■if 9 I 1 J. ' i 1 g oiJN 1; CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY GIFT OF John Weiss _ Cornell University Library DK 25.S43 1881 An .illustrated description of the Russia 3 1924 012 534 909 .,„ ! Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31 92401 2534909 AN ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE; EMBRACING !¥ GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES, POLITICAL DIVISIONS, PRINCIPAL CITIES ANB TOWNS, POPULATION, CLASSES, GOVERNMENT, RESOURCES, COMMERCE, ANTIQUITIES, RELIGION, PROGRESS IN EDUCATION, LITERATURE, ART, AND SCIENCE, MANNERS AJ!fD CUSTOMS, HISTORIC SUMMARY, ETC., FROM THE LATEST AND THE MOST AUTHENTIC SOURCES. By ROBERT SEARS. EEVISBD BY Prof R S. L. LEWIS. EMBEULISHED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS. AND 3Ka|is of lEnrnpJnn ml Slsiatit %mm. NEW EDITION, REVISED, ENLARGED, AND BROUGHT DOWN TO 1881. NEW YORK: HURST & CO., Publishers, 122 NASSAU STREET. :v '^/THkO'-p' ^=gj- PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION. HE work which, in a revised and en- larged form, is herewith presented to the public, was in course of prepara- tion (to the extent, at least, of col- lecting material out of which to di- gest the subject-matter of its pages), for a considerable period anterior to the commencement of hostilities in the late European war. That event, however, with the solicitude it so universally created for reliable infor- mation, as to the character, history, resources, of the Muscovite empire, led to its first edition being put to press at a somewhat earlier day than might otherwise have been deemed advisable. Few, comparatively speaking, of the works descriptive of the Russian empire, heretofore published — those of recent as well as those of earlier date — have extended their range beyond St. Petersburg and Moscow, with perhaps the provinces immediately surrounding them. This is probably to be accounted for in tlie fact that those works have emanated generally from tourists journeying in search of health or pleasure ; and whom the annoying governmental re- strictions trammelling locomotion on Russian territory, with the miserable travelling facilities and worse roadside accommodations everywhere prevail- ing, deterred from penetrating, to any considerable extent, the vast regions lying beyond the Muscovite capitals. And the few works not comprised in this class, forming the exceptions referred to above, do not cover, any one of them, but a fraction of this colossal empire. Thus Finland, the Ger- man colonies, Poland, Southern Russia, the Crimea, Kazan, the Caucasian provinces, Siberia, and other divisions of the imperial domain, have each had its historiographer, but each has generally formed the subject of a sep- arate work. Other writers still have limited their pens to sketches of the people, the government and institutions of the country. To obtain a knowl- edge, therefore, of the whole empire, called for the perusal of so many vol- 4 PREFACE. umec, and some of them not easily attainable this side of the Atlantic, that Russia has been a terra incognita to a large proportion of American readers. Prompted by this deficiency in the means of acccessible information re- garding a country occupying so formidable a position upon the map of Eu- rope, and feeling assured that if he could furnish an illustrated description of every portion of the empire — of its institutions and people, its history, and, in brief, of everything requisite to a complete knowledge of " Russia and the Russians," full in details, yet carefully condensed, so as to bring the whole within the covers of a single volume, and thus within the moans of all classes of readers — he would essentially subserve the cause of pop- ular education — the Editor of this work undertook the task ; and the more completely to carry out his design, he spared no efibrts to obtain, both in this country and in Europe, every work that promised additional or more recent information, or which might serve to verify that already in hand. The result of his labors is imbodied in the following pages. Of the success which has attended them, it is perhaps more proper he should forbear to speak, but leave his readers to judge from perusal. The illustrations (many of which are from drawings made expressly for this volume) have been selected with regard rather to the practical purpose of rendering more clear the letter-press descriptions, than the minor one of n.cre pictorial embellishment. A glance.at them, however, will show that tlie latter consideration has not been lost sight of. The reader will bear in mind that in the year 1850 the reigning czar had the whole of the Muscovite Empire carefully aligned into political divisions, governments, or provinces. In the same year (1850) a series of carefully compiled statements were published by the Russian govern- ment. These statements gave the areas of land, and the number of the population of the different sections of the provinces. It is upon these authorities that all the figures in this work are based. Between 1850 and the present year (1881) many changes have been made in the boundaries of tlie provinces; but as no official changes have been cer- tified to by the Russian authorities, ^ve have preferred to give the reliable figures of 1850. The recent groupings of provinces, even when officially named, have hardly more than a nominal existence ; while other group- ings are conventionally recognized, but have no legal status. Since 1850 Russia has gained in territory by discovery, purchase, and military occupancy, 2,332,640 square miles. In the same time the in- crease in population — by births, and by the acquisition of new territories since 1850 — has been 22,241,987. But it is impossible to classify this great increase, as the Russian Government studiously avoids publishing to the world the statistics which would show how much has been gained by natural increase, and how much by the sword. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHV. Bcundan«3 — Latitude and Longitude — Superficial Aren — Comparaiive Dimensions — Russian Ameri'.'a — Ural Mountains — Caucasian Range — Asiatic Russia — Altai Range — Forests — WhileSea — Bal tic Sea — Its Extent— Gulf of Botliniii — Gulf of Finland— Euxine or Black Sea — Sea of Azov — Putrid Sea — Strait of Enikaleli — Caspian Sea — Its Position, Form, and Extent — Its Islands — Its Fisheries — Its Harbors — Its History — the Sea of Okhotsk — Riv- ers — the Dwina — the Obi — the Yenisei — the Duna — the Niemen — the Dniester — the Dnieper — the Boug — the Don — Attempts to unite the Don and the Volga — the Kouban — the Danube — Its Months — the Volga — Its Source and Course — Its Mouths — Its Tribu- taries — Its Inundations — Its Commercial Importance — Lakes — Lake or Sea of Baikal — — Lake Ladoga — Lake Onega — Lake Peipus — Lake Ilmen — Biclo-Ozero — Climate — Storms — the Mialjel — the Samjots — the Vinga — Its Terrible Devastations page IS CHAPTER II. POLITICAL DIVISIONS — THE BALTIC PROVINCES. Division-Line of European and Asiatic Russia — General Divisions — Table of Areas and Pop- ulations — Finland; Physical Aspect — Climate — Soil — Productions — Animals — Manufac- tures — Government — People — the Aland Archipelago — Chief Towns — Abo — Helsingfors Sweaborg — Tornea — Government of St. Petersburg: Physical Aspect — Climate — Pro- ductive Resources — Commerce — Kronstadt — Its Harbor and Fortifications — Esthonia; Soil — Animals — Thrilling Incident — Revel — Its Harbor — Historical Incident — Catherinthal, built by Peter the Great — Livonia : Soil and Productions — Forests — Wild Animals — Hunt- ing Scenes — Rural Industry — Russian Coins — Livonia: Population — Government — Riga — Dorpat — Historic Incident of Sehloss-Ringen — Coueland : Physical Aspect — Soil and Productions — Animals — Elk-Hunting — Mittau — Libau — Windau — History of the Baltic Provinces — People — the Lettes and Esthonians — the Jews — the Germans page 41 CHAPTER III. GREAT RUSSIA. Akchangel: Its Extent — Physical Aspect — Climate — Resources — People — Russian Lapland — the Laplanders — Nova Zembla — City of Archangel — History — Vologda: Soil, Climate, and Productions — City of Vologda — Olonetz: Soil — Resources — Petrozavodsk — Kargo- pole — Novgorod: Physical Aspect — Soil and Productions — City of Novgorod — Its History — Pskov: Soil and Productions — Pskov the Capital — Torepetz — Velikie-Louki — Tver: Productions — Manufactures — Commerce — Tver, its Capital — Smolensk: Soil and Pi'oduo- tions — Forests — City of Smolensk — Moscow: Its Extent — Physical Aspect — Climate — Natural Products and Manufactures — Yaeoslav: Rivers and Lakes — Climate — Resources — 'City of Taroslav — Its History — Kostboma: Soil and Climate — Products — City of ICos b CONTENTS. jrom.i — Nijnei-Novgoroil — Soil nnd ProduetiunB — Miinufactures — City of Nijnei-NoTgorod — Fairs — Vladimir: Surface — Soil nnd Products — City of Vladimir — Riazan: Climat* — Forests — Products and Manufactures — City of Riazan — Tambot : Resources — Forests — Manufactures — CityofTambov — Toula: Resources — City of Toula — Market — Manufac- tures — History — Kalouga: Climate and Productions — Manufactures — Exports — City of Kalouga — Orel: Its Rivers — Soil and Productions — Commerce — Town of Orel — Koursk. Products — Exports — City of Koursk — Fairs — Voronej: Resources — Population — City of Voronej page 81 CHAPTER IV. LITTLE AND WESTERN RUSSIA. Lithuania — Its History and People — Tcheknigov : Its Soil — Lakes and Rivers — Productions — Its Capital, Tehernigov — Kharkov: Soil and Productions — City of Kharkov — Poltava; Its Surface, Soil, and Resources — Town of Poltava — Kiev; Pliysical Aspect — Climate^ Crops — City of Kiev — Antiquities — History of Kiev — Podolia: Physical Aspect — Pro- ductions — Kaminietz — Balta — Volhynia : Physical Aspect — Manufactures and Exports — People — Jitomir — Berditschev — Minsk: Productive Resources — People — Its Capital — iloGHiLEi': Rivers and Lakes — Productions — Town of Moghilev — Vitepsk : Soil and Pro- ductions — Its Capital — "Wilna: Rivers ind Lakes — Agricultural Resources — Animals — Its Capital — Educational Institutions — CkoDso : Soil and Pi'oductions — People — Town of Grodno — Bialystok: Its Resources — Bialystok, its Capital page 119 OHAPTEE V. RUSSIAN POLAND. Former Extent of Poland — Present Limits of Russian Poland — Population — Physical Aspect — Climate and Soil — Productive Resources — Estates of the Nobility — the Peasantry^ Position of the Peasantry — Villages — Domestic and Wild Animals — Forests — Minerals — Manufactures — Commerce — Government — Religion — ' Education — People — History — Krakow, the Ancient Capital of Poland — Warsaw: Public Buildings — Suburbs — Educa- tional Institutions — Manufactures and Trade — History — Other Towns page 137 CHAPTEE VI. SOUTHERN RUSSIA. Bessarabia . Its Position and Physical Aspect — Climate and Productions — People — History — Kichinev — Ismail — Its Capture by Suwnrrow — Kherson: Soil and Climate — Industrial Arts — Kherson, its Capital — Historical Incident: "The Road to Constantinople" — Odessa — Its Trade — Its Granaries — Bazars — Vineyards — The Boulevard — Memorials of How- ard — Nikolaiev — Taurida : Position and Ai-ea — Its People — Ekatherinoslav : Soil and Minerals — Climate and Products — Game — Mnnufiictures — Don Cossacks (Government) : Physical Aspect — Climate — Productive Resources — The Don Cossacks — Their History Kreposts — Nova Tclierkask — Tcherkask — Taganrog — Azov page 161 CHAPTER VII. THE CRIMEA. Physical Aspect — The Baidar Valley — Productive Resources — Salt Works — Chief Towns- Population — Crim Tartars — History — Sevastapol — Its Harbor and Fortifications — Ink- erman, the "Town of Caverns" — Ruins — Simferopol — Camel-Carts — Fair — Races th« Tchatir Dngh — Cave of Foul Kouba — Kisil Kouba — Pallas' Residence — Kertsch Panti- capaeum. Residence nnd Reputed Burial-Place of Mithridates — Caffa — Baktchiserai (the "Seraglio of Gardens") — Tartar Houses — Palace of the Khnns — Mausoleum of the Khans, "Valley of Jehoshaphat" — Tchoufut Kal6 — the Karaite Jews — Mangoup Kale Novel Method of Shoeing a Bullock — Decay of the Tartar Race page 181 CONTENTS. ' CHAPTER VIII. THE STEPPES OF SOUTHERN RUSSIA. Ar«a and Phyeical Aspect — Rivera — Ravines — Limans — Stavoks — Climate — Seasons — Excessive Droaght — Vegetation — Bui'ian — Steppe-Fires — Eartli-Hares — Mice — Wolves — Dogs — Bustard-Hunting — Birds of Prey — Reptiles — The Toad-Shower — Lizards — Snakes — Locusts — Their Devastations — Herds of Horses — The Tabuntshik — The Horse- stealer — Battles of the Horses — Attacks of Wolves — Thrashing of Grain by Horses — Mazeppa — Sheep — The Tshabawn — Milking Sheep — Herds of Cattle — The Tsherednik — Tallow-Houses — Wholesale Slaughter — Tallow-Market page 208 CHAPTER IX. EASTERN RUSSIA. Governments of Eastern Russia — Astrakhan: Physical Aspect — Soil — Producti ve Resources— Salt-Lakes — Rivers — Climate — Animals — Fisheries — People — The Calmucks — Their Ex- traordinary Emigration in 1770-71 — City of Astrakhan — Its Trade and Population — Sa- ratov: Productions^ Sheep — Population — Commerce — City of Saratov — Other Towns^ Okenbuko: Physical Aspect — Soil — Minerals — Town of Orenburg — Its Manufactures and Trade — Pekm : Physical Aspect — Climate — Gold, Iron, and Salt-Mines — Trade — Inhab- itants — City of Perm — Ekaterinburg — Trade in Precious Stones — Viatka: Physical Aspect Productive Resources — Commerce — Population — Viatka the Capital — Simbibsk: Climate and Productions — Its Capital — Samara: Area and Population — City of Samara — Its An- nual Fair — Penza: Soil and Productions — Manufactures and Exports — City of Penza— Kazan : Physical Aspect — Agriculture — Gardens — Population — Cheremisses and Chuvasses — The city of Kazan — The Tartars — Their Costume — Tartar Women — Kremlin of Kazan — University-^ Manufactures and Trade — Inundation of the Volga — Foundation of Kazan — Its History — Its Conflagrations — Oliphant's Sketch of Kazan in 1858 page 244 CHAPTER X. THE CAUCASIAN PROVINCES. Caucasian Tribes — Georgia: Its Position and Aspect — Rivers — Climate and Soil — Fruit — Its Vineyards — Wines— Domestic Animals — Roads — Manufactures — Female Georgians — Classes — History — Teilis — Its History — Other Towns — Shirvan : Baku — Abcheran — Naphtha Springs — "Field of Fire" — Ghebers — Russian Armenia: Physical Aspect — Giik- oha, or Blue Lake — Mount Ararat — Volcanic Eruption of 1840 — Nakhichevan — CMmate and Soil of Armenia — Inhabitants — Echmiadzin — Armenian Language and Literature — Erivan — Akhalzik — Imeritia: Physical Aspect — Natural Productions — Bees and Silk- worms — Commerce — Mingeeua: Physical Aspect — Productions — Guria: People — Kou- tais — Aeassia: Its Position — Industry — History — Anapar — Cibcassia: Extentand Physical Features — Its Hydrography — Climate — Soil and Natural Productions — Animals, Wild and Domestic — Minerals — People — Villages — the Chase and War — Circassian Women — Domestic Habits — Physical Beauty — Education — Religion — Manufactures and Commerce — History — Caucasus: Physical Features and Climate — Stavropol — Other Towns — Dao- bbstan: Physical Aspect — Bituminous Springs — Climate — Population — Derbent — Kouba — Tschetschenzes and Lesghians — The Caucasian War — Its History — Shamyl. . . .page 280 CHAPTER XI. SIBERIA, OR ASIATIC RUSSIA. Its Immense Extent — Physical Aspect — the Steppe — Forests — Moorland, or Tundra — Stan- ovoy Mountains — Dry Lakes — Samoides — Ostiaks — Calmucks — Turkish Tribes — Buriats — Tungusi — Yakutes — Tchouktehis — History of Siberia — Tobolsk: Soil and Productions — Tartar Villages — City of Tobolsk — Climate — Tomsk: Soil and Productions — Tomsk, its Capital — Yeniseisk : Variety of Soil, Climate, and Productions — Inhabitants — Kinsnoiarsk Other Towns — Ibkoutsk : Physical Features — Climate — Forests — Wild Animals — A Bear Story — Domestic Animals — Crops — Minerals — Manufactures — Irkoutsk, the Capital 8 CONTENTa. — Its Police — the "Double Town"— Yakoutsk: Its Rivers — Productive Resources — Yakoutsk, the 6apital — Its Trade — Inhabitants— Climate— Okhotsk: Pliysioal Features — Products —Town of Okhotsk— Kamtsohatka : Its Form and Physical Aspect — Mountains — Olimate — Forests- Agriculture — "Wild Animals — Inhabitants— Amusements — Houses — Doge — Eoriaks — Trade — History — Government — Aleutian Islands : Discovery — Volcanic Formation — Earthquakes — Soil — Game — Fish — Inhabitants — Manners and Customs — Religion — Government i"*"^ 223 ClHAPTEfi, XII. MOSCOW. Its Streets — Its Extent — The Kreirflin — Eird's-Eye View- Spass Vorota, or "Gate of the Redeemer"— the Nicholas Gate — Ancient Palace of the Czara — Terema — Granovitaya Palata— Coronation-Hall — the Throne —the Bolshoi Dvoretz — the Maloi Dvoretz — Cathe- dral of the Assumption — Cathedral of the Archangel Michael — the False Dmitri — Church of the Annunciation — the Senate, Treasury, and Arsenal —Memorials of the Early Czars — Palace of Arms — "Monarch Bell"— Ivan Veliki — Its Bells— Cathedral of St. Basil — Chapel of the "Iberian Mother of God"— Convents and Monasteries — Maidens' Field — Hospitals — Theatres — Gostinoi Dvor — Manufactures and Commerce — History page 351 CHAPTER XIII. ST. PETEBSBUEG. Site of St Petersburg — Its' Divisions — Iron Bridge across the Neva — Bird's-Eye View — Foun- dation of the City — Its Perils — Inundation of 1824 — Climate — St Petersburg in Winter — the Russian Stove — Double Windows — the Neva in Winter — Breaking up of the Ice — Its Celebration — Street Population — Nevskoi Prospect — the English Quay — the Mujik — Sweeping the Streets, a Punishment for Drunkenness , page 376 CHAPTER XIV. ST. PETERSBURG IMPERIAL PALACES AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS. The Winter-Palace — Its Conflagration in ISST— Its Ee-Ereetion — Its Interior — the Hermit- age — Its Treasures — the Marble Palace — the Taurida Palace — Its Orangery^ Its Occu- pants — Hotel de I'Etat Major — the Alexandrian Column — the Old MiehailofF Palace — the Anitshkof Palace — the New Michailoff Palace — Little Summer Garden — the Red Palace — the Imperial Library — Museums — Academy of i?ine Arts — Educational Institutions — Government Buildings — the Exchange — the Customhouse — the Fortress, Arsenals, and Bar- racks — Historical Souvenirs — Equestrian Statue of Peter the Great — Monument to Suwar- row — Monument to Field-Marshal Romanoff page 399 CHAPTER XV. ST. PETERSBURG CHURCHES AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS. Modern Church Arcliiteclui-e — Kazan Cathedral — Isaac Church — Church of St Peter and St Paul — Its Spire — Tlirilling Incident — Its Vaults — Tombs of the Russian Emperors — Smolnoi and Nevskoi Convents — -Monastery of St Sergius — Preobrashensky Church — Trin- ity Church — Nicolai Church — Roman Catholic Church — Hospitals — the Foundling Hos- pital 431 CHAPTER XVI. MARKETS AND MANUFACTORIES OF ST. PETERSBURG. The Gostinoi Dvor — the Gostonoi Merchants — the Somovar — the Apraxin Rinok — Image- Sellers — Fruit-Stalls — Paslry-Stands — Tshukin Dvor — Bird-Market — Hay-Market — For- zen Meat-Market — Sennaia Ploschad — Industrial Establishments: Tapestry, Porcelain, Card, Cotton, and Paper Manufactories — Ship-Building page 463 CONTENTS. 9 CHAPTER XVII. THE GARDENS AND VILLAS OF ST. PETERSBURG. Catherineuhoff -^ the Summer Garden — Peter's Wood-ou Palace — the Wife-Market — Islands of the Neva — Kainmenoi, or Stone Island — Yelagin, Cross, and Apothecaries' Islands — Count StrogonofTs Gardens — CzarskoSelo: the Palace — the Ai-senal — the Grounds — Paulofaky and Gatchina — Strelna — Peterhoff — the Empress' Annual FStes at PeterhofF — Old Castle of Peter the Great — Marly and Monplaisir — the Hermitage — Cottage of Catherine II.— Ropscha — Oranienbaum page 466 CHAPTER XVIII. THE IMPERIAL GOVERNMENT. Absolute Power of the Sovereign — Organization of tlie Government by Peter the Great — the Imperial Council — the Senate — the Holy Synod — Committee of Ministers — Local Admin- istration of the Governments and Provinces — llie Judicial System — the Police System — Its Corruption — Thieves and Pickpockets — Punishments — the Rod — the Knout — Exile to Siberia — Departure of Exiles — tlie Journey — their Number and Condition in Siberia — the Army — Its Organization — the Imperial Guard — Guard of the Interior — the Gendarmes — the Cossacks — Conscription — Pay — Military Colonies — Insurrection of 1831 — the Navy — Its Extent — Its Eflaciency — Its History — Public Revenue — Its Sources — Expeftditurea — Public Debt 487 CHAPTER XIX. THE PEOPLE. The Nobility — Its Division by Peter into Fourteen Classes — Titles — Powers of the Nobility — their Education and Habits — their Vassals — Attention to Manufactures — the Clei-gy, Mer- chants, and Burghers — their Classification — the Three Guilds — Citizen-Burghers — Re- spectable Citizens — Suburban Inhabitants — the Free Peasantry — the Serfs — Serf Laws- Marriages among Serfs and Free Peasants — Habits of the Russian Peasantry — their Villages, Costume, Food, (fee. — Superstitions and Vices — the Vapor-Bath — Public Baths. . . .page 511 CHAPTER XX. RELIGION — THE GREEK CHURCH. The Various Religions in Russia — History of the Greek Cliureh — Reforms of Peter the Great — Points of Difference between the Greek and Roman Church — the Clergy — the White and Black Clergy — Monks — the Clergy of Other Churches — Incomes of Ihe Russian Clergy — Nuns — Titles — Habits of the Priests — Devotion of the People to Pictures of their Saints — Tolerant Spirit of the Russian Clergy page o33 CHAPTER XXI. FESTIVALS AND FASTS. The Easter Festival — Butter-Week — the Katsheli — Ice-Mountains — Admiralty Square during Easter — Equipages of the Grandees — the Wooden Theatres — the Burning Theatre — Its Victims — Fetes — the Great Fast — Its Monotony — Palm Sunday — Easter-Eggs — Holy' Thursday — Good Friday — Easter Eve — Easter Kisses — Recollection Monday, a Festival- Day in the Cemeteries face 441 CHAPTER XXII. LITERATURE AND EDUCATION. Early History of Literature — First Grammar of the Language — Michael Lomonosoff — Litera- ture during the Reign of Catherine IT. — Cheraskoff, "the Russian Homer" — Olher Poets- Progress of Russian Letters during the Present Century — Nicholas Karamzin — Poets of the Nineteenth Century — Voyages and Travels — Alexander Pvshkin — Nicholas Gogol — 10 CONTENTS. Alexander Bestushev — Historical Romances — Count Solohoupe — Female 'WriterB — His- torical Science — Statistics — the Drama — Theatrical Amusements — Theatres in St. Peters- burg — the Russian Alphabet — the Slavonic Dialects — Popular Instruction —Educational Statistics PAGH 667 CHAPTEE XXIII. MEANS OF TRAVEL. First Railway in Russia — Railroad from St. Petersburg to Moscow — Oliphant's Description of a Passage over this Road — Other Railways Projected — Roads and Roadside Accommo- dation — Sledge-TraveDing — Posthouses — Posting — Cabinet-Couriers — Diligences — the Malle-Poste — Post Telega — Droslty — Ivoslitshiks — Pedestrian Privileges page 684 CHAPTER XXIV. HISTORIC SUMMARY — EARLY ANNALS. Barmatians and Scythians — Slavonians — Varagians — Rurik — Igor and Oleg — the Pet- ohenegana — the Drevlians — Olga and Sviatoslaff — Ynropolk — Vladimir — Yaroslav — Monomachus — Conflagration of Kiev — Famine at Novgorod — Tartar Invasion — Yury L — Baton Khan — Yury II. — Yaroslav II. — Alexander Nevski — Wars with the Tartars — Ivan I. and II. — Dmitri III and IV. — "Battle of the Giants" — Vassili 11 — Ivan III. — Destruction of the Golden Horde — Vassili IV. — Ivan IV. the Terrible — Origin of the Title "Czar" — Formation of the Strelitzes — Fedor I. — Boris Godunoff — Famine in Mos- cow — the False Dmitris — Vladislaus — Michael Romanoff — Wars with the Swedes and Poles — Alexis — Fedor III. — Accession of Peter tlie Great page 697 CHAPTER XXV. HISTORIC SUMMARY — PETER THE GREAT TO NICHOLAS. Intrigues of Sophia, Half-Sister to Peter, to obtain the Ciown — Joint Reign of Peter and Ivan V., with Sophia — Insurrection of the Strelitzes — Deposition of Sophia — Death of Ivan — War with Turkey — War with Sweden — Peace of Nystadt — War with Persia — Death of Peter — His Character — His Manual Dexterity and Mechanical Knowledge — His Travels — Cathe- rine L — Her Previous History — Her Measures — Her Death — Peter II. — Menchikoff — Anne — War with Turkey — Ivan VI. — Elizabeth Petrowna — War with Sweden — War with Prussia — Peter lU. — His Assassination — Catherine If. — War with Turkey — Po- temkin — Suwarrow — Partition of Poland — Catherine's Death — Her Character — Paul L — Events of his Reign — His Eccentricities — His Assassination — Accession of Alexander I. — Treaty of Amiens — War with France — Battles of Austerlitz and Eylau — Treaty of Til- sit — War with Sweden — Capture of Finland — Allied War against France — Napoleon's Invasion of Russia — Battle of Borodino — Capture and Conflagration of Moscow — Blowing up of the Kremlin — Retreat of the French — The European Powers allied against Napoleon — His Overthrow — Death of Alexander — His Character page 614 CHAPTER XXVI. HISTORIC SUMMARY — REIGN OF NICHOLAS I. Early Life of Nicholas — His Marriage and Family — Death of his Daughter the Grand-Duchess Alexandra — Her Cenotaph at Czarsko Selo — Renunciation of the Throne by Constantine — Attempted Revolution — Its Suppression — War with Persia — War with Turkey — Cam- paigns of 1828-29 — Polish Revolution of 1831 — Its Suppression — Asiatic Cholera — Pro- tection to Turkey in the War with Mehemet Ali — Russian Agency in Crushing the Hungarian Revolution in 1848 — War with Turkey in 1863-4 — Invasion of the Danubian Principal- ities by Russia — Destruction of the Turkish Fleet at Sinope — Interference of France and England — Declarations of War — Russian Occupation of the Dobrudsehka — The Caucasian War — Austria and Prussia — Greek Insurrection — Movements of the Elaek Sea Fleet — Siege of Silistria — Russian Evacuation of the Principalities — Attack upon Petropaulofski (Kamt- Behatka) — Expedition to the Crimea — Battle of the Alma — Siege of Sevastapol — Battles of Balaclava and Inkerman — Death of Nicholas— Accession of Alexander II — Emanr.inntinn ILLUSTRATIONS. 11 CHAPTER XXVII. HISTORIC SUMMARY — ALEXANDER II. Early Life and Education of Alexander IT. — Kelntions with his Brother Constantinc — Mar- riage of Alexander — Maria Alexandrovna, the present Empresa of Russia — Peace Congress at Vienna — Failure of its Negotiations — Russian Sorties at Sevaslapol — Russian Ingenuity in Defence — Fougasses — Second Bombardment of Sevastapol — Resignation of Canrobert, and Pelissier's Appointment — Expedition to the Sea of AzofF — Capture of Russian Pliici- d'Armee — Capture of the Mamelon — Attack upon tlie MalakofF and Great Redan — Death of Lord Raglan — Battle of Traktir Bridge — Third Bombardment of Sevaslapol — Capture of the Mnlakoff and Assault upon the Great Redan — Evacuation of Southern Sevastnpol by the Russians — Cavalry Engagement at Khougill — Capture of Kinburn — Siege, Assault, and Capitulation of Kars — Movements of Omer Pacha — Successful Negotiations for Peace — The Treaty — Conclusion page 688 ■ ILLUSTRATIONS. IcE-MouNTAiN9 at St. Petersburg during Easter (See Description on p. 549) frontispiece Ornamental Title with Illustrative VignetXes: 1. Peter the Great at work in a Shipyard in Holland ; 2. The Building of St. Petersburg ; 8. Coronation of Catherine II. ; 4. Murder of the Emperor Paul; S. Napoleon in Russia, 6. Burning of Moscow ; 7. Battle of Navarino. Hunting Scene {Initial Letter) page 3 Map of European Russia {facing) 13 Winter Scene in Russia {Vignette) 13 Peaks of the Altai Mountains 20 Mouths of the Dwina 27 Mouths of the Danube 30 Mouths of the Volga 84 Horseboat with Barges on the Volga 36 Russian Pilots 37 Russian Elk and Bears 4S Finland Peasants 47 River and Town of Tornea, in Finland 51 Kronstadt, the Port of St Petersburg 55 Woman abandoning her Children to Wolves. 61 Preparing for the Chase 66 Elk-Hunting in Courland ..71 Gipsy Woman and Child 76 Courland Jew with Dulcimer 78 Lapland Frozen Lake and Mountain Scenery . 83 Shore and Mountain Laplanders 85 The Chase — a Winter Scene 88 Monastwy at Novgorod 92 Russian Posthouse 100 Church at Nijnei-Novgorod 1 02 Great Fair at Nijnei-Novgorod 106 Summary Punishment at Nijnei-Novgorod. .106 A Tartar- Wagon page 118 Battle Obelisk at Poltava 122 Volhynian Peasant-Girl spinning 129 Russian Village — Return of Hunters 134 Polish Bison, or LilhuMniim Wild-Bull. .. .144 Polish Jew at his Devotions 149 Polish Exiles on their Way to Siberia 155 The Krakow Cathedral 160 Map of Odessa 165 City and Harbor of Odessa 167 The Boulevard at Odessa 169 Cossacks of the Don 176 Cossack Post on the Circassian Frontier. . .177 Cossack Girl of Tcherkask 180 Crim Tartars 183 Map of Sevastapol 186 City and Harbor of Sevastapol 187 Inkerman, the Town of Caverna 189 Camel Cart 191 Cave of Foul Kouba 1 94 Tartar Whip 1 97 Palace of the Khans 198 Tartar Village 199 Tartar Guide 200 Mausoleum of the Khans 201 Jewish Fortress of Tchonfut Kal4 20S Mangoup KalJ 205 Novel Method of shoeing a Bullock 207 Winter-Travelling on the Steppes. 212 Summer-Travelling on the Steppes 216 Bird-Hunting on the Steppes 220 Invasion of the Steppes by Locusta 225 I^yptian Locust 227 Itinerant Horse-Dealer 283 12 ILLUSTRATIONS. Hunters encamped on the Steppes. . . .page 241 Astrakhan 245 Calmueks 24"? Astrakhan from the Sea 250 Sheep from the Steppes of the Caspian. . . .251 The Volga at Simbirsk — the JIgoulee 259 Chiivasses of Kazan 262 Kazan Gloves and Wooden Spoon 263 Interior of a Tartar House 264 Kazan before the Conflagration of 1842. . .265 Tlie Kremlin of Kazan - 269 Cathedral of Kikolskoi, at Kazan 271 Tartar Mosqnc near Kazan 279 Types of Caucasian Races 280 Georgians of the Heights of Teflis 286 Teflis, the Capital of Georgia 287 Ararat, from tlie Plain of Erivan 291 Church and Monastery of Echmiadzin 2-95 Imeritian and Mingreliaii Princes 299 Circassians ,. . .306 Circassian Females 307 Circassian Armor Manufactory 311 Caucas^iaos descending the Mountains 317 Map of Sibei-ia, or Asiatic Russia 321 Kii-ghiz Merchant in his Tent 329 Tobolsk, Capital of Western Siberia SSI Peasant atta64,000 Total. .197,170. .4,241,000 &BEAT Russia : — Archangel 3.50,000. Vologda 1 50,000 Olonutz 67,000 Novgorod ."i.5 000 Pskov 21.900. Tver 24,000 1 SmolPEsk 21000 1 Moscow ] 1.500. . YaroslH V 1 7,000 . . Kostroma 3?.4O0 . . Nijnel-Novgorod 20,400 . Vladimir 17,500.. Rinznn 14.000.. Tambov 24 000. . TouIh 12,000.. KHlougs 10,.5fi0-. Orel, or Orlov 17,000.. Koursk 16,000.. Voronej 30.000.. 258,000 839,000 268,000 926,000 791,000 3.54,000 194,000 402,000 02B.O00 ,076,000 202,000 271,000 :i!l3,000 786(100 251,500 026,500 533,000 714.000 691,000 Total 917,260 22,004,000 LiTTLK Russia : — Tcierrigov 23.000 1 .4.59,000 KharK-jv 21,000 1,497,000 Poltava 22.000 1 ,820.000 Kiev 20,600 1,638,000 Total 86,500.. .6,414,000 Westehn Russia : — Podolia, or Podolsk 15,000 1,737.000 Volhynia 29 000 1,474,000 Mnsk 37,000 1,067,000 Moghilev.. 19,300 9.50 000 Vitepsk 16800 805,000 Wilna 24.400 898000 Grodno 15,000 925.000 Bialystok 3.400 882,000 Russian PoiAKD 47,610 4,811,000 Total 207,510 18,949,000 POLITICAL DIVISIONS. Abba ih Sq. Mb. P«p. ISfiO SouTHEBN Russia : — Besssnibia 16,000 808,000 Kherson 36,000 a59,000 Taiirida 30,000 584,000 Ekatherinoslav 35,000 888,000 Don Cossacks 53,000 718,000 Total 170,000.. ASTBAKHAN PbOVINCES : — A-trakhnn 43,000- . Saratov* 73,000 . . Orenburg* 128,000. . -3,857,000 Totiil 244,000. Kazan Provinces : — Perm 127,000. Viiitka 52,500 - . Simbirsk* 24,000. Penza 14,000 . , . 290,000 .1753,000 -1,987,000 -4,030,000 -1670,000 -1,696,000 .1,345 000 .1,109 000 K Mzau 23,500 1-370.000 Total. .241,000 7,190,000 Caucasian Provinces ; — Ctotm 18,000 300,000 Shirv.in 9,200...... 150,000 Armenia 8.000 160000 Imcritia 4,830 170,000 Miiigrelia 7,200 4311,000 Gur.a 1.500 6.5.000 Abassia 2,640 52.000 Circassia 32,250 550.000 Caucasus 40.000 1.50,000 Daghestan 9,300 190,000 Total. .138,920- -2,217 OOC Siberia : — Tobolsk 694,000 - , Tomsk 380,000. . Yeniseisk 945.000- . Ir kouts k 1 50, 000 - . Yiikoutsk 1,400,000.- Okhotsk 170,000 Kamtschntkn, &c 84.000 5 OHO 98.',000 779,000 20.'>,000 507,000 163.000 000 Total Grand Total . --. 3,823,000 2,6,12 000 ...6,019,360-, .65 554,000 • These povernmentB include in their amounts tlie urea (33,000 bg, mtleal and po|,ulation (1,1 16,000) of the new government of Sahbrb, foroiM of portions oC them, by imperiHl ukase of December 18, 1860, THE BALTIC PROVINCES — FINLAND. 43 THE BALTIC PROVINCES. Finland, called by the inhabitants Snometif-maa, or Land of Marshes, lies between the sixtieth and seventieth degrees of north latitude, and the twenty-first and thirty-second degrees of east longitude, forming the ex- treme northwestern portion of the Russian empire, including the province of Viborg and the western portion of Russian Lapland, which are politi- cally connected with it. It has on the north the Norwegian province of Finmark ; on the east, the governments of Archangel and Olonetz ; on the south, the lake Ladoga, the government of St. Petersburg, and the gulf of Finland ; and on the west, Sweden and the gulf of Bothnia. Its length from north to south is seven hundred and thirty miles ; its average breadth is about one hundred and eighty-five miles ; and its area one hundred and forty-four thousand square miles. Its greater portion is a table-land, reach- ing generally from four to six hundred feet above the level of the sea, and interspersed with hills of no great elevation. In the north, however, are the Mauselka mountains, with an average . height supposed to be between three and four thousand feet. The coasts, particularly in the south, are surrounded by a vast number of rocky islands, separated from the mainland and from each other by intri- cate and narrow channels, rendering the shores of Finland easy of defence in case of hostile attack by sea. But the chief natural feature of the coun- try is its myriads of lakes, which occupy a large proportion of its surface ; and some of which, as the Enare, Saima, Paiyane, and others, are of con- siderable size. The greater number of these are in the south and east ; they have frequent communications with each other, and generally abound with islands, the natural strength of whose situation has been taken advan- tage of to cover them with batteries, some of them impregnable save to want or famine. There are no rivers of any importance. The climate is rigorous ; even in the south the winter lasts seven months of the year, and the summer season, which commences in June, terminates in August. Dense fogs are very frequent ; heavy rains take place in au- tumn, and in May and June the thaws nearly put a stop to all travelling. In the north the sun is absent during December and January ; but during the short summer, while that luminary is almost perpetually above the hori- zon, the heat is often very great, and near Uleaborg the grain is sowed and reaped within six weeks ! The principal geological formations are granite, which very easily disin- tegrates, hard limestone, and slate. The soil for the most part is stony and poor ; but how barren soever, Finland is more productive than the opposite part of the Scandinavian peninsula ; and when it belonged to the Swedish crown, it furnished a good deal more grain than was necessary for its own consumption, and was termed the granary of Sweden. Barley and rye are the kinds of grain chiefly cultivated, and the rye of Vasa is 44 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. celebrated for its excellence : wheat and oats are but little grown. The peasants are obliged, from the humidity of the atmosphere, to dry all the grain in ovens, after which it will keep for fifteen or eighteen years. Pulse hops, hemp, flax, and a little tobacco, are raised ; and potatoes were intra duced about the year 1762, but they have not yet been brought into gen- eral use. Only a small proportion of the surface is under culture. The land requires a large quantity of manure, and that in common use is wood- ashes, procured by setting fire to the forests and underwood, after which operation heavy crops are sometimes obtained. The natural poverty of the soil is such that, excepting in the southern province of Tavastehus, where it is deprived of a continual supply of artificial stimulus, the crops rapidly fall off, and the cleared land is soon abandoned for another portion of soil, the wood on which is purposely destroyed. This plan of manuring the land, though well enough adapted to bring the fens covered with brush- wood under cultivation, is highly injurious to the forests, and consequently to one of the chief sources of national wealth. The forests are very exten- sive, and reach as far north as latitude sixty-nine degrees. They consist principally of pine and fir; but they contain also beech, elm, poplar, oak, ash, birch, &c. Timber, deals, potash, pitch, tar, and rosin, are among the most impor- tant products of Finland. Cherries and apples ripen at Vasa, and a spe- cies of crab-apple grows wild in the west ; but other fruits, except a few kinds of berries, are rare. Next to agriculture, cattle-breeding and fishing are the chief occupations of the people. Pasturage is scarce and indiffer- ent, and forage rare ; but cattle, goats, and hogs, which are fed upon leaves, straw, &c., are comparatively numerous. In the north, the peasants pos- sess large herds of reindeer. Bears, wolves, elks, deer, foxes, beavers, polecats, and various kinds of game, abound in Finland. Seal and herring fisheries are established on many parts of the coast ; and the salmon and strsemling QClvpea harengus') are caught in great quantities in the lakes, supplying the inhabitants with an important part of their food. Iron-mines were formerly wrought, but at present only bog-iron is procured. Lead, sulphur, arsenic, nitre, and a little copper, are met with ; salt is very scarce, and is one of the chief articles of import. The manufactures of Finland are quite insignificant. Except the prod- ucts of a few iron-forges, and glass, sailcloth, and hose factories, they are entirely domestic. The peasant prepares his own tar, potash, and char- coal ; constructs his own boat-furniture and wooden utensils ; and weaves at home the coarse woollen and other fabiics he uses. He often lives one hundred miles from any town, and is therefore thrown for the most part upon his own resources and ingenuity for the supply of his wants. In some districts the inhabitants never repair to a town but to obtain salt. The exports consist of timber, butcher's meat, butter, skins, tar, and fish, to other parts of the empire and to Sweden, with which countries the prin THE BALTIC PROVINCES — FINLAND. AH icfOBaits.sc, Russian Elk and Bears. cipal intercourse is maintained. There are a few good roads, made by the Swedes while they were in possession of the country ; but they do not extend far into the interior. Post-horses are furnished, as in Sweden, by the adjacent farmers. In commercial dealings, the Russian is the currency established by law ; but Swedish paper-money is in circulation, and is gen- erally preferred by the population. Administratively, Finland is divided into eight Icmes, or governments, viz., Viborg, St. Michael, Nyland, Tavastehus, Abo-Biomeborg, Vasa, Ku- opia, and Uleaborg-kaiana ; and these again are subdivided into fogderier, or districts, hcBrades, &c. The chief towns are Helsingfors, the present capital ; Abo, the former capital ; Tavastehus, Yasa, Uleaborg, and Tor- nea. A Russian military governor resides at Helsingfors, which is one of the great naval stations of the Baltic, and is strongly fortified. Finland has a diet, composed of the four orders of the nobility, clergy, citizens, and peasantry, and a code of laws and judicial system similar to that of Swe- den ; but the diet is rarely convoked, except to consent to the imposition of fresh taxes, a senate more recently established having replaced it in the exercise of its functions. The annual revenue derived by the crown from Finland is about one million dollars ; the whole of it is, however, expended in the country. Among their privileges is the one that none but a native Finlander can hold any office of trust in the country. The regiments raised in Finland are also not promiscuously intermixed with the general 46 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. forces of the Russian empire ; and their fleet, by far the best-manned por- tion of the Russian naval force, forms a distinct squadron under the Fin- nish flag. Almost all the population are Lutherans, under the bishops of Abo and Borgo ; except in the government of Viborg, where they belong totthe Russian (Greek) church. Public education is very backward ; thor is a university at Heisingfors, besides schools in all the towns, but there ia a great deficiency of country-schools. On the western coast, and in the Aland archipelago (which is included in Fiilland),* the inhabitants are mostly of Swedish origin, and in the south- east of Russian descent ; but the great majority of the population are Finns. The latter have, by many geographers, been identified with the Fenni of * The Aiiiiid iirclii])elngo is a f^roup nf islands at the entranne of tlie gulf of Bothnia, hetween fifty-nine degrees fifty minutes and sixty degrees thiity-twu minutes north latitude, and nineteen degrees ten minutes and twenty-one degrees seven minutes east longitnde, consisting of more than eighty inhabited and upwntd of two hundred uninhabited islets and i-ocks (^sharoil), occupying an area of about four hundred and seventy rquare miles, and divided into three oblong clusters by the straits of Delet and Lnppviisi. The Baltic bounds them to the south ; on the west the straits of Alanrleltaf sepnrates them from Sweden, its widtfi being about twenty-four miles; and on the east the straits ef \Vattu8kiftet, which ai-e scarcely two miles brtjad where tlioy ore naiTowest, and about fourteen wbei'e they are hrondt^st, inlei'pose between them and the Finland shore. The J^rincipal islands :iri', Aland, which gives name to the group, Jemland, Lumparland, Bkeroe, Fogloe, Kum- 1 nge, Briendoe, Vordne, and Hannoe. The population of the whole group is fourteen thousand, entirely of Swedish extraction. — Most of the islands stand at ix considerable elevation above the level of the sea, and are inteisected by chains of granite rocks, which occasionally rise into peaks, and are full of hollows. There are no rivers, but many small lakes. The surface is either a thin layer of clay oi- rich mould, slalestone, or sand. The climate, thirugh keen, and at times severe, is more temperate than that' of Finland. There are extensive forests, chiefly of birches and pines ; the pasture-grounds are very poor, excepting near some pnrts of the coast; and the arable land, on which rye and barley are mostly giown, produces a sufficiency for domestic consumption, the best yiehling seven-fold. Hops, cabbages, parsnips, carrots, and other roots, potatoes, and a little flax, are likewise riiised. Nuts form an article of export. The horned cattle, of which there are upward of twelve thousand, are small in size, and few of the cows have horns; the latter furnish the "Aland cheeses," which are much sought after, and made pni]ci]ially in the island of Fogloe. Of sheep there are above thirteen thousand, the wool of which is converted into coarse stuffs and sailcloth horses and goats are also bred in considerable numbers. The fisheries are productive, particularlv of herrings {stromlinge) and seals, of the first of which six thousand tons and upward a)-e annually salted. Wateifowl abound. The exports consist of salt meat, butter, cheese, hides and skinj, dried and salted fish, wood for fuel, ifec. ; and the imports of salt, colonial produce, iron-ware, woollens, cottons, and other manufactures, &,c. — The Alanders are excellent seamen, and navigate sm.all vessels of their own that trade with the adjacent pans; they are Swedes in their language, man- ners, and usages. There are a number of good harbors, many of which have been fortified by the Russians, who keep up a disproportionately large military force in the islands, as well as a numet^ ous flotilla, called the " Skaerenflott." — The islands contain eight parishes and as many churches, and seven churches or chapels of ease. Aland, the largest island, is nearly circular, being about seventeen miles in length and sixteen in breadth ; it ccintnitiS above nine thousand inhabitants, and has an excellent harbor at Ytternaes, on the west side, capable of containing the whole Russian fleet; and a citadel in which, it is said, sixty thousand men might be quartered ! It is divided liy a narrow strait from Ekoroe, the westernmost island, whii-h has a telegraph, and is inhabited by the pilots «ho are employed by the Russian government for coadui-ting the mails and travelleis. On ihe eastern coast of Aland is the old castle of Custleholm, now in ruins. Kumlinge has a popula- tion of three thousand. — These islands were wrested by Russia from Sweden in 1809; and give the former a position from which they may easily make a descent on the Swedish coast. The first victoiy of the Russians over the Swedes, in the war with Charles XII., was gained in the neighbor- aood of these islands, by Peter the Great, in 1714. THE BALTIC PROVINCES — FINLAND. 47 Peasants of Finlani. Tacitus, aad the Fhmni of Ptolemy. There are, ho^Tever, circumstances which give rise to considerable doubt respectiiig such identity. The Pinna call themselves Sonomala'iseth, or " inhabitants of the marshes." They have no analogy with the Slavonian or Teutonic races. They are of mid- dle height, and robust, flat-faced, with prominent cheek-bones, light, red- dish, or yellowish-brown hair, gray eyes, little beard, and a dull, sallow complexion. They are courageous, hospitable, and honest ; but obstinate in the extreme, and it is said unforgiving and revengeful. They have not the gay disposition of their Slavonic neighbors, but are grave and unsocial Almost every one is a poet or musician. 48 ILLUSTRATED DESCEIPTION OP RUSSIA. The customs and habits of the Finns have been handed down time im- omo.ial and their costume forcibly brought their supposed eastern origin 1,1) the mind of Mr. Elliot, who observes, in his " Letters from the North Dt Kurope :" " I could fancy myself in Asia. The peasants wear long, loose robes, of a coarse woollen manufacture, secured by a silken cincture, like the kuvimerbund of the mussulmans. Their dress, except the Eur'> pean hat, resembles that of the Beoparries of Cabul. In Russia or Old Finland, the peasants wear a cloak or caftan, sometimes called a khalaai, resembling in form, 'as well as in name, the eastern dress." The Finns make frequent use of hot vapor baths, and Malte-Brun considers it certain that it was they who communicated the custom to their Russian con- querors. The Finns were pagans, living under their own independent kings, till the twelfth century ; about the middle of which Finland was conquered by the Swedes, who introduced Christianity. The province of Viborg was conquered and annexed to Russia by Peter the Great, in 1721. The re- mainder of the country became part of the Russian dominions (also by conquest) in 1809. Abo (pronounced Obo'), the former capital of Finland, lies on the river Aurajoki, between the gulfs of Bothnia and Finland. The streets of tlie town strike a stranger at first as enormously wide, though they by no means exceed the usual dimensions of Russian towns ; but the low style of building, almost universal in this town, and the number of sites at present unoccupied by houses, joined to the solitary appearance of its almost de- serted thoroughfares, give an air of desolation to the whole place. The glory of Abo has indeed departed. It had once a flourishing port, and a well-attended university : .its trade is now inconsiderable, and its university is removed to Kelsingfors, the Russian capital of Finland. A destructive fire, the ravages of which are even now not fully repaired, came to give the final blow to the already sinking fortunes of Abo. This fearful conflagration, which took place in the year 1827, consumed nearly the whole city, including the university and its valuable library, and other public buildings. The fire raged for two whole days, and was not extin- guished until seven hundred and eighty-six houses, out of eleven hundred, were a mass of blackened ruins. When the town was rebuilt, the public edifices, as well as the houses, were placed at a considerable distance from each other, and the town now covers much more ground than formerly, though its inhabitants do not exceed twelve thousand, which, from being spread over so large a surface, do not give one the idea of amounting even to that number. Abo is the most ancient city in Finland ; its history being coexistent with the reign of Eric the Saint, that is, from 1150 to 1160, the period at which Christianity was first introduced into this wild and cold region. The castle is as ancient as the town, and arrested more than once the on- R-ard march of the Russian armies. It was in the dungeons of this build- THE BALTIC PROVINCES — FINLAND. 49 ing that Eric XIV. was imprisoned previous to his death, which took place some time afterward at Orebyhus. The castle is now used as a prison, and is garrisoned by half a battalion of infantry. The cathedral of Abo is also highly interesting — not, however, on account of its external appearance, which is coarse and heavy, but for the architectural structure of its inte- rior, which is of three epochs ; but this cathedral is more particularly wor- thy of interest from its having been the cradle of Christianity in Finland : here the first episcopal chair was instituted, and for centuries the first families were buried. The vaults of the chapels are filled with their re- mains, and some of their monuments are not unworthy of mention. On one of them is an epitaph to Caroline Morsson, a girl taken from the ranks of the people by Eric XIV., and who, after having worn the Swedish diadem, returned to Finland and died in obscurity, while her royal husband, as has been before stated, ended his days in a prison. In the same chapel, and at the end of it, are two statues in white marble, the size of life, kneeling on a sarcophagus, supported by columns of black marble : these are the wealthy and powerful Clas Tott, grandson of Eric XIV., and his wife. In another chapel is the monument of Stalhandsk, one of the generals and heroes of the Thirty Years' War. The fire of 1827 completely gutted this church, and not only were the altar and organ destroyed, but even the bells were melted by the devouring element. Subscriptions have restored the cathedral ; and a patriotic Finn, a baker by trade, who had amassed about fifteen thousand dollars in his business, and was without a near rela- tive, left that sum to purchase an organ at his death. Effect was given to his wishes, and an organ of five thousand pipes, the largest in northern Russia, now raises its decorated and painted head nearly to the roof of the building. Gustavus Adolphus founded an academy here in 1630, which Christina his daughter subsequently elevated into a university. Abo, like Amiens, Ryswick, and Cintra, is distinguished by a treaty, being the spot on which the relations between Russia and Sweden were settled by a peace during the last century. Here, too, Alexander and Bernadotte concluded in 1813 that treaty which arrayed Sweden against France, and placed the Swedish monarch, a Frenchman, in the anomalous position of fighting against his own countrymen. The town of Helsingfors is, historically speaking, comparatively of mod- ern creation, having been founded by King Gustavus Vasa in the sixteenth century : its name came from a colony of the province of Helsing-land, in Sweden, which had been established in the neighborhood for several cen- turies. In 1639, however, the town changed its site, and the inhabitants moved their wooden houses nearer the seashore ; and on the spot where Helsingfors now stands — war, plague, famine, and fire, ravaged it, each in its turn, and the end of a century found it with a population of only five thousand souls. At the present time it numbers sixteen thousand, exclu- sive of the garrison. 4 50 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. The Russians have gi-eatly augmented and improved Helsingfora since it came into their possession, more particularly since the year 1819, when it became the capital of Finland ; the removal to it of the university of Abo, and the senate, after the conflagration of that town in 1827, also materially increased its importance. The streets are long, broad, and laid out* at right angles, as in most Russian towns. The houses are large and regular, and a handsome granite quay extends along the water in front of the town. Among the fine buildings worthy of mention is the senate-house. The chambers in which the various branches of the assembly meet, for the ordi- nary purposes of business, are simple, and furnished in good taste. The large hall, intended for the meeting of the senate on great occasions, con- tains a splendid throne for the emperor, who once presided in person ; it is hung with portraits of former (Swedish) governors of Finland. The remains of the library, saved from the fire of Abo, is at present preserved in this building. It consists of about eighty thousand volumes, chiefly edi- tions of the clasaics taken from the monasteries, during the " seven years' war." An extensive collection of sagas, or traditionary records, and other documents, relating to the history of Finland, unfortunately fell a prey to the flames. Another handsome building is the university, which has twenty-four fac- ulties and twenty-two professors, and where may be seen the act which incorporated that of Abo, with the signature of the illustrious Oxenstiern, the Swedish prime minister under Queen Christina. The latter is one of the oldest institutions of learning in Russia, having been founded by Gustavus Adolphus, as an academy, in 1630, and subsequently raised to a university by Christina, as before stated. Printing was not introduced into Finland till 1641, eleven years after the academy was founded, when Wald, a Swe- dish printer, established himself at Abo. The approach to Helsingfors by water is exceedingly striking : the har- bor is very extensive, and well protected by the works and fortress of Sweaborg, capable of containing twelve thousand men ; these are built on seven islands, and from the extent of the fortifications, and the strength of their position, it has been termed by the Russians the Gibraltar of the north. The original fortress was built by Count Ehrenswerd, field-marshal of Swe- den, and completed in 1758. After the conquest of Viborg and Ingerma- nia by Peter the Great, it was the last stronghold of the Swedes. In May, 1808, after two months' siege, though defended by fifteen hundred men, it capitulated to a Russian force scarcely sufficient to man the walls. This fortress has acquired a recent notoriety from its unsuccessful bombardment by the English and French Baltic fleet in August, 1855. There are several agreeable walks in the neighborhood of Helsingfors ; and the town is much resorted to during the summer-months by visiters from St. Petersburg, Revel, &c. Tornea lies on the northwest frontier of Finland, on a peninsula in the river Tornea, where it falls into the gulf of Bothnia. It has but about one THE BALTIC PROVINCES — ST. PETERSBURG. 53 thousand inhabitants. This little town, which was built by the Swedes In 1602, consists of two principal streets of wooden houses. It has a consid- erable trade in the exportation of stock-fish, reindeer, skins, furs, iron, planks, tar, butter, pickled salmon, &c. The climate is very severe, though less so, perhaps, than might be expected from its high latitude. In June the sun is visible, from a mountain in the neighborhood, at midnight, above the horizon. Tornea is celebrated in the history of science for the visit made to it in 1736, by the French academicians Maupertuis, Clairaut, Monnier, and Ca- mus, accompanied by the Swedish astronomer Celsius, with a view to the determination of the exact figure of the earth. The operations do not, however, appear to have been conducted with sufiicient accuracy ; and there is a discrepancy of about two hundred toises (twelve hundred feet) between the length of the degree, as determined by the academicians, and that measured by the Swedish astronomer Svanberg in 1801. This town, along with the grand-duchy of Finland, was ceded to Russia by Sweden, by the treaty of Frederickshausen, in 1809. Vexed as the Swedes — a proud and martial people — must be to see Bome of their finest provinces torn from them, and transferred to their more powerful neighbor, the separation was to the full as keenly felt by the Finns. Not only from forming an influential and integral part of a kingdom, were they at once reduced to a petty province of a boundless empire, but their ancient ties of friendship and affection were torn asunder. They can have no great sympathy with Russia — no fellowship in her glory - -no anxiety for her distant conquests. But with Sweden it was far dif- ferent : the steel-clad Finns forflaed, under the mighty Adolphus, a part of that unconquered army that humbled to the dust the imperial pride of Austria ; and, in later days, they shared under Charles XII. the glories of Narva, and their stubborn valor retrieved for a moment the waning for- tunes of the fatal day of Poltava. The very people are the same : the kindness, the open-hearted frankness of manner, the unwearied civility, and the scrupulous honesty, of the Swede, are alike to be met with throughout the whole of the wejstorn provinces of Finland. The traveller, during his wanderings, will hardly meet with a people so 'attaching, or with whom he will so soon find himself on terms of intimacy, as the Swedes and Finns. This remark perhaps requires qualification as applied to the peasantry of the more eastern provinces, of the unmixed Finnish race, who are repr© pented to be habitually grave and taciturn. The government of St. Petersburg (being that in which the capital of the empire is situated) lies between the fifty-eighth and sixty-first degrees of north latitude, and the twenty-eighth and thirty-fourth degrees of east longitude ; having the gulf and government of Finland and Lake Ladoga on the north, Olonetz on the northeast, Novgorod on the east and south- east, Pskov on the south, and Lake Peipus and the government of Esthonia .)4 ILLUSTBAI'ED OHSCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. or Revel on the west. Its greatest length from northeast to southwest is two hundred and sixty-five miles, and its breadth ninety miles, comprising an area of about eighteen thousand six hundred square miles. It is, for the most part, a low flat, covered to a considerable extent with lakes and swamps, excepting small portions of the north and south, the former being broken by the low hills of Olonetz, and the latter partly traversed by a ramification of the Valdai mountains. The whole of its drainage is carried into the gulf of Finland, either directly by the Neva, Louga, and Narova, or indirectly by the Volkhov, Siasi, Pacha, Tvir, and Oiat, which have their mouths in Lake Ladoga. The climate is severe, and the soil by no means fertile ; not above one third of the surface is under cultivation, and the grain produced falls far chort of the consumption. The forests are very extensive. There are no minerals of any consequence. Manufactures have advanced with rapid strides, particularly in the capital, and trade, both foreign and domestic, is very extensive. For administrative purposes, the government is divided into eight dis- tricts. The greater part of it belonged to ancient Ingria, which, during the war between the Swedes and Russians, in the time of Charles XII., became the principal theatre of hostilities, and in consequence suifered dreadfully. Ultimately, Peter the Great succeeded in conquering it. and it was finally secured to Russia by the peace of Nystadt. St. Petersburg, the capital (which is fully described on future pages), had, up to the breaking out of hostilities with Turkey and the western powers, the most extensive foreign trade of any city in the north of Eu- rope. This arises not so much from its great population as from its being the only great maritime inlet on the gulf of Finland, and from its vast and various communications with the interior. By means partly of canals, but principally of rivers, St. Petersburg is connected with the Caspian sea, goods being conveyed from the latter to the capital, a distance of fourteen hundred and thirty-four miles, without once landing them. The iron and furs of Siberia and the teas of China are received at St. Petersburg in the same way ; but, owing to the great distance of these countries, and the short period during which the rivers and canals are navigable, they take three years in their transit by water ! Immense quantities of the less bulky and more valuable species of goods are also brought to the city during the win- ter upon the ice in sledges. The principal article of export is tallow ; and next are hemp, flax, iron, copper, grain (mostly wheat), timber, potashes, canvass, linseed and hempseed, with their oils, furs, hides, leather, cordage, caviare, wax, tar, &c. The chief imports are sugar, and other colonial products ; cotton yarn, raw cotton, and cotton-stuifs ; dye-stuffs, wines, silks, woollens, hardware, fine linen from Holland, &c. ; salt, lead, tin, coal, &c. Eronstadt, properly the port of St. Petersburg, and the principal station of the Russian navy in the Baltic, is situated on the long, flat, and arid iKland of Kotlin, near the eastern extremity of the gulf of Finland, and f\ iiiTpr^aifwis^!ipisifs?im: iil § en »1J I l-J I ifiiiri Ill THE BALTIC PROVINCES — ST. PETERSBURG. 57 about twenty miles from St. Petersburg. The town is built in the form of an irregular triangle, on the southeastern extremity of the isle, opposite the mouth of the Neva, and is strongly fortified on all sides. On the south side of Kotlin is the narrow channel, through which only one vessel can pass at a time, from the gulf to the capital, and scores of guns could here be brought to bear on an enemy, by means of a fortress erected on a detached islet ; or, if arriving on the opposite side, by the batteries of Riesbank, and the citadel of Kronslot. The appearance of Kronstadt is respectable. It is regularly built, and contains many straight and well-paved streets, and several squares. The houses, however, are all low, being generally of one story, with those sin- gular red-and-green painted roofs common in Russia ; and are mostly of wood, with the exception of those belonging to the government, which number nearly two hundred, and are nearly all built of stone. The town is entered by three gates, and is divided into two sections, the command- ant's division and the admiralty, each of which is subdivided into two dis- tricts. It is also intersected by two canals, which have their sides built of granite, and are both deep and wide enough to admit the largest ves- sels. The one, Peter's canal, is used as a repairing dock ; and the other, Catherine's canal, for commercial purposes. Kronstadt contains three Greek churches : that of the Transfiguration, a large wooden edifice, built by Peter the Great, and covered with images ; Trinity church, and St. Andrew's church, in the Byzantine style, with a handsome cupola. There are also two Greek chapels, and three other churches, one each for Lutherans, English, and Roman catholics. Between the two canals stands a handsome palace, built by Prince Menchikoff, now occupied as a naval school, and attended by three hundred pupils. The other public buildings deserving of notice are the marine hospital, fitted up with twenty-five hundred beds ; the exchange, customhouse, admiralty, ar- senal, barracks, cannon-foundry, &c., and the small palace in which Peter the Great resided, and in the gardens of which are several oaks planted by his own hand. The shady alleys of the gardens form the principal promenade. The harbor of Kronstadt lies to the south of the town, and consists of three sections : the military or outer harbor, which is the great naval sta- tion of Russia, and is capable of containing thirty-five ships-of-the-line ; the middle harbor, properly intended for the fitting out and repairing of ves- sels ; and the innermost harbor, running parallel with the last, and used only by merchant-vessels, of which some hundreds might lie in it. Two thirds of the external commerce of Russia pass through Kronstadt, although the depth of water at the bar is scarcely nine feet, and ice blocks up the harbor nearly five months in the year ; the shipping season continuing only from May to November. Kronstadt has constant communication with the opposite shores, and steamers now ply regularly between it and the capital. The population in winter is about twenty thousand, exclusive of the gar 58 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. rison, and marine ; but including these, in summer, it is not less than sixty thousand. The Rev. J. 0. Choules, who accompanied Mr. Vanderbilt in his excur- sion to the principal seaports of Europe in his beautiful steam-yacht the " North Star," in 1853, mentions an interesting characteristic of that nor- thern latitude which they witnessed, June 21, while anchored in the road- stead of Kronstadt : " This is the longest day [of summer], and the sun did not set till nearly ten o'clock, and then rose again before two ; and all the interval was one continued bright twilight, so that we could road the small type of a newspaper on deck with great ease. At half-past twelve, a bright halo indicates the proximity of the sun to the horizon during his absence. All were on deck to witness the sun rise, and I do not think we shall soon forget the novelty of twenty-four hours' daylight in one day." The remaining Baltic provinces — Esthonia, Livonia, and Courland — are situated on the south of the gulf of Finland, and to the east of the Bal- tic ; and, from their importance in an agricultural point of view, rank high among the tributary lands of the great autocrat. They are also known as the German provinces, the higher classes having still retained the language and customs of their German ancestors. These provinces present an in- teresting field to both the student of history and the ethnographer. Esthonia (anciently Esthland, or Revel') is situated between the fifty- eighth and sixtieth degrees of north latitude, and the twenty-third and twenty-ninth degrees of east longitude ; having on the east the government of St. Petersburg, on the south Lake Peipus and the govennnent of Riga, on the west the Baltic, and on the north the gulf of Finland. Its area, in- cluding the islands lielonging to it, is about seven thousand two hundred square miles. The surface of the country is generally flat, but diversified in parts with undulating hills. It contains many small lakes and streams, but has no navigable river. Its shores are bold and rocky. Tlic climate is rigorous ; the winters are long and severe, and fogs and violent winds arc common throughout the year. The soil is in great part sandy, and rather infertile : the cultivable lands are supposed to compare witli those which are unproductive, including the forests, &c., as one to three. Agriculture is the chief employment of the population, and more grain is produced than is sufficient for liome con- sumption : it is principally rye, barley, and oats ; but wheat and buckwheat, besides flax, hemp, liops, and tobacco, are also raised. The greater part of the grain not required for food is set apart for the purpose of distilling spirituous liquors, large quantities of which are consumed by the lower orders of the people, who are much addicted to the vice of drunkenness. Different species of pulse are extensively cultivated, and form a large pro- poi'tion of the noui-ishment of the peasantry. Fruit-trees are neglected : THE BALTIC PROVINCES — ESTHONIA. 59 Dnt certain ,wild fruits are very abundant. The pine, fir, &c., are the most common forest-trees ; but the oak, elm, and beech, &c., are met with. A good many head of live stock are reared, and sorn© are driven into this province from other and distant ones, to be fattened for the St. Petersburg markets. The oxen and horses of Esthonia are very indifferent, as well as the sheep, goats, &c., though active endeavors have been made to improve the breed of the latter. Poultry is abundant. The lakes do not contain many fish, but the fisheries on the coasts are of importance to the inhabitants. Among the wild animals, may be enumerated a few elks ; and the bear, wolf,* badger, fox, &c., inhabit the forests. * The wolf is the most common of all the wild, animals in Esthonia. It is so great a torment to the peasants and shepherds, that the month of December, when cold and hunger drives the wolves oftenest to the dwellings of man, it is called by them " Vilkii Meknes^'* or Wolf's Month. In Janu- uary, the howling of the wolves is a common nocturnal music. The following account of an Estho- nial female abandoning her children to wolves, thrillingly illustrates the danger to which the inhab- itants of that region are exposed to attacks from these ravenous beasts. It also explains the scene given in the engraving on page 61: "An Esthonian woman, during the winter of 1807, undertook a journey to a distaiTt relation, not only without any male companion, but with three children, the youngest of which was still at the breast. A light sledge, drawn by one horse, received the little party; the way was narrow, but well beaten ; the snow on each side deep and impassable; and to turn back, without danger of sticking fast, not to be thought of. *' The first half of the journey was passed without accident. The road now ran along the skirts of a pine-forest, when the traveller suddenly heard a suspicious noise behind her. Casting back a look of alarm, she saw a troop of wolves trotting along the road, the number of which her fears hin- dered her from estimating. To escape by flight is her first thought; and with unsparing whip she urges into a gallop the horse, which itself snuffs the danger. Soon a couple of the strongest and most hungry of the beasts appear at her side, and seem disposed to stop the way. Though their intention seems to be only to attack the horse, yet the safety of both the mother and the children depends on the preservation of the animal. The danger raises its value; it seems entitled to claim for its preservation an extraordinary sacrifice. As the mariner throws overboard his richest treas- ures to appease the raging waves, so here has necessity reached a height at which the emotions of the heart are dumb before the dark commands of instinct; the latter alone suffers the unhoppy wo- man to act in this distress. She seizes her second child, whose bodily infirmities have often made it an object of anxious care, whose ciy even offends not her ear, and threatens to whet the appetite of the bloodthirsty monsters — she seizes it with an involuntaiy motion, and before the mother is conscious of what she is doing, it is oust out, and the last ciy of the victim still sounded in her ears, when she discovered that the troop, which had remained some minutes behind, again closely pressed on the sledge. The anguish of her soul increases, for again the murdei -breathing forms are at her side. Pressing the infant to her heaving bosom, she casts a look on her boy, four years old, who crowds closer and closer to her knee. * But, dear mother, 1 am good, nm I not? You will not throw mc into the snow, like the bawler?* — 'And yet! and yet!* cried the wretched woman, in the wild tumult of despair, 'thou art good, but God is merciful! — Away!* The dreadful deed was done. To escape the furies that raged within her, the woman exerted herself, with powerless lashj lo accelerate the gpllop of the exhausted horse. With the thick and gloomy forest before and be- hind her, and the nearer and nearer trampling of her ravenous pursuers, she almost sinks under her •nguish ; only the recollection of the infant that she holds in her arms — only the desire to save it — occupies her heart, and with difficulty enables it to bear up. She did not venture to look behind her. All at once, two rough paws are laid on her shoulders, and the wide-open, bloody jaws of an enormous wolf hung over her head. It is the most ravenous bensL of the troop, wLich having partly missed its leap at the sledge, is dragged along with it, in vain seeking with its hinder legs for a resting-place, to enable it to get wholly on the frail vehicle. The weight of the body of the mon- Bler draws the woman backward. Her arms rise with the child: half torn from her, half aban- doned, it becomes the prey of the ravenois beast, which hastily car.-iee it off into the forest. Ex- fJO ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. A few mineral products are obtained in this province, but they are of no great consequence. Nearly all the manufactures are domestic : the peas- antry weave their own coarse woollens, and some very tolerable linen stufif. In the islands, the building of boats is a principal employment. Distilleries are common in every part of the country, the free use of stills being one of the most important of their ancient privileges that the Bstho- nians preserve. The chief exports are grain, spirits, salt fish, and hides ; among the chief imports are herrings and salt. The port of Revel is the centre of the trade of the government. I'or administrative purposes, the province is under the superintendence of the governor-general of Riga, and consists of four districts (Revel, Hapsal, Weissenstein, and Wesenberg) ; but it has its own provincial coimcil, judi- cial court, (fee. Nearly all the inhabitants are Lutherans. A compara- tively very small proportion of the population is educated. Revel (called by the Russians Kolyvan), the capital of Esthonia, is situ- ated on a small bay on the south side of the gulf of Finland, two hundred miles west-southwest of St. Petersburg. Its population is about fifteen thousand. The city proper, included within the ramparts, is small ; and although it has many good brick houses, its streets are narrow and irregu- hausted, stunned, senseless, she drops the reins, and continues her joufney, ignorant whether she is delivered from her pursuers or not. " Meantime the forest grows thinner, and an insulated farmhouse, to which a side-road leads, appears at a modei-ate distance. The horse, left to itself, follows this new path; it enters through an open gate ; panting and foaming it stands still; and, amid a circle of persons who crowd round with good-natured surprise, the unhappy woman recovers from her stupefaction, to throw herself, with a loud scream of anguish and hoiTor, into the arms of the nearest human being, who appears to !.er as a guardian angel. All leave their work — the mistress of the house the kitchen, the thrasher the bai-n, the eldest son of the family, with his axe in his hand, the wood which he had just cleft — to assist the unfortunate woman ; and, with a mixture of curiosity and pity, to learn, by a hundred inquiries, the circumstances of her singular appearance. Refreshed by whatever can be procured at the moment, the stranger gnidually recovers the power of speech, and ability to give an intelli- gible account of the dreadful trial which she has undergone. The insensibility with which fear and distress had steeled her heart begins to disappear: but new ten-ors seize her — the dry eye seeks in vain a tear — she is on the brink of boundless misery. But her narrative had also excited conflict- ing feelings in the bosoms of her auditors; though pity, commiseration, dismay, and abhorrence, imposed alike on all the same involuntary silence. One only, unable to command the overpoTrering emotions of his heart, advanced before the rest — it was the young man with the axe: his cheeks were pale with affright — his wilrlly-rolliiig eyes flashed ill-omened fire. 'What!' he exclaimed; ' three children — thine own children! — the sickly innocent — the imploring boy — the infant suck ling — all cast out by the mother, to be devoured by the wolves! Woman, thou art unworthy to live!' And, at the same instant, the uplifted steel descends with resistless force on the skull of the wretched woman, who falls dead at his feet. The perpetrator then calmly wipes the blood off the murderous axe, and returns to his work. " The dreadful talc speedily came to the knowledge of the magistrates, vho caused the uncalled avenger to be arrested and brought to trial. He was, of course, sentenced to the punishment ordained by the laws: but the sentence still wanted the sanction of the emperor. Alexander caused all the circumstances of this crime, so extraordinary in the motives in which it originated, to be reported to him in the most careful and detailed manner. Here, or nowhere, he thought himself CAlled on to exercise the godlike prerogative of mercy, by commuting the sentence paosed on tha csiminal into a condemnation to labor not very severe; and he accordingly sent the young man t» tha fortress of Dnnamunde, at the mouth of the puna, there to be confined to labor during tha emperor's pleasure.'* fill ITpintrrnn Tnn ifif^prari THE BALTIC PROVINCES — ESTHONIA. 63 lar. There are several Lutheran, a Eoman catholic, and some Greek churches, all stone edifices ; and various charitable and educational estab- lishments, the latter including a gymnasium, episcopal seminary, and a school {pension) for nobles. The castle, a modern edifice, is appropriated to the proyincial au .horities : the municipal ofBcers, who are elected by the city, reside in the town-hall. The admiralty is the principal remaining public building. The suburbs, consisting mostly of wooden houses, cover a large extent of ground along the shore. Tievel is much resorted to as a watering-place, and has some good warm baths, a theatre, several clubs or casinos, and three or four public libraries, one of which, the property of the city, is said by Possart to contain ten thousand volumes. Tliis town is one of the stations for the Eussian fleet, and has a harbor defended by several batteries. This port, which was materially improved in 1820, is deeper than that of Kronstadt, though more difficult of en- trance. The roadstead, formed by some islands, is well sheltered. The long duration of the frost is the principal drawback on Revel as a naval station, though that is a disadvantage which it shares in common with the other Russian ports in the Baltic. Though not connected with the interior by any navigable river. Revel has a considerable trade. Its principal exports are grain, spirits, hemp, flax, timber, and other Baltic produce ; the imports consist of colonial produce, herrings from Holland and Norway, salt, cheese, wine, tobacco, fruits, dye-stuffs, cotton yarn, stuffs, and other manufactured goods, &c. A portion of the customs' revenue is enjoyed by the town. Revel was founded by the Danes in 1218, and afterward sold by them to the knights of the Teutonic order. In 156i, it came into the possession of the Swedes ; but, as before remarked, in treating of the province, it was taken from them by the Russians in 1710. Like ancient Thebes, Revel is entered by seven gates ; they are all pic- turesque erections, decorated with various historical mementos, the arms of the Danish domination, the simple cross of the order on the municipal shield of the city. The Schmieedetforte is celebrated for a daring act of magisterial justice, which took place iu 1535. At all times a petty ani- mosity had existed between the rich burghers and the lawless nobility of the province, who troubled the commerce of the city, and laughed at the laws of the former ; and, on one occasion, the atrocious murder of one of his own peasant." in the streets of Revel, by Baron Uxkiill, of Reisenberg, so exasperated the magistrates, that they menaced the murderer with the utmost severity of the law if ever he came within their jurisdiction. Nev- ertheless, and despising their threat, the baron, attended by a slender reti- nue, entered the city in mere bravado ; when the magistrates, true to their word, seized him, and after due trial he was condemned and executed in full view of his friends, without the walls, beneath the Schmiedepforte. Long and sanguinary were the disputes which followed this act ; and, as some pacification to Uxkiill's memory, the burghers walled up the gate 64 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. way, which was not reopened till the beginning of the present century. In the summer there is an annual fair, called the Jahrmarkt, which ia held beneath the old elm-trees before the church of St. Nicholas — a most interesting scene to the stranger — and forms the morning lounge of the inhabitants during that season of the year. In the evening, Catherinthal is the favorite promenade. This is an imperial lustschloss, or palace, at a little distance from the town, surrounded with fine trees and well-kept grounds, or what is here termed " ein superber park," which during six weeks of the summer months is thronged with fashionable groups, who eat ices, drink chocolate, talk scandal, 'and make love, as people do elsewhere. This residence, which is literally a bower of verdure redeemed from a waste of sand, is the pleasant legacy of Peter the Great to the city of Revel. Being a frequent visiter to Revel, it was here that he first erected a modest little house beneath the rocks of the Laaksberg, from the win- dows of which he could overlook his infant fleet riding at anchor in the bay, and which still exists. But a few years previous to his death, the present palace, within a stone's throw of his Dutch house — for all Peter the Great's own private domicils testify whence he drew his first ideas of comfort — was constructed, which he surrounded with pleasure-grounds, and presented to his consort, by the name of Catherinthal. This gift he increased by the purchase of surrounding estates to the amount of several millions of dollars — sufficient to have assured to the empress, in case of need, a fitting retreat from the frowns of Russian fortune. These estates have been gradually alienated and bestowed on private individuals, and Catherinthal is reduced to little more than its gardens. It has been the temporary sojourn of all the crowned heads of Russia in succession ; and the treaty of peace concerning Silesia (wrested from Austria by Frederick the Great soon after his accession), between the two most powerful wo- men of coeval times whom the world has ever known — Maria Theresa of Austria, and Catherine II. of Russia — was ratified here. Livonia (called by the Russians Lijliandua, and by the Germans Liv- land, or LieflaTuT) is situated on the Baltic, having on the north the gov- ernment of Esthonia ; on the east the lake Peipus, separating it from the government of St. Petersburg, and the governments of Pskov and Vitepsk ; on the south the latter and Courland ; and on the west the gulf of Livonia. Its length from north to south is about one hundred and sixty miles, and its average breadth one hundred and seventeen miles. Including the island of ffisel, in the Baltic, it has an area of about seventeen thousand three hundred square miles. The coast and the greater part of the surface of this province are flat and marshy ; but in the districts of Venden and Dorpat are some hills of con- siderable elevation ; Eierberg, one of these, being nearly eleven hundred feet in height. There are several extensive lakes : the principal, Virtserf, which is twenty-four miles in length, by from two to six in breadth, com- THE BALTIC PROVINCES — LIVONIA. G5 municates with the lake Peipus by the Embach. Besides the last named, the chief rivers are the Duna, which forms the southern boundary, the Evst, and the Bolder-Aa. The soil of Livonia, though in some parts loamy, is in general sandy ; but, being abundantly watered, it is, by proper manuring, rendered very productive. Rye and barley are the principal crops, and more of both is grown than is required for home consumption. Wheat and oats are less cultivated ; buckwheat is raised on sandy soils ; flax, hops, and pulse, are also produced, and the potato culture is on the increase : fruits are of very indifierent quality. In some districts, agriculture is tolerably well con- ducted. Tlie forests are an important source of wealth, and supply excel- lent timber. They abound also with game, of which every landowner is the sole proprietor of all on his domain. In this manner, many noblemen, in addition to the bears and wolves, the latter of which are sometimes very destructive to the cattle, may count whole herds of deer, elks, foxes, and lynxes, among their live stock. But as in any of the German provinces it is never customary for one noble to exclude another from his hunting- grounds, each landholder is privileged to sport over the whole country. The rich landowners sometimes invite all their neighbors for twenty miles round to a great hunt (the preparation for which is seen in the engraving on the following page). The field is then taken for eight successive days against tlio shy inhabitants of the forest, in sledges, droskies, and coaches, or on horseback, accompanied by multitudes of peasants and dogs. The meals are taken under the shade of a lofty fir-tree, from which a lynx has just been expelled, or in the den of a bear which has just been overcome, or in the lair of a newly-shot elk. Sometimes a corps of musicians accom- panies the party, and cards and dice are seldom wanting. It might be imagined that Tacitus had made his remarks on the ancient tribes of Germany, in these haunts of their unsophisticated descendants ; except that, instead of savages clothed in bearskins, these hunters are always well dressed, sometimes young and handsome, and generally well educated and intelligent. The assuming of the tog-a virilis was the great era in the life of a Roman youth. The fowling-piece is here an emblem of the same sig- nificance. Even little boys, as soon as they can stand alone, are initiated into the merry life of the hunter, and father, son, and grandson, often hunt ■together. The first elk shot by a nobleman's son is talked of half his life : and the last bear conquered by an old man, before his death, is long thought of with mournful pride by his friends. In some noble families the passion for hunting has taken such deep root, that every member of it is a modern Nimrod ; while in others, few in numbers, a dislike to sporting is an heredi- tary characteristic. There are many noblemen to be fomid who were never out of their forests and wildernesses, who in the seventy years of their existence have used up more than a hundred calfskins for hunting-boots, and who have expended more saltpetre on game than their forefathers required to conquer the country ! 5 66 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. Pbepaeing for the Chask. , The rearing of live stock, though not altogether neglected, does not ro ceive adequate attention ; the breed of black cattle is, however, in the course of being improved. Horses and sheep are very inferior. The fish- eries, both on the coast and in the fresh waters, are important. Chalk, alabaster, and otlier calcareous materials, are abundant. Rural industry and the distillation of spirits are by far the most impor- tant occupations. The manufactures of this government are, however, more extensive than those in its vicinity. The peasantry spin linen yarn, and weave their own cloths ; and in the towns, especially Riga, there are sugar-refineries, and tobacco, woollen-cloth, cotton, linen, glass, and other factories, which employ about four thousand hands, and produce goods to the amount of eleven or twelve millions of roubles* a year. * The etymolog:y of tbe word " rouble" is from tlic RiissiaQ word r.^hit, to cut, or hew off; ns in fvtrnier times sil\er was current only in bais, from which it was customary for a debtor to strike off with a hammer and chisel the amount which he liud to pay. The rouble is of two kinds, very different in valne : the silver rouble (which is tlie basis of all financial transactions), worth about eeventy-five cents, and which is divided into one hundred silver "copeks;" and the paper rouble, about equal to a franc, or nineteen cents, and which is divided into one hundred copper copekB. The paper roul)le was originally of the same \alue as the silver rouble, hut it became very much depreciated in consequence of the vast quantities issued to meet the wants of the government. A ukase of July 33, 1843, created a new paper money {billets dc credil), of the nominal value of the silver rouble, ^nd intended to supersede the old pMper rouble. Although guarantied by a fund THE BALTIC PROVINCES — LIVONIA. 67 The northern part of Livonia formerly constituted a portion of Esthonia, and the southern a part of Lithuania. The population consists of Estho- nians, Lithuanians, Russians, Germans, and (along a portion of the coast) Lives, the most ancient inhabitants of the country, and from whom it has derived its name. About eighty-five thousand of the inhabitants reside in the towns, and these, as well as the nobles, clergy, &c., are chiefly of Ger- man descent. Until 1824, the Esthonians and Lithuanians were in a state of predial slavery ; now, however, they are free, but without the right to hold real property. The prevailing religion is the Lutheran ; there are only about twelve thousand individuals of the Greek church, and other professions of faith. Education is tolerably advanced in the towns, and the university of Dorpat, in this government, is the first in the empire. But, after all, few of the inhabitants are said to be recei\Tng public in- struction. Livonia has a governor-general, whose authority extends over other Baltic provinces ; but it has its own provincial assembly, magistracy, &c., and has preserved many peculiar privileges, among which is that of exemp- tion from the state monopoly of ardent spirits. It was divided into nine districts by Catherine II. Riga, the capital, is the centre of its commerce. The other chief towns are Dorpat, Pernau, Fellin, and Arensburg in the island of CEsel. Riga, the capital of Livonia, is situated on the Duna, about nine miles from its embouchure in the gulf of Riga. Its population, "including the garrison of ten thousand men, is about seventy thousand. About two thirds of the resident population are Lutherans, the rest consisting of members of the Russo-Greek church, Roman catholics &c. Riga is strongly fortified. It consists of the town, properly so called, and the suburbs ; the former being entirely enclosed by the fortifications The streets in the town are narrow and crooked, and the houses generally of brick. In the suburbs, which are much more extensive, the streets are broad and regular, and the houses mostly of wood. One of the suburbs lies on the left bank of the river, the communication with it being main- tained by a bridge about twenty-four hundred feet in length. Among the public buildings are the cathedral, consecrated in 1211, and rebuilt in 1547 ; the church of St. Peter, buUt in 1406, with a tower four hundred and forty feet in height, being the most elevated in the empire, and commanding a fine view of the city and adjacent country ; the castle, the seat of the chancellery, and of the general and civil governors ; hall of the provincial states, town-house, exchange, arsenal, &c. A magnificent column, surmounted by a colossal bronze statue of Victory, was erected in 1817, by the mercantile body, in honor of the emperor Alexander and the deposited in tlieTaults of the fortress of St. PeteTsbnrp. and receivable in payment of taxes, cnstoms, and ill i'uat all debts whatever, the heavy emission called for to meet the exigencies of the goverrinieiit diiiiiijl wiir-times has caused them to fall rapidly in value, and they reached as great a depieeiation ii.s ibai which befell the old issue. 68 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. Russian army. Among the literary establishments are a gymuasimn, a lyceum, a school of navigation, and various elementary schools, a public library, an observatory, a society of Lettonian literature, &c. In the library are contained a curious arm-chair that once belonged to Charles XII., a very old bible, some letters written by Luther to the seriate of Riga, and a ball which is said to have been fired by Peter the Great in the siege of 1710, and lodged in the wall of the library. The esplanade and gardens, both m and near the town, are well laid out. There is a celebrated festi- val held here on St. John's day, the 24th of June, called " the Flower- Feast:" also one which bears the singular title of the '■'■Hugger Sorrow" in commemoration of a siege in which the inhabitants suffered greatly from famine. The manufactures of Riga are of no great importance, though of late tliey have materially improved. Those of cotton, cloth, and rugs, are the most important. There are also various sugar-houses, tobacco-manufacto- ries, breweries, &c. Owing to her situation on a large navigable river, Riga is the entrepot of an extensive country ; and is, in respect of foreign commerce, the next town in the Russian dominions to St. Petersburg. Grain used to be the principal article of export, but it ie now far surpassed by flax and flax- seed, the exports of which have increased very rapidly. The other great articles of export are hemp and hempseed, timber, including masts and deals, hides, tallow, coarse linen, and canvass, &c. The imports consist principally of sugar, and other colonial products, dye-stuflfs, wines, cotton, cotton-stuffs and cotton-yarn, woollens, salt, herrings, &c. There is a bar at the mouth of the river, which has usually from twelve to thirteen feet of water ; and it is customary for vessels drawing more than this to load and unload the whole or a part of their cargoes at Bolder-Aa, a small port out- side the bar. The entrance to the river, at Dunamunde, is guarded by a fort, where is also the customhouse. The ships arriving at Riga vary from one thousand to fifteen hundred a year. If we may depend upon the ofii- cial accounts, the city has increased very rapidly, though it has occasion- ally suffered considerably from inundations. Dorpat lies on the Embach, and on the high road between Riga and St. Petersburg, one hundred and fifty miles northeast of the former, and one hundred and seventy miles southeast of the latter city. It has over four- teen thousand inhabitants. The history of this town is a stirring and stormy oce. The Russians from the east, the Teutonic knights from the west, the quarrels of both with the aboriginal Esthonians, and the bloody wars between the Russians, Swedes, and Poles, more than once laid it in ashes. Its university was founded by Gustavus Adolphus in 1632, the year of his death (while leading his troops at the great battle of Lutzen, against the Austrians), and, after various vicissitudes, it took refuge in Sweden, to avoid the Russian army, in 1710. Professors, students, libraries, muse- ums — all departed; and returned only under the auspices of the emperor THE BALTIC PROVINCES — LIVONIA. 69 Alexander in 1802. It now contains forty-five professors, and six hundred or more students, and has a high reputation in Russia. Among the professors at this university one name may be cited of great fame' — that of Struve, whose astronomical labors have procured him a well-earned reputation throughout Europe. The observatory on the Dom- berg, from the character of the work done there, is ranked among the most celebrated institutions in this branch of science. Here is a great refract- ing telescope, the work of Frauenhofer, mounted in such a manner that the iron roof, revolving round a vertical line, affords complete protection from the weather without hindering the view of any point in the heavens. This was designed and constructed by Mr. Parrot, and so beautifully is it exe- cuted, that one hand is enough to impel and guide the machinery which moves the telescope and roof. The emperor Alexander presented the tele- scope to the University. Struve was atthe head of the observatory near St. Petersburg, and the telescope which he dii'ected toward the heavens is on a far more gigantic scale than his old friend of Dorpat. Some of the apparatus which was used in measuring a portion of the meridian of Dor- pat is to be seen here. The library has a very curious locality, being situ- ated in the ruins of the old Dom. The views hence are very fine. The broad crown of the hill, adorned by numerous avenues of trees, is called Cathedral place : the ruins of a church, destroyed in 1775, by a fire which consumed nearly the whole town, explains the origin of this name. On the Domberg are likewise the schools of anatomy and natural history, the museums, &c. The philosophical instruments are remarkable for their having been made for the most part by a Russian artisan of the name of Samoiloff. Of all the collections of the university, that of the botanical garden is the most complete; it contains more than eighteen thousand plants, some of which are not to be found in the other botanical gardens of Europe. Dorpat, like Revel, had once its corps of Schwarze Haeupter, or " asso- ciation of citizens for the defence of the city." It is now a mere convivial club. Among its treasures is a magnificent goblet of glass and gold, two feet high, on the side of which are engraved a beetle, a humming4)ird, and a butterfly. Whoever could only drink to the beetle, was fined two bot- tles ; whoever reached the humming-bird, only one ; and he whose draught attained as deep as the butterfly, was exempt from fine. With the exception of the Dom, no vestige remains at Dorpat of the ancient Gothic nucleus of the town ; all is new. The fortifications have, as at Frankfort and Hamburgh, been converted into agreeable promenades. A. granite bridge over the Embach, which is navigable up to Dorpat, adds not a little to the appearance of the town. Near Dorpat is the picturesque ruin of Schloss Rinffen, formerly one of the largest castles of Livonia. These ruins are a perpetual monument of the ferocious feuds between two neighboring noblemen, the lord of Ringen and the lord of Odempa. An old family quarrel between them had been 70 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. heightened by various personal insults into the deadliest mutual hatred, Notwithstanding this, they sometimes, when their interests demanded it, visited and entertained one another with outward civility. One day the lord of Ringen invited the lord of Odempa to a banquet. The latter came, enjoyed the feast much, and was particularly pleased with one costly dish, which his host strongly recommended to him — so much so, that he wished to kajw what it was made of; but this was a secret, said the lord of Ein- gen. As the visiter was returning to Odempa, however, a servant was sent after him, with a message, that if he remembered what the Persian king Astyages, son of Cyaxares, served up to his servant Harpagus, he would know how the delicate dish which had pleased him so much was composed. The horror-struck father flew home to seek his only little son, but sought him in vain : the lord of Riugen had served up to him for dinner his own son's heart and brains ! The infuriated nobleman attacked Schloss Ringen that same night with all his men ; and, though the lord of Ringen was prepared for the attack, yet the superhuman fury of the father, and the justice of his cause, over- came all opposition. The castle was stormed, reduced to ruins, and the hearts and brains of its defenders thrown to the dogs. The histories of these old Livonian castles are often very romantic and tragical ; and, though these bloody feuds have been modified by the spirit of the age, the animosity of neighboring nobles now develops itself in in- terminable litigation. CouRLAND (which the Slavonians call Kors, and the Germans Kurland) is bounded on the north by Livonia and the gulf of Riga, on the west by the Baltic, on the south by Wilna and a small portion of Prussia, and on the east by Vitepsk. Its greatest length from northwest to southeast is two hundred and thirty miles ; its breadth varies from one hundred and fifty miles, and diminishes from west to east, till it terminates almost in a point. It comprises an area of about ten thousand square miles. In the neighborhood of Mittau, the capital, the surface is diversified by hills of very moderate height — Huneinberg and Silberberg, the highest, not exceeding five hundred feet ; but elsewhere, and particularly toward the coast, it is flat, and contains extensive sandy tracts, often covered with heaths and morasses. About two fifths of the whole government are occu- pied by forests, and there are no fewer than three hundred lakes, mostly cf small extent ; but Usmeiten, the largest, has a circuit of twenty-four miles, is in many places twelve fathoms deep, and abounds with fish. The principal rivers are the Aa and the Windau. The latter is above one hun- dred and fifty yards wide at its mouth, and benefited by being connected with the Niemen by a canal, commenced in 1825. The extent of the sur- face occupied by swamps and lakes produces frequent mists, rendering the air both damp and cold ; but the climate, notwithstanding, is said not to be unhealthy. THE BALTIC PROVINCES — COURLAND. 71 Agriculture forms the chief occupation of the inhabitants, and is in a more advanced state than in some of the neighboring governments, though the land is generally of a light, sandy texture, and requires to be frequently and heavily manured. The best soil is on the frontiers of Livonia, and yields large crops of barley and oats, but very little wheat. In the same neighborhood a little hemp and flax are groAvn. The grain produced ex- ceeds the consumption. Fruit-trees thrive tolerably well, but the produce is indifferent. Tobacco, too, is grown, but only in patches. The timber of the forests consists of birch, alder, beech, pine, and oak, but is not con- sidered fit for shipbuilding. The horses, cattle, and sheep, are generally of inferior breeds ; but at- tempts have been made to improve the last by the introduction of the me- rino. In all the larger forests, the gigantic elk of the north abounds ; but the German nobles take such delight in hunting it, that it seems likely to disappear in some districts. Elks are most numerous in eastern Courland, on the frontiers of Livonia, where twenty or thirty, and sometimes forty or fifty, are often killed in one day's hunting. The original (or Slavonic) Elk-Honting in Cohbland— " In at the Death. inhabitants of the country, behave more generously to this noble animal ; and a female elk is often seen feeding, with her young ones, along with the shepherd and his flock. The elk has never been tamed, and all at- tempts to turn its gigantic strength to the service of man have been unsuc- cessful. Its flesh,"which is a very frequent dish here, has a taste between that of beef and venison. The skin forms extremely hard and thick leather ; it is in many places impenetrable to a musket-ball. An elk is seldom killed 72 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. by the first or second shot ; they sometimes even escape with four musket- bullets in the body. The bear has quite abandoned this province ; hares and deer are common, and the wild hog is a frequent guest from Lithuania. The fishing, pai-ticularly along the coast, is of an average annual value of about fifteen thousand dollars. The minerals' are confined to a little iron, limestone, and amber. The manufactures are insignificant, with the excep- tion perhaps of tiles, which are made to a considerable extent. Distilleries also are numerous. Mittau, the capital, is the only town of any size ; the principal seaports are Libau and Windau, both on the western coast. About half of the in- habitants belong to the primitive race of Lettes. They chiefly occupy the rural districts, and, up to 1820, were divided into peasants and serfs. At present they are free, but do not possess any property. The prevailing religion is Lutheran — the Greek church, notwithstanding the proselyting attempts of the Eussians, barely counting fifteen thousand adherents. Mittau (Lettish, Jelgava), the capital of the above government, is situ- ated in a low, flat, and sandy district, on the river Aa, over which is a bridge of boats, twenty-five miles southwest of Riga. It covers a very large space, of which, however, a considerable portion is occupied by gar- dens, and is on the whole very indifferently built ; the houses are chiefly of wood, painted green or reddish-brown. Many of the streets are narrow and crooked, but some are also wide, straight, and regular. The most interesting building is the castle, the residence of the old dukes of Cour- land (who governed the province after its recovery from Poland until its incorporation with Russia in 1795). It had almost become a mere ruin, when, in 1739, Marshal Biron, the favorite of the empress Anne, when he was chosen chief of the Courland chivalry, commenced a palace on the same site, which he completed after his return from exile. It stands on an island, surrounded by the canals of the Aa, and is built in the Versailles style. A fire nearly destroyed it in 1788, when it was rebuilt, and subse- quently became the residence of Louis XVIII. of France, when travelling under the title of Count de Lille. It is now inhabited by the chief oflicers of the city, and a portion of it is set apart for the imperial family. Among the other buildings of Mittau, may be mentioned four churches — a Greek, a Roman catliolic, a Lutheran, and a reformed ; three Jewisli synagogues, a museum, a library of twenty thousand volumes, an observa- tory, a gymnasium with nine professors, a hospital, an orphan and a lunatic asylum, a casino, and a theatre capable of containing three thousand spec- tators. Its manufactures, which are of little moment, include linen, hosiery, soap, and leather ; and its trade is very limited. The population is about thirteen thousand. Libau (Lettish, Lepeia) is situated on the Baltic, beside tlie lake Libau, being the most southern Russian port on that sea, and therefore possesses an importance from its becoming navigable earlier in the spring than any other. It is walled, and entered by a gate from the north. Its streets aro THE BALTIC PEOTINCES — GENERAL SUMMARY. 73 narrow, and mostly unpaved ; and its market-place, though large, is irreg ular. The houses are of wood, and only one story high. It has Lutheran, Roman catholic, and Calvinistic churches, a hospital, and an orphan asy- lum. The port, though commodious, has only from eight to twelve feet of water, and can not, therefoi'ie, be entered by vessels of much burden. It has, however, a considerable trade : the greater part of the produce of Courland, as cattle, linseed, grain, hides, tallow, &c., being exported from it. Its imports are chiefly colonial products, manufactured goods, wine, oil, fruits, &c. The distance from Mittau is one hundred and five miles. Its population is about five thousand. Windau is situated at the mouth of the river of the same name, and is the most northern town in the government of Courland. It forms a sort of miniature copy of Libau, and its importance is mostly a prospective one. The provinces on the eastern coast of the Baltic were originally peopled by tribes of Wendish origin, who held fast to their heathen rites and idol- worship long after Christianity was permanently established throughout the rest of Europe. Warlike, restless, and piratical, they were engaged in ceaseless struggles with the Danes and other powers of the north, but, above all, with the Hanse Towns of Germany, crippling their commerce, and threatening the very existence of the infant mercantile republic. A powerful fleet was speedily equipped, and a landing effected on the coast of Livonia. A species of crusade was preached against these warlike idol- aters, whose stubborn attachment to the dark rites and ceremonies of their forefathers defied the zeal and eloquence of the military prelates who founded Riga and Yorkeel toward the close of the twelfth century. These worthies established the order of the " Brethren of the Cross and Sword" QSchwert Bruder), the members of which were principally natives of Bremen and Lubeck, to the former of which cities Albrecht von Apelden, the founder of the order, belonged. In the full spirit of the name they bore, these warlike adventurers speed- ily enlarged the territories of the Hanse Towns. Ignorant of the language and despising the habits of the natives, their principal weapon of conver- sion to the true faith was that sword by which they held their footing on the shores of the east sea ; though on one occasion the bishop of Riga is reported to have edified the minds of heathen Wends by a dramatic repre- sentation of a variety of scenes from the Bible, while all writers con(;ur in describing the cruelties practised upon the unbelieving natives by these Christian warriors as of the most revolting and barbarous description. They were not long permitted to pursue their career of conquest and tyr- anny with impunity. On the north, they were compelled to recoil before the arms of the Dane ; while the Russians, alarmed at the near approach of such formidable neighbors, roused the natives to avenge the wrongs of half a century of oppression : and the flame of insurrection spread far and wide throughout Livonia and Esthonia. Many Germans were cut off by 74 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. the insurgents ; but at len^h Bishop Bernhard, falling upon their tumultu- ous forces with his disciplined chivalry, routed the Wends and their allies, and slew them mercilessly. The Russian town of Dorpat was taken, and a German colony established there, in 1220. The capture of the isle of (Esel, to the rocky fastnesses of which the best and bravest of the Livo- nians had retired as a last refuge, and the voluntary conversion of the Courlanders, completed the power of the brotherhood. In 1230, Frederick II., emperor of Germany, conferred the conquered provinces as an imperial fief on Valquin, the grand-master of the order ; and everything seemed to promise the rapid rise of a mighty kingdom — when a sudden attack of the Lithuanians laid low the grand-master and his hopes of conquest, and nearly annihilated the entire forces of the broth- erhood. The scanty relics of this powerful body now called for aid on their brethren the Teutonic knights, who were anxiously seeking a fairer field for military achievements than the Bast, where they were alike ha- rassed by the open violence of the mussulman, and the jealousy of the rival orders, the Templars and Hospitallers. The presence of these hardy war- riors restored the Christians to their former superiority in the field ; and these new-comers soon rivalled the knights of the cross and sword in cru- elty, burning whole villages that had relapsed into idolatry, and making, in the words of one of their own bishops, " out of free-born men the most wretched slaves." As allies of the Poles, they built on the Vistula the fort of Nassau ; and, sallying forth thence, took by storm the holy oak of Thorn, the chief sanctuary of the Prussians, and beneath its far-spreading arms, as in a citadel, the knights defended themselves against the frantic attacks of the idolaters. A general rising of the natives, and a war of extermination, reduced the numerous forces of the knights to a few scanty troops, and their ample domains to three strongholds ; and, after various alternate defeats and victories, they were rescued from entire destruction by a crusade, under the command of the Bohemian monarch Ottokar the Great, who founded the city of Konigsberg in 1260, and gave for a time new life and vigor to the falling fortunes of the northern chivalry. Internal dissensions, and the consequent establishment of a second grand- master, who held his seat at Mergentheim, weakened the growing power of the reviving brotherhood ; and the fatal battle of Tanenbcrg, in 1410, gave a mortal blow to the importance of this " unnatural institution." But the knights still retained the whole eastern coast of the Baltic, from the Narova to the Vistula, and it was not until the end of the fifteenth century that the arms of Poland compelled them finally to relinquish their claims to the district of eastern and western Prussia. The ancient spirit of the order awoke once again in the grand-master Tlettenberg, who routed the Russians in 1502, and compelled the czar to agree to a truce for fifty years ; but the stipulated time had no sooner elapsed than the Russians again invaded them : and, too feeble any longer THE BALTIC PROVINCES — GENERAL SUMMARY. 75 to resist such powerful enemies, the knights were glad to purcha&e peace, and the undisturbed possession of the province of Courland as a fief of the Polish crown, by surrendering Esthonia to Sweden, and Livonia to the Poles, while the districts of Narva and Dorpat were incorported with the empire of Russia. Still the brotherhood existed. Without importance as an independent power, but valuable as an ally, its friendship was sought and courted by the various intrigues and commotions of the Russian throne during the early part of the eighteenth century. The office of grand-master or duke of Courland was last held by Marshal Biron, the French favorite of the empress Anne ; and, in 1795, on the fall of Poland, and its partition by Russia, Austria, and Prussia, Courland was fully incorporated with the Russian empire by Catherine II. The only sui'viving relic of the Teutonic knights, besides the palace near Mittau, is the beautiful hall of the preceptory at Marienberg, in Prussia. " In June, 1809," says Menzel, " the king of Wiirtemburg took pos- session of Mergentheim, the principal settlement of the Teutonic knights. The astonished inmates beheld with fury the new protestant officials, and rose in open rebellion against the proposed traffic with their rights. They were easily subdued and savagely pimished ; for they were condemned to the galleys, and compelled to work in chains in the royal gardens at Stutt- gard. Thus ended the far-famed order of the Teutonic knights." Almost the only mention of the order in the later history of Germany is the eleva- tion of the Swedish general Horn to the grand-mastership of Mergentheim, during the Thirty Years' War, in order to enable him to treat with the nobles and cities of the empire as an equal. The ancient palace of the Teutonic knights at Prankfort-on-the-Main is at present used as a barrack for the Austrian garrison. The inhabitants of Esthonia, Livonia, and Courland, have, in language and manners, much in common — much that is characteristic of the German Baltic provinces of Russia ; but a more practised eye will discover much that is characteristic only of particular parts. The Livonian German is as different from the German of Courland, as the Saxon is from the Prus- sian, and the Bavarian from the Austrian, and they despise one another quite as intensely. Upon the whole, the Livonian is considered as the most refined and cultivated, the Esthonian as the best soldier, and the Courlander as possessed of most natural ability. Even within each prov- ince, differences may be observed between the inhabitants of different parts ; and a practised eye and ear, for instance, can readily discover whether a German of Courland comes from the neighborhood of Libau or Mittau. In comparison with the Germans, Lettes, and Esthonians, the other ele- ments of the population, the Swedes, Poles, Jews, gipsies, and Russians, are very insignificant. Of these, of course, the Russians are by far the most important. A few small islands, Wrangelsholm, Nargen, Worms, Runoe, &c., are inhabited by a race of Swedish origin, who preserve much 76 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. of their origiaal Swedish character. The nobility of Swedish origin have, however, become thoroughly Germanized. The Poles are found occasionally in the towns, but they are few and scattered, and are completely lost among the rest of the population. The gipsies wander homeless through Bsthonia, Livonia, and Courland, as through other countries, and continue their old nomadic way of lifo, in spite of the severest laws against them. They are less numerous in Livonia than in Courland. They employ themselves much in tlie same way as in other countries, namely, as horse-stealers, cattle-dealers, tinkers, &c. They are in many cases still permitted to remain under the command of their own chiefs or gipsy kings, because they pay more respect to them than to any other authorities, and because these chiefs can be made re- sponsible for the offences of their subjects. For instance, if a gipsy king is threatened with punishment for the thefts of his people, the offender is soon discovered. WOB£RTS.SC Gipsy Woman and Child. The Jews are seldom to be met with anywhere but in Courland, for in Livonia and Esthonia a Jew is actually prohibited from remaining more than twenty-four hours in any town or city. In Courland, however, they are found everywhere — in the towns, villages, and estates {edellidfen) — where they occupy themselves in agriculture, and in different mechanical THE BALTIC PKOVINCES — GENERAL SUMMARY. 77 arts, as smiths, carpenters, masons, &c. In the towns they are also tai- lors, tinkers, glaziers, shoemaliers, brokers, and shopkeepers ; but the hackney-coachmen in the towns, and the innkeepers and brandy-dealers in the country, are almost exclusively Jews. They practise a variety of cun- ning and artful tricks in dealing out their brandy to the peasants, and induce them to drink by takiiig credit, receiving various little goods and chattels in payment for their spirits, and so on. In this way they often completely ruin the poor Lettes and Bsthonians. More than a third of the beggars and mendicants of Courland are Jews, and the depth of want and misery into which these Jewish beggars are sunk is fearful to contemplate. As smugglers, the Jews on the frontiers of Courland and the Lithuanian provinces are so expert as often to defy the most rigorous precautions of the Russian government. The old ordinances of the dukes of Courland against this unfortunate race are ridiculous enough, and aim at nothing less than the immediate and total annihilation of Judaism in the country. They are generally en- titled " Ordinances for the total abolition of the Jews," and Rome of them commence thus : " It is our earnest will and pleasure that in six weeks no Jew shall anywhere remain within our dukedom." How little the Jews troubled themselves about the ducal will and pleasure, is proved by the fact that, instead of six weeks, one hundred years have passed without even decreasing their numbers. Another ducal edict commands that " all Jews caught in the streets shall have their horse and cart and all their property taken from them, shall be severely flogged, and then ignomini- ously expelled from the town." It is also added that all persons receiving, sheltering, or succoring Jews, " shall be punished in the most exemplary manner." These edicts, though they doubtless banished many Jews from the coun- try, had no lasting effects, for all the gaps were soon filled again. The Russian government, though it has not attempted total abolition, or banish ment in six weeks, has yet attempted to curb, restrain, and put down the poor Jews, in various ways. At one time all Jews were to confine them- selves to agriculture ; at another time all Jews without property were to be transported to Siberia, where the government would provide them with property. By an imperial ukase, issued in 1840, all poor Jews were to be collected, and brought together out of every town, by their respective coun- sellors or advisers (rathsherrn), to Mittau. There the rabbins assembled them, and set forth to them the condescending grace of their emperor, whose wish it was that they should henceforth be employed in agriculture — an occupation so much to be preferred to all others, and so peculiarly adapted for preserving men in the paths of morals and religion. " Endowed with rich presents by the charitable citizens of Mittau," wc are told, " and full of gratitude to their generous benefactors, the emigrants set forth, followed by the tears and prayers of the compassionate." The rabbins, no doubt, endeavored to persuade the poor creatures that they were going to a land n ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. CouHLAND Jew, with Dulcimer. of promise, but unfortunately the province of Klierson, their destination, has a very different character. The Russians of the Baltic provinces may be divided into those who only wander for a time about the country, and those who Pre completely domesticated. The Russian serfs easily got permission of their lords to wander out into the world and seek their fortunes, provided they paid a certain yearly sum as obrok, or service-money. Quick and slirewd in everything, though they never do anything tlioroughly well, they are very useful in provinces like those of the Baltic, where industrious and intelli- gent workmen are scarce, and where tliey supply the deficiencies of the indolent and unskilful natives. The strong, lively, active serf of Russia THE BALTIC PROVINCES — GENERAL SUMMARY. 7!) will perform three times as much work in a given time as a Lette or Es- thonian. In all labors which require skill and expedition, such as the laying out of a garden, the building of a house, &c., the German nobleman will rather employ Russian workmen than their own serfs. They are par- ticularly expert as carpenters, and make a good deal of money wandering from estate to estate with their tools slung at their girdles. The Russians have a greater genius and predilection for the trade of peddler and itinerant merchant than for any mechanical art. They travel about the country in little one-horse carts, vending Russian books, pictures, and fancy wares, as well as eai-thenware, tobacco, &c. Bat the Russians of these provinces do not confine themselves to mechanical pursuits ; they often engage in speculations of various kinds. In spring they will buy up the future produce of the gardens from the lords of the soil, to sell the fruit afterward by retail in St. Petersburg. Sometimes they form compa- nies, and undertake for certain sums the erection of bridges, public build- ings, &c. Sometimes they hire large pieces of land in the neighborhood of towns, where they grow vegetables for the use of the citizens. A Rus- sian who yesterday entered the service of a merchant to pack hemp and flax in the harbor, will to-day turn coachman to a nobleman who wishes to cut a figure, with a fine, handsome,- long-bearded Russian on his coach-box, and to-morrow will return home with what he has earned. The Russians domesticated in the provinces either live in the villages as peasants, or in tlie suburbs of the towns as citizens. The former chiefly employ themselves in fishing. The Russians are the most expert fishermen in the world on rivers, and their nets generally haul the pond or stream into which they are thrown completely clear of all living creatures ; so much so, indeed, that when ponds are hired for a certain time, a stipulation will often be made by their owners that no Russians shall fisli in them. The Russians who inhabit the suburbs of the towns are almost without exception of low origin; but many of them iu some way managed to free themselves from serfdom, and have also raised themselves to consid- erable rank and wealth, particularly those who trade between Riga, Revel, (fee, and the interior of Russia, in wood, flax, hemp, tallow, &c. They inhabit the daily spreading and rising suburbs, demanding, with ever- increasing loudness and impatience, an equality of rights with the German burghers within the cities. The vegetable-gardeners in the environs of the towns are exclusively Russians ; tliey spread themselves all round the cities with their cabbage and asparagus gardens. None know better than they do how to turn every warm ray of sunshine to the advantage of their plants, and how to protect them from the severity of the northern climate. If we cast a summary glance over the whole population of the German Baltic provinces, we find — The original inhabitants, the Lettes and Esthonians, are agricultural laborers, with a very few exceptions. 80 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. The Germans are the aristocracy of the country, and consist of the nobility, living on their own estates, of the merchants and tradesmen in the towns, and of the literaten. The most rising and industrious class are the Russian settlers and travel- ling mechanics and tradesmen. The Jews are scattered through the prov- inces as innkeepers, small shopkeepers, and beggars, and the gipsies as thieves and horse-dealers. The whole population of the German Baltic provinces is about one and a half millions, and the population decreases in density toward the north. Of one thousand inhabitants, about nine hundred are Lettes and Esthoni- ans, fifty Germans, thirty Russians, five Swedes, and fifteen Jews. As regards the primitive inhabitants of these provinces, the interesting but almost unnoticed races of the Lettes and Lithuanians are a perpetual and puzzling enigma. " Lonely and unconnected with any of the surround- ing nations," says Kohl, " they occupy their little nook of northern land, evidently unsimilar and unrelated to any European nation, and bear affinity only to the tribes that inhabit the far East, at the foot of Dawalagiri, or on the shores of tlie Ganges. ' Esmi,'' I am — says the Lithuanian : '■Asm{' I am— says the Hindu of the Himalayas. ' Eimi,' I go — says the Lette of the Baltic : '■AimV is the Hindu word for expressing the same idea. On the Niemen, ^Divas' is the word for God: on the Ganges, '■ Daivas' signi- fies the same. It is unnecessary to know more Sanscrit than can be learned from Ruckert's poems, to be struck by the extraordinary Indian character of the pronunciation, language, and tones, of the Lithuanian and Lette. The languages are the same in form ; the pronouns, adverbs, and numerals, are similar ; the names of the commonest animals, of the different parts of the human body, &c., are the same in the Sanscrit as in the Lithuanian. Indeed, whole Sanscrit sentences may easily be put togetlier, which the peasant of the Niemen will at once understand. From these and many other proofs there can hardly remain a doubt that the Lithuanians and Lettes must have come more directly from the primeval birthplace of the human race than any other European nation. " The oldest historians of these tribes of the Baltic describe them as governed by a supreme high-priest, called the ' Krihvo,'' and by subordinate priests, the ' Veideloten.' Groves of oak and other trees are named as tlie residences of these priests, and the temples of tlie deities they worshipped. This caste of priests was probably of Hindu origin and character, and lasted until Christendom and its popes expelled the heathenism of the north." GREAT RUSSIA — ARCHANGEL. 81 CHAPTER III. GREAT RUSSIA. ARCHANGEL (or Arkanghelsk), which is by far the largest govern- ment as regards territorial extent, and yet the smallest in point of population, in Great Russia, occupies the whole country from the Ural mountains on the east to the grand principality of Finland on the west, a distance of over nine hundred miles ; and from the frontiers of Vologda and Olonetz on the south to the Arctic ocean and the White sea on the north, about four hundred miles. It includes the eastern portion of Russian Lapland, and also Nova Zembla (six hundred and fifty miles long by one hundred and fifty wide), and some other large islands in the Arctic ocean. Its most eastern limit is about sixty-eight degrees east longi- tude, and its most western thirty degrees east ; its most southern point is at about latitude sixty-one degrees north, and its most northern the ex- treme point of Nova Zembla, in about latitude seventy-six degrees north. Its area is about three hundred and fifty thousand square miles. The largest portion by far of this vast territory is condemned to perpet- ual sterility. The part of it within the arctic circle consists principally of an almost boundless expanse of sandy and mossy plains, having ice, even in the middle of summer, always a little below the surface. The country on this side the arctic circle consists, also, of immense plains, partly occu- pied with forests that cover more than half the entire extent of the prov- ince ; partly, but in a very inferior degree, by low pasture-grounds ; and partly with lakes, morasses, &c. The principal towns are Archangel, Onega, Dwina, Mezen, and Petchora. Owing to the severity and variableness of the climate, grain crops can not be depended upon : in consequence, even in the southern district, where the land is most fertile, they are but little attended to ; though consijderar ble quantities of hemp and flax are raised. Tlie principal wealth of the government consists in its immense and apparently inexhaustible forests ; but fishiiig and hunting are the chief employments. The reindeer is the domestic animal of the Laplanders and Samoides, the former occupying the northwestern and the latter the northeastern parts of the govei-nment. Among the tribes now mentioned, dried fish occupies the place of bread ; and in the more southern districts, the inner barks of trees, and certain species of moss, are intermixed with meal, or substituted for it in the 6 82 ILLUSTRATED DESCBIPTION OF RUSSIA. making of bread. Horses and cattle are diminutive, and but little attsH- tion is paid to their treatment. The district of Kholmogory, on the Dwina, a little below Archangel, where the pasturing is exceedingly good, must, however, be excepted from this remark. A breed of Dutch cattle, im-. ported into this district by Catherine I., and distributed among the inhab- itants, still preserves its superiority ; and the calves of these cattle, being well fed, furnish the delicate Avhite veal so much esteemed at St. Peters- burg and other markets. Ship and boat building, and the preparation of pitch and tar, are carried on to a considerable extent. A good deal of coarse linen is made by the peasantry of Archangel, and of the contiguous districts ; and they also manufacture a good deal of cordage, and immense quantities of mats, with leather, tallow, turpentine, potash, &c. Tlie population of this province, though originally Finnish, is now essen tially Russian. The Samoides, who are almost at the bottom of the scale of civilization, though spread over an immense surface, do not exceed six or seven thousand individuals. They are exempted from the obrok, and from compulsory military service, paying only the issaak, or. tribute im- posed on the Russian Asiatic tribes. The Laplanders, who are a little more advanced, do not amount to more than two thousand individuals. They are subject to the capitation tax. Russian Lapland (called by the natives Sameanda, by the Swedes Lapp- mark, and by the Russians Laplandiia) comprises that portion of the coun- try under the name of Lapland, lying between the river Tornea on the west and the White sea on the east, and is divided between the governments of Archangel and Finland. It has an area of about seventy thousand square miles, Ijeing of somewhat larger extent than that portion of Lapland lying in Sweden and Norway. From both position and physical conformation, Lapland is one of the most forbidding regions of the globe, consisting either of rugged mount- ains — some of them covered with perpetual, and many of them only for a short period free from snow — or of vast monotonous tracts of moorland wastes. This extensive territory appears to have been at one time wholly occupied by the people to whom it owes its name ; but its southern and better portions have been gradually encroached upon by Swedes, Norwe- gians, and Finlanders, till the Laplanders proper have, in a great measure, been cooped up within the arctic circle. There they retain their distinc- tive features and ancient customs, and find ample scope to follow their favorite modes of life, either as mountain Laplanders (Fjelde-Finner'), lead- ing a nomadic life, and pasturing large reindeer-herds ; or sea or shore Laplanders {Soe-Finner'), who, too poor to possess such herds, have been obliged to fix their residence upon the coast, and subsist chiefly by fishing. The origin of the Laplanders, as a race, has greatly puzzled ethnographers, in consequence of their presenting a combination of physical properties not possessed exclusively by either the Mongolian or the Caucasian stock, but GREAT RUSSIA — ARCHANGEL. 8S belonging partly to the one and partly to the other. The prevailing opin- ion, however, is, that they are only a variety of Tsehude, or Finns. Theii chief characteristics are — low stature, seldom exceeding four feet nine inches high ; great muscular power, shown both in their agility and in a strength of arm, enabling them to bend a bow which an ordinary Nor- wegian could not handle ; a large head ; dark, long, and glossy hair ; small brown eyes, obliquely placed, and without eyelids ; high and prominent cheek-bones ; wide mouth, with ill-defined lips ; a scanty beard ; and a skin of a yellow, dingy hue, probably rendered deeper than nature has made it, from living in smoky cabins, and i. shobe i-aplandke. 2, 3. mountain laplat^debs. neglecting habits of personal cleanliness. Their dress, at least that of the mountain Laplander, is com- posed almost throughout of reindeer-skin. With the hair turned outward, it forms an upper coat, a kind of trousers, sandals and shoes, gloves, and a conical cap. In summer, the reindeer-skin is often exchsspged for a woollen coat, which, in the female, is converted into a kind of pelisse, and reaches to the ankles. The cap of the female also is distinguished by its loftier peak, and some attempts at ornament ; and her shoulders are not unfrequently covered with a small shawl or plaid, on occasions of display. The Laplanders are not deficient in either intellectual or moral capacity. They are simple-hearted, hospitable, and apparently inclined, as far as their knowledge goes, to practise the duties of Christianity, which they all profess, under the form of Lutheranism in Norway and Sweden, and that of the Greek church in Russia. The greatest exception to this practice is an excessive fondness for ardent spirits. A more harmless vice is the ex- cessive use of tobacco. The number of Laplanders in Russia, Sweden, and Norway, is not supposed to exceed twenty thousand of all descriptions. Probably one third of them are nomadic. Nova Zembla (called by the Russians Novaia Zemlia) consists of two large islands in the Arctic ocean, forming a dependency of the government .of Archangel, and extending from latitude seventy-one to seventy-six degrees north, and from fifty-three to seventy-seven degrees east longitude. They are separated from each other by the narrow strait, Matotchkin Shar ; from the isle of Vaigatz on the south by the strait ; and from the mainland on the east by the sea of Kara. Their greatest length from northeast to 86 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. southwest, as before stated, is six hundred and fifty miles, and their breadth one hundred and fifty miles. The far greater part of the interior is unex- plored ; and even the northern and eastern coasts, where ice makes access almost impossible, are very imperfectly known. The southwestern and western coasts, which have been examined, are in the former direction generally low and flat ; and, in the latter, bordered by sandstone cliffs, which, though not elevated, are very precipitous. The general slope of both islands appears to be toward Matotchkin strait, on which the mouths of at least fifteen small streams have been counted. Lakes also are numer- ous. The whole territory is wild and desolate in the extreme. The coasts swarm with seals, various kinds of fish, and vast flights of water-fowl. The interior, which is partly covered with stunted shrubs, short grass, and moss, is frequented by reindeer, white bears, ermines, and arctic foxes. Nova Zembla has no permanent inhabitants, but is visited by Russian hunters and fishers. These islands were discovered by the English in 1583. Archangel, the capital of the government, is the principal city and port of trade in the north of Russia. It is situated on the right bank of the Dwina, about thirty-five miles above where it falls into the White sea, in latitude sixty-four degrees north. Its population, including that of the small dependent village of Solembolsk, is about thirty thousand. It is almost entirely built of wood, and has been materially improved since the fire of 1793. The principal building is the Gostinoi divor, or bazar, for the exhibition and sale of merchandise, and its protection against fire. It is of stone, and of great extent. The marine hospital also deserves to be noticed. Archangel is the residence of a general and civil governor, and of an archbishop. There is an ecclesiastical seminary with nine professors, a gymnasium, a school of commerce and navigation, and some other edu- cational establishments. Notwithstanding its high northern latitude, and the lengthened period during which it is annually inaccessible. Archangel has a pretty extensive commerce. It owes this to its situation on the Dwina, one of the most important rivers of Russia, and which has been united by canals with the Volga on the one hand, and the Neva on the other. The greater part of the articles of export are brought by this channel, mostly from a consider- able distance, and some even from Siberia. The principal are grain, flax, hemp, timber, iron, linseed ; vast quantities of mats, potash, tallow, tar, pitch, trainroil, canvass and coarse linen, furs, cordage, &c. The exports vary materially in different years, principally according to the demand for grain in foreign countries. The value of the imports, which consist prin- cipally of colonial produce, spices, salt, woollens, cottons, hardware, &c., is always much less than that of the exports. The harbor is at the island of Solembolsk, about one mile below the town ; and the ships are princi- pally loaded direct from the prams, rafts, &c., that bring the produce down the river. There is a bar at the mouth of the river, witli from thirteen to fifteen feet of water ; and vessels drawing more than this must, of course, GREAT RUSSIA — VOLOGDA. 87 partly load and unload by means of lighters in the roads. There is a gov- ernment dockyard, with slips for building ships, about twelve miles below the town, where also are situated warehouses belonging to the merchants of the city. A fishing company was established herein 1803. Exclusive of the ship and boat building, and the manufacture of cordage and canvass before referred to, there is a sugar-refinery, several breweries, &c. The entrance to the Dwina, where Archangel was soon after built, was discovered by the famous Richard Chancellor, an Engli^^ navigator, and founder of the " English Russia Company," who was the companion of Sir Hugh Willoughby in his voyage of discovery, in 1554 ; and from that pe- riod down to the foundation of St. Petersburg, it was the only port in the empire accessible to foreigners. In returning from his second voyage on behalf of the same company, attended by the Russian embassador and suite, Chancellor perished on the coast of Norway, in 1556. Vologda, the largest government of European Russia, after that of Arch- angel, lies between the fifty-eighth and sixty-fourth degrees of north lati- tude, and the thirty-eighth and sixtieth degrees of east longitude, having on the north, Archangel ; on the west, Olonetz and Novgorod ; on the south, Faroslav, Kostroma, and Viatka ; and, on' the east, the Ural moimtains, separating it from Tobolsk. It comprises an area of about one hundred and fifty thousand square miles. Excepting in the east, where it is covered with the Ural mountains, the surface of this province is generally an undulating plain, comprised in the basin of the Dwina, which is its largest river. The general slope of the country is accordingly to the northwest. In the south and southwest, the soil is fertile, but elsewhere it is sandy or thin, and the greater part of the surface is covered with marshes, and forests of pine, birch, oak, &c. Though the climate varies with the situation, it is, generally speaking, very severe ; it is far, however, from being unhealthy, and instances of lon- gevity are frequent. The grains principally cultivated are rj& and barley ; but the produce of grain is insufficient for the consumption of the inhabit- ants. Hemp, flax, and hops, succeed, as do beans and peas. Cattle and horses are numerous and good ; but a large part of the government being unoccupied and in a state of nature, the chase necessarily occupies much attention (a characteristic representation of which, in winter, is presented on the following page). The forests, the principal source of wealth, are of great extent, those of the crown alone covering eighty millions of acres. Granite, marble, salt, flints, copper, and iron, are all obtained in Vologda. It has a large number of manufacturing establishments, principally for woollen and linen fabrics, soap, leather, potash, glass-wares, and paper. Distillation is also very extensively carried on. Furs, tallow, pitch, wooden articles, masts and timber, turpentine, and other raw products, are the great articles of export ; being sent, for the most part, into the governments of Archangel and Tobolsk. ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA The Chase in Winter. The population of Vologda is principally Russian, but includes some Zyrians or Surjans of Finnish stock ; and, in the north, are some wander- ing Samoide tribes. Public instruction, owing to the thinness of the popu- lation, is necessarily very limited ; but it has been materially increased of late years. This territory is divided into ten districts. The chief towns are Vologda, the capital, and Velikioustioug. The city of Vologda, the capital of the above government, is situated near its southwestern extremity. It is built on both sides of the river Vologda, and is supposed to be one of the most ancient towns in Russia. The greater part of its houses are still of wood, but the buildings in stono are increasing, and several of its churches are of that material. It has two cathedrals, one of which was rebuilt in 1832. The palaces of the arch- bishop and governor, the prison, gymnasium, hospital, various asylums, and an episcopal seminary, are conspicuous edifices. Near the town is a famous convent, founded in 1371. Vologda has manufactures of soap, potash, cordage, bells, and tallow- candles, for which last it is famous over all the north of Russia. Its trade is considerable, which is principally with the Baltic, Germany, and Eng- land ; also to Siberia, even to the boundaries of the Chinese empire. Its population is supposed to be from twenty to twenty-five thousand. The government of Olonetz lies between the sixtieth and sixty-fifth de- grees of north latitude, and the thirtieth and forty-second degrees of east longitude ; having on the north and northeast, the government of Archan- gel ; on the southeast and south, Vologda, Novgorod, and St. Petersburg: GREAT RUSSIA — OLONETZ. 89 and on the west, Lake Ladoga and Finland. Its area, including Lake Onega, is about sixty-seven thousand square miles. The -western part of this government resembles Finland, it being alter- nately mountainous and marshy, or covered with lakes. Of the latter, Onega is by far the largest. The principal rivers are the Onega (by which the lake Latcha discharges itself into the White sea), Vodla, Tvir, Suna, (fee. For twenty-three weeks in the year the mean temperature is below thirty-two degrees Fahrenheit, and mercury sometimes freezes. Bleak winds are almost constant ; but the country is tolerably healthy. The soil is thin, stony, and not very fertile. Except in the district of Kargopole, into which some improvements have been introduced, agricul- ture is very backward. The grain produced is insufficient for the wants of the population. The peasantry are supported chiefly on turnips, car- rots, and other vegetables, of which their bread partly consists, and on the produce of the chase, fisheries, &c. Hemp and flax are grown for expor- tation ; but the principal source of wealth consists in the forests, which are of great extent, thoss lielonglng to the crown covering twenty-five millions of acres. Pasturage is not abundant, and few cattle are reared. Marble, granite, serpentine, alabaster, &c., are found ; and there are mines of iron, copper, and even silver, though they are but little wrought. The poverty of the country obliges many of the inhabitants to emigrate annually into the adjacent governments, to take charge of cattle, hew mill- stones, &c. ; and in summer the number of absentees is estimated at about a third part of the entire population. These circumstances are hostile to manufacturing industry ; and, exclusive of the imperial cannon-foundry at Petrozavodsk, it has only a few tanneries and iron-forges. It exports raw produce to St. Petersburg and Archangel ; from which cities grain, salt, spirits, and colonial and manufactured goods, are imported. The government of Olonetz is under the same military jurisdiction as that of Archangel,' and is divided into seven districts. Education is under the superintendence of the university of St. Petersburg, and is very limited. There is but one printing-press in thp province, and that is owned by the state. The inhabitants are principally of the Greek church, and subordi- nate to the archbishop of Novgorod. Petrozavodsk, the capital of Olonetz, is situated on the Lossolenka, where it falls into Lake Onega, two hundred miles northeast of St. Peters- burg. It is poorly built, has two wooden churches, a school and infirmary, an important cannon-foundry, a gunpowder, fulling, and several saw mills, and manufactories of iron and copper, which find their market at St. Pe- tersburg. It contains about eight thousand inhabitants, many of whom are employed in the iron-works and imperial foundries. Kargopole, another town in this government, possesses a flourishing trade, and Olonetz is not unworthy of notice, as it was there that Peter the Great first attempted to build a ship-of-war, to be employed on the lake against the Swedes. 90 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. The government of Novgorod lies between the fifty-seventh and sixty- first degrees of north latitude, and the thirtieth and fortieth degrees of east longitude ; having, on the east, the government of Vologda ; on the south, those of Yaroslav, Tver, and Pskov ; on the west, the latter and St. Petersburg ; and, on the north, the last named and Olonetz. Its length, from northeast to southwest, is about four hundred miles ; its breadth va- ries from forty to one hundred and sixty miles. It contains an area of about fifty-five thousand square miles. The surface of the country, which in the north is low and level, rises gradually toward the southwest, where the Valdai plateau reaches an ele- vation of one thousand feet above the level of the sea. The government is well watered : the principal rivers being the Volkhov, Mesta, Chexna, Mo- loga, Lovat, &c., some of which run toward the Volga, and others toward the lake of Ladoga. Among the lakes are those of Bielo-Osero, Voje, and Ilmen. The climate, especially in the north, is more severe than in the government of St. Petersburg, not being tempered by the sea-breezes. Except in a few districts, the soil of Novgorod is not eminent for fer- tility, and night-frosts often spoil the crops. Scarcely any orchard-trees are met with, but hemp and flax are grown for exportation, and rye, oats, and barley, are extensively cultivated. Timber is an important product; a large part of the government is covered witli forests, those belonging to the crown amounting to seven millions of acres. Few cattle are reared. Next to agriculture, fishing is a principal occupation. The salt-springs of Staraia-Rous furnisli an adequate supply of salt for this government and tliat of Tver. Manufacturing industry is very backward : there are a few copper, glass, tile, leather, woollen-cloth, and other factories. The popu- lation have, liowever, a turn for commerce, and the diflfercnt fairs and markets are well attended. Novgorod is divided into ten districts. Among its chief towns are Nov- gorod, Tikhvin, and Valdai. Except some Lutherans among the Finnish inhabitants, the population is principally of the Greek church. Education is very little diffused. The capital has a gymnasium, and there are schools there and in other parts of the goverjiment. There is not supposed to be a single printing-press in the province. Tliis territory was made a separ rate government in 1776. The city of Novgorod (called Veliki, or "the Great"), formerly the most important in the empire, and capital of the government of Novgorod, lies on the Volkhov, near its escape from Lake Ilmen. It is about one hundred miles south-southeast of St. Petersburg. Its population, which, at the present time, does not exceed fifteen thousand, was estimated to have amounted, in the height of its prosperity, in the fifteenth century, to four hundred thousand, though this, probably, is much beyond the mark. At this period, Novgorod, with London, Bergen, and Bruges, constituted the four principal foreign depots of the Hanseatic League ; but the fall of the League, and still more the massacres perpetrated by the bloodthirsty GREAT RUSSIA — NOVGOROD. 91 barbarian Ivan Vassiliovich IV., in 1570, proved fatal to this great empo- rium, and it soon after fell into all but irremediable decay. La Motraye, who visited it early in the last century, gives the following description, which will apply nearly as well in the present day: — " Nothing is more deceitful than the view of Novgorod from a distance : its extent, and the number and height of its towers and spires, seem to announce ona of the finest cities in Europe ; but, on nearing it, the travel ler perceives that its walls and houses are only of wood ; and on entering, he finds it ill built and wretchedly paved. Only the churches and a very few private residences are of stone or brick. There may be from eighty to eighty-five churches, including those of the monasteries ; besides which, the castle, a large fortress bristling with artillery, is the remaining princi- pal edifice." The town, in fact, though comprising a large space, consists principally of scattered groups of miserable habitations, separated by ruins or by fields, which it is evident had once been covered with houses. It is divided into two parts by the Volkhov, here crossed by a handsome bridge of eleven arches, which is almost the only modern structure in the city. The piles, (fee, of this bridge are of granite ; the rest is chiefly of timber. Its entire length is two hundred and seventy yards, and the breadth of its central arch eighty-five feet. In the Torgovdia, or market town, are the govern- or's residence, an ancient palace of the czars, and most of the shops and warehouses. The Sofuskaia, on the opposite bank of the Volkhov, is about one and a half miles in circuit, and surrounded by an earth rampart and a ditch. In it are the Kremlin, or citadel, the cathedral of St. Sophia, built after the model of St. Sophia at Constantinople, the archbishop's palace, and the various tribunals. The citadel is in many respects similar to the Kremlin of Moscow, having a stone wall, flanked with many round and square towers. The cathedral, built between 1044 and 1051, and repaired in 1832, has some remarkable bronze gates, with sculptures in alto^elievo, representing passages in scripture history ; and many of the paintings on its walls are curious, heing said to date from a period previously to the revival of the arts in Italy. Among its' buildings, the monastery of the Annunciation, of which we give a view on the following page, is a remark- ably elegant structure. Novgorod is the seat of a military governor, whose authority extends over the adjacent government of Tver. It has a few manufactures of sail- cloth, leather, and vinegar, and some trade in grain. Though not the original capital of Rurik, it became the seat of the Russian government in 864. In the beginning of the eleventh century, the inhabitants obtained considerable privileges, that laid the foundation of their liberty and pros- perity ; and as the city and its contiguous territory increased in population and wealth, they gradually usurped an almost absolute independency : so that, in effect, N()v,irorod, in the middle ages, should rather be considered a republic, under tlio jurisdiction of an elective magistrate, than a state 92 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. Monastery of the Annunciation, at Novconon suDject to a regulai' line of hereditary monarchs. During the twelfth, thir- teenth, and fourteenth centuries, Novgorod formed the grand entrepot be- tween the countries east of Poland and the Hanseatic cities ; and its wealth and power seemed so great and well established, and the city itself so impregnable, as to give rise to the proverb - *' Qvis contra Deos et mngnam Novogordiam?^^ " Wljo can resist the Gods and Great Novgorod ?" But in 1477 it was obliged to submit to Ivan III., great-duke of Eussia. So great was its riches, that in 1480, Ivan, after he had conquered the re- public of Novrogod, despatched from the city to Moscow three hundred chariots laden with articles of silver and gold. In 1554, it was visited by the famous Richard Chancellor (to whom we have referred in treating of the government of Archangel), who describes it as the " great mart town of all Moscovie, and in greatnesse beyond Moscow." But not long after, it was subjected, as already stated, to the scourge of the destroyer, and fell, never to rise again. .The foundation of St. Petersburg took from it all hope of ever recovering any portion of its ancient pi'osperity. Pskov lies chiefly between the fifty-sixth and fifty-eighth degrees of north latitude, and the twenty-eighth and thirty-second degrees of east longitude ; having, on the north, St. Petersburg and Novgorod, of each of which govei'nments it formerly made a part ; on the east, Tver and Smo- lensk ; on the south, Vitepsk ; and on the west, Livonia. Its greatest length, from northwest to soutlieast, is two hundred and two miles, and its greatest breadth one hundred and ten miles, comprising an area of about twenty-two thousand square m.iles. The surface of the country is nearly flat, with a slope to the north, the GREAT RUSSIA — PSKOV. 93 direction taken by most of the rivers. None of these are of considerable size ; but the government is, notwithstanding, well watered. At the north- western extremity is the lake of Pskov (twenty-seven miles long by fifteen broad), connected by a strait, three miles wide, with that of Peipus. The whole government belongs to the basin of the Baltic, the river Duna, which drains the southeast, carrying its waters into the gulf of Riga, and the Yelikaia, Chelon, and Lovat, with other small tributaries, carrying the rest of the drainage into the gulf of Finland. Toward the southeast the coun- try is traversed by the Valdai hills. Immense numbers of blocks of granite lie scattered in all directions. Marshes are numerous. The atmosphere is usually damp, though, on the whole, the climate is far from unhealthy. The soil is thin, and not very fertile ; but, owing to the fewness of the inhabitants, more grain is grown than is required for home consumption. The produce averages twenty millions of bushels a year, of which upward of five millions may be exported. It consists chiefly of rye, barley, and oats, the proportion of wheat being small. A good deal of hemp and flax is raised. The forests are extensive, and abound with game. Cattle are not of great importance, and bees are less reared than in most provinces. Manufactures have increased during the present century, but they are still of no great consequence. The leather of this government is much esteemed, but its principal wealth consists in its grain and natural produce. The government is divided into eight districts ; the chief towns are Pskov, the capital, Torepetz, and Velikie-Louki. Its population consists mainly of Russians, with some Lithuanians and Finns. Public education is little extended, and until of late yeai-s but few printing-presses were to be found in the government. Pskov (or Pleskov'), the capital of the government just described, is sit- uated on the Velikaia, one hundred and sixty-five miles southwest of St. Petersburg. It contains about ten thousand inhabitants. The city covers a large space of ground, and is divided into three parts, the Kremlin or citadel, the Middle Town, and the Greater Town, all surrounded with an earthen mound. All the private houses, and the greater part of the public edifices, are of wood. The finest buildings are in the Kremlin. Among others are the cathedral, of very little architectural merit, but gorgeously decorated ; and the palace of the ancient princes of Pskov, now occupied by the archbishop. The number of churches amounts to thirty, but more than a third of them are in disuse. The principal manufacture is Russian leather ; and there is -a considerable trade in hemp, flax, tallow, hides, &c., with Narva, and other seaports, on the gulf of Finland. A great annual fair is held here in February, at which large quantities of woollen, silk, and cotton fabrics, leather books, jewellery, &c., are sold. Pskov is the see of an archbishop ; and possesses a theological seminary, a bible-society, and a well-managed hospital. It is said to have been founded by the prin- cess Olga, toward the close of the tenth century, but is mentioned in his- tory as early as 903. 94 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. Toi'opetz, another important town in this government, is situated on the Toropa, two hundred and forty-five miles south of St. Petersburg. The population is about ten thousand. It is entirely surrounded by lakes and I'ivulets, and communicates by the Toropa with Riga, which renders it a place of some trade. It has thirteen clmrches, including a cathedral, and two convents. A few of its houses are of brick or stone, but the major part are of wood, the streets also being paved with planks. On an island in the Toropa is a dilapidated fort. This town, under the name of Kri- vitch, is mentioned as early as the introduction of Christianity by Vladimir, about 990. It was the capital of a republic, which lasted through the whole of the twelfth century, but wliich in the thirteenth became subject to hereditary princes. Toward the end of the fifteenth century it belonged to the Poles, but it was retaken by the Russians in 1500. Velikie-Louki, the other town previously mentioned, contains about seven thousand inhabitants, several churches, and about thirty manufacto- ries of leather, which is transported to the St. Petersburg markets, a dis- tance of three hundred miles, by water. This town was, in 1611, taken and burnt by the adherents of the pretender Dmitri. The government of Tver extends from the fifty-sixth to the fifty-ninth degree of north latitude, and from the thirty-second to the thirty-eighth degree of east longitude ; having Novgorod on the nortli, Yaroslav and Vladimir on the east, Moscow and Smolensk on the south, and Pskov on the west. It has an area of about twenty-four thousand square miles. The surface of tliis government is generally more elevated than that of other parts of European Russia ; and several large rivers, particularly the Volga, rise within its limits. In its western part are several lakes. The Volga has its source in the lake of Seligliur, and afterward traverses the government in nearly its whole length from west to east. The climate is severe, and the soil is but indifferently fertile. The har- vests are precarious, and scarcely ever produce more than sufficient for home consumption. A good deal of hemp and flax, with beans, ttc, are grown ; but few kinds of fruit succeed. The forests are extensive, partic- ularly in the north, and about one million of acres of forest-land belong to the crown. Its manufactures are of little consequence, but increasing ; those of dye- ing-materials and spirituous liquors are the principal ; and there are others of bricks, glass-ware, ropes, leather, woollen-cloths, &c. This government is, however, distinguished for its commercial activity ; and the capital of its merchants has been estimated at seventeen millions of roubles. The trade centres mostly in Tver, the capital, and is facilitated by the Vish- ni-Volotchok canal, which establishes a water-communication between the Baltic and Caspian seas. Tlie district of the government traversed by this canal is inhabited by a tribe of Carelians, and in the capital is a German colony ; but the population is mostly Russian, of the Greek church. Thia GREAT RUSSIA-— TVER — SMOLENSK. 95 government is divided into twelve districts ; the chief towns are Tver, the capital, Torjok, Rjev, and Bejetsk. Tver, the capital of this government, is situated on the Volga, which is Lei-e crossed by a wooden bridge five hundred and fifty feet in length, and on the high road between Moscow and St. Petersburg, ninety miles north- west of the former. Its population is about twenty-five thousand. In re- spect of the regularity of its streets and buildings, Tver ranks next to the two Russian capitals, but wants their bustle and animation. It is divided by the several rivers into the town proper, suburbs, and citadel. The last, surrounded by a rampart of earth, comprises the governor's residence, an imperial palace, the cathedral, and seminary ; and its numerous towers and cupolas give it, at a distance, an imposing appearance. The cathedral is a square edifice, with a lofty spire, surmounted by a gilt copper dome, and surrounded, lower down, by four similar domes. The seminary, founded in 1727, for the instruction of seven hundred pupils, in the sciences and ancient languages, is established in a convent built in the thirteenth cen- tury. There are numerous churches, government buildings, barracks, inns, a theatre, &c., and several public promenades, planted with trees. This city owes its present regularity and beauty to a fire which almost totally destroyed it in 1763 ; after which the empress Catherine II. ordered it to be rebuilt on a uniform plan. Some houses are of stone, but the greater part are of wood ; and the paving is mostly of the same material. An impost is levied upon every horse that passes the gates, expressly to pave the streets. Tver is a place of considerable trade, a large part of its population being merchants, or engaged in the navigation of the Volga. It is an entrepot for grain from the south destined for St. Petersburg, and for goods con- veyed overland to and from Riga. It is of considerable antiquity, ha-^ing been the capital of a principality as early as the middle of the thirteenth century. The town has frequently suifered from the plague, and been taken by both the Tartars and Poles ; but it has remained, with little inter- ruption, attached to the dominion of the Russians since 1490. The government of Smolensk lies between the fifty-third and fifty-seventh 'degrees of north latitude, and the thirtieth and thirty-sixth degrees of east longitude, having the governiTients of Pskov and Tver on the north, Moscow and Kalouga on the east, Vitepsk and Moghilev on the west, and Orel and Tchernigov on the south. It comprises an area of about twenty- one thousand square miles. The surface of this government is mostly an undulating plain, in some parts marshy ; in the north is a more elevated plateau, in which the Dnie- per and several other rivers have their source. The soil is generally fer- tile, and more grain (principally rye) is grown -than is required for home consumption. Hemp, flax, tobacco, and hops, are cultivated. Cattle- breeding is less attended to ; but a good many hogs are reared. ytj ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. The forests are very extensive, and are, in fact, the chief sources of wealth. Game is very plentiful ; and bees are reared almost everywhere. Iron, copper, and salt, are found. Its manufactures are few, being nearly confined to leather, glass-wares, pitch, &c. ; with sawing-works, distilleries, and a few carpet-factories, in the capital. The raw produce of the govern- ment is exported, in large quantities, to Riga, Wilna, and Moscow. Smolensk, the capital of the government, is situated on the Dnieper, two hundred and thii-ty miles west by south from Moscow. This city is of considerable antiquity. It was, in the ninth century, in a flourishing state, and independent until the year 881, when it submitted to Novgorod. Its population at the present time is about thirteen thousand. It lies on both sides of the river, and is surrounded by a massive wall, flanked with tow- ers. It appears to advantage at a distance, but is in reality a poor town, the liouses being mostly of only one story, and built of wood ; though since it was burnt by the Russians, previous to their evacuation of it in 1812, it has been partially rebuilt of stone and brick. The fortifications, however, remain pretty much in the same state as when Napoleon left them. Large apertures made in the walls have never been repaired, and the inhabitants seem poor and miserable. Here the French army, retreating from Mos- cow, had expected to rejoin the divisions left on the Dnieper and the Duna, and find their stores ; but on their arrival they learned that Napoleon had altered his plans, that the ninth corps had not even halted in Sanilensk, and that the provisions were all consumed. " A thunderbolt," writes La- baume, " falling at our feet, would have confounded us less than did this news ; the little that remained in the magazines was, in spite of the guard, pillaged by the famished soldiers, who would not wait for the regular dis- tribution of their rations. This pillage led for the moment to abundance. At the unexpected view, our hearts once more expanded. One laughed with joy as he kneaded his bread, another sang as he cooked his meat ; but most of our party, eagerly seizing the brandy, quickly caused the wild- est gayety to succeed to the most distressing sadness." On the 1-ith of November, 1812, Napoleon held here his first council of war. An iron pyramid has been erected in the city to commemorate the resistance made by the place to the French on the occasion above referred to. The city has three cathedrals, in one of which is a bell weighing forty tliousand pounds ; twenty Greek churches, three convents, a Lutheran and a Romai: catholic church, a seminary, gymnasium, a military school for nobles, sev- eral hospitals, and carpet, hat, soap, and leather factories. A singular incident in Polish history is associated with this city. In the frequent wars between Poland and Russia during the middle ages, Smolensk fell into the hands of the former, whose victorious legions, forget- ting their own country and kindred, held the city captive several years, abandoning themselves to riot and debauchery with the Russians. Being thus deserted by their husbands, great numbers of the Polish women mar- ried the serfs on their estates, and armed them for defence. The intelli- GREAT RUSSIA — MOSCOW. 97 gence of these acts soon reached Smolensk, and the infuriated Poles com- menced their homeward march, breathing vengeance. A great battle was fought near Warsaw, in which the serfs, encouraged by the women, were the victors, and the differences in question were settled by a compromise. The government of Moscow (Slavonic, Moskva) lies between the fifty- fifth and fifty-seventh degrees of north latitude, and the thirty-fifth and thirty-ninth degrees of east longitude, having the government of Tver on the north and northwest, Smolensk on the west, Kalouga and Toula on the south, and Vladimir and Riazan on the east. It is of a very compact and somewhat circular form ; its greatest length from northwest to southeast is one hundred and forty miles, and its greatest breadth one hundred and ten miles. It comprises an area of about eleven thousand five hundred square miles. The surface of the country is generally low, but undulating. No mount- ain occurs, and scarcely anything deserving the name of hill. The princi- pal hcighls are the river-banks, many of which rise considerably above the channel, and occasionally form very pleasing and picturesque scenery. The whole government belongs to the basin of the Volga, which, however, drains only a small portion of the north directly, the rest of the drainage being ctmducted into it by the Oka, and its tributaries the Kliasma and Moskwa. The tributaries of these streams, within the government, though small, are numerous. The only navigable streams are the Oka, Moskwa, and Kliasma. The climate is said to be temperate ; but the range of the thermometer far exceeds that of the same latitude in western Europe, and the winter cold is extreme. The soil is only moderately fertile, and does not pro- duce more grain than supplies two thirds of the consumption. More than one half of the wliolc surface is occupied by wood, and the wants of the capital cause no inconsiderable portion of ground to be occupied with gar- dens and orchards. The pastures also are extensive, and great care and skill are displayed in the rearing of both cattle and horses. No metals are wrought ; but freestone, limestone, gypsum, and potter's clay, are ob- tained. Large masses of granite, not forming part of the strata, but in the form of boulders, are scattered over the surface, and are turned to good account. All kinds of textile manufactures are carried on to a great extent in this government, and give employment to a population at once more dense and more industrious than exists, within the same space in any other part of Russia. Not only in towns, but in hamlets, and in almost every cottage, the sound of industrial employment may be heard. Almost all the inhab- itants belong to the Greek church. For administrative purposes, Moscow is divided into thirteen districts. The city of Moscow, the ancient capital of the empire, and the present capital of the hierarchy, will be found fully described on future pages. 98 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. The government of Yaroslav (Slavonic, Jaroslavl) lies chiefly between the fifty-seventh and fifty-ninth degrees of north latitude, and the thirty- seventh and forty-first degrees of east longitude, having the governments of Novgorod and Vologda on the north, Kostroma on the east, Vladimir on the south, and Tver on the west. Its length from north to south is about one hundred and sixty miles, and its greatest breadth is nearly tho same. It has an area of about seventeen thousand square miles. The surface of the country is almost wholly flat, being only occasionally broken by the high banks of its streams, or by low ridges ; in some parts it is marshy. It wholly belongs to the basin of the Volga, which traverses the government in its centre ; the other chief rivers are its tributaries the Mologa, Sheksna, &c., all of which have, more or less, an easterly direction. The lake of Rostov, in the south, is eight miles long by six broad, and there are nearly forty other lakes of less size. The air is pure, and the climate healthy, though the winter is severe, and the summer comparatively short. The soil is only moderately fertile. Rye, barley, wheat, oats, peas, &c., are grown; and Schnitzler estimates the annual produce of grain at about three millions of chetwerts :* a quan- titj' insufficient for the inhabitants, who are partly supplied from the adjsr cent provinces by means of the Volga. Its hemp and flax are excellent, and cherry and apple orchards are numerous. The gardeners of Yaroslav and Rostov are famed throughout Russia, and many are met with at St. Petersburg. Timber is rather scarce.' The rearing of live-stock, except:- ing horses, is little pursued ; but the fisheries in the Volga are important. This government is, however, more noted for its manufacturing than its rural industry. Linen, cotton, and woollen stuffs, leather, silk, hardware, and tobacco, are the principal manufactures : but, independently of these, the peasants are almost everywhere partially occupied with weaving stock- ings and other fabrics, and making gloves, hats, harness, wooden shoes, and various rural implements. Commerce is facilitated by several naviga- ble livers and good roads. Yaroslav is subdivided into ten districts ; the chief towns are Yaroslav, Rostov, and Ouglitch. Its population is Russian ; and the women are pro- verbial (among Russians) for their beauty. Only about one seventeenth part of the inhabitants reside in towns. In respect of education, the gov- ernment is comprised under the division of Moscow, and has numerous public schools and several ecclesiastical seminaries. The city of Yaroslav, the capital of the above government, is situated on the Volga, at the mouth of the Kotorosth, two hundred and twelve miles nortlieast of Moscow. It is well built, though mostly of wood ; and is de- fended by a fort at the confluence of the two rivers. In its broad main street, which is ornamented with trees, are many handsome stone houses ; and three convents and numerous churches contribute to give Yaroslav an * A Rusbinn " chetwert" is eqiml to 5 362 Winchester bushels. Its capacity, however, variet somcv/hat in different localities. GREAT RUSSIA — YAROSLAV — KOSTROMA. 99 imposing appearance. The Demidoff lyceum in this city, founded in 1803, has a good library, a cabinet of natural history, a chemical laboratory, and printing-press, and ranks immediately after the Russian universities. It was originally endowed with lands, to which thirty-five hundred and sev- enty-eight serfs were attached, and with a capital of one hundred thousand silver roubles ; since which it has received other valuable benefactions. The same educational course is pursued as in the universities, and lasts three years. The establishment is placed under a lay-director and ap ecclesiastic, and has eight professors, two readers, and forty professionary students. Yaroslav has also an ecclesiastical seminary, with live hundred students. A large stone exchange {Gostinoi dvof), a hospital, foundling- asylum, house of correction, and two workhouses, are the other chief public edifices. This city is the residence of a governor, and the see of an arclibishoj). It has about forty different factories, including three of cotton, four of linen, and two of silk fabrics, eight tanneries, and several tobacco, hard- ware, and paper-making establishments. Its leather and table-linen are much esteemed. The position of Yaroslav on the Volga contributes to promote its commerce, which is very considerable. Its manufactures are sent to Moscow and St. Petersburg, and a great many are sold at the fair of Makariev, in the government of Kostroma. Two annual fairs are held in Yaroslav. This is a city of considerable antiquity, being founded in 1025, by the famous Yaroslav, son of Vladimir the Great, who annexed it to the princi- pality of Rostov. It fell under the dukes of Moscow in 1426. Peter the Great was the first to give it commercial importance, by establishing its linen manufactures, since which its prosperity has been progressive. The population of the city is about thirty thousand. The government of Kostroma is situated principally between the fifty- seventh and fifty-ninth degrees of north latitude, and the fortietli and forty- eighth degrees of east longitude, having the government of Vologda on the north, Yaroslav on the west, Vladimir and Nijnei-Novgorod on the south, and Viatka on the east and southeast. Its greatest length is two hundred and seventy miles, and its breadth one hundred and seventy miles. It has an area of about thirty-eight thousand square miles. The country consists of wide, level plains, varied only by gentle acclivi- ties and elevated river-banks. The northern part is cold, humid, and swampy. Many of the swamps arc covered with wood, and some of them contain bog-iron ore. What is arable is cold, and of indifferent fertility. Occasionally there are considerable extents of healthy ground, partly cov- ered with wood. The southern part, near the Volga, has an opener and drier soil, consisting mostly of clay, loam, and sand, but still only of mod- crate fertility. The climate is severe : the winter is long, and the weather stormy ; the 100 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. summer is short, and is frequently misty. The chief river is the Volga, which, shortly after entering the government in tho southwest, is joined by the Kostroma from the north ; then, after a short turn to the south- southeast, proceeds almost due east, when it receives its important tribu- tary the Unga, and soon after, by a southerly course, quits the government. There are numerous lakes. Of these, the Galitz is ten miles long by five and a half broad, and the Tchuchloma is above five miles in diameter. Many of the houses in this government, and indeed through all the south and east of Russia, are constructed of timber, and have very i)eculiar forms. An interesting example of such structures is shown in the accompanying engraving. PoST-HoUSE ON THE RoUTK FROM KoSTROMA TO YaBOSLAV. Large quantities of hemp and flax are raised in this province. These two crops form an important element in providing employment for tlie inhabitants. Indeed, the governments of Yaroslav and Kostroma may be considered as the cliief seats of manufacturing industry, from which eastern Europe derives its supplies. Damask and linen weaving, with the numer- ous processes connected with them, give employment to a large population, in both the towns and, throughout tlio district. Russia leather, also, both red and black (the former of cow, the latter of horse hide), is made in large quantities, and. of first-rate quality. The bog-iron raised is usually smelted by the inhabitants themselves in small furnaces, and formed into the various implements required for their own use. The forests, scattered over the district, employ many hands in felling trees, cutting them for timber, firewood, or charcoal. Even the bark of the lime-tree is turned to profitable account, being largely employed in making mats, for which the district has long been celebrated. The fishing, also, is very productive. Many of the peasants are masons, carpenters, &c., who seek for employ ment in the summer season in the contiguous governments, returning homo in the autumn. GREAT RUSSIA — NTJNEI-NOVGOROD. 101 The city of Kostroma, the capital of the above government, is located on the Volga, at the confluence of the Kostroma with that river, two, hun- dred miles northeast of Moscow. The population of the city is rising twelve thousand. It is of great antiquity, having been built in the twelfth century, and, as is usual with old Russian towns, is surrounded by a ram- ,,part of earth, of which advantage has been taken to form a promenade. ^Ilfe situation is elevated and agreeable, and, being the seat of both the civil aid military government of the district, it contains a great number of pub- li«H3uildings, which, together with most of the dwellings, are constructed ofl sk)ne. It has fifty churches, a monastery, an ecclesiastical college, a ■gylmnasium, and a large stone building, or bazar, for the security, exhibi- ^ob, and sale of merchandise. Its manufactures, among which that of ^RuBgia leather has long been famous (and including also those of linen, ^ Prussian blue, soap, and tallow, a bell-foundry, ers and smaller craft, besides a long row of hulks which have been converted into magazines or prison-ships. The hard ser- vice which has reduced so many of the handsomest ships of the Russian navy to this condition, consists in lying for eight or ten years upon the sleeping bosom of the harbor. After the expiration of that period, their timbers, composed of fir or pine wood never properly seasoned, become perfectly rotten. This result is chiefly owing to inherent decay, and in some degree to the ravages of a worm that abounds in the muddy waters of the Tchernoi Retcka, a stream which, traversing the valley of Inkerman, falls into the upper part of the main harbor. It is said that this pernicious insect — which is equally destructive in salt w^ater as in fresh — costs the Russian government many thousands, and is one of the most serious obsta- cles to the formation of an efficient navy on the Black sea It is maliciously said that, upon the few occasions that the Russian fleet in this sea have encountered a gale of wind, the greater part of the officers and men were always sea-sick ! It is certain that they have sometimes been unable to tell whereabout they were on their extensive cruising-ground ; and once, between Sevastapol and Odessa, it is currently and libellously reported that the admiral was so utterly at a loss, that the flag-lieutenant, observing a village on shore, proposed to land and ask the way !" Inkerman, the " Town of Caverns," lies near Sevastapol. The curiosi- ties of this locality consist in the remains which exist there to tell of I'accs long since departed. The precipitous cliffs, between which flow the Tcher- noi Retcka, are honeycombed with cells and chapels. The origin of these singular caves is uncertain ; but they are supposed to have been excavated by monks during the reigns of the Greek emperors of Constantinople in the middle or later ages. When the Arians who inhabited the Chersonesus were persecuted by the Greek church, then predominant, the members of that sect took refuge in these singular dwellings, whose lofty and inacces- sible position rendered them to a certain degree secure. The largest chapel, which presents all the characteristics of Byzantine architecture, is about twenty-four feet long by twelve broad. Sarcophagi, usually quite empty, have been found in many of the cells ; these latter are often con- nected witli each other, and are approached by stairs cut in the living rock. Perched upon the same cliff, and of much earlier date than the caverns wliich undermine them, are the ruined walls of an old fort. Whether they are tlie remains of the Clenus of the ancients, built by Diophantes, King Mithridatcs's general, to strengthen the Heraclean wall, or of the Theodori of the Greeks, or of some Genoese stronghold, is still a very open question. There can be no doubt, however, that the seat of government of the prin- cipality of Theodori stood formerly on this spot ; but it is probable that its inhabitants were composed of Greek colonists, and not of Circassian tribes, as some writers have supposed. SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE CRIMEA. 189 Inkbrman, the '* Town of Caverns." Tlie ^iew from the high-road to Baktchiserai of the valley of Inkerman, with its perforated cliffs and ruined fortress (as represented in the accom- panying engraving), is as remarkable as it is beautiful. A romantic old bridge in the foreground spans the sluggish stream, which winds amid the most luxuriant vegetation. Simferopol (or Akmetchef), the capital of Taurida and the Crimea, lies in a central position, forty miles northwest of Sevastapol. It stands iu a fine but not very healthy situation on the river Salghir, and consists of two parts : one new built by the Russians, in the European stylo ; the other old, and occupied by the Tartars. The streets in the former are wide and regular ; and it contains the government offices, and a cathedral, 5aid by Dr.' Lyall to be by far the handsomest ecclesiastical edifice he had seen in Russia. The following is Oliphant's description of the modern capital of the Crimea, and its environs, as they appeared to him in 1853 : " When the Crimea was ceded to Russia in 1781, the picturesque old capital of Bak- tchiserai was considered unworthy of being the chief town of the new prov- ince, and a gay modern city was laid out upon the plains of the Salghir, dignified with an imposing ancient Greek name, and built in true Russian taste, with very broad streets, very white, tall houses, decorated with very green paint. If the population consisted entirely of Russians, the interior of the town would be as far from realizing the expectations which its out- ward appearance is calculated to produce, as Kazan or Saratov ; but for- tunately for Simferopol, it was once Akmetchet (or ' The White Mosque''), and the inhabitants of Akmetchet still linger near the city of their ances- tors, and invest the cold monotony of the new capital with an interest of which it would be otherwise quite unworthy. " Formerly the second town in the Crimea, and the residence of the kalga sultan, or vice-khan, Akmetchet was a city of great importance, 190 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. adorned with palaces, mosques, and public baths. It has now exchanged the eastern magnificence of former days for the tawdry glitter of Musco- vite barbarism. " The streets inhabited by Tartars are composed entirely of blank walls, and would therefore be the dullest places imaginable were it not for the people who traverse them. The houses are only one story high, and each is enclosed in a separate courtyard. The parchment windows which look out into it are placed so low as to be quite hidden from the street ; and so the unfortunate females have not the ordinary amusement of eastern ladies, and no black eyes glance out of latticed windows upon the passenger as ho passes beneath them. The Tartar women of Akmetchet, however, do not lose much by their seclusion. The streets have none of the life and bustle of a town like Cairo. The shops are few and far between, very small and poor, and kept by ugly, unveiled women. The beauties walk about cov- ered up to the eyes with the white ^fereedje,' which reaches as low as the knee. Were it not for the bright-colored skirt which flutters beneath it, and the loose drawers that fall over tiny yellow boots, they would look precisely like animated bundles of white linen. The men occasionally wear the turban and flowing robe of the true oriental ; but their costumes, always picturesque, vary so much as to be almost indescribable. " We soon got tired of wandering through this maze of narrow lanes, always confined between high, blank walls, and changed the scene by sud- denly coming upon the fashionable promenade, where the band was playing in cool, delicious gardens, to the gay world, who delight to assemble here and stroll upon the bECnks of the Salghir, away from the heat and dust of the town. The present governor, Pestel, a brother to ' Yes, it comes at last,' is, I understand, in higli favor with the emperor. His house is a substantial, handsome-looking mansion. There are extensive barracks sit- uated a little outside the town, but the hospital alone is always in use ; the rest of the building is only occupied occasionally by troops passing to and from tlie Caucasus. "There are no less than two hotels in Simferopol, and in the one we were at they actually gave us a sheet each, but, of course, no means of washing ! Our windows looked out upon the principal street, and were always interesting posts of observation. Sometimes a lumbering noble- man's carriage, piled with luggage, and stored witli provisions for a month, rattled into the town — the family being about to return to St. Petersburg for the winter, after spending the summer at their country-seat in the Ci'imca ; or an unpretending vehicle, exactly similar to ours, jogged quietly past, crammed with Armenian merchants, some of whose legs, protruding from between the curtains, were presumed to belong to Armenians, from the perfume of Turkish tobacco wliich was diffused over the street during their transit ; or a file of camel-carts, filled with straw, moved sedately along, stopping every now and then for a few moments while the drivers spoke to friends, when all the camels lay down : no amount of experience SOUTHERN RUSSIA THE CRIMEA. l!)l CameL'Cabt seemed to show them that it was hardly worth while to do this consider- ing how soon they would have to get up again, and the great exertion it involved. Accustomed only to the camels and dromedaries of still more eastern counti-ies, the appearance of this Bacti-ian camel was quite new to me. The two humps are generally so long, that, unable to sustain them- selves, they fall over, and often hang down on each side of the animal's back. The neck and legs are covered with long, thick hair, from which the Tartar women weave cloth of a soft, woolly texture. " In strong contrast to these singular carts, pert droskies were continu ally dashing about. Though so small and light, all the public droskies here have two horses, generally very good ones, while the heat of the sun , has rendered it necessary that they should, for the most part, be supplied with hoods ; so that the atrocious little vehicle of St. Petersburg is con- verted at Simferopol into quite a respectable conveyance. Next door to our hotel was rather a handsome Jewish synagogue, in whicli school seemed perpetually going on. Simferopol contains about fourteen thou- sand inhabitants, of which comparatively a large proportion are membei's of this persuasion. " Fortunately the annual fair, which takes place in the first week of October, was being held during the period of our stay ; and then it is that the greatest variety of costume, and all the characteristic features of the Crimea, are most opportunely collected for the traveller's benefit. To be properly appreciated, the fair of Nijnci-Novgorod should be seen before that of Simferopol, which we found infinitely more striking, perhaps be- cause we were completely taken by surprise when, quite unaware of its existence, we chanced to enter the market-place one afternoon. It is sel- dom that two races so widely differing in manners and customs, springing from origins so distinct, are brought into every-day contact in such a pal- pable manner as in Crim Tartary ; and this mixture is the more interesting from the improbability of its existing very long in its present unnatural condition. " An enormous square, many acres in extent, contained an indiscriminate mass of booths, camels, carts, droskies, oxen, and picturesque groups. 192 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. Here may be seen the red-bearded Russian mujik, in jackboots and sheep- skin, in close confabulation with a gayly-dressed Tartar, who has just gal lopped across the steppe, and who sits his horse as if he were part and parcel of him. He wears a large, white fur-cap ; a red-striped, embroi- dered jacket, fitting close to his body, with wide, open sleeves ; while his loose, dark-blue trousers are girded with a bright-colored sash, amid the folds of which the massive handle of his dagger appears ; and his slippered feet are thrust into clumsy stirrups at the ends of very long leathers. His horse is a wiry little animal, possessing an infinitely greater amount of intelligence than beauty. Farther on among the crowd, and* distinguished by his green turban, floats the robe of some pious hadje; nor does he seem in the least scandalized by two young ladies in a drosky, not only devoid of /ereerf/e, but even of bonnets, and wearing only the jaunty little caps of the Parisian g-risette. We might very fairly suggest, however, the propri- ety of their profiting, in some degree, from the example of the muffled females over the way, who seem afraid to expose to the profane gaze of men the dyed tips of their finger-nails ! In the narrow lanes formed by carts and tents, Greeks, in a no less gay though somewhat different cos- tume from that usually worn in their own country, are haggling with Rus- sian Jews in long black beards, and long black cloaks reaching down to their ankles. It is an even bet who will have the best of such a bargain ! Savage-looking Nogais, and Cossack soldiers, are making purchases from Armenian or German shopkeepers. There are large booths, like gipsies' huts magnified, which have no connection with the ragged representatives of that wandering race who swarm at the fair, but which contain quantities of most tempting fruit — huge piles of apricots, grapes, peaches, apples, and plums — of any of which one farthing will buy more than the purcliaser can conveniently carry away with him. Besides these booths, there are heavy carts, with wicker-work sides, and ungreased, angular wheels, which make tliat incessant and discordant creaking familiar to those who have ever heard a Bengal bullock-hackery. Presiding over the whole scene, not in the least disconcerted by the uncongenial forms which surround them, are hundreds of camels, in all sorts of positions, chewing the cud with eastern philosophy, and perfectly submissive to very small, ragged Tartar boys, who seem to have entire charge of them, and who do not reach higher than their knees. Rows of shops enclosed this miscellaneous assemblage, containing saddles, knives, whips, slippers, tobacco-pouches, and Morocco-leatlier boots, all of Tartar manufacture, besides every de- scription of every European article. It was some satisfaction to feel, aa we moved through the busy throng, in plaid shooting-coats with mother-of pearl buttons, that we too were adding another variety to the motley cos- tumes of the fair at Simferopol. " But the charm of Simferopol does not consist in the vai-iety of races which inhabit it. Tliough it seems to lie in a plain, as approached from Kertsch, a great part of the town is situated upon the precipitous edge of SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE CRIMEA. 195 the steppe, whence a magnificent view is obtained immediately below ; and at the foot of abrupt rocks, two hundred feet high, runs the tiny Salghir, dignified with the name of a river, and, if not entitled to it from its size, worthy the appellation by reason of the lovely valley which it has formed in its northern course. Orchards and gardens, containing every sort of fruit-trees, and abounding in rows of tall poplars, line its banks, until the hills, becoming higher and more thickly wooded, form a ridge, which is connected with the Tchatir Dagh (or Tchadyadag'), a noble background, and which does full justice to this lovely picture. Nor did a closer ac- quaintance with the details of this view detract from our original impres- sions on beholding it. " We determined to take advantage of the glorious weather to make the ascent of the Tchatir Dagh (the '■Mountain of the Tent' of the Tartars, Trapezvn of the Gi-eeks, and Palata Gora of the Russians) We reached the giddy edge of the limestone cliff which forms the highest peak, a few moments after sunrise, having attained an elevation of over five thou- sand feet above the sea. We were well repaid for the fatigue of the ascent by the magnificent view we obtained from this point. Immediately at our feet, and so directly beneath us that a stone might be dropped perpendicu- larly upon the trees two thousand feet below, lay charmingly-diversified woods and meadows ; curling wreaths of blue smoke ascended from clumps of trees scattered over the park-like scenery, while large herds of cattle seemed from their diminutiveness to have been peppered out upon the rich pasture-land " We soon accomplished the steep descent of the first thousand feet ; and, mounting our ponies, attempted to pick our way over the rocks, to some caves, reported to be wortli seeing. Our path — or rather where our patli would have been, had one existed — lay over a large extent of strati- fied limestone, of a gray color. The rugged surface, strewn with huge fragments of tlie stone, was frequently indented by hemispherical liollows, in which grew clumps of trees, and which, had they not occurred so fre- quently, might have been mistaken far the craters of extinct volcanoes. " Whatever may have been their origin, they were the cause of incessant annoyance to us as we wound round them — the rocks becoming so sharp and jagged, that we were obliged to lead our horses a great part of the way. At last we descended into one, and the guides pointed to a small under a rock, into which we were expected to crawl, telling us it was the entrance to the cave of Foul Kouba, a view of which is presented on the following page. Armed with a tallow-candle, I forthwith crept into the hole, scrambling on hands and knees amid a quantity of human skulls and hones, which rattled dismally as, one after another, we crawled among them. For twenty or thirty yards we thus proceeded, occasionally obliged to lie down perfectly flat upon the wet mud and bones, and burrow our way along — a mode of entry which reminded me of an unpleasant experi- ence I once endured in descending into an Egyptian mummy-pit. 13 rji ILLTTSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RITS-SIA. Cave of Foul Kouba. " At last we were enabled to stand upright and look around. A spa- cious chamber, about forty feet high, seemed supported by some huge sta- lactites. The largest of these was at least fifty feet in circumference ; and if the cave had been lighted up with such torches as those used at Adels- burg, instead of with three tallow-dips, I have no doubt their varied colors would nave produced a striking effect. I followed a clear stream through a small opening into what appeared another chamber, but could get no one to accompany me on an exploring expedition, as my companion felt too unwell to enter the cave at all. Montandon, however, says that Mon- sieur Oudinet, a Frenchman, penetrated half a day's journey into this cave without reaching the end. The innumerable skulls and bones lying strewn about in all directions told a melancholy history — a party of G-enoese had been smoked to death here, during their wars with the Tartars in the thir- teenth century. " We were glad to get into the fresh air again, and, very hot and dirty, staj'ted for Kisil Kouba, another cave not far distant. The entrance to this was magnificent ; and, after descending gradually for about a hundred yards, the cave increased to a breadtli of thirty or forty yards, while its heiglit could not have been less than sixty feet. Here, however, the sta- lactites were comparatively poor, though occasionally well-colored. It has never been fully explored ; a stream, which we did not reach, becoming too deep to allow of its extent being ascertained." The celebrated traveller and naturalist Pallas lived for fifteen years in the town of Simferopol. It was his own wish to emigrate thither; and, to enable him to gratify it, the empress Catherine II. made him a present of an estate in the best part of the Crimean peninsula. But, being cut off from the society he had enjoyed in St. Petersburg, and exposed to family annoyances, Pallas became dissatisfied with the country and with the cli- SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE CRIMEA. 195 mate he had so highly panegyrized. Having sold his estate, he left Sim- feropol in disgust in 1811, and returned, after an absence of forty-two years, to his native city Berlin, where he died in the course of the same year. Kertsch, a seaport town of the Crimea, occupies the site of the ancient Panticapaeum, on a tongue of land forming a peninsula of the same name on the strait of Enikaleh, connecting the sea of Azov with the Euxine, one hundred and thirty miles east-northeast of Simferopol. It is regularly and beautifully built, chiefly of stone obtained from the fine quarries of the neighborhood, and possesses great natural advantages for commerce. In 1827, it was declared a free port, and an extensive lazaretto was built, at which all the vessels coming by the Black sea perform quarantine. The number of vessels which touch at it in passing out of the sea of Azov aver- ages four hundred annually, and the number of coasting-vesbels is from five to six hundred. The greater part of the inhabitants are employed in com- merce. It exports building-stone, and large quantities of salt, obtained from the neighboring lakes ; and its herring and sturgeon fisheries are very productive. The ancient town of Panticapaeum was the residence and reputed burial- place of Mithridates, king of Pontus. A mound in the vicinity is said to be the tomb of that formidable and inveterate enemy of Eome ; but this is contradicted by the most authentic accounts, which represent Mithridates as having been buried, by order of Pompey, in the sepulchre of his ances- tors at Sinope. The modern town of Kertsch is of very recent existence, and has risen up as if by magic ; and, by its increase, has prejudicially affected some of the other ports. Its population is about twelve thousand. Caffa, or Peodosia (the ancient Tlieodosia), is another seaport town, situated at the western angle of a magnificent bay in the southeast of the Crimea. It is walled and well fortified, and contains numerous public buildings, of which the most worthy of notice are ihe three churches — a Greek, Roman catholic, and Armenian ; two mosques, a spacious and com- modious quarantine, and a college, founded by the emperor Alexander, cliiefly for gratuitous instruction in the modern languages. There is also a botanical garden, and a museum, which is rich in the antiquities of the neighborhood. The site and excellent harbor of Caffa would seem to mark it out as a place of great trade, but it has formidable competitors in Odessa and Kertsch, and does not seem destined to recover its lost importance. Caffa is a place of great antiquity, having been founded by a colony of Greeks from Ionia, in Asia Minor. It received its name of Theodosia from the wife of Leucon, king of the Bosphorus, who took it after a long siege, and soon made it a place of great importance. In the middle ages it passed into the hands of the Genoese, by purchase from the khans of llie Crimea, and became the seat of an extensive commerce with the East, by the way of the Caspian and Astrakhan. At this time it is said to have had a population of eighty thousand ; but, having been taken by the Turks 196 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. in 1474, its prosperity rapidly declined. Much has been done for it since it came into the possession of Russia, and it is still one of the most impor- tant towns in the Crimea, but its population probably does not exceed eight or ten thousand. Baktchiserai (the " Seraglio of Gardens"^ is one of the most remarka- ble towns in Europe. It is situated on the Djurouk-Su, about fifteen miles southwest of Simferopol. It is the capital in which the khans or Tartar soTereigns of the Tauridian peninsula long held sway, as deputies or tribu- taries of Turkey, before Russia established herself in the Crimea. Bak- tchiserai is a place of great interest, both historical and local. The Tartar impress is still strong upon it. It stands at the bottom of a narrow rallcy, hemmed in by precipitous rocks, and watered by a small rivulet, by no means of tlie most limpid appearance, and consists almost entirely of a sin- gle street, buijc along the side of this rivulet, and lined with bazars and workshops, in which the Tartar toils, in primitive simplicity, in the pro- duction of articles of the very same form and quality as furnished by his forefathers two centui-ies ago ! The town contains several mosques, which are usually embosomed among trees, and whose minarets rise high above the houses, and is adorned with numerous fountains. The number of houses in the town exceeds two thousand, inhabited by about ten thousand persons — the majority of Tartar blood, the rest Russians, Greeks, Arme- nians, and Jews. The Karaite Jews, a peculiar section of that people, carry on a considerable trade in common stuff-goods, mercery, and colonial produce. The main street above alluded to is nearly a mile long, and so narrow tliat two carts can scarcely pass. Fortunately this is a contingency which does not often arise ; and the busy throng that traverses it, which consists almost entirely of Tartars, Karaite Jews, and gipsies, is extremely incon- venienced by the appearance of a wheeled vehicle at all. In mixing with this nondescript populace, Oliphant remarks that his attention was divided between the variety of feature and costume which it exhibited, and the wonderful display of goods exposed for sale in the open shops. These are devoid of any front wall, and are closed at night by the wooden shutters which in the daytime form a sort of counter. Upon tliis tlie owner sits cross-legged, earnestly engaged in the manufacture of the article he sells, and only allowing himself to be distracted from his occupation by the arri- val of a customer. From the manner in which these shops are arranged, the members of each craft would seem to be collected into divisions specially appropriated to them. Thus, immediately on leaving the khan, or Tartar inn, and turn- ing up the principal street toward the palace, a bazar is passed in which sheepskin-ca])S are fabricated. Beyond these come the workers in leather, encompassed by piles of saddles, richly-embroidered belts, tobacco-pouches, and absurd-looking whips, with a large, flat piece of leather at the end ot" the lash, and a knife concealed in the handle, like the one in the accompa- 80UTHERN RUSSIA THE CRIMEA. 197 Taktah Whip. nying eugi-aving. Opposite are slipper-makers and tailors ; while the cuir lers occupy a great extent of territory, and are famed for the excellent Tartar knives which they manufacture. " We were so long moving about from one set of these affable shopkeepers to another," says Oliphant, " that it was late in the day before I began to wonder whether we were never coming to a food-quarter. Hitherto, since leaving Sevastapol, we had feasted our eyes only, while our guide had subsisted entirely on pipes. Upon his now suggesting that we should go to a cook-shop, we willingly proceeded in search of one ; and were attracted, by sundry whiffs redolent of mutton, to a large corner-house, whence arose a cloud of fragrant steam. Here a number of people were standing in the open street, diving into huge, project- ing caldrons of soup, whence they extracted square pieces of fat, which they devoured with great relish while strolling about among the crowd. Not entirely approving of this alfresco mode of dining, and fearing that we might stand a chance of being run over while discussing an interesting morsel, we were glad to discover that it was not necessary to present a ticket of admission to a Batchiserai soup- kitchen : so we entered, and seated ourselves on a narrow bench, behind a very filthy plank intended to serve as a festive-board. Being fully exposed to the street, we were in a most con- venient position for the loungers in it to satisfy their curiosity regarding us, and accordingly we were mutually edified by staring at one another. " Our attention, however, was soon diverted to the head-cook, who brought us a t)oiled sheep's head in one hand, while with the other he at- tempted to catch the gravy that trickled through his fingers upon a loaf of black bread. These he set down before us on the cleanest part of the plank we could pick out, and evidently considered that our every want was supplied. We forthwith proceeded with our penknives to discuss the sheep's head, which seemed to have been previously stripped of everything but the eyes ; and, with the addition of some kibaubs (square pieces of fat strung upon a reed), succeeded in accomplishing a meal, which sustained us for the rest of the day : not that it would be possible to starve in Bak- tchiserai ; the heaps of delicious fruit with which the street is lined for some hundreds of yards would always furnish an abundant, if somewhat unwholesome meal. Grapes, figs, pomegranates, peaches, nectarines, and apricots, tempt the passenger to refresh himself at every step ; while, as if in gentle remonstrance with his imprudence, innumerable fountains of the purest water gush out of the hillside, murmuring invitations to the thirsty soul which it is difficult to resist. From one of these, which has ten spouts, the sparkling streams fall upon slabs of marble. A continual babbling goes on in every direction a« the clear little rivulets seem hurrying 198 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. away from the filth of the town, determined to lose themselves as speedily as possible in the waters of the Djurouk-Su." The far-famed palace of the khans occupies one side of a small square at the extreme end of the main street. Crossing tlie moat, a painted gate- way with projecting eaves is passed, and the singular collection of build- ings which then meets the eye on every side is no less astonishing than deliglitful. To the right of a large grass-grown court stands the rambling, Palace of the Khans. Aisjointed palace, with gaudy walls and highly-decorated trellis-work, fes- tooned with vines, and small lattice-windows looking out upon fragrant gardens ; while above all is an octagonal wooden tower, with a Chinese- looking roof. On the left are a number of two-storied buildings, witli verandahs supported by ornamented posts, and near them a mausoleum and mosque, with two tall minareis — the mark of royalty. A handsome fountain, shaded by willows, stands opposite the private entrance ; behind it the court is enclosed by the walls of an orchard, situated on a rising ground, which is intersected by terraces. Looking beyond the immediate objects, the view is no less striking. The palace seems to be in the arena of an amphitlieatre, of which the flat roofs of the Tartar houses — stucli, as it were, in rows against the sides of the mountains — represent the seats.* All over these mountains caves occur * Tlie Tarturs, unlike oilier people, geneiully prefer the steep sitlc i»f u hill for the site of tlieir villages, riitlier than those level situations vnlgnrly known as " eligible building-lots." By excavu- tingf a spare out of the hill, iji proportion to the accommodation required, the architect is saved the trouble of building a back wall, while he simply fills up with mud the angles at the sides. The :oof, which llius, as it were, projects out of the hill, is perfectly Hat, and covered with mould. It extends beyond the front walls, and, snpjiorted by posls, forms a soLt of verandah. Thus, wlnn the tra\-e]lei- passes below one of these cotlnges, the ro(d' is not visible at all ; while, if he he ai.cive them, they would have the effect of dir.iiniilive drying-grounds for grain or coffee, werti it nut (ni the smok(! that issues fiom the conical muil-chimneys. These serve not only as apertures foi tli^i Hoiokd, hut also as a means of verbal communication ■\itli (he interior of the houses. On a n ILLUSTRArEO DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. Tabtah Guide, But Muscovite sovereigns have condescended to lodge in the former abode of the khans ; and the guide, of course, imagines that the most in- teresting object in the palace is the bed in which the empress Catherine II. slept. The room of Maria Potoski, however, is fraught with more romantic as sociations. Here for ten years the infatuated count ess resided, hoping to effect a compromise betweeE her conscience and her passion for the khan, by a life devoted to religious exercises, while content to reign, at the same time, supreme in t!ie palace of the infidel. The apartments appropriated to her are lux- uriously arranged ; and a lofty hall, with fountains plashing upon slabs of marble, bears her name. Ad- joining it is a Roman catholic chapel, which was built expressly for her use by the amorous khan. Many of the rooms are ornamented with represen- tations of birds, and beasts, and creeping things, in every variation of grotesque form; while, as if tf compensate for this direct violation of the Koran, fragments of that sacred record are inscribed upon the walls. One of the most singular chambers in this most singular palace is a large glass summer-house, surrounded by a divan, and decorated in a most unorthodox manner, in which a fountair {ilays into a porphyry basin. It opens upon a flower-garden, at the farthei end of which, shaded by a magnificent old vine, is a marble bath, prepared for the empress Catherine by the considerate gallantry of Potemkin, and supplied by cascades from the fountain of Selsabil. The favorite lived enclosed among delicious gardens, in the now-deserted harem, during the I'esidence of his royal mistress in the palace, from which it is approached l)y a succession of pavilions and vei-andahs. Attached to it is the octago nal tower ; and authorities differ as to whether the khans reserved it fo? the use of their women or their falcons. As it is exactly like a large wooden cage, no light is thrown upon the subject from its construction. From between the bars a singular panoramic view is obtained of the town and palace. The palace first became the residence of the khans in tho year 1475. " Having seen the former abode of the klians," says Oliphant, " wc thouglit we would now visit their present resting-place. So, leaving the fountains to play and babble in silent halls, and the divans to grace unten- anted rooms, and the trees to blossom and perfume the deserted gardens, we entered the vaulted chambers in which the most illustrious khans re pose. Here a venerable old Iiadje held tremulously aloft the dim, flickerin.^ light, to enable us to look over the turbaned tombstones. Passing out, wo walked through the cemetery, wliere vines cluster over the crumbling ruins that tell of departed greatness ; and all seemed travelling the same road which the occupants of these sculptured sepultures have already taken." SOUTHERN KUSSIA — THE CRIMEA. 201 :-rf«. M^TJS01.BUM OF THE KuAMS. The valley in which Baktchiserai lies almost concealed, terminates in a narrow gorge, containing caverns occupied only by gipsies. From this gorge the way emerges upon a dark, mysterious glen, heavily wooded with ,oaks and beech-trees. A winding path dives into its inmost recesses, and through a maze of tombstones, formed in the shape of sarcophagi, and cov- ered with Hebrew inscriptions. This is the "Valley of Jehoshaphat" — for centuries the cemetery of the Karaite Jews, who still love to lay their bones beside those of their ancestors ; so that the sleeping inhabitants of the valley of Jehoshaphat far outnumber the population of Karaites in any one town in the Crimea. The little path extends for nearly a mile, always surrounded by these touching mementoes of a race who, in whatever part of the world they may be scattered, still retain the profoundest veneration for a spot hallowed by such sacred associations. The grove terminates suddenly near a frightful precipice, from the dizzy edge of which a magnificent view is obtained. A few miles distant, the conical rock of Tepekerman rises abruptly froiii the broken country, its beetling crags perforated with innumerable myste- rious caverns and chambers. Beyond, the Tchatir Dagh, with the elevated sea-range, of which it is part, forms the background of the rich and varied landscape. Following the line of the calcareous cliffs, a point is reached where the prospect in the opposite direction is still more striking. To the right, the 20'2 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. dilapidated old fortress of Tchoufut Kale crowns the nearest height, wiillc the monastery of Uspenskoi, built into the face of the overhanging rock, appears as if it had been excavated by the inhabitants of Stony Petra, rather than by monks of the Greek church. Here, too, compressed within narrow limits, lies the old Tartar capital, almost hidden by the garden" which clothe the valley in a mantle of richest green. Lower down, the precipices soften into gentle slopes, and the cultivation spreads over a great extent of country, through which the Djurouk-Su meanders until it falls into the Black sea, that bounds the western horizon. When the Tartar khans deserted Tchoufut Kale for the lovely vale below, this singular stronghold became again exclusively the residence of the Karaite Jews, who had lived there from time immemorial, and who arc naturally bound to it by the strongest feelings of reverence and affection, since it has been alike the cradle of their sect, and the rock upon which they have ever found a secure refuge in times of persecution. Singular as it may seem, perched upon this almost inaccessible cliff is tlie headquarters of a sect whoso members are scattered over Russia, Poland, and Egypt. As the population was said to be entirely Jewish, Oliphant remarks that he expected to find Tchoufut Kale filled with picturesque groups of hand- somely-dressed men and lovely maidens ; but he passed through the arch- way, and along the streets, to which the living rock answered the purpose of pavement, and still, to his astonishment, not a soul wa? to be seen ! A few dogs flew at him, and obliged him to perambulate the rest of the town armed with stones. It seemed quite empty, for not only were the public thoroughfares deserted, but he could get no answer at any of the doors at which he knocked ; so that he was beginning to suspect that the last inhab- itant must have recently got some one to bury him in the valley of Jehosh- aphat, when a husky voice murmured something through a crack in a shut- ter ; and presently a decrepit, stone-blind old man, who miglit have been the individual in question, hobbled out with a stick, and offered to conduct him to the synagogue. Thi.s edifice i^ p plain building, differing in no respect from an ordinary Jewish place of worship. It contains some magnificently-bound copies of the Old Testament in manuscript. The books of Moses only are printed and taught in the schools. The Karaites profess to have the Old Testa- ment in its most genuine state. The derivation of their name has been ascribed to kara and ite, words signifying, in Arabic, "black dog" — a not unlikely epithet to be applied by Mohammedans to this despised race. A more generally received and probably correct derivation, however, seems to be, from the word kara, " scripture" — because they hold simply to the letter of scripture, not ad- mitting the authority of the Talmud, or the interpretation of the rabbis. Like all Jews, they display extraordinary care in the education of their children, who are publicly instructed in the synagogues. About five thou- sand Karaites are resident in Poland, who acknowledge the old rabbi o' 80UTHEBN RUSSIA — THE CRIMEA. 203 Jewish FoxtTBEss of Tchoufut Kale. Tchoufut Kale as their spiritual chief. They are said originally to have emigrated from the Crimea. As almost all the Karaites are engaged in trade or manufacture, and as they observe the most scrupulous honesty in their dealings, it has naturally followed that they are a prosperous and thriving community ; while, as if an exception had been made in favor of this portion of that interesting people whose unhappy destiny has been so wonderfully accomplished, prob- ably the only settlement exclusively Jewish which still exists is the fortress of Tchoufut Kale. Its population has, however, dwindled down to a very small remnant, since trade has increased, and additional facilities have been afforded for settling in more convenient positions than upon the sum- mit of one of the highest crags in the Crimea. The population of the sea- port of Eupatoria is composed mainly of Karaites, nearly two thousand of whom are now resident there — and some of these are wealthy merchants. All devout Karaites scattered throughout the Crimea, when increasing iniirmities warn them of approaching dissolution, are brought to Tchoufut Kale to die, and to have their bones repose beside those of their forefathers in the lovely vale of Jehoshaphat. There are only two entrances to the fortress, and the massive gates are locked every night. Down a long flight of steps cut out of the living rock is a well of delicious water wliich supplies the inhabitants, the situation of which, at the bottom of a valley, and far below the walls, would render the impregnable position of the fort utterly valueless in time of war. At this well is usually stationed a man who fills the water-skins borne by don- keys to their master above, neither the consigner nor the consignee accom- panying these sagacious animals on the numerous trips which are, never- theless, so essential to the comfort of the inhabitants. Following the bank of the ravine, the monastery of the Uspenskoi (or the "Assumption of the Virgin Mary") is reached, where galleries are 204 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. suspended upon the face of a lofty precipice, beneath the stupendous vockc out of which the chambers are hewn, and out of which also are cut the flight of steps by which they are approached. The monastery is said to have originated at the time of the persecution of the Greek church by the Mohammedans, when its members were not allowed to worship in build- ings. In some places the windows are mere holes in the face of the rock, while in others the front is composed of solid masonry. A wooden veran- dah before the church is supported over the massive bells. About twenty thousand pilgrims resort hither annually in the month of August. Altogether it is a curious place, and harmonizes well with the strange scenery in which it is situated ; so that the monks deserve some credit for adding to the charms of a spot already possessing so many ai> tractions ; and this is probably the only benefit their presence is likely to confer upon the community. The ruins of the celebrated fortress of Mangoup Kale, a view of which is given in the engraving on the opposite page, crown the summit of a hill tha't terminates the vale of Balbeck, on the route from Baktchiserai to Yalta. The uncertainty which hangs over the history of these fragments of former greatness, tends .to invest them with a mysterious interest pecu- liar to themselves. They are strewn so extensively over the surface of the rock as to leave no doubt of the magnitude and importance which once distinguished the city that crowned this mountain-top. They bear the , traces of almost every race which has inhabited the Crimea, are pervaded by tlie very essence of antiquity, and are regarded by the Tartars with the profoundest veneration. And they are worthy of it, for tliey are their own historians ; and an account of their former owners, and the vicissitudes these stones have undergone since they were first hewn from the solid rock, may at a future time be extracted from them by some antiquarian who has made it the study of his lifetime to worm himself into the confidence of such impenetrable records. Meantime, authorities differ very widely upon this matter. The name is frequently pronounced Mcmgoute. The latter syllable, signifying Goths, may perhaps lead us to suppose that it was derived from the possessors of that principality, of which this was at one time the capital. The Goths were expelled from the lowlands by the Huns in the fourth century, and still continued to live in an independent condition, defending themsclve.s in their fastnesses from the attacks of those barbarians who successively possessed tlieraselves of the remainder of the Tauric peninsula. According to some authorities, Mangoup remained the capital of the Gothic princi- pality until it was taken by the Turks in the sixteenth century ; while others suppose that, after the conquest of the Ci'imca by the Khazars,'it became a Greek fortress, and so remained until it fell into tlie liands of the Genoese, at the same time with the Greek colonies on the coast. This is probably the correct ^dew, as the greater part of the remains are Gre- cian. Professor Pallas calls Mangoup " an ancient Genoese city, which SOUTHERN RUSSU — THE CRIMEA. 205 JTi. WWB iippoai'S to have been the last resort of the Ligurians after they were driven from the coast." Still the chapel, which is here excavated from tlie rock, and the images of saints, which he describes as painted on tlie walls, may be traces of the Christian Goths no less than of the Genoese ; but it is extremely improbable that such is the case. In 1745, Mangoup was occupied by a Turkish garrison for twenty years, after which it was taken possession of by the khan of the Crimea. It had been for many years inhabited almost exclusively by Karaite Jews. These gradually dwindled away, until they totally disappeared about sixty years ago, and have left nothing behind them but the ruins of their synagogue and a large cemetery, containing tombs similar to those in the valley of Jehoshaphat. There is very little left of the massive buildings which once adorned this famous town, except the foundations. The lofty calcareous promontory upon which the fortress is perched, is about a mile long, and a quartei cf a mile broad. Upon three sides it is surrounded by frightful precipices, while that by which alone it is accessible is defended by castellated towers, - 'iced at intervals in the massive wall. At right angles with it, and intcr- i'.cting the narrow promontory, are the I'cmains of another wall ; and the most perfect building now existing is a square fort built into it, two stories high, and pierced with loopholes for musketry. The upper edge of the plateau is perforated by small chambers cut out of the solid rock, and ap- 206 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. proaclicd by stairs from the upper surface. Manj of these chambers are from fifteen to twenty feet square, and connected by stairs ; but the work of exploring requires nerves rather stronger than people who inhabit houses instead of eagles' nests usually possess ; and the steps hewn out of the face of the giddy cliff, Oliphant thought, were more picturesque to look at than agreeable to traverse. Who the dwellers in these singular cells can have been, it is difficult to conjecture ; but they were probably inhab- ited before the town was built upon the rock above. If the ruins of Mangoup Kale possessed no other merit, they serve at least as an attraction to mount the cliffs upon which they are situated, and the labor of the ascent is amply repaid by the view alone. A correct idea of the configuration of this part of the Crimea is also obtained from the fortress of Mangoup Kale. A precipitous limestone-range extends nearly east and west, parallel to the sea-range ; and upon the edge of the stupen- dous cliffs are perched the forts of Tchoufut Kale and Mangoup Kale. The whole of the country intervening between these ranges is intersected by lovely valleys, and watered by clear mountain-streams ; their banks are highly cultivated, and frequent tufted groves betray the existence of the villages which they conceal. This tract is inhabited solely by Tartars, who seem to cling to their highland glens with the tenacity characteristic* of mountaineers. They are a hardy, hospitable race, totally different from their lowland brethren. No Tartar ever dreams of walking from one village to another ; but when he wants to pay a visit to his neighbor, like a true country-gentleman he rides over to him ; and if he has not so good a horse as the squire, he has scenery at least which the other might covet, and can beguile the way with a contemplation of its beauties, if competent so to enjoy himself To the traveller furnished with a government order, the Tartars are bound to provide horses at any village where it may be produced. These are often poor-looking animals, but active and sure-footed, and admirably adapted for the rocky passes which they are obliged to traverse ; indeed, they de- serve great credit for tlie way in which they seem to cling to a mountain- side, for they are shod with a flat plate of iron, with a hole at tlie frog, which may be useful in stony deserts for protecting the hoof, but must cause many a slip over the smooth rock. Not content with shoeing their horses in this fashion, the Tartars treat their oxen in like manner. Their singular process of shoeing these animals is well illustrated in the engra- ving at the close of the chapter, on the following page. The animal is placed upon the bi'oad of his back, and there secured — a man sittiug upon the liead. The four legs, tied together, thus point straight up in the air, and the smith hammers away at his leisure, enabled by his convenient pi. sition to operate all the more skilfully. There is something excessivcl ludicrous in the operation ; though, to judge from the scene presented in the engraving, with the assistant seated upon its head, in all probability the poor brute finds it no laughing matter. 8on'iHJ!;ii.i; n,uc-biA— lay, ckijiba. 207 " It was melancholy to think," remarks Oliphant, " that the inhabitanta of these lovely valleys were gradually disappearing under the blighting iiilliieuec which Russia appears to exercise over her moslem subjects. Of late years tlie Tartars have been rapidly diminishing, and now number aljout a liuiidred tliousand, or scarcely half the entire population of the Crimea. Their energy, too, seems declining with their numbers. Whole tracts of country susceptible of a high state of cultivation, and once pro- ducing abundantly, are now lying waste : tl '^■- m-vii'ifactures deteriorating, tlieir territorial wealth destroyed, their lu.j"' .a'.:i!ii:,i beccming extinct, their poor ground down by Russian '.ax-gathei>'.rs, o.U'l swindled out of t!;eir su' ?istencc by dishonest sub-officials. " Sro long the flat-roofed cottages, now buried amid the luyiuiaiit vege- tation of clustering fruit-trees, will crumble intc dust, and with them the last remains of that nation who once occupied an inij^ortaiLt position among European nations. Is the only Mohammedan state still existing in the West to share the same fate as the kingdom of Crim Tartary ?" Shoeing a Bult^ool 208 ILLUSTRATED DE5CBIPTI0V OF BTTSSIA. CHAPTER VIII. THK STEPPES OP SOUTHERN RUSSIA. THE STKPPES of southern Russia (or at least portions of them) have been casually noticed, in the descriptions which have been given in the immediately preceding chapters on the governments of this divis- ion of the empire. But they form so characteristic and so interesting a feature in the physical aspect of the country — as much so as the prairies of our western states, and which, in fact, they much resemble — that we will give place to a general description of them here, even though it may involve a slight repetition of what is incidentally presented in other cliapters. The steppes, as they are generally called, extend from the borders of Hungary to those of China. They constitute an almost uninterrupted plain, covered in spring and autumn by a luxuriant herbage ; in winter by drifting snows, heaped up in some places, and leaving the ground bare in others ; and in summer by clouds of dust so excessively fine, that even on tlic calmest day they hang suspended in the air, having the appearance ratlier of a vapor exhaled from the ground, than of eartliy particles raised by the agitation of the atmosphere. The slight undulations that occur assume but rarely the character of hills, but artificial hillocks or tumuli are frequently met with, the origin of which it is impossible to trace through the darkness of bygone ages. The most singular cliaracteristic, however, of the steppe, is tlie absence of trees, on a soil remarkable for its richness and the luxuriance of its herbage. For hundreds of miles, a trav- eller may proceed in a straight line without encountering even a bush, unless he happen to be acquainted with the few favored spots known to the Tartar sportsmen, to whom they answer the purpose of game-preserves. Countless herds of cattle roam over these noble pasture-grounds, on which a calf born at the foot of the Great Chinese Wall, might eat his way along, till he arrived a well-fattened ox on the banks of the Dniester, prepared to figure with advantage at the Odessa market ! The poor animals suffer much during the hot and dry summers, when every blade of grass is pai'ched up ; but the careful herdsman, who has provided himself with an abundant stock of hay, is able to keep his beasts alive till autumn returns to gladden them witli fresh abundance. Wherever a ridge of hills occurs, of sufiScient height to aiford protection a'^ainst the northern blasts that come sweeping in an unbroken course from SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE STKPPES. 'H)t the shoi'es of tlie Arctic ocean, the chamcter of the country is changed. Iiv the Crimea, for instance, though the northern portion partakes of all the rude characteristics of the steppe, the south coast, sheltered by the central mountains, enjoys a climate equal to that of Italy, and allows the vine and the olive to be cultivated with as much success as in Provence. A country constituted by nature as are the Russian steppes, is evidently destined rather for a wandering and pastoral people, than for a settled and agricultural population ; for in regions where but few prominent objects occur, there is but little to attach man to any particular spot. The Russia?! government, however, has undertaken the task of converting the nomadic tribes into settled agriculturists, and the steppe itself into one vast grain- field. German and Bulgarian colonists have been tempted, by the offer of peculiar privileges, to establish themselves in different parts of the country, in the hope that their example might gradually wean the native tribes from their roving habits. Where tlie colonists have been located in the vicinity of large towns, the plan has been attended with partial success ; but the foreigners soon discover the capabilities of the country, and in proportion as their means increase, rarely fail to invest their surplus capital in rhe purchase of flocks and herds, the numerical amount of which constitutes the customary standard by which wealth is estimated throughout the steppe. The rivers wliich intersect the steppes, and which in spring are swollen by the rapid thaw of the accumulated snows of winter, cut deep furrows in the surface ; and as they frequently change their courses, they occasionally leave dry ravines that break in some measure the uniformity of the coun- try. Little importance would be attached, in other parts of the world, to the trifling elevations and depressions thus formed ; but in the steppe, the slightest variation of surface becomes a landmark of importance, and sepa- rate denominations are given by the inhabitants to every peculiarity of shape which the ground is made to assume under the action of water. Many of the rivers — indeed, all but the principal streams — are fed only by the rain and snow, and their beds, consequently, are dry in summer. Each of these ravines terminates in a waterfall, formed originally, no doubt, by the terrace that bounds the Black sea, and which in some places rises to the lieight of one hundred and eighty feet above the water level ; but in proportion as the water wore away a channel for itself, the waterfall grad- ually receded, and, in the course of ages, made its way farther and farther into the interior of the country. The elevation of the ground being so nearly alike throughout the whole of the steppe, the ravines formed by the action of the rain-water are of nearly equal depth in every part of the country. They are seldom less than a hundred feet deep, and seldom exceed a hundred and fifty. These ravines, or vuipolotsh, with their lateral branches on each side, as their edges are at all times exceedingly abrupt, offer to the traveller, as well as to the herdsman driving his lowing and bleating charge across the plain, 14 210 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. an impassable barrier, to avoid which it is often necessary to go round for many miles. The consequence is, that several roads or tracks are always sure to meet at the head of a vuipolotsh, which thus becomes a spr.it of some importance throughout the surrounding country. In winter, the ravine is usually filled by the drifting snow, and is then extremely dangerous to any one not well acquainted with the country. Men and cattle are at that season often buried in the snow-drifts, and their fate is ascertained only when the melting of the snow leaves their bodies exposed at the foot of the precipice. The foregoing description does not, of course, apply to the larger rivers that are supplied with water throughout tlie year. The banks of these are less abrupt, but their elevation, though more gradual, is about the same, being seldom less than a hundred nor more than a hundred and fifty feet over the level of the water. The beds of these, large rivers are in general remarkably broad, and are almost always fringed with a belt of reeds, six or eight feet high, that forms an excellent cover for every de- scription of water-fowl. While the action of the rain is exercising so powerful an influence in the interior, the sea, as may easily be supposed, is not idle on the coast. A very remarkable cliaracteristic of the Black sea is, that at the mouth of every river a large lake is gradually formed by the action of the sea, and some of them are unconnected with the sea. These lakes are known along the coast by the name of liman. These linians are supposed to have been formed by the action of the sea driven into the mouth of the river by the violence of the prevailing storms, and constantly undermining the terrace of the overhanging steppe. During tranquil weather, an opposite action is going on. The rivers are always turbid with the soil of the steppe, and their water, arrested in its coui'se by the tideless sea, deposites its sedi- ment in front of the Uman, where a low strip of land is gradually formed. This natural mound, by which every liman is in course of time protected against the further encroachment of the sea, is called a peressip. Where the supply of water brought down by a river is tolerably large, the peresstj- is never complete, but is broken by an aperture called a g-heerl, that forms a communication between the liman and the sea. Many limans, however, are fed by streams that bring down so feeble a volume of water, that the mere evaporation is suiBcient to carry off the whole surplus, and i\iQ peres- sip in such cases becomes perfect, forming a barrier that completely cuts off all communication between the river and the sea. Limans so circum- stanced exercise a baneful influence upon the country, in consequence of the offensive effluvia that arise from the stagnant water in summer. Occasionally in j. assing over the steppe, the traveller perceives a slight depression of the sui-face, as if a mighty giant had laid his hand upon the plain and pressed it down. In such natural basins, called stavoks by the natives, the rain collects, and though the soil soon absorbs the water, the place generally retains some moisture long after the rest of the country SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE STEPPES. 211 has been parched up by the summer heats. The stavok, it may easily bo supposed, is, at such a time, an object of no trifling importance to the herds- man, and is carefull}'' guarded against the intrusion of strangers. A belief prevails upon the steppe that the stavoks are holes formed by the ancient Mongolians, who dug out the earth to form their tumuli ; but there is no good reason to suppose that the depression has originated otherwise than by a slight sinking of the subjacent strata. The climate of the steppes is one of extremes. In summer, the heat it as intense as the cold is severe in winter, the waters of the Black sea exer cising apparently but little influence in tempering the atmosphere. This is accounted for by the abrupt rise of the coast, which arrests the strata of air immediately above the surface of the water, and leaves a free course only to those portions of the air that fly at a higher level. The steppe, therefore, has usually an arctic winter and a tropical summer, and enjoys, only during spring and autumn, short intervals of that moderate tempera- ture to which its geographical position, in the temperate zone, would appear to entitle it. The core or substance of the long winter of the steppe is formed by the three months of December, January, and February, during wliich all tlie energies of nature appear sunk in an unbroken sleep ; but though unbroken, it is by no means a quiet sleep that Dame Nature is allowed to enjoy during this period of the year, for the snow-storms are of frequent occurrence, and so excessively violent, that even the most seasoned veterans of the steppe stand in awe of them. Every road or track is frequently altogether effaced, the ravines are filled up, and cases even occur where men and cattle are suddenly caught by a drift of snow, and completely buried under its accu- mulating mass. The emperor Nicholas once, in travelling in a sledge across the steppes, was capsized in a steep ravine, and was taken up with a broken clavicle. To the more violent of these storms no traveller attempts to expose himself; and even the government couriers are excused if, during the three days — their usual duration — they remain closely housed at the station which they happen to have reached. The winter of the steppe, in intensity of cold, frequently surpasses the severest seasons known on the shores of the Baltic ; and the cutting blasts from the north, sweeping huge masses of snow into the Black sea, often cover it with a thick coating of icp for many leagues from the shore. The steppe, accordingly, participates in all the severity of a Russian winter, but enjoys few of the advantages which to the northern Eussian go far to redeem the intensity of the cold. In northern Russia, and even in the Ukraine, the snow remains on the ground during the greater part of the winter, and the sledges quickly wear the surface of the road into a smooth mass of ice, over which the heaviest goods may be transported with a speed and facility surpassed only by a railroad. The Russian, therefore, usually prefers the winter months, not only for travelling, but alsj for the convey- ance of heavy goods from one place to another. To the denizen of the 212 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. WiNTER-ThAVELLIiSG on the StEPPEC- -SLEDQEa, steppe this natural railroad is unknown. The storms that prevail through- out the greater part of tlie winter keep tlie snow in a constant state of agi- tation, and prevent it from " caking" on the ground. The snow, in conse- quence, never uniformly covers the step]ic, but seems to lie unequally scat- tered over it in drifts, according as tlie wind may have wafted it about. Wlien the snow melts on the stej)pe, the spring may be said to commence. This usmiUy takes place m April, hut May is sometimes far advanced be- fore the mass of water has had time to liiid its way into tlie rivers. During this vielling- season, the whole surface of the steppe is converted into a sea of mud, thi'ougli which neither man nor beast can wade without positive danger. Through every ravine rushes a torrent of tlie dirtiest water that can well be imagined, and about tlie dwellings of men the accumulated filth of the winter is at once exposed to view, by the disappearance of the snowy mantle that, for a season, had charitably covered a multitude of sins. This operation is frequently interru[>ted by the return of frost, and the descent of fresh masses of snow — for there is no country, perhaps, where Winter makes a harder fight for it, before he allows himself to be beaten out of the field. When at last boisterous old Hyenis has really been forced to beat his retreat, a most delightful period of tlie year succeeds, and the steppe, covered with a beautiful and luxuriant lierbage, smiles like a lovely oasis between the parched des-olation of the summer and the dreary waste of the winter. The whole earth now seems clad in the color of Hope, while tlie slcy assumes tliat of Truth ; and though it is certainly monoto nous enough to behold notliing but blue above and green below, yet the recollection of past hardships, and the consciousness of present abundance, make the season one of rejoicing to the native, and even excite foi' a while SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE STEPPES. 21b the admiration of the stranger. The latter, however, is certain, before long, to grow weary of a spring unadorned by a single flowering shrub, unvaried by a single bubbling brook. Thunder and lightning are frequent throughout May, but the thunder- storm on the steppe is, comparatively, but a poor kind of spectacle, there being neither trees nor rocks for the lightning to show his might upon, nor mountains, by their reverberating echoes, to give increased majesty to the pealing artillery of heaven ; but these discharges of atmospheric electricity, though they want the grandeur of the Alpine tempest, are dear to the peo- ple of the steppe, where they a^'e always accompanied by either showers or night-dews, so that as long as it thunders there is no lack of fodder for the cattle. In June, the lightning ceases to play, and the periodical drought an- nounces its 'approach, the whole month passing frequently awav without depositing a particle of moisture on the ground. The consequences of this begin to manifest themselves in July, when the heated soil cracks in every direction, opening its parched lips in supplication for a few drops of water that are not vouchsafed. Heavy and tantalizing clouds, it is true, sweep over the steppe, but, instead of showering their blessings on the thirsty land, hurry away to the Carpathian mountains or to the sea. The sun at this season rises and sets like a globe of fire, but the evaporations raised from the earth by the mid-day heat seldom fail to give a misty appearance to the sky toward noon. The heat, meanwhile, is rendered intolerable by its duration, for anything like a cool interval never occurs, and shade is not to be thought of in a country where hills and trees are alike unknown. This season is one of great suffering to all living beings on the steppe. Every trace of vegetation is singed away, except in a few favored spots ; the surface of the ground becomes browner and browner, and at last com- pletely black. Men and cattle assume a lean and haggard look, and the wild oxen and horses, so fierce and ungovernable in May, become as tame as lambs in July, and can scarcely crawl in August. Ponds dry up, wells cease to furnish water, and the beds of lakes are converted into sandy hollows. Water now rises in price, and becomes an article which it is worth a thief's while to steal. The few springs that continue to yield must have a guard Set upon them night and day, or the legitimate ownei will scarcely keep enough to slake his own thirst. At this season tliou- sands of cattle perish on the steppe of thirst ; while, as if to mock theii sufferings, the horizon seems laden with humid clouds, and the parched soil assumes to the cheated eye in the distance the appearance of crystal lakce and running streams ! In many respects the summer on the steppe is more cruel even than in the Sahara of Africa, or in the Llanos of South America, for in neither of these does the moisture so completely disappear from the soil, and in the African desert, wherever there, is water, a little terrestrial paradise of date-trees and flowering shrubs is certain to bo grouped around ; but in 214 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. the steppe, even the rivers flow only between grass, and reeds are llie only shrubs by which the banks are fringed, while from the parched and gaping earth not even a cactus or an aloe peeps forth, into which a thirsty animal might bite to moisten its lips with the juice. In August, the dryness of the atmosphere reaches the extreme point; but, before the end of the month, the nighl^dews set in, and thunderstorms are occasionally followed by rain. The leaden, dusty sky becomes clear and blue again, and everything reminds you that the delights of autumn are approaching. The temperature of September is mild and refreshing, and the detestable black dust of the steppe, kept down by frequent show- ers, no longer gives to every creature the complexion of a negro. A fresh, green herbage quickly covers the whole plain, and man and beast in a short time recover their strength and spirits. Deliglitful the autumn of the steppe miquestionably is, but short and fleeting are its charms, for October is already a gusty Scythian month, marked by cold rains and fogs, and usually closing amid violent storms ; and as to November, that is set down as a winter month even by the most seasoned Russian. Every plant or herb on the steppe, on which the cattle will feed, is known by the general name of trava; and every woody, wiry stem, from which they turn away, is ruthlessly classed in the condemned list of bvrian. The thistle deserves the first place among the burian of the steppe. We have but little notion in this country of the height to which the thistle will often grow in southern Russia, where it not unfrequently assumes the foi'm and size of a tree, overshadowing with its branches the low-sunken dwel- lings of the troglodytes of the steppe. In places peculiarly favored by ilie thistle, this description of burian will sometimes grow in such abundance, as to form a little grove, in which a Cossack on his horse may completely hide himself ! Another description of weed that stands in very bad odor in the steppe, has been aptly denominated windr-witch by the German colonists. This is a worthless plant that expends all its vigor in the formation of innumera- bli>, threadlike fibres, that shoot out in every direction, till the whole fornls a light globular mass. The little sap to be obtained from this plant is bit- terer than the bitterest wormwood, and even in the driest summer no animal will touch the ivind-ioitch. It grows to the height of three feet, and in autumn the root decays, and the upper part of the plant becomes com- pletely dry. The huge shuttlecock is then torn from the ground by the first high wind that rises, and is sent dancing, rolling, and hopping over the plain, with a rapidity which the best-mounted rider would vainly attempt to emulate. The Germans could not have christened the plant more aptly ; and, in bestowing on it the expressive name by which it is known among them, they no doubt thought of the national legends long associated with the far-famed, witch-haunted recesses of the Blocksberg. The wild dances with which fancy has enlivened that ill-reputed mountain are yearly imitated SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE STEPPES. 215 by the wind ivitches on tlie steppe. Sometimes tliey may be seen skipping along like a herd of deer or wild horses ; sometimes describing wide circles in the grass, sometimes rolling madly over one another, and sometimes ri&ing by hundreds into the air, as though they were just starting to par- take in the diabolical festivities of the Blocksberg itself ! They adhere to each other sometimes like so many enormous burs, and it is not an uncom- mon sight to see some twelve or twenty rolled into one mass, and scouring over the plain like a giant in his seven-league boots. Thousands of them are yearly blown into the Black sea ; but with this salto mortals ends the witch's career, who loses in the water all the fantastic graces that distin- guished her while ashore. As next in importance among the burian of the steppe, the bitter worm- wood must not be forgotten. It grows to the height of six feet, and some- times, in a very dry summer, the cattle will not disdain to eat of it. All the milk and butter then become detestably bitter, and sometimes particles of the dry wormwood adhere to the wheat, in which case the bitter flavor of the plant is imparted to the bread. Botanists reckon about five hundred species of plants as native to the steppe, and each species usually grows in large masses. For leagues to- gether the traveller will see nothing but wormwood ; and, on leaving so biliei a specimen of vegetation, he will come to a tulip-bed, covering many th(jusands of acres; and, at the end of that, to an equal extent of wild mignionette, to wliich cultivation has not, however, imparted the delicious perfume which recommends it to the horticulturist of more civilized lands. Summee-Teavelling on the STEprES— a Takanta^oe. For days together the tarantasse will then roll past the same description of coarse grass, ungainly to look upon, but on whicli the slieep thiive admi- rably, and which is said to give to Tartar mutton a delicious flavor that the travelled epicure vainly looks for in the gorgeous restaurants of Paris, or in that joint-stock association of comfort and luxury, a London or New York club. A singular phenomenon of the steppe manifests itself when man invades it with his plough. The disturbed soil immediately shoots forth every 216 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. variety of burian, against which the farmei* must exert uncea,sing vigilance, or else farewell to the hope of a productive harvest. If the same land is afterward left fallow, the burian takes possession of the field, and riots for a few j'ears in undisturbed luxuriance. A struggle then goes on for some years longer between the weeds and the grass ; but the latter, strange to say, in almost every instance, triumphs in the end, and a beautiful pasture- ground succeeds, which goes on improving from year to year, till it attains its highest degree of perfection. A reaction then ensues : a species of coarse grass, known by botanists under the name of stipa pinnata, takes possession of the ground, which it covers with its hard and woody stems, till the farmer, taking advantage of the iirst dry weather in spring, clears away the whole plantation by setting fire to it. The burning of the steppe is the only kind of manuring to which it is ever subjected, and is generally executed in spring, in order that a fresh crop of grass may immediately rise, like a young phcenix, from the ashes. This departnaent of Tartar husbandry is usually managed with much cau- tion, and the conflagration rarely extends beyond the limits intended to be assigned to it ; but sometimes a fire rises by accident, or in consequence of a malicious act of incendiarism, and then the conflagration rages far and wide, sweeping along for hundreds of leagues, destroying! cattle and grain- fields, and consuming not only single houses, but whole villages in its way. These fires are particularly dangerous in summer, owing to the inflam- mable condition, at that season, of almost every description of herbage. The flaming torrent advances with irresistible force, towering up among the lofty thistles, or advancing with a stealthy, snakelike step through the parched grass. Not even the wind can always arrest its destructive course, for a fire of this kind will go streaming in the very teeth of the wind, now slowly and then rapidly, according to the nature of the fuel that supplies its forces. At times the invader finds himself compressed between ravines, and appears to have spent his strength ; but a few burning particles blown across by a gust of wind enable him to make good his position on new ground, and he loses no time in availing himself of the opportunity. A well-beaten road, a ravine, or a piece of sunk ground in which some rem- nant of moisture has kept the grass green, are the points of which advan- tage must be taken if the enemy's advance is to bo stopped. At such places, accordingly, the shepherds and herdsmen post themselves : trenches are hastily dug, the flying particles are carefully extinguished as they fall, and sometimes the attempt to stop the course of such a conflagratic.n is attended witli success. Often, however, the attempt fails ; and the despair- ing husbandmen see one wheatfield after another in a blaze, their dwellings reduced to ashes, and tlie affrighted cattle scouring away over the plain before tne advancing A'olumes of smoke ! The course of one of these steppe-fires is often most capricious. It will leave a tract of country uninjured, and travel for eight or ten days into the interior, and the farmer whose land has been left untouched will begin SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE STEPPES. 217 to flatter himself with the belief that his grain and his cattle are safe , but all at once the foe returns with renewed vigor, and the scattered farm- houses, with the ricks of hay and grain grouped in disorder around, fall a prey to the remorseless destroyer. The farmer, however, is not without his consolation on these occasions. The ashes of tlie herbage form an excellent manure for the ground, and the next crops invariably repay him a portion of his loss. Indeed, so beneficial is the effect, that many of the large proprietors subject their land regularly every four or five years to the process of burning ; but the operation is then performed with much caution, wide trenches being first dug around the space within which it is intended that the fire should remain confined. To the same process likewise are subjected the forests of reeds by which all the rivers of the steppe are fringed ; but this is deemed so dangerous, that the law imposes banishment to Siberia as the penalty of the offence. Nevertheless, there are few places where the reeds are not regularly burnt away each returning spring — at which season, during the night, the Dnieper and Dniester appear to be converted into rivers of fire. There are two motives for setting fire to the reeds, and these motives are power- ful enough to completely neutralize the dread of Siberia : in the first place, the reeds serve as a cover to multitudes of wolves, which, when driven by fire either into the water or into the open plain, are easily destroyed by their remorseless enemies the shepherds and herdsmen. The second mo- tive is, the hope of obtaining a better supply of young reeds by destroying the old ones. The reeds, it must be borne in mind, are of great value in the steppe, where, in the absence of timber and stones, they form the chief material for building. The animal is not more varied than the vegetable kingdom ; and both, to the naturalist, seem poor, though to the less scientific observer the steppe appears to be teeming with life. Uniformity, in fact, is more or less the distinguishing characteristic of the country, and the same want of variety that marks its outward features prevails throughout every class of its ani- imate and innaimate productions ; but though few the species, the masses in which each presents itself are surprising. Eagles, vultures, hawks, and other birds, that are elsewhere rarely seen except singly, make their appearance on the steppe in large flights. The reed-grounds fairly teem with ducks, geese, and pelicans ; the grass is alive with swarms of little earth-hares ; larks, pigeons, thrushes, rooks, and plovers, are met with everywhere ; and even butterflies, and other insects, appear in formidable masses. Among the latter, the locust (of which we shall have more to say by-and-by) plays a very important part. Few of these animals can be said to be peculiar to the steppe ; but, though found in other lands, they are not found there under similar circumstances, and the peculiar character of the country exercises a powerful influence in modifying the habits and instinct of animals. The traveller has no sooner crossed the Dnieper, at Krementchoug, in 218 ILLUSTRATED DESCKIPTION OP RUSSIA. the government of Poltava, tlian he sees a little animal gliding aboit every- where through the grass, and even along the high-road. This little animal is called by the Russians, soosHk; by the German colonists, earth-hare; and, by the scientific, Cytillus vulgaris. It is a graceful little creature, and quite peculiar to the steppe, never found in woody regions, and rarely even in the vicinity of a bush. It is particularly fond of the bulbous plants that abound in tlie steppe, and multiplies astonishingly. In manner and appearance it is something between a marmot and a squirrel, smaller than the former, and differing from the latter in the color of the fur and the shortness of its tail. The soosLiks burrow under the ground, and hoard up a stock of food for the winter. Their holes have always two entrances, and it is easy to drive them from their cover by pouring water in at one end, for to water they have so great an aversion, that they are always observed to decrease in numbers in wet seasons, and multiply astonishingly in dry ones. The lively and frolicsome character of the sooslik is a con- stant source of amusement to a stranger. The little creatures are seen in every direction ; sometimes gamboling together in the grass, at others sit- ting timidly at the doors of their houses, to watch the approach of an enemy. If a man or other strange object draws near, they rise upon their hind legs, like miniature kangaroos, and stretch their little heads up so high, that one might almost fancy they had the power of drawing them- selves out like a telescope. Their little furs are used by the women as edgings for their dresses, and entire cloaks and dressing-gowns are often made of tliem. Of all the quadrupeds of the steppe, the sooslik is by far the most abundant ; it affords the chief article of food to the wild dogs, and is a constant object of chase to wolves, foxes, eagles, hawks, and other animals of prey. The next in importance among the quadrupeds of the steppe is the mouse, whicli frequents the granaries in immense numbers ; so much so, that tlic farmers will sometimes set fire to a whole rick of grain, for the mere purpose of destroying the mice. The wolf of the steppe is a smaller animal than the forest-wolf, and dis- tinguislies liimself from tlie wolves of otlier countries by his subterranean propensities. Natural caverns become elsewhere the refuge of the wolf, but on the steppe he burrows like a rabbit, and it is there by no means an uncommon thing to find a nest of young wolves several fathoms deep in the ground. In the neighborhood of Odessa, and the other large towns, these four-footed sheep-stcalers are but seldom met with ; but in no part of the world do they abound more than in the woodland districts by which the steppe is skirted, and from these haunts they sally forth in countless num- bers, to prowl around the flocks and herds of the open country. Every farmhouse in the steppe is surrounded by fences twelve or fourteen feet high to protect them against the inroads of the wolves, yet these banditti of the plain are incessant in their attacks, and cases are by no moans un- common of their carrying off even infants from the cradle. SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE STEPPES. 210 The dogs of the steppe are tlie most vulgar and w orthless of all the curs in the world. They ai-e long-haired, long-legged, long-headed, and long- tailed, and have evidently more wolfish than doggish blood in their veins. Their prevailing color is a dirty grayish-brown, and, though little cared for by the southern Russian, their number is incredible, and fully equal to what it can be in any part of the Ottoman empire. Yet the southei-n Rus- sian never tolerates a dog in his house, nor ever admits him to that famil- iarity which the race enjoys with us, and to which the cat and the cock ai"e constantly courted by the tenants of the steppe. Still, whether as a protection against the wolf, or whether in consequence of that carelessness which allows the breed to multiply unchecked, evei-y habitation on the steppe is sure to be surrounded by a herd of dogs, that receive neither food nor caresses from the hands of their owners, but must cater for them- selves as well as they can. In spring, the season of abundance, when all the cattle and horses of the steppe run wild, the dog likewise wanders forth from the habitation of his master, and the puppies born at that period of the year are not a bit tamer than the wolves themselves, until the samjots of winter drive them back to the farmyards and villages. In summer, the dogs hunt the mice, rats, and soosliks, suck the eggs of birds, and learn even to catch a bird upon the wing, if it venture too near the ground ; but in winter they are certain to congregate about the towns and villages, where swarms of shy, hungry, unowned dogs, are seen lurking about in search of any kind of garbage that may be thrown away. Dozens of them may often then be seen gathered about the body of a dead animal, and gnawing away eagerly at its frozen sinews. In the country, the dogs are a subject of complaint with every one, and with none more than with those who devote some care to the cultivation of their gardens. The dog of the steppe is passionately fond of fruit, and will not only devour the grapes in the vineyards, but will even climb into the trees in search of pears and plums ! The better the dog is fed, the more eager he will be after fruit, which is supposed to cool his blood, after too free an indulgence in animal food. Like the wolves, the dogs of the steppe burrow in the ground, where they dig roomy habitations, with narrow doors and spacious apartments, in which they find shelter against the heat of summer and the cold of winter. The half-savage state in which the dogs live, leads them often to pair with the wolves, and a kind of cross-breed ensues. These mongrels are usefu in hunting wolves, whom they attack with greater animosity than any other dogs will do ; and, when old, they are usually destroyed, their skins being nearly of the same value as those of genuine wolves. Among birds, none abounds more on the steppe than the bustard, or drakhva, as the Russians call it, which may be seen grazing in every direc- tion. ' It migrates from northern Russia on the approach of winter ; but near Odessa, and about the mouths of the Dniester and Dnieper, it gener- ally remains all the year round. Bustards are usually seen in parties of 220 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. Bird-Hunting on the Steppes. from twelve to twenty, but their gregarious habits increase in proportion as tlie winter advances, when from eighty to a hundred will often be found together. Tliis, however, arises not so much from the sociable propensi- ties of the Ijird, as from the more limited extent of pasture to which it is then obliged to confine itself. If, terrified by the approach of a real or supposed enemy, one of these large flocks rises, the birds do not remain together, but fly away in different directions to their several nests. In June or July, they may be observed feeding with their young, and on those occasions the male bird is usually seen anxiously watching over the secu- rity of his mate and little ones, whom he never fails to apprize of any dan- ger that may seem to bo drawing near. His vigilance is so great, that it is extremely difficult to get a shot at them. The Russians maintain that the bustard knows exactly how far a gun will carry, and never gives the alarm a moment sooner or later than is really necessary ! Nevertheless, the Cossacks, who are the chief sportsmen on the stepjjo, contrive to out- match the bustard in cunning. Sometimes they creep like snakes through tlie long grass, and come unobserved upon their prey ; sometimes they lure the male L)irds by means of a little instrument made out of the windpipe of an ox, on whicli the treacherous liunter contrives to imitate with astonish- ing accuracy the cry of the female. The most remarkable kind of bustard- liuntiiig, however, takes place in winter. The birds at that season creep under tlie thistles and other high weeds in search of some shelter against the severity of the cold. While in this position, if a hoar frost comes on, their wings become so incrusted with ice, that they lose the power of flying, SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE STEPPES. 221 and they then fall an easy prey to foxes, wolves, and, above all^ to man. The Cossacks, on horseback, run them down with ease, and kill them with the blow of a whip. If the hunter has chosen his time well, and is nimble , in the chase, he may expect good sport. Indeed, there are men among the peasantry of the steppe wlio have become comparatively rich by a few successful bustard-hunts. One man, it is said, killed a hundred and fifty bustards in one morning with his whip, and sold them at Odessa for four hundred and fifty roubles. In the north, ten or fifteen roubles are often given for one of these birds. Eagles, vultures, and other birds of prey, are sufficiently abundant, and have probably always been so ; but of late years, since a portion of the steppe has been brought under the plough, a number of granivorous birds liave made their appearance that were formerly altogether unknown thcre^ and others that were formerly rare have multiplied in a striking manner Of singing-birds, the lark is the only one known on the steppe ; but in tlie gardens about Odessa, the nightingale is occasionally heard. Of reptiles there is no lack ; frogs, toads, and snakes, abounding in every part of the country, notwithstanding the dryness of the soil. Toads, par- ticularly, display their ugly forms in every direction ; and after a shower of rain they sometimes show themselves in such numbers, that it is difficull to walk a dozen paces without becoming the involuntary instrument of de- struction to several of them. Sometimes a remarkable phenomenon occurs in the summer months, known as the toad^shower. In June or July, and sometimes even 'in August, after a short but heavy shower of rain, the ground is suddenly covered with myriads of small toads, and no one can say whence they come, or whither, after a little while, they go. Of the numbers of these toads, strange stories are told. Millions and millions are seen covering the ground, like an army of locusts. It is quite disgust- ing to walk among them, for in stepping on the ground a man may crush forty or fifty of them at once. The wheels of a cart would be saturated with the juices of the dead toads, and incrusted with their loathsome bodies ! In size they are stat&d to be all extremely diminutive, about as large as the young toads that appear early in the spring, bilt much more lively and active. Immediately after the shower, they are seen in the greatest num- bers ; but they soon disappear, and on th^ following day not a trace is to be found of them, nor is it observed that, after one of these showers, the number of toads by which the rivers and ponds are peopled is ever mate- rially increased. Lizards are also numerous, and sometimes not less than eighteen inches long. A Cossack looks upon them with great dread ; but a Cossack stands in awe of every animal formed differently from his horse, his ox, or his dog. Of all reptiles, however, the snake is the most abundant, though much less so in those parts of the country that are most tliickly settled, particu- larly in those where the German colonists have been located, for the southern Russian is generally too much afraid of a snake to kill it, even 222 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. though it take up its abode under the same roof with him. " Let a snake alone," says the Russian, " and he will let you alone ; but if you kill it, its ^rhole race will persecute you !" They believe in the existence of some- thing of a corporation spirit among the snakes, and maintain that the relatives of a dead snake will never rest till they have avenged his death. The snake, they believe, is in the habit of dispensing poetical justice tow- ard murderers in general, but more particularly toward those worst of murderers, the killers of snakes ! The largest snake of the steppe is the Coluber trabalis, which, according to some, has been seen of the length of eighteen feet, but instances of nine or ten feet long are of frequent occurrence. Legends are not wanting among the Cossacks of gigantic serpents that, at no very remote period, infested the reed-grounds of the Dniester, whence they sallied forth to kill men and oxen, and now and then to amuse themselves by running down a rider and his steed, no horse being fleet enough to effect its escape, if one of these ogre snakes had once fairly started in chase of it ; but these fabu- lous embellishments were hardly wanting, the plain truth being often for- midable enough. The colonists of two adjoining villages noticed for sev- eral weeks that large tracks were contiiiually made through their grain- fields, as though a sack of flour had been dragged through them. They were at a loss to think who the trespasser could be, till one day a young foal was found half killed in the field, and from the appearance of the wounds it was immediately suspected that a large snake must be prowling about the villages. A few days afterward these suspicious were confirmed by the arrival of four or five carts that came galloping into the village. It was hard to say whether the drivers or the horses were most friglitened. They had been camping out during the whole niglit on the steppe, as is commonly done by agricultural laborers, the great distance of the grain- fields from the farmer's house making it often impossible for his men to return home every day ; indeed, during the busy season, they often remain on tlie steppe from Monday morning till Saturday night, and spend only the Sunday at home. They gave so formidable an account of the huge snake by which they and their horses had been scared, that the schulze (the first magistrate of the village) thoiight it his duty to order a levy en masse, and invited the neighboring colonists to join in the snake-hunt. About a hundred young men were got together, who sallied forth, armed with guns and clubs, and spent the whole day in beating every corner where tlio insidious game was likely to lie concealed. They found nothing, liowevcr, and were quizzed and laughed at on their return. But the schulze kept his party on the alert, and t1ie next day the snake was again seen by some shepherds, who had fled with their flocks in dismay, but not before the huge re|itilo had killed one of their horses before tlieir faces. The schulze and his posse comitatus took tlic field again, and tliis time they succeeded in getting sight of the enemy. Several shots wore fired. The snake was wounded, and immediately took to flight, leaving a track of SOnTHEKN KUSSIA — THE STEPPES. 223 blood to raark its course, which was pursued for some time till lost in the reed-grounds of the Dniester, where the creature probably died, for it was never heard of afterward. The length of the animal was estimated to be at least twenty feet. In the vicinity of the German colonies, few snakes are now seen ; but in the more remote parts of the steppe there are still districts in which they abound to such a degree, that no herdsman will venture to drive his cattle tliere. The snake, however, is an enemy of little moment when compared to a small insect that visits the steppe from time to time, and often marks its presence by the most fearful devastation. This insect is the locust. It is sometimes not heard of for several years in succession, and then again it shows itself, more or less, every season for four or five years together. When the German colonists first came into the country, about forty years ago, tlie locusts had not been heard of for many years. There were two species of them known to exist, but they lived like other insects, multiplied with moderation, and were never spoken of as objects of dread. About 1820 it was first observed that the locusts had become decidedly more nu- merous. In 1824 and 1825 they began to be troublesome ; but in 1828 and 1829 they came in such enormous clouds, that they obscured tlie sun, destroyed the harvests, and in many places left not a trace of vegetation be- hind them ! The poor colonists were in despair, and many of tliera thought the day of judgment must be at hand. They applied for advice as to what they ought to do, but their Eussian and Tartar neighbors could suggest nothing, the oldest among them having no recollection of such scenes of devastation, though they remembered to have heard of similar calamities as having occurred in the daiys of their fathers. Under tliese circum- stances, the Germans set their wits to work, and devised a system of oper- ation, by means of wliich many a iield was rescued from the devouring swarms. The colonists established for themselves a kind of locust-police. Who- ever first sees a swarm approaching is bound to raise ah immediate alarm, and give the earliest possible information to the schnlze, who immediately orders out the whole village, and every man, woman, and cliild, comes forth, armed with bells, tin-kettles, guns, pistols, drums, whips, and what- ever other noisy instruments they can lay their hands on. A frightful din is then raised, which often has the effect of scaring away the swarm, and inducing it to favor some quieter neighborhood with its presence. If the locusts have an aversion to noise, they are still greater enemies to smoking, against which King James I. of England himself did not enter- tain a more pious horror. The colonists, accordingly, on the first appear- ance of a fresh swarm, get together as much straw, vine-branc]ies, and dry dung, as they can, and with these, fires are lighted about the fields and grounds which it is thought most desirable to protect. Tliis expedient, 'lowever, is often a complete failure ; for when one of these countless 224 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. swarms has dropped upon the ground, and proceeds grazing along in the direction of the fire, the mere weight of the general mass forces the fore- most ranks into the flames, where a few thousands of them perish, perhaps, but their bodies extinguish ,the fire, and leave a free field for the advancing enemy. Sometimes the colonists succeed by means of smoke in scaring a swarm, and making it take to the air again, and then great skill is shown in ma- king it fly away from the fields which it is wished to preserve. If a lake or the sea be near at hand, it is thought a great point to drive the locusts into the water, into whicli they fall in such enormous masses, that their bodies form at last little floating islands : upon these their more fortunate companions establish themselves, to the height of twenty or thirty inches ! If a strong wind blow from the shore, these pyramids of locusts are, of course, driven out to sea, and nothing more is heard of them ; but if the wind be not strong, they work their way back to the shore, where they soon dry their wings and prepare themselves for fresh depredations. The millions, meanwhile, that have found a watery grave, give a blackened hue to the foam of the breakers, and lie scattered along the coast in long lines, that look like huge masses of seaweed thrown up by the waves. The cun- ning of the locusts on these occasions is surprising. A swarm that, with the aid of a strong wind, has been driven out to sea, will often return to sliore, not attempting to fly in the wind's teeth, but beating to windward, with a succession of tacks, in regular seamanlike style ! The locusts appear to be aware that, in the village-gardens, they will find many things to please their palates ; and, accordingly, they seldom fail to gi) a little out of their way when they see a village to the right or left of their line of march. The terror of a village attacked by one of tliese swanns ni;iy be moi'e easily imagined than described. Fancy a heavy full of snow, each flake a little black, voracious insect, and these, as they fall, covering the ground to the depth of two or three inches, while the air still continues obscured by the myriads that remain fluttering about ! The roofs of the houses', and every inch of ground about them, are covered by a thick mass of crawling vermin, crackling, hissing, and buzzing! Every aperture of the house may be carefully closed, yet they come down the chimney by thousands, and beat against the windows like hail ! During the locust-years, many of these swarms settled upon Odessa, covering the streets and public places, dropping by hundreds into the kettles and sauce- pans in the kitchens, invading at once the ballroom and the granary, strut- ting in the public walks by millions, and displaying their ugly antics alike in the hovel of the beggar and the fine lady's boudoir. The locusts of southern Russia are divided into two species : the Russaki, or Russians (^Gryllus viigratorins), which are about an inch and a half, and the Saranni ( Gnjllus vastator) , which are about two inches long. Both are equally voracious and equally dreaded, and both are equally pro- duced from eggs deposited in the earth in August and September, by means SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE STEPPES. 227 of a piercing-tube or oviduct with whicli the female is provided. Tlie ani- mal does not, however, bore merely with ite piercer, but thrusts its whole body into the ground, in order that the eggs may be deposited as deeply as possible. There tlie eggs continue through the autumn and winter, and it is not till the end of April or the beginning of May that the young locusts begin to creep out of their holes. Egyptian Locust. The millions of mothers that in autumn sank under the load of their eggs, now start up sixty-fold into renewed life. They have no wings when first born, but their legs immediately acquire vigor, so tliat they are soon provided with the powers of locomotion. They at once begin to eat, and a rich, grassy plain, if they are undisturbed, will perhaps be eaten bare in a few days ; if disturbed, they commence their peregrinations forthwith, and the army seems to increase as it marches along. They go on rustling and crackling, and crawling over one another in heaps. They almost always proceed in a straight line, scarcely any object sufficing to impede their course. They climb over the roofs of the low liouses, over fences and walls, march through the streets of towns and villages, not avoiding cither man or beast, so that the wheels of a cart will at times sink several inches deep into a mass of locusts, while a pedestrian walking through tliem will often have them up above his ankle ! Enormous quantities of them fall down into the ravines, and are carried away by the streams, which are someti.mes so thickly covered with the black carcasses, that the water is completely lost to sight ! The march of these young locusts is more dreaded oven than the flight of the old ones : not liaving yet got their wings, they are not to be frightened away either by guns or drums ; and to attempt to destroy them were hopeless, on account of tlieir numbers — a few hundred thousand, more or less, making but little difference. They arc most greedy, too, when young ; and, as the grass and grain are just 228 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTTON OF RUSSIA, then most teiider, the devastation is the more difficult to repair. It is true that, while in this state, their ravages are confined within narrower limits, on account of the slow rate at which they advance, an army of young locusts being seldom able to march more than two miles in a day. In three or four weeks they attain tlicir full size. In the fifth week their wings are formed, and they begin to fly. From this time on, they cruise about the country in huge swarms, till about the middle of September, when, after an existence of four months, they all perish, but not before due provision lias been made for their multiplication in the ensuing year. The largest swarms appear in the steppe about the middle of August, when they are supposed to be joined by considerable reinforcements from the south. Their flight is clumsy, and always accompanied by a rustling noise, which, when a swarm of them flies along, is as loud as that made by a strong wind blowing through a grove of trees. They can not fly against the wind, but, as has already been observed, they know how to work their way to windward, m true nautical fashion. The height to which they rise depends much upon the state of the weather. On a fine day they will raise themselves nearly two hundred feet above the ground. In gloomy weather tliey fly so near the ground, that a man walking through a swarm will often be unable to endure the blows inflicted by them as they fly up against his face, but will be obliged to crouch together and turn his back to the current till it has passed away. When flying at a great height, if they discover a fresh piece of pasture-ground, they sink slowly down till they are about six or seven feet from the surface, when they drop like a shower of stones. As soon as it rains, they always drop to the ground. They are rakish in their liours, for tliey often fly about merrily till near midnight, and seldom leave their roosting-places till eight or nine in the morning. A cloud of locusts is mostly of an oval form, some three hundred yards broad, and about two miles long. Sometimes a cloud will be seen to sepa- rate into two or three parties, that afterward unite again. What the thick- ness of such a cloud may be, it is difficult to say ; but it must be consider- able, for not a ray of sunshine can pierce the mass, and the shadow cast on the ground is so dense, that, on a hot summer's day, it diffuses an agree- able coolness around. The sudden darkness occasioned by the appearance of a swarm of locusts on a fine day, is quite as great as that wliich would be caused by a succession of black, rainy clouds. In calm weather a cloiid of locusts will fly about fourteen miles in eight hours. The ground honored by the visit of one of these swarms always assumes the appearance of a field of battle. In their eagerness to feed, they often bite each other ; and, wlien falling down, many break their wings, and are unable to rise again with the rest of the swarm. It is difficult to estimate the numbers of one of these winged armies. The people of the country maintain that, when a large cloud of locusts falls, it will cover a piece of ground nearly three miles long and one broad, and in many places the creatures will lie three and four deep, and scarcely an inch will remain SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE STEPPES. 229 uncovered ! If there happen to be a tree near the place, it will seem readj to break under the sudden load. Now, allowing for each insect a surface of two inches by one, and making no account of the patches where they lie three or four deep, it would follow that a small swarm, covering only one square mile, must consist of not much less than two thousand millions of locusts ! And every one of them, as tlie Russians say, has the bite of a horse, the greediness of a wolf, and a power and rapidity of digestion un' equalled by any other animal on the face of the globe ! Though there are some descriptions of food for which the locust shows a partiality, the creature is seldom difiBcult in its choice, but eats up every green plant that comes in its way. The leaves and young branches vanish from the trees in a trice ; a rich meadow is presently converted into a tract of black earth ; the bank of a river is stripped with magical rapidity of its reedy fringe ; and not a particle of stubble is left to mark the place Avhere the green grain was waving but an hour before ! The sound of the little animal's bite as it grazes, joined to the rustling of its wings, wliicli it always keeps in motion while feeding, may be distinctly lieard iit a considerable distance : to any one near the spot, the noise is quite as .ureat m,s tliat made by a large flock of sheep eagerly cropping the grass. li' tlio grain is quite ripe, the locust can do it little harm ; but whatever is still green is certain to be devoured. Sometimes a farmer, on seeing the enemy's approach, will try to save a field of nearly ripe grain by cutting it down and carrying the sheaves home immediately, but the attempt rarely succeeds, for the inva- ding host advances its line of march, undismayed by the mowers, and will eat away the blades faster than the scythe can cut them. • There are few things locusts are fonder of than Indian corn, and it is said to be a curious sight to behold a field of it vanishing before their ravenous ieeth. The maize grows to a great height on the steppe, and makes a very imposing appearance as it approaches maturity. A small number of locusts, however, are able, in a few seconds, to perforate the plant like a honey- comb, and in a few minutes not a trace of it is left. Each plant is quickly covered with insects, while others are industriously working away at the root. Blade falls rapidly on blade, and at each fall a little swarm rises, to settle quickly down again with renewed voracity. If the corn was nearly ripe, the farmer has, perhaps, the consolation of seeing a yellow stubble-field remaining, to tantalize him with the recollection of the hoped- for abundance. In the costly gardens of the Odessa merchants, the locust is particularly destructive. It does not touch the melons, '^3ucumbers, nor the growing fruit on the trees, but it ruthlessly devours the leaves and the stalks, leav- ing the fruit scattered on the ground, to wither with tlie bodies of the slam destroyers. The leaves, tendrils, and young branches of a vine, will be completely eaten away, but the grapes will be found scattered like so many berries below. Every tree in the garden, meanwhile, is bending under the unwelcome load ; while the crackling of the branches, the tearing of the 230 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. bark, and the rustling of the wings, raise a din quite as loud as that of a carpenter's workshop, in which a score or two of men ai-e sawing, boring, and planing ; and when at length the swarm takes its departure, it leaves behind it a scene of such perfect desolation as no other animal in the world can equal. Even the dung, of which it leaves an enormous quantity behind, is injurious to the soil on which it falls ; and, for a long time after a field has been visited by a swarm of locusts, the cattle manifest the greatest aversion to the place. "Here we are in the land of the tshabawns,"* is a common expression with Russian travellers on entering the steppe, where the first objects that usually present themselves to the stranger are some of the numerous flocks of sheep belonging to the wealthy nobles of Russia, some of whom count their woolly treasures by hundreds of thousands ! To their owners, these flocks possess an interest beyond any that the steppe can ofi'er ; but, to a stranger, the wild and exciting life of the tabuntshiks is certain to present more attraction. We are accustomed to speak of the wild horses of the steppe, but the expression must be received with some allowance ; for, in the proper sense of the word, wild horses have long ceased to inhabit any part of the steppe subject to Russia, nor have we any authentic record of the time when this noble animal ranged free and uncontrolled over the plains bordering on the Euxine. At present, every taboon, or herd, has its owner, to whom the tabuntshik has to account for every steed that is lost or stolen ; and it is not till we reach the heart of Tartary, or the wastes that stretch along the sea of Aral, that we meet, for the first time, the horse really in a state of nature. Although, in a statistical point of view, the sheep constitutes a more important part of the pastoral population of the steppe — ten flocks of sheep, at least, occurring for one herd of oxen or horses — yet we shall venture, in our remarks on the nomadic life of this part of the empire, to assign the prominent place to the taboons, or breeding-studs, which serve to mount nearly the wliole of the imperial cavalry, and from which, in a moment of emergency, the government might derive, for tlie equipment of an invading army, resources the extent of which are but little dreamed of in the more civilized regions of Europe. Many of the Russian nobles possess enormous tracts of land in the steppe. The scanty population has made it impossible to bring any very consider- able portion of their estates under the plough ; and most of the wealthy landowners have, consequently, found it to their interest to devote their chief attention to the breeding of sheep, cattle, and horses. Even at a very remote period it appears to have been the custom of the lords of the Bteppc to follow a similar course of practice. The horses, more light of foot than either sheep or oxen, may be easily made to range over a larger * Tshabaim is the south Russian wort] for a shepherd. Tabuntshik is the namn fiven to th« man charged with the care of a herd uf horses. SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE STEPPES. 231 expanse of ground, and thus obtain support from land too poor to afford pasturage to any other description of cattle. A small number of horses, placed under the care of a herdsman, are sent into the steppe, as the nucleus of a taboon. The foals are kept, and the herd is allowed to go on increasing until the number of horses is thought to be about as large as the estate can conveniently maintain. It is a very rare thing, however, for a taboon to contain more than a thousand horses ; but there are landowners in the steppe who are supposed to possess eight or ten such taboons in different parts of the country. It is only when the taboon is said to be full, that the owner begins to derive a revenue from it, partly by using the young horses on the estate itself, and partly by selling them at the fairs, or to the travelling horse-dealers in the employ of the government contractors. The tabuntshik, to whose care the taboon is intrusted, must be a man of indefatigable activity, and of an iron constitution, proof alike against the severest cold and the most burning heat, arid capable of living in a con- stant exposure to every kind of weather, without the shelter even of a bush. Wlien on duty, he scarcely ever quits the back of his steed. He eats there, and even sleeps there ; but he must beware of sleeping at the hours when other men sleep, for, while grazing at night, the horses are most apt to wander away from the herd : and at no time is it more necessary for him to be on his guard against wolves, and against those adventurous dealers in horse-flesh who usually contrive that the money which they receive at a fair shall consist exclusively of profit (a characteristic specimen of which gentry, wlio are mostly gipsies, may be seen in the • engraving overleaf). During a snowstorm, the poor tabuntshik must not think of turning his back to the tempest ; this his horses are but too apt to do, and it is his business to see that they do not take fright, and run scouring before the wind. The dress of a tabuntshik is chiefly composed of leather, fastened together by a leathern girdle, to which the whole veterinary apparatus, and a variety of little fanciful ornaments, are usually appended. His head is protected by a high, cylindrical Tartar cap, of black lambskin, and over the whole he throws his sreeta, a large, brown, woollen cloak, with a hood to cover his head. This hood, in fine weather, hangs behind, and often serves its master at once for pocket and larder. The tabuntshik has a variety of other trappings, of which he never divests himself. Among these, his harabnik holds not the least important place. This is a whip, with a short, thick stem, but with a thong often fifteen or eighteen feet in length. It is to him a sceptre that rarely quits his hand, and without which it would be difficult for him to retain his riotous sub- jects in anything like proper order. Next comes his sling, which he uses like the South American lasso, and with which he rarely misses the neck of the horse whose course he is desirous of arresting. The wolf-club is another indispensable part of his equipment. This club, which generally hangs at the saddle, ready for immediate use, is three or four feet long, 232 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. with a thick iron knob at the end. The tabuntshiks acquire such astonish- ing dexterity in the use of this formidable weapon, that, at full gallop, they will hurl it at a wolf, and rarely fail to strike the iron end into the prowl- ing bandit's head. The club skilfully wielded carries almost as certain death with it as the rifle of an American backwoodsman. A cask of water must also accompany the tabuntshik on every ride, for he can never know whether he may not be for days without coming to a well. A bag of bread and a bottle of brandy are likewise his constant companions, besides a mul- titude of other little conveniences and necessaries, which are fastened either to himself or his horse. Thus accoutred, the tabuntshik sallies forth on a mission that keeps his dexterity and his powers of endurance in constant exercise. His thousand untamed steeds have to be kept in order with no other weapon than his harabnik, and this, as may easily be supposed, is no easy task. The hardships to which they are constantly exposed, and the high wages which they consequently receive, make the tabuntshiks the wildest " dare- devils" that can be imagined ; so much so, that it is considered a settled point that a man who has had the care of horses for two or three years is unfit for any quiet or settled kind of life. No one, of course, that can gain a tolerable livelihood in any other way, vsrill embrace a calling that subjects him to so severe a life ; and the consequence is, that it is generally from among the scamps of a village that recruits are raised for this service. They are seldom without money, and, when tliey do visit the brandy-shop, they are not deterred from abandoning themselves to a carouse by the finan- cial considerations likely to restrain most men in the same rank of life. They ought, it is true, never to quit the taboon for a moment ; but they will often spend whole niglits in the little brandy-houses of the steppe, drinking and gambling, knd drowning in their fiery potations all recollec- tions of the last day's endurance. When their senses return with the re- turning day, they gallop after their herds, and display no little ingenuity in repairing the mischief that may have accrued from the carelessness of the preceding night. The tabuntshik lives in constant dread of the horse-stealer, and yet there is fiardly a tabuntshik on the steppe that will not steal a horse if the occa- sion present itself. The traveller who has left his horses to graze during the night, or the villager who has allowed his cattle to wander away from his house, does well to ascertain that there be no taboon in the vicinity, or in the morning he will look for them in vain. The tabuntshik, mean- while, takes care to rid himself, as soon as possible, of his stolen goods, by exchanging them away to the first brother-herdsman that he meets, who again barters them away to another : so that in a few days a horse that was. stolen on the banks of the Dnieper, passes from hand to hand till it reach the Boug or the Danube ; and the rightful owner may still be inqui< ring after a steed, Avhich has already quitted the empire of the czar, to enter the service of a moslem, or to figure in the stud of a Hungarian magnate ! 80DTHERN RUSSIA — THE STEPPES. Itinerant Horse-Dealer, Accustomed to a life of roguery and hardship, and indulging constantly in every kind of excess, the tabwitshik comes naturally to be looked upon by the more orderly classes as rather a suspicious character; but his friend- ship is generally worth having, and liis ill-will is much dreaded. At the horse-fairs, he is always a man of great importance. His horses are driven into the market in tlie same free condition in which they range over the teppe, for if tied together they would become entirely ungovernable 234 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. When driven through towns and villages, the creatures are often fright- ened ; but that occasions no trouble to their drivers, for the herd is never more certain to keep together than when made timid by the appearance of a strange place. In the market-place, tiie taboon is driven into an enclo- sure, near which the owner seats himself, while the tabuntshik enters along with his horses. The buyers walk round to make their selection. After saying so much of the tabuntshik, it will be but fair to give some account of the life led by the riotous animals committed to his charge. During what is called the fine season, from April to October, the taboon remains grazing day and night in the steppe. During the other six months of the year, the horses remain under shelter at night, and are driven out only in the day, when they must scrape away the snow for themselves to get at the scanty grass underneath. The shelter alluded to consists of a space of ground enclosed by an earthen mound, with now and then some- thing like a roof toward the north, to keep off the cold wind. There the poor creatures must defend themselves as well as they can against the mer- ciless Boreas, who comes to them unchecked in his course all the way from the pole. The stallions and the stronger beasts take possession of the slied ; while tlie timid and feeble stand in groups about the wall, and creep closely together, in order mutually to impart a little warmth to each other. Nor is it from cold that they have most to suffer on these occasions. Early in winter they still find a little autumnal grass under the snow, and the ta- buntshik scatters a little hay about the stable to help them to amuse the tedious hours of night. The customary improvidence of a Russian estab- lisliment, liowever, seldom allows a sufficient stock of hay to be laid in for tlie winter. As the season advances, hay grows scarce, and must be re- served for the more valuable coach and saddle horses, and the tabuntshik is obliged to content himself with a portion of the dry reeds and straw stored up for fuel ! It will therefore hardly be matter of surprise to any one to learn that the winter is a season of sickness and death to the horses of the steppe. After the mildest winter, the poor creatures come forth a troop of sickly-looking skeletons ; but when the season has been severe, or unusually long, more than half of them, perhaps, have sunk under their sufferings, or have been so reduced in strength, that the ensuing six months are hardly sufficient to restore them to their wonted spirits. From tlie hardships of an ordinary winter, the horses quickly recover amid the abundance of spring. A profusion of young grass covers the ground as soon as the snow has melted away. The crippled spectres that stalked about a few weeks before, with wasted limbs and drooping heads, are as wild and mischievous at the end of the first month as though they had never experienced the inconvenience of a six months' fast. The stal- lions liave already begun to form their separate factions in the taboon, and the neighing, bounding, prancing, galloping, and fighting, goes on merrily from the banks of the Danube to the very heart of Mongolia. The most tremendous battles are fought when two taboons happen t« SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE STEPPES. 235 meet. In general, the tabuntshiks are careful to keep at a respectful dis tance from each other ; but sometimes they are away from tlieir duty, and sometimes, where a right of pasturage is disputed, they bring their herds together out of sheer malice. The mares and foals on such occasions keep aloof, but their furious lords rush to battle with an impetuosity of which those who are accustomed to see the horse only in a domesticated state can form but a poor conception. The enraged animals lasli their tails and , erect their manes like angry lions ; their hoofs rattle against each other with such violence, that the noise can be heard at a considerable distance ; they fasten on one another with their teeth like tigers ; and their scream- ings and bowlings are more like those of the wild beasts of the forest than like any sounds ever heard from a tame horse. The spring, though in so many respects a season of enjoyment for the horses, is not without its drawbacks. The wolves, also, have to indemnify themselves for the severe fast of the winter. The foals, too, are just then most delicate, and a wolf will at any time prefer a young foal to a sheep or a calf. He is therefore constantly prowling about the taboon during the spring, and, as the weaker party, trusts to cunning rather than strength. For a party of wolves openly to attack a taboon at noonday would be to rush upon certain destruction ; and, however severely the wolf may be pressed by hunger, he knows his own weakness too well to venture on so absurd an act of temerity. At night, indeed, if the taboon happen to be a little scattered, and the wolves in tolerable numbers, they will sometimes attempt a rush, and a general battle ensues. An admirable spirit of coali- tion then displays itself among the horses. On the first alarm, they come charging up to the threatened point, and attack the wolves with an impetu- osity that often puts the prowlers to instant flight. Soon, however, if they feel themselves sufficiently numerous, they return, and hover about the taboon till some poor foal straggle a few yards from the main body, when it is seized by the enemy, while the mother, springing to its rescue, is nearly certain to share its fate. Then it is that the battle begins in real earnest, the mares forming a circle, within whicli the foals take shelter. The horses, when they attack wolves, charge upon them in a solid pha- lanx, tearing them with their teeth, and trampling on them with their feet, till it becomes hard to say what kind of an animal the skin belonged to. With one blow the horse often kills his enemy or stuns him. If. however, he fail to strike a home blow at the first onset, he is likely to fight a losing battle, for eight or ten hungry wolves fasten on his throat, and never quit him till they have torn him to the ground ; and if the horse be prompt and skilful in attack, the wolf is not deficient in sagacity, but watches for every little advantage, and is quick to avail himself of it : but let him not hope, *even if he succeed in killing a horse, that he will be allowed leisure to pick the bones ; the taboon never fails to take ample vengeance, and the battle almost invariably terminates in the complete discomfiture of the wolves, though not, perhaps, till more than one horse has liad a leg perma- 236 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION 0¥ RUSSIA. nently disabled, or has had his side marked for life with the impress of his enemy's teeth. The wolf's system of warfare, however, is a predatory one, and his policy is rather to surprise outposts than to meditate a general attack. He relies more on his subtlety than his strength. He will creep cautiously througli the grass, taking especial care to keep to leeward of tlie taboon, and he will remain crouched in ambush till he perceive a mare and her foal gra- zing a little apart from the rest. Even then he makes no attempt to spring upon his prey, but keeps creeping nearer and nearer, with his head leaning on his fore feet, and wagging his tail in a friendly manner, to imitate, as much as possible, the movements and gestures of a watch-dog. If the mare, deceived by the treacherous pantomime, venture near enough to tlie enemy, he will spring at her throat, and despatch her before she have time to raise an alarm ; then, seizing on the foal, he will make off ^Tlth his booty, and be out of sight perhaps before either herd or herdsman suspect his presence. It is not often, however, that the wolf succeeds in obtaining so easy a victory. If the mare detect him, an instant alarm is raised, and, should the tabuntshik be near, the wolf seldom fails to enrich him witli a skin, for which the fur-merchant is at all times willing to pay his ten or twelve roubles. The wolf's only chance, on such occasions, is to make for the first ravine, down which he rolls head foremost, a gymnastic feat that the tabuntshik on his horse can not venture to imitate. As the summer draws on, the wolf becomes less troublesome to the taboon ; but a season now begins of severe suffering for tlie poor horses, who have more perhaps to endure from the thirst of summer than from the hunger of winter. The heat becomes intolerable, and shade is nowhere to be found, save what the animals can themselves create, by gathering to gether in little groups, each seeking to place the body of his neighbor between himself and the burning rays of a merciless sun. The tabuntshik often lays himself in the centre of the group, for he also lias nowhere else a shady couch to hope for. The autumn, again, is a season of enjoyment. The plains are anew cov- ered with green, the springs yield once more an abundant supply of water, and the houses gather strength at this period of abundance, to prepare themselves for the sufferings and privation of winter. In autumn, for the first time in the year, the taboon is called on to work, but the work is not much more severe than the exertions which the restless creatures are daily imposing upon themselves Avhilc romping and rioting about on the steppe. The work in question is the thrashing of the grain. A tlirashing-floor, of several hundred yards square, is made by cutting away the turf, and beating the ground into a hard, solid surface. The whole is enclosed by a railing, with a gate to let the horses in and out. The sheaves of grain arc tlicu spread out and laid in strata over each other. In snnill farms, whore only eight or ten horses are disposable for this kind of work, each horse is expected to tlirash his thirty or forty sheaves ; but SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE STEPPES. 287 in larger establishments, where half a taboon can be set to work at once, a score of sheaves is the utmost ever allowed for each thrasher. On such a tloor, supposing the taboon to consist of a thousand horses, five hundred score of sheaves will be laid down at once. The taboon is then formed uito two divisions. The tabuntshik and his assistants drive their five hun- dred steeds into the enclosure, and, when once in, the more riotous they are the better the work will be done. The gate is closed, and then begins a ball of which it requires a lively imagination to conceive a picture. The drivers act as musicians, and their formidable harabniks are the fiddles that keep up the dance without intermission. The horses, terrified partly by the crackling straw under their feet, and partly by the incessant ci'ack- iiig of the whip over their heads, dart half frantic from one extremity to tlie other of their temporary prison. Millions of grains are flying about in the air, and the laborers witliout have enough to do to toss back the sheaves that are flung over the railing by the prancing, hard-working thrashers within. This continues for about an hour. The horses are then let out, the grain turned, and the same performance repeated three times before noon. By that time, about a thousand bushels (sheffel) of grain liave been thrashed, after a fashion that looks more like a holyday diversion than a hard day's work. This description, of course, applies only to an agricul- tural establishment on a very large scale ; and it may not be amiss to add that, in such a thrashing operation, more grain is wasted than is raise<^ on many large farms in this country. Such is still the wild and chequered life of the horses on tlie steppe, and such it was in the days of Mazeppa ;* but such scenes are becoming scarcei in southern Russia, in proportion as the population becomes denser, and some of the larger estates have been parcelled out among a greater number of owners. Should tlie Russian government succeed in the favorite plan of introducing a regular system of agriculture into this portion of the em- pire, the large taboons must gradually disappear, or recede farther and farther toward tlie confines of Tartary. Such a time, however, is yet com- * .loHN Mazeppa, hctinjin of the Cossaclcs, whom Lord Byi-on has made ihe hero of a poem, was horn about the middle of the seventoeiitli century, in the province of Podolia, of a poor but noble Poh'sh family, and became page to John Casjmir, king of Poland. In this situation, Mazeppa had aa opportunity of acquiring various useful accomplishments; but an intrigue was the foundation of his future elevation. A Polish nobleman having surprised Mazeppa with his wife, ordered him to be tied naked upon a wild horse, and committed to liis fate. The animal had been bred in the Ukraine, and dire(!ted his course thithei-, where some pooi- peasants found him half dead, and took care of him. Their warlike, roving life suited liis disposition ; he made himsc-lf conspicuous and beloved by his dexterity, bodily strength, and courage ; his knowledge and sagacity procured him the jtost of secretary and adjutant to the hetman Samoilowitz ; and, in 1687, he was elected in his place. He gained the confidence of Peter the Great, who loaded liim with honors, and he was finally made prince of the Ukniine. But ihough a prince, he was still a vassal, and his restless spirit made him resolve to throw off the yoke of subordination. Rejoined with Chai'les XII., who had just given a king to Poland, and aimed, by'liis assistance, to throw off all allegiance to Russia. For a long time the intrigues of Mazeppa against Peter were disbelieved by the latter : but at length he openly joined the Swedish monarch, who, by his advice, fought the fatal battle of Poltava. He then sought refuge at Bender, in Turkey, where he died, in 1709 238 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. paratively distant. The steppe yields grain, indeed, in abundance, when cultivated ; but the difficulty of transport, and the absence of all material for the construction of good roads, oppose serious obstacles to the growth of grain, except in favored localities — as, for instance, in the immediate vicinity of rivers or of the sea. The life of tlie tshabawn, or shepherd, presents a singular contrast to that of the rakish tabuntshik ; but the shepherd's quiet, unobtrusive course has comparatively little to attract the attention of the stranger. The lords of the steppe, indeed, are far from undervaluing their peaceful flocks ; and when the wealth of one of the princely owners is spoken of, his sheep gen- erally serve as the standard by which the amount of his worldly posses- sions is measured. There are individuals in the steppe who are said to own upward of one iiundred thousand woolly subjects, and most of these flocks have increased to tlieir present amount within the last thirty or forty years. The Wallachian sheep is the most prevalent race. It is remarka- ble on account of the huge size of its tail, which consists of little else than a lump of fat, in great esteem among the Russians and Tartars. Merinos have, of late years, been likewise introduced, and are rapidly increasing in numbers. The tshabaivn is, for the most part, a quiet, peaceable being. His char- acter is naturally modified by the habits of his usual associates, and, as he is not obliged to range over so wide an extent of the country as the tabuntshik, he is able to carry about with him a multitude of comforts, in which the guardian of the horses must never hope to indulge. The tshor bawn lias usually one or two large wagons, draWn by oxen, in which he carries with him his provisions and his cooking-utensils, together with the skins of the sheep that die, and those of the wolves that he has been fortu- nate enough to slay : for the tshabawn, with all his quietness, is as zealous a wolf-hunter as the tabuntshik, and quite as willing to increase his lawful gainings by the sale of a score of shaggy hides in tlie course of the season. Of the fat-tailed sheep there are two distinct races, the Wallachian and the Calmuck. The former really carries its fat about in its tail, which grows into a sliape something similar to a pear, swelling at both sides to an enormous size, and tapering to a point at the extremity. The Calmuck sheep, whicli is rarely found in the western steppes, does not really carry its fat in the tail, but rather in two huge cushions, from thirty to forty pounds in weight, that strongly remind the stranger, who sees them for the first time, of the Hottenton Venus. With both, the fat in or about the tail is considered more valuable than that obtained from any other part of the animal. The severe cold of a Pontine winter, and the parching summer by which the dar.ce of the seasons is so strikingly diversified, are replete with trials and sufferings for all tlie animals most useful to man. The hurricanes that sometimes sweep across the plain are frequently attended by the most dis- astrous consequences to the flocks. These make not the least attempt to SODTHERN RUSSIA — THE STEPPES. 239 resist the violence of the storm, but run away in a perfect panic before tlie wind, and are blown by thousands into the streams and ravines by which the steppes are intersected. The dull Russian shepherds, on these' occa- sions, are of little value, and the dogs are not much above their masters in point of intelligence. The most sensible members of these communities are generally the goats, without whom a Pontine shepherd would never be able to keep his woolly charge in any kind of order. To every hundred sheep, therefore, three or four goats are invariably associated, to make up, by their wit and sprightliness, for the silliness of their companions ! Until the autumnal storms are no longer endurable, the sheep remain on the steppe, and then return to winter in the miserable enclosures, where a little shelter against the north wind is mostly the only protection ever consid- ered necessary. The movements of an ottara, or flock, are, of course, much less erratic than^those of a taboon. If the tshabawn comes to a fine pasture-ground, ne seldom leaves it till the grass has been eaten away ; and even wlien on the march, his encampment for the night is often only two or three miles from the spot whence he started in the morning. In good weatlier, to guide the flock is an easy task. The tshabawn follows his wagon, and the sheep follow him, his men hanging upon the flanks and the rear, to drive in stragglers, and to accelerate the progress of those who are all too dila- tory in their movements. Their long iHiks are the sceptj-es witli which the shepherds occasionally enforce their authority. These are crooks, nearly twelve feet in length, and may at any moment be converted into most formidable weapons, of either attack or defence. The wolf who has tasted one blow from the irlik of a tshabawn, is seldom fated to experience a second. In bad weather, and particularly during the autumnal storms, matters wear, as we have already hinted, a very different aspect. The wolves in spring are a constant plague, but a vigilant tshabawn may be on his guard against these rapacious beasts ; and, besides, the more the wolves show themselves, the greater will be the number of skins to be disposed of at the end of the season. Against the snowstorm of the steppe, however, vigi- lance can avail but little ; and whereas the wolf can but rarely succeed in the capture of even a single sheep, thousands may be buried in the snow- drift of a samjot, or blown over the edge of a precipice into a ravine, or into the yesty waves of the easily-agitated Euxine. Not a year passes away of which the tshabawn has not to recount varipus disasters caused by the samjots. In fair weather, the scene is, of course, a very different one. In his roomy wagon the tshabawn carries with him a multitude of little comforts ; and if he comes upon a piece of good grazing-ground, he establishes him- self there for days together. His little kitchen is immediately put into order ; one kettle simmers away for himself and his men, and another for his dogs — a fierce and formidable set of animals, that are invaluable in a 240 ILLUSTRATED DESCBIPTION OP RUSSIA. couutn swarming with wolves. While one of the party acts as cook, the others are not without their occupation. One has pei-haps been stripping the skin off a dead slieep ; another has been acting the physician toward the sick members of the oUara; while several have found ample work in milking — for in a large flock there are often not less than five or six hun- dred slieep to be milked ! The milk, placed in wooden vessels, is exposed to the sun, and converted into a kind of cheese, known throughout the steppe under the name of brinse. This cheese, as soon as the whey has b(!en drained off, is packed into goatskins, with the fur turned inside. The skin gives it a peculiar flavor, but this, according to the opinion of the southern Russians, is one of its chief recommendations. Nor are the shepr herds without their sports while the mamaliga is simmering away in the sociable kettle. A day rarely passes away without a wolf-chase ; a hare may frequently be run down ; and, if the traps are attended to, many a piece o'' feathered game may be made to vary the monotony of tlieir daily bill of fare. Nor are they without frequent guests to shai'e the produce of their cliase. Parties of hunters scouring the steppes in pursuit of game, peasants from Podolia and other parts in search of work, soldiers on fur- lough, deserters from the army, and runaway serfs from the interior of the empire, are constantly wandering about the steppe ; and tlie tshabawn, with tliat ready liospitality seldom found wanting in any nomadic tribe, makes every stranger welcome to his frugal meal. The poor fugitive may pass tlie night securely under shelter of the tshabawn's dogs, whom no uninvited stranger ever ventures to approach, and in the morning the wan- d:.rer will seldom be dismissed without some fresh token of the kindness of his host. When the evening meal is done, if the weather is fine, and no wolf in view, men and dogs are sure to pass an hour or two stretched before thei' blazing fire of dry reeds and grass. Tiiere the tshabawns confer on th politics of the steppe, or discuss the relative merits of the grazing-ground to wliicli it will be most expedient to direct their next march. The coun'jil ended, the arrangements for the niglit i-emain to be made. The wagoa is the lodging of the principal tshabawn — the ataman or chief of the ottara, as he is frequently called- — and here also the guests of the encampment are usually accommodated. The other tshabawns drive the sheep as closely together as possible, and then form, with their dogs, a complete circle roiuid the flock. Each man throws his furs, that serve him for fr^attress and coverlet, on the spot assigned to him, and between every two beds the same measured interval occurs. The next thing is to make the beds for the dogs. This is soon done. So many dogs as there are, as many rugs are provided ; and as each dog knows his own rug by the smell, all that is necessary is to lay the rug on the spot where it is wished the dog should take up his station for the night, and a complete cordon sanitaire is formed.. A camp thus fortified may generally defy the wolf; still there are few nights pass away without an alarm, for tiie wolves will hover for many 80DTHERN RUSSIA — THE STEPPES. :;i Hi'NTEES ENCAMrED ON THE PtEPPT;. successive days and nights around a Hock, in the hope of espying, sooner or later, an unguarded point, or of taking advantage of the panic into which the ottara is sometimes thrown by a sudden storm. The wide, unbounded extent of the ste]ipo makes almost everything wild that dwells there ; and as tlie liorse assumes in a short time an air of wild- ncss, so also the ox that ranges over the grassy ocean is a very different iiind of animal from the ox attached to a well-ordered farm. On tlie steppe also you hear of liouse-oxen and steppe-oxen. The former are attached to the household, work for their owner, and graze only near his house. The breed of cows that prevails on the steppe gives but little milk. The Geruian colonists have, in consequence, introduced cattle from Germany, and the same has been done by many of tlie principal landowners. The cattle of foreign breed, liowever, are still insignificant in numbers compared to the original race. This race, which extends over Southern and Western Russia, and a part of Moldavia, is large, long-legged, with long horns, and ahvays of a white or silver-gray coloi", differing in many points from the Polish, the Hungarian, or the Tartar breeds. Such a herd of wild oxen is called a tshereda, and the herdsman who' has the charge of it is called tlie tsherednik. A tshereda consists of fronr one to eight hundred head of cattle, and is a source of more profit to its owner than a taboon, inasmuch as an ox, for his tallow, will always com- mand a purchaser more readily than a wild, vicious, unbroken horse. In many respects the life of a tsherednik bears a great resemblance to that of a tabuntshik. In summer the cattle are out in the plain, and inr 16 .xZ ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTIOlf OP RUSSIA. winter they are scantily protected by their airy slieds. The bulls and cows tliat are kept for breeding are never sold, but live and die on the steppe ; but the young beasts are sold to the prekashtshiks, the commissioners of the St. Petersburg and Moscow cattle-dealers, or the great tallow-boiling estab- lishments. These men are continually travelling about from herd to herd, and, as soon as they have bought a sufBcient number of oxen, send them off to their places of destination, under the care of their gontshiks, or drivers. The tsheredniks, like the tshabawns, serve on foot, the ox being less wild, and more easy to manage, than the horse. The ox is more choice, indeed, in his food, but then liis meal is more quickly despatched, and his afternoon nap lasts all the longer. He bears the rain but ill, and is very impatient of heat, but in a snowstorm he is less apt to get frightened, and pursues his course regardless whether the samjots blow from the front or the rear. He will also endure thirst much better, and can go for two days together without drinking. With the wolf the ox is much on the same terms as the horse, though it Iftis been observed that a wolf attacks a tshereda much less frequently than a faboon. The ox, on account of his long horns, is a much moi'e for- midable enemy than the horse, and generally pins his enemy to the ground at the first attack. Nevertheless, the wolf does hover occasionally ab6ut the herd, and, if a lame or sickly ox happen to lag behind his companions. he frequently falls a victim to his vigilant and remorseless foe. The markets of St. Petersburg and Moscow are supplied with beef almost entirely from the herds of the steppe. It is also there that Russia derives her chief supply of tallow ; and, in addition to the home consumption, about one hundred and fifty thousand tons of tallow are exported annually to other countries, while Russia-leather is noted and in demand for its supe- rior quality throughout the civilized world. At a very early period of history — perhaps so early as the times of Herodotus, but certainly in those of the Milesians — tallow was an article of export from Scythia. At present the large tallow-manufactories, or salg-ans, as they are called, are exclusively in the hands of the natives of Great Russia, who have their establishments in all parts of the steppe. They buy the oxen up, as above remarked, by thousands, and after fattening them up for a season, drive them to the salgans to be slaughtered. If the season is good —that is to say, tolerably moist, so that the animals may fatten well — the speculation is likely to turn out well, but a long-continued drought is ruinous in its consequences. The tallow-boilers remain empty, and tlie poor, meager ox has nothing left but his skin with which to pay the price of his board. After such a season, the owners of the salgans usually close their books, and declare themselves insolvent for they are seldom possessed of much -capital, and generally carry on their operations with the money advanced by the merchants of the seaport towns. Near the end of summer the tallow-boiler begins to drive his oxen iu sjnal^ parties toward the salgan, a spacious courtyard, surrounded by the SOUTHERN RUSSIA — THE STEPPES. 243 buildings necessary for the manufacture. There are large shambles in which to slaughter the oxen, and houses containing enormous boilers, in which to boil down their meat. Other buildings are set apart for the salt- ing of the hides, besides which there are counting-houses, and dwellings for the workmen. In summer the whole establishment is untenanted, save by dogs and birds of prey, who hover about all the year round, being attracted by the nauseous smell of the place ; for during autumn the soil becomes so saturated with blood, that the smell continues for tlie rest of the year, despite the samjots of winter and the northwest storms of the spring. To get the oxen into the salgan, neither force nor blows would always suffice, but there are attached to every place of the kind a number of tame oxen, who are taught to entice their bellowing brethren to their fate. These traitors are brought out and mingled with the herd : they afterward lead the doomed and despairing multitude to the scene of slaughter ; and when once the victims have entered the courtyard, the gate closes upon them, and they never come out again except as beef, tallow, and leather. About one hundred oxen are driven into the yard at a time, and of these twenty or thirty go into the slaughterhouse, in which six or eiglit butchers are kept briskly at work, who are spoken of as liorrid-looking ruffians in sheepskin jackets, leathern breeches, and high boots, unsmeared by aught save the gore in which they constantly wade. The villanous stencli and tl>e awful spectacle in the slaughterhouse are said to exceed any that the mind of man can imagine. The business is usually carried on in the wet season, so that the whole salgan is soon converted into a swamp of blood and mud ! As great expedition is required, the business of the slaughterhouse is per- formed hurriedly, and the poor animals are subjected to much unnecessary suffering. It would require more hands and more time than can be afford- ed in a salgan, to put an ox to death in the artist-lilve manner customary •tmong our butchers. In the salgan the beasts are left loose : the big-bOoted iiuirderers enter the place with their heavy axes, and, striking each animal u tremendous blow on the back, break its spine, and so bring it to the ■jarth. Then snorting and bellowing the poor victims lie upon the ground, twenty or thirty of them at a time, helpless and unresisting, and a consid- erable time elapses before the whole of them can be put out of their pain. The ox has but little fat upon his loins and back ; and, therefore, after the skin has been drawn off, three or four poods of meat are cut off, to be offered afterward for sale in the bazar. None but the poor, liowever,- buy it ; for the blow on the spine always has the effect of injuring the meat. The remainder of the carcass is then cut up, and everything cast into the boiler, with the exception of the intestines, which are given to the swine, of whom th'ere are always a large number at every salgan, wallowing in tlic miry goi-e, and undergoing the process of being fattened up for the market. At every salgan f,here are usually from four to six boilers, each large enough to contain the meat of ten or fifteen oxen. The fat collects at the top, and is- skimmed off with large ladles ; and, before il has quite cooled, 244 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. it is poured into the casks in which it is afterward shipped. This first fat is the best, and is quite white ; the second has a yellowish tinge. If a suf- ficient number of casks is not at liand, the hides are fewn togetlier, and the tallow poured into them, till the}^ again assume a form something. like that of the living nnimal ! Of tliese tallow-stuffed oxen a large number are usu- ally seen standing aliout t1ic scdi^rins. Another harvest of fat is obtained liy al'ti'fward subjecting tlie masli of l)ones and meat to hngc presses; l)ut this aftor-tailow is of a very inferior quality, and is rarely exported. It is used for areasing wheels, and wherever a coarse kind of gi'case is required. The tall()\\- is always in demand, and such is tlie eagerness to obtain it, that not only is a part of the price often paid beforehand, while tlie oxen are still grazing on the steppe, but the wealthy merchants of Odessa and their clerks are constantly parading their gay habiliments among tlie filthy abominations of the saltan, and crying out incessantly for tallow, tallow, and more tallow! The cashier, meanwhile, is busy in the counting-house. The steward of the estate comes in to receive the rent of the land on whicli the herd lias fattened during the season ; the workmen come in for their wages ; cattle-dealers come in to contract for so many hundred oxen ; while some merchant standing by is ready, in his eagerness for the greasy treas- ure, to pay in advance for the tallow that has yet to be grown under the hides of those oxen ; a colonist comes in to bargain for the fattening up of some two hundred liogs, which he afterward receives back walking masses of hog's-lard, too yellow and coarse, however, for the market, till the grunt- ers have been a little refined by sundry feeds of grain ; Greeks from Con- stantinople come, as they did in the days when Olbia flourished ; a wealthy nobleman perhaps is anxious to rent the whole salgan for a few weeks, hav- ing some thousands of oxen ready for the kettle, but no establishment of his own to boil them into fat and silver roubles ; a swineherd comes in to buy sundry wagon-loads of the pressed meat wherewith to treat his interesting charges on the steppe ; soap-boilers are there to bargain for the fat, turners to buy the horns, and tanners to carry away the hides ; the Turkish cap- tains come eagerly to obtain the tallow in its greatest purity at the fountain- head, for tallow is too much esteemed by the gourmands of Constantinople to be idly wasted in enlightening their darkness : in short, however busily Death may be at work, there is, meanwhile, no want of either life or bustle in the salgan. Nor is it men alone that are eagerly running to and fro. '.Tlie shaggy, long-haired dogs of the steppe arrive in swarms to batten on the refuse, or to lap the thickening gore in the loathsome well into which it has been drained. Even more numerous are the white sea-gulls, who, under their dovelike plumage, hide the hearts of vultures. They become so tame and bold in the sal<;an, that they walk fearlessly among th'e workmen, and will scarcely rise f' om their meal when driven with a stick. Such is the hideous scene presented by one of these dens of murder, where, in addi- tion to its other acconipaniments, the air is heavy with myriads of insects, that seem to hare beon bred by the soil, soaked as it is with blood ! EASTERN RUSSIA — ASTRAKHAN. 245 a-^*^** CHAPTER IX. EASTERN RUSSIA. HE governments we liave for con- venience grouped In tins chapter, ,. -...i^=^.— .jg-^_ «' 1 » ■ \ under the general designation of City of astbakhan. E ASTERN RussiA, are thosc cover- ing principally the territory of the ancient Tartar kingdoms of Astrakhan and Kazan. They are generally known, and are classed in the table on page 42, under those more distinctive names. By a ukase of December 18, 1850, a new government was formed in Eastern Russia on the left bank of the Volga, and named Samara, consisting of three districts of tiie govern- ment of Orenburg, two districts of Saratov, and the districts of Samara and Stavropol in Simbirsk. As we have not the means of giving its bound- aries, or of ascertaining the proportions of its area and population contrib- uted by each of the above governments, its lines are of course not marked on the map, and its description is included in that of those governments. The government of Astrakhan lies on the northwest coast of the Cas- pian sea, between the forty-fourth and fiftieth degrees of nortli latitude and the forty-third and fiftj'-first degrees of east longitude, liaving the ^Malaia Ouzen for its northeastern and the Manytch for its soutlnvcstcni boundary. It is divided into two nearly equal parts by the Volga, Avhicli traverses it from northwest to southeast. Its coast-line, including minute sinuosities, ifl about five hundred and twenty miles in length, and is crowded through- 246 ILLUSTRATED DESCEIPTION OP RUSSIA. out its whole extent with small islands, rocks, and shifting sandbanks The entire length of the province is three hundred and seventy miles, and its greatest breadth two hundred and fifty miles, containing an area of about forty-three thousand square miles. This government consists almost wholly of two vast steppes or plains, separated from each other by the Volga, the greater portions of which arc an arid, sterile desert — forming, in fact, a portion of the steppes described i;i the last chapter. Tlie largest tracts of this description are the deserts of Naryn and Sedok : the former, in which occur hills of moving sand, is situated on the northeast side of the Volga; the other on the southwest. The wliole of Astrakhan was at one period submerged by the Caspian, as is evident from the saline nature of the soil, and tlie shells it contains ; and as both are upward of eighty feet below the level of the sea of Azov, should any convulsion of nature cause a depression of the intervening land, Astraklian would again be overwhelmed by the ocean ! The soil consists generally of mud, salt, and sand, intermixed, and in some parts of extensive salt marshes, rendering it almost wholly one wide and sterile waste, destitute of wood ; the few trees it has to boast of being met with on the banks of its rivers only. These are oaks, poplars, birches, and some mulberry-trees, the latter of which are found in greatest numbers along the Aktuba. Notwithstanding the general sterility of the, country, a few fertile tracts are met with on the skirts and delta of the Volga, in- cluding some excelleut pastures. Here grain is grown, but not in sufficient quantity to maintain the population, with some fruits, herbs, vines, tobacco, and cotton. Salt lakes and ponds are numerous throughout the pi'ovince ; the largest of the former, Baskutchatsk, is situated to the east of the Volga, and is about twelve miles in length and five in breadth. When evaporated in summer, these lakes and pools leave thick crusts of culinary, and, in some cases, Epsom salt. In this district, low hills of gypsum and rock-salt also occur ; the former vary in size and elevation, the highest rising about sixty feet above the level of the steppe : they are mostly of semicircular form, and many of them are crater-shaped at the top. The salt-hills rise to about the same height, and contain gem-salt, above which is sandstone, and over that the common yellow sand of the steppe. The salt is colorless, firm, and cojitains clear and perfectly transparent cubes. Tiie pi'incipal rivers of Astrakhan are the Volga (a description of which, with a map of its several mouths, is given on a previous page), the Aktuba, which ;-uns parallel to it at the distance of two or thi-ee miles, and the Sarpa. Tlie Kouma, which once formed a part of the southern boundary of the province, and represented on the maps as falling into the Caspian, does not now reach that sea, being absorbed by the sands some sixty miles inland. Tlie climate-is extremely hot in summer, and equally cold in win- ter ; and is unliealthy to all but natives, from the quantity of saline par- ticles witii which the atmosphere is impregnated. EASTERN KtJSSIA — ASTRAKHAN. 247 Pasturage and fisliing constitute tlie cliicf occupation of the inhabitants: tlie former of the rural and nomadic tribes ; the hitter of the population on the coast aid banlvS of tlie Volga. Tlio live stock consists principally of sheep of the Calnuiclc or broad-tailed breed. Cattle and goats are also reared, the latter chiefly for their skins, from which Morocco-leather is made. The breeding of horses likewise oljtaius some attention, but they are diminutive and ill-conditioned. Some of the nomadic tribes have also large herds of Bactrian camels. The fisheries of the Volga are of great value, no stream in the world being more abundantly stocked with fish, particularly between the city of Astrakhan and the Caspian, a distance of about twenty-five or thii'ty miles. On this ground, an immense number of vessels and boats, and many thou- sand persons, are employed in spring, autumn, and winter, in taking fish, chiefly sturgeon, from the roes and bladders of which large quantities of isinglass and caviar are manufactured. The population of Astrakhan is composed of a great variety of races, including Russians, Cossacks, Tartars, Calmucks, Armeniads, Persians, Hindus, oiuided on tlie north by the govcriiinent of Perm; on tlie northwest by A^iatka ; on the west by Kazan, Simbirsk, and Saratov; on tlic soutli- wcst liy Astrakhan ; on tlie south by the Caspian sea; on the southeast and east by the steppes of the Kirghiz ; and on the northeast by Tobolsk. Its greatest length from northwest to southeast is eight hundred miles, and its breadth about four hundred and fifty, contahiing an area of about one hun- dred and twenty-eiglit thousand square miles. The surface of this province is greatly diversified, consisting partly of lofty mountain-ranges, partly of elevated plateaux or table-lands, and partly of low and marshy plains. The principal mountain-chain is that of the Ural, which, entering the government in the north, traverses it in a south- ern but somewhat circuitous direction, and divides it into two unequal por- tions. The eastern portion, by far the smaller of the two, belongs wholly to the basin of the Arctic ocean. Its principal rivers are the Tobol, Abuga, Oufa, and Mijas. It contains numerous lakes — all, however, of small dimensions ; and is extensively occupied by swamps and morasses. The western portion belongs to the basin of the Caspian, which receives its waters partly through the Biela, Samara, and other tributaries of the Volga, but to a much larger extent directly by the Ural, and its tributaries Or, Sakmara, Ilek, &c. A considerably part of the government is densely wooded, but a still larger part is occupied by immense steppes, on which trees are rare ; and natural pastures are roamed over by vast herds of cattle and sheep. The best agricultural districts are on the northwest, where the surface is com- posed of hill and valley ; and the soil consists generally of a black, fei-tile loam, capable of raising all kinds of grain, and actually raising it in such abundance, notwithstanding the very imperfect culture it receives, that a considerable export into the neighboring governments takes place. The minerals are extremely valuable, and furnish a large source of rev- enue to the state. They include the precious metals, particularly gold, which abounds along the chain of the Urals ; and in the plains on either side of it, but especially on the east, copper, iron, and salt. The working of these, and the different operations connected with them, employ a great number of hands ; but manufactures, properly so called, have made little progress, though many home-made articles are very beautiful^ especially light worsted shawls, and other fabrics made by the females, similar to those wrought in the Orkney and Shetland islands of Scotland. The trade, however, particularly with the nomadic and other tribes, is very extensive. 254 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. The principal articles are grain, horses, cattle, sheep, hides, furs, honey, wax, metals, salt, tallow, and fish. Oi-enburg, tlie principal town of this government, is situated on a slope above the right bank of the Ural. It is fortified, and has spacious and regular thougli miserably-paved streets. The houses, though only a few are of stone, alid the far greater number are of wood, are of a lively, pleas- ing appearance. It has a protestant, a Roman catholic, and eight Greek churches, all built of stone ; two mosques, governor's house, and public offices ; an exchange, a merchant-house, and a customhouse ; a Bashkir car- avansary, a handsome building, with two turrets, where the business con- nected with the Bashkirs is managed, but no trade is carried on ; an agri- cultural school, and the district and military schools, &c. The manufactures of Orenburg consist chiefly of woollen cloth (part of it army-clotliing), leather, and soap ; and there are very extensive establish- ments for smelting tallow. The trade with the Kirghiz, and other inhab- itants of the interior, is very extensive. It is not, however, carried on within the town, but about two miles from it, to the east of the left bank of the Ural, wliere the caravans from Bokhara and Khiva stop ; and a car- avansary, usually called tlie tavschhof (exchange court), or menovoi-dvor, has been erected, the whole being protected by a camp of Cossacks. In the vicinity of tlie tavschhof are the immense smelting-houses referred to above, in \yhich, in the course of a summer, the tallow of more than fifty thousand sheep is melted down. The population of Orenburg is about fourteen thousand. Perm (with the governments yet to be described in this chapter, com- prising the Kazan provinces) lies between the fifty-sixth and sixty-second degrees of north latitude, and the fifty-third and sixty-tliird degrees of east longitude ; and is bounded on the northwest and north by Vologda and Tobolsk, on the east by Tobolsk, on the south by Orenburg, and on the west by Viatka. Its greatest length from northwest to southeast is five hundred and twenty miles, and its breadth about four hundred, con- taining an area of one hundred and twenty-seven thousand square miles. This govcniment, being traversed from north to south by the Ural chain, is divided into two unequal portions, a western and an eastern — the for- mer, of course, in Europe, and tlic latter in Asia. The Asiatic portion, tlie lesser of the two, belongs to the basin of the Arctic ocean, which receives its waters tlirough tributaries of the Obi. Of these, tlie most important are the Scjsua, Lobva, Tura, Neiva, Irbit, Pishma, and Iset. In the south it contains several lakes, of which the largest is tlie Majan. The European portion belongs to the basin of the Caspian, with the ex- ception of a small portion in tlie northwest, drained by the Petchora, and of course beloiiuiiig, like tlie eastern porti(Mi, to the basin of the Arctic ocean. By far the most important river in the European portion is the Kama, which, entering the government on the northwest, proceeds through EASTERN RUSSIA — PERM. 255 it in a very circuitous direction, receiving numerous tributaries on cither bank : of tliese, the largest are the Vishera, Kosa, Kosva, Obva, and Tchj*- sovaia, with its affluent the Silva. Prom the principal Ural chain, the surface descends in a succession of pai'allel terraces. On the loftiest summits snow and ice continue for nine months in the year, and hence the climate, naturally rigorous, from its high latitude and inland position, has its rigor greatly inci-eased. Beyond the sixtieth degree, regular culture becomes impossible, and the far greater part of the surface is occupied witli forests and marshes. Extensive for- ests also stretch far into the south, and the soil being generally not very fertile, large tracts remain uncleared. The government is rich in minerals, and possesses extensive auriferous tracts, on which vast numbers of the inhabitants are employed in collecting gold, and there are also apparently inexhaustible beds of both ii-on and • salt. The immense quantities of fuel required in order to work these ex- tensively and to advantage, give a great adventitious value to tlie timber of the forest, and make the surface covered by it of far greater value than it could be in any other form. Game, both large n,.id small, is common in the forests, and many of the inhabitants gain a livelihood by hunting ; fish, including both sturgeon and salmon, abound in the rivers. With the exception of several bi-anches of industry immediately connected with the mines, there are few manufactures. The chief are soap, leather, tallow-candles, potash, and glass. The trade derives great facilities from the Kama and other navigable streams, and has acquired some importance. The principal articles are metals, marble, wood, salt, fur, tallow, and tar. Nearly three fourths of the inhabitants are Russians, and belong to the Greek church ; the rest consist of Tartars, Tcheremisses, Bashkirs, &c. ; and though many of them have nominally embraced Christianity, not a few are Mohammedans, and among others different forms of paganism are said to prevail. The governments of Perm and Kazan are under one military governor. Some exertions have been made to extend education, but the number of scholars to the population is only one in nearly three hundred. For administrative purposes', Perm is divided into twelve circles. The city of Perm, and the capital of this government, is situated on the riglit bank of the Kama, below the confluence of the Tchysovaia,ninc Imndrcd and fifty miles east by south of St. Petersburg. It is built with consider- able regularity, in straight and spacious streets, and is the scat of an arch- bishopric. It has two churches ; several other public edifices, surmounted by spires ; a gymnasium, theological seminary, a civil and a military lio:^- pital ; extensive copper and iron smelting and refining works, whicli jiive employment to tlie greater part of the population ; and a considerable trade with the inland districts. The inhabitants number about ten thousand. 's''.katQvmh\ivg,Iekateiinenbitrg-,or Yekaterinburg- (Catherine's borough), capital of the Ural mining district, is situated on the Asiatic slope of tlie * Tral mountains, in the government of Perm, and one hundred and seventy 2o6 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. miles southeast of its capital city, on both banks of the Iceth or Iset, at an elevation of nearly nine hundred feet above the sea level. The general external appearance of Ekaterinburg very much resembles that of one of tlie manufacturing towns of Europe. The streets are long and straight, but unpaved, having, however, planks or logs laid on each side for foot- passonuers. The ])riiicipal street runs parallel with the river, and is inter- sected I'v uumcrous smaller i-lrects, leading directly to tlie bank of tlie Iset. A number ol' the himses arc of wood, but there are also a great many of stoni;, built in a handsome and substantial style, and ]iossessing as much internal comfort as exterior elegance. On the southeast baidt of the river the buildiinis are spread over an extensive plain, which is connected with the city Ijy a liandsonie bridge; these buildings include tlie government magazines, mills, factories, &c., and enclose an extensive square or mar- ket-place. The principal part of the town, however, is on the opposite side. Here the streets are spacious and elegant, and the stone edifices, the habitations of merchants and mine-proprietors, exceedingly handsome. In this quar- ter there are a public granary, a public sale-room, a convent, and several churches. The cutting, polishing, and engraving of precious stones, forms a princi- pal branch of industry in Ekaterinburg, and the art is here brought to the greatest perfection. Men, women, and children, are met with at every step, offering bargains of these tempting valuables, consisting chiefly of topazes, amethysts, crystals, jasper, &c. "The greatest neatness," says Sir. Erman, " is observable in the dwellings of those who work in these gems, who, even when in possession of considerable wealth, retain their native siiii|)licity of dress and manners." The in-door dress of the women is the ancient sarafan, and a covering for the head, called a kakoshnik, iiaving a bivjad, staring border, and sometimes covered with jewels. This head-dress is woi-n by nmrried women alone ; long, plaited tresses forming the distinction of the unmarried, who do not cover the head. The young men delight in flowing locks. Ekaterinburg was founded by Peter the Great, in 1723, and named in honor of his empress, Catherine I. It is regularly fortified, and, being sit- uated on the great road leading from Perm to Tobolsk, is regarded as the key of Siberia. Parties of exiles frequently pass through the town, num- bering annually, it is stated, about five thousand. The women are gener- ally in wagons ; the men following, in couples, on foot. The population is fi'om fifteen to eighteen thousand. The government of Viatka lies between the fifty-sixth and sixtieth de- gi'ees of north latitude, and the forty-sixth and fifty-fourth degrees of east longitude, having the government of Vologda on the north, Perm on tho east, Orenburg and Kazan on the south, and Nijnei-Novgorod and Kostro- ma on the west. It contains about fifty-three thousand square miles. EASTERN RUSSIA — VIATKA. 257 The slope of the country is toward the west and south, in which direc- tions the Viatka, a tributary of the Kama, flows, traversing the govern- ment nearly in its centre. The Kama, which forms part of its eastern and southern boundaries, also rises in this government. The surface is gener- ally undulating, and even mountainous toward the east, where it consists of the lower Uralian ranges. The soil is mostly good, though encumbered in parts with extensive marshes. The climate is severe in winter, but not usually unhealthy. Agriculture is the principal occupation of the inhabitants, particularly along the banks of the large rivers ; and in ordinary years more grain is grown than is required for home consumption. Rye, barley, and oats, are the principal grains ; very little wheat is raised, but peas, lentils, and buck- wheat, are grown, with large quantities of hemp and flax. The surplus produce goes chiefly to the nortliern provinces of tlie empire. Potatoes are not much cultivated. Fruit is not plentiful ; apples scarcely ripen. The forests are very extensive : they consist mostly of firs, intermixed with oak, elm, alder, lime, birch, and other trees. Cattle-breeding, though a secondary branch of industry, is still of importance ; and a good many small but robust horses are reared. Sheep are few. Furs, tar, iron, and copper, are among the chief products. Manufactures, though not extensive, appear to be on the increase : there are factories for woollen cloths, linen and cotton stuffs, paper, soap, pot- ash, copper and iron wares, Ac, employing eight or ten thousand hands. About two million yards of woollen (and perhaps nearly double that quan- tity of linen) clotli are supposed to be annually made in the houses of the peasantry ; and large quantities of spirits are distilled. Near Sarapoul is an extensive manufactory of arms ; and at Votka, anchors, gun-carriages, and iron machinery of various kinds, are made on a large scale. The gov- ernment exports grain, flax, linseed, honey, tallow, leather, furs, silk goods, iron, and copper, to Archangel, and grain and timber to Saratov and As- trakhan. It receives manufactured goods from Moscow and Nijnei-Novgo- rod, tea from Irbit, and salt fi'om Perm. Viatka, the capital, is the great emporium of the trade. The government is subdivided into eleven districts. Viatka, Slobodoskoi, Malmych, and Sarapoul, are the chief towns. The inhabitants consist of various races — Russians, Votiaks (of a Fin nisn stocK, and from whom the province has its name), Tartars, Bashkirs, Teptiars, &c., professing many different religions. The Mohammedans are estimated at about fifty thousand, and the Shamanists and idolaters at some- three or four thousand. In 1831, there were only nine public schools, ia which about eleven hundred and fifty pupils were receiving instruction ; but the number has since materially increased. This government is united under the same governor-general with Kazan ; but the Tartars and Finns are subordinate to the jurisdiction of their own chiefs. Viatka, the capital of this government, is situated on the river of that name, near the confluence of the Telieptsa, two hundred and thirty milcs: 17 258 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. west by north of Perm, and two hundred and fifty northeast of Nijnei-Nov- gorod. Its population is about eight thousand. It has several churches of stone, one of which, the catliedral, has a silver altar with bas-reliefs, and cost one hundred and tliirty thousand roubles. Here are numerous convents, with an episcopal seminary, gymnasium, and high-school, founded in 1829. The city was annexed to the Russian dominions by the grand- duke Vassili-Ivanovich, about the middle of the sixteenth century. The government of Simbirsk lies on both sides of the Volga, between the fifty-third and fifty-sixth degrees of north latitude, and the forty-fifth and fifty-first degrees of east longitude ; having on the north the government of Kazan, on the east that of Orenburg, on the south Saratov, and on the west Penza and Nijnei-Novgorod. It contains an area of about twenty-four thousand square miles. It consists mostly of a gently-undulating plain, having a black and gen- erally very fertile soil. The Volga passes through this government, and near its southern border it takes a bend to the eastward for a distance of a hundred and twenty miles, enclosing a mountainous peninsula, and form- ing an isthmus only nine miles across. The view on the opposite page shows the majestic Volga at this point. The river is here two miles wide, rapid and deep, and, for the first time, its left bank entirely changes its character : rising to a height of seven or eight hundred feet, the beetling crags overliang the mighty stream, and give an unusual boldness to the scene. Indeed, nowhere does the Volga, throughout its entire length, aff'ord such striking views as are presented at this divergence. Besides the Volga, the province is watered by the Sura and other afilu- ents of the former. The climate is in extremes, the summer being very liot, and the winter equally cold. The Volga is annually frozen over for about five months. Rye, wheat, and other grain, are raised in quantities more than sufficient for home consumption. Hemp is largely cultivated, with flax, tdbacco, poppies, ^E View on the Volga at Simbirsk — the Jigoulee illimitable. Immediately at your feet are cottages and gardens, and ou the opposite bank of tlie river are some large villages. The white sails of many pashaliks, glistening on the broad surface of the sti-euni, and the occasional passing of a steamer, complete a charming picture. The streets of Simbirsk are broad and straight. The honses arc mostly of wood, but neat and commodious inside. There arc nuuierons churches, which, with one exception, arc all of stone, and two convents. Near tlie terrace before alluded to, and in the centre of a square from which tlie principal streets diverge, stands a statue of Karamsin, the celebrated Rus- sian historian. Tlie town is in a fertile country ; and, besides large quan- tities of grain, exports the produce of the fisheries on tl)e Volga. Tiierc is an annual horse-fair held here ; and the place is a good deal resorted to by the surrounding nobility. The new government of Samara, as before remarked, has been formed out of three districts of the government of Oreulmrg, two districts of Sara- atov, and of the districts of Samara and Stavropol in Simbirsk. It com- prises an area of nearly forty thousand square miles, and its poindatiou may be estimated at about one million, six hundred thousand. The capital of the government is the city of Sanmra, situated at the con- fl'J3nce of the Samara with the Volga, live liundred and fifty miles east- southeast of Moscow. It contains two wooden and three stone churches ; has manufactui-es of leather and soap ; and carries on an extensive trade. The town is built on a sloping bank, is growing with great rapidity, and already numbers a population of fifteen or twenty thousand. It is s:iid to be the busiest port on tlie Volga. Backed by an immense grain-growing country, it supplies a great part of the iiitcri(u- of Russia whh whrixt. No less than nine millions of poods are shipped lu;'re annually, am! e;ii'rir'd down eitlier to Astraklian, and so across the Caspian, oi-, on tlic b:ii4;s of 260 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. camels, from Orenburg to the adjacent countries ; or conveyed by water to St. Petersburg. Much of the sudden growth and prosperity of the city is doubtless owing to the introduction of steam-navigation on the Volga. At the great annual fair held here, the numerous races assembled at it are said to be even more diversified than at Nijnei-Novgorod. Situated only about two hundred and fifty miles from the Asiatic frontier, a large trade is carried on with the inhabitants of those distant steppes, who flock hither in great numbers, the representatives of each tribe wearing a diifer- ent costume. The rapid increase of the population of this town is but in accordance with the prospering condition of the new government of wliicji it forms the capital. There is not a more highly-favored region through- out the wliole Russian empire than Samara ; and those inhabitants of the neighboring districts, who, belonging to the crown, have been allowed to migi-atc to this land of plenty, have done so to such an extent, that the population has dou))led itself within the last few years. Where the Volga, more capricious than usual, reaches the most easterly point of its whole course, the city of Samara has sprung up ; and, forming a sort of port for the town of Orenburg, wliich is situated on the Tartar frontier, it helps to connect the distant regions beyond with the Cis-Volgan countries, and thus, as it were, completes the last link of European civilization in this direction. The government of Penza lies principally between the fifty-tliird and fifty-fifth degrees of north latitude, and the forty-second and forty-seventh degrees of east longitude ; having the government of Nijnei-Novgorod on the north, Tauibov on the west, Saratov on the south, and Simbirsk on the east. Its greatest length from east to west is one hundred and seventy miles, and its greatest breadth one hundred and forty-five, comprising an area of about fourteen thousand square miles. As a whole, this province is an extensive flat, somewhat monotonous, but occasionally intersected by small hills, which in the southwest form the water-shod between the basins of the Volga and the Don. To the latter basin only a very small portion of the government, drained by the Khoper and its tributary the Vorona, belongs ; tlie affluents of the Volga are the Soura, Insara Isa, Moksha, Vad, and Vicha. The climate is mild and salubrious, thougli the winter cold is occasionally severe. The soil is fertile, and well adapted for raising all kinds of grain and roots. Hemp and flax are extensively cultivated, and tobacco and hops occasionally grown. Tlic principal fruits are apples, pears, and cherries. The forests are extensive, and consist clucfly of beech, oak, birch, and alder. Considerable attention is paid to the rearing of cattle, particularly horses, of which several good breeding-studs are kept. The renring of bees is so general as to form one of the most important branches of rural economy. All kinds of game abound, but fish are very scarce. The prin- cipal mineral is iron, of which valuable mines are woi-ked in the vicinity EASTERN RUSSIA — PENZA— KAZAN. 26 J of Troitsk. Millstones are also quarried extensively. The manufactures are chiefly confined to the cottages of the peasantry, where great quanti- ties of flax and ■wool are spun, and coarse stuffs woven ; but there are sev- eral blast-furnaces and other iron-works, soap-works, glass-woi-ks, sugar- refineries, tannei'ies, and, above all, distilleries, which are both nnmcrous and on a large scale. The chief exports are grain, flour, brandy, leather, soap, wax, honey, potash, wool, and timber. Education, nominally under the superintendence of the university of Kazan, is miserably neglected ; and the only printing-press in the govei-nment belongs to the crown. Penza, the capital of this government, is situated on a height near the junction of the Penza and Soura, two hundred and ten miles south-south- cast of Nijnei-Novgorod. It is meanly built of wood, with the exception of the cathedral, which is of stone. Besides the cathedral, there are eleven parish-churches. The principal manufactures are leather and soap, and in these a considerable trade is carried on. Penza is the residence of the governor ; the see of a bishop conjoined with Saratov ; and possesses sev- eral courts of justice, a theological seminary, and a gymnasium. The pop- ulation is about twelve thousand. The government of Kazan comprises that portion of the territory of the former kingdom which lies between the fifty-fourth and fifty-seventh degrees of north latitude, and the forty-sixth and fifty-second degrees of east lon- gitude ; and is bounded on the north by the government of Viatka, east by Orenburg, south by Simbirsk, and wqst by Nijnei-Novgorod. Its average length is two hundred and fifteen miles, and its breadth one hundred and twenty-five, containing an area of about twenty-three thousand five hun- dred square miles. On entering the government from the west, the ground descends at first gradually, but afterward more rapidly, almost to the level of the Volga, and spreads into a plain clothed with the richest green, intersecting an ele- vated plateau on the right bank of the Volga, and terminating three or four miles toward the east in a i-ange of hills. From this point, the ground on the left bank of the Volga rises rapidly, and strikingly contrasts with the low plains on the opposite side. The summit of this table-land is cov- ered with well-grown oaks, which form the commencement of an exten- sive forest. Many of the hills consist of a brilliant-white, slaty limestone, the strata of which have a considerable dip, and are occasionally pierced by natural passages, one of which, about two hundred and thirty feet in length, terminates in an alabaster cavern sixty feet wide. Though the surface is thus occasionally diversified by hills, and a low branch of the Ural mountains comes in upon the southeast, the genei'al appearance is that of an extensive plain, watered by large navigable rivers. , The Volga, pi-oceeding from the west, winds along in a tortuous course for nearly a hundred and fifty miles ; the Kama, from the east, after flow- ing nearly one hundred miles, joins the Volga, whose united streams, occu- 262 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. pying a channel nearly eight hundred yards wide, proceed south. lu ad- dition to these, arc numerous smaller tributaries and lakes, whicli, though individually not of large extent, are scattered throughout the disti-ict. The climate, on the whole, is mild. The winter is keen, but not protracted. Both spring and summer are usually serene, and in autumn all the vegeta- i>le- productions of the same latitude come freely to perfection. Among others, apples, pears, cherries, plums, and apricots, abound. Agriculture is extensively carried on, but not in a very perfect manner. In some jiarts, however, the Tartars seem to be careful liusljandmen, and are particularly attentive to the liarvesting of their grain. Hemp is grown to a great extent, and of excellent quality ; and the oil obtained from its seeds, and from a kind of pistachio-nut whicli abounds, forms an important article of commerce. Flax, in both quantity and quality, is deficient. The inliabitants generally seem fond of liorticulture. Almost every cot- tage has its garden, and patches of tobacco are often seen, particularly in the neighliorhood of the Tartars, who raise it for their own use. The rear- ing of cattle Ibrms a profitable employment in the meadows and pastures of the rich fiats wliich border the numerous streams. There, also, much attention is paid to the dairy ; tlie cows yielding a rich milk, of which large quantities of flutter and cheese are made. The Russians form nearly a half of tlie whole population. Tlie greater part of the i-emaindcr are Tartars, Chcrcmisscs, and Chiivasses. The Cheremisscs, wlio arc most numerous in the western part of the province, arc niuuh smaller and weaker than tlie Russian peasantry, and are charac- terized by a peculiar sliyncss of both look and demeanor. Their dress, which is the same for both sexes, consists of white linen trousers, and an upper garment of tlie same material, fastened round the loins with a girdle, and generally emliroidercd in various colors on the breast and shoulders. Strips of cloth, whicli they wind round the leg, from the foot to tlie knee, are always ijlack. Both men and women allow their long, black hair to hang about them in tlie wildest disorder. The dress of the Chuvasses very much resembles that of tlie Chere- misscs, the chief difference being in the females, who wear a plate of cojiper hanging from the girdle behind, and strung with all kinffs of metallic ornaments, wliich keep tinkling as they walk ; while from their necks are suspended large sil- ver breastplates, about eight inch- es long and six broad, formed of Chuvasses .;f Kazan, CoillS. Thc mCU WCar high blaok hats, tapering to tlie middle, but wide at the top and liottom, like an hour-glass. The above engraving EASTERN RUSSIA KAZAN. 263 represents some of these singular people hearing fuel at a wood-station on the Volga. The Chuvasses arc rciuarkablo for timidity. Tliis quality, which the first accounts of them mention as their most striking feature, seems still, notwithstanding their lon;^- intercourse with Russia, to continue unimpaired. Tliey, as well as tlie Clieromissus, A^jtiaks, and other tribes, are supposed to have sprung from a comliination of the Finnish and Mon- golian races, but they far more nearly resemble the latter. In the neighborhood of the city of Kazan the Tartars predominate, and are easily distijiguislied from tlie Russians l)y the dark color of their lean, muscular, and, as it were, angular visage ; by the close-fitting cap on tlicir closely-shaved skull ; and a certain smartness of gait and demeanor. They have made considerable progress in civilization, and often contrast favora- bly with the Russian peasantry. The inhabitants of the government, generally, are active and industrious. Besides agriculture and wood-cutting, fishing in the numerous lakes and rivers of the district is a profitable occu- pation, and employs a great number of hands. The province, moreover, posses- ses numerous manufactures, the inhabit- ants excelling in leather-embroidery, and has an extensive trade, both internal and external, which the large navigable rivers greatly facilitate. Indeed, boat and barge building, for the trafiic of the Volga, is not an unimportant branch of trade. The city of Kazan, the ancient capital of the Tartar khans, and, next to St. Pe- tersljurg, Moscow, Warsaw, and perhaps Odessa, the most important city in the empire, is situated fietween the left bank of the Kasanka (about four miles above where it empties into the Volga) and its tributary the Bulak, occupying a tongue of laud which gradually rises like an island to a considerable lieiglit above low plains subject to inundation. It is four hundred and sixty miles east of Moscow. Kazan covers a space nearly six miles in circuit, and consists, like most other Russian cities, of three parts — the Krendin, or fortress, on a con- siderable eminence ; the town, properly so called ; and the s/obode.sj or suburbs, inhabited principally by the Tartar po])ulation. The town is well built, and has broad and spacious squares and market-places ; but in the suburbs the houses are principally of wood, and the streets, not lieing paved, are consequently in spring and autumn so wet and muddy as to be almost impassable to pedestrians. The greater part of the Tartar houses are Ijuilt of wood, two stories high; Some, however, axe of brick. Tlic lower story of each serves for a barn, storehouse, &c., or is let for liire ; the ufiper lloor is inhabited by the owner. There is neither j)oreh nor portico in front, the entrance to Leatiieb Gloves and Wooden Spoon ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. '-frm^ Interior of a Tahtar House. the premises being tliroiigh a gate, leading into gardens with which each house is surrounded. The above engraving sliows the interior of one of the Tartar houses of the meaner class. On the left hand is constructed the petc/i, or fireplace, which serves for warming tlie room, and for culi- nary purposes. The Tartars of Kazan are in general well formed and handsome; their' eyes are blaclv or gray ; they liave a keen, piercing look, a rather length- ened 'brm of face, a long nose, lips somewhat tliicker than those of Euro- peans, a black beard, carefully trimmed, and the liair entirely sliaven from the head, which is covered with a small cap, called a tebeteika; their cars are large, and standing oat from the head ; tiiey have a long neck, very wide shoulders, and a broad chest — sucli is the description Dr. Fouks gives of their form and jiliysiognomy. They are, moreover, tall and erect , and their gait is manly and imposing. Tlie doctor remarks that whenever he entered a Tartar mosque he was always struck with the fine and noble features of their elders, and he asserts liis belief that the ancient Italian artists niiglit have chosen from among this race most admirable subjects for their sacred pictures, lie is not so favoraljle, however, in his descrip- tion of tlie Tartar women. Tie docs not consider them good-looking; but then he liad an opportunity of seeing only the wives and daughters of the poorer classes. In general, tlie Tartar women are middle-sized, and rather stout; like the men, they stand erect, but walk badly and awkwardly, a circumstance princi])ally owing to the heavy dress they wear. They soon grow old — so much so, that a woman of twenty-seven has the look of one of forty: this is owing to the custom they have of painting their faces. Tlieir complexion is ratlier yellow, and their faces are often covered with pimples and a rasli, ndiieh jirocecds partly from the habit of constantly lying on feather-licds, and partly from tlieir heavy and over-warm clothing Tlie same autliority, in a few words, thus descrilies the character of this race : " Tlicy aj-c proud, amliitious, hospitable, fond of inoncy, cleanly, tol- erably civilized (taking all tilings into consideration), intelligent iu com- EASTERN RUSSIA — KAZAN. 267 merce, inclined to boasting, friendly to each other, sober in every way, and very industrious." What is particularly striking is the tenacity with which the Tartars here, as elsewhere throughout the empire, have retained their national characteristics, customs, and manners, althougli nearly three cen turies have elapsed since this race was subdued by the Russians. The dress of the Tartars of Kazan of the better class is so different from that of every other nation, that it deserves a description. They wear a shirt (koulmiack') made of calico, sometimes white, sometimes red ; their drawers (^schtann) are worn very wide, and arc made likewise of calico, or occasionally of silk ; their stockings, called youk, are of cotton or linen. A species of leatlier stockings, generally of Morocco-leather, called itchigi, red or yellow, are worn over tlie stockings, or sometimes are substituted for them. Their slippers,- called kalout, are made of black or green leather. Over the shirt they wear two garments, somewhat in the shape of a Euro- pean frock-coat without a collar : the under one, having no sleeves, is made of silk ; the upper, with sleeves likewise of silk, is called kasaki. Ovei these they wear a long, wide robe, generally of blue cloth, called tchekmen, which is attaclied to the body by a scarf (^poda). In a pocket of this gar- ment they keep their pocket-handkerchief, called tchaoulok. Their heads, which are shaven to the skin, are covei-cd with a species of skullcap, called takia: this is covered, when they go out, with a hat (bourick^ made of velvet or cloth, and ornamented with fur: the rich Tartars use for this purpose beaver-skins of great value. The Tartars get their heads shaved every fortnight, and trim their beards once a week ; once a week they go to the bath. A very singular predilection exists among the lower classes — that of finding pleasure in being bled. This luxury they enjoy at least once a year ; the spring is generally chosen for the enjoyment. A barber of Kazan (for it is the barbers who bleed there, as they did formerly in England and other parts of Europe) assured Turnerelli that he -^lad let blood for upward of five hundred Tartars in one day, each of whom had paid him from fifty copecks to a rouble for tlie op- eration. He had in this manner earned upward of one hundi-ed dollars for blood-letting alone ! This was indeed profiting by the bloodshed of his fellow-creatures. The costume of the Tartar women of the higher classes is very ricli and elegant. They wear a species of robe of rich thick silk or satin, the sleeves being very large and long, sometimes even falling as low as the ground the apper part of these robes is embroidered in front with gold. Over this they wear a kind of capote, very wide, and generally made of gold brocade or some similar stuff gorgeously embroidered. They \vear on theii head a silk cap bordered with fur, which hangs down on one side and ends in a point having a golden tassel attached to it ; this cap is also sometimes adorned with precious stones, and ancient gold and silver cohis. Their hair falls behind in long tresses, the ends of which are tied up witli bows of ribands. Sometimes these tresses are covered with long bauds, to which 208 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. are attached various coins and ornaments. The Tartar women wear, more- over, a profusion of ])earls, neclclaces, gold and silver bracelets, finger- rings, ear-rings, chains, &c. The dress of one lady of rank, including her jewelry, sometimes costs not less than two thousand dollars ! The Tartar women, as in all Mohammedan countries, are kept secluded in the houses and harems of their husbands and parents. Tliey are alloived to remove their thick veils in their bedrooms alone : not their husbands' brothers, nor even their own uncles and cousins, are permitted to behold their features. Tlicy perform no labor of any sort, the concerns of the houscliold being confided to old women and male attendants ; the younger females having notliing to do but to dress, eat, drink, sleep, and please tlieir husbands. They marry very early, sometimes in their twelftli year! A rich Tartar woman lias hardly left her bed, wlien she begins her daily task of painting her face rod and white ; then she clothes herself in her gaudy vestments of gold and silver texture, and puts on her various orna- ments ; and tlien tlirows herself on the soft Turkish sofa, on which she lies almost buried. The samovar (tea-urn) is then brought her. She makes the tea herself, and drinks cup after cup of it until the perspiration flows down lier face, washing away at the same time all the paint with which she had adorned her face ; this necessarily requires two more hours at the toilet, when she is ready for her breakfast, which consists of a variety of greasy dishes. This over, she again throws herself on the sofa, and re- mains there, half-sleeping, half-waking, till a female friend probably drops in to see her, upon which the samovar again makes its appearance, and our fair Tartar drinks again as much tea as she did in the morning — to say tlie least, not less than seven or eight cups. The harmony of her face is again destroyed by tlie copious flow of perspiration that ensues, and she is forced to paint her face afresh, in order to appear at dinner in all her charms in the presence of her husband. After dinner, tea is once more presented : indeed, this beverage seems indispensable to the Tartars ; they affirm that it is absolutely necessary to drink it, in order to facilitate diges- tion after their meals, and Dr. Fouks states that they eat three times as much as the Russians. Having partaken a third time of tea to her heart's content, our Tartar lady then enjoys a nap. On awaking, she sometimes takes it into lier head to go and pay a visit to some female friend : for this purpose she changes the dress she wore in the morning for a still more expensive one ; she then gets into a square, prison-like, two-horse carriage, and arrives at the house of her acquaintance, where, completely buried in the thick veils which cover her head and face, she makes her way to the apartment of her friends, scarcely daring to show the point of her nose as she passes along. The Tartar women of the richer class do not even enjoy the privilege of breathing the fresh air. They dare not go into their small gardens without covering themselves from head to foot, lest they should meet one of their male relations living in the same house ! They hardly dare to look from their windows into the street, lest they should be seen EASTERN RUSSIA KAZAN. 269 by some passer-by. Such is the life of tlie higlier chiss oi Tartar women. Monotonous and tedious as it is, tliey do not, Iiowevcr, con. plain, nor even find it painful : on the contrary, they look upon the mode of living among European women as sinful in the extreme ; they believe that a European female will never go to heaven, and give thanks to God that he created them Mohammedans ! The Kremlin or Kazan. The citadel or kremlin of Kazan presents a very picturesque appearance. It is still surrounded by a stone-wall of great height, whicli was Iniilt by the Tartars, and is flanked by fourteen towers. There were also, at the period of the Tartar dominion, twelve difl'erent entrances ; these have been reduced to three. One of them, the Spaskie vorota (" Gateway of the Savior"), passes through the lower portion of an ancient and curious tower, wiiich has a claim to notice from the originality of its arcliitecture. The interior of this tower has been recently converted into a military churcli, and is tlie fashionable place of prayer. Above the gateway is suspended a miraculous image of the Savior, before which hangs a silver lamp, lighted on holydays and days of devotion. Near the Spaskie vorota stands a small yet singularly-constructed church, dedicated to St. Cyprian and St. Justin. It was founded by Ivan the Ter- rible, on the very day that Kazan fell into the power of the Russians : Pi'ince Kourbsky, in liis annals, informs us t1iat it was commenced in tlie morning, and iinished before tlie setting of the sun. It formerly possessed several ol>jccts of antiquity, but those were consumed by one of the fires to which Kazan lias been subjected. Beside tliis churcli rises the monastery of tlie T)-ansfiguration, founded a few 3'ears later, and wliieli is held in great veneration liy tlie Russians, iu consequence of its having been the place of interment of a certain saint called Varsaiiofia, who was likewise tlie first abl.iot of this monastery. It has several times been ravaged by the flames ; and at the i)Criod when the 270 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. rebel Pongatclieff laid siege to the fortress, it was almost entirely de- stroyed. Opposite this convent is situated the Etat Major and the mili- tary prison. The Cathedral of the Annunciation, a vast and imposing edifice, is the archiepiscopal seat of the diocese of Kazan. The architecture of this church, which is of tlie Byzantine order, is exceedingly curious; its belfry, in particular, presents an extraordinary appearance. This cathedral was built in the year 1561, according to a plan furnished by Ivan the Terrible. Prom the year 1596 to 1742, it was four times entirely consumed l)y the flames ; and in one of these fires, that of 1672, not only was the church destroyed, but even the colossal bells were melted down by the fury of the conflagration. Most of the precious objects that were formerly to be found here have also been consumed at different periods — among the rest, tlie books of divine service, presented by Ivan IV. ; the pontifical robes and ornaments, and several bells, gifts of the same sovereign ; the autograpli letters of .St. Goury to Herrman, abbot of the monastery of Sviask, and numerous otlicr relics and antiquities. At the present day, however, may be seen, among other curiosities, a gospel in manuscript, the only one of the books given l)y the czar Ivan that has been saved from the flames. In this cathedral, according to the annals of Kazan, was at one time likewise preserved a nail of the holy cross I Among the remains of Tartar architecture in the kreinlin is tliat extraor- dinary structure the tower of Souyonnbecka, or Sumbeka, which rises in the western portion of the fortress, near one of the gates at which the Ens- sians began tlie attack when they laid siege to the tower. The beauty of its arcliitecture, the gracefulness of its form, and its perfect construction, can with difficulty be imagined by tliose who have not seen it. It is of a square slia])e, and composed of several stories, which gradually dimiuisli in size toward tlie top ; tlie last has a shai-p, steeple-like form, ending in a point. It may be seen on the left in the foregoing view of the Kremlin. From the extremity of this lengthened cone rises an arrow of brass, which supports the Russian eagle placed above two crescents — an emblem of the history and fate of this town. Above the eagle is affixed a gilded globe, wliieh is supposed by many to be of pure and solid gold. The Tartars attach, a particular interest to this globe, for they suppose that it contains precious documents which relate to their liberty and religion. This tower is built of bricks, strongly joined together by a very compact and firm kind of mortar, which is doubtless the reason that this edifice has suffered so little from the ravages of time and the severity of the climate. It is two liiindred and forty-five feet high : a staircase, formed in the interior, leads to its different stories ; but the dilapidated state in which it now is, renders it very (lifficult, and even dangerous, to ascend. Close to tliis tower, iind joined to it hy a wall, is another building like the Ibriuer, sijiiarc, anil of very considerable dimensions, tlie second stie'V of which is surrounded by a vaulted gallery resembling the aisles of a EASTERN RUSSIA — KAZAN. 271 Gothic church. This edifice is likewise built of bricks : as its architecture resembles that of the tower, and is completely Asiatic in style, tlie period of its construction is evidently the same ; there is no doubt that it served for a palace, or some similar building. This edifice and the adjoining tower have been perpetually the Eubject of dispute and discussion to learned antiquarians. Some, averse to every tradition that bears a tinge of romance and poetry, pretend that tlie ])0pu- lar opinion, which states tliat tlie tower and palace existed l)efore the con- quest of Kazan, is founded on error ; and tliey assure us that tlie czar Ivan, after the taking of tiiis town in 1552, built these two edifices as monuments of his victory and the doAvnfall of the Tartars. Others suppose, on tlie contrary, that these ruins are a portion of the celelirated palace of tlie ancient khans : they say that the beautiful and unfortunate Sumlieka, whose name the tower bears, concealed therein her youthful hus))aiid, to protect him from the hatred of the Kazan grandees, who subsequently assassinated him. It was also on the toinb of this prince that, liy ovdev of tlie czar, tlie unfortunate Sumbeka was delivered up as a prisoner to tlie Kussians. Such is the tradition commonly believed by the people, the trutli of which is, moreover, corroborated by several authors who have written on the subject. The " Convent of our Lady of --^^^- - _ Kazan" is situated on a consid- crable eminence, and forms one of the most jirominent buildings of the city. It contains two large churches : one for winter service, heated by the aid of ovens ; and another, larger in its dimensions, for the summer months. The ar- chitecture of the latter is noted for its simple style, which gives it a grave and imposing appear- ance. The convent stands apart from the church ; it is a large, plain building, with nothing re- markable in its construction. Its inmates are limited to fifty, ex- clusive of numerous novices. Many of the other churches contain specimens of an architec- ture CM'ii more elaborate than those of JFoscow. Among them may bo !i;iined, ns reniarkaljlc ed- ifices, tlie callicdral of Nikolskoi, and that of Peter niid Paul, more moder: Aan the first named. The city lias in all about thirty-five ehurclies, nine Catiiediml of Nikolskoi, at Kazan. 272 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. convents, and sixteen mosques. Among the convents, the monastery of St. John the Baptist is an extensive edifice of an imposing aspect. In the middle town, which adjoins the kremlin, the grand appearance of some of the private houses, and the great extent of the bazar or ffosiinoi dvor, attest the liigh importance of Kazan at an early period. The bazar is surrounded by lofty buildings, chiefly of stone ; and exhibits an immense quantity of furs piled up in tlie fur-stalls ; an endless variety of vegetable productions and fruits, both green and dried ; and great supplies of fish, brought from tlie diiferent provinces bordering on the Volga. The chief object of interest in the lower town is the university, built of white hewn stone, and its principal fronts adorned with Corinthian columns. It was founded to be a school of modern civilization, in a semi-barbarous district, and well fulfils its purpose. Besides the ditfcrent branches of natural science, tlie study of eastern languages is carried on at tlie very source ; wliile tliat of national history is encoui-aged, not only by the pecu- liar character of the library, but also by a remarkably rich collection of Russian and Tartar coins. In addition to tlie usual branches of manufacture, Kazan has some which are peculiar to itself. One is the preparation and staining of Russia-leather, a business in which the Tartars are particularly expert ; and another, the making of a particular kind of soap, called muclo, which, cut into small pieces, and packed in boxes, is sent over all Russia. The town is well situated for a transit trade, carrying the manufactures of Europe north and east into Asia, and bartering them for the peculiar productions of those regions. In this way, particularly by the trade in furs and tea, many of its merchants arc said to have accumulated great wealth. Kazan annually undergoes an extraordinary change, about the last of April, owinu: to the inundation of the Volga, which, swollen by the vast quantity of nieltcd snow pouring into its channel, overflows its banks, dis- chai'giiig its waters in every direction over the level plains in its vicinity. The inundation in the neighborhood of the city often covers a space of from twenty to thirty miles. Altliough travellers sufler no small degree of inconvenience from this flood, the inhabitants of the banks of the Volga derive from it considerable advantages : to Kazan it becomes a rich source of prosperity, from the facility it aflbrds of transporting the different prod- ucts of the province. The aspect of the town at this period is imposing and magnificent. Its numerous churches, with their gilded domes and lofty belfries ; the Tartar mosques with their minarets, surrounded by glittering crescents : in fine, a thousand singular structures, of every form and color, seem to be grow- ing out of the immcDso sheet of water which lies around thein. About the end of May, the inundation, which lasts for nearly a month, begins to subside. Tlic waters are not long in disappearing. The earth they covered becomes muddy and slimy after their departure, but a burn- ing sun soon restores it to its former state. The grass springs up in the EASTERN RUSSIA — KAZAN. 273 plains, which for a short time look fresli and green ; but this verdure lasts only as long as the earth remains damp from the effects of the inundation, and in a few days these plains become arid and parched, as is their wont. The town itself — which, in consequence of the thawing of the snow and the unfirm nature of the soil, becomes a perfect bog, in which the horses plunge to their very haunches — now experiences a change still more in-^ supportable. The mud, dried up by tlie heat of the sun, is succeeded by dense clouds of dust, which sweep through the streets of the town, depri- ving the unfortunate pedestrian of the means of breathing, and rendering his clothes as wliite and powdered as those of a miller. Then, to avoid being suffocated by the heat and dust, the greatest part of the inhabitants make a precipitate retreat from the town — the landholders to their estates, and the lack-landers to those of their friends wliose hospitality affords them a refuge from the sensible calamity of a sojourn in town during this unpro- pitious and unhealthy period. The first foundation of the city of Kazan took place about the year 1265 Tradition gives the following singular account of its origin and of its name : Batau, or Balyl (the name is written in both ways by learned orientalists), a celebrated khan of the Golden Horde, about the middle of the thirteenth century, was in the habit of frequenting this valley, to enjoy his favorite amusement of hunting wild beasts, with" which, according to the statement of certain historians, this country was at that time terribly infested, and also with serpents of enormous size. It was on the banks of the river called at the present day the Kazanka, and on the spot where the kremlin of Kazan now stands, that the repast of the sovereign and his companions was prepared in a large caldron, according to the custom of the nomadic tribes. On one occasion, however, one of the attendants charged with this culinary office, while occupied in filling the caldron with water, let fall the precious utensil, which was not long in sinking to the bottom of the river. The good khan Batbu and his hungry comrades were deeply chagrined, when, in consequence of the utter solitude of the spot, which precluded all possibility of replacing the lost utensil, they found themselves reduced to the disagreeable necessity of going without a dinner on that ill-omened day. The impression created by that involuntary fast on the minds of these hungry disciples of Nimrod was so powerful, that thenceforward the river, which had been the cause of this painful privation, received from them the soubriquet of " Kazan," or the " River of the Caldron." Some time after, the idea having occurred to Batou of founding a city on the banks of that stream, he conferred the name of the river on the town. With regard to the word Kazanka, which designates at the present day the river that flows at the foot of the kremlin, it is evident that its termi- native syllable, ka, is a corruption of the original name, which the Rus- sians adapted to the character of their language, subsequent to their con- quest of the country. Kazan soon became a rich and flourishing town. About a hundred and 18 274 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. forty years after its foundation, it was besieged, for the first time, by Yu.y Dmitrievitch, brother to the grand-duke of Moscow. The town, after a protracted and desperate defence, fell into the hands of tlie invader, who quitted not the spot till he had razed every structure it contained to the earth. Its inhabitants were cruelly massacred. Kazan remained during forty succeeding years a wilderness. The second founder of Kazan was the unfortunate Oulou Makhmet, khun of the Golden Horde, who had been driven from his dominions by the Yediguai Saltana, a Tartar prince of Yaick. Makhmet, who had. accord- ing to the annalists, eighty-three sons, and almost as many wives, after wandering from desert to desert with his family and followers, finally set- tled on a spot not far from the ruins of the desolated town of Kazan. He did not, however, remain there long, but removed to a place about forty miles distant, where he founded the present city. This event marks the period of its second foundation, which took place in the year 1445. Kazan remained in the liands of the Tartars till about 1465, when it again fell into the possession of the Russians, Ivan III. succeeding in its reduction after two severe campaigns. But the Tartars were unsubdued, and in 1552 again took up arms against the Russians. They were once more reduced by Ivan the Terrible, who attacked Kazan at the head of a numerous army. Por six weeks they made a vigorous resistance ; but the city was ultimately taken, scarcely any of its valiant defenders surviving the event. By this capture of Kazan the Russian dominion was perma- nently establislied over tlie territory of the lower Volga. When Baton, the original founder of Kazan, bestowed on this town the ominous title of the " Toivn of the Caldron,'' he seemed as it were to have devoted it to tlie devouring element, which so often since that period has reduced it to ashes. Probably the history of no town ever afforded a suc- cession of sucli terrible conflagrations as tliat of Kazan. During the Tartar dominion we learn from its annals that it was several times devastated by fire — partly arising from accident, partly from the fui'y of enemies who besieged it. Subsequent to its falling under the Russian sway, at nine distant periods the flames have ravaged this unfortunate town. These fires, whieli seemed to increase in tlicir fury and the extent of tlicir rav- ages at every fresli occurrence, form nine remarkable and fearful epochs in the history of Kazan The first, which occurred in tlic year 1695, consumed the greatest part of the town, and all tlie most remarkable buildings in the krenilin. The second tire, 107 2, broke out in that part of Kazan near the krenilin. All the churches it contained fell a prey to the flames ; and four colossal bells, which were sent from Moscow by Vassili-Ivanovitch, and which were suspandcd in the belfry belonging to the cathedral, were totally molted down by the violence of the conflagration. The third, 1694, ravaged nearly a mile in circumference of the to\ra. The ffostinoi dvor, with its numerous shops and magazines, six monasteries, EASTERN RUSSIA KAZAN. 275 several cliurches and streets, and the suburbs known by the names of the Zaseepldu, Krasnaya, and Peodoroffskaya, were reduced to ruins. Tlie fourth, 1742, broke out in the middle of the night, burnt a very considerable portion of the town, consumed some twenty churches and as many monasteries, and once more ravaged the gostinoi dvor and the streets in its vicinity. The fifth, which occurred only seven years after, began in the Tartar town, which it reduced to aslies. Three palaces — those of the governor, the commandant, and the archbishop — twenty-three churches, six monas- teries, all the bridges on the canal called Boulac, the chancery of the gov- ernor with its archives and papers, the arsenal with its contents, several streets and parishes, and a great number of men, cattle, and barks, fell a sacrifice to this conflagration. The details of the sixth, 1757, are but little knowT>; but history informs us that it was as destructive and as terrible as any that had preceded it. The seventh, the work of the rebel Poiigatcheff, who wherever he passed brought witli him ruin and desolation, occurred in the year 1774. At tliat period the whole of the town, with the exception of the kremlin and tlie Tartar suburbs, were reduced to ashes ! Two thousand and ninety-one houses, seventy-four government-buildings, the gostinoi dvor, with seven hundred and seventy-seven magazines or warehouses, and thirty churches, became a prey to the flames. The eighth fire took place in the year 1815, on the 15th of September, and is still fresh in the memory of many of the inhabitants of Kazan. It is said by eye-witnesses that in less than twelve hours the whole of the town, witli its suburbs and villages, presented little else save a mass of burning embers ! Several woods and forests on the outskirts of the town likewise took fire. The conflagration spread for miles around, destroying every object that it encountered. In a word, on that awful occasion, eleven hun- dred and seventy-nine private houses, eight hundred and ten government- buildings, one hundred and sixty-six streets, several churches, monasteries, manufactories, and magazines, were reduced to ashes ! What was much to be regretted likewise was the destruction of the ar- chives of the town, with many valuable manuscripts relating to its history. As long as there remained anything to consume, the fire lasted ; and when, for want of fuel, it became extinguished, Kazan presented a scene of inex- pressible desolation. Such were the eight terrible conflagrations which, in less than the space of tliree hundred years, ravaged Kazan : but this devoted town was yet destined to expei'ience a new one, probably more violent and more terrible than any that had preceded it. We refer to tliat series of conflagrations whicli ravaged so large a portion of tlie city during the months of August and September, 1842. The first fire commenced during the niglit of the 26th of August, and in a short time destroyed a whole street of houses and stores, a college, and many fine houses. On the 3d of September the fire 276 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. showed itself in another part of the city. But these were nothing more than precursors of the terrible conflagration of the 5tL of September. A more tempestuous morning than that on which this terrible conflagra- tion took place was never known in Kazan — a town whose hurricanes form one of the prominent features in its historical records. The wind raged with an incredible violence. Several preceding months of dry and scorching weather had gathered in the streets a deep layer of dust and sand ; tliis, i-aised aloft by the fui-y of the whirlwind, so darkened the air, that at tlie distance of two or three yards nothing could be distinguished. The fire broke out in the street called Prolomnaya, at a hotel, known by the name of the " Hotel of Odessa," an elegant and costly structure, newly built ; and, driven over the city by the high winds with unparalleled ra- pidity, consumed in the space of twelve hours thirteen hundred houses, nine churches, one convent, warehouses where large quantities of merchan- dise were placed on deposite, a great number of stores, and some institu- tions of learning. The university was in imminent peril, but was saved with the loss of the wooden circular moveable tower of the observatory. The burning brands, carried by the wind to the other side of the Kazanka, communicating the flames to the heaps of hay, and thence to the neigh- oring villages, they were rapidly reduced to ashes.* On the morning of the 6th of September, one half of the city, recently so beautiful, presented nothing but a heap of smoking ruins. The fii'e had hitherto spared that quarter of Kazan inhabited exclusively by the Tartai-s, and known by the name of the Tartar town, or suburbs ; but the followers of Mohammed were not destined to be long exempt from the calamity which had befallen their Christian co-inhabitants. While the latter were mourn- fully contemplating the ruins of their houses and their homes, a terrible fire suddenly broke out in the above-mentioned quarter. It was about ten o'clock in the morning. Fortunately for the Tartars, the hurricane whicli had raged on the preceding day no longer existed, otherwise the whole of the Tartar town would inevitably have fallen a prey to the flames. As it was, the fire caused a fearful ravage : several streets were burnt, and some liours elapsed before the conflagration could be effectually extinguished. Tlie close of that day brought little or no alleviation to the sufferings of * Tlie Annricnn minister fit llie cimrt of St. Petprsburg, Colonel Todd, was at Kazan on the doy of this disiistrous fire. He had arrived there, with two travelling-companions, on the previous night, and had Inken up his quarters in a hotel in the Prolomnaya. There the flames had surpnsed him, and li.^ liad removed to an apaitment in the " House of the Nobiiity." Driven thence shortly after by i^ie nro? -ess of the conflngration, he sought a refuge in a third hotel on the Boulac. The flames were not long in reaching him in his new place of refuge ; and, for the fouith time on that eventful day, he removed with his suite to a distant inn on the suburbs. The same fate followed him there ! At last, weary of flying from one abode to another, he resolved to return to Moscow. He accordingly ordered his travelling-carriage to be harnessed, and set oul from Kazan, to which curiosity had carried him, and which he had seen in such a terrible state of calamity. He left with the governor-general of the town four hundred roubles for the benefit of the sufferers. We note this net of generosity with double pleasure ; fiir it is agreeable to reflect that the first donation given on this disastrous occasion for the benefit of Kazan, was from the hand of an Amoricaii citizen. EASTERN RUSSIA — KAZAN. 277 the unfortunate inhabitants. The night, like the preceding one, was passed under the cold and comfortless canopy of heaven. On the following morning the tocsin again rang, to announce the break- ing out of a fresh fire. It commenced in a street called Sabatchi Pereovr lok, or Dog street, which it reduced almost entirely to ashes. This daily occurrence of fresh fires now awoke a conjecture among the Inhabitants of Kazan that this repetition of horrors owed its origin to wil- ful incendiarism. They now recollected that, during the first conflagra- tion, fires had broken out in several parts of the town in a totally opposile direction to that in which the flames were borne by the wind — a circum- stance difiScult to be accounted for in any other manner. A singular mys- tery likewise enveloped the two succeeding fires : by degrees this terrible supposition became as general as it seemed probable. The police became on the alert. Its researches seemed to authenticate beyond doubt tlie ex- istence of a gang of incendiaries in the town. Upward of fifty persons were in a few hours apprehended upon suspicion : some had been found with matches and other combustible materials about their persons ; several had been caught in the very act of setting fire to divers houses. The fourth day came, and with it a fourth fire ! It broke out in that part of the Boulac which the flames had previously spared, reduced to ruins upward of twenty-five houses, and the grain-magazine of a merchant named Romanoff, which contained flour to the amount of a hundred thousand roubles. A committee for the discovery of the supposed conspiracy was now es- tablished. It was composed of the leading members of the inhabitants of Kazan. The latter assembled daily to invent measures for the safety of the town : unfortunately, little or no success followed their arrangements. Every succeeding day brought a fresh attempt on the part of tlic incendiary gang : in less tlian the space of a week, twenty repeated efforts were made to destroy the remainder of the town ! Fortunately, however, the vigilance of the inhabitants kept pace with the perseverance of the villains who seemed to have conspired to leave Kazan a desert. Day and night senti- nels were stationed before every house, to have an eye on the passenger. Yet, notwithstanding all this caution, the evil did not cease : the hand of the incendiary found means to elude the general vigilance. The 19th of September was signalized by new misfortunes. The fire broke out in another part of the city, till then preserved, and destroyed twenty houses. Subsequently, several attempts were made to renew these horrors, but they fortunately proved abortive. The redoubled vigilance of the inhabitants, the measures taken by the police, and, most of all, the approach of winter, with its heavy rains and falls of snow, by degrees di- minished the general anxiety. The goods, furniture, and property, which had hitherto remained in the fields, were brought back to the town ; and their owners, many of whom during this period of horrors had bivouacked like gipsies in the open air, now turned to seek a refuge for themselves 2(8 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. and tlieir families in those quarters of the town which had escaped the con- tlas^ration. But Kazan did not long remain in the state of desolation and ruin to which this frightful conflagration had reduced it. Like a phoenix, the town soon rose again from its ashes, more bright and splendid than ever. The riches of its inhabitants, the vast and lucrative trade it carries on with almost every part of the empire and with the East, and the great and active co-operation of the emperor Nicholas, who generously resolved that this ancient city should be immediately restored to its former splendor, com bined to produce the same change as took place in Hamburg after a great fire — a change which gave to both cities a beauty unknown to them before. Ere a year had elapsed, Kazan was again rebuilt, under the skilful direc- tion of numerous architects sent from St. Petersburg to superintend and hasten its reconstruction ; so that entire streets, whose houses were for nierly of wood, could now boast of handsome brick habitations, of a new and more pleasing stylo of architecture. Fortunately, all the aiicient structures of Kazan remained unmolesten and unaltered ; indeed, the fire seems to have respected these monuments, most of which escaped from the devouring element, or, if they were at- tacked by it, thanks to their thick walls and solid architecture, were able to set its power at defiance. This fire, therefore, while it gave fresh beauty to tlie modern portion of Kazan, did not in any way deprive the town of that antique historical character which gives it so great a charm in the eyes of the traveller. The population is about fifty thousand. The following sketch of Kazan is from Oliphant's " Russian Shores of the Black Sea." His " impressions" possess more than ordinary interest from their freshness, his passage through Russia being, as we have before had several occasions to remark, as recent as 1853 : — " Situated on a gentle eminence, in the midst of an extensive plain, its many-colored roofs rising one above another to the walls of the kremlin, which crowns the hills to the extreme left, tall spires and domes appearing in every direction, and betokening the magnitude of the city while adding to its beauty, Kazan presented a more imposing aspect than any town 1 had seen in Russia, and seemed to vie with Moscow as to exhibiting in the most favorable manner the characteristic buildings of the country. Twi- light was just failing us as we entered the broad, deserted streets, and reached the principal hotel, where we secured rooms, and then sallied forth to see as mucli as we could by lamplight At an early hour on the following morning we were up at daybreak, and on our way to the kremlin by four o'clock. We passed a number of houses which had been recently burnt down ; indeed, the town seemed to have suffered from fire in all directions. The Kazansky, or main street, traverses the entire ridge of the hill ; and, from the corners of the various intersecting streets, good views are obtained over the town upon each side. Following along it, past handsome, well-built mansions, and through the colonnade of a large bazar, EASTERN RUSSIA KAZAN. 279 or g-oslindi dvor, we reached the kremlin, and, from the terrace in Iront of the governor's house, revelled in a most glorious prospect. Stretching away to the north, the eye ranged over a vast expanse of country, thinly dotted with villages and church-spires ; while our position commanded a panoramic view of the town, wliicli in no way belied my impressions of the previous evening. To the south, the Volga, with its steep banks, bounded the prospect, while the Tartar villages in the foreground, with their sing,:- larly-built mosques, seemed to invite a visit. One of the latter was a curiously-fashioned little edifice (as may be seen in the engraving given below) , in its construction totally unlike any other building I ever saw. The effect of the scene was completed by the sun most opportunely rising, as it were, out of the steppe, tipping spire and dome, until we ourselves felt its genial influence. " Kazan has advantages which few other inland towns possess. The capital of an ancient kingdom, it is not the mere creation of government, kept alive, as it were, by law, and tenanted by compulsion : it rests upon foundations long since laid, and owes its present prosperity to its position on the great highway from Siberia to Moscow and Nijnei-Novgorod. It thus becomes an emporium for the productions of that distant part of the empire which pass through it. It boasts, moreover, manufactures peculiar to itself The inhabitants are well known to excel in leather-embroidery ; for workmanship of this sort Kazan is celebrated all over eastern Europe." Tajitak Mosque neab 2S# ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RDRSTA., Types of Caucasian Races. CAUCASIAN PROVINCES. ► HE Caucasian country lias a very ir regular outline, and forms a sort ol isthmus between the Black sea and the Caspian. It is bounded on the north by the governments of Don Cossacks and Astrakhan ; on the west, by the sea of Azov, the strait of Enikaleh, and the Black sea ; on the south, by Turkish Armenia, the river Arras, and Persia ; and on the east, by the Caspian sea. The principal feature of the country is the celebrated mountain-chain of Caucasus, which has been fully described on previous pages. This region includes several ancient kingdoms, states, and prov- inces, which have acquired historical celebrity. The inhabitants of the Caucasian country include a great number of tribes, evidently derived from a variety of stocks, and speaking a diversity of languages. The vignette at the head of this chapter presents types of some of the more important of these tribes. The portrait seen on the 1( ft, marked 1, represents a Tcherkessian, or Circassian ; 2, a Miugrelian ; 3, a \ogai Tartar ; 4, a Georgian ; 5, an Armenian ; 6, a Lesghian ; 7, a Cos- sack of Terek. These tribes are all distinguished by one noble quality — an almost inextinguishable love of freedom ; and in bodily constitution are at once so robustly and so elegantly formed, that what is known as the Caucasian race is universally acknowledged to be the finest type of man. The Russians first got possession of this country in the time of Peter the Great, who even extended his dominion along the Caspian sea into Ghilan ; but in the reign of Anne the military establishments were withdrawn to Kizliar, and a line of forts carried along the Terek for the defence of the THE CAUCASIAN PROVINCES — GEORGIA. 281 frontier. Mozdok was built in 1763, and from that point the line was extended gradually westward to the sea of Azov, along the northern bank of the Kouban. The wars in which the Russians have been engaged with Turkey and Persia, having led them again to the south of the Caucasus, tliey have been anxious to establish their authority over the intervening mountain-tribes, who, if not reduced to subjection, are likely to prove most troublesome and dangerous neighbors. In the course of time they may effect their complete subjugation, but as yet their progress had been very slow. Tlie government of Georgia (Russian, t^roozia; Persian, Gurdjistan; the ancient Iberia) is situated near the centre of the Russian possessions, on the south side of the Caucasian range, between the fortieth and fortj- third degrees of north latitude, and the forty-third and forty-seventh de- grees of east longitude. It has the province of Shirvan on the east ; an Armenian mountain-range on the soutli, which separates the basin of the Kour from that of the Arras ; a branch of the Caucasus on tlie west, form- ing part of the water-shed between the Caspian and Black seas ; and the central chain of the Caucasus on the north. Thus, surrounded on three sides by mountain-ranges, Georgia is in a great measure shut out from communication with tiie neighboring countries, there being but one pass either across the Caucasus into Circassia, or across tlie western range into Iraeritia. The length of the province from northwest to southeast, meas- ured on the best maps, is about one hundred and seventy-five miles, and its average breadth from one hundred to one hundred and ten miles. It contains about eiglit(!en thousand square miles. The surface of Georgia is mostly mountainous, consisting of table-lands and terraces, forming a portion of the soutliern and more gradual slope of the Caucasus. Tlie country, however, slopes from the south and west, as -well as the north, to the centre and southeast, which are occupied by the valley of the Kour, an undulating plain of considerable extent and great fertility. Between the mountain-ranges there are also numerous fertile valleys covered with fine forests, dense underwood, and rich pasturages, watered by an abundance of rivulets. All the rivers have more or less an easterly course. The principal is the Kour, or Mthwari (the ancient CyruH). This river rises in the range of Ararat, a little northwest of Kars. It runs at first north, and afterward northeast to about latitude forty-two degrees north, and longitude forty- four degrees east, from which point its course is generally southeast to its mouth, on the western shore of the Caspian. It is in many places of con- siderable breadth, and sometimes several fathoms deep ; but its gi-eat ra- pidity prevents its being of much, if any, service to navigation ; and hence rafts only are used upon it. Its principal affluents are the Aragwi from the north, which unites with it at Mtskethi, the ancient capital of Georgia, about ten miles northwest of Teflis ; and the Arras (the ancient Araxes) 282 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. from the south, which joins it not far above its mouth, where its course deflects southward. The climate of Georgia, of course, varies greatly, according to elevation. It is, however, generally healthy and temperate, being much warmer than that of Circassia, or the other countries on the northern slope of the Cau- casus. The winter, which commences in December, usually ends with January. The temperature at Teflis, during that season, is said not to descend lower than about forty degrees Fahrenheit ; and in the summer the air is excessively sultry, the average temperature at the end of July, in one year being, at three o'clock in the afternoon, seventj'-nine degrees, and at ten o'clock in the evening, seventy-four degrees Fahr. The soil is very fertile ; and agriculture and the rearing of cattle are the cliief employments of the inhabitants. Wheat, i-ice, barley, oats, Indian corn, millet, the Holciis sorghum and H. bicolor, lentils, madder, hemp, and flax, are the most generally cultivated articles ; cotton is found in a wild state, and is also cultivated. Georgia is noted for the excellence of its melons and pomegranates ;* and many other kinds of fine fruit grow spontaneously. Vineyards are very widely diffused, and the production of wine is one of the principal sources of employment. It is strong and full-bodied, with more bouquet than Port or Madeira ; but from having generally little care bestowed on its manu- facture, it keeps badly ; and casks and bottles being for the most part un- known, it is kept in buffalo-skins, smeared with naphtha, which not only gives it a disagreeable state, but disposes it to acidity. But notwithstaud- iiig these drawbacks, and its extensive consumption in the country, consid- oralile quantities are exported. Mr. Wilbraham says that " the Georgians have tlie reputation of being the greatest drinkers in the world: the daily allowance, without wliicli the laborer will not work, is four bottles ; and the higher classes generally exceed this quantity; on grand occasions the consumption is incredible." According to Smith and Dwight, " the ordi- nary ration of the inhabitants of Teflis, from the mechanic to the prince, is said to be a tonk, measuring between five and six bottles of Bordeaux! The best wine costs about four cents the bottle, while the common is less than a cent." Tlie multiplied oppressions to which the inhabitants have been long sub- jected, and the fertility of the soil, have gone far to extinguish all Indus try. The peasant thinks only of growing grain enough for the support of himself and family, and a small surplus to exchange at the nearest town for other articles of prime necessity. The plough in use is so heavy as to require six or eight buffaloes for its draught, and often double the number are used ; the harrow is nothing more than a felled tree ; and a great quan- tity of the produce is wasted owing to the grain being trodden out by buf- faloes. Domestic animals of all kinds are reared. The horses and horned cattle equal the best European breeds in size and beauty ; and the long-tailed THE CAUCASIAN PROVINCES — GEORGIA. 28ii sheep afford excellent wool. Game, including the stag, antelope, wild- boar, hares, wild-goats, pheasant, partridge, Ac, is very abundant; bears, foxes, badgers, jackals, lynxes, and it is said leopards, are common. The forests consist of oak, beech, elm, ash, linden, hornbeam, chestnut, walnut, and many other trees common in Europe ; but they are of little or no use. The mineral products of the country, though nearly unexplored, are be- lieved to be various : iron is plentiful on the flank of the Caucasus, and coal, naphtha, &c., are met with. The houses of the peasantry, even in the most civilized parts, are noth- ing more than slight wooden frames, with walls made of bundles of osiers covered over with a mixture of clay and cowdung, and a roof of rush. A room thirty feet long and twenty broad, where the light comes in at the door ; a floor upon which they dry madder and cotton ; a little hole in the middle of the apartment, where the fire is placed, above which is a copper caldron attached to a chain, and enveloped with a thick smoke, which escapes by either the ceiling or the door, is a picture of the interior of these dwellings. In the houses even of the nobility, the walls are some times built only of trunks of trees cemented with mortar, and the furniture consists of a very few articles. The roads, except that across the Caucasus to Teflis, which has been improved by the Russians, are in a wretched state. The vehicles in use are" of tlie rudest kind, and all commodities, except straw or timber, are transported upon horses, mules, asses, or camels. The inhabitants never ride except on horseback. Coarse woollen, cotton, and silk fabrics, leather, shagreen, and a few other articles, are manufactured. The arms made at Teflis have some reputation ; but most of the other goods are very inferior, and only enter into home consumption. Georgia, as before intimated, composes one of the Trans-Caucasian prov- inces of Russia. Their government is wholly military : and how little soever it may square with our notions of what a government should be, it is not ill fitted for the circumstances of the country ; and there can not be a question that its establishment has been most advantageous to the great majority of the population. The Georgian ladies have usually oval faces, fair complexions, and black hair, and have long enjoyed the highest reputation for beauty in the East ; the men are also well formed and handsome. This superiority in the phys- ical form of the Georgians and other contiguous Caucasian tribes, and the low state of civilization that has always prevailed among them, explains the apparently unaccountable fact that these countries have been, from the remotest antiquity down to our times, the seat of an extensive slave-trade. Latterly, the harems of the rich mussulmans of Turkey, Persia, &c., have been wholly or principally supplied by female slaves brought from Georgia, Circassia, and the adjoining provinces ; and they also furnished male slaves to supply the Mameluke corps of Egypt and various other military bodies with recruits. 284 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. In modern times the Georgians have been divided, with the exception of a few free commoners, into the two great classes of the nobles and their vassals or slaves. Previously to the Russian conquest, the latter were the absolute property of their lords, who, besides employing them in all man- ner of manual and laborious occupations, derived a considerable part of their revenue from the sale of their sons and daughters ! Indeed, the daughters of the nobles not unfrequently shared the same fate, being sacri- ficed to the necessities or ambition of their unnatural parents ! Tlie Russians have put an end to this traffic ; and they have also deprived the nobles of the power capitally to punish their vassals, and set limits to their demands upon them for labor, and other services. There can not therefore be, and there is not, a doubt with any individual acquainted with the circumstances, that the Russian conquest has been of signal advantage to the bulk of the Georgian people. It is probably true, however, that the Russians are quite as much disliked by the nobles of Georgia as by those of Circassia ; and those travellers who live with them, and credit their stories, will be amply supplied with tales of Russian barbarity and atrocity. With a settled state of aifairs, Teflis, the capital, might again become, as in the days of the emperor Justinian, a thoroughfare for the overland commerce between Asia and Europe. The Georgians belong to the Greek church, and, since becoming subject to Russia, have been subordinate in ecclesiastical matters to a Russian archbishop at Teflis, who has three suf- fragans south of the Caucasus. The clergy are generally very ignorant. A high-school in the capital has been recently erected into a gymnasium ; and in addition to it, there are a few small schools, in which, however, very little is taught. No serf is, or at least used to be, instructed in read- ing, but all the nobility are more or less educated : the females of this class teach each other, and arc commonly better informed than the males. The Georgian language is peculiar, differing widely from the langui.ges spoken by the surrounding nations. Georgia was annexed lo the Roman empire by Pompey the Great, anno 65 B. C. During the sixth and seventh centuries it was long a theatre of contest between the eastern empire of Constantinople and the Persians, In tne eighth century, a prince of the Jewish family of the Bagratides es- tablished the last Georgian monarchy, which continued in his line down to the commencement of the present century. The last prince, George XI., before his death in 1799, placed Georgia under the protection of Russia (though up to that time it had been regarded as nominally a dependency of the Persian monarcliy) ; and, in 1802, it was incorporated with the Rus- sian empire. In the Crimean war (1854) between Russia and Turkey, the frontiers of Georgia and Armenia were early the theatre of important military operations, and the Russians falling back, Georgia was declared independent. THE CAUCASIAN PROVINCES — GEORGIA. 285 Teflis, or Tijlis, the capital of Georgia and of the other Trans-Caucasian provinces, is situated near the centre of the country, on the right bank of the Kour, three hundred miles east by north of Trebizond, in Turkey, in a contracted valley formed by irregular mountains, parallel with the stream on the side of the city, and hills coming down in a point quite to the wa- ter's edge on the other. A circular fort covers this point, and, together with a small suburb, is united to tlie city by a bridge of a single wooden arch, thrown over the river ; while the ruined walls of an old citadel crown the top, and extend down the side of a part of the opposite mountain. The old and native part of the city is built upon the truly oriental plan of irregular narrow lanes, and still more irregular and diminutive houses, thrown together in all the endless combinations of accident. Here and there European taste, aided by Eussian power, has worked out a passable road for carriages, or built a decent house, overlooking and putting to shame all its mud-walled and dirty neighbors. A line of bazars, too, ex- tending along the river, and branching out into several streets, together with much bustle and business, display some neatness and taste, and is connected with two or three tolerable caravanseries. Several old and substantial churches, displaying their belfries and cupolas in different parts, complete the prominent features of this part of the city. In tlie northern or Russian quarter, officers, palaces, government-oiBces, and private houses, lining broad streets and open squares, have a decidedly European aspect, and exhibit in their pillared fronts something of that taste for showy architecture which the edifices of their capital have taught the Russians to admire. Teflis has the appearance of an excessively busy and populous place. Its streets present not only a crowded, but, unlike many oriental cities, a lively scene. Every person seems hurried by business. Nor is the variety of costumes, representing different nations and tongues, the least noticea- ble feature of the scene. The Armenian cathedral is a large and somewhat striking edifice. There are likewise two mosques ; and, among the other places of worship, is a German protestant chapel. The city has also a French and a German hotel ; they are represented, however, as being, in most respects, the re- verse of what they should be. House-rent is high, but otherwise living is not expensive. Teflis has many remarkable sulphureous hot springs, their temperature varying from one hundred to one hundred and twelve degrees Fahrenheit ; and to these, it is supposed by some, the city owes its name. Over some of these the Russian government has erected the crown-baths, a plain edifice, but which, by being kept in good order, differs widely from all the other bathing-establishments in the city, and realizes a handsome revenue. Teflis is very favorably situated for trade, and its commerce is pretty extensive, having greatly increased during the period of Russian occupa- tion. Almost all the trade is, however, in the hands of the Armenians. 283 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. Georgians of the Hkights of Teflis. In 1830, scarcely half a dozen mercantile houses existed belonging to any other foreigners, and only one European consul (a Frenchman) resided here. In the same year, the Russians founded a school at Teflis, which has since, as already remarked, been erected into a gymnasium ; and there are some other schools. Teflis, as well as Geor- gia in general, has for a long while been celebrated for the beauty of its wo- men ; and, according to the missionaries, D wight and Smith, " this has not been overrated, for wo have nev- er seen a city so large a proportion of whose fe- males were beautiful in form, features, or complex- ion, as Teflis." Teflis does not boast a very high antiquity. It is said to have been built in 4i]9 by Vachtang, the founder of a dynasty which ruled from the Eiixine to the Caspian. It was taken by the Tartars under Zinghis Khan, in the thirteenth century ; subdued by the Turks in 1576 ; sacked by Aga Mohammed Khan, shall of Persia, in 1795; and finally fell into the pos- session of the Russians, with Georgia, in 1802. It suffered greatly from the ravages of the cholera in 1830. It is the residence of the governor- general of Caucasus, and of a Georgian and Armenian archbishop. There are four newspapers published here in the Russian, Georgian, Persian, and Armenian languages, respectively. It?, present population may be reck- oned at from thirty-five to forty tliousand, the great majority of whom are Armenians, with some mussulman families. Among the other chief towns are Elizabetpol, or Ganjah, ninety miles southeast of Teflis ; Signak, fifty-six miles east by south ; and Akhaltsike, a hundred and ten miles west, once the capital of a Turkish pachalic, anfl having forty thousand inhabitants, but now only thirteen thousand, chiefly Turkish Armenians : it has some fine churches and ruins. Warzich,in the volcanic region of the Trapovanie and the Kour, formerly the favorite resi- dence of tlie Armenian queen Thamar, is an extraordinary spot. It is a complete city, hewn out of volcanic stone, and contains three large churches, entirely cut out of the rock, subterraneous passages, innumerable chambers, finely sculptui-ed, and the queen's summer and winter palaces. The whole country around is covered with lava and volcanic products of various kinds. iiiiiiiiili THE CAUCASIAN PROVINCES — SHIRVAN. 289 • The province of Shirvan lies on the south of the Caucasus, principally between the fortieth and forty-second degrees of north latitude, and the forty-seventh and fiftieth degrees of east longitude ; having the Caspian on the east, Daghestan on the north, Georgia on the west, and the river Kour on the south, which divides it from Talysch, formerly a portion of the Per- sian territory of Ghilan. It comprises about nine thousand square miles. Shirvan (^Shirwan, or Guirvan) was formerly a province of Persia. Ite climate and natural productions are much the same as those of Georgia. It consists chiefly of a well-watered plain, which produces cotton, rice, wines, and fruits of various kinds ; but along the shore of the Caspian there is a flat tract almost a desert. The inhabitants of this province arc chiefly Mohammedan Persians. Baku, or Badku, the capital of Shirvan, is situated on the southern shore of the peninsula or cape of Abcheran on the western coast of the Caspian sea, of which it is one of the most frequented ports. The walls of the town were formerly washed by the Caspian, but they are at present about five yards distant from it : the sea, however, has gained upon the land in other places, the ruins of ancient buildings being found at the depth of nearly twenty feet. It stands on a declivity, the summit of which is crowned by the palace of the former khans and Persian kings ; is defended by a double wall and deep ditch, constructed in the time of Peter the Great, and has two strong forts, under whose protection vessels can anchor in from four to six fatlioms water, within eighty yards of the shore, in a spa- cious road, sheltered from all quarters. The town is ill built, with crooked and narrow streets. The houses are small, with flat roofs coated with naphtha. The Virgin's Tower is the most striking object in the place. There are, however, several spacious mosques, public squares, marts, and caravansaries ; a Greek and an Arme- nian church, and some Tartar schools. The chief exports of Baku and its neighborhood are naphtha, salt, and saffron ; in return for which it receives, principally from Persia, raw silk and cotton, rich carpets and shawls, rice, &c. ; and from Europe all kinds of ironware and cutlery, cotton, linen, and woollen manufactured goods — thus becoming an entrepot through which an important trade is carried on between the East and the West. The adjacent island of Salian has impor- tant fisheries. Baku has a population of about six thousand. The jurisdiction of Baku extends over thirty-two villages, with nineteen 1 thousand inhabitants, of whom one thousand are Turkomans. The khan- ate of Baku was formerly attached to Persia, but wrested from it by the Russians, under Peter the Great, about 1723. It was restored in 1735, but retaken in 1801 by the Russians, to whom it now belongs. The peninsula of Abcheran, or Apsheron, is rocky and barren, destitute of trees, and the water, obtained only from wells, is very brackish. It is in many respects a most singular region, and is particularly famous for its naphtharsprings. The quantity of naphtha procured in the plain to tba 19 290 ILLUSi'RAiEiJ DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. southeast of the city of Baku is enormous. It is of two kinds, black and 7l.i.c, and its principal sources are about six miles from Baku. The black ^il shines vrith a reddish tint in the rays of the sun, and is used for burning r,nd for coatin'^ roofs. The supply seems inexhaustible, some of the wells yieldiniT fifteen hundred or two thousand pounds a day, and on being emp- tied iramediately fill i:p again ; the entire annual yield is upward of four '.housa.id tons ! xTear these springs is the Artech-gah, or " Field of Fire" nearly half a qucrc mile in extent. A stream of white oil here gushes from the foot of a hiU ; it readily ignites and burns on the surface of the water: and in calm weather people amuse themselves with pouring it into the sea, where they set fire to it, and it floats away, giving the ■fl'atcrs the appearance of a sea of fii-e. The poor people obtain a cheap light and fire for cooking ')y driving a clay pipe or reed into the ground, and burning the gas which ■ises ihrcugh it. The Persian ghebers or fire-worshippers likewise send the gas in bottles to their fi-iends at a distance. The "Field of Fire" is in constant motion, and emits a fiame without heat. Occasionally the whole region seems to be in flames ; and it appears as if the fire rolled down the mountain-sides in large masses, with incredible velocity, presenting on 1 winter's night a scene of wonderful sublimity. In ancient times the burn- ing f^eld was one of the most celebrated ateshijahs or shrines of grace among the ghebers or parsees of Persia, and frequented by thousands of pilgrims. They have still several temples here, and many of them spend their days in worship and in penitential exercises so severe as often to cost them their lives. The peninsula is likewise celebrated for numerous ■volcanoes, which discharge immense quantities of mud. Russian Armenia comprises that portion of the former kingdom of tnat name wliich lies south of Georgia and north of the Arras and Mount Arar rat, being two hundred miles in length and about one hundred and thirty in breadth. It formerly constituted the Persian province of Erivan, by which name it is now sometimes known. It contains about eight thousand square miles. The country consists of a mass of mountains, crowding on each other and filling up the whole space with volcanic amphitheatres. One of the largest of these amphitheatres is occupied by the great fresh-water lake of Gilkcha (blue lake), called also Si'van, the surface of which is five thou- sand three hundred feet above the level of the sea. In the northwestern portion of the lake is an island called Sivan, with a monastery, twelve hundred yards from the shore. The lake is said to be unfathomable, and has the dark-blue appearance of deep water. A branch of the river Zen- gue, which passes the town of Brivan, cai-ries the surplus waters of the lake to the Arras. The whole country in the neighborhood is volcanic. The soil of the valley of the Arras is extremely fertile, and the mountains s covered with pasture. Directly south of Erivan a small portion of the THE CAUCASIAN PROVINCES — ARMENIA. 2h\ RiiSGian territory extends to the soutliwestward of the Arras, and in ti,c southwest corner of this portion stands the famous mountain Macis (^ /"-■>■ dagh}, or Ararat, a view of which is herewith given. '* 3 2 "^ Ababat, from the Plain of Erivan. It consists of two mountains — the Great Ararat, on tlie northwest ; and tlic Less Ararat, on the soutlicast: their summits, in a direct line, being about seven miles apart, and their bases insensibl3- blending into each other by the interposition of a wide, level, upland valley. The summit of the Great Ararat is seventeen thousand three hundred and twenty-three feet above the sea-level, and fourteen thousand three hundred and tvi-enty feet above tlie plain of the Arras. Tlie northeastern slope of tlie mountain is about fourteen miles in length, and tlie soutliwcstern about twenty miles. On the former, visible even from-Erivan, thirty-two miles distant, is a deep, gloomy, crater-like chasm. Tlie mountain is covered with perpetual snow and ice, for about three miles from its summit downward, in an oblique direction. On the entire northern half, from about fourteen thousand feet above the sea-level, it shoots up in one rigid crest to its summit, and then stretches downward on its soutliern side to a level not quite so low, formit:;; what is called the " Silver Crest of Ararat." Little Ararat rises thirtec/: thousand and ninety-three feet above the sea-level, and ten thonsana ore hundred and forty feet above the ])lain of the Arras ; and is free froin srcw in September and October. Its declivities are greater and steeper tii;, i those of the Great Ararat ; and its almost conical form is marked with s:-. eral delicate furrows, that radiate downward from its summit. The top of the Great Ararat was first reached, October 9, 1829, by Pro- fessor Parrot, who reports it to be a " gently-vaulted, nearly-cruciform sli-- face, of about two hundred paces in circuit, which at tlie margin sloped off' precipitously on every side, but particularly toward the southeast and north- east. Formed of eternal ice, without rock or stone to interrupt its couti- 292 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. ycltj, it was the austere silvery head of Old Ararat." Toward the oast, this summit is connected, by means of a flattish depression, with a lower summit, distant four hundred yards, and in like manner covered with ice. After remaining on the summit three quarters of an hour, determining the height, and making various observations, Parrot descended to the monas- tery of St. James ; the tliird day after, he left it. The observations of Parrot have been in every respect confirmed by another Russian traveller, named Abich, who reached the summit of the Great Ararat without diffi- culty, July 29, 1845. He, with six others, remained an hour on the top, without experiencing any inconvenience from cold, so much felt by Parrot and liis companions. All travellers attest the volcanic nature of the Ararat mountains, as evi- denced by the stones found on all their slopes, undoubtedly the products of a crater. They are composed chiefly of trachytic porphyry, and on them pumice and various descriptions of lava have been met with. Reineggs avers that lie saw the Great Ararat send forth smoke and flame for three days in 1785 ; but this is believed to be one of the many romances which that traveller has related. No such occurrence was remembered, in 1843, by individuals resident on the mountain at the period indicated, and no eru])tion is found recorded in the chronicles of the monastery of Echmiad- zin, tliough they extend back over a period of eight hundred years. All doubt as to the volcanic nature of the two Ararats was put an end to on July 2, 1840, when an eruption took place from the head of the great chasm, which destroyed the monastery and chapel of St. James, the village of Arguri, and their inmates. Dr. Wagner, an enterprising German trav- eller and naturalist, who visited the spot in 1843, gives in substance the following account of that event, as related by Sahatel Chotschaieff, brother to Steplien Aga, village elder of Arguri, honorably mentioned by both Par- rot and Dubois, and confirmed by other two eye-witnesses : — " On July 2, 1840, half an hour before sunset, the atmosphere clear, the inhabitants of Armenia were frightened hj a thundering noise, that rolled loudes't and most fearfully in the vicinity of the Great Ararat. During an undulating motion of the earth, lasting about two seconds, which rolled from the mountain east and southeast, and wrought great destruction iii the districts of Sharur and Nakhichevan, a rent was formed in the end of the great chasm, about three miles above Arguri, out of whicli rose gas and vapor, hurling with immense force stones and earth over the slope of the mountain down into the plain. The vapor rose very quickly higher than the summit of Ararat, and seems to have been wholly of aqueous com- position ; for in the same night a heavy rain fell in the vicinity of the mount- ain — an unusual occurrence in this country during summer. The vapor at first was of various colors, in which blue and red prevailed. Wliether flames burst forth could not be ascertained ; but the pillars of vapor or smoke had a red tint, which, had the eruption taken place during the night, might possibly have exhibited flame. The blue and red tint of the vapor THE CAUCASIAN PROVINCES — ARMENIA. 293 soon became dai-k black, and immediately the air was filled with a very disagreeable smell of sulphur. While the mountain continued to heave, and the earth to shake, with the unremitting thunder, along with the sub- terranean cracking and grqwling, might be heard the whiz, as of bombs, caused by the force with which stones and large masses of rock, upward of fifty tons' weight, were hurled through the air ! Likewise, the dash of the stones as they met in the air in their flight, could be distinguished froia the thundering noise issuing from the interior of the mountain. Where these large stones fell, there in general they laj' ; for, in consequence of the- gentle declination of the ground at the foot of the mountain, to roll far was impossible. The eruption continued a full hour. When the vapor had cleared away, and the shower of stones and mud had ceased, the rich vil- lage of Arguri, and the monastery and chapel of St. James, were not to bo seen : all, along with their inmates, were buried under the mass of stones and mud that had been ejected. The earthquake, which accompanied the eruption, destroyed six thousand houses in the neighboring districts of Nakhichevan, Sharur, and Ardubad. Four days after a second catastrophe occurred, which spread still farther the work of destruction at the foot of the mountain. After the rent in the chasm, whence issued the vapor and stones, had closed, there remained in the same place a deep basin filled with water by the melting of the snow, by the rain, and by a streamlet from above, so as to form a small lake. The mass of stone and clay, which formed a dam, and surrounded the lake like the edge of a crater, was burst by the weight of water, and poured down the declivity of the mountain with irresistible force a stream of thick mud, which spread into the plain, and partly stopped up the bed and altered the course of the small river Karasu. A part of the gardens of Arguri that had escaped the eruption, were destroyed by this stream of mud, which carried trees, rocks, and the bodies of the inhabitants of tlie village, down into the plain, and to the bed of the Karasu. This stream of mud was three times repeated, and was accompanied by subterranean noises." That Noah's ark rested on the top of Mount Ararat is not to be credited. The difficulty of the descent, and the low temperature, of the atmosphere, which must have killed many of the animals, alike preclude the supposi- tion : and, moreover, the Scriptures do not say it rested on the lop, but merely " on the mountains of Ararat." If this be the mountain there re- ferred to — which is somewhat doubtful, seeing that tlie olive does not grow near it — the ark must have rested on one of its lower slopes. Nakhiche van, eighty miles east of Erivan, claims the honor of being the oldest cify of the world; and tradition affirms that Noah fixed his residence liere after descending from Ararat. ' The name Ararat is said to \be derived from Arai, a king who lived 1750 years B. C. He fell in battle, in an Armenian plain, which was hence called '■'■Aral- Aral" — the fall of Aral. Before him reigned Ajnassis, the sixth from Japhet, who called the country Amasia; hence tlic name Massif, sVl ILLUSTRATKD DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. or j.'lacis, by which alone Armenians in the present day know the mount t'r.. By the Turks and Persians it is called Ag-ri-dagh. The third sylla- bic, dagh, means mountain,; but philologists are not agreed on the siguili- cr^tion of Agri. Owing to the great elevation of the country, the climate in most parts is r::Lhcr severe ; but though the winters last long, the summer heats ai'e suf- f.oicnt to bring all the fruits of the earth to perfection. Although severe, th3 climate is, however, considered healthy. The soil of Armenia is reckoned, on the whole, productive, though in many places it would be quite barren were it not for the great care taken to irrigate it; to such an extent, indeed, is the system of irrigation carried on, that in summer many considerable streams ai'e wholly absorbed for this purpose. Wlieat, barley, tobacco, hemp, grapes, and cotton, are raised ; r,nd, in some of the valleys, apricots, peaches, mulberries, and walnuts, arc gi'own. From the nature of the country, the rearing of stock is carried on to a greater extent than agriculture. The horses are spirited, fleet, and fiery; Pines, birclies, poplars, and beeches flourish, but there are no thick forests except in the nortliorn parts of the country. The flora is not so varied as might be ex])ected in sucli an Alpine region ; in several respects it resembles tlie vegetation of the Alps of Tyrol and Switzerland. The inhabitants are chiefly of tlie genuine Armenian stock; but besides tliem, in consequence of the repeated subjugation of the country, various other races have obtained a footing. Of these the principal are the Turko- nmns, who still maintain their nomadic habits, and from whom the country has received the name of Turkomania. Of the Armenians, but about one half are in Armenia. The remainder, like the Jews, are scattered over various countries ; and, being strongly addicted to commerce, play an im- portant part as merchants. They are found all over western Asia; about two hundred thousand are in Constantinople and its vicinity ; numbers are in various parts of the Russia empire, Hungary, and Italy ; some in Africa and America ; and a large number in India, chiefly in the great marts of Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta. Everywhere they are engaged in banking and trading. In physical structure, they belong to the Caucasian race, and, in general, are well made. Their eyes and hair are black, their look lively, noses aquiline, and their complexion somewhat swarthy. The women are remarkable for the delicacy and regularity of their features. Like the Jews, wliom in many respects they resemble, their ruling passion appears to be an inordinate love of gain, but they are generally esteemed honest. Their mental capacity is good, and those wno are educated are distin- guished by superior cultivation and relined manners ; but the mass of the people inhabiting their native country, in consequence of centuries of neg- lect, are grossly ignorant and superstitious. The Aruienians embraced Cliristianity in the fourth century ; and, in A. D. 536, separated from the Greek church, being dissatisfied with the decisions of the council of Chalcedon. In doctrine, they hold that there THE CAUCASIAN PROVINCES — ARMENIA. 295 is only one nature in Christ, and that the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Father alone. They have seven sacraments, but, in the mode of using them, differ in several respects from tiie Roman catholics. They adore saints and images, but do not believe in purgatory. Their hierarchy differs little from that of the Greeks. The catholicus, patriarch, or head of the church, has his seat at Echmiadzin, a monastery near Erivan. A minority of the Armenians, chiefly those residing in European countries, acknowl- edge the pope, and conform, in doctrine and church-government, to the Roman catholic church. They are called United Armenians. Patriarchai. Church and Monastery of Echmiadzin. The monastery of Echmiadzin, the seat of the catholicus, or head of the Armenian church, lies in the valley of the Arras, thirteen miles east of Eri- van, near the village of Vagarhabad, which is also frequently though im- properly called Echmiadzin. The monastery is surrounded by a wall thirty feet high, entered by four gates, and flanked by towers, which, as well as the walls, are built of brick, excepting the base, and furnished with loop- holes, giving to the whole structure the appearance of a large quadrangular fortress. The monastery was founded in A. D. 524 ; but the church it contains dates from the time of St. Gregory " the Enlightener," who intro- duced Christianity into Armenia, though various additions have been made to it in later times. The monks have here a printing-press and a seminary ; but little good is to be expected from their labors, as they are unlearned, ignorant, and superstitious. The Armenian language belongs to the most distant offshoots of the Indo-Germanic root ; but still, in its form and structure, has much that it is peculiar, and to the ear it is harsh and dissonant. The old Armenian language, also called Haican, which is that of literature, may now be con- sidered a dead language. In the new Armenian language, which is divided into four dialects not differing greatly from each otlier, there are many Turkish words, and the construction of sentences is regulated by the rules of Turkish syntax. With the exception of some songs collected by Arch- bishop Moses Choronensis, no specimens of the earlier Armenian literature 296 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. have been preserved. After the introduction of Christianity, a great taste for the Greek language and literature arose, and a number of works in Greek and Syriac were translated into Armenian. Before A. D. 406, the Armenians had no alphabet of their own, but used indifferently Greek, Syriac, or Persian characters. In that year, however, Mesrop Masdoty invented the Haican alphabet, consisting of thirty-eight letters (thirty con- sonants and eight vowels), called, from its inventor, Mesropian, and which still continues to be employed along with the modern alphabet. Armenian literature flourished from the fourth to the fourteenth century. Of this period, many writers have obtained a name chiefly as histoiians and chroniclers. Their works, which might throw considerable light on the history of the East during the middle ages, have hitherto been little con suited. Armenian literature began to sink in the fourteenth century, and since that period scarcely any original work of importance has appeared ; but, in all their wanderings, the Armenians have preserved a taste for native literature, and have set up printing-presses wherever they have set- tled : so that we find Armenian works printed in Amsterdam, Venice, Leghorn, Lemberg, Moscow, Astrakhan, Constantinople, Smyrna, Echmi- adzin, Ispahan, Madras, Calcutta, Batavia, &c. The most interesting col- ony is that on the island of San Lazaro at Venice, founded by the abbot Mechitar Pedrosian in 1717, who there established a monastery, academy, and printing-press, whence important Armenian works have continued to be issued down to the present time. According to the native historians, the name Armenia is derived from Aram, the seventh king of the first dynasty, who about B. C. 1800, gave a settled character to the kingdom. The Armenians call themselves Haics, or Haicans, and ti-acc their origin, in their traditions, to Haic or Haico, the father and patriarch of the people, a contemporary of the Assyrian king Belus. Armenia subsequently fell into the hands of different rulers, and was exposed to many attacks. The Romans and Parthians had many fierce conflicts for its possession, in one of which the consul Crassus was defeated ; but at last, under the emperor Trajan, Armenia Major became a Roman province. It afterward recovered its independence, and was under the rule of its own kings. Sapor, king of Persia, attempted its subjuga- tion in vain, and it remained free until 650, when it was conquered by the Arabians. After this, it several times changed its masters. In the thir- teenth century, it was overrun by the Moguls under Zinghis Khan. In 1562, tlie Turkish sultan Selim II. conquered it from the Persians. In 1604, Shah Abbas, emperor of Persia, in order to protect his donun- ions on the side of Armenia against the Turks, resolved to carry off the inhabitants, and to lay waste a large portion of the country, so that it miglit no longer be able to support an army ! This monstrous resolution was executed witli the most revolting barbarity. The inhabitants, driven off like cattle, perished by tliousands, while their houses were burnt down, and every vestige of civilization obliterated. A part of the survivors were THE CAUCASIAN PROVINCES — ARMENIA. 297 settled in the suburbs of Ispahan, the old Persian capital, where they were kindly treated ; but the greater number, being located in an unhealthy part of the province of Mazunderan, were soon swept off by disease. Until recently, Armenia was divided between Turkey and Persia ; but the former ceded to Russia, by the treaty of Adrianople, in 1829, a con- siderable portion of her Armenian territories ; and Russia had previously (in 1827) acquired the entire province of Erivan from Persia. These ac- quisitions' have been consolidated into the government of Armenia. Envan, or Irivan, the capital of Russian Armenia, is situated on the left bank of the Zcngae, or Sang-a, a considerable river that flows from the lake Gukclia, or Siuan, to the Arras, thirty-three miles north-northeast from the foot of Mount Ararat, on the border of the great plain of the Arras, and one liundred and six miles southwest of Teflis. The site of the town is three tliousand three hundred feet above the sea-level. It stands partly on a hill, and partly on the margin of the stream, which is here crossed by a handsome stone bridge of several arches, and is very unhealthy during the summer heats. It contains about two thousand liouses, interspersed with numerous gardens, and ruins of various dates, the whole fortified and protected by a citadel placed on a steep rock, moi-e than six hundred feet in height, overhanging the river. This fortress, which is about two thou- sand yards in circumference, is encompassed by a double rampart of earth, flanked with towers : it contains the ancient palace of the khans, called Sardar, now the residence of the governor ; a fine mosque, a cannon-foun- dry, barracks, &c. The town is irregularly built, witli narrow and dirty streets ; and the houses, which are built of boulders, and mortar made of clay and straw, give it a mean appearance. It has, however, a handsome bazar, with nearly eight hundred shops, besides several caravansaries, five Armenian churches, one Russo-Gijeek church, an Armenian convent, five mosques, some aqueducts of a curious construction, &c. An old tower, described by Chardin, has since been pulled down, and its materials used for building. The town has some manufactures of cotton-stufiFs, leather, and earthenware ; and, being on the caravan route between Persia and Russia, it has a considerable transit-trade. Its population is about twelve thousand, who are principally Armenians. The epoch of the foundation of Erivan is unknown. It was taken by the Persians in 1635. The latter retook it in 1724 ; but it was again cap- tured by the Persians, under Nadir Shah (commonly called Nadir Kouli Khan), in 1748. The Russians were repulsed in an attempt to take it in 1808 ; but they succeeded in 1827, and were confirmed in its possession by the ensuing treaty with Persia. Akhalzik, Akalfzik, or Akiska, is situated in a district of the same name, one hundred and ten miles west of Teflis, on the left bank of the Dalka, ten miles from its junction with the Kour. It is without walls, but defended by a strong citadel, built on a rock, which, when it belonged to Turkey, baffled all the attempts of the Russians to reduce it. Akhalzik is the seat 298 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. of a Greek archbishop, and contains two churches, a synagogue, and sev- eral mosques — one of which, that of Sultan Ahmed, is built on the model of St. Sophia at Constantinople, and has a college and library attached to it. The latter was accounted one of the most curious in the East ; but the Russians have removed about three hundred of the most valuable works to St. Petersburg. The neighborhood pi-oduces silk, honey, and wax, with excellent fruits, raisins, peaches, apricots, and figs. Some manufactures are carried on, and the inhabitants prosecute an active trade with various places on the Black sea. Formerly a large slave-market was held here, which the Russians suppressed when they acquired possession of the town. In the vicinity are some alkaline springs. The population, which includes Armenians, Georgians, Turks, Russians, and Jews, is about fifteen thousand. The former Turkish pachalic of Ahkalzik, or Tcheldir, as named by the Turks, forms now a political and administrative subdivision of Russian Ar- menia. It is a mountainous country, watered by the Kour ; the climate is healthy, though the extremes of lieat and cold are very great. The soil is fertile, producing maize, barley, tobacco, flax, and cotton, with excellent fruits. Game is abundant. Large numbers of cattle and sheep are raised, and mucli attention is paid to bees and silkworms. The population consists cliieflj of Georgians, Turks, Armenians, and Jews. Ijieritia, Mingrelia, and Guru, the three most western Trans-Cauca- sian provinces, occupy the whole basin of the Rioni, enclosed on three sides by mountains, and open only toward the Black sea. Tlie province of Imeritia, or Imerethi, is bounded on the north by the Caucasus, east by Georgia, south by Armenia and Guria, and west by the Black sea and Mingrelia. Its greatest length from north to south is ninety miles, and its greatest breadth about seventy-five. It contains about four thousand ciglit hundred square miles. The surface of the country has a general slope' westward to the Black sea, but is mostly very uneven and rugged, being traversed by ramifications of tlie Caucasus. The only streams are the Rioni and its tributaries. The climate is excellent, and the soil generally fertile. All the higher mountain- slopes arc covered with magnificent forests; many of the loftier valleys afford luxuriant pasture ; and in the lower gTOunds, notwithstanding the indolence and unskilful management of the inhabitants, heavy crops of wheat, barley, maize, tobacco, hemp, and madder, are raised. Fruit-trees grow spontaneously; and chestnuts, walnuts, apricots, cherries, &c., are found in abundance in every quarter. The vine also is said to grow spon- taneously, and is often found entwining itself with the trees of the forest. Domestic animals are not numerous, biat game is very abundant. Considerable attention is paid to the rearing of bees and silkworms. There are no manufactures deserving of the name ; and the trade, almost wholly in the hands of Armenians, Greeks, and Jews, consists chiefly in exports of the raw produce of the country — particularly wine, grain, silk. THE CAUCASIAN PROVINCES IMERITIA - — MINGRELIA. 299 wax, skins, wool, and fruit ; and imports of woollen, linen, and silk goods, copper and iron ware, cutlery, salt, and colonial produce. The trade in slaves — males for the army, and females for the harema of the Turks — was once the most important in all, but has been put down by the Russians since they acquired the control of the country. Imeritia, in the fourteenth century, formed part of the kingdom of Geor gia. It afterward became independent, and was governed by its own prip ces ; one of whom, in 1804, voluntarily mado it over to Russia. Imbritian Princb. MiNGBELIAN FbINCE. The piovince of Mingrblia (the ancient Colchis, and the scene of the fable of the Golden Fleeee and the Argonautic expedition) is bounded on the north by the Caucasus, on the east by Imeritia, on the south by Guria, on the southwest by the Black sea, and on the northwest by Abas- sia. Its area is about seven thousand two hundred square miles. The surface of this province is generally mountainous, but slopes gradu- ally to the south, particularly toward the Rioni, its principal stream. The mountains are generally covered with magnificent forests ; and both the lower slopes and valleys are fertile, yielding good crops of millet and abundance of excellent fruit. A good deal of silk and honey are likewise 300 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. |)i'oduced. Mingrelia became a vassalage of Russia in 1803, but is gov- erned by its own prince, who talces the name of dadian. The province of Guria, or Guriel, is bounded on the north by Imeritia and Mingrelia, on the east by the district of Akhalzik in Russian Armenia, on the south by the paclialic of Trebizond in Turkey, and on the west by the Black sea. It contains fifteen hundred square miles. The country is chiefly forest ; the soil is very fertile. The inhaj^itants are principally Georgians, with a few Armenians. Guria, the same as Mingrelia, is governed by a native prince, who acknowledges the czar's supremacy. Ignorance and vice are very prevalent, and even few of the nobles can understand their own language. The general condition of the people, however, is said to have been greatly improved through their con- nection with Russia. The noble can no longer deprive his servant of life, or sell him to a foreign master, as formerly. Koutais, Kolais, or Khouthaissi (the ancient Cotatis), the capital of the western Trans-Caucasian provinces, is situated on the left bank of the Rioni, about one hundred and twenty miles west-northwest of Teflis. It is embosomed in fruitful gardens ; has in its centre a market-place, in the form of a large amphitheatre, where the inhabitants lounge away much of their time ; and six churches, a seminary with one hundred pupils, and a public garden tastefully laid out. It is the residence of a governor and a bishop. The inhabitants, consisting, besides Imeritians, of a great number of Armenians and Jews, are chiefly employed in vine and garden culture. The population is about three thousand. The old town of Cotatis, or Cotaisis, the capital of ancient Imeritia, is situated on the right bank of the Rioni, to the westward of the modern town, and is reached by a stone bridge over the river. It is little more than a heap of ruins, among which, however, lie broken columns, and capi- tals covered with inscriptions. The province of Abassia, Abkasia, or Abkhazia, is bounded north and west by the Caucasian range, which separates it from Circassia ; east by Mingrelia ; and south by tlie Black sea. It is about two hundred and sixty miles long, by less than thirty in breadth. This country is composed wholly of the southern side of the Caucasus mountains — some of whose snow-covered peaks are here from twelve to thirteen thousand feet high — and of the low plains intervening between these mountains and the sea. The prevailing geological formations are greenstone, porphyry, black slate, and Jura limestone. Immense forests of the finest trees (oak, alder, chestnut, tile and insect tribes are equally numerous. In one of the campaigns of the Russians, besides the thousands who fell victims to tlie bad air, it is Btated by Spencer that numbers died from the mortified bites of moschftocs. Both natives and Russians believe that the mountains abound in gold and silver, but apparently on no good grounds. Iron, however, lead, and copper, are found ; and saltpetre is very abundant. Salt is nowliere found within the limits of Circassia ; and since Russia has excluded the natives from tlie brine-pits in the Caucasian steppe, and sealed their ports against the trade of Turkey and Persia, they have been almost totally deprived of that necessary. The Circassians are divided into five classes. 1. Pschi, cr psckecli (princes). 2. K>rA; (ancient nobles). 8. The freedmen of these princes and ancient nobles, who, by their manumission, become themselves noble, and are called nork of uork. 4. The freedmen of these new nobles, called begualia. 5. The vassals, or tcho'kotl. Between the ancient and recent nobility there is no real distinction, except that, in military service, the latter are still under the command of their former masters ; nor is there any great practical difference between the begnalia and tlie tcho'kotl or vassals. The latter are, of course, the laborers, and are subdivided into such as are engaged in agriculture and such as serve the superior classes in the capacity of menial servants. Of the former, many are wealthy, nor is the state of any, one of great degradation, since there are very few if any offices of labor which prince or noble would consider derogatory to himself. To every princely house belongs a certain number of uork, or xisden, as they are called by the Russians ; and the latter are the direct proprietors of the vassals. Of these last, though all are unquestionably slaves, those engaged in agriculture can not be sold singly; and the sale of any is so rare as almost to be prohibited by custom. On the other hand, it appears the vassal may transfer his duty to another vsdan; which is, of course, a great protection from ill usage. The vassals pay no money-tax, 304 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. and though they are compelled to supply their lord with all he wants, yet this, from the check upon the noble's power just alluded to, extends no further, usually, than to bare necessaries ; since, should the latter carry his demands too far. he runs the risk of losing- his vassal altogether. The relation between prince and usdan is precisely the same as that between usdan and vassal : the noble must supply the necessities of his sovereign ; but should the exactions of the latter become excessive, the former may transfer his allegiance to another prince. The usden must pay the debts of their prince, and the vassals those of their usden; and in each case the inferior must make good all losses sustained by his superior, whether from I'obbery or accident : by which arrangement it is evident that all losses or expenses are defrayed, ultimately, by the vassal. The head of the princely house is the leader in war ; and his usden are bound to attend him with all their retainers, or as many as may be required. Tliere is no people, not even the Arabs, among whom pride of birth is carried to a greater height than among the Circassians, especially those of Kabardaii. In this district, if an usdan were to marry or seduce a prin- cess, he would forfeit his life without mercy ; and the same result would attend the attempt of a begualia or vassal to ally himself to a noble house. An Abassian prince is, in this respect, considered equal only to a Circas- sian usdan, and can obtain a Circassian wife only from that class. The rlgorocis enforcement of this custom has preserved the different ranks very distinct, tliough Pallas has observed, even in the Kabardahs, some traces which indicate a descent from Tartar mothers. It must be observed, how- ever, that, there does not appear to be any restriction upon a man's taking a wife or a concubine from an inferior class ; and the issue of such connec- tions take rank from tlie father, but are not accounted equal to the de- scendants of a pure stock from both parents. Thus, there are pi'inees of the first, second, and third class, &c., according to the greater or less degree of inferior blood which they inherit from their maternal ancestors. This state of society, closely resembling the feudal institutions of the Gothic jiges, seems to imply the division of the Circassians into two distinct peo- ple, a conquering and a conquered race ; but when or how the present relations were establislied, is involved in impenetrable obscurity. The whole of the Circassian and Abchasian tribes live in small villages scattered here and there, without the slightest approacli to anything resem- bling a city or walled town ; indeed, the prince or noble has an unconquer- able aversion to any castle or place of artificial strength, which he regards as only fitted to restrain his state of wild freedom. lie lives, therefore, in the centre of his village, which usually consists of forty or fifty liouses, or rather huts, formed of plaited osiers, plastered within and without, covered with straw or grass, and arranged in a circle, within the area of which tho cattle arc secured at night. These primitive dwellings, whicii Jtrongly resemble, in form and appecu'ance, the humbler residences in Arabian towns, have, however, the peculiar recommendation of being unexception- THE CAUCASIAN PUOVINCES — CIRCASSIA. 305 ably clean, wliich is also the case with the persons, dress, and cookery, of the inmates. From the slender nature of the buildings, they are evidently not formed for long endurance, and a Circassian village is, in fact, by no means a fixture. The accumulation of dirt in their neighborhood, the inse- curity of the position, and frequently even the caprice of the inhabitants, cause them to be from time to time abandoned. On such occasions the dwellings are destroyed, the household utensils packed up, and the whole colony migrate in search of a new abode. While stationary, however, there is much comfort in. a Circassian's hovel, for those who can dispense with superfluities ; but, as may be supposed, their domestic arrangements are of the most simple kind. The usual occupations of the liigher classes are the chase and war, on which expeditions, or those of a predatory kind, they depart with no othei provision than a little millet or wheat, and that without the slightest fear of suffering from want, since every man who possesses and can use a rifle is sure of finding provision on every hedge. In these expeditions the Cir- cassians carry with them tent-covers of felt, but chiefly for the purpose of protecting themselves from sudden storms, as, in fine weather, the hardy mountaineer throws himself on the ground, and sleeps with no other cover- ing than the heavens. While in his hut, the Circassian, of whatever rank, is his own carpenter, weaver, carver, and shepherd. It does not appear, however, that the higher classes often take part in agricultural pursuits, Dot so much because it is considered derogatory, as from that species of indolence (quite consistent with gi-eat occasional exertion) which recoils from regular and continuous labor. The occupations of the women consist in spinning and needlework. They make the clothes of their household, down to the very shoes, and also sad- dle-cushions, housings, and horse-trappings, and sheaths for the warriors' swords and poniards. They frequently excel in embroidery, are skilful dairy-women, and sometimes even noblewomen may be seen taking a part in field-labor. As in other half-barbarous societies, the greater portion of labor falls upon the females ; but their condition is far supei'ior in Circas- sia to what it is in most other eastern countries. As Mohammedanism is little more than a profession among these people, their habits, with the exception of some formal observances with regard to food, have undergone but little change by its introduction. The sexes mix freely together while unmarried, and, under the restriction of caste, love-matches are probably as numerous here as in other parts of tlie world. Tiie husband has, however, to purchase his bride of her father ; and nei- ther husband nor wife, from the moment of their union, is permitted to appear in the presence of the parents for a year, or until the birth of the first child. It is a still more remarkable custom, that the husband must pover be seen in company with his wife ; and though the latter is permitted to receive without restraint the visits of straiigers, yjt the former is never present on such occasions, and the matrimonial correspondence is always 20 306 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. carried on by stealth, and in the utmost secrecy. The greatest insult that can be offered to a prince or usdan, is to inquire after the health of his wife or family ! The son of a prince is committed, at the age of three days, to the care of an usdan, by whom he is brought up, and never again seen by his father till he is married : the son of an usdan remains in the paternal household till he is three or four years old, when he, in like man- ner, is consigned to the care of a stranger ! The foster-father stands iu every respect in the place of the natural parent. He receives no payment for his trouble, but claims all the duty and service of his ward. The cr.use of this very remarkable custom is said to be the wish to prevent the efi'ect of indulgence consequent on a home education, in enervating tlie character ; but though it desti'oys the usual affection subsisting between father and son, it establishes another not less sti-ong between the guardian and his ward, which is usually as iutcusu a,s any exhibited in the social connections of other countries. The daughters are brought up at home, and at the age of ten or twelve years have their waists enclosed by tight-fitting stays, or a broad band of untanned leatlier, ir/iich is never removed nor loosened till they are mar- ried. On the wedding night tlie husband cuts this boddice open with his dagger, an operation which is frequently attended with danger. As a fine waist is considered the great beauty "'' ^ '^b-cassian, men are also subjected to a very heavy compression on that part, dul h,,... ^ rhlch the females endure. The girdle remains on the latter for a pe., ,S varyino from two to six years (a girl unmarried at seventeen rarely finds a husband), during which time the victim is growing; — and, in addition to this, they are (still further to " improve" the form) so sparingly fed, tliat the young unmarried females have often a look of ill health. The finest-looking women arc the young wives. The Circassians have long been proverbial for their beau- ty of form and figure, especially the women ; and, though they have in this respect been con- founded witli the Georgians, yet all the accounts of the modern and the most accurate travellers CIHCAS3IASS. concur in describing them as an extremely handsome people — tall, finely-formed, slender in the loins, small in the hand and foot, elegantly-featured, with keen, lively eyes, fresh com ^^W^^fc/if ^ ME CAUCASIAN PROVINCES — CIBCASSIA. 807 Circassian FsurAZ.E9. plexions, and remarkably intelligent countenances. Their bearing is manly and dignified ; but they have a kind of lofty gait, which perhaps indicates, and may, at all events, be easily mistaken for, haughtiness. The dress of the men consists of shirt, tunic, and cloak, much resembling those of the Calmucks, but formed of better materials, and in general richer. The female costume is not very different except in being longer. The men crop the hair, leaving only a single lock hanging from the crown ; they wear thick mustaches ; and the warriors and learned classes (priests and physi- ciaKs) suffer the whole beard to grow. The women's heads have luxuri- ■■iant tresses, but both sexes eradicate every appearance of hair on all other parts of their bodies, by means of a caustic ointment of unslaked lime and orpiment. The princes and usden rarely go out unarmed ; and in his coat- of-mail, helmet, musket, pistols, bow, quiver, and shield, the Circassian chief forms a most imposing and picturesque object. In this dress they pay their visits of state, and in this also they ride out on their warlike or predatory expeditions. The Circassian, like the Arab, is a strange mixture of ferocity and hot>- 1(>?' ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RrsSIA. pitality. The unfortunate traveller who approaches his country without securing the protection of some chief, is seized as a slave by the first native who meets him ; but, on tlie other hand, should this protection be extended, the whole power of the host, or konak, as lie is called, is strained to pro- cure, not only the safety, but the accommodation of the guest. The form of granting protection is remarkable. The wife of the konak gives the stranger her breast to suck, after wliich ceremony he is regarded as her Boll, and the whole tribe as his adopted brethren. Robbery and plunder are considered honorable occupations : but the charge of thieving is ac- counted an insult, because it implies detection ! The custom of blood- rfivenge, called thlil-uasa, is very similar to that of Arabia: in cases of murder, the friends of the murdered are allowed to take the life of the homicide, or that of any of his relatives within the fourth degree. The ransom by fine is, according to the Prussian traveller Pallas, never taken; but Spencer (a British traveller), on tlie contrary, affirms that it is almost always preferred. Tlie exclusive nature of Circassian marriages has been already noticed. It is, however, as little inconsistent, tliat while a Circassian prince would unhesitatingly slaughter an vsdan of Iiis own tribe, or an Abchasian, who should presume to wed his daughter, lie v'ill as unhesitatingly sell her to Turk, Persian, Turkoman, Nogai Tartar, or Calmuck ! Spencer, who pro- fesses to admire every institution of these people, has ingeniously discov- ered tliat this practice lias tended to refine and civilize the inhabitants of the Caucasus! He admits, indeed, tliat it has occasioned wars and feud.s innumerable among the petty tribes, from the rapacity witli which they nave overrun each otlier's territory in search of beauty for the foreign mar- ket. The greater portion of tlie females tlius sold have, however, always been from among tlic Trans-Caucasian people — the Imeritians, Georgians, Mingrelians, and Abassians — the Circassian sla>'e-trade having been chiefly confined to the male sex, from whicii tliuy su]>plied the Mameluke and other stave-troopa of Egypt and Turkey. The laws of Circassia rest only on long-established custom. They are administered in a council of elders, but not always by the reigning prince, if any other of his rank possess tlie I'equisitc qualities in a higher degree. The council consists not of princes and vsden only, but also of the wealthier and more aged vassals, who, in the judgment-seat, are regarded as on an equality with the higher classes. The laws themselves are based upon the principle of retaliation, and the business of "the court'' seems to consist of little else than the assessment of damages. Robbery of a prince is pun- ished by the restitution of nine times the property stolen ; of an usdan, by simple restitution, and a fine of tliirty oxen. Tlie prince or usdan can scarcely commit a robbery on a vassiil, since his abstract right to all the property of the latter is tacitly acknowledged ; and the punishment of rob- bery by one vassal of anotli-cr, appears to vary with the circumstances of the case. Fine, as among tlie Arabs, seems almost the universal punish- THE CAUCASIAN PROVINCES — CIRCA8SIA. 309 ment, except iti cases of murder and adultery ; in both of which cases the punishment is left in the hands of the injured party. The offending wife has her head shaved, her ears slit, the sleeves of her garment cut off, and ill this trim is returned, on horseback, to her father ; who, if he can not sell, generally kills her. The paramour is certain of death, being a marked man by all the husband's tribe. Polygamy is allowed, but very rarely practised. Tlie Circassians are very attentive to their breeds of horses, and have distinct marks to show the noble races from which they have descended. The stamping a false mark upon a filly is a forgery for which nothing but life can atone ! Learning is a complete blank. The Circassians have not even an alpha- bet, and consequently neither book nor manuscript in their own language. The few who read, and they are very few, use the Tartar or Arabic tongues, both of which, the former especially, are very generally understood. Ev- ery tribe would seem to speak a modified language, since, within a narrow space, not less than seventy-two dialects, or patois, have been enumerated ; and one particular spot, where this variety is more remarkably exhibited, has been surnamed, by Abulfeda, an oriental writer, Jebel-el-Alason (" the Mount of Tongues"). These dialects totally differ from any other lan- guage at present known : their pronunciation consists of strange, uncouth, deep, guttural sounds, which European letters can hardly express, and, European organs vainly attempt to articulate ; and, what "is singular (con- sidering the absence of written characters), and adds to the perplexity of the philologist, there is a secret dialect, apparently an old barbarous gibber- ish, peculiar to the princes and usden, and used by them chiefly on their predatory excursions. The religion of the Circassians exhibits a strange jumble of Christianity, Mohammedanism, and paganism. The first, unfortunately, has scarcely a nominal existence, and is chiefly discernible in a superstitious reverence paid to the cross, figures of which, in stone, arc set up in many localities, which in consequence often become famous trysting-places, and at which some kind of worship is paid: Tlie paganism appears in the homage-which is rendered, principally by the vulgar, to tM'o spirits, a good and a bad — Merem, a benevolent deity, and Tschibl ', the spirit of thunder. Moham- medanism, as before remarked, is tlie nominal faitli, and exists in a more definite form. In some districts, considerable influence is possessed by its mollahs or priests, who latterly, in addition to their proper duties, act as teachers, and keep a few schools, in which — as there is no printed vernac- ular — Turkish, Tartar, Arabic, and occasionally a little Persian, are taught. The true Circassian education is that which the youths receive who are trained to war from tlieir earliest years, and never cease from it till they are able to take the field. Arts, manufactures, and commerce, are at the lowest ebb among the Cir- cassians. The doctors are simply conjurers or saints, who profess to cure diseases by charms ami the roughest applications of actual cautery. Their 310 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. success may be surmised from the fact that, notwithstanding the length and inveteracy of the war with the Russians, very few instances of maimed Circassian warriors are to be met with : to be wounded among these peo- ple is generally to die. Of artificers and skilled mechanics, there are only cutlers, armorers, and goldsmiths ; who, however, exhibit great ingenuity in the construction and decoration of the warriors' arms. A view of the interior of one of their armor-manufactories is given on the opposite page. The art of preparing gunpowder has been known for ages in the Caucasus, and the abundance of saltpetre renders the inhabitant!^ independent of other countries for this important element of warfare ; their mode of manufacture is, however, very primitive. It has been already stated that the women are the great manufacturers of clothes, which nmy be said to be the only manufacture which these people possess. Tliey formerly traded with Per- sia and Turkey for their chain and other armor, and with Tartar tribes northward for salt ; the equivalents on their part being their children and cattle. The Russians have annihilated both trades ; and this is said to be one great cause of the hatred entertained against them by the Circassians. The Circassians having no annals, and very few traditions, their early history is almost a blank. Much ingenuity and labor have been employed in endeavoring to trace their origin through the affinities of language. The success as yet has been very partial ; but there can be no doubt that they came from the East. Authors differ, however, as to the nation or tribe from which they have descended : some maintain that they were originally Medos ; while others affirm that they are a brancli of the Arabians, wliom they greatly resemble in their laws and customs : indeed, the Kabardahs claim this descent, and there is a common tradition among the Circassians that the whole people are descendants from Ishmael. They may be divided into two great classes: the Circassians proper, or Tcherkessians ; and the Tschetschenzes, who inhabit Lesghia, or western Daghestan. They take the common name of Adighe or Adeches, a name denoting a viountairirravine an the sea. But the word Tcherkessia is Tartar, and literally means cut the road; that is, highivayman or robber, one who makes communication unsafe. It also bears this signification: tcherk, to cut off, and kes, the head. The general name given to these people in tlie Caucasus is Kasack, whence some have inferred that they are of the same race with the Cos- sacks of the Don and the Volga, which is doubtless an error, for the word Cossack has a general and not a national signification, and means a man who leads a wandering and martial life. From these regions Greece received her first inhabitants, and in return appears to liave sent back colonists, who settled on the Circassian coast, and ultimately foil under the Roman domination. In more modern times, between the tentli and tliirteenth centuries, they became subject to the kingdom of Georgia, whose queen, Tamar, is said to have spread a knowl- edge of Christia,nity among them. In 1424, they threw off the Georgian yoke, asserted their independence, and not only maintained it, but extended ABMOE MANUFACTORY IN CIECASSIA. THE CAUCASIAN PROVINCES — CAUCASUS. 313 their boundaries so far, that they were at last brought into fierce conflict with the Tartars, who ultimately prevailed and made the Circassians their tributaries. They continued so till 1705, when they rose against their oppressors, and, by a decisive victory, effected their freedom. Their iirst connection with Russia took place in 1555, when the princes of the Besch Dagh submitted to the czar Vassili-Ivanovich. Prom that time the Russian power has beeu constantly increasing in the Caucasus. In 1781, Russia acquired the Kouban as a frontier ; and, in 1784, the Turks built the fort Anapa, and thence directed tlieir efforts to stir up the Circassians against their great enemy. Anapa, taken by the Russians in 1807, was restored to Turkey in 1812, at the peace of Bucharest, owing to Napoleon's expedition to Moscow. The quiet which followed this treaty was used by the Tui-ks to convert the Circassians to Islamism, and thus implant in them an ever-during enmity to Russia. In 1829, Anapa again fell into the hands of the Russians ; and, by the treaty of Adrianople, they also acquired all the other Turkish possessions on tliis coast. Upon this they ground their claims of sovereignty over Circassia, which in fact was never under Turkish rule. The claim was indignantly scouted by the Circas- sians, who, knowing that, under the vigorous government of Russia, their robberies would be repressed, as well as tlieir traffic in slaves, flew to arms, and for many years maintained a brave but unequal struggle ; most of the country meanwhile, with the exception of some mountain-fastnesses, falling under the sway of the czar. Though till recently (when they rose in a general rebellion during the Russo-Turkish conflict in 1854, the result of which was then impossible to foresee) no open war has for some time existed between them, a single-handed border warfare has long been car- ried on with the Cossacks that on all sides surround and watch them. The province of Caucasus is bounded on the north by the governments Oi" the Don Cossacks and Astrakhan, on the east by the Caspian sea, on the south by Circassia, and on the west by Circassia and the sea of Azov. Its greatest length from northwest to southeast is about three hundred and eighty miles, and its greatest breadth from north to south is one hundred and seventy miles, comprising an area of forty thousand square miles. This province is traversed from north to south, near its centre, by a low ramification of the Caucasus mountains ; but, with this exception, the sur- face is flat, consisting generally of an alluvion, which toward the east ap- pears to be of very recent formation. It is not traversed by any river of importance (the Kouma, since the lower part of its course was lost in the sand, no longer deserves the name), but is watered on part of its northern frontier by the Manytch, and on the southern by the Kouban and the Terek. The climate is in general very mild, and there are some fertile tracts, particularly in the neighborhood of the Terek, but a great part of the allu- vial flats is covered with salt pools and marshes, which make the soil where they prevail altogether unfit for cultivation. The injury is, in some mca»- 314 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. ure, compensated by the large quantities of excellent salt which is obtained fi-om them. Some of the steppes yield tolerable pasture, on which numer- ous herds of cattle are reared. The chief products of the soil arc grain, including Indian corn, and wine. The mulbeny thrives well, and considerable attention has recently been paid to the rearing of silkworms. Bees also are carefully attended to, and honey and wax form a considerable article of export. Owing to the neighborliood of the warlike mountaineers of the Caucasus, a considerable army is always maintained within the province, and most of its towns are fortified. The population is composed of a great variety of half-savage tribes — Cossacks, Tartars, Circassians, &c., with some Rus- sians and Armenians. Stavropol, the new capital of the province, is a neat, fortified town, situ- ated near the Kouban. Gheorghievsk, or Georgievsk, the old capital, and still the residence of the governor-general of Caucasus, is a small town, situated on a steep height near the left bank of the Kouraa, or Podkoumka, ninety miles southeast of Stavropol. It is regularly built, and contains a government-house, one Greek and one Armenian church, six hospitals (mainly for the use of the army), a lazaretto, and several granaries. The inhabitants arc composed principally of Cossacks of the Volga, who are engaged in agricultural pursuits, and Russians and Armenians. The envi- rons are picturesque, and the air pure. The population is about three thousand. Konstantinogorsk, twenty miles southwest of Gheorghievsk, is celebrated for its sulphur-baths ; and at Kislavodsky there is acid-water. Karass, a neat town situated between the two last-named places, at the foot of the Bcsch Dagh (five mountains, four thousand tliree hundred feet high), is remarkable for a colony of Germans and Scotcli. Mozdok is a commercial town, and one of the principal military stations on the line of tlie Terek. It was built in 1763, under Catherine II. Kizliar is situated on the left bank of the Terek, fifty miles above its mouth. It is dull and sombre ; a few of the houses are of brick, but the greater part are of wood. The situation being low, and exposed to inun- dations, is very unhealthy. The inhabitants are chiefly employed in agri- culture. Kizliar, being an entrepot for the tralTic between Astrakhan and Persia, carries on a prosperous trade, wliich is wholly in the hands of the Armenians. The exports are wine, brandy, oil of sesame, cotton and silk BtuflN. Tlie population, exclusive of the garrison, is about ten thousand. The triangular portion of' the Caucasian country bounded by the river Terek on the north, the Caspian on the east, the summits of the Caucasus on the southwest, and Circassia on the northwest, is generally known by the name of Daghestan, a name derived from the Tartar Tagh stan, sig- nifying a mountainous country. It lies between the fortieth and forty-third degrees of north latitude, and the forty-sixth and forty-ninth degrees of ^ THE CAUCASIAN PROVINCES — DAGHESTAN. 815 east longitude. Its greatest length is about two hundred miles, and its breadth forty, comprising about nine thousand three hundred square miles. This is exclusive of the western portion, called Leghisian, or Lesghia, which is estimated to contain sis or seven thousand square miles. Daghestan consists partly of plains, but, as its name implies, cliiefly of mountains, offsets from the Caucasus, which separate deep valleys as they traverse the province southeast, toward the plains lying along the Caspian sea. They are chiefly of limestone. In the southern parts of the province are numerous bituminous springs, some of which are worked, and afford, in addition to petroleum, an inexhaustible supply of black and white naph- tha, while others have for ages emitted a burning stream, known by the name of Indian fire. (For a description of similar springs, see Shievan, the adjoining Trans-Caucasian province.) Notwithstanding the generally mountainous character of Daghestan, it comprises many valleys and level tracts of great fertility. Its climate is various : on the plains it is warm and unwholesome ; on the slopes of the mountains it is more temperate and healthy ; but still more decidedly so on the higher elevations. Agriculture is carefully attended to, and good crops of grain are produced ; also silk, cotton, madder, flax, saffron, and tobacco. The vegetables and domestic animals are, nearly the same with those of Europe. The wild animals are tigers, panthers, buffaloes, and camels, the latter also being domesticated. The population of the lowlands is composed of a mongrel race of Per- sian, Arabian, Syriac, Turkish, and Tartar origin, mixed with the original Caucasians. They are of middle size, strong, and active. The mountains are inhabited by a variety of Caucasian tribes : among the most prominent are the Insgushes, the Lesghians, the Kists, the Kumiks, and, above all, the Tschetschenzes. The mountaineers are generally tall and well formed. They are brave and hospitable ; but revengeful, given to falsehood, theft, and intrigue, and noisy and boisterous in their convivialities. The people generally are careful agriculturists and industrious fishermen, taking stur- geon and turtle in such quantities as to form a considerable export trade to Persia and Russia. The religion is chiefly Mohammedan, and their lan- guage is composed of dialects of the Tartar tongue, mixed with Armenian, Persian, Turkish, and Hebrew. The principal towns are Derbent, Tarki, Nizabad, and Kouba. Derbent is an ancient but decayed town on the Caspian, and formed for many centuries tlie key of the Persian empire in this quarter. It is sur- rounded by strong walls, built of large stones ; and on the summit of the hill, on the declivity of which the city stands, there is a fort or citadel, of a triangular figure. The streets are very narrow, and the houses mostly of one story, with a terraced roof. Large quantities of saffron are grown in the vicinity, and the inhabitants prepare rose-water and opium ; but the trade of the place is small. Its population, composed chiefly of Georgians, Armenians, and Jews, is about twelve thousand. In the neighborhood is 31'6 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. a famous tomb, said to be that of forty Saracen heroes, who were killed iii battle against the " infidels," when Derbent was taken by the califs. The Mohammedan Lesghians still make pilgrimages to it. Kouba, fifty miles southwest of Derbent, is a considerable town ; and at Bereiklei, twenty miles northwest, resides the khan of the Kaitaks, who bears the title of onzmei, and exercises a sort of sovereignty over the Akushas and the Kubashas. The Tsciietschenzes and Lesghians inhabit the northwestern portion of Daghestan, bordering on Circassia ; and the latter are said to be the most predatory and ferocious of all the Caucasian nations. They are mostly Mohammedans, but a few vestiges of Christianity may be traced among them. They are divided into numerous tribes, whom the nature of their country keeps so isolated, that no such thing as a general confederacy or national union can be maintained among them. Their language has no analogy with any known tongue except that of the Samoides, of northern Siberia, to which it bears a distant resemblance : it is divided into numer- ous dialects, which have been reduced to eight classes, and the people using them comprise so many small states. The first of these is the Avar, which includes tlie Avars and fourteen other tribes resembling them. The Avars are believed to be the remains of the Avars, or Huns, who took ref- uge in this part of the Caucasus, and are probably of the same primitive stock with the Magyars of Hungary. The other chief tribes of Lesghians are the Akushas, the Kubashas, and the Kasi-Kumiks. The Akushas dwell on the Koisou, and form a republic, composed of about thirty villages. The Kubashas also live near the Koisou, in a large town of the same name, and eiglit dependent villages. They are a peaceful tribe, and are known throughout the East as the Zer-Jeherans, or makers of coats-of-mail : they manufacture splendid armor, and fine cloth or shawls, which they exchange for cattle and produce. The Kasi-Kumiks dwell on a branch of the same river, and are governed by a khan, whose authority extends over a hundred villages. He resides at Chahar, and can raise six thousand men. They are zealous Mohammedans, and fiercely opposed to the Russians. The Lesghians had long been the terror of surrounding nations ; but, in 1742, they were driven by the arms of Nadir Shah to seek protection from Russia, and swear allegiance to the czar. It was during this war, that the shah (having retaken the Trans-Caucasian provinces wrested from Persia by Peter the Great) attempted with forty thousand men to penetrate the defiles of the Caucasus, but was defeated at the pass of Bariel, the dangei'S of which passage in ancient times gave origin to the Persian proverb — " When the king is too happy, let him enter Dariel !" Daghestan is the seat of the Caucasian war waged by Shamyl and his followers, the Lesghians, the Tschetschenzes, and other tribes of the eastern section of the Caucasian range. This fierce conflict between the mountain- eers of Daghestan with the Russians began about the commencement of the present century, on tlie absorption of this territory, with Georgia, by. the Russian empire. It was formerly interrupted from time to time, but has THE CAUCASIAN PitOVINCES — DAGHESTAN. 319 acw raged without respite for some twenty-five years. On the Russian side, Zizianoff, a prince of Georgian origin, was one of the first wlio, about forty years ago, struck the Tschetschenzes with awe. One of his most able raccessors was Yermoloff, equally respected and dreaded by the Caucasian tribes. He was recently living in Moscow, more than eighty years old, !U3.d in a kind of silent disgrace with the emperor. Paskiewitch replaced Ysrmoioff for a few years, arid in 1832 was followed by Baron Rosen, to vhose administration are ascribed the disasters suiFered by Russia from 1832 to 1836. About the year 1823, a sect of religious enthusiasts sprang up among the ulemas or Mohammedan clergy of the Caucasus. Sheik-Mansour was the forerunner of this sect. Nearly thirty years after his death, Ehasi-Mollah cr Khasi-Mohammed, standing upon the new creed, raised the standard of religious fanaticism for the defence of the national independence. The principal feature of this new theology is the belief in a certain perfectibility of the worn-out forms of Jslamism. Kliasi-Mollali claimed to be directly inspii-ed and advised by God ; and the revelations thus received were com- municated by him to his immediate companions, called murides or murshi- des, who formed a warlike priesthood, and a kind of body-guard for the prophet. He was soon surrounded by numerous believers from all parts of Daghestan, and especially from among the Lesghians and Tsclietschcnzes. Khasi-Mollah warred for two years against the Russians, but finally, at the storm of the village of Himry, in 1832, he met the death of a hero and of a prophet, fighting to the last, and, even after he had fallen, exciting his companions by inspiring songs. All the murides fell with him on the battle- field. Among them was a young man named Shamyl : struck by two balls, and pierced by a bayonet, he lay there, bathed in his blood, among the corpses of his companions. The history of Sliamyl's escape after this battle is still unknown. A few months from the catastrophe of Himry, he was the first muride near t'ne new Iman, named Hamsad Bey, who was assassinated by some of his rivals in 1834. Shamyl succeeded him, raised the standard of Khasi-Mollah, and the war of extermination began. He was born in 1797, at the same village of Himry, and at the age of thirty-seven became the chief of the Tschets- clienzes. In person he is of medium size, with light hair ; his eyes, covered by long and bushy brows, are full of fire ; his beard, though white, does not give him the appearance of age. He is very abstemious, eats little, drinks water, and sleeps but a few hours. For a long time the fastness of Akulcho was his I'esidence, whence he darted upon the foe. " Mohammed was the fust, Shamyl is the second prophet of Allah !" is the war-cry of Daghestan. In 1839, the Russian general Grabbe attacked Shamyl in his retreat of Akulcho. The fortress was dismantled by heavy artillery, but the Tschets- clienzes did not suffer at all. Sheltered in vaults and crevices, they rushed out to fire tlieir di.adly rifles, and then disappeared. Several assaults were thus repulsed by them ; but finally the rocks were mined, and at the fourth 320 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. assault, after horrible bloodshed, the Russians took the fortress, on th: 22d of August. But Shamyl was not to be found among the dead. With a few murides he had retreated to the caverns of the mountain. There they constructed a kind of raft, which they threw into the stream at the foot of the rocks. They sprang on this floating conveyance, while they wore fired at from Loth banks of the river. All perished but one, who leaped into the current, reached a sure spot, and disappeared in the mount- ains. This was Shamyl. After this defeat, he visited the western tribes of the Caucasus, and preached among them the holy war against Russia, but without success. On his return he selected a new abode in the fortress of Dargo, situated in an almost impregnable position. Grabbe attacked him there in 1842. When the Russian army had completely entered the primitive forests and defiles around Dargo, it was surrounded by the war- riors of Shamyl, and more than half of it destroyed. This was the most terrible defeat sustained by Russia during this whole protracted contest. The war continued to be disastrous for the imperial troops. The com- manders were changed again and again, and finally Prince Woronzow was sent there with unlimited powers. At that moment the authority of Shamyl was absolute and extensive. He ruled tlie Lcsghiaus (including the Avars), the Tschetschenzes, the Kists, and the Kumiks. Shamyl, not only a war- rior, but a legislator, had established over the unruly princes of these tribes a kind of theocratic monarchy ; he had united tribes hitherto hostile to each other, organized a numerous military force, and in 1843 commanded above five thousand of the best cavalry in the world. His body-guard was then a thousand men. When Woronzow took the command of the Russian army, his first idea was to avenge the defeat sustained at Dargo. He cut roads through the forests, and indeed felled the trees entirely for miles of country. Heroic feats on both sides signalized this campaign ; but Dargo was finally taken and destroyed in the course of the year 1845. In 1846, Siamyl descended with nearly twenty thousand horse upon the western side of the Caucasus, invaded the Kabardians, and, not being able to bring them to his side, pillaged the country, and returned to Daghestan without the Russians overtaking him. From that time, Woronzow gradually proceeded to enclose Shamyl in an iron circle, and the area of his activity was narrowed more and more. From time to time, he has been wont to rush from his retreat upon the enemy, and to inflict on him the severest blows, but has not been able to carry on the war on a large scale. A visionary priest, an enthusiastic prophet, a warrior and a legislator, for a moment it seemed his destiny to become the sovereign of the Caucasus, and to secure his country against tlio encroachments of Russia. More recently this has appeared impossible, and it remains to be seen whether it can be revived by the closing of ihc Turkish war. SIBERIA — GENEBAIj peatdres. 328 CHAPTER XI. SIBERIA, OR ASIATIC RUSSIA. SIBERIA, or Asiatic Russia, comprises all the north of Asia, exieni]- ing from the Arctic ocean on the north to the Altai chain of mount- ains on the south, and from the Ural mountains on the west to the Pacific ocean on the east. Behring's strait on tlie northeast divides it from the continent of North America. Its length from west to east can not be less than four thousand miles, and its breadth from north to south varies from one to two thousand miles, the whole compi'ising an area of about three millions, eight hundred and twenty thousand square miles. This immense territory has much less diversity of surface than miglit be presumed from its extent. Assuming the meridian of one hundred and five degrees as a line of demarcation, two regions will be forme(^ — a western and an eastern — exhibiting a very marked difference in the configui'atiou of their surface. Both regions have their greatest altitude in the soutli, and may be considered as a vast inclined plane, sloping gradually north to the Arctic ocean : but the eastern region is traversed in different directions by several mountain-chains ; whereas the western region, with tlie excep- tion of the chain of the Ural on the western and that of the Altai on the southern frontiers, forms a vast plain, almost unbroken by any greater heights than a few hills and the banks of the rivers which wind across it. This plain, toward the south, has a height of about two thousand feet above the sea, hut toward the north is so near its level as often to become exten- sively inundated. For convenience of description, this plain has been arranged, according to its productive powers, in four divisions — the steppe or pastoral, the agricultural, the woody, and the moorland or tundra. The steppe, occu- pying the most elevated part of tlie plain, extends from the soutliern fron- tiers north to latitude fifty-five degrees ; and from the western frontiers, within these limits, east to the banks of the Irtysch. The greater part of it consists of what is called the steppe of Ishim, and has a bare and almost sterile surface, often incrusted with salt, but also occasionally covered with a scanty vegetation, and sometimes even enlivened by ti-acts of green pas- ture, over which the nomadic tribes roam with tlieir flocks and herds. The agricultural division extends north to latitude sixty degrees, thongu its exact limits can not be properly defined by a parallel of latitude, since 324 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. they more strictly form a waving line encroaching or encroached upon by the other divisions, according as the configuration of the surface and prop- erties of tlie soil are favorable or unfavorable to agricultural operations. In many parts, where it borders on the stepjje, it has much of the same character, and has only occasional tracts which have been or can be advan- tageously brought under the plough ; and in many other parts, as the same vegetative powers which may be employed in growing grain naturally grow trees, primeval forests ai'e often found ; but still the term agricultural is properly applied to it, as it is only within its limits that agriculture is suc- cessfully prosecuted on an extensive scale, and occupies a considerable proportion of the inhabitants. The division thus named has an extent of about two hundred and fifty thousand square miles, and, under favorable circumstances, might furnish subsistence to a very large population ; but, as yet, it is only the more fertile alluvial tracts adjacent to the rivers that have been brought under anything like regular culture. Within this divis- ion, though not properly belonging to it, is the steppe of Baraba, situated lictwoen the Irtysch and the Obi. The southern portion greatly resembles the steppe of Ishim, though on the whole it is not so arid, and has a more abundant vegetation. The northern portion, though flat and swampy, is covered with nearly continuous forests of birch and fir, haunted by numer- ous wild animals, including the beaver. This portion of the Baraba or Barabinza steppe may therefore be con- sidered as the commencement of the wooded division, which extends north to latitude sixty-four degrees, and in parts to sixty-six, though in the higher latitude the trees are seldom of very vigorous growth. The whole of this division is covered with vast forests of birch and different species of fir and pine. It is not at all adapted to agriculture, but barley and rye are occasionally cultivated. Wild animals are very numerous, and many valuable furs are obtained. The last division is that of the moorland or tundra, consisting of a low, monotonous flat, covered with moss, and nearly destitute of trees. It ex- tends along the shores of the Arctic ocean, and has so rigorous a climate, that even in summer ice is found a few inches below the surface. Here the reindeer exists in vast herds, both wild and domesticated ; white bears and foxes are also numerous, and furnish valuable furs ; and the coasts and mouths of tlie rivers are frequented by immense shoals of fish and flocks of fowl. One remarkable feature in the western part of the tundra is an isolated mountain-mass whicli rises with steep sides to the north of Ob- dorsk, about latitude sixty-six degrees, and forms a kind of range divided' into five summits, the loftiest of which attains the height of about five " thousand feet. Siberia to the east of longitude one hundred and five degrees, forming nearly one half of the whole territory, has a much more diversified surface than the western region ; and, owing partly to its general ruggodncss and elevation, and partly to the greater severity of its climate, has much less SIBERIA — GENERAL FEATURES. 826 land adapted for agricultui-al purposes. The sea of Okhotsk has a bold and rocky shore, and the country behind rises with a steep ascent till a mountain-range is formed, with a general altitude of nearly three thousand feet above sea-level. This range, under the name of the Stanovoy mount- ains, runs nearly parallel with the coast, till it reaches the frontiers of China, where it takes the name of the Jablonnoi mountains, and proceed- ing west, continues for a long distance to form the boundary between the two empires. It then takes the name of the mountains of Daouria, and throws out numerous ramifications, which, continuing westward, throw their arms round Lake Bailcal, and cover almost all the southern part of the government of Irkoutsk. Other ramifications, proceeding northward, form the water-sheds of the numerous afiluents of the right bank of the Lena. On both sides of this river the surface continues elevated, and forms a table-land, the interior of which is still very imperfectly known. The best portions of Eastern Siberia occur in the south of the govern- ment of Irkoutsk, where, in the lower and more open valleys in the vicinity of Lake Baikal, cultivation has been attempted with success, and the oak and hazel, unknown in other parts of Siberia, are found growing freely. In almost the whole of the same government, where the configuration of the surface does not present invincible obstacles, all the grains of Europe are grown, and even the mountains and hills are covered during the greater part of the year with good pasture. Still farther north, in the government of Yakoutsk, as, far as the town of the same name, grain is cultivated in patches in the upper vale of the Lena, though the far greater part of it is covered with fir and pine, with so much intervening space between the trees, that a good deal of herbage springs up, and helps to nourish the numerous herds of cattle kept by the Yakutes, and grazed chiefly on an immense tract of low land which extends from the Lena eastward to the Aldan. The northern part of Eastern Siberia consists of two distinct portions — the one extending from longitude one hundred and five degrees east to the lower valley of the Lena, and the other from that valley eastward to Beh- ring's sea. The former portion is very imperfectly known ; but, from the modes of life pursued by the Yakutes, who .have taken possession of it, it is presumed that it consists chiefly of pasture-ground well adapted for the rearing of cattle, or of moorland wastes, on which no other animal than the reindeer is able to subsist in numerous herds. The latter portion, as far as the Kolima, is traversed from north to south by chains of low hills, separated from each other by wide valleys or open plains, and generally overgrown with stunted larch and birch. In these valleys and plains are numerous lakes, generally well supplied with fish, and bordered by low banks, on which a rich grassy sward is often seen. Another remarkable feature in this locality is the number of albuty, or dry lakes, consisting of a kind of wide basins, so far below the general level of the surface as to have become filled with water when the rivers overflowed their banks, and 326 U.LUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. yet so sliallow that the clefts produced by the •winter-frost form natural drains, through which the water escapes, and leaves the lakes almost dry. The 'alluvial bottom, owing to the richness of the soil, immediately ou the arrival of summer, becomes clothed with the finest turf. When the drain- age is less complete, extensive morasses are formed, covered only with moss or stunted larches, and so destitute of proper pasture, that the dis- tricts in which they prevail are almost uninhabited. To the east of the Kolima, branches from the Stanovoy mountains stretch northward, and (brm a series of ranges which frequently rise from two to three thousand feet. Some of these penetrate to tlie nortliern coast, and are seen forming precipitous cliifs at Swialoi Noss, Cape North, and other headlands. Otlier ramifications from the Stanovoy pursue an opposite course, and traverse tlie remarkable peninsula of Kamtschatka almost centrally to its southern extremity. Tlie races and tribes scattered over Siberia are so numerous, that little more can be done here tlian to give the names of the more important. At least two tliirds of tlie wliolc population is Russian, and consists either of voluntary immigrants, wlio have found it their interest to settle in the country, or of exiles and their descendants. In regard to the exiles, Sibe- ria is merely a penal settlement; and hence tliat portion of tlie populatipn. which, as coming from Europe, onglit to be tlie most civilized, is not lilcely to be the most exemplary. In tliosc cases where the exile Las been awarded for political causes merely, tlie individuals may be more unfortunate than vicious ; but when it is the penalty of ordinary crimes, the individuals being convicts in the usual sense of the term, must taint society in the same way as in Tan Diemen's Land and Australia. A more unsophisticated, and far more interesting population, is furnished by the indigenous tribes. Beginning at the Ural mountains, and proceed- ing eastward, we find the Sanioyedes, or Samoides, in the northwest. Im- mediately south of these the Ostiaks occupy both sides of the Obi, up to the coufincnce of the Irtysch, the northern part of the steppe of Baraba, and the whole of the woody region eastward to the banks of the Yenisei. They live by fishing and hunting, and, though their physical structure is by no means robust, they display both groat dexterity and courage in at- tacking the larger and fiercer animals, of both the land and water. Some of them have embraced Christianity, but the great majority are pagans, and continue addicted to Shamanism. In the south, among the Altai mountains, the Calmucks predominate, but have laid aside a number of the usual peculiarities of their race. They subsist chiefly on the produce of their horses, cattle, and sheep, and culti- vate a little grain and tobacco. They have some skill in mechanical arts, particularly in the working of iron, and manufacture their own gunpowder. Though not Buddhists, they are generally addicted to other forms of super- stition. Among tie eastern sk pes of the Altai are several Turkish tribes, known SIBERIA — INHABITANTS — HISTORY. 827 Dj the names of Beruisses, Beltires, Sagai, and Katschinzes. The last extend eastward to the banks of the Yenisei. The Buriats, the most numerous of all the Siberian tribes, dwell chiefly on both sides of Lake Baikal, and eastward as far as the Onon. They are of Mongol origin, and are closely allied to the natives of the northern prov- inces of China, in both language and customs. The Tungusi ( Tunguses, or Toongooses) are the most widely dispersed of all the . native tribes. They are found along the shores of the Arctic ocean, from longitude one hundred and ten to one hundred and seventy degrees cast ; along the banks of the Yenisei as far south as the mouth of tlie Upper Tongouskai ; and along the sea of Okhotsk as far as the town of that name ; and thence southwest to the frontiers of China, in Daouria, and to the north of Lake Baikal. Parts of these extensive tracts they occupy exclusively, but others they hold in common with the Yakutes and. some minor tribes. They are considered the best formed of the native- Siberians, are very expert horsemen, live chiefly by hunting, possess sucHi skill in the working of iron as enables them to prepare their own firearms^ and are generally addicted to Shamanism. Among their great amusements- are cards and chess. For the latter they carve cliessmen very elaborately- out of the mammoth's teeth. The Yakutes, as already mentioned, live intermingled with the Tumgiisi,. and confine themselves almost wholly to the rearing of horses an^ cattle, and the preparation of dairy-produce from them. The herds of many of them amount to several thousand head. They have made conaiderablo progress in civilization, and pay some attention to the education of their cliildrcn. They are of Tartar origin, and not a few of them are nominal converts to Cliristianity, though the majority still adhere to Shamanism. The Tchouktchis occupy the peninsula formed iii the northeast of Silxv ria, by the Arctic ocean on the north and the sea of Okhotsk on the south. They are very jealous of their independence, and can scarcely be said to be nominally subject to Russia. Their language proves them to have a common origin with the Esquimaux. They consist of two distinct tribes, the one sedentary and the other nomadic. The former, inhabiting the sea- slioro, subsist by fishing, in which they show great courage and dexterity, and, though not much given to hunting, kill common and white bears, and polar foxes ; the latter live intermingled with the Koriaks, and occupy the interior, where they feed large herds of reindeer, and subsist almost entirely on their produce. Siberia appears to have been partly conquered by Zinghis Khan and his successors, but did not become known to Europe till the year 1580, when a Cossack, called Yermak Timofeyew, who had long robbed the vessels which navigated the Volga, finding himself hotly pressed by the czar of Moscow, crossed over into Asia with his accomplices. Their number suf- ficed to form a small army, and their courage soon enabled them to acquire extensive settlements. Tiiese Yermak offered to the czar, on condition of 328 ILLUSTBATKO DESCRIPTION OP, RUSSIA. obtaining pardon. The offer was accepted, and thus Russia for the first time obtained a footing in Asia. The territories thus conquered belonged to the Tartar prince Kutshum Khan, and included his residence, which, called by the natives Isker, and by the Cossacks Sibir, has given name to the whole country. The conquests of Yermak continued eastward, and, though interrupted for a time by his death in 1584, were ' gradually extended, till the whole country west of the Obi was subjected to the czar. In 1604, the town of Tomsk was founded, and became a centre from which new expeditions were fitted out and new conquests made. Private adventurers, instigated chiefly by the hope of plunder, proceeded in all directions to the southward, where, not without serious reverses, they Succeeded in expelling the Kir- ghiz ; and to the eastward, where they entered the basin of the Lena, sub- dued the Yakutes, and finally, after passing the Aldan mountains, reached the sea of Okhotsk. In the neighborhood of Lake Baikal a formidable resistance was made by the Buriats, but their subjugation was finally com- pleted in 1658. The town of Nertchinsk, which has since become so cele- brated for its mines, was then founded, and, two years after, that of Irkoutsk. A further extension of conquests to the south brought the Russo-Cossack adventurers into collision with the Chinese ; and both governments taking part in the quarrel, a war, threatening the existence of one or other of the empires, became imminent. It was, however, prevented, partly by the in- tervention of the Jesuits resident at Pekin, and a treaty in 1689 definitively fixed the boundaries of the two empires. A second treaty, in 1727, con- firming the former, regulated tlie commercial intercourse, and confined it to the two localities of Kiakhta and Mai-matshin. Never has so large a territory been acquired at so little expense. Rus- sia, almost without any expenditure of her own means, and chiefly by the aid of a few Cossack adventurers, in little more than a century more than doubled her area. The greater part of it, indeed, is a frozen, inhospitable region, which must always remain comparatively worthless ; but vast tracts enjoy a climate and possess a soil well adapted for agriculture, and seem destined, wlienever the tribes roaming over them can be induced to settle down to a sedentary life, to become the abodes of a dense population, who, in addition to the resources of pasture and agriculture, will find almost inexhaustible wealth in mines and fisheries. Siberia is divided, as remarked in a previous chapter, into the two great governments of Western and Eastern Siberia : the former comprising the provinces of Tobolsk, Tomsk, and Yeniseisk ; and the latter those of Ib- KOUTSK, Yakoutsk, OKHOTSK, and Kamtschatka. Tobolsk, the westernmost government of "Western Siberia, comprises a large portion of the basin of the groat river Obi, or the counti-y between the fiftieth and seventy-third degrees of north latitude, and the sixtieth and eightieth degrees of east longitude : having on the east the government ot WESTERN SIBERIA — TOBOLSK. '629 A Kirghiz Mebchant in his Tent. Yeniseisk ; on the south, Tomsk, and the territory of the Kirghiz ; on the west, the governments of Orenburg, Perm, and Archangel ; and on the north, the sea of Kara, gulf of Obi, &c. Its area is about seven hundred thousand square miles. The surface of this vast province includes the four divisions into which, according to its productive powers, as described a few pages back, the plain of Western Siberia is divided. The tundra, or northern portion, is the most sterile imaginable, consisting of all but boundless moors and morasses, interspersed here and there with some stunted shrubs, and occu- pied by only a few Ostiak tribes, who subsist chiefly by fishing, and the chase of fur-bearing animijils. Such is the severity of the climate, that this portion is usually covered with ice and snow for about nine months of the year ; and, during the other months, ice is always found at a little distance below the surface. The agricultural portion includes extensive tracts watered by the Irtysch, a part of the Ishim, and the Tobol. Though not generally fertile, this dis- trict comprises some very productive tracts, and it has a considerable num- ber of towns, though few of them are of any great size. Even in this part of the government, the climate is very severe ; for, though the summer heats be sometinies oppressive, they are but of short duration, and the winters are long and excessively cold. Rye, oats, barley, and buckwheat, are the principal crops. Iron and copper are extensively raised in various parts of the Ural chain, and gold and silver are produced both there and in the Altai. Soap and tallow works, tanneries, mat-manufactories, &c., are found in different parts : but the commerce of the government is of more importance than its manufacturing industry. Except the clergy, and persons in the govern- ment employment, all the inhabitants are more or less engaged in traffic, exchanging their sable and other furs, cattle, cassia, fresh and dried fish, 330 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. and game, with the Russian traders for grain, flour, hardware, &c. The mcrcliaiits of Toljolsk, Toumen, and the principal towns in the south and west, send every summer boats laden with flour and other provisions, by way of the Irtysch and Obi, to Bei'ezov and other small towns in the north, wliich return with cargoes of fisli, and with valuable furs, procured from tlie Ostiaks and other tribes. These furs are afterward partly sent, with soap, tallow, and liides, to the fair at Nijnei-Novgorod ; partly to the Kir- ghiz, to 1)0 bartered for horses, cattle, and cotton-goods obtained through Bokliara ; and partly to Kiakhta, on tlie Chinese frontier, where they are exchanged for tea, silk-fabrics, and other Chinese products. The govern- ment, in common with the rest of Siberia, lies under the greatest disadvan- tages witli respect to water-communication : the frozen shores of its northern coast are inaccessible for the purposes of trade ; and its rivers, although equal in magnitude to any belonging to the Asiatic continent, are covered with ice during the greater portion of the year. Tlie most common mode of travelling, as likewise of conveying goods, throughout a great portion of the government, is, as in the northern part of Europe, in sledges drawn by dogs or reindeer. Mr. Bell and Captain Cochrane agree in representing the Tartar villages in tlie agricultural part of the government as neat, clean, and comfortable. Their wliite, plastered chimneys and ovens reminded the latter of his own country (Scotland). The houses consist in general of one or two rooms. Near tlie hearth is an iron kettle, and at one end of the apartment a bencli covered with mats or skins : on this all the family sit by day, and sleep by night. The walls are of wood and moss — a layer of moss between every two beams. A square hole is cut out for a window, and, to supply the v/ant of glass, a piece of ice is often put in ; two or three pieces will last the whole winter. They use no stoves, and have neither chairs nor stools. The furniture consists of a few earthenware utensils, and a set of tea-table appendages. Tlie women never eat nor drink till the men have done, and then seldom in their presence. Owing to the thinness of the population, and the immense distances be- tween the different towns, education is very little diffused, and besides the schools in the capital, there are, perhaps, hardly a dozen in the rest of the government. Except Tobolsk, the capital, there are no towns of note. The city of Tobolsk, the capital of Western Siberia, and of the goverii- nient of its own name (and, indeed, of the whole of northern Asia), is sit- aatod on the Irtysch, close to its junction with the Tobol. . The town proper is built principally on the flat summit of a hill commanding an ex- tensive view, and is surrounded by a strong brick wall with square towers and bastions. When approached from the west it has a remarkably fine appearance, and it really contains some good and solid buildings — most of the government-offices, and the residences of the Russian and German settlers, being within the walls. Along the banks of the river are suburbs, enclosed by a ditch and palisade, and inhabited mostly by Tartars. The lliii WESTERN SIBERIA — TOMSK. 333 Streets, which cross each other at right angles, are generally paved with wood. Among its public edifices, the most remai'kable are, the cathedral, ill the Byzantine style of architecture, with five cupolas, the archbishop's and governor's palaces, a monastery, and a large hospital. It has about twenty churches, chiefly of wood, as are most of the houses. The climate in winter is very severe, so much so as sometimes to freeze mercury ; and, next to Yakoutsk, Tobolsk is one of the coldest towns in Siberia : but the dress and houses of the inhabitants being fitted to resist its influence, it is not so disagreeable as might be supposed, and, in other respects, it is not an unpleasant residence. Tlie rivers furnish an inex- haustible supply of fish, and provisions, fur, and game of all kinds, are cheap and abundant ; and shops, theatres, and places of public amusement, are numerous. Being on the great road from Russia to China, it is well supplied with most European and Chinese goods ; and French wines, Eng- lish porter, and books of all kinds, are to be met with. Dobell says, " The society of Tobolsk may fairly stand a comparison with that of some of the best provincial towns in Russia." Among the inhabitants are many de- scendants of the Swedish officers, sent thither after the battle of Poltava, to whom Tobolsk is mainly indebted for its superior civilization. This city, which was founded in 1587, is the residence of the governor- general of Western Siberia. It has two ecclesiastical and several Lancas- trian schools, and various charitable institutions. No convicts or male- factors are sent thither from European Russia, although persons banished to Siberia for political offences are sometimes permitted to reside in To- bolsk. The population is from twenty to twenty-five thousand. The government of Tomsk lies principally between the fiftieth and six tieth degrees of north latitude, and the seventy-fifth and ninetieth degrees of east longitude. It has the government of Tobolsk on the west, that of Yeniseisk on the north and east, and the Altai range on the south. Its area is about three hundred and eighty thousand square miles. This province belongs to the pastoral and agricultural divisions of Sibe- ria, and in its general features closely resembles the more southern parts of the governments of Tobolsk and Yeniseisk. Large quantities of gold are obtained from the various gold-washings in this government. It has very few manufactures, but there are extensive forges at Kholyvan and Barnaul. Since 1838, Tomsk has comprised a portion of the government of Omsk, the other part of the latter government being included in that of Tobolsk. Tomsk, the capital of this government, is situated on the Tom, a tribu- tary of the Obi, six hundred and fifty miles east by south of Tobolsk. It hag about two thousand houses, and from ten to twelve thousand inhabit- ants. Here are workhouses for exiles ; coarse cloth, leather, and soap manufactories ; barracks, public magazines, military and other hospitals ; an orphan-house, a dispensary, &c. There are a number of handsome houses in Tomsk, but the town is irreg- S34 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. vi\a,r\y built, except tlie part that occupies a liill overlooking the rivei Torn and the country round. Next to Krasnoiarsk, Tomsk is said to be the cheapest and most plentiful spot in Siberia. Its principal buildings are the cathedral and another churcli, tlie tribunals, treasury (in which are the magazines of furs collected as tribute from the various native tribes), and two convents. The inhabitants carry on a brisk trade with the Cal- mucks and Ostiaks, in cattle, furs, &c. ; and the town is an emporium for distilled liquors and Chinese goods. It was founded in 1604. The government of Yeniseisk lies to the east of the governments of To- bolsk and Tomsk, and on the west of the governments of Yakoutsk and Irkoutsk, extending from the Altai mountains to the Arctic ocean. Its area is nine hundred and forty-five thousand square miles. This government includes almost every variety of climate, soil, and pro- ductions, peculiar to Siberia. Its southern inhabitants, like the patriarchs of old, dwell in tents, and, with their flocks and herds, lead a wandering life, changing from place to place as circumstances may direct, or Provi- dence guide thein. Those wlio reside in the centre have fixed residences, and enter into all the pursuits of agriculture and traffic ; while the more northern tribes are in a state approximating to savage wildness, and evince all the cunning and ferocity of their native wolves. The destruction of the latter constitutes their chief occupation and support ; and after thus supplying tliemselves with clothing, the superfluous produce of their toil is disposed of to the Russian merchant, chiefly in barter for knives, tobacco, beads, or such other necessaries or luxuries as their own country denies, or savage taste directs. This province is admirably adapted for commerce, the fin« and majestic river Yenisei running through its centre from south to north, and pouring its voluminous waters (the accumulation of numberless tributary rivers) into the Frozen ocean. Its horses and horned cattle are also more esteemed than those of any other part of Sibei'ia. Krasnoiarsk (from Krasnoi, "red," and i/ar, "clifl""), the capital of the above government, lies on a low tongue of land between the Yenisei and Kacha, at their junction, in a plain of great beauty and fertility, two hundred and ninety miles east by south of Tomsk, and in the direct route from Western Siberia to Irkoutsk, Yakoutsk, &c. It is a place of consid- erable trade. The principal street is wide and well levelled, and is inter- sected at right angles by similar cross-streets, and in the middle of the town are two handsome squares. Many of the houses are built of brick, though the most of them are of wood, painted outside with bright colors. It has a cathedral and three other churches, and a synagogue ; spacious public offices, the last generally of stone ; and a large public factory, or workhouse, for the employment of the numerous artisan-convicts, in which the tanning of leather, and the construction of droskics, sledges, and all sorts of carriages, are carried on. There are numerous Tartar graves in EASTERN SIBERIA — IRKOUTSK. 836 the neighborhood, and a fine collection of the antiquities whicli have been discovered is one of the most interesting sights of Krasnoiarsk. The dis trict of country subordinate to this town is the most productive in the wliole province for grain, cattle, horses, &c. Provisions are very plentiful and cheap ; fish and game are also in abundance ; and the neighborhood is famous for wild-goats, the flesh of which is said to be equal to venison. Krasnoiarsk within the last twenty-five years has risen considerably in im- portance ; and it has now a brisk traific in Chinese goods and agricultural produce. Its population is about eight thousand. Some of the other more important towns of the government are Yeniseisk, Suganskoi, Kanskoi, Korgina, Tonka, &c. The government of Irkoutsk lies in the southern part of Siberia, be- tween the forty-ninth and sixty-third degrees of north latitude, and the ninety-sixth and one hundred and twentieth degrees of east longitude. It is bounded on the north and east by the government of Yakoutsk, from which it is separated by the Lena and Vittim ; on the southeast and south by the Chinese empire ; and on the west by the government of Yeniseisk. Its length from east to west is about eleven hundred miles, and its breadth about one thousand miles, comprising an area of one hundred and fifty thousand square miles. This territoryis divided between three river-basins — the Amur, Amoor, or Sag-halien, the smallest of the three, which drains the eastern portion, and carries its waters through Mantchouria, in China, to the sea of Okhotsk ; the Lena, in the north, which it drains in a great measure directly, and by its tributary, the Vittim ; and the Yenisei, in the centre and west, receiving its waters through the Angara, supplied by numerous small streams, but more especially by Lake Baikal, which lies wholly within the government. The last two basins belong to the Arctic ocean, and are separated from that of the Amur by the Daouria mountains. The greater part of the government having a northern exposure, the cli- mate is more severe than usual under the same latitude, and in winter mercury often freezes. The summer is of short duration, though very warm ; the air generally clear and serene. A great part of the surface is occupied by forests, which furnish excellent timber, and abound with all kinds of game. Bears are numerous, many of whom, during the severe winter of 1821, impelled by hunger, made their appearance in the imme- diate vicinity. of Irkoutsk. One was killed within a peasant's cottage, and two in the very streets of the town. They were so emaciated, that the Bkins were of no value. A singular accident took place in the summer of the year above named. A peasant who resided at about four miles from the town, had a dancing- bear, which was considered so tame, that he had been exhibiting it, on the day in question, within the house of the commandant of Irkoutsk, for the amusement of the children. On their return home, Mr. Bruin becoming ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. R0I3£RI^-^ Peasant attacked by a Bear. Stubborn, ai;d retusing to travel as fast as his master wished him, the latter proceeded to beat him ; wlieii the infuriated animal turned round, seized upon him, and literally crushed him to a mummy ! The pastures of this government maintain great numbers of cattle and sheep, the latter being chiefly of the native or flat-tailed variety ; the breed." of cattle sent hero and tlirougliout Siberia have generally diminished ii. size, but improved in hardiliood. The principal cultivated crops arc rye and barley ; hemp and flax also succeed well. There is not much fruit. Many indications of volcanic agency are discoverable, particularly in the northern part of the government, and earthquakes ai'C not unfi-equent. In the plain along the Angara, below the town of Irkoutsk, a fine-grained sandstone, of tlie carboniferous system, prevails ; and strata of pure coal, nine feet thick, have been found in it. The mountains are generally gran- itic. The minerals are very valuable, and include gold, found chiefly in the lateral valleys which run from the central ridge of the Jablonnoi, sil- ver, lead, zinc, and tin. The principal mines are situated in tlie eastern part of the government, and are wrought, in the direction of the stock, over an extent of one hundred and sixty miles. In workingv the tin, splendid cells of rock-crystals, with green, yellow, and blue emeralds, and with to EASTERN SIBERIA — IRKOtJTSK. 337 pazes, are met with. Salt is found in great abundance in lakes and brine- springs, but is not turned to much account. Manufactures exist to a very limited extent, and consist chiefly of soap, leather, and glass. A considerable trade is carried on with China, through Kiakhta ; and in furs, which, after metals, constitute the principal articles of export. A considerable proportion of the Russian inhabitants are descendants of exiles from the West. The natives in greatest number are the Tungusi, Mongols, and Buriats. The religion of the Greek church is generally pro- fessed, but many continue addicted to the practices of Shamanism. For administrative purposes, the government is divided into six districts or circles, of which Irkoutsk is the capital. Irkoutsk, the capital of the government, is situated in a plain, about twelve hundred feet above the sea-level, on the Angara, at the confluei.oe of the Irkout. It is divided into two parts by the Angara, which is here about one thousand feet wide, sun-ounded by a wall and ditch, and well built, consisting of wooden houses, which are all neatly planked outsido and painted yellow or light gray. The streets, though not paved, have wooden pathways for foot-passengers, and are kept in good order. Its agreeable climate, picturesque situation, the good breeding and wealth of its inhabitants, and its adaptation for commerce, conspire to make it the most important and flourishing city of Siberia, as well as one of the first towns of the Russian empire. One of the chief ornaments of Irkoutsk is a noble quadrangular parade, one side of which is occupied by the residence of the governor, and other public offices ; and most of the houses have kitchen-gardens behind them. The principal buildings include a great number of churches (one of them a cathedral), most of which have been erected at the expense of rich and pious merchants ; two convents ; a handsome exchange, built of stone, and surrounded by stately poplars and pines ; an admiralty, with dockyards on the Angara ; the offices of the American Company, which would be consid- ered spacious and ornamental in any town of Europe or of the United States ; a school of medicine, a gymnasium, and several other schools ; a public library of five thousand volumes, a mineralogical cabinet, two hos- pitals, a workhouse and house of correction, and a large and well-ventilated prison ; the gostinoi dvor, or bazar, supplied with articles of Chin&se and European manufacture ; and in its vicinity are the markets, supplied with fish, flesh, meal, with its motley crowd of Buriats, Russian women, &c. The manufactures consist of woollen and linen cloth, hats, leather (com- mon and Morocco), soap, and glass. There are also several distilleries. The trade is in hay, tea, and other articles imported from China, and more especially in fur, for which the Russian Amexican Company have here largo warehouses. Irkoutsk is the see of an archbishop ; and, being the residence of a gov- ernor, is regarded as the capital of Eastern Siberia. The police of the 22 338 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION Or RUSSIA. city is so excellently regulated, that a person can not walk out after dark, without being challenged in all directions by a watchman. As a substi- tute for the watchman's rattle or club, and as a mode of communicating with each other, these guardians of the night carry with them a mallet, with which they beat a plank of wood, when the signal is repeated in sue cession by each of them. The society of the upper class is quite Europeat in its character, but many persons belonging to it have the misfortune or stigma of being exiles. The inhabitants generally appear to be very com- fortable. The population is from twenty to twenty-five thousand. Kiakhta (or Kiachta), and Mai-matshin (or Maimachen), constitute a sort of double-town (or more properly two towns, on the boundary between this government and tlie Chinese territory of Mongolia, one hundred and seventy miles southeast of Irk'outsk ; the one town, called Kiakhta, belong- ing to Russia, and the other, called Mai-matshin, to China). It stands on a small river of the same name, two thousand feet above the sea-level, and was founded in 1728, on the conclusion of the commercial treaty between the Russians and the Chinese. It derives its importance from being the only recognised entrepot for the trade between the two countries, and pre- sents a singular appearance from the striking contrasts it exhibits. In the Russian portion of the town, the houses of merchants of the better class have stairs and balconies in front, occasionally painted and embellished with arcliitectural ornaments. Toward Mai-matshin, or the Chinese por- tion, a narrow door opens in front of a long wooden building, and leads into the inner quadrangle of a Russian warehouse. On the opposite side, a corresponding door opens upon a wooden barricade, and this barricade is the barrier of China, the door of which is closed at sunset, when Chinese and Russians must betake themselves to their respective quarters. The Russian side has an eagle above it, with the cipher of the reigning empe- ror. The Chinese side, forming the entrance to Mai-matshin, is sui'mounted with a cone or pyramid. The effect produced in passing it is described by Erman as almost magical. The sober hues of the Russian side are, all at once, succeeded by fantastic, gaudy finery. The streets consist of a bed of well-beaten clay, kept neatly swept, but so narrow that two camels can scarcely pass each other. On either side ai'e walls of the same clay, with perforations, forming windows of Chinese paper. These walls are the sides of houses, but are not easily seen to be so, in consequence of the flat- ness of the roofs, and the gaudy paper lanterns and flags with inscrip- tions, which line the streets, and stretch across from roof to roof. There are two Buddhist temples in the town, containing five colossal images and numerous smaller idols. The trade carried on is very extensive. The Russians receive tea to the amount of about five millions of pounds annu- ally, together with silks, nankeens, porcelain, sugar-candy, tobacco, rhu- bark, and musk ; and give in exchange furs, skins, leather, woollen and linen cloth, cattle, and reindeer-horns, from the latter of which a gelatine is obtained that forms a much-esteemed delicacy among the Chinese. "CASTERN SIBERIA — TAKODTSK. S89 The vast government or province of Yakoutsk extends from the Altai or Stanovoy mountains on the south to the Frozen ocean on the north, hav- ing the governments of Irkoutsk and Yeniseisk on tlie west, and Okhotsk and tlie Pacific ocean on the east, and occupying at least three fiftlia of Eastern Siberia, or one million four hundred thousand square miles. The province is watered by the great rivers Lena, Yana, Lidijirka, and Kolima, which supply vast quantities of fish. Iron, salt, and excellent talc, are the chief mineral products : game, of many kinds, is abundant. Large herds of cattle, Ac, are reared near the town of Yakoutsk; and, notwithstanding the severity of the winters, rye, barley, and even wheat, are said to succeed well throughout the province, except in those parts which are so far north as to render the summer too short to ripen grain. YAKorrsK. Yakoutsk, the capital of this government, is situated on the Lena, about eleven hundred and fifty miles northeast of Irkoutsk, and has all the char- acter of the cold and gloomy north. It stands on a barren flat, near the river. The streets are wide, but the houses and cottages are poor in aji- pearance, and surroimded by tall wooden fences. Here are five churches, a convent, a stone building (^gostinbi dvor) for commercial purposes, and an old wooden fortress with its ruined tower, built in 1647, by the Cossack conquerors of Siberia. The town has, however, undergone great improve- ments in the last foi'ty years. The Yakute huts have been replaced by sub- stantial houses ; the windows of ice, or talc, have given way to glass in the better class of houses, and the more wealthy inhabitants begin to have higher rooms, larger windows double doors, &c. 340 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. Yakoutsk is the centre of the interior trade of Eastern Siberia. All the most costly furs, as well as the more common kinds, walrus-teeth, and fos- sil remains, are brought here for sale, or barter, during the ten weeks of summer, from Anabor and Behring's straits, the coasts of the Polar sea, and even from Okhotsk and Kamtschatka. It is not easy to imagine the mountain-like piles of furs of all kinds seen here ; their value sometimes amounts to nearly three millions of roubles. Almost all the Russian set- tlers in Yakoutsk employ their little capital in purchasing furs from the Yakutes during the winter, on which they realize a good profit at the timo of tlie fair, when they sell them to the Irkoutsk merchants. As soon as the Lena is clear of ice,. the merchants begin to arrive from Irlcontsk, bringing witli them for barter, grain, meal, the pungent Circas- sian tobacco, tea, sugar, rum, Chinese cotton and silk stuifs, yarn, cloth of inferior quality, hardware, glass, 4 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. all, like the axis round which the whole moves. The colors are every- wliere most lively — red, white, green, gold, and silver. Amid the confu- sion of the numerous small antique edifices, the Bolshoi Dvoretz (the large palace built by the emperor Alexander) has an imposing aspect. The churches and palaces stand on the plateau of the kremlin as on a mighty salver ; the little red and gold Church of the Czars coquetting near the border like some pretty little maiden, and the paler-colored cupolas of Mikhilooski and Uspenski churclies representing the broad corpulence of a merchant's wife. The Maloi Dvoretz (Little palace), and the convent of the Miracle, draw modestly back, as beseems hermits and little people. All these buildings stand on the summit of the kremlin, like its crown — themselves again crowned with a multitude of cupolas, of which every church hits at least five, and one has sixteen, glittering in gold and silver. The appearance of the whole is most picturesque and interesting, and it is certainly one of the most striking city-views in Europe. The northern side of the kremlin is the least attractive : a plain high wall with two gates separates it from the Krasnoi Ploschad (the Red place). The most adorned is the northwest aide. Here, in former times, was the Swan-lake. It is now drained, and its bed forms the site of the Alexander garden, which stretches from the Moskva to the giant wall of the kremlin. What the Acropolis was to Athens, and the Capitol to Rome, the krem- lin is to Moscow. It is surrounded by a strong and lofty wall, embattled with many towers and turrets, and sevei'al gates. The most important of these is, beyond doubt, the Spass Vorota (the gate of the Redeemer). It is the pjorta sacra and porta triumphalis of Moscow. Through it entered the triumphant warriors of Vassili-Ivanovich, after the conquest of Kazan and Astrakhan, and those of Michael and Alexis, after the victories ob- tained in the Ukraine. Over this gate is a picture of the Savior, under a glass, and before it hangs a large, ill-formed lamp, in a massive metal frame ; this is suspended by a heavy chain, and under it, to wind it up, stands a complicated old machine, that jarred and rattled -here in the time of the czar Michael. A man, whose sole business it is to wind it up, has a table beside him with wax-tapers, which lie sells to be lighted before the ]iicture. This shrine is an object of tlie greatest reverence with the Rus- sians, although few know what it represents, it hangs so high, and the colors are so faded. This gate fnrins a passage through the tower, of about twenty paces long, an'd every one, be he what he may, Mohammedan, heathen, or Christian, must take off his hat, and keep it off, till he has passed through to the other side. Any one passing through, and forgetting to uncover, is immediately reminded of the fact, nor would it be safe to neglect the hint. This gate obtain jd its sacred reputation in the course of centuries, through many re- put-._'d miracles wrought by its means. Often, as the people relate, the Tartars have been driven back from it ; miraculous clouds have veiled the defend- MOSCOW — THE KREMLIN. 35ft General Vikw of the Kbemlin, Moscow. ers of the kremlin, wlio sought its shelter, wliile the pursuing Tartars were unable to find the entrance. Even the presence of the " teniple-pluudering Gauls," aecording to the Russians, only served to increase tlie renown of this gate. They thought tlio frame of the ]iicture was of gold, and endeav- ored to remove it. But every ladder they ]jlaiited broke in the middle! Tliis enraged the French, who tlien brought a cannon to batter down door and picture together ; but, do what they would, the dry powder was pos- sessed by the devil of water, who was too nuicli for the devil of fire, and would not explode! At last they made a great fire with coals over tlie touch-hole : the powder was now subdued, but it exploded the wrong way, blowing the cannon into a thousand pieces, and some of tlic French artille- rymen into the bargain, wliile gate and inctnre remained unliarmed ! Tlie spoilers, now overmastered by dread, withdrew, acknowledging the miracu- lous power. Such is the story told Ijy the tajjcr-seller at tlie gate. The ori- gin of the custom of uncapping at the " Holy Gate " is unknown ; several tra- ditions are extant, yet the authenticity of aiiy fact is lost in tlie darkness of ages ; but the feelings of devotion are still fresh and powerful, and it ia a question how weighty a bribe would be sufBcient to induce a Russian to pass this archway, by either day or night, without uncovering his liead. The emperor himself bares his imperial brow as he approaches the Spa-skoi ; the ofBcer and soldier in all tlie pomp and circumstance of war do the same ; and thus tradition says it has been since the wooden walls of the first krem- lin were raised. The greatest care is taken not to allow dogs to cuter liy the Savior's gate — a proof tliat in a religious point of view the Russians look upon tliis animal as unclean. The Nicholas gate, although not so privileged as the Spass Vorota, ho," 356 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. also a wonder-working picture, that of St. Nicholas, over it. It was near the entrance of this gate that Napoleon's powder-wagons exploded and destroyed a large part of the arsenal and other buildings. The gate es- caped with a rent, which split the tower in the middle as far as the frame of the picture, which stopped its farther progress. Not even the glass of the picture, or that of the lamp suspended before it, was injured. So says the inscription on the gate, and the remarkable rent is eternalized by a stone differing from the rest in color. All the gates of the kremlir. are connected by a strong and lofty wall, which encloses it in the form of a vast triangle with many towers. Within this wall are contained all the most interesting and historically important buildings of Moscow : the holiest churches, vv^ith the tombs of the ancient czars, patriarchs, and metropolitans ; the remains of the ancient palace of the czars, the new one of the emperor Nicholas, the arsenal, senate-house, &c., and architectural memorials of every period of Russian history — for every Russian monarch has held it his duty to adorn the kremlin with some monument. The two most important remains of the old palace of the czars are the Terema and the Granovitaya Palata — the former containing the gymna- sium, tlie latter the coronation-liall of the czars. The main body of the palace was so much injured by the French, that no restoration was possible. In its place a new palace was erected, called the Bolshoi Dvoretz (Great palace), or, from its builder, the Alexanderski Dvoretz. The ruins of botli tlie others are by the side of it, and connected with it by stairs and galleries. They were so desolated by the French, that door and window stood open to wind and tempest. The coronation-hall was restored long ago, and the emperor Nicholas also repaired the Terema. Terema, or terem, is the name given in every Russian peasant's house to the upper part of the building, round which, sheltered by the projecting roof, a balcony runs, and where the daughters and younger children of the house are lodged. It may easily be imagined that the terema plays no in- significant part in the love-songs of the people. This part of the old palace of the czars is called pre-eminently the Terema. The building consists of four stories, of which the lowest is the largest, gradually diminishing, till tlie upper floor is so small as only to contain one room. On the space thus left by the retreat of the upper story from the ceiling of the under, a bal- cony is formed, with steps both within and without, ascending from one terrace to the other. On the lowest floor are the throne and audience- chambers of the czars ; the upper one was the dwelling of the czarovnas (princesses) and the children. All these rooms have been repaired in the old Russian taste. The stoves are very peculiar in form, and all the plates of which they are composed ornamented with paintings. The walls are ornamented with decorations almost outvying the gorgeous glories of the Alhambra. They display an extraordinary confusion of foliage, vine-trel- lises, singularly-imagined flowers, woven in arabesques, and painted with MOSCOW — IMPERIAL PALACES. 357 the gayest colors. On the painted branches are perclied birds, yellow, blue, gold, and silver ; squirrels, mice, and other small animals ; on every bough hangs a load of costly fruit, and all sorts of knots and figures in gold are entwined among them. Here and there are portraits of the czar.s, ar- morial bearings, houses in miniature, and what not. Originals for these fancies were found in old churches, but of course the work of the modern artist is much more elegant, richer, and better executed. From one of the terraces of the Terema there is an entrance into the little church of the Redeemer, which was also plundered by the French, but re-endowed most magnificently with gold and silver vessels by the cin- perors Alexander and Nicholas. This is ornamented with twelve gilded cupolas, the size of chimneys — tlie sight of which, no doubt, in the days of childhood, delighted many a czar. It was on the terrace-roof of the Terema, whence there is a splendid view of the city and its environs, that Napoleon placed himself on the first day of his very short stay at Moscow, to behold the beauties of his short-lived and fatal conquest. Connected also with the Bolshoi Dvoretz is the singular building of quad- rangular or cubical form, the Granovitaya Palata. On the second story is the coronation-hall of the czars, a low and vaulted apartment, the arches uniting in the centre, where they rest upon a thick, square column. The crimson-velvet hangings used at Nicholas's coronation still ornament the walls; they are embroidered in gold, with eagles bearing thunderbolts, and with tlie initials of the emperor : a golden candelabrum is worked be- tween each of these. The throne, under a velvet canopy, is opposite the entrance, and over the windows are the armorial bearings of the different governments of Russia. The pillar in the centre is divided by circular shelves, on which the regalia are displayed on the day of the coronation. Here the emperor sits enthroned, after the ceremony in the cathedral, adorned for the first time with all the imperial insignia, and dines amid his nobles. After that royal feast the room is untrodden, save by the curi- ous stranger, until death calls the reigning czar to the sepulchre of hia fathers, and the gorgeous bapquet is spread anew for his successor. A long, low passage, the walls of which were richly painted and gilded with barbarous devices, led to the room of state of the rulers of the olden time. Tliey knew not of seat or throne, save the deep niches cut in the painted walls ; and where, unless they far out-topped in stature the degen- erate mortals of later times, they must have sat with their royal legs dan- gling most uncomfoi'tably in mid-air, as the niches are between three and four feet from the ground. It has been remarked that, on the spot where the main body of the old Tartar palace stood, the emperor Alexander erected the Bolshoi Dvoretz (Great palace). It is very lofty compared with its fagade, but the whole effect is good when viewed from the base upward. The interior is not striking for either its decorations or furniture ; nevertheless, the palace, though of such recent erection, is not without interest. The rooms, which 858 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIji . have been at various times inhabited by members of the imperial family, are in exactly the same state as when tlicy left them ; and the sei'vanta who show the building announce the liistory of each roor.i — as the tlirone- room of the emperor Alexandei', tlie bath-room of the empress Maria Feo- dorovna, out six feet liiuli and tliree feet wide. Tlie height of the wh(jle licll is twenty-om,' fi'Ct three inches, and t\v(inty-t\\'o feet five inches in diameter, and it is in no |)art less than throe inches in tliickness. Seen from even a shm-t distance, surrounded as it is on all sides by objects on sucii an immense scale, with the lofty Ivan Veliki towering imuiediateiy beliind it, the i-iipression of its nuignitiide is by no means striking: it is only when tlie spectator conies near to it, and stands beside tlie tirokcu fragment of this metal mountain, or descends the stairs tiiat lead lieiicatli it and looks u]) into ics capacious cavci'u, tlmt lie becomes sensible of its enormous bnlk. This giant communicator cf sound lias been consecrated as a chapel, and tiic entrance to it is by an iron gate, and down a few steps that descena into a cavity formed by the wall and the excavation under it. The " Czar Kolokol" is highly venerated, for the religious feelings of tlie y)eo]ile wei-e called into action when it was cast, and every one wlio had a fractiim of the precious metals threw into the melting mass some OiTei ing of cither silver or gold ; the decorative parts of it are in low relief, nnd badly executed. The largest liell in France, that of Rouen, weigh? but lhir(y-six lluiusand pounds ; tlie faimjus " Tom " of Lincoln, in England cast in 1()10, and al'lcrward cracked, was not quite ten tlionsand pound.?, thoiigli the new one is somewhat larger; the gi'cat lire-bell in the tower o( MOSCOW — THE TOWEB OP IVAN VELIKI. 367 tho city-hall at New York is only about twenty-one thousand pounds ; but the bell of the krcmlin weighs between throe and four hundred thousand pounds ! The value of this mass of metal, estimated from tlie present price of copper, must be upward of a million and a half of dollars. Bells, as ATcU as everything else connected in the remotest degree with ecclesiastical purposes, are hold in great respect by the Russian people, but that of the krk>mliii is recommended to especial veneration by the name of tlie " Eter- nal Bell." The tower oi Ivan Veliki (John the Great) is a most singular building; rising without ornament of any kind to the height of more than two hun- dred feet, surmounted by a gilded dome, upon which, as on all the other gilded domes within the kremlin (about sixty in number), tho cross is dis- played above the crescent. This tower, the loftiest and most remarkable in Moscow, is the campanile to the church of St. Nicholas the Jlagician. Tlie summit is gained by a good staircase, and the view from each stoiy. which serves as a belfry, stimulates the visiter to renew his exertions to reach tlie top. In the first of these stories hangs, in solitary grandeur, a bell, which, but for the mightier one below, would appear stupendous. It weighs sixty-four tons ; it is consequently four times as heavy as tlie famous bell of Eouen, and six times that of the city-hall in New York. To ring it is, of course, impossible : even to toll it requires the united strcngtli of tliree men, wjio, pulling with separate ropes, swing the vast clapper round, making it strike the bell in three diiferent places. Standing under it, and witli liis arm stretched out above his head, the traveller, even if a call man, will fail to touch the top. In the belfry above that in whicli this is suspended are two other bells of far smaller but still of immense propor- tions ; and above these are forty or fifty more; which diminish in size in each tier successively. The tones of tliese vai'ious bells are said to be very beautiful. A superior dexterity in casting metals, traditionally preserved in this part of the earth from the earliest times, is proved by tlie bells now hang- ing in this tower, which were cast soon after the erection of the church in 1600. The largest, described above, is held so sacred, that it is sounded but three times a year, and then alone ; the others are rung all together, and an extraordinary noise they must make : but this din and jumble of sounds is that which is most pleasing to Russian ears ! On Easter eve a death- like silence reigns in all the streets, until on a sudden, at midnight, the thunders of the guns of the kremlin, and the uproar of its bells, supported by those of two hundred and fifty other churches, arc heard. The streets and church-towers are illuminated, and a dense throng of four hundred thousand people seems inspired with but one thought and feeling : with mutual felicitations and embraces, all repeat the words " Christ is risen," and all evince joy at the glad tidings. The view from the summit of this tower is one of the most remarkable ir Europe. Clustered round it are the numerous gilt domes of the cliurche* 368 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. within the kremlin, and those of the ancient and peculiar building called the tower of the kremlin ; among these are grouped the treasury, the bishop's palace, and other modern edifices, strangely out of keeping with the eastern architecture of the place, all of which are enclosed by the lofty embattled walls and fantastic towers of the fortress. Near tlie " Holy Gate," the green towers of which are surmounted by golden eagles, is the cathedral of St. Basil, grotesque in form and color ; and winding under the terrace of the kremlin gardens is the Moskva, the silvery though narrow line of which may be traced far into the country. Rourd this brilliant centre stretches on every side the city and its suburbs, radiant in all the colors of the rainbow, which are used in the decoration of the roofs and walls of the churches and houses ; the effect of this mosaic is heightened by the foliage of the trees which grow in many parts of the town as well as on the banks of the river. The Greek fagade of tlic found- ling-hospital attracts attention from its extreme length and the style of its arcliitecture, in such striking contrast with that of the town generally. The old monasteries, with their bright-blue domes spangled with golden stars, and minarets gilt or colored, particularly of the Simonov and Don- skoi, surrounded by groves of trees, lie scattered on the skirts of the town. Beyond these are the SpaiTow hills, on which Napoleon paused ere he de- scended to take possession of the devoted city. No view of any capital in Euro]ie can be compared with that of Moscow from this tower, except that of Constantinople from the Galata or Seraskier's, which surpasses it in beauty, fn- the horizon here is one unbroken line of dreary steppe, while at St.ainboul the distance is formed by the sea of Marmora and the snowy summits of Olympus. In St. Petersburg, all is whitewash, and stiff and stately, but in her ancient rival all is picturesque ; the city seems to work grudiially upon the feelings as by a spell: her wild Tartar invaders and boyard ciiiefs of the olden time rise up in the imagination and people again in fantastic array tlie wide terrace of the old fortress ; while the deeds of the foreign invaders of our own times impai't a thrilling interest to the scene — the northern limit of the long career of Napoleon's conquests. Descending from the tower of Ivan Veliki, the traveller may pass by the emperor's palace to the western gate of the kremlin, which, like the other three entrances, has a lofty, tapering tower of green and white, and a gilt eagle for its vane. Here a flight of steps lead into tlie kremlin gardens, wliich bound tlie whole western part of the fortress ; these are beautifully laid out, and on this spot fireworks are let off on the eve of every festival. The cathedral of St. Basil, also called the church of the Protection of Mary, is situated on the Krasnoi Ploschad (Red place), between the walls of tlie kremlin and those of the KUai Gorod (Chinese city) , and an edifice more bizarre, in point of both form and color, can not well be imagined. Standing alone at tlie extrcrnily of tliis wide area, the VassUi Blagennoi seems erected in this conspicuous situation as if to show how grotesque a MOrfCOW — CATHEDRAL OP ST. BASIL. ?><5it I Cathedeal of St. Basil. Moscow ■:^^Ki? building the ingenuity of man could devote to the service of his Maker. There are no less than twenty towers and domes, all of different shajtos and sizes, and painted in every possible color : some are covered with a network of gi'een over a surface of yellow, another dome is a bright red with broad wliite stripes, and a third is gilded ! Some historians affirm that it was built to com- memorate the capture of Kazan ; others that it was a whim of Ivan the Terrible, to try how many distinct chapels could be erected under one roof, on a given extent of ground, in such a manner that divine service could be performed in all simultaneously without any interference one with another. It is also said that the czar was so delighted with the architect, an Italian, who had thus admirably gratified his wishes, that when the bdi- fice was finished he sent for him, pronounced a warm panegyric on his work, and then had his eyes put out, in order that he might never Dc'ld such another! — a strange caprice of cruelty, if true — punishing the man, not for failing, but succeeding, ir gratifying his einployer. The entire structure is far f''om forming a whole, for no main building is discoverable in this architectural maze ; in every one of the towers or domes lurks a separate church, in every excrescence a chapel ; or they may be likened to chimneys expanded to temples. One tower stands forth prominently amid the confusion, yet it is not in the centre, for tliere is in fact neither centre nor side, neither beginning nor end ; it is all here and there. Strictly speaking, this tower is no tower at all, but a church, and the chief one in the knot of churches, tlie " church of the Protection of Holy Mary." This tower, one hundred and fifty feet in height, is quite 24 C70 ILLUSTRATED DESCBIPTION OP RUSSIA. hollow within, having no division of any kind, and lessening by degrees to the summit ; and from its small cupola the portrait of the " protectiijg Mother" looks down as if from heaven. This church is placed as it were upon the neck of another, from the sides of which a number of chapels pro- ceed — Palm-Sunday chapel, the chapel of the Three Patriarchs, of Alex- ander Svirskoi, and others. Service is performed in these on one day in the year only. The greater part is so filled up with sacred utensils and objects of adoration, that there is hardly any room left for tlie pious who come to pray. Some of the chapels have a kind of cupola like a turban, as if they were so many Turks' heads from which Ivan had scooped the Mohammedan brains and supplied their place with Christian' fui-niture ! Some of the stones of the cupolas are cut on the sides, others not ; some are three-sided, some four-sided ; some are ribbed, or fluted ; some of the flutes are perpendicular, and some wind in spiral lines round the cupola. To render the kaleidoscope appearance yet more perfect, every rib and every side is painted of a different color. Those neither cut in the sides nor ribbed are scaled with little smooth, glazed, and painted bricks ; and, when these scales are closely examined, they even are seen to differ from one another ; some are oval, others cut like leaves. The greater part of the cupola-crowned towers have a round body, but not all ; there are six- sided and eight-sided towers. From remote times wax-taper sellers have established themselves be- tween the entrances, and there they display their gilded and many-colored wares. From one corner the upper churches are gained by a broad, cov- ered flight of steps, which is beset day and night by hungry beggars who look to be fed ))y the devout. These steps lead to a gallery or landing- place which branches ofl^ right and left to a labyrinth of passages leading to the separate doors of the temple on the roof, so narrow and winding that it costs many a painful effort to work one's way through. In some parts they are convenient enough, and even expand into spacious terraces. Where they lead outward they are of course covered, and their roofs are supported by pillars of different forms and sizes. Whole flocks of half- wild pigeons, that build their nests here, are constantly flying in and out. Imagine, then, all those points and pinnacles surmounted by crescents, and by very profusely-carved ci'osses, fancifully wreathed with gilded chains ; imagine, further, with how many various patterns of arabesques every wall and passage is painted ; how from painted flower-pots gigantic thistles, flowers, and shrubs, spring forth — vary into vine-wreaths — wind and twist further till they end in simple lines and knots ; imagine the now somewhat-faded colors — red, blue, green, gold, and silver — all fresh and gaudy — and the reader may in some degree comprehend how these build- ings must have delighted the eye of the barbarous Ivan ! The chapel of the " Iberian Mother of God" (called in Russian the Iver- skaija Boshia Mater) stands at the foot of the hill by which the Krasnot Ploschad is reached, and close to the "Sunday Gate" {Voskressenskaia MOSCOW — CHAPEL OF THE IBERIAN MOTHER OP GOD. 371 Forokoi Plntz Paiad. 14. Semenovslcoi Platz Parad. 15 l-mailoft' Platz Parad. 16. Winter Provi^inn Market. a. New Cast-iron Bridge, with giBi> ite pillare, across the Neva. The bridge was completed on tlie 21st of November, and was opened by tlie emperor iu person, after the priests had performed the ceremony of consecration, &c. In the accompanying view the artist has shown the bridge during the act of consecration. With the broad and lofty buildings on the quay, it forms a very effective conp d'ceil. It is remarkable that this day was the twenty-fifth anniversary of the accession of Nicholas to the throne — a day considered fatal to Russian monarchs — and yet his confi- dence was so great, that he ventured without an escort, and attended only by his ■ staflP, whd wel'e almost immediately separated from him by the throng ; not a soldier was to be seen in the neighborhood. The boat-bridges, previously mentioned, consist merely of boarded car- riage-ways resting on pontoons,, and. are so constructed that they may be easily taken to pieces and quickly be put together again, which is neces- sary to be done every season, to protect them from destruction when the Neva is filled with ice. Owing to the lowness of the site of St. Petersburg, though the loftier pinnacles and domes are seen at a considerable distance, the city, whether approached by land or water, can not be said to become distinctly visible before it is actually entered, and hence the general impression produced is greatly heightened by a feeling of surprise. The stranger suddenly finds himself between noble granite quays, bordered by edifices of almost unri- valled splendor, or in spacious streets of apparently interminable length, straight as an arrow, unbroken by the slightest unevenness, and lined with lofty buildings of uniform structure, often lavishly adorned, and, in color at least, resembling marble. It is true that the impression is somewhat 6S0 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. weakened by a iifirrower inspection, tlie greater part of the houses proving to be only of wood or briclc, ganiislied with plaster. As it is iinpossilile to olitairi a complete view of the city from without, recourse i? often had to the numerous towers, on which watchmen stand sentinel day and niglit, to give tlie alarm of iire ; but by far the best sta- tion is the tower of tlie Admiralty, centrically situated on the northwestern part of the peninsula and the left bank of the Great Neva, and provided with galleries, from which all j)arts of the city may be seen in succession to the greatest advantage. Looking southward over the peninsula from this commanding position, three canals — the nearest called the Moika, next the Catharina, and last the Pontanka — may be traced, stretching circuitously from east to west, and dividing the whole space into three quarters, called respectively the first, sccnd, and third Admiralty sections. _ Radiating immediately from the tower, intersecting these canals, and spanning them by beautiful granite bridges, are the three principal streets — the Nevskoi Prospekt, or Neva Perspective, on the right ; tlie Gorokhovaia Oulitza, or Pease street, in the centre ; and the Vosnosenskoi Frospekt, or Resurrection Per- spective, on the right. The eye wanders along these splendid streets from end to end without obstruction. They are all of great length, width, and beau- ty ; but the finest every way, and the greatest thoroughfare of the city, is the Nevskoi Fros- pekt, which is two miles long, and one hundred and filty feet in width, and has a double car- riage-way, with footpaths paved with granite, or avenues shaded with lime- trees. Beyond the Fontanka canal, both on the south and east, and bound- ed in the former direction by the city fosse, and on the latter by the main stream of the Nova, is a large space, almost entirely covered with build- ings, and forming, in addition to the three Admiralty sections already mentioned, the Narva, Karetznoi, Kojestvenskoi, and Foundry quarters. Considerably to the east, on the right bank of the river, may be seen the large villages of Great and Little Okhta. Turning now to the opposite side of the town and looking north, the busy scone presented by the river immediately below first attracts the eye, which then wanders along the splendid quay which lines the south side of Nkvskoi Frospekt, St. Petkhsbujig. BT. PETERSBmrecions tribute of returning spring. He informs Ids master tliat the force of winter has l)een broken, that the waters are free again, that an active navigation may now again be looked for, and points to his own gon- dola, as the first swan tliat has swum on the river that year. He then presents the goblet to the emperor, who drinks it off to the health of the dear citizens of his capital. There is not probably on the face of the glube anotlier glass of water that brings a better price, for it is customary for the emperor to fill the golilet with ducats before he returns it to tlie com- mandant. Such, at least, was the custom; but the goblet was found to have a sad tendency to enlarge its dimensions, so that the emperor began to perceive that he had every year a larger dose of water to drink, and a greater number of ducats to pay for it. At last he thought it high time to compromise matters with his commandant, who now receives on each occa- sion a Rxed sum of two hundred ducats. Even this, it must be admitted, is a truly imperial fee for a draught of water, but the compromise is said to have effectually arrested the alartning growth of the golilet! It is generally between the 6th and the 14th of April (old style), or between the 18th and the 26tli, according to the calendar in use in this country, that the Neva throws off her icy covering. The 6th is tiie most general day. It is usually about the middle of November, and more fre- quently en the 20th (2d of December new style) than on any other day. ST. PETERSBURG — OUT-DOOB LIFE. 389 that the ice is brought to a stand-still. The departure of the ice, on the breaking up of the river in the spring, always forms an exciting spectacle, and crowds are sure to be attracted to the quays by the first gun fired from the citadel. The golden gondola of the commandant is not long alone in its glory, for liundreds of boats are quickly in motion, to re-establish the communication between the different quarters of the city. All tlie other harbors of the Baltic are usually free from ice before that of St. Petersburg; and a number of vessels are almost always awaiting, in the sound, the news that the navigation of the Russian capital has been resumed. The first spring ship that arrives in the Neva is the occasion of great rejoicing, and seldom fails to bring its cargo to an excellent market. It is mostly laden with oranges, millinery, and such articles of taste and vanity as are likely to be most attractive to the frivolous and wealthy, who seldom fail to reward the first comer by purchasing his wares at enormous prices. The first ship is soon followed by multitudes, and the most active life succeeds to a stillness like that of death. A stranger accustomed to the crowds and bustle of London, Paris, or New York, is struck on his arrival at St. Petersburg by the emptiness of the streets. He finds vast open spaces in which at times he beholds noth- ing but a solitary drosky, that wends its way along like a boat drifting on the open sea. He sees spacious streets bordered by rows of mute palaces with only here and there a human figure hovering about, like a lurking freebooter among a waste of rocks. The vastness of the plan on which tlie city has been laid out shows that its founders speculated on a distant fu- ture. Rapidly as tlie population has been increasing, it is still insufficient to fill the frame allotted to it, or to give to the streets that life and move- ment which we look for in the capital of a groat empire. On the occasion, indeed, of great public festivals and rejoicings, and at all times in the Nevskoi ProspeM and about the Admiralty, the movement is very consid- erable, but this only tends to leave the throng and bustle of the other quarters of the town far below the average. The population of St. Petersburg is the most varied and motley that mind can imagine. To begin with the military. We have the Caucasian guards, the Tartar guards, the Finland guards, besides a fourth and fifth division of the guards for the various tribes of Cossacks. Of these nations the elite are thus always retained as hostages in the capital, and tlieir sev- eral uniforms are alone sufiBcient to present an ever-changing picture to the eye of an observer. Here may be seen a Cossack trotting over one of the Platz Farads with his lance in rest, as though in his imagination ho were pursuing a flying enemy. Farther on, percliance a Circassian cava- lier, in his shirt-of-mail, and harnessed from head to foot, is going through his warlike exercises. The moslem from the Taurus may be seen gravely moving through the throng; while the well-drilled Russian soldiers defile in long columns through tlie streets. Of all the endless variety of uniforms that belong to the great Russian army, a few specimens are always to be 390 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. seen in the capital. There are guards, and hussars, and cuirassiers, and grenadiers, and pioneers, and engineers ; horse-artillery and fool^artillery ; to say nothing of dragoons, lancers, and those military plebeians the troops of the line. All these, in their various uniforms, marching to parade, re- turning to their barracks, mounting guard, and passing through the other multifarious duties of a garrison-life, are in themselves enough to give life and diversity to the streets. If, then, we turn to the more pacific part of the population, devoted to the less brilliant but certainly not less useful pursuit of commerce, we find every nation of Europe, and almost every nation of Asia, represented in tlic streets of St. Petersburg. Spaniards and Italians, English and French, Greeks and Scandinavians, may be seen mingling together; nor will the silken garments of the Persian and the Bokharian be wanting to the pic- ture, nor the dangling tail of the Chinese, nor the pearly teeth of the Arabian. The infima plebs bears an outside as motley as the more aristocratic por- tion of tlie community. The German bauer (peasant) may be seen loun- ging among the noisy, bearded Russians ; the slim Pole elbows the diminu- tive Finlander ; and Esthonians, Lettes, and Jews, are running up against each other, while the mussulman studiously avoids all contact with the Jew. Yankee sailors and dwarfish Kamtschatdales, Caucasians, Moors, and Mongolians — all sects, races, and colors, contribute to make up the populace of the Russian capital. Nowhere does the street life of St. Petersburg display itself to better eftcct than in the Nevskoi Prospekt. This magnificent street intersects all the rings of the city — the suburbs of the poor, the showy regions of com- merce, and the sumptuous quarters of the aristocracy. A walk along the whole length of this street is one perhaps as interesting as any that can be made in St. Petersburg. Starting from the extreme end, where a mon- astery and a cemeteiy remind you of death and solitude, you first an-ive at little low, wooden houses, which lead you to a cattle-market, where around the spirit-shops may be seen swarms of noisy, singing Russian peasants, presenting a picture not unlike what may daily be seen in the villages of the interior. A little farther on, the houses improve in appearance : some are even of stone, and boast of an additional floor ; the houses of public entertainment are of a better description, and shops and warehouses are seen similar to tliose of the small provincial towns. Next follow some markets and magazines for the sale of invalided furniture and superannu- ated apparel, which, liaving spent their youth in the service of the central quarters, are consigned in old age to the mercy of the suburbs. Tiie houses, in the old Russian fashion, are painted yellow and red, and every man you meet displays a beard of venerable length, and a yet longer caftan (jacket or roundabout). A little farther on, and you see a few ivoshtshiks (drosky-drivers) who have strayed by chance so far from their more central haunts ; a shaven chin and a swallow-tailed coat may be seen at in ST. PETERSBURG — NEVSKOI PROSPEKT. S91 tervals, and here and there a house assumes -lomething like an air of state- liness and splendor. On arriving at a bend in the street, the huge gilt spire of the Admiralty is descried at a distance, floating apparently over the intervening mist. You cross a bridge, and begin to feel that you are in a mighty city. The mansions rise to three and four stories in height, the inscriptions on the houses become larger and more numerous, carriages- and-four become more frequent, and every now and then the waving plume of a staff-officer dashes by. At length you arrive at the Fontanka canal, cross tlie Anitshkof bridge, and enter the aristocratic quarter of the capi- tal. From this bridge to the Admiralty is what may be called the fash- ionable part of the Prospekt ; and as you advance, the bustle and the throng become greater and greater. There are carriages-and-four at every step ; generals and princes elbowing through the crowd ; sumptuous shops, impe- rial palaces, and cathedrals and churches of all the various religions and sects of St. Petersburg. The scene in this portion of the street, at about mid-day, may challenge comparison with any street in the world, and the splendor of the spectacle is enhanced by the magnificence of the decorations. This part of the thor- oughfare, though about a mile in length, does not contain more than fifty houses, each of which, it may easily be inferred, must be of colossal mag- nitude Most of these buildings are the property of the several churches that border the street — the Dutch, the catholic, the Armenian, and others — that received from Peter the Great large grants of land, of little value probably when first bestowed, but from which, as they are now in the heart of the city, splendid revenues are derived. The street from the Anitshkof bridge to the Admiralty is the favorite promenade with the beau monde of St. Petersburg. The buildings are magnificent, the equipages roll noiselessly over the wooden pavement of the centre, and the trottoirs (foot-pavements) on each side are broad and commodious. The northern, being the sunny, is the favorite side of the street for the promenaders, and on that side accordingly are the most mag- nificent shops. The people are civil, and quarrels and disputes are seldom heard. The Slavonian is by nature ductile and tractable ; and the lower classes, from their childhood, are taught to behave respectfully toward their more fortunate fellow-men. The garrison of St. Petersburg seldom amounts to less tlian sixty thou- sand men, and constitutes, therefore, about one eighth of the entire popu- lation. Neither officer nor private must ever appear in public otherwise than in full uniform, and this may suffice to give some idea of the prepon- derance of the military over the civil costumes seen in the streets. The wild Circassian, with his silver harness and his coat-of-mail, gayly con- verses and jests with the more polished Russian officer, wliile their several kinsmen are busily engaged in cutting each other's throats in the Caucasus. Even in the streets of St. Petersburg, however, it is more safe to avoid collision with these fierce and chivalric mountaineers, who are sudden in 392 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. quarrel, quick to avenge insult, wear sharp daggers, and always carry loaded firearms about their persons. It would not be saying too much to affirm that half the inhabitants of St. Petersburg are clad in a uniform of one sort or another ; for, in addi- tion to the sixty thousand soldiers, there are civil uniforms for the public officers of every grade — for the police, for the professoi's of the university, and not only for the teachers, but likewise for the pupils, of the public schools. Nor must the private uniforms be forgotten that are worn by the numerous servants of the noble and wealthy families. Still there remain enough of plain coats to keep up the respectability of the fraternity. The whole body of merchants, the English factory, the German barons from the Baltic provinces, Russian princes and landowners from the interior, for- eigners, private teachers, and many others, are well pleased to be exempt from the constraint of buttons and epaulettes. Indeed, so much that is really respectable walks about in simple black and blue, that a plain coat is felt by many to be rather a desirable distinction, although the wearer is obliged on all public occasions to yield the pas to the many-colored coats of the civil and military employes. The seasons and the variations of the weather bring about many and often very sudden changes in the street-population of St. Petersburg, where the temperature is always capricious and unstable. In winter, every one is cased in furs ; in summer, light robes of gauze and silk are seen fluttering in the breeze. In tlie morning tlic costumes are perhaps all light and airy, and in the evening of the same day none will venture to stir abroad otherwise than in cloaks and mantles. The sun shines, and swarms of dandies and petites maUresses come fluttering through the fashionable thor- oughfares : it rains, and the streets are abandoned to the undisputed pos- session of the " black people." One day all snow and sledges, the next all mud and clattering wheels. Nor is it merely the change of weather that alters the physiognomy of the streets. The various sects tliat make up the population of the town give often a peculiar character to the day. On Friday, the holyday of the raoslems, the turbaned Turk, the black-bearded Persian, and the Tartar, with his shorn head, take their leisure in the streets. On Saturday, the black-silk caftans of the Jews come abroad in great numbers ; and on the Sunday, the Christians of all denominations come forth to their pious exer- cises or tlieir various diversions. The different sects of the Christians, again, tend to vary tlie scene. To-day the Lutherans celebrate their yearly day of penance, and German burglicrs, with their wives and children, and with their neat, black, gilt-edged hymn-books under their arms, sally forth on their pilgrimage to the church; to-morrow the catholics arc summoned to some feast or other of the immaculate Virgin, and Poles and Lithua- nians, Prenclnnen, and Austrians, hurry to tlieir stately temples. The next day are licard the thousand bells of the Greek kolokolniks, and the wives and daughters of the Russian merchants come humming and fluttering about ST. PETERSBURG — STREET POPULATION. 393 the streets in their gaudy plumages of green, blue, yellow, and red. Bui the great days are the public holydays, " the emperor's days," as they are called, when all the modes and fashions current, from Paris to Pekin, are certain to be paraded to the public gaze. It has often been remarked that there are few cities where one sees so many handsome men as in St. Petersburg. This is partly owing to the prevalence of tmiforms, which certainly set off the person to advantage, partly also to the fact that all the handsomest men in the provinces are constantly in demand as I'ecruits for the various regiments of the guards. Something must also be attributed to the constant efforts of the Russians to give themselves the most agreeable forms. In no other town are there so few cripples and deformed people ; and this is not owing merely to their being less tolerated here than elsewhere, but also, it is said, to the fact that the Slavonian race is less apt than any other to produce deformed children. On the other hand, at every step you meet men whose exterior you can not but admire, and a moment's reflection must fill you with regret that there should be so few fair eyes to contemjilate so many handsome specimens of manhood. St. Petersburg is unfortunately a city of men, the male sex being in a majority of at least a hundred thousand, and the women by no means equally distinguished for their charms. The climate seems to be unfavorable to the development of female beauty ; the tender plants quickly fade in so rude an atmosphere, and as they are few in numbers, . they are all the moi'e in demand for the ballroom and the soiree, and the more quickly used up by the friction of dissipation. Whether this be the cause, or whether the Russian women are naturally less handsome, com paratively, than the men, certain it is that a fresh, handsome-looking girl is but rarely to be seen at St. Petersburg. The German ladies from the Baltic provinces form the exception ; and it is from Finland, Livonia, Esthonia, and Courland, that the gay circles of the capital receive their chief supply of beauty. . To this it may be owing that the Russians have so high an opinion of German beauty that they rarely withhold from a Nyemka (German woman) the epithet of krassivaya, or beautiful. The ladies of St. Petersburg, though in such great demand on account of their scarcity, are liable, from the same cause, to many inconveniences. For instance, it is impossible for them to walk in the streets, even in broad daylight, without a male escort. The best hour for walking on the Prospekt is from twelve till two, when the ladies go shopping, and the men go to look at the fair purchasers. Toward two or three o'clock, the purchases have been made, the parade is over, the merchants are leaving the exchange, the world of promenaders wend their way to the English quay, and the real promenade for the day begins, the imperial family usually mingling with the rest of the loungers. This magnificent quay, constructed, like all the quays of St. Petersburg, of huge blocks of granite, runs along the Neva from the New to the Old Admiralty, and was built during the reign of the empress Catherine II. 394 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. who caused the canals and rivers of her capital, to the length of not less than twenty-four miles, to be enclosed in granite. As in all water-construe tions, the colossal part of tlie work is not that which meets the eye. The mighty scafiblding, on which the quay rests, stands deeply imbedded in the marshy soil below. Handsome stops, every here and there, lead down to the river ; and for carriages large, broad descents have been constructed, and these in winter are usually decorated with all sorts of fanciful columns and other ornaments, cut out of the ice. The houses along the English quay are deservedly called palaces. They were originally, for the most part, built by Englishmen, but are now, nearly all of them, the property of wealthy Russians. On the Englisli quay may be seen daily the elite of the Russian empire wearing away the granite with their princely feet. The carriages usually stop at the New Admiralty, wliere their noble owners descend, and honor the quay by walking up and down it some two or three times. There are no shops ; and as the English quay is not a convenient thoroughfare, the promenaders are seldom disturbed by the presence of any chance passen- gers. The emperor and the imperial family are a centre to the groups that come to salute them and to be saluted by them. This forms a kind of connection for the promenaders, and gives a oneness to tlie assembled company. Tlic emperor walks up and down upon an apparent footing of equality with his subjects around him; though these, in point of fact, stand about in the same relation to him that a child's doll does to the colossus of Rhodes. The Englishman buttons up his hatred of despotism in his great-coat, and scarcely condescends to touch his hat when he meets the " giant of the North ;" while to the Russian by his side, a submissive de- meanor has by habit become a positive source of enjoyment, till he feels a real affection for those to whom tlie law gives the right of ordering him about ! The master of some vast estate, in the Ural mountains or on the arid steppes, where thousands of souls must labor away for his exclusive profit, walks along the quay with as little pretension as the poor shopman, who can scarcely be said to have a property in his own soul, embodied as it is in tlie gay garments which he has such evident delight in displaying to an admiring world. The Russian of the lower orders is anything but an inviting personage, at first sight. The name by which they have been designated, in their own language, time out of mind, describes them precisely. It is tschorno'i narod, " tlie dirty people," or, as we might more freely render it, " the great un- washed." An individual of this class is called a mvjik, which is also a general name for peasant or serf. Ho is usually of middle stature, with small, light eyes, level cheeks, and flat nose, of which the tip is turned up so as to display the somewhat-expanded nostril. His pride ajid glory is his beard, which he wears as long and shaggy as nature Avill allow. The back of the liead is shaved closely ; and, as he wears nothing about his neck, his head stands distinctly away from his body. His ideal of the ST. PETERSBURG — THE MUJIK — DRUNKENNESS. 39£ beauty of the human Iiead, as seen from behind, seems to be to make it resemble, as neai*ly as may be, a turnip. He is always noisy, and never clean ; and when wrapped in his sheepskin mantle, or caftan of blue cloth reaching to his knees, might easily enough be taken for a bandit. As he seldom thinks of clianging his inner garments more than once a week, and as his outer raiment lasts half his lifetime, and is never laid aside during the night, and never washed, he constantly affords evidence of his presence anything but agreeable to the organs of smell. But a closer acquaintance will bring to light many traits of character which belie his rude exterior, and will show him to be at bottom a good-natured, merry, friendly fellow. His most striking characteristic is pliability and dexterity. If he does noJ possess the power of originating, he has a wonderful faculty of copying tlie ideas of others, and of yielding himself up to carry out the conceptions of any one who wishes to use him for the accomplishment of his ends. There is an old German myth which says that the Teutonic race was framed, in the depths of time, out of tlie hard, unyielding granite. The original material of the Russian race must have been India rubber, so easily are they compressed into any form, and so readily do they resume their own when the pressure is removed. The raw, untrained mujik is drafted into the army, and in a few weeks attains a precision of movement more like an automaton than a human being. He becomes a trader, and the Jews themselves can not match him in cunning and artifice. The mujik is a thoroughly good-tempered fellow. Address him kindly, and his face unbends at once, and you will find that he takes a sincere delight in doing you a kindness. In no capital of Europe are the tempta- tions to crimes against the person so numerous as in St. Petersburg, with its broad, lonely streets, unlighted at night, and scantily patrolled ; but in no capital are such crimes of so rare occurrence. But the mujik has two faults : he is a thorough rogue, and a great drunkard ! He will cheat and guzzle from sheer love for the practices ; and without the least apparent feeling that there is anything out of the way in so doing. But in his cups he is the same good-natured fellow. The Irishman, or Scotchman, when drunk, is quarrelsome and pugnacious ; the German or the Englishman, stupid and brutal ; the Spaniard or the Italian, revengeful and treacherous. The first stages of drunkenness in the mujik are manifested by loquacity. The drunker he is, the more gay and genial does he grow ; till at last he is ready to throw himself upon the neck of his worst enemy, and exchange embraces with him. When the last stage has been reached, and he starts for home, he does not reel, but marches straight on, till some accidental obstruction trips him up into the niire, where he lies unnoticed and unmolested till a policeman takes charge of him. This misadventure is turned to public advantage, for by an old custom every person, male or female, of what grade soever, taken up drunk in the street by the police, is obliged the next day to sweep the streets for a certain number of hours. In eai-ly morning rambles through the city, 396 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. Punishment for Drunkenness — Sweeping the STazETs. i'l'-.e tiT.vciler maj very frequently encounter a woful group, thus improving the ways of others, in punisliment for having taken too little heed of their own. Jernnaun thus speaks of a party of females he saw atoning, broom in liand, for their improper nocturnal rambles : " Startling contrasts abound in St. Petersburg. One morning, before four o'clock, I was driving to the Neva Ijaths, when suddenly, to my astonished eyes, the strangest scene presented itself. I beheld before me an al-fresco ball. A number of elegantly-attired ladies — some witli handsome shawls, and feathers in their hats — were performing tlie strangest sort of dance, which they ac- companied with a sort of bowing motion, incessantly repeated. I could recognise no Frcncli or German dance in their singular evolutions. Could it be some Russian national dance, thought I. What kind of dance could it be that was thus danced in broad daylight on the public highway, and witliout male dancers ? A few men were certainly there, but merely a£ ST. PETERSBTJRG — NATIONAL TRAITS. 397 lookers-on. I toucned the arm of my ivoshtshik, called his attention to the group, and made an mterrogative gesture. The explanation ho gave me was doubtless very lucid and circumstantial, and would have been highly satisfactory, had it only been intelligible to me. Unable to under- stand a word he said, I ordered him, by the vigorous articulation of ' Pa- chol,' to drive up to the strange ball before the weary dancers could seek repose upon the stones at the street-corners. Drawing nearer and nearer, I yet heard no sound of music. At last we reached the Anitshkof palace, and found ourselves close to the scene of this untimely activity. A repul- sive and horrible sight met my eyes. A number of young women, appa- rently still fresh and blooming, with ruddy cheeks — but whether of artifi- cial or natural colors their incessant, monotonous bowing movement pre- vented my distinguishing — elegantly dressed in silks, jewels, and feathers, were sweeping the Nfivsicoi Prospeki under the superintendence of police- men. Some of them appeared overwhelmed with shame; others stared at me, at the ivoshtshik and horse, with perfect indifference, and seemed rejoiced at our passage, which suspended for a moment their painful and disgraceful occupation. They were a detachmentof nocturnal wanderers, wlio, when returning too tardily to their homes from pui'suing their wretched calling, had fallen into the hands of the patrol, had passed the remainder of the night in the watch-house, and were now atoning, broom in hand, their untimely rambles. I hurried off to tlie bath, glad to escape from this degrading and deplorable spectacle." Drunkenness and night-walking, however (we may add, en passant) , are not the only misdemeanors thus punished, nor do the lower classes alone expiate their offences by '• doing the state some service" in wielding the broom in the streets of Russian cities. Oliphant instances the governor of Sevastapol, whose peculations in the way of bribes and other perquisites were brought to liglit by a sudden visit of the emperor. No dilatory trial procrastinated the day of his condemnation. The emperor had scarcely terminated his ilying visit, and the smoke of the steamer by whicli he re- turned to Odessa still hung upon the horizon, when the general command- ing became the convict sweeping. In"a, significant white costume, he was prominently displayed with the rest of the gang upon the streets he had a fortnight before rolled proudly through, with all the pomp and circum- stance befitting his high station ! In vino Veritas may perhaps be true of the juice of the grape ; but it is not so of the bad brandy which is the favorite drink of tlie mvjik. He is never too drunk to be a rogue, but yet you do not look upon his roguery as you do upon that of any other people. He never professes to be honest, and does not see any reason wliy he should be so. He seems so utterly unconscious of anything reprehensible in roguery, that you unconsciously give him the benefit of his ignorance. If he victimizes you, you looic upon him as upon a clever professor of legerdemain, who has cheated you in spite of your senses ; but you hardly hold him morally responsible. Upon 898 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. tlie wliole, though you can not respect the miijik, 3-011 can hardly avoid having a sort of liking for him. Notwithstanding the general characteristic of laxity of principle, in- stances are by no means wanting of the most scrupulous and even roman- tic fidelity on the part of the Russians of the lower orders. It would be an interesting subject of investigation how far this patent trait of national character is to be attributed to inherent constitutional defects in the race, and how far to the state of serfdom in which they have existed from gen- eration to generation ; but the investigation does not fall within the scope of tins volume. Our friends in the greasy sheepskins or woollen caftans have strong re- ligious tendencies, though they may smack a little too much of those of tlie light-fingered Smyrniote who was detected purchasing candles to light before his patron-saint, with the first-fruits of the purse of which he had not ten minutes before relieved a gentleman's pocket ! In all places where men congregate there are pictures of saints before which the mvjik crosses himself on every occasion. In an inn or restaurant each visiter turns to the picture and crosses himself before he sits down to eat. If a mvjik enters your room, he crosses himself before saluting you. Every church is saluted with a sign of the cross. At frequent intervals in the streets little shrines are found, before which everybody stops and makes the sacred sign, with bared head. The merchant in the gostinoi dvor or bazar, every now and then walks up to his bog or saint, and with a devout inclination prays for success in trade. NIVSKOI Prospkkt, St. Petersburg.- rspcoiid Vit^w.) ST. PETERSBURG THE WINTER PALACE. 399 CHAPTER XIV. ST. PETERSBURG — IMPERIAL PALACES, ETC. "IV TO modern city can boast that it is so entirely composed of palaces \ and colossal public edifices as St. Petersburg. In some of these several thousand persons reside — six thousand, for instance, are said to inhabit the Winter palace during the emperor's residence in the capital ; and the traveller, when he looks on this gigantic pile of building, will not fail to remember that it once fell a prey to the ravages of fire, at least the interior of it, and in a few hours the greedy flames destroyed much of those treasui'es and works of art which had, with extraordinary zeal, been collected during the prosperous reigns and magnificent courts of Elizabeth and Catherine II., and the less gorgeous but more elegant ones of Alexander and Nicholas. Kohl, speaking of the immense extent of this palace previous to its de- struction on the 29th of December, 1837, remarks that " the suites of apartments were perfect labyrinths, and that even the chief of the imperial household, who had filled that post for twelve years, was not 'perfectly acquainted with all the nooks and corners of it. As in the forests of the great landholders many colonies are settled of which the owner takes no notice, so there nestled many a one in this palace not included among the regular inliabitants. For example, the watchmen on the roof, placed there for different purposes — among others to keep the water in the tanks from freezing during the winter, by casting in red-hot balls — built themselves hats between the chimneys, took their wives and children there, and even kept poultry and goats, who fed on the grasS of the roof! It is said that at last some cows were introduced, but this abuse had been corrected before the palace was burnt." The conflagration of the "Winter palace originated in some defect in the flues by whicli it was heated ; and, though the crown-jewels and much val- uable property were saved from the flames, still the destruction of property must have been immense, spread as it was over a surface of such enormous extent : the principal rooms alone, nearly one hundred in number, occupied on the first floor an area of four hundred thousand square feet. After the destruction of the palace, it is said tliat Count Barincky offered tlie emperor a million roubles toward the erection of the new edifice ; a small tradesman fifteen hundred ; and two days subsequent to the calamity, 400 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. a man with a long beard, and dressed in the caftan of a common mujih met the emperor in his drosky, and laid at his feet bank-notes to the value of twenty-five thousand roubles. It is scarcely necessary to add that tlie emperor did not accept these generous offers of assistance. The inundations of the Neva, and the destruction by fire of the Winter palace, are two prominent epochs in the history of the city ; and, as on every great emeigency, the late emperor, at this last calamity, failed not to exhibit qualities which made him eminently admired and respected by his subjects. The heroic devotion and disregard of danger exliibited by tlie firemen and nivjiks are spoken of in glowing terms by those who wit- nessed tlie devastation of that fatal night, and it was with very great diffi- culty tliat many of them could be prevented from recklessly endangering tlieii' Iive.«- Some, indeed, were lost ; on learning which, the emperor ordered that the people should be prevented from entering the burning pile ; and he is reported to have said, " Let it burn away, let it all go, but let not a life be endangered in attempts to save comparatively worthless property." Many of those who were in the building would not, however, leave ; and, as a last resource, it is said that Nicholas ordered some offi- cers to go and smash the large mirrors with hammers, in order to prevent the soldiers and people from making any further attempts to save them. Another anecdote was current at the time, that the emperor, observing the danger attending the efforts of one party who were endeavoring to save one of these mirrors, and that it was impossible to attract their attention in the confusion wliich reigned, threw his opera-glass at it, when the men seeing it broken, but not knowing whence tlie blow came, imuiediately desisted, and were thereby saved. The gilt cross on the cupola of the ])rivate cliapel resisted the fury of the devouring element, and, glowing witli increased brilliancy in the liglit of the furnace around it, was watched by luany an anxious eye in the crowd of believers beneath, who ascribed its ])reservatiou to miraculous intervention. This idea proved a powerful engine iu the hands of tlie architect ; for, under the conviction that a bles- sing rested on the palace, the workmen toiled with double assiduity at its reconstruction. In one point of view this destructive fire has proved an advantage, for the custom of consigning to solitude those suites of ro3ms occupied by a deceased sovereign had here closed so many of the finest apartments, that in a few more generations the reigning monarch would have been fairly turned out by the ghosts of his predecessors ! In two years from the de- struction of tills palace it rose again under the skilful hands of the archi- tect Kleinmichael, and the united industry of several thousand workmen, to its former magnificence, and is now, perhaps, the most splendid and largest royal edifice in tlic world. This imperial edifice is indeed commanding — presenting, as it does, a front toward the Neva of more than seven hundred feet ; it also covers a very large space of ground, being nearly a third larger than the palace of the Austrian emperor at Vienna, and almost ST. PETERSBURG — THE WINTER PALACE. 403 twice as large as that of Naples ; its form is nearly a complete square, the angles of which answer to the four cardinal points of the compass. Its long fagados are highly imposing, and form a grand continuation to those of the Admiralty beyond it. In visiting the "Winter palace, accompanied by one of the imperial ser- vants in livery, strangers have the opportunity of wandering througli suites of splendid apartments, galleries, and halls, filled with marbles, malachites, precious stones, vases, and pictures ; among them many portraits of the great generals and miglity men of Russia and other countries. Also one of Potemkin : he is represented as of colossal heiglit and fine countenance, and as remarkable for the development of limb and muscle as for the soft expression of his blue eyes ; in fact, to judge by this portrait, one would say that he was made to command an army of Cossacks, and trouble a woman's heart. Here also are several fine Murillos, and the " Adoration of the Shepherds," by Berghem, one of the finest works of that master. The empress's drawing-room is a perfect jewel of taste ; and the chapel, St. George's hall (a parallelogram of one hundred and forty feet by sixty), and numbers of gilded chambers, one more gorgeous than another, form an almost wearying succession of mag-nificence. The hall of St. George is the apartment on the splendor of which the Russians most pride themselves. It is here that the emperor gives audience in solemn state to foreign em- bassadors. Near it is the gallery of the generals, containing portraits of all the distinguished officers who served under the Russian colors during the war of the French invasion and the subsequent hostilities, till Napo- leon's final overthrow. The most striking picture is a full-length of the emperor Alexander on horseback, of gigantic dimensions, and said to bo the best likeness of him now in existence. At the entrance to tliis long gallery stand two sentinels of the Russian guard, still and motionless, looking as if they also were creations of art ; and at each end are suspend- ed French eagles, the names of the principal battles that occurred in the war being written in large gold characters on the walls. Many of tliese pictures must be copies, as the soldiers they represent found a warrior's death on the field of honor long before this collection was begun. Beyond this gallery is the field-marshals' saloon. Here the portraits do not exceed eight or ten in number, for that rank is as rarely bestowed in Russia as it is in England. The duke of Wellington is among tlie distin- guished few ; and the symbol which accompanies the full-length portrait of the hero of a hundred fights is that of imperishable strength, the Erit- isli oak. Beyond this is the Salle Blanche, the most magnificent apartment in this most magnificent of palaces, and so called from its decorations being all in pure white, relieved only with gilding. Tlie dimensions are nearly the same as those of the hall of the generals. Here the court fries are held, which are reputed to form the most brilliant pageant of in-door palace-life to be found in Christendom. 404 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. The diamond-room, containing the crowns and jewels of the imperial family, deserves notice. Diamonds, rubies, and emeralds, are ranged round the room in small cases of such dazzling beauty, that it is almost bewildering to look at them. The crown of the emperor is adorned with a chaplet of oak-leaves made of diamonds of an extraordinary size ; and the imperial sceptre contains one with a single exception the largest in the world, being the celebrated stone purchased by Catherine II. from a Greek slave, for four hundred and fifty thousand roubles and a large pen- sion for life. Bruloff 's picture of the " Raising of the Serpent in the Wil derness " is to be seen here. It has great merit and some defects ; the figures are for the most part portraits of Israelites who inhabit the Ghetto at Rome, and the result therefore is really a Hebrew crowd. There is also, if not recently removed, the famous Chinese cabinet of Catherine, and a small room to which Peter the Great used to retire from the turmoil of public affairs. There was, in the last century, a palace called the Summer palace, on the Fontanka canal, but this was pulled down by the emperor Paul ; the name therefore is now without meaning, for the castle built to I'eplace the former was designated as the Michailof Samok, or castle. There is a telegraph in the Winter palace, close to the emperor's private apa.rtments, by means of which he can transmit his own orders to Kronstadt, Peter- hoif, &c. Adjoining the Winter palace is the Hermitage, which it is a well-known fact that the great Catherine built as Frederick the Great did his Sans- Sovci at Potsdam, and the Roman emperor Numa his Grotto of Egeria. But the Hermitage is no cloistered solitude — no rocky grotto hidden amid tlie waters of the Neva's murmuring sources — but a magnificent palace, second only to that we have just described ; while witliin it is loaded with precious objects of art and vertu. The empress built this temple in order that she might retire to it in her leisure moments, there to enjoy the con- versation of the French philosophers and men of learning ; and here, after the duties of the sovereign had been transacted in the Winter palace, she was wont to pass the evening, surrounded by all that could gratify the eye or the senses : musicians displayed their talents, artists their works, scien- tific men their speculations, and political men their opinions ; for, in ac- cordance with the ukase suspended in all the apartments, perfect freedom and equality reigned ; and tlie pictures which we see elsewhere only as allegorical representations of art-and-science-loving princes, were here ev- ery day realized. On the roof was a garden with flowers, shrubs, and trees, heated in winter by subterranean stoves, and illuminated in summer ))y variegated lamps, under the prismatic colors of whicli tlie brilliant as- semblage wandered. Tlie Hermitage is connected with tlie Winter palace by several covered galleries, and forms a sort of continuation of that yast building. Tha principal fagade faces the Neva. It has but little claim to architectural ST. PETERSBURG — THE HERMITAGE. 405 Dcauty, and may be divided into three parts, each of which was the work of a different architect. The first part, which is united to the Winter pal- ace, and somewliat resembles it in style, was built by Lamotte, in 1765. The second part, which extends to the small canal connecting the Moika with the Neva, was the work of the architect Velten, in 1775. The theatre forms the third part, and is joined to the rest of the building by a bridge and covered gallery. It was built by Guarenghi, and is perhaps the finest part of the Hermitage. The apartments of the entire palace are mostly decorated with costly ornaments in malachite, marble, or jasper, the mate- rials of which have been found and worked in Siberia. A thorough in- spection of the works of art here contained would require several days. In 1804, the Hermitage was finally completed under the emperor Alex- ander. Catherine not only built, /or rather caused to be built, this luxuri- ous retreat, but furnished those who were admitted to her intimacy with the opportunity of becoming acquainted with those admirable masterpieces of art which had graced the walls of many of the royal palaces of Europe, and thus laid the foundation of that gallery of paintings which is now with- out a rival in northern Europe. In one of the rooms of the Hermitage is contained a most interesting collection of antiquities from the Crimea. It is wonderful that such costly relics (for most of them are of gold) should have been preserved for so many centuries. From ancient times the countless graves of the Greeks of Tav/rus and the Chersonesus (Crimea) have been objects of zealous re- search : the Huns, the Tartars, and the Cossacks, plundered them in turns, and melted down the treasures found therein ; and whatever the watchful- ness of the Russian government could rescue from the unhistorical mer- chants and robbers has been deposited in the Hermitage. The greater part of these rare specimens of Greek art were found in some of the vari- ous tumuli that cover the plain in the neighborhood of Kertsch (the ancient PanticapcBum) , and a few came from Olbia, a Greek colony planted in the Chersonesus by the Athenians. The choicest objects are the laurel-wreaths, of the purest gold, which adorned the victor's brow. Many of these are quite perfect, not a twig or leaf being deficient. A gold mask and shield are also very curious ; indeed, the gold ornaments are most beautifully ex ecuted,and may defy the Rundels and Bridges of our own days. Pictures as good as some of those in the Hermitage may perhaps be seen in other capitals, but a collection of antiquities similar to these will rarely, if ever, be met with elsewhere. In the centre room of the first long suite of apartments facing the river, is a full-length painting of Catherine I., surrounded by the marble busts of various Russian statesmen : this is considered tiie best likeness of Cathe- rine, as it is said to be the most flattering ; the features are fine, and the expression of the countenance is mild and pleasing. In another portrait of that empress in the long corridor, which is expressly devoted to por- traits of deceased members of the imperial family (and to views of promi- 406 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. nent streets and buildings in tlie city as they appeared about seventy years ago), she is represented on liorseback astride, and in man's attire. The Hermitage also contains the Russian library, consisting of ten thou- sand volumes in the Russian language, and founded by Catherine II. for the instruction and amusement of the numerous attendants who were at- tached to her luxurious court, nnd whose time would have hung heavily on their hands without some such resource. In the library are lilcewise the collections of Diderot, Yoltaire, tlie marquis de Galliani, Nicolai Zim- merman the jiliilosopliei', BiiSclnng,Stcherbato£f',&c. ; in all a hundred and twenty thousnnd volumes. Tlie donations of Voltaire contain n\inierou3 annotations in liis own hand, and there are several unpublislied manuscripts of the French philosopher, as well as a great number of his tliumb-stains and " dogs' ears." It may be mentioned tliat, in addition to the paintings, drawings, and engravings, there are two rooms filled with a most extraordinary collection of jewels, cameos, intaglios, medals, snuflf-boxos, Huis, ivory carvings, and articles of every kind of vertii; jewels, arms, and ornaments of the ancient czars, ormolu knick-knacks and valuable bizarreries of all sorts. Most of the snuff-boxes are jewelled, and very costly : one presented by the Turk- ish sultan to his " fond ally," displays a miniature of Mahraoud in his Eu- ropean costume, most beautifully painted on ivory. The entire surface is covered with large diamonds of tlie first water, and within the outer row in each corner is a still larger brilliant, dazzling to look upon. In one room is a superb vase of Siberian jasper of a lilac color, five feet in height, of exquisite form and polish. In another arc two magnificent candelabra, said to be valued at fifty thousand dollars ; two golden tripods, seven feet high, supporting the golden salvers on whicli salt and bread were presented to the emperor Alcjxander on his triumphal return from Paris in 1814, as emblems of Wisdom and Plenty ; besides these tripods there are two gold salvers presented to the emperor Nicholas at his coronation by the nobility and merchants of St. Petersburg ; a large musical and magical secretary, whicli opens spontaneously in a hundred directions at the sound of music, purchased by Alexander for four thousand dollars ; also a clock called the Horloge du Paon, enclosed in a glass case ten feet high r the form of the clock is the trunk of a tree, the branches and leaves of which arc gold; on the top sits a peacock, and when the chimes begin, it expands its bril- liant tail, while an owl rolls its eyes witli its own peculiar stare, and, in- stead of a bell striking the hour, a golden cock flaps his wings and crows ! In fact, these treasures seem to realize in all its truth the proverbial ex- pression of '■H'emb arras de rickesses ;" and the eye, wearied and satiated with them, reposes with no small satisfaction and interest on the simple and unostentatious dressing-case of the emperor Alexander : this is ex- tremely compact and plain, and, judging by so trifling a circumstance, marks the soldier and the sensible man. We have but touched on some of the treasures of this palace ; but enough ST. PETEESBURG — THE MARBLE AND TAURIDA PALACES. 407 has been said to show that a hermit might boldly renounce the rest of the world if allowed to make his cell here, where half nature and half mankind are offered to his contemplation on canvass, in color, in marble, glass, and ivory, painted, chiselled, stamped, woven, and printed. The picture-galleries of the Hermitage are on the first floor, the large windows of which command a beautiful view of the river. In the court is a garden raised to the level of these rooms, which, with its flowering shrubs and evergreens, has a curious effect ; for, from one window the Neva is seen flowing at a depth of about thirty feet below, while on tlie other side flowers are blooming, and a fountain playing, on a level with the spectator. The barracks of the Preobrajensky regiment of guards are attached to the Hermitage. This regiment is always on duty at the palace, and those among the officers who are lovers of the fine arts must feel great pleasure in being able so frequently to promenade these splendid rooms, surrounded by some of the best pictures in the world. It is, however, stated that the gallery at tlie Hermitage is, marvellous to relate, little visited by the higher classes in St. Petersburg. A theatre is attached to this palace, but not of very large dimensions. Performances sometimes take place, but there can be but little room for show or stage effect The members of the court sit on chairs, in the pit, as there are no boxes or divisions. There is nothing particularly striking in the decorations. The Hermitage joins the Winter palace on the east. Then follows the Imperial theatre, some other palaces, the property of private persons, and, last of all, the Marble palace. This was erected by Catherine II. as a resi- dence for Prince Gregory OrlofF, one of her favorites, who died before its completion ; and its long fagade, stretching by the river-side, denotes that it must have been at one time a handsome pile of building. It ought more properly to have been called the Granite palace, for much more granite and iron have been employed upon it than marble. The extraordinary massive walls are built of blocks of granite ; the supports of the roof are iron beams ; the roof itself sheet^copper ; the window-frames gilded copper. This palace was inhabited by the late grand-duke Constantine, and has since been sumptuously furnished and decorated for the residence of the present grand-duke of the same name. The Taurida palace, a long, low building, with a badly-paved court in front and two projecting wings, is situated on the banks of the Neva, about a mile to the eastward of the Marble palace. It was named the Taurida in compliment to Potemkin, the conqueror of the khan of the Crimea, and presented by Catherine II. to that nobleman, and, oddly enough, was sub- sequently purchased from him. In the favorite's pride of power, and when his inordinate love of show and ostentation animated and adorned its noble apartments, this palace may have realized the expectations raised by its name : it now looks forlorn, and a picture of deserted magnificence. The exterior, can never have been beautiful, and the interior has been robbed 408 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. of the best part of its contents to assist in adorning other royal residences On entering- the building the stranger finds himself in a lofty circular hall filled with statues, many of them of average merit. Beyond is a ballroom of extraordinary dimensions, being three hundred and twenty feet long by seventy feet wide, which, oi)uiiing on one side to the entrance-hall, and on tlie otlier to an extensive conservatory, from which it is separated only by a row of lofty marble columns, runs tlie whole length of the palace. The columns are encircled by rows of lights coiling round them like serpents, wliile three enormous chandeliers, eacli composed of two or three large rings, fitted witli liglits rising one above the other, are suspended from tlie ceiling. The very slirubs and pillars in the conservatory are transfoi'med in like manner, and made to bear their sliare in the vast illumination An idea of the immense proportions of this ballroom may be formed from the fact that tiventy thousand ivax-lights are necessary to light it up com- pletely ; and that tlie colossal group of the Laocoon, at one end, can be plainly seen from tlie other only by means of a telescope ! A profusion of statues, many of them well executed, are arranged round this vast apart- ment, and a copy of the Venus de Medici and an hermaphrodite are worthy of mention. In the summer, the orange-trees, of which there are great numbers, are removed from the conservatory into the palace-gardens. Here Potemkin gave magnificent fites to his imperial mistress ; and all that was bright, beautiful, and gay, thronged the mazy walks of the orangery in the long winter nights, turning their dullness into the wild revelry of a southern carnival. It must 'have been like magic to have passed from the frozen and snow-covered earth without to this magnificent ballroom, illuminated with its thousands of lights, and filled with perfumes that carried the im- agination to regions where an icicle was never seen, and tlie northern blast never felt. At these festivals the musicians were suspended in the chan- deliers. The last grand festival given in this palace was on the occasion of the marriage of the grand-duke Michael, when the present decorations were made. The marble is all false, the silver is plated copper, many of the pillars and statues are of brick and plaster, and the pictures of equivo- cal originality ; the looking-glasses, though ten feet wide and lofty in pro- portion, are so badly made, that on examination the surface is found to be all in waves and full of bubbles, and it is evident they belong to a very early period of the St. Petersburg manufactory. The Taurida, now a kind of Hampton court, and inhabited by a few su- perannuated ladies of the haut-ton, is sometimes used as a place of recep- tion for the emperor's guests. Here once resided Louisa, the beautiful but unfortunate queen of Prussia, after the conquest of that country by Napo- leon in 1806 ; it was also tenanted by the Persian prince Chozro Mirza, during his embassy, when he came to deprecate the wrath of the mighty czar ; and lastly, in 1830, by Oscar, crown prince (now king) of Sweden. The emperor Paul turned the entire palace into a barrack for his guards, ST. PETERSBURG — ETAT MAJOR — ALEXANDER COLUMN. 409 but liis son and successor Alexander restored it to its original purpose of a royal residence. It is still thickly garrisoned with imperial footmen, and kept in pretty good order ; but it nevertheless, from the absence of furniture, looks, as before remarked, deserted and melancholy. The gar- dens are accessible to the public ; they are tastefully laid out, and, consid- ering their vicinity to so large a city, their extent is immense. A table- cover, on which are some drops of wax which fell from the candles of Alexander, who frequently inhabited some apartments here, and some crayon drawings by his admirable consort Elizabeth, and other objects of the same kind, have a certain degree of interest. The Hotel de VEtat Major, or head department of the army, immedi- ately fronting the Winter palace, is likewise one of the many striking piles of buildings in the " City of Palaces," and remarkable for its vast extent and singular architectural ornament of a chariot of Victory, drawn by eight horses, which are rearing and plunging in all directions to the no small discomfort of the plumed and mailed lady who drives the team. From the arch over which the group is placed one of the most pleasing views of the Winter palace and likewise of the adjacent buildings may be obtained. In the open space between the Etat Major and the Winter palace stands the greatest monolith of modern times, the column erected to the memory of the late emperor Alexander — a single shaft of red granite, which, ex- clusive of pedestal and capital, is upward of eighty feet in lieight. This beautiful monument is the work of Monsieur Montferrand, the architect of the church of St. Isaac, and was erected under his superintendence. The shaft originally measured one hundred and two feet, but it was subsequently shortened to its present dimensions from a fear that its diameter was in- sufficient for so great a length. The base and pedestal is also composed of one enormous block of the same red granite, of the height of about twenty-five feet, and nearly the same length and breadth ; the capital meas- ures sixteen feet, the statue of the angel on the summit fourteen feet, and the cross seven feet — in all about a hundred and fifty feet.* As the whole of St. Petersburg is built on a morass, it was thought ne- cessary to drive no less than six successive rows of piles, in order to sus- tain so immense a weight as this standing upon so confined a base ; the shaft of the column alone is computed as weighing nearly four hundred tons, and the massive pedestal must materially increase the tremendous pressure. The statue was raised in its rough state, and polished after it was firmly fixed on its present elevation. On the pedestal is the following short and well-chosen inscription: "To Alexander the First. — Grateful Russia." The eye rests with pleasure on this polished monument ; and in It is said that Louis Philippe, in the days of his greatest power and prosperity, applied to the emperov Nicholas for a similar column out of his Finland quarries. The emperor begged to be excused. " He would not," he said, " send him a smaller one ; a similar one he could not; and a greater one was not to bo obtained."' •ilO ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. any other city its enormous size would make a greater impression. In St. Petersburg, however, where the eye expands with the vast surrounding spaces, it is seen under a smaller angle of vision. The place on wliich it stands is so vast in its dimensious, the houses around are so high and mas- sive, tliat even tliis giant requires its whole hundred and fifty feet not to disappear. But wlien the stranger is close to it and becomes aware of its circumference, while its head seems to reach the heavens, the impression is strong and overpowering. Already, however, it is said that an abominable worm is gnawing at this beautiful monolitli, and it has likewise received a very sad and offensive rent from above toward the middle. It may be that the stone was at first badly clioson, or tliat the cold of St. Petersburg will not tolerate such monuments of liuman art. There are those among the inhabitants who think it a patriotic duty to deny the existence of the rent, which has been artfully filled with a cement of granite fragments. But in the sunshine, wlien the polish of the rent shows differently from that of the stone — oi in the winter, when the hoar frost forms in icicles on the cold stone, bul not on tlie warmer cement — the marring line is but too apparent. The idea of this column is, like everything else in Russia, rcligio-politi- cal. It was erected, as before remarked, in honor of the emperor Alexan der, and is meant to eternalize with his memory that of the reconfirmation of the political constitution and of the security of religion. The mass of the Russian people have been taught to believe that the invasion of Napo- leon was not oidy an attack on the state, but also as one on their faith — (falsely taught, since Napoleon made war on the religious faith of no pco- jile or nation). Ilcnce the erection of the angel with the cross on tlie summit. 'I'his column, whose capital and ornaments on the pedestal were forincd from Tiukisli cannon, throws into one category all the enemies of Russin. the Turks, tlie Prencli, &c., and is the sealing, ratification, and immoi'talization of all the modern victories of the Russian eagle. Tlie llicliailoff palace, or ratlier castle, stands on the site of the old Summer palace on the Fontaid^a canal, which was pulled down by the em- peror Paul, who built this of granite in its stead, and fortified it as a place of defence ; and, according to Russian custom, which dedicates to protect- ing saints and angels not clnirches only, but fortresses, castles, and other buildings, it was dedicated to the arcliangel Michael. The castle has a more gloomy exterior than the other palaces of St. I'etersburg, and is of an extraordinary style of arclntecture. It is in the form of a square, whose four faCj'ades all differ in style one from the other. The ditches, which originally surrounded it, arc now partly filled up and laid out in gardens, but the principal entrance is still over some drawbridges. In the square before the chief gate stands a monument, insignificant enough as a work of art, which Paul erected to Peter the Great, with the inscription "Pra- dadu Pravmdc" (the Grandson to tlic Grandfather), Over the principal door, which is overloaded with architectural ornaments, is inscribed in ST. PETERSBURG — THE OLD MICHAILOFP PALACE. 41? golden letters a passage from the Bible in the old Slavonian language " On thy house will the blessing of the Lord rest for evermore." This palace was built witli extraordinary rapidity. Five thousand men were employed on it daily till finished ; and, the more quickly to dry the walls, large iron plates were made hot and fastened to them for a time : the result was, that soon after the emperor's death it was abandoned as ijuite uninhabitable ! The cost of building it is said to have been eighteen millions of roubles : had sufficient time been taken, it would not have amounted to six millions. The halls and apartments of the castle are large and numerous. The room in which the emperor Paul was strangled is sealed and walled up. The Russians generally do this with the room in which their parents die. They have a certain dread of it, and never enter it willingly. The empe- ror Alexander never entered one of them. Nicholas, however, who feared neither the cholera in Moscow, nor revolt in St. Petersburg, nor the dagger in Warsaw, but showed a bold countenance on all occasions, viewed these rooms several times. The apartment in which his father was murdered is easily recognisable from without by the darkened and dusty windows on tlie second story. The apartments of the beautiful Lapuchin are directly under, on the first floor, and are now inhabited by the keeper of the castle. The stairs which led down from them are broken away. During the reign of Alexander the castle fell so much into decay, that when Nicholas caused it to be restored it is said to have cost sixty thou- sand roubles merely to remove the dirt and rubbish. The painted ceilings have considerable interest. In one is represented the revival of the order of Malta, and Ruthenia, a beautiful virgin, with the features of Paul, seated on a mountain. Near her rests the mighty eagle. Fame, flying from the south in terror, announces the injustice done her in the Mediterranean, and entreats " the mighty eagle" to shelter her under his wing. In the distance is seen the island threatened by the waves and the hostile fleets. In another hall all the gods of Greece are assembled, whose various physi- ognomies are those of persons of the imperial court ! The architect, whose purse profited considerably by the building of the castle, appears among them as a flying Mercury. When Paul, who was a ready punster, and who knew very well that all the money he paid was not changed into stone and wood, caused the different faces to be pointed out to him, he recognised the features of the Mercury directly, and said, laughing, to his courtiers, ^'■Ah .' voila Varchitecte, qui vole." The old Michailoff palace is now the abode of the school of engineers. One hundred and fifty young persons here receive their mathematical and physical education. Its gardens are filled with blooming young cadets, who play and exercise there ; and the former audience and banqueting rooms are partly used as school, examination, sleeping, and eating rooms, and partly to hold collections of various objects of a very attractive kind, of the highest interest in engineering and fortification. It is wonderful to ■il4 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. contemplate tlie profj-i-css wliicli the Russians have already made in this bi-anch of military science. Russia, with reference to its military fortifications, is divided into ten circhis. To the objects which relate to tlie fortification of each circle, a separate hall is devoted. In large presses, in the halls, are kept all the plans, general and special, of already-existing or projected fortresses. Each fortress has its own press for the materiel, in which are specimens of tlie hricks, kinds of earth, and the difi'ereut rocks which lie in the neigh' borhood, and of which the fortresses are, or are to be, constructed. Lastly on large stands in tlie middle of the halls, are to be seen all the fortified places in Russia, modelled in clay and wood, and with such exactness, that not the slightest elevation or sinking of the ground — not a tree or a house is forgotten. In this manner are presented, among others, the most stri- king pictures of Kiev, Revel, and Riga. It is worthy of remark that among them is a complete representation of all the castles of the Dardanelles, with their bastions and towers, and the most minute details of all the little creeks of this important strait and the neighboring heights and rocks. By means of these models, the wliole of plan of attack on the Dardanelles coidd be directed from St. Petersburg. The mingling of the castles of the Dardanelles witli those already garrisoned by Russian troops indicates that Russia covets them, and brings to mind Alexander's saying, that those straits, with Constantinople, formed "the key to his house." In one of the rooms is an extraordinary number of ukases and military ordinances, having reference to the erection of defences. They are signed, and many of them corrected, by the different emperors and empresses with tlieir own hands. Catherine II., in particular, has made many corrections with a i-ed-lead pencil ; and Nicholas always made with his own hand his amendments, alterations, annotations, and additions to his laws, decrees, and sentences. Here may be seen a hundred repetitions of those three important words, '■'■ Buit po semu" (Be it so), which are annexed to every ukase. Catherine's handwriting is bad, but the signature is never hurried ; on the contrary, she seems to have taken trouble in painting every one of the Russian letters. All the long letters have a little flourish under them, which are made with a trembling hand ; some are quite awry, nor are all the letters in a line ; they are not joined, but nearly every one stands alone, and tolerably perpendicular, without flow or rounding : it is like the hand- writing of an old man. Even the individual letter will sometimes be formed of unconnected strokes. The whole is plain, and without any ornamental additions. After her name " Ekaterina" stands always a large dot, as if she would say, "And therewith punclum basta." The emperor Alexander wrote a fine hand. His name begins with a large, elegant A ; the other letters, though narrow, are not very plain till the conclusion — the r is very plainly written and well formed. Under the name is a very long, complicated flourish, which looks confused at first, ST. PETERSBURG — THE NEW MICHAILOFP PALACE. 417 but the thread is easih' found, as it is always very regularly formed, and in the same ligure. Nicholas wrote decidedly the best hand of all the Russian emperors ; it is calligraphically irreproachable, i-egular, intelligible, and flowing. The emperor began with an arching stroke of the pen, under which his name "Nicolai" stands as under a roof. The last stroke of the final i slopes under in a slender arcli once or twice, is then carried upward to join the first line, and ends over the name in a thick, bold stroke made with a firm hand and with the whole breadth of the pen. The name is thus prettily enclosed in a frame. The Anitshkof (or Annitchkoff') palace, which stands on the Great Pros- pekt, in the neighborhood of the Fontanka canal, and closes the brilliant ranges of palaces in that street, is not unfrequently inhabited by the empe- ror. According to Kohl, it was originally built by the empress Elizabeth, and bestowed on Count Rasoumoffski ; then twice purchased by Catherine II., and twice presented to Prince Potemkin. Another writer believes this palace to have been built by a merchant of the name it bears, and sold by him to one of the czars. It is now the favorite residence of tlie imperial family, and handsomely built, but has no particular historical interest. Here also tlie emperor Nicholas held the greater number of his councils, received embassadors, &c. Hence the cabinet of St. Petersburg may be called the cabinet of Anitshkof, as that of London is called tlie cabinet of St. James's, &c. There can be no doubt that the new MichailofiF palace, tlie late residence of the uncle of the present emperor, is the most elegant building in St. Pe- tersburg. It was built in 1820, by an Italian architect named Rossi. The interior is also decidedly the handsomest and most tasteful in decoration and furniture of all the royal residences. Its position, too, is highly stri- king — quite as much so as that of the Winter palace. Open on all sides, it expands its wings and courtyards in a most graceful manner; not a tower, house, or any other building, being near to disturb its outline. Behind the palace lies the " Little Summer Garden," as it is called, whose lofty trees and gi-oups of foliage form a pleasing contrast with its elegant architectural proportions. Before the chief front is a spacious lawn, scattered over with graceful flowers and shrubs. An iron gfille, the design of which is a model of good taste, divides the inner from the outer court; and the outbuildings, ofSces, and courts between them, are in such harmony with each other and the main buildings, that it is evident the whole was one design, and that nothing has been the result of after-thought. The stables and riding-school are particularly worthy of attention, and the latter is deserving of especial mention. In this school fifty young men are instructed in riding and in all arts that have reference to the manege ; for this object, and for i\\e fetes in the riding-house, at which the court is often present, a number of the finest horses are kept, and both men and horses are so well cared for, that it is said to be a pleasure to walk through the 27 i18 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. range of elegant dormitories, sitting, school, and saddle rooms. All these apartments have double folding-dpors in the centre, which stand open the whole day. A long carpet is laid along all the floors down to the stable, and the inspector can overlook everything at a glance, fftid see what the young cadets are doing in their apartment. Kohl alludes particularly to the ventilation, and remarks that " it is wonderful how pure the air is kept ; it is as if the stud were perfumed with eau de Cologne as well as the cadets." Their course of preparation extends over six years, and ten leave every year and join the army as riding-masters. Quadrilles and tournaments are sometimes performed by these youths and their horses in the presence of the court. These jousts sometimes take place in the even- ing, when the riding-school is splendidly illuminated and decorated for the occasion ; among other wonders exhibited at these fetes are six looking- glasses, so lai-ge that in them tlie youthful cavaliers can view themselves from head to foot. We must not leave entirely unnoticed a palace which stands on the south side of the Summer garden, and is known by the name of the Rod palace — a name for which it is indebted to one of the many strange Avhiras of the emperor Paul. At a court-ball, a lady made her appearance in red gloves, which so enchanted Paul, that the next day he proclaimed red his favorite color, and ordered that the palace should forthwith receive that showy tint. In the same palace, his monogram, " P. I.," is so constantly repeated on every side and in every corner, that an Englishman, who un- dertook tlie thankless task of counting them, got as far as eight thousand, and tlien, through weariness, left off without having nearly completed his undertaking. Paul had many such crotchets. So fond was he of the gaudy and the motley, that one of his ukases was to the effect that, on one and tlie same day, all the gates, bridges, palaces, guardhouses, rtioiis. A nearer view of tliis statue accompanies the sketch of it a few [lages farther on. A largx^ portion of the Admiralty is occupied as school-rooms for naval ST. PETERSBURG — THE EXCHANGE A\D ( ITADEl,. ICS cadets. Immediately below it, on tlie iiortli, liiiiiiu,- (lie RiiHsiiiii fiuny, are the extensive doclcyaixls : and in the immediate vicinity arc a niiinbcr of important public buildings ; among others, tliat of the Holy Synod, wliere all tlie higher concci'us of the churcli are regulated ; the Hotel de "Etat Blajor, noticed a few ])ages back ; and the war-o£Eice, conspicuous by its profusion of gigantic columns. The Eouhse, oh Exchange, St. Petkrsbukg On the opposite side of the Great Neva stands the exchange ; and west from it, fi-onting the Little Neva, tlie customhouse — both large ami impo- sing structures. Immediately adjoining are two high and slender towers, adorned like the Co/iuinicc Rustraicc of ancient Rome, from which the aji- pi'oaeli of shii)i)ing may be observed. These columns are hollow, and on their summits, wl'.ich are reached by a flight of iron steps, are gigantic vases that are filled with combustibles on all occasions of i)ul)lic illumina- tion. The erection of the whole, including the quays, occupied nearly twelve years, from 1804 to 181(1. The great hall of the exchange, which is of colossal proportions, is ligiited from aljove. At either end on l)oth sides arc spaces in the form of arcades ; in one of the first stands an altar, with lamps constantly Inirning, for the benefit of the pious Russian mer- chants, wdio always bow to the altai-, and sometimes even prostrate them- selves, on their entrance, to implore the favor of all the saints to tlieir undertakings. The citadel, with its bastions and bristling emnrasures, mounted Avith one hundred cannon, and defended by a garrison of three thousand men, forms a very conspicuous object. Besides the church of .St. Peter and St. Paul (wdiich will be noticed in the next chapter), it contains within its enclosure the mint; and in its vicinity presents an object of great interest 424 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUS&IA. in the wooden cottage of Peter the Great, consisting of three small apart- ments, one of thera his chapel, and containing, among other relics of that extraordinary man, the little boat which he constructed, and which may be considered as the germ of the powerful navy which he afterward formed. Among the other goTernment-ediiices, the arsenals and ranges of bar- racks are particularly deserving of notice. The old arsenal, an enormous building, was erected by Count Orloff at his own cost, and presented to the empress Catherine II. The new one was built by the emperor Alex- ander, in a very magnificent style. Both are filled with glittering weap- ons, trophies, old military engines, and antiquities of importance in Russian history. Among the trophies, there stands in one of the halls in the new arsenal a large Russian eagle, whose neck, body, and legs, are composed of gun-flints ; the pinions of swords ; every feather on the breast and belly is a dagger; every tail-feather a yataghan; the eyes, the muzzles of two black pistols ; the gullet, the bore of a cannon : a terrible " Nnli me tan- ge.re^'' a proper symbol of the Russian state, whicli has soared to its pres- ent height on the pinions of swords and bayonets. In another hall is a statue of Catherine in white marble, throned in a royal chair, and sur- rounded by all the emblems of imperial power. Her horse, a wliite one stuffed, stands near. The saddle is not a lady's side-saddle, but au ordi- nary man's saddle. Her passion for appearing on horseback, in male cos- tume, has been before alluded to. The statue was erected by Orloff (one of her chief favorites) during her lifetime, and presented with the building. Some of the historical souvenirs and antiquities are highly interesting : for example, the standards of the Strelitz guard, huge things made of pieces of silk sewed together, and adorned with many higlily original pictures characteristic of that fanatical Russian pr^torian band, who may justly be called the Janizaries of Christianity. Near the flags lie a number of the accoutrements of the Strelitzes, and the images of their patron-saints : each saint has its own little case, of which a whole row, fastened to straps, were worn on the breast, in a fashion similar to that of the Circassians. Some Russian cannon of the period are also placed here ; they are very large, cast in iron, and ornamented with silver and gold. To every emperor and empress since Peter the Great a separate apart- ment is devoted, containing the costume, weapons, and utensils, belonging to tliem, with the instruments of war in use at that time, uniforms, &c. The uniforms of distinguished generals, with all their orders, crosses, and ribands, are here deposited in glass cases ; many thousand ells of histori- cally-interesting ribands figure among them. With the help of this cabinet a very good history of the Russian army might be composed. Ever since Peter the Great, the Russian emperors have voluntarily sub- jected tliemselves to their own laws and ordinances, and thereby given their subjects a great example. The pike which Peter carried as a volun- teor in his own army, tlie uniforms he wore as sergeant, captain, and colo- nel, the leathern shirt he wore as a carpenter, all of which arc preserved ST. PETEUSBURG — THii ARSENALS. 42l/ in the arsenal, constantly warn liis successors to follow his example. In Peter's apartment there is still kept the cabriolet he made use of to meas- ure tlie roads ; the numberof revolutions made by tlie wlieels is shown by the machinery contained in the box behind. On the lid of tliis box is a curious old picture, representing Peter's method of travelling. It is a portrait of the cabriolet itself, drawn by one horse, and driven by Peter Behind him are newly-built houses, and gardens laid out ; before him a for- est and a wilderness, to the annihilation of which he is boldly proceeding: behind him the heavens are serene, before him the clouds are heaped up like rocks. As this picture was probably designed by Peter himself, it shows what he thought of himself. In remarkable contrast with the little modest cabriolet of the road ma- king and measuring emperor is the great triumphal car, with its flags and kettle-drums, which Peter II. drove before the band of his guard, at the time when the ladies wore hoop-petticoats and the gentlemen long periwigs. Paul's rocking-horse ; the Holstein cuirassiers of Peter III., wlio were so great a cause of vexation to the native Russians ; Seiika Rasin's state-chair of ebony, garnished with rude pistols instead of lace ; tlie uniform of Gen- eral Miloradovitch, in which the hole made by tlie bullet that pierced his heart in the revolt of the 14th of December, 1825, is yet to be seen — all furnish employment for the imagination of the historian. In this collection the accoutrements of neighboring states have not been neglected ; even the equipments of the Japanese and Chinese may here be studied. The cuirasses and coats-of-mail of the Japanese guards are made of tortoise-shell, which cover the whole body, and are put together in small scales : the face is concealed in a black mask representing an open-mouthed dragon ! The Cliinese soldier is clothed from head to foot in thickly-wad- ded cotton : if he can not move aboilt much in battle, he must be, at all events, in some measure protected against arrows and cudgels. Grimacing masks are also in use among them. The timid have everywhere a great wish to infuse into others, by means of disguises, that terror which they can not inspire by their own courage. The Chinese weapons appear to have tlie same aim : among them is a halberd, of which the edge of the axe is nearly six feet long — an instrument of murder which would require a free space of ten feet in diameter for every soldier to wield properly. It seems destined for the destruction of giants, but a Roman soldier with his short sword would have been quite safe from them. Countless as are the uniforms here collected, there is scarcely one to which the Russians have not been opposed, the Japanese not excepted — and scarcely one from which they have not wrested some trophy of victory. Those in the arsenals of St. Petersburg consist of splendid silver shields of Turkish leaders ; Polish, Prussian, French, and Persian flags ; and at least a thousand ells of silk in Turkish standards, besides a large heap of crescents taken from the mosques. A cannon-foundry is annexed to the new arsenal, where a powerful steam-engine is at work. 426 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. In tlie western corner of tlie Admiralty square, and near the iron bridge, is located the well-known colossal equestrian statue of Peter the Great, mentioned a few pages back. Tlie subject is admirably treated, and the idea of representing the emperor riding up a rock, on both sides of which and in front steep precipices threaten destruction, is as poetical a thought as ever sculptor entertained. It is said that Falconet, the French artist who executed this great work, was aided in his inspirations by a Russian officer, tlie boldest horseman of his time, who daily rode up to the edge of a liigli artificial mound the wildest Arabian of Count Orloff's stud, where he suddenly halted him with his fore legs pawing the air over the abyss below. The head was modelled by Marie Callot.* The emperor's face is turned toward tlie Neva, his liand outstretched as if he would grasp land and water. This attitude was bold and to the purpose ; it is therefore inconceivable why the artist did not rest contented with it, instead of adding to the idea of power and possession which his attitude gave, the subduing a si'r|ieiit which the czar finds on the rock, and which is trodden under his horse's foot : the cliarm of a great work of art is sinned against by this destruction of unity of action and idea. The spring of the horse, the carriage of the rider, and his well-chosen Russian costume, are, how- ever, admiralile. Tlie air-born position of the whole statue rendered it necessary that unusual precautions should be taken to preserve the centre of gravity: the thickness of the bronze in front is therefore very trifling, but behind it increases to several inches, and ten thousand pounds' weight of iron were cast in the hind quarters and tail of the horse — a tolerable aplonib.-\ '' " A ymino- Frcnchwoiiiaii, Miidemuisellft Callut, (j rcbitive of Falconet the sculptor, since so i;t'lclnutf'cl, WHS iilso Mil ;iili>t, and rrsiilod for some time in St. Petersburg. The cxar saw some nf \[t'y sUitucih s, and thci- pxjiiossioii of combined power and gentleness made so strong an impres- sion on liim, llint lie jiaid a visit, in srrirt hicognilo,lo the aitist's studio. There he made acqnaint- ance wilh Mademoiseile Callut, and wa^ raptivaled by her charms. The remarkable tenderness of hfv iiritiiie deeply inipn^siMl his stormy and passionate sold ; the depth of her mind harmonized with his ; a bond of s\ niji.illiy speetlily one in-led them During the most ardent period of tlieir remanlie love, Peter sat tu her fm his bust. The woman's tender affection combined with the an* i-l's inspiration In ])rnduee tbe most perfect bust the world ever saw of one of its greatest met What lias become of that bust tioiie know; but f let it is that, wlicn Catherine II. conceived the iden of the giiuid equcstiian statue I have described, and sent to Paris for Falconet to execute it, that sculptor nvuK^ bis stLidics for the bead after the masterpiece of his relative, Miidemoiselle Callot, who at lliat time was dniiblb ss death Contemporaries, at least, who were acquainted with both works of art, decluied the liead of the statue tn he an unmislakeablc copy of that inimitable bust, whose unparalleled beauty was wonderfully well reproduced in Falconet's colossal work. Truly, notliing was wiuiting to tbe memory of the noithern giant, but that love should transmit his portrait to po8t.'rity ! Russian authors represent the liahoit of the young czar and the French lady as one lliat exercisetl much innuence on tiic fate of the country.'' — .Tkhrmann. t The Kev. W:. Cboubs, wdio saw iliis st.ilue when at St. Petersburg in 18.5.3, says: " I thought with ]iiide on our own Mills, who has succeeded so nobly ia his equestrian statue of .Jackson, which is self poised." The sculjitor liere referred to is Clark Mills, a native of New York, who designed and executerl an equestrian statue of Andrew Jackson, and in wdiich the hoi-se bearing his hero appears gracefullv prancing, and is poiserl upon his hind legs, without the slightest visible extrane- ous sup|)Oit. Ill this sliilue the artist has boldly and successfully relied on the truth of well-known mechanical juiiieiples, wliich assured him that by res(uling to them he might entirely dis))ense with everything likely to inferfeie with the dashing efect of his work. The whole is cast from brass ilQTJESTEIAN SIATTTE Or PETER THE GREAT, ADUtlKALTY SQUARE, ST. PETERSBURG. ST. PETERSBURG — PUBLIC MONUMENTS. 429 The huge block of granite whicli forms the pedestal, and weighs fifteen hundred tons, was bi'ought from Lacta, a Finnish village four miles from St. Petersburg, and may have been torn by the deluge from the Swedish mountains. It was originally forty-five feet long, thirty feet high, and twenty-five feet in width ; but the chisel was set to work, and, in cutting it, the mass broke in two pieces. These were subsequently patched together, and it now looks as unnatural as the imitative rocks seen on the stage. Some work may have been necessary to obtain a footing for the horse and give an inclination to the stone. This, however, must have been done witliout due precaution, for one third was taken away. It is now only fourteen feet high, twenty feet broad, and thirty-five feet long ; the statue is eleven feet in height, and the horse seventeen. On the two long sides are chiselled the following inscriptions in Russian and Latin: — '■'■Fetrov Pervomou, Eleaterina Vtoraia." — "■ Petro Primo, Catherina Secunda.— MDCCLXXXII." A laughable circumstance connected with this statue recently occurred at St. Petersburg. Some American sailors, who had been making rather too free with " the jolly god," sallied forth on a frolicksome cruise ; and one of them, not having the fear of the police before his eyes, climbed ovei the wire palisade surrounding the statue, and, clambering up the rock, seated himself, en croupe, beliind the czar ! He was speedly dismounted, and after a night's confinement was brought before the divisional officer of police, when the case was summarily disposed of, and so heavy a fine inflicted that the offender naturally remonstrated. " No, no," replied the officer, " we can make no abatement : if you will ride with great people, you must pay great people's prices I" The monument to Suwarrow, Russia's most distinguished general, is on the Champ de Mars, opposite the Troitszka bridge — a most appropriate situation; but the work itself is generally regarded by critics as unworthy of the great marshal whose deeds it is intended to commemorate. It is a bronze statue, on foot, in Roman costume, wielding a sword in the right hand, and holding a shield in the left, in defence, over the crowns of the pope, Naples, and Sardinia, which lie at his feet. This refers especially to the campaign of Italy, in 1799. Nearly equidistant from the Academy of Arts and the Corps of Cadets is a monument to Field-Marshal Romanzoff, erected to his memory for his services against the Turks, in the wars ending with the conquest of tha cannon taken by General Jackaon from his country's enemies, and donated liy Cong^ress to the ** Monument Society" for the purpose. It is cast in ten pieces — the hoi'se being in four and the hero in six pieces — which are so riveted and rolled together as to present to tlie closest scrutiny the appearance of being cast entirely in mass. The weight of the work is nearly fifteen tons ; and from the top of the pedestal to the highest point of the figure the height is about fourteen feet, while the height of the pedestal above the surrounding ground is about sixteen feet. This statue has been severely and we think, all things considered, unjustly criticised, as a work of art. It occu. pies the centre of a highly-embellished public square, opposite the presidential mansion at the citv of Washington. 430 IIXUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. Crimea. Tlic inscription on it is '■'- Romantzoiua Pobadam" (To the Vic- tories of Romanzoff). Tliis nionuinont is composed of half a dozen difTcient colored stones, and is ornamented with patches of metal liesides. The ol:ielisk itself is of black granite. It stands in a socket of red marlile, whose base is of another color, in addition to whicli there are several strata of white marble ; a"d the whole bears on its extreme point a golden ball, witli an eagle hovering over it. In vain we aslc wliat harmony the artist could find in all these various coloi's and materials. Fortunately, this artistical abortion will not last hjno-. There are already several rents and splits in it, and so many pieces liroken from all the corners, tliat it looks as if it liad stood for cen- turies. It will soon sink under its own weiglit. The Egyptian spliinxes, wliicli lie not fai- from tliis monument, before tlie Academy of Arts, seem to look deridingly on the unimfjosiug obelisk. In defiance of the thousand years of warlike tumult — in defiance of the countless burning suns, of tlie endless scries of days and nights that have passed over their heads — tlicy look as youthful as if newly born ; their skin as smooth and polished ns when they came from the chisel. OfTick, Hotel dk-: Malle Postes, ^t PETEn^^MT"© 8T. PETERSBURG — THE KAZAN CATUEDRAL. 4'Al CHAPTER XV. ST. PETERSBURG — CHURCHES AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS. ST. PETERSBURG, as previously remarked, is a creation of modern days ; and therefore, compared with Moscow, has neither so many nor such remarkable churches as the old capital, though some arc built in a pleasing style of architecture. The modern Russian church is a mixture of the Grecian, Byzantine, and Tartar; the Byzantine, whicli was brought from Constantinople with Christianity, being tlie most prominent. The plan of the building is a Greek cross, with four equal arms ; in tlic midst, a largo dome, painted green or blue ; at the four ends, four narrow- pointed cupolas, their summits surmounted by four crosses ; in front, a grand entrance adorned with many columns, and three sidc-ciitrances wiLli- out columns. The difference between the Greek and the Latin cross wilh aisles is evident. Such is the exterior form of the grenter portion of the Russian cliurches, including the thirty of St. Petersburg, constituting less than a tenth of the number dispersed through " JIoscow the Holy." Tin; interiors of those in tlie new capital are lighter, l)rightcr, and more simple ; in the old, darker, more overloaded with ornament, more varied in color, and grotesque. The Metropolitan church of St. Petersburg, dedicated to " our Lady of Kazan," stands conspicuously on the riglit of the Ncrs/cni Prospekt, about half a mile from the Admiralty square, and retired from the street. A semicircular colonnade of Corinthian pillars, the two extremities of wliich project almost to the front of the houses, forms a screen to the cathedi'al itself, and the dome rises immediately beliind the centre of the colonnade, where the chief entrance is situated. In any other place tlie clfect of this semicircular line of columns would be imposing ; but here, where every- thing around is on so vast a scale, it looks the very reverse : the columns are not so high as the adjoining houses, and even the dome is deficient in elevation. The Russians wish to unite in their capital all that is grand or beautiful in tlie whole civilized world, and this is intended for a copy of St. Peter's at Rome ; but the puny effort is almost comic in its contrast to the mighty work of Bnonarotti : the colonnade of pillars, which in Rome seemed necessary and suitable to circumstances, is here a superfluous and incompreliensible appendage. As an exception to the rule, one transept ill ihe Kazan cathedral is sliorter than the others — not, however, as some i^?. ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. have alleged, from the peculiar form of the Greek cross, but simply from the want of space on the canal side to continue the building. The eastern arm of the cross in all Greek churches is looked upon as the " holy of holies," and is shut off from the rest of the edifice by a screen called the ikonostas. This is set apart for the priests. Laymen may enter, but no women ; not even the empress can go into that mysterious enclosure. Here stands a throne called the prestol, a kind of altar, be- neath a sumptuous canopy, frequently adorned with precious stones. The throne stands on a carpet, which reaches under the closed doors of the screen ; and this, on solemn occasions, is spread out to a low square plat- form, erected immediately beneath tlie central dome : on this holy carpet no footstep, save that of the priest, dare press. Behind and in front of the screen the ceremonies and service are performed. The formalities ar« great : robes of costly materials are frequently changed ; the genuflections are numerous and very low ; incense is much used ; there is no organ or other instrumental music, but the chanting is peculiar and striking. Ser- mons, so much thought of in other countries, form but a small portion of the Russian church service : a short discourse, a few times in the year, is the only homily which a Greek pi'iest delivers to his flock. At the Impe- rial chapel, the Nevskoi monastery, and the Donskoi and Seminov at Mos- cow, the singing is very fine. The bass voices are superb, and a kind of chant, which tliey keep up in unison, while the priest is officiating, is not easily to be compared with any other church music. It has somewhat the effect of as many double basses all executing the same short arpegg-io pas- sages, and repeating it without any variation in the chord, time, or tone ; when frequently heard, it is therefore tedious. One of tlie most impressive portions of have been fought, and Napoleon would have marched without a blow to Moscow, and perhaps to St. Petersburg. The coup d'ceil, on entering this house of prayer, is rather that of an arsenal than of a church, and this may be said of many other clmrches in this capital, for they are more or less adorned with military trophies taken from various nations of Europe and Asia. Here are to be seen the crimson flags of tlie Persians, which may be easily distinguislied by a silver hand, as large as life, fastened to the end ; also many Turkish standards, sur- mounted by the crescent — large, unsoiled pieces of clotli, for the most part red, and so new and spotless, that tliey might be sold again to the merchant by tlie ell, and giving the impression that they were surrendered without any very great struggle. Not so the French colors, which hang near them, and which offer a strong contrast : they are rent in pieces, and to several of the seventeen eagles only a single fragment is attached ; these, with tlieir expanded wings, which had soared in triumph over nearly the whole of continental Europe, look strange enough in the place they now roost in. Among these tattered banners is one of white silk, on which the ST. PETERSBURG — THE ISAAC CHURCH. 4S7 VYords "Garde Nationale de Paris" are visible. Here, too, may be seca the long streamers of the wild tribes of the Caucasus, and the silver eagles of Poland ; and, lastly, the marshal's baton of Davoust (duke of Auerstadt and prince of Eckmiihl), the "Hamburg Robespierre," whose atrocities will be remembered as long as a stone of that city exists under its present name. This trophy, which is kept in a glass case, was tal^en in the disas- trous retreat of 1812 ; it is said to have been lost in the wild confusion that everywhere prevailed, and was afterward picked up by some straggling Cossack. Keys of many German, French, and Netherland towns, before whose gates a Russian trumpet has blown in triumpli, also grace the pillars of this cathedral ; among them are those of Hamburg, Leipsic, Dresden, Rheims, Breda, and Utrecht — in all twenty-eight pair. To a protestant, these trophies, and the tawdry paintings, gilding, and jewelry, completely destroy all ideas of a devotional character. As the members of the Greek religion pray standing, the interior of their churches is always devoid of pew, bench, or chair ; but there is in every church a place set apart for the emperor to stand in, which is raised above tlie floor, and usually covered with a canopy, or small dome. An exception is, we believe, made in favor of the empress dowager, on account of ill health. The Isaac church can not fail to excite tlie admiration of those who ap- preciate grand proportions, a simple but lofty style of architecture, and noble porticoes. The situation also is highly suitable, for it stands in one of the largest open squares in the capital, surrounded by its finest build- ings and monuments, and furnishes some idea of what Russian quarries, Russian mines and workmen, and a French architect. Monsieur Montfer- rand, can produce. Nothing can exceed the simplicity of the model : no ornament meets the eye ; the architect lias left all to the impression to be produced by its stupendous proportions. The original design of the cathe- dral at Cologne is said to be on a much smaller scale ; the transept alone is a building of great magnitude. On the spot where the Isaac church stands, the Russians have been at work upon a place of worship for the last century. The original one was constructed of wood, but this was subsequently destroyed, and the great Catherine commenced another, which she intended to face with marble, and which, like mauy other of her undertakings, was never finished. The emperor Paul continued the building, but in brick. This half-and-half edifice vanished, however, in its turn ; and under Nicholas the present magnificent structure has been erected — such a one as will scarcely find so splendid a successor. To make a firm foundation, a whole forest of piles was sunk in the swampy soil, at a cost of a million of dollars ! The present building is, as usual, in the form of a Greek ci'oss, of four equal sides, and each of the four grand entrances is approached from the level of the place by tliree broad flights of steps, eacli whole flight being com- posed of one entire piece of granite, formed out of masses of rock brought from Finland. These steps lead from the four sides of the building to the 4S8 nXUSTRATED DESCRIPTION OP RUSSIA. frur chief entrances, each of which has a superb peristyle. The pillars of these peristyles are sixty feet high, and have a diameter of seven feet, all magnificent round and highly-polished granite monoliths, from Finland, buried for centuries in its swamps, till brought to light by the triumphant power of Russia. They are crowned with Corinthian capitals of bronze, and support the enormous beam of a frieze formed of six fire-polished blocks. Over the peristyles, and at twice their height, rises the chief and central cupola, higher than it is wide, in the Byzantine proportion. It is supported also by thirty pillars of smoothly-polished granite, which, al- though gigantic in tliemselves, look small compared to those below. The cupola is covered with copper, overlaid, with gold, and glitters like the sun over a mountain. From its centre rises a small, elegant rotunda, a miniature repetition of the whole, looking like a chapel on the mountain- top. Tlie whole edifice is surrounded by the crowning and far-seen golden cross. Four smaller cupolas, resembling the greater in every particular, stand around, like children round a mother, and complete the harmony visible in every part. Tiio walls of the church are covered with marble, and no doubt this ca- tliedral is the most remarkal)le one in St. Petersburg, and will supersede tlie Kazan " church of the Virgin" for great state festivals. The embel- lishments of tlie faoado and windows have been intrusted to various artists. The group of figures on the pediment of one of the former was designed by a Frenclunan, named Le Maire : tlie subject is the Angel at the Tomb, witli the Magdalen and otlier female figures on the one side, and the terri- fied soldiers in every attitude of consternation on the other ; these figures are eight feet in height, and bronze gilt. The great dome is of iron, and, as well as the whole of the bronze-work, was manufactured at the cele- brated foundry of Mr. Baird, of St. Petersburg. The interior of the church is far from being finished ; but if the present design is carried out, it will be a mass of precious metals and stones. The malachite columns for the ikonostant, or screen, are fifty feet in height, and exceed anything that has yet been done in that beautiful fabric. The prestol for the inmost shrine is a small circular temple, the dome supported by ciglit Corinthian pillars of malachite, about eiglit feet high, with gilt bases and capitals. The exterior of the dome is covered with a profusion of gilding on a ground of malachite, and the interior is of lapis- lazuli. The floor is of polislied marbles of various colors, which have been found in the Russian dominions, and the whole is raised on steps of pol- ished porphyry. There is, perliaps, too much gilding about this very beau- tiful work, but this is in accordance with its position in a Greek church. It was presented to the emperor by Prince Demidoff, who procured the malachite from his mines in Siberia, and sent it to Italy to bo worked ; its value is said to be as much as a million of roubles. From the rotunda over the great dome there is a fine view of the capital when the day is bright and clear, which is generally the case in the "summer ST. PETERSBURG — CHURCH OP ST. PETER AND ST. PAUL. 441 The eye tlien -wanders unobstructed over the whole extent of the imperial city. The broad Neva spreads its "breast of waters" in the warm sun- shine for many a mile, hemmed in at first between those massive quays of granite whicli have not their equal in Europe, and reflecting on its calm surface storehouse and palace ; but beyond, no longer subject to man's control, its wide stream expanding forth, flows beneath the wooded shores of Peterhoff and Oranienbaum, where the wearied eye can follow its course no longer. Next to the churches just described, that of St. Peter and St. Paul, sit- uated in the fortress, is the most interesting. It was built by an Italian architect, under Peter the Great, and stands nearly in the middle of the city, opposite the Winter palace. Its pointed, slender tower, exactly re-, sembling that of the Admiralty, rises like a mast three hundred and forty feet in height. For the last hundred and fifty feet the spire is so small and thin, that it must be climbed like a pine-tree. This spire, though prop- erly represented as fading away almost to a point in the sky, is in reality terminated by a globe of considerable dimensions, on which an angel stands, supporting a large cross. The following incident connected with this spire, as related by Leitch Ritchie, places in a conspicuous point of view that spirit of absurd daring which is one of the peculiarities of the Russian character : — " The angel which sui-mounts the spire, less respected by the weather than perhaps his holy character deserved, fell into disrepair ; and some suspicions were entertained that he designed revisiting, uninvokcd, the sur- face of the earth. The affair caused some uneasiness, and tlie government at length became seriously perplexed. To raise a scaffolding to such a height would have cost more money than all the angels out of heaven were worth ; and, meditating fruitlessly on these circumstances, without being able to resolve how to act, a considerable time was suffered to elapse. " Among the crowd of gazers below, who daily turned their eyes and their thoughts toward the angel, was a mujik called Tclouclikine. This man was a roofer of houses (a slater, as he would be called in a country where slates arc used), and his speculations by degrees assumed a more practical character than the idle wonders and conjectures of the rest of the crowd. The spire was entirely covered with sheets of gilded copper, and presented a surface to the eye as smooth as if it had been one mass of bur- nished gold. But Telouchkine knew that it was not one mass of anything ; that the sheets of copper were not even uniformly closed upon each other ; and, above all, that there were large nails used to fasten tlicm, which pro- jected from the sides of the spire. " Having meditated upon these circumstances till his mind was made up, the mvjik went to the government, and offered to repair the angel, without scaffolding, and without assistance, on condition of being reasonably paid for the time expended in the labor. The offer was accepted ; for it was made in Russia, and by a Russian. Ill TLLUSTRATFD DESCRIPTIOX OF RUSSIA. " On tlie day fixed for the adventure, T,cloiicld