^iiiilil- Kt.mfJ-..l.tLtMltli.' B-OOGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF 1891 h-.^.k.^i"^ ^.^iuJik. VM365 .hI™" """"'"'"' ^"""^ ^imil1iV:iiii?m«iiiif«il!?JtBf'''' ''°^*i "s characte olin 3 1924 030 902 286 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924030902286 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT ITS CHARACTERISTICS AND MODERN DEVELOPMENT BY ALLEN HOAR JUNIOR MEMBER AMERICAN SOC. OF CIVIL ENGINEERS 84 Illustrations ■ — 4 Folding Plates NEW YORK D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 25 Park Place 1916 EV COPYRIGHT, 191 6, BY D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY THE 'PLIMPTON 'PRESS NORWOOD'MASS'U'S-' TO THE MEMORY OF MY FATHER PREFACE It has been the purpose of the author in writing this volume to place before the public a book which would be of interest to the general reader, and also of value to the technical man and naval engineer, who, while not speciaUzing in this line, is desirous of reliable information upon the subject. The author has therefore, in a non- technical language in so far as possible, brought to the attention of the reader the inherent characteristics of the submarine boat, the problems involved in its design and construction, the difficulties of operation, its present limitations and its future possibihties. The present European conflict has aroused a general interest in the submarine torpedo boat and has acted as an incentive to many popular writers to flood the press with a great number of misconceptions and erroneous statements. Many of them were unfamiliar with the technical and engineering considerations, and in fact seemingly wholly misinformed. It is only when some understanding of the problems involved has been gained, that the public may begin to realize what has been ac- compHshed in this field of modern "engineering warfare," what further might be expected, and the utter improb- ability of submarine battleships, transports and the like, which have been pet exploitations of popular writers. Since going to press the submarine has once more been brought into brilliant prominence by the successful VI PREFACE 3800 mile voyage of the German submarine Deutschland. This vessel, unattended, has successfully eluded all surface craft during her long trip which began at Heligoland on June 23 and ended at Baltimore July 9. For a part of her voyage the Deutschland was forced to run submerged to escape detection by the blockading English and French cruisers. Captain Koenig, her commander, has stated that in all she made 90 miles of this trip under the surface. Although this is perhaps slightly farther than any other submarine has gone alone it is not by any means the only long voyage made by this type of vessel. Submarines of the F, H, and K, classes in the U. S. Navy have made the trip from San Francisco to Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, under their own power, a distance of 2100 miles, and on the Atlantic coast the K boats have several times made the trip between New York, Pensacola, and Colon, a somewhat longer distance. Ten of the British H boats built by the Fore River Ship Building Company recently made the voyage to England, and from there five of them continued on their way to the Dardanelles, a voyage quite as long as that made by the Deutschland. These British H boats are practically identical with our own H class and are of about 450 tons displacement. To those familiar with this type of craft there is nothing remarkable in just the mere mileage covered by the Deutschland on this voyage, but the performance of this vessel is spectacular because it has succeeded in leaving a well blockaded port and traversed waters abounding in hostile craft undetected to the end. It is very difficult at this time to obtain any exact or reliable information as to the real dimensions of this vessel. It has been variously given out in widely conflicting statements, PREFACE vii purporting to have been uttered by Captain Koenig, as from 200 to 315 feet in length, 20 to 30 feet in breadth and from 1000 to 4000 tons in displacement. There seems to be little doubt, however, from what reliable information can be had, that this vessel is of the same general type as those submarines laid down by Germany in the early part of 1914, the principal characteristics of which are given in the appendix, as 214 feet in length, 20 feet beam and 900 submerged displacement. A boat of this size if stripped of all torpedo tubes, torpedoes and handling gear, and with weight of power plant restricted to a capacity for 14 knots on the surface and 10 knots submerged, would afford a net cargo ton- nage of about 75 to 100 tons. This is a practical illus- tration of the possibiKties for new uses of the submarine as a blockade runner on Government enterprise. The successful performance of the Deutschland must not confuse her as being in the class of the submarine transports and the hke mentioned above. This vessel is a logical development of a tried type and not the prod- uct of momentary hysteria. Previous to the successful accomplishment of the Deutschland, there recently ap- peared in print a photograph purporting to be of a 5000- ton German submarine boat which was reported to be about to ply back and forth transporting cargo between New York and Kiel as a blockade runner. It is quite possible that this statement was based upon the known intention of the Deutschland. However, it is rather an exaggeration of the true dimensions of the vessel. While it is of course not impracticable in itself to build a sub- marine capable of transporting a hmited amount of cargo, the reported dimensions of this craft, about 450 feet in vm PREFACE length and 40 feet in beam, make it incredible. A sub- marine vessel of this size would be excessively unwieldy,, and to make its accredited speed of ten knots an hour across the Atlantic, it would require such an enormous weight in power plant equipment and fuel oil, that, together with the necessary percentage of weight to be allotted to the ballast system for submergence, there would be but a very small percentage of the gross tonnage left for cargo transportation. It would be, to say the least, scarcely an economic means of transportation, no matter what the hazard for surface vessels might be. In the first chapter on the history of submarine devel- opment, an attempt has been made to point out rather sketchily only the more important incidents which have had a direct bearing upon the actual development of the submarine boat of today. While the inventors and in- ventions dealing with the subject number into the thou- sands, a very large proportion of them are merely freak ideas having no practical value at all, and yet there are a great many very ingenious and worthy of consideration. Space, however, in this little volume forbids going into them, indeed, to do so would require several volumes the size of this. The reader who is interested in this phase of the subject is referred to " Submarine Navigation, Past and Present," in two volumes, by Allan H. Burgoyne. The chapters on the future development of the sub- marine, and means of defense against it were written some- what over a year ago, and the author is gratified to state that after two years of employment of the submarine in actual warfare in Europe he finds no occasion to change in any respect his opinions expressed on these matters in this volume. Of late it is interesting to note that much PREFACE ix stress is laid upon the effectiveness of the small speedy- surface craft as a defense against the submarine. The successful employment of these light craft is, however, re- stricted to the conditions set forth in the chapter on defense, and its effectiveness is really more moral than physical, since the deck of one of these Httle craft affords a very poor gun platform from which to shoot with accu- racy. Our own submarines acting off our own coasts have not much to fear from this type of opponent, but rather would have them to act in consort with. The Author wishes to express his thanks to both the Electric Boat Company and the Lake Torpedo Boat Com- pany for the many excellent photographs which they furnished him. Washington, ALLEN HOAR July, 1916 CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. Early History and Development. i II. Development of the Present -Day Submarine . 1 5 III. Characteristics and Requirements . 26 IV. Types OF Submarines (Submarines and Submersiblesj 38 V. Design of the Submarine Torpedo Boat (General Factors) .... 58 VI. The Power Plant . . no VII. Future Development . 134 VIII. Means of Defense Against Submarine Attack 143 IX. Tactical Evolutions of the Submarine. 153 X. The Torpedo 174 XL Tenders and Salvage Ships 185 XII. List of Accidents 192 XIII. Submarine Mines . . 195 Appendix I. . . . . . . . 203 Index 205 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE 1. Bushnell's Turtle 2 2. Fulton's Nautilus 5 3. Le Plongeur n 4. The Fenian Ram 8 5. Hovgaard's Submarine 9 6. Nordenfelt's Turkish Submarine 11 7. Le Morse 12 8. The Argonaut Jr 13 g. The Argonaut First 13 10. U. S. S. T. B. Holland 17 11. XJ. S. Submarine B-^ ig 12. British A class 21 13. British B class 23 14. Forward Deck of Submarine G-4 27 15. U. S. Submarine C-j 29 16. C-i Making a dive 31 17. C-i Coming to the surface 31 18. Living quarters on Lake boat 33 19. German U-5 in a heavy sea 35 20. U. S. Submarine G-i 3g 21. U. S. Submarine G-4 41 22. British Submarine H-20 43 23. Diagram of early Holland type 45 24. Diagram of Electric Boat type 45 25. Diagram of Lauboeuf type 47 26. Diagram of Lake type 47 27. Diagram of Krupp type 49 28. Diagram of Laurenti type 49 29. Figure 2. Diving Boat 51 30. Figure 3. "Even Keel" type « 53 31. Experimental submarine with forward propellers 55 32. Figure 4. Forward propulsion type 56 ii. U. S. Submarines K-s and K-6 S9 34. French submarine of Lauboeuf type 63 xiii XIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 35. Transverse section through engines 8i 36. F-3 entering the Golden Gate, California 83 37. Crew's quarters, Electric Boat 85 38. U. S. Submarine K-6 87 39. Midship section, Electric Boat 89 40. Steering station, E. B. type go 41. Diving station, Electric Boat 91 42. Submarine signal set 96 43. Torpedo tube installation 99 44. G-i showing deck tubes loi 45. Lowering torpedo through hatch 103 46. Submarine German type gun 104 47. Submarine G-i ' 107 48. Submarine C-$ iii 49. 900 B.H.P. M.A.N. Diesel Engine 117 50. Southwark-Harris Diesel Engine 118 51. Submarine D-i 121 52. Main Motors G-i 123 53. Switchboard and valve manifolds 125 54. 900 B.H.P. Italian submarine engine 129 55. Engine space, experimental boat 132 56. U. S. Submarine L-i 135 57. U. S. Submarine K-^ 139 58. Wake of torpedo ; 140 59. Visible disturbance of periscope 143 60. High angle fire gun for aeroplanes 149 61. British submarines 155 62. German submarine U-28 157 63. Effectiveness of torpedo fire at various ranges 163 64. Diagram of Limit Angle of Submarine attack 164 65. Diagram of effect of error in estimation of course 165 66. Submarine H-3 coming to the surface 167 67. Submarine K-s at full speed 169 68. Submarines in column formation 171 69. Hoisting on board a torpedo 175 70. Section through a torpedo 177 7 1 . Spent torpedo coming to the surface 179 72. Diagram of torpedo angle fire 183 73. Torpedo fitted with lance-head 184 74. German submarine tender 186 75. Monitor Tonopah and flotilla 187 76. French submarine entering " Kangaroo ship " 189 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xv 77. Open bow of " Kangaroo ship " 189 78. Italian Mother ship 190 79. Simple contact mine ig8 80. Diagram showing method of sinking mines 199 PLATE I. StabiUty curves Facing page 44 II. Speed and power curves 74) 7S III. Section through engine 114, 115 IV. Plan and profile of 600-ton Laurenti submarine Appendix V. Plan and profile of 800-ton German submarine Appendix VI. Profile of 830-ton Electric Boat type submarine Appendix The Submarine Torpedo Boat Its Characteristics and Modern Development CHAPTER I EARLY HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT Although the submarine has only recently become rec- ognized as being of any practical value in Naval Warfare, the first known device of this kind was conceived by a fHoUander, Dr. Cornelius van Drebbel, and was con- structed by him in 1624. This boat was merely a wooden shell, decked over and covered with leather, and fitted up so as to be capable of sinking below the surface of the water. It was a one-man affair and propelled by oars passed through the sides of the boat, and working in flexible leather stufi&ng-boxes to keep them watertight. With this very crude device Dr. van Drebbel successfully demon- strated the practicability of submarine navigation. [\ No further developments of any consequence along these lines were effected until taken up in this country by David Bushnell in 1772. Bushnell, who was then a student at Yale, was the first to invent and construct a submarine boat actually used in warfare. His Turtle, so called be- cause of its peculiar shape, was just large enough to accom- modate one man in a sitting posture; it was steered in the ordinary manner and propelled by a screw-propeller turned by hand from an interior crank. Submersion was accom- plished by taking on water ballast, and a torpedo was carried outside the hull, so arranged that it could be at- THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT tached to the hull of an enemy's vessel by means of a screw operated from within. After being screwed tot he hull of the enemy's vessel, the torpedo was then to be released from the submarine and fired by a time clock device which was set in motion by the withdrawing of a pin when released. Tbfpec/c Sc>-eiv ■/'/^Y>e//ef Bushnell's "Turtle."' 1776 In 1775 Bushnell was called upon to take his submarine and make an attack upon the British vessels lying in New York harbor. Unfortunately for Bushnell, he was too frail physically to undertake this arduous task in person, so a corporal from Putnam's army, Ezra Lee, was chosen and trained to navigate the craft and to make an attack upon the British flagship Eagle which was lying off Staten Island. Lee succeeded in navigating the submarine and reached EARLY HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 3 a vantage point under the Eagle's stern, but owing to the copper sheathing on the vessel's bottom and the small downward resistance of the Turtle, he found it difficult to attach the torpedo. As daylight approached he became nervous and, probably because of the need of fresh air, gave up the attempt, cutting adrift the torpedo and making his own escape. The torpedo exploded as was intended and as it had been timed to, but as it had drifted some httle distance down stream from the Eagle, it did no harm other than to throw up a veritable geyser of water giving those on board a mighty scare; After this one attempt, notwithstanding the fact that the little vessel had demonstrated both the practicability of its maneuvering qualities and of its armament, Bush- nell's Turtle became the object of much ridicule and was never afterward given fair consideration. Bushnell, thor- oughly discouraged at the treatment accorded his ingenious device and the lack of appreciation of its value, soon dis- appeared from the pages of the history of the submarine torpedo boat. -> Robert Fulton, the inventor of the steamboat, was the next to make any practical advancement in the develop- ment of the submarine, taking it up from the point at which Bushnell left off. He first laid his plans before the Ameri- can Naval authorities in 1799 but received no encourage- ment from them. Thereupon he journeyed to France where three years were spent in trying to gain recognition. Finally, Napoleon Bonaparte gave him audience. Bona- parte became at once interested in the proposition and appointed a commission to investigate and report upon it. After due deliberation a favorable report was returned with the result that the sum of io,coo francs was appropriated 4 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT for the construction of a boat and the conducting of experi- ments. The Nautilus was finally built according to Fulton's plans and tried out on the Seine, but of course, like Bush- nell's Turtle, it was propelled by hand power and could only be operated at a very slow speed. This vessel was in- tended for offense against the English fleet and was to be capable of crossing the English Channel. Several attacks against the blockading English fleet were unsuccessful, however. The English by keeping themselves posted about what was going on simply kept out of range of Fulton's sorties. Bonaparte, therefore, in a fit of impet- uous rage and disgust, decided that the Nautilus was of no military value and dropped the entire matter, calling Fulton a hair-brained fool. Fulton next took his idea to England, where he was cordially received by William Pitt, who at once grasped the significance of the device and believed, with Fulton, that it would annihilate the naval supremacy of nations. The Admirality, however, refused to encourage the development of any device which they believed would, if broadly taken up, relieve England of her naval supremacy. They offered Fulton a sum of money to suppress the inven- tion and to prevent the enemy from using it. This offer Fulton refused, but finding that at this time he would be unable to accomplish anything further with his submarine, he returned to the United States and devoted all his energies to the development of the steamboat. The next sixty years saw nothing of any practical value in the development of the submarine, until during the period of the Civil War the Confederates built a number of small boats which they called "Davids." These vessels EARLY HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 6 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT were built of steel and were propelled by steam engines, the only radical departures from the earlier types. They carried torpedoes fixed to the ends of outriggers or spars and their mode of attack was to ram the vessel upon which the attack was to be made with these torpedoes, causing the latter to explode by the shock, and blow up the boat. I believe that none of these "Davids" succeeded in making an attack under water, but one of them did succeed in ramming with a spar torpedo the Federal gunboat Housa- tonic while she was at anchor, the ensuing explosion sink- ing the "David" as well as the gunboat. In 1863 the French again took up the problem of sub- marine boats and succeeded in turning out Le Plongeur, which was the first large submarine ever built, having a displacement of nearly 500 tons. It was in fact larger than anything that had been constructed up to very recent years. It was equipped with compressed air engines for motive power and carried a number of containers for hold- ing air under pressure for driving the engines. At this time however, compressed air engineering was still in an undeveloped state, and the vessel was able to remain under water but a very short time and could only make a speed of four or five knots. Le Plongcur was also found to be uncontrollable under water, having no stability. However, the French Government experimented with this boat until 1874 and then gave up the project of submarines once more as being impractical. Mr. John P. Holland in this country was the next of note to take up submarine development. His first boat, called the Foticui Raw, was built at New Haven, Conn., in the early eighties, for the Fenian Society of New Haven, the necessary funds having been raised by the Society EARLY HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT <^-i MENT OF ]'RESENT-DAY SUBMARINE ' 19 20 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT struction. This Navy has also one of the Italian Laurenti type boats which was built by the Cramp Ship Building Co. Both the Lake and the Laurenti boats are known as the G class and have practically the same distinguishing features. England, in 1903, purchased the right to build the Hol- land type of boat from the Electric Boat Co., and have con- tinued to use this type with various slight modifications from the original form and with a continual development in size. The superstructure has been increased in size as it has been in the United States Navy, and in some of the boats water ballast tanks have been added under the super- structure in order to obtain an increased reserve bouy- ancy. Great secrecy is maintained over the designs of the British, however, and really very little is known about them. It is claimed by some that the F class of boats laid down in 19 14 have a submerged displacement of 1200 tons with a speed of 18 knots on the surface and 12 knots under water. In France there seems to have been no strict adherence to any one type of boat, nor rational advancement and steady development in any one direction. Development over there indeed seems to have been of a very erratic nature. They have not seemed to have decided on any one type, building extensively both submarines proper and submersibles; one year tending to increase materially the displacement of these craft, and the next year dropping back to the building of smaller boats. In fact they seem to be wiUing to try anything once, and as a consequence, France has probably spent more money in submarine development than any other nation, but because of the lack of systematic progress in the DEVELOPMENT OF PRESEXT-DAY SUBMARIXE 21 22 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT field has secured less efficient results than any other nation. Germany did not take up the development of submarines until rather late, but characteristic of this nation, having once decided to go into the field, a sufficient sum of money was at once appropriated to meet the expenses and the Krupps were given the commission to undertake the prob- lem of development. The Germans have also tried out the d'Quevilley type, a French product, but with what success is not known ; however, as the French had experi- mented for some years with this type and had gained no apparent success it is doubtful that the Germans have done anything more. The essential feature of the d'Quevilley boat is the single unit power system, using the steam en- gine. The steam for submerged propulsion is generated by means of a soda boiler; the principle of the system being to utilize heat in the form of steam generated by a slaking process as is demonstrated in the slaking of lime. This principle is not new however, having been tried out in this country in 1885 by Prof. J. H. L. Tuck on his sub- marine boat Peacemaker. Going into the field comparatively late, as Germany did, she was enabled to profit to a considerable extent by the experiences of the other countries. The boats U-9 to [7-7(5, which have taken such a promi- nent part in the submarine activities off the English Coast, have an extreme length of 142 feet, a moulded breadth of 1 2 feet 4 inches and a mean draught in the surface condi- tion of 9 feet 8 inches. They have a submerged displace- ment of about 300 tons and a surface displacement of 235 tons. These vessels are all of the submersible double- hull type of construction with a cigar shaped inner hull DEVELOPMENT OF PRESENT-DAY SUBMARINE k \i 'x f ^ A\'^ iM 'M;.' \* tv VI 'i ^ u 24 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT capable of resisting hydrostatic pressure clue to a depth of 165 feet. The watertight hull is formed of nine circular welded sections, the amidship three of which are cylindrical and the others fore and aft are slightly conical. Each section is divided by bulkheads into a watertight compartment. The bow section contains two torpedo tubes and acces- sories and can carry altogether three torpedoes; the next section is occupied by the crew and storeroom for bat- teries, and contains also a galley and lavatory accommoda- tions. The amidship sections contain the inner ballast tanks and steering and all other navigating and operating gear. The engine room contains internal combustion engines of the Diesel type and electric motors, and the last watertight section is reserved for another battery of elec- tric accumulators. Between the deck platform and the inner hull all the kerosene fuel tanks are fitted. The propelling power for surface navigation is derived from two two-cycle heavy-oil engines aggregating 600 B .H.P. driving two reversible screws. Two electric motors developing 320 H.P. are used for propulsion when the boat is submerged. The engine room auxiliaries comprise two main and one auxiliary motor driven bilge pumps, two hand pumps, air compressors and other accessories. Par- ticular attention has been given to equipping with various means of salvage and safety appliances and air purifj'ing devices. The surface speed is 12 knots and the submerged speed is 8.6 knots. At an economic speed of 10 knots, the radius of action on the surface is 1200 miles and at 6 knots submerged the radius is claimed to be 60 miles. Looking back we can see that up to the time of Holland, what development there had been was of a very erratic DEVELOPMENT OF PRESENT-DAY SUBMARINE 25 nature and of no practical value. From this time on there was a period of a great deal of experimentation and prac- tical demonstration, until in 1900 the submarine was brought up to a point of being of some practical use for naval purposes, and since then under service conditions and requirements it has reached a stage of development where its military values have been amply demonstrated and assured in actual service of war. CHAPTER III CHARACTERISTICS AND REQUIREMENTS In a service submarine it is essential that it be capable of keeping to the sea and making headway in an}' kind of weather. This is at once evident for a submarine intended to go to sea. There is at the present time a tendency to divide submarines into two classes, namely, coast defense submarines and sea-going submarines. However, it is obvious that to be of any military value, even in the smaller craft intended for coast defense work, it is just as essential that it be able to venture outside the mouth of a protected harbor in stormy weather as it is for one of the larger sea-going boats, for it is at such a time that an in- vading fleet of the enemy is most likeh' to make an attack. In connection with sea-worthiness it is just as necessary that the submarine be absolutely controllable in an}- kind of weather, both when upon the surface and when running submerged, and it is obvious that stabilit}- is a necessarv factor in obtaining both of these characteristics, as it is also evident that safet}- is to a great extent dependent upon the presence of all these qualities. As the tactical \-alue of a submarine torpedo boat as an offensive instrument of naval warfare depends entirel\' upon its aliilit\" to go upon long and extended cruises far from an}- friendly base, and unattenrled, the sujuen-ie importance of these qualities is appareiit. In spite of much that lias been said to the contrar}-, controllability is a (|uality wofully lacking in service 2 b CIlAkACTia-tlS'riCS AM) kl':(KilKI';,Ml':N'l'S jy I'Virwanl iloik of Subniariiu- {',[. Diivini^ inlo a swi'll at full spc'l'll 28 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT boats, at the present time. Under water it has been effected to some extent by a general adaptation of fore and aft hydroplanes, which tend within certain Hmits to control the boat in a vertical plane on a nearly even keel. This method is however still accompanied by a very small margin of safety, and is objectionable on the score that it is sluggish in action. Reliability of engines and power plant is a very impor- tant and necessary adjunct to the sea- worthiness, for should the power plant of a vessel of this character fail while at sea, especially in heavy weather, it would un- doubtedly be attended with very disastrous results for but little provision can be made for the spreading of canvas to gain steerage way because of the lack of the neces- sary stabiHty in a submarine boat for this manner of pro- pulsion. The power plant should therefore be as simple as is possible in construction in order to enable temporary repairs to be made at sea, when any difficulty does arise, with the limited means which may be found on board. Spares for all the parts which would be difficult to repair must be carried in stowage. The installation of the plant must be made with these contingencies in view, and must be carried out in such a way as to leave the machinery accessible in every part so as to enable the making of these repairs in an expeditious manner. Speed is also a requisite of prime importance, for upon this characteristic depends the submarine's ability to make a successful attack as well as to get safely away again. Although the torpedo has been developed so that now it has an effective range of 10,000 yards at a speed of 27 knots and a maximum speed of 43 knots at a range of 1000 yards, the range from which a submarine attack can be CHARACTERISTICS AND REOUIRE^FENTS 29 30 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT made with any certainty of scoring a hit is well within 1 500 yards and probably not more than 800 yards. Many of the submarine experts take the stand that the submarine should be designed essentially as a surface boat, but one having the abiUty to navigate under water, and, therefore that the matter of submerged speed is of secondary impor- tance. This assumption is far from the truth and has been conclusively shown to be so by the results of the German submarine attacks in the present European conflict, for the only successful attacks have been those made upon ships of slow speed or when cruising at from seven to eight knots an hour. While a submarine will probably never be able to attain the speed of a destroyer, it should be able to protect itself from this craft, its arch enemy, by superior maneuvering ability and quickness of action when submerged. A required speed would therefore be, for submerged running, at least that of the normal cruising speed of the battleship, say sixteen knots an hour, and for surface work a probable speed of from eighteen to twenty knots an hour to allow it to travel with the fleet as an auxiliary and component part. To submerge quickly, by that I mean to change from the normal surface running condition to the totally sub- merged condition, is extremely important, not only to get out of sight before being seen by an approaching ship, for should an enemy's ship catch sight of a submarine it would immediately take warning and run away, but to afford protection to itself. It is quite probable that a destroyer cruising along at a normal speed and not smoking heavily will sight a submarine as soon if not before it is itself sighted, on account of the much more elevated station of the lookout and consequent increased range of vision. CHARACTERISTICS AND REQUIREMENTS 31 C-i Coming t;i the Surface after a Submerged Run idHNI U. S. S. T. B. C-i flaking a Dive 32 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT great speed the destroyer could cover the intervening distance in from six to eight minutes or at least could approach near enough to make an effective attack by gun- fire upon the submarine with disastrous results to it, unless it had first been able to effect cover under water. The complete change from light to submerged condition should therefore be effected in from two to three minutes. The effectiveness of a submarine attack depends for the most part upon its ability to load and fire several tor- pedoes in quick succession, for it takes considerable man- euvering greatly handicapped by lack of speed to get into position for firing. This is occasioned by the fixed posi- tion of the torpedo tubes as an integral part of the hull, and means that the axis of the submarine must be brought to train upon the target. Having once attained this posi- tion, a target and especially one of high speed will remain in the zone of fire for only a very short period of time. The submarine must therefore be equipped with armament efficiently designed and capable of quick operation in order to take the greatest possible advantage of these few seconds. The real necessity of this may be better understood by the uninitiated after taking into consideration the great disadvantages under which the submarine is working, and the really small chance that is afforded her of making a successful hit. The periscope, the eye of the submarine when under water, affords a very poor means of judging the distance or range of the object to be attacked, and although the eye-piece of the periscope is graduated with cross-hairs to better enable this calculation to be made, the base line for which, these graduations are provided must remain more or less indeterminate and consequently the CHARACTERISTICS AND REOUIREMEXTS By Courtesy Lake Torpedo Boat Co. Living quarters aboard Lake Submarine "Sig" and class built for Russia. These boats of only about 200 tons displacement aiford much better liv- ing accommodations than do anj' of our larger modern boats where e\'ery bit of weight and space available has been given up to increase speed and radius of action 34 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT resulting calculations not very accurate. Next, the speed of the target must be arrived at and the necessary observations and calculations made to determine this. With the limited means at hand for performing this feat, the correct solution resolves more upon the experience and good judgment of the observer than upon anything else. Having found the range and the speed of the vessel to be attacked, it is now necessary to direct the submarine along a course which will intersect that of the vessel at the exact point where she will be at the end of the interval of time it will take the torpedo to make the run from the position of the submarine to this point. A very slight miscalcula- tion in either, the distance, the speed, or the direction in which the ship is traveling will preclude all chances of making a hit unless the range is very short. Habitability in a submarine, while probably not of so great importance in a coast defense boat, is certainly of extreme importance in a cruiser type submarine. Upon it depends the ability of the submarine to keep to the sea for any protracted length of time. A submarine may be designed with sufficient space for fuel and stores to last for many days, but she can accommodate only a limited number of men, the physical endurance of whom is the true gauge for the radius of action of the vessel. It is true that in times of great nervous stress, such as in time of war, men seem to be able to undergo extreme hardships for almost unbeHevable lengths of time, but there is, under these conditions, the ever present danger of some weaker member of the crew breaking down and in a moment of abstraction doing something inadvertently to endanger the ship and all on board. This great nerve strain upon the men in time of war, when they are called upon to CHARACTERISTICS AND REQUIREMENTS 35 36 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT exert an incessant and exacting vigil, is intensely exhaust- ing, and unless they can be relieved for periods of relaxa- tion and sound rest, they must soon reach a state of collapse. An interesting article has been written and published by the Associated Press, from an interview obtained with Lieutenant Hersing who commanded the German U-^i during her long cruise from the North Sea to Constantino- ple, a voyage of about 2400 miles. This article accurately describes the effect of long cruises upon the personnel. Captain-Lieutenant Hansing in command of the U-16 has also described it as "fearfully trying on the nerves." He also says, "The atmosphere becomes fearful, an over- powering sleepiness often attacks new men, and one re- quires the utmost will power to remain awake. I have had men who did not eat for the first three days out, because they did not want to lose that time from sleep." Upon some vessels sleeping quarters have been provided for the crew in the superstructure. The use of this space for the purpose is however restricted to times of peace or when in port, for in war time at sea, with a possibility of having to submerge at any instant, it would hardly be practicable. The best that has been effected so far for ac- commodations is a number of thin mattresses thrown down on the tank tops in the battery and torpedo compartments upon which the men may snatch what rest they can. The contractors for submarines are required to furnish berths or folding cots for the officers and hammocks for the crew, but the limited amount of space on board makes it almost impossible for these to be used, especially when cruising in war trim, for then the forward torpedo compartment, which is usually used as the officers' quarters, must be kept CHARACTERISTICS AND REQUIREMENTS 37 clear of all unnecessary paraphernalia to allow unhampered and quick handhng and loading of the torpedoes. Nor is the dampness and wet caused by the sweating of the steel hull conducive to a great deal of comfort at the best. This feature has been overcome to some extent by sheath- ing the living quarters wherever possible with cork slabs, but is still one to cause extreme discomfort and even ill health if exposed to it for very protracted periods at a time. CHAPTER IV types of submarines Submarines and Submersibles The broad term submarine is used generally to desig- nate all vessels capable of navigating totally submerged. But strictly speaking these vessels are considered to be of two distinct types: submarines proper, and submersibles. The early Holland boats and many of the French boats were of the former type. They were distinctive in that they were designed with a spindle shaped hull, and when in the surface condition had a very small part of the hull emerging above the surface of the water with a conse- quently small percentage of reserve buoyanc)-, about six per cent in fact. The submersible was designed with a ship-shape form of hull, fundamentally to increase the amount of reserve bouyancy in the surface condition and to afford a greater free-board for the purpose of increasing the sea-worthiness of the boat. The Lake boat with its large watertight superstructure, and the Itahan Laurenti and the German Krupp types, both of the latter of double hull construction, are examples of the submersible type of boat and have a reserve buoyancy of from thirty to forty per cent of the total submerged displacement. These distinctions are not now so strongly drawn how- ever, as none of the modern boats are of the strictly sub- 38 TYPES OF SUBMARINES 39 40 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT marine type; both types in fact have been modified — the submarines by increasing the amount of reserve buoyancy and by enlarging the superstructures; and the submers- ibles by decreasing to some extent the size of the super- structures and the excessive amount of reserve buoyancy, so that now the best practice seems to be to provide a reserve buoyancy of from about twenty to thirty per cent for both types. A great deal of contention has been made by the adher- ents to one or the other 'of these forms as to the inherent advantages and disadvantages of each, so it might be well to discuss from an impersonal point of view the relative values of each. The question of stability seems to be the main point of contention between the two. Along this line it is quite evident that the ship form of hull of the submersible will have a greater longitudinal stability when on the surface due to its metacentric height, which in this case is similar to an ordinary ship, the center of gravity being above the center of buoyancy on account of the relatively high posi- tion of the centers of gravity of the hull and the machinery weights. The surface stability then, in this case depend- ing upon the inertia of the water plane areas and form, results in a short rolling period. In the single hull construction of circular cross section of the submarine proper, it will be immediately seen that the position of the center of gravity of the hull is well below the axis and the machinery weights can be kept lower. In this case the position of the metacenter coincides with that of the center of buoyancy, due to the circular form of cross section, and with the non-watertight superstructure this relation is always constant no matter what angle of TYPES OF SUBMARINES 41 Pltoto-Copyrif^hl, Inlernalioniil Film Scrvirr U.S. Submarine G-4, Laurenti Type, Note Large Deck Surface and Ship- Shape Form of Hull Construction 42 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT heel is taken. Then with G.M. less than in the ship form of hull type but with E.G. which in the circular hull corre- sponds to G.M. positive, the rolling period is lengthened and a peculiar steadiness takes place. This is evidenced when in a heavy sea by an almost entire lack of rolling and by a peculiar flanking motion which seems to shift the ship bodily to one side. It would seem then, that although the ship form of hull does have a greater metacentric height then upon the sur- face, as far as sea-worthiness is concerned it would be a matter of personal taste whether one preferred the heavy rolling of the one or the steadiness of the other accom- panied by the peculiar lateral shift. It might be of interest here to state that the G class of boats of our Navy, which are of the submersible type, have been known to roll as much as 76 degrees on each beam when in a heavy sea. Nothing like this has ever been experienced in a submarine proper of circular cross section. While the G-1-2, and-j, strictly speaking, have hulls of circular cross section, the extra large watertight super- structures with which these boats are fitted give them to a marked degree the same characteristics and cause them to behave practically in the same manner as the strictly ship-shaped hull type of boat. In all fairness to this class of boats, however, it must be stated that the particu- lar case cited above took place in a very heavy storm. The vessel while rolling heavily shipped water in her water- tight superstructure accidentally, which occasioned the extreme angle she took. The stability submerged is quite a different matter. In this condition the position of the center of buoyancy of the single hull construction is raised and the center of TYPES OF SUBMARINES 43 Plloio-Copyright, International Film Service British Submarine H-20 Built l5y the Fore River Ship Building Co., and similar to the U.S. Navy H class. Note circular hull 44 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT gravity lowered, one by the increase of displacement due to the emerged volume, and the other by the added weight of ballast taken into the tanks in the lower portion of the hull. Therefore, E.G. becomes greater and the stability is consequently increased. Now in the double hull ship form of construction, it is evident that in trimming, the position of the center of buoyancy must be raised and the center of gravity lowered, because the stability of the vessel under water cannot de- pend upon form or inertia, but must rather depend upon the principle analogous to that of the suspension of a weight from a supporting element, therefore C.G. must pass and take a position below C.B. The double hull or wide superstructure owing to its shape cannot be con- structed suf&ciently strong to withstand much pressure, so must be filled with water when submerged as is the open superstructure of the submarine. This fact brings the C.B. of the submersible back to practically the same position of C.B. in the single hull type, but the position of C.G. is much higher in the double hull boat owing to the relatively high position of the center of gravity of its hull weights due to the large superstructure. G.B. then, and consequently the stability, is less in this type when sub- merged than in the single hull or submarine t}'pe of construction. To illustrate the foregoing a set of stability curves has been prepared. Figure i, for both types of boats, each reduced to the same total displacement submerged for fair comparison. In summing up it may be well to point out here the rela- tive tactical values effected by these rival types. The ship form boat is evidently better suited to high Plate I. Chart showing stability curves for Surface and Submerged conditions To face page 44 TYPES OF SUBMARINES 45 W 46 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT surface speeds on account of the high free-board, but owing to its much greater wetted surface in comparison with the single hull boat when submerged,, it cannot make as great speed under water with the same outlay of power as this other type because of the greatly increased skin friction. With the single hull boat a very high surface speed will probably be unattainable because of the relatively greater ratio of displacement on the surface to the available power as compared with the double hull construction, and be- cause of the lack of longitudinal stability of this condition. The choice of selection then, would resolve itself not so much upon a question as to whether one type is of greater inherent stability than the other, but upon the decision as to whether the surface or the submerged speed is to be considered as of greater tactical value from a military standpoint. The Diving Boat versus the Submerging Boat A further distinction of types which is perhaps more real than in the previous classification is signified by what is known as the diving type and the submerging t}'pe. These types are interrelated to submarines and submers- ibles and are the crucial distinctive features of perform- ance between the two. The diving boats were controlled by horizontal rudders at the stern and got under water by incUning the a.xis of the boat and diving. The submerging boats, often called the "even keel" boats, are forced under water bodily by means of hydro- planes situated equally distant fore and aft of the center of buoyancy of the boat. By inchning these planes the TYPES OF SUBMARINES 47 c ^^ m. 48 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT thrust of the water exerts an upward or downward pull upon them, according to the direction of the inclination and tends to move the boat bodily up or down with the axis of the vessel remaining practically horizontal, or in other words, to cause a vertical movement. The "even keel" boat is also fitted with the usual diving rudders aft, but here they are used not for the purpose of diving but to counteract any tendency of the planes to throw the vessel from an even keel condition. For this reason they are called trimming rudders by the advocates of this system. However, with the development of dimensions it was found to be impractical to submerge the vessels of the div- ing type by means of the stern rudders alone, and these boats were also fitted with forward diving rudders. The distinction as a real difference of operation then no longer exists to any marked degree between the two. I say real difference of operation when to be more cor- rect I should say difference of performance, as I mean be- havior of the vessel itself while submerging rather than mechanical operation. The actual operation is performed on the one hand by setting the forward diving rudders to a certain inclination and by constant operation of the stern diving rudders, while on the other hand the "even keel" boats are managed by constant operation of the hydro- planes in addition to the stern diving rudders. The contention between the advocates of the two types seems to have been upon the subject of which method of submerging was the most compatible with safety. The handhng of the early boats of the diving type seems to have been attended with some fair degree of safety, but this was because those boats were small, relatively quick TYPES OF SUBMARINES 49 M O 5o THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT of action, and possessed but very slow speeds. In the longer boats intended for the diving type it was found that to get these boats under water with even a small per- centage of reserve buoyancy, it necessitated so great a turning moment by means of the stern diving rudders, that when once the boat was gotten under way it was very apt to lose control of her and end in disaster. The for- ward diving rudders were then put into use to meet this contingency and to neutralize the effects of the plunging. The still greater amount of reserve buoyancy which is carried under by the "even keel" boat, it is easily demon- strable, demands the hydroplane method of submergence. These broad planes, together with the effect of the trim- ming rudders aft to aid in preserving a horizontal equiHb- rium, tend to give in some degree a greater safety in performing the operation of submerging, theoretically at least. In the diving type then the method of submergence has finally resolved into an inclined movement part way be- tween a dive and a vertically oblique movement, and in the "even keel" boat the submergence may be said to be in an entirely oblique direction. It is quite evident there- fore, that to obtain this latter motion it must be at the expense of a great amount of power and in a necessarily sluggish manner, for the vessel is being forced in a direction that projects its greatest area to the contrary thrust of the water, which must of necessity detract from the sub- merged speed. To overcome this in the slightest degree means that the vessel must be inclined by the head one or two degrees, and thereby presenting the broad expanse of the superstructure deck to aid in acting as a submerging plane. The increased safety factor of this type over the TYPES OF SUBMARINES 51 diving type is therefore more apparent than real, for it is highly probable that with this broad plane presented to the thrust of the water to aid in overcoming the upward moment of the reserve buoyancy, and, with the smaller stability lever arm inherent in the submersible, the hazard of loss of control is almost as great as it is in the diving Figure 2. Diving Boat boat, unless the submergence of the "even keel" boat be kept within certain small limits of inclination and speed. Neither of these types however, will ever lend themselves to a greatly increased speed under water over that now attained, without the possibility of utter loss of control, attended with more or less dire results. The opposing factors and forces and the attending re- sults may be more clearly understood by referring to the diagrams in Figures 2 and 3. In Figure 2 is shown diagrammatically the hull of a div- ing boat in a position to change trim and with the angle of inclination of six degrees by the head. The forces present and at work are: the reserve buoyancy B, acting upwards; the vertical moment W, of the weight of the vessel acting 52 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT about the center of buoyancy, tending to right the boat and acting downwards ; the force T, of the water impinging against the inclined rudders to overbalance the righting moment W and the upward pull of the reserve buoyancy; the downward pull of the bow induced by the thrust of the water against the top of the hull forward of a swinging line drawn through the center of buoyancy, tending to upset the boat; and similar forces acting upon the hull aft of the swinging line tending to keep the boat in equilib- rium by balancing the forces upon the hull forward of the swinging line — the remaining force is the propelling force of the vessel acting in the direction of the axis of the ship but unable to effect that direction. From the relation existing between the contending forces, it is seen that by vigilance and careful balancing of the opposing forces, the moment T can be made to govern the trim of the vessel within certain limits, and the result- ant thrust of the forces acting upon the hull brought to balance the upward pull of the reserve buoyancy, the vessel pursuing a course determined by the resultant of all the forces. By observation of the diagram it will be seen that the swinging line cuts the line of the hull at a point progres- sively aft of the center of buoyancy as the angle of inclina- tion increases, thereby projecting a greater area forward and a lesser area aft to the thrust of the water, with a constantly increasing overbalancing moment. It will also be seen that unless kept within very small limits of inclination this moment will overcome any possible right- ing moment of the rudders, with a consequent loss of control and subsequent disaster. It is because of this fact that it is found impossible to TYPES OF SUBMARINES S3 submerge larger vessels of this type without the use of forward diving rudders ; the increased value of the upward moment of the reserve buoyancy to be overcome necessi- tated a greater angle of inclination accompanied by greater speed, and the larger surface of the hulls when presented Figure 3. "Even Keel" Boat at this angle and speed brought about such materially increased downward thrusts that, when once started on her plunge, there was small chance of being able to catch the vessel again by the diving rudders aft. With increased speeds the thrusts would be still greater and the angle of inclination must be made proportionately less, therefore affecting the tactical value of the boat. In the "even keel" boat the forces at work are practi- cally the same as shown by Figure 3. The better control in this type is brought about by being able to submerge by adjusting the hydroplanes. Theoretically, as the planes are of the same area and symmetrically disposed around the center of buoyancy, the moments of the planes being therefore equal, the "even keel" boat should be able to submerge with the axis of the boat parallel with the 54 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT surface of the water. Practically, however, that portion of the vessel above the center of buoyancy offers a consid- erably greater projected area to the thrust of the water than that portion of the huU below, and results in an un- balanced moment which must be overcome by the trim- ming rudders aft, and the boat must be trimmed to a slight inclination by the head. This type then, because of the broader and better resisting form of plane afforded by the big flat superstructure deck, unless proper vigilance is exercised, is very httle removed as far as the factor of safety is concerned from the so-called diving type. The effects of this broad flat superstructure are even more accentuated by an increase of speed. To overcome these inherent tendencies to lose control at a critical speed, a method was devised and tried out on a small submarine on the Pacific Coast a few years ago. This method is illustrated by Figure 4. The system of control was essentially that of a diving boat, but involves a radical departure from the present practice in that it placed the propellers at or near the bow of the. boat, and the diving rudders at or near the stern, both being equally distant from the center of buoyancy. The claim for this system was that the boat is positively controlled at all times, either when on the surface or when running submerged, and in both a horizontal and a vertical plane. When in motion the action of the vessel is inde- pendent of the metacentric height, and is submerged by inclining the diving rudders and plunging. The vessel may be plunged with a large percentage of reverse buoyancy which in this type tends to add to the controllability and not to detract from it as in the others. It was believed that the concurrent celerity of action with absolute free- TYPES OF SUBMARINES 55 S6 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT dom from danger by "rooting" and the consequent loss of control would be found to be of great military advantage. The theory of contending forces was reasoned as follows: The forward position of the propellers being the center of the applied force causes the direction of the force or the movement of the vessel to be always along the line of its Figure 4. Forward Propulsion axis, and is the common pivotal point about which the moments for all the forces are at work. The long lever arm between this position of the propellers and the posi- tion of the rudders affords the maximum turning moment which can be obtained and insures positive control at all times. This is evidenced by the fact that the thrust of the water upon the upper portion of the hull, no matter at what angle of inclination, always acts when diving to depress the stern, in opposition to the upward thrust of the rudders, and is never threatening to upset the whole balance, but on the contrary it tends to right the boat and therefore make for increased controllability. By referring to Figure 4 it will be seen that the upward force of the reserve buoyancy B is in this case a moment upward about P; the thrust 5 is a moment downward TYPES OF SUBMARINES 57 about P; and the thrust T of the impinging water against the rudders is a controllable upward force balancing the moment of the thrust of the water against the top of the hull. The force P tends to pull the vessel always along the line of its axis, and the righting moment W becomes in this case an important safety factor because it acts as do all the forces about the point P. Higher speeds were believed to be possible in all condi- tions because there could be no loss of control due to in- creased speed, wave formation, or any tendency of the water to pile up on the bow, for any increased resistance due to greater speed must always tend to straighten the vessel out on her course instead of causing her to "root." This is because the thrusts acting in opposite direction to the propelling force, act always behind and away from the point at which the force producing motion is applied. There is a question what material effect this position of the propellers might have upon their efficiency. Placed in this position the wheels would be working upon a solid column of water undisturbed by the passage of the vessel, and must therefore unquestionably exert a stronger pull or propulsive force. However, the efficiency gained in this manner is over- come to a greater or lesser degree by the force of the column of water leaving the wheels and impinging against the hull. This result it is thought would not be as detrimental as would at first appear, however, on account of the manner in which the propellers are placed — ^wide apart and tending to deliver the greater part of these water columns away from the hull. In any event whatever loss in efficiency which might occur should be more than compensated for by the gain in safety and tactical value. CHAPTER V design of the submarine torpedo boat General Factors In laying down the design for a new submarine boat, considering the term in its broadest aspect as covering all vessels capable of navigation when completely sub- merged, the constructor must consider the problem as a vessel of a certain displacement, and impose upon himself certain arbitrary conditions to be met which may be more or less conflicting in character, in which case a solution must be reached by compromise, keeping in mind certain relative values in order to attain an all around tactically, efficient craft as compared to some recognized standard of ideals. The selection of type then, should be governed by a careful weighing of its inherent characteristics as effecting the main objective of the desired results to be attained. The submersible lends itself essentially to a relatively great surface stability, high surface speeds, and possibly to an extended cruising radius and comfort of the crew while at sea; while on the other hand it has less stability when submerged and offers greater resistance in this condi- tion due to its increased wetted surface and form of super- structure than does the submarine proper. The submarine proper by reason of its form cannot adapt itself to high surface speeds on account of the danger of "rooting" but S8 DESIGN OF THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT 59 Photo-Copyriihl : lutcntatioiHjl Film Service Submarines K-S and K-6 Trimmed Light and Showing Clearly the Lines of the Hull. Forward Di\-ing Rudders Shown Folded Back Against the Superstructure 6o THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT is essentially the form for under-water navigation, having greater stability in that condition and offering less resist- ance to propulsion than the submersible. Summing up, the question of type then resolves itself into the question of whether a maximum surface or sub- merged speed is sought. At present it has become the tendency to adopt the lines of the torpedo boat to make for less surface resistance and increased speed. This has necessitated a double hull construction, the outer hull having the torpedo boat lines and the inner hull being of circular cross section to resist the pressure of submersion. The speed gained in this con- struction has however been shown in practice to be very inconsiderable and it is questionable whether it justifies the necessary extra expense of construction. As subma- rines can never attain the speed of which a torpedo boat is capable is it probable that better results may be gained by a compromise of the single hull form by effecting a de- sign having a full entrance and a long fine run. This would afford the least possible resistance and retain at the same time all the advantages of the single hull con- struction. As the displacement calculations are similar to those of ordinary ships and are familiar to all engaged in the prac- tice of naval architecture or marine engineering they will not be gone into here. Stability It is important with respect to the stabihty of the vessel that the center of gravity of the hull weights be kept as low as possible. The significance of this may be seen when it is considered that this factor is about thirty-five per cent DESIGN OF THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT 6i of the total weight of the ship. To attain this object the superstructure must be as hght as good practice will permit and all weights above deck must be kept as small as pos- sible. The shell plating should be made heavier at the keel to give stiffness against "hogging" and be tapered down to the required thickness at the top of the hull for resistance against the pressure of submersion. Great care should be exercised in the distribution of weights, for, unlike a surface vessel, with a comparatively small reserve buoyancy present and especially in a sub- merged condition when the buoyancy is practically des- troyed, the submarine is suspended like a balance scale and must be in equilibrium in a horizontal position. The balancing moments about this point must be gained as far as possible by the distribution of all machinery, equipment and fixed articles, because the displacement hmitations allow only a relatively small amount in weight of perma- nent ballast to be utilized, which can be of but little assistance in effecting the trim. All machinery and battery weights must be kept as low as possible and as is consistent with good practice and accessibility, for the center of gravity of the completed ship can be much affected by their positions, and the laws of submarine navigation demand that the center of gravity and the center of buoyancy be kept as far apart as possible. Ballast System A general principle applicable to all submarines is the destruction of reserve buoyancy to submerge, by taking on additional weight in the form of water ballast. The main ballast system, whether in one tank centrally located or comprised of fore and aft tanks, is designed to nearly 62 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT neutralize the effect of the reserve buoyancy, usually about from twenty to thirty per cent of the total displace- ment. This main ballast system is designed to be kept completely filled when submerged in order that the con- tained large bodies of water may not surge forward and aft and so destroy the trim of the vessel. The main ballast tank is supplemented by fore and aft trim tanks and an auxiliary adjusting and compensating tank. The for- ward and aft trim tanks must have sufficient capacity to overcome any change in moments due to a disarrangement or movement of the weights on board, and to bring the vessel back to an even keel by the transfer of water from one tank to the other. The auxiliary ballast tank must be large enough to completely overcome the reserve buoyancy and to compensate for the variations of con- sumable stores and weights on board, and in addition to compensate for the difference in density of the water of flotation. A small adjusting tank is sometimes provided for the purpose of delicately adjusting the bouyancy of the vessel by taking in or blowing out a few pounds of water. To maintain trim when submerged it is essential that the center of gravity of the auxiliary ballast tanks should coincide longitudinally with the center of gravity of the emerged volume of the vessel and this coincidence must remain throughout the process of submergence. Other- wise serious alterations of trim in a fore and aft direction will take place with probably disastrous results. Apportionment or Weights No hard and fast rule can be laid down for guidance in the matter of apportionment of weights. This of course depends, in the first place, upon what particular tactical DESIGN OF THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT 63 e X: 64 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT feature is most sought, and is a matter of judgment and experience of the constructor. If a high surface speed is sought this may be gained at a sacrifice of submerged speed or reserve buoyancy, or perhaps by a reduction in weight of fuel storage and consequent reduction in radius of action. The weight of the hull is practically constant with the displacement, and the apportionment of the other weights may be varied to meet the ends and fancies of the constructor. However, a correct balance of surface to submerged speed and attendant radii of action, and at the same time have either efhcient, can only be attained by doing away with the dual power system. This may be more strongly pointed out by considering for the moment the present tendency to materially in- crease the size of submarines, having in view the desire to increase the speed and the radius of action for surface work. The increase in displacement of course at once demands proportionately increased engine power. The power necessary to gain a comparative speed may be ar- rived at by using Froude's law of comparison; for instance, taking a vessel of a displacement of 400 tons and engine power of 600 B.H.P. which drives her at a 14 knot speed at full power. To find the power necessary to drive a ship of 800 tons having otherwise the same characteristics of contour, appendages, et cetera, the ratio of power would be, P= ' ^= 1340 This does not mean that the two ships would have the same speed, but that their speeds would be corresponding DESIGN OF THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT 65 speeds. The corresponding speed of the new ship would be in the ratio, F= ^\ 1 = iS-7 knots /4ooy VSoo/ The percentage of the total weight of the submarine which may be allotted to the power plant is constant with the displacement and is usually about 33 per cent. Now it may be seen that to gain this greater speed we have doubled the displacement and consequently the weight available for the power plant, but the horse power is more than doubled, therefore requiring a greater proportion of this available weight for oil engines than is given in the smaller boat. This of course leaves a correspondingly less proportion of the total available weight for electrical equip- ment, and consequently a reduction of speed and cruising radius when in a submerged condition. Effect of Form upon Resistance The resistance of the ship is greatly affected both by the form of hull and by the ratio of length to the diameter. In 1906 Mr. Mason S. Chace conducted a series of experi- ments in the model basin at Washington, D. C, with a number of models built on a scale of i inch to i foot, some of them 12 feet long. The result of these experiments y showed that for the speed length ratio of —1^ = .8 the re- V sistance curves are fair, but at a speed of -j= = i . the curve shows a marked hump followed by a hollow, and at a speed 66 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT V of ~/= = 1-25 the resistance runs up so rapidly as to put such speeds out of the question. Submerged, the resistance curves are free of humps, but are much higher than those for the floating condition all the way up to a speed of V ... —7= = 1.3 when they are nearly coincident. The resistance V submerged for a speed length ratio of —yj = i. is approxi- mately 1. 1 5 times the resistance of the surface condition. In the past it has been common practice to limit the beam length ratio to about one to ten, but the results of these experiments show conclusively that to attain the higher speeds for which we are at present striving, with an eco- nomical outlay of power, it will be necessary to increase this ratio to one to twelve, or even greater. This depar- ture would also tend to give greater steadiness in a sea way. Constructively this greater beam length ratio need not cause any worriment. It will be found a very simple matter to add the necessary longitudinal stiffness by strengthening the keel and longitudinals, and it is probable that quite a saving in the hull weights may be made, due to the decrease in diameter. The metracentric height and stabihty could also be increased by a better distribution of weights. A still further increase in stability and some decrease in resistance can be effected by carrying the fullest part of the ship well forward of the midship section, that is, in other words, giving it a heavy fore-body with a full en- trance and a long fine run. This design would of course carry forward the center of buoyancy. The advantage of this upon the controllability when submerged and under DESIGN OF THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT 67 way may be realized by considering the greater rudder moment gained and a correspondingly less upsetting mo- ment caused by the force of the water impinging against the top of the hull forward. It will obviously then help to overcome the inherent tendency of the boat to dive at its critical speed. The flow of water to the propellers would also be much more free and the influence of the wake be sensibly decreased. Speed and Power Estimation In estimating the speed and power required for the pro- pulsion of a proposed design the three factors entering into the propulsive efiEiciency are: the engine efficiency, the propeller efficiency, and the hull efficiency. The propul- sive efficiency is the ratio between the E.H.P. or tow rope horse power, including the resistance due to all appen- dages, and the I.H.P. taken at the cylinders of the engine, and generally averages about 50 per cent of the I.H.P. In actual practice however this value ranges from 42 per cent to 62 per cent, and it becomes necessary to fix this coefficient with some degree of precision in order to obtain any very accurate results. This may be done by assigning to each factor which enters into the composition of the propulsive efficiency a value which experience or experi- ment has shown to be what might be expected in a new problem. The engine efficiency may vary from 75 to 90 per cent according to the type and characteristics of the engine selected and the efficiency may be assumed for the calculations according to past experience with a similar type of engine, or the guaranteed efficiency of the engine builders may be taken. The E.H.P. necessary to drive the bare hull through 68 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT the water at a certain speed is best obtained by the aid of an experimental model in a towing basin. The method of reasoning and the determination of resistances by this means is carried out in the following manner. Suppose we have a paraffin model 12 feet long constructed on a scale of I inch to i foot and it is desired to find the E.H.P. for the full sized vessel at a speed of 16 knots. We must first find the corresponding speed at which the model must be pulled to give the corresponding tow rope resistance. The corresponding speed of the model is found by the ratio, Vm= =1-333 knots. 144 When towed at this speed the resistance is measured and found to be 4.9435 pounds. The wetted surface of the vessel is 3700 square feet, therefore the wetted surface of the model is Sm 3700 X 12^ J. ^ = — =25.7 square leet. 144' The friction factor and the exponent given in Froude's Tables (see Table i) are /=. 00908 and n = 1.94 Therefore the frictional resistance is .00908 X 25.7 X 1 .333^-^-^ = .4075 lbs. The friction factor and exponent for the full sized vessel taken from Table 2 is /=.oc9io and 11 = 1.825 DESIGN OF THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT 69 Therefore the total frictional resistance equals .0091X3700X16^-^^^ = 82960 lbs. and the frictional E.H.P. equals .00307X82960 = 255 E.H.P./ By subtracting the frictional resistance of the model from the tow rope resistance, we have the residual resist- ance equal 4.9435 -.4075 =4.536 lbs. The corresponding residual resistance of the ship equals i2^= ±536X244! ^^838 lbs. and at 16 knots the E.H.P. required to overcome the residual resistance equals .00307X16X7838 = 385 E.H.P.„ The total E.H.P. will then be 255+385=640 for the bare hull alone. The resistance due to the appen- dages must be added to this to make up the total E.H.P. The hull appendage resistance may be roughly taken to be about 10 per cent of the hull resistance and may be B assumed to vary directly as the ratio ttttj and while this is probably not strictly correct any error which might occur will be on the right side and will result in a slightly higher estimation of the resistance than actually exists. The range of this value as determined by numerous experiments is found to be from 5 to 20 per cent. Should the model be towed with any of the appendages the per- centage resistance due to these appendages should be subtracted from the total appendage resistance and the 70 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT remainder added to the E.H.P. given by the model test. Assuming for the proposed design a beam-length ratio of .84, take 8.5 per cent as the appendage resistance and the total E.H.P. becomes 640 X. 085 +640 = 695 E.H.P. The hull efiSciency or the thrust deduction factor as it is called, is the next factor to be considered in computing the propulsive efficiency. This factor is evidenced by the difference in resistance shown when towing a model with no propellors behind and when towing the same model at the same speed with propellors of the same proportion to the ship's screw as the model is to the ship working behind at a rotary speed such as to give a thrust equal to the resistance of the model. With the propellers working behind the resistance is found to be increased a definite amount, termed thrust deducton, and is caused by the suction influence of the propellers upon the after part of the ship. This suction influence extends far enough forward of the screws to cause a marked diminution of the pressure against the after part of the ship thereby causing a virtual increase in resistance. The propellers must therefore exert a thrust equal to this resistance. *This thrust deduction factor has been determined by numerous experiments and is found to vary directly with the value of the block coefficient of a model having a stand- ard set of lines, and varies from i with a block coefficient of .5, to 1.6 with B.C. = .9. The curve from 1 . 1 7 the value of the thrust deduction factor corresponding to a block coefficient of .69, is found to be flat all the way up to 1.6 * The Dyson Method. See "Design of Screw Propellers" by Capt. C. W. Dyson, U. S. N. DESIGN OF THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT 71 the thrust deduction factor corresponding to a block coefficient of .9. To find the thrust deduction for a pro- posed design which departs in form from the standard set of Hnes it is necessary to find the slip block coefficient corresponding to the block coefficient of the standard form. The slip block coefficient of the new design may be assumed to equal the standard block coefficient times the standard midship section coefficient divided by the actual M.S. coefficient and is the B.C. to be used in determining the thrust deduction and the propeller calculations. The total E.H.P. then becomes E.H.P.XC, and the E.H.P. X C. I.H.P. P.C. P.C., the propulsive coefficient, is determined by the propeller computation. To make the propeller computa- tions it is necessary to know the allowable tip speed and this is calculated by the formula, T.S. = TrD.R. the number of revolutions per minute and the diameter having first been selected and being within the proper limi- tations for the proposed design. It has been found by ex- periment upon various model screws that the P.A. -hD.A. ratio, to obtain the best performance, varies accordingly with the T.S., and the P.C. is also found to be dependent to a great extent upon this ratio. In making the selection of the propellers we are con- fronted with a problem of which there is no exact solution. It must be borne in mind that we have two distinct condi- tions under which to operate, namely, when on the surface and when submerged. The resistance submerged is greatly increased over that for the surface condition because of 72 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT the increased volume of displacement and wetted surface. This means that the indicated thrust per square inch of disc area is increased and consequently the slip is made much greater. To overcome this it would be necessary to increase the area of the blade in order to obtain a greater projected area otherwise a greater projected area must be obtained by altering the pitch and turning the screw up to a greater number of revolutions to get the speed. Changeable pitch propellers of the size used on sub- marines have never been found to give satisfaction and in fact are usually less efficient in both conditions than a single fixed propeller would be. We are forced then to decide which condition, whether the surface or submerged, we wish to favor. The best method is to select a com- promise propeller to fit as nearly as possible the two conditions. This may be done by designing separately a propeller to meet each condition and then effecting a compromise between them by taking an intermediate pitch for the final propeller. It will always be found to be good policy to allow an excess of area to favor the deficient side. The final adjustment of the blades should not be made until after a number of trials. A further consideration to be taken in designing the pro- pellers, is the wide difference in the speed-power curves of the internal combustion engines, the motors and the char- acteristic E.H.P. curve for various speeds. The R.P.M. power curve of the reciprocating engine is high in point of power at low speeds and is very nearly a straight line, while the E.H.P. curve is low in point of power at low speeds and comparatively higher at high speeds than the engine. The corresponding speed-load curve of the motors must DESIGN OF THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT 73 be nigher in point of revolutions than the engines in order to n\ake up for the loss of the increased slip submerged. The reciprocating engine is generating more power at low speeds than is absorbed by the propellers; this is due to the translation of straight line motion into rotary motion. Therefore it would seem that the best practice would be to design the motor with correspondingly lower speeds for equal power than the engine in the range below half load and with higher speeds than the engine in the range above half load. On Chart II are shown typical speed-power curves for internal combustion engines, motors and E.H.P. The existing relations are tlearly defined. The formulae to be used in the computations are : Speed in feet per min. = SX 101.33 5 X 101.3^ Pitch X revolutions = PX R = — 1 — s S = Speed in knots per hour. C= thrust deduction factor for standard B.C. cor- responding to design. P.C.i= propulsive coefficient standard corresponding to P.A.-^ D.A. E.H.P. Estimated I.E. P. for speed 5 = I.E. P. = C -^-p^ — Diameter of propeller = \/ -^— ^ '- — '■ — '- ^ ^ ^ V P.XR.X I.T.i P-C.i P.C. = actual propulsive coefficient = ^ P. X T.S. XD.X I.T.i ^■^■^- 916.7x0 I.T.i= indicated thrust per square inch of disc area. 74 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT TYPIC/IL SPEED /l/iD POWER CU/?V£5 FOK ■SUBM^K/flE Of 3^0T0NS. SCALE Of' Sf>EEDS /M KNOTS Plate II. Speed and Power Curves DESIGN OF THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT 75 SMceT*z / / ' cunves BOTH SUKrACE AND SUBMeKGED FOK SUBMARINE OF 340 TONS O. / / / / / / / / 3 / / / / / .{) f / /• // / / > (^ / y ;/ 30<} ( L.I A 1 / ^ H'jf y / 1 (^ / «?/ / J-'^ 1 / / 1:200 f u / / f / 9) / / / f f 8 / / f V Y / 5 / / / / / y /QO 7 / / y / / / ^ / / . / -f "/ T ZOO JOO SC/ILE OF R.f.M Plate II. Speed and Power Curves 76 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT T.S. R. = revolutions = — f; ^ P.XR.XTD. . , ^ r . = TjT-^ = pitch of propellers P.T.p = propulsive thrust per square inch of projected area corresponding to P.A.^ D.A. E.T.p= effective thrust for standard B.C. for P. A. D.A. P.T.p p 101.335. XE.T.p XttD. Apparent slip = / — s. = "fr^ Pitch P y^ ^ pj,^ I.T.i = indicated thrust per square inch of disc area = /.r. - X Z>.2 X 144 4 I.T.p = indicated thrust per square inch of projected area _ LI\ ~ P.A. ^ xZ).2 P.T.p= I.T.pX P.C.i I.T.= total indicated thrust on one screw equals I. H. P.- (Est) X 33000 ^ P-XR. P.T.= propulsive thrust = I.T.X P.C.i , , I.H.P. X 33000 S.T. — speed thrust = — ^rx: ^ S.X 101.33 E.T.= effective thrust = S.T.X P.C.i LJ\ ^ S. X 101.33 ^ PJ^ ^ IT. X P.C, S.T. P. X R. E.T. S.T. X P.d = /. - J. DESIGN OF THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT 77 r rr • UA- - I-H-P- X 132000 i.i .^ per square inch disc area — „ „ — — — j^ E.T.p effective thrust in pounds per square inch on pro- E.H.P. X 33000 jected area = e ^y ^y r> a — ■ — ^^ — ■' 0. X 101.33 X F.A. m in. The reader is here referred to the work of Captain C. W. Dyson, U.S.N, entitled, Screw Propellers and Estimation of Power for Propulsion of Ships, which is a complete and comprehensive treatise upon the estimation of power and the design of screw propellors. Another method of computing the power for propulsion is by Froude's Laws of Comparison. This method offers a very simple and expedient way of solving the probleni when the actual performances of a geometrically similar vessel are known. The rules governing this method of computation are: I. Corresponding Speeds 5 : 5i= VI : VZ^= S= Si\ — Displacements D:Di = L'- ^U = D = Corresponding Speed .s Va= ■■ S = ^■^1 Horsepowers P:Pi = eed nor light weight to enter into its characteristics, unless its ex- tremely high pressures and temiXM-atures are first con- siderably lowered. It is quite possible that this might be elTected to some extent, but there seems to be no con- certed effort in this direction. Simplicity however, is a quality which is highly improbable will ever be reached in this tyjie of engine on account of its numerous trouble- some auxiliaries. In the E and the F class boats light four stroke cycle Diesel engines were installed, but Iku'c never given sat- isfaction. Primarily the cause of the trouble with the engines of the E boats is the inadequacy of their construc- tion. Attempting to keep the weight of these engines down to within certain limitations, the)' were constructed of built-up sections of plates and angles riveted together. The result of this manner of construction might well have I20 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT been foreseen; they have simply shaken to /pieces and set up new difficulties which serve to accentuate the in- herent troubles of the Diesel principle. All the later boats were fitted with medium weight two stroke cycle en- gines. Both the H and K boats, however, have had their share of engine trouble as well. The main difficulties with these engines seem to be in properly lubricating and cool- ing the pistons, and considerable trouble has occurred in the way of seized pistons and cracked cylinders. It is hoped that in the newer boats many of these difficulties will be overcome. In view of all this then, is not the present reliability of the gasoline engine to be greatly preferred to the economy of the Diesel engine? In time of war, the purpose for which these boats are constructed, it seems to me that efficiency is the required object to be attained no matter what the cost. If the gasoline engine be attended with other risks, are the dire possibilities of these risks any greater than the unreliability of the Diesel engine? A fair comparison of the two types of engines may be had by considering for the moment the D class of boats, some of the last to be fitted with the gas engine, and the per- formance of any of the later boats. The ever readiness and general efficiency of the D boats is to be favorably compared with any of the larger and newer boats in our own or any foreign navy. Much comment has been made of late upon the gen- erally considered remarkable performance of the German submarines in the present war, and of the apparently successful results shown by the Krupp and the German M.A.N. Diesel engines with which many of these boats are equipped. As a matter of fact these engines cannot be THE rOWER m.ANT 121 122 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT considered to be in any way superior or more reliable than the M.A.N. Diesel built by the New London Ship and Engine Building Co., and the Sulzer Diesel engine built by the Busch Bros. Co., and in use on our own boats. Previous to the outbreak of war all of these boats were, as a matter of course, thoroughly overhauled and put in first class condition and maintained ready for in- stant use. This fact alone accounts for their early suc- cesses. It has been reported on good authority that the continued activity of the German submarines is accom- plished by working them in relays, a certain number doing duty while the others are being overhauled at their bases. In this way, after each cruise, which is said to last from ten days to a fortnight, a boat is given a thorough overhauling and is therefore ready for work when her turn comes to put to sea again. It must also be noted that those submarines which were heard from most frequently in the early part of the campaign were the older and smaller type of boats and equipped with gasoline engines. Motors and Storage Batteries At the present time all submarines are propelled under water by electric induction motors, the electrical energy being supplied from accumulator cells. Big advancement has been made in the design of electrical equipment for submarine installation, especially in the methods of controls. The present motors are ruggedly built, have their armatures mounted upon the main shafting of the en- gines, and are well insulated. They are of the interpolar, direct current, ventilated type, capable of running in TllK I'OWKR in.ANT 123 cilluT ilirccliiiii and under \arial)lc Kiad without adjust- ment of tlu' bruslu'S. A potential difference of about 70 \'olts is allowed at the lieUl terminals to pro\'ide for speed re_!;uhitioii when runnini; as a nu)tor antl for adjustment Main Motors, Subiuariiu' (\ 1. Main engines in hacl^l;^■oun^l, forward of motors of \ollagi's \\ hen rimning as a geiu'rator. They are often run al an oxerload of as nuich as ninet_\- per cent without injurious heating. The first controls to be used were jihiin knife switches. 'I'liese are now all enclosed to eliminate the danger of sparking, and in some cases oil baths are pro\'ided. The starters for the main motors are of the contactor type master drum control with interlocking features. This 124 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT type is advantageous in that it permits the location of the control to be had in the most convenient place. Its only drawback is the complexity of its construction, but with the high voltage now handled it has become an absolute necessity. Automatic circuit breakers of the latest type are provided in all feeder circuits and wherever necessary. Storage Batteries Although the efficiency of the motor has been greatly advanced the problem of the storage battery still remains one of much dissatisfaction and it is quite improbable that the inherent defects of it will ever be overcome. There are two distincts types of storage batteries in general use at the present time; the first is known as the lead battery and the second as the Edison battery. The lead battery is the only type that has been used aboard submarines up to the present time. I understand however, that there is now one if not more of the boats having the old batteries replaced by Edison cells. The lead batteries, as their names would imply, have active plates of lead material using sulphuric acid of a density of about 1.23 as an electrolyte. There are several methods of manufacturing the lead plates, the three forms best known being the Plante plate, the Pasted plate, and the Ironclad plate, the latter being a particular form of the Pasted plate. The Plante plate is manufactured with the lead made into a fine grid which is cast, grooved, or spun in such a way as to afford a large superficial area for the electro- chemical action to take place upon. The grid is then subjected to this electro-chemical process which reduces THE POWER PLANT 125 ^^^^^^^'^ 1 ^ •» .Jm ' ^^ St*- •• <^H r "* ■ »• .> . ■-0 p^ |-pU|-— n^jl 126 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT the exposed lead surface to peroxide of lead for the posi- tive plates, and to spongy lead for the negative plates. The Pasted plate is manufactured by pressing a pasty composition of lead and a small percentage of antimony into the annular spaces of a structural frame formed up of network. The plates are then subjected to an electro- chemical process as before, reducing the plates to peroxide of lead for the positive plates, and to spongy lead for the negative plates. The Ironclad plates are formed into positive plates only. They consist of metal frames supporting hard- rubber tubes set side by side. The active material is formed by running antimony lead rods full length in the center of the rubber tubes which are perforated, and otherwise filling in the tubes with red lead. It is then reduced electro-chemically into peroxide of lead for posi- tive plates. In the batteries of the submarines, the Plante positive plate is used in combination with the Pasted negative plate, or else the Ironclad plate is used with the Pasted negative plate, these combinations seeming to give the most satisfactory results. The Edison storage battery uses nickel oxide as the active material for the positive plates, and iron oxide as the active material for the negative plates. The electro- lyte used is caustic soda. The positive plates are made up of a steel frame supporting perforated steel tubes which contain a quantity of nickel hydrates for forming the active material. The negative plates are made up of two perforated steel sheets forming pockets between them in which is contained iron oxide for the active material. THE POWER PLANT 127 In addition to the enormous amount of weight, in round numbers about 60 tons, and the valuable space which it occupies the lead battery is objectionable upon the score of its inherent dangerousness. There is the ever present danger of explosive gases collecting with the contingent result of battery fires and terrific explo- sions, the only means of fighting which seems to be to leave the ship and let them reek their havoc. There is also the continual danger from the generation of chlorine gas which is deadly poison, and which is liable to be generated at any time if salt water finds its way to the batteries, and lastly, the danger to the hull itself from leaking or the slopping over of the sulphuric acid from the cells. The acid immediately attacks the steel plates of the battery tank, and unless the installation has been made in such a way as to afford perfect inspection fre- quently, which is not the general case and in fact is almost impossible because of space limitation, the metal is soon eaten through by the chemical action of the acid. The advocates for the Edison battery are claiming for this type the entire elimination of all these bad features of the lead battery. This however is not true, for the Edison battery is quite as liable to battery fires and ex- plosions as is the lead battery, and in fact generates hydrogen gas, both when charging and discharging, more freely than does the lead battery, and it is due to this gas that most battery troubles and accidents are had. It is free from the deadly fumes of chlorine gas and trouble with leaking acid. On the other hand the lead battery has an average discharge voltage at the three hour rate of discharge of about 1.83 volts per cell, whereas the Edison battery 128 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT has at the three hour rate of discharge of but from i.i to 1.2 volts per cell. This would mean then that with the Edison battery the number of cells would have to be increased about sixty per cent, to get the same voltage, over the lead battery and would require considerably more floor space. The weight of the Edison battery is also much higher than that of the lead battery, and this is an all important factor. In view of this fact then, and that the Edison battery is less than 72 per cent as efficient as the lead battery, it would seem that to install new equipment that requires more weight and space than that which is already installed, and which therefore must necessarily detract from the efi&ciency of other factors now obtained, would be far removed from the ideals that we are trying to gain in submarine development, because it would in this case be making a sacrifice of other factors without bettering the condition or increasing the efficiency of the factor for which all these sacrifices are made. The cost of the Edison battery is much more than the lead battery but on this score the life of the Edison bat- tery greatly exceeds that of the other, so the price may be conceded to be in favor of the Edison if anything. The present reversion to the steam engine as a means for surface propulsion is brought about by the inherent difficulties found in the heavy oil engine of large powers and because now the steam engine has reached a state of efficiency and reliability found in no other form of prime mover. As far as economy is concerned, by combining the use of high pressure steam with a high degree of superheat and using high mean referred pressure, it is quite pos- THE ^O^VER PLANT 1^0 sible by using an improved form of oil burning boiler to secure an economy as low as .7 to .S of a pound of fuel per B.H.P. per hour. This is but little in excess of the Diesel engine consumption, and b}' using the steam occ B.H.r. lu^iun nb.irine Engine. Tv.o 4 Lvlinder engine; arranged tandem engine the attendant impro\"ement in conditions would be manifold. The ^\■eight for the steam plant for the same power of Diesel plant would be much less. The mean effective pressure is higher in the steam unit and its cyl- inders are subjected to but little more than one-fourth of the extreme pressure and not to one-fourth of the extreme temperature of the Diesel unit. The steam unit is also the more simple and the more easih" accessible of the two. The ideal form of power plant for the submarine, as may be easily understood, is one that is capable of oper- ation both when on the surface and when in the sub- merged condition, that is. in other words, a single unit which will do awa}- with the present dual system. The problem then is to hnd some method b}" which the prime 130 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT mover to be used for surface propulsion can be made to furnish the power for submerged work as well, thus doing away with the present storage battery system and its inherent dangers and limitations. The problem has been attacked by many in the last few years, notably among them an Italian engineer by the name of del Proposto, and a Spanish engineer named d'Quevilley. The del Proposto proposition is essentially an air propo- sition, using the internal combustion engine to propel the boat and to drive an air compressor for storing up air in tanks when on the surface. In the submerged condition the mechanical energy of the stored air is used back through the compressor and through all or part of the cylinders of the internal combustion engine, as air motors for the propelling power. It is understood that del Pro- posto built a boat and had his system installed. But little is known of the results obtained and it is believed that the performance of the equipment did not come up to his expectations. His troubles would evidently be mechanical difficulties resulting in inefficiency. The d'Quevilley proposition is that of a soda-boiler, using the steam generated from a process of slaking caustic soda. When the vessel is about to submerge, the exhaust steam from the engines is turned into this soda- boiler, producing a secondary steam caused by the action of the soda in absorbing the water vapor. The heat evolved by this action forms a secondary steam which is used through the engines and the cycle continues. This process goes on until the caustic soda has become satu- rated, when the vessel must return to the surface and the soda reconcentrated. THE POWER PLANT 131 A boat of this type has been built in France and the process has also been tried out in Germany, but it is not beheved that any great success was obtained on the trials. The principle of this system is old, having first been tried out in this country by Prof. J. H. L. Tuck of San Francisco in his submarine boat Peacemaker, in I believe 1885. The boat was built by the Submarine Motor Co. of New York, and tried out up the Hudson River before a United States Naval Board. The same principle has since been laid before the Navy Depart- ment by a Chilian inventor, and it has also been worked upon by several European engineers. Another system of propulsion has lately been perfected under patents held by the L. A. Submarine Boat Co. of California, now the Neff System of Submarine Propulsion, which provides means for utilizing the same power unit both when on the surface and when submerged. This system which has been developed by the author, con- templates the use of the main engines to accomplish this result, and it is claimed that any form of prime mover may be used with satisfactory results. A boat with the system installed has been built and put through trials under inspection by a Naval Board and the results were found to be satisfactory in every way. By means of the equipment both greatly increased submerged speed and increased radius of action submerged were shown. The military advantages of these two factors would appear to be of prime importance. At present it is rather much of a question to say what new turn the power plant for a submarine will take. It is highly probable though, that if the Diesel engine is re- tained it will be of the non-reversible type, of heavier 13 = THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT construction, and will drive generators for supplying cur- rent to induction motors connected to the propeller shafts. This would permit of a greater speed range and would eliminate starting and reversing troubles, as well '(Mi ■ '-mi- m 4 m Engine Space, experimental boat built by the L. A. Submarine Boat Co., showing single unit plant power as to cause the constructor less worry about the projier distribution of weights as affecting the trim of the boat. The size and weight of the motors could be kept down by using polyphase alternating currents of high frequency, or direct currents of high voltage, say 500 volts for sur- face work, and if used from storage batteries as at pres- ent when su])merged this could be cut tlown to 2z,o volts. By the elimination of the storage batteries the same voltage submerged as on the surface would be used. THE POWER PLANT 133 Or perhaps if we revert to steam we will find the solu- tion in the turbine either directly coupled to the pro- peller shafts or arranged in turbo-generator sets. This means would surely materially decrease the weight of the plants on account of the great rotary speed, and most certainly would add to the reliability of the unit as a whole. CHAPTER VII FUTURE DEVELOPMENT It is by no means an easy matter to undertake to fore- tell what the future development of the submarine will bring about. We may draw certain conclusions from the past performance and development of these vessels and by careful consideration of the many inherent difficulties found in their characteristics arrive at a safe and sane conservative deduction. It is assuredly no reason, how- ever, that because a certain performance is improbable of mechanical accomplishment today, it is impossible of ultimate accomplishment. We of this age of achieve- ment should, before making any rash statements, always keep this in mind. In the past ten years alone the submarine has steadily advanced in size to four times what it was then, the sur- face speeds have been doubled, the radius of action on the surface enlarged in even greater proportion, and the military equipment and features immensely improved. Already from being little steel tanks so completely filled with machinery and appurtenances that the few members of the crew could scarcely crawl around in them, and even had there been room they would scarcely have dared to move for fear of disturbing the equilibrium of the boat and upsetting her, the submarine has become a large comparatively roomy craft in which a crew con- sisting of two officers and from twenty to thirty men can live for days at a time. Great as has already been the 134 FUTURE DEVELOPMENT 135 ! i' 1, o O ^ — ! OJ n a; £L ■^ . li, +-- ^ , — . >, i_ '^ C r^ QJ :o ^ "^ "2 l"§ ; -1 a a, (/5 136 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT progress, the submarine has by no means yet reached the hmit of its development. Beyond question of any doubt immediate improvement will be made in the directions of increased surface speed, radius of action on the surface, and in the size of the submarine itself. The future will unquestionably bring forth a submarine capable of operating freely at great distances from her base, and will combine to a certain extent the qualities of a surface cruiser and those of the under-water craft. There are at the present time a number of large sub- marines of the sea-going type, ranging from 1200 to 1500 tons displacement submerged, under construction in vari- ous foreign countries, and one in this country. The dimen- sions of these boats far exceed anything that may have been dreamed of a few years ago. The Schley, being built at the Fore River Ship Building Co. for the United States Navy, is of about 1200 tons displacement when totally submerged, has a designed speed of 21 knots for the surface and 12 knots for the submerged condition, and will contain some 3700 engine brake horse power. The re- sults at the trials of these monster submarines will be awaited with no little interest and it is certain that their performances will furnish us with much food for thought. At the present time there is much being written about what the immediate future is going to evolve, and many writers are speculating wildly about sea-going submarines of 4000 and 5000 tons displacement. The curious fact about these writers however, is that none of them may claim to have any experience in the construction of sub- marine boats or even any practical knowledge in the theories of naval engineering. Increasing the size of the FUTURE DEVELOPMENT 137 submarine to these extreme proportions would not neces- sarily give an added efficiency to these craft, for there is a proper balance of all the miHtary factors entering into it which must be maintained. What if any advantage would accrue from this extreme departure is a question of serious doubt. Much has also been said about sub- marines of torpedo boat speed, and while this is a quality which is highly desirable from a military point of view, it is one that is impossible of accomplishment, for the destroyer has even now a speed of thirty to thirty-five knots and has not the limitations of weights imposed upon it that the submarine must necessarily have. Although the submarine is well out of the experimental stage at the present time, there remain a great many dis- concerting problems to be solved before anything Hke perfection is reached. It is greatly to be feared that to jump from the gradual development in size which has so far been exercised to boats of 2000 tons or more displace- ment will only serve to accentuate the present inherent and unsolved difficulties. The proper solution of these things will eventually be found, but a rational system of development must be followed in order to effect this end. Many of our boats are now capable of making a cruise of about 4500 miles. It would seem that very little increase would be needed in this factor for some time to come at any rate. More than this we need speed and especially submerged speed. Lacking in this respect, the effectiveness of the submarine as an offensive instru- ment of warfare has been prominently brought out in the present European war. Without it the submarine must remain a passive means of defense, depending upon her invisibility and the chance that an enemy may, unaware 138 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT of her location, approach within effective range of her torpedoes, or she may under cover of darkness take up a position along the well established routes of trade and lie there submerged to await and prey upon the enemies' merchant vessels. Neither of these tactics, however, can effect in any serious way the outcome of the naval maneuvers. To be able to assume its rightful place in warfare, the submarine must therefore materially increase its under- water speed. To do this we are brought face to face with the complex problem, of the power plant. With the present installation of Diesel engines for surface work and electric motors and storage batteries for submerged work it is out of the question, for to materially increase the power for under-water propulsion would mean that we must so materially decrease the power for surface running, or else the radius of action, and that we would be unable to get anywhere to make use of the improved under-water condition. On the other hand, we are now with a fair surface speed enabled to get within but a cer- tain distance of a battleship when we must cast aside this advantage and take cover under water both to pro- tect ourselves from gunfire and to keep from being seen. In this condition the submarine has only about three- quarters of her surface speed, considerably less than the normal cruising speed of a battleship, and therefore, unless the submarine be visited with the good luck that the battleship be steaming towards her, the distance between them becomes wider instead of less. That the solution of this problem is a vital point is at once apparent. Many means have been propounded in the past and are being worked out in an endeavor to FUTURE DEVELOPMENT 139 I40 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT secure the desired results. The solution obviously means the doing away with the dual power system, and will probably evolve into an all internal combustion engine or steam engine plant. It may be confidently expected that some such means for remedying the present short- comings will be speedily put into general practice. With the advent of such a system, surface speeds of twenty knots and submerged speeds of sixteen to eighteen knots would be feasible. The objection has been raised by some that such a system must leave a trail of bubbles behind it as does a Photo-copyright, Underwood aiid Underwood Wake of Torpedo Showing Trail of Air Bubbles torpedo and that the position of the submarine would therefore be disclosed to the battleship. This has not been found to be the case however, and in fact with the submarine running at a normal cruising depth no dis- turbance of any great amount takes place upon the sur- face. Granting for the moment that a submarine did leave a wake like the torpedo, it is well known that the trail of a torpedo may be followed from the bridge of a battleship only for about 800 yards with any chop on at all, and this is easy range for torpedo fire. It is also much more difficult to detect this disturbance of the torpedo when coming towards the ship from an unknown quarter. Even though the submarine were discovered when at a FUTURE DEVELOPMENT 141 distance of say 3000 yards from a battleship, which is highly improbable, it would take the battleship from four to six minutes to get under full speed from a cruising speed of twelve knots, and therefore with an increase in under- water speed of the submarine the chances of making a successful hit are still very good. The present difficulties to be met with in a system of this kind are those inherent in the Diesel engine, which so far has given no satisfaction at all. Much improve- ment however has already been made and much may still be looked for in this direction. Very slow speed engines of this type driving high speed electric generators through the intermediate agency of mechanical reduction gearing may do much to solve this problem. There is also much to be looked for in the further development of the steam boiler construction of the oil burning type. , It is quite within reason that this may be made to compete strongly with the Diesel engine in point of economy and it is certainly more reliable. The use of high speed turbines with electric reduction gear also offers a very promising solution of the power problem. Altogether the submarine may be expected to become a very effective weapon in the near future. Further improvements in the armament and the rapid handling of the torpedoes may be looked for. Mine laying appar- atus, cable cutting devices, and small caliber guns are even now provided. What effect the indubitable future of the submarine will have upon the design of the battleship has of late become a much mooted question. I cannot agree in this respect with those who take the stand that the day of the battleship is over. On the contrary I believe that the 142 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT battleship must always remain the Queen of the Seas, and must be the deciding factor in any naval engagement. Without it there can be no bombardment of an enemy's coast nor any convoying of transports or landing of an invading army on foreign soil. If we are ever forced into war we most certainly want to win. To win a war it is absolutely necessary to carry the campaign into the enemy's country and to stop him there. If on the other hand the enemy succeeds in gain- ing a foothold in this country, we may hold him back indefinitely but cannot make him quit, unless we in the meantime have gained a more strategic hold upon his own soil. To be forced to fight upon our own soil means that no matter whether we are really defeated or whether we gain a partial victory by being able to hold back the enemy until he is tired out, we are actually the losers in point of comparative suffering and damage inflicted. It is quite probable, however, that the battleship as she now stands will be greatly modified. I do not think this will take the form of added armor below the water- line as do some. To do this would only mean that more powerful torpedoes would be made which would have greater rupturing effect upon the heavier armor than it does even now. On the contrary, perhaps the battleship will lighten somewhat the armor she already carries and be constructed with a greater number of divisional bulk- heads backed up by air pressure chambers in order to localize the effects of explosions. I believe that her greatest change will be an increase in speed. Superior speed has always been and must ever continue to be her only protection against the submarine. CHAPTER VIII MEANS OF DEFENSE AGAINST SUBMARINE ATTACK TiiKRE as yet seems to haA-e l^een no really practieablc means devised for defense against the offensive operation of the submarine. Practieallv invisible as it is and having /iit:riLili,:iuil Film S,r-.i,r Submerged run willi p.'riscopcs exposed. XiUl- distuidiaiuc and wake eaiised b\' passage ol periset>iK' throu.i^h the water the impenetral)ility of the water for its proteetion, it is immune from eounter attaek. Perhaps the most serious casualty which it is possible to inflict upon it would be the chance hitting and destruction of its periscopes when temporarily exposeil abo^'e the surface. This of course woukl mean that the submarine must remain submerged hors de combat until nightfall, or else take the conse- 143 144 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT quence of exposing above the surface her conning tower and more vulnerable hull. There has been a great deal said about the possibility of shooting off the periscopes of the submarine. This chance is in reality very small, and would be more luck than good marksmanship were it successfully accom- plished. When the small moving target that the peri- scope offers is considered this can be at once realized. The tube, of a neutral gray tint difficult in itself to dis- tinguish, is of from three to four inches in diameter, is exposed only two or three feet of its length and only this much for very short intervals of time — just long enough to check the course and the range. Even at the close range of 500 yards it is an almost impossible target, and when the range greatly exceeds this it becomes well nigh invisible. It is to be doubted that any effectiveness could be had even with the use of shrapnel. Ever since the submarine has been accepted as a pos- sible instrument of warfare, some means has been sought to successfully cope with her. In England especially, much thought and study has been given to various devices for meeting this contingency. In the face of her seem- ing inability to quell the German submarine raids in the present conflict, it would seem that all this theorizing had been very unfruitful. Probably had England given as much study to the submarine itself as to the means for defense against it she would be better able to cope with the situation. Obviously the destroyer becomes the natural adversary of the submarine boat. With her great speed and superior maneuvering ability it is within the compass of the des- troyer to keep on the trail of the submarine and run her MEANS OF DEFENSE AGAINST SUBMARINE ATTACK 145 down when she chances to expose her periscopes to take bearings. The destroyer is however vulnerable to the torpedo, and it is only the slothful maneuvering qualities of the submarine when under water that prevents the certain success of counter attack on her part. Almost all of the theories of attack upon the submarine have been based upon the superior performance of the destroyer for their successful execution. One of the pet theories is that a mine or bomb exploded in the water within the vicini'ty of the submarine will transmit such pressure through the Water as to cause the hull of the submarine to collapse. To illustrate the con- sequences of this action, the instance is always cited of the killing of fish by the concussion caused by exploding dynamite under water. The execution of this means of defense was to be carried out by fitting the destroyers with outriggers to which torpedoes were attached to the outer ends. The torpedoes were to be fired by either a time fuse device or by electrical detonators. The out- rigger or spar held the torpedo a considerable distance away from the destroyer and was to be lowered into the water and fired over where the submarine was supposed to be. Experiments with this method were carried out by the English Navy by exploding torpedoes in the water close to floating casks. It was claimed by them that the results proved conclusively that a torpedo having a moderate weight of explosive charge would, if exploded within 70 or 80 feet of a submarine, cause very disastrous results. Later on the French, induced by these experiments as reported, placed a number of live sheep in a submarine boat and discharged a torpedo containing about a hundred 146 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT pounds of gun-cotton at a distance of about 150 feet from it. The results showed no ill effects to either the sheep or the boat. Had a heavier charge been exploded and at a closer distance the results might possibly have shown more serious effects. Probably a more feasible plan is to tow by means of the destroyer a mine to be exploded by an electrical detonator. This plan is objectionable however, because it is found to be quite difficult to locate the position of a towed mine over a submarine, especially if the submarine be continuing any but a straight course. The mine when towed also tends to rise and skim along the surface, and if exploded on top of the water, even though it were directly over the submarine, it would do little if any damage to her submerged at a normal cruising depth. A third method proposed for active defense against the submarine is that two destroyers be sent out abreast pulling a drag between them with the intention of foul- ing the conning tower or periscopes of the submarine and upsetting her. Destroyers operating under this condition would however be placed at a very great disadvantage. In fact they would be virtually pulling a sea anchor, and it is certain that the destroyers in this case must be distinctly at the mercy of the submarine instead of being any particular menace to her. A drag of any sort must necessarily alter considerably the speed of a destroyer as well as to put her at a great in- convenience and extreme disadvantage when maneuvering. A method which is known to have been adopted by the English destroyers against the German submarines in the North Sea during the early part of the present war, was to fill the bottoms of the hulls of the destroyers MEANS OF DEFENSE AGAINST SUBMARINE ATTACK 147 with a couple of feet of solid concrete and then attempt to run down or ram the submarines. At first the Eng- lish destroyers did meet with some success by this method. By keeping a strict watch for the periscopes to appear and immediately running them down, they succeeded in sink- ing a small number of the German submarines. The Germans soon put a stop to this however, by setting adrift in the proximity of the British fleet a number of imitation periscopes to which were attached contact mines. The destroyers after running down two or three of these masked mines with more or less disastrous results to themselves soon gave it up as a bad job. The most practicable means for active defense, I be- lieve, lies in a complement of several high speed launches. These small boats should have a speed of thirty knots or more and should have as little draught as is compatible with a fair degree of sea-worthiness, in order to make them practically immune from torpedo attack. They would be equipped with a special quick firing rifle of small caliber and powerful search-lights. Their duties would be essentially those of a patrol or picket boat. Being practically immune from under- water attack they would scour the sea night and day for a chance shot at an appearing conning tower or hull. Enough of these inex- pensive little boats would quite effectively clear a sub- marine blockade and prevent submarine raids upon merchant vessels plying in the well established routes of trade. The submarine must come to the surface sooner or later to get a fresh supply of air and for the purpose of charging her storage batteries, and must remain upon the surface some little time to do so. The time for doing this would naturally be at night, but if there are enough 148 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT of these small patrols in the vicinity it would not be long before one of them picked her up in the search-light. The presence of the patrols, each patrol being assigned to cover a certain area, would keep the submarines under water except for very short intervals, and so long as they can be prevented from coming up long enough to charge their storage batteries they can remain in foreign waters only within the scope of their submerged radius of action, and this is very limited. The submarine attack would therefore be limited to quick raids which are no great menace to commerce, and cannot in any sense constitute a blockade. The ambuscade of or the lying in wait for vessels would be quite effectively stopped, and it is only in this respect that the Germans have demonstrated any ability to prey upon commercial shipping. The above means of defense would of course be limited to the pre- vention of blockades, it would not be practicable for fleet maneuvers on the high seas. Of late much has been said of the aeroplane as a means of fighting the submarine. Its value in this respect can- not be very great. In fact the chief attribute accorded it, ability to detect the presence of the submarine from its high vantage point, has been disproved by last winter's maneuvers in the Southern waters. At various times during the maneuvers, aeroplanes were sent aloft to try to locate the positions of the submarines but with no success. The theory of dropping bombs upon the submarine from an aeroplane cannot be conceded as having any real value at all. Admitting for the moment, that by careful calculation of elevation and speed of the aeroplane, and consideration of gravity and effect of atmospheric con- MEANS OF DEFENSE AGAINST SUBMARINE ATTACK 149 ditions upon the projectile, a bomb could be dropped so as to strike the water directly o\'er a submarine, the force of its impact with the water must explode the bomb Flwto-ccipyrishl. International Film Semicc Submarine gun elevated for repelling attack by Aero-plane practically upon the surface and do no damage whatever to the submarine. The probabilit}- of dropping a bomb with such accuracy is, moreover, very remote. Nor can much better results be expected from gunfire from the air. Unless the projectile was fired almost vertically downward, the force of the impact with the water would cause it to ricochet before it had penetrated the surface a foot. Even were the submarine upon the surface, the ISO THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT aeroplane would offer an easier target to gunfire from the submarine than the submarine would in turn afford the aeroplane. Another theory of using a contact mine suspended from an aeroplane by a wire is equally impractical. In fact the vibrations of wire and the resistance of the mine to passage through the air would set up such extreme gyrations as to make it almost impossible to strike any definite object at all. The passive defense of bays and port entries may be successfully maintained in a number of ways. Primarily of course by mines arranged in rows across the mouth and entrance of the bay or harbor; although it has recently been demonstrated that the submarine is capable of both passing safely under the mines and of cutting them adrift from their moorings as well as to explode them by counter mining. Various means for entanglements have also been sug- gested; such as stretching heavy fishnets at intervals, and in some cases by fastening small charges of gun- cotton to the nets, arranged with batteries and circuit closers so that they are exploded if a submarine becomes entangled in the net. Another scheme is to stretch spans of cable across the channel, supported at intervals by cork floats and weighted down at the ends to hold them in place. After all then, it may be truthfully said that as yet we have been able to devise no adequate means of defense against the submarine. Some means have been suggested for defense of coast or harbor, but at sea so far the only means of defense seems to be in the superior speed of the surface craft. MEANS OF DEFENSE AGAINST SUBMARINE ATTACK 151 That the submarine may wage war against submarine is quite possible but highly improbable, as it entails the almost certain destruction of both craft. No man has as yet been able to devise any means for penetrating the murky depths of the sea as far as vision is concerned, and it is this utter blindness under water that prohibits con- flict of submarine versus submarine. Men have clashed before in utter blackness, however, and it may be that when put to desperate undertaking, some young dare- devil will stake his own life and those of his crew upon the wheel of chance and tempt the fates with this new kind of warfare. If this sort of conflict is ever resorted to, it will prob- ably resolve itself into a jockeying for position on the part of the opposing commanders, with the purpose of each to get his opponent broadside exposed to a headon attack by himself and to ram. The opportunity for use of the torpedo would be practically nil under these cir- cumstances and this weapon would probably be reserved for bigger game. Friend might be distinguished from foe by sound signals. This would of course betray the position of the submarine to its opponent as well, but sound signalling would undoubtedly be resorted to at intervals at any rate as a decoy to draw on the opponent; it naturally being the policy of the commander to change his position immediately a signal is sounded. At the best this mode of fighting must remain an unsatisfactory sort of game of blind-man's-buff, and would not be generally undertaken at the present time. Future inventions for delicate and accurate direction in- dicators to be used in conjunction with magnetic or vibratory submarine sound receivers are quite possible 152 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT and if effected would do much to further this new sort of warfare. The Fessenden oscillator goes a long way towards this accomplishment even now, and is an indi- cation of what might be expected in the future along these lines. CHAPTER IX TACTICAL EVOLUTIONS OF THE SUBMARINE Submarine warfare, like all other naval fighting, re- solves itself into defensive and offensive operations. The defensive operations of the submarine consist chiefly of the protection of harbors and the prevention of an enemy's fleet from bombarding seaports and from landing an invading army anywhere along the coast. The effectiveness of the weapon in this respect is a well demonstrated fact, but to sucessfuUy carry out a pro- gram of protection by its means, it is evident that with the extensive coast lines this country has, we must provide a considerable number of coast defense submarines for the purpose. These boats should be distributed in groups of six or eight at various bases along the coast and more particularly at points where it is considered essential for strategic reasons to concentrate defense. These groups accompanied by mobile tenders should be located particularly at the strategic points as follows: On the East Coast at Eastport, Me., Portsmouth, N.H., Provincetown, Mass., Woods Hole, Mass., Newport, R.I., New York, N.Y., Delaware Breakwater, Norfolk, Va., Charleston, S.C., Key West, Fla., Pensacola, Fla., Gal- veston, Texas, and at the eastern entrance to the Panama Canal. On the West Coast at some port in Alaska, Port Townsend, Wash., Columbia- River, Ore., San Francisco, Cal. (2 groups), Santa Barbara, Cal., San Pedro, Cal., 153 154 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT San Diego, Cal., and at the west entrance to the Panama Canal. Also there should be a group stationed at the Hawaiian Islands, a group at Guam, and at least three groups among the Philippine Islands. This would call for a total number of some two hundred submarines of the coast defense type. The offensive action or attack to destroy, involves problems new and more difl&cult, and here the province of the submarine is to destroy the fleets of the enemy and all vessels with which it attempts to carry on military operations; to make raids upon the enemy's shipping and ports, and to carry out an effectual blockade at all his principal harbors; and to constitute a supplemental arm to the battle fleet upon the high seas. The ability to perform these functions calls for a some- what different type of boat from the coast defense sub- marine, inasmuch as it must have a greater cruising radius, be more sea-worthy, and have a much higher surface speed to enable it to accompany without in any way hindering the evolutions of the fleet. In the present European conflict the activities of the submarine have for the most part been restrained to what might be styled merely naval raids. There have however been several occasions in which they have taken no little part in the actual tactical evolutions of the op- posing fleets. It was decidedly the presence of the Ger- man submarines which caused Vice-Admiral Beatty to discontinue the pursuit of the German battle cruisers Seydlitz, Doerflinger and Moltkc in the second fight of the North Sea. It was a running fight in which the heavily punished German battle cruisers escaped by leading the British ships into a group of submarines, the mere sight TACTICAL EVOLUTIONS OF THE SUBMARINE i :):) of which caused the Enghsh Achniral to quit the pursuit and seek safety for his own fleet. On another occasion a British submarine is given the credit for disabhng the German ship Moltke in the Russian British Sulmiarines E-4. E-o and D-5 action in the Guh" of Riga, placing that vessel at the mercy of the Russian fleet and deciding the victor}-. The English submarines were successfully employed as a barrier of protection strewn across the Channel during the transportation of troops to the shores of Belgium and France. Since then these submarines have been inces- santly employed on the enemy's coast and in Heligoland Bight, obtaining and supphdng the English fleet com- manders with information regarding the composition and movements of the enemy's patrols. While engaged in 156 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT this work they have successfully outwitted well-executed anti-submarine tactics by torpedo craft and gunfire. The British E-9 succeeded in torpedoing and sinking the light German cruiser Eela in Heligoland Bight and escaping from a pursuing flotilla of German destroyers; on another occasion she successfully torpedoed the Ger- man destroyer S-126 off the mouth of the Ems River while running at high speed. There is also Httle doubt that it is the menace of the submarines which caused the British main fleet to maintain its base remote from the North Sea, and at the same time it is unquestionably due to the presence of the British submarines employed in these waters and off the German ports that the immobility of the German battle fleet is in a great part responsible. The earliest success of the German submarines was the sinking of the British cruiser Pathfinder while patrol- Hng the North Sea at slow speed. Within two weeks after this the German U-9 succeeded in destroying the Hague, Aboukir and Cressy all within a few minutes of each other off the Hook of Holland. The attack was made just after daybreak when the U-9 found herself confronted with these three cruisers all within i ,000 }-ards of each other and steaming along at about 7 knots an hour. Next, the Hawke was caught in the North Sea and the Formidable was sunk while cruising at slow speed and engaged in bombarding the Belgian coast. The English gunboat Niger was sunk, while at anchor, in the open roadstead of Deal. The success of the Germans, it has been asserted, in the attacks upon the Theseus and the Russian cruiser Fallada, was effected by the use of a neutral flag. It was reported in each case that a merchant or fishing vessel TACTICAL EVOLUTIONS OF THE SUBMARINE 157 IS8 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT flying the Dutch ensign was used as a decoy, enabling the German submarine to come up and discharge a tor- pedo at the cruiser when she was practically at rest. On the other hand, in their attacks upon the general ship- ping, the German submarines, unsuspected of being in waters so far away from their bases, were enabled to take up positions where previous reports indicated that the enemy's ships would be found, and arriving there, would come to an "awash" condition and wait for the ships of the enemy to appear, and then submerging would lie in wait for the ship to approach within effective torpedo range, or else would direct their courses so as to cross that of the enemy. This method of attack will probably continue to be one of the main attributes of the offensive submarine in as much as it is one wherein the inherent qualities of this type of boat are particularly well suited. The part which the submarine will play in the actual tactical evolutions, however, will continue to grow and become of prime importance. The submarine will then have to be reckoned with, and safely, for the control of the seas must not be jeopardized by unnecessarily risking the loss of any capital ship. In the Dardanelles, the German V-51 after making a 2400 mile cruise from a base on the Belgian coast succeeded in sinking the Triumph and the Majestic. The French cruiser Leon Gambetta and the Italian Guiseppe Garibaldi were sunk by Austrian submarines in the Mediterranean. The British E-11 and E-IJ/. have also met with consid- erable success in the Dardanelles. The E-] 1 after passing inside through 5 rows of mines sunk the Turkish Messou- diyeh in the Sea of Marmoro. She also chased a supply TACTICAL EVOLUTIONS OF THE SUBMARINE 159 ship and torpedoed her alongside a pier at Rodosto, and even entered the harbor of Constantinople sinking a trans- port alongside the arsenal. The E-lJj. also accounted for a Turkish gunboat in her passage into the Sea of Marmoro. Inside she sank a transport on April 29, a gunboat on May 3, and a large transport loaded with troops on May 10, and chased a small supply ship aground on May 13. The submarine has thus through its enterprise effectively hampered the operations of the capital ships, if nothing more. Defensive Operations The tactics of the submarine for harbor defense are simple. The waters outside of the harbor entrance are divided into zones so situated with respect to each other that they will effectually cover all approaches to the har- bor. Each of the boats comprising the submarine flotilla which is to defend this particular port will be assigned by the flotilla commander to one of these zones. The boat will then take her position in the center of the zone assigned to her and at such a distance from the port as to prevent the enemy from ever coming within range of gunfire. Trimming to the " awash" condition and with radio up the submarine will here come to anchor and proceed to keep a sharp lookout for the enemy. Outside of this Hne of defense, the destroyers or other scouts in touch with the movements of the enemy will keep the submarines apprised of his position and probable course by means of the radio. To facilitate the sending of warning signals, the sea within a radius of 150 miles will be further divided into districts blocked off into small squares designated by numerals, and the points of the com- pass given short code words to designate the course pur- i6o THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT sued by the enemy. The warning would then consist simply of the number designating the position of the enemy and a code word giving his course. Having received warning of the approach, the subma- rines will rig down the radio, pull up anchor, and make ready to submerge immediately that smoke is discerned on the horizon. After the enemy has appeared the sub- marines will remain stationary long enough to ascertain the speed, course, and formation he is following. The submarine nearest then starts out to meet him, exposing her periscope only just enough from time to time to enable her to correct her course. Once within easy torpedo range, she will continue to push in as close as possible with peri- scope continuously exposed just above the water and begin to open fire with her torpedoes. The other boats of the flotilla will close in behind the leader and direct their at- tack to other parts of the formation previously agreed upon. For fear of disclosing their position to the enemy, no signals of any kind can be exchanged between the boats of the flotilla after submerging. Therefore very explicit instructions must be given the captains of each boat be- fore taking up his position in the zone. These instruc- tions must cover the general tactics to be pursued for every possible formation of the enemy and for his direction of approach. Each captain will carry out these instructions independent of each other, and must run the possible risk of collision until within easy range of the objectives. Once within this range, however, the submarine signalling bells may be kept constantly ringing to apprise each of the others' location and to prevent further danger of colhsion. From this point, too, warnings and instructions may be communicated from one boat to another. TACTICAL EVOLUTIONS OF THE SUBMARINE i6i Only a part of the boats comprising the flotilla should take part in the actual assault; the remaining boats to take up advanced positions in the zones so as to still effec- tively cover the approaches to the harbor. After having fired all of her torpedoes, the submarine should continue the attack by ramming if possible. All her means of attack having been exhausted, the submarine must then return under water to her tender for a fresh supply of tordepoes and to have her batteries recharged. If she has not a sufficient residuum of current left in her batteries to make the return trip under water, she may rest on the bottom until nightfall, when she may come to the surface and proceed back to her base under her internal combustion engines and charging her storage batteries on the way. Four or five submarines with a total of sixteen or twenty torpedoes fired as a first load should, when attacking in this manner, be able to do for six or seven ships at least. Enough damage would be inflicted to cause the enemy to turn from his present purpose at any rate. With the usual four bow tube arrangement and by using the eighteen inch gyroscopic controlled torpedo, the most effective system of firing to be pursued would be to fire two torpedoes straight ahead, and to fire the other two, one off either bow by adjusting the gyroscope to cause the tor- pedo to take a course a certain number of degrees from the straight course pursued, sufficient to compensate for a probable error in the estimation of the range, speed and course of the target. Under these conditions it is almost certain to land one of the torpedoes in its mark. An error of one knot in estimating the speed of the target will cause a difference in position of one hundred and one 1 62 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT feet for every minute elapsed between the instant of firing the torpedo and the instant at which it crosses the path of the objective. The radius of the circle of visibility with the periscope exposed three feet above the surface of the water is 4000 yards. At this range it would take about five and a half minutes for the torpedo to reach the target, and therefore even were all the calculations correct, it would still be highly improbable that a successful hit be made, for in so long an interval of time it would be possible for a ship to both considerably alter her speed and her course. The speed of the target may be solved mechanically by measuring the angles of her image in the periscope, with respect to the course held by the submarine, at certain intervals of time and by plotting these points on a specially constructed scale. This method would be only approxi- mate however, as it depends for its accuracy upon the defi- nite range of the target. At long ranges this error might be considerable. At 1000 yard range the conditions are much more favorable for a successful hit. In this case the time elapsed between the discharge of the torpedo and the instant of its interception with the course of the objective is about one minute. An error of two knots in the esti- mation of the speed of a 600-foot ship would, providing all other calculations were perfect, still offer favorable chance of a hit. Other errors might creep in however, and therefore it is well not to disclose the position of the sub- marine by opening fire until within about eight hundred yards of the quarry. This might be considered easy range and in any event there would still be opportunity to send another torpedo from a practicable range should the first one miss. TACTICAL EVOLUTIONS OF THE SUBMARINE 163 In the following diagrams are shown the effectiveness of the torpedo at different ranges, the limit angle for effective firing from easy range, and the effect of errors in the esti- mation of the speed and the course of the enemy. Effectiveness of torpedo fire from various ranges a = calculated position of ship @ 4000 yd. torpedo interval b = " " " " " 3000 " c = " " " " " 2000 " d = " " " " " 1000 " ai =actual position of ship @ 4000 yd. torpedo interval by change of course bi= " " " " " 3000 " " " " " " " ci = " '■ " " " 2000 di = " " " " " 1000 H ?> For night work the submarines remain on the surface and pursue tactics similar to those of the surface torpedo craft. It has been satisfactorily demonstrated in many maneuvers at night that it is extremely dif&cult to make 164 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT out the low hull of the submarine even when in the full glare of a search-light; and by submerging when coming in contact with them, it is a very easy matter to get through the line of the enemy's scouts and pickets. 4^00 Diagram showing limit angle of effective submarine attack When: Speed of battleship is 18 knots, and Speed of submarine is 8 knots In this respect the tactical capability of the submarine has a direct bearing upon the strategy of the blockade. The usual formation for a blockade is for the battle fleet to take a position in daytime about twenty-five miles off shore at the entrance to the blockaded port with scouts and pickets disposed at intervals shoreward. With the TACTICAL EVOLUTIONS OF THE SUBMARINE 165 Fig. A Fig B Diagram showing effect of error in estimating the direction of the enemy's course A. Error 20°, B.S. 2400 yds. off. No shot. B. " 10°, " 1600 " " Poor chance. O. " 0°, " 800 " " Good shot. C. " 10°, Sub. comes up ahead of B.S. and has to come about. Turn- ing circle not less than 500 yds. B.S. sights Sub. and changes course. When Sub. has completed turn, B.S. is at Q, (See small Fig. B), 1400 yds. off. Shot improbable. D. Error 20°, Sub. comes up ahead and 700 yds. beyond B.S. No shot. 1 66 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT oncoming darkness of night the battle fleet draws off to some distance farther seaward, say what would be an eight hour steaming distance for a destroyer making the round trip, to prevent the possibility of being attacked by des- troyers which might find their way through the line of pickets. It has however, been found to be very difi&cult for the destroyers to find the darkened ships of the battle fleet at night even when their general position is known. The submarines would therefore, after eluding the enemy's pickets, pass out and take a general position around that of the daytime position of the enemy's battle fleet, sub- merge there and wait for its return at daybreak. The tactics for the coast defense work of the submarine are essentially the same as for harbor defense except that the operations are performed on a broader basis. Having received word that the enemy is approaching the coast, the submarines will proceed at their highest speed in column and "awash" with the purpose of inter- cepting his course. The submarines will be able to dis- tinguish the smoke and masts of the hostile fleet long before they themselves can be seen. Upon sighting the masts of the enemy the submarines will remain upon the surface long enough to determine his course and speed, and then the entire group will immediately submerge and proceed in a fan shaped formation in his general direction. The speed to be maintained and the general instruc- tions to be followed would be given out by the flotilla commander before submerging. The substance of these instructions should be such as to enable the submarines to reach a position on either bow of the enemy's column before being discovered, and thus subject him to a cross- fire and prevent any concerted maneuver on his part. TACTICAL E\"OLl TURN'S OF THE SUBMARINE 1O7 'li ^ »rrl K'/?"^. !•/.>. ^i^i^^^ 1 68 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT The approach would be with only an occasional exposure of the periscopes until within torpedo range, when the attack should be continued with periscopes exposed just enough to keep a constant bearing on the enemy and all speed possible maintained until within easy firing distance. Each submarine having fired its first salvo of torpedoes, will submerge, reload as quickly as possible and return to the attack. After exhausting every means of doing the enemy damage, they withdraw submerged to their base or lie in wait under water as before until nightfall. Offensive Operations The offensive operations of the submarine will devolve almost entirely upon the large sea-going type of boat. These operations may be distinctly classified under three heads; namely, the maintenance of blockades, the prosecution of naval raids, and participation in the actual tactical evolutions of the battle fleet. In the first instance, a group of submarines would be stationed outside the entrance to the principal ports of the enemy and would patrol its waters to effectually pre- vent the exit or the entrance of any ship. It would also be within the province of the submarine to drag for or otherwise destroy any mines with which the entrance of the harbor might be strewn, and having once cleared the channel, to proceed inside the harbor and destroy what- ever war vessels or shipping was found there. To maintain the blockade for any length of ..me it would be necessary to have stationed at some known loca- tion and within easy steaming distance, a tender or other supply ship, in order that the submarines could work in relays — a part of them always being on duty while the TACTICAL EVOLUTIONS OF THE SUBMARINE 169 lyo THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT others were receiving fresh supplies from the tender. The constant vigil, monotonous routine, and the nervous strain of blockade duty, together with the extreme hard- ships — for the submarine in this role would be forced to spend the greater part of the time under water — would exhaust the crew when on this duty probably quicker than would any of the other roles of the submarine. Therefore it would be well to change crews every time the boat was forced to go to the tender for supplies. It would be an easy matter to train an extra crew for each boat, and not at all a difficult matter to find room for them on board the tender. In the role of the raider the submarine would proceed to sea in the surface condition. Her purpose would be to discover all the information regarding the enemy's dispo- sition and composition that she could and to prey upon any ship of the enemy she could find. The commanding officer would be given instructions to proceed to sea for a certain length of time and to keep within a certain general locality. Her operations would be independent of any other craft, and would combine to a certain ex- tent those of a surface cruiser with those of the under- water craft. Catching sight of smoke or a mast on the horizon, she would immediately submerge and strike a course so as to intercept the vessel seen. If upon drawing into range the vessel was found to belong to the enemy, and engaged in carrying on military operations, the submarine would proceed with attack as described for the coast defense boats. In conjunction with the activities of the battle fleet, the problem of maneuvering the submarines must be solved TACTICAL FA'OLUTIOXS OF THE SUBMARINE 171 172 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT by the commander-in-chief. The strategy involved will be to dispose of them in such a manner as to enable the subsequent evolutions of the fleet to draw the enemy up to within range of their position. The tactics of the submarine after contact with the hostile fleet will be practically the same as for the coast defense work. It will be the chief duty of the flotilla commander to get all of his boats into contact with the enemy at the same time. After this it is up to the individ- ual captains of the several boats to carry out the success- ful maneuvering of their own vessels. In the cruising formation the submarines would be dis- posed on either flank of the fleet. Immediately the enemy was sighted they would be trimmed to the "awash" condi- tion and ready for instant use. The commander-in-chief of the fleet having decided upon his plan of action, would then order the submarines submerged and send them off in a certain direction and endeavor to draw the enemy across their zone of fire by his evolutions with the fleet; or he may decide to divide his submarines into two divi- sions, sending them out in different directions, and en- deavor to entice the hostile fleet between the cross fire from them. The duty of the submarines would be to get into easy range of the hostile fleet as quickly as possible and open fire on them. But at the same time they must not in any way interfere with the movements of the capital ships of their own fleet. The ensuing evolutions of the battle fleet will depend upon the comparative speed, rifle range, and strength of the enemy, and must be carried out with due cognizance of a possible danger of being drawn into torpedo range TACTICAL EVOLUTIONS OF THE SUBMARINE 173 from submarines which might be accompanying the enemy. Should the enemy be accompanied by subma- rines the advantage will manifestly be upon the side possessing the submarines having the greater under-water speed. CHAPTER X THE TORPEDO After all is said and done about the submarine boat, the fact remains that without the modern automobile torpedo it becomes valueless as an instrument of warfare. In 1864 Captain Lupuis of the Austrian Navy conceived the idea of a new form of destructive engine to be used in naval warfare. The proposed weapon was a very crude affair resembling a small surface boat in shape, which was to be driven by a propeller turned by clock work from within and guided by means of ropes from the shore. The fore part of the little boat was to carry a heavy charge of gunpowder which was to be exploded by a trigger device operated by a contact spar fitted to the bow. When the spar struck the side of a ship the impact would pull the trigger and explode the charge. The only bit of importance attached to this device how- ever, is that in its conception Captain Lupuis consulted Mr. Robert Whitehead, an English civil engineer residing in Fiume, Austria, about some of the mechanical problems involved. The idea brought to Mr. Whitehead in this way without a doubt was the first occasion that he had ever given thought to such a device. His imagination was set to work though, and after about two years he built his first torpedo, which was made of boiler plate, carried eighteen pounds of gun-cotton and had a speed of six knots for a very short distance. It was the forerunner of 174 TlIF, HM^irKDO 17,1 176 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT the present automobile torpedo, with its speed of thirty- five knots and its 4000 yard range. There are several makes of torpedoes on the market at the present time, all of them having practically the same characteristics and construction. The torpedo itself is divided into sections. The forward one contains the ex- plosive charge and the firing pin. When the head of the torpedo strikes a ship or any other rigid object the firing pin or plunger is driven against a percussion cap containing fulminate of mercury and situated in the center of the bursting charge. The explosion of this cap detonates the high explosive contained in the chamber with sufficient force to rupture the plating of any battleship and in all probability to cause her magazines to explode. In order that no accident might occur the firing pin is normally held away from the percussion cap by a spring and a lock device consisting of a collar which is fixed to the pin outside the nose of the torpedo. This collar is fitted with pitched blades which cause it to revolve when passing through the water and thus releases the firing pin from its restraining action after running twenty-five or thirty yards upon its course. For practice firing the above described loaded war head is substituted by a collapsible dummy head. This dummy head has the same weight and appearance of the war head but is made of thin soft metal so that it collapses on strik- ing and thus proves a hit. It contains no explosive. The section immediately abaft the head is the air flask, which is charged with air compressed to about 2200 pounds per square inch. The mechanical energy con- tained in the compressed air serves to drive the torpedo. The tank will hold enough air to drive the torpedo 4000 THE TORPEDO 177 . i2 o u 50 s 5> S "" o O fc C« PL, M CS CO 4. H M M 1:5 ^ aj +J CS tS J^ > bo (D ©- bo 3 -@ 9- -s C) ca a » ,; U d^ > E .S 3 w tn PL, W < M W CO ■^ 10 ■.-SIJ^- 178 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT yards at a speed of 28 knots or 2000 yards at a speed of 38 knots. Next abaft the air flask is the immersion chamber. In this chamber is contained the very delicate apparatus for controlling the depth of the torpedo. It is an ingenious combination of a hydrostatic piston and a pendulum weight in mechanical connection with a horizontal rudder at the tail end. The operation of the pendulum and the piston working together is such as to counteract a too vio- lent action of either acting individually. By this mech- anism if the torpedo gets below its adjusted depth, sea pressure acting upon the hydrostatic piston causes it to push in, throwing the rudder to a "hard up" position which immediately brings the nose of the torpedo up; but this upward movement of the nose causes the pendulum to swing aft, and the moment of its weight acts directly in opposition to the hydrostatic piston and neutralizes its effect to the extent that the torpedo assumes a gentle and not too abrupt rise; otherwise it would probably jump out of the water. The control in a downward direc- tion is effected in the same manner but with the operations reversed. The depth of the immersion of the torpedo is adjusted by a tension nut acting on a coil spring attached to a hydrostatic piston. The tension caused by this nut is carefully calibrated by experiment so that to change the adjustment for depth it is only necessary to turn the nut until it intercepts one of the graduations. The operation of the rudder itself is controlled by a steering engine which is in turn controlled by a valve actuated by the hydro- static piston. The driving engine is contained in the next section abaft the immersion chamber. Formerly the Whitehead tor- THE TORPEDO 179 pedoes were fitted with small three cylinder single acting engines, the cylinders being arranged about the crank shaft radially. It is believed now, that since the BHss- Leavitt people of this country have adopted the turbo- Pholo-copyriglil, International Film Service Spent torpedo coming to the surface motor -for propulsion, the Whitehead people have done so too. The engine — both types are similarly connected — is connected to the air flask by piping in which are placed two valves. One of these is a shut-off valve which is opened by a wrench before the torpedo is placed in the launching tube ready to be fired. The other is an auto- matic valve which is opened by a tripping device as the torpedo leaves the tube. A lever from the valve project- ing above the torpedo, by striking against the projection in the tube is thrown back and the valve opened. There is a further lever however, which must be thrown down before the engine can start. This is actuated by the resist- i8o THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT ance of the water after the torpedo has left the tube, thus preventing the racing of the engine. In the early torpedoes, in fact until quite recently, steering in a horizontal plane was effected, or rather the torpedo was kept on a horizontal course, solely by the ac- tion of oppositely revolving propeller blades. This was effected by two propellers placed tandem at the tail, the after one being keyed to the engine shaft and the forward one being keyed to a loose sleeve fitted on the shaft and driven in an opposite direction by means of a set of bevel gearing. The necessity of having two propellers working in opposite directions arises from the thrust or tendency of a propeller to throw itself away from the direction in which it is revolving. Fixed vanes or guides were also provided at the stern. These were not however to steer the torpedo but rather to effect a steadiness, and tend to keep the torpedo on a straight course. In actual practice though it was found that no matter how carefully the torpedo had been tested and balanced it would behave in a very erratic manner when fired. Instances have been known when the torpedo would run a certain distance and then swerve to the right or left or perhaps dive to the bottom. In fact the writer has seen them perform a complete circle, coming back like a boom- erang and hitting the side of the ship from which they were fired. No practicable remedy was found for this objectionable feature until the advent of the gyroscope. Now by means of an ingenious device known as the Obry gear, acting in conjunction with rudders placed at the stern, the torpedo is steered in a horizontal plane just as is a ship. By the use of the Obry gear the torpedo can now be held true to THE TORPEDO i8i a course, the direction in which it is first aimed from the launching tube, or the gear can be so adjusted that the tor- pedo can be fired in one direction and after running a cer- tain distance the gyroscopic influence of the gear acting on the rudders will cause it to take up and continue an entirely different course. This can be better understood by a short description of the gyroscope. which is the essential part of the Obry gear. The principle of the gyroscope is that a flywheel which is spinning with a high momentum in a certain plane has a very strong tendency to continue spinning in that plane and to resist any effort to turn it into another plane. The actuating force of the gyroscopic flywheel is given by the tension of a very strong coil spring, or as in some of the most recent designs by a small electric motor. The axis of the gyroscopic wheel being once placed in a fore, and aft direction in the torpedo and the spinning set up, no matter how it turns to right or left the spinning gyro- scope, by its inherent directive force, built up of a composi- tion of centrifugal force and gravity, will cause the torpedo to turn back to its original course. If we wish to send the torpedo in a direction different from the direction of the launching tube, the gyroscope is turned into the plane of the direction in which it is desired the torpedo shall run and the spinning of the flywheel started. The action of the gyroscope upon the steering rudders is then such as to cause the torpedo to be swung into the desired direction and held there. The importance of this latter method is shown by the method of attack of a destroyer, the tubes of which are situated on the main deck well amidships. In making a head-on attack these tubes are swung diagonally across i82 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT tlie beam of the ship so as to discharge off either bow. The gyroscopes are first started to spin in a direction in the plane of the target and the torpedoes fired. The directive force of the gyroscope acting on the steering rudders brings the course of the torpedo back into the direction of the target after a short run. It will easily be seen that by this system of angular firing, torpedoes fired simultaneously off each bow will cover a considerable front of the enemy and will therefore afford better chances of making a hit. Another device of some importance which has lately been fitted causes a valve to open after the torpedo has run a certain distance, flooding the after compartment and causing the torpedo to sink. This is done so that if a loaded torpedo has been fired and failed to hit its mark and explode it will not be left floating, a menace to friend as well as to foe. All the latest torpedoes are equipped with means of heating the compressed air stored in the flask before it reaches the engine. The heater is situated in the air passage between the reservoir and the engine and is auto- matically lighted as the torpedo is discharged. The heat- ing of the air greatly increases the efficiency of the torpedo as anyone who is familiar with compressed air phenomena will understand. By its means both the effective range and the speed of the torpedo have been materially aug- mented. The new 21" hot air torpedo manufactured by the Bliss- Leavitt Company in Brooklyn has an effective range of 10,000 yards and a maximum speed of 43 knots per hour, and will carry about 500 pounds of high explosive. So we see that from a machine of a doubtful 800 yard range and a speed of 8 or 10 knots the torpedo has become a weapon THE TORPEDO 183 a. \ \ \ \ \ \^ V \ \ /A Mc^ico/es posr/jon a/)^ of c^/:Sc/>ofge of Yof-peefoej. \ C /f>c//cer/ks /oas/^ion ofje"B exploding a percussion cap, closes an electric circuit. There is however another break in the electric circuit which must be closed before the mine can be exploded; this is effected by leading an electric cable down through the anchor and thence to a shore sta- tion where the circuit is broken by a switch. Unless this switch is closed the mine cannot be fired. In this way if no ships of the enemy are in the vicinity the switch at the shore sta- tion can be left open and all friendly ship- ping can pass in and out with absolute safety. Another form of elec- tro-contact mine has the firing mechanism and the bursting charge in separate cases; the contact buoy contain- ing the firing mechanism is held a few feet below the sur- face and connected to the mine proper by cable. The mine itself, which is several feet below the buoy, is anchored as before, and is in electrical connection with a shore sta- tion. There are to this type of mine two distinct and separate circuits ; a signal circuit leading from the contact Diagram showing depth regulation of contact mines When the mine is dropped overboard, the drop-weight sinks first, as in figure on the left, and causes the drum of the anchor- weight cable to unwind until the drop- weight reaches the bottom, as in central figure. This causes the drum to stop un- winding, and the anchor-weight then pulls the mine below the surface, the depth of the drop-weight cable length, as in the fig- ure on the right. 200 THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT buoy, and a firing circuit leading to the mine itself. When the firing pin of the contact buoy is struck the signal cir- cuit is closed causing a bell to ring or a lamp to light at the shore station. To discharge the mine the observer at the keyboard of the shore station has then only to close the switch in the firing circuit of the mine which corre- sponds to the signal given. Where the depth of the water is too great or the current too swift to make practicable the use of these mines ground mines are resorted to. The ground mines are very heavy and contain exceedingly heavy charges of explosive, the amount depending upon the depth at which they are placed. A method commonly employed in firing ground mines is to have two shore stations in electrical connection with the mine and a break in the circuit at each station. These two breaks must be closed simultaneously in order to explode the mine. To effect the simultaneous closing of the breaks, each station is provided with a telescope mounted upon a swivel base which is constructed so as to practically constitute a selective switch. The switch points of the base are arranged to close the break in that circuit leading to the particular mine upon which the tele- scope is directly bearing at that instant. To explode a mine the observers at each shore station have therefore only to keep their telescopes bearing upon the approaching ship and when the ship is directly over any mine each tele- scope sighting upon it will have simultaneously closed the breaks and the firing circuit completed. Should a ship not pass directly over a mine the two breaks cannot be closed at the same time thus preventing the useless explo- sion of a valuable mine. SUBMARINE MINES 201 The explosives most commonly used in submarine mines are wet and dry gun-cotton, dynamite, and explosive gelatine compositions. These are superior to gun-powder because they are not affected by moisture, when a leak in the casing would cause gun-powder to become useless, and because they have from six to eight times the expansive force of gun-powder. Many new higher explosives have recently been perfected for this use however, which are said to greatly exceed in destructive force anything which has been known heretofore. It is claim.ed for some of the new explosives that a mine loaded with a charge of five hundred pounds would have enough bursting force to rupture the bottom plates of a modern battleship if ex- ploded within a radius of one hundred feet, provided it was properly immersed. Even where the explosion of the mine fails to blow a hole in the ship's bottom, the shock of the explosion may cause serious damage by putting out of commission delicately adjusted machinery and electrical equipment. The tre- mendous concussion may also cause the detonation of the high explosives stored in the magazines of the ship, causing her complete destruction. B/iLL/) 5T I\'-\0\C\>< \£\R\S\ •-<> MOTORS <. ENGINE R.OOM \>^fJf^'^^'^9''A CReiw's OUARTER.S ^ #^^^^H hn^^^ B/9LL./9Sr '>OFFiCE/?5 TORPEDO R]pOM PLATE IV. PLAN AND PROFILE OF 600-TON LAURENTI SUBMARINE B/9LL/}5T dXH OTOR5 <, CIEXH £NGINE R.OOM °feod@5)P©5lf OPERATJNG 3T/)T/OA/S N -TV cS^^^c >oFFiCE/?5 TORPEDO R OOM BALUAtST PLATE IV. PLAN AND PROFILE OF 600-TON LAURENTI SUBMARINE 'J"-'l-T ^ °TT~~~ II Q VC 1^ 1 r — 1_^ -rnoaenn PLATE V. PLAN AND PROFILE OF 800-TON GERMAN SUBMARINE PLATE V. PLAN AND PROFILE OF 8cx5-TON GERMAN SUBMARINE PLATE VI. PROFILE OF 830-TON ELECTRIC BOAT TYPE SUBMARINE APPENDIX I LIST OF SUBMARINES IN THE PRINCIPAL NAVIES Table I. — United States Submakines No. Class Displacement Engines Speed Radius Motors Speed No. Surface Tons B. H. P. Surface Miles B.H. P. Subm. Tubes 6 A io6 160 8.5 70 7-25 I .S B I4S 250 8 7S SCO IIS 8 2 S C 240 500 10 5 2300 230 9 2 3 D 288 600 13 3000 33° 9 S 4 2 E 287 500 13 3500 520 II 4 ?, F 330 620 13 S 3800 620 II 2S 4 S G-i-2-3 400 1 200 14 600 9 5 6 I G-4 37° 1000 14 600 9 5 4 3 H 358 95° 14 4300 620 10 5 4 8 K 392 95° 14 4500 680 10 5 4 II L 45° 95° 14 5000 680 10 S 4 I M 488 1600 ift SS°o 10 .■; 4 7 N* 348 950 13 4000 680 II 4 i6 0* 48s 14 SSoo II 4 Schley* 1 100 4000 20. 6000 12. 8 *Building Table II. — German Submarines Class Displacement Surf. " Subm Length Breadth B. H. P. Engines B. H. P. Motors Max. Speed, Surf. " Subm. Radius Surface No. Tubes No. Guns U-i i8s 240 128' 3" ii'io" 400 240 II Kn. U-2 toU-8 237 300 141' 8" 12' 4" 600 320 12 Kn. 8.5" 1200 m. U-9 to U-12 250 U-13 to U-20 45° 550 1200 600 15 Kn. 9 " 3 I-I-4S' U-21 to U-32 650 800 213' 3" 20' o" 1800 800 16 Kn. 10 " 1500 m. 2-3.46" ... 'Engineering'' U-33 to U-38 675 835 2500 17 kn. 10 " 203 204 APPENDIX The German building program contemplated 72 submarines by 1917 and it has been reported on good authority that all of these boats were laid down in 1914 soon after the outbreak of the war. The dimensions of these boats are reported as length 214 ft.; beam 20 ft.; surface displacement 750 metric tons, submerged, 900 tons; speed on the surface 20 knots and 10 knots submerged; B. H. P. engines 4000, and radius of action on the surface 5000 miles. Built Building Tons 1686 " 537° Austria to July i, 19 14 Table III. — Allies' Submarines To July I, 1Q14 British French Year No. Tons Year No, Tons 1903 1903 2 840 1904 1904 1905 10 3160 1905 1906 7 2216 1906 20 11324 1907 12 3852 1907 1908 8 2568 1908 1909 8 4915 1909 1910 8 6420 1910 3 2084 1911 6 4948 1911 I 984 IQ12 9 8010 1912 9 Sioo 1913 II 8496 1913 6 4900 79 44,58s Totals* 41 25,232 * Built at outbreak of war. Russia Japan Italy No. Tons No. Tons No. Tons Built Building 30 19 6506 13284 13 2 2672 1200 19 8 S47S 5842 INDEX Accessibility of machinery and en- gines, necessity for, 28 Accidents, list of, 192 Accommodations for berthing, 36 Action, Radius of, 18, 86,, 137 Adder, U. S. submarine boat, 16 Advantage of destroyer over sub- marine, 30 Aeroplane versus submarine, 148 Air connections required for safety, 106, 109 Angle fire method of torpedo attack, 161, 181 Apportionment of weights, 62 Armament, 97 Arrangement of torpedo tubes, 97 Attack, submarine tactics for, 158 Attack upon submarine by de- stroyer, 30, 144 Automobile torpedo, see torpedo B Balance of chief factors, proper, 137 Ballast system, 61 Base strategy, 153 Battery ventilation, 108 Batteries, storage, 124 Battleship, efifect of submarine upon design of the, 141 Bauer, tribulations of, 12 Beam-length ratio, effect upon re- sistance, 6s Bliss-Leavitt Torpedo Co., 179, 182 Blockade, effect of submarines upon the strategy of, 164 Blockade, maintenance of subma- rine, 168 Boiler (soda) , method of propulsion, 22 Bombs, use of, against submarines, I4S Bonaparte, Napoleon, and Fulton, 3 Booms, use of, for harbor protection, 150 Bridge, navigating, 90 British submarine development, 20 British submarine of the F class, 20 British submarine operations in the Dardanelles, r58 British submarine operations in the North Sea, 154 Buoy, position marker, 108 Buoyancy, position of, center of, 44 Buoyancy reserve, percentage of, 38 Bushnell, David, i, 195 , lack of appreciation of, 3 , Turtle, I Calculations for propellers, 73 Calculations for strength of huU, 104 Campaign in the Dardanelles, sub- marine, 158 Campaign in the North Sea, sub- marine, 154 Center of buoyancy, position of, 44 203 2o6 INDEX Center of gravity, position of, 40, 44 Chief characteristics of the Adder, 16 Chief characteristics of the M-i, 16 Chief characteristics of the sub- marine torpedo boat, 15 Chief characteristics of the U-g, 22 Circle of visibiUty, radius of, 162 Circular hull type of boat, 38 Civil War, use of the submarine in, 4 Civil War, use of the submarine mine in, 196 Coast defense operations, 166 Colt, Samuel, 195 Communications, interior, 95 Compass, gyroscopic master, 90 Compass variations effected by huU, 88 Compromise in design, necessity of, S8 Conning tower, 92-106 Contact mines, 197 , depth control, 199 Control, automatic depth, 106 Control by use of forward propel- lers, 54 Control, factors and margin of safety in the different types, 51 Cork sheathing in living quarters, 37 Cost of the automobile torpedo, 184 Course, effect of error in estimation of, 16s Cruising radius, real limit of, 18 Curves, typical speed and power, showing difference between en- gines and motors, 75 D Dardanelles, submarine operations in the, 158 "Davids," the, 4 Davy, Marie, 93 Deck tubes, 97 Defense against the submarine, means of, 142 Defense, mode of coast, 166 Defense, mode of harbor, 158 Defensive operations of the sub- marine, 158 Del Proposto system of propulsion, 130 Depth control of contact mine, 199 Depth control of submarine, 106 Design, effect of submarine, on battleship, 141 Design of the submarine , armament, 97 , apportionment of weights, 63 , ballast system, 61 , effect of form upon resistance, 6S , frame resistance formula, 104 , habitability, 34, 82 , navigation, 88 , propulsive system, 18, 28, 65, 80, no, 130, 140 , radius of action, 18, 86, 137 , safety, 102 , signalling and interior com- munication, 95 , speed and power curves, 74- 75 , speed and power estimation, 67 , stability, 60 Destroyer versus the submarine, 30, 144 Determination of E, H. P. in the model basin, 68 Development, beginning of system- atic, IS INDEX 207 Development, future, 134 , in England, 20 , in France, 20 , in Germany, 22 Deviation of the compass erratic, 88 Diameter, tactical, 92 Diesel engine, theory of, 112 , diflSculties in design, 116 , German types, 120 Difi&culties in rapidly increasing sub- marines over their present size, 137 Diving type, characteristics of per- formance of, 46 , equilibrium forces of, 51 , impracticability of large boats of the, 48 Double hull type of construction, 22 d'QueviUey system of propulsion, 130 Dragging for submarines, 147 Drop keels, 108 Dual system of power plant, the limitations of the, 18 Dyson, Captain C. W., on propeller design, 77 Effect of submarine on the strategy of blockade, 164 Effective torpedo range, limit of, 28, 162 Efficiency, tactical, 138 E. H. P., determination of, 68 Electric Boat Co., 18 Electro-contact mines, ig8 Engines, Diesel, 112 , four cycle and two cycle, 115 , gasoHne, no , speed and power curves of, 75 steam, 128 EngUsh submarine activities, 154, 158 Entanglements for harbor defense, 150 Equilibrium of diving boats, 51 Equilibrium of "Even Keel" boats, S3 Estimation of power, by comparison, 77 , by independent method, 78 , by model basin testing, 67 Even keel submergence, 46, 53 Evolutions, tactical, of the subma- rine, 153 Eagle, attack on the British flag- ship, 2 Edison nickel-iron storage battery, 126 Effect of beam-length ratio upon resistance, 65 Effect of error in estimation of range, 162 Effect of error in the estimation of speed and course of enemy, 163 Effect of form upon resistance, 65 Effect of submarine on battleship design, 141 F class, British, 20 Fenian Ram, Holland's, 6 Fiab, San Giorgio Co., 188 Firing, angle method of, 161, 181 Firing, necessity for rapid, 32, 98 Firing, system of torpedo, 32, 97 Floating mines, 196 Form of huU, effect on resistance, 65 Form of superstructure, 105 Formulas, propeller, 75 Forward propellers, effect of, 54, 93 France, submarine development in. 208 INDEX Franco-Prussian War, use of mines, 196 Froude's laws of comparison, 64, 77 Fuel siiips, 186 Fulton, Robert, 3, 195 Fulton's Nautilus, 4 Future development, 134 Gas engines, no German submarine development, 22 German submarine operations, 156, Gravity, center of, 40, 44 Ground mines, 200 Gyroscope, the, 181 Gyroscopic control of torpedo fire, 180 Gyroscopic master compass, 90, 92 H Habitability, 34, 82 Hansing, Lieut., statement of, 36 Harbor defense tactics, 158 Harbor entanglements and booms, ISO Hersing, Lieut., interview with, 36 HoUand, John P., 6 Holland, the, 8 Holland type submarines in Eng- land, io in United States, 18 Holland's Fenian Ram, 6 Ilousatonic, sinking of the, 6 Hovgaard, Lieut., 10 Hull, calculations for strength of, 104 , circular type, 38 , double, 22, 44 , efficiency of, 70 , resistance, 69 — — , ship-shape form of, 38 Hull, single, 40 Hydroplanes, 28, 46 Impracticability of large boats of the diving type, 48 Independent method of estimation of power, 78 Installation of machinery, 2^ Interior communication, 95 Interview of Capt. Hersing on 2400 mile cruise to the Dardanelles, 36 Invisibility of the submarine, 143 Ironclad plates, 126 K Keel, drop, 108 , even, 46, 53 Krupp Diesel type engines, 120 Krupp, German submarine develop- ment by, 22 Lake, Simon, inventor, 14 Lake t5TDe, 18 L. A. Submarine Boat Co., type, 131 Large type submarine, 136 Lauboeuf type, 12 Laurenti tx-pe, 20 Law, Froude's, 64, 77 Lead accumulator cells, 124 Lee, Corporal Ezra, ■• Lc Morse, 8 Le Plongeiir, 6 Limit of eflfectixe torpedo range, :?S Limitations of present dual system of propulsion, iS List of accidents, 192 List of requirements of U. S. N., 15 Loading gear for torpedoes, 97 Lupius, Capt., 174 INDEX 209 M Maintenance of submarine block- ade, 168 Maintenance of trim, 62 Means of defense against the sub- marine, 143 Metacentric height, 42 Method of advance during attack, 160 Method of torpedo fire, 32 M-i, U. S. submarine, characteris- tics of, 16 Mines, in Civil War, 196 , in Franco-Prussian War, ig6 , in Russo-Japanese War, 196 Mines, submarine., contact, 197 , ground, 200 , electro-contact, 198 , method of employment of floating mines, 196 , use of, against the submarine. Mine-layer, operations of, 197 Model basin, experiments for resist- ance, 65, 68 Morse, Le, 8 Motors, electric, 122 Motors, typical speed-power curve of, 7S N Nanal, the, 12 Nautilus, the, 4 Navigation, 88 , submerged, 93 , surface, 90 Nordenfelt's submarines, 10 North Sea, submarine operations in the, 154 O Obry gear, 180 Operations of the submarine, de- fensive, 158 , offensive, 168 Operations of mine layer, 197 Peacemaker, the, 22 Pasted plate, 126 Periscope, the, 12, 32, 93 , vulnerability of the, 144 Pitt, William, 4 Plante plate, 124 Plongeur, Le, 6 Position marker buoy, 108 Power, estimation of, 67, 78 Power plant, 78, no , installation and reliability of, 28 , Kmitations of present system of, 18 , percentage of weight allotted to, 65 , single unit system of, 140 Propellers, advantage of forward, 93 , Capt. C. W. Dyson on design of, 77 , computation and formulas, 73 , selection of, 71 Proper balance of all factors, 137 Proposto system of propulsion, del, 130 Propulsive system, 18, 28, 65, 80, no, 130, 140 Pumping for ballast and fuel sys- tems, 106 Q Quarters, for men, 34, 36, 82, 84 , food facilities, 84 2IO INDEX Quarters, heating, 84 d'Quevilley system of propulsion, 22, 130 Quick submergence, necessity for, 30 R Radius of action, 18, 86, 137 Radius of circle of visibility, 162 Raider, submarine in role of, 170 Range, effective, 28, 162 , eflfect of error in estimation of, 162 Range finding, 94 Ratio of beam to length, effect of, 65 Relative stability of different types, 40 Rehabihty of power plant, 28 Requirements, Ust of U. S. N., 15 Reserve buoyancy, 38 Resistance, effect of beam-length ratio on, 65 , effect of form on, 65 Rule for wetted surface, 80 Russo-Japanese War, the use of mines and their importance in, 196 Safety factors, 102 Salvage ships, i85 Schley, the U. S. submarine, 136 Sea-going type of submarine, 136 Sea-worthiness, 26 Selection of propellers, 71 Selection of type, 58 Ship-shape form of hull, 38 Signaling devices, 95 Single unit system of propulsion, 140 Sleeping quarters, 36 Soda boiler system of propulsion, 22, 130 Speed and power estimation, 67 Speed boats as submarine catchers, 147 Speed, effect of error in estimation of, 162 , importance of, 28 Speed of automobile torpedo, 176 Stability, 26, 40, 42, 60, 62 Steam engine, 6, 10, no, 128 Steering stations, 92 Steering mechanism of automobile torpedo, 180 Storage batteries, 8, 122 Strategic bases, 153 Strategy of the blockade, 164 Strength of hull, 102 Submarine, definition of, 58 Submarine blockade, 168 Submarine characteristics and re- quirements, 26 Submarine in battle, 172 Submarine in the role of raider, 170 Submarine operations in the Dar- danelles, 158 Submarine operations in the North Sea, 154 Submarine signal system, 95 Submarine size increase, 134, 137 Submarine tenders, 185 Submarines and submersibles, 38 Submarines in the Civil \\'ar, 4 Submarines versus aeroplanes, 148 Submarines versus submarines, 151 Submergence, depth, 102 , diving type, 46 , even keel, 46, 53 Submerged na\-igation, 93 Submerged speed and radius of action, 18 Submergence, necessity for rapid, 30 INDEX 211 Submerging, equiKbrium factors of, S3 Submerging type versus the diving type, 46 Superstructure, form of, 105 Tactical diameter, 92 Tactical efficiency, 138 Tactical evolutions, 153 Tactical value, 26 Tactics of the sea-going submarine, 168 Taylor, Admiral D. W., rule for wetted surface, 80 Tenders, submarine, 185 Thrust deduction factor, 70 Torpedo, automobile, 8, 161, 174 ■ — ■ — , air flask, 1 76 , air heaters, 182 , angle fire, 182 , automatic sinking device con- trol, 182 , Bliss-Lea vitt, 179 — ■ — , cost of, 184 , Davis, 184 , engine, 178 , government factory at New- port, R. I., 184 , hydrostatic piston, 178 , immersion chamber, 178 , Obry gear, 180 , steering mechanism, 180 , wake of, 140 , warhead, 176 Torpedo, deck tubes, 97 Torpedo, methods for fixing, 32, 161, 181 Torpedo, gear for loading and hand- ling, 97 Torpedo range, 28 Torpedo tubes, 97 Torpedo rake, 140 Trim, maintenance of, 16 Tuck, Prof. J. H. L., 22, 131 Types, double huU, 22, 44 , d'Que viUey , 2 2 •, Electric Boat Co., 18 , Lake Torpedo Boat Co., 18 , Laurenti, 20 , Sea-going, 136 , Submersible, 38, 42, 58 , Submarines proper, 38, 40, 42,58 U U-g, chief characteristics of, 22 U-si, exploit of the German, 36 Unsolved difficulties in design of large type, 137 Use of mines and bombs against the submarine, 145 V Van Drebbel, Dr. Cornelius, i Variations of the magnetic compass, 88 Ventilation of storage batteries, 108 Visibility circle of, 162 , of air bubbles, 140 , of periscope as a target, 144 W Wake of Torpedo, 140 Warhead of the torpedo, 176 Weight, EfEect on design, 61 Weight of storage batteries, 127 Weight of power plant, 65 Weights, apportionment of, 62 Wetted surface formula, 80 Whitehead, Robt., 174 Wireless, 97 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 25 PARK PLACE NEW YORK SHORT-TITLE CATALOG OF OF SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING BOOKS This list Includes the technical publications of the following English publishers : SCOTT, QREENWOOD & CO. JAMES MUNRO & CO.. Ltd. CONSTABLE & COMPANY, Ltd. TECHNICAL PUBLISHINQ CO. ELECTRICIAN PRINTING & PUBLISHINQ CO., for whom D. Van Nostrand Company are American agents. Descriptive Circulars sent on regwesi. November, i9I5 SH0RT=T1TLE CATALOG OF THE Publications and Importations OF D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 25 PARK PLACE Prices marked with an asterisic (*) are NET All bindings are in clotli unless otherwise noted Abbott, A. V. The Electrical Transmission of Energy; 8vo, *$5 oo A Treatise on Fuel. (Science Series No. 9.) i6mo, o 50 ^ Testing Machines. (Science Series No. 74.) i6ino, o 50 Adam, P. Practical Bookbinding. Trans, by T. E. Maw.iamo, *2 50 Adams, H. Theory and Practice in Designing 8vo, *2 50 Adams, H. C. Sewage of Seacoast Towns 8vo, *2 00 Adams, J. W. Sewers and Drains for Populous Districts 8vo, 2 50 Adler, A. A. Theory of Engineering Drawing 8vo, *2 00 Principles of Parallel Projecting-Line Drawing 8vo, *i 00 Aikman, C. M. Manures and the Principles of Manuring. . .8vo, 250 Aitken, W; Manual of the Telephone 8vo, *8 00 d'Albe, E. E. F. Contemporary Chemistry i2mo, *i 25 Alexander, J. H. Elementary Electrical Engineering i2mo, 200 AUanj W. Strength of Beams under Transverse Loads. (Science Series No. 19.) i6mo, o 50 Allan, W. Theory of Arches. (Science Series No. 11.). . i6mo, Allen, H. Modern Power Gas Producer Practice and Applica- tions i2mo, "2 so Gas and Oil Engines 8vo, *4 50 Anderson, J. W. Prospector's Handbook i2mo, i 50 D. VAN XOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CA I'ALOG 3 Andes, L. Vegetable Fats and Oils 8vo, *4 oo Animal Fats and Oils. Trans, by C. Salter 8vo, *4 oo Drying Oils, Boiled Oil, and Solid and Liquid Driers. . .8vo, *5 oo Iron Corrosion, Anti-fouling and Anti-corrosive Paints. Trans, by C. Salter Svo, *4 oo Oil Colors and Printers' Ink. Trans, by A. Morris and H. Robson Svo, *2 50 Treatment of Paper for Special Purposes. Trans, by C. Salter i2mo, *2 50 Andrews, E. S. Reinforced Concrete Construction i2mo, "i 25 Theory and Design of Structures Svo, 3 50 Further Problems in the Theory and Design of Struc- tures Svo, 2 50 Andrews, E. S., and Heywood, H. B. The Calculus for Engineers i2mo, i 25 Annual Reports on the Progress of Chemistry. Eleven Vol- umes now ready. Vol. I, 1904, to Vol. XI, 1914, Svo, each *2 00 Argand, M. Imaginary Quantities. Translated from the French by A. S. Hardy. (Science Series Ho. 52.) i6mo, o 50 Armstrong, R., and Idell, F. E. Chimneys for Furnaces and Steam Boilers. (Science Series No. i.) i6mo, o 50 Arnold, E. Armature Windings of Direct Current Dynamos. Trans, by F. B. DeGress Svo, *2 00 Asch, W., and Asch, D. The Silicates in Chemistry and Commerce Svo, *6 00 Ashe, S. W., and Keiley, J. D. Electric Railways. Theoreti- cally and Practically Treated. Vol. I. Rolling Stock i2mo, *2 50 Ashe, S. W. Electric Railways. Vol. II. Engineering Pre- liminaries and Direct Current Sub-Stations i2mo, '2 50 Electricity: Experimentally and Practically Applied. i2mo,- '2 00 Ashley, R. H. Chemical Calculations i2mo, *i 00 Atkinson, A. A. Electrical and Magnetic Calculations. .Svo, *i 50 Atkinson, J. J. Friction of Air ' in Mines. (Science Series No. 14.) i6mo, o so Atkinson, J. J., and Williams, E. H., Jr. Gases Met with in Coal Mines. (Science Series No. 13.) i6mo, o 50 4 D. VAN NOHTBANB COMPANY'S SH0RT-TITL15 CATALOG Atkinson, P. The Elements of Electric Lighting i2mo, The Elements of Dynamic Electricity and Magnetism. i2mo, Atkinson, P. Power Transmitted by Electricity i2mo, Auchincloss, W. S. Link and Valve Motions Simplified .... 8vo, Austin, E. Single Phase Electric Railways 4*0, Ayrton, H. The Electric Arc 8vo, Bacon, F. W. Treatise on the Richards Steam-Engine Indica- tor i2mo, Bailes, G. M. Modern Mining Practice. Five Volumes. 8 vo, each, Bailey, R. D. The Brewers' Analyst 8vo, Baker, A. L. Quaternions i2mo, Thick-Lens Optics izmo. Baker, Benj. Pressure of Earthwork. (Science Series No. 56.) i6mo, Baker, I. Levelling. (Science Series No. 91.) i6mo, Baker, M. N. Potable Water. (Science Series No. 61) . i6mo, Sewerage and Sewage Purification. (Science Series No. 18.) i6mo, Baker, T. T. Telegraphic Transmission of Photographs. i2mo. Bale, G. R. Modern Iron Foundry Practice. Two Volumes. i2mo. Vol. I. Foundry Equipment, Material Used *2 50 Vol. II. Machine Moulding and Moulding Machines 'i 50 Ball, J. W. Concrete Structures in Railways 8vo, Ball, R. S. Popular Guide to the Heavens 8vo, Natural Sources of Power. (Westminster Series) 8vo, Ball, W. V. Law Affecting Engineers 8vo, Bankson, Lloyd. Slide Valve Diagrams. (Science Series No. 108.) i6mo, Barba, J. Use of Steel for Constructive Purposes i2mo, Barham, G. B. Development of the Incandescent Electric Lamp 8vo *a 00 Barker, A. Textiles and Their Manufacture. (Westminster Series) 8vo, 2 00 Barker, A. F., and Midgley, E. Analysis of Textile Fabrics, 8vo, 3 00 Barker, A. H, Graphic Methods of Engine Design. ...i2mo, *i 50 Heating and Ventilation ^to *8 00 I SO 2 00 2 00 *I 50 *5 00 •s 00 I 00 3 50 •s 00 *r 25 •i so SO 50 SO *i 25 *2 50 *4 50 *2 00 *3 SO SO I 00 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG O Barnard, J. H. The Naval Militiaman's Guide. .i6mo, leather, i oo Barnard, Major J. G. Rotary Motion. (Science Series No. 90.) i6mo, o 50 Barrus, G. H. Boiler Tests 8vo, *3 00 Engine Tests 8vo, "4 00 The above two purchased together *6 00 Barwise, S. The Purification of Sewage i2mo, 3 50 Baterden, J. R. Timber. (Westmenster Series) 8vo, *2 00 Bates, £. L., and Charlesworth, F. Practical Mathematics and Geometry for Technical Students i2mo. Part I. Preliminary and Elementary Course "i 50 Part n. Advanced Course *i 50 Practical Mathematics 'i 50 Practical Geometry and Graphics *2 00 Batey, J. The Science of Works Management i2mo, *i 25 Beadle, C. Chapters on Pa permaking. Five Volumes. i2mo, each, *2 00 Beaumont, R. Color in Woven Design 870, *6 00 Finishing of Textile Fabrics 8vo, "4 00 Bechhold, H. Colloids in Biology and Medicine. Trans, by J. G. Bullowa (In Press.) Bedell, F., and Pierce, C. A. Direct and Alternating Current Manual 8vo, *2 00 Beech, F. Dyeing of Cotton Fabrics 8 vo, *3 00 Dyeing of Woolen Fabrics 8vo, *3 50 Beckwith, A. Pottery 8vo, paper, o 60 Beggs, G. E. Stresses in Railway Girders and Bridges. . . .(In Press.) Begtrup, J. The Slide Valve 8vo, *2 00 Bender, C. E. Continuous Bridges. (Science Series No. 26.) i6mo, o 50 Proportions of Pins used in Bridges. (Science Series No. 4.) i6mo, o 50 Bengough, G. D. Brass. (Metallurgy Series) (In Press.) Bennett, H.G. The Manufacture of Leather 8vo, *4 50 Bernthsen, A. A Text-book of Organic Chemistry. Trans, by G. M'Gowan i2mo, *2 50 Berry, W. J. Differential Equations of the First Species. i2mo (In Preparation.) Bersch, J. Manufacture of Mineral and Lake Pigments. Trans. by A. C. Wright 8vo, *s 00 6 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG Bertin, L. E. Marine Boilers. Trans, by L. S. Robertson. .8 vo, Beveridge, J. Papermaker's Pocket Book izmo, Bmnie, Sir A. Rainfall Reservoirs and Water Supply. .8vo, Binns, C F. Manual of Practical Potting 8vo, The Potter's Craft i2mo, Birchmore, W. H. Interpretation of Gas Analysis izmo, Blaine, R. G. The Calculus and Its Applications i2mo, Blake, W. H. Brewer's Vade Mecum 8vo, Blasdale, W. C. Quantitative Chemical Analysis. .. .izmo, Bligh, W. G. The Practical Design of Irrigation Works. .8vo, Bloch, L. Science of Illumination 8vo, Blok, A. Illumination and Artificial Lighting i2mo, Blucher, H. Modern Industrial Chemistry. Trans, by J. P. Millington 8vo, Blyth, A. W. Foods: Their Composition and Analysis. ..8vo, Poisons: Their Effects and Detection 8vo, Bockmann, F. Celluloid lamo, Bodmer, G. R. Hydraulic Motors and Turbines i2mo, Boileau, J. T. Traverse Tables 8vo, Bonney, G. E. The Electro-plater's Handbook i2mo, Booth, N. Guide to Ring-Spinning Frame i2mo. Booth, W. H. Water Softening and Treatme::t 8vo, Superheaters and Superheating and their Control. . .8vo, Bottcher, A. Cranes: Their Construction, Mechanical Equip- ment and Working. Trans, by A. Tolhausen 4to, *xo oo Bottler, M. Modern Bleaching Agents. Trans, by C. Salter. 1 2 mo, *2 50 Bottone, S. R. Magnetos for Automobilists i2mo, *i 00 Boulton, S. B. Preservation of Timber. (Science Series No. 82.) i6mo, 050 Bourcart, E. Insecticides, Fungicides and Weedkillers. . .8vo, *4 50 Bourgougnon, A. Physical Problems. (Science Series No. 113.) i6mo, o so Bourry, E. Treatise on Ceramic Industries. Trans, by A. B. Searle gvo, "5 00 Bowie, A. J., Jr. A Practical Treatise on Hydraulic Mining. 8vo, 5 00 Bowles, 0. Tables of Common Rocks. (Science Series.) . i6mo, o 50 5 00 '4 00 *3 00 *7 50 *2 00 *I 25 »I 50 *4 00 *2 50 *6 00 *2 50 *I 25 *7 50 7 50 7 50 *2 50 5 00 5 00 I 20 *i 25 '2 50 *i 50 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 7 Bowser, E. A. Elementary Treatise on Analytic Geometry. i2mo, i 75 Elementary Treatise on the Differential and Integral Calculus i2mo, 2 25 Bowser, E. A. Elementary Treatise on Analytic Mechanics, i2mo, 3 00 Elementary Treatise on Hydro>mechanics i2mo, 250 A Treatise on Roofs and Bridges *2 25 Boycott, G. W. M. Compressed Air Work and Diving. .8 vo, "4 00 Bragg, E. M. Marine Engine Design i2mo, *2 00 Design of Marine Engines and Auxiliaries {In Press.) Brainard, F. R. The Sextant. (Science Series No. ioi.).i6mo, Brassey's Naval Annual for igti 8vo, *6 00 Brew, W. Three-Phase Transmission 8vo, *2 00 Briggs, R., and Wolff, A. R. Steam-Heating. (Science Series No. 67.) lemo, o so Bright, C. The Life Story of Sir Charles Tilson Bright. .8vo, "4 50 Brislee, T. J. Introduction to the Study of Fuel. (Outlines of Industrial Chemistry.) 8vo, *3 00 Broadfoot, S. K. Motors Secondary Batteries. (Installation Manuals Series.) : . i2mo, *o 75 Broughton, H. H. Electric Cranes and Hoists *9 00 Brown, G. Healthy Foundations. (Science Series No. 80.). i6mo, o 50 Brown, H. Irrigation 8vo, *5 00 Brown, Wm. N. The Art of Enamelling on Metal i2mo, *i 00 Handbook on Japanning and Enamelling i2mo, *i 50 House Decorating and Painting i2mo, ''i 50 History of Decorative Art i2mo, *i 25 Dipping, Burnishing, Lacquering and Bronzing Brass Ware i2mo, *i 00 Workshop Wrinkles 8vo, *i 00 Browne, R. E. Water Meters. (Science Series No. 8i.).i6mo, o 50 Bruce, E. M. Pure Food Tests i2mo, *i 25 Bruhns, Dr. New Manual of Logarithms 8vo, cloth, 2 00 Half morocco, 2 50 Brunner, R. Manufacture of Lubricants, Shoe Polishes and Leather Dressings. Trans, by C. Salter 8vo, *3 00 8 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG Buel, R. H. Safety Valves. (Science Series No. 21.) . . . i6mo, o 50 Burley, G. W. Lathes, Theiir Construction and Operation, i2mo, I 25 Burstall, F. W. Energy Diagram for Gas. With text. ..8vo, "i 50 Diagram sold separately *i 00 Burt, W. A. Key to the Solar Compass i6mo, leather, 2 50 Buskett, E. W. Fire Assaying i2mo, *i 25 Butler, H. J. Motor Bodies and Chasis 8vo, *2 50 Byers, H. G., and Knight, H. G. Notes on Qualitative Analysis 8vo, *i 5° Cain, W. Brief Course in the" Calculus i2mo, *i 73 Elastic Arches. (Science Series No. 48.) ifimo, 050 Maximum Stresses. (Science Series No. 38.) i6mo, o 50 Practical Dsigning Retaining of Walls. (Science Series No. 3.) i6mo, o so Theory of Steel-concrete Arches and of Vaulted Struc- tures. (Science Series.) i6mo, o 50 Theory of Voussoir Arches. (Science Series No. 12.) i6mo, o 50 Symbolic Algebra. (Science Series No. 73.) i6mo, o 50 Carpenter, F. D. Geographical Surveying. (Science Series No. 37.) i6mo, Carpenter, R. C, and Diederichs, H. Internal-Combustion Engines 8vo, *5 00 Carter, E. T. Motive Power and Gearing for Electrical Ma- chinery 8vo, 3 50 Carter, H. A. Ramie (Rhea), China Grass i2mo, *2 00 Carter, H. R. Modern Flax, Hemp, and Jute Spinning. . 8vo, *3 00 — — Bleaching, Dyeing and Finishing of Fabrics Jvo, *i 00 Cary, E. R. Solution of Railroad Problems With the Use of the Slide Rule i6mo, *i 00 Cathcart, W. L. Machine Design. Parti. Fastenings. . .8vo, "300 Cathcart, W. L., and Chaffee, J. I. Elements of Graphic Statics and General Graphic Methods 8vo, *3 00 Short Course in Graphic Statics i2mo, *i 50 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE C.VXALOG 9 Caven, R. M., and Lander, G. D. Systematic Inorganic Chem- istry i2mo, *2 00 Chalkley, A. P. Diesel Engines 8vo, *3 oo Chambers' Mathematical Tables 8vo, i 75 Chambers, G. F. Astronomy i2mo, ''i 50 Charpentier, P. Timber 8vo, *6 00 Chatley, H. Principles and Designs of Aeroplanes. (Science Series.) i6mo, o 50 How to Use Water Power i2mo, *i 00 Child, C. D. Electric Arcs 8vo, '2 00 Child, C. T. The How and Why of Electricity i2mo, i 00 Christian, M. Disinfection and Disinfectants lamo, *z 00 Christie, W. W. Boiler-waters, Scale, Corrosion, Foaming, 8to, *3 00 Chimney Design and Theory 8vo, *3 00 — — Furnace Draft. (Science Series.) lemo, o 50 Water, Its Purification and Use in the Industries. .8to, Church's Laboratory Guide. Rewritten by Edward Kinch.8vo, ''2 50 Clapperton, G. Practical Papermaking 8vo, 2 50 Clark, A. G. Motor Car Engineering. Vol. I. Construction 8vo, *3 00 Vol. n. Design (/« Press.) Clark, C. H. Marine Gas Engines i2mo, *i 50 Clark, J. M. New System of Laying Out Railway Turnouts, i2mo, I 00 Clarke, J. W., and Scott, W. Plumbing Practice. Vol. I. Lead Working ani Plumbers' Materials. .8to, *4 00 Vol. n. Sanitary Plumbing and Fittings (In Press.) Vol. in. Practical Lead Working on Roofs (In Press.) Clerk, D., and IdeU, F. E. Theory of the Gas Engine. (Science Series No. 62.) i6mo, o 50 Clevenger, S. R. Treatise on the Method of Government Surveying i6mo, mor., 2 50 Clouth, F. Rubber, Gutta-Percha, and Balata 8vo, *s 00 Cochran, J. Treatise on Cement Specifications 8vo, *i 00 Concrete and Reinforced Concrete Specifications 8vo, *2 50 10 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG Coffin, J. H. C. Navigation and Nautical Astronomy, .izmo, "3 50 Colburn, Z., and Thurston, R. H. Steam Boiler Explosions. (Science Series No. 2.) i6mo, o 50 Cole, R. S. Treatise on Photographic Optics i2mo, i 50 Coles-Finch, W. Water, Its Origin and Use 8vo, *5 00 Collins, J. E. Useful Alloys and Memoranda for Goldsmiths, Jewelers r6mo, o 50 Collis, A. G. High and Low Tension Switch-Gear Design. 8vo, *3 50 Switchgear. (Installation Manuals Series.) i2mo, 050 Coombs, H. A. Gear Teeth. (Science Series No. 120). . . i5mo, o 50 Cooper, W. R. Primary Batteries .- 8vo, *4 00 Copperthwaite, W. C. Tunnel Shields 4to, '9 00 Corey, H. T. Water Supply Engineering 8vo (In Press.) Corfield, W. H. Dwelling Houses. (Science Series No. 50.) i6mo, o 50 Water and Water-Supply. (Science Series No. 17.). . i6mo, j 50 Cornwall, H. B. Manual of Blow-pipe Analysis 8vo, *2 50 Cowell, W. B. Pure Air, Ozone, and Water i2mo, *2 00 Craig, J. W., and Woodward, W. P. Questions and Answers about Electrical Apparatus i2mo, leather, 1 50 Craig, T. Motion of a Solid in a Fuel. (Science Series No. 49.) i6mo, o 50 Wave and Vortex Motion. (Science Series No. 43.) . i6mo, o go Cramp, W. Continuous Current Machine Design 8vo, *2 50 Creedy, F. Single-Phase Commutator Motors 8vo, *2 00 Crocker, F. B. Electric Lighting. Two Volumes. 8vo. Vol. I. The Generating Plant 3 00 Vol. II. Distributing Systems and Lamps Crocker, F B., and Arendt, M. Electric Motors 8vo, '250 and Wheeler, S. S. The Management of Electrical Ma- chinery izmo, *i 00 Cross, C. F., Bevan, E. J., and Sindall, R. W. Wood Pulp and Its Applications. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, "2 00 Crosskey, L. R. Elementary Prospective 8 vo, i 00 Crosskey, L. R., and Thaw, J. Advanced Perspective 8vo, i 50 CuUey, J. L, Theory of Arches. (Science Series No. 87.). i6mo, 050 Dadourian, H. M. Analytical Mechanics 8vo. ''3 00 Danby, A. Natural Rock Asphalts and Bitumens 8vo, *2 50 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 11 Davenport, C. The Book. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 oo Davey, N. The Gas Turbine 8vo, *4 oo Da vies, F. H. Electric Power and Traction 8 vo, *2 oo Foundations and Machinery Fixing. (Installation Manuals Series.) i6mo, i oo Dawson, P. Electric Traction on Railways 8vo, *9 oo Deerr, N. Cane Sugar 8vo, 7 00 Deite, C. Manual of Soapmaking. Trans, by S. T. King. .4to, *5 00 De la Coux, H. The Industrial Uses of Water. Trans, by A. Morris , . . . . 8vo, *4 50 Del Mar, W. A. Electric Power Conductors 8vo, "2 00 Denny, G. A. Deep-Level Mines of the Rand 4to, *io 00 Diamond Drilling for Gold *S 00 De Roos, J. D. C. Linkages. (Science Series No. 47.). . .i6mo, 050 Derr, W. L. Block Signal Operation Oblong i2mo, *i 50 Maintenance of Way Engineering (Jn Preparatwn.) Desaint, A. Three Hundred Shades and How to Mix Them. 8vo, 8 00 De Varona, A. Sewer Gases. (Science Series No. 55.)... i6mo, o 50 Devey, R. G. Mill and Factory Wiring. (Installation Manuals Series.) i2mo, *i 00 Dibdin, W. J. Purification of Sewage and Water 8vo, 6 50 Dichman, C. Basic Open-Hearth Steel Process 8vo, "3 50 Dieterich, K. Analysis of Resins, Balsams, and Gum Resins 8vo, *3 00 Dinger, Lieut. H. C. Care and Operation of Naval Machinery i2mo. *2 00 Dixon, D. B. Machinist's and Steam Engineer's Practical Cal- culator i6mo, mor., i 25 Doble, W". A. Power Plant Construction on the Pacific Coast. (/n Press) Dommett, W. E. Motor Car Mechanism lamo, *i 25 Dorr, B. F. The Surveyor's Guide and Pocket Table-book. i6mo, mor., 2 00 Draper, C. H. Elementary Text-book of Light, Heat Snd Sound i2mo, i 00 Draper, C. H. Heat and the Principles of Thermo-djTiamics. New and Revised Edition i2mo, 2 00 12 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANy'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG Dron, R. W. Mining Formulas i2mo, i oo Dubbel, H. High Power Gas Engines 8vo, *5 oo Duckwall, E. W. Canning and Preserving of Food Products. 8 vo, *$ oo Dumesny, P., and Noyer, J. Wood Products, Distillates, and Extracts 8vo, *4 SO Duncan, W. G., and Penman, D. The Electrical Equipment of Collieries 8vo, *4 oo Dunstan, A. E., and Thole, F. T. B. Textbook of Practical Chemistry i2mo, *i 40 Duthie, A. L. Decorative Glass Processes. (Westminster Series) 8vo, *2 00 Dwight, H. B. Transmission Line Formulas 8vo, *2 00 Dyson, S. S. Practical Testing of Raw Materials 8vo, 's 00 and Clarkson, S. S. Chemical Works 8vo, *j 30 Eccles, W. H. Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony. ... (/« Press.) Eck, J. Light, Radiation and Illumination. Trans, by Paul Hogner 8vo, *2 50 Eddy, H. T. Maximum Stresses under Concentrated Loads, 8vo, I 50 Edelman, P. Inventions and Patents i2mo, (/» Press.) Edgcumbe, K. Industrial Electrical Measuring Instruments . 8vo. Edler, R. Switches and Switchgear. Trans, by Ph. Laubach. 8vo, *4 00 Eissler, M. The Metallurgy of Gold 8vo, 7 50 The Metallurgy of Silver 8vo, 4 00 The Metallurgy of Argentiferous Lead 8vo, 5 00 A Handbook of Modern Explosives 8vo, g 00 Ekin, T. C. Water Pipe and Sewage Discharge Diagrams folio, *3 00 Electric Light Carbons, Manufacture of 8vo, i 00 Eliot, C. W., and Storer, F. H. Compendious Manual of Qualita- tive Chemical Analysis i2mo, 'i 25 Ellis, C. Hydrogenation of Oils 8vo, *4 00 Ellis, G. Modern Technical Drawing 8vo, *2 00 Ennis, Wra. D. Linseed Oil and Other Seed Oils 8vo, '4 00 Applied Thermodynamics 8vo, *4 50 Flying Machines To-day i2mo, *i 50 D. VAN NOSTHAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 13 Vapors for Heat Engines i2mo, *i oo Erfurt, J. Dyeing of Paper Pulp. Trans, by J. Hubner. .8vo. Ermen, W. F. A. Materials Used in Sizing i2ino, *2 oo Evans, C. A. Macadamized Roads {In Press.) Ewing, A. J. Magnetic Induction in Iron 8vo, "4 00 Fairie, J. Notes on Lead Ores iimo, *i 00 Notes on Pottery Clays i2mo, *i 50 Fairley, W., and Andre, Geo. J. Ventilation of Coal Mines. (Science Series No. 58.) i6mo, o 50 Fairweather, W. C. Foreign and Colonial Patent Laws . . .Svo, *3 00 Fanning, T. T. Hydraulic and Water-supply Engineering. Svo, *s 00 Fay, I. W. The Coal-tar Colors 8vo, *4 00 Fernbach, R. L. Glue and Gelatine 8vo, *3 00 Chemical Aspects of Silk Manufacture i2mo, *! 00 Fischer, E. The Preparation of Organic Compounds. Trans. by R. V. Stanford i mo, *i 25 Fish, J. C. L. Lettering of Working Drawings Oblong 80, i 00 Fisher, H. K. C, and Darby, W. C. Submarine Cable Testing. 8vo, *3 so Fleischmann, W. The Book of the Dairy. Trans, by C. M. Aikman 8vo, 4 00 Vleming, J. A. The Alternate-current Transformer. Two Volumes Svo, Vol. I. The Induction of Electric Currents *5 00 Vol. II. The Utilization of Induced Currents *S oc Propagation of Electric Currents Svo,. *3 00 A Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room. Two Volumes Svo, each, *5 00 Fleury, P. White Zinc Paints i2mo, *2 50 Flynn, P. J. Flow of Water. (Science Series No. 84.) . i6mo, o 50 Hydraulic Tables. (Science Series No. 66.) i6mo, o 50 Forgie, J. Shield Tunneling Svo. (In Press.) Foster, H.A. Electrical Engineers' Pocket-book. (Seventh Edition.) i2mo, leather, 5 00 Engineering Valuation of Public Utilities Svo, *3 00 Handbook of Electrical Cost Data Svo. (In Press) Fowle, F. F. Overhead Transmission Line Crossings i2mo, *i 50 The Solution of Alternating Current Problems Svo (In Press.) 14 D. VAN NOSTKAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TlTLR CATALOG Fo-i, W. G. Transition Curves. (Science Series No. no. ).i6mo, p So Fox, W., and Thomas, C. W. Practical Course in Mechanical Drawing i2mo, i 25 Foye, J. C. Chemical Problems. (Science Series No. 69.). r6mo, 050 Handbook of Mineralogy. (Science Series No. 86.) . i6mo, 50 Francis, J. B. Lowell Hydraulic Experiments 4to, 15 00 Franzen, H. Exercises in Gas Analysis izmo, *i 00 French, J. W. Machine Tools. 2 vols 4to, *i5 00 Freudemacher, P. W. Electrical Mining Installations. (In- stallation Manuals Series.) i2mo, *i 00 Frith, J. Alternating Current Design 8vo, '2 00 Fritsch, J. Manufacture of Chemical Manures. Trans, by D. Grant 8vo, *4 00 Frye, A. I. Civil Engineers' Pocket-book i2mo, leather, *5 00 FuUer, G.W. Investigations into the Purification of the Ohio River 4to, *io 00 Fiirnell, J. Paints, Colors, Oils, and Varnishes 8vo, *i 00 Gairdner, J. W. I. Earthwork 8vo (In Press.) Gant, L. V/. Elements of Electric Traction 8vo, *2 50 Garcia, A. J. R. V. Spanish-English Railway Terms. .. .8vo, *4 50 Garforth, W. E. Rules for Recovering Coal Mines after Explo- sions and Fires i2mo, leather, 1 50 Garrard, C. C. Electric Switch and] Controlling Gear. . . . (/n Press.) Gaudard, J. Foundations. (Science Series No. 34.) i6mo, o 50 Gear^ H, B., and Williams, P. F. Electric Central Station Dis- tributing Systems i2mo, *3 00 Geerligs, H. C. P. Cane Sugar and Its Manufacture 8vo, *s 00 Geikie, J. Structural and Field Geology 8vo, *4 00 • Mountains, Their Origin, Growth and Decay 8vo, *4 00 The Antiquity of Man in Europe 8vo, *3 00 Georgi, F., and Schubert, A. Sheet Metal Working. Trans. by C. Salter 8vo, 3 00 Gerber, N. Analysis of Milk, Condensed Milk, and Infants' Milk-Food , 8vo, i 25 Gerhard, W. I. Sanitation, Water-supply and S* -.vage Disposal of Country Houses i2mo, *2 00 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLti CATALOG 15 Gas Lighting. (Science Series No. iii.) i6mo, o 50 Gerhard, W. P. Household Wastes. (Science Series No. 97.) i6mo, House Drainage. (Science No. 63.) i6nio, Sanitary Drainage of Buildings. (Science Series No. 93.) i6mo, Gerhardi, C. W. H. Electricity Meters 870, Geschwind, L. Manufacture of Aliun and Sulphates. Trans. by C. Salter 8vo, Gibbs, W. E. Lighting by Acetylene lamo, Gibson, A. H. Hydratilics and Its Application Svo, Water Hammer in Hydraulic Pipe Lines lamo, Gibson, A. H., and Ritchie, E. 7. Circular Arc Bow Girder. 4to, Gilbreth, F. B. Motion Study. A Method for Increasing the Efficiency of the Workman i2mo, Primer of Scientific Management lamo, Gillmore, Gen. Q. A. Limes, Hydraulics Cement and Mortars. Svo, Roads, Streets, and Pavements i2mo, Golding, H. A The Theta-Phi Diagram i2mo, Goldschmidt, R. Alternating Current Commutator Motor. Svo, Goodchild, W. Precious Stones. (Westminster Series.) . Svo, Goodeve, T. M. Textbook on the Steam-engine i2mo. Gore, G. Electrolytic Separation of Metals Svo, Gould, E. S. Arithmetic of the Steam-engine i2mo, Calculus. (Science Series No. 112.) i6mo, High Masonry Dams. (Science Series No. 22.) . . .i6mo, Practical Hydrostatics and Hydrostatic Formulas. (Science Series.) .....' i6mo, Gratacap, L. P. A Popular Guide to Minerals Svo, Gray, J. Electrical Influence Machines i2mo, Gray, J. Marine Boiler Design ... i2mo, Greenhill, G. Dynamics of Mechanical Flight. ,;:.,. Svo, Greenwood, E. Classified Guide to Technical and Commercial Books 8vo, Giegorius, R. Mineral Waxes. Trans, by C. Salter i2mo, Griffiths, A. B. A Treatise on Manures ' i2mo. 50 50 SO % 00 '5 00 *i 50 *5 00 '2 00 *3 50 '2 00 *i 00 4 00 2 00 •i 25 *3 00 *2 00 2 00 *3 5° I 00 SO 50 SO *3 00 2 00 *i 2S '2 50 *3 00 '3 00 3 00 *3 SO *4 50 *i 2S *2 00 *2 00 *3 00 16 D. VAN NOSTRANi:) COMPANY'S 8H0HT-TITL,E CATALOG Griffiths, A. B. Dental Metallurgy 8vo, Gross, E. Hops r ■ - -8vo, Grossman, J. Ammonia and its Compounds i2mo, Groth, L. A. "Welding and Cutting Metals by Gases or Electric- ity. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, Grover, F. Modern Gas and Oil Engines 8vo, Gruner, A. Power-loom Weaving 8vo, Giildner, Hugo. Internal-Combustion Engines. Trans, by H. Diedrichs 4*0, *io 00 Gunther, C. 0. Integration i2mo. Gurden, R. L. Traverse Tables folio, half mor., "7 50 Guy, A. E. Experiments on the Flexure of Beams 8vo, "i 25 Haenig, A. Emery and the Emery Industry i2mo, *2 50 Hainbach, R. Pottery Decoration. Trans, by C. Slater. . i2mo, "300 Hale, W. J. Calculations of General Chemistry i2mo, *i 00 Hall, C. H. Chemistry of Paints and Paint Vehicles i2mo, '2 00 Hall, G. t. Elementary Theory of Alternate Current Work- ing 8vo, *i 50 Hall, R. H. Governors and Governing Mechanism i2mo, "2 00 Hall, W. S. Elements of the Differential and Integral Calculus 8vo, • Descriptive Geometry 8vo volume and 4to atlas, Haller, G. F., and Cunningham, E. T. The Tesla Coil i2mo, Halsey, F. A. Slide Valve Gears lamo, The Use of the Slide Rule. (Science Series.) i6mo, Worm and Spiral Gearing. (Science Series.)". i6mo, Hancock, H. Textbook of Mechanics and Hydrostatics 8vo, Hancock, W. C. Refractory Materials. (Metallurgy Series. (/nPr«j.) Hardy, E. Elementary Principles of Graphic Statics i2mo, Harrison, W. B. The Mechanics' Tool-book lamo. Hart, J. W. External Plumbing Work 8vo, Hints to Plumbers on Joint Wiping 8vo, Principles of Hot Water Supply 8vo, Sanitary Plumbing and Drainage 8vo, Haskins, C; H. The Galvanometer and Its Uses i6mo, Hatt, J. A. H. The Colorist . Second Edition, . . .square i2mo, *2 25 *3 50 *i 25 1 50 SO SO I res SO s.) 'I SO I SO '3 00 *3 00 *3 00 '3 00 I *i 50 50 I). VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 17 Hausbrand, E. Drying by Means of Air and Steam. Trans. by A. C. Wright i2mo, '2 00 Evaporating, Condensing and Cooling Apparatus. Trans. by A. C. Wright 8vo, *s 00 Hausmann, E. Telegraph Engineering 8vo, *3 00 Hausner, A. Manufacture of Preserved Foods and Sweetmeats. Trans, by A. Morris and H. Robson 8vo, "3 00 Hawkesworth, T. Graphical Handbook for Reinforced Concrete Design 4to, "2 50 Hay, A. Continuous Current Engineering 8vo, *2 50 Hayes, H. V. Public Utilities, Their Cost New and Deprecia- tion 8vo, *2 00 Public Utilities, Their Fair Present Value and Return, 8vo, *2 00 Heather, H. J. S. Electrical Engineering 8vo, '3 50 Heaviside, O. Electromg.gnetic Theory. Three volumes. 8vo, Vols. I and II, each, *s 00 Vol. Ill, *7 50 Heck, R. C. H. Steam Engine and Turbine Svo, *3 50 Steam-Engine and Other Steam Motors. Two Volumes. Vol. I. Thermodynamics and the Mechanics Svo, *3 50 Vol. II. Form, Construction and Working 8vo, *s 00 Notes on Elementary Kinematics 8vo, boards, *i 00 Graphics of Machine Forces Svo, boards, * i o o Heermann, P. Dyers' Materials. Trans, by A. C. Wright. i2mo, *2 so Hellot, Macquer and D'Apligny. Art of Dyeing Wool, Silk and Cotton Svo, *2 00 Henrici, O. Skeleton Structures Svo, i 50 Hering, D. W. Essentials of Physics for College Students. Svo, *i 75 Hermann, G. The Graphical Statics of Mechanism. Trans. by A. P. Smith i2mo, 2 00 Herring-Shaw, A. Domestic Sanitation and Plumbing. Two Parts Svo, *5 00 Elementary Science of Sanitation and Plumbing. . . .Svo, *2 00 Herzfeld, J. Testing of Yarns and Textile Fabrics 8vo, *3 so 18 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG Hildebrandt, A. Airships, Past and Present 8vo, *3 50 Hildenbrand, B. W. Cable-Making. (Science Series No. 32.) i6mo, o 05 Hildich, H. Concise History of Chemistry lamo, *i Hill, J. W. The Purification of Public Water Supplies. New 52 Edition (In Press.) Interpretation of Water Analysis ,.. .(In Press.) Hill, M. J. M. The Theory of Proportion 8vo, *2 50 Hiroi, I. Plate Girder Construction. (Science Series No. 95.) i6ino, o so Statically-Indeterminate Stresses i2mo, *2 00 Hirshfeld, C. F. Engineering Thermodynamics. (Science Series.) i6mo, o So Hobart, H. M. Heavy Electrical Engineering 8vo, *4 50 Design of Static Transformers 8vo, *2 00 Electricity 8vo, *2 00 Electric Trains 8vo, *2 50 Electric Propulsion of Ships 8vo, *2 00 Hobart, J. F. Hard Soldering, Soft Soldering, and Brazing . i2mo, *! 00 Hobbs, W. R. P. The Arithmetic of Electrical Measurements i2mo, o 50 Hoff, J. N. Paint and Varnish Facts and Formulas i2mo, *i 50 Hole, W. The Distribution of Gas 8vo, *7 50 Holley, A. L. Railway Practice folio, 6 00 Hopkins, N. M. Experimental Electrochemistry 8vo, Model Engines and Small Boats i2mo, i 25 Hopkinson, -J., Shoolbred, J. N., and D?.y, R. E. Dynamic Electricity. (Science Series No. 71.) i6mo, o So Horner, J. Practical Ironfounding 8vo, *2 00 Gear Cutting, in Theory and Practice 8vo, *3 00 Houghton, C. E. TheElementsof Mechanics of Materials. i2mo, '200 HouUevigue, L. The Evolution of the Sciences 8vo, *2 00 Houstoun, R. A. Studies in Light Production i2mo, *2 00 Hovenden, F. Practical Mathematics for Young Engineers, izmo, *i 00 Howe, G. Mathematics for the Practical Man i2mo, *i 25 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG ]9 Howorth, J. Repairing and Riveting Glass, China and Earthen- ■ware gvo, paper, *o 50 Hubbard, E. The UtiUzation of Wood-waste 8vo, *2 50 Hubner, J. Bleaching and Dyeing of Vegetable and Fibrous Materials. (Outlines t)f Industrial Chemistry.) ... *$■ 00 Hudson, O. F. Iron and Steel. (Outlines of Industrial Chemistry.) 8vo, *2 00 Humphrey, J. C. W. Metallography of Strain. (Metallurgy Series) (/„ Press.) Humphreys, A. C. The Business Features of Engineering Practice 8vo, *2 50 Hunter, A. Bridge Work 8vo {In Press.) Hurst, G. H. Handbook of the Theory of Color 8vo, *2 50 Dictionary of Chemicals and Raw Products 8vo, *3 00 Lubricating Oils, Fats and Greases gvo, *4 00 Soaps 8vo, *s 00 Hurst,. G. H., and Simmons, W. H. Textile Soaps and Oils, 8vo, *2 50 Hurst, H. E., and Lattey, R. T. Text-book of Physics 8vo, *3 00 Also published in Three Parts : Vol. I. Dynamics and Heat 8vo, *i 25 Vol. II. Sound and Light 8vo, *i 25 Vol. III. Magnetism and Electricity Svo, *i 50 Hutchinson, R. W., Jr. Long Distance Electric Power Trans- mission i2mo, *3 00 Hutchinson, R. W., Jr., and Thomas, W. A. Electricity in Mining i2mo, Hutchinson, W. B. Patents and How to Make Money Out of Them. i2mo, i 25 Button, W. S. Steam-boiler Construction 8vo, 6 00 Hutton, W. S. The Works'- Manager's Handbook 8vo, 6 00 Hyde, E. W. Skew Arches. (Science Series No. 15.).. . . i6mo, o 50 Hyde, F. S. Solvents, Oils, Gums and Waxes i2mo, *2 00 Induction Coils. (Science Series No. 53.) i6mo, o 50 Ingham, A. E. Gearing. A practical treatise Svo, *z 50 Ingle, H. Manual of Agricultural Chemistry. Svo, *3 00 20 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATAL(;G innes, C. H. Problems in Machine Design i2mo, *2 oo Air Compressors and Blowing Engines izmo, "200 Centrifugal Pumps "mo, '2 00 The Fan 12110, *2 00 Ivatts, E. B. Railway Management at Stations 8vo, *2 so Jacob, A., and Gould, E. S. On the Designing and Construction of Storage Reservoirs. (Science Series No. 6.). . i6mo, o 50 Jannettaz, E. Guide to the Determination of Rocks. Trans. by G. W. Plympton i2mo, i 50 Jehl, F. Manufacture of Carbons 8vo, '4 00 Tennings, A. S. Commercial Paints and Painting. (West- minster Series.) 8vo, *, 2 00 Jennison, F. H. The Manufacture of Lake Pigments 8vo, *3 00 Jepson, G. Cams and the Principles of their Construction... 8 vo, *i so Mechanical Drawing 8vo {In Preparation.) Jervis-Smith, F. J. Dynamometers 8vo, *3 50 Jockin, W. Arithmetic of the Gold and Silversmith i2mo, *i 00 Johnson, J. H. Arc Lamps. (Installation Manuals Series.) i2mo, *o 75 Johnson, T. M. Ship Wiring and Fitting. (Installation Manuals Series) i6mo, *o 75 Johnson, W. McA. The Metallurgy of Nickel {In Prcparaiion.) Johnston, J. F. W., and Cameron, C. Elements of Agricultural Chemistry and Geology i2mo, 2 60 Joly, J. Radioactivity and Geology i2mo, *3 00 Jones, H. C. Electrical Nature of Matter and Radioactivity i2mo, '2 00 New Era in Chemistry izmo, *2 00 Jones, J. H. Tinplate Industry 8vo, *3 00 Jones, M. W. Testing Raw Materials Used in Paint i2mo, *2 00 Jordan, L. C. Practical Railway Spiral i2mo. Leather, *i 50 Joynson, F. H. Designing and Construction of Machine Gear- ing 8vo, 2 00 JUptner, H. F. V. Siderology: The Science of Iron 8vo, "5 00 Kapp, G. Alternate Current Machinery. (Science Series No. 96.) i6mo, so D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S BHORT-TITLE CATALOG 21 Keim, A. W. Prevention of Dampness in Buildings ...... 8vo, *2 oo Keller, S. S. Mathematics for Engineering Students. i2mo, half leather, Algebra and Trigonometry, with a Chapter on Vectors.. . . *i 75 Plane and Solid Geometry *i 25 and Knox, W. F. Analytical Geometry and Calculus . . *2 00 Kelsey, W. R. Continuous-current Dynamos and Motors. 8to, *2 so Kemble, W. T., and Underbill, C. R. The Periodic Law and the Hydrogen Spectrum 8vo, paper, *o 50 Kemp, J. F. Handbook of Rocks 8vo, *i 50 Kennedy, A. B. W., and Thurston, R. H. Kinematics of Machinery. (Science Series No. 54.) i6mo, o 50 Kennedy, A. B. W., Unwin, W. C, and Idell, F. E. Compressed Air. (Science Series No. 106.) i6mo, o 50 Cennedy, R. Modern Engines and Power Generators. Six Volumes 4to, 15 00 ' Single Volumes each, 3 00 Electrical Installations. Five Volumes 4to, 15 00 Single Volumes ^ each, 3 50 Principles of Aeroplane Construction i2mo, *i 50 Flying Machines; Practice and Design i2mo, *2 00 Kennelly, A. E. Electro-dynamic Machinery 8vo, r 50 Kent, W. Strength of Materials. (Science Series No. 41.). i6mo, o So Kershaw, J. B. C. Fuel, Water and Gas Analysis. ....... 8vo, *2 50 Electrometallurgy. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, '2 00 The Electric Furnace in Iron and Steel Production.. izmo, *i 50 Electro-Thermal Methods of Iron and Steel Production, 8vo, *3 00 Kinzbrunner, C. Alternate Current Windings 8vo, *i 50 Continuous Current Armatures 8vo, "1 so Testing of Alternating Current Machines 8vo, *2 00 Kirkaldy, W. G. David Kirkaldy's System of Mechanical Testing 4tOi 10 00 Kirkbride, J. Engraving for Illustration 8vo, T 50 Kirkwood, J. P. Filtration of River Waters '4to, 7 so Kirschlce, A. Gas and Oil Engines i2mo. *i 25 22 D. VAN NOSPRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG Klein, J. F. Design of a High speed Stfam-engine 8vo, Physical Significance of Entropy 8vo, Knight, R.-Adm. A. M. Modem Seamanship , 8vo, Half Mot. Knott, C. G., and Mackay, J. S. Praciical Mathematics. . .8vo, Knox, J. Physico-chemical Calculations i2mo, Fixation of Atmospheric Nitrogen. (Chemical Mono- graphs.) izmo, Koester, F. Steam-Electric Power Plants 4to, Hydroelectric Developments and Engineering 4to, Koller, T. The Utilization of Waste Products 8vo, Cosmetics Svo, Kremann, E. Application of Physico Chemical Theory to Technical Processes and Manufacturing Methods. Trans, by H. E. Potts 8vo, Kretchmat, K. Yarn and Warp Sizing Svo, Lallier, E. V. Elementary Manual of the Steam Engine. i2mo, Lambert, T. Lead and its Compounds Svo, Bone Products and Manures Svo, Lamborn, L. L, Cottonseed Products Svo, Modern Soaps, Candles, and Glycerin Svo, Lamprecht, R. Recovery Work After Pit Fires. Trans, by C. Salter Svo, Lancaster, M. Electric Cooking, Heating and Cleaning. .Svo, Lanchester, F. W. Aerial Flight. Two Volumes. Svo. Vol. I. Aerodynamics *6 oo Vol. II. Aerodonetics *6 bo Larner, E. T. Principles of Alternating Currents i2mo, *i 25 LaRue, B. F. Swing Bridges. (Science Series No. 107.). i6mo, 050 Lassar-Cohn, Dr. Modern Scientific Chemistry. Trans, by M. M. Pattison Muir i2mo, *2 00 Latimer, L. H., Field, C. J., and Howell, J. W. Incandescent Electric Lighting. (Science Series No. 57.) i6mo, o go Latta, M. N. • Handbook of American Gas-Engineering Practice. Svo, '4 50 *5 00 *i SO *7 SO *9 00 2 00 "I 00 75 *S 00 *s 00 *3 00 "2 50 *3 00 *4 00 *2 00 *3 50 '3 00 *3 00 *7 50 *4 00 ■^i 50 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 23 American Producer Gas Practice 4to, "6 oc Laws, B. C. Stability and Equilibrium of Floating Bodies.Svo, *3 50 Lawson, W. R. British Railways, a Financial and Commer- cial Sunrey .Svo, *2 00 Leask, A. R. Breakdowns at Sea i2mo, 2 00 Refrigerating Machinery i2mo, 2 00 Lecky, S. T. S. " Wrinkles " in Practical Navigation ^vo, *8 00 Le Doux, M. Ice -Making Machines. (Science Series No. 46.) i6mo, o 50 Leeds, C. C. . Mechanical Drawing for Trade Schools . oblong, 4to, High School Edition.' *i 25 Machinery Trades Edition *2 00 Leffivre, L. Architectural Pottery. Trans, by H. K. Bird and W. M. Binns 4to, "7 50 Lehner, S. Ink Manufacture. Trans, by A. Morris and H. Robson Svo, *2 50 Lemstrom, S. Elec'hricity in Agriculture and Horticulture .. Svo, *i 50 Letts, E. A. Fundamental Problems in Chemistry. ; .izmo, *2 00 Le Van, W. B. Stealn-Engine Indicator. (Science Series Ko. 78.) i6mo, o So Lewes, V. B. Liquid and Gaseous Fuels. (Westminster Series.) Svo, *2 00 Carbonisation of Coal Svo, *3 00 Lewis, L. P. Railway Signal Engineering Svo, *3 50 Lieber, B. F. Lieber's Standard Telegraphic Code Svo, *io 00 Code. German Edition Svo, *io 00 Spanish Edition Svo, *io 00 French Edition Svo, *io 00 Terminal Index Svo, *2 50 Lieber's Appendix folio, *i 5 00 Handy Tables 4to, *2 50 Bankers and Stockbrokers' Code and Merchants and Shippers' Blank Tables Svo, *i5 00 Lieber, B. F. 100,000,000 Combination Code Svo, *io 00 Engineering Code Svo, "12 50 Livermore, V. P., and Williams, J. How to Become a Com- petent Motorman izmo, *i 00 24 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG Livingstone, R. Design and Construction of Commutators.Svo, *2 25 Mechanical Design and Construction of Generators. ..8vo, *3 50 Lobben, P. Machinists' and Draftsmen's Handbook 8vo, 2 50 Lockwood, T. D. Electricity, Magnetism, and Electro-teleg- raphy 8vo, 2 so Electrical Measurement and the Galvanometer. . . .i2mo, o 75 Lodge, O. J. Elementary Mechanics i2mo, i 50 Signalling Across Space without Wires 8vo, "2 00 Loewenstein, L. C, and Crissey, C. P. Centrifugal Piunps . 8vo, *4 30 Lomax, J. W. Cotton Spinning i2mo, i 50 Lord, R. T. Decorative and Fancy Fabrics 8vo, *3 50 Loring, A. E. A Handbook of the Electromagnetic Telegraph. (Science Series No. 39) i6mo, o 50 Low, D. A. Applied Mechanics (Elementary) i6mo, o 80 Lubschez, B. J. Perspective i2mo, *i 50 Lucke, C. E. Gas Engine Design 8vo, *3 00 Power Plants: their Design, EflBciency, and Power Costs. 2 vols {In Preparation.) Lunge, G. Coal-tar Ammonia. Two Volumes 8vo, '15 00 Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid and Alkali. Three Volumes 8vo, Vol. I. Sulphuric Acid and Alkali. In three parts.... *i8 00 Vol. II. Salt Cake, Hydrochloric Acid and Leblanc Soda. In two parts *iS oc Vol. in. Ammonia Soda '10 00 Vol. IV. Electrolytic Methods {In Press.) Technical Chemists' Handbook i2mo, leather, *3 50 • Technical Methods of Chemical Analysis. Trans, by C. A. Keane. In collaboration with the corps of specialists. Vol. I. In two parts gvo, "15 00 Vol. II. In two parts gvo, "18 00 Vol. III. In two parts 8vo, *i8 00 The set complete *48 00 4 00 - Technical Gas Analysis 8vo, Luquer, L. M. Minerals in Rock Sections 8vo, 'i 50 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 25 Macaulay, J., and Hall, C. Modern Railway Working. Eight vols 4to, 20 oc Each volume separately 3 oo Macewen, H. A. Food Inspection 8vo, "2 50 Mackenzie, N. F. Notes on Irrigation Works 8vo, *2 50 Mackie, J. How to Make a Woolen Mill Pay 8vo, "2 00 Maguire, Wm. R. Domestic Sanitary Drainage and Plumbing 8vo, 4 00 Malcolm, H. W. Submarine Telegraph Cable (/» Press.) Mallet, A. Compound Engines. Trans, by R. R. Buel. (Science Series No. 10.) i6mo, Mansfield, A. N, Electro-magnets. (Science Series N . 64) \M>i i6mo, o 50 Marks, E. C. R. Construction cf Cranes and Lifting Machinery i2mo, *i 50 Construction and Working of Pumps i2mo, *i 50 Manufacture of Iron and Steel Tubes i2mo, "2 00 Mechanical Engineering Materials i2mo, *i 00 Marks, G. C. Hydraulic Power Engineering 8vo, 3 50 Inventions, Patents and Designs i2mo, *i 00 Marlow, T. G. Drying Machinery and Practice 8vo, *S 00 Marsh, C. F. Concise Treatise on Reinforced Concrete.. . .8vo, "250 Marsh, C. F. Reinforced Concrete Compression Member Diagram i S" Marsh, C. F., and Dunn, W. Manual of Reinforced Concrete and Concrete Block Construction i6mo, mor., *2 50 Marshall, W.J., and Sankey, H. R. Gas Engines. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 00 Martin, G. Triumphs and Wonders of Modem Chemistry. 8vo, *2 00 Martin, N. Reinforced Concrete 8vo, *2 50 Martin, W. D. Hints to Engineers izmo, *i 00 Massie, W. W., and Underbill, C. R. Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony i2mo, *i 00 Mathot, R. E. Internal Combustion Engines 8vo, *6 00 Maurice, W. Electric Blasting Apparatus and Explosives ..8 vo, *3 5o Shot Firer's Ouide 8vo, *i 50 26 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG Maxwell, J. C. Matter and Motion. (Science Series No. 36.) i6mo, o so Maxwell, W. H., and Brown, J. T. Encyclopedia of Murxicipal and Sanitary Engineering. 4tOi "'o °° McCullough, E. Practical Surveying 8vo, *2 50 McCuUough, R. S. Mechanical Theory of Heat 8vo, 3 5o McGibbon, W. C. Indicator Diagrams for Marine Engineers, 8vo, *3 00 Marine Engineers' Drawing Book ohlong, 4to, *2 00 Mcintosh, J. G. Technology of Sugar 8vo, *4 50 Industrial Alcohol 8vo, '3 00 Manufacture of Varnishes and Kindred Industries. Three Volumes. 8vo. Vol. I. Oil Crushing, Refining and Boiling '3 50 Vol. II. Varnish Materials and Oil Varnish Making *4 00 Vol. III. Spirit Varnishes and Materials *4 5o McKnight, J. D., and Brown, A. W. Marine Multitubular Boilers *i 50 McMaster, J. B. Bridge and Tunnel Centres. (Science Series No. 20.) i6mo, o 50 McMechen, F. L. Tests for Ores, Minerals and Metals.. .lamo, *r 00 McPherson, J. A. Water- works Distribution 8vo, 2 50 Melick, C. W. Dairy Laboratory Guide i2mo, "125 Merck, E. Chemical Reagents: Their Purity and Tests. Trans, by H. E. Schenck 8vo, 1 00 Merivale, J. H. Notes and Formulae for Mining Students, i2mo, I so Merritt, Wm. H. Field Testing for Gold and Silver. i6mo, leather, i 30 Meyer, J. G. A., and Pecker, C. G. Mechanical Drawing and Machine Design 4to, 5 00 Mierzinski, S. Waterproofing of Fabrics. Trans, by A. Morris and H. Robson 8vo, *2 50 Miller, G. A. Determinants. (Science Series No. 105.). .i6mo, Milroy, M. E. W. Home Lace-making. i2mo, *i 00 Mitchell, C. A. Mineral and Aerated Waters 8vo, *3 00 and Prideaux, R. M. Fibres Used in Textile and Allied Industries 8vo, '3 00 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 27 Mitchell, C. F. and G. A. Building Construction and Draw- ing i2mo ■ Elementary Course, *i 50 Advanced Course, -^2 50 Monckton, C. C. F. Radiotelegraphy. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, "2 00 Monteverde, R. D. Vest Pocket Glossary of English-Spanish, Spanish-English Technical Terms 64mo, leather, *i 00 Montgomery, J. H. Electric Wiring Specifications izmo, *i 00 Moore, E. C. S. New Tables for the Complete Solution of Ganguillet and Kutter's Formula 8vo, *s 00 Morecroft, J. H., and Hehre, F. W. Testing Electrical Ma- chinery •. 8vo, "i 50 Morgan, A. P. Wireless Telegraph Construction for Am?.t?urs. i2mo, "i So Moses, A. J. The Characters of Crystals 8vo, *2 00 and Parsons, C. L. Elements of Mineralogy 8vo, *2 50 Moss, S. A. Elements of Gas Engine Design. (Science Series.) i6mo, o 50 The Lay-out of Corlia. Valve Gears. (Science Series) . i6mo, o 50 Mulford, A. C. Boundaries and Landmarks 8vo, "i 00 MuUin, J. P. Modern Moulding and Pattern-making. , . . i2mo, 2 50 Munby, A. E. Chemistry and Physics of Building Materials. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 00 Murphy, J. G. Practical Mining i6mo, i 00 Murphy, W. S. Textile Industries, 8 vols *2o 00 (Sold separately.) each, *3 00 Murray, J. A. Soils and Manures. (Westminster Series.). 8vo, "2 00 Naquet, A. Legal Chemistry , i2mo, 2 00 Nasmith, J. The Student's Cotton Spinning 8vo, 3 00 Recent Cotton Mill Construction i2mo, 2 00 Neave, G. B., and Heilbron, I. M. Identification of Organic Compounds i2mo, *i 25 Neilson, R. M. Aeroplane Patents 8vo, *2 00 Nerz, F. Searchlights. Trans, by C. Rodgers Svo, *3 00 28 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHOBT TITLE CATALOG Nesbit, A. F. Electricity and Magnetism (In Preparation.) Neuberger, H., and Noalhat, H. Technology of Petroleum. Trans, by J. G. Mcintosh 8vo, *io oo Rewall, J. W. Drawing, Sizing and Cutting Bevel-gears. .8 vo, i 50 Newbiging, T. Handbook for Gas Engineers and Managers, 8vo, *6 50 Nicol, G. Ship Construction and Calculations 8vo, '4 50 Nipher, F. E. Theory of Magnetic Measurements i2mo, i 00 Nisbet, H. Grammar of Textile Design 8vo, "3 00 Nolan, H. The Telescope. (Science Series No. 51.) i6mo, o 50 North, H. B. Laboratory Experiments in General Chemistry izmo, *i 00 Nugent, E. Treatise on Optics i2mo, i 50 O'Connor, H. The Gas Engineer's Pocketbook. . . i2mo, leather, 3 50 Ohm, G. S., and Lockwood, T. D. Galvanic Circuit. Trans, by William Francis. (Science Series No. 102.). . . .i6mo, o 50 Olsen, J. C. Text book of Quantitative Chemical Analysis . .8vo, *4 00 Olsson, A. Motor Control, in Turret Turning and Gun Elevating. (U. S. Navy Electrical Series, No. i.) . . . . i2mo, paper, *o 50 Ormsby, M. T. M. Surveying izmo, i 50 Oudin, M. A. Standard Polyphase Apparatus and Systems . . 8vo, *3 00 Owen, D. Recent Physical Research 8vo, *i 50 Pakes, W. C. C, and Nankivell, A. T. The Science of Hygiene. 8vo, 'I 75 Palaz, A. Industrial Photometry. Trans, by G. W. Patterson, Jr 8vo, *4 00 Pamely, C. Colliery Manager's Handbook 8vo, '10 00 Parker, P. A. M. The Control of Water 8vo, *5 00 Parr, G. D. A. Electrical Engineering Measuring Instruments. 8vo, *3 so Parry, E. J. Chemistry of Essential Oils and Artificial Per- fumes 8vo, "5 00 Parry, E. J. Foods and Drugs. Two Volumes 8vo. Vol. I. Chemical and Microscopical Analysis of Food and Drugs *7 ■ 50 Vol. II. Sale of Food and Drugs Acts *3 00 and Coste, J. H. Chemistry of Pigments 8vo, *4 50 D. VAX NOSTRAXD CO-MPAXT S SHOKT-TITLE CATALOG 29 Parry, L. Notes on Alloys 8vo, 3 00 Metalliferous Wastes 8vo, 2 00 Analysis of Ashes and Alloys 8vo, 2 00 Parry, L. A. Risk and Dangers of Various Occupations 8vo, *3 00 Parshall, H. F., and Hobart, H. M. Armature Windings ... 4to, *7 50 Electric Railway Engineering 4to, *io 00 Parsons, S. J. Malleable Cast Iron 8vo, "2 50 Partington, J. R. Higher Mathematics for Chemical Students i2mo, *2 00 Textbook of Thermodynamics. Svo, *4 00 Passmore, A. C. Technical Terms Used in Architecture ...Svo, *3 50 Patchell, W. H. Electric Power in Mines Svo, '4 00 Paterson, G. W. L. Wiring Calculations i2mo, '2 00 Electric Mine Signalling Installations izmo, *i 50 Patterson, D. The Color Printing of Carpet Yarns Svo, '3 50 Color Matching on Textiles Svo, *3 00 Textile Color Mixing Svo, *3 00 Paulding, C. P. Condensation of Steam in Covered and Bare Pipes Svo, *2 00 Transmission of Heat Through Cold-storage Insulation i2mo, *i 00 Payne, D. W. Iron Founders' Handbook {In Prtss.) Peddie, R. A. Engineering and Metallurgical Books. .. .i2mo, *i 50 Peirce, B. System of Analytic Mechanics 4to, 10 00 Pendred, V. The Railway Locomotive. (Westoninster Series.) Svo, *2 00 Perkin, F. M. Practical Method of Inorganic Chemistry .. i2mo, *i 00 and Jaggers, E. M. Elementary Chemistry i2mo, *i 00 Perrine, F. A. C. Conductors for Electrical Distribution . . . Svo, *3 50 Petit, G. White Lead and Zinc White Paints Svo, *i 50 Petit, R. How to Build an Aeroplane. Trans, by T. O'B. Hubbard, and J. H. Ledeboer Svo, *i 50 Pettit, Lieut. J. S. Graphic Processes. (Science Series No. 76.) i6mo, o 5r Philbrick, P. H. Beams and Girders. (.Science Series No. 88.) r6mo, PhilUps, J. Gold Assaying 8vo, *2 so Dangerous Goods 8vo, 3 50 30 D. VAX XOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG Phin, J. Seven Follies of Science lamo, *i 25 Pickworth, C. N. The Indicator Handbook. Two Volumes i2mo, each, Logarithms for Beginners i2mo, boards, The Slide Rule i2mo, Plattner's Manual of Blowpipe Analysis. Eighth Edition, re- vised. Trans, by H. B. Cornwall 8vd, Plympton, G.W. The Aneroid Barometer. (Science Series.).i6mo, How to become an Engineer. (Science Series No. 100.) i6mo, Van Nostrand's Table Book. (Science Series No. 104). i6mo, Pochet, M. L. Steam Injectors. Translated from the French. (Science Series No. 29.) i6mo, Pocket Logarithms to Four Places. (Science Series.) i6ino, leather, Polleyn, F. Dressingsand Finishings for Textile Fabrics. 8vo, Pope, F. G. Organic Chemistry i2mo, Pope, F. L. Modern Practice of the Electric Telegraph. . . 8vo, Popplewell, W. C. Prevention of Smoke 8vo, Strength of Materials 8vo, Porritt, B. D. The Chemistry of Rubber. (Chemical Mono- graphs.) i2mo, Porter, J. R. Helicopter Flying Machines i2mo, Potts, H. E. Chemistry of the Rubber Industry. (Outlines of Industrial Chemistry.) 8vo, Practical Compounding of Oils, Tallow and Grease 8vo, Pratt, K. Boiler Draught i2mo, High Speed Steam Engines 8vo, Pray, T., Jr. Twenty Years with the Indicator 8vo, Steam Tables and Engine Constant 8vo, Prelini, C. Earth and Rock Excavation 8vo, Dredges and Dredging 8vo, Graphical Determination of Earth Slopes 8vo, ■ Ttmneling 8vo, Prescott, A. B. Organic Analysis 8vo, and Johnson, 0. C. Quantitative Chemical Analysis. 8vo, and Sullivan, E. C. First Book in Qualitative Chemistry izmo. *i 50 r 50 50 I 00 *4 00 SO 50 50 SO 50 I 00 *3 *2 00 25 I *3 SO 50 75 *0 75 I 25 *3 00 *3 SO •I *2 25 00 2 SO 2 00 *3 00 *3 00 •2 00 •3 00 5 00 *3 50 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 31 Prideaux, E. B. R. Problems in Physical Chemistry 8vo, *2 oc Primrose, G. S. C. Zinc. (Metallurgy Series.) (In Press.) PuUen, W. W. F. Application of Graphic Methods to the Design of Structures i2mo, *2 50 Injectors: Theory, Construction and Working i2mo. 'i 50 Indicator Diagrams 8vo, *2 50 Engine Testing 8vo, *4 50 Pulsifer, W. H. Notes for a History of Lead 8vo, 4 00 Putsch, A. Gas and Coal-dust Firing 8vo, *3 00 Pynchon, T. R. Introduction to Chemical Physics Svo, 3 00 Rafter, G. W. Mechanics of Ventilation. (Science Series No. 33.) i6mo, o 50 Potable Water. (Science Series No. 103.) i6mo, o 50 Treatment of Septic Sewage. (Science Series.). . . . i6mo, o 50 and Baker, M. N. Sewage Disposal in the United States 4to, *6 00 Raikes, H. P. Sewage Disposal Works Svo, *4 00 Ramp, H. M. Foundry Practice (In Press.) Randau, P. Enamels and Enamelling Svo, *4 00 Rankine, W.- J. M. Applied Mechanics Svo, s 00 Civil Engineering Svo, 6 50 Machinery and Millwork Svo, 5 00 The Steam-engine and Other Prime Movers Svo, 5 00 and Bamber, E. F. A Mechanical Textbook Svo, 3 50 Raphael, F. C. Localization of Faults in Electric Light and Power Mains Svo, ''3 op Rasch, E. Electric Arc Phenomena. Trans, by K. Tornberg. Svo, "^2 00 Rathbone, R. L. B. Simple Jewellery Svo, *2 00 Rateau, A. Flow of Steam through Nozzles and Orifices. Trans, by H. B. Brydon Svo, *i 50 Rautenstrauch, W. Notes on the Elements of Machine Design, Svo, boards, *i 50 Rautenstrauch, W., and Williams, J. T. Machine Drafting and Empirical Design. Part I. Machine Drafting Svo, *i 25 Part II. Empirical Design (In Preparation.) ^■2 5C '2 5c *3 50 *4 50 o 50 *i 25 50 *5 00 "5 00 •3 00 I 50 32 D. VAX NOSTKAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG Raymond, E. B. Alternating Current Engineering i2mo, Rayner, H. Silk Throwing and Waste Silk Spinning. ..8vo, Recipes for the Color, Paint, Varnish, Oil, Soap and Drysaltery Trades 8vo, Recipes for Flint Glass Making i2mo, Redfern, J. B., and Savin, J. Bells, Telephones. (Installa- tion Manuals Series.) i6mo, Redgrove, H. S. Experimental Mensuration i2mo, Redwood, B. Petroleum. (Science Series No. 92.) i6mo, Reed, S. Turbines Applied to Marine Propulsion 8vo, Reed's Engineers' Handbook 8vo, Key to the Nineteenth Edition of Reed's Engineers' Handbook 8vo, Useful Hints to Sea-going Engineers i2mo, Reinhardt, C. W. Lettering for Draftsmen, Engineers, and Students oblong 4to, boards, i 00 Reiser, F. Hardening and Tempering of Steel. Trans, by A. Morris and H. Robson i2mo, "2 50 Reiser, N. Faults in the Manufacture of Woolen Goods. Trans. by A. Morris and H. Robson 8vo, Spinning and Weaving Calculations 8vo, Renwick, W. G. Marble and Marble Working 8vo, Reynolds, O., and Idell, F. E. Triple Expansion Engines (Science Series No. 99.) " i6mo, Rhead, G. F. Simple Structural Woodwork i2mo, Rhodes, H. J. Art of Lithography 8vo, Rice, J. M., and Johnson, W. W. A New Method of Obtaining the Differential of Functions izmo, o 50 Richards, W. A. Forging of Iron and Steel (/»i Press.) Richards, W. A., and North, H.B. Manual of Cement Testing, ''i 50 Richardson, J. The Modern Steam Engine 8vo, *3 50 Richardson, S. S. Magnetism and Electricity lamo, *2 00 Rideal, S. Glue and Glue Testing 8vo, '4 00 Rimmer, E. J. Boiler Explosions 8vo, 'i 75 Rings, F. Concrete in Theory and Practice lamo, *2 50 Reinforced Concrete Bridges i2mo, *$ 00 Ripper, W. Course of Instruction in Machine Drawing. . . folio, *6 00 "2 SO '5 00 S 00 *i SO 00 3 50 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG So Roberts, F. C. Figure of the Earth. (Science Series No. 79.) i6mo, o so Roberts, J., Jr. Laboratory Work in Electrical Engineering 8vo, *2 00 Robertson, L. S. Water-tube Boilers 8vo, *2 00 Robinson, J. B. Architectural Composition svo, ■ 2. 50 Robinson, S. W. Practical Treatise on the Teeth of Wheels. (Science Series No. 24.) i6mo, o 50 Railroad Economics. (Science Series No. 59.) i6mo, 50 Wrought Iron Bridge Members. (Science Series No. 60.) i6mo, o 50 Robson, J. H, Machine Drawing and Sketching 8vo, "i 50 Roebling, J, A. Long and Short Span Railway Bridges . . folio, 2500 Rogers, A. A Laboratory Guide of Industrial Chemistry. . i2mo, *i 50 Industrial Chemistry Svo, *5 00 Rogers, F. Magnetism of Iron Vessels. (Science Series No. 30.) i6mo, o 50 Rohland, P. Colloidal and its Crystalloidal State of Matter. Trans, by W. J. Britland and H. E. Potts i2mo, "i 23 Rollins, W. Notes on X-Light Svo, 5 00 RoUinson, C. Alphabets '. .Oblong i2mo, i 00 Rose, J. The Pattern-makers' Assistant Svo, 2 50 Key to Engines and Engine-running i2mo, 2 50 Rose, T. K. The Precious Metals. (Westminster Series.). .Svo, "2 00 Rosenhain, W. Glass Manufacture. (Westminster Series.). .Svo, *2 00 Physical Metallurgy, An Introduction to. (Metallurgy Series.) Svo, "3 50 Roth. Physical Chemistry Svo, *2 00 Rothery, G. C, and Edmonds, H. 0. The Modern Laundry. 2 vols 4to, leather, 12 00 Rouillion, L. The Economics of Manual Training Svo, 2 00 Rowan, F. J. Practical Physics of the Modem Steam-boiler.Svo, "3 00 and Idell, F. E. Boiler Incrustation and Corrosion. (Science Series No. 27.) i6mo, o 50 Roxburgh, W. General Foundry Practice. (Westminster Series Svo, *2 00 Ruhmer, E. Wireless Telephony. Trans, by J. Erskine- Murray Svo, *3 50 2S Wm 00 00 25 *1 25 •2 00 *3 50 5 00 •3 00 *S 00 *i 25 34 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG Russell, A. Theory of Electric Cables and Networks 8vo, *3 00 Sabine, R. History and Progress of the Electric Telegraph. 1 2mo, Sanford, P. G. Nitro-explosives 8vo, Saunders, C. H. Handbook of Practical Mechanics i6mo, leather, Sayers, H. M. Brakes for Tram Cars 8vo, Scheele, C. W. Chemical Essays 8vo, Scheithauer, W. Shale Oils and Tars 8vo, Schellen, H. Magneto-electric and Dynamo-electric Machines 8vo, Scherer, R. Casein. Trans, by C. Salter 8vo, Schidrowitz, P. Rubber, Its Production and Uses 8vo, Schindler, K. Iron and Steel Construction Works i2mo, Schmall, C. N. First Course in Analytic Geometry, Plane and Solid i2mo, half leather, *i 75 Schmall, C. N., and Schack, S. M. Elements of Plane Geometry i2mo, Schmeer, L. Flow of Water 8vo, Schumann, F. A Manual of Heating and Ventilation. i2mo, leather, Schwartz, E. H. L. Causal Geology 8vo, Schweizer, V., Distillation of Resins 8vo, Scott, W. W. Qualitative Chemical Analysis. A Laboratory Manual 8vo *i So Scribner, J. M. Engineers' and Mechanics' Companion. i6mo, leather, i 50 Scudder, H. Electrical Conductivity and Ionization Constants of Organic Compounds 8vo, *3 00 Searle, A. B. Modem Brickmaking 8vo, *5 00 Cement, Concrete and Bricks 8vo, *3 00 Searle, G. M. " Sumners' Method." Condensed and Improved. (Science Series No. 124.) 8vo. o 50 Seaton, A. E. Manual of Marine Engineering '.8vo, 8 00 Seaton, A. E., and Rounthwaite, H. M. Pocket-book of Marine Engineering i6mo, leather, *3 50 Seeligmann, T., Torrilhon, G. L., and Falconnet, H. India Rubber and Gutta Percha. Trans, by J. G. Mcintosh 8vo, *s 00 *I 25 '3 00 I 50 •2 50 *3 SO D. VAN "NOSTRAND COIIPAXY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 35 Seidell, A. Solubilities of Inorganic and Organic Substances. 8vo, *3 oo Seligman, R. Aluminum. (Metallurgy Series) (7n Press.) Sellew, W. H. Steel Rails 4to, *i2 50 — - Railway Maintenance (In Press.) Senter, G. Outlines of Physical Chemistry i2mo, 'i 75 Textbook of Inorganic Chemistry i2m0j *i 75 Sever, G. F. Electric Engineering Experiments .... 8vo, boards, *i 00 — —and Townsend, F. Laboratory and Factory Tests in Elec- trical Engineering : 8vo, *2 go Sewall, C. H. Wireless Telegraphy 8vo, *2 00 Lessons in Telegraphy i2mo, *i 00 Sewell, T. The Construction of Dynamos 8vo, *3 00 Sexton, A. H. Fuel and Refractory Materials i2mo, *2 50 Chemistry of the Materials of Engineering l2mo, *2 50 Alloys (Non-Ferrous) 8vo, *3 00 The Metallurgy of Iron and Steel 8vo, *6 50 Seymour, A. Modem Printing Inks 8vo, *2 00 Shaw, H. S. H. Mechanical Integrators. (Science Series No. 83.) i6mo, o So Shaw, S. History of the Staffordshire Potteries Svo, *2 00 Chemistry of Compounds Used in Porcelain Manufacture .8vo, *S 00 Shaw, W. N. Forecasting Weather Svo, *3 50 Sheldon, S., and Hausmann, E. Direct Current Machines . . Svo, *2 50 Alternating-current Machines Svo, '2 50 Electric Traction and Transmission Engineering Svo, *2 50 Shields, J. E. Notes on Engineering Construction i2mo, i 50 Shreve, S. H. Strength of Bridges and Roofs Svo, 3 50 Shunk, W. F. The Field Engineer i2mo, mor., 2 50 Simmons, W. H., and Appleton, H. A. Handbook of Soap Manufacture Svo, *3 00 Simmons, W. H., and Mitchell, C.A. Edible Fats and Oils. *3 00 Svo, *3 00 Simpson, G. The Naval Constructor i2mo, mor., *s 00 Simpson, W. Foundations Svo {In Press.) Sinclair, A. Development of the Locomotive Engine. Svo, half leather, 5 00 Sindall, R. W. Manufacture of Paper. (Westminster Series.) Svo, '2 00 3('» n. VAN MOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG and Bacon, W. N. The Testing of Wood Pulp....8vo, *2 50 Sloane, T. O'C. Elementary Electrical Calculations — i2mo, "zoo Smallwood, J. C. Mechanical Laboratory Methods leather, j2mo, *2 50 Smith, C. A. M. Handbook of Testing. Vol.1. Materials.. *2 50 and Warren, A. G. New Steam Tables 8vo, *i 25 Smith, C. F. Practical Alternating Currents and Testing. .8 vo, "250 Practical Testing of Dynamos and Motors 8vo, *2 00 Smith, F. E. Handbook of General Instruction for Mechanics. i2mo, I 50 Smith, H. G. Minerals and the Microscope izmo, *i 25 Smith, J. C. Manufacture of Paint 8vo, *3 50 Smith, R. H. Principles of Machine Work i2mo, *3 00 Elements of Machine Work i2mo, *2 00 Smith, W. Chemistry of Hat Manufacturing i2mo, *3 00 Snell, A. T. Electric Motive Power Svo, *