; it is a general name — feminine gender ; it is the name of a female — third PERSON ; it is spoken of — singular number ; it means but one — and it is one of the objects of assi.sts, and is, therefore, in the objective case, and connected with father by the conjunction and, according to Rule XI. Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the same mood and tense, and nouns or pronouns of the same case. EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. "I will reward him and them at "She reads well, dances (.3) ele- some future time." gantly, and plays admirably " We in vain (1) look for a path ' on the piano-forte." between virtue and vice." "I^teraperancedestroysthemind "Reproof either hardens or soft- and benumbs the senses of ens its object." man." " In the morning of life, we ea- " You may read this sentence gerly pursue pleasure, but first, and then parse it." oftentimes meet (2) with sad " He has equal knowledge, but disappointments." inferior judgment." "A good scholar never mutters "John rises early in the morn- nor disobeys his instructor." ing, and pursues his studies." XVIII. OF INTERJECTIONS. Q. When I exclaim, "Oh! I have ruined my friend," "Alas! I fear for life," which words here appear to be thrown in between the sentences, to ex- press passion or feeling? 282. Oh! Alas! Q. What does interjection mean ? 283. Something thrown between, Q. What name, then, shall we give such words as ok! alaa 1 etc. ? 284. Interjections. Q- What, then, are interjections? 285. Interjections are words thrown in betweeif the parts of sentences, to express the passions or sudden feel- ings of the speaker. (1.) Tti vaiit mcnns the same as vainly. It may, therefore, be called an adverbial phrase, qualifying look, by Rule IX. (2.) Meet agrees with we understood, and is. therefore, connected with pnraue by the conjunction 6k/, according to Rule XI. (3.) Dances unA. plays both agree with «7te. understood, and are, therefore, connected, the former with reads, and the latter with dances^ by Rule XI. 40 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. LIST OF INTERJECTIONS. 1. 0/ earnestness or grief ; as, " O ! oh ! alas ! ah 1" 2. Of wonder; as, " Really ! strange!" 3. Of calling ; as, "Halloo! ho! hem!" 4. Of attention ; as, "Behold! lo! hark!" 5. Of disgust ; as, Foh ! fy ! fudge ! away !" 6. OfsiUnce; as, "Hush! hist!" 7. Of contempt; as, "Pish! tush!" 8. Of saluting ; as, " Welcome ! hail!" Q. Will you examine the foregoing list, and then name an interjection of grief? One of -wonder? One of calling? One of attention? One of dis- gust? One of silence? One of saluting ? Q. How may an' interjection generally be known? 286. By its taking an exclamation point after it. EXEECISES IN PAESING. "Ofe/ I have alienated my friend." 28t. Oh is an interjection, a word used to express pas- sion or feeling. ^^* The remaining words are parsed as before. EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. "Oh! I must go and see (1) my "Strange! I did not know dear father before (2 ) he dies." you." " We eagerly pursue pleasure, but, " Hush ! our instructor is at the alas ! we often mistake the door." road to its (3) enjoyment." " Fy ! how angry he is !" (1.) The sense is, "1 must go, and I must see,-'' the verb see, then, agrees with /, understood, and is, therefore, connected with nuut go, accord- ing to Kule XI. (2.) Before, an adverb. (3.) Apply, first. Rule V.; then. Rule I. KECAPITULATION". CRITICAL REMARKS. COMPOSITION. XIX. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 288. English Grammar teaches us to speak and write the English language correctly. 289. Grammar is divided into four parts, namely, 290. 1. Orthography, 3. Syntax, 2. Etymology, 4. Prosody. XX. OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 291. Orthography includes a knowledge of the nature and power of letters, and teaches how to spell words cor- rectly. This part of grammar is usually learned from spelling-books and dictionaries. 292. Orthography means word-making, or spelling. XXI. OF ETYMOLOGY. 293. Etymology teaches how to form, from all the words in the English language, several grand divisions or sorts, commonly called Parts of Speech. 294. It includes a knowledge of the meaning and use of words — also their different changes and derivations. 295. Etymology signifies the origin or ptdigree of words. XIX. What does English grammar How ia a linowledge of ortliogi-aphy teach! 288. usually obtainoci? 291. Into how many parts is it diyided ? 289. "What does orthography mean ? 292. What are they ? 290. XXI. What does etymology teach ? 293. XX. What does orthography include and What does it include? 294. teach ! 291. What does the word signify ? 295. 4* (41) 42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. XXII. OF SYNTAX. 296. Syntax teaches how to arrange or form words into sentences correctly. 297. It includes a knowledge of the rj'es of composi- tion, formed frcta the practice of the best writers and speakers. 29S. Syntax signifies arranging or placing together ; or, as used in gram- mar, nentence-making. XXIII. ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 299. The words of the English language are usually divided into nine sorts, commonly called Parts of Speech, namely, NoTJN, Pronoun, Preposition, Article, Verb, Conjunction, Adjective, Adverb, Interjection. XXIV. OP NOUNS. 300. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing ; as, man, London, knife. 301. Nouns are of two kinds, proper and common. Common nouns are general names ; that is, they are names common to all individuals of the same kind or sort; as, house, city, river. 302. Proper nouns are particular names; that is, they are the names of particular individuals of the same kind or sort ; as, George, Boston, Mississippi. .303. When proper names have an article placed before them, they are used as common names; as, ^'He is the Cicero of his age." 304. When a proper noun admits of a plural, it becomes a common noun ; XXII. What does syntax teach? 296. What does it include? 297. Wliat does the word signify? 293. XXIIT. How many diiferent sorts of words are there? 299. Whatara they? 299. "Wliat are tliese sorts of words commonly called? 299. XXIV. What does (he word noun mean ?* What is a noun ? 300. Give an exam- ple. now many different kinds of nouns are there, and what are they ? 301. What does the word common mean ? 31. What is a common noun ? 301. Give an example. What does ^rojjer mean? 34. What is a proper noun? 302. Give an example. When proper nouns have an article be- fore tlieni, how are they used? 303. Give an example. Are proper names used as such in the plural ? 304. Why cannot proper names have a piu' ral? 804. * See 1 , 1st answer. NOUNS. 48 lis, " The twelve Csusnrn" or, *' The seven Jameses." This is obvious from the fact, that a proper oame is, in its nature, descriptive ol one object only, and, therefore, essentially singular. Accordingly, the nouns Spaniard, J^uropeaii, A mericarif etc., are common nouns, as well as their plurals, Spaniards, Euro- peans, Americans, etc.* 305. Common nouns may also be used to signify individuals, by the addi- tion of articles or pronouns; as, "The boy is studious;" "That girl ia discreet." 306. When a noun, though singular in form, signifies many, it is called a noun of multitude, or a collective noun ; as, " The people" " The army." 307. Abstract signifies taleen from : hence an abstract noun is the name of a quality abstracted from its substance ; as, knowledge, goodness, virtue, etc. 308. To nouns belong person^ gender^ number, and case. XXY. PERSOK 309. When any person, in speaking, introduces his own name, it is the first person ; as, " I, James, of the city of Boston, do give," etc. 310. The name of the person spoken to, is the second person ; as, " James, come to me." 311. The name of the person or thing spoken of, or about, is the third person ; as, " James has come." XXYI. GENDER. 312. Gender is the distinction of sex. 313. Nouns have four genders — the masculine, the femi- nine, the common, and the neuter. 314. The masculine gender denotes the names of males ; as, man, hoy^ etc. 315. The feminine gender denotes the names of females; as, ivomanj girl. What do they become when so usedf When ia a noun of the second person T 304. Give an example. 310. Give an example. What kind of nouna are ^Hxniard, Wlien is a noun of the third person? AmfHcans, Spaniardsf 304. 311. Give an example. What effect does the use of articles have XXVI. What does the word gender on conimonnuuua? 305. meanf 14. W hilt is a noun of multitude, or a coUec- What is gender as applied to nouns? 312. tivM noun? 306. Give an example. What does the word «it7sc«,/ine mean? Ln. Wliat ia an abstract oouii ? 307. Give What does the masculine gendBr of uti exjimple. nouns denote? "H Give an example. What belong to nouns? 308. What does/' »»»mc mean ? 19. XXV. When is a noun of the fii-st per- What does tiie feminine gender denote? soil? 309. Give an example. 315. Give an example. • Spain is the proper name of a connlry, and Sfxiniard haa, bv some grammarians, beeii called the proper name of a people ; but the latter is a generic term, characterizmg any ose of a great number of pei-soua, by iheir connectioa with &pa.m.—£}ncuclopcBdia. 44 ENGLISH GRAJfMAR. 316. The common gender denotes the names of such ani- mals as may be either male or female ; as, parent, bird. 317. The neuter gender denotes the names of objects which are neither males nor females ; as, chair, table. 318. Some nouns, naturally neuter, do, by a figure of speech, as it is called, become masculine or feminine ; as wlien we say of the sun, "He is setting," and of a ship, " Sh^ sails well," etc. 319. The English language has three methods of distinguishing sex, viz.: 319-1. By different words; as, Male. Female. Male. Female. Bachelor, Maid. Husband, Wife. Boar, Sow. King, Queen. Boy, Girl. Lad, Lass. Brother, Sister. Lord, Lady. Buck, Doe. Man, Woman. Bull, Cow. Master, Mistress. Bullock or Steer, Heifer. Milter, Spawner. Nephew, Niece. Cook, Hen. Kam, Ewe. Dog. Drake, Bitch. Duck. Singer, Songstress or Singer. Earl, Countess. Sir, Madam. Father, Mother. Sloven, Slut. Friar, Nun. Son, Daughter. Gander, Goose. Stag, Hind. Hart, Roe. Uncle, Aunt. Horse, Mare. Wizard, Witch. 319-2. Byadlflerencf i of termination ; as, MaU. Female. Male. Female. Abbot, Abbess. Executor, Executrix. Actor, Actress. Giant, Giantess. Administrator, Administratrix. God, Goddess- Ambassador, Ambassadress. Heir, Heiress. Arbiter, Arbitress. Hero, Heroine. Baron, Baroness. Hunter, Huntress. Bridegroom, Bride. Host, Hostess. Benefactor, Benefactress. Instructor, Instructress. Chanter, Chan tress. Jew, Jewess. Conductor, Conductress. Landgrave, Landgravine. Count, Countess. Lion, Lioness. Czar, Czarina. Marquis, Marchioness. Deacon, Deaconess. Mayor, Mayoress. Duke, Duchess. Patron, Patroness. Elector, Electress. Peer, Peeress. Emperor, Empress. Poet, Poetess. Enchanter, Enchantress. Priest, Priestess. What does the common gender denote 1 316, Give an example. What does neuier mean? 23, What does the neuter gender denote? 317. Give an example. What is said of nouns naturally neuter, in respect to gender? olS. Give an ex- ample. J How many genders do nouns have, and what are they ? 30. How many methods are there in English of distinguishing sex? 319. Which is the first; as, hoy ? girlf 319-1. Will yon spell the feminine correspond- ing to brother f 319-1; to bvyf nephew f itrizard f friar ? sir f drake ? eurl f gander f hartf Icivgf lad? man? master? singer f sloven f son ? stag f uncle f Will you spell the musculine corre- sponding to waitff girlf madam f daugh- ter f niece ? What IS the second method of distin- guishing sex ; as, ahbot? abbess f 319-2. Will yon spell the feminine corre- sponding to abbotf actor f advdmstraior f baron ? benefactm- f bridegroom ? conduct- or ? czar ? duJce f emperor f executor f giant f godf heir? herof host? hunter? insti-uctor ? Jew ? lion ? marquis ? pa- tron? peer? proprietor? shepherd? sor- XOUNS ^ Male. Female. Male. Female. Prince, Prior, Princess. Prioress. Sultan, ■ Sultaness. Sultana. Prophet, Prophetess. Tiger, Tigress. Prok-otor, Protectress. Traitor, Traitress. Proiirietor, Proprietress. Tutor, Tutoress. Shepherd, Shepherdess. Viscount, Viscountess Songster, Songstress. Votary, Votaress. Sorcerer, Sorceress. "Widower, Widow. 319-3 By prefixing a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective; as, A cock-sparrow, A hen -sparrow. A man-servant. A maid-servant. A he -goat, A she goat. A he -bear, A she-bear. A male child. A female child. Male descendants, Female descendants. 45 XXVII. NUMBER. 320. Number shows how many are meant, whether one or more. 321. Nouns have two numbers, the singular and the plural. 322. The singular number expresses but one ; as, boy. 323. The plural number implies more than one ; as, boys. 324. Some nouns are used in the singular number only ; as, ivheat, gold, sloth, pride, dutifulness. 325. Other nouns are used in the plural number only ; as, bellows, scissors, tongs, riches, etc. 326. Some nouns are the same in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, swine. 327. The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by adding s to the singular ; as, sing, dove, plur. doves. 328. The irregular mode of forming the plural is as follows : when the noun singular ends in j, ch soft, ah, or 3S, we add et to form the plural ; as, box, bnxee ; church, churches; lash, lashes; kiss, klsnes, 329. Nouns ending in/or/e change these terminations into vea to form the plural j as, loaf, loaves ; wife, wives. cenrf fndtanf tiger? tutor? viscountt vo- tary? widower f Will you spell the maaculine corre- Bponding to abbess? czarina? duchess? arw- bassadreSB ? heroine ? huntress f poetess ? propJutess? widow? What is the third method of distinguish- in g sex ; as, a man-servant ? a maid-servant ? 319-3. Will you spell the feminine correspond- ing to male child? male descendants ? XXVII. What does the word number rnn;in ? 5. What does the number of nouns show ? 320. What does singular mean? 6. Wlmt does the singular number of nonns imply? 322. Give an example. What does plural mean ? 10. What does the plural number of nouns imply ? 323. Give an example How are wheat, gold, etc., used? 324. How are bellows, tongs, etc., used? 325. What is said of deer, sheep, etc.? 326. How many numbei's do nouns have, and what are they ? 321. How is the plural number regularly formed? 327. Give an example. When do we add rs to form the plui-al ? 32R. Give an example. What is the plural of loaf? 329. What is the rule for it? 329. 46 ENGLISH QEAMMAE. 330. When a noun singular ends in y, with a vowel before it, the plural 13 formed regularly; as, key, keys ; delay, delays ; valley, valleys. But if the y does not have a vowel before it, the plural is formed by changing y into ies; as fly, flies ; heauty, beauties, 331. The following nouns form their plurals, not according to any general rules : — Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. Man, Men. Mouse, Mice. Woman, Women. Louse, Lice. Child; Children. „ f Cows or Ox, Oxen. ^°^' 1 Kine. Tooth, Teeth. Penny, Pence. (1.) Foot, Feet. Die, Dice. (2.) Goose, Geese. Pea, Peas. (3.) Sing. Plur. Fish, Fishes. (3.) Cupful, Cupfuls. Spoonful, Spoonfuls. Brother-in-law, Brothers-in-law. Court-martial, Courts-martial. -, ,, f Brothers or Brother, | B,,thren. 332. Mutkematics, metaphysics, pneiimaticSy ethics, politics, etc., are reckoned either as singular or plural nouns. The same is true of means, alms, amends. Antipodes, credenda, minutiae, literati, etc., are always plural. Bandit is now- considered the singular of banditti. The noun news is always singular. Many nouns form their plurals according to the laws of the language from which they are derived. The following are of this class : — Singular, Antithesis, Appendix, Apex, Arcanum, Automaton, Axis, Beau, Basis, Cherub, Crisis, Criterion, Datum, Dia3resis, Desideratum, Effluvium, Ellipsis, Emphasis, Encomium, Erratum, Plural. Antitheses, r Appendixes or \ Appendices. Apices. Arcana. Automata. Axes. Beaux or Beaus. Bases. f Cherubim or \ Cherubs. Crises. Criteria. Data. Diaereses. Desiderata. Effluvia. Ellipses. Emphases, f Encomia or \ Encomiums. Errata. Singula/r. Genius, Genus, Hypothesis, Ignis fatuus, Index, Lamina, Magus, Memorandum, Metamorphosis, Parenthesis, Phenomenon, Radius, Seraph, Stimulus, Stratum, Thesis, Vertex, Vortex, Plural. Genii. (4.) Genera. Hypotheses. Ignes latui. J Indices or I Indexes. (5.) Laminse.- Magi. f Memoranda or [ Memorandums. Metamorphoses. Parentheses. Phenomena. Radii or Radiuses, j Seraphim or I Seraphs. Stimuli. Strata. Theses. Vertices. f Vortices or I Vortexes. Will you spell the plural of delay? 330. valley? What is the rule lor forniiug these plurals? 330. Will you spell the plural of /t/^ 330. henvty? Rule for the phiral ? Di) man, woman, form their plurals regu- larly or irregularly ? 331. Will you spell the plural of tnanf of woman ? child f oxf tx)oth f foot ? gonse ? ■mouse? louse f brother? diet Jtsh? spoon- fid? court-martial? Will you spell the singular of /icR? Icinef cows? brethren? oxen? te.eth? pfas? pence? pevnips ? fishes ? cupfuls? brothei-s-in-law? What is the plural of pea, when we refer to quantity? Of fi^h? What Is the singular of ba7iditti? 332. In accordance vith what laws does antithesis form the plural? 332. Will you spell the plural of apex? ap- pendix? arcanum.? automaton? axis? m- sis ? basis ? criterion ? datum ? desideratum, ? effiuvium? encoviium? erratum? genius? index? memorandum? Will you Spell the singular of bases? beaux? cherub.i? ellipses? genii? tfieses? parentheses? stimuUf strata? How are mathematics, optics, etc., cou- Bidered in regard to number? 332. Of what number in means f 332. almsf amends f antipodes f literati f newsf (1.) Pennies, when the com is meant. (2 ) Dies, for cohiing. (3.) Pease and fi';h meaning quantities, huipeas s.nd fishes, wlien number ia meant. (4.) Genii., when denoting aerial or imaginary spirits; geniuses, when deiiotin;; peraonK of geniua. (5.) Indexes, when deuotine poiutera or tables of contents; indices, when refening to algebraic quantities. NOUNS. 47 XXVIII. CASE. 33.3. Case means the different state, condition, or relation which nouns have to other words in the same sentence. 334. In English, nouns have three cases — the nominative, the possessive, and the objective. 335. The nominative case is usually the agent or doer, and always the subject of the verb. 336. The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of; as, "John asi^ists Wil- li.Tm ;" here, John is the subject spoken of, or the nocninative case to the verb nH-iinln. 337. The possessive case denotes possession, ownership, property, etc. ; as, "William's book." This case may be dis- tinguished from the other cases by the apostrophe or the letter s. 338. A noun in the singular forms its possessive case by taking the apostrophe and the letter s after it ; as, " John's hat. " 339. Plural nouns usually form their possessive case simply by taking the apostrophe; as, " On eagles' wings." 340. When the plural of nouns does not end in b, they form their posses- sive case by taking both the apostrophe and the letter a ; as "3/<;//« houses." 341. When the singular ends in ««, the apostrophe only is added ; as, '*For gooditesti' sake :" except the noun witness ; as, " The witness's deposition." 342. Nouns ending in nee form the possessive by adding the apostropho only ; as, " For conscience' sake ;" because an additional a would occasion too much of the hissing sound, or increase the ditBculty of pronunciation. 343. The objective case denotes the object of an action or relation. 344. In the sentence, " John strikes him," hiui is the object of the action de- noted by strikes; and in the sentence, "He went to New York," iVeu? York is the object of the relation denoted by the preposition to. 345. DECLENSION OF NOUNS. Singular. Plural. Singular. PlaraL Nominative case, Mother, Mothers. Man, Men. PosaesHXve cnne, Mother's, Mothers'. Mnu's, Men's. Ohjecfire ease, Mother, Mothers. Man, Men. XX\'III. What is the ineaning of the wonl case? 47. What is meant by the case of nouus? 333. How many cases have nouns, and what are thoy? 334. AVhat does nominativp. mean ? 49. What is the nominative case? 335. Give ail example, WliJitdoyou understand by the subject of a verb? 336. Illustrate it by ;in example. Wliat does possessiue mean? 59. "What does the possessive case denote? 3:17. Give an example. How may this ciiae be distinguished from the other cusl-s? 337. How do nouns in the singular f.)rm their possessive case? 338, Give an example. How do nouns in the ]ilural? 339. "VN hen the plural noun does not end in s, how is ita possessive formed? 340. Give an example When the singular ends in ss, how is the possessive case formed? 341. Give au ex- ample. How la the possessive case of nouns end- ing in nee formed ? 34'2. Give an example. Why is not the s added? 342. What does the word objective mean ? 55. What does the objective case of nouns denote? 343. Give an example. What does the declension of nouns mean? 68. Will you decline motherf C-lJ. mant brother f hat f 48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. RULE I. The possessive case is governed hy the following noun. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. " John's wife returned.'''' 346. John''s is a peopbe noun, of the masculine gendbk, THIRD PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, POSSESSIVE CASE, and governed by wife, by Rule I. Wife is a common noun, of the feminine gender, third PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, and in the NOMINATIVE CASE to returned, by Rule VI. Beturned is an intransitive verb, in the indicative MOOD, IMPERFECT TENSE—" 1. I returned ; 2. You returned ; 3. He returned, or wife returned"— in the third person sin- gular, and agrees with wife, by Rule VII. MORE exercises IN SYNTAX. " William's son has come." " William's wife's sister re- " John's brother died." mained in town." " John makes (1) hoys' hats." " Eufus studied Johnson's Dic- " John lost his knife." tionary." "The boys neglected their les- " Mary's bonnet is old." sons." " Virtue's reward is sure." (2.) " Intemperance ruins its votaries." " Rufus's hat is new." SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. '•'■Brothers estate.''' 347. If we examine the foregoing example, we will find it difBoult to ascertain whether the estate is the property of one brother or more ; if of one only, an apostrophe should precede the s, thus ; " Brother's estate ;" but if it belongs to more than one, an apostrophe should follow the a, thus ; " Bro- thers' estate." Mistakes of this sort often occur; hence you perceive the importance, in writing, of attending to the subject of grammar. "Jlfans' happiness." 348. Incorrect, because mans' is in the possessive case, sin- gular number, and, therefore, the apostrophe should be placed before the s, according to the observations above, and Art. 338. Will you repeat the rule for the posses- Why cannot you tell? sive case ? Rule I. If only one brother is meant, how should In the sentence, "John's wife returned," the apostrophe be placed? How, if more will you parse JolirCsi wife? returned? than one? 346. In the phrase, '■ Mans' happiness," why Why is John's in the possessive case? is it incorrect for the apostrophe to follow 337. the sf 348. What kind of verb is returned f 346. What is the rule for forming the posses- Why? 153. sive case of nouns ? 338. In what case is wife? 346. Will you now parse man's f Why? 335. We spell the possessive case of man JSl^ TIte pupil matj next parse the addi- thus, 7>i-a-7i-(apostrophe) a; will you in tianal exercises in syntax. like manner spell the possessive of Jbftw .^ In the phrase, "Brothers estate," does William? Jhifus? women? boys? oue brother, or more than one, own the 4Kg-. The remainintj exercises are to he estate? 347. corrected as weU as parsed. (1.) Active-ti-auaitive verb. (2. J Adjective, and belonga to reward, by Kule IV. ARTICLES. 49 SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND OORBECTED, CONTINTJED. " Johns son departed." " I discovered Marias faults." *' Susans sister will learn." " Susan made little Harriets bon- " Charles task is too difficult." net." *' I have read Willi's poem." "Johnson makes mens shoes." EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN.* 349. "Will you write down two sentences, each containing a proper noun, as for example, " William learns grammar" ? One, containing a common noun ? One, containing a noun of the third person singular ? One, of the third person plural, and in the nominative case ? One, having a noun of the sec- ond person singular and of the feminine gender ? One, having a noun the name of some article of food ? One, having a noun the name of some quality ? One, having a noun of multitude? One, having your own name associated with 600^/ as, "John Griscom's book''? XXIX. OF ARTICLES. 350. Articles are words put before nouns, to point them out, or to limit their meaning. 351. There are two articles, a or an, and the. 352. A or an is called the indefinite article. 353. The is called the definite article. 3 J4. The article a is callod indefinito, because it means no particular per- son or thing; as, "a house," "a man," that is, any house, any man. The article the is called definite, because it means some particular person or thing; as, "the house," "the man," meaning some particular house, some particular man. 355. A becomes an before a vowel and before a silent A/ as, "an acorn," "an hour." But if the h be sounded, the a only is usedj as, "a hand," "a heart;" except when the word before which the article is placed has its ac- cent on the second syllable; as, "an heroic action," "an historical account." 356. Before words beginning with m long, a is used instead of an ; as, " a union," " a university," "a useful thing." 357. A is also used for an before the word one, because, in pronouncing one, we sound it as if written wun. 358. The article a or an means one; as, "an ounce," "a pound," that is, one ounce, one pound. XXIX. What is an article? 350. But if tlie li is sounded, which is to be AVhMt does definite mean? 78. used? 355. Give an example. What is the called? 353. Why? 354. Wliat excpption to this? 355. Give an Give an example. example. What does tncie/traWe mean? 81. Do we say, "a union," or "oh union"? What is a or an called? 362. Why? 354. "a university," or "aw uaiversity"? Why? Give an example. 35fi. How many articles are there? ,351. Do we say, "a one," or "aw one"? Why? Nmiiip them. iJoT. M'hen does a become anf 355. Give an What does the article a mean? 358. example. Give an example. * Either on a slate or in a small manuscript book kept for the purpose. 5 D 50 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. RULE II. The mdefinite article A or an belongs to nouns of the singular number. RULE III. The definite article the belongs to nouns of the singular or the plural number. 359. Exceptinn. When the adjectives few, great many, dozen, hundred, thounand, ete. come between the noun and article, the noun to which the iadeflnite article belongs is plural; as, "a few men," "a great many men." EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. "T/ie bird flies swiftly." 360. The is a definite article, and belongs to bird, ac- cording to EULE III. Bird is a coiiMOjsr noun, of the common gexdee, thibd PEESON, siNGULAK NUMBER, and in the nominative case to flies, by Rule VI. Flies is an active-intransitive verb, indicative mood, present tense—"!. I fly; 2. You fly; 3. He flies, or bird flies"'— in the third person singular, and agrees with bird, by Rule VII. Siciftly is an adverb, qualifying ^rties, by Rule IX. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. "The boys have arrived season- "Children attend the school." ably." " William founded a university." "Galileo invented the telescope." "The grass is green." "The boy had an ulcer." "Farmers carry hay into the " William gave an historical ac- barn." count (1) of the transaction." "The good scholar obeys his in- " Columbus discovered the con- structor." tinent of America." SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. " He had a idcer." 361. Incorrect, because we use an before a vowel, except u long : a should, therefore, be an; thus, " an ulcer." SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED, CONTINUED. " A enemy approaches." "Threebarleycorns makeainch." " James procured a inkstand." " Eight drachms make a ounce." " He conferred a honor." " They formed an union." " An unitfigure occupies the low- " He quoted an hard saying." est place in whole numhei-s." " Thomas has lost an horse." What is the rule for thp iudefinite arti- -OE^ The remaining exerci.'-fs are ntxt to clo? Rule II. be pursed from Uie hook. What exceiition tn this rule? 359. Wonid you say, "a ulcer," or ^^ an ul- What is thcj n:ls for the definite article? ccr"! Wliyr361, Rule JTI. 4Eg=. The pupil shnyJd now h-kf the rfl- Iii the sentence, "the bird flies swiftly," maining lieni^nepa to be con-ecled. He how do you parse the F birdfjlies? sviifUijf should be required to parse as well ae cor- SCO. rect them. (1.) Apply Rule VIU. ADJECTIVES. 51 SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 362. Will you write down two sentences, using in one the definite, and in the other the indefinite article? One, containing a correctly used before u long ? One, having a definite article correctly used before the consonant h'! Will you write two nouns, the names of different things in the school- room? Two, the names of different cities? One sentence, having a proper noun used aa a common noun? XXX. OF ADJECTIVES. 303. An adjective is a word joined to a noun or a pro- noun, to describe or qualify it; as, "An obedient son." 3G4. In English, an adjective is varied only to express the degrees of comparison. There are three degrees of compari- son — the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 365. The positive degree simply describes an object ; as, " John is good" 3G{). The comparative degree increases or lessens the posi- tive in meaning; as, "William is better than John." It implies a comparison between two. 3G7. The superlative degree increases or lessens the posi- tive to the highest or the lowest degree; as, "Thomas is the fiesit;" " Walter is the worst." 368. It usually implies a comparison among three or more, 369. Tho simple word, or positive degree, if a monosyllable (1), becomes the comparative by adding ;• or er, and the superlative by adding st or ent, to the end of it; as, wise, loiaer, wiacst ; great, greatePj greatest. 370. In words of mo.ro than one syllable, the comparison is usually made by placing the adverbs more and moat before the positive ; as, benevolent, more 6cnivlo. Give an example. Ildw many di'greeB of comparison are How aie dissyllables compared? 372, theiL"? 3(54^. Whfit effect do Uss and hast have on Will you name them? adjeciivea? 371. What (lues tha pusitivo degree do? 365. Wliat is a dissyllable ? r>72. Give an exaniplo. Will you spell thecompanaive and su- Wliat docs tlie comparative degree do? perlative degree^ of «bfe.* lovely? amplef 366. Give an exaraple. discrpp.tf pnlUe.f .'^72. Wliat does it imply? 366 Which are the mutes ? 372. Wliftt does snjiertative mean ? 103. How do word-s nf more than two syllar What dues tlie superlative degree do? bles almost invariably form their cumpari-- 367. Givi' an example. son? 37'2. (1.) A word of one ayllaHe. (2.) Words of two syllables. (3.) b, Ic, p, t, and c and g hard, are mutes. 52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. easily admit of er and est ; as, happier^ happiest ; abler, ablest, etc. Words t»l" more tiian two syllables hardly ever admit of these terminations. 373. In some words, the superlative is formed by adding the adverb most to the end of them ; as, nethermostj uttermost, uppermost. 374. Some adjectives, having in themselves a superlative signification, do not admit of comparison; as, extreme, per/ ect, right, wrong, injinite, ceaseless, supreme, omnipotent, eternal, 375. By adding iah to adjectives, we have a slight degree of comparison below the positive; as, black, blackish; salt, saltish, 376. Very expresses a degree of quality, but not the highest ; as, " good," " veni good." 377. Words used in counting and numbering are called numeral adjectives ; as, one, two, three; first, second, third. These adjectives are not compared. 378. An adjective put without a noun, with the definite article before it, becomes a noun in sense and meaning, and may be considered as such in parsing ; as, " Providence rewards the good, and punishes the bad." RULE IV. Adjectives belong to the nouns or pronouns ivhich tkey describe. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. '''■John is sincere." 379. John is a peopee noun, of the third person, sixgu- LAK NUMBER, MASCULINE GENDEE, End in the NOMINATIVE CASE to is, by EuLB VI. is is a NEUTEK VEEB, in the indicative mood, peesent TENSE—"!. lam; 2. You are; .3. He or Jolm is,"— thied per- son siNGULAE, and agrees with John, according to Rule VII. Sincere is an adjective, — " sincere, more sincere, most sin- cere,"— in the POSITIVE DEGEEE, and belongs to Jolm, by Rule IV. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. " You are studious." " One man has come." " John is more studious." " Two men have departed." " William is most studious." '• Twenty men will sail." " Mary is intelligent." " James wrote his name on the first "James is active." page." " Thomas is less active." " Here comes a great man." " Charles is happy." " Here comes a greater man." " Mary is tall. Susan is taller." " Here comes the greatest man." " No composition is perfect." "The first fleet contained five hun- " Religion makes its votaries happy." dred men." Is pej/fff compared ? Why? 374. superlative degrees of good f illf muclif Will you name several other adjectives Utile, f that are not compared ? 374. When is an adjective to be considered a How IS the superlative formed in the noun ? :i78 vord upper tSK, What is the rule for the adjective! V, hat IS the effect of ish added to adjec- IV. tives? 376. Give an example. In the phrase, "John is sincere," how , iL'* '''° ""'^ '" """"nKri- do you pai'so Jolrn..' is f sincere} S79. " w> . , ^^ ''y is shicrre in the positive decree? What me nnmenil adjectives? 377. 36.=.. Why do you call is a neuter verh? Give an example. Art; they compared? IS?! 377 Will you Spell the comparative and thru J olloni, and parse as be/ore. <(J"t<( t!ie pnpil next take the exercises PRONOUNS. 53 XXXI. 380. Double comparatives and double superlatives, since they add nothing to the sense, should be avoided ; as, worser, more wiser, etc. ; also, lesser, supremest, most infinite, etc. SENTENCES TO BE WBITTEN. Q. Will yovi write down two sentences, each containing a different adjective in the positive degree ? Two, with adjectives in the compara- tive degree ? Two, with adjectives in the superlative degree ? Q. Will you supply such adjectives in the following sentences as will make sense ? "A boy studies his lesson." " A boy deserves punishment." " A man helps the man." " Merchants own ships." " The instructor loves scholars." " William is a scholar, Rufus is a one, but Thomas is the one that I ever XXXII. OF PRONOUNS. 381. A PRONOUN is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid a disagreeable repetition of the noun. 382. A PERSONAL PRONOUN is SO Called, because it invari- ably represents the same person. There are five personal pronouns — I, thou or you, he, she, it.' They have person, number, and case, like nouns ; and those of the third person have gender also. 383. / is the first person, thou the second, he, she, or it, the third. He is masculine, she is feminine, and it is neuter. 384. Pronouns, like nouns, have three cases — the nomi- native, the possessive, and the objective ; and two numbers — the singular and the plural. 385. Mine and thine, instead of mi/ and thy, were formerly used in the solemn style, before nouns and adjectives beginning with a vowel or with silent h ; as, '' Blot out all mine iniquities." XXXI. Is it correct to say, " A lesser XXXIT. Wliat does tlie word pronoun evil"! Wliy not ! 380. siguily!120. Will yiiu correct the fnllnwing inaccu- What is a pronoun? 3S1. r.iciea in comparison us I read them to you? Why is a personal pronoun so called? " He is ilitolUgonter." 382. "She is the most wisest." How many personal pronouns are there, " A worser evil." and what are they ? 382. *'\\'ill)ani is a had boy; Joseph is » Why is this numher said to include all worser oiKi." the pronouns? 134. *' Hl- gave a more stronger proof of the Which is the first person? the second? fact than th.' other." the third? 383. '■The pleiisnres of the mind are more To which of the pronouns do we apply (1) prelerahle than those of the hody." gender? 383. "Tliat table is round, hut this is a Why is not gender applied to the first rounder one, and that is the roundest of and second persons ? 136. the three." Which is masculine? 383. which femi- " This is more square." nine? 383. which neuter? 383. *' A more greater concern " How many cases have pronouns, and "The most fairest of all the daughters what are they? 384. of Eve." How many numbers? 384. "Hid mother's extreniest joy." Will you decline /?(/i ufhefshefit?127. 1,1.) For more pr^erable than, ^^-^i pre/erahle to- 5» 5i ENGLISH GEAMMAE. XXXIII. COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 386. Compound personal the word self, in the plural as, himself, themselves, etc. pronouns are formed by adding selves, to the simple pronouns ; PERSON. First. Second. Third. CASE. Novl. Pnss. Obj. Nom. Pos8, Obj. Norn. Posa. Ohj, Noni. Pnss. Obj. Nam. Pass. Obj. SINGULAR. Myself, Wanting. Myself, Thyself, m Yourself, Thyself, or Yourself, Himself, ■} PLURAL. Ourselves. Ourselves. Yourselves. Yourselves. Themselves. Himself, Herself, Themselves. Themselves. Herself, Itself, Themselves. Themselves. Itself, Themselves. RULE V. Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand, in gender, number, and person. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. '■'■John found his Jcnife." 387. Jolm is a proper noux, of the masculine gender, third PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, and in the NOMINATIVE CASE tO found, by Rule VI. Found is an active-transitive verb, in the indicative MOOD, IMPERFECT TENSE — " 1. I found ; 2. You found ; 3. He or John found" — third peeson singular, and agrees with JbAre, by Rule VII. IRs is a PERSONAL PRONOUN, of the third person singular, MASCULINE GENDER, and agrees with John, accordingto Eole V. ; in the possessive case, and governed by knife, by Rule I. Knife is a common noun, of the third person singular, neuter gender, in the objective case, and governed hy found, according to Rule VIII. Of what number nud person is minef nwf? mef we? tlieyf ihiitt? you? yours f vn. or what gender, number, and person 13 hr. f shet it ? Of what number, person, and case is tjicit ? niirs? hi^? ftfij's J' mint? In wliat style were iitinc and thine for- nicrlv nsod ? 385. XXXIir. TIow are the compound per- sonal pronouns ioriiietl? What is the rule for tlie agreement of personal pronouns in the phrase, "John found his Itnife" ? V. How do y.ni parse Jnhnf 387. Will you parse John in the phrase, ".lolin found his knife"? 387. Will you parse found? his? Inifpf 387. /H^ Tlie learner sJiould next parse tJie re- mnitiing exercises in Syntax from tlie book, and then take the exercises to be written. PRONOUNS. 55 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 1. " James obtained his request." " Ye despise reproof." " I will assist you." " They mend their pens." "He will receive hiB reward." "Mary tore her handkerchief." " She misused him." " Virtue has its reward." " Sin ruins its votaries." " She deceived them." 2. " An indulgent father will reprove " John is in distress, and I w 111 his eon when (1) he deserves assist him." it." " I found Mary and her mother in " A dutiful son gladdens the hearts trouble, and (2) comforted (3) of his parents." them." EXEECISES TO BE WEITTEN. Q. Will you compose two sentences, each having a different personal pronoun of the first person ? One, having a pronoun of the first person plural ? Q. Will you fill up the following sentences with suitable pronouns, so as to make sense '! " — lost my hat, but found — again." " Let Harriet have — book, for — will need — to get her lesson." " The travellers lost — way, and the boys conducted — to — homes." Q. Will you fill up the following broken sentences with suitable words to make sense ? " Intemperance evil." " Washington father of his ." "Columbus — —America." "Boston inhabitants." "The ocean is- — — miles wide." " firat XXXIV. OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 388. In the sentence, "Both wealth and poverty are temptations; that tends to excite pride, tkia discontent;" you perceive that the word that rep- resents wealth, and the word this poverty. Thia and that, therefore, re- semble pronouns, and may, for this reason, be called pronouns. 389. When I say, " This house is mine, that barn is yours," the words this and that are joined to nouns, like adjectives, to define or specify them : they may, on this account, bo called adjectives. 390. Adjective pronouns, then, are words that resemble both pronouns and adjectives. These pronouns are sometimes called pronominal adjectives, or specifying adjectives. 391. The ADJECTIVE pronouns may be divided into three sorts — the distributive, the demonstrative, and the indefinite. 392. The distributive pronouns are those that relate to persons or things, taken separately and singly. XXXIV. What are Hfljective pronouns? One in which they resemble adjectives? 390 389. AVhy are they so called? 388,380. Into how many sorts may these pro- By what other name have these pro- nouns be divided, and what are they? nouns been called? 390. 39'. Will you give nn example in which "What k a distributive pronono? these words rcseuible pronouns? 388. 392. (1.) Advor)). (2.) Coujunction. (3.) Apply Kule XI. 56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 393. DISTKIBUTIVE (1) PKONOUNS. Each, every, either, and sometimes neither. 394. Each relates to two or more persons or things, taken separately; as, "Each of his brothers is doing well." 395. Evert relates to several persons or things, and signifies each one of them, taken separately; as, " Every man must account for himself." 396. Either relates to two persons or things only, taken separately, and signifies the one or the other; as, " I have not seen either." Hence, to say, " Either of the three," is incorrect. 397. Neither means not either; that is, not one nor the other; as, f* Neither of my friends was there." 398. The demonstrative (2) pronouns are those which point out precisely the things to which they relate. 399. DEMONSTRATIVE PKONOUNS. Si?i9. Plu. This, These. That, Those. Former, Former. Latter, Latter. 400. This and these refer to the nearest persons or things, — that and those to the most distant ; as, " These gloves are superior to those." " Both wealth and poverty are temptations; that tends to excite pride, this discontent." 40L The indefinite pronouns are those that refer to things in an indefinite or general manner. INDEFINITE PKONOUNS. 402. Some, other, ant, one, all, such, none. Of these pronouns, one and other are declined like nouns. Another is declined in the singular, but it wants the plurah 403. 404. We say, " This book," but, " These books ;" also, " One man," " Twenty men :" hence, 405. Note I. Adjective pronouns and numerals must agree in number with the nouns to which they belong. Wliv is it ao called ! 393. Which are singular? 399. Which plu- Wlilcli are they? "93, ral? 399. What tloea each refer to? 394. Give an ^Vliat do this and these refer to? 400. example. What do that and those refer to? Give What does evei-y relate to? 395. Give an an example. 400. example. What does ?nt?f/«i7e mean ? 81. What does either relate to? 396. Give an Wliat is an indefinite pronoun? 401. example. Which are they? 402. What does wpW7jer mean? 397. Will you decline rt(/(er? 403. What does (Umnnalrative mean? .398. AViJl you decline tmef 404. Wliat are demonstrative pionoiins? 398. What note do you apoly to parsing ad- Which are they? :^99. jective pronouns? Note'I. f I.) So called fiom distribute, to divide among several. (2.) Su citled fi-om demonstrate, to prove or slww precisely. Sing. Plu. Norn. Other, Others. Pass. other's, Others'. Obj. Other, Sing. Others. Plu. Norn. One, Ones. Pass. One's, Ones'. Obj. One. Ones. s book,' 'but. "Th ese books ;' ' also, " One man,' PRONOUNS. 57 EXEKCISES IN SYNTAX. "These two hooks belonrj to me." 406. These is an adjeotitb pronoun of the demonstrative kind, in the plural number, and belongs to books, accoi-ding to Note I. Two is a numeral adjective, and belongs to books, by Note I. Books, belong, etc., are parsed as before. EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. " Every man performs his part in creation." " Each man arrived at his station." " Either party can repair the in- jury." " Some persons cannot acquire wealth." " Many people obtain riches with apparently little exertion." " One boy labors for his improve- ment." " This man neglects his aflairs." "These men might remain with us." " Those men make many pretences to religion." "All rational beings desire happi- ness." " By application almost any boy may acquire an honorable rank in his class." " Good and virtuous men will, sooner (1) or later (1), attain to happiness." "The old bird feeds her young ones." 407. Ones is an indefinite pronoun, representing birds ; in the COMMON gender, THIRD PERSON PLURAL, in the OBJECTIVE CASE, and governed by/c«(Z«, according to Rule VIII. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. " One boy influences many others." others spend their time in idleness; " None act their part too well." the former will receive praise, the " Some scholars study diligently, latter censure." AVe cannot say, " Them run," but " They run :" hence, Note II. When a noun or a pronoun is the subject of the verb, it should be in the nominative case. It ia very common for persons in conversation to say, " Them books," "Them knives," etc., instead of "Those books," " Tho.«e knives," etc. The incorrectness here alluded to consists in substituting a personal pronoun in the place of an adjective pronoun : hence. Note III. The pronoun them should not be used in the place of these or those. In the phriise, "These two books," etc., will .vou parse thesef twof 40G. Will you nov^ tuke tUo book, and parse the remaining exei'cises under Note T.? lu tlie phrase, "The old bird feeds her young ones," will you jiarse onM? 4U7. Will yon correct, by Note I., the follow- ing exampli'8 us I read them tn you? " He will not come this two hours." "I dislike those sort of books." "I have two cunes; you may have any of them." Do we say, "r/ieij run," or "fftcmrun"? Why ? Note II. Will yon now correct, by Note II., the tollowing examples as I read them to you? "Them will go." " Ilim and me went to church." "Art thee well?" " Ilim who is diligent will improve." Would you say, "Them knives," or "These knives"? Why? IIL In what does the incorrectness consist? III. Will you correct the followiug expres- sions ? "Them boys are very idle." "Bring me them pens." " Which of them three things do you prefer?" .e®^ The pupil may next take the exerciaes to be written. (I.) Adverl 58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. O Will you compose two sentences, each having a different adjective pronoun? One, having a demonstrative pronoun? One, having an indefinite pronoun used as a noun ? ^, j. ,, Q Will you fill up with pronouns suitable to make sense the tollow- in<^phrases ? " When Harriet found — book, — tore — , and then flung —"away." " — man likes — farm, — merchandise." Will YOU compose a proper example under Rule I. ? One under Eule II. ? Kule 111 ? Kule IV. ? Rule V. ? Rule VI. ? XXXV. OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 408. In the sentence, " That man is happy who lives virtuously," the word who is a pronoun, because it stands for a noun (the noun mnu), and it is a relative, because it relates or refers to this noun in the same sentence : hence, 409. A relative pronoun is a word that usually stands for some noun before it in the same sentence. 410. There are three relative pronouns, viz.: 4il. Who, which, and that. 412. Who is used in speaking of persons; as, "The man who came." 413. Which is used in speaking of animals or things ; as, " The bird which sings," " The tree which I planted." 414. Which, however, is used in speaking of persons, when we wish to dis- tinguish one of two individuals, or a particular person among many others; as, " Which of the two is he 1" " Which of them has gone ?" 415. That, as a relative, is often used in speaking either of persons or things, in the place of who or which ; as, " The boy that reads," or ■' The boy who reads;" " The bird that flew," or " The bird which flew;" " The bench that was made," or " The bench which was made." Thill is used in preference to who or which, in the following cases : — 1. In speaking both of persons and things; as, "The man and the beast that I saw, perished." 2. In speaking of children ; as, " The child that I met." 3. After the adjective same; as, " He is the same man that we saw yes- terday." 4. After the superlative degree; as, "He is the wisest man that the world ever produced." 5. After the relative who ; as, " Who that reflects." 415 — 1. E-xCKi'TioN. That, as a relative, cannot take the preposition im- mediately before it; as, " He is the same man with that you were acquainted." For with that, read with whom. It is remarkable, however, that, when the arrangement is a little varied, the word that admits the preposition ; as, "He is the same man that you were acquainted with." XXXV. In the sentence, *'Tli!it man is In wliat cases do we use which, in spcak- liappv wlm lives viituouslv," what part of inj; of iiersons? Give an example. 414. speech in what Why? 408. What kiud? When may Wiof he used ? 415. Wliy? 408. Is it correct to Biiy, " The child who"? What is a relative prnnnun ? 409. Why not? "The same man wlio"? Why Name the relative pronouns. 411. not? "The wisest man whicli"? Why not? When do we use MJ/io? Give an example. " Who, who reflects" ? Why not? 415; 1,2, 412. 3, 4. 6. Wlien do we use WJ/fic/i ? Give .an exam- Wliat exception is mentioned? 415 — 1, pie. 413. Give an example. 41.^ — I. PRONOUNS. 59 416 — 1. We can say, " The man who/' or " The men who," using the rela- tive who in speaking either of one man or more than one: who, then, is of both numbers, and is thus declined: Siiiyular, Pin ral. Norn. Who, Who. Pass. Whose, Whose. OhJ. Whom, Whom. 417. Which and that are of both numbers, but they aro not declined, except that whose is sometimes used aS the possessive case of which; as, "Is there any other doctrine whose followers arc punished Y" 41 M. Whotie, used in the manner last described, is made to represent three words ; as, " JPhilosophy, whose end," for " the end of which." 410. Aniecedeut signifies going before. 420. The noun or pronoun which goes before the relative, and to which the relative refers, is therefore called the antecedent of the relative j as, "John, who has gone." Here, John is the antecedent of ivho. 421. When you are told that who, which, and that are relatives, you should not get the impression that the last two are always relatives ; for that is a relative only when it is used in the sense of who or which ; that is, when who or which may be used in its place, without destroying the sense; as, " Hero is the knife that I found," which can be altered to "Here is the knife which I found " without injury to the sense. 422. That, when it points out or specifies some particular person or thing, is reckoned an adjective pronoun. When not used as a relative, nor as an adjective pronoun, it is reckoned aconjunction ; as, "He studies that he may learn." 423. Hence it appears that the word that may he used sometimes as a relative pronoun, sometimes as an adjective pronoun, and sometimes as a conjunction. 424. Since relntivo pronouns stand for nouns, as well as personal pro- nouns, they should therefore agree with nouns in the .-^ame particulars and by the same rule. Kule V. will therefore apply to both. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. "T/iat ma)i is lia]>pii ro/io lircs virtuously.'''' 4:!o. That is a demonstrati\'e pronoun, of the singular NUMBEK, and belongs to nutn, by Kote I. Who is a RELATIVE PRONOUN, of the 3IASCULINE GENDER, THIRD PKiisoN SINGULAR, and agrees with man, by Rule V. It is in tlie nominative case to lives, according to Rule VI. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. " That man is fortunate who es- " 1 met the same man in the mar- capes censure." . Itet to-day (1), that I met yes- " The girl whom I saw, perished." terday in the sti-eet." n<)\v many nuniliers has w/to? '116. When is that an adjective pronoun? Will you (iecline it? 41(i-l. Give iin example. 422. How many numbei's have which and Wheu a conjunction? Give an example. th'iff Aro tlipy declined? 417. 422. Wliat excppfiiiii to tills ? 417. How many different parte of speech may >\'Iien whose is used ;i-s the possessive (/m£ represent? 4-'3. case of which, how many words duos it What is the rule for the agreement of reiirf^H(-iit? Give an example. 418. relative pronouns? 4Li+. Wluit is the meanuig of antecedent f Will you parse Wai, in the phrase, "That 41:). man"? 425. What is the antecedent of a pronoun? In the sentence, "That man is happy Give an example. 42i>. who lives virtuously," will you parse w/ty? Is that always a rnlative? 421. 425. When ia it a relative? Give an example. Will you now take the book, and parse 421. the remaining exercises? CI.) Adverb. 60 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. " You, who came first, should retire " That house, which stands on the first." hill, once (1) belonged to me." " You taught the boy whose hat I " The boy whom I instruct learns found." well." SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND COEEECTED. "3Vie man 'ivhich I saw." 426. Incorrect; because, in speaking of persons, who, whose, or whom is generally to be used. It should there- fore read, " The man whom I saw." SENTENCES TO BE PAUSED AND COEEECTED, CONTINUED. " The bird whom I killed had " Thou who are in prosperity must made her nest." assist me in adversity." " The man which visited me has " He which shuns vice does gener- left town." ally practise virtue." " That man is happy whom is vir- " I, who lives by your charity, tuous." should be grateful." SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. Q. Will you construct a sentence containing the relative uhof One, containing which ? One, containing that ? Q. Will you fill up the following sentences with relatives correctly used? "The man sins shall die." "The boy studies will learn." " The bird sung so sweetly has flown." Will you fill up the following with one or more words that will make sense? " Intem- perance evils." " If truth soj-ry." Q. Will vou embrace in different sentences each of the following words? Washington,* Columbus, Captain Cook, Indians,Wmlom, Riches, James Monroe. XXXVI. OF COMPOUND AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 427. " I took what yoa gave me." " I took that which you gave me." " I took the thing which jou gave me.'' " I took those things which you gave me." 428. On examining the foregoing sentences, you will see that the word mhni, in the first example, means the same as the words in italics in the suc- ceeding ones; the word what, then, is clearly a iironoun; and because it stands for more than one word, it is called a compound pronoun. The word before the relative which, in the phrase " that which," or " the thing which," is the antecedent of which. Hence, 429. What is a compound relative pronoun, including both the antecedent and the relative, and is generally equiv- alent to THAT WHICH. Iiistearl of sayinp, "The man which I tences which mean the same as "I took saw," what ehould I say ? Why? 426. what you gave me" ? +27, Will ynn correct and parse the remain- What words, then, does what stand for? ing exercises, and then take the exercises 42S. to 1)6 written ? Why Is what a pronoun ? 428. XXXVI. Will you repeat those sen- Why a compound pronoun ? 4'i8. (1.) Adverb. * TliuR, " Washington was a true pntiiot," etc. Tlic tminl may wntc several sentences on tach word. PRONOUNS. 61 430. Who, which, n,nd whath&vc sometimes the wordever or soever annexed (1) to them J and each combination of this sort is called a compound relative; jis, whoevf-ry ivhunoever, whichever, nhichsoever, etc. They are not often used. 431. W/iii, which, and what are called interrogatives, or relatives of the interrog.itivo kind, when they are used in asking questions; as, "Who is he?" "Which ia the book?" ''What are you doing?" These relatives, you perceive, have no antecedents, but relate to some word or phrase con- tained in the answer, which is called a subsequent, because it follows after the relative; as, "Whom did you see?" Ann. "John." Heve John is the Hubae- qnent to which whom refers. 432. Hence it follows, that antecedent and eubeeqnent are opposed to each other in meaning ; the foroier signifying going before, the X^ttex fallowing aftvr. 433. Whether was formerly made use of to express interrogation; as, "Whether of these shall I choose?" but it is now seldom uyed, the inter- rogative which supplying its place. 434. Which, what, and, as we have already seen, that, when joined to nouns, nro adjective pronouns; as, " Unto which promise our twelve tribes." 435. When what and which are joined to nouns in asking questions, they are called interrogative adjective pronouns ; as, " Which horse did he take?" 436. In some instances, we find what used in the sense of an interjection; as, "What! take my money, and then my life?" EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. '' / v'ill leave what is useless.'''' 437. What, in the example above, means the same as " that which," or " the thing which :" we will, therefore, in parsing it, bear in mind that it has the government and agreement of two separate words. We will first parse it as standing for thivij, and secondly for which. What is a compound kelative pronoun, and is equivalent to "that which," or "the thing which.'* In representing thing, it may be considered a pronoun of the third person singular, NEUTER gender, in the OBJECTIVE CASE, and governed by leave, according to Rule VJIL What, in representing which, may be considered a relative PRONOUN of the THIRD PERSON SINGULAR, NEUTER GENDER, and reliitcs to thing for its antecedent, according to Rule V., and in the NOMINATIVE CASE tO IS, by RULE VI. Is is a NEUTER VERB, in the indicative MOOD, PRESENT TENSE — " 1. I am; 2. You are; 3. He or which is" — third person SINGULAR, and agrees with tvhirh, the relative part of the pro- noun what, according to Rule Vli. Useless is iin adjective, in the positive degree, and belongs to ivhal, by Rule IV. IIow may what Im described ? 429. Wlien are what, which, and that adjective ^\"\U you gi\0 ilire« examples of cum- pronouns? Give an example. 434. pound pninonns formed by uiinexing ever Which of the rehitives are sometimes in- V V soevp.r f 4'3i). terrogative adjective pronouns? When? Whiit is the mi'jining of annexed? 435. 4^''*- When I say, "What! roh me of my When are who, which, and what called money, and then take my life?" in what interrogatives? 431. sense is Witt/ used? 436. What are the nouns called, to which in- In the sentence, "I will leave what is tenogativcs refer? 431. useless," how do you parse whatf uf use' What is the meaning of subspquentf less? 4^7. 432. What does what stund for? 437. Why BO culled? 431. Do ;> ou parse it as one word or two? In the phrast', " Whom did you see?" What two? 437. Ans. "John;" wljich word ia the suhse- i^=* The pupil may »ow parse the re- quent? 431. maining exercises on the pronoun what. (1.) Placed after. 62 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. " James will do what is proper.'' " William demands what I cannot " You heard what I said." give." " Whatever improvesdelightshim." " They advocate what is excellent." XXXVII. OF THE VERB. 438. A VERB is a word that expresses action or being. Verbs are of three kinds — active, passive, and neuter. 439. An active verb expresses action, and the actor is always in the nominative case; as, "John runs." Active verbs are either transitive or Intransitive. 440. An active verb is transitive, when it either has or may have an object after it, on which the action terminates; as, "John beats William." 441. An active verb is intransitive, when it neither has nor can have an object after it. 442. Passive means suffering or receiving. 443. When I say, " Joha is beaten by William,*' is beaten is a verb, be- cause it expresses action ; and it is a passive verb, because it expresses the action received by John ; and if John receives the action, then he is the ob- ject of it : hence, 444. A passive verb expresses action or effect received. 445. The object of the action is in the nominative case. 446. Active nominative, OT actor, " John strikes William." 44t. Passive nominative, or object of the action, "William is struck by John." 448. On examining the foregoing examples, you will see that when the verb is active, its nominative is likewise activej and that when the verb is passive, its nominative is likewise passive. 449, The passive voice is a convenient mode of expression on occasions when we wish to state irhnt has been done, without naming the author; llius, instead of saying, " William struck John," I can, to avoid alluding to AVilliaui, say, " John was struck." XXXVII. "What is the meaning of In the example, "John is beaten by verhpi William," wliii-h is tlic verb? Whyt Why so called? 143. Wliat kind'; Wliy? 443. Wliat is a verb ; 438. Wliat word is ihe object! Why? 443. "What is an active verb? 4."0. "VViiat, then, is a passive verb? 444. What is always its nominative? Give Wbicli is the nomiimtivc to a passive an example. 43vt, verb, tbe agent or tile object? 445. Wliat is the meaning of trannitice ?\ of Is the noniiiiative to an active verb ftc- intransitivef'l tivi.' or passive? Give en exami)le. 448. How may active verba be divided? 4.^9. Is tbe nominative to a passive verb &c- Wjieii is an active verb transitive? Give tivi- or ])assive? (!ive an example. 448. an example. 440. In wliat particular is tlie pa^^ive voice a \Vhvu is an active verb intransitive? cunvenient forai of expression? Give an Give an example. 441. example. 449. AVbat is the meaning of passive? 442. What is the meaning of nevterl^ * See question to 142. t See question to 150. J See question to 152. 2 ^ee quesLiDn to 157. MOOD- 63 450. A neuter verb is one that is neither active nor pas- sive, expressing simply either being or existence in a certain state ; as, " He szYs," " He is at home." XXXYIIL MOOD, OR MODE. 451. Mood, or mode, is the manner of representing action or being. 452. The indicative mood is used simply for indicating or declaring a thing, or for asking a question ; as, " I walk ;" "Do I walk?" 453. The potential mood is used for expressing possi- bility, liberty, power, will, or obligation, eitht^r with or with- out asking a question ; as, " I may go ;" " May I go ?" " He must read," etc. 454. Of the subjunctive mood. The term auhjunctive signifies subjoined or added to. 455. When I say, "I will go, if he desire it," the phrase, "if he desire it," is added on to the one before it: hence we say, "if he desire it" is in the subjunctive mood. The term, however, is limited to such sentences as are preceded by the conjunctions t/, mi^ess, although^ except, lest, etc., which imply doubt or some uncertainty. 456. The subjunctive mood is used for expressing doubt or uncertainty. 457. A verb in the subjunctive mood may be expressed in two different forms. It is equally correct to say, "If he la poor, he is respected," and " If he he studious, he will excel." The verbs be and is are both in the pres- ent tense; and since each has the conjunction ?/ before it, each is in the sub- junctive mood. 458. The phrase, "If be be studious," means the same as, "If he will be studious;" it therefore plainly implies future time. 459. On the contrary, in the jihrase, " If he is poor," the sense plainly is, "If he is now, at the present time, poor," without any reference to future time. 460. Hence it appears, that, in one form of the verb, douht only is implied ; and in the other, both douht and future time. What is a neuter verb? Give au ex- How is the term subjunotive limited? ample. 450. 455. tlow many kinds of verbs arc there, and What is the subjunctive mood used for? what are they? 438. 456. XXXVm. What is the meaning of now many diflFerent forms lias it? 457. viondf 166. Give an example of each, 4o7. Whatism"0(if 451. In what tense are the verbs 6e and is? Wliat is the moaning of indicative f 457, 168. In what mood is each with the conjunc- What is the indicative mood used for? tion i/" before it? 457. Give an example. 452. What does "If he be studions " mean, in What is the meaning of potential? 212. respect to time? 458. What is the potmitial mood used for? What tense, then, iy roferred to? 458. Give an example. 453. What does "If he i« poor" mean, in re- Wbat is the meaning of subjunctivef speottotime? 459. 454. Wlijit idea, then, is implied in the one Ii] wliat mood is "If he desire if? form? 460. 455. What two ideas in tlie other form? 460, 64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 461. The verb is corresponds with the common form of the verb to he, in the indicative mood, present tense; as, "I am, you are, he is;" — we will, therefore, when the verb is varied as usual, call it the common form of the subjunctive mood ; and when the verb is not varied in the different persons, we will call it the Bubjuncthe form, since this form is peculiar to this mood. You should here be informed that this distinction relates only to the present and the imperfect tense, it being customary to vary the terminations of the verb in the remaining tenses, as usual. 462. The following general rules will direct you in the proper use of the subjunctive mood : 463. When any verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, has a reference to future time, we should use the SUBJUNCTIVE FORM. (535.) Present Tense, 464. Sin^/ular. Plural. 1. If I love. 1. If we love. 2. If thou or you love. 2. If ye or you love, 3. If he love. 3. If they love. 465. When a verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, has no reference to future time, we should use the COMMON FORM. Singular. Plural. 1. If I love. 1. If we love. 2. If thou lovest, or \ 2. If ye love, or \ If you love. J If you love. J 3. If be loves. 3. If they love. 466. Other conjunctions, besides if, are used before the subjunctive mood. If is perhaps used most frequently, because it implies doubt more strongly than most others. 467. From the foregoing, it will be seen that when the verb is in the sub- junctive form, some auxiliary verb is always understood; as, **He will not be pardoned unless he repent," that is, ''unless he will repent;*' "If thou ever return, thou shouldst bo thankful," that is, " if thou shouldst ever return." 465. A verb in the indicative mood is converted into the subjunctive, com- mon form, simply by placing a conjunction, implying doubt, before it; as, '' I walk," the indicative mood, becomes subjunctive by prefixing if ; thus, *'If I walk." 469. In like manner, a verb in the potential may be changed to the sub- junctive; as, " I can go," is the potential ; " If I can go," the pubjunctive. 470. Of the IMPERATIVE mood. When I say, "John, mind your book," I command John to do something; and because imperative means commanding, we say that mind, in the phrase above, is in the imperative mood. With what does the verb is correspond ? What does " He will not be pardoned un- 461. less he repent " mean? 467. How is the verb varied in the common What, then, is understood? 467. form of the subjunctive mood? 461. "If thou ever return, thou shouldst be Why called common? How varied in thankful:" what does this mean? 467. the subjunctive form? Why called sub- What, then, is understood? 467. juiictive? 461. AVhat is always understood in this form? IIow is this distinction limited? 461. 467. How are the remaining tenses varied? How may a verb in the indicative mood 461. be converted into the subjunctive ? 468. When do we nae the subjunctive form? How can the potential be changed 46'i to the subjunctive ? Give an example. Will you conjuRate the verb loveinihis 469. form, in the present tense? 464. In what mood is "John, mind your When do we use the common form ? 465. stuiliea"? Why? 470. Why is the conjunction i/ used most fre- Wliat is the meaning of imperativef quontly in the subjunctive mood? 466. 470. MOOD. 65 471. This mood embraces the following particulars; 1, Command ; as, "John, sit up.'' 2. Etitreuti/ ; as, ''Bo visit me." li. Exhorting ; as, " Remember my counsel." 4. Pcrmitiimj ; as, '* Go in peace." 472. The imperative mood, then, is used for commanding, entreating, exhorting, or permitting. 473. The application of this mood is limited to the second person; as, "John, come to me;" because, in uttering a command, making an entreaty, etc., we must necessarily address some one; hence, you can seethe reason why this mood has but one person, viz., the second. 474. We cannot, with any propriety, command a person to-day, or in present time, to do anything in past time, yesterday, for instance; conse- quently, a verb in this mood cannot have any past tense. 475. When I command a person to do anything, the performance of the command must take place in a period of time subsequent to that of tho com- mand, that is, in future time; but the command itself must, from tho very nature of the case, take place in present time: this mood, therefore, cannot, strictly speaking, have any future tense: hence, 476. A verb- in the imperative mood must be in the present tense, and in tlie second person. 477. Of the iNPiNrriVR mood. In the phrases, "John begins to sing," "The boys begin to sing," " Thou beginnest to sing,'' you perceive that the verb to sing is not varied to correspond with the number and person of its different agents, John, the boi/M, and thnu : hence, to sing is said- not to be limited either by person or number. 478. This mood, then, is properly denominated infinitioe, signifying no( limited : hence, 479. The infinitive mood is used to express an action not limited either by person or number. 480. To^ the usual sign of this mood, is sometimes understood ; as, " Let me go," instead of " Let me to go ;" " I heard him say it,'' for " I heard him to say it." This little word to, when used before verbs in this manner, is not a preposition, but forms a part of the verb, and, in parsing, should he so considered. 481. From the foregoing, it appears that there are five moods — the indicative, the imperative, the potential, the sub- innftivfi anH thft infinil.ivA iiiouus — Luu iimicauve, me junctive, and the infinitive How many particnliira dooa t)iis mood How many tensea, then, has it? How enibrace? 471. Why so many ? 214. many persons? 476. Wliat, then, is thu imperative mood used What is the meaning oiiwfmitivef 478. for? 472. Give an example of command- In what mood is sing, in the phrasea, ing; one of entreating; one of exhorting; "John begins to sing,"" The boys begin to one of permitting. 471. sing," "Thou beginnest to sing" ? 477, 478. How many persons has the imperative In what particulars is this mood reek- mood ? 473. oned not to be limited ? 477. What person has it? 473. What, then, is the infinitive mood used Has tliis mood any past tense? Why? for? 479. 474. What is the usual sigq of this mood? When I command a person, wlien, if at 480. all, mnat the pi-rforniance of the commiiiid Is it ahvays expressed? Give an ex- take place? 475. ample. 480. When, or in what time, must the com- How is the sign to to be parsed ? 480. manfl itself be given? 476. Why is it parsed with the verb? 480. Has the imperative mood, then, any How manv moods are there, and what future ten-^e? 475. ' are they? 481. G* E ^0^ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. XXXIX. OF TENSE. 482. The present ^ense expresses what is now taking place; as, ''John swims." 4S3. This tense is often employed to express the actions of persons long since deadj as, " Seneca reasons and moralizes well." 484. The present tense, preceded by the words when, before, after, as soon at, etc., is sometimes used to point out the relative time of a future action; as, *' When he arrives, he will bear the news." 485. This tense is elegantly applied to qualities and things which are in their nature unchangeable; as, " Truth is eternal;" " William boldly asserted that there is no God;" not "there was no God." 486. In animated (1) historical narrations, (2) tliis tense is sometimes used for the imperfect; as, "lie enters the territory of the peaceable inhabi- tants; he fights and conquers, fakes an immense booty, which he divides among his soldiers, and returns home to enjoy an empty triumph," 487. The imperfect tense expresses what took place in time past, however distant; as, ''John died." 488. The perfect tense expresses what has taken place, and conveys an allusion to the present time; as, " I have finished mj letter." 489. When any particular period of past time is specified or alluded to, we use the imperfect tense ; as, *' John wrote yesterday ;" but when no particular past time Is specified, we use the perfect tense; as, '* I have read Virgil many times." 490. The perfect tense and the imperfect tense both denote a thing that is past; but the former denotes it in such a manner that there is still actually remaining some part of the time to slide away, wherein we declare the thing has been done; whereas the imperfect denotes the thing or action past, in such a manner that nothing remains of that time in which it was done. If wo spealc of the present century, we say, " Philosophers have made great dis- coveries in the present century ;" but if we speak of the last century, we say, ** Philosophers made great discoveries in the last century." " He has been much afflicted this year." "I have this week read the President's proclama- tion." " I have heard great news this morning," In these instances. He has been, I have read, and I have heard, denote things that are past; but they XXXIX. \V']iat is the meaning uf present? What Joes the perfect tense exiiress? 173. Give an example. 488. What d OPS the present tense express? "Jolin wrote yesterday." What tense is 4?2. Give an example. 482. the verb in here? 489. " Sen ecu rensons well." What tense iB ^\'hy is this tense used ? 489. empliiyed here? Why? 483. "I have read Virgil many times." WMiy In the plirase, " When he arrives," future is the perfect tense used here ? 4S9. time is alluded to: why, theii, ia the present AMiat do both the perfect and the imper- empl.-yed? 484, feet denote? 490. Do we say, "There is no God," or "there How does thu former denote it ? 490. was no God'' ? Why ? 485. How does the Utter ? 490. Wliat is tlie meaning of n!»ima/erf? 486. Do we say, ''Philosophers made," or Meaning of narraWons? 486. "Aauewmde, grctit diecoveries in the "He enters the territory," etc. Why is i)reaent century" ? Why? 490. the present tense used? 4S6. Whieh tense do wo use iu speaking of What is the meaning of imjt)er/f(7f IRl. the last century? 490. Give au example. How came tliis term to be nsed, to denote 40ii. on action past and finished ?* "Ihiive this week read the President's M'hat does the irdperfect tense express ? proclamation " " I iiuve heard great news 487. Givu an example. 487. this moniini:;." Which are the verbs used Meaning of perfect?\ in these twu'"sentence3 ? 490. (1.) Lively. (2.) Descriptions, or tplling what haa been done. *bee question to 132. f ■'""'oisljed, or complete. TENSES . — P A R T I C I P L E S . 67 ttoourred in this year, in this week, and to-day; and still there remains apart of this year, week, and day, whereof I speak. 490 — 1. In general, the perfect tense may be used wherever the action is connected with the present time, by the actual existence of the work of an author, notwithstanding it may have been performed many centuries ago ; but it* neither the author nor the work now remains, it cannot be used. We may say, "Cicero kan written orations;" but we cannot say, "Cicero haa written poems ;" because the orations are in being, but the poems are lost. Speaking of priests in general, we may say, " They kuve, in all ages, claimed great powers;" because the general order of the priesthood still exists; but if we speak of the Druids, as a particular order of priests, which does not now exist, we cannot use this tense. We cannot say, " The Druid, priests have claimed great powers ;" but must say, " The Druid priests claimed great powers;" because that order is now totally extinct. 491. The pluperfect tense expresses what had taken place at some past time mentioned ; as, " T had finished mj letter before my father returned." 492. The first future tense expresses what will take place ; as, "John will come." 493. The second future tense expresses what will have taken place at or before some future time mentioned j as, " I shall have finished my business before the steamboat starts." 494. Tense is the distinction of time, and admits of six variations, namely — the present, the imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, the first future, and the second future. XL. OP PARTICIPLES. 495. In the phrase, "I found a man laboring in the field," the word labor- ing shows what the man was doing, and therefore resembles a verb. When I say, "The laboring man should not be wronged," laboring is joined to the noun maitf to describe it, and therefore resembles an adjective. 496. The word laboring, then, partakes of the nature of two different parts of speech ; and since participle signifies partaking of, wo will call such words as laboring, participles. What do they denote 7 When did these Give an example. 492. Why called first things occur? 490. future?* To what may the perfect tense iu general What dues the second future express? beapplied? What exception is mentioned? Give an example. 493. 490 — 1. How many tenses are there in all, and Do we say, " Cicero wnjfg," or " has what are they ? 494. «)n«m, orations"? "Cicero wroie," or '*Aa« In what mood is "He runs"? Why? wn'«ra, poems"? Why? 490— 1. 452. "Does he run?" Why? 452. "I In speaking of priests in general, why do may run"? Why? 453. " Should I have we say, "They have in all ages claimed studied?" Why? 453. "If he accept"? great powers"? 490—1. Why? 456. "If he accepts"? Why? 466. Can we say, "The Druid priests have "To sing"? Why ? 479. claimed great powers"? "What should we In what tense is "He sings"? Why? say? Why? 490—1. 482. "Did he sing?" Why? 487. "Ho What is the meaning of pluperfectf has read"? 4SS Why? "Had he writ- 186. ten?" 491. Why? "Shall he go?" 492. What does the pluperfect tense express ? " I shall have gone" ? Why ? 493. 491. Give an example 491. XL. What parts of speech does (adoring Meaning of /u(//r€.» 177. resemble? Give an example. 495. What does the first future express? What is the meaning of jjorti'c^fe? 496. * See question to 191. 68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 497. AU participles are derived from verbs ; thus, from labor comes lahov' ing ; from betit, beating; from rejoice, rejoicing, etc.; hence, 498. The participle is a word derived from a verb, and partakes of the nature of a verb and an adjective. 499. When I say, "John is writing," the participle writiug shows what John is now doing, but has not finished ; writing, then, may be called a pres- ent participle : hence, 500. The present participle expresses vvhat is now taking place, but not finished. 500 — 1. This participle always ends in ing ; ^b, singing^ fighting j weeping, loving, etc. There are many words with this termination, which are not par- ticiples ; as, mornivg, evening, which fire nouns; uninteresting, uneatie/ying, which are adjectives. The fact that these cannot be formed from verbs will furnish you with a certain rule for distinguishing the participle from all other words of the same termination ; as, for instance, uninteresting, we know, is not a participle, because there is no such verb as unintereat, from which to form it. 501. "The letter is written.*' Here the participle wrt^eH shows that the act of writing is past and finished; it may, then, be called a perfect parti- ciple; hence, 502. The perfect participle expresses what is past and finished. 502 — 1. This participle may always be distinguished by its making sense with having / thus, liaving written, having nungj etc. Here written and aung are perfect participles, 503. " John, having written his letter, sealed it." Here you doubtless per- ceive that the act of writing took place before that of sealing* also, that the participle is composed of two words, having and written ; it may, then, be called a compound participle, and because ii denotes also an action past and finished, it may very properly be called a compound perfect participle : hence, 504. The compound perfect participle expresses what took place before something else mentioned. 504 — 1. This participle is formed by placing the present participle having before the perfect participle of any verb ; as, having fought, having ciphered. XLI. FORMATION OF THE PASSIVE VERB. 505. Struck is a perfect participle, from the verb strike, and this you know, because it makes sense joined with having ; as, having struck. From what are all participles derived? Having writteti, having sung. "Which are 497. Give an example. 497, the perfect participles heie? 502. What is a participle? 498. "John, having written his letter, sealed When I say, "John is writing," what it." Which took place first, the writing does writing show ? 499. or the sealing ? 503. What, then, may it be called ? 499. Of what is this participle composed ? 503. What, then, is a present participle? What, then, may it be called? 503, 600. What does having uoritte^i denote in rof- What does this participle always end in ? erence to time and action ? 503. 500—1. Give an example. 500—1. What may it thence be called? 803. Are all words ending in ing participles? What does a compound perfect participle Give an example of nouns of this termi- express? 504, nation. Of adjectives. 500—1. IIow is this participle formed? 504. How, then, can the participle he dietin- Give an example. 504. guished ? Give an example. 500—1. XLI, Striking, struch^ having strucTt. "The letter is written." What does the Here are three different participles: can participle written show here ? What, then, you tell which is the present ? Why ? 500. may it be called ? 501. Perfect? Why? 502. Compound perfect? What is a perfect participle ? 502. Why ? 503. How may this participle always be What kind of participle is atruckf 506. known? Give an example. 502 — 1, How do you know this? 505. VERBS, 69 606. /«, you doubtless recollect, is a variation of the verb to he; as, " I am, you are, he is:" now, by joining is with struck, we can form the passive verb is struck ; " John strikes Joseph," is active ; but, " Joseph is struck by John," is passive. 507. In these two examples, you perceive that the sense of each is the same : hence, by means of the passive verb, we are enabled to express, in a different form, the precise meaning of the active, which, you will oftentimes find, contributes not a little to the variety and harmony of the language. 508. On examining the conjugation of the verb to be, you will discover that it has eleven variations : viz., am, art, is, are, tons, wast, were, wert, been, he, and being. Every passive verb must be composed of one of these varia- tions and the perfect participle of any active-transitive verb. Thus, taking was, and joining it with the perfect participle of the word beatj namely, beaten, we form the passive verb tons beaten, to which prefixing an object, or nominative case, we have the phrase, "William was beaten." 509. It is a fact worthy to be remembered, that the passive verb always retains the same mood, tense, number, and person that the verb to he has, before it is incorporated with the participle; thus, "He has been," is the indicative perfect, third person singular ; then, " He has been rejected," is likewise the indicative perfect, third person singular, passive. It cannot, therefore, be diflBcult to tell the mood, tense, number, and person of any pas- sive verb, if you are familiar with the conjugation of the verb to he. From the foregoing particulars, we derive the following general rule : 510. All passive verbs are formed by adding the perfect participle of any active-transitive verb to the neuter verb to he. XLII. OF THE AUXILIARY VERB. 511. Auxiliary verbs are those by the help of which the principal verbs are conjup^ated. 512. The auxiliary verbs are may, can, must, might, could, would, should, and shall. The following are sometimes aux- iliaries, and sometimes principal verbs : do, be, have, and will. 513. When, in the formation of any tense, we use an auxiliary verb, thiit tense is called a compound tense ; and the tense formed by the principal verb alone is called a simple tense. XLIII. SIGNS OF THE MOODS. 514. The indicative mood may be known by the sense, or by its having no^sign except in asking a question ; as, " Who comes here V Of whiit verb is the verb ia u variation? What fact is worthy of notice? 509. 506. Wlmt mood, tense, number, and person Will you form a passive verb with is is "He has been"? o09. "He has been and s/rHc/i? 506. rejected"? 509. " John strikes Joseph." How may the What will make the mood, tense, etc., of Hense of this sentence be expressed by a passive verbs familiar ? 509. passive verb? 506. How are all passive verbs formed ? 510. What advantagp does the use of the pas- XUI. What is the meaning of (xuxil- sive verb often afford ns ? 507. iai-y i 196. To Avhat does it contribute ? 507. W^hat are auxiliary verlis ? 511. How many variations has the vorb to he Will ynu name them? 51'2. in all? 608. What are they? 508. What verbs are used both as auxiliary What will always compose one part of a and principal verbs ? 512. pasaivo verb? 508. What the other part? XLIIT. What is the sign of the indicap 608. tive mood? 514. Give au example. 514. 70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 515. The potential mood has for its signs the auxiliaries may, can, mast, might, could, would, and should ; as, "I could love," etc. 516. The subjunctive mood has usually for its signs the conjunctions if, though, unless, except, whether, and lest; as, " Unless he repent," etc. 51 1. The infinitive mood has usually for its sign the word to ; as, to sing. 518. The imperative mood may be distinguished by its always being in the second person, and by its agreement with thou, or ye, or you, expressed or understood ; as, "Depart thou," etc. XLIY. SIGMS OF THE TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE. 519. The present tense has for its sign the first form of the verb ; as, weep, rem,ain, etc. ; excepting the occasional use of do ; as, "I do learn." 520. The imperfect tense has no auxiliary for a sign, except did, which is sometimes used. If, however, the verb is not in the present tense, and has no auxiliary, it follows that it is in the imperfect ; as, " I fought." 521. The perfect tense has for its sign the wovAhave ; as, have loved. 522. The pluperfect has for its sign had ; as, had loved. 523. The first future has for its sign shall or will; as, shall or will love. 524. The second future has for its sign shall have or will have ; as, shall have loved, or will have loved. 525. The indicative mood has six tenses. 526. The subjunctive mood has six tenses. 527. The potential mood has four tenses., 528. The infinitive mood has two tenses. 529. The imperative mood has one tense. What is the sign of the potential inood ? Sign of the perfect ? 621. Give an cx- 515. Give an example. 515. ample. .521. Wljat is tlie sign of the snlijunotive Sign of the pluperfect? 622. Give an mood? 516. Give an example. 51(3. example. 522. What is the sign of the infinitive mood ? ^'S" of the first future ? 623. Give an 617. Give an example. 517. exaiiiple. 523. What is the sign of the imperative? JlS'°i'HoT''°''^ *'""'°' '"'■ ^'"^ 61S. Give an example. 618. an ex.imple. 624. „ . ,. ,■ * How many tenses has the indicative Aljl V. What is the sign of the jires- mood ? 525. ent indicative? 619. Give an example. How many the sul.junctive ? 626. °'=-. . , . How many the potential ? 627. bign ot the imperfect? 620. Give an How many the infinitive ? 52S. example. 5L0. How many the imperative? 520. VERBS, 71 XLV. CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 530. When I ask you to raise your voice, in reading, you readily under- stand what I mean by voice; but in grammar, its application is somewhat peculiar. Grammatically considered, it refers to the active and passive nature of verbs. 531. The CONJUGATION of a verb is the regular combination and arrangement of its several numbers, persons, moods, and teases. 532. The conjugation of an active verb is styled the ac- tive VOICE, and that of a passive verb the passive voice. 533. Verbs are called regular, when they form their im- perfect tense of the indicative mood, and their perfect parti- ciple, by the addition of ed to the verb in the present tense, or of d only when the verb ends in e ; as, Fres. Tense. Imp. Tense. Per/. Participle. I favor. I favored. Favored. I love. 1 loved. "Loved. 534. When a verb does not form its imperfect tense and perfect participle in this manner, it is called an irregular VERB ; as, Pres. Tense. Imp. Tense. Perf. Participle. I am. I was. Been. 535. The regular verb love, and the irregular verb to be, are conjugated as follows : — CONJUGATION. TO LOVE AND TO BE. active and passive voice conteasted. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. ACTIVE VOICB. PASSIVE VOICE. NEDTER. Singular. Singular. Singular. 1 Pera. I love. 1 Pers. I am loved. 1 Pers, I am. 2 Pere. You love. 2 Pere. You are loved. 2 Pera. Yon are. 3 Pere. Ho loves. 3 Pert. lie is loved. 3 Pers. He is. Plural. Plural. Plural. 1 Pere. We love. 1 Pera. We are loved. 1 Pers. We are. 2 Pere. You love. 2 Pere. Y'ou are loved. 2 Pers. You are. 3 Pere. They love. 3 Pers. They are loved. 3 Pert. They are. XLV. What dopa voice raoan in gram- When arc vorbs called regular? 533. mar? 630. Give an example. 633. What is tho meaning of covjugatimf Will you repeat after me the present 317. tense, and name the imperfect tense and WTiat is the conjugation of an active perfect participle, of the verb /avor ? Ume^ verb styled ? 532. 53S. What the coiuugation of a passive verb? When is a verb called irregular? 634. 532. Qive an example. 534. 72 ENGI^ISH GRAJfMAK. Singular. I loved. You loved. He loved. J^luraL We loved. You loved. They loved. Singular, I have loved. You have loved. He has loved. Plural. We have loved. You have loved. They have loved. Singular. . I had loved. You had loved. , Ho had loved. Plural. . We had loved. , You had loved. , They had loved. Singular. . I shall or will love. . You shall love. . He shall love. Plural. , We shall love. . You shall love. . They shall love. IMPERFECT TENSE. Singular. 1. I was loved. 2. You were loved. 3. He was loved. Plural. 1. We were loved. 2. You were loved. 3. They were loved. PERFECT TENSE. Singular. 1. I have been loved. 2. You have been loved. 3. He has been loved. Plural. 1. We have been loved. 2. You have been loved. 3. They have been loved. PLUPERFECT TENSE. Singular. 1. I had been loved. 2. You had been loved. 3. He had been loved. Plural. 1. We had been loved. 2. You had been loved. 3. They had been loved, FIRST FUTURE TENSE. Singular. 1. I shall or will be 1. loved. 2, 2. You shall or will be loved. 3, 3. He shall or will be loved. Plural, or will 1. We shall or will be 1. loved, sr will 2. You shall or will be 2, loved. 3. They shall or will be 3, loved. SECOND FUTURE TENSE, will will will Singular. 1. I shall have loved. 2. You will have loved. 3. He will have loved. Plural. 1. We shall have loved. 2. You will have loved. 3. They will have loved. Singular. 1. I shall have been loved. 2. You will have been loved. 3. He will have been loved. Plural. 1. We shall have been loved. 2. You will have been loved. 3. They will have been loved. Singular. I was. You were. He was. Plvral. We were. You were. They were. Singular, I have been. You have been. He has been. Plural. We have been. You have been. They have been. Singular. I had been. You had been. He had been. Plural. We had been. You had been. They had been. Singular. I shall or will be. You shall or will be. He shall or will be. Plural. We shall or will be. You shall or will be. They shall or will be. Singular, . I shall havG been. , You will have been. , He will have been. Plural. We shall have been. You will have been. They will have been. Will you conjugate ZoTje in the present perfect? first future? second future? tense, active voice, indicative mood ? present paesive ? imperfect ? perfect ? 536. In the imperfect? perfect? plu- pluperfect? first future? second future? TENSES, 73 Singular, 1. I may or can love. 2. You may or can^ovo. 3. He may or can love. Plural. 1. We may or can lovo. 2. You may or can love. 3. They may or can love. POTENTIAL MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. 1. I may or can be loved. 1. 2. You may or can be 2. loved. 3. 3. Ho may or can be loved. Plural 1. We may or can«be 1. loved. 2. 2. You may or can be 3. loved. 3. They may or can be loved. IMPERFECT TENSE. Shtgulnr. I may or can bo. You may or can be. He may or can be. Plural. We may or can be. You may or can be. They may or can bo. Singular. 1. I might, could, would, or should love. 2. You might, could, would, or should love. 3. He might, could, would, or should lovo. Plural, 1. We might, could, would, or should love. 2. You might, could, would, or should love. 3. They might, could, would, or should lovo. Singular. 1. I may or can have loved. 2. You may or can have loved. 3. He may or can have loved. Plural. 1. We may or can have loved. 2. You may or can have loved. 3. They may or can have loved. Singular. Singular, 1. I might, could, would, 1. I might, could, would, or should be loved. or should be. 2. You might. could. 2. You might, could. would, or should would, or should be loved. be. 3. He might, could. 3. He might. could, would, or should would, or should be loved. be. Plural. Plural. 1. We might, could, 1. Wo might, could, would, or bhould would, or should be loved. be. 2. You might, could, 2. You might, could, would, or should would, or should be loved. be. 3. They might. could, 3. They might. could. would, or should would, or should be loved. be. PERFECT TENSE. Singular. Singular. 1. . I may or can have 1. , I may or can have been loved. been. 2. , You may or can have 2, You may or can have been loved. been. 3. , He may or can have 3. , He may or can have been loved. been. Plural. Plural. 1, , We may or can have 1. . We may or can have been loved. been. 2, . You may or can have 2, . You may or can have been loved. been. 3 . They mayor can have 3, . They may or can have been loved. been. Will you conjugate the verb to he, or am, in tlie prosent? the imperfect? perfect? pluperfect? first future? second future? Will you name the first person singular, of the present indicative, active, and pas- sive, of love, and the first person singular of the verb to be f The second person in like manner? the third? tlie first person plwral ? second per- son plural ? third? first person singular, im- perfect ? second person ? third ? first person plural ? second peraon plural ? third ? first person singular, perfect ? second person ? third? first person plural ? second? third? 74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Singular. 1. I might, cuuld, would, or should have lov- ed. 2. You might, eould, would, or should have loved, 3. He might, could, would, or should have loved. Plwal. 1. We might, could, would, or should have loved. 2. You might, could, would, or should have loved. 3. They might, could, would, or should have loved. PI.UPEBFBCT TENSE. Sintjular. Singular, 1. I might, eould, would. 1. I might, could, would. or should have been or should have loved. been. 2. You might, could, 2. Yon might. could, would, or should would, or should have been loved. have been. 3. He might, could, 3. He might. could. would, or should would, or should have been loved. have been. Plural. Plural. 1. We might, could. 1. We might. could, would, or should would, or should have been loved. have been. 2. You might, could. 2. You might. could, would, or should would, or should have been loved. have been. 3. They might, eould. 3. They might, could. would, or should would, or should have been loved. have been. Singular. 1. If I love. 2. If you love, 3. If he loves. Plura I. 1, If we love. 2, If you love. 3, If they love. Singular. 1. If I love, 2. If you love. 3. If he love. Plural. 1. If we love. 2. If you love. 3. If they love. Singular. 1. If I loved. 2. If you loved. 3. If he loved. Plural. X. If we loved. 2. If you loved. 3. If they loved. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. Common Form,. Singular. 1. If I am loved. 2. If you are loved. 3. If he is loved. Plural. 1. If we are loved, 2. If you are loved. 3. If they are loved. Subjunctive Form, Singular. 1. If I be loved. 2. If you be loved. 3. If he be loved. Plural. 1. If we be loved. 2. If you be loved. 3. If they be loved. IMPERFECT TENSE. Common Form, Singular. 1. If I was loved. 2. If you were loved. 3. If he was loved. Plural. 1. If we were loved. 2. If you were loved. 3. If they were loved. Singular. 1. If I am. 2. If you arc. 3. If he is. Plural. 1. If we are. 2. If you are, 3. If they are. Singular. 1. If I be. 2. If you be. 3. If he be. Plural. 1. If we be. 2. If you be. 3. If they be. Singular, 1. If I was. 2. If you were, 3. If he was. Plural. 1. If we were. 2. If you were. 3. If they were. WiJl you conjugato love in like m;mner, through each person and voice of the phi- perfect? first and second futures? present potenlial ? imperfect? pei'fect? pluperfect? present subjunctive, coninioo form? sub- junctive form? imperfect, common form ? subjunctive form ? perfect ? pluperfect? first aud second futures? Will you conjufzate /otie in the present indicative active? imperfect? perfect? plu- perfect? first and second futures ? present passive? imperfect? perfect? pluperfect? first and second futures ? present indicative of to be f imperfect ? perfect ? pluperfect ? first and second futures? TENSES. 75 Subjunctive Form. Sinrjuiar. Siugidar, Singular. 1. If I loved. 1. If I were loved. 1. If I were. 2. If you loved. 2. If you were loved. 2. If you were. ■i. If ho loved. 3. If he were loved. 3. If he were. rinral. Plural. Plural. 1. If we loved. 1. If we were loved. 1. If we were. 2. If you loved. 2. If you were loved. 2. If you were. 3. If they loved. 3. If they were loved. 3. If they were. The remainiiif/ teuaey are all of the Common Form* Singular. 1. If I have loved. 2. If you have loved, 3. If he lias loved. Plural. 1. If wc have loved. 2. If you have loved. 3. If taey have loved. PERFECT TENSE. Singular. Singular. 1. If I have been loved. 1. If I have been. 2. If you have been loved. 2. If you have been. 3. If he has been loved. 3. If he has been. Plural. Plural. 1. If we have been loved. 1. If we have been. 2. If you have been loved. 2. If you have been. 3. If they have been loved. 3. If they have been. Singular. 1. If I had loved. 2. If you had loved. 3. If ho had loved. f'lural. 1. If wo had loved. 2. If you had lovod. 3. If they had loved. PLUPERFECT TENSE. Singular. 1. If I had been loved. 2. If you had been loved. 3. If he had been loved. Plural, 1. If we had been loved. 2. If you had been* loved. 3. If they had been loved. FIRST FUTURE TENSE. Singular. 1. If I shall or will love. 2. If you shall or will lovo. 3. If he shall or will love. Singular. 1. If I had been. 2. If you had been. 3. If he had been. Plural. 1. If we had been. 2. If you had been. 3. If they had been. Singular. 1. If I shall or will loved. 2. If you shall or will be loved. 3. If ho shall or will be lovod. Singular, be I. If I shall or will be. 2. If you shall or will be. 3. If he shall or will be. Will ymi conjugate love through oach poi-aoti of the present indicativo active? pjissivo? the neuter verb to bef also in the imporfect? perfect? pluperfect? flret and second futures? presentpotential? inipcr- foct? perfect? pluperfect? present enb- jiiiictive, in both forma ? perfect? pluper- ffut ? fii-st and second futures ? ^^■^lllt U the present infinitive activeof Umet present piissive? piwsont of to bef perfect active of love? perfect passive? perfect of to bef present participle active of Invp.f present passive? present of to bef perfect of lovef perfect of to bef compnnnd perfect of love, in the active? in the passive of to bef In wliat voice and mood is "I love"? " Thny love"? " They are loved" ? "Are thoy l<»ved ?" " I do love" ? What is the force of do f In what voice and mood is " Tlie iii;in loved"? "lie bus loved"? " He has been loved" ? " Has he been loved?" "She had loved"? "She bad been loved"? "We shall love"? "We shall he loved"? " Shall I have been loved ?" " May I love ?" " May I be loved ?" " She may have loved" ? " She may have been loved" ? " If I love" ? "If he beloved"? " If he is loved" ? "If I love" ? " If I were loved" ? *' If I was lovod" ? In what tense is " They love" ? " Ye are loved" ? " She did love" ? " We were loved"? "They shall love"? "They shall be loved" ? " I may be loved" ? " If she has been loved"? In what number and person is "I love"? "We love"? "lie does love"? "The man did love"? "The men were loved"? "If he love"? "If I was"? "If I were"? "If ye have been"? "If ye have loved" ? " You may be loved" ? 76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Plural. 1. If we shall love. 2. If you shall or will lovo. 3. If they shall or will love. PlnrtiL will I. If we shall ur will be loved, 2. If you shall or will be loved. 3. If they shall or will be loved. Plural. 1. If we shall or will be. 2. If you shall or will be. 3. If they shall or will be. SECOND FUTURE TENSE. Singular. 1. If I shall have lov- ed. 2. If you shall have lov- ed. 3. If he shall have lov- ed. Plural. 1. If we shall have loved. 2. If you shall have loved. 3. If they shall have loved. Singular. Love you, or do you love. Plural. Love you, or do you love. Pres. To love. Per/. To have loved. Singular. 1. If I shall have been loved. 2. If you shall have been loved. 3. If he shall have been loved. Plural. 1. If we shall have been loved. 2. If you shall have been loved. 3. If they shall hnve been loved. IMPERATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. Siiigulur. 2. Be you loved, or do you be loved. Plural. 2. Be you loved, or do you»be loved. INFINITIVE MOOD. Pres. To be loved. Per/. To have been loved. Singular. 1. If I shall have been. 2. If you shall have been. 3. If he shall have been. Phiral. 1. If we shall have been. 2. If you shall have been. 3. If they shall have been. Singular. 2. Bo you, or do be. Plvral. 2. Be you, or do be. you you Pres. To be. Per/. To have been. PAETICIPLES. Prea. Being loved. Per/. Loved. Compound Per/. Having been loved. 536. For the benefit of those who wish to retain the pronoun thou, in the conjugation of verbs, the following synopsis is given. The pupil can take it separately, or may be taught it in connection with the other persons of the verb, by substituting thou for i/on, in the foregoing conjugation. Pres. Loving. Per/, Loved. Compound Per/. Having loved. Pres. Being. Per/. Been. Compound Per/. Having been. Is love, as, " They love," a regular or ir- regular verb ? Why ? 533. active or pas- aive? 439. "What mood is it in? Why? 452. tense? why? 482, uumber? person^? What does love agree with ? Rule VII. Is are, as, "They are," a regular or irreg- ular verb? why? 534. passive or neuter? why? 450. What mood is it in? wliy? 452, tense? why? 482. number? person? Rule for its agreement? VII. What is the present imperative of love f present infinitive? What mood and tenne is " Love you"? " Tu have been loved" ? Will you conjugate learn in the pres- ent indicative active ? passive ? perfect aetive ? perfect passive ? present poten- tial active ? passive ? imperfect active ? passive ? imperative present active ? pas- sive ? perfect infinitive active? passive? present subjunctive active in both forms? passive? Wlmt kind of verb (that is, regular or irrc'gnliir), what voice, mood, tense, num- I'er, mid p«rson, is " I sing"? 'MVe are liirmed" ? "He is"? "You are deter- mined"? "It rains"? "It has happen- ed"? "The man was respected"? "The boys did BtU''y"? "If he improve"? "Un- less lie repent"? "Although slie be dis- appointed" ? " He may depart" ? " Depart now"? "To love"? "To sing"? "To be sung" ? "To rejoice" ? " To have wept"? " To have been seen" ? " To have been found" ? TENSES. 77 Synopsis with Thou. INDICATIVE MOOD. Pres. Thou loVDSt. Thou art loved. Thou art. r,„p. Thou lovedst. Thou wast loved. Thou wast. Pcrf. Thou hast loved. Thou hast been loved. Thou hast been. Plup. Thou hadst loved. Thou hadst been loved. Thou hadst been. 1 Put. Thou shaltoi-wilt Thou shalt or wilt be Thou shalt or wilt be. love. loved. 2 Fat. Thou wilt have Thou wilt have been Thou wilt have been. loved. loved. 537. Piei. Thou mayst oi- canst love. Imp. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldat, or shouldst love. Perf. Thou mayst or canst have loved. Plup. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have loved. POTENTIAL MOOD. Thou mayst or canst be loved. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst be loved. Thuu mayst or canst havo been loved. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst haVe been loved. Thou mayst or canst be. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst be. Thou mayst or canst have been. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have been. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 538. Pre9. If thou lovest. Imp^ If thou lovedsfc. 639. Prcs. If thou love. Iv\p, If thou loved. 540. Perf, If thou hast loved. Plup. If thou hadst loved. 1 /''((/. If thou shalt or wilt love. 2 Fut. If thou shalt have loved. Common Form. If thou art loved. If thou wast loved. Subjunctive Form, If thou be loved. If thou wert loved. Common Form. If thou hast been loved. If thou hadst been loved. If thou art. If thou wast. If thou be. If thou wert. If thou hast been. If thou hadst been. If thou shalt or wilt be If thou shalt or wilt loved. be. If thou shalt have been If thou shalt have been. loved. 541. Interrogative Form. INDICATIVE PRESENT. Singular. Singular. 1. Am I loved? 1. Am I ? 2. Are you loved ? 2. Are you ? 3. Is he loved? 3. Is he? Plural. Plural. 1. Are we loved? 1. Are we ? 2. Are you loved? 2. Are you? 3. Are they loved? 3. Are they? 542. You will find, on examination of the foregoing conjugation, that the tenses of the subjunctive are in every respect similar to the corresponding ones of the indicative, except the following, namely, the present and imperfect Siiit/ufar, 1. Do I love? 2. Do you love ? 3. Does he love ? Plural. 1. Do wo love ? 2. Do you love? 3. Do they love ? Will you ;^ive tlie synopsis of /oue joined witli t/iou ttirough the indicative active? passive ? Neutt'r verb to be f Will you name tho Bynopsis of learn in tlic first person in the active voice, througb each mood and tense? Will you repeat the two tenses of the infinitive and the three participles? Synopsia of 7* ftonor in like manner through the passive? also the aynopais of the verb to bp. ? Give synopsis of desire in the active, like love; in the passive ; verb to be ; first person plural active; passive; lobe; third person active; passive; to be. Wliat moorl does the subjunctive resem- ble iu its tenses ? 542. 78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. of the verb to be ; the present and imperfect of the passive j the present and the second future of the active. The last corresponds in termination, but not in formation. Among the exceptions should be recltoned the use of the conjunction if. There are instances, however, of the subjunctive form when no conjunction is expressed, but in all such cases it is plainly under- stood, as, "Were I to go, he would not follow;" "Had he known me, he would have treated me diflFerently ■/' that is, " If I were to go," and, " If he had known." Examples of this description are conjugated as follows : SUBJUNCTIVE FORM. 643. IMPERFECT TENSE. Shigular. Plural. 1. Were I. 1. Were we, 2. -Were you. 2. Were you. 3. Were he. 3. Were they. PLTTPERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plura I. 1. Had I loved. 1. Had we loved. 2. Had you loved. 2. Had yon loved. 3. Had he loved. 3. Had they loved, 544. The second person singular of all Terbs^' formerly (1) ended in st, as, " Thou hast," *' Thou wast," etc. This form is still retained by that respectable class of persons denominated (2) Friends, and in the Sacred Scriptures (3). 545. Eth, for the termination of the third person singular, obtained (4) very generally till within a recent (5) period, especially on grave (6) and didactic (7) subjects ; as, " He that hath ears to hear, let him hear;" " Sim- ple multiplication teacheth to repeat," etc. But the custom of the present day is decidedly (8) against this form of expression. 546. The Scriptures abound with (9) instances of the use of the pronoun ye for you; as, *' Ye are the salt of the earth;" but it is scarcely to be met with in any standard works of modern date. 547. The following conjugation accords with the ancient usage of the, verb. INDICATIVE PEESENT. Singular. Singular. Singular. 1. I love. 1. I am loved. 1. I am. 2. Thou lovest. 2w. Thou art loved. 2. Thou art. 3. He loveth or loves. 3. He is loved. 3. He is. What exceptions ? 542. By whom is this termination still re- How docti the second future differ ? 542. tallied ? 544. In what writings ? 544. Will yoii explain the diflference ? 542. Meaning of Sacred Scripium f 544. What is the 8ifi,n of the subjunctive What form of the third person singular mood? 516, la it always expressed? bi'Z. obtained till recently? 545. Give an ex- Oive an example. 542. Will you supply ample. 545. the conjunction ? Meaning of dbtaine.df 545. Of recettt? Will yoa conjugate the verb in be in 545. the subjunctive mood, imperfect tenae, On what subjects was the termination without Its usual sign? In like manner ef A used in writing? 545. conjugate Im^e. in the pluperfect. Meaning of grave? of didactic f 545. Will you conjugate i5ue in the present lu what writings do we find ye used for active, interrogative form? passive? neu- i/ouf 546. ter verb lo bef Is it common in modern works ? 546. In what voice, mood, tense, number, Will you conjugate love in the present and per.son is "Do I study?" "Did she active, according to the ancient usage? study V" "Were they dismissed?" "Are 547. passive ? neuter verb (o 6e? weV" In what number and person is "He In what did the second person singular hath"? "He hntes" ? "Thou loveaf? of all verbs formerly end ? 644. Give an "Thou hast"? "lie learneth" ? "Ye example. 544. learn"? "He rejoiceth" ? "Thou art re- Menmng of formerly f 544. joiced" ? "Thou art"? " lie woepeth"? * Excepting art. (1.) Some time ago. (2.) Called. (3.) The Bible. (4.) Prevailed. (5.) Late. (6.) Serious. (7.) Abounding in precepts or InhLriictiou. (8.) Positively. (9.) Uave many. VERBS. 79 Plural, Plurul. Plural. 1. We love. 1. We are loved. ]. We are. 2. Ye or you lore. 2. Ye or you are lovod. 2. Ye or you are. 3. They love, 3. They are loved. 3. They are. 548. j5@* For a further illustration of these obsolete conjugations, the learner is referred to those treatises on grammar in our schools, which pro- fens to furnish him with a sore and infallible guide to the true and proper use of the English language. RULE VI. The nominative case governs the verb in number and person. RULE VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person. RULE VIII. Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case. EXERCISES I2Sr PARSING. '•^William was admired for his prudence." 549. William is a propek nodx, of the thied psaso-V, singttlae NUMBER, MAsctJLiNE GENDBE, and in the NOMINATIVE CASE to was ad- mired, aocoi-ding to Rule VI. Was admired is a keoular passive veeb, from the verb to admire. — " Pres. admire; Imp. admired; Per/, part, admired. 1. I was ad- mired ; 2. You were admired ; 3. He or William was admired" — in the indicative mood, imperfect tense, third person, singulae NUMBER, and agrees with William, according to Rule VII. For is a preposition. His is a personal peonoun, of the third person, singtilah num- ber, MASCULINE SENDEE, and agrees with William, according to Rule V. — '•^Nom. he; Poss. his" — in the possessive case, .and gov- urned \ij prudence, by Rule I. Prudencexs a common noun, of the thied person, singular number, neuter sender, objective case, and governed hy for, by Rule X. EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 1. "John was applauded for his elo- "The girl was ridiculed by her quence." companions." " The king was crowned at West- " Susan was respected for her virtn- minster Abbey." ous conduct." " Thomas has been esteemed." " James will be rewarded by his " The business will be regulated." instnictor." "Addition teacheth"? "He that hiith was ailmiredl 649. forf 649. hisf 649. cars"? "He that sinnetli"? "Thou lov- prvdpncef 549. edst"? "Tlioii migiitr^t, coiildst, wouldet, What is a passive verb? 444. How or shoulii-'t have laiiiRnted" ? formed? 510. Wliy is admired regular? Wliat is tile rule for llie agreement of 53-3. tlio verlp? rule for the nominative? rnle Why is /or a preposition ? 246. Why is by whicli verbs govern the olijective cnsp? his a pronoun ? "William was admired for his pru- Will yDu now parse the remaining exer- dence." Will you parso William? 649. cises? 80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2. " We may be esteemed," "Justice may have been stayed." " He might have been promoted." " The task must be performed." "William would have been de- "We should not (1) be easily (1) throned." disheartened in a good cause." " Jf he be learned." 550. If is a oopnLATivE conjunction. Be learned is a eegula.u passive verb, from the verb to learn — '■'■Pres. learn; Imp. learned; Perf. part, learned. 1. If I be learned ; 2. If you be learned ; 3. If he be learned" — in the sub- junctive MOOI), SUBJUNOTIVB FORM, PRESENT TENSE, THIRD PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, and agrees with he, according to Rule VII. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 1. " If John be rewarded." " Although you will be disappoint- " If I am noticed." ed." " Unless he be punished." " If the man had been elected." " Although they are respected." " Except he repent." " Columbus discovered America." " Susan assisted the little girl." " America was discovered by Co- " The little girl was assisted by lumbus." Susan." " John wounded his brother.'' " Pain follows pleasure." " John's brother was wounded by " Pleasure is followed by pain." him." 2. " An obedient son is deservedly re- " Unless great labor had been be- spected by his friends." stowed on William, he would "An idle boy will be punish- have disappointed tlie exfjecta- ed." tions of his parents." "Without knowledge a man is "He will not (1) mind without commonly (1) despised." corporal punishment." 3. "The boy who visited me in Sep- "They that seek knowledge wiU tember died in the city of Eos- find it." ton." "That lion which was exhibited "The man whom I found, perished in this town has been killed in a storm of snow." by his keeper," 4. "I found (2) John and William "I have assisted him and his sis- (3) in the garden with their ter in many diflSculties, to no father and mother." (3) (4) purpose." XLVII. OF IRREGTJLAIl VERBS. 551. Irregular verbs are those which do not form their im- perfect tense and perfect participle by adding to the present tense ed, or d only when the verb ends in e ; as, "If he be learneil." "Will you parse iff Why in the subjunctive form ? 463. 550. he learned f 550. Why in the subjmie- Will you purse the remaining exercises tive mood ? 556. in these lessons ? (1.) Adverb. (2.) Irregular verb. (3.) For >rffl»am and mo/Aer apply Rule XI. (4.) Adjective, IRREGULAR VERBS. 81 Pres. (ense. Go, Begin, Imperf. tense Went, Began, Per/. Participle. Gone. Begun. 552. LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. Those marked r. admit likewise a regular form. Preaent. Tmperfect. Per/, or Paaa. Part. Present. Imperfect, j *crf. or Pas$. Part. Abide, abode. abode. Hang, hung, r. hung. r. Am, was. been. Hear, heard. beard. Ariae, arode. arisen. Ucw, hewed, bcwu. r. Awako, awoke, r. awaked. Hide, bid. hidden, hid. Rear, to bring } forth, > Bear, to carry, bare. born. Hit, Hold, hit, held. hit. held. bore. borne. Hurt, hurt. burL B&ut, beat. beaten, beat. Keep, kept, kei)t. liegiQ, began, begun. Knit. knit, T. knit. r. Bead, bent, beut. Kuow, knew. known. Bereave, bereft, r. bereft, r. Lade, laded. ladeu. Bexeecb, beaought. besought. Lav. laid. laid. Bid, bid, bade. bidden, bid. Leiid, led, led. Bind. bonud, bound. Leave, left. left. Bite, bit, bitten, bit. Lend, lout. lent. Bleed, bled. bled. Let, lot. let. Blow, blew, blown. Lie, to lie down lay, lain. Break, broke. broken. Load, loaded, laden, r. Breed, bred, bred. Lose, lost. lost. Bring, Build, brought, brnugbt. Miike, made. made. built, built. Meet, met. met. Burst, burst, burHt. Mow, mowed. mown. r. Buy, bougbt, bought. Pay. paid, paid. Oufit, oast. cast. Put, put. put. GiLtob, oaught, r. caught, r. chidden, chid. Read, read, read. Chide. chid. Rend, rent. rent. Choose, ohOBO, ObOSCD. Rid, rid. rid. Cleave, to aHck { regular. Ride, rode. rode, ridden.t or adhere, j Ring, rang, rang. rung. Cleave, to split. clove or cleft, cleft, cloven. Rise, rose, risen. Cling, olung. clung. Rive, rived. riven. Glatlie, clothed. clad, r. Run, ran, run. Come, oamo. come. Saw, sowed, sawn. r. Gout, cost. CUHt. Say, eaid. aaid. Crow, orew.r. crowed. See. saw, seen. Creep, crept, crept. Seek, Bought, sought. Cut, cut, out. Sell, flold. sold. Dare, to Vdnture, durst. dared. Send, Beat, sent. Daro, to chat- i leng»t 1 Set, set. set. r. Shake, shook. Bbakeo. Deal," dealt, r. dealt, r. Shape, shaped. shaped, shapeo. Dig, dug, r. , dug. r. Shave, shaved, shaven, r. Do, did. done. Shear, sheared, shorn. Draw, drew, drawn. Shed, shed, shed. nrlvo. drove, driven. Shine, shone, r. shone, r. Drink, drank. drunk. Show, showed. showo. Dwell, dwelt, dwelt, r. Shoe, shod, shod. Eat, eat or ale. eaten. Shoot, shot. shot. Kail. fell. fallen. ' Shrink, shrunk. shrank. Peed, fed. fed. Shred, ebred. shred. Feel, felt. felt. Shut, shut. shut. Fight, fought. fought. Sing, sung, sang, sung. Find, found, found. Sink, sunk, sank. sank. Flee. fled. fled. Sit, eat. sat. FIlDg, flung, flung. Slay, slew, slain. Fly, flew. flown. Sleep, slept. slept. Forget, forgot, forgotten, forgot. Slide, slid. slidden. Fontake, forsook, forsaken. Sling, ■lung. Blang. Freeze, froze, frozen. Sliuk, Hlunk, slunk. Get, got. got.» Slit, silt. r. slit or slitted. Gild, gilt, r. gUt r. Smite, smote. smitten. Gird, girt, r. girt. r. Sow, sowed, sown. r. Give, gave. given. Speak, spoke. spoken. Go. went. gone. Sjieed, sped. sped. Grave, graved. graven, r. Spend, spent. spent. Grind, ground, ground. Spill, spilt, r. spUt. r. Grow, grow, grown. Spin, spun. spun. Have, bad. had. Spit, spit, spat, spit, spitten... XLVI. When is a verb called irregular? 551. Will you name the present and imper- fect tt^nses, also the perfect participle, of go f begin f am ? arise f awake f bear f (to carry.) bid? bitef break f choose f dof drink? eat? forget? have? known? h<' ? (to lie down,} mow ? rise ? see f throw t weave f write f • Gotten la nearly obsolete. Its compound, forgotten, is still in good use. t Hidden is nearly obsolete. J Spitten ia nearly obeolete. 82 ENGLISH GEAMM AR. Preaent Jmpcr/ect. Perf. or Paaa. Part. Present. Imperfect. Pffrf. or Paaa. Part Split. split, split, r. Take, took. taken. Spread, spread, upread. Teach, taught. taught. Spring, sprung, sprang sprung. Tear, tore. torn. StaDd, stood, stood. Tell, told. told. Steal, stole. stolen. Think, thought, thought. Stick, stuck, stuck. Thrive, throve, r. thriven. StiQg, BtUQg, stung. Throw, threw, thrown. Stink, stunk. stunk. Thrust, thrust, thrust. Stride, strode orstrld. stridden. Tread, trod. trodden. Strike, struck. struck or striokea. Wax, waxed. waxen, r. String, Birung, strung. Wear, wore, worn. Strive, strove, striven. Weave, wove, woven. Strow, or C atrowed, or I strewed, Catrown or atrowed, ( strewed. Weep, wept, wept. strew, Win, won. won. Swear, swore, sworn. Wind, wound. wound. Sweat, Swell, sweat, r, swelled, sweat, r. swollen, r. Work, wrought, 5 wrought or I worked. Swim, swum, swam. swum. Wring, wrung. wrung. Swing, strung. swung. Write, wrote. written. 553. "We say, " I have seen," " I had seen/' and ' participle seen instead of the verb 8aw : hence, I am seen," using the Note YI. We should use participles, only, after havej and hady and the verb to he, EXEKCISES IN SYNTAX. '"''John has written his C02?2/." 554. Has written is an irregular active-transitive verb, from the verb to write — '^ Pres. write; Imp. wrote; Per/, part. written. 1. I have written ; 2. You have written ; 3. He or John has written" — in the indicative mood, perfect tense, third PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, and agrees with John, by Rule John, copy, and his, are parsed as before. EXERCISES IN "Job has struck Jolin." " John has been struck by Job." "The men caught the thief in the tavern." "The thief was caught by the men in the tavern." "A wise son will make father." SYNTAX CONTINUED. 1. " The act was done by William." James found his little brother in the boat." The instructor makes good pens." The farmer ploughs the ground in spring." I may spend my time in the country." Will you correct, in accordance with Note VI., the following examples from the Ust above ? "John has wrote." *' He done it well." " The sun has rose " "The flun risen yesterday in a clond." "I see him yesterday ." *' He has did bis task." "The birds have flew away.*' ''The birds flown or flew." *'The post is drove into the ground." "He begun to write." "The task is began." " I had went with liim." " My brotlier has not spoke." " Tke cloth is woveJ' "The bo-ys run swiftly." "The thief has atole my wateh.** " His copy was wrote well." " He was smote on his cheek." "John was awoke by the noise." " My father has came." " He come yenterday." " Mary has chose the better part." "He drunk to excess." "The book was gave to me." " His friends have forsook him." " He was not forsook by his chil- dren." " The laborer worked for me forty days." "He was took and bound." " Johu has written his copy." Will you parse 7m.t vrritten f Why is has written an irregular verb? 551. Why active? 439. "Why transitive? 440. ^ EXERCISES. 83 2. " John is at home." " Rufus rode into the country." " The sun will shine." " The thief was confined in jail." "The horse ran with great vio- lence." 3 "If he will assist me, I shall be much (1) obliged to him." " If he be virtuous, then he will be happy." " If he is happy, then I am con- tented." " Had he mentioned that circum- stance, I shoiild have avoided my present calamities." " Although he acknowledged his 4 " Thou hast benefited me." " Ye make no pretensions." "This doctrine hath no follow- ers." "If thou love me." "If thou art more comfortable, I heartily rejoice." " If Thomas, who is at school, re- turn in season, I will visit you." "The boys whom I admonished have reformed." " The man whose life was in danger returned in safety." "The taak which the instructor " He abode in peace." " They would be cruel." " We may have been negligent." " The boys should have been stu- dious." " William was in town." faults, still he would not rec- ompense me." " I will write him, lest he neglect my business." "Should I be disappointed, I shall despair." "Unless he repent, he will not be pardoned." " Were I * in your place, I would relieve him." " Dost thou hear me ?" " Hath he many advisere ?" " Ye do always err." " Thou shalt sui-ely die." " If thou hadst obeyed me, thou wouldst not have been disap- pointed." imposed was performed with reluctance." "The measure which he adopts will succeed." " I have known a little child that exhibited the prudence of ma- ture years." XLVII. GOVERNMENT OF THE INFINITIVE. 555. When I say, "John begins to read," to read is a verb in the infinitive mood; and it follows, as you perceive, the verb begins : hence we say that It is governed by hegina. " He is beginning to read." Here, the infinitive follows the participle begitmvig ; it is, therefore, governed by beginning. '* Ho is eager to learn." Here, the infinitive follows the adjective eager j we therefore say that it is governed by eager. "He has an opportunity to learn.*' Here, the infinitive, to learn, is governed by the noun o23port unity, because it follows the noun. In like manner the infinitive may be governed by a pronoun ; as, " There is a fine opportunity for him to learn :*' h^nce, XLVI. "John IiesJns to read.'* In what " Ho has an opportunity to learn." moo^'is tnread? 555. Why? 479, By wlmt What part of speech governs to learn in is it governeil ? 555. Wliy ? 555. this example ? 555. Why ? 555. *' lie is beginning to rcml." What guv- "opportunity for him to learn." ems t- read in tliia ciisi' ? 505. Wliat does the infinitive here fol- *' He is eager to learn." ^Vhat governs low? By what, then, is it governed? to learn in this case? 5;J5. Wh\ ? 5J5. 555. (1.) Adverb. •See 543. 84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. RULE XII. The ivfinitive mood may be governed by verbs, participles, adjectives, nouns, and pronouns. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. "James begins to learn." 556. To learn is a eegulae transitive veeb — " Pres. learn ; Imp. learned; Perf. part, learned" — in the infinitive moob, PRESENT tense, and governed by begins, agreeably to Eule XII. James and begins are parsed as before. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. " George desires to learn." " A knowledge of the rules of " He is eager to learn." grammar teaches us to write " He has a desire to study." correctly." " It seems to please John." " He should seek to obtain knowl- " V/illiam has come to see us." edge." " They are determined to ex- " We may be taught to write, read, eel." and spell." Omission of to, ike usual Sign of the Infinitive. "John saw the man strike (1) the "I heard the clock strike." boy." " The tutor bade him do it." " The instructor made him sub- " The soldiers dare not rebel." mit." " My uncle let the boys play in the "They need not proceed in such garden." haste." " See (2) the blind beggar dance." Note VII. The infinitive mood is sometimes g-overned by conjunctions or adverbs ; as, " The summit of a mountaia so high as to be invisible." EXAMPLES. "They are about (3) to depart." "lie desired no more (4) than (5) " He is wise enough (3) to study." to know his duty." XLVIII. 557. We have before seen, that participles partake of the nature of two parts of speech, namely, verbs and adjectives. One point of resemblance which participles have to adjectives, is in referring to some noun in the sen- tence in which they are used; as, " The sun is setting :" here the participle setting is said to refer to the noun svn : hence, What, then, may be regarded as a rule " Tbey are aliont to depart." By vhat for the Foverninput ol the infinitive? XII. is the infinitive here governed? What is '' James begins to learu." Will you parse the note for th is ? VII. tolem-n/ Jinmsf begins? 556. XLVIII. What is a participle? 498. Is In ever omitted? 480. "The sun is setting." What is seltingf Will ysoii ? What kiud of participle is "tlaving Will you parse rising, in tlio sentence, dined"? 504. Why? 504. "The rising sun"? 559. Why is it called a Who dined, in the phnise, "Having participial .adjective? ^Jt,*!. Because it de- dined, I returned to school"? Bcrihes.liltoanadjectivcandiUipliesaction, To what, then, does having dintd refer? like a participle. Rule XIII, Will you now p.irso the re- Wdl you uow par^o the next lesson? niaining lessons? (1,) At last la an adverbial phrase. 86 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 5. " A dissipated son grieves his youth into his own house, and parents." rendered him deserved assiet- " We must not neglect any known ance." duty." " William befriended the deserted " My father took the forsaken man." 6. " The men, being fatigued by labor, effect, was severely and justly sought rest in sleep." punished." "William,beingdismissed from col- "The tree, having been weighed lege, retired to the country." down for a long time by abun- " Thomas, after having been re- dance of fruit, at last (1) fell to peatedly admonished to no the ground." RULE XIV. Active participles, from active-transitive verbs, govern the objective case. "James is beating John." 560. John is a proper noun, of the third person, singular NUMBER, MASCULINE GENDER, OBJECTITE CASE, and governed by beating, by Rule XIV. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 1. " John is striking William." immediately set off for Bos- " Susan is studying her lesson." ton." " Mary has been repeating her les- "I spied the cat watching a son to her mother." mouse." "The teamster, seeing the stage "Having given directions to his upsetting, ran and prevented servants, he left his family it." and took the stage for Wash- " Having obtained nir request, I ington." 2. "iJe delights in Jighting." 561. Fighting is a PARTICIPIAL NOUN, in the objective case, and governed by the preposition in, according to Rule X. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 1. " Job was exhausted by wrest- " Job practises fencing daily." ling." _ "The instructor teaches reading, "Mary gained a livelihood by writing, and spelling in his sewing." school." "Walter excels in writing." "Whispering in school is forbid- " Fishing delights me." den." "Beating Jolin." Will you parse /o/m ? 561, Why is ,/[ and did mark the action itself, or the time of it, with greater energy and positiveness j as, "I do speak truth;" ^'I did respect him:" "Hero am I, for thou didst cnll me." They are of great use in negative {!) sentences; as, " T (f o jfo^fearj" " I f??V? »o( write." They are almost univer- sally employed in asking questions which may be answered hj yes or no; as, '' Does he learn?" " Did he not write?" They sometimes also supply (2) the place of another verb, and make the repetition of it, in the same or a subse- quent sentence, unnecessary; as, "'You attend not to your studies as he rfoes/" (i.e. " as he attends," etc.) " I shall come, if I can ; but if I do nof, please to excuse me ;" (i,c, " if I come not.") 567. ?.I'fi/ and m>(/ht express the possibility or liberty of doing a thing; ca?i and cn^tW, the power; as, " It may rain ;" '■ I may write or read ;'' "He might have improved more than he has;" "He can write much better than he could last year." XLIX. "Wliich are the auxiliary verba? "What pfifect have dn and did in sea- ^^;-, tencea? o66. Give an example. 6ri6. Wiat IS an auxiliary verb? 511, Will urn give an example in which the J\ hilt 18 a principal verb?* repetition of the principal verb is uimeces- U hen are liave, be, will, and dn principal sary ? 5(i6. verbs? 564. Give an exiiiuijle of euch. 5t.U. What du iiia// and m/£/fti! express ? r.67. (1.) Denying. (2,) Fill up. # See questiou to 197. AUXILIARY VERBS. 0\) 668. Must is sometiinea called in for a helper, and denotes necessity j as, "We must speak the truth, whenever wc do &peak, and we must not pre- varicate." (1) 569. Wilf., in the first person singular and plural, intimates (2) resolution and promising J in the second and third persons, it only I'oretells; as, "I will reward the good, and will punish the wicked;" "Wcwill remember benefits, and be grateful j" "Thou wilt, or he will, repent of that folly;" " You, or they, will have a pleasant walk." 570. Shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretells; in the second and third persons, it promises, commands, or threatens; as, "I shall go abroad;" "We shall dine at home;" '*Thou shalt, or you shall, inherit the land ;" "Ye shall do justice, and love mercy;" " They shall account for their misconduct." The following passage is not translated (3) according to the distinct and proper meanings of the words ahall and will : " Surely good- ness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life ; and I will dwell in the house of the Lord forever." It ought to be " will follow me," and '* I nhall dwell.'' — The foreigner who, as it is said, fell into the Thames, and cried out, " I will be drowned ! nobody uhall help me !" made a sad misapplication of those auxiliaries. 571. These observations respecting the import (4) of the verbs will and shall, must bo understood of explicative sentences; for when the sentence is interrogative, just the reverse, (5) for the most part, takes place: thus, " I Hhnll go," "You will go," express event (6) only; but "Will you go?" imports intention ; and " Shall I go ?" refers to the will of another. But " Ho ahall go," aud " Shall he go ?" both imply will ; expressing ©r referring to a command. 572. When the verb is put in the subjunctive mood, the meaning of theso auxiliaries likewise undergoes (7) some alteration, as the learner will readily perceive by a few examples : " He nhall proceed;" " If he shall pro- ceed;" "You ehall consent;" " If you nhall consent." These auxiliaries are sometimes interchanged (8) in the indicative and subjunctive moods, to con- vey the same meaning of the auxiliary; as, " He «Ji7i not return ;" "If he shall not return ;" " He shall not return ;" " If he loill not return." 573. Would primarily (9) denotes inclination of will; and should, obliga- tion ; but they both vary their import, and are often used to express simple event. 574. Do and have are sometimes used as principal verbs, according to the following SYNOPSIS. INDICATIVE MOOD. Pree^ I do. I have. Imp. I did. I had. Per/. I have done, I have had. Plnp. I had done. I had had. 1 FnL I shall or will do. I shall or will have. 2 Flit. I shall have done. I shall have had. Whiit ia the use o^viustf 56S. diiys of my life; and I will dwell in the What does will intimate in the first per- houso of the Lord forevor." 570, ■Bon singular ? plural ? 569. Give an exam- lu what consiBts the mistake in the pie. 569. In the second and third persons? expression which the fnreisner uaed when 569. Give au example. 569. he fell into the Thames ? 570, What does ahall mtiniHto in the first What do shalt and will denote in inter- persnn ? 570. Give an example. 570. rogative sentences; as, ''Shall I go?'* In what i>articular is the translation of "Will you go?" 571, the fulldwing paseage incorrect? "Surely What do would and should primarily goodness and mercy shall follow me all the denote ? 573, 1.) To shun the truth. (2.) Shorre. (3.) Expressed. (^.) MeAning. (5.) Contrary. '6.) Whcit happena. (7) Suflwis, (3.) Eselianyed one for the other. (9.) In the lirat plaoe. 8* u 90 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 575. POTENTIAL MOOD. Pren. I may or can do. I may or can have. Imp. I might, could, would, or I might, could, would, or should should do. have. Per/. I may or can have done. 1 may or can have had. Plup. I might, could, would, or I might, could, would, or should should have done. have had. 576. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Pres. 1. If I do. If I have, etc. 576—1. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Pred. Do you, or Do you do. Have you, or Do you have. 577. INFINITIVE MOOD. Pres. To do. To have. Per/. To have done. To have had. 578. PARTICIPLES. Prea. Doing. Having. Perf. Done. Had. Comp. Per/. Having done. Having had. L. OF DEFECTIVE VERBS. 579. Defective verbs are those which are used only in some of the moods and tenses. iSO, The following are the principal ones; Pret. Tense. Imp. Tense. Per/. Participle. May, Might, (Wanting.) Can, Could, Will, Would, Shall, Should, Must, Must, Ought, Ought, Quoth, 581. Of these, ought and mvet, you perceive, are not varied. 682. Ought and quoth are always used as principal verbs. Ought is tho same in the imperfect tense as in the present, and is always followed by an infinitive; as, "He ought to study;" "He ought to have read." In this last example, ought is in the imperfect; and in the first, it is in the present. This we determine by the infinitive which follows the verb : thus, when the present infinitive follows ought, ought is in the present tense ; but when the perfect infinitive follows it, it is in the imperfect tense. 583. In English, verbs are often used both in a transitive and in an intran- sitive, or neuter, signification. Thus, to spread is an active-transitive verb in the sentence, " He spread the report through the town ;" but it is intran- sitive in the sentence, "The report spread through the town." Will you repeat the synopsis of do Wliich are not varied? 581. tiirough all the moods? of have? How are ought and quoth always used? Will you conjugate do in the present 582. tense? have in tlie perfect tense? How can you tell when ought is in the What is the perfect participle of do? of present tense? 682. have ? the compound perfect of do? of V\*hen is it in the imperfect tense ? 582. iavn f Give an example of each tense. 582. L. What are defective verbs ? 679. When is to finlten transitive, and when Will yon mention the principal ones, intransitive? 683. with their imperfect tenses? 680. How, then, are verbs often used? 684. DEFECTIVE VEEBS. * 91 684. A neuter or intransitive verb, by the addition of n. preposition, may become a compound active-transitive verb; as, to smile is intransitive; it cannot, therefore, be followed by an objective case, nor be changed into the pnssive form. We cannot say, " Siic smiled him," or, " He was smiled ;" but we say, very properly, " She smiled on him ;" " He was smiled on by her." 585. Prepositions affect the meaning of verbs in different ways. To cast mciins to throw; as, "He cast a stone at her." To cast up, however, means to compute; as, "He oasts up his accounts." In all instances in which the preposition follows the verb, and modifies its meaning, it should be considered a |iart of the verb, and be so treated in parsing. 586. There are some verbs which, although they admit an objective case after them, still do not indicate the least degree of action ; as, "I resemble iny father." This seeming inconsistency may be easily reconciled by reflect- ing that, in all such cases, the verb baa a direct referenee to its object. Of this nature are the verbs retain, resemble, own, have, etc. 587. Some neuter or intransitive verbs admit of a passive form, and are thence called neuter-passive verbs ; as, "John goes home to-night." Here goes is an intransitive verb. But in the sentence, " John is gone homo," is gone is a neuter-passive verb. Again, in the phrase, "William comes," comes is an intransitive verb; and in the phrase, "William is come," is come is a neuter-passive verb. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 1. " William had had many advan- " He has had many precious oppor- tages before he improved them tiinities." in a proper manner." " John will do as his instructor "A good scholar will not do what directs." (1) is forbidden by his instruc- " He may have had time." tor." 2. " I own this book." " I cannot believe him." " Charles resembles his parents." " His father does not hesitate to "He retains his place." trust him." 3. " The farmer casts seed into the " She smiles sweetly." ground." " She smiled on John." " The merchant casts up his ac- " John was smiled on by fortune in counts often." every undertaking." 4. " The instructor has come." " Mary was gone before her mother " Our instructor has come." came." "William has gone lo visit his "When they came to town, they parents." made many purchases." " Susan has gone." How ciin an intransitive verb become Is reBemfife, strictiy speaking, a transitive tran-iirive? 584. Give an example. 584. verb? fi86. Wlijit does to cast mean ? 585. Why does it admit an object after it ? 586. Wi'amujX of iJi cast vp? !>85. Tiiere are several verbs of this class : will When may the preposition be reckoned a yOu name some of them ? 586. part of the verb ? 585. What is a neuter-passive verb ? 587. Uow should it be considered in parsing 7 Give an example. 587. 685. Will you now parse the next lessons? (1.) Wliat atauda for "that which," or "the Ihmg which." Apply Rules V., VI., and VIII. 92 • ENGLISH GRAMMAR. LI. OF ADVERBS. 588. Adveebs are words joined to verbs, participles, ad- jectives, and other adverbs, to qualify them. 689. Expressions like tlie following, namely, « few days ago, long aivce, none at all, at length, in vain, by no means, a great deal, etc., are deuominated adverbial phrases, when they are used to qualify verbs or participles, by ex- pressing the manner, time, or degree of action. 590. The definite article the is frequently placed before adverbs of the comparative and superlative degrees, to give the expression more force ; as, " The more he walks, the better he feels." When the article is ujed in this sense, both the article and adverb may be reckoned an adverbial phrase, and be so considered in parsing. 591 . You have doubtless noticed that most words ending in ly are adverbs. The reason of this is that ly is a contraction of the adverb li7i:e : thus, from manlike we form manly : gentlemanly is a contraction of gentlemanlike. Hence, 692. If you meet with a ivord ending in ly, implying in its signification the idea of like, you may conclude at once that it is an adverb. RULE IX. Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. "In vam we look for perfect Jiappiness." 593. In vain is an ADVERBIAL phrase, and qualiiies looh, ac- cording to Rule IX. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. " John lias come again, but Wil- " William acted very nobly." Ham has not." " I will by no means consent." " Very many persons fail of happi- " He wrote a long letter a few days ness." ago." (1) " A great many evils are incident " John was writing carelepsly." to man in his wearisome jour- " I have admonished her once and ney tlirough life." again." " The instructress has at length '' A few days ago, there was much arrivi ed." excitement in town.' LT. M'liat is the meaning of adverbf "When are they to be considered ad- 228. Terbial phrases ? 589. To \Tliat is tlie adverb joined ? 588. Is the article the ever joined to an ad- T'or what purpose? 688. verb? 590. For \vliat purpose ? 590. Huw iiianv different parts of speech does "What do the article and adverb form in it qualify? 688. audi cases? 690. Which are they? 588. How is it to be considered in parsing? "What is the definition of an adverb? 590. 688. How came most words ending in ly to be Are adverbs compared ?* considered adverbs? 591. Give an example. Will yuu compare mse/?/? 236. soon ? 254. 691, How are they compared? 236. How can we determine between words Will yon comp.ar6 the adverbs much? ending in /?/, whether or not they are ad- mll.' bialt me 237. verbs? 692. Some adverbs are not regular in their What rule do you apply when you parse comparison; will you name one? 237. an adverb? TX. Will you name four or five adverbial "In vain we look." Will yon parse i« phrases ? 689. rain f 693. (1.) A few days arfo—ait adverbial phrase. • See questioij to 234. PREPOSITIONS. 93 Note IX. To qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs, we should use adverbs; but to qualify nouns or pronouns, we should use adjectives. SENTENCES TO BE PAKSED AND CORRECTED. " William writes good.'** " Harriet dresses neat." " Susan studies diligent." " On conditions suitably to his "He speaks fluently and reasons urr^ \ correct " ^^ speaks correct." « T 1 .," , T 11 ., , " Mary sings admirable.*' "John writes tolerable well, but " He writes elegant " readst miserable." « He reads and spells very bad." SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 594. Will you write down a sentence containing a compound active- transitive verb ? One, liaving a neuter-passive verb ? Will you compose two or more sentences about a lionf Two or more, about slieep? Two or more, about a cow? One, about an ox? One, about a dog? One, about a cat? One, about Africam? One, about ImUanfif One, about fishes? One, about sleajnboat disasters? One, about stage accidents ? LIL OF PEEPOSITIOXS. 595. Prepositions are used to connect words, and to show the relation between them. 596. We not unfrcquently meet with verbs compounded of a preposition and a verb ; as, " to *(/)hold," " to /nvcst," *' to overlook ;" and this composi- tion sometimes gives anew sense to the verb ; as, "to understand," " to with- draw." But the preposition more frequently occurs after the verb, and sep- arate from it; as, "to onstvp," "to fall on." The sense of the verb, in this case, is also materially affected by the preposition. 598. The prepositions o/ter, before, above, beneath, and several others, some- times appear to be adverbs, and may be so considered ; as, " They had their reward soon o/Ve?' ;" " He died not long 6«/brey" " He dwells «fcoue ;" but if the noun time or plnce be added, they lose their adverbial form ; as, " He died not long before" [that time], etc. 599. There is a peculiar propriety in distinguishing the correct use of the different prepositions. For illustration, we will take the following sentences; "He walks wiVi a staff bi/ moonlight;" '* He was taken bi/ stratagem, and killed wif?i a sword." Put the one preposition for the other, and say, " He Will you next parse the remaining exer- With what are verbs not unfrequently cisos? compounded? 596. Give an example. 596. Wlion should we use adveiba ? Note Where is the preposition more fre- IX. qiicntly placed? 59t). Give an example. Wh»^n adjectives ? Note IX. 59R. " William writes jjcood." Wherein is this Will you name four prepositiuns which sentence incorrect?* in many instances appear to be adverbs? Will yon now parse and correct the re- 59S. mahiing exercis'.^s ? How may they be converted into prepo- LII. What IS the meaning of preposi- sitiocs again ? 598. lion? 244. " He walks by a staff with moonlight" What are prepositions? 695, Will you correct this sentence, and then Will you repeat the list ? 247, repeat the phrase? • For the adjective good, we should use the adverb well, according to Note IX. t Rcad^ agrees with jnhv nn(i<'r>-tood, aud la, therefore, connected with writes by the con- junction bi'J, agreeably to Rule XL 94 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. walks hi a stafif with moonlight;" " He was taken wilh stratagem, and killed ba a sword ;" and it will appear that they differ in signification more than one, at first view, would he apt to imagine. RULE X. Prepositions govern the objective case. EXEKCISES IN SYNTAX. '■'■John lives within his income." 600. Within is a preposition. Income is a COMMON NOtrisr, of the thikd peeson, singular NUMBER, NEUTER GENDER, OBJECTIVE CASE, and governed by within, according to Rule X. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. "Thomas made his fortune by He made the sun to shine by industry." day, and the moon (1) to give " Susan labors with her needle for light by night." a livelihood." " Beneath the oak lie acorns in " Respecting that affair, there was great abundance." a controversy." " John, who is at all times watch- " In six days God made the world, ful of his own interest, wiU and aU things that are in it. attend to that concern." SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 601 . Will you fill up the following sentences with suitable prepositions to make sense ? " John was — the house when he was seized a fit." " The busy bee — summer provides food — the approaching winter — the prudence — a rational being." Will you supply the objects to the following ? " James was catch- ing ." " He was beating ." " He supports ." Will you supply agents or nominative cases to the following ? " was running." " was dancing." Will you supply verbs in the following ? "A dutiful child his parents." " Grammar us correctly." Will you compose two or more sentences about hoysf One, about whales f One, about snakes ? One, about fores f One, about parents f One, about brothers f One, about sisters? One, about uncles? One, about aunts ? LIII. OF CONJUNCTIONS. 602. A CONJUNCTION is a word that is chiefly used to con- nect sentences, so as, out of two or more sentences, to make but one. Will you repeat the rule respecting the "What is a simple sentence? 253. Give government of noiina by prepositions? X. an example. A compound sentence? 256. " .Tohn lives witliin his income." Will Give an example, yon parse 70(^fti« ? 600. income? 60O. Wliy called comjionnd ? 254. Will you now take the remaining exer- LIII. Mt^anin;:: o\' cmjinicfi'mf 257. cisps to be parsed ; after which, those to be What is a noninnction ? 60'i. written? Meaning of coj)«/tr/u'e f 264-. (1.) The sense is, " He made the moon." Monn, then, is in the objective case, governed bj made understood, and connected with sun, by Kule XI. INTERJECTIONS. 95 803. Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect sen- tences; as, " Blessed is the man who feareth the Lord." 604. Conjunctions very often unite sentences when they appear to unite only words; as in the following sentences: "Duty and interest forbid vicious indulgences." " Wisdom or folly governs us." Each of these forms of expression contains two sentences, namely, the first, " Duty forbids vicious indulgences ;" " Interest forbids vicious indulgences :" the second, " Wisdom governs us;" " Folly governs us." RULE XI. Conjunctions connect verbs of the same mood and tense, and nouns or pronouns of the same case. EXEKCISES IN SYNTAX. 605. ^^ William writes and ciphers." And is a copulative conjunction. Ciphers is a eeqular active-inteansitive verb, from the verb to cipher — " Pres. cipher; Imp. ciphered; Per/, pari. ciphered. 1. I cipher; 2. You cipher; 3. He or William ciphers " — in the indicative mood, present tense, third per- son SINGULAR, and agrees with William understood, and is con- nected with wriles by the conjunction and, according to Rule XI. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. "John ciphers rapidly, and reads "Though he is lively, yet he is correctly." _ not too volatile." "If we contend about trifles, and "If he has promised, he should violently maintain our opin- act accordingly." ions, we shall gain but few " He denied that he circulated the friends." report." SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 606. Will you compose a sentence containing the conjunction if? One, containing and .? As many sentences as there are conjunctions which follow ; each sentence containing one ? Although. Unless. For. Be- cause. Therefore. Or. Neither. Nor. Will you compose a sentence about Jac&on.? One, about C?ai/ .' One, about Monroe ? One, about Madison f LIV. OF INTERJECTIONS. 607. Interjections are words thrown in between the parts of sentences, to express the passions or sudden feel- ings of the speaker. What is the use of the copulative con- What other words, besides conjunctions junction ? 265. and prepositions, connect 1 603. WiU you repeat the list of copulative Do conjunctions ever connect sentences conjunctions ? -fi&. when they appear to connect words only ? What does the word disjunctive signify ? 60i. Give an example. 60-1. 271. " William writes and ciphers." Will yon What does the disjunctive conjunction parse ajid.? 605. ciphers? 605. connect? 27-i. Will you now take the exercises to be Will you repeat the list of disjunctive parsed and written, and dispose of them ? conjnnctionH ? 276. LTV. What is the meaning of inter- What is the nile for connecting words jectiimf 283. by conjunctions ? XI. What are interjections ? 607. 96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 608. We do not say, "Ah I!" "Oh I!" but, "Ah me!" "Oh me!" using the objective case after the interjection. The pronoun here spolten of, you perceive, is of the first person : hence. Note X. Pronouns of the first person are put in the ob- jective case, after the interjections Oh ! O ! ah ! etc. 609. We say, " thou persecutor !" " Oh, ye hypocrites !" " thou who dwellest," etc. ; hence, Note XI. The interjections 0! oh! and ah! require the nominative case of pronouns in the second person. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 610. '■'■Ah me! I must perish." Ah is an interjection. Me is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular NUMBER, OBJECTIVE CASE, after ah, according to Note X. exeecises in syntax continued. "O, thou (1) who hast murdered "Ah! unhappy (2) thou, who art thy friend!" deaf (3) to the calls of duty " O thou whu hearest prayer !" and honor." "Ah me! must I endure all "Oh, happy (4) us, surrounded this ?" with so many blessings." SENTENCES TO BE WEITXEN. 611. 'Will you compose a sentence containing alasf One, containing ohf One, about j>o/ca)ioes.« One, about tate .? One, about is/ands .? One, about Webuler the statesman ? One, about a good scholar! One, about a poor sclu>lar ? One, about a good hulrmtor f LV. OF THE' AGREEMENT OE NOUNS. 612. Apposition, ia grammar, signifies the putting of two nouns in the same ease. 613. When I say, " John the mechanic has come," I am speaking of only one person, the two nouns, John and mechanic, both meaning or referring to the same person ; consequently they are put, by apposition, in the same case : hence, RULE XV. When two or more nouris, in the same sente'nee, signify the same thing, they are put, by apposition, in the same case. Will you repeat from the list six ioter- Will you now take tlie remaining ex- jeetions ? 285. erriees to be parsed and written ? How may an interjection generally bo LV. Wliat is the meaning of appositi'>' rase absolute with beilic, risen, by Rule XVII f2 1 R.ilp YTTt theiefoi-e bt he, by Rule XVII. ve CHse. Sim should MOOD. 101 ••To iilny is pleasant." What is pleasant? "To play." The infinitivo to piny is, then, the nominative case to i«. "Thou shalt not kill, is required of all men." What is required? "Thou shalt not kill." The verb in re- quired, then, agrees with "Thou shalt not kill," as its nominative. Hence, 626-1. Note XIII. — The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is frequently put as the nominative case to a verb of the third person singular. 627. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. "To excel requires much exer- "Thou shalt not kill, is the com- tion." mand of God." "To abandon friend,s will sink a "Honor thy father and thy mo- man's character." ther, is required of all men." "To practise religion is our "To write a fair hand requires duty." practice." Remark 1. — To excel is the nominative case to retjuires, by Note XTII., and requires agrees with to excel, by Rnle VIL In parsing " Thou shalt not kill," we first apply Eules VL, VII., and IX. The whole phrase is con- sidered the nominative to ia required, by Note XIII. 2. The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is frequently the object of a transitive verb, as, " Boys love to play." VP^hat do boys love? " To play." The object of love, then, is to play, " Children do not consider how much has been done for them by their parents." Consider what? *' How much has been done for them by their pareutn ;" including for the object of the verb the whole phrase in italics. Note XIV. — The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, may have an adjective or a participle agreeing with it, when there is no noun, either expressed or understood, to which the adjective may belong. 628. ' EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. "To see the sun is pleasant." "Defraud not thy neighbor, is " To practise virtue will be produc- binding on all." live of happiness." " To do good to our enemies, is not " To be ridiculed is unpleasant." natural to our hearts." Jiemarka. — Pleasant agrees with " to sec the sun," by Note XIV. Binding agrees with " Defraud not thy neighbor," by the same authority. To ia apply Rule VII. ; to enn. Rule VIII. ; to the infinitive to tee, Note XIII. 629. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. Will you compose one or more sentences having an infinitive governed by a participle ? One, using an infinitive after a noun ? One, describing the manner of playing ball ? One, or more, on the manner of playing tag ? One, on the duty of children to obey their parents ? One, or more, on industry f One, on the business you intend to pursue for life ? "To play ispleiisant." What is ple;isiiiit? Since wp have a rule for to lovf, as a Whiit, then, is the uominiitive to (s/ 626-1. verb, there is no necessity for considering Kale? Note XIII. it the object in parsing: what rnle, then, ''Thou Shalt not kill, is required of all will ,von apply to it? XII. men." What is required? Will you name an example in whicli What is the nominative to is required? there is part of a sentence used as the 620-1. Rnle? Note XIII. olijcct of a verb? 627. Remark 2. Will you now parse the remaining exer- ''To see the sun is pleasant." Will you cises uiider this law ? parse plemtani ? to see t the f itun ? ia- f "Boys love to play." What is the object Will ynu now parse the remaiuiog ejcei> of love f 627. Remark 2. cises under Note XIV.? 9* 102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. LIX. 630. In the phrase, "John and James are here," the sense is that " John and James are both here ;" two persons are therefore spoken of, which ren- ders it necessary to use the plural verb are, to agree with two nouns which individually are singular : hence, RULE XVIII. TiDO or more nouns or pronouns, of the singular number, connected by and, either expressed or understood, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing with them in the plural number. 631. EXERCISES " William and James run." " Mary and Harriet study, and they will therefore excel." " You and I are in fault." "John and Thomas say they in- tend to study Latin." IN SYNTAX. " John and Joseph can get their lessons." "Time and tide wait for no man." "My coat and pantaloons were made by Watson." Bemarlis. — William is one of the nominatires to the verb run. Jamet is in the nominative ease to the verb run, and is connected with the noun Wil- liam, by Rule XI. linn agrees with William and James, by Rule XVIII. 632. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. " Mary and her cousin has come." " You and I makes progress in our studies." "Life and health is both uncer- tain." 'The farmer and liis son is in town." ' Susan and her sister is deceitful." " ^Villiam and John both writes a good hand." Jiemarlcs. — For has come, we should read have come, that the verb may be plural, when it has two nominatives connected by and, according to Rule XVIII. Exception 1. — When and connects two or more nouns in the singular, which refer to the same person or thing, the verb must be singular; as, "Pliny the philosopher and naturalist has greatly enriched science." 633. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. "That superficial scholar and "In that house live a great and critic have given new evi- distinguished scholar and dence of his misguided judg- statesman." ment." " Mr. Cooper, the sailor and novel- " There go a benevolent man and ist, visit La Fayette, the patriot scholar." and philanthropist." LIX. "Whpti I Piij', "John and James are liere," of liow many persons do I speak ? Should we, tlien, use is or aref 630. What is the rule for aief XVIII. Will von now parse tho exercises under Rule XVIII.? "William and .lames run." ■\A'ill you parse Willuwi in full? and? Janu.-:? rwi? Will you parse tiie next exercises? *' Mary and her enusiu hua come." Why is this incorrect? 632. Will you parse the succeeding exer- cises? " Pliny the philosopher and naturalist lias greatly enriched science." Why should we use/ia.?, iu this sentence, instead oUinvef Exception 1. '■ That superficial scholar and critic have given." Why is /(aue^iuen incorrect? Ex- ception 1. What is the rule for Jtas come f Excep- tion 1. Win you correct and parse the remain- ing exercises ? EXERCISES. 103 Ejcccption 2. — When two or more nouns in the singular, connected by and, have each or cupz-t/ joined with them, the verb must be in the singular number; n^, " Every person, every house, and every bludo of grass was destroyed." 634. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. " Every man, and every woman. " Each man and each woman were and every child, were taken." particularly alluded to in the " Every tree, stick, and twig were report of the affair." consumed." Remark. — Were, in the first of these examples, should he changed to was, because reference is had to each person, individually considered, which, in re- spect to the verb, is the same in effect as if one person only was spoken of. Note XV. — Every is sometimes associated with a plural noun, in which case the verb must be singular; as, "Every hundred years constitutes a century." 635. SENTENCES TO BE PAESED AND CORRECTED. " Every twenty-four hours afford to " Every four years add another day us the vicissitudes of day and to the ordinary number of days night." in a year." Remark, — Afford, in the example above, is a violation of the note : it should be affords, in the singular number. The reason of this is, that " every twenty-four hours" signifies a eimjle -period of time, and is, therefore, in reality singular. Note XVI. — A verb in the plural will agree with a col- lective noun in the singular, when a part only of the indi- viduals are meant ; as, " The council were divided in their sentiments." When the noun expresses the idea of unity, the verb should be singular ; as, " The council was composed wholly of farmers." Remarks. — In the first of the foregoing examples, wo use the plural verb were divided, because wc refer to the individuals composing the council; but if no allusion of this sort had been made, and we had spoken of it as one entire body, wo should have used the singular verb, according to the common rule; as, '* The council is composed wholly of farmers," We apply to couiieil, in the first example, Note XVI. ; to were divided, the same note ; and to council, aud wan composed, in tho second e.xample, Rules VI. and VII, 636. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. " The council were divided in their " My people do not consider." sentiments." -'The multitude eagerly pursue " A part of the men were mur- pleasure as their chief good." dered." In the first example, under Exception 2, "The council wore divided." Why not why use was destroyed, rather than were wasf Note XVI, Keuiaikx, Rule? Note destroyed f ExcepHon 2, XVI. Will you parsu tho remainiuK exercises When ia a. noun cMei colleeti ce f 30S. uiulir this exception, aflcr Uaviog cor- In what circumBtan«-s would it he reeled them? proper to use tho siuftular verb? Note "Every twenty-inur hours afford to us." XVI, Give an ex.imple, Wliat does "every Iwentv-four hours" How do you paist- coaveilf Note XVI. sisuify, one pcri.'.d of time, or more? Kemavks, Were dividedt Note XVI, What is wrong, then? Why? 635. Remark. Remarks. Was composed, m the second Whatis the rule for tills? Note XV, example ? Note XVI, Will you correct and pai-se the other Will you now parse and correct tHo example ? remaining exercises under this note ? 104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 637. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND COBKECTED. " My people doth not consider.'' "The committee was divided " The people rejoices in that which should give it sorrow." "The multitude rushes to certain destruction." their sentiments, and has re- ferred the business to a general meeting." LX. 638. negative Taenns denying / and normative, asserting or declaring poai- tivefy. A sentence in which something is denied is a negative one, and a sentence in which something is affirmed or positively asserted is an affirma- tive one. " Vice degrades us," is an affirmative sentence, and " Labor does not injure us," is a negative one. Not, nothing, none 7*7/ include ? 291. as applied"? Note XIX. Wliat does it te.-ich us'? 291, Will you parse the remaining exercises Wlinr, does eij/mo/o^// ti>acli ? 293. under this Note? Wli. it are proper liriuns ? "02. M'hen is than considered a preposition? What are common nouns? oOl. Note XX, Give an example. In Aviiat manner may jn-pper names he What would he the i'fi&fX of usir^ the used as common names? ;;03. personal pronoun instead of the relative? How niav common names he used to Ohseivution under Note XX. Give an ex- reprpscnt individuals? 301. amjile. What is a collective noun ? 306. Will you now fake the sentences to he What four things belong to nouns? parsed and written ? 308. How many 111 tides are there? 351. Will What is gender? 312, Masculine gen- yon name them ? 361. When do we use a ? der?314. Feminine Render? 316. Com- 87,367. Wheuc2n?S6. men gender? 316. Neuter gender? 317. PARTS OF SPEECH. 109 LXIV. OF WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. 650. That is a relative, When loJio or uihich may be substituted for it, and make sense; as, "The man that [who] arrived yesterday." 651. That is a demonstrative pronoun, When it is joined with a noun to point it out; as, "That man is intelli- gent." 652. That is a conjunction, In all cases when it is neither a relative nor a demonstrative pronoun ; as, "He studios that he may learn." 653. BvT ia a preposition. When it has the sense of except ,• as, **All but [except] John camo." 654. But is an adverb, When it has the sense of only ; as, " This is but [only] doing our dutv." 655. But is a conjunction, In all cases when it is neither an adverb nor a proposition; as, **He called, but I refused tu go." 656. As is a relative, When it follows mani/, such, or same; as, "Let such as hear take heed." 657. As is an adverb. When it is joined to an adverb or an adjective in the sense of «oy as, "He does as well as he can." 658. As is a conjunction. In all cases except when it is an adverb or a relative; as, "He did as I directed him." 659. Either is a conjunction. When it corresponds to ory as, " Either the one or the other." 660. Either is a distributive pronoun, When it means "one of the two;" as, *' Yuu can take either road." 661. Both is a conjunction. When it is followed by and; as, "We assisted him both for his sake and for our own." How in-iy nouns, naturally nenler, be pronoun? 651. Give pHesif Jew f ^^ example. When a distributive pro- vKtart/t lulor* hernt dukef instructor f none? 660. Give an example. 319. Wlien is botJt a conjunction? 661. Give LXIV. When is that arelative? 650. an example. Wlien an adjective pronoun? Give an example. When a demonstrative 662. Give an example. 10 110 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 662. Both is an adjeciive pronoun, When it means " the two ;" as, " Both men are guilty." 663. Yet is a conjunction, When it follows ihoiiyli ; as "Though ho reproves me, yet I esteem him." In all other cases, it is an adverb; as, "That event has yet to come." 664. For is a conjunction, When it means the same as because; as, "He trusted him, for he knew that he would not deceive him." 665. Yob, is, & preposition. In all instances except when it is a conjunction; as, "He works for me." 666. What is a compound relative. When it stands for " that which ;" as, " I will take what [that which] you send me." 667. What is an interrogative relative pronoun. When used in asking questions; as, "What do you want?" 668. What is an adjective pronoun, When joined with a noun ; as, " Wh.at strange things he said !" 669. What is a compound adjective pronoun, When it is joined with nouns and has the sense of two or more words; as, " In what manner he succeeded, is unknown to me ;" that is, " The mannor in which he succeeded, is unknown to me." 670. What is an interjection, AVhen used to express wonder ; as, " What ! take my money?" 671. Then is a conjunction. When it has the sense of Ihere/ure ; as, " If he has commanded it, then I must obey." 672. Then is an advei-b. When it refers to time ; as, " Did you hear it thunder then ?" 673. Much is a noun. When it stands for quantity; as, "Where much is given, much will be required." 674. Much is an adjective, When it is joined to nouns; as, "Much labor fatigues us." 675. Much is an adverb, When it qualifies the same parts of speech that the adverb does; as, " Thou art much mightier than I." 676. More is a noun, When it implies quantity ; as, " The more we have, the more we want." Whnn is yd a conjunction? 663. Give example. When an interjection? 070. Give an' example. When an adverb? 663. an example. Give an eximiplo. When is '<"'■ ' (23.) Rule VTI. (24.) Note .VIII. 6J6, or. Note 1, this page. (26.) Rulo .Will. 11 122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. "The erroneous opinions which we form concerning (1) hap- piness and misery gives rise to all the mistaken (2) and dangerous passions that em- hroUs our life." " To live soberly, righteously, and piously, are requii'ed of all men." "That (3) it is our duty to pro- mote the purity of our minds and bodies, to be just (4) and kind to our fellow-creatures, and to be pious and faithful to Him that made us, admit not of any doubt in a rational and well (5) informed mind." "To be of a pure and humble mind, to exercise benevolence towards others, to cultivate piety towards God, is the sure means (6) of becoming peace- ful and happy." " It is an important truth, that re- ligion, vital religion, the re- ligion of the heart, are the most powerful auxiliaries of reason, in waging war with the pas- sions, and promoting that sweet composure which constitute the peace of God." '"The possession of our senses entire, of our limbs uninjured, of a sound understanding, of friends and companions, are often overlooked ; though it would be the ultimate wish (6) of many, who, as far as we can judge, deserves it as much as ourselves." " All (7) that make a figure on the great theatre of the world, the employments of the busy, the enterprises of the ambitious, and the exploits of the warlike ; the virtues which forms the happiness, and the crimes which occasions the misery of mankind ; originates in that silent and secret recess of thought, which are hidden from every human eye." 2. Every verb, unless it is in the infinitive mood, or the participle, ought to have a nominative case, either. expressed or implied^ as, "Awake, arise;" that is, "Awake ye; arise ye." AVe shall here add some examples of inaccuracy, in the use of the verb without its nominative case. "As it hath pleased bim'of his goodness to give you safe deliverance, and bath preserved you in the great danger," etc. The verb hath preserved has here no nominative case, for it cannot be properly supplied by the preceding word, him, which is in the objective case. It ought to be " and as he hatJi preserved you ;" or rather, " and to preserve you." " If the calm in which he was born, and lasted so long, had continued;" " find which lasted," etc. " These we have extracted from an historian of undoubted credit, and are the same that were practised," etc.; "and they are tbe same." "A man whose inclinations led bim to be corrupt, and had great abilities to manage the business;" "and who had," etc. "A cloud gathering in the north ; which we have helped to raise, and may quickly break in a storm upon our beads ;" " and which may quickly." "As it hath pleased," etc. What correction should be made in this ex- ample? Why? Recite the Note. 2. " If the privilege to which he has an undoubted right, and he has long enjoyed, should now be wrested from him, (8) would be flagrant injustice." "These curiosities we have im- ported from China, and are similar to those which were some time ago brouglit from Africa." " Will martial fiames forever fire thy mind, And never, never (9) be to heaven resigned ?" (1.) Preposition. (2,) Rule XIII. (3.) Conjunction. (4.) "just oersfms.'' Rule IV. (6.) Adverb. (6.) Rule XV. (7.) Note I. 405, Rule VI. (8.) " it would." (y.) "Avd wilt thoti never bcT^ SYNTAX. 123 3. Every nominative case, except the case absolute, and when a,n address is made to a person, should belong to some verb, either expressed or implied ; as, " Who wrote this book?" ** James j" that is, "James wrote it." "To whom thus Adam," that is, "spoke." One or two instances of the improper use of the nominative case, without any verb, expressed or implied, to answer it, may be sufficient to illustrate the usefulness of the preceding observations. " Which rule, if it had been observed, a neighboring prince would have wanted a great deal of that incense which had been offered up to him." The pronoun it is here the nominative case to the verb ohaerved ; and which riiU is left by itself, a nominative case without any verb following it, This form of expression, though improper, is very common. It ought to be, " // tkie rule had been observed," etc. ** Man, though he has great variety of thoughts, and such from which others as well as himself might receive prolit and delight, yet they are all within his own breast." In this sentence, the nominative man stands alone, and unconnected with any verb, either expressed or iuji)lied. It should be, "Thoat/h mun haw great variety," etc. "Which rule, if it," etc. What is the nominative case to observed ? Has the noun ruhi any verb following it, to which it may be the nominative case? Is this form of expression much used ? Is it not proper ? What correction should be made? Why? Recite the Note. 3. " (1) Two substantives, when ikey *' Virtue, however it may be come together, and do not neglected for a time, men are signify the same thing, thu so constituted as ultimately to former (2) must be in the acknowledge and respect gen- genitive ciisc." uine merit." 4. When a verb comes between two nouns, either of which may be under- stood as the subject of the affirmation, it may agree with either of them ; but some regard must be had to that which is more naturally the subject of it, as also to that which stands next to the verb ; as, "His meat waa locusts aod wild honey ;" " A great cause of the low state of industry were the restraints put upon it ;" *' The wages of sin is death." "The wages of sin is death," or, " Death is the wages of sin." What is the nominative case to iaf Is this nominative, in the first example, before or after isf What is the rule for wages ^ (3) Recite the Note. What do you mean by ike subject of the ajirmatiou t (4) 4. " The crown of virtue is peace and " His chief occupation and enjoy- honor." ment were controversy." 6. When the nominative case has no personal tense of a verb, but is put before a participle, independently of the rest of the sentence, it is called the case absolute ; as, " Shame being lost, all virtue is lost ;" " That having been discussed long ago, there is no occasion to resume it." As, in the use of the case absolute, the case is, in English, always the nom- inative, the following example is erroneous, in making it the objective. •' Sol- omon was of this mind; and I have no doubt he made as wise and true proverbs as any body has done since ; him only excejited, who was a much greater and wiser man than Solomon." It should be, " he only excepted." What is the rule for the ca?e absolute? (5) " Him only excepted." Which word is wrong in this example ? In what particular, wrong ? What correc- tion should be made ? fl.) "Whp^n two substantives nun r topethrr." (2.) "thffir.if f\fthe.m" (3.) Kuli* XV. 613. U.J Tlie uomiuative case. (5.) Rule XVII. 623. 124 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 5. ' Him destroyed, All this (2) will soon follow/' Or won to what (1) may work "Whose gray top his utter loss, Shall tremblC; him descending." The nominative case is commonly placed before the verb; but sometimes it is put after the verb, if it is a simple tense; and between the auxiliary and the verb or the participle, if a couipound tense ; as, 1st. When a question is asked, a command given, or a wish expressed ; qs, " (Jonfidest thou in me ?" " Read thou !" " Mayst thou be happy I" *' Long live the king !" 2d. When a supposition is made without the conjunction i// as, " Were it not for this ;" " Had I been there." 3d. When a verb transitive is used; as, *' On a sudden appeared the king." 4:th. When the verb is preceded by the adverbs here, there, ihen, thence^ hence, thus, etc. ; as, ** Here am I ;" " There was he slain ;" " Then cometh the end;" "Thence arisetb his grief;" " Hence prgceeds his anger;" *' Thus was the aflfair settled." 5th. When a sentence depends on ncti/ier or nor, so as to be coupled with another sentence ; as, " Ye shall not eat of it, neither shall ye touch it, lest ye die." Some grammarians assert that the phrases as follows, as appearfi, form what are called impersonal verbs, and should, therefore, be confined to the singu- lar number ; as, " The arguments advanced were nearly aa/olloios ;" '" The positions were ns (rppenrs incontrovertible ;" that is, " as it follows," " as it appears." If we give {say they) the sentence a different turn, and, instead of as, say suck as, the verb is no longer termed impersonal, but properly agrees with its nominative, in the plural number; as, "The arguments advanced were nearly suck as fuilow ;" "The jioyitions were ««cA as a^Jpear incontrovertible."* Tliey who doubt the accuracy of Home Tooke's statement, " That as, how- ever and whenever used in English, means the same as H, or thai, or vhich," and who are not satisfied whether the verbs, in the sentence first mentioned, should be in the singular or the plural number, may vary the form of expres- sion. Thus, the sense of the preceding sentences may be conveyed in the fol- lowing terms: — "The arguments advanced were nearly of the following nature;" ** The following arc nearly the arguments which were advanced;" "The arguments advanced were nearly those which follow;" "It appears that the positions were incontrovertible;" " That the positions were incontro- vertible is apparent;" " The positions were incontrovertible, is apparent;" *' The positions were apparently incontrovertible." Where is the nominative case usually placed ? Mention a few instances in which the nominative follows the verb. AVhat do some grammarians say of the phrases as follows, as appears ? What is Dr. Campbell's opinion concern- ing theiu ? {^.) " ihaf vyldclC 437. (2.) Note I. 405. * These gnimniarians are supported by genernl usage, and by the authority of an onii- ricnt critic on langua and it icas often used? Give au example in which they are used incorrectly in this sense. 10. " It is remarkable his continual " It is indisputably true his asper- endeavors to serve us, not^vith- tion, though it is «, paradox." standing our ingratitude." (5.) (6) 11. The interjections / oh / and ah ! require the obiective case of a pro- noun in the first person after them; as, ''0 me! Oh me! Ah me!*' but the nominative case in the second person; as, " thou persecutor !" "0 ye hypocrites!" "0 thou who dwellest," etc. The neuter pronoun, by an idiom peculiar to the English language, is fre- quently joined, in explanatory sentences, with a noun or a pronoun of the mas- oulineor the feminine gender; as, *'It was I;" " It was the man or the woman that did it." The neuter pronoun if is sometimes omitted and understood : thus, we say, " As appears, as follows," for " As it appe:irs, as it follows ;" and ** May be," f'T "It may be." (1.) "Having disgusted." Rule XIII. (2.) '' the nature of which." (3) *' Thp. kivg, who had never:'' etc. (4.) " There are in the. empire,''' etc. (5.) " His continual," etc. ; ending the sentence with " are remarkable:'' (6.) " His assertion^ tltough para- doxical,''' etc. SYNTAX. 135 The neuter pronoun it is sometiraes employed to express- — 1st,. The subject of any discourse or inquiry; as, '• fl happened on a sum- mer's day ;" " Who is it that calls on me ?" 2d. The state or condition of any person or thing; as, "How is it with you?'' 3d. The thing, whatever it be, that is the cause of any effect or event; or any person considered merely ha n cause ; as, " We heard her say it was not he ;" " The truth is, it was I that helped her." Why is it incorrect to say, " Oh I !" ? Why incorrect to say, " Oh thee !"? 11. " Ah I. unhappy thee, who art deaf " On 1 happy we, surrounded with to the calls of duty and of so many blessings." honor." RULE XXIV. CorrespoDding with Murr.-iy'a Grammar, RULE VI. The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no nominative case comes betwe,e.n it and the verb ; as, " The master who taught us ;" " The trees which are planted." When a nomiyvttive. case comes betioeen the relative and the verb, the relative is governed by some word in its own member of the sentmce ; as, " He who preserves me, to whom I owe my being, ivhose I am, and whom I serve, is eternal." In the several members of the last sentence, the relative performs a dif- ferent office. In the first member it marks the agent ; in the second, it sub- mits to the government of the preposition ; in the third, it represents the possessor ; and in the fourth, the object of an action : and therefore it must be in the three different cases correspondent to those offices. When both the antecedent and the relative become nominatives, each to dif- ferent verbs, the relative is the nominative to the former, and the antecedent to the latter verb; as, " Tn(e p/n'toaophy, whirh is the ornament of our nature, cnnniHtH more in the love of our duty, and the practice of virtue, than in great talents and extensive knowledge." A few instances of erroneous construction will illustrate both branches of the sixth rule. The three following refer to the first part: "How can wo avoid being grateful to those whom, by repeated kind offices, have proved themselves our real friends?" "These are the men whom, you might sup- pose, were the authors of the work." " If you were here, you would find three or four, whom you would say passed their time agreeably." In all these places, it should be who instead of whom. The two latter sentences contain a nominative between the relative and the verb, and, therefore, seein to contravene the rule; but the student will reflect, that it is not the nominative of the verb with wbich the relative is connected. — The remain- ing examples refer to the second part of the rule : " Men of fine talents are not alw.iys the persons who wo should esteem." "The persons who you dis- pute with ai-e precisely of y.mr opinion." "Our tutors arc our benefactors, who we owe obedience to, and who we ought to love." In these sentences, whom should be used instead of who. " These are the men whom, you might suppose, were," etc. Will you cor- rect this example, and give the rule for it ? 136 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. " We are dependent on each other's " They who have labored to make assistance : whom is there that ns wise and good, are the per- can subsist by himself?" sons who we ought to love and " If he will not hear his best friend, respect, and who we ought to whom shall be sent to admonish be grateful to." him ?" " The persons, wlio conscience and "They who (1) much is given to, virtue support, may smile at \\ill have much (2) to answer the caprices of fortune." for." (3) " From the character of those who " It is not to be expected that you associate with, your own they, whom in early life have will be estimated." been dark and deceitful, should " That (4) is the student who I afterwards become fair and in- gave the book to, and whom, I genuous." am persuaded, deserves it." 1. When the relative pronoun is of the interrogative kind, tho noun or pronoun containing tho answer must be in the same case as that which con- tains the question ; a.s, " Whose books are these ?" " They are John's." " Who gave them to him 1" " We." " Of wlinm did you buy them ?" " Of a bookseller; him who lives at the Bible and Crown." " Whom did you see there?" "Both him and the shopman." The learner will readily compre- hend this rule, by supplying the words which are understood in the an.swers. Thus, to express the answers at large, we should say, " They are John's books ;" " We gave them to him ;" " We bought them of him who lives," etc.; "We saw both him and the shopman." As the relative pronoun, when used interrogatively, refers to the subsequent word or phrase containing the answer to the question, that word or phrase may properly be termed the subeeqitent to the interrogative. " Of whom did you buy them ?" " Of a bookseller ; he who lives," etc. What is wrong in this sentence, and how may it be corrected ? What is the Note for it ? 1. "Of whom were the articles "Who was the money paid to?" bought?" "Of a mercer; he "To the mercer and his (5) who resides near (6) the clerk." mansion-house." "Who counted it?" "Both the " Was any person besides (6) the clerk and him." mercer present ?" " Yes, both him and his clerk." RULE XXV; Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, ROLE VII. When the relative is preceded by two nominatives of different persons, the relative and the verb may agree in person with either, according to the sense ; as, " I am the man loho eommayid you ;" or, " I am the man who commands you." The form of the iirst of the two preceding sentences expresses the meaning rather obscurely. It would be more perspicuous to say, " I, who command you, am the man." Perhaps the difference of meaning produced by referring the relative to different antecedents will be more evident to the learner in the (1.) "towftom." (2.) 673. (3.) 696. (4.) Note I. 405. (5.) Rule XV. (6.) 247. SYNTAX. 137 following sentences : " I am the general who givee the orders to- day ;" "I nm the general, who give the orders to-day/' that is, "I, who give the ordeia to-day, am the general." When the relative and the verb have been determined to agree with either of the preceding nominatives, that agreement must be preserved throughout the scateace; as in the following instance : " I am the Lord, that maketh all things ; that ati-etcheth forth the heavens alone." Isa. xliv. 24. Thus far is consistent : the Lord, in the third person, is the antecedent, and the verb jrgrees with the relative in the third person : " I am the Lord, which Lord, or he that, maketh all things." If /were made the anLeceilent, the relative and the verb should agree with it in the first person ; as, '• / am the Lord, that vmke all things ; that stretch forth the heavens alone." But should it follow, " that upreadeth abroad the earth by myself," there would arise a confusion of per- sons, and a manifest solecism. " I am the man who eommiind you." " lam the man who commands you." What is the nominative to cnrthwnidin the first sentence? What to cnmmmida in the second? Rule for each? Why is the verb of a difi"erent person in dif- ferent sentences? "I acknowledge that (1) I am "I perceive that thou art a pupil the teacher (5), who adopt who possesses bright parts, but that sentiment, and maintains who hast cultivated them but the propriety of such meas- (3) little." (4) ures." (2) " Thou art he {5J who breathest on "Thou art a friend (5) that hast the earth with the breath of often relieved me, and that spring, and who covereth it has not deserted me now, in with verdure and beauty." the time of peculiar need." " I am the Lord (5) thy God ("i), " I am the man who approves of who teacheth thee to profit, wholesome discipline, and who and who lead thee by the way recommend it to others ; but I thou shouldst go." am not a person who promotes " Thou art the Lord who did choose useless severity, or who object Abraham, and broughtest him to mild and generous treat- forth (4) out of (6) Ur of the ment." Chaldees." RULE IV. Corresponding with JIurray's Grammar, RULE VIII. Adjectives belong to the nouns or ■pronouns which ihnj describe. Note I. Adjective pronouns and numerals must agree in number with the nouns to which they belong. L ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. A few instances of the breach of this rule are here exhibited : " I have not travelled this twenty years ;" " theee twenty." " I am not recommending these kind of sufferings ;" " this kind." " Those set of books was a valuable pres- ent ;" " thnt set." " I have not travelled this twenty years." How should this be altered ? Why ? " These kind of indulgences soften playing (9) this two hours." and injure the mind." (10) "Instead (7) of improving (8) "Those sort of favors did real yourselves, you have been injury, under the appearance of kindness." (1 ) 652 (2.) " adnptu and mnintains," or " ad'>pt and maintain." (3.) fi5-t. (*.) .\rlvorb. (S.) Rule XV. (6.) 247. (7.) 247. (8.) 661. (9.) Rule XIII. (10.) Rule XXII. 646. ^■?* 138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. "Thechasmmade(l) by the earth- "How many a sorrow (5) should quake waa twenty footi (2) we avoid, if we were not indus- broad (3), and one hundred trioas to make them !" fathom (4) in depth." "He saw one or more persons (6) enter (7) the garden." 1. The word means, in the singular number, and the phrase " bt/ this wjeans,'' " by that meane," a.re used by our best and most correct writers j namely, Bacon, Tillotson, Atterbury, Addison, Steele, Pope, etc.* They are, indeed, in ao general and approved use, that it would appear awkward, if not affected, to apply the old singular form, and say, '* by this mean ;" " by that mean /" *' it was by a viean ;" although it is more agreeable to the general analogy of the language. " The word meana (says Priestley) belongs to the class of words which do not change their termination on account of number; for it is used alike in both numbers." The word amends is used in this manner, in the following sentences: "Though he did not succeed, he gained the approbation of his country; and with this amends he was content." " Peace of mind is an honorable amende for the sacrifice of interest," " In return, he received the thanks of his em- ployers, and the present of a large estate : these were ample amends for all his labors." " Wc have described the rewards of vice ; the good man's amends are of a different nature." It can scarcely be doubted that this word amends {\\^q the word means) had formerly its correspondent form in the singular number, as it is derived from the French amende, though now it is exclusively estaJDlished in the plural form. If, therefore, it be alleged that mean should be applied in the singu- lar, because it is derived from the French moyen, the same kind of argument may be advanced in favor of the singular amende ; and the general analogy of the language may also be pleaded in support of it. Campbell, in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, has the following remark on the subject before us : " No persons of taste will, I presume, venture so far to vio- late the present usage, and consequently to shock the ears of the generality of readers, as to say, ' By this mean, by that mean.' " (1.) Rule XIII. (2.) Note XVIII. 648. (3.) " chasm-hroadr Rule IV. (4.) Rule IX. (5.) '^many smrowsy (6.) " one person, or more t'lun one." (J.) Rule XII. * "By this means he had them the more at vantage, being tired and harasBed witli a long marcli." U\CON. " By this mfans one great restraint from doing evil would bo taken away." " And this is an admirfible means to im^jrove men in virtue." "By that means tbey have rendered their duty more diflBcult." Tillotson. " It renders us careless of approving ourselves to God, and by that means securing the contmuiince of bis goodness." " A good character, when established, should not be rested ill as an end, but employed as a nvans of doing still further good." Attebuury. " By this means they are hajipy in each other." "He by UicU m£ans preserves his superiority." Addison. "Your vanity by thU means will want its food " Stkele. " B'/ this means ahme, their greatest obstacles will vanish." PoPE. " Wbich custom has proved tlie most effectual m^'aiis to ruin the nobles." Dean Swift. "There is no mean^ of escaping the persecution." "Faith is not only ameans of obey- ing, hut a principal act of obedience." Dr. Youno. " He looked on money as a necessary m-eans of maintaining and increasing power." Lord Lyttelton's UENKr II. " John was too much intimidated not to embrace every means afforded for his safety." Goldsmith. " Lest tin's means should fail." " By 7n^a7is of ship-money, the late king," etc. " The only means of securing a durable peace." HUME. "■By this meatis there was nothing left fo the parliament of Ireland," etc. Blackstonb. " By this means so many slaves escaped out of the hands of their masters." Dr. Robertson. ' By this means they bear witness to each other." BuRKE. " By this menvs the wrath of man was made to turn against itself." Dr. Blair. "A m.'g.izine, which bus, by this means, contained," etc. "Birds, in general, procure their food by means of their beak.'" Dh^ Paley. SYNTAX. 139 I.owth and Johnson seem to be against the use of mennn in the singular nuinl)i;r. They do not, however, speak decisively on the point, but rather dubiously, as if they knew that they were questioning eminent authorities as well as f^iiuenil practice. That they were nut decidedly against the applica- tion of this word to the singular number, appears from their own language: "Whole sentences, whether simple or compound, may become members of other sentences by vieana of some additional connection." — Dr. Lowth's In- (i<»/acn'ii r.s/, etjiis, ct vurma loqxiendi" IIORACE. On this principle, many forms of expression, not less deviating from the general analogy of the language than those before mentioned, are to be con- sidered as strictly proper and justifiable. Of this kind are the following: ** None of them are varied to express the gender;" and yet uoue originally signified no one. " He himself shall do the work;" here, what was at first appropriated to the objective, is now properly used as the nominative case. " Fo(( nave behaved yourselves well :" in this example, the word yu is put in the nominative case plural, with strict propriety ; though formerly it was con- fined to the objective case, and ye exclusively used/or the nominative. With respect to anomalies and variations of language, thus established, it is the grammarian's business to submit, not to remonstrate. In pertinaciously opposing the decision of proper authority, and contending for obsolete modes of expression, he may, indeed, display learning and critical sagacity, and, in some degree, obscure points that are sufficiently clear and decided; hut he cannot reasonably hope either to succeed in his aims, or to assist the learner in discovering and respecting the true standard and principles of language. Oases which custom has left dubious are certainly within the grammarian's province. Here, he may reason and remonstrate on the ground of derivation, analogy, and propriety, and his reasonings may refine and improve the lan- guage ; but when authority speaks out, and decides the point, it were perpet- ually to unsettle the language, to admit of cavil and debate. Anomalies, then, under the limitation mentioned, become the law, as clearly as the plainest analogies. The reader will perceive that, in the following sentences, the use of the word vieav in the old form hr.s a very uncouth appearance : " By the mean of adversity we are often instructed." " He preserved his health by mean of exercise." "Frugality is one mean of acquiring a competenc}'." They should be, "By means of adversity," etc.; "By means of exercise," etc. ; " Frugality is one meant.*' etc. Good writers do indeed make use of the substantive (1) meayi in the singu- (1.) Nouns are sometimes called siibetantives. 140 ENGLISH GEAMMAE, lar number, and in that number (inly, to signify mediocrity, middle rate, etc., as, " This is « mcdu between the two extremes." But in the sense of instru- mentality, it has long been disused by the best authors, and by almost every writer. This means and that means should be used only when they refer to what is singular; these means and those means, when they respect plurals; as, "He lived temperately, and by this means preserved his health;" "The scholars were attentive, industrious, and obedient to their tutors, and by these means acquired knowledge." We have enlarged on this article, that the young student may be led to re- flect on a point so important as that of ascertaining the standard of propriety in the use of language. In what number is the word means used ? What does Dr. Priestley remark concerning the use of this word? What other word is used in this manner? What does Br. Campbell remark in regard to the use of the phrase, " Ey tbis mean"? Do Dr. Lowth iiml Dr. Johnson approve of the use oi means in the singular number? Do good writers make use of the substantive (1) mean in the singular number? Give au example. When should " this means" and " that means" bo used ? When " these means" and " those means" ? 1. " Charles was extravagant, and by " This person embraced every op- this mean became poor and portiinity to display his talents. despicable." and by these means rendered "It was by that ungenerous mean himself ridiculous." that (2) he obtained his end." "Joseph was industrious, frugal, " Industry is the mean of obtaining and discreet, and by tliis competency." means obtained property and " Though a promising measure, it is reputation." a mean which I cannot adopt." 2. When two persons or things are spoken of in a sentence, and there is occasion to mention them again for the sake of distinction, that is used in reference to the former, and thi», in reference to the latter; a.s, "Self-love, which is the spring of action in the soul, is ruled by reason : but for ^A«/, man would be inactive; and but for this, he would be active to no end." How are the pronouns thai and this used? 2. "Eelis:ion raises men EiDove them- upon the earth in those than in selves; irreligion sinks them these; because there is a much beneath the brutes : that (3) slower evaporation." binds them down (4) to a poor, " Eex and Tyrannus are of very pitiable speck of perishable different characters. The one earth ; this opens for them a (3) rules his people by laws to prospect to the skies." which they consent ; the other, "More rain falls in the fii-st two (5) by his absolute will and summer months than in the power: Itds is called freedom; first two winter ones; but it (Aa( (6), tyranny." makes a much greater show 3. The distributive adjective pronouns, each, every, either, agree with the nouns, pronouns, and verbs of the singular number only; as, " The king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat, the king of Judah, ."sat each on his throne;" " Evi-ry tree is known by i(8 fruit :" unless the pluiiil noun convey a col- lective idea; as, "Every six months;" " i'veiy hundred years." The fol- lowing phrases are exceptionable : " Let each esteem others better than themselves;" it ought to be "himself." "The language should be both perspicuous and correct : in proportion as either of these two qualities are wanting, the language is imperfect;" it should be, " is wanting." " Evei-y (I.) Note 1, p. 139. (■.;.) 6.-2. (3.J 407. Rule VI. (t.) Adverb. (5.) Kule XI. SYNTAX. 141 ono of the letters bear regular dates, and contain proof? of attachment;" " Ijccira n regular date, and contains." "Euery town and village were burned; eoeiy grove and every tree were cut down ;" " was burned, and was cut down." Either is often used improperly instead of enfBct are improper; because perfection admits of no degrees of comparison. AVe may say, nearer or near- est to perfection, or more or less imperfect. In speaking of two persons, should we say, " The weaker of the two/' or, "The weakest of the two"? Why? 7. " A talent of this kind would, per- " He spoke with so much propriety, haps, prove the likeliest of any that I understood him the best other (5) to succeed." of all the others (6) who spoke "He is the strongest of the two, on the subject." but not the mseisi." "Eve was the fairest of all her daughters." (1.) "■ the m-premest— supreme."'' (2.) ^* letter founded,'" (3.) "«oi(rwe." (4.) " loell executed — still— better — best." (5.) "ufL" (6.) "of all who." SYNTAX. 145 8. In some cases, adjectives should not be separated from their substan- tives, cvcu by words which modify their meaning and make but one f-cnse with them ; as, " A large enough number, surely." It should be, " A number large enough." *' The lower sort of people are good enough judges of one not very distant from them." The adjective is usually placed before its substantive; as, "A genemna man ;" " How amiable a woman !" The instances in which it comes after the substantive are the following: 1st. When something depends upon the adjective; and when it gives a better sound, especially in poetry; as, " A man (jencrimH to his enemifs;" " Feed me with food convenient for me;" " A tree three feet thick ;" '* A body of troops fifty thousand strong/' "The torrent tumbling through rocks abrupt." 2d. When the adjective is emphatical ; as, "Alexander the Great;'' "Lewis the Bold;" "Goodness infinite;" "Wisdom vnnearchable," 3d. When several adjectives belong to one substantive; as, "A man just, wise, and charitable ;" " A woman modest, sensible, and virtuous." 4th. When the adjective is preceded by an adverb; as, *' A boy regularly studious;" "A girl unaffectedly modest." 5th. When the verb to be, in any of its variations, comes between a substan - tive and an adjective, the adjective may frequently either precede or follow it; as, " The man ia happy" or, "Happy is the man, who makes virtue his choice ;" " The interview was detlghtful," or, " Delightful was the interview." 6th. When the adjective expresses some circumstance of a substantive placed after an active verb ; as, *' Vanity often renders its possessors drupica- ble" In an exclamatory sentence, the adjective generally precedes the sub- stantive ; as, " How despicable does vanity often render its possessor !" Thorc is sometimes great beauty, as well as force, in placing the adjective before the verb, and the substantive immediately after it; as, " Great and marvellous arc thy works. Lord God Almighty; just and true are thy ways, thou King of saints." Rev. xv. 3. Sometimes the word all is emphatically put after a number of particulars comprehended under it. "Ambition, interest, honor, all concurred." Some- times a substantive, which likewise comprehends the preceding parLiculars, is used in conjunction with this adjective; as, " Royalists, republicans, church- men, sectaries, courtiers, all i>;\ (3.J 5b0. (4) '^ that circnmFtancP.'" Ni-tt- I. — '309. (6.) "and the." (7.) "a gineious." 148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 3. Id common conversation, and in familiar style, we frequently omit the articles, which might be inserted with propriety in writing, especially in a grave style. "■' At worst, time might be gained by this expedient," " At the worst," would have been better in this place. " Give me here John Baptist's head." There would have been more dignity in saying, *' John the Baptist's head;" or, "the head of John the Baptist." The article the has sometimes a good effect in distinguishing a person by an epithet. ** In the history of Henry the Fourth, by Father Daniel, we are surprised at not finding him the great man.'* *' I own I am often surprised that he should have treated so coldly a man so much the gentleman." This article is often elegantly put, after the manner of the French, for the pronoun possessive j as, " He looks him full in the face;" that is, " in his face." "In his presence they were to strike the forehead on the ground ;" that is, " their foreheads." "We sometimes, according to the French manner, repeat the same article, when the adjective, on account of any clause depending upon it, is put after the substantive. "Of all the considerable governments among the Alps, a commonwealth is a constitution the most adapted of any to the poverty of those countries," "With such a specious title as that of blood, which, with the multitude, is always a claim the strongest and the most easily compre- hended." "They are not the men in the nation the most difficult to be re- placed." " At worst, time might be gained," etfc. What word may properly be inserted in the beginning of this sentence ? What is the Note for it ? 3. '' At worst, I could but incur a gen- " At best, his gift was but a poor tie reprimand." offering, when we consider liis estate." RULE I. Corresponding witli Mnn-ay's Griirumar, RULE X. , The possessive case is governed by the following noun. When the annexed substantive signifies the same thing as the first, there is no variation of case; as, " (Jeorgc, King of Great Britain, Elector of Hanover," etc.; " Ponipey contended with Caisar, the greatest general of his time;" "Bcligion, the support, of adversity, adorns prosperity." Nouns thus cir- cumstanced are said to be in apposition to each other. The interposition of a relative and verb will sometimes break the construction; as, " Pompey contended with Csesar, loho icas the greatest general of his time." Here ihe word general is in the nominative case, according to Rule XV., or Note 4, under Rule VIII. The preposition of, joined to a substantive, is not always equivalent to the possessive case. It is only so, when the expression can be converted into the regular form of the possessive case. We can say, " the reward of virtue," and, " virtue's reward ;" but, though it is proper to say, " a crown of gold." we can- not convert the expression into the possessive case, and say, "gold's crown." Substantives govern pronouns as well as nouns, in the possessive cose; as, "Every tree is known by its fruit;" "Goodness brings Us reward;" "That desk is mine." The genitive (1) its is often improperly used for 'tia or it is ; as, " Its my book ;" instead of, " It is my book." The pronoun hi^, when detached from the noun to which it relates, is to be considered, not as a possessive pronoun, but as the genitive case of the per- sonal pronoun; as, "This composition is his." "Whose book is that?" "His." If we used the noun itself, we should say, '"This composition is (1.) Or poesuRsiva, SYNTAX. 149 John's." "Whose book is that?" "Eliza's." The position will be still more evident, when we consider that both the pronouns in the following sentences must have a similar construction : " Is it her or hin honor that is tarnished ?" ** It is not kei-Hy liut hin." Sometimes a substantive in the genitive or possessive case stands alone, the substantive by which it is governed being understood ; as, ■' I called at the bookseller's," that is, " at the bookseller's shop" "Religion, the support of adversity, adorns prosperity." What is said of the nouns i-tiUifinn, and aitppoi-t, in respect to each other? When is the prepo- sition n/ joined to a substantive equivalent to the possessive case? Give an ewimple. " My ancentors virtue is not mine." " A mothers tenderness and ,i (1) fathers care are natures gifts " His brothers ofl'ence will not con- for mans advantage." denui him." " A mans manners' frequently in- " I will not destroy the city for ten fluence his fortune." sake." " '\^'isdoms precepts' form the " Nevertheless, Asa his heart (2) good mans interest and hap- was perfect with the Lord." piness." " They slew Varus, he that was " They slew Varus, who was him mentioned before." that I mentioned before." 1. If several nouns come together in the genitive (3) oa.se, the iipostropho with n is annexed to the last, and understood to the rest; a^, "John and Eliza's boolta;" "This was my father, mother, and uncle's advice." But wlicn any words intervene, perhaps on account of the increased pause, the sign of the possessive should be annexed to each; as, "They are Jchn'f as well as Eliza's books;" "I had the physician's, the surgeon's, and th( a])uthccary's assistance." "John's and Eliza's books." Will you oorrect this sentence, and give th( Rule for it ? 1. " It was tlie men's, (4) women's, " This measure gained the king (5) and children's lot to suffer as well as the people's appri>- great calamities." bation." "J'.ler's, John's, and Andrew's "Not only the coun^-el's and at- occupation was that of fisher- torney's but the judge's opinion men." also, favored his cause." 2. In poetry, the additional s is frequently omitted, hut the apostrophe re- tained, in the same manner as in substantives of the plural number ending in 8 ; as, "The wrath of Peleus' son." This seems not so allowable in pro.se, which the following erroneous examples will demonstrate " Moses' minister ;" "Phinehas' wife;" '• Eestus came into Felix' room;" "These answers were made to tlie witness' questions." But in cases which would give tno much of tho hissing sound, or increase the difficulty of pronunciation, the omission takes place even iu prose ; as, " For righteousness' sake ;" " For conscience' sake." Is the additional a ever omitted ? Give an example. o "And he cast himself down at "If ye suffer for righteousness's .A,sH,s feet." sake, happy are ye." " J/.j,-ies rod was turned into a " Ye should be subject for con- serpent." science's sake." " For ilerodias sake, his brother Philips wife." (1.) Rule I. (2.) "visa's 7/OTi(." (3.) Or possessive. (4.) "jl/™" is here in the possessive case, ihe apostrophe being understood; therefore apply Rule I. (5.) "Mpn, women ;" or " Ji was the, lot o/,'* etc. 13* 150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 3. Littlo explanatory circumstances are particularly awkward between a genitive case and the word which usually follows it; as, '* ohe began to extol the farmer's, as she called him, excellent understaoding." It ought to bo, " the excellent understanding of the farmer, as she called him." "She began to extol the farmer's, as she culled him, excellent understand- ing." Will you correct this sentence, and give the Rule for it? 3. "They very justly condemned the "They implicitly obeyed the pro- prodigal's, as he was called, lector's, as they called him, senseless and extravagant con- imperious mandates." duct." (1) 4. When a sentence consists of terms signifying a name and an office, or of any expressions by which one part is descriptive or explanatory of the other, it may occasion some doubt to which of them the sign of the genitive case should be annexed; or whether it should be subjoined to them both. Thus, some would say, *' I left the parcel at Smith's the bookseller;" others, "at Smith the bookseller's;" and perhaps others, "at Smith's the bookseller's." The first of these forms is most agreeable to the English idiom; and if the addition consists of two or more words, the case seems to be less dubious j as, " I left the parcel at Smith's, the bookseller and stationer." But as this sub- ject requires a little further explanation, to make it intelligible to the learners, we shall add a few observations tending to unfold its principles. A phrase in which the words are so connected and dependent, as to admit of no pause before the conclusion, necessarily requires the genitive sign at or near the end of the phrase; as, "Whose prerogative is it ?" "It is the King of Great Britain's ;" " That is the Duke of Bi'idgewater's canal ;" " The Bishop of Llandaff's excellent book;" "The Lord Mayor of London's authority;" " Tho captain of the guard's house." When words in apposition follow each other in quick succession, it seems also most agreeable to our idiom, to give the sign of the genitive a similar situation ; especially if the noun which governs the genitive be expressed ; as, " The emperor Leopold's ;" " Diunysiusthe tyrant's ;" " For David my sf.rvant's sake;" " Give me John the i/((jo(ts('« head;" "Paul ihe apostle' s advice." But when a pause is proper, and the governing noun not expressed, and when the latter part of the sentence is extended, it appears to be requisite that the sign should be applied to the first genitive, and understood to the other; as, "I reside at Lord Stormont's, my old patron and benefactor;" " AVhose glory did he emulate ? He emulated Csesar's, the greatest general of antiquity." In the following sentences, it would be very awkward to place the sign either at the end of each of the clauses, or at the end uf the latter one alone: " These psalms are David's, the king, priest, and prophet of the Jewish people i" "We stayed a month at Lord Lyttelton's, the ornament of his country, and the friend of every virtue." The sign of the genitive case may very properly be understood at the end of these members, an ellipsis at the latter part of sentences being a common construction in our language ; as the learner will see by one or two ex- amples : " They wished to submit, but he did not ;" that is, " he did not wish to Buh.iiit." " He said it was their concern, but not his;" that is, '*vot his concern." If we annex the sign of the genitive to the end of the last clause only, we shall perceive that a resting-place is wanted, and that the connecting circum- stance is placed too remotely, to be either perspicuous or agreeable; as, " AVhose glory did he emulate ? He emulated Caesar, the greatest general of antiquity's ;" "These psalms are David, the king, priest, and prophet of the Jewish people's." It is much better to say, " This is Panl's advice, the Chris- tian hero, and great apostle of the gentiles," than " This is Paul the Chris- tian hero, and great apostle of the gcvtiles' advice." On the other hand, the application of the genitive sign to both or all of the nouns in apposition would be generally harsh and displeasing, and perhaps in some cases incor- rect; as, "The emperor's Leopold's;" "King's George's;" "Charles's the (1.) " tht sftitseless," etc. " oj' the prodigal, as he wus culled" SYNTAX. 151 Second's ;" " The parcel was left at Smith's the bookseller'a and stationer's." The rules which wo have endeavored to elucidate will prevent tlie incon- venience of both these modes of expression ; and they appear to bo simple, perspicuous, and consistent with the Idiom of the language. Which is more agreeable to the English idiom, to say, " Smith's the book- seller," or, " Smith the bookseller's" ? When the words are connected and dependent, where is the genitive (1) sign to be placed ? When words in apposition follow each other in quick succession, where should the sign of the genitive be placed ? What eifect is perceived if we annex the sign of the genitive to the end of the last clause only of the sen- tence ? Give an example. What is the effect of applying the genitive sign to both or all the nouns in apposition ? Give an example. 4. " I bought the knives at Johnson's " I will not for DavicVs thy father's (2) the cutler's." (3) sake." "The silk was purchased at Brown's " lie took refuge at the governor, the mercer's and haberdasher's." the king's representative's." "Lord Feversham the general's " A\'hose (5) works are these? tent." (4) They are Cicero, the most elo- " This palace had been the grand quent of men's." sultan's Mahomet's." 5. The English genitive has often an unpleasant sound; so that we daily make more use of the particle of, to express the same relation. There is something awkward in the following sentences, in which this method has not been taken : " The general, in the army's name, published a declara- tion ;" "The commons' vote;" "The lords' house;" "Unless he is very ignorant of the kingdom's condition." It were certainly better to say, " In the name of the army;" "The votes of the commons;" "The house of lords ;" " The condition of the kingdom." It is also rather harsh to use two English genitives with the same substantive; a.s, "Whom he acquainted with the pope's and the king's pleasure." " The pleasure of the pope and of the king," would have been better. We sometimes meet with three substantives dependent on one another, and connected by the preposition of applied to each of them ; as, " The severity of the distress of the son of the king, touched the nation ;" but this mode of expression is not to be recommended. It would be better to say, " The severe distress of the king's son touched the nation." We have a striking instance of this laborious mode of expression, in the following sentence : " O/some o/the books o/each o/ these classes o/ literature, a catalogue will be given at the end o/the work." " In the army's name." How may this expression be altered for the better ? 5. "The world's government is not "It was necessary to have both. the left to chance." (6) physician's and the surgeon's " She married my son's wife's bro- advice." (9) ther." (7) "The extent of the prerogative "This is my wife's brother's part- of the King of England is suf- ner's house." (8) ficiently ascertained." 6. In some cases, we use both the genitive termination and the preposition of ; as, " It is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's." Sometimes, indeed, un- less we throw the sentence into another form, this method is absolutely neces- sary, in order to distinguish the sense, and to give the idea of property, strictly (1.) Or possessive. (2.) "Johnson's s??qp." Rule I. (3.) "cutler.^^ See Note I. undpr this Role. (4.) " The te.nl of lord," etc. (6 ) 431. (6.) " 77ie government of the world ." (7.) ** the broOte}- of my son\- toi/e." (8.) " 77a« Iiouse belfmgs to tlie partner of my wife's brotfier." (9.) " Ibe advice both of^ 152 ENGT.ISII GRAMMAR. 80 called, which is the must important of the relations expressed by the genitive case ; for the expressions, ** This picture of iny friend," and, " This picture of my friend's," suggest very different ideas. The latter only is that of property, in the strictest sense. The idea would, doubtless, be conveyed in a better manner by saying, "This picture, belonging to my friend." When this double genitive, as some grammarians term it, is not necessary to distinguish the sense, and especially in a grave style, it is generally omit- ted. Except to prevent ambiguity, it seems to be allowable only in cases which suppose the existence of a plurality of subjects of the same kind. In the expressions, "A subject of the emperor's ;" *'A sentiment of my bro- ther's ;" more than one subject and one sentiment are supposed to belong to the possessor. But when this plurality is neither intimated nor neces- sarily supposed, the double genitive, except as before mentioned, should not be used; as, "This house of the governor is very commodious;" "The crown of the king was stolen." "That privilege of the scholar was never abused." But, after all that can be said for this double genitive, as it is termed, some grammarians think that it would be better to avoid the use of it altogether, and to give the sentiment another form of expression. Are there any cases in which we use both the genitive termination and the preposition off Give an example. Is this double genitive ever omitted? 6. "That picture of the king's docs " This estate of the corporation's is not much resemble (1) him." mucli encumbered." "These pictures of the king (2) " That is the eldest son of the King were sent to him from Italy." of England's." 7. AVhen an entire clause of a sentence, beginning with a participle of the present tense, is used as one name, or to express one idea or circumstance, the noun on which it depends may be put in the genitive case: thus, instead of ssiyirii^, " AA'hat is the reason of this person dismissing his servant so hastily ?" that is, " What is the reason of this person in dismissing his ser- vant so hastily?" we may say, and perbajts ought to say, '* What is the reason of this person's dismissing his servant so hastily?" just as we say, ** What is the reason of this person's hasty dismission of his servant?" So also wc say, "I remember it being reckoned a great exploit;" or, more properly, " I remember its being reckoned," etc. The following sentence is correct and proper : '* Much will depend on the pujnVa comjjosingf but more on his reading frequently." It would not be accurate to say", "Much will depend on the pu])il comjyosivg" etc. We also projierly soy, '* This will be the effect of the pupil's composing frequently;" instead of, "of the 'pupil cmipoeitig frequently." ''What is the reason of this person dismissing his servant so hastily?" Will you correct this sentence, and give the rule for it? 7. "What (3) can be the cause of the the Hollanders their throwing parliament neglecting so im- ofl' the monarchy of Spain, portant a business ?" and ihrir withdrawing en- " Much depends on this rule being tirely their allegiance to that observed .' * crown.' ' " The time of William making " If we alter the situation of any of the experiment, at length ar- the words, we shall presently rived." be sensible of the melody suf- " It is very probable that this as- fering." sembly was called, to clear "Such will ever be the effect of some doubt which tlie king youth associating with vicious had about the lawfulness of companions." (1.) 5S6. (2) Or, " These pictures belonying to the king," etc. (3.) Rule XV. SYNTAX. 153 RULE VIII. Correepondiiig with Munny's Qrammar, RULE XI. Adive-transilive verbs govern the objective case. In Englisb, the nomiDative csise, denoting the subject, usually goes before the verb ; and the objective case, denoting the object, follows the verb active ; and it is the order that determines the case in nouns ; as, •' Alexander con- quered the Persians." But Wxq pronoun, having a proper form for each of those cases, is sometimes, when it is in the objective case, placed before the verb; and, when it is in the nominative case, follows the object and verb, as, " Whom ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you." This position of the pronoun sometimes occasions its proper case and governmont to be neglected ; as in the following instances: "Who should I esteem more than the wise and good ?" " Cy the character of those who yuu choose for your friends, your own is likely to be formed." " Those are the persons who ho thought true to his interests." " Who should I see the other day but my old friend?" '* Whosoever the court favors." In all these places, it ought to bo whom, the relative being governed in the objective case by the verbs enfeem, choone, thought, etc. '* He, who, under all proper circumstances, has the boldness to speak truth, choose for thy friend;" it should be " /li'w who," etc. Verbs neuter and intransitive do not act upon, or govern, nouns and pro- nouns. " He sleeps," " they muse,*' etc., are not transitive. They arc, therefore, not followed by an objective case, specifying the object of an action. But when this ease, or an object of action, comes after such verbs, though it may carry the appearance of being governed by them, it is affected by a preposition or some other word understood; as, " He resided many years [that is,/or or daviug many years] in that street;*' " He rode several miles [that \Q,ft>r or through the space of several miles] on that day;" " He lay an hour [that is, during an hour] in great torture." In the phrases, " To dream a dream," " To live a virtuous life," " To run a race." " To walk the horse," " To dnnce the child," the verbs certrtiuly assume a transitive form, and may not, in these eases, bo improperly denominated transitive verbs. How is the nominative case usually known in English? How the objec- tive? Do neuter verbs govern nouns and pronouns? In the phrase, " Jle resided many years in that street," how do you parse ye«r«.? When verbs naturally neuter assume a transitive form, what may they then be called ? "They who opulence has made ^^ She that is idle and mischievous, proud, and who luxury has reprove sharply." corrupted, cannot relish the " Who did they send to him on so simple pleasures of nature." important an errand ?" "You have reason to dread his "That is the friend (4) who you wrath, which one day (1) will must receive cordially, and who destroy ye both." you cannot esteem too highly." " Who have I reason to love so (2) " He invited mybrother and I to see much (2) as this friend (3) of and examine (3) his library." my youth ?" " He who committed the oflenoe, "!'(;, who were dead, hath he you should correct, not I, who quickened," am innocent." " TFAo did they entertain so freely?" *' AVe should fear and obey the "The man who he raised from ob- Author of our being, even He scurity, is dead." who has power to reward nr " Ye only have I known of all the punish us forever." families of the earth." "They who he had most (5) in- " He and they we know, but who jured, he had the greatest rea- (4) are you?" son to love." (1.) Rule X\n. Cl.) Adverb. (3.) Rule XI. (4.j Rule XV. (6.) 678. 154 E^'GL,ISH GRAMMAR. 1. Some writers, however, use certain neuter or intransitive verbs as if they were transitive, putting after them the objective case, agreeably to the French construction of reciprocal verbs; but this custom is so foreign to the idiom of the English tongue, that it ought not to be adopted or imitated. The fol- lowing are some instances of this practice : " liepenting him of his design." '* The king soon found reason to repent him of his provoking such dangerous enemies." " The popular lords did not fail to enlarge themselves on the sub- ject." " The nearer his successes approached him to the throne." " Go, Jlee thee away into the land of Judah." " I think it by no means a fit and decent thing to vie chfirities," etc. " They have spent their whole time and pains to agree the sacred with the profane chronology." " Repenting him of his design." Will you repeat the Note which shows this sentence to be incorrect? 1. "Though he now takes pleasure in before him, the humbler he them, he will one day (1) re- grew." pent him (2) of indulgences so " It will be very difficult to agree unwarrantable." his conduct with (3) the prin- " The nearer his virtues approach- ciples he professes." ed him to the great example 2. Active-transitive verbs are sometimes as improperly made neuter or in- transitive ; as, " I must^reni7«e with three circumstances ;" " Those who think to ingratiate with him by calumniating me." " I must premise with three circumstances." Will you correct this sentence, and give the rule for it? 2. "To ingratiate (4) with some by " I shall premise with two or three traducing others, makes a base general observations." and despicable mind." 3. The neuter verb (5) is varied like the active; but, having, in gome degree, the nature of the passive, it admits, in many instances, of the passive form, retaining still the neuter signification, chiefly in such verbs as signify some sort of motion, or change of place or condition ; as, ** 1 am come ;" *' I was gone;" "lam grown;" "I was fallen." The following examples, how- ever, appear to be errdneous, in giving the neuter verbs a passive form, instead of an active one: "The rule of our holy religion, from which we ore infinitely swerved." " The whole obligation of that law and covenant was also censed." "Whose number was now amownferf to three hundred." "This mareschal, upon some discontent, was entered into a conspiracy against his master." "At the end of a campaign, when half the men are deserted or killed." It should be, " have swerved," ** had ceased," etc. " I ara come." Why should not this be " I have come" ? 3. "If spch maxims and such prac- "The mighty rivals are now at tices (6) prevail, what has length agreed." (7) become of decency and " The influence of his corrupt ex- virtue?" ample was (8) then entirely •^I have come, according to the ceased." time proposed ; but I luive " He was entered into the connec- fallen upon an evil hour." tion before the consequences were considered." (1.) Rule XXII. (2.) " repent of." (3.) " to maJre a^ee with," etc. (4.) " ingratiate tnirselvp.s: (5.) Ry nniiter and active., Mr. Mnivay here means what in this work are styled intransitive aud transitive verbs. (6.) Kulo XI. (7.) " w." (8.) " had " SYNTAX. 155 Rule XV. When two or more nouns, or nouns and pro- nouns, signifying the same thing, come together, they are put Ijy apposition in the same case. ^®~ Thii examples whii:h follow may he corrected by this liiilc or the follow- infj j\ote. i. Tho verb to be, through all its variations, has the same case after it as thii,t which next precedes it. "/am he whom they invited." "/(maybe ("c, it might have been) he, but it cannot be {or, could not have been) /." " It is impossible to bo they." " It seems to have been he who conducted him- self so wisely." " // appeared to be she that transacted the business." " I understood /( to be him." " I believe it to have been them." " We at first took it to be her ; but were afterwards convinced that iV was not she." "He is not the person u-hn it seemed he was." " He is really the person who he appeared to b*" " She is not now the woman toAom they represented her to have been." "Whom do you fancy Km to be?" By these examples, it appears that this substantive verb has no government of case, but serves, in all its forms, as a conductor to the cases ; so that the two cases which, in the construction of the sentence, are the next before and after it, must always be alike. Perhaps this subject will bo more intelligible to the learner, by observing that the words in the cases preceding and following tho verb to be, may be said to be in apposition to each other. Thus, in the sentence, " I understood it to be him," the words it and him are in apposition j that is, they refer to tlie same thing, and are in the same case. The following sentences contain dovialions from tho rule, and exhibit tho pronoun in a wrong case. "It might have been him, but there is no proof of it." "Though I was blamed, it could not have been nte." " I t=aw one whom I took to be she." " Sho is the person, who I understood it to have been." " Who do you think me to be?" " Whom do men say that I am?" " And whom think ye that I am ?" Passive verbs, which signify naming, etc., have the same case before and after them; as, "He wns called Cassar;" " She was named Penelope ;" " Homer is styled the prince of poets;" "James was created a duke;" " The general was saluted emperor;" " The professor was appointed tutor to the prince." " I am him whom they invited." Will you correct this sentence, and give the rule for it ? 4. *" Well may you be afraid; it is (2) who conducted the business; him indeed." butlamcertainitwasnot him." " I would act the same part, if I " He so much rcsombled my bro- were him, (1) or in his situa- ther, that, at first sight, I took tion." it to be he." " Search the Scriptures, for in them " After all their professions, is it ye think ye have eternal life ; possible to be them ? " and tliey are t/iem which testify " It could not have been her, for of me." she always behaves discreet- " Be composed : it is me : you have ly." no cause for fear." " If it was not him, who do you " I cannot tell who has befriended imagine it to have been ?" me, unless it is him from whom " Who do you think him to be ?" 1 have received many benefits." " Whom do the people say that we " I know not whetlier it were them are ?" * When the verb to be ia understomt. it liiis the same case before and after it as when it is ejrjurssed ; as, " He seems the le;ider of the party;" " He sliaH continue steward;" •'They appointed me executor;" "I supposed him a man of learning :" — that is, "He aeems to be llie leader of the party," etc. Nouns in jippositiun are in the same cose ; as, " We named tlie mini I'ompey ;" "Tliey may term CImrle' a visionary, hut they can- not call him a deceiver ;"" Ilortensius died a maityr;" "Tlic g:eiltle t>idliey lived the Bhepli.-i-.IN friend." (1.) itiile.W. {2.) ^Hheii wn'e the persons" 156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 5. The auxiliary let goveros the objective case; as, "Let him beware,*'' "Let us judge candidly;" "Let them not presume;" "Let George study his lesson." " Let us judge candidly.*' In what case is ve? What is the rule? 5. "Whatever (1) others do, let (2) " Let them and we unite to oppoee thou and /act wisely." this growing (3) evil." RULE XIL Correttpondiug with Miii-ray'a Grammar, RULE Xil. The infinitive mood may be governed by vcrbs^ jJortlcipCes^ adjectives^ noiniSj and proyiouns. The preposition to, though generally used before the latter verb, is some- times properly omitted; as, " I heard him say it;" instead of, "to gay it." The verbs which have commonly other verbs following them, in the infini- tive mood, without the sign to, arc hid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, and also U(, not used as an auxiliary; and perhaps a few others; as, "I bade him do it;" "Ye dare not do itj" " I saw him do it;'* " I heard him say it;" "Thou lettest him go." Will you name the verbs which have commonly other words in the infini- tive mood after them, without the sign to f "It is better (4) livo. on a lit- " I need not ^o solicit him to do a tie, (5) than outlive a good kind action." deal." " I dare not to proceed so liastily, "You ought not walk too hastily." lest I should give offence." "I wish him not wrestle with his "I have seen some young persons happiness." to conduct themselves very dis- ci eetly." 1. In the following passages, the word to, the sign of the infinitive mood, where it is distinguished by Italic characters, is superfluous and improper: "I have observed some satirists to use," etc. "To see so many to make so little conscience of so great a sin.*' " It cannot but be a delightful spec- tacle to God jind angels, to see a young person, besieged by powerful temp- tations on every side, to acquit himself gloriously, and resolutely to hold out against the most violent assaults; to behold one in the prime and flower of his age, that is courted by pleasures and honors, by the devil, and all the bewitching vanities of the world, to reject all these, and to cleave steadfastly unto God." This mood baa also been improperly used in the following places : " I am not like other men, to envy the talents I cannot reach.*' " Grammarians have denied, or at least doubted, them t<' he genuine." " That all our doings may be ordered by thy governance, to do always what is righteous in thy sight." The infinitive is frequently governed by adjectives, substantives, and par- ticiples ; as, " He is eager to learn ;"" She is worthy to be loved;'* " They have a desii'e to improve ;" " Endeavoring to persuade." The infinitive mood has much of the nature of a substantive, expressing the action itself which the verb signifies, :is the participle has the nature of an adjective. Thus the infinitive mood does the office of a substantive in diiferent cases: — in the nominative; as, "To joZa?/ is pleasant:" — in the objective; as, "Boys love to play;" "For to will is present with me, but to perform that which is good, I find not." The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or used independently of the rest of the sentence, supplying the place of the conjunction that with the potential mood; as, "To confess the truth, I was in fault;" "To begin with the first ;'"' " To conclude ;" — that Ip, " That I may confess,*' etc. (1.) Rule Vlir. (J.) Imp. Rule \I. (3.) 559. (-1) '-to live." Rule XII. (5.) Nonii, SYNTAX. 157 " I have observed some satirists to use," etc. What is incorrect in this sentenco ? In the expression, " He is eager to learn," will you parse to team f What is the rule? .(1) " To pla.v is pleasant." Will you parse to play, and give a rule for it? (1) " To confess the truth, I was in fault." How is to confess parsed? What is the rule for it? (2) 1. "It is a great support to virtue, " To see (6) young persons who are when we see a good mind to coui-ted by health and pleasure, maintain (3) its patience and to resist all the allurements tranquillity, under injuries and of vice, and to steadilv pursue affliction, and lo cordially for- virtue and knowledge, "is cheer- give its oppressors." ing and delightful to every " It is the difference of their con- good mind." duct, which makes us to ap- " They acted with so much reserve, prove the one, and lo reject tlie that some persons doubted them otlier." to he sincere." (7) " We should not be like many per- " And the multitude wondered, sons, to (4) depreciate the vir- wlien they saw the lame to walk, tues we (5) do not possess." and the blind to see." (8) RULE XXVI. CorrespondinK with Murray's Grammar, RULE XIII. Tn the use of ivords ami phrases v.'hich, in point of time, relate to each other, a ditc regard to thai relation should be observed. Instead of saying, "The Lord hath given, and the Lord hath taken away," ive should say, " The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away." Instead of, " 1 remember the family more than twenty years," it should be, " I have remembered the family more than twenty years." It is not easy to give particular rules for the u?e of the moods and tenses of verbs with respect to one another, so that they may be proper and con- sistent. The best rule that can be given is this very general one — ** To observe what the sense necessarily requires." It may, however, be of use to give a few examples of irregular construction. " The last week I in- tended to have written," is a very common pbr.ase: the infinitive being in the past time, as well as the verb which it follows. But it is certainly wrong ; for how long soever it now is since I thought of writing, to write was then present to me, and must still be considered as present, when I bring back that time and the thoughts of it. It ought, therefore, to be, " The last week I intended to write." The following sentences are also erroneous: "I cannot excuse the remissness of those whose business it should have been, as it certainly was their interest, to have intayoued their good ofhces." "There were two circumstances which made it necessary for them io hove lost no time." " Historical painters would have found it difficult to have in- vented such a species of beings." They ought to be, to interpose, to lose, to invent. "On the morrow, because he would have known the certiiinty wherefore he was accused of the Jews, he loosed him." It ought to be, "because he would know" or, rather, '^heimj desirous to know." "The (1.) Hole XII. (2.) Note XII. LVIII. (3.) For to maintain rend maintain. 'i)"whn." (b)-'tliey." (6.) Note XIII. (J .) " their innceritij." ',8) **pi^sons who had been tame, wallcing; and titose who hod been blind, seeing." 14 158 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. blind man said unto him, Lord, tliat I might receive my sight." "If by any means I miiikt attain unto the resurrection of the dead." May, in both places, would have been better. "From his biblical knowledge, he appears to study the Scri|itures with great attention;" " iv have studieil," etc. "I feared that I should have lost it, before I arrived at the city;" "should lote it." " I had rather walk ;" it should be, '' I would rather walk." " It would have afforded me no satisfaction, if I could perform it;" it should be, "if I could have performed it.'* To preserve consistency in the time of verbs, we must recollect that, in the subjunctive mood, the present and imperfect tenses sometimes carry with them a future signification ; and that the auxiliaries shoxdd and would are used to express the present or future, as well as the past. "I intended to have written." Will you point out the incorrectness of this sentence, and give a rule for it ? " The next new year's day I shall hold on all the opportunities 6e (1) at school three years." which the imprudence, weak- ''And he that wos dead (2) sat up, ness, or necessities of princes and began to speak." afford it, to extend its author- "I should be obliged to him, if ity." he will gratify me in that par- " Fierce as he moved, his silver ticular." shafts resound." "And tlie multitude wondered, "They maintained that Scripture when they saw the dumb to conclusion, that all mankind speak, the maimed to be whole, rise from one head." the lame walk, and the blind "John will earn his Avoges when seeing." (3) his service is completed." "I have compassion on the mul- "Ye will not come unto me that titude, because they continue ye might have life." with me now three days." "Be that as it urill, he cannot jus- " In the treasury belonging to the tify his conduct." cathedral in this city is pre- "1 have been at London a year, served (4) with the greatest and seen the king last sum- veneration, for upwards of six mer." hundred years, a dish which " After we visited London, we re- tliey pretend to be made of turned, content and thankful, emerald." to our retired and peaceful "The court of Kome gladly laid habitation." 1. It is proper further to observe that verbs of the infinitive mood in the following form — to write, to he lorititnj, and to be loritten — always denote something coutemporory with the time of the governing verb, or suhsequeut to it; but when verbs of that mood are expressed as follows — to have been writing, to have written, and to have been tcritten — they always dcn»te some- thing antecedent to the time of the governing verb. This remark will, in most cases, be sufficient to direct us in the relative application of these tenses. The following sentence is properly and analogically expressed : " I found him better than I expected to find him." " Expected to have found him," is irreconcilable alike to grammar and to sense. Indeed, all verbs expressive of hope, desire, intention, or command, must invariably be followed by the present, and not the perfect of the infinitive. Every person would perceive an error in this expression — " It is long since I commanded him tit have done it;" yet, "expected to have found," is no better. It is as clear that the finding must he posterior to the expectation, as that the obedience must be posterior to the command. In the sentence which follows, the verb is with propriety put in the perfect tense of the infinitive mood: " It would have afibrded me great pleasure, as often as I reflected upon it, to hnre been the messenger of such intelligence."' (1.) " shiill fiavf been." (2.) " had been dead." (?>.) See tlte last t'.\Mmple nndel the preceding llule. (4.) " a dish has been preserved." SYNTAX. 159 As the message, in this iDstiince, was antecerlent to the pleasure, and not oontemporary with it, the verb expressive of the message must denote that antecedence, by being in the perfect of the infinitive. If the message and tho pleasure had been referred to aa contemporary, the subsequent verb woulil with equal propriety have been put in the present of the infinitive; a?, " [c would have afforded me great pleasure to be the messenger of such intelli- gence." In the former instance, the phrase in question is equivalent to these words — ** If I had been the messenger;" in the lattep instance, to this expres- sion — "Being the messenger." It is proper to inform the learner that, in order to express past time with the defective verb ought, tho perfect of the infinitive must always bo used ; aa, " He ought to have done it." When we use this verb, this is the only possible way to distinguish the past from the present. In support of the positions advanced under this rule, we can produce the sentiments of eminent grammarians; amongst whom are Lowth and Camp- bell. 13ut there are some writers on graramsir who strenuously maintain that the governed verb in the infinitive ought to be in the past tense, when the verb which governs it is in the past time. Though this cannot be admitted in the instances which are controverted under this rule, or in any instances of a similar nature, yet there can be no doubt that, in many cases, in which the thing referred to preceded the governing verb, it wuuld bu proper and allowable. We may say, "From a conversation I once had with him, he appeared to have atudied Homer with great care and judgment." It would be proper also to say, "From his conversation, he nppeara to hove eiudiid Homer with great care and judgment;" "That unhappy man it supposed to have died by violence." These examples are not only consistent with our rule, but they confirm and illustrate it. It is the tense of tho governing verb only, that marks what is called the absolute time; the tense of the verb gov- erned marks solely its relative time with respect to the other. To assert, as some writers do, that, verbs in the infinitive mond have no tenses, no relative distinctions of present, past, and future, is inconsistent with just grammatical views of the subject. That these verbs associate with verbs in all the tenses, is no proof of their having no peculiar time of their own. Whatever period the governing verb assumes, whether present, past, or future, the governed verb in the infinitive always respects that period, and its time is calculated from it. Thus, the time of the infinitive may be before, after, or the same as, the time of the governing verb, according as the thing signified by the infinitive is supposed to be before, after, or jiresent with the thing denoted by the governing verb. It is, therefore, with great propriety that-tenses are assigned to verbs of the infinitive mood. The point of time from which they are computed is of no consequence, since present, past, and future are completely applicable to them. We shall conclude our observations under this rule, by remarking that, though it is often proper to use the perfect of the infinitive after the governing verb, yet there are particular cases in which it would be better to give the ex- pression a different form. Thus, instead of saying, " I wish to have written to him sooner," " I then wished to have written to him sooner," " He will ono day wish to have written sooner;" it would be more perspicuous and forcible, as well as more agreeable to the practice of good writers, to say, " I wish thiit I had written to him sooner," "I then wished that I had written to him sooner," " He will one day wish that he had written sooner." Should the just- ness of these strictures be admitted, there would still be numerous occasions for the use of the past infinitive; as we may perceive by a few examples: " It would ever afterwards have been a source of pleasure, to have found him wise and virtuous." " To have deferred his repentance longer, would have disqualified him for repenting at all." "They will then see, that to have faithfully performed their duty, would have been their greatest consolation." "I expected to have found him." Will you correct this sentence, and give a rule for it? What tense of the infinitive must be used to express past timo with the defective verb ought? Give an example. Is it proper ever to use the perfect of the infinitive after the governicg verb ? Give an example. 160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1. "I purpose to go to London in a few months, and after I sliaU finish (1) my business there, to proceed (2) to America." "These prosecutions of William seem to be the most iniquitous measures pursued by the court durinr; the time that the use of parliaments was suspended." " From the little conversation I had with him, he appeared to have been a man of letters." " I always intended to have reward- ed my son according to his merit." " It would, on reflection, have given me great satisfaction, to relieve him from that distressing situ- ation." " It required so much care, that I thought I should have lost it before I reached home." " We have done no more than it was our duty to have done." " lie would have assisted one of his friends, if he could do it with- out injuring the other; but as that could not have been done, he avoided all interference." "Must it not be expected that he would have defended an au- thority which had been so long exercised without contro- versy ?" (3) "These enemies of Christianity were confounded, whilst they were expecting to have found an opportunity to have betrayed its author." " His sea-sickness was so great, that I often feared he would have died before our arrival." " If these persons had intended to deceive, they would have taken care to have avoided what would expose them to the objections of their opponents." " It was a pleasure to have received his approbation of my labors, for which I cordially thanked him." "It would have afforded me still greater pleasure, to receive his approbation at an earlier pe- riod ; but to receive (4) it at all, reflected credit upon me." "To be censured by him, would soon have proved an insuper- able discouragement." " Him portioned maids, appren- ticed orphans blest. The young who labor, and the old who rest." " The doctor, in his lectu re, said that fever always produced thirst." RULE XIV. Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, BTJLB XIV. Active participles, from active-transitive verbs, govern the objective case. " Esteeming (5) theirselves wise. they became fools." "Suspecting not only ye, but they also, I was studious to avoid all intercourse." " I could not avoid considering, (6) in some degree, they as enemies to me ; and he as a suspicious friend." "From having exposed (7) hisself too freely, in difierent climale.s, he entirely lost his health." 1. Participles are sometimes governed by the article ; for the present parti- ciple, with the definite article the before it, becomes a substantive, and must have the preposition o/ after it; as, '• These are the rules of grammar, by the observing of which you may avoid mistakes." It would not bo proper to (1.) " sliaJl have ftnvihed'^ (2.) Knle IX. (3.) ^'Might it not have bp-^n,^^ &tc. (4.) "to /laue received." Note XIII. '■ (S.) Rule XIII. (6.) Rule VIII. (7.) 661. 8 i- NT AX. 161 say, " by the observing which," nor, " by observing of which ;" but the phrnse, withtiut citlier article or preposition, would be right; as, "by observing which." The nrtiole n or an has the same effect; as, "This was a lictraying )f the trust reposed in him.'* This rule arises from the nature and idiom of our language, and from as (ilain a principle as any on which it is founded; namely, that a word which has the article before it, and the possessive preposition o/ after it, must be a noun; and, if a noun, it ouglit to follow the construction of a noun, and not to have the regimen of a verb. It is the participial termination of this sort of words, that is i>pt to deceive us, and make us treat thorn as if they were of an amphibious species, partly nouns and jiartly verbs. The following arc a few examples of the violation of this rule : " He was sent to prepare the way by preaching of repentance ;" it ought to be, " by ike preaching of repentance," or, ''by preaching repentance." "By the contin- ual mortifying our oorru]>t affections;" it should be, "by the continual mletely bound." " He encouraged the English barons to carry their opposition /ar^/ier;" "They compelled him to declare that he would abjure the realm fureaer;" instead of, "to carry farther their opposition," lO-t ENCiLISH GRAMMAR. and "to abjure forevc-i- the realm." "He has geneniUy been reckoned an honest man ;" " The book may alwat/s bo had at such a place ;" in preference to " has been generally," and " may be always." " These '-ules will be clearly understood, after they have been dUnjently studied," is preferable to " These rules v\\\-clearly be understood, after they have dilUjenlty been studied." From the preceding remarks and examples it appears that no e.xact and determinate rule can be given for the placing of adverbs, on all occasions. The general rule may be of considerable use; but the easy flow and per- spicuity of the phrase, are the things which ought to be chiefly regarded. The adverb there is often used as an expletive, or as a word that adds nothing to the sense; in which case it precedes the verb and the nominative noun; as, "There is a person at the door;" "There are some thieves in tha house;" which would be as well, or better, expressed by saying, "A person is at the door;" " Some thieves are in the house." Sometimes, it is made use of to give a small degree of emphasis to the sentence; as, " There was a man sent from God, whose name was John." AVhen it is applied in its strict sense, it principally follows the verb and the nominative case; as, " The 'iian stands there" What word is misplaced in the sentence, " He must not expect to find study agreeable always" ? Will you correct the sentence, and give the Rule for the position of adverbs ? How is the adverb sometimes placed with re- spect to the verb ? With respect to the auxiliary ? " He vas pleasing not often, (X) he- "So well educated a boy gives cause he was vain." great }iopes to his friends." " William nobly acted, though he " Not only he found her employ- was unsuccessful." ed, but pleased and tranquil " We may happily live, though our also." possessions are small." " We always should prefer our duty "From whence (2) we may date to our pleasure." likewise the period of this " It is impossible continually to be event." at work." " It cannot be impertinent or ri- " The heavenly bodies are in mo- diculous, therefore, to remon- tion perpetually." strate." " Having nc-t known, or having not " He offered an apology, which not considered, the measures pro- being admitted, he became sub- posed, he failed of success." missive." " My opinion was given on rather "These things should be never a (5) cursory perusal of the separated." book." " Unless he have more government " It is too common with mankind, of himself, he will be always to be engrossed and overcome discontented." totally, by present events." "Never (3) sovereign was (4) so "When the Romans were pressed much beloved by the people." by a foreign enemy, the women " He was determined to invite back contributed all their rings and the king, and. to call together jewels voluntarily to assist the his friends." government." 1. The adverb never generally precedes the verb ; as, " I never was there ;" " He never comes at a proper time." When an auxiliary is used, it is placed indiff'erently either before or after this adverb : as, " He was never seen (or never was seen) to laugh from that time." Never seems to be im- properly used in the following passages; "Ask me never so much dowry and gift." "If I make my hands never so clean." " Charm he never so wisely." The word ever would be more suitable to the sense. (,1.) "not often pi msinq." (2.) 589, 13.) " No." (4.) " «>«• so." (6.; "arniAer."— RuIelX. ' ' SYNTAX. 105 How is tlie adverb ijcvcr generally placed with respect to the verb? Givo ail example. Give an example where the word never is improperly used instead of evrr. 1. "They could not persuade liim, "If some persons' opportunities though they were vevrr so elo- were never so favorable, they quent." would be indolent in improving them." 2. In imitation of the French idiom, the adverb of place where is often used instead of the relative pronoun and a preposition. " They framed a protestation, lohere they repeated all their former claims ;" i.e., " ?/i tohich they repeated," *'The king was still determined to run forwards, in the same course vhere be was already, by his precipitate career, too fsvtally ad- vanced ;" i. 0,, "tu which ho was." But it would be better to avoid this mode of expression. The adverbs hence, thcncr, and v)hencey imply a preposition; for they sig- nify "from this place," '* from that place/* "from what place." Tt seems, therefore, strictly speaking, to bo improper to join a preposition with them, because it is superfluous; as, " This is the Leviathan, from whence the wits of our age are said to borrow their weapons ;" " An ancient author prophesies from hence." But the origin of these words is little nttended to, and the preposition //'07» is so often used in construction with them, that the omission of it, in many cases, would seem stiff, and be disagreeable. The adverbs here, fliere, inhere, arc often improperly applied to verbs Fig- nifying motion, instead of the adverbs hither, thither, whither ; as, " He came here hastily;" "They rode there with speed." They should be, "lie came hither;" "They rodo thither," etc. " They framed a protestation, where they repeated all their former claims." Will you correct this sentence, and repeat Note 2? "He drew up a petition, w/tere he "George is active; he walked too freely represented his own there in less than an hour." merits." fl) "His follies had reduced him to a "AVhere are you all going in such situation where lie had much to haste?" fear, and nothing to hope." "Whither have they been since " It is reported that the prince will they left the city ?" come here to-morrow." 3, AVe have some examples of adverbs being used fur substantives : " In 1687, he erected it into a community of regulars, since when it has begun to increase in those countries as a religious order;" i.e., " since loA/cA time." " A little while, and I shall not see yuu ;" \. o., " a ■'^hnrt time." " It is worth their while ;" i. e., " it deserves their time and pains." But this use of the word rather suits familiar than grave stylo. The same may be said of the phrase, "To do a thing anyhow/' i. e., " in any manner;" or " somehow ;" i.e., "in some manner." "Somehow, worthy us those people are, they are under the influence of prejudice." "Will you repeat this note, and give an example under it? 3. "Charles left the seminary too "Nothing is better worth the while early, since when he has made (3) of young persons, than the very little improvement." acquisition of knowledge and (2) virtue." (1.) Rule XXIT. (2.) " iwf from that time lie," etc. ; or, " and has sifice made,'" etc. (3.) ''the time and oLtmtixin of," eic. 16G ENGLISH GRAMMAR. RULE XIX. Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, RULE XVI. Two negatives, in the same simiole sentence, are equivalent to an affirmative ; as, " JSTor did they not perceive him ;" i. e., " They did perceive him." It is better to express an affirmation by a regujar affirmative tban by two separate negatives, as in the former sentence; but when one of the negatives is joined to another word, as in the latter sentence, the two negatives form u. pleasing and delicate variety of expression. Some writers have improperly employed two negatives instead of one; as in the following instances ; " I never did repent of doing good, nor shall not now;" ''nor shall 1 nuw." " Kever no imitator grew up to his author;" " never did any," etc. " I cannot by no means allow him what his argument must prove;" "I cannot by any means," etc. ; or, "/ ean hy no meant." " Nor let no comforter approach me ;" "nor let (ni^ comforter," etc. "Nor is danger ever apprehended in such a government, no more than we com- monly apprehend danger from thunder or earthquakes;" it should be ''any more." " Ariosto, Tasso, Galileo, vo more than Raphael, were not born in republics;" "Neither Ariosto, Tasso, nor Galileo, any more than Raphael^ was born in a republic." Should we express an affirmation by an affirmative, or by two separate negatives ? Will you give an example of the improper use of two negatives? " Keither riches, nor honors, nor no "Do not interrupt me youreelves, such p risliing goods, can sat- nor let no one disturb my re- isfy tliL' desires of an immortal tiremenl." spirit." " These people do not judge wise- " Be honest, nor take vo shape nor ly, nor take no proper measure semblance of disguise." to efliact their purpose." " We need not, nor ( I ) do not, con- " The measure is so exceptionable, fine his operations to narrow that we cannot by no means limits'." permit it." "I am resolved not to comply with "I have received no information the proposal, neither at present, on the subject, neither from nur at any other time." him nor from his friend." "There cannot be nothing more "Precept nor discipline is not so insignilicant than vanity." forcible as example." "Nothing never affected her so "The king nor the queen was mttch as this misconduct of not all deceived in the busi- her child." ness." RULE X. Correspondiug with Murray's Gram mar, RULE XVII. Prej)ositions govern the objective case. The following are examples of the nominative ease bciog used instead of the objective: "Who servest thou under?" "Who do you speak to ?" "We are still mueh at a loss who civil power belongs to." "Who dost thou ask for?" "Associate not with those who none can speak well of." In all these places, it ought to be "whom." The prepositions to and for are often understood, chiefly before the pro- nouns; as, "Give me the book;" "Get me some paper;" that is, "to me/* (1.) "and do." SYNTAX. 167 "/./• mc." "Wo is mo;" i. e., "to me." "He was banished England:" i. e., '\/i-om England." " Who do you speak to ?" Will you correct this sentonco, and explain why it is wrong? "Give me the book." What is understood in ihis sentence ? " \Ve are all accountable creatures, to ? Who doe.s lie offer such each for hisself." language to?" "They willingly, and of Iheimelvex, "It waa not he that they were so endeavored to make up the (li I- ani^rv with." fereuce." _ _ " What concord can subsist Iwlween "He laid the suspicion upon some- those who conmiit crimes, and body, I know not who, in the (hey (2) who abhor them?" company." " The person who I travclieil witli, "I bope it is not I who (1) he is has sold the hor.-e whieli he displeased with." rode on during our journey." " To poor we, there is not much " It is not I he is engaged with." hope remaining." " AVho did he receive tliat intelli- " Does that boy know who ke speaks genee from ?" 1. The preposition is often separated from the relative wiiich it governs; as, "Whom wilt thou give it to?" instead of, "To wham wilt thou give it?" " He is an author whom I am much delighted with ;" " The world is too polite to shock authors with a truth, which generally their booksellers are the first that inform them of." This is an idiom to which our languai^o is strongly inclined; it prevails in common conversation, and suits very well with the familiar style in writing ; but the placing of the preposition before the relative is more graceful, as well as more perspicuous, and agrees much better with the solemn and elevated style. Will you repeat this note, and give an example under it ? 1. " To have no one whom we heartily " He is a friend whom I am highly wish well to, and whom we are indebted to." warmly concerned for, is a de- plorable state." 2. Some writers separate the pre]>o3ition from its nouu, in order to connect diflfereut propositions with the same noun; as, " To suppose the zodiac and planets to be efficient <>f, and antecedent tn, themselves." This, whether ii' the familiar or the solemn style, is always inelegant, and should generally be avoided. In forms of law, and the like, where fulness and exactness of expression must take place of every other consideration, it may be admitted. Is it correct to separate the preposition from the noun which it governs ? When may it be admitted ? "On these occasions the pronoun is " They were refused entrance into, governed by, (3) and conse- and forcibly driven from, the ([uently agrees with, the pre- house." ceding word." 3. Different relations, and different senses, must be expressed by different prepositions, though in conjunction with the same verb or adjective. Thus, we say, " To converse lo'Uh a person upon a subject, in a house," etc. We also say, *' We are disappointed o/a thing," when we cannot get it. "and disappointed iu it," when we have it and find it does not answer our expectations. But two dif- ferent prepositions must be improper in the same constructions and in the same sentence ; as, " The combat between thirty French ayaiust twenty English." In some cases, it is difficult to say to which of two prepositions the prefer- ence is to be given, as both are used promiscuously, and custom has not decided in favor of either of them. We siiy, " Expert at," and " Expert in a thing ;" " Expert at finding a remedy for his mistakes ;" " Expert in deception." (1.) " iiWt ui.'iom." t2.) '* tliost." c3.) " by tbepreccdiug word, and consequently asreeswiUl it," 168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. When prepositions are subjoined to nouns, they are generally the same that iire subjoined to the verbs from which the nouns are derived; as, "A compliance with," " to comply with j" " A disposition to tyranny," " disposed to tyrannize." Do we express different relations and different sense by the same, or a different preposition ? 3. "We are often disappointed of company, but have always things which, before possession, hitherto been disappointed in promised much enjoyment." that pleasure." "I nave frequently desired their 4. As an accurate and appropriate use of the preposition is of great im- portance, we shall select a considerable number of examples of impropriety in the application of this part of speech. 1st. With respect to the preposition of. "He is resolved of going to the Persian court;'' " on going," etc. " He was totally dependent of the Papal crown ;" *' on the Papal," etc. " To call of a person," and " to wait of him j" ** oit a person," etc. " He was eager of recommending it to his fellow-citizens;" *' in recommending," etc. Of is sometimes omitted, and sometimes inserted, after wori/j?/ / as, "ft is worthy observation," or, "of observation." Hut it would have been better omitted in the following sentences : '* The emulation, who should serve their country best, no longer subsists among them, but o/ who should obtain the most lucrative command." "The rain hath been falling of a long time;" *' falling a long time." "It is situation chiefly which decides of the fortune and characters of men ;" " decides the fortune/' or, "concern in ff the fortune." " He found the greatest difficulty of writing;" "in writing." " It might have given me a greater taste of its antiquities." A taste o/a thing im- plies actual enjoyment of it; but a taste/o/' it implies only a capacity for enjoy- ment. '* This had a much greater share of inciting him, than any regard aftf^r his father's commands ;" " share in inciting," and " regard to his father's," etc. 2d. With respect to the prepositions to and/or. "You have bestowed your favors to the most deserving persons;" ^' vpon the most deserving," etc. " He accused the ministers for betraying the Dutch ;" "o/ having betrayed." ''His abhorrence to that superstitious figure;" "o/that," etc. "A great change to the bettor:" " for tha better." "Your prejudice to my cause;" *^ agninst." " The English were very different people then to what they arc at present;" "fro7n what," etc. " In compliance to the declaration ;" " with,'" etc. " It is more than they thought for ;" " thought of." " There is no need for it ;" " of it." For is superfluous in the phrase, " More than he knows for." *' No discourflgement for the authors to proceed ;" " to the authors/* etc. " It was perfectly in compliance to some persons ;" " with,"- " The wisest princes need not think it any diminution to their greatness, or derogation to their suf- ficiency, to rely upon counsel;" "diminution of" and ".derogation /rom/' 3d. With respect to the prepositions with and xipon. " Reconciling himself with the king." "Those things which have the greatest resemblance with each other, frequently differ the most." " That such rejection should be con- sonant with our common nature." " Conformable with/' etc. '*The history of Peter is agreeable with the sacred texts." In all the above instances, it should be "to," instead of *'wiih." " It is a use that, perhaps, I should rot have thought on ;" " thought of." " A greater quantity may be taken from the heap, without making any sensible alteration upon it;" "in it." " Intrusted to persons on whom the parliament could confide;" "in whom." "He was made much on at Argos;"' "much of." "If policy can prevail upon force;" "over force." "I do likewise dissent with the examiner;" "from." 4th. With respect to the prepositions in, from. etc. "They should he in- formed in some parts of his character/' " abciit" or "concerning." "Upon such occasions as fell into their cognizance/' " tmder." " That variety of factions into which we are still engaged;" "in which." "To restore myself into the favor;" " to the favor." " Could he have profited from his repeated experiences/' " 6^." /"rom seems to be superfluous after /-jrteary as^ " He SYNTA X. 169 enuld not forbear from appointing the pope," etc. " A strict observance after times and fasliions;" "o/ times." " Tlie character which we may now value ourselves by drawing;" "upon drawing." "Neither of them shall make me swerve out of the path;" ''from the path." "Ye blind guides, which strain at a gnat, and swallow a camel ;" it ought to be, '' which strain ok/ a gnat." The preposition amnng t;enerally implies a number of things. It cannot be properly used in conjunction with the word eoery, which is in the singular number ; as, ** Which is found among every species of liberty," " The opinion seems to gain ground among every body." " Ho is resolved of going to the Persian court." Will you correct this sen- tence ? " You have bestowed your favors to the most deserving persons." How should this sentence be altered? " Keconciling himself with the king." What inaccuracy is there in this sen- ience? " They should be informed in some parts of his character." Will you correct this sentence? 4. " She finds a difiiculty of fixing her mind.'' " Her S' ibriety is no derogation to her understanding." " Tliere was no water, and he died for (1) thirst." " We can fully confide on (2) none but the truly good." " I have no occasion of his services." " Many have profited from good advice." "Many ridiculous practices have been brought in vogue." " The error was occasioned by com- pliance to earnest entreaty." " This is a principle in unison to o>n- nature." "We should entertain no prejudices to simple and rustic persons." " They are at present resolved of doing their duty." " That boy is known under the name of the idler." " Though conformable with cus- tom, it is not warrantable." " This remark is fouilded in truth." "His parents think on him and his improvements with pleas- . ure and hope." "His excuse wa-s admitted of by (3) his master." " What went ye out for to see?" "There appears to have been a million men brought into the field." •' His present was accepted of by his friends." "More than a thousand of men were destroyed." " It is my request that he will be (l.J'W." it.) "in." 1? particular in speaking to the following points." "The Saxons reduced the greater part of Britain to their own power." " He lives opposite the royal ex- change." "Their house is situated to the northeast side of the road." " The performance was approved of by all who understood it." " He was accused with having acted unfairly." " She has an abhorrence to all de- ceitful conduct." " They were some distance (4) from home, when the accident hap- pened." " His deportment was adapted for conciliating regard." "My father writes me very fre- quently." " Their conduct was agreeable with their profession." " ^v'e went leisurely abo\e stairs, and came hastily below. We shall write up stairs this fore- noon, and down stairs in the afternoon." " The politeness of the world has the same resemblance with benevolence that the shadow has with its substance." " He had a taste of such studies, and pursued them earnestly." " When we have had a true taste for the pleasures of virtue, we can have no relish for thoseof vice." "Civility makes its way among every kin d of persons." ^~.)^'bv^- (J-) K XXII. 170 ENGLISH (JRAMMAR. 5. The preposition to is made use of before nouns of place, when they folloi* verlis and participles of motion ; as, " I went to London ;" " I am going to town," But the preposition at is generally used after the neuter verb to be; as, " I have* been at London ;" " 1 was at the place appointed ;" " I shall be at Paris." "We likewise say, " He touched, arrived at any place." The prepo- sition hi is set before the names of countries, cities, aud large towns j as, " He lives ill France, in London, or in Birmingham." But before those of villaj^es, single houses, or cities which are in distant countries, at is used ; as, " He lives at Hackney;" *' Ho resides at Montpellier." It is a matter of indifference, with respect to the pronoun one another, whether the preposition of ha placed between the two parts of it, or before them both. We may say, "They were jealous of one another ;" or, "They were jealous one of another;" but perhaps the former is better. Participles are frequently used as prepositions ; us, ea-repting, retpeelint), tonclliuij, concerning, according. "They were all In fault except or excepting him." How is the preposition to used with nouns of place? Give an example. Are parti-oiples ever used as prepositions ? Give an example. 5. "I have been to London, after " They have just landed in Hull, having resided a year at and are going for Liverpool. France ; and I now live at They intend to reside some Islington." time in Ireland." RULE XI. Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, KULE XVIIL Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the same mood and tense, and nouns or pronouns of the same case. A few examples of inaccuracy respecting this rule may further displa.y its utility. " If be prefer a virtuous life, and is sincere in his professions, he will succeed ;" "if \\Q prefers." "To deride the miseries of the unhappy, is in- human ; and wanting compassion towards them, is unchristian ;" " and to want compassion." " The parliament addressed the king, and has been prorogued the same day ;" " and was prorogued." " His wealth and him bid adieu to each other;" "and he." " He entreated us, my comrade and I, to live harmoniously;" " comrade and me." " My sister and her were on good terms ;" " and she." " We often overlook the blessings which are in our possession, and are searching after those which are out of our reach ;" it ought to be " and search after." " His wealth and him bid adieu to each other." Will you correct this sen- tence, and give the rule for Conjunctions ? " Professing regard, and to acl " To be moderate in our views, and ( 1 ) differently, discover a base proceeding temperately in the mind." pursuit of them, is the best way " Did he not tell me his fault, and to ensure success." entreated me to forgive him ?" " Between him and I there is some " My brother and him are tolerable disparity of years ; but none grammarians." between him and she." " If he understand the subject, and " By forming themselves on fantas- attenda to it industriously, he tic models, and ready toviewith can scarcely fail of success." one another in the reigning fol- " Yoiiandusenjovmanyprivileges." lies, the young begin with being " She and him are very unhappily ridiculous, and end with being connected." vicious and immoral." 1. Conjunctions are, indeed, frequently made to connect different mooda and tenses of verbs ; but in these instances, the nominative must generally, if (1.) "acting," or, '• I^ profess regard, and to act," etc. SYNTAX. 171 not always, be rcpcaterl, which is not necessary, though it may be (lone, under the construction to which the rule refers. Wo may suy, ■' H-c lives temperately, •iikI he sliouhl live temperately ;" " He may ntnrn, but he will not cuntinue .-" " She miia proud, though she is now humble:" but it is obvious that, in such cases, the nominative ought to bo repeated; and that, by this means, the latter members of these sentences are rendered not so strictly dependent on the preceding, as those are which come under this rule. When, in the progress of a sentence, we pass from the affirmative to the negative form, or from the negative to the affirmative, the subject or nominative is always resumed ; as, " He is rich, but ho is not respectable." There appears to be, in general, equal reason for repeating the nominative, and resuming the subject, when the course of the sentence is diverted by a change of the mood or tense. The following sentences may therefore be improved: "Anger glances into the breast of a wise man, but will rest only in the bosom of fools;" "but rrsts ts he reads, so they read." 8th. So—as; witli a verb expressing a comparison of quality; as, *'To see thy glory, so ns I have seen thee in tlie Bsiiictnary." 9th. Sfj — as; with a negative and an jn^jective expressing a comparison of quantity ; as, " Ponipey w;i3 not m gK'.it a geneia! as Ciesar, nor so t;reat a man." lOtli. So — that; tixpressing a consequence; ub, " He was so fatigued, that he could acarcoly move." The conjunctions or and nnr may often be used with nearly equal pro- priety. "The king, whose character was not sufficiently vigorous j/or deci- sive, assented to the measure." In this sentence, or would, perhaps, have been bettor; but, in general, nor seoms to repeat the negatioa in the former part of the aeutence, and, therefore, gives more emphasis to the expression. Are there any conjunctions which have correspondent conjunctions belong- ing to them ? Give examples. 9. "Neither the cold or the fervid, but "The dog in the manger would not charaoters uniformly warm, are formed for friendship." * They are both praiseworthy, and one is cijiutlly (1) deserving as the other." ' He is not an diligent and learned as his brother." Twill present it to him myself, or direct it to be given to him," ' Neither despise or oppose what thou dost not understand." * Tho house is not as commodious as we expected it would be." * I must, however, be so candid to own I have been mistaken." * There was something so amiable, and vet so piercing, in his look, as {2.) affected me at once with love and terror." -" X gained a son ; And such a son aa all men hailed me happy." eat the hay himself, nor suffer the ox to eat it." "As far as I am able to judge, the book is well written." " We should faithfully perform tho trust committed to us. or ingenu- ously relinquish the charge." "He is not as eminent, and as much esteemed, as he thinks himself to be." " The work is a dull performance, and is neither capable of pleasing (3) tho understanding, or the imagi nation." " There is no condition so secure, a cannot admit of change." " This is an event which nobody pre- sumes upon, or is so sanguine to hope for." "We are generally pleased with any little accomplishments of body or mind." 10. Conjunctions are often improperly used, both singly and in pairs. The following are examples of this impropriety : " The relations are so uncertain, as that they require a great deal of examination;" it should be, ''that they require," etc. " There was no man so sanguine, who did not apprehend (1.) "Fox ** equally " ve&d" as.' (2.) ' (3.) ^* neither the." 178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Bome ill consequences j" it ought to be, "so sanguine as not to apprehend," etc.; or, "no man, how sanguine soever, who did not," etc. "To trust m him is no more but to acknowledge his power." " This is no other but the gate of paradise." In both of these instances hut should be than. " We should suflEiciently weigh the objects of our hopej whether they are such as .^e may reasonably expect from them what they propose," etc. It ought to kje, " that we may reasonably," etc. " The duke had not behaved with that loyalty as he ought to have done;" " with which he ought." *' In the order as they lie in his preface;" it should be, "in order as they lie;" or "in tho order iu wAi'cA they lie." "Such sharp replies that cost him his life;" " as cost," etc. " If he were truly that scarecrow as he is now commonly painted;" "sucA a scarecrow," etc, "I wisli I could do that justice to his memory, to oblige the painters," etc. ; " do j9«cA justice as to oblige," etc. Will you repeat this note, and give an example under it? What is said of Bentencts beginning with the conjunctive form of the verb? Give an exam- ple. When has as the force of a relative pronoun? (1) Give an example. There ia u peculiar neatness in a sentence beginning with the conjunctive form of a verb. " Wev tliere no dilTerence, there would be no choice." A double cuiijimctive, in two correspondent clauses of a sentence, is sometiniPB made use of; iis, " /-fad he done this, he had escaped ;" ''■Had the limitations on the preroga- tive been, in his time, quite fixed and certain, his integrity Aarf made him regard as sacred the boundaries of tlie constitution." The sentence in the common form would have read tliui : "If the limitations on the prerogative had been," etc., "bis integrity would have made him regard," etc. The particle as^ when it is connected with the pronoun such, has the force of a rela- tive pronoun ; aa, "Let sucft as prewnme to adviseothers, look well to their own conduct;'* which is equivalent to, '* Let Viem who presume," etc. But when used by itself, this particle is to be considered as a conjiiui;tion, or perhaps as an ndverb. Our language wants a conjunctiou adapted to a familiar style, equivalent to notwith- itanding. The words /or all Lhit seem to be too low. "The word was in the mouth of «very one, but, for all that, the subject may still be a secret." In regard that is solemn and antiquated ; because would do much bettpr iu the follow- ing sentence : " It cannot be otherwise, in regard that the French prosody differs from that of every otlier language." The word except is far preferable to other than. " It admitted of no effectual cure other than amputation." Except is also to be preferred to all but. "They were happy, all but the stranger." In the two following phrases, the conjunction as is improperly omitted: "Which nobody presumes, or is so sanguine . to hope." "I must, however, be so just . to own." The conjunction (/ta( is often properly omitted, and understood; as, " I begged you would come to me:" "See thou do it not;" instead of " that you would," "that thou do." But in the following, and many similar phrases, this conjunction wore much better inserted: "Yet it is reason the memory of their virtues remain to posterity." It should be, " Yet it lajust (hat the memory," etc. 10. "Be ready to suecor such persons "He gained nothing further by his who (2) need thy assistance." speech, hnt only (6) to be com- "The matter was no sooner pro- mended for his eloquence." posed, hut {Z) he privately with- "He has little more of the scholar drew to consider it." hesidea the name." "He has too much sense and pru- "He has little of the scholar (Aan the dence than to become a dupe to name." such artifice." " They had no sooner risen, but **It is not sufficient that our conduct, they applied themselves to their aa far as it respects others, ap- studies." pears to be unexceptionable." "From no other institution, besides "The resolution was not the less tho admirable one of juries, could fixed, that (4) the secret was yet so great a benefit be expected." communicated to very few." "Those savage people seemed to "He opposed the most remarkable have no other element but war." corruptionsof the churchof Rome, "Such men t?int act treacherously 90 (5) ns that his doctrines were ought to be avoided." embraced by great numbers." (l.)6S6. C2.)"cw." C6.)"than." {4.) HJwuaJi." {5.') " and on this account." (,6.) " e:r.cf.pt.' SYNTAX. 179 " Germany ran the same risk as Italy " No errors are so trivial, Vtut they (1) had done." deserve to be corrected." RULE XXIX. CorrespondiDg with Murray's Grammar, RULK XX. When the qualities of different things are corn-pared^ the latter noun or 'pronoun is not governed by the conjiuvfion than or as, but it either agrees with the verb, or is governed by the verb or the preposition^ expressed or understood; as, '^ Thou art wiser than I;" that is, " than I am," '' They loved him more than me ;" that is, " more than they loved me." '' The sentiment is well expressed by Plato, but much better by Solomon than him;" that is, "than by him." The propriety or impropriety of many ]>hrases in the preceding, as well as in some other forms, may be discovered by supplying the words that are not expressed, which will be evident from the following instances of erroneous construction: "He can read better than me." ''He is as good as her." " Whether I be present or no." "AVho did this? Me." By supplying the words understood, in each of these phrases, their impropriety and governing rule will appear; as, " better than I can read;" *' as good as she is ;" " present or not present ;" '' I did it." "Thou art wiser than I." Will you parse /, and repeat the rule for it? "In some respects, we have had as "They know how to write as well many advantages as them; but as him; but he is a much better in the article of a good library, grammarian than them." they have had a greater privilege "Though she is not so learned as than us." him, she is as much beloved and "The undertaking was much better respected." executed by his brother than he." "These people, though they possess *' They are much greater gainers than more shining qualities, are not so me by this unexpected event." proud as him, nor so vain as her." 1. By not attending to this rule, many errors have been committed, a num- ber of which are subjoined, as a further caution and direction to the learner: "Thou art a much greater loser than me by his death." "She suffers hourly more than me." "We contributed a third more than the Dutch, who were obliged to the same proportion more than us." " King Charles, and, more than him, the duke and the popish faction, were at liberty to form new schemes." " The drift of all his sermons was to prepare the Jews for the reception of a prophet mightier than him, and whose shoes he was not worthy to bear." " It was not the work of so eminent an author as him to whom it was first imputed." " A stone is heavy, and the sand weighty; but a fool's wrath is heavier than them both." "If the king give us leave, we may per- form the office as well as them that do." In these passages it ought to be " /, we, he, they" respectively. When the relative who immediately follows ihan, it seems to form an ex- ception to the 29th Rule ; for, in that connection, the relative must be in the objective case ; as, " Alfred, thm whom a greater king never reigned," etc. " Beelzebub, than lohom, Satan excepted, none higher sat," etc. It is remark- able that, ia such instances, if the personal pronoun were used, it would be m the nominative case ; as, " A greater king never reigned fhan he ;" that is, '^ than he ica>i." "Beelzebub, tJimt he," etc.; that is. "•than he sat." The phrase thun whom is, however, avoided by the best modern writers. "She suffers hourly' more than me." Will you correct this sentence, and explain why it is wrong? (1.) " that they do not." 180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. "Who betrayed her companion?" "Whether he will be learned or no, "Not me." must depend on his application." "Who reTealed tbe secrets he ougbt " Charles XII. of Sweden, than who to have concealed ?" * Not Atm." (1) a more courageous person "Who related falsehoods to screen nevor lived, appears to have been herself, and to bring odiutn upon destitute of the tender sensibilities others?" "Not vie; it was her." of nature." " There is but one in fault, and that " Salmasius (a more learned man than is me." him has seldom appeared) was not happy at the close of life." RULE XXX. Corresponcling with Murray's Grammar, RULE XXI. To avoid disagreeable repetitions^ anel to express our ideas in a few words^ an ellipsis, or omission of some icor^ds^ is frequently admitted. Instead of sailing^ '•'• He was a learned man, he was a vrise man, and be was a good man," ice make use of the ellipsis, caul sag, "He was a learned, wise, and good man." Vylicn the omission of words icould obseiire the sentence, iceaken its force, or he attended icith an i)npropriety^ they must he expressed. In the sentence, '' AA^e are apt to love who love us," tJte word them shoidd he supplied. '•• X beautiful field and trees," is not proper language ; it should he, " Beautiful fields and trees," o)\ " A beau- tiful field and fine trees." Almost all compound sentences are more or less elliptical j and some ex- amples of ellijisis may be found under the different parts of speech. " I gladly shunned who gladly fled from me." Will you correct this sen- tence, and repeat the latter part of Rule XXX., by which the correction is made ? "I gladly shunned (2) who gladly fled fell a victim to the madness of the from me." people, truth, virtue, religion, fell " And this is (3) it men mean by dis- with him." (5) tributive justice, and is properly " Tbe iuar of death, nor hope of life, termed equity." could make him submit to a die- "Ilis honor, interest, religion, were honest action." (6) all embarked in this undertak- " An elegant house and furniture ing." (4) were, by this event, irrecoverably '■When 30 good a. man as Socrates lost to the owner." (7) 1, The ellipsis of the nrti.- (.1) " that which." (4.) Inseil "his" twice moio. {^.) "and" twice. (G.) " Is'cither — nor." (J.) "much costly." SY.XTAX. 181 Will you give an example of the ellipsis <.f the article? Is it necessary to repeat the article in each of these instances? 1. *' These rules are addressed to none with an unimproved, or with a but the intelligent and the{l) at- corrupted, mind." tcntive," " The more I see of his conduct, I like "The gay and (Ae pleasing are, some- him better." times, the most insidious, and the *' It is not only the duty, but interest, most dangerous companions." of young persons to be studious "Old age will prove a joyless and a and diligent." dreary season, if we arrive at It 2. The noun is frequently omitted in the following manner: "The laws of God and man ;" that is, " The laws of God and the laws of man." In some very emphatical expressions, the ellipsis should not be used ; as, " Christ, the power of Gud, and the wipdom of God;" which is more emphatical than ** Christ the power and wisdom of God." Will you give an example of the omission of the mnm f Should this ellipsis always be used ? 2. *' These counsels were the dictates of entertainment, when others leave virtue, and the dictate's (2) of true us." (4) honor." *' Without firmncs.^, nothing that is "Avarice and cunning may acquire great can be undertaken ; that is an estate, but avarice and cun- difficult or hazardous, can be ac- ning cannot gain friends." (3) complished." (5) " A taste for useful knowledge will " Tho anxious man is the votary of provide for us a great and noblo riches; the negligent, of pleas- ure." (6) 3. The ellipsis of the adjective is used in the following manner: "A delight- ful garden and orchard ;" that is, *' A delightful garden and a delightful orch- ard." " A little man and woman :" that is, "a little man and a little woman." In such elliptical expressions as these, ihe adjective ought to have exactly the same signification, and to be quite as proper, when joined to the latter sub- stantive as to the former; otherwise the ellipsis should not be admitted. Sometimes the ellipsis is improperly applied to nouns of different numbers ; as, "A magnificent house and gardens." In this case it is better to use another adjective; as, "A magnificent house and fine gardens." Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the adjective? What rule is to be observed in the use of this ellipsis ? 3. "His crimes had brought him into "That species of commerce will pro- extreme distress and extreme duce great gain or loss." (10) perplexity." (7) " Many days, and even weeks, pass "He has an affectionate brother, and away unimproved." (10) an affectionate sister. and they live "This wonderful action struck the in great harmony." (8) beholders with exceeding (11) "Wo must guard against too great se- astonishment." (10) verity, and facilityof manners. "(9) "The people of this country possess " We should often recollect what tho a healthy climate and soil." (9) wisest men have said and written " They enjoy also a free constitution concerning human happiness and and laws." (10) vanity." (10) 4. The following is the ellipsis o^ the pronoun : " T love and fear him;'' that is, " I love him, and I fear him." " My house and lands ;" that is, " 3Iy house, and my lands." In these instances, the ellipsis may take place with propriety ; but if we would be more express and emphatical, it must not be used; as, " His friends and his foes;" " My snns and my daughters," In some of the common forms of speech, the relative pronoun is usually omitted; as. "This is the man they love." instead of. "This is the man (I.) Reject' (ft^ ■ (2) ■ virtnr. and of trur (3.) Insert " tftcy' in tbe place of two Douna. '4.} Invert •' entertainments.' (fi. i Insert '■ nothing. ' (6) Insert ■' min OiAt.- {" 1 R'^j'^t an adjective. |3 1 RtjfCt two words. (9.j Insert two words. (10.) Insert an adjective. (11.) " cxceadinglg. ' 16 182 ■ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. wJtom they loTe;" "These are the goods they bought," for "These aro the goods which they bought." In complex sentenceSj it is much better to have the relative pronoun ex- pressed ; as it is more proper to say, " The posture in which I lay," than " In the posture I lay ;" " The horse on which I rode fell down/' than " The horse I rode fell down." The antecedent and the relative connect the parts of a sentence together; and, to prevent obscurity and confusion, they should answer to each other with great exactness. " We speak that we do know, and testify that we have seen." Here the ellipsis is manifestly improper, and ought to be supplied ; as, " We speak that which wo do know, and testify that which'we have seen." Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the pronoun ? Can this ellipsis be properly used at all times ? 4. " His reputation and his estate were " He is not only sensible and lea-rned, both lust by gaming." (1) but is religious too." (2) "This intelligence not only excited "The Chinese language contains an our hopes, but fears too." (2) immense number of words; and " His conduct is not scandalous ; and who would learn them must pus- that is the best can be said of sess a great memory." (2) it." (3) " By presumption and by vanity, we "This was the person whom calumny provoke enmity, and we incur had greatly abused, and sus- contempt." (1) tained the injustice with singu- "In the circumstances I was at that lar patience." time, my troubles pressed heavily "He discovered some qualities in tho upon me," (4) youth of a disagreeable nature, "He bad destroyed his constitution, and to him were wholly unac- by the very same errors that so countable." (2) many have been destroyed." "The captain had several men died in his ship of the scurvy." (2) 5. The ellipsis of the verb is used in the following instances : " The man was old and crafty ;" that is, " The man was old, and the man was crafty." " She was young, and beautiful, and good ;" that is, " She was young, she was beau- tiful, and she was good." " Thou art poor, and wretched, and miserable, and blind, and naked." If we would fill up the ellipsis in the last sentence, thou art ought to be repeated before each of the adjectives. If, in such enumeration, we choose to point out one property above the rest, that property must be placed last and the ellipsis supplied; as, " She is young and beautiful, and she is good." " I went to see and hear him;" that is, "I went to see. and I went to hear him." In this instance, there is not only an ellipsis of the governing verb, / went, but likewise of the sign of the infinitive mood, which is governed by it. Du^ did, have, hud, shall, will, may, might, and the rest of the auxiliaries of tho compound tenses, are frequently used alone, to spare the repetition of the vei'b ; as, " He regards his word, but thou dost not ;" that is, " dost not regard it." " We succeeded, but they did not ;" " did not succeed." " I have learned my task, but thou hast not ;" *' hast not learned." '* They must, and they shall be punished;" that is, " they must be punished." Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the verb? Suppose we wish to point out one property above the rest ? How are the auxiliaries sometimes used? 5. " He is temperate, he is disinterested, "Perseverance in laudable pursuits he is benevolent ; he is an orna- will reward all our toils, and will ment to his family, and a credit produce effects beyond our calcu- to his profession." (5) lation." (7) " Genuine virtue supposes our bcnev- "It is happy for us, when we can olcnce to be strengthened, and to calmly and deliberately look back be confirmed by principle." (6) on the past, and can quietly an- ticipate the future." (7) (I.) ppipcLaryif'i>Rnn. (2.) Insert a proiioiiji. (30 " Ihnf—Lhat" (4.) Insert two words. (5.) RejouL SIX wuids, andniieiL one. (6.) Ruject two worda. (7.) Reject one woid. SYNTAX. 183 " The sacrifices of virtue will not only be rewarded hereafter, but recom- pensed even in this life." (1) "All those possessed of any office resigned their former commis- sion." (2) "If young persons were determined to conduct themselves by the rules of virtue, not only would they escape innumerable dan- gers, but command respect from the licentious themselves," (2) '* Charles was a man of learning, knowledge, and benevolence,* and, what is still more, a true Christian." (2) 6. The ellipsis of the adverb is used in the following manner : " He spoke and acted wisely ;" that is, " He spoke wisely, and he acted wisely." " Thrice I went and offered my service;" that is, " Thrice I went, and thrice I offered my service." How is the ellipsis of the adverb used? "The temper of him who is always in the bustle of the world will be often lufllcd, and be often disturbed." (3) " We often commend imprudently, as well as censure imprudent- ly." (4) "How a seed grows up into a tree, and the mind acts upon the body, are mysteries which we cannot explain." (5) "Verily there is a reward for the righteous. There is a G-od that judgeth in the earth." (5) 7. The ellipsis of the preposition, as well as of the verb, is seen in the fol- lowing instances: "He went into the abbeys, halls, and public buildings;" that is, " He went into the abbeys, he went into the halls, and he went into the public buildings." "He also went through all the streets and lanes of the city ;" that is, " through all the streets, and through all the lanes," etc. "He spoke to every man iind woman there;" that is, "to every man and to every woman." "This day, next month, last year;" that is, "On this day, in the next month, in the last year." "The Lord do that which seemeth him good;" that is, "which seemeth to him." Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the preposition and the verb? 7. "Changes are almost continually gins smiled at what they blushed taking place, in men and in man- before." (5) ners, in opinions and in customs, "Theyarenowreconciled to what they privjito fortunes and public conduct." (5) (3) •' Averse either to contradict or blame, the too complaisant man goes along with the manners that prevail." (5) "By this habitual indelicacy, the vir could not formerly be prompted, by any considerations." (5) *' Censure is the tax which a man pays the public for being eminent." ( 5) " Reflect on the state of human life, and the society of men as mixed with good and with evil." (5) 8. The ellipsis of the conjunction is as follows : " They confess the power, wisdom, goodness, and love of their Creator;" that is, "the power, and wis- dom, and goodness, and love of," etc, " Though I love him, I do not flatter him;" that is, "Though I love him, yet I do not flatter him." Will you give an example of the ellipsis of a conjunction ? " In all stations and conditions, the important relations take place, of masters and servants, and bus- bands and wives, and parents and children, and brothers andfriends, and citizens and subjects." (6) "Destitute of principle, he regarded neither his family, nor his friends, nor his reputation." (4) 9. The ellipsis of the interjection is not times used; as, "Oh, pity and shame!" (1.) Insert three words. (2.) Tnt-ert two wnrrli ■ue woid. {5.) Iimeit one word. (C.J Reject Religious persons are often unjustly represented as persons of roman- tic character, visionary notions, unacq^uainted with the world, un- fit to live in it." (1) No rank, station, dignity of birth, possessions, exempt men from contributing their share to public utility." (7) , very common : it, however, is some- " that is, "Oh, pity! oh, shame!" 1. (3.) Reject two words. M.) Reject four words. (7.J "nor—TW—wrany." 184: ENGLISH GRAMMAR. As the ellipsis occurs in almost every sentence in the English language, numerous examples of it might be given ; but only a few more can be ad- mitted here. In the following instance, there is a very considerable one: "He will often argue, that if this part of our trade were well cultivated, "we should gain from one nation; and if another, from another;" that is, "He will often argue, that if this part of our trade were well cultivated, we should gain from one nation ; and if another part of our trade were well cultivated, we should gain from another nation." The following instances, though short, contain much of the ellipsis : " Wo is me ;" i. e., " wo is to me." " To let blood ;'* i. e., " to let out blood." " To let down ;" i. e., '' to let it fall or slide down." " To walk a mile ;" i. e., '■ to walk through the space of a mile." " To sleep all night;" i.e., "to sleep through all the night." " To go a fishing;" *' To go a hunting ;" i. e., " to go on a fishing voyage or business ;" "to go on a hunting parfy." "I dine at two o'clock ;" i. e., *' at two of the clock." " By sea, by land, on shore;" i. e., " by the sea, by the land, on the shore." What is said of the ellipsis of the interjection? 9. ''Oh, my father! Oh, my friend! "Ob, piety! virtue I how insensible how great has been my ingrati- have I been to your charms!" tude!" (1) (2) 10. The examples that follow are produced to show the impropriety of ellipsis in some particular cases. " The land was always possessed, during pleasure, by those intrusted with the command;" it should be, " those per- sons intrusted;" or, "those toko icere intrusted." "If he had read farther, he would have found several of his, objections might have been spared ;" that is, "he would have found thut several of his objections," etc. "There is nothing men arc more deficient in, than knowing their own characters ;'' it ought to be, '' nothing in which men are more deficient, than in knowing," etc. " I scarcely know any part of natural philosophy would yield more \ariety iind use:" it should he, ^^ which would yield," etc. '' In the temper of mind he was then;" that is, " ?'n lohich he then was." "The little satisfaction and consistency to be found in most of the systems of divinity I have met with, mude me betake myself to the sole reading of the Scriptures;" it ought to be, "which are to be found," and "which I have met with." "He desired they might go to the altar together, and jointly return their thanks to whom only they were due;" that is, "to him to whom," etc. " There is nothing men are more deficient in, than knowing their own characters." Will you correct this sentence? 10. " That is a property most men have, "Most, tf not all, the royal family or at least may attain." {?>) had quitted the place." (2) "Why do ye that which is not lawful "By these happy labors, they who to do on the sabbath days?" (2) sow and reap, will rejoice to- " The show-bread, which is not lawful gether." (4) to eat,butforthe priests alone. "(2) RULE XXXI. Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, RULE XXII. All the 'parts of a sentence should correspond to each other : a regular and dependent construction, throughout, should be carefully preserved. The folloiring sentence is^ there- fore^ inaccurate: "He was more beloved, but not so (1.) Reject one word. (2.) laeert one word. (3.) Ineert three words. (4.) Insert two words. SYNTAX. 185 much admired, as Cinthio." It should be, *'He was more beloved than Ciiithio, but not so much admired." The first example under this rule presents a most irregular construction, namely, " Ho was more beloved as Ciiithio." Tlie words more and so much are ver}- improperly stated OH haviTig the same regimen. In correcting such sentences, it is not necessary to supply the latter ellipsis; because it cannot lead to any discordant or improper con- struction, and Uie supply would often be harsh or inelegant. As the 31st Iliile Loinpiehends all the preceding ru!es,it may, at the first view, appear tt) bo too general to bo useful. But, by ranging under it a number of sentences pecu- '.iarly constructed, we shall perceive that it is calculated to ascertain the true gram- matical cnnstnu'tion of many modes of expression which none of the particular rules can suflBc.i'Mitly explain. " This dedication may serve for almost any book, that has, is, or shall be published ;" it ought to be, " that has been, or shall be published," " llii was guided by iiit(-rests always different, sometimes contrary to, those of the community ;" "different from ;" or. "always different IVnni those of the community-, and sumetimes contrary to th';'ni." *' Will it be urged that tliose books are as old, or even older than tradition?" the words "as old," and **oIdi'r," cannot haveacommou regimen: it should be. "as old as tra- dition, or even older." "It lenuiros few talents ti> whicii most men are not born, or at least may not acquire ;" "or wiiicli, at least, they may ndt acquire." " The court of chau(ei\v fi'equently mitigates and breaks the teeth of the common law." In tliis con- struction, the first vi.>i'b is anid to mitigate the teeth of the common law, which is an evident solecism. ' Mitigates the common law, and breaks the teeth of it," would have been grammatical. "They presently grow into good humor and good language towards the crown;" "si'ijwnito good ian^iuage," is very improjier. " Tiiere is never wanting a set of evil in'struments, who. eiiher out of mad zeal, private hatred, or filthy lucre, are alwiijs ready," etc. We say properly, "A man acts out of mad zeal," or, "out of private hatred ;" but wo cannot say, if we woiihl >pealt English, " lie acts out of filthy lucre." " To double her kindness and caresses of me ;" the word /dndness requires to be followed by either to or/o?-, luid cannot be construed with the preposition of. '■ Never was man 80 teased, or suffered half the uneasiness, as I havf done this evening ;" the first and third clauses, namely, *' never was man so teased," "as 1 have doTie this evening," can- not be joined without an impropriety ; and to connect the second and third, the word that must be substituted for as ; " or sufTered half the uneasiness that I have done ;" oi else, " lialf so much uneasiness as I have suffered." The first part of the following sentence abounds with adverbs, and those sucli as are hardly consistent with one another: " Howmitch soever the reformation of this degen- erate ago is cdinosl utterly to be despiiired of, we may yet have a more comfortable prospect of future times." The sentence would bo more coiiect in the following form : " Though the reformation of this degenerate age is nearly to be despaired of," etc. " Oh ! shut not up my soul with the sinners, nor my life with the bloodthirsty ; in whose hands is wickedness, and OiHr right hand is full of gifts." As the passage intro- duced by the copulative conjunction and was not intended as a continuation of the principal and independent pai't of the sentence, hut of (he dependent part, the rehilive whos& should have Iiclmi used instead of the iiossessive their; namely, "and whose right hand is full of gilts." " Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered into the heart of man, the things which God hath pre[iared for them that love him." There seems to lie an impropriety in this instance, in wliich the same noun serves in a double 'capacity, performing at the same time the offices both of the nominative and ob.jective cases, " Neither hath it entered into the heart of man to conceive the thiugs," etc., would have been regular. " We have the power of retaining, altering, and compounding those images which we have once received, into all the varieties of picture and vision." It is very pi.ip^r to say, *' altering and compounding those images wliich we have once received, into all tlio varieties of picture and vision;" but we cannot with propriety say, "retaining them into all the varieties ;" and yet, according to the manner in which the words are ranged, this ccmstrnction is unavoidable: for retaining, altering, und cmpound nig are participles, each of which equally refers to and governs the subsequent noun, those images; and that noun, again, is necessarily connected with the following preposition, into. The construction might easily have been rectified, by disjoining the participle retaining from the other two participles in this Avay : " Wo have the power of retaining those images which we have once received, and of altering and compounding them into sU the varieties of picture and vision ;" or, perhaps, better thus: "We have the power cf retaining, altering, and compounding those images which we have once received, end of funning them into all the varieties of picture and vision," V/hy is the first cx.iraple under this rule inaccurate? "This dedicatioD loaj servo for almost any hook, that has, is. or shall be published." "Wil/ ifou point out the inaccuracies in this sentence, and correct them? 16* 186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. "Several alterations and additions have been made to the work." (1) "The first proposal was essentially different, and inferior to the sec- ond." (2) " He is more bold and active, but not so wise and studious as his com- panion." (3) "Thou hearest the sound of wind, but thou canst not tell whence it cometh, and whither it goeth." ''Neither has he, nor any other per- sons, suspected so much dissimu- lation." (4) "The court of France or England was to have been the umpire." (5) " In the reign of Henry II. all foreign commodities were plenty in Eng- land." (6) "There is no talent so useful towards success in business, or which puts men more out of the reach of ac- cidents, thiin that quality gener- ally possessed by persons of cool temper, and is, in common lan- guage, called discretion." (7) " The first project was to shorten dis- course, by cutting polysyllables into one." (8) "I shall do all I can to persuade others to take the same measures for their cure which I have." (9) "The greatest masters of critical learning differ among one an- other." "Micaiah said. If thou certainl3' re- turn in peace, then bath not the Lord spoken by me." (10) " I do not suppose, that we Britons want a genius, more than the rest of our neighbors." (10) *The deaf man whose ears were opened, and his tongue loosened, doubtless glorified the great Phy- sician." (11) " Groves, fields, and meadows are, at any season of the year, pleasant to look upon ; but never so much as in the opening of the spring." (12) "The multitude rebuke them, because they should hold their peace." " The intentions of some of these phil- osophers, nay, of many, might and probably were good." (13) "It was an unsuccessful undertak- ing ; which, although it has failed, is no objection at ail to an enter- prise so well concerted." (14) "The reward is his due, and it has already, or will hereafter be given to him." (15) *'By intercourse with wise and expe- rienced persons, who know the world, we may improve and rub off the rust of a private and re- tired education." (16) "Sincerity is as valuable, and even more valuable, than knowledge." (17) "No person was ever so perplexed, or sustained the mortifications, as he has done to-day." (18) "The Komans gave not only the freedom of the city, but capacity for employments, to several towns in Gaul, Spain, and Germany." (19) " Such writers have no other standard on which to form themselves, ex- cept what chances to be fashion- - able and popular." (20) "Whatever we do secretly, shall be displayed and heard in the clear- est light." (21) " To the happiness of possessing a person of so uncommon merit, Boethius soon had the satisfaction of obtaining the highest honor his country could bestow." (1.) "This work has received" &tc. (2.) " was ivferior to the second, and— from it" (S.) " active than his." (4.) Inseit " have." (5.) ''or that of." (6.) "plentiful" (7.) Tnaert "more" and "itf/fic/i." (8.) " by reducing — to words of one syllable ." (£1.) Insert a participle. (10.) Eeiect one word. (11.) Insert two words, and reject one. (12.) Insert " so." (13.) Insert ''/latie been." (14.) " the failure of which iii, however." (15.) Insert " Seen." (16.) End with " and rub off its 7-2ist." (17.) " as knowledge, and." (18 ) Insert "Men" for "done," and end with " su^i mortification." (19.) "iAe inhabi- tants q/''" (^.) Reject one word. (21.) " displayed in the clearest." PROSODY. Peosody consists of two parts : the former teaches the true pro- nunciation of words, comprising accent, quantity, emphasis, PAUSE, and tone; the latter, the laws of versification. OF PRONUNCIATION. OF ACCENT. Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a certain letter or syllable in a word, that it may bo better heard than the res£, or distinguished from them; as, in the word presume, the stress of the voice must be on the letter u, and second syllable awme, which take the accent. OP QUANTITY. The QUANTITY of a syllable is that time which is occupied in prououncing it. It is considered long or short. A vowol or syllable is long when the accent is on the vowel, which occa- siniis it to be slowly joim^il in pronunciation with the following letter; as, fdU, idle, woody honse, fenhtrc. A syllable is short when the accent is on the consonant, which occasions the vnwcl to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter ; as, ant, bonnet, huiujer. A long syllable generally requires double the time of a short one in pro- nouncing it; thus, mate and note should be pronounced as slowly again as mat and not. OF EMPHASIS. By RMPHAsis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of voice, by which we disitingiii.^li some word or words on which we design to lay a particular stress, and to show how they affect the rest of the sentence. Sometimes the em- phatic words must be distinguished by a particular tone of voice, as well as by a greater stress. OF PAUSES. Pausrr or RKSTS, in speaking and reading, are a total cessation of the voice during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a measurable space of time. OP TONES. ToNRS are different both from emphasis and pauses, consisting in the moduliition of the voice, the notes or variations which we employ in the expression of our sentiments. OF VERSIFICATION. Versification is the arrangement of a certain number and variety of syllables, according to certain laws. Rhvmk is the correspondence of the last sound of one verse to the last sound of another. What is prosody ? tion of a long syllable occupy than that of a Wlint U nccent? What is the quantity of n sliort one? What ia empliasis ? What are Bvlliible? When is a vowel or syMabie longf pauses? What are tones? What is versifica- Wbi^n short ? Give examples of each. tiou? What ia rhyme ? How much more time does the prouuncia- 187 188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. OF POETICAL FEET. A certain number of syllables connected form a foot. They are called feet bccanse it is by their aid that the voice, sa it were, steps along through the verse in a measured pace. All feet used in poetry consist either of two or of three syllables, and are reducible to eight kinds — four of two syllables, and four of three — as follows : DISSYLLABLE. TRISYLLABLE. A Trochee, — ^— < A Dactyl, — \— - ^_^ An Iambus, ^-^ — Au Amphibrach, >— ^ — ^— ' A Spondee, — — An Anapsest, v^^ ^^^ — A Pyrrhic, ^-^ ^— / A Tribrach, -^-^ v^ ^— ' A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unaccented j as, "Hatefiil, pettish." An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last accented,- as, "Betray, consist." A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented ; as, " The pale moon." A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccented j as, '* on the tall tree." A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the last two unaccented; as, ** Laborer, p6ssible." An Amphibrach has the first and last syllables unaccented, and the middlo one accented; as, "Delightful, d6m€.=tic." An Anapasst has the first two syllables unaccented, and the last accented; as, "Contravene, atiqui^sce." A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented; as, "Numerable, conquerable." Some of these may be denominated jon'jicjjaa^ feet, as pieces of poetry may be wholly or chiefly formed of any of them. Such are the Iambus, Trochee, Dactyl, and A^nap^st. The others may be termed eecondary fe£t, because their chief use is to diversify the numbers, and to improve the verse. PUNCTUATION. Punctuation is the art of dividing a written composition into sentences, by points or stops, for the purpose of marking the differ- ent pauses which the sense and an accurate pronunciation require. The Comma represents the shortest pause; the Semicolon, a pause double that of the comma ; the Colon, double that of the semicolon j and the Period, double that of the colon. OF THE COMMA. The Comma usually separates those parts of a sentence which, though very closely cnnnefted in sense and construction, require a pause between them. KuLii! 1. — AVith respect to a simple sentence, the several words of which it is composed have so near a relation to each other that, in general, no points arc requisite, except a full stop at the end of it; as, " The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom." " Every part of Nature swarms with living creatures." A simple sentence, however, when it is a long one, and the nominative case is accompanied with inseparable adjuncts, may admit of a pause im- mediately before the verb; as, "The good taste of the present age, has not allowed us to neglect the cultivation of the English language," "To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect in character." What constitutes a poeticiil foot, and why 13 It so What is punctuation ? What does the comma rep- called' how m;iuy syllables do poetical feet con. resent? the semicoloa ? the colon? the period ? siHt How many Itmds oT feet are there, and what How i'? the comma used 7 are they? What Is aTrochee? aninmbua? a Spnn- " The fear oftheLord is the boginniDgof wisdom." dee? aPyrrhic? a Dactyl ? an Amphibrach ' i-n Does thi-i sentence require a pau-^e in it? Will you Anapaest? a Tribrach ? Will you give an example Rive the rule for sentences of this kind? " The good of each ? AVhich are called princijiut feet f \Yhi^D tnsteot the present m-c has not allowed us to neglect aecondary f Why 1 Hit: cultivation ul the English language." Dee-, this PROSODY. 189 Rule 2.— When the conneotion of the different parts of a simple sentence is interrupted by an imperfect phrase, the comma is usually introduced before the bcginuiug and at the ond of the phrase; as,'*! rememhor, with gratitude, his goodness to me." '* His work is, in many resjjecis, very imperfect." "It is, therefore, not much approved." But when the interruptions are slight and unimportant, the cumma is better omitted; as, " Flattery is certainly pernicious." " There is enrely a pleasure in beneficence." RuLR 3. — When two or more nouns occur in the same construction, they are parted by the comma; as, " The husband, wife, and children, suffered ex- tremely." "They took away their furniture, clothes, and stock in trade." From this rule there is an exception, with regard to two nouns closely con- nected by a conjunction ; as, "Virtue and vice form a strong contrast to each other." "Libertines call religion bigotry or superstition." If the parts con- nected arc not short, the comma may be inserted, though the conjunction is expressed; as, " Romances may be said to be miserable rhajjsodies, or dan- gerous incentives to evil." RuLifi 4. — Two or more adjectives, belonging to the same substantive, are likewise separated by commas; as, ''Plain, honest truth wants no artificial covering." " David was a brave, wise, and pious man." But two adjectives, immediately connected by a conjunction, are not sepa- rated by the comma; as, "Truth is fair and artless." " We must be wise ot- foolish : there ib no medium." KtTLE 5. — Two or mure verbs, having the same nominative case, and im- mediately following one another, are also separated by commas; as, "Virtue supports in adversity, moderates in prosperity." '* In a letter we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss." Two verbs immediately connected by a conjunction, are an exception to the rule; as, "The study of natural history expands tvtd elevates the mind." Two or more participles are subject to a similar rule and cxetptlun. Rule 6. — Two or more adverbs immediately succeeding each other, must be separated by commas; as, "We are fearfully, wonderfully framed." " Wo must act prudently, steadily, and vigorously." When two ailveibs are joined by a conjunction, they are not parted by the comma; as, " Sume men sin deliberately a paretitheflis ? Give an example in priety 7 " Who will accompany me ?" What point which it i^ used with prnprietv. Should the voiofl dbniild be uaed at the end of this sentence ? hi- pitjvaled or depressed in pronouncing a paren- To whn' is the nole of exclanmtion applied ? Give "" thesis 7 nn example. Are the exclamauon and interrnEa- When sbould capital letters be uaed? tion points determinate as to their quantity or time? 1»3 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. BY EPES SAROENT. Sentence, Subject and Predicate. § 1. A Sentence (from the Latin senfentia, a thought or opinion) is such an arrangement of words as forms some complete sense; and by this is meant, that something is said about something; as, "The boy learns his lesson;" " The cat caught a mouse." If we merely utter the words boy, cat, the question is naturally put, "Well, what of them?" In order to make sense, we must say something of one or both of them ; that is, we must form a sentence. § 2. Thus a sentence must contain at least two things: (1.) That which is mentioned ; (2.) What is spoken or said about that which is mentioned. That which is mentioned is called the Subject ; the speech about the Subject is called the Predicate. § 3. Analysis is the separation of a thing into its parts for examination. § 4. There cannot be less than two words in a sentence; because nothing can be mentioned in less than one word, and no speech can take place about it in less than one word. In "Rainfalls" we have an example of the shortest kind of sentence. § 5. The Subject may be sometimes included in the form of the Predicate ; as in "Go!" {= go thou, or go ye) ; but in analysis the understood word must be supplied. § 6. It will be seen that we cannot form a sentence by simply stringing together words that do not make sense : for example : — sky, star, moon; snows, runs, found; down, witli, call, for, never, bright. The words w^ood ice do not form a sentence ; but wood burns is a sentence; and ice melts is a sentence. § 7. The question, " Who or what is mentioned?" should draw forth in reply the Subject of the Sen- tence; and the question, "What is said of the Subject ?" should draw^ forth the Predicate. § 8. The Subject generally comes before the Predicate, but not always; as, "Then came John," that is, "Then John came." Here John is the Subject. Copyright, 1877, by J. H. Butler & Co. 194 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. § 9. The Subject may consist of more than one -word, and the Predicate may consist of more than one word. § 10. Write down the following sentences, and under- line the Predicate in each : — 1. Music soothes. 2. Industry enriches. 3. Gold glitters. 4. Peter repented. 5. Nero fiddled. 6. Kings reign. 7. Carthage fell. 8. Eome remains. The two words in each of these sentences represent the two Chief Parts of Speech ; the first is called the Noun, the second, the Verb. § 11. The words naming' the Subjects are Nouns ; the words giving the Predicates are Verbs. Kinds of Sentence. § 12. You may wonder that the term Predicate (coming from the Jjatin, prcedicatum, " to state or to declare ") should be used for any other kind of sentence than one making a direct statement, as in "John ran." But, for the sake of convenience, we apply it to sen- tences of all kinds, including those which express a ques- tion, a command, or a wish. Thus: — (1) We may make a statement or declaration ; as, " John ran." We then get a Declarative Sentence, (Latin, declaro, " I make clear ;" de, " from," and clarus, " clear.") (2) We may ask a question; as, "Did John run?" We then get an Interrogative Sentence. (Latin, inter'rogo, "I ask.") (3) We may express a command; as, "Run." We then get an Imperative Sentence. (Latin, im'pero, " I command.") (4) We may express a wish ; as, " Oh that John would run!" We then get an Optative Sentence. (Latin, opto, "1 wish.") (5) We may utter an exclamation; as, "How vivid is the lightning !" We then get an Exclamatory Sen- tence. (Latin, excla'mo, "I cry out") § 1 3. State the character of the following sentences according to the foregoing rules : — 1. The lamb skips. 2. Why are you late? 3. Charge, Chester, charge! 4. Oh that she were here! 5. May the skies be fair! 6. How beautiful is night! 7. Bring forth the steed. 8. Life ia short. 9. May good digestion wait on appetite! 10. Is he coming? 11. What a fall wast there! 12. Must we but weep? 13. Our fathers bled. ANALYSIS OF SJiNTKNCES. 105 § 14. We have seen that a sentence need not contain more than two •words; as, "Rain falls." But on the other hand we may use several words in describing the thing mentioned, and as many more in making our assertion about it ; and there will still be only one sentence. "Alexander wept," is a Simple Sentence. "Alexander the Great is said to have wept bitterly," is also a 8imple Sentence, though both the Subject and the Predicate are accompanied by modifying terms or Adjuucts. In the sentence, — "Every mountain || now hath, found a tongue" the Predicate is not only the verb hath found, but that verb with its adjuncts now and a tongue; and the Sub- ject is not only the nominative mountain, but that noun with its adjunct every. § 15. Clauses and Phrases. — If I say, "Till the bells rang," I convey a sort of meaning, but do not say any- thing that makes complete sense ; but if I say, " The men shouted till the bells rang," I say what you can understand, for it makes complete sense : it is a sentence, though not a Simple Sentence ; it is a Complex Sentence. " Till the bells rang," though it is a collection of words which contains a Subject (bells) and a Predicate (rang), depends for its complete meaning on the principal sen- tence, " The men shouted ;" and being thus dependent, or what is called subordinate, the words do not form a sen- tence, but merely a Clause of a sentence. "The men shouted till the bells rang." Here, if the little word tiU were changed to the little word and, in- stead of a Complex Sentence there would be two Co-ordinate Sentences, or what some would call a Compound Sentence : " The men shouted and the bells rang." Here each sentence is, as you see, independ' eut of the other. § 16. A Clause (from the Latin, clausum, " to shut") is a collection of words containing- a Subject and Predicate, but not expressing a complete thought; as, " When I shall return." § 17. A Phrase (from the Greek, phrasis, " speech") is a coUectiori of words not containing a Subject and Predicate, and therefore not expressing a complete thought ; as, " The water rising rapidly." § 18. In the following examples, state which are the Clauses and which are the Phrases :^ 1. On deck. 2. Before he arrived. 3. The sea being calm. 196 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 4. If the wind is fair. 5. Wlien the sun rises. 6. If Mary goes to echool. 7. Time permitting. § 19. The Subject. — Every noun can stand as the Subject of a sentence ; and no sentence can be without a noun, or words equivalent to a noun, as the Subject. § 20. Other Parts of Speech than the Noun are used to indicate the person or thing spoken about ; for instance, the Pronoun, the Adjective (with a noun understood), the Infinitive, and the Gerund (a participial form used as a noun). Thus we may say, "He went," "The good are the great," " To die is gain," "Dying is gain." Sometimes an entire phrase or sentence may be the equivalent of a noun, and form the Subject; as, "To he or not to be [that] is the question;" "That he erred is certain." § 21. The Peedicate. — Since the Predicate is that part of the sentence that makes a statement about the Subject, it must contain the chief Verb of the sentence. When the Predicate is a single word, it is a Verb ; as, "Dogs bark." § 22. Logically, if the Predicate says what the Subject is (as in " The man is a soldier"), the Predicate is a Noun. If the Predicate states a quality of the Subject (as in " The book is new "), the Predicate is an Adjective. But if the Predicate is a Noun or an Adjective, it re- quires some other word to refer it to the Subject; and this must be a Verb, since that only has the power of referring. A Verb used for this purpose is called the Copula (Latin, a "couple" or "tie"). Only the verb to be in its finite forms, and a few other verbs, can be used as the Copula. In grammatical analysis we usually do not observe the logical distinction of the Copula. § 23. Adjectives are sometimes put next to the noun to which they belong, and they are then said to be used attributively; as, "A red ball." § 24. Adjectives are sometimes joined to nouns (or to pronouns) by means of am, is, are, was, were, and other parts of the verb to be (also by means of seem, become, grow, get, look, stay, remain, feel, &c.) : then the adjective is said to be used predicatively ; as, " The ball is red;" " The rose smells sweet." In these examples, adjectives at first appear to be attached to verbs, and so to take the place of adverbs. We also say, to keep a thing safe, to serve dinner up hot, ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 197 to stand firm,, to look fierce or angry. But in all these examples the adjective really belongs to the noun, and not to the verh. § 25. The verba (very few in number) thus taking a predicate Adjective or Noun are sometimes called Verbs of Incomplete Predication. The verb to he, when it does not mean to live, or exid, cannot form a Predicate. We must therefore join some word with it to make the Predicate ; as, " The earth is round." Here we predicate of the earth, roundness, not existence. § 26. In the following sentences, what Adjectives are used attributively, and what predicatively ? 1. There is a white cow. 2. He gave me two apples. 3. The peaches are ripe. 4. The nights are longest in winter. 5. The soldiers are weary. 6. Who gave you that pretty book ? Analysis of Simple Sentences. § 27. The parts of a simple Sentence may be : — (a) In all sentences, 1. Subject; 2. Predicate; (h) Not in all sentences, 3. Object ; 4. Complements ; 5. Enlargements ; 6. Extensions. § 28. Enlargements. — All words attached to nouns, in whatever position in the sentence, are called Knlarge- ments. They are so named because they enlarge our knowledge of the thing spoken of. An enlargement may be: — (1) An adjective; as, "Sharp words give oflence;" "Short accounts make long friendships." (2) A noun or pronoun in the possessive case; as, "John's hat is lost ; " " His coat is torn." (3) An adjective phrase; as, "A man of wisdom is respected;" "A walk in the fields is pleasant ; " "A desire to learn is to be encouraged." (4) An adjective clause; as, "John, who is a car- penter, made this box." (5) A shortened adjective clause, called a noun in apposition ; as, " John, the carpenter, made this box ;" " William the Conqueror." Participles, whether they come before or after the noun, are adjectives ; as, "Boiling stones gather no moss," or, "Stones, rolling continually, gather no moss." § 29. An Enlargement (called by some " an At- tributive Adjunct") is either an adjective or some word or phrase having the nature of an adjective. 198 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. § 30. Predicate, Complement, Object. — The Predi cate, being that part of the sentence that makes a state- ment about the Subject, must therefore contain the chief verb of the sentence ; and we have seen that when the Predicate is a single word it is a verb ; as, "' Winds blow," " The sun shines." § 31. Verbs which do not convey a complete sense by themselves (see §§ 24, 25) form a Predicate by the aid of other words, which when thus used are called the Com- plement of the verb. When the Predicate is made up of a verb of incom- plete predication with a Complement, it is called Complex; as, "The streets are wet;" "The confusion became terrific." The Complement need not be a single word; it may be a noun or an infinitive with any of the enlargements enumerated above (§ 28). The verb has its Complement where it requires an infinitive mood to follow it; as in "I did not think to shed a tear;" "What conscience dictates to be done." § 32. When the Predicate Verb is transitive, it has an Object. The Object is really part of the Predicate ; but inasmuch as it is oftenest a noun, -and is open to all the equivalents and enlargements of the noun a§ Subject, it is for convenience' sake taken separately. § 33. The Object may be either Direct or Indirect. Both are often combined in the same sentence; as, "Give me the daggers;" "Heat me these irons hot." The Indirect Object may be indicated either by a simple Objective or by the preposition to or for; as, "Give me (Ind. Obj.) the dagger's" (Direct Obj.) ; or " Give the dag- gers (Direct Obj.) to me" (Ind. Obj.). Some verbs have two Direct Objects; as, "They made him a king." The enlargements of the noun as Object are the same as the enlargements of the noun as Subject: namely, an Adjective, a Possessive, an Adjective Phrase, an Ad- jective Clause, a Noun in apposition. § 34. Extensions. — ^Extension (called by some Ad- verbial Adjnnct) is applied to all words and phrases which attach themselves to the Predicate. An extension is therefore either an Adverb or some word or phrase par- taking of the nature of an Adverb ; as, "Iser rolls rapidly;" " The army fled in a panic ;" " He played the tyrant without remorse." ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 199 The Adverbial Phrase may be: — (1) A noun; 9,s, "He slept an hour;" "Wa.it a moment;" " He leaps a yard." _ (2) A preposition and noun; as, "You lived without virtue;" " We should profit by experience." (3) A noun qualified by some adjunct ; as, " He rested a Jew minutes;" "He struck his antagonist a heavy blow." (4) A participle or a participial phrase; as, "He advanced trembling ;" " Toiling, rejoicing, sorrowing, on- ward through life he goes." (5) An infinitive ; as, " He is very foolish to take such a thing to heart" (infinitive with preposition). In such sentences as, " The night coming on, we retraced our steps," the participial phrase is said to be in the Nominative Absolute. In such sentences as, " He was wonderfully active, con- sidering his age," where the Participle neither refers to the Subject of the verb, nor has a Subject of its own, it is said to be used Impersonally. Only a few participles, such as "granting," "considering," " allowing," are used in this way. Except in these cases, a participial phrase, standing at the beginning of a sentence, qualifies either the Subject or the Predicate of the sentence. This is not always attended to. In the sentence, "Meeting him the other day, he asked me," the participial phrase is designed to apply to "me," but from its position it must be read as applying to "he." Such constructions should be guarded against. The Extensions are nothing else than adverbial ad- juncts or qualifications of the Predicate, and they may be put into the same classes as adverbs, according as they mark the when, where, how, and why of the Predicate. Analysis of Simple Sentences. § 35. In analyzing Simple Sentences the manner of proceeding is as follows: — 1. Set down the Subject of the Sentence. 2. Set down the Enlargement, or attributive adjuncts, of the Subject. 3. Give the Predicate verb. If this is a verb of In- complete Predication, state the Complement also. 4. When the Predicate is a transitive verb, state the Object. 5. Set down the Enlargement, or attributive adjuncts, of the Object. 200 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 6. Give the Extensions (adverbial adjuncts)' of the Predicate. For the sake of clearness the Analysis of Sentences is usually presented in a tabular form, though there are other modes of exhibiting it. The following may serve as examples of the mode of exhibiting the Analysis of Simple Sentences: — 1. "By sunrise we all assembled in our common apart- ment." Subject, Etilargement of Subject. Predicate. Extensions. We all assembled (1.) by sunrise (2.) in our com- mon apart- ment. 2. "His harp, his sole remaining joy. Was carried by an orphan boy." Subject. Enlargements of Subject. Predicate. Extension. Harp (1.) his (2.) his sole re- maining joy was carried by an orphan hoy. 3. "At a small distance from the house, my predecessor had made a seat overshadowed by a hedge of hawthorn and honeysuckle." Subject. Enlargement of Subject. Predi- cate. Ob- ject. Enlargement of Object. Extension. Prede- cessor my had made a seat over- shadowed by a hedge of hawthorn and honey- suckle. at a smiill distance from the house. Same Sentence: Simple Scheme Subject with en- largement. Predicate. Object with enlarge- ment. Extension. My predecessor had made a seat overshadowed by a hedge of haw- thorn and honey- suckle at a small dis- tance from the house. 4. " It was my constant rule in life never to avoid the conversation of any man." ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 201 Subject (Phrase.) Predicaie. Nevei to avoid the conversa- tion of any man was my constant rule in life. [was, Verb of incomplete predication.] N. B. — Here the word it disappears in analysis, being only a locum tenens (one holding the place, — a substitute) for the real Subject. So likewise there in No. 5. The real Subject in No. 4 may be ascertained by putting the question, What was my constant rule . . . ? — Answer, Never to avoid the conversation of any man. 5. " There is no place like home." Subject. Enlargement of Subject. Predicate. Place no is like home, [is. Verb of incomplete pre- dication.] 6. " The courageous dwarf dealt one of the champions a most angry blow." Subject. Enlargemevt of Subject. Predicate. Objects. Enlargement of Object. Dwarf (1) The (2) coura- geous dealt (1) a blow [Direct Object.] (2) one of the champions [In- direct Object.] moat angry 7. "The curfew tolls the knell of parting day." Subject. Enlargement of Subject. Predicaie. Object. Enlar(/em.evis of Object. Curfew The tolls knell (1) the (2) of partingday 8. " But me, scarce hoping to attain that rest, Always from port withheld, always distressed, — The howling winds drive devious, — tempest-tossed, Sails rent, seams opening wide, and compass lost." Cowper. 202 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. Snbjed. Enlargement of Subject. Predicate. Object. Enlargements of Object. Exlensiom. of Predicate. Winds howling drive me (1) devious (2) tempest- tossed (3) scarce hoping to attain that rest (4) always from port witliheld (5) always distressed (1) sailb rent (2) seams opening wide (3) com- pa-islost [Nomina- tivesAb- solutej Compound, Co-oedinate, Contracted and Elliptical Sentences. §36. We have seen that when a sentence contains only one Subject and one finite verb (i. e., a verb not in the infinitive mood), it is called a Simple Sentence. Two simple sentences may be united together by a co-ordinate conjunction (i. e., one of the conjunctions and, either, or, neither, nor, but), joining two independent sentences to form a Compound Sentence ; as, "Birds fly and fish swim." Each member of the Compound Sentence makes com- plete sense by itself, and neither depends upon the other for its meaning. The second member of a co-ordinate sentence is said to be co-ordinate with the first. When two or more distinct statements (Simple Sentences), not dependent upon eacli other, are brought tog-ether by means of and, or, nor, etc. , they are said to be Co-ordinate, and are analyzed as simple sentences. Examples: — (1) "My orchard was often robbed by gchoolboys, and my wife's custards plundered by the cats." Analyze: — 1. My orchard was often robbed by school- boys. 2. My wife's custards were often plundered by the cats. (2) " The giant and the dwarf were friends and kept together." Analyze: — 1. The giant and the dwarf were friends. 2. The giant and the dwarf kept together. (3) " They were all very joyful at this victory, and the damsel fell in love with the giant, and married him." Analyze : — 1. They were all very joyful at this victory. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 203 2. The damsel fell in love with the giant. 3. The damsel married him (tlie giant). (4) " We had no revolutions to fear, nor fatigues to undergo." Analyze: — 1. We had no revolutions to fear. 2. We had no fatigues to undergo. Sentences in which the repetition of Subject or Predi- cate is avoided by the use of a Conjunction are called Contracted Sentences. Thus, " John returned home yesterday and James returned home yesterday" = " John and James returned home yesterday." The latter is a contracted sentence. Sometimes the word and has rather the force of a pre- position than of a conjunction; and then the nouns connected by it must be treated as the conjoint Subject or Object. This is the case in such sentences as the follow- ing -.^"jBread and butter is wholesome fare ;" " Two and two are four;" "Copper, zinc, and calamine-stone form brass ;" " The book costs two and sixpence." An Elliptical Sentence is one in which something is omitted which is essential to the complete construction of the sentence, but which is readily supplied in thought, without being expressed in words. Contracted Sentences are one variety of Elliptical Sentences, in which what is common to two or more co- ordinate sentences is expressed only once. In the sentences now to be considered, that which is omitted is not common to two or more clatises. § 37. Relative pronouns and relative adverbs are sometimes omitted. Examples of Elliptical Sentences. 1. " That is the book I gave you." In full—" That is the book which 1 gave you." 2. " That is the way I came." In full—" That is the way which (or by which) I came." (Here the which or by which will be in the adverbial relation to the verb came.) 3. " He left the day I arrived." In full—" He left the day that (or on which) I arrived." (Here the day is in the adverbial relation to left ; that (or on which) is in the adverbial relation to arrived; and the dependent clause that I arrived is an Adjoctive Clause qualifying day.) 4. " He is as tall as I am." In full — " He is as tall as I am talV 5. " He is more industrious than clever." In full — " He 204 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. is more industrious than he is clever." Here the Ad- verbial Clause than he is clever qualilies the adverb more. 6. " He has not written so much as I have." In full — " He has not written so much as 1 have written much." Analysis op Complex Sentences. § 38. A Complex Sentence, while containing but one principal Subject and one principal Predicate, has two or more finite verbs; as, "What can't be cured must be en- dured ;" " If thy heart fail thee, do not climb at all." The part containing the principal Subject and Predicate is called the Principal Clause; the other part, the Subordinate Clause or Clauses; as, "do not climb at all" {principal), "if thy heart fail thee" {subordinate). The Subordinate Clauses which may enter into the •construction of a Complex Sentence are of three kinds: — 1. Substantive Clauses; 2. Adjective Clauses; 3. Ad- verbial Clauses. In the sentence, " That the man has abilities is not to be denied," the clause "that the man has abilities" is the Subject, and serves the function of a noun. Such clauses are called Substantive Clauses.* In the sentence, "The man that brought the letter is at the door," the clause "that brought the letter" qualifies or restricts "man," and so serves as an Adjective. In the sentence, " He was gone before 1 arrived," the clause " before I arrived" indicates the time of the action, and so serves the function of an Adverb. § 39. Clauses are thus distinguislied into Sub- stantive Clauses, Adjective Clauses, and Adverbial Clauses, according- to the Part of Speecb tbat tliey represent. (See ? 16.) §40. The Substantive Clause. — The Substantive Clause occupies the place of the noun, and may be the Subject or the Object of the Principal Clause, as, " Thai fortune favors the brave is a cheering maxim ;" " I heard that a battle had been fought ;" " I have said what I have said." The Substantive Clause may also, like the noun, be used to complete a Predicate; as, "The result was that he left the country." § 41. In such sentences as, "The fact that man's powers are limited is not sufficiently recognized," the Substan- tive Clause is in apposition to the noun "fact." *Also caUed. by some, "Noun Clauses." Substantives comprehend (l)Nonns: (2) The Pnhstantive Pronoun; (31 The Infinitive Mood; (4) Ger- unds, or Verbal Nouns ; (5) A Substantive Clause. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 205 In "It is hard that a man cannot enjoy the fruits of his iiwii industry," the Substuutive Clause is in apposi- tion to " it." § 42. The words used to introduce Substantive Clauses are, tliat, what, when, whence, how, why, &c. ; as, " We know what we are, but we know not what we shall be;" " Let me know when you can come;" " I will find out whence you derive that idea ;" "How far I have succeeded is for you to j udge ;" " Why he left so suddenly, we could never understand." §43. The conjunction "that" is frequently omitted before a Substantive Clause standing as Object ; as, " I said in my haste, All men are liars;" "Tell me not in mournful numbers. Life is hut an empty drenm." § 44. The Adjective Clause. — When a clause limits, defines, or adds to the meaning of a noun, the clause is of the nature of an adjective; as, " I venerate the man whose heart is w:ii-ra " (the ivarm-hearted man) ; " Thoughts that breathe and words that burn." An Adjective Clause may be found in any place of the sentence where a noun may occur for an adjective to qualify : — 1. It may be found with the Subject ; as, " Happy is the man that fvndeth wisdom;" "Every plague that can. infest society is found there ;" "All the vices that oppression generates, flourished in the unhappy country." 2. It may be found with the Object ; as, " I see the golden helmet that shines far off like flame ;" " Teach me the way wherein to walk." 3. It maybe found in Adverbial Adjuncts; as, "We are not bound by promises that have been extorted by violence ;" " Some excuse seems necessary for the pain that we occasion to brutes." Adjective Clauses may be restrictive (having a limiting effect), or they may be co-ordinate. For introducing restrictive ad.)ective clauses, the relative that and its equivalents are preferable to who or which and their equivalents. Thus, "The man that brought the letter," is preferable to " tlie man who brought the letter." For introducing co-ordinate clauses, the proper relatives are who, which, and their equivalents ; as, " The mail-train, which usually is so punctual, was late yester- day." To use " that " would imply that there are several mail-trains, and that one of them is specially punctual. § 45. The Adverbial Clause. — An Adverbial 206 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. Clause is the equivalent of an adverb; as, "Meet me when the dock strikes one." Adverbial Clauses may be divided into as many classes as adverbs, and, like them, may qualify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Usually, however, an Adverbial Clause attaches itself to the Predicate. In the sentence, '■ He was writing a letter when I arrived," the Adverbial Clause "when I arrived" indi- cates the time at which the action, expressed by the verb " was writing" took place. The Clause " when I arrived " is in the adverbial relation to the verb " was writing." In the sentence, " Tears such as angels weep burst forth," the Adverbial Clause "as angels weep" attaches itself to the adjective "such." In the sentence, "The picture was so very large that we had no place in the house to fix it," the Adverbial Clause "that ive had no place in the house to fix it" attaches itself to the adverb "so." The Adverbial Clause may be contracted by omitting the verb, or by changing it into a participle; as, "I will not give way until / am compelled by the infirmities of age." Here "I am " may be omitted. In "As we walked by the side of the river, we met a very strange fellow," "as tve walked " may be changed to " walking." § 46. The different kinds of Clauses may have the same, or nearly the same, form ; so that they can be accurately distinguished only by considering their func- tion in the sentence. Thus in (1) " He behaved so badly that he was dis- missed," the italicized words form an Adverbial Clause. In (2) " Some one told me that he was dismissed," the italicized words form a Substantive Clause. In (3) "The man that wa^^ di.imis.-ied called to see us," the italicized words form an Adjective Clause. § 47. Complex Sentences aie to be analyzed in the first instance as if each Subordinate Clause were a single word or phrase. The Subordinate Clauses are then to be analyzed separately. We mark the principal Subject and Predicate, arrange under each the Subordinate Clauses which modify or enlarge them, and then analyze each in order. Examples of the Axalysis of Complex Sentences. 1, " The unfortunate man had just heard that he hac' lost all his property." ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 207 Subject " man" Enlargements of Subject • • • { [gj '• iufortunate" Predicate- "had heard" Object (Substantwe Clause) . . {" *S property" '^ *" Extension . "just" ANALYSIS OF SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSE. Subject "he" Predicate "had lost" Object "property" Enlargements of Object . . . ] K^^ «u- » 2. " We went out to play when we had finished our task." Subject " we." Predicate ... " went." f(l)"out" Extensions . . . ] (2) " to play" (^ (3) Adverbial Clause, " when we had finished our task." ANALYSIS OF ADVERBIAL CLAUSE. Subject "we" Predicate " had finished" Object "task" Enlargement of Object ... " our" Extension (Adverbial Adjunct) " when" 3. " Mark, now, how a plain tale shall put you down." Subject i, " you," understood. Predicate " mark." >^i. , f "how a plain tale shall put you •^ ( down" {Substantive Clause.) Extension "now." Analyze now the Substantive Clause. 4. " The hope that I shall be successful sustains me." Here the Substantive Clause " that I shall be suc- cessful" is an enlargement of the Subject " hope." 5. " There was a report that you were dead." Here the Subject is "report;" the enlargements of the Subject are (1) " a," (2) the Substantive Clause " that you were dead ;" the Predicate is " was ;" and the Exten- sion, or adverbial adjunct, of the Predicate is "there." 6. " Give me that large book that you have in your hand." Here the Adjective Clause " that you have in your 203 ANALYSIS OF SEiS'TENCES. hand" is in the attributive relation to the Object " book." The relative " that" is the Object of " have." § 48. Contracted Sentences. — Before a contracted sentence is analyzed, the parts omitted must be expressed at full length ; as : — " We perceive that these things not only did not happen, but could not have happened." In full — (A) " We per- ceive that these things not only did not happen." (B) " We perceive that these things could not have happened." When the co-ordinate sentences or clauses are connected by neither, nor, the simple negative not may be substituted for each in the analysis, the conjunctive portion of the words being omitted ; as : — " Thje man who neither reverences nobleness nor loves goodness is hateful." In full — (A) " The man who reverences not nobleness is hateful." (B) " The man who loves not goodness is hateful." § 49. Simple Sentences for Analysis. 1. Not a drum was heard. 2. The Greeks fled towards the city. 3. My hopes no more must change their name. 4. Her home ia on tlie deep. 5. Britannia needs no bulwark. § 50. Complex Sentences foe Analysis. 1. I often think of the night which I spent with you. 2. I believe tliat he is honest. 3. He started when )ie lieard the news. § 51. Write out the following sentences, and draw one line under the verb of incomplete predication in each, and two lines under the complement of tbe Predicate. Show also whether the complement relates to the Sub- ject or to the Object of the verb : — 1. He grew rich suddenly. 2. They became very poor. 3. He is honest. 4. He called the man a liar. 5. That step was thought imprudent. 6. We consider this course expedient. § 52. Underline the Substantive Clauses in the fol- lowing Complex Sentences : — 1. He knows well enough that I never said so. 2. That he did the deed is quite certain. 3. Tell me how old you are. 4. Do you know when they set out? 5. It is not true that lie was sick. § 63. Underline the A<^jective Clauses in the follow- ing Complex Sentences: — 1. The book which I lent him was torn in pieces. 2. The reason why you cannot succeed is evident. 3. Show me the book which you have in your hand. 4. Who steals my purse, steals trash. § 54. Underline the Adverbial Clauses in the follow- ing examples, and then analyze each sentence: — 1. I will tell you the secret when I see you. 2. He is happy because he is contented. 3. 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