FRENCH SUBJUNCTIVE WILLIAMS CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Cornell University Library The original of tliis bool< is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924026521934 PC 2290'W72' 1885""" """'^ ®''"™iiii/iiiM?iri?i4WV"''''™ "lood in French 3 1924 026 521 934 THE Syntax of the Subjunctive Mood IN FKENCH, HIGH SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. ALONZO WILLIAMS, A.M., PBOFESSOE OF MODEBN IiANGDAGES IN BEOWN UNITEKSITT. BOSTON : GAEL SCHOENHOF, 144 TREMONT STREET. NEW YORK : F. W. CHRISTEEN. 1885. Bx Cakl Schoenhof, 1885. ^CORNELL UNiVERSn'"' LIBRARY '^ BOSTON : PBINTED BY GAEL B. HEINTZEMAJW, 60 SCHOOL STREET. PEEFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. This treatise upon the most difficult subject con- nected with French syntax is the outgrowth of a smaller one prepared five years ago to meet the im- mediate wants of the author's own classes. It is now offered to a wider public in the hope that it may meet a demand made by teachers in our high schools and colleges. As the pupils in these institutions are mostly classical scholars, accustomed daily to trace the nice distinctions expressed by the moods and tenses in Greek and Latin, they naturally desire to gain an equally accurate and scholarly understanding of the various uses of the subjunctive in French, for the attainment of which the grammars used furnish little or no aid. The nomenclature, the phraseology, and the subdi- visions made are similar to those familiar to students of Latin, and attention is often called to corresponding constructions in the parent speech, in order to facilitate the comprehension of the subject by constant reference to principles already understood by the student. The IV PEEFACB. history of forms and constructions has been constantly- kept in view, and yet the aim has not been to give an historical and scientific development, but to furnish a body of practical rules for class-room use. The uses of the Negative in Subjunctive clauses have been treated in full, as without a knowledge of these the uses of the Subjunctive itself cannot be properly understood. It is intended that only a small portion, that in the largest type, should be learned by the pupil. The remainder is for reference, and to this end an Index of Words has been added. Brown Univeijsity, November, i88j. INTKODUCTIOK 1. Signification of the Subjunctive. The Subjunctive Mood is used to express that which the speaker regards as possible, probable, desirable, contingent, subjective, in centra-distinction from the Indica-tive, which is used to express that which the speaker regards as actual, real, objective. 2. Subjunctive idea inherent in Verb. Not every state- ment of a contingent character, however, requires the subjunctive. This character is often denoted by the radical signification of the verb itself, or by accompany- ing model auxiliaries or particles. 3. Indicative where Subjunctive expected. The In- dicative, and the Conditional Tenses are very often the regular moods used in constructions, where, from the analogy of kindred tongues, or from logical reasons, we might expect the Subjunctive. 4. Indicative and Subjunctive interchangeable. Even in very many of the cases herein detailed, where the Subjunctive is generally used, there is a large freedom of choice in the use of moods, and this choice is deter- mined by the degree of contingency or actuality which yi INTBODITCTION. the speaker designs to express, and the Indicative is frequently employed to impart a character of actuality to an action that is properly contingent. The differ- ence between the moods thus at the option of the speaker is sometiines so slight that it is hardly defin- able. 5. The Principal Verhs may have different /Significa- tions. The Terbs and expressions which are regularly followed by the Subjunctire, are capable of a variety of significations, and it is only when they have the meaning denoted by the heading under which they are classed that they come under the rule. 6. Infinitive. Most of the verbs and expressions given herein with a dependent Subjunctive may be followed by the Infinitive, especially when the subject of the subordinate clause is the same as that of the principal clause. 7. Style determines Mood. The choice of moods is determined in a measure by the style employed- The delicate shades of thought brought out by the use of the Subjunctive in writings of an elevated character, would be deemed affected in easy or colloquial dis- course. 8. Use of Subjunctive Waning. In French, as in all the modern languages, the use of the Subjunctive is becoming less and less with every succeeding century. Many uses found in the writers of the fifteenth century do not ajipear in those of the seventeenth, Avhile many INTRODUCTION. Vii fomid in Co'rneille, Racine, and Moli^re, are not employed to-day. Especially since the French Revo- lution (1789), lias the Democratic spirit pervading society tended to republicanize the language; hence, many fine distinctions made by the use of the Sub- junctive which appear in writings of the last century, are not so frequently met to-day. 9. The Modern Period. The following exposition attempts to classify the usages of the Subjunctive in modern French only, as these present themselves in the literature since the death of Malherbe, or during the past two hundred and fifty years, and the differences in use between the earlier and later writers of this period, and in different styles of composition, are noted only when they are of a marked character. CONTENTS, SECTION FIRST. THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN PRINCIPAL CLAUSES. PA9K I. DESIEE 1 1. Present, a wish whose fulfilment is possible ... 1 2. Imperfect, a wish unattained in the present , . . .2 3. Pluperfect, a wish unattained in the past ... 2 II. COMMAND 3 1. Eegularly with que 3 2. Rarely without que 3 in. POTENTIAL 4 1. Present with savoir and souvenir 4 2. Pluperfect, in conclusion of conditional period . . 5 3. In Exclamatory sentences 6 SECTION SECOND. THE SUBJUNCITVB IN SUBOEDINATE CLAUSES. IV. AETEE VERBS OP WILLING 7 1. Command, Exhortation 7 2. Desire, Expectation 8 3. Approval, Permission, Concession 8 4. Disapproval, Prohibition, Hindrance, Opposition . . 9 V. AETER VERBS OE EMOTION AND FEELING . . 10 1. Joy, Admiration, Surprise 10 2. Sorrow, Pain, Displeasure . . . , . .11 3. Fear, Apprehension, Danger 11 X CONTENTS. VI. AFTEK VERBS OF PEBCEIVING, THINKING, DE- CLAKING 12 1. Affirmative, with the IndicaUve 13 2. Negative, with the Subjunctive 13 3. Interrogative, with the Subjunctive 14 4. Conditional, with the Subjunctive 15 5. Apparent Exceptions 15 VII. AFTEE VEEBS OF DENIAL, DOUBT, DESPAIR . 16 VIII. AFTER IMPERSONAL VEEBS 17 A. Expressing Will, Emotion, Doubt, etc., with SubjuncMve 17 B. Expressing Certainty, Probability, etc 19 1. Affirmative, with the Indicative 20 2. Negative, Interrogative, Conditional, with the Subjunctive 20 IS. IN SIMPLE RELATIVE CLAUSES .... 21 1. After Verbs of Wishing, Ccmimanding, etc. . . .21 2. Ktiei Superlatives 22 3. After General Negatives 22 4. After General Interrogatives 23 5. After Conditional Sentence 23 6. After any Indefinite Antecedent 24 X. IN COMPOUND RELATIVE CLAUSES ... 24 1. "With Compound Indefinite Pronouns . . . .24 2. With Compound Indefinite Adjectives . . . .25 3. With Compound Indefinite Adverbs 26 XI. PURPOSE 27 1. With qfin que, pour que, and que 27 2. With de maniere que, de sorte que, defafon que . . 28 (1.) Denoting Purpose, with the Subjunctive . . .28 (2.) Denoting Result, with the Indicative . . .28 XII. RESULT 30 1. With pour que and que 30 2. With sans que and que 30 XIII. CONDITION ' 31 1. Condition as Supposition, with pose que, etc. . . .32 2. Condition as Proviso, with pourvu que, etc. . . .32 3. Condition as Exception, with a moins que, etc. . . 33 4. Condition as Concession 33 (1.) In Alternative clauses', with soit que . . . soil que, etc. 33 (2.) By Inversion of Verb and Subject . . . .34 (3.) In Principal clause 35 CONTENTS. xi PAGE 5. Condilion in Pluperfect, with si 35 6. Condition in Comparative clauses, with comme ai . . 35 7. Condition, with que for si 36 SIT. CONCESSION 36 1. Pure Concession, with bien que, encore que, quoique, que, etc 37 2. In Alternate clauses, with soit que . . . soii que, etc. . 38 3. By Inversion of Verb and Subject 38 XV. CAUSE, with ce n'estpas que, nan pas que, non que, loin que, etc 39 XVI. TEMPOKAL CLAUSES 39 1. Priority of Time, with avant que, deivant que, plutot que, and que 39 2. lAmit of Time, with en attendant que, jusqu'a ce que, tant que, que 40 3. Extent of Time, with du plus loin que, d'aussi plus loin que, a.nd au plus loin que 41 SECTION THIRD, THE SEQTJENOB OF TENSES. I. DEFINITIONS 42 II. KULES AND ILLUSTEATI0N8 42 1. Rules of Sequence 43 2. Tabular Illustrations ....... 43 3. Sentences in Illustration 45 nx FUETHEK APPLICATION OF THE EULE . . 46 1. Sequence after the Imperative 46 2. Sequence after a Subjunctive ip. a Principal Clause . . 47 3. Sequence after a Subjunctive in a Subordinate Clause . 47 4. Sequence after Infinitives and Participles . . .47 IV. TENSE EQUIVALENTS 48 V. , DEVIATIONS FKOM THE KULE FOE SEQUENCE . 52 A. Primary Tenses followed by Secondary Tenses . . 53 B. Secondary Tenses iolloyved by Primary Tenses . . 56 xii CONTENTS. SECTION FOURTH. THE USE 01" NEGATIVES IN StJBOEDINATE SUBJUNOTIVB-CLATTSES. PAGE I. NEGATIVES IN GENEKAL 58 II. AFTEB VEKBS OF HINDEBING AND PREVENT- ING 60 III. AFTEE VEEBS OF FEAE, APPREHENSION, DAN- GEE 62 IV. AFTEB VEEBS OP DENIAL, DOUBT, AND DESPAIE 64 V. AFTEB IMPEBSONAL VEEBS 65 VI. IN EELATIVE CLAUSES 66 VII. IN CLAUSES OP EESULT 67 VIII. IN CONDITIONAL CLAUSES 68 IX. IN CAUSAL CLAUSES 69 X. IN TEMPORAL CLAUSES 69 THE SYNTAI OP THE SUBJUNCTIYE MOOD. 1. The Subjunctive Mood is used to express that which the speaker or writer regards as desirable, prohor ble, possible, contingent, svijective, in contradistinction from the Indicative, which is used to express that which is regarded as actual, real, objective. SECTION FIRST. THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN PRINCIPAL CLAUSES. I. Desire. 3. RiTLE. — -The Subjunctive is often used to express a ^Vish, Exhortation, Prayer or Imprecation. [Compare the SubJTmctive of Desire in Latin.] 3. The Present is used to express a wish whose fulfill- ment is possible in present or future time. 1. Without que, mostly in idiomatic phrases. Soit ! Ainsi soit-il ! Be it so ! Thus may it be ! — Aea- demie. Vive le roi ! Long live the king ! — Ldttre. Qui vive ! Who goes there ! — IMre. Plaise a, Dieu ! God grant ! — IMre. k DieU ne plaise ! God forbid ! — Montesquieu. Dieu le veuille ! May God grant it ! — lAttre. Dieu me pardonne ! May God pardon me I — Voltaire. SUBJITNCTIVE IN PRINCIPAL CLAUSES. Le ciel en soit b§ni ! La volont6 du Ciel soit faite ! Le diable m'emporte ! Je meure, si je mens ! Perisse le Troyen ! Puisse-je voir tomber ce foudre ! Puisses-tu rSussir ! Abner puisso mourir en combat- tant! Puissiez-vous reussir dans vos projetB ! Puissent les dieux vous conser- ver? Heaven be blessed for it \~ Racine. The vrill of Heaven be done I — Moliere. The devil take me! — Academie. May I perish if I lie ! — Moliere, Let the Trojan perish ! — Racine. May I see this thunder-bolt fall ! — Comeille. May you succeed ! — Academie. Let Abner die while fighting ! — Racine. May you succeed In your proj- ects ! — Academie. May the gods preserve you! — Fenelon. Note. — J^e alone is used as negative with plaise, d^plaise, and kindred expres- sions, see 123,7. 2. With que, very frequent, (compare ut or utinam with Subjunctive in Latin). Que Dieu veille sur vous 1 Que oela te serve de le9on 1 Que je te retrouve sur cet esca- lier! May God watch over you ! — JJo- cine. May that serve thee as a les- son ! — Berguin. Let me find thee again on this stairway ! — I^e Sage. 4. The Imperfect is used to express a wish, the possi- bility of whose fulfillment ceases in present time. [Compare Imperfect Subjunctive in Latin and Imperfect Indicative in G-reek, ex- pressing a wish.] Plut &, Dieu qu'il en fut ainsi ! Plut au ciel le fut-il moins ! Plut k Dieu I'avoir ! Would to God it were so ! Moliere. Would to Heaven it were less so ! — Moliere. Would to God I might have it I — Moliere. Note. — For the Rule of the Subjunctive in these subordinate clauses see 18. 5. The Pluperfect is used to express a wish, the possi- bility of whose fulfillment ceased in past time. [Compare Pluperfect Subjunctive in Latin and Aorist IiTdicative in G-reek, ex- pressing a wish.] DESIKE. COMMAND. 3 Eusses-tu faite une chute k te Would you had made a fall that casser le nez ! had broken your nose I — . Moliere. 6» Remarks. 1. The Umitationa in time of the action of the verb in the three tenses given are those of Past, Present, and Future. The action of the Pluperfect begins and ends in past time, the wish remaining unfulfilled at the time indicated. The action of the Imperfect begins in past time and ends in present time, the wish remaining unful- filled in present time. The action of the Present begins in present time, and extends into future time, its fulfillment being still possible. 2. The Perfect tense is not found. 3. The Pluperfect is quite rare, the one given being analogous to an elliptical Con- ditional Period, with which "Wish is historically related. 4. The Imperfect occurs only with plut. 5. The Present without qiie is not of general application, but limited to a few established phrases, usually in the third person singular, most of which are given in the examples. 6. The Present with que is widest in its application, but is limited to the third person singular. 7. The ilodal Auxiliaries, followed by an infinitive, have in a large measure sup- planted this use of the subjunctive, especially pouvoir, which may be used in any person or number, as seen in the above examples. 8. The subjunctive of Desire, being closely allied in origin and meaning to those of condition »nd concession, often replaces them. See 70,3 and 78,2. Qu'il parle, tout se tait! Let him speak (i. e. if he speak) all is silence. — Academic. Qu'il perde on qu'il gagne, il partira. Let him iose (i. e. though he lose) or gain, he will depart. — Acaddmie. Que je sauve la France et que je sois Though I save France and (if) I should fl^trie, la honte sois pour moi, le be dishonored, let the shame be for fruit pour ma patrie. me, the benefit for my native coun- try.— Ponsa/'cZ. [Compare 70,1 and 76.] IT. Command. 7. Rule. — The Pkeseitt subjunctive is often used in the third person to express a Command. 8. Eegularly with que^ frequent. Qu'il parte tout de suite. Let him depart immediately. — Littre. Que Joad mette un frein ^ son Let Joad put a check upon his z61e sauvage. savage zeal. — Racine. SUBJUNCTIVE IK PKINCIPAL CLAUSES. 9. Rarely without que. Vienne qui voudra. Qui m'aime me suive. Ainsi repoive un ch&timent sou- dain quioonque ose pleurer un ennemi remain. 10. Remarks. This nee of the Bubjunctive is closely coimected with that of Desire, and in origin the same. The suhjunctive of Command is, however, limited to the present tense and to the third person, supplementing thus the imperative, which is wanting in the third person. Come who will. — Michaud. Let him who loves me follow me. — Proverb. Keceive thus a sudden punish- ment whoever dare weep for an enemy of Kome. — Comeille. III. Potential. 11. Rule. — The subjunctive may sometimes be used to express that which is Possible, Contingent or a Modest Assertion. 13. The Pkesent with two verbs, savoir and souvenir, in a few idiomatic phrases, to avoid a positive statement of knowledge or recollection. 1. Savoir negatively in the first person singular. Je ne sache rien de plus beau. Je ne sache pas qu'on I'ait encore remarque. Je ne sache aueun orthodoxe qui ait ose dire que . . . Je ne sache personne mieux par- tage. Je ne sache pas qu'on ait jamais appelc duel ce qui se passait entre Louis 2VI. et le bour- reau. I know nothing more beauti- ful. — Chateaubriand. I do not know that it has yet been remarked. — Montesquieu. I do not know any orthodox per- son who has dared to say that ... — Bossuet. I know no one better endowed. — Marivaux. I am not aware that one has ever called that which took place between Louis XVI. and the executioner a duel. — Chateau- briand. Note. — This idiom arose in the 16th century. POTENTIAL. 2. Savoir with que, afBrmatively or interrogatively. [Compare the Latin quod sciam, Cicero ; quod noverinit Pliny.] Est-il venu personne, que tu saches? que vous sachiez? II n'est venu personne, que je sache, que nous sachions. Etait-elle jolie, que vous sachiez? Has any one come, as far as thou knowest? as far as you linow? — lAtire. No one has come, so far as I know, so far as we know. — lAUre. Was she pretty, do you know? — Fontenelle. 3. §M'iZme soMOTenne =Asfar as I remember. [Compare the Latin quod jneminerim.] De lui je n'ai, qu'iLme souvienne. About him I have, so far as I rien k vous dire. can recollect, nothing to tell you. — Imbert. Note. — Que in these phrases is doubtless a relative pronoun, and the phrases in full would he, a ee queje sache, a ce queje souvienne^ etc. 13. The Pltjpekfect, frequently as the conclusion of a condition implied or expressed. 1. With condition implied. Qui I'eut era ? On eut dit que . . . II en eut fait volontiers un re- pas. Une hesitation eut tout perdu. II etit era s'abaigser servant un mfidecin. n en aurait et6 plus dramatique, etsonmartyre n'en eut pas etS moins grand. Un peu moins de s^cheresse n'eut rien gate. Who would have believed it ? ^ Rcicine. One would have said that ... — Mignet. He would gladly have made a repast of it (i. e. if he had been permitted). — La Fontaine. Any hesitation would have ruined all (i. e. if he had hesitated, he would). — Lamartine. He would have thought that he debased himself, in serving (if he should serve) a physician. La Fontaine. He would have been by reason of it more dramatic, and his martyrdom would not have been less grand. — Marque. A little less dryness would have injured nothing. — Marque. STTBJTJNCTIVB IN PRINCIPAL CLAUSES. 2. With condition expressed. 1 eut ose, il se Mt mis en If he had dared, he would have colere. become angry. — La Fontaine. [See 71.] 14. In ExcLAMATOET Sentences, in all tenses, frequent. Que je sois tout ensemble idolatre et Chretien 1 Moi, que je lui prononce un arret si severe ! Moi, que j'eusse une S,me si tral- tresse ! Qu'il se soit oubliS k ce point ! Que ta rebellion m'etit 6tfi favo- rable ! What 1 do you propose that I be at once idolater and christian ! — ComeUle. What ! I pronounce against him a sentence so severe! — Racine. What ! I should possess a soul so treacherous ! — Corneille. Is it possible he has forgotten himself to such an extent ! — lAttre. How favorable thy rebellion would have been to me ! — Corneille. 15. Eemaeks. Nearly all the varied uses of the subjunctive mood, as exemplified so fully in Sanskrit, Greek and Latin, were first developed in Principal Clauses and after- wards extended to Subordinate Clauses. As seen above, its uses in Principal Clauses have been much restricted, and its functions have been in a great measure assumed by the Conditional Tenses and by modal auxiliaries. In Subordinate Clauses the subjunctive finds its widest application in modem French. A large majority of the uses treated in Section Second are in their nature potential or optative. SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBOKDINATB CLAUSES. SECTION SECOND. THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. IV. After Verbs of WiUing. 16. EuLE. — A large class of verbs expressing usu- ally some act of tlie Will, such as Command, Desire, Approval, Disapproval, and ' the like, when followed by que and an object-clause to specify the object willed, require after them the subjunctive. 17. Command, Exhortation. In the principal clause are such verbs as : Arreter, determine. Entendre, miered. Commander, command. Etre d'avis, purpose, propose. Decider, decide. Esiger, exact. Decreter, enact. Ordonner, order. Demander, demand. Pretendre, reqwwe. Dire, tell, order. Kesoudre, resolve. [Compare imperare, postulare, hortari, etc., followed by ut and the subjunctive in Latin.] Votre pere a ordonne que vous Your father ordered that you le fissiez. should do it. — Littre. On leur demande qu'ils solent It is required of them to be fidfeles. faithful. — La Bruyere. Dis-leur qu'ils sclent prets. Tell them to be ready. — Begnard. Quelques pretres ont propose Some priests proposed that we qu'on renfermat notre arche. should conceal our ark. — Badne. Note. — Verbs expressiag decision or decree, aa arreter, dScr^ter, a-nd others, are often followed by the future indicative, or the conditional, inasmuch as the de- cree is regarded as not sunply expected, but sure to follow. The past tenses even may be need, expressing not so much the will, but the interpretation of the decree. 8 SUBJUNCTIVE IX SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. Oedipe ordonna que chacun rfgnerait Oedipus ordered that each one should Bon annfe. reign his year. — ijacjjie. II fut diclii qu'on ne recevrait plus de It was decided that they should not re- commissaires. ceive any more commissioners. — Guigot. Le trlhunal a d^cidfi que la donation toit The trihunal has decided that the dona- nuUe. tion was void. — Acad&mie. 18. Desike, Expectation. In the principal clause are such, verbs as : Aimer, like. Souhaiter, wish. Desirer, desire. Supplier, heg. Meriter, merit. Taloir bien, he worthy, merit. Prfiferer, prefer. Vouloir, will, wish. Prier, pray. [Compare optare etc. followed hy ut and the suhjunctive in Latin.] Je desire que vous partiez, I desire that you depart.— Mire. Dieu ne veut plus qu'on vienne God no longer desires one to ^ ses solennites. come to his solemnities. — Racine. Je vaux bien que de moi Ton I am worthy of being treated with fasse plus de cas. more consideration. — Moliere. Note. — 1. For esp&rer and s'attendre, see 27. 2. Attendre is followed by the subjunctive when mere expectation is expressed, by the indicative to express a positive conviction. IToue attendrons qu'il viendra. We shall expect (i. e. feel confident) that he will come. Nous attendrons qu'il vienne. We shall expect (i. e. we shall cherish the hope and expectation) that he will come. 19. Appkoval, Permission, Concession. In the principal clause are such verbs as : Admettre, admit. Permettre, permit. Agreer, agree. Souffrir, suffer. Approuver, approve. Trouver bon, find good, allow. Consentir, consenJ. Trouver naturel, ^/ind ?MrfMra2. [Compare permittere followed by ut and the subjunctive in Latin.J AFTEE VERBS OP "WILLING. 9 Vous souffrez qu'il vous parle ! You suffer him to speak to you ! — Racine. Nous consentons que vous soyez We consent that you be the le juge. judge. — Massillon. On trouvait naturel qu'elle vlnt. One considered it natural tha,t she should come. — Lamartine. 20. DisAPPEOVAi, Prohibition, Hindkance, Opposition. In the principal clause are such verbs as : Abhorrer, abhor. Garder, guard, take care. Defendre, forbid. Prendre garde, soin, take care. Desapprouver, disapprove. So donner garde, de garde, take Empecher, prevent, hinder. care. Eviter, shun, avoid. Trouver mal, mauvais, ^re^ bad, disapprove. [Compare recusare, prohibere, impedire, etc., followed by the subjunctive in Latin.] Je defends qu'on prenne les I forbid them to take arms. — armes. Voltaire. J'empeche qu'il ne vienne. I prevent him from coming. — Littre. Prends garde qu'on ne te vole. Take care one does not see you. — Dumaji. H'OTE. — For the use of the negative, see 124. 31. Eemaeks. 1. A few of these verbs come under this rule only when they have the signifi- cation denoted by the heading under which they are placed, slb dire, entendre, pri^ten- dre, see 27. Others still, which come regularly under this rule, have sometimes quite a different signification which excludes them from a place under the rule, as prendre garde, to notice. 2. Some of these verbs, besides those specified, are followed by the indicative, when the fact is to be made prominent. 3. Some of these verbs may be followed by a ce que and the subjunctive, instead of the simple connective que. L'avocat conclut h ce qu'on remit la The advocate concluded that the case cause. should be postponed. — Ayer. i. Nearly all these verbs are as often followed by the infinitive as by the sub- junctive. 10 SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. V. After Verbs and Expressions of Emotion and Feeling. 22. Rule. — Many verbs and expressions denoting some emotion or feeling, such as Joy, Admiration, Surprise ; Sorrow, Pain, Displeasure ; Fear, Appre- hension, Danger, and the like, when followed by que and an object-clause to specify the cause of the emo- tion or feeling, require after them the subjunctive. 33. Joy, Admiration, Subprise. In the principal clause are such verbs and expressions as : Admirer, he astonished. Etre ravi, be delighted. Etre charme, be delighted. Etre satisfait, be satisfied. Etre content, be satisfied. Se contenter, be contented. Etre etonne, be astonished. S'etonner, be astonished. Etre heureux, be happy, Se rejouir, rejoice, etc. glad. Etre joyeux, be delighted. [Compare gaudere etc., followed by quod and subjunctive or indicative in Latin]. Je suis charmS que vous ayez de I am .delighted that you have moi cette idge. this opinion of me. — Berquin. Je m'^tonne qu'il ne vole pas le I am astonished that he does not danger ou il est. see the danger in which he is. — Academie. Nous sommes heureux qu'il n'en We are glad that he has known ait rien su. nothing about it. — Academie. Note. — Sometimes these verbs are followed by si, if, wliether, and the indica- tive. Ne vous ^tonnez pas s'il en use de la Do not be astonished if he acts in that ^OTie. fashion. — Academie. Je ne suis plus Burpris si I'on d^clame I am no longer surprised that one in- 'an'- veighs so much. — Le Sage. AFTER VERBS OP EMOTION. H 34:. SoEROw, Pain, Displeasure. In the principal clause are such verbs and expressions as : litre afaig^, he afflicted. Eegretter, regrei. Etre conf us, he confused, ashamed. Kougir, hlush, he ashamed. Etre d^solS, he disconsolate. S'affliger, be afflicted, grieved. Etre fache, he sorry, displeased. Se plaindre, complain. Etre mecontent, be dissatisfied. Se repentir, r^ent, etc. Etre pein^, he pained. II se plaint qu'on I'ait calomni6. He complains that he has been calumniated. — Academk. Je suis pein6 qu'il lui solt arrive I am grieved that this misfortune . ce malheur. has befallen him. — Ayer. Je regrette que cela soit arrlv6. I regret that that has happened. — Ayer. 25. Feae, Apprehension, Danger. In the principal clause are such verbs and expressions as : Apprehender, apprehend. Dans la crainte que, in the fear Avoir peur, have fear, he afraid. thai. Avoir crainte, have fear, be afraid. De crainte que, /or /eor that. Avoir apprehension, have the ap- De peur que, with fear thai, prehensicm. Kedouter, he terrified, fear. Cralndre, fear. Trembler, tremble. [Compare metuere, vereri,ete.,io]lowed by ne or ut and the subjunctive in Latin.] Craignez que le ciel ne vous Fear lest heaven may hate you ! haisse. — Racine. II doit apprehender que cette He ought to fear lest this occa- occasion ne lui echappe. sion escape him. — La Bruyere. J'ai peur qu'il ait dit trop. I fear that he has said too much. — Bourrienne. "De crainte que I'heure ne fut pas- In fear that the hour was passed, see. — lAttre. Note. — 1. For the use of ne in the subordinate clause after verbs of fearing, see 126-129. 2. The use of the indicative after verbs of fearing is archaic. 12 SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBOKDINATE CLAUSES. 3. Expreesions like depeur que, de crainte que are used in combination with almost any verb. The idea of fear does not reside at all in the principal verb, but in the conjunctive expression, which means literally, with the fear i/tat, and the subordinate clause is explanatory of the noun peur or crdinte^ after the manner of an appositive. 4. An imperative is usually followed by a simple que for de peur que. Retirez-vous (de peur) qu'il ne vous "Withdraw lest he maltreat you. — Ayer. maltraite. 36. Remakks. 1. Most of the expressions under 23 and 24 may be followed by de ce que and the indicative. Je me r6jouis de ce que vous 6tes de re- I rejoice (at this fact, namely) that you tour. have returned. — Ayer. Je me r6jouis que vous soyez de retour. I rejoice that you should have returned. — Ayer. 2. Rarely, the indicative is found with tbe simple que after verbs under 23 and 34. 3. Most of the verbs and expressions under this rule may be followed by the in- finitive, which is usually preceded by de. The infinitive is the regular construction when the subject of the subordinate clause is the same as that of the principal clause. 4. The principle which requires the subjimctive after many impersonal verbs is the same as that involved in these constructions. These are object-clauses, those subject-clauses , See 36. 5. The examples under 23 and 24, in which the subordinate clause denotes pure cause, serve to illustrate Rule 79 ; just as those under 25, denoting a negative pur- pose, illustrate Rule 54, \ VI. After Verbs of Perceiving, Thinking, and Declaring. 37. EuLE. — A great variety of verbs, such as those denoting some conception of the mind, like Perceiving and Thinking, or such as those making some assertion like Declaring and Affirming, and the like, are fol- lowed by que and an object-clause whose verb is usually in the Indicative when the principal verb is affirma- tive, and usually in the Subjunctive when the princi- pal verb is negative, interrogative, or conditional in form. In the principal clause are such verbs as : AFTEK VERBS OF PEECEIVING AND DECLABING. 13 Admettro, admit. Affirmer, affirm, state. Assurer, assure, assert. Convenir, admit, confess, Croire, believe, think. Declarer, declare, assert. Dire, say, tell. Dissimuler, disavow. Esperer, hope, expect. Etre certain, be certain. Etre sur, be sure. Ignorer, be ignorant. Oablier, forget. Penser, think. Pr6tendro, claim, assert. Pr^voir, foresee, perceive. S'apercevoir, perceive. S'attendre, expect. Savoir, know. Se douter, suspect. Soup9onner, suspect. Soutenir, maintain. S'imaginer, imagine. Se souvenir, remember. Trouver, /rad, etc. 38. Affiemativk. Here they express what the speaker regai'ds as real, and are consequently followed by the indic- ative. Se crois qu'il ne partira pas. II dit qu'il le connait. Je sals que I'orguetl est le fils de ' la sottise. On dlrait qu'elle te vient cher- cher. Je crois que sa terre lui vaut dix mille livres. I think hewillnotdepart.^Ai/er. He says that he is acquainted with him. — Ayer. I know that pride is the child of folly. — Ayer. One would say that she comes to seek you. — BoUeau. I believe his estate is worth to him ten thousand francs. — Sevigne. Note. — In writers of tte ITth century many of these verbs, even when affirma- tive, are followed hy the subjunctive, but at present this is not common. The sub- junctive was especially frequent with croire, which contains in itself a sense dnbi- tative. Je crois que ce soit I'antre. Je croyais que tout fflt perdu. II a cru qu'un roi pClt se r^signcr. On diraitqn'ilsoit aveugle. Je pensals au'il falldt pleurer. I think that it is the other. — Corneille. I thought all was lost. ^-Xa Fontaine. He believed that a king could be re- signed. — Thiers. One would say that he is blind Jac- quenard. I thought it necessary to weep. — Moliere. 39. Negative. Here there is usually a doubt in the mind of the speaker of the statement contained in the subor- 14 SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBOKDINATB CLAUSES. dinate clause, and this doubt is regularly expressed by the subJuTictive. Je ne crois p?s qu'll viemie. I do not believe he mil come. — Duffet. Ne vous souvenez plus qu'il vous Remember no longer that he has ait offense. offended you. — Racine. Je ne pense pas qu'il le veuille. I do not think lie desires it.— Jij/er. Je ne dis pas que vous ayez tort. I do not say that you are wrong. Note. — If there be no doubt in the mind of the speaker, or he wishes to make a fact prominent, he nses the indicative, Cet hommene croit pas q^u'il y aunDieu. This man does not heiieve there is a QodL.—Duffet. Je ne puis oublier qu'elle a port6 mon I cannot forget that she has borne my nom. name. — Dwnius, 30. Inteerogative. 1. Here the subordinate verb is in the subjunctive, if the speaker is uncertain and aslis for information. Crois-tu qu'il ait jure sa mort ? BeUevest thou that he has sworn her death? — Racine. Voit-on k mes yens que j'aie Does one see by my eyes that I pleure ? have wept? — Berquin. Oroyez-vous, pensez-vous, sup- Do you believe, do you think, do 9onnez-vous, vous imaginez- you suspect, do you imagine vous qu'il y ait des voleurs ici ? that there are robbers here? —Duffet. 2. The subordinate verb is in the indicative, if the speaker is certain, and only wishes to state a fact interrogatively, or to learn if the person addressed also knows a fact. Savez-vous qu'il est arriv§? Do you know that he has arrived? i.e. He has arrived. Do you know it? Croyez-vous qu'il y a un Dieu? Do you believe there is a God? i. e. There is a Gtod. Do you beUeve it? AJTER VERBS OF PERCEIVING AND DECLARING. 15 Croyez-vous qu'il payera ses det- Do you believe he -will pay his tes? debts? — ii«re. Oubiiez-vous que Thes^e est men Do you forget that Theseus is my pfere? father?— JJocine. IToTB. — Souvenir requires the indicative when Interrogative, as well as when affirmative. 31. Conditional. 1. The speaker is usually uncertain and the subjunctive is the regular mood. Si tu prevois qu'il doive de Da- If thou foreseest that he is des- vid abandonner la trace, etc. tined to abandon the footsteps of David. — Racine. Si tu t'aper9ois que quelque pa- If thou perceivest that some rel- rent de don Gonzale ait de ative of Don Gonzales is very grandes assiduites, etc. assiduous. — Le Sage. 2. When the speaker is certain and desu-es to express a fact, the indicative is used. Si Ton savait que tu as parle pour If it were known that you have lui, etc. spoken in his behalf, etc.— Scribe. 32. Apparent Exceptions. — The Rule appears to con- flict with the construction found after a few verbs. 1. -Ignorer = nepas savoir, and though affirmative in form, is neg- ative in meaning, and consequently requires the subjunctive. J'ignorais qu'il fut arrive. I did not know that he had ar- rived. — Academie. On the other hand, ne pas ignorer = savoir, and though negative in form, Is affirmative in meaning, and consequently requires the indvxUive. Je n'lgnore pas qu'il a voulu me I am not ignorant of the fact (I nmre. know) that he wished to injure me. — Idttre. 2. DissimuJer in like manner equals ne pas avouer and requires the sulgunctive, while ne pas dissimuler = avouer and may have the indicative or sviyunelive. The reflexive se disairmUer follows the same rule. 16 SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBOEDINATE CLAUSES. Je ne dissimule pas que j'aie I do not conceal the fact (I change d'avis. acknowledge) that I have changed my opinion. — IMre. Je ne dissimule pas qu'il n'en I do not pretend that it is not soit ainsl. so. — lAttre. Note. — Tor the use of ne in the last clause, Bee 131. 3. Often other verbs are affirmative in sense and followed by the indicative, though not affirmative in form. This is especially true of rhetorical questions. Ne trouvez-vous pas que j'ai rai- Do you not find (i. e. you find, do son ? you not) that I am right ? — Ayer. 33. Remaek. The verbs included under this rule are so numerous, and have such a variety of significations, that it is quite impossible to frame a rule to cover all cases. The one given is, however, generally true, though ofttimes the meaning inherent in the verb, or some special meaning of a given verb, or the general context, rather than the form of the verb, must decide the mood to be used in the subordinate clause. Vn. After Verbs of Denial, Doubt, and Despair. 34. Rule. — Verbs expressing Denial, Doubt, Des- pair, and the like, are regularly followed by the sub- junctive. In the principal clause are such verbs as : Contester, dispute. Disconvenir, disagree. Dementir, contradict. Douter, doubt. Pesesperer, despair. Nier, deny. [Compare non negare, tion dw&iiartf,etc.,followed by quin and the subjunctive in Latin.] Je doute que cela soit vrai. I doubt whether that be true. — lAUre. Je ne doute point que I'hymen ne I do not doubt at all that the vous plaise. marriage pleases you. — Mo- likre. Jo nio que cela soit. I deny that that is so. — AcaMmie. AJ-TER VERBS OF DOUBT, DENIAL, DESPAIR. 17 Point de doute que cela ne'soit. No doubt that is so. — Academie. Doutez-vous que mes vceux ne Do you doubt tliat ray vows are soient lionorables ? honorable ? — Dumas. Ne desesperez-vous pas que ce Do not despair of this means moyen ne vous reussisse. succeeding for you. — Landais. Je ne nie pas qu'il ait raison. I do not deny that he is right.^ » Academie. Note. — 1. Some of these verbs, when negative, or even interrogative, may be fol- lowed by the indicative when the /act is to be made prominent. On ne saurait douter que les G^ermains There can be no doubt that the G-ermans achetaient leurs femmes, used to purchase their wives.— (?w«soi. 2. For the use of ne in the subordinate clause, see 131, 35. Remakk. It will be observed that the subordinate subjunctive clauses, thus far treated, partake of the character of a direct object, an object-clause, VIII. After Impersonal Verbs. 36. Rule. — A very large class of impersonal verbs and locutions expressing some emotion, sentiment or opinion, as Wish, Joy, Sorrow, Doubt, Fitness, Un- fitness ; or else Necessity, Possibility, Impossibility, Facility, Difficulty, and the like, when followed by que and a subject-clause, require regularly the subjunctive. In the principal clause are such verbs and locutions as : . Wish. II est h. desirer, it is to be desired, II est k souhaiter, it is to be desirable. wished, desirable. Joy, Sorprise. II est heureux, it is lucky, pleas- 11 est surprenant, it is surprising. ing. II plait, it is pleasing. II est Stonnant, it is astonishing. Sorrow, Fain, Displeasare. C'est dommage, it is a pity. II est honteux, it is shameful. C'est une honte, it is a shame. II est malheureux, it is unfortit- C'est une peine, it is a grief. nate. II est f&cheux, it is unpleasant, II repugne, it is repugnant, disagreeable, a pity. 18 STTBJTJNCTrSrB IK SUBOEDINATE CLATTSES. DoDbt, Danger. II est douteux, it is dmbtfvl. II est dangereux, U is dangerous. Fitness, Unfltness. II est a, propos, it is fitting, expe- II convient. it is suitable, fitting, proper. II est convenable, it is avMabh, fitting, proper. II est juste, it is just, right. II est faux, it is false. II est ineonvenable, it is improper. U est injuste, it is unjust. II est bien, it is well, proper. 11 est bon, it is good, proper. II est naturel, it is natural. II est temps, it is time. II vaut mieux, it is better. Necessity, Want, Plenty. Beaucoup s'en faut, much is wanting. II est essentiel, it is essential. II est important, it is important. II est indispensable, it ik indis- II est urgent, it is urgent, press- ing. II faut, it is necessary. II importe, it is important. Peu s'en faut, but little is wanting. Tant s'en faut, so much is want- II est necessaire, it is necessary. ing. II est rare, it is rare. II suffit, it is suffiMent. Possibility, Impossibilitr. II est possible, it is possible. II tient S,, it depends upon. II peut se faire, it may be. II est impossible, it is impossibJe. II se peut, it is possible. Easy, Difficult. II est facile, it is easy. 11 est difficile, it is difficuU. [Compare oporiei, opus est, necesse est, iantum abeat, paulum abeat, dvbium eat, eta., followed by the subjunctive in Latin.] II faut que vous soyez instruit. Peu s'en faut que Mathan ne m'ait nomm€ son p§re. C'est peu que ce levite k Baal prete son ministSre. II importe que vous y soyez. II suffit qu'on me craigno. Tou should be instructed. — Rad/ne. A little more, and Mathan would have named to me his father. — Racine. It is but little (i. e. it is not enough) that this priest lend his ministry to Baal. — Raoine. It is important that you be there. — Duvivier. It is sufficient that I am feared. • — Racine. AFTER IMPERSONAL VERBS. 19 C'est heureux qu'il fasse nuit. Quel malheu'r qu'il ne soit pas venu! Le pis est que Frederic ne soit pas lei. II etait naturel que le pouvoir se conceutrat. Quelle honte que les hommes What a shame that men should fassent cela ! do that ! — Fenelon. Note. — 1. Sometimes, when afftrmatvce^ these verts and locutions are found with the indicative to give prominence to the /aci, though to-day this is unusual. It is possible, they will be your friends. — Fenelon. It is sufficient that one is content. — Mo- lt is fortunate that it is night. — Dumas. i What a pity he did not come ! — Mme. Guisot. The worst is Frederick is not here. — ^ Berquin. It was natural that the power should be concentrated. — n se peat faire qu'lls seront vos amis. II Bullit que Ton est content. n semhle que je auis onbli€. C'est dommage que tu n'es point entr£ an conseil decelui. 2. Host of these verbs may be followed by the infinitive. H vous faut faire cela. Tou should do that. , 3. For the use of ne after il tieni h, peu s^en/avt, etc., see 133. lih'e. It seems that I am forgotten. — «/". J". Rousseau. It is a pity you did not enter the coonsel of that one. — La Fontaine. 37. RuiiE. — Impersonal verbs and locutions ex- pressing a Certainty, or even a Probability, when fol- lowed by que and a subject-clause, require the Indica- tive wben the principal verb is affirmative, and the Subjunctive when the principal verb is negative, inter- rogative, or conditional in form. In the principal clause are such verbs and locutions as : II arrive, it happens. II est Evident, it is evident. II est av^re, it is attested. H est incontestable, it is incour II est certain, it is certain. testable. II est Clair, it is clear. XI est probable, it is prdbdbU. II est demontre, it is demonstrated. II est sur, it is sure. 20 SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBOKDINATE CLAUSES. II est vrai, it is true. II est vraisemblable, it is liliely. II paratt, it appears. II resulte, it follows, results. II s'ensuit, it follows. II me semble, it seems to me, etc. 38. Affirmative, with Indicative. II arriva que je le rencontrai. It chanced that I met him. — lAttre. II me parut que je devais sauver It appeared to me that I ought celle-ci. to save this one. — Fenelon. II y a dix ans que je le connais. It is ten years that I have known him. — Ayer. 11 est probable que nous le trou- It Is probable that we shall find verons chez lui. him at home. — Ayer. 39. Negative, Inteerogative, or Conditional, with Subjunctive. y II ne paralt pas qu'on ait defini le sublime. II n'est pas vrai qu'il ait dit cela. Est-il vrai que nous debutions par une negation ? Est-il sur qu'il vienne? S'ensuit-il de IS: que vous ayez tort? S'il arrive qu' Augusta avec lui la punisse. S'il est vrai qu'HomJsre ait fait Virgile, o'est son plus bel ouvrage. It does not appear that one has defined the sublime. — La Bruyere. It is not true that he said that. — Ayer. Is it true that we begin by a ne- gation ? — Cousin. Is it sure he will come ? —Ayer. Does it follow from that that you are wrong ? — IMre. If it happens that Augustus pim- ish her together with him. — CbmeiJte. If it is true that Homer made Vergil, it is his most beautiful work. — Voltaire. Note, — The indicative follows when the speaker states what he regards as a /act. S'il est vrai que j'ai chass^ les ennemis de votre territoire. 11 n'est pas done vrai qu'elle est votre cousine ? 40. Remarks. Though the subjunctive in subject-clauses after all these numerous and varied impersonal verbs and locutions are grouped here together as a matter of conven- If it is true that I have driven the enemy from your territory — Vertot. It is not true, then, that she is your cousin ? — Scribe. IN SIMPLE KELATIVE CLAUSES. 21 ience to thq learner, yet the principles underlying the subjunctive-constructions are in many cases the same as those that have been already treated in object-clauses af- ter personal constructions; Compare those under A with Verbs expressing Wish^ Joy, Sorrow, Doubt, etc., see 18, 23, 24, 25, 34. The principal involved in the constructions under B is quite like that in the constructions after verbs of Perceiving, Thinking and Declaring, and the use of moods is nearly the same. See Kule 27. IX. In Simple Relative Clauses. 41 . Rule. — The subjunctive is used in relative clauses wlien the principal clause expresses a ^A^ish, Command, Purpose, or Condition, and when the antecedent is a Superlative, a General Negative, a General Inter- rogative, or is in any vsray Indefinite. The relative word is such as : qui, who, 'which, that. dont, of whom, of Which, whose. que, whom, which, that. ou, where, in which, etc. 43. After verbs of Wishing, Commanding, and the like, to express Pukpose or Result. [Compare similar constructions in Latin.] Montrez-moi un chemin qui con- Show me a way that leads (i. e. duise k la science. such that it may lead) to knowledge. — Ayer. Pomp6e aspirait k des honneurs Pompey aspired to honors which qui le distinguassent de tons. should distinguish him above all. — Vertot. Fais-toi des ennemis que je puisse Make for thyself enemies whom hair. I can hate. — Comeille. Montrez-moi des h^ros que je Show me heroes whom I can puisse honorer. honor. — Ponsard. Je voudrais inventer quelque I would like to find some little petit cadeau qui coutat peu present which would cost but d'argent et qui parut nouveau. little money and would appear new. — Regnard. Pour vous faire un choiz ou vous In order to make for you a choice puissiez souscilre. to which you may subscribe. — Racine. 22 STJBJUNCTIVB IK SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. Note. — The indicative is used when the simple ^aci is stated. Kontrez-moi un chemin qui conduit k la science. Show me a way which leads to linowl. edge, i. e. there is such a way, show it to ma.—AyerM 43. After Superlatives, or equivalent expressions, such as : le dernier, the last, le premier, the first. [Compare the subjunctive in relative Le meilleur usage qu'on puisse faire de son esprit est de s'en defier. L'homme est le seul des animaux qui soit oblige de se vetir. Neron est le premier empereur qui ait persecute I'eglise. Jesuis le seul qui vous connaisse. le seul, the only. runique, the only. clanses after unus^ aolua, etc., in Latin.] The best use one can make of his mind is to distrust it. — jFene- Icm. Man is the only one of the ani- mals that is obliged to clothe Itself.— S«. Pierre. Nero is the first emperor who has persecuted the Church. — Bossvet. I am the only one who knows you. — Fenelcm. Note. — The subjunctive serves to soften the superlative idea, or to express an opinion, and is, moreover, the regular construction, yet the indicative may be used to state A/act. Malpighi est le premier qui a fait cette d^- couverte. C'est la plus intr^pide menteuse que j'ai connue. Malpighi is the first one who has made this discovery. — St. Pierre. She is the most intrepid deceiver I have bnown. — Marivavx. 44. Aftek General Negatives. The antecedent clause contains a general denial by such negatives as : ne . . . personne, no one. ne . . . aucun (noun), no . . . ne . . . pas de (noun), no . . . ne . . . pas un (noun), no . . . ne. . . (noun without article), KO. . . ne . . . que, only. ne . . . pas (noun without article), ne . ne . Hfe. ne . . nen, . nul (noun), no . . . . point de (noun), no . . . , point un (noun), no . . peu de (noun without article), hut little, but few. IK SIMPLE RELATIVE CLAtTSES. 23 [Compare nemo^ nihil, nullwn^ non est, etc., followed by a relative clause with BubjUDctive in Latin.] Je ne dis rien que je n'appuie de quelque exemple. Je ne lul ai rien fait dont je me repente. II n'y a personne qui negligeat un Interet si important. II y a peu d'liommes qui sachent aimer, n n'est passion qui nuise plus que la col&re. Je ne vols que nous deux qui soyons raisonables. I say nothing which I do not sup- port by some example. — La Fontaine. I have done nothing to him of which I repent. — Ba/rante. There is no one who would neg- lect so important an Interest. — Voltaire. There are but few men who know how to love. — Mme. de Stael. There is no passion which Is more injurious than anger. — Montaigne. I see but us two who are reason- able. — D'HarUmUe. NoTB — 1. Karely the indicative ifl used to make the /act prominent, n n*y a que moi qui ne puis mourlr. It is only I who cannot die. — Fenelon, 2. 2fe alone is used in the subordinate clause when it is negative, and the two negatives are equal to a general affirmative. Bee 136. 45. After General Interrogatives, which usually imply a negative answer, and are equivalent to general negatives. [Compare similar constructions in Latin ; quis est, qui utilia fugiat? — Cicero.l Qu'est-il arrive qui puisse vous degager de I'obeissance ? A quoi sert d'avoir un roi qui sacho bien gouvemer en paix ? What has occurred that can free you from obedience? — Dumas. Of what use is it to have a king who knowfe how to govern well in peace only? — Fenekm. Note. —For the use of ne in the relative clause, see 135. 46. After Cokditional Sentences. [Compare similar constructions in Latin; si quia est, qui me accuset, est non mea culpa. — Oicero.'] S'il vous faut un couteau dont la If you need a knife whose temper trempe soit bonne. is good. — Ponsard. 24 SX7BJUNCa?IVB IN STJBOKDINATE CLAUSES. 47. After Indefinite Antecedents of any character. Quel que fut le nombre qui pflt arriver. J'irai dans nne retraite ou je sois tranquille. 48. Eemaek. The relative claufies thus far treated refer to au antecedent -which they deecribe, and they are thus in their nature adjective-clauses, and are to he distingaifibed from the relative clauses that follow. Whatever might be the number which might arrive. — Mme. Gwizot. I will go into a retreat where I may be tranquil. — Dmivier. X. In Compound Relative Clauses. 49. Rule Compound Relatives are conditional, concessive, or indefinite in their nature, and the verb is always in the subjunctive. [Compare similar constructions of subjunctive and optative -with General Kel- ativcB in Greek.J 50. With Compound Indefinite Pronouns. These are such as : Qui qui, whoever. Qui que, whoever, wJurmsoever. Qui . . . que, wlioeiver, whomsoever. De qui que, o/ whomsoever, from whomsoever. Qui que ce soit, ne le craignez pas. Je le place aussi haut que qui que ce soit, je le goute autant que qui que ce soit. Qui que Ton puisse elire. Qui que vous blamiez, faites-le sans amertume. De qui qu'il soit fils. A qui que, to, for whomsoever. Quoi qui, whatsoever, whatever. Quoi quo, whatever, whatsoever. A quoi que. to, for whatsoever. Whoever he may be, do not fear him. — Racine. I place him as high as any one whosoever, I enjoy him as much as any one whosoever. — Albert. Whomsoever one may elect. — ComeUle. Whomsoever you blame, do it without bitterness. — Ayer. Whosesoever son he may be. — Academie. IN COMPOUND EEIiATIVB CLAUSES. 25 De qui que je I'obtienne. Quoi qu'il en soit. Quoi qu'il arrive. Quoi que vous ecriviez, evitez la bassesse. Quoi qui vous afflige, soyez con- stant. A quoi qu'on soit assujettie. Note. — 1. Quoi gut has become obsolete. 2. Qui qui is seldom found except with etre and pauvoir. With other verbs a circumlocution is employed of etfe or pouvoir etre followed by qui for the nominative, and que for the accusative, and preceded by a, qui or de qui for the other cases. From whomsoever I may obtain it. — ComeUle. However it may be. — Academie. Whatever may happen. — LiltrL Whatever you may write, avoid vulgarity. — Boileau. Whatever aflBicts you, be firm. — CliiffU-i. To whatsoever one is bound. — Qui que ce soit qui . . . Qui que ce puissc Stre qui . . . Qui que ce soit que . . . Qui que ce puisse @tre que . , . A qui que ce soit que . . . Qui que o'ait 6t6 qui vous I'ait dit, il s'est tromp^. A qui que ce soit que nous parlions, nous devons etre polls. Whoever it may be who ... — LiUr4. Whoever it may be who ... — Xittri, Whoever it may be whom ... — Littrd. Whoever it may be whom ... — Littri. To whomsoever it maybe that . . . — Littri. Whosoever it was that said that to you was mistaken. — Planche. To whomsoever we speak we should be polite. — Liitr^. For the rule of the second subjunctive after the relatives qui and que^ see 47. For the rule of the second subjunctive after the conjunction que connecting the clauses when a qui or de qui begins the sentence, see 36. 51. With Compound Indefinite Adjectives, such as ; Quel que, whoever, whatever. Quel . . . que, whoever, whatever. Tel . . . que whoever, whatever. Quel qu'il soit, nul rempart ne le peut proteger. Quel qu'il soit, le Frangais veut un maitre. Quels que soient les humains, il faut vivre avec eux. Quelque . . . qui, whatever (nom- inative). Quel que . . . que, whatever (accu- sative). Whoever he may be, no rampart can protect him. — Ancelot. The Frenchman requires a mas- ter, whoever he may be. — Voltaire. Whatever human beings may. be, it is necessary to live with them.- 26 SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBOEDINATB CLAUSES. Quelles que soient vos vues . . . Whatever may be your views.- Quel de ces deux partis que vous choisissiez. En quel lieu que ce soit, je veux suivre tes pas. Un auteur, tel qu'il soit, se re- garde comme le juge de tout autre auteur. La liberte doit vaincre S. tel prix que ce soit. Quelque Industrie ' qui paraisse dans ce que font les animaux. Quelque effort que fassent les hommes, leur neant paratt partout. Quelques efforts qu'il- ait faits. Sur quelque matlfere qu'on vou- lut. ■Whichever of these two parties you may choose. — J. J. Rous- seau. In any place whatever I desire to follow thy footsteps. — Moliere. An author, whoever he may be, regards himself the judge of every other author. — Vauve- nargues. Liberty is destined to conquer at whatever cost. — Mignet. Whatever industry may appear in that which animals do. — Bossuet. Whatever effort men may make, their nothingness appears ev- erywhere. — Bossuet. Whatever efforts he may have made. — Academie. Upon whatever subject one wished. — Rollin. Note. — 1. Quel . . . que, with noun between the separated parte is obsolete. 2. Quelle . . . qui, the nominative, is not common. 3. The nominative with any verb except the verb iire is formed by a circumlocn- tion with ^tre. Quel que soit le serment qui nous engage. Whatever oath binds yon. — Ayer. 4. Quel . . . que and fel... que may be used, however, as predicate nominative. 5. Tel . . . que belongs here only when used as relative. See 63. 6. Quelque . . . que is a solecism of the 14th century in place of quel , . . que. 7. All these a(^ectives agree in gender and number with their nouns. 53. With Compoihstd Indefinite Adverbs, such as: Quelque que, however. Oil que, wherever. Comme que, in whatever way, how- ever. Combien que, however much, how- ever. que, however. que, so much as, how Pour . Tant . ever. Si . . . que, so as, however. Tout . . . que, all as, however. PURPOSE. 27 Quelque pulssants qu'ils soient, je lie les crains point. Ou que vous alliez, conformez- vous aux moeurs du pays. CJomme que je fasse, il m'empoi- sonnera. CJombien que les malhonnetes gens prospferent, ne pensez pas qu'ils soient heureux. Pour grands que soient les rois, ils sont ce que nous sommes. Le dernier, si petit qu'il soit, est un grand homme. Tout interessante que soit cette question, elle demeure pres- que insoluble. Tant obstine qu'il puisse gtre. However powerful they may be, I do not fear them. — Acadimie. Wherever you go, conform to the customs of the country. — Academie. However I may act, he will poi- son me. — J. J. Rcmsseau. However much dishonest people may prosper, do not think they are happy. — Marmontel. However great kings may be, they are just what we are. — Comedle. The last, however small he may be, is a great man. — Scribe. However interesting this ques- tion may be, it remains almost insoluble. — Chateaubriand. However obstinate he may be. — Descartes. Note. — 1. Several of the adverbs In this lint do not nsnally belong here, and only when they have the elgnification assigned them above do they come under this rule. Borne are used to-day only In established Idioms. 2.' Tout . . que usually Introduces a /ad and takes the indicative. Tout cass€ que je Buia je cours toute la All broken as I am, I traverse all the ville. city. — Comeille. 53. Bemasks. 1. The Compound Relative clause denoting concession or condition illustrates Bules 64 and 74. 2. The adjective tel . . que and the adverbs pour . . . que, tant . . . que, si . . . que, and tout . . . que, furnish a good illustration of the gradual development of subor- dinating relative "Words from original demonstrative words. [See Whitney's " Study of Language," p. 114.] XI. Purpose. 54, Rule. — The subjunctive may be used after certain conjunctive expressions to denote Pure Purpose. 55, Rtjlb. — Afin que, pour que, and que, denoting Purpose, are always followed by the subjunctive. 28 SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBOEDINATE CLAUSES. [Compare ut and ne with the subjunctive in Latin.] I have come In order that we Je suis venu pour que nous par- lions de nos affaires. Ce livre est toujours sur le bu- rea\i, afin qu'on puisse le con- suiter. Donnez-moi un lit, que Je puisse dormir. Descends, que je t'embrasse. may speak of our affairs. — Ayer. This book is always on the desk in order that (k la fin que = to the end that) one may consalt It. — Academie, Give me a bed that I may sleep. — Merimee. Descend, that I may embrace thee. — La Fontaine. Note. — Que comes under this rule only when need instead of the fuller forms ajtn que and pour que, which seldom occurs in Modem French except after impera- tives and equivalent expressions, or where it repeats the fuller form. See below 59. 56, EuLE. — De manidre que, de sorte que, de fagon que, and the like, are always followed by the subjunctive when they denote Purpose, and by the irir dicative when they denote Result. ST. PnKPOSE, with the subjunctive. II travaille de fagon qu'il puisse vivre. Parlez toujours de fagon que Ton vous comprenne. II faut toujours se conduire de maniere qu'on n'ait aucun re- proche h, se faire. He labors in such a way that (in order that) he may be able to live. — IMtre. Speak always in such a manner that one may understand you. — Ayer. We should always so conduct oxuselves (in such a manner that) we may have no reproach to make to ourselves. — Acade- Faites en sorte que je puisse voir secrfetement Diego. Bring it about so that (Latin fac Mt) I may see Diego privately. — Le Sage. §8. Result with the indicative. II travaille de fagon qu'il peut He labors in such a way that (so vivre. that, as a result) he is able to live. — LUtre. PURPOSE AISHD RESULT. 2b La nuit vint, de fagon que je fus Night came, so that I was con- contraint de me retirer. strained to withdraw. — Aca- demie. II s'est compromis de telle sorte, He has compromised himself in •* qu'on aura bien de la peine d. such a manner that one will le tirer d'embarras. have much difficulty in extri- cating him from embarrass- ment. — Academie. Note. —These three conjunctive expressions are exact synonymes. 59. Remarks. 1. ^Jin de and pour are frequently, and de facon a, de manibre 4, en aorte dCy are sometimes used with the infinitive to express purpose. Jeconsensameperdreafin delasauver. I consent to destroy myself in order to save her. — Gomeille. H se leva pour B*eu aller. He rose in order to go away. — Le Sage. 2. Where there are two clauses of purpose, for variety the first may he ajin de with the infinitive, and the second {aJin) que with the suhjunctive. Afin de faire voir men innocence h. mes In order to make my judges see my in- juges, et que I'imposteur ne triomphe nocence and (in order) that the im- pas de la v6rit6 . . . poster may not triumph over the truth ... — Littri. '3. In most cases afin and poar are exact synonymes, yet^owr properly denotes a general, and afin a specific aim. Les filles d'un certain 3,gefont tout ce Girls of a certain age do all they can to qu'ellea peuvent pour plaire, afin de please,4n order to gain for themselves se procurer un mari. a husband. ■ — Girard. 4. In old French a ce que was used with the suhjunctive to denote purpose. This sometimes appears to-day. II veilla ii ee que les Danois n'opprimas- He took care that the Danes should not sent pas les Anglais. oppress the Angles. — Duruy. 5. De maniere and d ce que sometimes appear united. Je veux le defier de manifere k ce qu'il I wish to provoke him in such a manner 8*ensuive comhat ou d^shonneur. that comhat or dishonor may be the result. — Duntas. 6. After verhs of motion the infinitive, without any intervening preposition, is often used to express purpose. Je viens adorer TEternel, I come to adore the Eternal, — Racine. 7. Clauses ot Mixed Purpose, purpose involved in ohject- clauses, relative-Claases, and temporal-clauses, are classed for convenience under those different Rules. See 16, 36, 41, 80. 30 SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. XII. Result. 60. Rule. — After certain conjunctive expressions the subjunctive may be used to denote Result. [See 56, 58.] 61, After PODR QUE, and que, so that, that, for. II est assez des mes amis pour que je puisse compter sur lui. He is sufficiently a friend of mine so that (pour ce que = for this that) I may count upon him. — lAtlre. It is a thing too terrible for me to speak to you about it. — Soulie,. A month does not pass that the occasion does not present it- self. — Miehelet. I cannot help admiring this mod- esty. — Bossuet. . I cannot help excusing them this time. — BoUeau. Tou cannot but be right. — Ho- liere. You are not so low that you can- not rise again. — Le i C'est une chose trop ^pouvanta/- ble pour que je vous en parle. Tin mois ne passe pas que I'occa- sion ne vienne. Je ne puis que je n'admire cette modestie. Je ne puis cette fois que je ne les excuse. Vous ne pouvez pas que vous n'ayez raison. Vous n'etes pas si bas que vous ne puissiez vous relever. Note. — 1. Some intensive word, aueh as irop, asses or s^, the last only after negatives, usually stands in the principal clause. [Compare iio, tarn etc., before ut and the subjunctive of result in Latin.] 2. Instead of pour que, when both clauses are negative, que . . .neiB used. [Compare ut nmpare similar uses in English with "to have "and "to be;" "had I money," ** were he here," etc. ; also the common practice in German with all verbs.] Fut-ce son propre fils, voudrait- Were this (if this were) his own il laisser vivre un coupable ? son, would he be willing to let a guilty one live ? — Racine. lis auraient resiste, n'eut ete le They would have resisted, had canon. it not been for the cannon. — Ponsard. Dusse-je §tre bl4me, je vous sou- Even should I be blamed, I will tiendrai. sustain you. — Littre. Note. — 1. For ne alone in negative conditions, see 137, 4. 2. Quand meme, even if, ie used with the conditional tenses in this sense. Quand m^me je le voudrais, je ne le Even if I f>hould desire, I would not be pourrais pas, able to do it. — Ayer, CONDITION. 35 3. In a Princ^al Clause of Desire. See 6, 8. Qu'il parte, tout se tait. Let him speak (if he speak) all are silent. — Academie. 71. The Condition with si, if. RxTLE. — The Pluperfect StrBjruNCTrvE may be used with si to express a condition, instead of the Plvr perfect Indicative, or the Conditional Perfect. S'il m'evit cm, il n'eut point fait If he had listened to me, he de vers. would not have made verses. — BoUeau. Si j'eusse ete mechant, je serais If I had been wicked, I should heureux. be happy. — VoUaire. OU serais-je aujourd'hui, si ma Where should I be to-day if my main n'eut reprime vos com- hand had not repressed your plots ? plots ? — Racine. Note. — 1. The indicative is the regular mood with «z, the imperfect and plu- perfect being used in conditions of this nature. The subjunctive was frequent in this form in the 17th century, and in the ISth more frequent than to-day. 2. The conclusion may be in the Pluperfect Subjunctive. See 13. 3. For ne alone in negative conditions, see 137, 3. 12. Condition in Compakaxive Clauses. Rule. — The Impeefect and Pluperfect Sub- junctive are sometimes used in Comparative clauses to express a condition, with an Ellipsis of the real conclusion. This is introduced by comme si, as if. [Compare similar constructions with quasi, etc., and the subjunctive in Latin.] II n'osait avancer, comme s'il He dared not advance, as if he eut crainte d'etre maltraite. had fear of being maltreated. — Academie. Votre majesty devinait juste. Tour Majesty divined rightly, as comme si elle eut le don de la if you had the gift of fore- prescience, knowledge. — Maetzner. II regardait tous les hommes. He regarded all men as (he would comme s'ils eussent ete mas- have regarded them) if they ques. had been masked. — Fiiiekni. 36 SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBORDINATE CliAUSES. Louis ch(5rlssait sa peau comme Louis was taking care of his hide si elle eUt valu quelque chose. Je vous consolais, comme si notre Kome eut fait toutes vos craintes. as if it had been of some value. — Oautier. I was consoling you as if our Eome had caused all your fears. — CorneiUe. si. 73. Condition after que Rule. — In order to avoid the repetition of si in a second of two consecutive conditional clauses, que is used, in which case the subjunctive follows, whatever the mood that follows si. If he has money, and if the house please (pleases) him, why does he not purchase it ? It this man were alive, and he should hear you speak to me as you do, he could not be satisfied. — O. Sand. All is lost if the author has not noticed that the year began at Easter, and If he has dated it from the 1st of January. — ChcUeaubriand. But if Moliore had treated this subject, he would have direct- ed It towards a philosophic end. — Chamfort. Note. — When two or more kindred subordinate clauBCB follow in sncceBeion, inBtead of repeating the introductory particle, whatever it may he, as is some- times done, more frequently the repetition is avoided by using que in all clauses after the first. In such cases the construction after que is the same as it would be if the original particle were repeated. The only exception is when it represents sif aB seen above. XIV. Concession. 74. Rule. — Concession is regularly denoted by the subjunctive. S'il a de I'argent et que la maison lui plaise (or si la maison lui platt), pourquoi ne I'achfete-t- il pas? Si cet homme 6tait vivant et qu'il vous entendit me parler comme vous faltes, 11 ne pour- rait pas etre content. Tout est perdu si I'auteur n'a pas remarque que I'annfie com- mencait k Piques et qu'il I'ait datiSe du ler Janvier. Mais que Molifere e&t traits ce suj6t, il I'eut dirig6 vers un but philosophique. CONCESSION. 37 75. Pure Concession is introduced by : Bien que, wdl thai, although. Encore que, still that, even though. En depit que, in spite of, though. Ja9oit que, be it that, though. Bien qu'il change d'etat, il ne change point d'ame. L'envie honore le mSrite, encore qu'elle s'efforce de I'avilir. En depit qu'on en ait, elle se fait aimer. Un ministre avait ecrit qu'il n'avait jamais consent!, jagoit qu'il y eut consent!. Malgre que je ne veuille pas. Je vous aime, nonobstant que vous m'ayez fait bien du mal. Quoiqu'il se fut vendu k la cour, il n'etait pourtant pas vil. Quoiqu'il ne soit que lundi, et que celle-ci ne parte que meoredi, je commence a cau- ser avec vous. MalgrS que, in spile of, although. Nonobstant que, notwithstanding, although. Quoique, however, although. Que = quoique, although. Although he may change his con- dition, he does not change at all his nature. — CorneiUe._ Envy honors merit, even though it strives to depreciate it. — Marmontel. She makes herself loved in spite of us. — Moliere. A minister had written that he had never consented, although he had consented to itT — Bos- suet, Although I do not wish. — Gattel. I love you, notwithstanding you have done me much evil. — J. J. Rousseau. Although he had sold himself to the court, he was nevertheless not vile. — Mignet. Though it is only Monday, and this (letter) does not leave un- til Wednesday, yet I com- mence to chat with you. — Mme. Sevigne. Note. — 1. Sn d4pit que ia a solecism which arose in the 16th century, and though much used in the 17th century, occurred only with avoir. It arose from the prepositional-locution en depit de, in spite of, which was combined with the rel- ative pronoun q^ie in the sense of a compound indefinite relative. En depit que yen aie^quelque depit que j' en aie = en depit de mai, in the spite which I may have of it, whatever spite I may have of it, in spite of me. 2. JT'tlgrd que arose in a similar xaAumv tTommal gr€ que = quelque inal gre que. MalgrS quej'eu ate, whatever the dislike I may have of it, i. e. however, although I may dislike it. This is seldom used except in idioms with aroir. 3. In modern French these two locutions have lost their original meanings and are treated as adverbs. Malgre que is found rarely with the indicative. Malgre que je f us mal eatisf ait. Although I was illy satisfied.— D« Vlgny. 'jS subjunctive in subordinate clauses. 4. Jaqoit que =jd, soil que. The old form was ji, soit ce que. Jaqoii que is now obsolete. 5. Que is occasionally used to avoid the repetition of quolque. 76. Concession in Alternative Clauses, introduced by the correlatives found under 70, 1. Qu'il soit brave guerrier, qu'il Though he be a brave warrior, soit grand oapitaine, je lui ra- though he be a great captain, battrai cette humeur. I will lower this pride for him. — Corneille. Note. — These are closely allied to conditions in Alternative clauses, which see 70, 1. TTl. Concession in Inverted Clauses. Rule. — The Imperfect and Pluperfect Sub- junctive of certain verbs may express a Concession by placing the verb before its subject. These verbs are: Avoir, to have. Devoir, to be destined. Etre, to be. Note — Rarely with other verbs. Eut-il ete Richelieu, 11 fut tombe. Though it had been Richelieu, he would have fallen. — Mignet. Eut-on cent belles qualites, on Though one had a hundred beau- regarde les gens par leurs me- tiful qualities, one regards chants cotes. people by their bad qualities. — Moliire. Le singe, fut-il vetu de pourpre, The monkey, though he were est toujours singe. clothed in purple, is always a monkey. — Ayer. M'en ooutat-il grand chose. Though it should cost me much. — Molihre. 78. Remarks. 1. The subjunctive of Concession is closely connected with that of Condition in some of its forms. See 70, 1, 2, and 3. 2. The subjunctive of Desire, in a principal clause, often expresses concession. See 7, and 8. 3. The subjunctive after compound indefinite adverbs, especially after si . . . que, tant . . . que unci pour . . . que, often expresses a concession. See 52. CAUSE. TEMPORAL CLAUSES. 39 XV. Cause. 79. Rule. — After certain negative locutions tlie subjunctive is used to express the Denlal of a Cause. This is introduced by such locutions as : Ce n'est pas que, it is not hecaiise. Non pas que, not that, not iecavse. Loin que, it is far that, far from. Non que, not that, not because. [Compare non quo, non quod, non quin, etc., with the subjunctive in Latin.] Si je vous fais cette observation. If I make to you this observation, ce n'est pas que i'aiel' intention it is not because I have the de vous offenser. intention of offending you. — Ayer. Je desapprouve votre projet, non I disapprove of your project, not pasquejeveuillem'y opposer. because I wish to oppose it. — Ayer. Ce n'est pas que nous eussions Not that we had agreeable voices, des voix agreables, mais nous but we sang. — Le Sage. chantions. L'adversite, loin qu'elle soit un Adversity, far from being an evil, mal, est souvent un remede et is often a remedy and oounter- contre-poison de la prosperity. poison to prosperity. — Ayer. Note. — 1. These may be regarded as subject-clauses after negative impersonals. 2. Cause is regularly expressed by the indicative with such particles as, parce- que, de ce que, d cause que, c'est que, puisque, car, comme, que, etc., etc. 3. For ne alone in the subordinate clause, see 139. 4. The Indicative is sometimes found. XVI. Temporal Clauses. 80. Rule. — The subjunctive is used to express an action antecedent to the action of the principal verb, and immediately dependent upon it. This is introduced by : Avant que, tefore that, before. Plutot que, before that, before. Devant que, before that, before. Que = Avant que, before. [Compare antequam and priusquam with the subjunctive in Latin.] 40 SXJBJUNCTIVB DSr StJBOKDINATB CLAUSES. Before one tear him from us, suffer me to conceal him. — Racine. The king wished to see this mas- ter-piece, even before it was finished. — Voltaire. They might destroy the Cardinal before he should have time to establish himself. — Bochefcm- cauld. They will flght both armies be- fore that (literally, sooner than, rather than,) one of them renounce the honors of such a choice. — ComeUk. Do not come here until you have news from me. — Mme. Sevigne. I will not quit until my love has obtained this point. — Rome. Avant qu'on nous I'arrache, souf- frez que je le cache. Le roi voulut voir ce chef- d'oeuvre avant mgme qu'il fut acheve. Ilspourraientdetruire le cardinal devant qu'il eut le temps de s'etablir. lis combattront plutot etl'une et I'autrearmee que pas un d'eux renonce aux honneurs d'un tel choix. Ne venez point ici que vous n'ayez de mes nouvelles. Je ne quitte point que mon amour n'ait obtenu ce point. Note.— 1. Que is used for avant que only after negative sentences, and then ne must be used before the subjunctive. See 140. 2. JPe is found rarely after avant que. 3. Devant que is seldom used to-day, though frequent in the 17th century. 4. A little earlier ains que^ ainqois que, and primes que were common. 5. Avant {que) de and devant que {de) arc often used with the infinitive. 6. Apres que, after that, the opposite of avant que is followed by the indicative. 81. Rule. — The subjunctire is used to denote a limit of time that involves a purpose. This is introduced by : En attendant que, awaiting that, Jusqu'S, tant que, until. until. Jusqu'S. ce que, up to the time Tant que, so long that, tUl. that, till. [Compare dum, donee ajid quoad with the subjunctive in Latin.] Je serai votre pfere jusqu'^ que I will be your father till you have vous ayez retrouvfi le votre. found yours again. — Fenelon. Je vais trainer une mourante vie I am going to drag out a lingering tant que par ta poursuite elle life until I am deprived of it by me soit ravie. your persecution. — Comdlle. TEIMPOKAL CLATTSES. 41 En attendant quo vous soyez Waiting until you are better in- mieux inform^. formed. — Academie. Je ne sors point d'ioi qu'on ne I depart not from here till I am m'en chasse. driven away. — Regnard. Note. — 1. These are followed by the indicative when they simply denote limit of time, i.e. when a simple /oci is expressed. 2. Tant que belongs here only when equal to Juaqu^d, ce que* 3. Attendant que is poetic for en attendant que. 4. Jusqu'a is often followed by the infinitive. 5. Que is used for jusqu'a ce que after negative clauses, and then ne must be used in the subordinate clause. See 140. 83. Rule. — The subjunctive may be used with certain locutions which express extent of time. This is introduced by : Du plus loin que, as far as. D'aussi plus loin que, as far as. Du plus loin que je me sou- As far as I can (may) remember, vienne, la chose etait ainsl.^ the thing was thus. — Littre. Note When these denote extent of space they require the indicative. 83. RiTLE. — Rarely the subjunctive is used with a locution analogous to the above^ but which expresses extent of space. This is introduced by : Au plus loin que, the farthest that. Au plus loin que ma yue puisse As far as my sight can reach, I s'etendre, je n'aper9ois rien. perceive nothing. — lAUre. 42 SEQUENCE OP TEKSES. SECTION THIRD. THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES I. Definitions. 84. The Sequence of Tenses is the temporal relation which the subordinate clause sustains to the principal clause, the tense of the former being determined by that of the latter. 85. In speaking of the time denoted by any verb, we must distinguish between time which is present, past, or future, with reference to the time of the speaker, that is, Absolute Time, and time which is present, past, or future, with reference to the principal verb upon which the verb in question depends, that is, Kelative Time. 86. Tenses which denote Absolute Time, like those of the Indicative, follow one a,nother with great freedom, but those which denote Relative Time, like those of the Sub- junctive, are subject to special rules for the Sequence of Tenses. 87. Though the tenses of the Subjunctive do not mark the time of the action so definitedly as do those of the Indicative, yet they do mark with exactness the Complete- ness or Incompleteness of the action. H. Rules and Illustrations. 88. Rule. — The Pebsent and Imperfect Sub- junctive denote Incomplete action. Je crains qu'il ne vienne. I fear lest he may come. Je craignais qu'il ne vtnt. I was fearing lest lie might come. DEFINITIONS. BULES. ILLUSTRATIONS. 43 89. Rule. — The Peepect and Pluperfect Sub- junctive denote Complete action. Je crains qu'il ne soit venu. I fear lest he may have come. Je craignais qu'il ne fut venu. I was fearing lest he might have come. 90. Rule. — Tenses are divided into Primary and Secondary. a. fhimae7 tenses. 1. Present. 2. Perfect. 3. Future. 4. Future Perfect. B. SECONDARY TENSES. 1. Imperfect. 2. Pluperfect. 3. Preterite. 4. Preterite Perfect. 5. Conditional. 6. Conditional Perfect. 91. Rule of Sequence. — Primary Tenses are followed by Primary Tenses ; Secondary Tenses are followed by Secondary Tenses. Tabular Illustrations. 93. The Subjunctive dependent on Primary Tenses. A. The PEESENT expressing INCOMPLETE ACTION. 1. Je crains qu'il ne vienne. I fear lest he may come. 2. J'ai craint qu'il ne vienne. I have feared lest he may come. 3. Je craindrai qu'il ne vienne. I shall fear lest he may come. . 4. J'aurai craint qu'il ne vienne. I shall have feared lest he may come. 44 SEQUENCE OP TENSES. B. The PEEFECT expressing COMPLETED ACTION. 1. Je crains qu'il ne soit venu. 2. J'ai craint qu'il ne soit venu. I fear lest lie may have come. I have feared lest he may have come. 3. Jecraindrai qu'il ne soit venu. I shall fear lest he may have come. 4. J'aurai craint qu'il ne soit I shall have feared lest he may venu. have come. 93. The Subjunctive dependent on Secondaey Tenses. A. The IMPEEFECT expressing INCOMPLETE ACTION. 1. Je craignais qu'il ne vint. 2. J'avais craint qu^il ne vtnt. 3. Je craignis qu'il ne vtnt. 4. J'eus craint qu'il ne vtnt. 5. Je craindrais qu'il ne vtnt. 6. J'aurais craint qu'il ne vint. I was fearing lest he might come. I had feared lest he might come. I feared lest he might come. I had feared lest he might come. I should fear lest he might come. I should have feared lest he might come. B. The PLUPEEFECT expressing COMPLETED ACTION. 1. Je craignais qu'il ne fut venu. I was fearing lest he might have come. 2. J'avais craint qu'il ne fut venu. I had feared lest he might have come. 3. Je craignis qu'il ne ftit venu. I feared lest he might have come. 4. J'eus craint qu'il ne fut venu. I had feared lest he might have come. 5. Je craindrais qu'il ne fut venu. I should fear lest he might have come. C. J'aurais craint qu'il ne fut I should have feared lest he venu. might have come. 94. Remarks. 1. This is only an attempt to arrange in tabulated form the regnlar combinations which may arise in accordance with the Rule griven. Though all these combinations appear in the literature of the Modern Period, yet we must not make the mistake of supposing that they have ever been of equal frequency. Some of them are seen but seldom, such, for example, as the Preterite Perfect and Future Perfect followed by dependent Subjunctive Clauses. 2. In order to give brevity, unity, and clearness to the illustrations, the same verb has been employed throughout, though different verbs and different Subjunc- tive Constructions might have in some cases brought out the counection better. SENTENCES IN ILLUSTKATION. 45 3. It wouTd be an error to suppose that all Subjunctive Constructions may be freely used in the various combinations. Few can be so employed, while the larger number are restricted, either from the signification of the principal verb, or from the nature of the construction, to a small number of combinations, and some even to a single one. Sentences in Illustration. 95. The Subjunctive dependent on Primary Tenses. A. The PRESENT expressing INCOMPLETE ACTION. 1. Que faut-il que je fasse? 2. L'argent m'a acquis le plus precieux ami que j'aie. 3. Quoi qu'il m'en coute, Je serai fldele au roi. 4. Quand lis auront qu'elle paraisse. permis What ought I to do? — Hugo. The money has obtained for me the most precious friend I have. — Fenelon. Whatever it may cost me, I will be faithful to the king. — Fmelon. When they shall have permitted her to appear. — JFenelon. B. The PERFECT expressing COMPLETED ACTION. 1. Noussommeslesdemiersaux- quels 11 ait 6te donne de la contempler. 2. II n'a jamais rien fait qu'il ne m'ait consulte. 3. II ne dormlra plus qu'il n'ait fait un sonnet. We are the last to ■whom it has been given to contemplate it. — A. de TocquKville. He has never done anything till he has consulted me. — Etienne. He will no longer go to sleep un- til he has made a sonnet. — BoUeau. 96. The Subjunctive dependent on Second aey Tenses. A. The IMPERFECT expressing INCOMPLETE ACTION. 1. 11 fallait empecher qu'on ne tirat sur elle. 2. Qui I'eut cru qu'on dut voir les glaives briller? 3. Dieu permit que Josabeth I'emport^t. It was necessary to prevent it from being fired on. — Thiers. Who would have believed it, that we were to see swords flash? — Racine. God permitted Josabeth to carry him away. — Racme, 46 SEQUENCE OP TENSES. 4. Les habitants eurent aban- donne la ville avant que I'en- nemi y entrat. 5. Mieux vaudrait que le soleil perdlt ses rayons. 6. La soeur aurait voulu que Kou- mestan signS,t un papier. The inhabitants had abandoned the city before the enemy en- tered it. — Qrammaire Naturelh. It would be better that the sun should lose his rays. — Cha- teaiibriand. The sister would have desired that Eoumestan should sign a paper. — Daudet. B. The PLUPEEFEXiT expressing COMPLETED ACTION. 1. C'etait peu que sa main cut aiguise le fer. 2. S'il m'elit cru, il n'etit point fait de vers. 3. Elle ne se leva pas, quoique Menicle lui eut crie de loin. 4. Nous efimes regrettS qu'il fut malade. 5. Je voudrais qu'il m'eut coiite deux doigts. 6. Tu ne te serais jamais imaging que je fusse devenu meta- physicien. It was not enough that his hand had sharpened the iron. — Boi- leau. If he had listened to me, he would not have made verses. — Boi- leau. She did not rise, though M6nicle had cried to her from afar. — Daudet. We had regretted that he was sick. — Eugene. I would wish that it had cost me two fingers. — Moliere. You would never have imagined that 1 would have become a metaphysician. — Montesqwieu. III. Further Application of the Kule of Sequence. 97. RiTLB. — The Rule for the Sequence of Ten- ses (91) applies to verbs dependent upon the Impeka- TiVE Mood. Prends garde qu'on ne te voie. Take care, lest one see you. — Dumas. Ne vous souvenez plus qu'il vous No longer remember that he has ' ait offens^. oifended you. —Racine. PTJETHER APPLICATION OF BTJLE. 47 98. Rule. — As tlie Tenses of the Subjunctive in Principal Clauses denote absolute time, a verb de- pendent upon them comes under the Rule. (91.) Plaise k Dieu qu'il vieime ! Plaise k Dieu qu'il soit venu ! Plut k Dieu qu'il vint ! Qui I'eut cru qu'on dtit voir les glaives briller? God grant that he may come ! Godgrantthathemay have come ! "Would to God he might come ! Who would have believed that we were to see swords flash? — Racine. 99. Rule. — If a Subjunctive depend upon a.'Depen- dent Subjunctive, the tense of each verb is determined by the Principal Verb of the Sentence. Vn philosophe ancien voulait qu'on priat a haute voix afln que chacun put se convgiincre qu'on ne demandait rien aux dieux dont on eut k rougir. Un philosophe moderne veut qu'on prie k haute voix, afln quo chacun puisse se con- vaincre qu'on ne demande rien a Dieu dont on ait k rougir. Trajan avait pour maxime qu'il fallait que ses concitoyens le trouvassent tel qu'il eut voulu trouver I'empereur, s'il eut ete simple citoyen. An ancient philosopher wished that one should pray aloud, in order that every one might be convinced that he was asking nothing of the gods at which he would have to blush. — Ayer. A modern philosopher desires that one pray aloud, in order that every one may be con- vinced that he is asking nothing of God at which he may have to blush, — Ayer. Trajan had a maxim that it was essential that his fellow cit- izens should find him such as he would have wished to find the emperor, if he had been a simple citizen. — Ayer. 100. Rule. — As Infinitives and Participles de- note only relative time, the tense of verbs dependent upon them is determined by the Principal Verb of the Sentence. 48 SEQUENCE OP TENSES. Je ne pouvais comprendre qu'un I could not comprehend how a homme put se rendre si mi- man could render himself so serable. miserable. — Fenelon. Narbal attendait mon depart Narbal awaited my departure craignant que je ne fusse d6- fearing lest I might be dis- couvert. covered. — Fenelon. TV, Tense-Equivalents. 101. The two FuTUEE and the two Conditional Tenses are wanting in the Subjunctive, but its four tenses readily supply these from the nature of the mood and its indefinite temporal relations. 103. These Tense-Eqthvalents may be tabulated as follows : 1. The Pkbsent SuBJiwcTrvrE re- J 1. The Present. presents : j 2. The Futuke. 2. The Pebpbct Sttejitnctitb re- J 1. The Pereeot. presents : ( 2. The Ftjture Pebi^ct. 3- Th«J_MLERJPECT SUBjnNCTIYE jl; ^^^ ^™^?°I represents: ] 3; ^j^^ conditionIl. be PLUPERrECT SUBJUNCTIYE j ^ The PRBtSwE PERFECT. lepresents. 1 3 The Conditional Perfect. Illustratlong. 103. The Present Subjunctive may represent : 1. The Present. Je ne crois pas que ce soit lui. I do not think it is he. [Est-ce lui ? Je ne le crois pas. Is it he ? I do not think so.] [Je crois que c'est lui. I think it is he.] II sufat qu'on me craigne. It is enough that I am feared. - Racine. [On me craint. II suffit. I am feared. That is enough.] TENSE-EQUIVALENTS. 49 2. The PuTTJBB. Je ne crois pas qu'il sorte. [Sortira-t-il? Je ne le crois pas. [Je crois qu'il sortira. N'attendez-vous pas que je re- ponde. [Je repondrai. Ne I'attendez pas. N'espfirez plus que Ton vienne b, votre aide. [On ne viendra pas a votre aide. Ne I'esperez plus. I do not think he will depart. Will he depart? Idonotthinkso.] I think he will depart.] Do not wait until I reply. — Pas- cal. I will reply. Do not wait.] Hope no longer that they will come to your aid. — Ponsard. They will not come to your aid. Hope for it no longer.] 104. The Pekfect Subjunctive may represent : 1. The Pebfect. Je ne crois pas qu'il soit venu. [Est-il venu ? Je ne le crois pas. J'ai peur qu'il ait dit trop. [A-t-il dit trop ? J'en ai peur. II n'a jamais rlen fait qu'il ne m'ait consulte. [II m'a toujours consulte avant qu'il ait fait quelque chose. I do not think he has come. Has he come ? I do not think so.] I fear he has said too much. — Bourrienne. Has he said too much ? I fear so.] He has never done anything until he has consulted me. — Mienne. He has always consulted me he- fore doing anything.] 2. The FuTiJEE Pebfect. Je ne crois pas qu'il ait fini avant demain. [Aura-t-il fini avant demain ? Je ne le crois pas. [Je crois qu'il aura fini avant de- main. J'attends, pour I'epouser, que j'aie fait fortune. Je ne mangerai rien que je n'aie vu mon p6re. I do not think he will have finished before to-morrow. Will he have finished before to- morrow ? I do not think so.] I think he will have finished be- fore to-morrow.] In order to marry her, I am wait- ing until I shall have made a fortune. — Scribe. I will eat nothing till I shall have seen my father. — Berguin. 105. The Imperfect Subjunctive may represent : 1. The Impebfect. Je ne croyais pas qu'il lut lorsque j'entrai. I did not think he was reading when I entered. 60 SEQUENCE OE TENSES. [Je croyais qu'il lisait lorsque J'entrai. On ne s'apercevait pas qu'on par- lat k une personne si elevee. II ne doutait point qu'il ne fut mort. I thought he was reading when I entered.] It was not perceived that they were speaking to a person so distinguished. — Boaauet. He did not doubt that he was dead. — Femlon. 2. The Pketbkitb. Je ne croyais pas qu'il sorttt hier. I did not think he went out yester- day. [Sortit-il hier? Je ne le croyais Did he go out yesterday? I did pas. not think so.] Je croyais que tout fiit perdu. I thought all was lost. — La Fon- taine. [Tout fut perdu et je le croyais. All was lost, and I thought so.] ' Je lui ai pay6 cette somme avant I paid him that sum before he qu'il partlt. left. — DuvMer. 3. The Conditional. Je ne croyais pas qu'il vtnt. [Je croyais qu'il viendrait. Pompee aspirait k des honneurs qui le distinguassent. Je voudrais que le repas fut plus digne de vous etre offert. I did not believe he would come. I thought he would come.] Pompey aspired to honors which should distinguish him. — Ver- tot. I would wish the repast were more worthy of being offered to you. Moliere. Note. — This is especially frequent after voudrais, aimerais, souhaiierais, etc. 106. The Pluperfect Subjunctive may represent : 1. The Plupbbfbct. Je ne croyais pas qu'il eut lu pen- dant toute la journfie. [Avait-il lu pendant toute la jour- nee ? Je ne le croyais pas. [Je croyais qu'il avait lu pendant toute la journee. I did not think he had been read- ing during the entire day. Had he been reading during the entire day? I did not think so.] I did think he had been reading during the entire day.] TENSE-EQUrVALENTS. 51 La noblesse ayait perdu ses pou- voirs, quoiqu'elle eut conserve ses distinctions. [Elle avait conserve ses distinc- tions. Soit que Julie eut 6tudie la langue, et qu'elle la parlat par prin- cipes, elle me semblait s'ex- primer correctement. Avant que la raison eut instruit les humains, les hommes sui- vaient la grossiere nature. Tiie nobility had lost its powers, although it had preserved its distinctions. — Mignet. It had preserved its distinctions.] Whether Julia had been studying the language and was speaking it by rules, she seemed to me to express herself correctly. — J. J. Rousseau. Before reason had instructed human beings, men followed gross nature. — Boileau. 2. The Pbbteeite Pbbfeot. Je ne eroyais pas qu'il fut venu, quand je partis. [Fut-il venu, quand je partis ? Je ne le eroyais pas. [Je eroyais qu'il fut venu, quand je partis. Quoiqu'il se fut vendu k la cour, il n'etait pourtant pas vil. Notre embarquement devait se faire, si Sesostris ne fut pas mort. I did not think he had come, when I left. Had he come when I left ? I did not think so.] I thought he had come when I left.] Though he had sold himself to the court, nevertheless he was not vile. — Mignet. Our embarkation was to be made, had not Sesostris died. — Femelon. 3. The CJoNDiTioNAii Perfect. Je ne eroyais pas qu'il fut venu, s'il I'avait pu. [Serai t-il venu, s'il I'avait pu? Je ne le eroyais pas.] [Je eroyais qu'il serait venu, s'il I'avait pu. Plut aux dieus que vous-meme eussiez vu cette troupe ! I did not think he would have come, if he had been able to do so. Would he have come, had he been able to do so ? I did not think so.] I did think he would have come, had he been able to do so.] Would to the gods you yourself might have seen this band ! — ComeUle. 52 SEQITENCE OP TENSES. Brute n'eut jamais souffert qu'un Brutus would not have permitted intergt 16ger I'etit remise en that a light interest should danger. have put it again in danger. ■ — Comeille. Note— The particular tense -which any given tense of the subjunctive represents can usually be determined from the nature and form of the principal verb, or from the context. V. Deviations from the Rule. 107. The general principles stated above apply more strictly to the usages of the last hundred years, and many exceptions to them will be found in the best writers of the 17th and even of the 18th century. 108. The harmonious and logical Sequence of Tenses is one of the very latest principles of French syntax to become fixed- Until the present century much freedom, and even license and inconsistency, had prevailed, but there has been a gradual tendency toward harmony. 109. A speaker or writer may for various reasons change his temporal point of view within a compound sentence, and this leads to Deviations from the Rule for the Sequence of Tenses. Formerly the point of view was allowed to fluc- tuate rapidly, and tenses to follow one another almost in- discriminately, but greater logical consistency has gradually obtained. 110. The Principai Devia-Tions from the Rule, and the reasons for them, are here added. To a certain extent also the progress of change during the Modern French Period is noted. 111. Rule. — Transitions from Peimaby to Sec- ONDAEY Tenses are frequently allowed. Transitions from Secondary to Peimaky Tenses are seldom allowed. DEVIATIONS FROM THE BULE. 53 .A.. Primary Tenses followed by Secondary Tenses. 113. RuiiE. — The Pekebct Indicative is properly a Primaiit Tense, yet, as its action begins in past time, it is often treated as a Secondaby Tense. [Compare a similar use of the Latin perfect.] J'al emp§chS qu'il ne fit une sot- I prevented him from commit- tlse. ting a folly. — Ayer. Je lui ai paye avant qu'il partlt. I paid him before he left. — Du- vivier. Ma triste destinee a commence My sad destiny began before I avant que j'eussevu la lumifere. had seen the light. — Ghateaih hriand. Minos n'a voulu que ses enfants Minos desired his children should regnassent qu'a condition . . . rule only on condition ... — Fenelon. n n'a pas tenu h toi que nous fus- It did not depend on you whether slons brules. we should be burned. — De Courcy. Je me suis enfuie pour qu'elle ne I ran away that she might not me vit. see me. — Girardin. lies dieux ont permis qu'il en The gods have permitted him to souillat la gloire. tarnish the glory of it. — Cor- neille. KoTH. — 1. The Perfect Indicative has always seemed to have this two fold sense of perfect and aorist, and to be followed as often by Secondary as by Primary Tenses. At present, it is regarded more regularly as a Secondary Tense. 2. "We must guard against the error of supposing that the Perfect Subjunctive may in like manner be followed by Secondary Tenses But see 118. 113. Rtole. — The Pkesent Indicative, when em- ployed to bring vividly before the mind a past act or conception, (the so-called Historical Peesent), is treated as a Secondary Tense. [Compare the similar use in Latin.] Brute suit le parti de Pompee, Brutus follows (followed) the quoiqu'il eut fait mourir son party of Pompey, although he p6re. had caused his father to be put to death. — Racine.. 54 , SEQUENCE OP TENSES. lis reservent Mentor et moi pour They reserve Mentor and me in nous presenter k Aoeste, afin order to present us to Acestes, qu'i pfit savoir de nous quels that he might learn from us 6taientnos desseins. what our designs were. — Fme- lon. C'est une jeune demoiselle qui It is a young lady who opens the m'ouvre, mais si jolie, qu'on door for me, but so pretty that eut dit un charmant portrait. one would have said (it was) des temps passes. a charming portrait of times past. — Sue,. Note. — 1. The conception of past time as present may, for the sake of contin- ued vividneBS, be extended into the subordinate clause, whose verb will, in that case, be a Primary Tense also. 2. Such impersonal expressions as ce n^esf pas que (see 79), used to express the denial of a cause, are often a Mintorieal Present. Ce n'est pas que nous eussions des voix It is (was) not because we had agreeable agr^ables, mais nous chantions. voices, but we sang. — Le Sage. 3. Such expressions as supposons que = suppose que, let us suppose that, ad- mettons que, let us admit that, belong under this rule. Supposons que notre histoire fflt ^ com- Let us suppose that our history were to poser. be composed. — ChateaubrianxL. 114. Rule. — The Present Iishdioative, when with expressions of Time it denotes that an action, begtm in the past, is continued in the present, may be treated as a Secondaey Tense. [Compare the Present wi^hjamdiu, etc., in Latin.] II y a plus de quarante ans que I am (have been) talking prose je dis de la prose, sans que formore thanforty years, with- j'en susse rien. out knowing anything about It. — Moliere. 115. Rule. — The Peesbnt Indicative may be followed by the Secondaby Tenses of the Subjunc- TIVB in the members of a CoNDiTiONAii Peeiod. [Compare similar use in Latin.] DEVIATIONS PBOM THE EirLB. 55 1. Conclusion in Subjunctive, Condition in Indicative^ Je doute qu'il jouS,t s'ii avait de I'argent. 11 n'y a point de depenses que je ne flsse, si je pouvais trouver le chemin de son cceur. I doubt if he would play, if he had money. — Ldndais. There are no expenses I would not make, could I find the way to her heart. — Moliere. 2. Condiiion and Conclusion both in Subjunctive, Helas ! est-il un roi si dur et si cruel, A moins qu'il n'eut pour mere une autre Jfeabel, Qui d'un tel suppliant ne plaignit I'infortune? II est vrai, s'il m'eut cru, qu'il n'eut point fait de vers. See 71. Alas ! is there a king so hard and so cruel, Unless h6 had for a mother an- other Jezabel, Who would not pity the misfor- tune of such a suppliant? — Bar cine. It is true that, if he had listened to me, he would not have made any verses. - 3. Conclusion in Subjunctive and Ellipsis of Condition. I know what hand would have Je sais quelle main sans vous me I'eut ravie. Je n'en connais un qui voulut me servir. robbed me of it (life), if it had not been for you (without you). — Racine. I do not know one who would be willing to serve me. — Scribe. 116. RuxE. — The Peesent Indicative may be fol- lowed by a Secondary Tense of Avoir, Devoir, and Utre, when they are placed before their subjects to ex- press a Condition or Concession. See 70,2 and 77. E no manner. nul = nuUus = ne-|-ulluB, not any, none, nuUepart, nowhere, no. 2. More often they were originally affirmative words, and many of them are still employed in their original affirmative sense, though others of them have, by long KEGATIVES IN GENERAL. 59 association with ne, acquired such a negative character that, even when unaccom- panied by ne, they may he employed in a negative sense, especially in elliptical sen- tences. These are such words as : pas = passus, apace, step. ne . . . pas, not a step. point = punctus, a point. ne . . . poini, not a point. rien := rem, a thing. ne . . . rien, no thing. personne =: persona, a person. ne . . . personne, no person^ no one. plus = plus, more. ne . . . plus, no moret no longer. jamais :=iam+magis, even more, ever. ne . . . jamais, never. Que = quani, than. ne . . . que= ne (autre) que, no other than, only. 3. Some of these are occasionally strengthened by still other emphatic words : aucun^aliquis-^uuus, anyone. ne . . . aucun, no one. aucunement, in any way. ne . . . aucunement, in no way. gufere= (weiger?) much. ne . . . gufere, not much, but little, mie = mica, speck. ne . . . mie, not a speck, not a bit. goutte = gutta, a drop. ne . . . goutte, not a drop, not at all. autre waiter, other. ne . . . autre, no other. jamais de ma vie, never in my I riea du tout, nothing at all. pas du tout, not at all. point du tout, not by any means, plus du tout, no longer at all^ etc., etc. 4. Unless there is special emphasis, however, the regular emphatic particles, like pas and point, are not used when ne is strengthened by any other emphatic or re- strittive word, or phrase, or clause. B ne dit mot. Je ne lui pardonnerai de la vie. II n'y a un homme vivant, une ame vivante. II n'y a ame qui vive dans la maison. II n'y a raal queleonque. Je n'y aitrouv6 qui que ce soit. Je ne temoignai quoi que ce soit. II ne conuRit d'autre p^re que toi. Je n'ai de volonte que la tienne^ Je n'ai d'autre volontd que la tienne. II n'y a que lui^Il n'y a d'autre que lui. II ne fait que parler^ autre chose que parler. He did not say a word. I will never pardon him in ray life. There is not a living man, a living soul. There is not a living soul in the house. There is no harm whatever. I did not find there any one whom- soever. I did not testify at all (anything what- ever) . He knows no other father than thee. I have no will but thine = I have no other will than thine. It is only he:=It is no other than he. He does nothing but talk. TVith Interrogative s implying a Negative. Qui n'a ses d^fauts? Que n'Stee-vous arrive plus t6t? Who has not his faults? ^ Why have you not arrived sooner? 60 USE OF KEGATIVES. With Restrictive Expressions of Time. Je ne vous verrai de trois joura. - I shall not see you for three days. II y a Bix mois que je ne I'ai vu. It is six months since I have seen him. II avait bien chang^ depuis que je ne He had changed much since I had seen I'avaie vu. him. In Bentences like the last two ne . . . pas is used if the verb is present, imper- fect, Qv future. In Conditional Bestrictive Clanses, with si or by Inversion. Si je ne me trompe (si4-ne = ni8i). If I am not mistaken. N'6tait(=Bin'6taitque)qu*ilajoiiitrun "Were it not (if it were not) that he has a Tautre. joined one to the other. 5. "With a few verbs the emphatic words are often omitted altogether. Such are : avoir garde, take care, oser, dare. bouger, budge. > pouvoir, be able. cesser, cease.' Bavoir, know. importer, be of importance. The emphatic words are used when the negation is emphatic, also in certain forms and significatioDB. 6. They are omitted also in a negative subordinate clause denoting inequality, after the comparatives : autre que, other than. meilleur que, better than. autrement que, otherwise than. plutfit que, rather than. moins que, less than. plus tot que, sooner than, etc. mieux que, better than. 7. They are omitted also in a few idiomatic phrases, such as : A Dieu ne plaise ! God forbid ! Ne vous en deplaiee. May it not displease you. N'en ddplaise a . . . In spite of . . . With the relative que and infinitive, especially after avoir, pouvoir, or savoir. Nous n'avons que craindre. We have nothing (not what) to fear. — Corneille. II ne pouvait que dire. He was not able to speak. — La Fon- taine, II. After Verbs of Hindering and Preventing. 134. Rule. — After Verbs and Expressions of Hindering, Preventing, and the like, NE is regularly used iu the object-clause. AFTER VEKBS OF HINDEEIKG AND PBEVE]S"TING. 61 In the principal clause are such verbs and expressions as : Empecher, prevent. Prendre garde, take care. Eviter, avoid, shun. Se donner garde, be careful, etc. Garder, guard. [Compare cai^ere, impedire, prohibere, etc., when negative, followed by ne or quin in Latin.] J'empeche qu'il ne vienne. I prevent him from coming. — lAttre. Evltez qu'il ne vous parle. Avoid his speaking to you. — Acor- demie, Gardez qu'on ne te voie. Guard against being seen. — Vol- taire. II n'empeche pas que la cure ne It does not prevent the cure from soit publique. being public. — Voltaire. Note. — The deviations from the Rule are quite numerouB and varied. 1. When the principal verb is negative or interrogative ne may be omitted. Je n'enipeche qu'il (ne) sorte. I do not prevent him from going out. — LUCre. 2. Even when the principal is affirmative, ne was often omitted in the I7th cen- tury, especially in poetry. J'empScherai qu'on e'empare du reete. I will prevent one from getting posses- Bion of the rest. — Moliere. G-ardez bien qu'on te voie. Guard well lest one see you. — CorneUle. 3. At present ne after these verbs is becoming more and more neglected. EmpSchez qu'il vous tende la main. Guard against his extending to you the hand. — Ai'ago. 4. The verb d4fendre, defend, prevent, is not regularly followed by ne. 5. "When prendre garde :=remarquer, mark, notice, it is not followed by ne. Prenez garde que vous entendiez tout ce Take care that you understand all that que vous-faites. you do. — Bosauet., 6. "When the infinitive with de follows, the ne is not usually employed. 135. Remaf^ks, 1, By an analysis and historical study of this construction it will be seen that the principle underlying this use of we is the negative meaning involved in the subor- dinate clause. Preiids garde qu'on nete voie, means literally "take care so that one may not see thee." It illustrates also the development of subordinate sub- junctive-clauses from ofiginal principal clauses : for the origin of the construction is doubtless a principal clause expres^ng desire: Qu'il ne vienne, Veinpechez, let him not come; prevent it. 62 USE OF NEGATIVES, 2. The reason why the emphatic particle pas is not employod is two-fold. Fimt, when the constmction arose, pas had not yet become a regular accompaniment of ne. Second, any tendency to add it was counteracted by the implied negation of the principal clause, as it is a regular rule to omit pas in a negative subordinate object- clause, when the principal clause is negative, or implies a negative. One emphatic particle is sufficient for the two clauses, unless there is special emphasis. 3. In some cases where the ne is omitted the clause is not negative at all. Prenez garde que vous entendiez tout ce Take care that you may understand all que vous faites. , you do. — Bosauet, If ne were used it would mean, ** guard against understanding," i.e. take care you do not understand. 4. This explains the frequent omission of ne when the principal clause is neg- ative. Je n'empeche pas quHl vienne is equal to ^'en'empecAe pas savenue, "Ido not -prevent hia coniing;'* -while Je n'empiiche pas gu^il ne vie}ine, inoaLtiB "I do not im- pede, BO that (in such a way that) he does not come." 5. In course of time the [original force ofnein a clause of negative result was more and more lost sight of, and it was treated as an object-clause, even after aflB,rmative verbs. III. After Verbs of Fear, Apprehension and Danger. 136. After Verbs and Expressions of Fear, Appre- hension, Danger, aud the like, the form of the Object- clause depends upon the form of the Principal clause. For the verbs and expressions used in the principal clause, see 25. 137. Rule A. — When the Principal clause is Affiematiye, or implies an affirmative, the Objkct- clause has ne when it is affirmative in sense, and ne , . , pas when it is negative in sense. [Compare ne after verbs of fearing in Latin.] Craignez que le ciel ne vous Fear lest heaven may hate you. ha'lsse. — Racine. Ne craignez- vous pas que le due Do you not fear (= you fear, do ne reconnaisse que c'est vous- you not?) lest the duke may lueme? recognize that it is you your- self? — Dumas. APTEK VEKBS OF FEAR AND DAfTGEE. 63 Si je n'avais craint que ma pitie n'eut fait soup§onner un secret. EUe ne redoutait pas moins que le peuple ne la rendit respon- sable. Je orains qu'il ne vienne pas. If I had not feared (= I had feared) lest my pity might have caused a secret to be sus- pected. — Crebillon. She did hot dread less that the people might render her re- sponsible. — Thierry. I fear lest he may not come. — Litlre. Note. — The ne is eometimes omitted in the affirmative clause, especially in poetry. Les pieds nils, de peur qu*on m'entendit I descended with hare feet, lest one marcher, j*ai descendu. might hear me walking. — Zamar- tine. 138.' RxTLE B. — When the Peincipal clause is Negatf^e, or implies a negative, the OBJECT-clause has no ne when it is affirmative in sense, but has ne . . . pas when it is negative in sense. Je ne crainS pas qu'on le soup- jonne. Peut-on craindre que la terre manque aux hommes? Je crains peu qu'un grand roi puisse etre jaloux. Je ne orains pas qu'il ne vienne pas. I do not fear that one will suspect him . — Crebillon. Can we fear (= we cannot fear) that the earth may lack men? —Fenelon. I fear but little (=: I do not fear much) that a great king may be jealous. — Crebillon. I have no fears that he will not come. 139, Rtile C. — When the Peincfpal clause is IxTEEEOGATiVE, and does not imply an affirmative or negative answer, the object clause may or may not have ne when it is affirmative in sense, but has ne . . . pas- when it is negative in sense. Craignez-vous qu'il (ne) vienne? Craignez-vous qu'il ne vienne pas? Do you fear lest he may come? — Littre. Do you fear lest he may ngl come? 64 USB OP NEGATIVES. 130. Remarks. 1. The force of this conBtruction is Been by an analysis and historical study of it. The clauBee with ne were originally negative principal sentences of desire, compare 125. Je crains quHl ne vipnne is equal to qu^il ne vienne ; }e le crains " let him not come; I fear it." (Compare the origin of similar constructions in the parent Latin speech.) 2. The cases where no ne is nsed, when the principal verb is affirmative, show that the original force of ne is forgotten, and Je crains quHl vienne =je crainfs sa venue " I fear his coming." "^ 3. "When the principal clause is negative, the clause ^e ne craitis pas qu'il vienne, is equal to quHl vienne; je tu le crains pas, " let him come; I do no fear it." The use of ne here would destroy the sense. 4. After the original negative force of ne waa lost, ne . . . pas was added to the - object clause, whatever the form of the principal clause, to express the fear that the thing might TWt come to pass. IV. After Verbs of Denial, Doubt and Despair. 131. RtTLE. — After Verbs and Expressions of Denial, Doubt, Despair, and the like, when the PEHfT- ciPAii clause is Negative, Ikteeeogative, or Nbg- ATrs'E-IxTEEEOGATH'E, the OBJECT-clause regularly has ne ; when the PEiNcrPAii clause is Apeiemative no ne is used in the OBJBCT-clause. Por the verbs and expressions used in the principal clause, see 34. [Compare non dubitare quin, -non dubium esse quin, etc., with object-clause . in Latin.] Je ne doute pas que tu ne sois le I do not doubt that you are the oomplioe. accomplice. — Moliere. Point de doute que eela ne soit There is no doubt at all that that vrai. is so. — Academie. Je no nie pas que Je ne sois flatte. I do not deny that I am flattered. — YoUaire. Ne desesp(5rez-Tous pas que ce Do you not despair of this means moyen ne vous riSussisse ? succeeding foryou? — Landais. Peut-on nier qu'il n'ait avance Can it be denied that he has ad- cetto proposition? ' vanced this proposition? — Littre. - AFTER VERBS OF DENIAL, DOUBT, DESPAIR, 65 Je doute qu'il vienne. I doubt if he will come. — Littre. ' Je doute que vous puissiez re- I doubt whether you will be able ussir. to succeed. — Molihre. Note. — 1. These three classes of verbs are grouped here together hecanse they follow in general the same rule in regard to negatives as they do in regard to the subjunctive. 2. The deviations from the Rule are numerous and varied, due in part to the varied nature of the verbs in the principal clause. The omission of ne, which is very frequent, varies with the different verbs. 3. The indicative occasionally follows, in which case no ne is used. 4. At present this use of ne is fluctuating, and the rule less and less rigorously applied. 5. Occasionally ne . . . pas is used when the object clause is distinctly negative. 133. Eejiaeks. This use of ne seems to grow out of the negative tendency imparted to the object- clause by the negative character of the principal verb, Je ne doute pas qu^il nele. /asse, I have no doubt about his noi doing it, i.e.Ibelieve firmly that he will do it. Je ne doute pas quHl lefasse^ I have no doubt that he will do it, shows that themind^ leans toward an aflirmative rather than a negative conception. In this negative or afiii-raative conception of the idea involved in the subordinate clause lies the force that determines the insertion or omission of ne. V. After Impersonal Verbs. 133. RuxE. — After the Impersonal Verbs il s^en faut and il tient, when the Principal clause is Neg- ative, actually or impliedly, or is Interrogative, the OBJECT-clause has ne. [Compare non mulium abest quin, etc., with subject-clause in Latin.] In the principal clause may appear such idioms as : 11 ne s'en faut pas de beaucoup. There is not much lacking. 11 ne s'en faut presque rien. Almost nothing is wanting. II s'en faut peu. But little is wanting. 11 s'en faut de peu. There is needed by little. Peu s'en faut. But little is needed. 11 ne s'en faut gufere. Not much is wanting. De combien s'en faut>il? Ot how much is there need? Combieu s'en faut-il? How much is needed? 66 • USE OF NEGATIVES. S'en^faut-il beaucoup? Is much wanting? II ne tient pas k. . . It does not depend upon . . . II tient k peu. There is but little lacking. A qui tient-il? Upon whom does it depend? I quoi tientil? Upon what does it depend? Peu s'en faut qu'elle ne meure. But little is lacking that she die. — Moliere. II ne s'en faut presque rien qu'il Almost nothing is wanting to his ne soit aussi grand que son being as tall as his brother, fr&re. —Feraud. II ne tient pas k eux que la yille It was not their fault that the city ne fut demolie. was not destroyed. — Ldtlre. A quoi tient-il que la verite ne Upon what does it depend that triomphe? , Truth does not triumph? — Massillon. Note. — 1. The ne Bometimes occurs after il s'en/aui when affirmative. 2. The ne is sometimes omitted when the principal verb is interrogative, and occasionally after il tient when negative. 3, When the principal verb is affirmative ne . . . pas is used in the subordinate clause, if it is negative. II tient h moi que cela se fasse, que cela It depends on me that that should be ne Be fasse pas. done, should not be done. — Littr4. 134. Remakks. The ne is used here because the underlying conception of the clause is negative, though the circumlocution by which we best render it is more often ailirmative, yet the sense sometimes requires us to render it negatively. VI. In Relative Clauses. 135. Rule. — In a Negative Relative Clause ne and not ne . . . pas is used when the Peincipal clause is Negative, or implies a negative. Vous ne direz rien que je ne You will say nothing which I can- puisse entendre. ' not understand; — Delavigne. II n'y a une de ees lettres dont There is not one of those letters je ne saohe le contenu. whose contents I do not know. — Dumas. IN RELATIVE CLAUSES. IN CLAUSES OE RESULT. 67 Est-il un seul qui ne tremble? Ai-Je fait quelques voeux qui ne fussent pour lui? 11 est peu d'hommes qui ne soient sensibles au plasir de commander. Is there a single one who does not tremble? — Delavigne, Have I made any vows which were not for him? — Racine. There are but few men who are not alive to the pleasure of commanding. — Maetzner. Note. — For the omisfiion of pas, see 125,2. VII. In Clauses of Result. 136. Rule. — In a Subjunctive clause denoting Negative Result after que, ne and not ne . . . pas is used when the Peincipal clause is Negative, or im- plies a negative. 1. "With que equal sans que. Je ne puis parler, qu'il ne m'inter- rompe. II aime quelquefois, sans qu'il le sache bien, et croit aimer par- fois, qu'il n'en est rien. I cannot speak that he does not interrupt me. — Ayer. He loves sometimes without knowing it, and thinks that he loves now and then when he does not at all. — Moliere. Note. — Ke is occasionally found after sans que, but its use is not approved. 2. After ne pouvoir pas que. Vous ne pouvez pas que vous n'ayez raison. Je ne puis que je n'admire cette modestie. Ce reproche ne pent qu'il ne m'etonne. N'en pouvant plus qu'elle ne fut seule. Tou cannot but be right. — Mo- liere. I cannot help admiring this mod- esty. — Bossuet. This reproach could not but astonish me. — Corneille. Being impatient to be alone. — La Fontaine. 3. After Impersonal Expressions denoting Impossibility. II etait impossible qu'il n'y eut It was impossible that he should reussi. not have succeeded in it. — Montesquieu. 68 T7SE OP NEGATIVES. II ne se peut pas que tu ne sois It is not possible that you are bien k ton aise. not quite lat, your ease. — Mo- ll n'est pas jjue vous ne le It is not possible that you do not saohiez. know it. — Moliere. Note. — For the omission of pas see 125,2. VIII. In Conditional Clauses. 137. Rule. — iVe is regularly used, in certain forms of a Conditional clause. 1. With a mains que, and hors que. A moins que vous ne preniez bien Unless you select well your op- votre temps, vous n'en vien- portunity, you will not suo- di-ez pas k bout. ceed. — Academie. Note. — The ne is Boraetimes omitted, especially in poetry. 2. With que = a moins que. Je n'irai point la que tout ne soit I shall not go there unless all is pret. ready. — Acadexnie. NoTS. — 1. This use of gne comes only after negative clauses. 2. Que may stand for sans que, avant que,jusqu'd ce que, as -well as for d moins que. In each case the principal clause is negative, and ve must be used in the subordinate clause. The full form for which que stands can be determined only by the context. 3. With si and a Pluperfect. See 123,4. Si la douleur ne m'eut accable. If grief had not overwhelroed me. — Fenelon. 4. With B'emi ete, a condition by inversion. See 123,4. N'eut eti5 Leonce, ce dessein Had it not been for LSonce, this serait tombiS. design would have fallen. — Corneille. 138. Remarks. 1. The use of ne after fi mains que is probably modelled on the jsonstruction of subordinate clauses after comparatives denoting inequality. (See 123,6.) II est plus riche qttHl n*^tait hier, ho is richer than he was (not) yesterday, etc. Though such clauses have a negative idea underlying them, yet the idea involved in those after ^ moins que is affirmative. It seems to be an extension of use from analogy. 2. The use of ne with si, and in inverted conditions, is truly negative. IN CONDITIONALjCAUSAL AOT) TEMPORAL CLAUSES. 69 rx. In Causal, Clauses. 139. Rule. — A Negative Causal Clause after ce rCest pas que, etc., has ne and not ne . . . pas. Ce n'est pas que je ne convienne. It is not that I do not agree. — Grammaire Natwelle. Note. — 1. This is a circumlocution for ao affirmative. 2. This omission of pas is in accordance with the general principle stated 125,2. X. In Temporal Clauses. 140. Rule. — JVe must be used in Tbsipoeal clauses after que instead of avant que and jusqu'd ce que, when the Pkincipal clause is Negative. See 80, 81, and 137,1, Note 2. Je ne vous quitte point que men I shall never leave you until my amour n'ait obtenu ce point. love has obtained this point. ComeiUe. IToTB. — JTe is rarely found after avant que or plufot que. 141. Remaeks. "Wliile accepting this use of que as equivalent to avant ^e, we must remember it is quet and not avant que, that calls for ne. The above sentence may be rendered : "I shall never leave you, that, while that, my love has not, etc., as my love has not, etc. While with avant que, and an af&rmative principal clause, the conception reaches forward to the time when the action is completed, the que following a neg- ative clause limits the conception to the time while the action is as yet not completed. INDEX OF WOEDS. A. cause que, Cause, 79,2 A ce que, after verbs of "Wil- ling, 21,3 A ce que, with clause of Pur- pose, 59,4 A ce (with de manifere) que, Result, 59,5 A condition que. Condition, 68,2 A moins que. Condition, 69 and 69,2 A la charge que. Condition, 68, Note. A propos (il est) que, subject- clause, 36 Abhorrer que, 20 Admettre que, 19 and 27 Admirer que, 23 Affirmer que, 27 Afflige (etre) que, object- clause, 24 Affliger (se) que, 24 Agreer que, 19 Aimer que, 18 Aingoisque, temporal clause, 80,4 Ains que, temporal clause, 80,4 Apercevoir (se) que, 27 Apprehender que, 25 Approuver que, 19 Apres que, temporal clause, 80,6 Arreter que, 17 Arrive (il) que, subject- clause, 37 Assurer que, 27 Attendant que = en atten- dant que, 81,3 and 18,2 Attendre que, 18,2 Attendre (se) que, 27 Au cas que. Condition 67 Aucun — ne and relative clause, 44 Au plus loin que, temporal clause, 83 Avant que, temporal clause, 80 Avant (que) de, temporal clause, 80,5 Avere (il est) que, subject- clause, 37 Avoir apprehension que 25 Avoir, in Condition by in- version, 70,2 Avoir, in Concession by in- version, 77 Avoir crainte de, Infinitive, 26,3 Avoir crainte que, apposi- tive-clause, 25 ^ Avoir peur de, infinitive, 26, 3 Avoir peur quo, appositive- clause, 25 B. Beaucoup s'en faut que, sub- ject-clause, 36 Bien entendu que. Con- dition, 68, Note. Bien (il est, c'est) que, sub- ject-clause 36 72 INDEX OP WOEDS. Bien que, Concession, 75 Bon (il est) que, subject- clause, 36 Bon (trouver) que, object- clause, 19 C. Car, Cause, 79,2 Cas, au cas que, en cas que, le cas que, le cas pose que, pose le cas que, le cas suppose que, suppose le cas que, Condition, 67 Certain (etre) que, object- clause, 27 Certain (il est) que, subject- clause, 36 C'est with noun or adjective > and subject-clause, 36 C'est que, Cause, 79,2 Ce n'est pas que, Cause, 79 Charme (etre) que, objec(> clause, 23 Clair (il est) que, subjects clause, 37 Comme, Cause, 79,2 Comma que, compound rel- ative adverb, 52 Comme si. Condition, 72 Combien que, compound rel- ative adverb, 52 Commander que, 17 Condition (tl que). Condition, 68,2 Confus (etre) que, object- clause, 24 Content (etre) que, objects clause, 23 Contenter (se) que, 23. Contester que, 34 Consentir que, 19 Convenable (il est) que, sub- ject-clause, 36 Convenir que, 27 Convient (il) que, subject- clause, 36 Craindre de, infinitive, 26,3 Craindre que, 25 Crainte (avoir) de, infinitive, 26,3 Crainte (avoir) que, appo- sitive clause, 25 Crainte (dans la) que, appo- sitive-olause, 25 Crainte (de) que, appositive- clause, 25 Croire que, 27 D. Eangereux (il est) que, sub- ject-clause, 36 D'aussi loin que, temporal clause, 82 De and infinitive alter verbs of Emotion, 26,3 De ce que, 26,1 and 79,2 Decider que, 17 De crainte de, infinitive, 26,3 De crainte que, appositive- clause, 25 D^creter que, 17 Deolai-er que, 27 De fagon a, infinitive, 59,1 De facjon qvie, Purpose or Kesult, 56 Defendre que, 20 Demander que, 17 De maniere a, infinitive, 59,1 De maniere tl ce que, Pur- pose or Result, 59,5 De manifere que. Purpose or Kesult, 56 Dementir que, 34 Demontre (il est) que, sub- ject-clause, 37 De peur de, infinitive, 26,3 INDEX OF WOEDS. 73 De peur que, appositive- clause, 25 Depit (en) que. Concession, 15 and 75,1 Dernier and relative clause, 43 D6sappi-ouver que, 20 Desesperer que, 34 Desirer que, 18 Deserer (il est k) quo, 36 Desol6 (etre) que, object- clause, 24 De sorte que. Purpose or Kesult, 56 Devant que, temporal clause, 80 Devant que (de) and infini- tive, 80,5 Devoir, Condition by inver- sion, 70,2 Devoir, Concession by inver- sion, 77 Difacile (il est) que, subject- clause, 36 Dire que, 17; 21,1; 27 Disconvenir que, 34 Dissimuler que, 27; 32,2 Dissimuler (se) que, 32,2 Dommage (o'est, 11 est) que, subject-clause, 36 Donner (se) garde que, 20 Douter que, , 27; 34 Douter (se) que, 27 Bouteux (il est) que, subject- clause, 36 Du plus loin que, temporal clause, 82 E. Empecher que, 20 En attendant que, 81 Encore que. Concession, 75 Endepitque, Concession, 75; 75,1 En sorte de, infinitive, - 59,1 En sorte que. Purpose or Kesult, 56 Ensuit (il s') que, subject- clause, 37 Entendre que, 17 ; 21, 1 ; 27 Esperer que, 27 Essentiel (il est) que, sub- ject-clause, 36 Etonne (etre) que, objeot- clause, 23 Etonner (s') que, 23 Etre d'avis que, 17 Etre, and adjective of emo- ^ tion, 23; 24 Etre, impersonal, subject- clause, 36—40 Etre, in condition by inver- sion, 70,2 Etre, in concession by inver- sion, 77 Evident (il est) que, subject- clause, 37 Eviter que, 20 Exoepte que. Condition, 69,3 Exiger que, 17 F. Eache (etre) que, object- clause, 24 Facheux (il est) que, subject- clause, 36 Ea9on (de. . .k), infinitive, 59,1 Pajon (de . . . que). Purpose or Kesult, 56 Facile (il est) que, subject- clause, 36 Faut (il) que, subject- clause, 36 Faut (beaucoup s'en; peu s'en; tant s'en), 36 Faux (il est) que, subject- clause, 36 74 INDEX OP "WOKDS. G. Garde (prendre) que, 20; 21,1 Garde (se donner) que, 20 Garder que, 20 Gu^re (ne . . . guere and rel- ative), 44 H. 36 36 Heureux (il est) que, subjeot- clause, Honte (il est) que, subject- clause, Honteux (il est) que, sub- ject-clause, 36 Hormis que, Condition, 69,3 Hors que, Condition, 69 I. Ignorer que, 27 II arrive que, 37 II est k desirer que, 36 II est h souhaiter que, 36 II est, impersonal and sub- ject-clause, 36—40 ' II faut que, subject-clause, 36 II importe que, subject- clause, 36 II peut se faire que, 36 II plait que, subject-clause, 36 II n'y a que, and relative, 44 II me semble que, subject- clause, 37 II paratt que, subject-clause, 37 II resulte que, " " 37 Ils'ensuitque, " " 37 II suffit que, " " 36 II tient k . . . que, subject- clause, 36 II vaut mieux que, subject- clause, 36 Imaginer (s') que, subject- clause, 27 Important (il est) que, sub- ject-clause, " 36 Impossible (il est) que, sub- ject-clause, 36 Incontestable (il est) que, subject-clause, 36 Indispensable (il est) que, subject^clause, 36 Injuste (il est) que, subject- clause, 36 J- Jajoit que, Concession, 75; 75,4 Je ne sache pas, 12,1 Jusqu'^, infinitive, 81,4 Jusqu'a ce que, temporal clause, 81 Jusqu'a tant que, temporal clause, 81 Juste (il est) que, subject- clause, 36 L. Loin que, Cause, etc., 79; 82; 83 M. Malgre que. Concession, 75; 75,2 Malheureux (il est) que, sub- ject-clause, 36 Manifere (de . . . £l), infinitive, 59 Mani^re (de... que). Purpose or Kesult, 56 Mani^re (de . . . 4 ce que). Purpose or Eesult, 59,5 Mecontent (etre) que, ob- ject-clause, 24 M(5riter que, 18 Mieux (il vaut) que, subject- clause, 36 Moins {k... que). Condition, 69; 69,2 LNDEX OP WOKDS. T5 N. Naturel (il est) que, object- olause, 36 Naturel (trouver) que, 19 Ne, in Kelative Clauses, 135 Ne, In Conditional Clauses, 137 Ne, in Causal Clauses, 139 Ne, in Temporal Clauses, 140 Ne, after verbs of Hinder- ing, etc., 124^ Ne, after verbs of Fear, etc., 126-30 Ne, after verbs of Denial. Despair, etc., 131-2 Ne, after impersonal verbs, 133-4 Ne, general uses, 123 Necessaire (il est) que, sub- ject-clause, 36 Non que, non pas que. Cause, 79 Nonobstant que. Conces- sion, 75 O. Ordonner que, 17 Oil . . . que. Compound rel- ative, 52 Oublier que, 27 P. Paralt (il) que, subject- clause, 37 Paroeque, Cause, 79,2 Peine (il est) que, subject- clause, 36 Peine (etre) que, object- clause, Penser que, Permettre que. Pen s'en faut que, subject- clause, 36 24 27 19 Peur (avoir) que, appositive- clause, 25 Peur (de -) que, appositive- clause, 25 Peut (il) que, subject-clause, 36 Peut (il) se faire que, 36 Plaindre (se) que, 24 Plait (il) que, subject,-clause, 36 Plutot que, temporal clause, 80 Pose que, pose le cas que, etc.. Condition, 67 Possible (il est) que, subject- clause, 36 Pour, infinitive, 59,1 Pour que, Purpose, 55 Pour que. Result, 61 Pour-que^ quelque . . . que, 52 Pourvu que. Condition, 68 Preferer que, 18 Premier, and relative, 43 Prendre garde que, 20 ; 21,1 Pretendre que, 17; 21,1 ; 27 Prevoir que, 27 Prier que, 18 Primes que, temporal clause, 80,4 Probable (il est) que, subject- clause, • 37 Propos (il est k) que, sub- ject-clause, 36 Proposer que, 17 Que, with subjimctive of Desire, 3,2 Que, with subjunctive of Command, 8 Que, with Potential subjunc- tive, 14 Que je sache, etc., 12,2 Qu'il me souvienne, 12,3 Que = afln que, Purpose, 55 76 INDEX OP WOEDS. Que = pour que, Purpose or Result, 60,2 Que = sans que, Eesult, 62, 1 Que = k moins que. Con- dition, 69; 69,1 Que = avant que, temporal clause, 80,1 Que = de peur que, 25,4 Que = jusqu'a ce que, tem- poral, 81 Que = quoique. Concession, 75,5 Que = parce que. Cause, 79,2 Que = si. Condition, 73 Que . . que; que . . ou, 70,1; 76 Quel . . que; quel que, quel- que, etc., 51; 52 Qui qui, qui que, quoi qui, quoi que, 50 Quoique, Concession, 75 R. Bare (il est) que, subject- clause, 36 Kedouter que, 25 Uegretter que, 24 Eejouir (se) que, 23 Bepentir (§e) que, 24 Eepugne (il) que, subject- clause, 36 Eesoudre que, 17 E^sulte (11) que, subject- clause, 37 Bougir que, '24 S. Sache, Potential subjunc- tive, 12,1 and 2 S'afdiger que, 24 Sans que, Eesult, 62; 62,3 S'aperoevoir que, 27 Sauf que. Condition, 69,3 Savoir que, 27 Se contenter que, 23 Se dissimuler que, 32,2 Se donner garde que, 20 Se douter que, 27 Semble (il se) que, subject- clause, 37 S'ensuit (il) que, subject- clause, 37 Se plaindre que, 24 Se rejouir quo, 23 Se repentir que, 24 S'etonner que, 23 Seul, and relative pronoun, 43 Si, pluperfect in condition, 71 Si (comme si), historical tenses, 72 Si, after verbs of Emotion, 23, Note. Si ce n'est que, Condition, 69,3 Si. . .ne. Condition, 69,3 Si . . que = quelque . . . que, 52; 78,3 S'imaginer que, 27 Soin (prendre) que, 20 Soit . . . soit que, soit que . . . ouque, 70,1; 76 Sorte (en . . . de) infinitive, 59 Sorte (de, en . . .) que. Pur- pose or Eesult, 56 Souffrir que, 19 Souhaiter que, 18 SoupQonner que, 27 Soutenir que, 27 Souvenir que, 30, Note; 27 Souvenir, Potential, 12,3 Sufat (il) que, subjeof^clause, 36 Supplier que, 18 Suppose que, sujipose le cas que, etc.. Condition, 67 Sur (il est) que, subject- clause, 37 INDEX OF WORDS. 77 T. Tant . . . que = quelque . . . que, 52; 78,3 Tant que = jusqu'a ce que, 81, 2 Taut s'en faut que, 36 Tel . . . que = quelque . . . que, 51; 63 Temps (11 est) que, subject- clause, 36 Tient (11) que, subject- clause, 36 Tout . . . que, ^ 52 Trembler que, 25 Trouver bon, naturel que, 19 Trouver mal que, 20 Trouver que, 27 U. Unique, and relative, 43 Urgent (il est) que, subject- clause, 36 Valoirbien que, 18 Vaut (11 . . . mleux) que, 36 Voir que, 27 Vouloir que, 18 Vrai (11 est) que, subject-' clause, 37 Vraisemblable (il est) que, subject- clause, 37 C. H. HBINTZEMANN, PRINTER, 50 SCHOOL ST., BOSTON. dyiRL Ichoenhof's, 144. Tremont Street, Boston, Importer of Foreign Books and Periodicals, OWN PUBLICATIONS. ^luerjyna*. Handbook of French Pronunciation. Cloth $100 The only complete French-English text-hook in relation to this must important part of French Grammar. Berlitz Method for Learning French. Premifere partic. Cloth ... 50 Deuxieme partie. Cloth 1.00 Berlitz Method for Learning G-erman. Erster Theil. Cloth ... 50 Zweiter Theil. Cloth 1 00 Berlitz and Dubois, English Notes to the first part of the former. Paper, 30 We iavite educators particularly to examine this system of teaching languages. It is one of the few methods (probably the only one) that has accomplished the dif&culttask of uniting the practical study of language ■with thoroughness and correctness. By it the students are continually drilled in speaking and hearing the foreign idiom, -without neglecting reading and writing it. The subject is presented to the student in such a manner, that he is forced to realize the exact meaning of ■words and their modifications, and to build up understandingly the various forms of clauses and sentences. The lasting success the Berlitz Method has ob- tained everywhere is a certain proof of its value and eflScacy, and makes it the duty of all teachers of languages to examine or test this system. Bej'nard, L'art, dMnt^resser en Classe. 3d enlarged edition. Cloth . .125 This Reader is divided into three Parts. Part L, intended for children, contains anecdotes and fables, followed by questionaires; PartU., dia- logues; Part ni., selections from the classical writers. Bernard, Nouvelle Etude sur le Genres des Noms ...... 40 A new and practical -work, showing at a glance fiie gender of French nouns, without the aid of grammar or dictionary. Boisen and Bernhardt, Beutsches Sprach- und Lesehuch. Cloth . , 1 60 The text-book of the Washington High School, Philipps Exeter Aca- demy, and the Sauveur Summer School of Languages. From Miss Bteyer, instructor of German at the State Normal School, Potsdam, N.T. ; "1 think that this book has no superior amongst the text^hooks for the study of German. I read with great interest the first chapters of the volume, which are clear and easy, and admiringly the more advanced parts of the book, in which grammar and reading lessons are so happily combined." From Miss Wenckebachj Professor of German at Weilesley Collogo" *'I consider tbe book a good introduction to grammatical studies, and sball recommend it to younger pupils especially." Chants Chretiens, Hymns, especially printed for tbe Frencb Protestant ser- vice in Boston 21 Clement, Biograpbies des Musiciens c^l^bres. Clotb 1 25 Very entertaining Biograpbies of tbe composers, from Palestrina to tbe present time. Ej/senbach, Practical Grammar of tbe German Language and Introduction to Conversation, for tbe jise of schools and private students. Clotb . . 80 « Key to same. Clotb 45 T) is grammar, used by most of the leading teachers of Boston and other cities, and which is one of the text-books of tbe Free College of tbe City of New York and tbe Univ. ofLouisiana, has proved to be avery valu- able assistant in rapidly acquiring a knowledge of the German language. Vreytag, die Journalisten, a comedy 60 One of the most successful dramatic productions of cur time, and repeat- edly used in Harvard, Amherst, Cornell, Tale, and Micbigaa Universities. Goethe f Roman Elegies, translated by Prof. Noa. Clotb 75 Hofifeldf French-English Pocket-Dictionary. Cloth ^ 50 — English-French Pocket- Dictionary. Clotb 50 Both Pai-ts bound into one. Clotb 80 German- English Pocket-Dictionary. Clotb 50 English-German Pocket-Dictionary. Cloth 50 Both Parts bound into one. Clotb 80 Very well printed and full works. The Conjugation of tbe French regular and irregular Verbs ... 2? The Conjugation of the German Verbs, and alphabetical list of tbe irregular Verbs 25 The Conjugation of tbe Spanish regular and irregular Verbs . ... 25 Tbe Conjugation of the Italian regular and irregular Verbs ... 25 Hugo, JLamartinef ei JHusset, Selections from their poetical works, with' biographical introductions and Engbsb notes by L. Both Hendiicksen, Prof, of French at Smith College, Northampton. Paper 60 cents; clotb . 90 This is the only collection of French poetry for schools, in which justice is done to tbe three greatest poets of France. Institute of Technology French Header, with English notes. Clotb . 2 00 With complete Essays relating to History, Biography, Chemistry, Physics, Electricity, Industry, Forestry, etc. Will be especially useful to those students who wish to make themselves acquainted with scientific subjects and words. Compiled by Prof. Luguiens, Mass. Institute of Technology. Jensen, die braune Erica 10 Unobjectionable, and interesting enough to keep up the interest of tbe reader from beginning to end. Jew des Academiciens, by Mile. R. S^e, Prof, of French at Wellesley College, and tbe Sauveur Summer School of Languages. 100 Cards with Texts from 20 great French writers, in a neat box 1 00 tTew de Conversation, by Chevalier. 24 Convevsatiou Cards, with Text and Explanations, in a bos 40 Knot'tZf Modern American Lyiics. Cloth 1 85 An anthology that contains many pieces of great merit not to be found in any other collection. ' KoeJiler, German-English and EngUsh-Grcrraim Dictionary, ^ bound . . 2 60 The text-book of Harvard University and the Boston Institute of Tech- nology. Especially useful on account of the numerous scientific termu ■which it contains. the same abi'idged. Cloth ..65 Kmmmachei', Parabeln. Cloth 50 One of the best works in the didactic literature of the Germans. LEVY, J., PUBLICATIONS: ItC FrancaiSj monthly, 25 cents, per number. Per year of 9 months . , 2 00 J>uchesse Mai-iin, Comedie, par Meilhac, with English notes .... SO De-ci, de-la, Nouvelles et Comedies, with English notes. Cloth . . . 1 00 Courtes et Bonnes, Nouvelles et Saynfetes, with English notes. Cloth , 1 00 Excellent selections. Scholarly notes. Xjodeman, G-rundriss der Gescbichte der deutschen Literatur. Cloth . . YS It begins with a short introduction^ on the development of the German language, followed by brief notices on the authors and their works. A handy index adds gi'ealy to the usefulness of this little manual. ^altchyce, 31. de, Absent le chat les souris dansent. Comedie ... 25 A play for children. Written by a French -American Lady, and performed with great success in a large number of private parlors and schuols. J^archand, New Method of French Conversation. A simple, clear and most rapid system of acquiring the language in two months, by sentences prinled as they are spoken, and explained by remarks and rules. Cloth 1 40 J\Tfvn.f.agup, Manual of Italian Literature. Cloth 1 26 Containing a brief historical sketch, selections from the best authors, with biographical notices, explanatory notes, and a vocabulary. JIforiniere, French Prepositions and Idioms. Cloth /TO Being a complement of every French grammar, in which the use of the prepositions is fully explained, and many of the idiomatic difUculties are solved. Xfoeroth, Bliithen der neuen englischen und amerikanischen Poesie Graceful rendering into German of many of the best English and American Poems. Vloetz, Easy and practical French Method. Twenty-first Edition. Cloth Rogez, de TEmploi du Bubjonctif. Rfegles mises en ordre h. I'usage dea (Strangers ObservaticJns pratiques, h. Pusiige des Strangers. Cloth . . . < Very useful hints, how to overcome the difficulties in French Prepo- aitions and Verbs. 75 25 Jtotigemont dc, Anecdotes nouvelleB. Lectures faglles et amusanteB, et Ri^citatione k Tusagu dcs claeses en fran^ais 80 Sand, George, Marianne 60 A charming little novel. Printed for^se in Harvard Univerflity. 5i>ieWtaj?cn, derVergnUgungBComraisaar . 30 A little novel originally printed f(jr Harvard University. One of the text-books of the Sauveur Summer School of Languages. StaegeVf Leo A., Lchrfragen zum Erlernen dtr dcutschen Sprache, nach der naturlichen Methode. Cloth , . . 1 50 Theuriet, la Chanson du Jardiuier, with English notes by Prof. Cyr . . 40 One of the hcsL and purest novels of this distinguished writer. For years uecd in the Michigan University classes. TiecJc, die Elfen, 25 cents. Das Rothkappchen, 25 cents. Der gesticfelte Kater 40 Three of the best representative writings of this master of the Roman- tic School. WencTcebach, die schonsten deutschen Lieder. For Colleges, Academics, High and Private Schools. Cloth 75 A very fine collection of short representative poems of the German Parnassus. ' und SchraJcamp, Deutsche Grammatik fUr Amerikaner, nach einer neuen praktischcn Methode. Cloth 1 25 ZschohJcCf der zerbrochene Krug, with English notes, 30 cents. Das "Wirths- haus zu Cransac, 30 cents. Das Abentcuer der Neujahrsnacht . . 25 For years favorite reading book with large uumbers of schools of all grades. HflCHETTE & GO'S (LONDON) LATEST PUBLICATIONS, rOK BALE BY THEIR AMERICAN AGENT Carl Schoenliof, 144 Tremont St., Boston. ^6oM«, Le Roi des MoDtagnes. With English notes.^ Cloth .... 80 BelcJier and Dupuis, Manuel k I'usage des candidats aux examens publics. A selection from the French papers recently set at public examinations in England, with translations and notes. Cloth I 40 Charlirif An lutroduction to French conversation, being a systematic course of exercises, arranged In harmony with the Method of Instruction now most approved by enlightened teachers of French and other modem languages. Cloth 80 Zeller, Frangois I. Illustrated, with English notes. Cloth , . , • 80 Every word 3s In French. It is not a grammar of definitions to bo learned; but a book of ideas. Ideas have been the basis of conver- sation; they are now made the basis of a gi-ammar. T7ie Vade-mecum, of the luotinist. Thirty Chapters of Caesar to bo learned by heai't. With accents^ mai'ks of quantity, and a Map of Gaul - . . $0 25 A. Word for Word rendering into English, of Caesar's Bello Oallico, Book I, to accompany Talks with Caesar . . • . 25 Talks with Caesar, De Bello Gallico, Text of the first four Books, with accents and marks of quantity, Notes on Book I, and an appendix on Pronunciation and Inflection, and a Map of O-aul; cloth 1 50 Das deutsche JBuch der Sauveur Schule^ cloth . . • • 73 This simple beginners* book is entirely written in conformity with the principles of the natural method. It is not diflB.cult, and yet no diffi- culty is shirked, and leads the pupil gradually up to German prose and German construction. Dr. L. Sauveur's New Book: Grammaire Francaise pour les Anglais, Written with a special view of overcoming the dij0G.culties encountered by Ameri- can students in studying the French language, and complements his Text Books on the Natural Method of teaching French. 1 volume, cloth, 360 pages, $1.60. Key to the same, 50 cts. ^arcillac, Manuel d'histoire de la Litt^rature frangaise depuis eon origiuo jusqu'k nos jours. Boards. $1.25. An excellent text book for young ladies' schools. Foerster, Abriss der allgemeinen Kunatgeschichte. 46 cti. » Abr6g6 de I'histoire de I'Art. 45 cts. A short guide for students of the history of Fine Arts. IV Dr. SAUVEUR'S EDUCATIONAL WORKS. Tntroduction to the Teaching of Living Languages. — Introduction to the Teaching of Ancient Languages. — De I'Enseignement dea Langues Vivantes. Each $0 25 No one ought to teach the natural method without getting thoroughly imbued with the contents^of these little works. Z^a JParole francaise, cloth 1 00 An easy hook for hcginnere, treating of usual conversational topics, giv- ing special attention to pronunciation and conjugation, and well adapted to form an introduction to Dr. Sauveur's other works. Causeries avec les infants, cloth 1 25 This hook introduces us to some little children. They chat with their teacher about things which surround them, enabling them to acq^uire a large vocabulary of words, that can be daily used by them. Tetites Causeries^ cloth 1 25 This work advances a step further in conversation, entering into deeper and more thoughtful subjects. There is not a chapter without fasci- nation. Everything is naturally graceful and beautiful. Causeries avec tries Eleves, cloth 1 50 This is not only a book of the natural method. Its wealth of words, of expressions, of thoughts, makes of it the most perfect reader that a teacher may wish for. It ought thus to find its way iuto every school, and be the book of all methods. The very genius of France is alive in all its pages. Contes merveiJleu^, cloth ... 150 A charming selection of Fairy Tales. This work ought to be used after Les Causeries and previous to Lafontaine's Fables and *' Entretiens sur la grammaire." It may be used also after the pupils have mas- tered a part of the contents of the Causeries and with Lafontaine together. Fables de Ijafontaine, cloth 1 50 In this selection of masterpieces, in the accompanying Notes, and in the choice of extracts from different authors, expressing ideas in relation to the fables, we find the ideal conversation - books for intelligent classes. The great fabulist has found an exponent who loves and understands him, and has brought him nearer to us. Tlntretiens sur la (frammaire, cloth 1 75 After the mastery of u part of the previous works, the pupil is ready to study the science of its construction, which awaits him in the form of Entretiens sur la grammaire. Ilere the principle upon which the system is based is continued, without ii missing link in the chain. IV Dr. SAUVEUR'S EDUCATIONAL WORKS. Tntroduction to the Teacliing of Living Languages. — Introduction to tlie Teaching of Ancient Languages. — De rEnseignement des Langues Vivantes. Each $0 25 No one ought to teach the natural method -without getting thorotighly imbued with the contents^^f these little works. Z,a Parole francaise, cloth 1 00 An easy hook for hcginners, treating of usual conversational topics, giv- ing special attention to pronunciation and conjugation, and well adapted to form an introduction to Dr. Sauveur's other works. Causeries avee les JEnfants, cloth 1 25 This hook introduces us to some little children. They chat with their teacher about things which surround them, enabling thera. to acq^uire a large vocabulary of words, that can be daily used by them. T*etites Causeries, cloth 125 This work advances a step further in conversation, entering into deeper and more thoughtful subjects. There is not a chapter without fasci- nation. Everything is naturally graceful and beautiful. Causeries avec tries Aleves, cloth 1 50 This is not only a book of the natural method. Its wealth of words, of expressionSj of thoughts, makes of it the most perfect reader that a teacher may wish for. It ought thus to find its way into every school, and be the book of all methods. The very genius of Fraoice is alive in all its pages. Contes merveilleux, cloth 1 60 A charming selection of Fairy Tales. This work ought to be used after Les Causeries and previous to Lafontaine's Fables and " Entretiens sur la grammaire." It may be used also after the pupils have naas- tered a part of the contents of the Causeries and with Lafontaine together. Fahles de I/afontainey cloth 1 50 In this selection of masterpieces, in the accompanying Notes, and in the choice of extracts "from different authors, expressing ideas in relation to the fables, we find the ideal conversation -books for intelligent classes. The great fabulist has found an exponent who loves and understands him, and has brought him nearer to us. T^ lit ret lens sur la grantniaire, cloth 1 75 After the mastery of a part of the previous works, the pupil is ready to study the science of its construction, which awaits him in the form of Entretiens sur la grammaire. Here the principle upon which the system is based is coutinued, without a missing link iu the chain.