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Titles included in this collection are listed in the volumes published by the Comell University Press in the series The Literature of the Agricultural Sciences, 1991-1996, Wallace C. Olsen, series editor. SOIL LTUR.E COMPLIMENTS OF DR. W. E. TAYLOR DIRECTOR SOIL CULTURE DEPARTMENT DEERE a COMPANY MOLINE. ILLINOIS SOIL CULTURE AND MODERN FARM METHODS BY DR. W.E.TAYLOR DIRECTOR OF JOHN DEERE'S SOIL CULTURE DEPARTMENT ISSUED BY DEERE & COMPANY MANUFACTURERS OF HIGH GRADE AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS MOLINE. ILLINOIS, U. S. A IIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII^ SOIL CULTURE S' |i fei S: ■V' ll -j.'^ V .Vi,. ' A Deere Model Dairy Farm, Moline, Illinois SOIL SOIL is the substance in which plants grow. Fertihty or plant food is composed of compounds made up of organic and inorganic ele- ments. The essential inorganic elements are found in varying quanti- ties in the particles of disintegrated rocks. They are silica, alumina, iron, phosphorus, lime, sulphur, magnesia, soda and potash. All exist in most soils in great abundance except potash and phosphorus. Other elements of fertility are oxygen, nitrogen, carbon and hydrogen. These elements exist in the atmosphere in inexhaustible quantities and are utiUzed by the growing plants in a greater or lesser degree. It must be understood that growing plants are very exacting in their requirements. The laws governing their growth will permit of no radical interference. A deficiency of any one element will be reflected in the production, and an excessive amount of some of the elements will prove even more disastrous than a deficiency. For instance, an exces- sive amoimt of the sodas will cause alkali poison. The productiveness of soil depends upon its physical condition, its humus content, the amount and availabiUty of water apd the amount of available plant food it contains. Soils differ in their adaptability to certain crops, a matter which should be thoroughly studied by the farmer. In this particular, soils are not unlike live-stock. We know that some cows are milk producers, other varieties are useful for beef only. Likewise, we have draft horses and roadsters. So it is with the soil — some fields are adapted to potato raising, others to sugar beets, while others will excel in grain or corn; hence, no fast rules can be laid down governing the adaptability of crops to certain lands. If the farmer will make some careful experiments, he will be able to plant crops which are best adapted to his soil. 10 HOW TO IMPROVE THE PHYSICAL CONDITION OF SOIL AN ideal soil is a loam containing about equal amounts of sand and ^ clay. Such a soil readily absorbs moisture, capillary attraction is perfected, and it permits of free circulation of air. Sandy Soil can be improved, first, by the addition of clay, the amount depending upon the fineness of the sand; second, by the addition of peat or muck, and, third, by mixing with it barnyard manures. When barnyard manure is mixed with sandy soil, it should be well rotted and thoroughly worked into the soil with the disc. It has been demonstrated that a sandy soil which is absolutely unproductive for agricultural purposes, will produce very abundantly by the addition of manures. The amount of plant food required to make the crop being greatly in excess of the available plant food in the manure, indicating that the sand contained fertility, but valueless because of the absence of organic matter. By adding peat or manure, sandy soils absorb moisture readily, and it is retained much longer than if the organic substances were not added. The organic matter also tends to regulate the temperature of the soil. Where the subsoil is clay, sandy soils are greatly improved by plowing deep enough to bring some of the clay into the seed-bed and subsequently applying manure or plowing under green crops. Clay Soil if tilled when wet, puddles, and when the moisture evaporates, it con- tracts, cracks and becomes so hard that it is not tillable. By the addi- tion of coarse sand, it becomes mellow and more permeable to moisture. By the further addition of peat or organic matter in the form of barn- yard manures, it is made mellow, permeable, does not puddle, crack or become hard. The amount of peat or manures to add depends entirely upon the fineness of the soil particles composing the clay. Plowing under green crops is very beneficial to both clay and sandy soils. Calcareous Soil or soil in which lime exists in great quantities, is apt to be coarse, thereby hindering capillary attraction. Such a soil is made tillable and productive by the addition of organic matter, either in the form of peat, muck or well-rotted manures. Peaty Soil is improved by the addition of clay or sand. Because this soil contains an excessive amount of nitrogen and organic matter, it is benefited by the application of caustic lime. ALKALI ALKALI is a salt or a combination of salts, which, if existing in the soil ■ in excessive quantities, destroys it for agricultural purposes. A very small per cent of alkali is very essential to plant life; in fact, soil devoid of this salt is not productive. It is estimated that nearly a million acres of the irrigated lands in the west contain enough alkali to render them very unproductive or absolutely worthless for farming purposes. Alkali salts are divided into two classes, namely, white alkali and black alkali. The white alkali is less harmful than the black. The principal white alkalis are Glaubers salts (sodium sulphate), common table salt (sodium chloride), Epsom salts (magnesium sulphate) and common baking soda (sodium bicarbonate). The black alkali is salsoda (sodium carbonate). White alkalis either existed in the soil before it was cultivated, or were carried there by irrigating waters. If these salts exist in quanti- ties as great as one per cent, they exert a deleterious effect upon the plants; however, some very resistant plants thrive where as much as two per cent of alkali exists in the soil. The ability of a plant to thrive in an alkali soil depends upon the amount of water holding the salt in solution and the location of the salt. Alkalis are carried to the surface by water through the process of evaporation, and they are driven down by the water into the deeper subsoils when it is applied in excessive quantities. They are destructive to plants when on or near the surface, but when in the deeper soil in solution, they are less harmful. Black alkali is a very corroding destructive salt, and if it exists in the soil to the extent of one-tenth of one per cent or more, it is destructive to plant life. White alkali appears in a thin film or crust on the surface. Soil containing black alkali has black spots or black rings on the surface, the soil is black and puddled, and water standing on the surface is black. How to Remedy Alkali Soils White alkali can be removed from the soil by washing it out with water either by irrigation or by heavy rains, provided underground drainage is supplied to carry it off. Black alkali can be remedied by the application of gypsum (land plaster). If several applications are made, the black alkali js neutral- ized and transformed into a white salt which can easily be washed out. Black alkali without the use of gypsum, however, cannot be washed out to any extent. Crops Certain crops are adapted to soils containing different amounts of alkali. u Excessive Soils which contain as much as 2.5 per cent of alkali are regarded as excessive, and will produce only a few useful plants. Chief among these are native and foreign salt bushes, certain native grasses, notably salt grass which offers a very inferior pasture. While sugar beets can be grown in the presence of as much as 2.5 per cent of alkali, they are very small, and the sugar content is low. Very Strong Soils which contain from 1 to 1.5 per cent are regarded fairly favor- able for sugar beets, provided an abundance of organic matter is used and a sufficient amount of water to keep the alkali in the deeper soils. The date palm is the only fruit tree which is profitable on such a soil. Strong Alkali Such a soil contains about 1 per cent of salts. A fair crop of sugar beets, western wheat grass, brome grass and tall meadow oat grass can be grown. A Medium Strong Alkali containing not more than .8 per cent, will grow meadow and pasture grasses, wheat grass, brome grass, rye grass, meadow fesene, sugar beets and common fox-tail millet. It will also produce fair crops of rape, kale and barley hay. A Medium Alkali which contains .6 per cent or less of salts, will grow millet, rape, red- top, timothy, orchard grass, barley, rye and asparagus and fair crops of milo, kaffir com, wheat, oats, emmer, alfalfa, field peas, vetch and fiax. It is also very desirable for sugar beets. Weak Alkali containing .4 per cent or less of salts, will grow all kinds of truck, rapes, sugar beets, alfalfa, etc. Seeding In view of the fact that water carries alkali down, seed should be planted just after rains or after irrigating. If the farmer can secure a quick tap root before the alkali reaches the surface, he is reasonably sure of a good crop. The reason that alfalfa does so well in alkali soil is because of its deep tap root which penetrates far below the alkali. In irrigated sections, if the water contains a per cent of alkali, the farmer should place underground tile for the purpose of. carrying off the salts in solution; otherwise, the accumulation will increase from year to year, and, finally, the soil will be absolutely worthless. 13 MODERN FARM METHODS Essential Features to Be Observed A FARMER should have two important objects in view, namely: 1. To produce wealth from his land sufficient to compensate himself and family for their labor and give him a reasonable interest on the value of his investment. 2. To till the land and manage his operations so that the fertility of the soil will not become exhausted. Haphazard methods and careless work will not accomplish those results, but systematic management, modem methods and a scientific knowledge of plant and animal requirements, will surely bring success in a high degree. Farming is a profession no less important nor less difficult to master than many of the so-called learned professions, and the man who believes that farming is a fool-proof occupation will usually make an abject failure of the business. Two Features must be observed, namely, stock-raising and crop-raising. They are inter-dependent; they lean on each other, and neither one will long endure alone. The crop consumes plant food from the soil, but the supply is no more inexhaustible than the farmer's bank account. The soil fertility must be replenished from time to time, and it must be stimu- lated to activity; otherwise, the soil becomes sick, anaemic and unpro- ductive. Live-stock should consume the major portion of the product of the soil in order that many of the organic substances essential to make inorganic elements (which exist in most soils in abundance) available, may be returned to the soil in the form of manures. Also, eighty per cent of the fertility removed by the crop is restored to the land, if the manure is properly preserved and applied. Stock-Raising Stock-raising involves features requiring knowledge of breeds, means of caring for animals, and the science of feeding them. A high-bred animal, whether a beast of burden or for meat or dairy products, is manifestly far superior to a scrub. A well-bred animal requires no more feed than one with an inferior or inbred record, and the production is usually more profitable. The difference in the amount of feed consumed by a well-bred dairy cow and a poorly-bred one is insignificant, but the production in milk makes one very profitable, while the other may not pay for the feed consumed. The science of feeding is of even more importance. To obtain the best results, the ration must be balanced; that is, nature's requirements 11 should be provided. Food elements that make fat, heat and energy- are called carbohydrates, but they do not promote growth. Growth is made by feeding nitrogenous substances, but to secure a perfect and rapid development, the right proportions of both must be given. Animals are no exception to the rules governing construction in other things. If one is building a house, the quantities of the various parts must be in proportion, if the structure is made complete and durable. Even the laws of chemistry are no less exacting than the laws governing growth. In chemistry we find that the law of combination will permit of no radical interference. To illustrate, two volumes of hydrogen and one part of oxygen will make pure water, but equal parts will not, nor will any other proportions of those two elements make that very neces- sary essential to life. Oxygen is absolutely necessary to sustain life, and will, if rightly provided, but if we combine three volumes of oxygen with one each of hydrogen and nitrogen, we form nitric acid, and no other combination will make that fluid. I mention these facts to impress upon the farmer's mind the necessity of knowing the require- ments of his stock in order that he may secure the best possible results in his feeding operations, for nature's laws of exactness are very strict. Crop-Raising The other feature of modem farming, namely, growing crops, involves four distinct steps or operations and several sub-divisions which will be briefly referred to hereafter. I want to impress upon the minds of my readers the absolute necessity of faithfully observing each one of the operations which are: 1. The seed-bed. 2. Fertility, or the operations necessary to prevent exhaustion of the fertility of the soil and methods to make it available. 3. Selection and breeding of seed. 4. Cultivation of the growing plant. These operations are of equal importance, and a neglect of any one of them will invariably be the cause of a deficient harvest. The Seed-Bed The seed-bed must be so made that it provides for each and all of the requirements of the growing plant. The requirements are: 1. An abundance of room. 2. Atmospheric oxygen. 3. Water. 4. Humus. 5. Food. A Roomy Seed-Bed The abundance, energy and ability of plant roots depends largely on the room and freedom they have to develop. Roots seek the course of 16 Sun*Baked Af t«r a Heavy Rain. An Excellent Condition to Lose Moisture. Should Be Thoroughly Disced Before Being Plowed least resistance, especially during the tender age, and at a time the plant requires the most assistance. If the seed-bed is shallow, the feeding area is restricted in both food and moisture. Such a seed-bed usually has a hard-pan preventing, not only the penetration of tender roots, but stops the downward passage of water and encourages the washing away of surface soils and fertility during heavy showers. A roomy seed-bed serves as a reservoir to catch and retain water until it percolates into the deeper subsoil. Hence, for many reasons the seed-bed should be deep, a condition which can be accomplished by plowing and tilling deep. Caution The process of deepening the seed-bed should be gradual, for the reason that subsoils or soils not rich in humus are not productive, but can be made rich by adding manure with each plowing or by turning under a green crop of some kind, preferably clover, cow-pea vines or soy beans. Atmospheric Oxygen This gas is as necessary to plant roots as it is to man or animals, and if it does not exist in the soil, the plant will perish. Soil particles have irregular surfaces, preventing a close contact. This condition is not accidental, but a wise provision for the express purpose of permitting the circulation of air and the passage of water and minute hair-hke roots. The spaces, also, permit the escape of noxious gases, the result of plant root excretions and organic decomposition. If from any cause the air spaces become clogged, the phenomena of plant life is stopped. If the soil becomes surcharged with water to such an extent that the seed-bed is saturated with water, the air spaces are filled and the air is driven out. Tile drainage or ditches will remedy the condition. If the excessive amount of water in the surface layer of soil is due to a hard-pan, which 17 prevents it from moving downward, deep plowing or a subsoiler will relieve the condition. If the ground is naturally low and soggy, drain tile is the surest and best means to adopt, for the reason that the tile not only carry off water, but through them air is admitted. Drain tile always improve the physical condition of the seed-bed and usually the increase of production in one or two crops will pay the cost of the tile. Water Water is indispensable to growing crops, and how to control the sup- ply is certainly a serious question with the farmer. Too much or too little is disastrous to the growing crop. Proper methods, however, will reduce the danger of damage to a minimum. An over-abundance can be taken care of by ditches, tile and deep tillage, but in sections where the annual rainfall is abnormally low, the problem of storing a sufficient amount to provide for the crop during protracted drouths is a serious question. To make the operation of storing, preventing the waste and nature's process of consuming water plain to the farmer, we will offer the following explanation: Soil water exists in three forms — 1. Hydrostatic or gravitational water. 2. Capillary water. 3. Hygroscopic water. Hydrostatic Water Hydrostatic water is the water that falls on the surface from rains or by irrigation. It gravitates into the deeper subsoils through cracks, worm holes and through airspaces between the particles of soil. If the soil is compact and the movement slow, the air spaces will become filled, and if the congestion remains too long, the plants will die, as is often seen in fields of grain, or any crop where water has stood for a few days in a low place. niustration Below Represents an Ideal Seed-Bed. It is Loose to Depth of Planting. Lower Portion is Compact and Makes Good Contact with Subsoil Capillary Water Capillary water is the moisture that sustains the plant. The water is first stored in the deeper subsoils and by nature's process, called capil- lary attraction, it moves upward, passing from soil particle to soil par- ticle, until it reaches the surface, where it is taken up by plant roots to sustain the plant, or it is lost by evaporation. This process is perfect if the seed-bed is so made that the particles of soil are in close proximity and at the same time minute air spaces exist. If, however, the air spaces are so large that the particles of soil are not in close contact, the movement of water stops. Two things will stop the movement of capillary water, and it is up to the farmer to so till his soil that such conditions do not exist. They are: 1. Surface trash, such as weeds, stubble, corn-stalks or coarse manure turned under. 2. Lumps in the body or on the bottom of the seed-bed. Trash turned under is responsible for more crop failures or short crops, especially dry years, than all other causes together. The trash turned under prevents a compact soil contact between the furrow slice and the bottom of the furrow. The result is, large air spaces, and when the capillary water reaches the break, it stops, and the seed-bed dries out. Lumps in the seed-bed produce practically the same condition. There is but one good sure remedy, and that is, disc all the trash well into the ground before it is plowed, and disc the ground thoroughly after it is plowed and in semi-arid regions, make the seed-bed more compact by using a sub-surface packer. Mr. Farmer! The disc harrow is always a safe insurance policy against loss, and whether you farm in a humid section or in the semi- arid regions, you cannot afford to ignore discing before and after plow- ing. By doing so you make available soil water regardless of drouths, and you increase the feeding area of plant roots by pulverizing the lumps. Hygroscopic Water Hygroscopic water, or vapor water, is the moisture that exists in the air. When air enters the soil, the moisture adheres to the soil particles. This moisture is of little value in dissolving plant food elements, but does in a measure stimulate plants in dry regions. Preventing Loss Moisture is conserved or prevented from escaping through surface cracks and insect holes by maintaining a soil mulch blanket on the sur- face. This can be done in com by running a mulch harrow between the rows or by using a surface cultivator. The mulch should be formed as 19 soon as the ground begins to dry or bake after rains. Unless the farmer is watchful, one or more inches of water will escape during a single hot, windy day. In grain fields the mulch can be formed either with a harrow or corru- gated roller. The harrow gives the best results in hard ground where the roots are deep, but if the soil is loose, the corrugated roller forms a retaining mulch and at the same time packs the soil about the grain roots. Either implement can be used to good profit even when the grain is beginning to joint. Humus When organic matter becomes thoroughly rotted and combines with chemical elements in the soil, it is called humus. Indirectly, it is an important factor in fertility; in fact, soil devoid of humus is practically barren. Humus increases the moisture-absorbing ability of soil to a very marked degree and exerts a decided influence on the temperature of the ground. Barnyard manure is the best source of humus, although green crops plowed under are excellent. Fertility or Plant Food Plants require certain specific ingredients in the right quantities if a rapid growth and an abundant production is secured. An unbalanced plant food ration proves as disastrous to the growing plant as an unbal- anced food ration does to the animal. Hence, the farmer should know three things pertaining to feeding plants, and he can secure that infor- mation by studying and experimenting. 1. He should know the requirements of plants. 2. He should know the quantity of each element or substance neces- sary to secure the best results. 3. He should know how to till his land and manage the operations of the farm so as to utilize and make available what nature has provided in a crude form. Soil is composed of disintegrated rocks. Rocks are composed of silica, alumina, lime, iron, magnesia, soda, potash, phosphorus and sul- phur. In those substances we have the basic elements of fertility. To make them available plant food compounds, we must have nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen and carbon-dioxide. Oxygen exists in the air in abundance. Hydrogen composes two-thirds of the volume of water. Three-fourths of the atmosphere is composed of nitrogen, and carbon- dioxide is the result of decomposition of vegetable and animal matter. The whole layout is fine, and it is up to the farmer to convert them into useful plant food. Can it be done? Certainly it can, and that too by any intelligent farmer if he will use his good judgment and apply means and methods that are at his disposal. Nature's generosity is of little use, however, if 20 man neglects his part. The factory needs steel. How is it secured? Iron ore is buried deep in the mountain, coal is hidden below the sur- face, lime-rock forms a portion of the crust of the globe, but when brought together in the right proportion in the blast furnace, iron is reduced to an available form for another process, and so on until the product is completed. Without man's interven- tion, the component elements that are finally- resolved into a cambric needle would sleep on until the last day of eter- Y nity. Thus it is with the story of the fertihty of the soil. ^ >ii A Deep Seed-Bed [Well Ventilated] Shallow Seed-Bed [Not Ventilated] The Above Illustrates the Oreat Value of a Thoroughly-Made Deep Seed-Bed Medium Seed-Bed [Partly Ventilated] The story of the many complex changes and combinations that take place between the elements and substances is too confusing for the busy farmer to master. He is interested only in what to do to bring about the best results. Most soil contains an abundance of potassium, but it may be locked up in particles of granite, feldspar, alumina or clay, but it is made avail- able by applying powdered lime-rock to the soil. Phosphorus may exist in abundance, but is not in the right form to use until it has been transformed into phosphoric acid by the action of acids resulting from the decaying of manures or organic materials of some kind or by the action of other acids. Elements may exist in abundance, but are not made into compounds to be used by plants until the various elements are brought together by stirring and tilling the soil, thereby changing the position of the soil particles containing the chemicals. 21 Converting and rectifying bacteria may be absent or dormant for lack of oxygen or because of an acid soil. Lime neutralizes acid soil, and tile and tillage ventilate it. If nitrogen is lacking, it can be sup- plied by planting clover, alfalfa, cow peas or soy beans. Water is an essential factor in forming plant food compounds, and its presence in sufficient quantities depends upon the methods used by. the farmer. In short, a sweet soil well stocked with air, water and manure, and thoroughly tilled, will rarely fail to produce abundant crops. Rotation A well-arranged system of rotation of crops is a splendid means of assistance in keeping the soil rich in some plant food and in a most excellent physical condition. We know that if land is cropped year after year with the same kind of crop that each succeeding year the crop is less. We also know that if crops are rotated, that a greater yield is made. The farmer naturally inquires why there is such a variation between continuous cropping and the results of a system of rotation. While the same chemical elements enter into all farm crops, they dififer greatly in the quantities the various ones require. For instance, a grain crop requires less potash than clover, potatoes or root crops; oats take more potash from the soil than wheat or com; likewise, clover requires more phosphorus than grain crops. The requirements of wheat, for instance are the same each year. Each crop calls for just so much nitrogen, phosphorus and potash. The roots of each crop penetrate the earth to a certain depth, taking plant food in the same ratio and from the same strata of soil each year. Clover has different habits than com, grain or roots. The roots penetrate deep and their requirements are different. Clover, like other legumes, consumes nitrogen, but gathers it from the air and deposits it in the soil, leaving the soil richer in that plant food element than it was before the crop was planted. The deep roots decay, forming humus several feet deep and make available plant food beyond the reach of many grain plants. The decaying roots place the soil in excellent physical condition and hidden plant food thus formed is brought to the seed-bed by capillary water and is consumed by succeeding crops. It is erroneous to believe that all the plant food exists in what we term the "seed-bed" — that is, the first six or eight inches of soil. Fertility extends many feet down and it can be utilized by resorting to a common sense rotation and thorough tillage. How Plants Feed Plant food in a soluble state forms an envelope around each particle of soil, and is taken up by root hairs and carried into the plant. Carbon dioxide from the air is breathed into the plant through air valves in the 32 leaves. The oxygen is separated from the carbon and passes out as free oxygen and the carbon unites with elements that have come from the soil to form starch, sugar, etc.; therefore, it is very apparent in view of the phenomena of plant life, that the seed must throw out holding roots and a stem above ground far enough to secure carbon-dioxide from the air before plant food in the soil can be utilized; hence, the great necessity of planting seed that possesses strong vitality. If seed has been heated in the stack or bin, cut green or has been subjected to inclement condi- tions, it will be weak and anaemic and the stunted early growth will be reflected through the entire life of the plant. Seed It has been repeatedly demonstrated that plump, healthy grain will yield from twenty-five to thirty per cent more than seed ungraded. Com intended for seed should be picked when ripe, thoroughly dried and stored in a well-ventilated seed house. If com absorbs moisture or freezes and thaws, its germinating strength is greatly weakened. It is practically useless to place seed in the ground when the tempera- ture of the ground is below forty-five degrees, although it will germinate very feebly at forty-one degrees. Again, seed is influenced by heredity. Breed and strains are as marked in seed as in animals; hence, the advantage of secur- ing well-bred seed of a good strain. Corn is especially suscepti- ble to hereditary influence. Inbred seed, or seed fertilized by pollen from barren stalks or sucker stalks, will in a great measure produce its kind. Cultivation of Plants Plants are cultivated for three purposes, namely: 1. To remove weeds. 2. To keep the surface in good tilth. 3. To maintain a surface mulch for the purpose of conserving moisture. Conditions should govern the farmer as to the nature, frequency and depth of cultivation. Growing grains may be harrowed or rolled. If the soil is baked and weedy, harrowing is beneficial. If the soil is loose, a roller, either corrugated or smooth, closes cracks, thereby preventing the escape of moisture and at the same time packs the loose soil around the roots of the plants. Hoed crops of all kinds should be lightly harrowed before and after the plant is up. Deep cultivation of com is permitted until the roots are in danger of being pruned. After com or potatoes are eight or ten inches high, every deep cultivation lessens the crop. I will venture the assertion that the corn crop of the United States is lessened each year 23 fifteen per cent because of the almost universal practice of deep cultiva- tion after the plant is ten or twelve inches high or after the roots have spread to the point where they can be cut by a cultivator. PLOWING WHY We Plow," "When to Plow," "How to Plow, "and "The Kind of Plow to Use, "are questions which deserve more than a passing notice. Beyond question, haphazard plowing is responsible for more poor crops than any other operation in farming. Hence, we feel that the subject should receive very careful consideration. Why We Plow Primarily, we plow for the purpose of making a seed-bed and turning under trash. Plowing should also thoroughly pulverize and aerate the soil. We pulverize in order to make available plant food which envel- opes each soil particle. We aerate it in order that the soil may be thor- oughly oxidized, a condition necessary to the healthy maintenance of soil bacteria. We plow for the purpose of increasing the ability of soil to absorb moisture. When to Plow depends entirely upon the kind, character and condition of the soil and subsoil. No fixed rules can be laid down to govern all cases. The farmer should know his soil and study results. If clay soils are plowed when wet and stirred or cultivated while in that condition, they become puddled and no amount of cultivation will pulverize the lumps. If clay is plowed while wet and exposed to freezing and not stirred until it is dried out, it is mellow and of good tilth. Clay soils or soils where the subsoil is clay and a portion of it is brought to the surface, should be plowed in the fall and left in a roughened state until the lumps have crumbled in the spring after the frost has gone out; in fact, all heavy soils are in a better physical and chemical condition if plowed in the fall and left unmolested until spring and not tilled until the danger of pud- dling is past. If thin clay soils are plowed in the spring they should not be tilled until they have dried. If after clay soils are plowed while in a wet con- dition, a quantity of gypsum or lime is spread over the plowed surface, a part of the danger of puddling is obviated. Light, sandy soils and light loams can be plowed at any time with safety. How to Plow is another important question. As a general rule, unless the ground is very sandy, it is advisable to turn the ridge furrow. A ridge furrow is 21 better aerated; that is, the oxidization is more complete. It is also in condition to absorb water more readily, and by using a disc harrow or cultivator, it is easily pulverized. The Depth to Plow is a question which deserves very careful consideration. Too often the farmer is guided by the recommendation of an enthusiast who does not appreciate the fact that universal deep plowing is not only apt to diminish the crop, but in some instances may make the soil sterile for a number of years. In discussing this matter, we will answer the all-important question, "Is deep plowing advisable?" by saying "Yes" and "No." The depth to till, or, rather, to plow or use the subsoiler, depends entirely upon the character of the soil and subsoil, the length of time the land has been cultivated, and the depth of the soil. To recklessly advocate deep tillage is nothing less than criminal. The farmer should understand the value of humus, the phenomena of plant life and nature's process of supplying plant roots with water, before he ventures too far. To universally advocate deep plowing would be as inconsistent as advo- cating the growing of cotton or rice in the northern states. In order to make this proposition plain, we will first note the chemical requirements of the plant; second, the kind of soil which will permit of deep tillage; third, the benefits of deep tillage in soils where conditions are admissible, and the type of implements adapted to successful deep tillage. ^M .iii [^ ■■'"■■'■■■ ^;;^;^'^'a,' ' 1 ■S*^ K^^g i|ii|a^^M|B •i^S^. ■i.&. :.i I' '"«S||k ^ ^ ,; B^^^^^^^PPBffcfv *t '^^fl^H|||B^^^&^^^^| '■'*^^m i'HHH B^BC^^w -~^^^SB 1; ■ill' ^.\^ ': "4=:^ ^^^'--4.^81 y ''" , r ! ; '^*#' =?'^ Jk^:-f.L.l ■•; -,:■¥'■■■ C^-s^c-^^-^'-- ;.::[f ■;:;V/# k ■■--■* - - " 4 ■ -i ■ ■•=^ ■ ' . . ■' ■•* 4. . :-.v -,. New Deere Light-Draft Gang .. Stubble aad Breaker Bottoms Humus or organic matter is absolutely essential to plant life. Humus is decayed vegetable and animal matter. It is found in the top layer of soil and varies in depth from an inch to several feet. Humus in -^ 2S virgin soil is formed from the natural growth and decay of vegetation during the past ages. In cultivated soils it is maintained and can be increased by the application of barnyard manures and by plowing under green crops or any vegetable growth. It must also be remembered that cropping lessens the amount of humus in soil, and by continued use, that which is not consumed by being made into plant food compounds, in a measure, becomes inactive. The following table given by Snyder shows the influence of different systems of farming upon the humus content and other properties of the soil: Cultivated 35 years. Rota- tion of crops and manure; high state of productive- ness Orig:inal]y same as No. 1. Continuous grain cropping for 35 years; low state of pro- ductiveness Weight per cu. foot, pounds __ 70. 72. Humus, per cent 3.32 1.80 Nitrogen, per cent 0.30 0.16 Phosphoric acid com- bined with humus, per cent . 0.04 0.01 Water-holding capac- ity, per cent.. 48. 39. It will be seen from the foregoing table that, as the humus con- tent decreased, the weight of the soil increased, and that with the decrease in humus, there was a corresponding decrease in nitrogen and phosphoric acid. The decrease in the water-holding capacity of the soil is also marked, indicating the necessity of maintaining an abim- dance of live humus in the seed-bed. Humus or organic matter is the main immediate source of nitrogen in the soil. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, which have the power to gather nitrogen from the air, require organic matter in some form. Productive soil contains countless millions of living forms which may be properly called soil laboratory workers. These living organisms flourish on the organic matter forming and transforming both organic and inorganic elements into plant food compounds. Upon the number and activity of these organisms depend the amount of available fertility. If humus or organic matter is absent or deficient, a corresponding deficiency is reflected in the crop. The availability of other elements, such as potash and phosphorus, also depends upon the nature and amount of the humus in the soil. Again, humus increases the absorbing and retaining qualities of moisture in the soil. Humus, also, in a measure, regulates the temperature of the soil; besides, it improves the physical condition to a marked degree. 26 Recognizing the fact that the seed-bed is the home of the plant and that from the seed-bed the plant receives its food, it stands to reason that it must contain humus in abundance, if the plant is supplied with food; hence, in plowing, great care should be exercised in gauging the depth, for we know that the subsoil is deficient in humus and that if it is brought to the surface in great quantities, the fertility of the seed-bed is materially diluted or weakened; therefore, in our efforts to secure a greater feeding area for the plant roots by plowing deep, we are sure to do harm unless the depth is increased gradually and as each slice of new soil is brought to the surface, organic matter, preferably barnyard manure, is thoroughly mixed with it. This, however, can be prevented by using the right type of plow which will be referred to later. By grad- ually increasing the seed-bed one-half inch each j'^ear and keeping in mind the absolute necessity of supplying humus in sufficient quantities for the new soil and to maintain the required content of the old soil, the farmer can, with no danger of impairing his crop, in a few years attain a depth of ten, twelve or even fourteen inches. Do Not Till Deep If the subsoil is sand or gravel, it is not advisable to bring it to the surface nor plow too near that formation. Sand or gravel will not retain water in suspension; hence, in such soils it is better to form, as far as possible, a compact plow sole which will, in a measure, prevent the percolation of rainfall. Sandy Soils In sandy soils, deep plowing is admissible if an abundance of humus or organic matter is provided; otherwise, the water will percolate below the reach of the roots, carrying with it fertility. The deeper a sandy soil can be cultivated, providing an abundance of organic matter is furnished, the more certain is the soil to maintain a sufficient amount of water to mature the plant. Virgin Soils Virgin soils should not be plowed below the line of humus. However, subsequent plowing can be increased in depth the same as in older culti- vated lands provided organic matter is supplied. Benefits of Deep Tillage The benefits of deep tillage are many, provided all of the requirements heretofore mentioned have been complied with. It is obvious that the plant roots require room. Soil bacteria, which perform the function of converting elements into compounds, require air. Plants require food and most of it is secured from the seed-bed, and plants require water; hence, to meet all of these requirements, the seed- bed should be deep, of good tilth and in a good sanitary condition. J7 Roots Require Room Plant roots require room. The initial roots of the plant being fragile, they naturally seek the course of least resistance. If the seed-bed is shallow, they remain near the surface where they are apt to suffer for moisture in case of drouth, but if the seed-bed is deep and mellow, they take their natural course which is downward, and when they reach the bottom of the furrow, they have strength and stability to penetrate the more compact subsoils where they secure moisture, and, in some instances, plant food. Air Soil bacteria being aerobic, or, in other words, oxygen-consuming organisms, the seed-bed should be well aerated, a condition which can be attained by deep and thorough tillage. In some instances drain tile are necessary to facilitate the circulation of atmospheric oxygen through the soil, but if the water line is not too near the surface, deep plowing serves the purpose. Plant Food A deep seed-bed well stocked with organic matter, necessarily will maintain more of the soil organisms than a shallow one. The greater the number of bacteria and the more active they are, the more nitrogen will exist and the more inorganic plant food elements will be made soluble. Water The amount of available moisture depends, to a great extent, upon the depth and tilth of the seed-bed. If the seed-bed is shallow, prima- rily it does not absorb great quantities of water, and in case of drouth, it dries out readily. If it is deep, mellow and spongy, it acts as a sur- face reservoir to absorb and retain heavy downpours of rain until the surplus can percolate into the storehouse below. If the seed-bed is shallow, the soil is liable to wash away during heavy rains. Soil Which Admits of Deep Plowing In some sections of our country where the soil is rich in humus, which is indicated by the black color, it is safe, after the first plowing, to till deep, and, as a rule, the production will be in keeping with the depth the ground is tilled. Rough, heavy clay soils should not only be plowed deep, but plowed often. If such soils can be plowed twice or three times for one crop, the physical condition is greatly improved, oxidiza- tion is more perfect, and the permeability is increased; the farmer keep- ing in mind, of course, the necessity of furnishing organic matter. The arguments, based upon experience in favor of deep tillage when the laws governing plant growth and plant food chemistry are not violated, are so apparent the farmer cannot afford to ignore as the benefits to be derived from making a thorough investigation of all conditions heretofore mentioned and govern himself accordingly. Deep Plowing Without Bringing Subsoil to the Surface The danger of bringing subsoil to the surface can be prevented and many of the benefits of deep plowing gained, by using a plow which thoroughly pulverizes the bottom half of the furrow slice, but does not place the subsoil on top of the surface soil which contains humus. This plow has a broad share and the moldboard is very narrow at the point where it joins the share, but widens gradually at the upper end. The share loosens and pul- verizes the bottom slice which immediately falls to the bottom of the furrow through the space between the outer edge of the moldboard and the wing of the share, and the broad part of the moldboard turns the top soil in the ordinary way. While this plow penetrates to a depth of fourteen to sixteen inches, the furrow is left half-full of pulverized soil. A seed-bed so made is necessarily thoroughly ventilated, an abundance of room is provided for plant roots, and owing to the loose condition of the soil, water is rapidly absorbed. This plow is certainly an ideal implement to use; in fact, it is the only one which has ever been devised that eliminates dangers previously mentioned and at the same time provides a deep seed-bed. The Jointer When trash exists on the surface in such quantities that it is not thor- oughly covered, the jointer should be used. This attachment can be gauged to any required depth necessary to turn surface trash. As it is turned, it strikes the previous furrow a few inches below the top and is caught and covered by the moldboard slice, leaving the surface free of the accumulation and at the same time not placing it below the reach of the disc or other tillage implements. John Deere Deep-TUllng Stag Turning a Furrow 16 Inches Deep Sod can be plowed deep with perfect safety if the jointer is used. It should be run to a depth of two or three inches, depending upon the nature of the sod. The sod-ribbon is so placed when it is turned that it is slightly covered by the dirt from the moldboard and can be easily pulverized by using a disc. Without the jointer attachment, the sod strip might be covered too deep or project above the surface, depending entirely upon the texture of the soil. The advantage in plowing sod deep, if this plow with the jointer attachment is used, is plain. Water is secured and stored more readily and roots can penetrate very deep, a condition which cannot be attained where the ordinary plow is used. It must be remembered, however, that to plow sod deep with the ordinary plow turning the sod, as is necessarily the case, to the bottom of the furrow and bringing to the surface raw, unventilated soil devoid of humus, is disastrous. Subsoil Unfortunately, conditions exist where deep plowing cannot be accom- plished until the physical condition of the soil has been changed. Some soils below the depth of the ordinary plow are so dense and sticky, that penetration is difficult and scouring impossible. In other soils a hard- pan may exist which is not only difficult to penetrate but if turned or materially loosened, large air spaces are formed which hinder the upward movement of capillary water. Either condition can be over- come by using the right type of subsoil plow. The benefits of subsoiling are often misunderstood, and, in many instances, the fanner has been misled to the extent of making his land unproductive for a niunber of years. Gang Equipped with Subsoil Attachment 30 The First Type of Subsoil Plow invented had a narrow share and a long moldboard, which would bring subsoil to the surface. Theorists at that time believed that subsoil, being new, was rich in plant food elements, and that it would make their land productive. The absence, however, of humus in the subsoil resulted in disappointments. If the subsoil was clay or sand, there would be no production until organic matter was thoroughly mixed with the soil and reduced to humus. The Next Type of Subsoil Plow devised was one with a duck-bill-shaped point, intended to break up the soil below the bottom of the furrow. This implement was condemned, Proper Method of Subsoiling Is to Cut a Thin, Deep Gash In Bottoms of Alternating Furrows .. In Dry Sections It Should Be Used in Ever; Furrow especially where the subsoil was hard and composed largely of clay, for the reason that the breaking up process caused large air spaces which practically stopped capillary water from rising to the seed-bed. The Modern Type of Subsoil Plow possesses none of the objectionable features of the other two mentioned, but it does solve the difficulties which were first mentioned, namely, dense, sticky subsoils and hard-pans. This plow is built on the principle of a colter. It cuts a gash from three-eighths to one-half inch in width and to any required depth, but 31 it does not break up the subsoil or hard-pan to any great extent. In this gash water and air are freely admitted. They naturally spread out when the bottom of the gash is reached and obeying nature's laws, they reach the surface by capillary attraction. To illustrate, if a wooden floor is laid upon another floor which is tight and water is poured into a crack in the top layer, it naturally spreads out and in time comes to the surface by the process of capillary attrac- tion, causing a rotting of the boards. Likewise, water which enters this gash in the soil followed by air, works on the same principle, coming to the surface, as it must, it causes a mellowing or rotting of the compact soils. Two important things can be secured by using this type of plow, namely: 1. Water is stored to be utilized by the plant, and the dense soil is mellowed, permitting the penetration of roots. 2. After this plow has been used and the water and air have done their work, the deep plow will then not only penetrate but will usually scour. Where this plow has been used, especially in dry sections, the results have been remarkable. The implement can be attached to a gang plow, penetrating every alternate furrow, or it can be easily drawn by two horses running to a depth of from ten to eighteen inches. Storer gives the following: "Mr. Wilson, near Edinburgh, operating on land that had been tile- (^rained, plowed a field eight inches deep and subsoiled a part of it to a depth of eighteen inches. The differences in the crops grown the first year after these operations are given in the table : Turnips Barley- Potatoes Tons Cwt. Gram, Straw, cwt. Tons Cwt. Plowed to 8 inches . . 20 Subsoiled to 18 inches 26 7 60 17 1 70 28 36i 6 14} 7 : 9i Gain made by subsoiling 6 10 10 8^ 14-'- Mr. MacLean, in the same vicinity, made a similar experiment with the following result: Turnips Barley Tons Cwt. Grain, Bu. Straw, Cwt. Plowed to 8 inches 19 23 15 17 54 62 168i Subsoiled 15 inches 206i Gain made by subsoiling . 4 2 8 38 32 In another case, where accurate accounts of the products were kept, the good effects of subsoihng were seen for five successive years after the operation. In this country, Sanborn plowed two plots of land, each of ,^o acre, seven inches deep, and then subsoiled one of them to a depth of nine inches more, so that this plot was stirred to a depth of sixteen inches in all. After a severe drouth, he drove gas-pipes into the earth so that samples of the soil could be taken up from both plots to a depth of fifteen inches. In the earth from the subsoiled plot he found 10.1 per cent of moisture, while in that from the other plot there was only 8.3 per cent. The subsoiled plot jielded corn at the rate of seventy bushels to the acre, and the other plot yielded only forty-nine bushels to the acre." Caution Do not use the subsoil plow in clay saturated with water; or when the subsoil is sand or gravel. In thin soil, when a hard-pan lies immediately on top of the loose sand or gravel, the subsoil plow should not be used, for the reason that it would permit water to percolate beyond the reach of the plant roots. SEED-BED OF the four essential steps in the production of farm crops mentioned in a previous chapter, namely — the seed-bed, fertility, selection of seed and cultivation — the seed-bed deserves special consideration, for if it is not properly made, the defects will be reflected in the final produc- tion, regardless of how carefully the three remaining features are observed. We realize that the seeding season is short, and that to comply with all of the requirements, the average farmer is unable to plant a great acreage, but we contend and we know that if the seed-bed of one acre is made right, it will produce as much as two acres improperly prepared. The seed-bed is a laboratory containing chemical elements which are used in making plant food compounds. Soil bacteria are the chemists and the plants are the consumers. Plants are exacting in their require- ments, and if denied any of the essentials, in whole or part, the farmer suffers the penalty when the harvest is gathered. Requirements The chemists or soil bacteria and the plants enjoy a roomy, sanitary home; they require a sufficient amount of all of the inorganic elements necessary to plant growth and a good supply of organic substances. They perish if atmospheric oxygen is denied them, and water is just as necessary to them as it is to animate creatures. Micro-organisms are assisted in their work by the chemical action of elements forming and transforming new compounds, by gases and water and organic sub- stances. The seed-bed is made deep by deep plowing; it is made sanitary by tiling, trenching and tillage. Its physical and mechanical condition is always in keeping with the amount of tillage it receives. Why a Roomy Seed-Bed 1. Some water and the available plant food is stored in the seed-bed ; hence, it is very plain that a deep seed-bed would contain more than a shallow one just as we would expect to find more nourishment in a thick slice of bread than in a thin one. 2. A deep, roomy seed-bed affords freedom to plant roots. Roots are not unlike leaves and branches. They require room and freedom if the development is rapid and perfect. Roots seek the course of least resistance, and their natural course is downward, just as the natural course of branches is upward. If the seed-bed is shallow, when the first dehcate roots reach the bottom of the furrow, which is usually compact and sometimes very hard, they spread out, not being able to penetrate the hard substance, and in the event of a drouth, the shallow bed dries out and the plant suffers. If, however, it is deep, the roots will have strength and stability to penetrate the more compact subsoils where they can secure water and some plant food. 3. A deep seed-bed, if properly pulverized, acts as a reservoir to hold water until it can percolate into the deeper soils and necessarily a Showing Cracks in the Land Through Which Moisture Escapes Showing How ESectively a Surface Mulch Prevents the Escape of Moisture 31 Was Not Disced Before or Atter Flowing Disced Before Flowing, Making the Contact Compact Between the Bottom of the Furrow and the Furrow Slice A Foorly-Made Seed-Bed .. Disced After Flowing, But Not Before .. The Large Air Spaces Frevent Capillary Action A Perfect Seed-Bed .. Disced Before and After Plowing .. Seed-Bed to the Left Is Too Shallow. Note .. Soil Particles Magnified 1,000 Diameters greater volume of water will adhere to the particles of soil as it passes down and be available to the plant roots in a deep seed-bed than a shal- low one. Air being necessary to both micro-organisms and plant roots, it is reasonable to expect more to be available in a roomy seed-bed than in a shallow one. 36 storing and Utilizing Water Water is stored just in proportion to the permeability of the seed-bed and the texture of the subsoil. After the plants have utilized the water which adheres to the particles of soil in its passage downward, they then begin to draw by the process of capillary attraction, upon the water which has been stored in the subsoil. In order to insure perfect capillarity, there must be no large air spaces either at the bottom of the furrow or in the body of the seed-bed. In other words, there should be a medium compact condition of the soil particles. Before the plow turns surface trash and surface lumps under, the disc harrow should be used. Trash on the bottom of the seed-bed acts as an insulation, on account of the large air spaces, which effectually stop the upward movement of water. The disc harrow not only pulverizes lumps which 4 ^ |l m^^^Jtm ^^^fe pll HH I^RH anM|^ ^2 BI^BIhSC^'^<*v^^Vkh IK^WiwJ ^H ^^^USaMiriW' y^j ^^ra ^ MM j^^i^P|jiDi W^^S^^^^^k ^^^^ Disc Harrow This Implement Is an Insurance Against Loss from Drouth if Used Before and After Deep Flowing may be on or within three or f oiu" inches of the surface, but it chops up and works into the soil stubble and all trash on the surface so that when the plow turns the slice of earth, the contact is compact between the plowed ground and the bottom of the furrow. After the ground is plowed, it should be again disced in order to insure pulverization and compactness of the portion of the soil which has been turned up by the plow. Again, the seed-bed should be disced and harrowed so as to alter the position and condition of the soil particles in order that changes in their chemical composition may be brought about by contact with each other, by the action of air and water and by micro-organisms. Furthermore, the seed-bed should be mellow and at the same time 36 firm enough to afford proper support to the plant. It should be loose enough to permit water to percolate and admit without hindrance the free growth of delicate root fibers. The soft points of roots will not penetrate hard lumps, but will pass around and adhere to them in their effort to secure food and water. We know that plant food in solution forms a film around each par- ticle of soil, and that the very minute roots throw their tentacles around it and secure nourishment by osmosis. Therefore, the advantage of a thoroughly pulverized seed-bed is very apparent when we reaUze that the available feeding area contained in a lump of soil is increased one thousand-fold when it is broken up and all of the particles are separated. While tillage does not increase the amount of plant food elements in the soil, it does make available those which are there. We know that mil- lions of acres, rich in plant food, are producing less than one-half of their capacity, simply because the fertility is not available or within reach of plant roots, and because stored water cannot move upwards on account of obstructions which could be avoided. In the judgment of the writer, a farmer takes out an insurance policy against crop failure when he uses the disc harrow before and after plowing. DRAINAGE WE will not attempt to enter into a lengthy discussion of this sub- ject, believing that every observing farmer is convinced of the bene- fits to be gained by thoroughly draining his land. We will, however, mention a few of the reasons why lands are made more productive and the possibiUty of failures eliminated by thorough drainage. 1. Farm crops are not aquatic; that is, the roots will not perform their function of gathering plant food and water if they are submerged in water. 2. Plant roots and soil bacteria require free atmospheric oxygen. If for any reason air does not circulate through the soil, the plant will be smothered and bacteria will not transform elements into compounds. We have stated in a previous chapter that because of the irregular shape and variety of sizes of soil particles, air spaces exist when any number of particles are brought together. These air spaces constitute from twenty-five to fifty per cent of the volume of soil. If air spaces did not exist, the soil would be a solid stone. Again, many soil particles are not solid, but perforated, thereby further increasing the volume of air spaces. Air spaces between and through the particles of soil are: 1 . To permit a free circulation of atmospheric oxygen through the soil. 2. To permit water to pass downward. 3. To promote capillary attraction. 37 4. To permit the minute food and water-gathering roots to pass between and to particles of soil. 5. To provide a storehouse for plant food and moisture. Benefits of Drainage All plants require water and will perish without it. Excepting water plants, it must be supplied in the form of a film adhering to the free surface of soil particles. Plant roots, unless they be of the aquatic variety, will soon die if submerged in water; hence, it is necessary to keep the water table or standing water at a distance far enough from the surface to permit the roots to freely develop. Underlain drain tile tend to carry off surplus water after the soil below the tile is filled. The tile in no way interfere with water stored below them, but simply carry away the superfluous amount above it, leaving all that will adhere to the particles of soil to be used by plants, and as it is consumed, more is furnished from below by capillary attraction. During the early spring, at a time when seeds are planted and rapid germination is very necessary, the soil is usually surcharged with snow and ice water. Evaporation is necessarily very slow, and, as a conse- quence, the soil is cold, soggy and lifeless at a time when the plant should be making its most rapid growth. If the land is drained, the cold water is removed from below, the upper stratum of soil is warmed by spring rains and air thereby causes a rapid germination and root development. Plant Roots Require Air If the spaces between the soil particles are filled with water, air cannot circulate, a condition which causes the roots to rot or cease to develop. Drain Tile Warm the Seed-Bed During the spring, air is warmer than the soil and spring rains warmer than snow water. If both ends of the drain are open, or man- holes are placed along the line of tile, warm air enters and finds its way through the soil, and warm rains are freely absorbed, thereby materially affecting the temperature of the soil. If the farmer will test a drained and an undrained soil at early seeding time, he will find the drained land from six to twelve degrees warmer than that which is not drained. In view of the fact that seed will not germinate in soil below 42 degrees Fahrenheit, it is very evident that if the temperature can be raised from six to twelve degrees, by placing drain tile, the early growth gained on account of the warmth of the seed-bed would be worth considering. Drainage Prevents Loss from Drouths This statement may seem strange, but it nevertheless is true. If in the spring when seeds are planted the soil is surcharged with water, 38 nearly to the surface, the roots will develop above the water line, keep- ing near the surface. If, after the roots have attained their growth, a drouth sets in, the water line is lowered several feet, but the roots having ceased to grow, they are left in the surface soils in a helpless condition. If, however, during the first few weeks, the water line is at or below the tile, the roots will strike downward very rapidly, and when the drouth does come, they will be in a territory containing moisture. It is re- corded that during the terrible drouth of 1854 wheat, corn, oats and other plants flourished and made a fair crop on tile-drained land, but perished on land not drained. Drain Tile Improve the Soil Physically Drain tile naturally give life and vigor to the soil and such soils are mellow and friable, water is absorbed more freely and capillary attrac- tion is perfect. Low Ground If low ground is drained, it can be worked much earlier in the spring or after heavy rains than undrained ground, and the danger of puddling is greatly lessened. Drainage Prevents Surface Washing If sloping land is saturated with water, the soil is apt to wash in the event of more rain. Drained soil will readily absorb the water as fast as it falls, thereby preventing the loose soil from washing away and forming gulleys. By running a few lines of tile at a gentle slope on a steep hillside, guUey-forming will be prevented. Water-Holding Capacity of Soil Plants are benefited only by the water that adheres to the surface of the soil particles, and any additional water is a detriment. Prof. Schubler states that one hundred pounds of the following types of soil will hold by attraction to the surface of the soil particles as follows: Sand . , 25 pounds of water Loam Soils . . _40 pounds of water Clay Loam .50 pounds of water Pure Clay _ 70 pounds of water Mr. Sheld states that the soil of ordinary density to a depth of three feet will hold by attraction before any will drain away, 17f inches of rainfall. If drains are placed three feet deep, a square foot of surface will receive 10.6 gallons of water before one particle would enter the drain. Hence, it can be seen that drain tile do not rob the ground of water that can be utilized, nor does it in any way exhaust that which may be stored below the growing line. 39 Power of Soil to Absorb Moisture from the Air Dry soil will absorb moisture from air in varying quantities, the amount depending upon the character of the soil. This moisture, known as hygroscopic water, enters the seed-bed and is beneficial to plants if the ground is so thoroughly drained that air can freely circulate through it. As the air passes through the soil, the moisture adheres to the particles and in a limited way is beneficial. Schubler states that different soils possess this power in unequal degrees. During a night of twelve hours and when the air is moist one thousand pounds of perfectly dry Quarts Sand will gain . . pounds Calcaria Sand will gain . - 2 pounds Loam Soil will gain 21 pounds Clay Loam will gain 25 pounds Pure Agricultural Clay .27 pounds If the soil is of good tilth, thoroughly drained and contains an abundance of humus, the amount of hygroscopic moisture absorbed is increased. Size of Drain Tile to Use The size to use depends upon the length of the line, the fall, amount of water to be carried away and the character of the soil. A one-inch pipe carries one inch (circular measure) of water. A two-inch pipe will carry four inches of water . A three-inch pipe will carry nine inches and a four-inch pipe will carry sixteen inches of water. Thus it will be seen that under the same conditions a four-inch pipe will carry sixteen times as much water as a one-inch pipe, in fact it carries more than that for the reason that friction is much less in a larger pipe than in a small one. A drain tile eight inches in diameter with a fall of three-tenths of a foot in one hundred feet will discharge 277,487 gallons of water in 24 hours. If a foot fall it will discharge 525,647 gallons during the same time. A four-inch drain pipe having three- tenths of a foot fall in one hundred feet will discharge 43,697 gallons in twenty-four hours and with a one-foot fall it will discharge 86,181 gallons. Therefore it can be seen from the above that the amount of water a pipe will carry in a given time not only depends upon the size of the pipe, but the fall which is a very important thing to consider. Care should be taken to have the main tile large enough to carry off the maximum flow without exhausting the capacity of the drain. If the tile is not large enough it is apt to be undermined and disarranged. The main can be made large at the outlet and gradually diminished to the highest point using a reducer from time to time. At the junc- tion where laterals join the drain tile, both main and laterals should have a firm foundation and be well tamped on the sides and top. 40 While no fast rules can be laid down governing the size of tile, a main eight or ten inches in diameter and laterals four inches in diam- eter will usually meet ordinary conditions unless the area drained is exceedingly large. Number of Rods of Drain Tile Required per Acre at Different Distances The following table will serve as a guide in ordering tile for a single acre. Intervals Between the Drains in Feet Rods per Acre 15 ... . . 176 18 146 2-3 21 . 125 5-7 24 . . . . . 110 27 97 7-9 30 88 33 . 80 36. ... 73 1-3 39 .. . . 67 9-13 42 62 5-7 Depth of Drains It is entirely useless to lay drain tile one or two feet below the sur- face. In order to secure the many benefits which may be gained, the ditch should be not less than four feet deep. In some instances it may be necessary, on account of the lay of the land, to place them at less depth, but an effort should be made to secure an outlet which will permit a depth of not less than four feet at the shallowest point. Drain tile should be below frost. If a drain tile freezes while filled with water it will burst. How to Lay Pipe After the engineer has determined the route for each line, the operation of digging the ditch and laying the tile should begin at the outlet. If a middlebuster or heavy broad gauge plow is used, the first foot of soil can be thrown out at little cost. If quick sand is encoun- tered, a solid foundation should be secured in some way before the tile are laid. IRRIGATION TO successfully irrigate land, several very important things must be observed, otherwise the results sooner or later will be disappointing. 1. The field should be leveled or at least the surface made even. All dead furrows and depressions must be remedied. 2. The ground should be underlain with drain tile. We fully appre- ciate the fact that the farmer who is just beginning in a new country will hesitate on account of the expense, still tile are so important that he cannot afford to ignore them if he expects his soil to continue to produce as it should. Drain tile not only carry away surplus water, but they furnish an escape for water holding in solution alkali salts. In most of our irrigated sections the water contains more or less of some of the alkalis. It is estimated that fully a million acres of irrigated lands which at one time were productive, are worthless today because of the presence of these deleterious salts. Again, drain tile admit, atmospheric oxygen. Free atmospheric oxygen is just as essential to irrigated soils as it is to other soils, in fact, where alfalfa is raised it is even more necessary. Oxygen supports soil bacteria of various kinds which are necessary to absorb nitrogen from the atmosphere, to nitrify organic nitrogen and to make plant food compounds. 3. Water should be supplied in such a way that it will not inter- fere with the growth of the plant, but be utilized by the plant roots according to nature's process. The air spaces between the particles of soil are for the purpose of permitting water to percolate into the deeper soils to permit plant roots to pass down and to the particles of soil in their efforts to secure plant food and for the purpose of permitting the circulation of atmospheric oxygen. When the water is turned on the land and it is percolating to the deeper soils, the air spaces are neces- sarily filled, the oxygen is driven out and the plant for the time does not grow. If this condition continues for a protracted period, the plant necessarily smothers; therefore, before the crop is planted, water should be turned on in sufficient quantities to make the crop if possible. If the ground is tiled, the water percolates very freely into the deeper subsoils and is brought to the surface seed-bed by capillary attraction, just as hydrostatic water or rain water is utilized. In extremely dry sections, it may be necessary to irrigate more than once, but, as a rule, frequent irrigations hinder rather than benefit the crop. The irrigating farmer should use the same methods adopted by the dry-land farmer. He should store his water and then practice intensive cultivation methods, pulverizing, packing and maintaining a mulch to prevent the escape of moisture. The writer has seen many splendid prospects practically ruined by using too much water and not adopting dry-land methods for the purpose of conserving moisture. After the farmer has prepared his land so that no ridges or depressions exist, all subsequent plowing should be done with a two-way plow. By using this implement, there will be no dead furrows or back furrows or depressions. Farmers who have used this implement unhesitatingly testify that it makes a saving of from five to ten dollars an acre each year by leaving the land as level and regular as it was before it was plowed. 43 A Two- Way Flow .. Indispensable on Steep Hillsides and Irrigated Ground ROTATION THE value of a systematic rotation of crops is so well known to every observing farmer, that it seems unnecessary to enter into a lengthy discussion of the subject. Farmers have practiced rotation and appre- ciated the benefits since early Roman times, still many fanners of our country have neglected and are neglecting the art, not because of igno- rance, but because rich lands have been plentiful and cheap in price, and they could, without great effort, produce enough to supply the demand; hence, a system which guarantees a greater production has^ in a meas- ure, been neglected. We will offer, however, a few common-sense suggestions, hoping that the farmer will, in view of the fact that the demand for farm products is increasing much faster than our production, accept and enforce them, for he is the custodian of the nation's larder, and we, judging from the high cost of living, are liable to face actual want unless the volume of food is increased. Plant Roots Scientific investigation has proven that the plant root excretes or forms deleterious substances which are a poison, in a degree, to its own kind, but a stimulant to another plant. We know that if a piece of ground is cropped year after year with the same crop, that each year the production is a little less, until, finally, it will not pay for the seed and labor expended for cultivation, when, at the same time, plant food ele- ments may exist in the same soil in abundance. In one demonstration where corn was grown on the same piece of land for twenty-eight years, the last ten years averaged twenty-two bushels 13 44 per acre, and an adjoining field, where rotation was practiced, made a yield of over seventy bushels per acre. Another demonstration extended over a period of seventeen years gave a yield of eleven bushels of corn the last five years, but where rotation was adopted on an adjoining field, the yield was seventy-five bushels per acre. Scores of like instances can be mentioned. We know that flax cannot be profitably grown on the same land two or more years in succession because of a root wilt, and potatoes rarely do well when they succeed themselves on account of scab, fungi, rot, etc. We know that land becomes wheat, oats, barley and clover-sick to the extent of being discarded as "worn out," when in reality the land sim- ply refuses to produce because of mismanagement. Deep-rooting plants should be followed by those which have shallow roots; for instance, alfalfa and clover roots grow many feet into the sub- soils; they secure water and food far below the reach of other plants. We know that legumes have the power to take nitrogen out of the air, not only to provide for their own wants, but leave a surplus in the soil. Such crops should be followed by one which requires an abundance of nitrogen and does not send roots as deep. Corn always produces more abundantly when it follows a legume, because it requires a large quantity of nitrogen and secures most of its food from the seed-bed. Wheat and other grain crops obtain their food nearer the surface, and their plant food requirements are somewhat different from corn and clover; hence, wheat yield is increased when it follows com. Crops which encourage the growth of weeds, such as grains, should not succeed each other, but follow a hoed crop. Crops which are liable to be infested with insects should not succeed each other; likevnse crops which develop fungi, scab and rot, such as potatoes and other root crops, should not be repeated on the same land each year. Grain crops are apt to lodge if not planted on compact soils, and root crops do well only when planted in loose ground. Again, root crops such as turnips and beets should follow crops which have been heavily manured and the soil is of such texture that they can easily penetrate it. In every rotation, some one of the legumes, preferably the lucerne or clover, should be grown. Lucerne or Alfalfa The roots of the lucerne penetrate very deep. It is not uncommon for them to attain a length of from twelve to eighteen feet, and one fifty feet long, in a preserved state, is in the museum at Berne. Clover Clover roots do not penetrate so deep as the lucerne, rarely going more than three and one-half to four and one-half feet, but they are very abundant. 4C The advantages of these deep-rooting plants are hardly appreciated by the farmer who has not made a test of their worth. They improve the texture of the soil, permitting water to be more freely absorbed; they, in a measure, admit air, and when they decay, the organic matter is resolved into humus which, acting with the air and water, combines with inorganic plant food elements, making them available. Plant food thus formed is brought to the seed-bed or the upper subsoils by capillary attraction and utilized by other plants. This process accounts, to a great extent, for the increase in any crop that follows clover or alfalfa. The legumes are further beneficial in this, that they have the power through a bacteria which forms on the roots to take nitrogen from the air, not only in sufficient quantities to provide for their own wants, but to deposit a considerable amount in the stubble and roots, which becomes a part of the soil. Storer says that for every ton of clover hay harvested, 1600 pounds of roots and stubble are left upon the land. Heiden states that of the total nitrogen produced by a clover crop (roots included), 58 per cent are contained in the stalks and leaves above the ground and 42 per cent in the roots. In proof of the fertilizing power of clover-refuse, Boussingault states that wheat taken before clover in the rotation studied by him habitually gave 16 or 17 hecto- litres of grain to the hectare, while wheat taken after clover, gave 20 to 21 hectolitres. It also appears from results obtained by Voelcker that clover roots and stubble after the second cutting for hay contained less nitrogen than the stubble and roots after the first cutting for hay and the second cutting for seed, as is shown in the following table: Residues left in the soil by a crop of Clover mown twice. Total yield, four long tons to the acre Clover mown once, then left for seed. Yield, 2.5 tons hay and 3 cwt. seed Pounds of dry roots to the acre 1,493.5 3,622.0 Pounds of Nitrogen in these roots 24.5 51.5 Pounds of Nitrogen in upper six inches of soil of an acre . .. 3,350.0 4,725.0 Pounds of Nitrogen in 2d six inches 1,875.0 3,350.0 Pounds of Nitrogen in 3d six inches 1,325.0 2,225.0 Pounds of Nitrogen in upper 12 inches of soil and in the roots . . . . 5,249.5 8,126.5 The difficulty in securing a stand of clover and the possibility of winter-killing prevents many farmers from growing it. Failures, how- ever, to secure a stand is due very often to a poorly-made seed-bed. 46 First, the clover seed-bed should be of good tilth, all of the surface lumps thoroughly pulverized, and the seed sown at a time when germi- nation will be rapid. If clover is sown on fall grain in the spring, the farmer should not mud it in nor sow it when the ground is extremely cold. He should wait until the surface is beginning to dry and is rea- sonably warm. A light harrow should be run over the surface before the seed is sown; after the seed is on the ground, a corrugated roller should be used. Lime Needed I think I am safe in saying that a large per cent of the failures to secure a good, healthy stand and a continued, rapid growth through the season, is due to the lack of lime in the soil. Sour soil causes the plant to be weak and anaemic. It turns yellow and most of it will die in the event of drouth. Winter-Killing Winter-killing can, in a great measure, be prevented by spreading a thin coat of manure over the surface just as the ground is freezing. Early in the spring a peg-tooth harrow or a rake should be used for the purpose of loosening compact pieces of manure which, if permitted to remain on the plant, would cause smothering. If clover winter-kills, cow peas, soy beans or vetch should be sown. If the ground is rich, cut for hay, leaving a high stubble, fall plow and top dress with barnyard manure, and disc in before planting corn. Clover, like alfalfa, should not be pastured too close after the last cutting. No fixed rotation will apply to all climates and-'soils.i The farmer should plan to suit the crops best adapted to his climate and to the general character of the soil. In the com belt, a good rotation is com, wheat (oats or barley) and clover. Where clover cannot be grown, another legume should be sub- stituted. Where wheat and corn do not thrive well, Kaffir com, milo maize or millet may be substituted. When alfalfa is used in a rotation, it should not be plowed under more often than every five years. Barley and rye follow wheat very nicely, but wheat should never follow those crops. Potatoes, beets and turnips require a deep, loose seed-bed, rich in organic matter. It is not advisable, however, to apply manure the year the crops are planted. Sugar beets require an alkali soil and the ground should be of loose texture and the seed-bed not less than twelve inches deep. Root crops do well after clover or any of the legumes pro- vided the land is plowed deep and thoroughly disced the previous fall. A good plan is to plant cow peasas a catch crop after the grain has been harvested. The ground should be thoroughly maaured, and after the pea crop has attained a good growth, plowed under deep. It should be again plowed the next spring before the crop is planted. It is not advis- able to plant oats and rye on loose ground or soil that is too rich, for the reason that they lodge easily. 48 MANURES "But sweet vicissitudes of rest and toil Make easy labor, and renew the soil. Yet sprinkle sordid ashes all around, And load with fatt'ning dung thy fallow ground." — Virgil. MANURE is any substance added to the soil with a view of rendering it more fertile. Vegetable growths, all kinds of animal matter and many inorganic substances contain plant food, either in the form of elements or compounds. To simplify the study of this very important subject, we will classify manures as follows: Barnyard or farm manures. Green manures. Commercial fertilizers. In order that we may have a comprehensive knowledge of farm manures from a plant food standpoint, several things should be con- sidered. The various feeds contain different amounts of the principal elements of fertility. Likewise the amount of plant food contained in excrements from live-stock varies greatly for different animals. The age and habits of animals affect the different amounts of the essential elements to be found in manure of the same class. For instance, a young growing animal will consume and retain more of the nitrogen and phosphorous in feed eaten than one which has attained its growth and a working animal requires more than an idle one. Hence, it is impossible to give the exact amount of nitrogen, phosphorous and potash in a ton of mixed barnyard manures without making a specific analysis. The figures given, however, are based upon chemical analyses made by manyofourmost learned chemists andrepresentvery closely theplantfood value of mixed barnyard manures and the excreta from different ani- mals. All manures contain a percentage of all plant food elements, but we will deal only with the important ones — nitrogen, phosphorous and potash. Such elements as iron, alumina, silica, magnesia, sulphur, lime and soda exist in most soils so abundantly that it is not necessary to consider any of them excepting lime which will be discussed later. We will first give the number of pounds of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash in a ton of the most commonly used stock feed; and, subse- quently, the pounds of the same elements in dung and urine from various farm animals, also the pounds contained in mixed yard manures and in litter or bedding. If the reader will keep in mind the amount of plant food contained in a ton of manure and will note the requirements of crops which will appear in a subsequent table, he will have a guide to direct him in his efforts to supply his soil with the necessary elements. 49 TABLE NO. 1 .. PLANT FOOD IN STOCK FEEDS Kind of Feed One Ton Contains Pounds Nitrogen One Ton Contains Pounds Phos.Acid One Ton Contains Pounds Potash Clover Hay 39.4 50. 18.8 43. 16. 12. 10. 33. 49.2 108.4 33. 40. 42. 48. 11. 8. 6.6 10. 4. 4.2 4.4 14.2 53.8 33,2 16. 18. 20. 31. 37.4 Alfalfa Timothy Hay 24. 28.4 Cow Pea Hay Corn Stover 33. 17. Oat Straw 21. Wheat Straw 12.6 Corn Wheat Bran 11.4 30.4 Oil Meal . 27.4 Oats Barley Rye Wheat Shorts 11. 11. 13 20. From the above table, the farmer can easily determine the manurial value of the feeds given to his stock, knowing that eighty per cent of the elements contained in the feed is found in the manure. To illustrate, a ton of com contains 33 pounds of nitrogen, 14.2 pounds of phosphoric acid and 11.4 pounds of potash. The market value of the elements is eighteen to twenty cents per pound for nitrogen, six cents for phosphoric acid and five cents for potash. Therefore — The nitrogen would be worth $5 . 94 The phosphoric acid would be worth .85 The potash would be worth .57 Making the total value $7 . 36 If the corn is fed to live-stock and the manure placed in the soil, eighty percent of the fertility removed is returned. In other words, the farmer has had the full feeding value of the com and $5.89 worth of fertilizer to place on his land. It will be seen that the value of all of the fertility permanently removed by the corn is only $1.47 and .81 percent of that is nitrogen, an element easily replaced by planting legumes. The above figures show that only 28 cents' worth of the reserve stock of potash and phos- phorous is permanently taken from the soil in one ton of corn. TABLE NO. 2 .. PLANT FOOD CONTAINED IN A TON OF FKESH DUNQ Source of Manure Pounds Nitrogen Pounds Phos.Acid Pounds Potash Horse 10 6 to 9 12 to 15 15 32 7 5 to 6 9 10 to 15 30 9 Cow Swine 9 to 10 6.4 Sheep Poultry 11.8 16 to 20 TABLE NO. S .. PI.ANT FOOD CONTAINBD IN A TON OF FRESH URINE Source of Manure Pounds Nitrogen Pounds Phos.Acid Pounds Potash Horse Cow 24. 16. 6. 28. 2'5 1. 30. 28. Swine Sheep 4. 40. A ton of drainage from gutter behind milk cows contains — 20 pounds of nitrogen 5 pounds of phosphoric acid 17 pounds of potash Drainage from a manure heap per ton contains — 30 pounds of nitrogen 2 pounds of phosphoric acid 98 pounds of potash Composition of Farm Manure Barnyard manure is composed of excrements, urine and litter. The amount of plant food in a ton depends upon the amount of water it con- tains, the kind of litter used, the feed given the animal and the kind of animal. Average barnyard manure contains per ton — 10 pounds of nitrogen From 6 to 7 pounds of phosphoric acid From 12 to 16 pounds of potash TABLE NO 4 .. COMPOSITION OF LITTER PER TON Pounds Nitrogen Pounds Phos.Acid Pounds Potash Wheat, Oat & Rye Straw. Barley Straw 9.6 to 12 11.4 13. 14. 17.2 15. 4 .4 to 5 5. 7.1 3.6 10.6 3.2 16.4 to 23 23.5 Buckwheat Straw Millet Straw 24.2 34. Marsh Hay 54. Leaves . . 6. 81 S2 The following the approximate table compiled from Hopkins' maximum amount of plant food "Soil Fertility," gives removed from the soil: TABLE NO. G Product Quantity Pounds Nitrogen Pounds Phos. Acid. Pounds Potash Tot.No.Lbs. Plant Food Corn Grain Corn Stover 50 bu. 3000 lbs. 50 24 74 8.5 3. 11,5 9.5 26. 35.5 68. 53. Total Crop 121. Oats Grain- . Oat Straw. 50 bu. 2500 lbs. 33. 15 5 48.5 5 5 2.5 8 8. 26. 34. 46.5 44. Total Crop _ . . 90.5 Wheat Grain Wheat Straw 25 bu. 2500 lbs. 35 5 12.5 48. 6. * 2. 8. 6.5 22.5 29. 48. 37. Total Crop 85. Cotton Lint Cotton Seed Cotton Stalks 500 lbs. 1000 lbs. 2000 lbs. 1.5 31.5 51. 84. 0.2 5 5 9. 14.7 2. 9.5 29.5 41. 3.7 46.5 89.5 Total Crop 139.7 Potatoes 150 bu. 31.5 6.5 45. 83. Sugar Beets 10 tons 50. 9. 78.5 137.5 Apples 300 bu. 23.5 2 5 28.5 54.5 The above table gives the amount of each of the three essential elements removed from an acre of soil by some of the principal farm crops. To return to the soil all of the plant food removed and some addi- tional, the farmer should apply five good loads or tons of manure to each acre. By applying more than five tons, the fertility will be increased proportionately. It will be remembered that a ton of average barnyard manure contains — 10 pounds of nitrogen From 6 to 7 pounds of phosphoric acid From 12 to 16 pounds of potash Therefore, five tons would contain — 50 pounds of nitrogen 30 to 35 pounds of phosphoric acid 60 pounds of potash making a total of 142.5 pounds which is more than any of the crops mentioned in the foregoing table require. While the com and cotton crops consume more nitrogen than is returned in the manure, the stalks of both plants are usually left on the ground and finally worked into the seed-bed. S3 64 HUMUS THUS far, we have considered only the plant food elements con- tained in manure. Manure has another value of greater impor- tance which, if thoroughly appreciated by the farmer, would prompt him to make stock-raising a prominent feature and cause him to preserve and utilize every atom of everything which can be construed as manure, for it is the foundation of the yeast of the soil. It is the organic sub- stance which is finally resolved into humus. Value of Humus Humus is just as necessary to make soil fertile as water is to make lime and sand into plaster. Soil which is barren of live humus is as unpro- ductive as pure sand. The value of humus is apparent, but the chem- istry of its component parts is not thoroughly understood. We know, however, that it is the portion of organic matter found in the soil which is in a partly-rotted conditon. We know that it supplies nitrogenous plant food and combines with phosphorous, potash and other fertilizing elements, making them avail- able and effective. We know that it furnishes the food for niter-forming bacteria which convert it into nitrates, an available form of organic nitrogen. We know that it improves the phyiscal condition of the soil by mak- ing it mellow and friable and gives it permeability and substance. It also assists in the absorption and retention of moisture, prevents pud- dling, baking and cracking and renders light sandy soils productive and clay soils tillable. It influences the temperature of the soil to a marked degree. In fact, it is the one great substance which cannot be dispensed with in our efforts to maintain the fertility of the soil. Humus must be renewed from time to time, for it becomes worthless in soil which has been repeatedly cropped with the same crop or like crops. It can be supplied, renewed and kept active by the application of barnyard manure, green crops plowed under and rotation of crops. Intensive methods of tillage are also factors in keeping humus active. Soils may be rich in potash, phosphorous and other inorganic elements and be abandoned as "worn out" when, in fact, they need only humus to make them very productive. It must be remembered, however, that HUMUS is practically worthless in unventilated, water-logged and sour soils. Such soils need lime and drainage. Benefits of Manure and Crop Rotation Manure is the foundation of successful agriculture and will be until the laws governing plant life and the formation of plant food compounds are changed. 6t Fertility from the Manure File Filtering Into an Adjacent Stream 66 History tells us that Memphis, the first great city of ancient times, a city which controlled the civilized world, was built up and made powerful because of the fertility of the farms, made so by the judicious use of manures. Nineveh, Babylon, Venice and other ancient cities grew to greatness from the same source and then fell to the pit of destruction when the farmers ceased to observe stock-raising as a feature of farming. America today is the foremost commercial nation of the world, but to maintain that supremacy we must produce from the soil food to feed our people and, if we produce a surplus for other nations, our power will be universal. On the other hand, if we disregard nature's exacting laws which govern soil maintenance, history will repeat itself and our great commercial institutions will be crumbling monuments to the American farmer's carelessness. The history of "Farmers of Forty Centuries," in the Orient gives us a vivid picture of the successful application of manures, good tillage and rotation. For 4200 years the fertility of those lands has not waned, but increased and today are producing four and five times as much as the soils of our own country. If every farmer could read "Farmers of Forty Centuries," written by Prof. King, he would be so impressed with the results of the systems described that he would not ignore a single feature which has wrought such remarkable results. The advent of the dairy cow in Wisconsin was the beginning of a new era of progress in the Badger State. Her soil, because of continuous cropping, the neglect of systematic rotation and the application of organic matters had become emaciated and her vegetation withered. Today Wisconsin stands first in number of dairy cows; 1,504,000 on the farms and a goodly number in the towns and cities produced last year 150,000,000 pounds of cheese, about one-half of all the cheese manufac- tured in the United States, and 131,049,000 pounds of butter, the two products having a market value of $60,000,000. "The increase in their superior breeds brought the total products close to $100,000,000. While the Wisconsin farmer has secured millions of dollars from his dairy products, he has reduced plant food exhaustion to a minimum and, by applying manure from purchased feeds, planting legumes and rotating crops, has increased the fertility of his lands to a remarkable degree. From eighty to eighty-two percent of all the plant food removed from the soil by the feeds eaten by the live-stock is returned to the soil in manures and, if legumes (especially clover and alfalfa) are grown in rotations with grains and corn, the loss is very small. Legumes not only secure their own supply of nitrogen from the atmosphere, but a consider- able amount is deposited in the soil through roots and stubble, leaving the soil richer in that valuable element than it was before the crop was planted. 67 fc'ys^sgg^^^^r A Cheaply Constructed Manure Shed Adjacent to the Stable - FTeveuts the Lobb of Fertility 58 Further, the deep penetrating roots decay and thereby act upon dormant potash and phosphorous forming plant-food compounds, which would otherwise remain inactive till the end of time. Wisconsin has in a few years become the Holland of America, and is a splendid example for farmers to follow. From a mathematical standpoint, it is very clear that the dairy cow cannot alone maintain the fertility of the soil. If butter only is sold, the loss of fertiUty is exceedingly small, but when the milk, cream and cheese is sold, from fifteen to twenty per cent of the plant food which goes to make the feed for the cow is carried away from the farm. The losses can be overcome, and manifestly they are, in countries where intensive methods are pursued. While it may be said we are robbing Peter to pay Paul, it is nevertheless customary for dairymen to buy feeds, especially some of the concentrates, from sections where stock raising is not profitable, either on account of climatic conditions or because of diseases. Many cotton growers, for instance, do not raise stock, but depend entirely on commercial fertilizers for their plant foods. Also a small per cent of farmers will never raise stock, even though conditions are favorable, but will farm on and on, selling their grain and hay, returning nothing to the soil until their farms become derelicts and are consigned to the scrap pile. The plant food in those purchased feeds goes to make up the deficit. Again, many dairy farmers appreciate the fact that leaves, moss and peat, all rich in plant food, make splendid bedding and subsequently good manure. We know that legumes more than keep up their end in furnishing nitrogen from the air and we also know that such inorganic elements as phosphorous, potash, sulphur, etc., are not confined to the surface seed- bed, but are found in abundance in the deeper subsoil, far below the reach of the plow and are made available through the action of humus resulting from the decayed roots. Plant food compounds thus formed in the deep subsoils are brought to the seed-bed by capillary attraction, as every farmer knows who has grown clover and other deep-rooting plants in rotation with com and small grain. A Reasonable Conclusion In view of our resources and the potential inventiveness of man, is it not reasonable to suppose that when the Creator planned this planet. He, in some way, made provision to sustain the living world until the end of time and that in the evolution of events, as necessity demands, the man will be found to unfold the means and methods? We know oxygen has existed for an indefinite period, but it is only recently that we have fully appreciated the fact that it was vital to the plant roots and devised means of placing it in the seed-bed. It has been only a few years since man discovered that clover and 69 other legumes possessed the power to take nitrogen from the air and fix it in the soil. We have just learned that rains, after a dry spell, wash from the atmosphere with every gallon of water more than -one-half grain of ammonia containing one-half grain of nitrogen, and deposit it in the soil, provided the soil is in a good physical condition and contains humus. Other powerful forces exist in nature of which we know little. The ingenuity of man will, however, when necessity demands, devise means and methods to utilize them which are as simple as the clover, alfalfa, cow peas, etc., are means to secure nitrogen from the atmosphere. Knowing, as we do, that life has been sustained for millions of years from the soil and other forces in nature, we are just optimistic enough to believe that if we will utilize scientifically such means and methods as have been unfolded to us and will do our part to solve new problems, we will not want. Preserving Manure Does it pay to preserve manure? Does it pay to harvest your grain, husk your com and store your hay? The first question is no less impor- tant than the second. Manure has a commercial value based upon the amount of nitrogen, phosphorous and potash it contains. It has an auxiliary value in the organic substance which is equal to the plant food elements. According to our best authorities, the value of manure is as follows: Cattle. $2 . 02 per ton Horse 2 .21 per ton Hog 3 . 29 per ton Sheep 3 .30 per ton Chicken 7 .07 per ton Liquid _ _ 7 . 00 per ton The above values do not include the value of the organic substance. The United States Department of Agriculture in Farmer's Bulletin No. 21 estimates that, if the manure from live-stock is preserved, its value each year is as follows: Horse Manure $27.00 Cattle Manure 19.00 Hog Manure 12 00 Sheep Manure 2 . 00 The ideal way to preserve manure in order to prevent waste is to spread while in a fresh state directly on the land. When that is done, there is no loss from leaching or evaporation and very little from wash- ing. When conditions prevent the farmer from hauling it direct to the fields, he should use care to prevent losses. Manure wastes in two ways — leaching and evaporation. 61 If carelessly left in the yard or in piles unprotected, a large per cent is lost by leaching and washing away. That liquid is just as precious as the golden grain in the bin and, if it is lost, the land is deprived of its just portion of food. If manure is piled and not protected, it loses much of its nitrogen through fermentation. Fermentation is carried on by two kinds of organisms — aerobic and anaerobic. The first variety is active only where free oxygen exists, as in the loose part of manure. The other variety is the opposite, working only where no oxygen exists. The anaerobic bacteria are less harmful than the aerobic. When aerobic fermentation is completed, gases such as ammonia, carbon-dioxide and allied gases are lost. The loss in nitrogen is the most important, as seven-eighths of the ammonia gas is nitrogen. Composting If the heap is kept compact and thoroughly wet, oxygen is excluded and the loss is not great, providing there is no leaching. If the manure is stored in a tight-bottom pit or cement bin, kept moist and a quantity of gypsum, kainit or raw rock phosphate is sprinkled on from time to time as the pit is filled, the loss will be very slight. A layer of earth placed over the pile will also prevent the escape of gases. Extensive experiments made by Roberts show that the loss from expo- sure and leaching amounts from one-third to one-half of the value of fresh manure, or manure that has been protected. Horse manure placed in a pile and subjected to the weather and leaching, depreciates as follows: ^^^^^ ^o, ^ April 25th Pounds Sept. 25th Pounds Loss Percent Gross Weight 4,000 19.60 14.80 36.00 $2.80 1,730 7.79 7.79 8.65 $1.06 57 Nitrogen Phosphoric Acid Potash Value per ton 60 47 76 A similar experiment with cow manure conducted at the same time showed the following losses: TABLE NO . 7 April 25th Pounds Sept. 25th Pounds Loss Percent Gross Weight 10,000 47 32 48 $2.29 5,125 28 26 44 $1.60 49 Nitrogen Phosphoric Acid Potash. Value per ton 41 19 8 63 The foregoing table is a fair example of the losses sustained by most of our farmers by not properly handling and protecting manure. It is estimated by the Agricultural Department of the United States Gov- ernment that $2,000,000,000.00 worth of fertility is lost annually through carelessness. How to Spread Manure on the Land In spreading manure, the farmer is naturally anxious to accomplish two things — First, to secure the full benefit of the plant food and humus. Second, to do the work as cheaply as possible. Suppose we just analyze the various methods resorted to and see what the net results are. Farmer A hauls the manure to the field and dumps it in piles contain- ing from one to two hundred pounds each and later spreads it, usually just ahead of the plow. Farmer B hauls his to the field and spreads it with a hand fork from the wagon. Farmer C uses a manure spreader. Farmer A has made piles about two rods apart. The top of the pile is loose, permitting the free circulation of air and at the same time com- pact enough to cause fermentation. The aerobic bacteria convert the organic matter into ammonia, carbon dioxide and other gases which readily pass into the air. The result is a great loss of the nitrogen in the upper two-thirds of the pile. In case of rains, much of the plant food in the bottom of the pile percolates into the soil which is evidenced in the rank growth of vegetation where the pile laid, a condition we have all seen a thousand times. Under such conditions, the stand is uneven and the crop ripens unevenly. The practice of placing manure in piles is absolutely wrong if profitable results are expected. The cost of spreading a ton will be found in Table No. 9. Farmer B does a little better. He hauls his load to the field and spreads it the best he can with a hand fork from the wagon. He saves most of the fertility and makes an effort to thoroughly distribute the coarse substance of the mass. After he has done the best he can, the distribution is uneven. If the manure is left in bunches and sub- sequently plowed under, the capillary movement of water in the soil is materially affected on account of the large air spaces made by the bunches. Such a condition proves disastrous to the crop in case of drought. If the distribution of organic matter is uneven, the inorganic elements will not be uniformly treated and the plant food will be unevenly placed throughout the seed-bed. Farmer C uses a spreader. When asked, "Why?" he replied: "A ton of average manure contains from twenty-seven to thirty pounds of plant food, and I want an even distribution of that precious material in GS 66 order to secure a uniform growth. I know the value of humus. It warms the soil, it causes soil to absorb and hold moisture, it is necessary to have humus if I have nitrogen, it makes my soil mellow and of good tilth, and I believe it assists in making phosphorous and potash useful. In order to accomplish those things, I want the manure evenly spread so that I can work it thoroughly into the body of the seed-bed. Those are some of my reasons for using a spreader. Another reason is that the spreader saves money." Farmer C is a good farmer. He increases his crop, as has been repeatedly demonstrated, and he saves money by doing his work much faster than either Farmer A or Farmer B. The following test was made under the writer's supervision and is cer- tified to by a committee of honest disinterested farmers. It required Farmer A twenty-one minutes to load one ton of manure. He spent eleven and one-half minutes going to the field and returning and he spent thirty-two minutes in unloading the manure in piles and spreading it on the land. Farmer B loaded his wagon in twenty-one minutes, drove to the field and returned in eleven and one-half minutes, and spent twenty-eight minutes in spreading the manure from the wagon. Farmer C loaded his spreader in sixteen minutes, drove to the field and returned in eleven and one-half minutes, and spread the manure on the land evenly and thoroughly pulverized in two minutes. The net comparative results were as follows: TABLE MO. 8 Time loading Time going to field and returning Time unloading in piles and spreading. Time spreading from wagon Time spreading with spreader Total time required . Farmer "A' 21 32 64^ Farmer "B' 21 28' 60i Farmer "C" 16 lU 2 29 h Cost of Handling One Load TABLE NO. 9 .. VALUE OF TIME OF MAN AND TEAM VALUED AT 40 CENTS FEB HOUR Farmer A, 44 cents Farmer B, 40 cents Farmer C, 20 cents Farmer A would haul 9 .3 loads in one day, working 10 hours a day Farmer B would haul 9 .9 loads in one day, working 10 hours a day Farmer C would haul 20 .3 loads in one day, working 10 hours a day It costs Farmer A $88 . 00 to haul and spread 200 loads of manure It costs Farmer B $80 . 00 to haul and spread 200 loads of manure It costs Farmer C $40.00 to haul and spread 200 loads of manure It costs Farmer A $48.00 more to dispose of 200 loads than it does Farmer C, and it costs Farmer B $40.00 more than it does Farmer C. 67 Millions of Dollars Worth of Fertility is Wasted Annually by These Brownies 6S Increasing the Yield While the saving to the farmer by using the manure spreader is mate- rial, it is insignificant as compared to the increased yield in crops, which is shown in the following table. The table showing the increase in pro- duction where manure is applied over that where no manure is applied, is also worthy of the farmer's attention. Repeated trials extending over a number of years have demonstrated the fact that a manure spreader used on forty acres of land will more than pay the cost of the machine in one season by increasing the crop, to say nothing of the great saving in labor. The experiments of Mr. Chesney Hatch, of Newton County, Ind., are strictly in keeping with hundreds of other like trials. Mr. Hatch ex- perimented by spreading manure on twenty acres and at the same time compared the results with crops raised on similar land without manure. The results of his experiments given in the following table should cause the farmer to seriously consider the great value of a spreader. lABLE NO. 10 .. MANURE SPREAD ' VriTH A SPREADER Kind of Grain Number of Acres Time planted Amount Harv'st'd Loads of Manure Per Acre Value of Crop Value of Crop per Acre Corn Oats 10 10 10 May 5th April 6th April 6th 620 bu. 560 bu. 30 tons 5 5 4 $248.00 156.80 150.00 $24.80 15 68 Clover 15.00 TABLE NO. 11 MANURE SPREAD BY HAND Kind of Grain Number of Acres Time Planted Amount Harv'st'd Loads of Manure Per Acre Value of Crop Value of Crop per Acre Corn Oats Clover ; 10 10 10 May 4th April 6th April 6th 500 bu. 420 bu. 21 tons 5 5 4 $200.00 117.60 105.00 $20.00 11.76 10.50 TABLE NO . la . CROP RAISED WITHOUT MANURE Kind of Grain Number of Acres Time Planted Amount Harv'st'd Loads of Manure Per Acre Value of Crop Value of Crop per Acre Corn Oats Clover 5 5 5 May 6th April 6th April 9th 200 bu. 190 bu. 7i tons None None None $ 80.00 53.20 37.50 $16.00 10.64 7.50 b9 70 The manure spreader secured a gain over hand spreading in the com crop of $4.80 per acre, or $192.00 on forty acres. In oats, the spreader has a credit of $3.92 per acre over hand spreading, or $156.80 for forty acres. In clover, the gain was $2.09 per acre. Manured land made a gain over unmanured land of $8.80 per acre on corn, $5.04 on oats and $7.50 on clover. Note — (Corn was valued at 40 cents per bushel, oats at 28 cents and clover at $5.00 per ton.) Mr. Lawrence Enzminger of Platte Center, Nebraska, made the fol- lowing report: "We manured forty acres with a spreader and an adjoining thirty acres received no manure. The forty acres averaged forty-eight bushels of corn per acre, and the thirty acres averaged thirty-nine bushels per acre. The gain in favor of the manured field was nine bushels per acre, or three hundred and sixty bushels on the forty acres. The corn sold for fifty cents per bushel, or $180.00, much more than the cost of the spreader." The following is the average results of other experiments carried on for a period of three years to determine the advantage of a machine spreader over the hand fork : TABLE NO. 13 Acres Amount Raised Crop Price Value Total Gain Spreader 6 Hand Spreading' 6 Spreader | 10 Hand Spreading 10 420 bu. 336 bu. 35 tons 27 tons Corn Corn Meadow Meadow $ .50 .50 10.00 10.00 $210.00 168.00 350 00 270 00 $42.00 "so'oo Total gain for manure spreader over hand work on six acres of corn and ten of meadow in one year was $122.00. The gain made in all the crops where the spreader was used over land where no manure was applied is so marked that a farmer cannot afford to ignore the value of this fertilizer or the most profitable way to apply it. The farmer should also keep in mind the fact that manure is lasting, if properly distributed and thoroughly worked into the soil. At the Rothamsted Experiment Station, records have been kept for over fifty years as to the effects of manures upon soils. In one experiment, farm manure was used for twenty years and then discontinued for the same period. It was observed that when its use was discontinued, there was a gradual decline in crop-producing power, but not so rapid as of plots where no manure had been used. The manure applied during the twenty-year period made itself felt for an ensuing twenty years. 71 72 Top Dressing Without question, the best results are obtained from manure when it is used as a top dressing after the ground has been plowed. The reasons are very plain. Plant roots necessarily make their initial growth in the upper portion of the seed-bed. A rapid and strong early growth is usually reflected throughout the entire life of the plant. If the plant food is accessible to the young roots, the growth will be very rapid. If, on the contrary, the fertilizing elements are near the bottom of the seed-bed, the early benefits are not so marked. If the ground is plowed early in the fall, it usually becomes compact after the first rain so that it is not difficult to haul the spreader over the plowed ground. Even if the ground is frozen, there is nothing lost by spreading the manure and discing it in after the frost is out. If coarse manure is plowed under, it is apt to create large air spaces at the bottom of the furrow, thereby causing an insulation which retards the upward movement of capillary water. Even though manure is spread before the ground is plowed, it is always advisable to disc it in before plowing. By that process lumps of dirt are pulverized and the substance of the manure is worked into the soil. When the furrow slice is turned, the contact is compact between the bottom of the furrow and the furrow slice, making capillary attraction perfect. It is hardly feasible, especially if the ground is very soft, to top-dress spring plowing, but it is very essential if the ground is to be planted to com to disc it thoroughly after the manure is applied and before plowing in order to insure equal distribution and quick fermentation. Manuring Growing Crops In some sections of the country, especially where spring wheat is the principal crop, farmers do not have time to haul manure until after the grain is in the ground. Again, yard manure, especially that which is in large piles, remains frozen until after the wheat is planted; hence, in order to secure the full benefits, the manure should be distributed on the ground after the grain is sown. It is perfectly feasible to spread it either before the blade has shown above the ground or after it has attained a growth of one or two inches. By distributing it thinly and evenly, the young roots, which are necessarily close to the surface, receive the essence of fertility contained in the manure, at a time when they need it most. Winter wheat and rye can be top-dressed either during the fall, winter or early spring. If manure is applied late in the fall, it is of material assistance in preventing the grain from winter-killing. The coarser substance of the manure serves two purposes, namely, to prevent the surface from cracking, thereby preventing the escape of moisture, and to assist in absorbing rain. It also in a great measure, prevents the soil 73 from blowing, thereby uncovering the grain roots. The plant food con- tained in the coarser substance is not lost, but when plowed under, is beneficial to the following crop, not only because of the plant food it contains, but for the humus which it forms after it has become thor- oughly rotted. Farmers who have top-dressed growing grain are very enthusiastic in their praise of the system, many claiming that they obtained far better results than when applied in any other way. Top-dressing growing com and potatoes is also very beneficial. If, however, the crops are to be cultivated after the application has been made, the manure should be well rotted. It is especially beneficial to potatoes after they have been cultivated once or twice, by preventing the growth of weeds and the escape of moisture. Top-dressing pastures and meadows always stimulates the growth. In a number of instances the writer has seen the yield of hay doubled by the application of five tons of manure to an acre. Green Manures Green manuring is growing on the land a crop and plowing it under. This form of manuring adds no new inorganic plant food elements to the soil, but when a crop is turned under all of the elements or compounds consumed in the growth of the plant are returned to the soil. When legumes (alfalfa, cow peas, clover, soy beans, vetch, etc.), are plowed under, the nitrogen gathered from the air by the legumes is added to the soil. After the crop is removed, the soil is much richer in nitrogen than before the crop was planted, due to nitrogen in the roots and stubble. Vaelcker in England found that one acre of clover roots and stubble contained one hundred pounds of nitrogen which had been gathered from the atmosphere in excess of the amount removed in the crop and the amount in the soil before the clover was planted. Weiske in Germany found one himdred and eighty pounds of nitrogen in an acre of roots and stubble. Any green crop which is not taken off the land is beneficial to the soil, both from a physical and chemical standpoint. Physically, the improvement is due to the roots and stems which decay and become a part of the soil. When the roots die and the plant decays, the entire substance is finally resolved into humus, an essential factor in maintain- ing soil bacteria and nitrogen. Humus thus formed assists in absorbing and retaining moisture, and tends to make the soil mellow and friable. The necessity of renewing humus may be due to continued cropping, hot winds and protracted droughts which deplete the soil of .that essen- tial substance very rapidly. Again, humus in time becomes dead, especially if thorough tillage is not practiced; hence, the supply should be renewed as often as condi- tions demand it, either by plowing under green crops or by applying manure. 74 Chemically, green manuring is beneficial for the following very good reasons. Through the process of fermentation and decomposition of green manure, humates are formed which in combination with other elements in the soil form plant food compounds. The deep-rooting legumes are especially beneficial, for the reason that they decay, admitting moisture and air far below the reach of the plow, forming as they do plant food by combining with the inorganic elements that exist in the subsoils. Plant food thus formed in the deeper strata is brought to the seed-bed through the action of capillary water. This process is responsible for the great increase in crops fol- lowing clover and other deep-rooting plants. Green manuring is resorted to profitably in sections where stock- raising is not practiced to an extent sufficient to secure an abundance of barnyard manure. Dead vegetation plowed under is also beneficial, but owing to the fact that most of the moisture contained in the plant has evaporated, decomposition is slow. Next to legumes, rye is regarded as the best green crop to plow under. The following table, the result of experiments on light soil in Germany, is very interesting: TABLE NO. 11 .. INCREASE IN THE YIELD OF RYE PER ACRE ON OREEN MANURED PLOTS OVER THOSE NOT OREEN MANURED Kind of Green Manure Date When Plowed Under Increase in Grain, Pounds Increase in Straw, Pounds Yellow Lupine Blue Lupine White Lupine Crimson Clover Vetch Sept. 28th Sept. 28th Sept. 28th Sept. 28th Sept. 28th 1,101 1,343 1,352 903 1,077 1,261 1,963 2,137 1,620 2,122 Prof. Neale of the Delaware Experimental Station presents the fol- lowing: "8.3 tons of crimson clover, grown from seed which cost $1.00 per acre, added 24 bushels to the com crop; $1.00 invested in nitrate of soda and used as a top-dressing, added 6 bushels to the com crop. Hence, in this case, $1.00 invested in clover seed returned four times as much as $1.00 invested in nitrate of soda. As to the relative amount of labor involved, the sowing of the seed and the broadcasting of the nitrate of soda possibly balance each other." 76 The following favorable results are reported from a heavy soil in Germany: TABLE KG. IS .. YIELD OF OATS AND STRAW PER ACRE WITH DIFFERENT MANURINO Treatment Grain, Pounds Straw, Pounds Without Green Manuring, no Fertilizer Green Manuring, no Fertilizer 1,099 1,645 1,748 3,381 The following table, given by the Massachusetts Experiment Station, is very interesting: TABLE NO. 16 .. COW PEAS AND SOT BEANS FOR GREEN MANtTRINQ Pounds Per Acre Variety Green Weight Dry Matter Nitrogen Wonderful Cow Pea Black Cow Pea . 19,600 20,035 19,685 3,622 3,389 80.4 62.1 Medium Green Soy Bean. 5,386 167.3 COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS COMMERCIAL fertilizers are used very extensively by truck garden- ers, fruit growers and farmers in the sections of the country where manure cannot be secured in sufficient quantities. Commercial fertilizers are classed as complete fertihzers and amend- ments. A complete commercial fertilizer contains the three essential plant food elements in a concentrated form, namely, nitrogen, phos- phoric acid and potassium. An amendment may be any one of those elements. In order to secure the best results and to minimize losses, the farmer should know the needs of his soil. He should not only know the plant food requirements, but have a thorough knowledge of the physical con- dition of his land. Otherwise, he is apt to apply some of the elements which already exist in abundance, or the fault may be in poor tillage, need of drainage or lack of humus. Commercial fertilizers are manufactured from various substances, both organic and inorganic. Nitrogen is secured from sulphate of ammonia, nitrate of soda, nitrate of potash, dried blood, tankage, hoof and horn meal, ground fish, guanos, cotton-seed meal and a few other minor substances. 76 The sources of phosphoric acid are phosphate rock, phosphate slag, raw boQe, bone ash, steamed bone, bone black and guano. These sub- stances are treated chemically, rendering them soluble. Potash is secured from kainit, muriate of potash, sulphate of potash and other potash salts and wood ashes. The percentage of amounts of available plant food elements in a com- plete commercial fertilizer is usually marked on the package. In most states the inspection is quite rigid. To the credit of the standard commercial fertihzer firms, it has been found, upon analysis, that the amount specified in the formula is found in the fertilizer. To illustrate, a package weighing one hundred pounds containing — 5 per cent of nitrogen 7 per cent of phosphoric acid 6 per cent of potash would contain respectively — 5 pounds of nitrogen 7 pounds of phosphoric acid 6 pounds of potash The market price of nitrogen ranges from 17 cents to 20 cents per pound, phosphoric acid is worth about 6 cents per pound, and potash is worth 5 cents per pound. The balance of the mass, amounting to 82 pounds, is called filler, hav- ing no fertilizing value. It is not policy to apply, at one time, more available plant food in a commercial fertilizer than the plant requires for the one crop. It is not profitable to use commercial fertilizers on land which is bar- ren of humus. Barnyard manures make commercial fertilizers more effective and more lasting. Attachments are made for agricultural implements for distributing fertilizers. The material can be deposited in the hill, along the side of the row or broadcast. The writer is of the opinion that it is advisable to sow the fertilizer broadcast and work it into the seed-bed with the disc. 77 78 LIME LIME is classed as an indirect fertilizer. While it is not regarded as a plant food, it is just as essential to plant life and growth as nitro- gen, phosphoric acid or potash. A very small per cent of lime is found in grains, but a considerable amount is found in the substance of the plant. If a seed is planted in soil absolutely devoid of lime, the growth is checked as soon as the lime is exhausted from the seed. If a soil is defi- cient in lime, the plant is correspondingly deficient. There are a few plants, however, which do not require lime. Soil may be rich in all of the essential elements, namely, nitrogen, phosphorous and potash and still be worthless for agricultural purposes if it does not contain a sufficient amount of lime. Clovers and other legumes grown in such soil are stunted and the leaves are yellow and sickly. Alfalfa without lime will hardly survive after the first year and cow peas, soy beans and vetch are a failure where lime is absent. Corn grown on land which does not contain a reasonable amount of lime will have small, long-jointed stalks, small, delicate leaves and a defi- cient ear. It is safe to say that the productiveness of many of our fertile farms is reduced fifty per cent simply because they do not contain the required amount of .lime. Originally, most of our soils contained a sufficient quantity of lime, but on account of continued cropping, it has, to a great degree in many soils, been reduced to such an extent that the soil is unhealthy. Unless the natural supply of Hme in the soil is abnormally large, the drain incident to cultivation and fertilization exhausts it to a point where not enough remains to keep the soil in a healthy condition; or, in other words, free from harmful acid. Every farmer knows that a sour soil is sickly and he should know that, unless the condition is remedied, it will not produce even fair crops. Lime acts both chemically and physically. Chemically, it is the most powerful agent known to sweeten sour soil. Soil becomes sour; or, in other words, harmful acid is formed, it being the result of decaying vegetable matter. Lime unites with the organic matter forming humate of lime, thus preventing the formation of any harmful acid. Nitrifying bacteria which form nitrates, an available form of organic nitrogen, will not live in acid or sour soil. Nitrogen does not combine with phosphorous, potash and other inor- ganic base elements without the assistance of lime. Lime renders potash in the soil more available. The soil may be rich 79 in insoluble silicates containing potash and still be starving for soluble potash. Lime decomposes the soil silicates, thus setting the potash free. "The presence of sufficient lime in the soil prevents the soluble phos- phoric acid applied in fertilizers from satisfying its hunger for a base by combining with iron or alumina, which is undesirable because phos- phates of iron and alumina are very insoluble. When lime is present, the phoshporic acid will take this by preference and the reverted phos- phate thus formed is much more valuable than would be the phosphates above mentioned." (W. P. Brooks.) Lime hastens the decay of all organic substances which may be in the soil. Green manures and barnyard manures are of little use the first year or two if a sufficient amount of lime does not exist in the soil to pro- mote decomposition. Injurious iron compounds in the soil are rendered harmless by the free use of lime. Lime stimulates to activity plant food in peaty soils, drained lands and swampy lands which have been under water for a long time. The physical effect of lime on soil is also very marked. All soils, except those of a light, sandy nature are made mellow and friable by the use of lime. Dense clay soils are especially improved by being treated with lime. Often clay soils are so compact that they are impervious to both air and water. Prof. Brooks has the following to say regarding clay soils. "As the result of an experiment, it is reported that a layer of water about two inches thick required 26 days and 19 hours to pass through a clayey soil. After the soil was mixed with 2.5 per cent of lime, the same quantity of water passed through it in 17 hours. The explanation of this remarkable effect of mixing lime with clayey soils is that it causes the exceedingly fine particles of clay to gather in little balls. Between these little balls of clay, air and water circulate as between grains of sand and it is to this particular effect chiefly that the great improvement in the heavy soils resulting from liming is due. The fact that certain fertiUzers, among which kainit, muriate of potash and nitrate of soda may be named, when freely used make the soils compact, has been pointed out. The use of these fertilizers also increases the tendency to formation of a crust at the surface. If such a crust be broken up by cultivation or hoeing, it forms again after the next rain. It is practically impossible under these circumstances to keep the soil in suitable tilth. The use of lime in connection with such fertilizers will prove an effectual preventive of crust formation. In European agriculture, air-slaked lime is generally employed in connec- tion with nitrate of soda or potash salts." Sandy soils become more compact and hold humus better, thereby absorbing and retaining moisture longer if they are well limed. 80 Crops Most Benefited by Lime Alfalfa, clover, soy beans, cow peas, vetch, all root crops and tubers, grasses, garden truck, barley, oats, buckwheat, corn, wheat and sorg- hums require lime in substantial quantities. Wheeler states that lupines, millet, red top and blackberries are injured by lime. ^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^.^^ Make a small ball of dirt with a depression on one side. Pour in the depression a few drops of hydrochloric acid. If lime is present, bubbles will appear. ^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^.^ If the soil is acid, it indicates that lime is absent. Place a strip of blue litmus paper in some moist soil. If the paper turns pink or red, it indi- cates that the soil is acid. Pinkish tint would indicate only slightly acid and bright red is an indication that the soil is decidedly acid. Neither of the above tests are very reliable if the soil is nearly neutral. Excepting a chemical analysis, an actual demonstration is the most reliable. The farmer should lime a strip two, three or four rods wide through the center of the field and note the difference between the limed and unlimed portion in the crops. Land on which sorrel thrives is usually sour. Amount of Lime Land Should Contain Land should contain from 0.4 to 0.5 per cent of lime. Soil containing less than 0.3 per cent is apt to be very unproductive. How Much Lime to Apply The amount to apply depends entirely upon the condition of the soil, both chemically and physically, and the kind of crops to be grown. The reserve supply below the average depth of the furrow should also be taken into consideration. Lime may be exhausted in the first five or six inches, but an abundance may exist below. When that condition is found, if the ground is plowed a little deeper and manure is added, il may not be necessary to add commercial lime. It is better toapply a smallamount of lime often than a large quantity at one time. For instance, it is better to apply 500 pounds every year for four years than to apply a ton at one time. If the soil is sour, heavy and lifeless, it may be necessary to apply from one to two tons to the acre. If it is only slightly acid , 500 pounds may be sufficient to neutral ize the acidity and rectify abnormal physical conditions. The following table gives the amount of lime, according to Snyder, removed in crops: 20-bushel crop of wheat 8 pounds 65-bushel crop of corn 12 pounds 30-bushel crop of peas _75 pounds 15-bushel crop of flax 16 pounds 2 tons of clover hay 75 pounds 81 Kind of Lime to Apply The principal sources of lime are raw limestone rock, air-slaked lime hydrated lime, land plaster, oyster shells, wood ashes, natural phos- phates, gas and dye-house lime, basic slag and marl. The writer favors raw limestone rock, finely ground, which contains a high per cent of calcium oxide (Ca 0). Burned or caustic lime is best for heavy, peaty soils which contain an excessive amount of nitrogen. Hydrated and air-slaked lime are favored on account of their light weight, especially in sections where freight rates are excessive. Phosphate rock contains lime as well as phosphoric acid. The cost, however, is too high to make it economical to use for liming purposes. Wood ashes contain from 35 to 50 per cent of hme, besides consider- able magnesia and potash. The farmer should save all the wood ashes and place them on the ground as a top dressing. Ashes are especially fine for fruit trees. Land plaster contains lime, and is manufactured from gypsum. It is not as beneficial as lime rock to sweeten soil. When land plaster is sprinkled throughout manure piles or gutters or in stalls, it prevents the waste of ammonia. When so mixed and applied to the land, the effect is fine. Marl compares favorably with air-slaked lime. It is especially bene- ficial to light, sandy soils on account of the clay it contains. When to Apply Lime The chemical and physical action of lime being slow, it should be applied several weeks before the crop is planted. If the land is intended for potatoes, the lime should be applied the previous year. It is a good plan to apply lime after the ground is plowed in the fall and immediately disc or harrow in. It can be applied safely any season of the year on clover or pasture. If the pasture or meadow is disced after the applica- tion is made, it prevents in a great measure, washing away by rains. Commercial fertihzers and yard manures should not be mixed with lime. It is best to apply the manure several weeks before the lime is put on the ground. If alfalfa, peas or beans are to be planted, no serious harm will result if lime is applied within a few days before sowing. How to Apply Lime Lime in any form should be distributed with a machine spreader in order to insure an even distribution. An excessive amount in one place is harmful and none in another place causes an uneven stand. Hence, it is not advisable to spread with a shovel. Several types of lime sowers are on the market and most of them do 83 good work if the lime is ground to an even finenesb and is perfectly dry. If it contains large pieces, it clogs, and if damp, it cakes. In either case, the distribution is uneven. After experimentina with a number of lime sowers and various tjrpes of manure spreaders, the v/riter has found the Success Spreader to be an ideal machine for the work. This machine has three factors, two of which are special attachments, in its make-up which are absolutely necessary to insure perfect distribution and at the same time not damage the machine. 1st. A return apron. This so that any lime that falls through the bottom will fall directly upon the ground and not be carried back into the spider wheels, as would be true were an endless apron machine used. 2d. A worm and gear drive. This to give a positive movement of the bottom, which is not possible with a ratchet feed. 3d. A cylinder set inside the box above the apron and in front of its rear end. In machines where the cylinder is back of the box, set below the apron back of its rear end, the lime falls onto the ground without passing over the cylinder. It is not evenly distributed . The Success Manure Spreader has all of these qualities, and, in fact, is the only machine on the market which will satisfactorily spread lime. For the distribution of lime, however, it is necessary to protect the mate- rial from being blown by the wind, and to reduce the feed of the bottom to smaller amounts than are used in the distribution of manure. To accomplish this purpose on the Success Spreader, a hood is provided which goes entirely over the cylinder and extends down near enough to the ground so that the wind cannot blow the material. There is also provided a slow-feed worm and gear which are used in place of the regu- lar worm and gear on the apron feed of the machine and reduces the quantity of material spread to the acre to one-half the amount indicated on the feed gauge at the various speeds of the machine. In other words, in a seventy-bushel spreader, it reduces the range of feed to 1 J to 6 loads per acre. In distributing lime with any manure spreader, it is wise to fill the bottom of the box with a little loose straw and throw a forkful over the end of the cylinder. This is to prevent the material rattling out in going to the field. On account of the weight of the material, it is also wise to load the box only from one-half to two-thirds full. You then have all that the machine should handle. Common Salt Salt (Chloride of Sodium) was used at one time quite extensively as a fertilizer, but during recent years it has not been regarded with favor. Some years ago the writer observed the effect of salt on a piece of land which for some reason failed to produce normal crops. The effect the first year was splendid, but the crop grown the second year was much inferior to that grown on an adjoining plot which had not been salted. 83 It seemed to act as a quick stimulant, but its effect was not lasting. Prof. Brooks says: "1st. It helps to absorb and retain moisture and may be useful on light soils. "2d. According to Lloyd, it may liberate ammonia from inert com- pounds. "3d. According to Storer, it makes hme and potash, which are a part of the compound silicates of the soil, more available. The potash will doubtless be more effectively made available by the use of lime. "4th. In large quantities, salt hinders decomposition and has been used with apparent benefit in soils containing very large amounts of humus on which the growth was naturally so rank that grains tended to lodge. "5th. If used in very large quantities, salt may injure or prevent plant growth. It is sometimes so used on walks to keep down weeds. "6th. Salt lessens the percentage of starch in potatoes, of sugar in beets or in fruits. This effect is due to the chlorin and is similar to that of muriate of potash. "Salt is more likely to prove beneficial on the lighter soils, and among the crops benefited by it most are asparagus, mangolds, cabbages and grains. It can seldom prove beneficial to use salt in quantities exceed- ing 200 or 300 pounds to the acre. It should be spread broadcast and worked in with a harrow." Peat, Muck and Leaf Mould Peat, muck and leaf mould are valuable substances to apply to cer- tain types of soil. They are composed largely of humus having been formed from vegetable matter. They contain from one-half to four per cent of nitrogen and a small quantity of phosphoric acid and potash. The two latter elements exist in greater quantities in leaf mould than in peat or muck. Nitrogen is found in greater quantities in peat than in muck and mould. If any of these substances are easily accessible and the haul is short, it pays to put it on land deficient in nitrogen and humus. They improve clay soils both chemically and physically. Chemically, they are improved by adding humus, nitrogen and some carbonic acid. The acids act upon some of the inorganic elements, ren- dering them soluble. Physically, clay soils are benefited as follows: 1st. They are made porous, mellow and friable, a condition which facilitates the absorption of water. 2d. Capillary attraction is stimulated. 3d. Atmospheric oxygen is admitted. 4th. Increases the warmth in the early spring. 5th. Soil is easier to cultivate and less liable to puddle and crack. Sandy soils are improved by the addition of humus and nitrogen. The humus or organic material is of great value in holding moisture and giving the soil permeability. The value of all these substances is greatly enhanced when made in a compost with unbumed lime, phosphate rock, gypsum, kainit or wood ashes. In some countries, farmers not only maintain, but increase, the fer- tility of their soil and produce remarkable yields by using muck, peat, leaf mould and sediments from ponds and streams made in a compost. Fish and meat scraps also improve the mixture. Poultry Manure Too often the farmer does not sufficiently appreciate the value of poultry manure to give it the proper care and utilize it to the best advan- tage. Poultry manure is richer in plant food elements than any of the other farm manures. It is especially rich in nitrogen and phosphoric acid. On account of rapid fermentation, unless properly cared for, much of the nitrogen is lost by evaporation. The droppings should be gathered from the floor of the poultry house every few days and stored in a dry place. If stored damp and allowed to remain so, much is lost by fermentation. It is a good plan to sprinkle dry muck, peat, dirt or mould on the floor of the house. By so doing, the liquid is absorbed and the drying process is hastened. Gypsum, kainit or ground phosphate rock are splendid absorbents, besides they add to the richness of the compost. Caution Ashes should not be mixed with poultry manure for the reason that they contain alkalies which increase fermentation, causing a loss of nitrogen. Before using, poultry manure should be mixed with dry earth and spread thin and evenly. If placed in the hill, care must be taken not to use too much. An excessive amount will burn the plant, but a very small amount will cause a remarkable growth. The writer knows of nothing in fertilizers as valuable as poultry manure to use in the truck garden, fiower garden and in young orchards. ^ , , Conclusion In concluding our appeal to farmers, we earnestly urge those who are at all skeptical or in doubt regarding the value of barnyard and other manures mentioned in this book, to make a thorough test of their worth. From the earliest civilization down through all the ages, manures have been the source of successful agriculture and the chief staff in maintaining the fertility of the soil. Cato, the renowned agriculturist of Roman times, said : "To maintain the fertiUty of the soil, plow deep, plow again and mix with the soil well- rotted manure." Tull, several centuries later, said: "The fertility of our soil will not wane if we plow deep, rotate crops and mix with the soil animal dung." The history of "Farmers of Forty Centuries" presents a vivid description of what is being accomplished by a people who know the art, but not the science, of farming. King tells us that five hundred million people, more than five times our entire population, are being maintained from the cultivated fields of Japan, Korea and China, an area much smaller than the tilled lands of our own country. Manure, lie states, is as precious to those people as their harvest. Their ways of farming are not based upon scientific knowledge, but they do things as their forefathers did. They do not know the plant food elements contained in manure, but they do know that when evenly spread and worked into a deep, well-made seed-bed, an abundant crop is assured. They cannot tell why leaf -moulds, peat, muck and sediments from rivers and ponds enrich the soil, but they do know that when these substances are not used, the soil produces grudgingly. Without being able to give a scientific reason, they have plowed deep, packed and pulverized, utilized organic matters of all kinds and irrigated, producing year after year from five to seven times more than our farmers. We, with our fertile soil, have heard the alarm of depletion which is being sounded through our land. Do you not think it time for us to imitate the methods of those farmers who are producing enough on a plot of ground no larger than the area contained within a boundary line extending from Chicago south to the gulf; thence westward to and along the western line of Kansas, and back to the place of beginning, to feed five hundred million of people? Do you not feel that all farmers should adapt methods which many of our advanced agriculturists have demonstrated will bring rich results? Why should we be alarmed? Why should we fear want? Why should we not produce enough to keep pace with the increase in our population and for centuries have a surplus? We know the art and we possess knowledge which makes plain the reasons why scientific methods are successful. We should not wait until grim necessity compels us to adopt nature's ways, nor neglect to conserve fertihty which was manifestly intended to perpetuate the pro- ducing ability of our soil. Farmers! To rob the soil of its fertility by growing crops and not observe stock-raising as a feature of equal importance, is larceny upon posterity. Not to protect from waste, manures, organic matters and other substances containing plant food elements, is certainly a crime. 86 CORN CORN is the American farmer's most valuable crop. According to the government estimate issued Nov. 8, 1912, the corn crop of the United States amounts to 3,169,170,000 bushels, having a market value of approximately $1,584,580,000.00. Practically the entire amount was produced in twenty-eight states. Iowa stands first; the crop amounting to 432,025,000 bushels, an average of forty- three bushels per acre as compared with thirty-one bushels in 1911, and Illinois comes second with 428,450,000 bushels, the average per acre being 40.2 bushels, an increase of 7.2 bushels per acre over the previous year. The enormous crop is attributed to a fairly favorable season and better farming methods. The results show very plainly that the fertility of the soil is not waning, and that all it needs in order to produce abundantly is the right treatment. Farmers do you know where the fertility came from that made such a wilderness of com? It is thought by some that all of it comes from the soil, when in reahty, only a very small per cent of soil plant food proper is used in making the crop. Ninety-seven and one-half (97.5) per cent of the dry substances of the crop is composed of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen. The balance, being only two and one-half (2.5) per cent, is ash salts which includes potash, phosphorus and sulphur, were taken directly from the soil. About sixty-one (61) pounds of every hundred pounds of dry com is carbon alone. Carbon comes from the atmosphere; it enters the plant through the leaf, in the form of carbonic acid gas. Oxygen and hydrogen are secured from air and water, and nitrogen, indirectly, comes from the air. Water is also an important feature in making a crop of com. From seventy-five to eighty per cent of the green plant is composed of water and in the process of growth three hundred pounds are used to mature each pound of dry material. To utilize these valuable elements which exist in inexhaustible quan- tities, requires knowledge and scientific management. The require- ments of other farm crops are not materially different from com; for instance, one hundred pounds of wheat grain contain forty-six and one tenth (46.1) pounds of carbon, five and eight tenths (5.8) pounds of hydrogen, forty-three and four tenths (43.4) pounds of oxygen, two and three tenths (2.3) pounds of nitrogen and two and four tenths (2.4) pounds of ash elements. The ash includes all the phosphorus, potash, silica, lime, magnesia, iron, sulphur and soda used in making plant food compounds. One hundred pounds of wheat straw contains ninety-three pounds of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen, and the roots and stubble contain some of the same elements. The one hundred pounds of grain and one hundred pounds of straw combined rob the soil of but one and one tenth (1.1) pounds of phosphorus. 87 SJ 2-S "S OB o « OS s 88 While the per cent of ash salts required is very small, we do not wish to be understood as intimating that they are any less necessary to make a crop than the other elements mentioned. To successfully raise corn, plant food elements must co-operate with each other and the farmer must co-operate with the elements. Potash, phosphorus, etc., are worthless without water and air, and nitrogen needs humus. The plant must have a good home and the right care if it thrives. The soil is a great complex factory and the farmer is manager. He should know his factory, know what each crop requires and just how to furnish it, if he is to turn out a first-class product at a profit. How to store and make available soil water, how to admit oxygen, how to select and preserve seed, how to make a suitable home for the plant, how to care for the plant, how to get a supply of nitrogen free of cost, how to make available plant food elements which exist in the soil, and how to restore elements which have been used, are all features of equal importance and should be thoroughly understood by the farmer. The market price of com does not represent its real value to the farmer. If the com is fed to live-stock and the manure from the stock is placed on ftne^anh, 't;ne\aTmer Tfec,e\Ne?.*\;t\fe\\i^\fe'fe&ft?,N'a;s i;S-f-ij j-ff; - l i- ■ . ■■;;■ i V . - , - . --v-- .;;;. iii .^^ 5 :"-T\yi „.,.-., J ,.,. ^ ., . , ..,.-. tT. - ^t ^ .♦ The outlet pipe must be provided with a vent (g) to prevent the tank from being emptied by the siphon (e and f). The drain should be ordinary soft porous drain tile laid end to end with loose open joints. The ditch in which the tile are laid should be about four feet deep. Before the tile are laid, one foot of loose gravel should be placed in the ditch and one foot of loose gravel on top of the tile, and the ditch then filled with dirt. If this line of tile is four or five rods long, it will never become clogged unless the soil is a very compact clay. If the soil is of such a nature, two lines should be laid from the "V"-shaped junction, having, as shown at H, gate valves so that the flow can be alternated every two weeks, giving each line time to dry out. Size For a family of ten or twelve people, a tank six feet long, four feet wide and four feet deep, holding 718 gallons, will be large enough. Such a tank should take care of a sink, laundry, bath and toilet room, and the overflow from a cistern. The receiving chamber should be about four feet by two or three feet, and as deep as the main tank. After the tank has been in operation a year or two, if any great amount of sludge has accumulated on the bottom, it should be pumped out. If the tank is properly constructed, the accumulation is very little, even after it has been in operation several years. Caution Care must be taken not to empty into the intake pipe potato peelings and other coarse substances that will not pass through a trap freely. Chloride of lime interferes with the bacterial action; hence, it should not be used to any great extent in the sink. Bacteria do not materially change grease. If it enters the tank sys- tem in great quantities, it eventually clogs it. It is often necessary to have a grease trap below the sink. To prevent gases from escaping, the manhole covers should be made tight by using cement or asphalt. A system of this kind will not freeze in winter, as the gases arising from the sewage in the tank generate enough heat to counteract cold and prevent freezing. The secret, if secret it may be called, of the whole system is the dark air-tight tank, the isubmerged inlet and submerged outlet. The bac- teria will do their work if not disturbed, but if the scum is molested, the bacterial action does not take place. GOOD ROADS GOOD roads are not a fad, they are a necessity. They are to the farmer what railroads are to the commercial world, and the paved streets and electric roads are to the busy, hustling throngs in the city. The farmer is a busy man. He is beginning to appreciate that his occupation is a business and that time and labor represent money. He appreciates the fact that the time is past when he can afford to hire labor or spend his own time at the prevailing prices to haul products of his farm to market over poor roads. He recognizes the fact that his farm is his business house and demands his attention, if it is to prosper, and that he cannot spend hours going over roads with a plodding horse when, with an automobile or a tractor on good roads, he can make the same trip in one-tenth of the time. Gasoline and oil are rapidly dis- placing horses, both on the farm and roads, and the sooner the farmer realizes the economical benefits of rapid transportation, the sooner will he be abreast with the improvements which characterize other lines of business. While the conveniences of good roads are of great importance, the financial benefits are surprising. To be sure, it costs money to build a permanently good road, but the farmer, the city dweller and the tax- payers in general cannot make an investment which will give better returns. In the United States we have about 2,250,000 miles of roads, and not more than eight per cent have been permanently improved. The cost per ton per mile to haul farm products over the roads varies greatly in different sections, but the average cost is not less than 23 cents. The average haul that the farmer makes to town is nine miles, or approx- imately $2.07 for each ton hauled. In foreign countries, and in our own country, where roads have been improved, it costs 8 cents per ton per mile, or $1.35 per ton less than over poor dirt roads. It is estimated that the farmers of the United States haul to and from their farms 300,000,000 tons annually, or, in other words, the farmer pays toll to poor roads each year, amounting to the enormous sum of $377,500,000 which could be saved were the grades improved and the road-bed made of macadam, concrete or some other durable substance. We will not attempt to recommend any special make of roads to meet all conditions, believing that the Good Roads Experts in the states, who are familiar with local conditions, are better able to advise the taxpayers. In some sections, a well made dirt road is nearly equal to a macadam. In building a dirt road, the first important thing to consider is drainage. The road should be drained on either side by means of good sized tile or deep ditches having a free outlet. The surface should be rounded and kept so, otherwise the water will not run off rapidly Ruts and worn paths will soon make a muddy road, but with a little filling at 268 the right time and the use of a King Drag, the road can be kept in good condition at small cost. S. E, Bradt, Chairman of the Good Roads Committee of the Illinois Bankers Association has for a number of years made a very careful study of hard roads. In a recent letter to the writer he states, "Our macadam roads have been very uniformly ten feet wide and nine or ten inches thick after they were rolled. We put on about eleven or twelve inches of material. They cost from three to four thousand dollars per mile depending upon the length of haul and whether they are built of stone furnished by the State at a cost of 62^ cents per yard or stone that we purchased at a cost of about $1.00 per yard. This cost includes grading." "The concrete road which we built last fall cost about $7,500 exclusive of the preliminary grading. The state furnished the mixer and superintendent and two men to operate the mixer. The road is 12 feet wide and 6| inches thick. It was built in October when labor was scarce and we were obliged to pay for 10 hours work and only able to work an average of 82 hours. There was also considerable rain which caused delay, making the work quite expensive. We could easily have saved at least $500 in labor and material had we been working under favorable conditions. On each side of the road is a macadam shoulder 2 feet wide and 6 inches thick." Following are the details of the cost: 2274 barrels cement ..$2274.00 Sand and gravel 1671 . 00 Expansion joints 160 . 00 Grading 440 . 00 Labor 2216.00 Watchman 125 . 00 Coal, lumber, oil and waste 152 . 00 Car-fare for the laborers — 50 . 00 Cost of macadam shoulders 500 . 00 $7588.00 In the above is included the cost of the labor furnished by the state. Concrete roads have been built in Michigan complete for $10,000 per mile. Rock-macadam roads in Missouri, Ohio, Michigan and Wisconsin have cost from $3000 to $4000 per mile. Gravel roads in Michigan and Iowa, where local gravel is near by, have cost from $1000 to $2000 per mile. The cost, however, of a permanent road will depend entirely upon the character of the material used, its accessi- bility and the necessary amount of grading to be done. While the horse will undoubtedly continue to be the main motive power in the farmer's field for many years to come, the touring car, the runabout, the auto-truck and tractor will supplant the horse on the roads very generally in the near future. The march of progress will neither stop nor stay, nor will the American people turn back in the onward movement to sustain their supremacy. Goods roads are as necessary to the safe and profitable utilization of these new methods of transportation as the well ballasted railroad bed is to the 369 locomotive, hence we are simply confronted with the problem of constructing country roads to meet the requirements of the times, and we cannot evade our responsibility without being guilty of plac- ing stumbling blocks in the path of progress. Quantity of Seed to Sow per Acre Alfalfa (broadcast) 20 to 25 pounds Alfalfa (drilled) 15 to 20 pounds Artichoke, Jerusalem. .6 to 8 bushels Bariey 8 to 10 pecks Bean, field (smaU varie- ties) 2 to 3 pecks Bean, field (l^ge varie- ties) 5 to 6 pecks Beet 4 to 6 pounds Blue grass 25 pounds, pure Brome grass (alone for pasture) 15 to 20 pounds Brome grass (alone for hay) 12 to 15 pounds Brome grass (in mix- ture) 2 to 5 pounds Broom com 3 pecks Buckwheat 3 to 5 pecks Bur-clover 12 pounds Carrots (for stock) 4 to 6 pounds Chick-pea 30 to 50 pounds Clover, alsike (alone for forage) 8 to 15 pounds Clover, alsike (on wheat or rye in spring) 4 to 6 pounds Clover, Egyptian or berseem | to 1 bushel Clover, Japan (Lespe- deza) 12 pounds Clover, Mammoth 12 to 15 pounds Clover, red (on small grain in spring) ...8 to 14 pounds Clover, sweet (melilo- tus) 2 pecks Clover, white 10 to 12 pounds Corn 6 quarts to 1 bushel Com (for sUage) 9 to 11 quarts Cotton 1 to 3 bushels Cow pea 1 to IJ bushels Cow pea (in driU with corn) i to 1 bushel Cow pea (for seed) 3 pecks Crimson clover 12 to 15 pounds Field pea (small varie- ties) 2J bushels Field pea (large varie- ties) 3to3| bushels Flax (for seed) 2 to 3 pecks Flax (for fiber) IJ to 2 bushels Hemp (broadcast) 3| to 4 pecks Hungarian grass (hay) .2 pecks Johnson-grass 1 to IJ bushels Kafir (drills) 3 to 6 pounds Kafir (for fodder) 10 to 12 pounds Kale 2 to 4 pounds Lespedeza 12 pounds Lupine 1^ to 2 bushels Mangels 5 to 8 pounds Millet, barnyard (drills) 1 to 2 pecks Millet, foxtails (drills) .2 to 3 pecks Millet, German (seed) .1 peck Millet, Pearl (for soil- ing) 4 pounds Millet, Pearl (for hay) .8 to 10 pounds Milo 5 pounds Oat-grass, tall 30 pounds Oats 2 to 3 bushels Oats and peas.' Oats 2 bushels. Peas J bushel Orchard grass 12 to 15 pounds Pure Parsnips 4 to 8 pounds Popcorn 3 pounds Potato, Irish, average,. 10 to 14 bushels Potato, cut to one or two eyes 6 to 9 bushels Potato, recommended by many for best yields 15 to 20 bushels Rape (in drills) 2 to 4 pounds Rape (broadcast) 4 to 8 pounds Red top, recleaned 12 to 15 pounds Rice 1 to 3 bushels Rutabaga 3 to 5 pounds Rye 3 to 4 pecks Rye (forage) 3 to 4 bushels Rye grass 2 to 3 bushels Sorghum (forage broad- cast).. Ij to 2 bushels Sorghum (for seed or syrup) 2 to 5 pounds Sorghum, saccharine (tor silage or soiling, drills) 6 pounds to J bushel Sorghum and peas 3 to 4 pecks each Soy bean (drills) 2 to 3 pecks Soy bean, (broadcast) .1 to 1| bushels Sugar beets 15 to 20 pounds Sugar cane 4 tons of cane Sunflower. ..10 to 15 pounds Sweet clover 2 to 4 pecks Timothy 15 to 25 pounds Timothy and clover Timothy 10 lbs. Clover 4 lbs. Turnip, (broadcast) 2 to 4 pounds Turnip (drills) 1 pound Velvet bean 1 to 4 pecks Vetch, hairy (drilled) . . 1 bushel, 1 bu- shel small grain Vetch, hairy (broad- cast) 1| bushels, 1 bushel small grain Wheat 6 to 9 pecks 270 Number of Pounds to the Bushel (Legal Weight) in Different States. states O m o s Arkansas California Connecticut Georgia Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Maine Massachusetts. . Michigan Minnesota Missouri Nebraska New Hampshire- New Jersey New York North Carolina.. Ohio Oklahoma Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina. - Tennessee.. Texas Vermont Virginia Wisconsin. 70 70 70 50 57 50 60 46 60 50 50 58 60 60 24 56 60 14 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 14 44 45 42 45 45 45 45 45 Capacity of Corn Cribs (Height 10 Feet.) Lth. V2 1 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 28 32 36 48 1280 64 ^ 6 13 27 320 373 427 480 533 587 640 747 853 960 1707 1 6^ 13 28 333 389 444 500 556 611 667 778 889 1000 1333 1777 1 6^2 14 29 347 404 462 520 578 636 693 809 924 1040 1,387 1849 15 30 360 420 480 540 600 660 720 840 960 1080 1440 1920 7 16 31 373 436 498 560 622 684 747 871 996 1120 1493 1991 T'A 16 32 387 451 516 580 644 709 773 902 1031 1160 1547 2062 IV2 17 33 400 467 533 600 667 733 800 933 1067 1200 1600 2133 1% 17 34 413 482 551 620 689 758 827 964 1102 124Q 1653 2204 8 18 36 427 498 569 640 711 782 853 996 1138 1280 1707 2276 8M 19 38 453 529 604 680 756 831 907 1058 1209 1,S60 1813 2418 9 20 40 480 560 640 720 800 880 960 1120 1280 1440 1920 2. 160 10 22 44 533 622 711 800 889 978 1067 1244 1422 1600 2133 2844 The length is found in top line, the width in left-hand column — the height being taken at 10 ft. Thus a crib 25 ft. long, 7}^ ft. wide and 10 ft. high, will hold 800 busheU of ear corn, reckoning Hi cubic feet to bold a bushel. If not 10 ft. high, multiply by the given height and cut off the right-hand figure. If above crib were only 7 ft. high it would hold 800 x 7 equals 560 (0 bu., etc.). The same space will hold 1 4-5 times as much grain as ear corn. Thus a crib that holds 800 bushels of ear corn, will bold 800 X 1 4-5 equals 1440 bushels of grain. INTERESTING INFORMATION POPULATION OF THE UNITKO STATES 1850- . - . 23,191,876 1910 91,972,266 LAND ABEA OP ITNITED STATES IN ACRES 1850 1,884,375,680 1910 1,903,289,600 LAND IN PAKMS, ACSES IN THE T7NITED STATES 1850 293,560,614 1910 878,798,325 IMPROVED LANDS IN FARMS, ACRES IN THE UNITED STATES 1850 113,032,614 1910 478,451,750 ACRES OF IMPROVED FARM LAND IN THE STATES Alabama. 9,693,581 Arkansas 8,076,254 Arizona _- 350,173 Connecticut 988,252 Colorado 4,302,101 California 11,389,894 District of Columbia 5,133 Delaware 713,538 Florida 1,805,408 Georgia 12,298,017 Indiana 16,931,252 Illinois 28,048,323 Iowa 29,491,199 Idaho 2,778,740 Kansas 29,904,067 Louisiana 5,276,016 Maine 2,360,657 Massachusetts . _ 1,164,501 Michigan 12,832,078 Minnesota _ . .19,643,533 Missouri -24,581,186 Maryland 3,354,767 Mississippi 9,008,310 Montana 3,640,309 New Hampshire 929,185 New York 14,844,039 New Jersey 1,803,336 North Carolina 8,813,056 New Mexico 1,467,191 Nevada 752,117 North Dakota 20,455,092 Nebraska 24,382,577 Ohio - 19,227,969 Oklahoma 17,551,337 Oregon 4,274,803 Pennsylvania 12,673,519 Rhode Island. , 178,344 South Dakota. . --- - 15,827,208 South Carolina - . 6,097,999 Texas - - - 27,360,666 Tennessee 10,890,448 Utah - 1,368,211 Vermont 1,633,955 Virginia 9,870,058 Wisconsin 11,907,606 West Virginia 6,521 ,757 Wyoming 1,256,160 Washington 6,373,311 272 AVEKAOE ACREAGE PER FARM IN THE UNITED STATES 1910 138 . 1 AVERAGE IMPROVED ACRES PER FARM IN THE UNITED STATES 1910. .75.2 TOTAL VALUE OF FARM PROPERTY IN THE UNITED STATES 1850 $ 3,967,343,580.00 1910 40,991,449,000.00 AVERAQE VALUE OF ALL FARM PROPERTY PER FARM IN THE UNITED STATES 1850. 1910. .$2,738.00 . 6,444.00 VALUE OF ALL FARM PRODUCTS IN 1912 IN THE UNITED STATES 1912 $9,532,000,000 . 00 THE SIZE OF THE SEAS Miles Long Mediterranean 2,000 Caribbean ... 1,800 Red - . 1,400 Black 932 Baltic 600 AREA OF OCEANS IN SQUARE MILES Pacific Atlantic. . Indian Southern. Arctic .70,000,000 .35,000,000 .23,000,000 . 7,000,000 . 4,000,000 SIZE OF THE OREAT LAKES Superior Michigan... Ontario Champlain. Erie Huron Winnipeg... Athabaska. Miles Wide 120 60 40 12 50 90 40 20 273 BOOK-KEEPING ON THE FARM WHILE farmers are very generally adopting scientific methods in tilling the soil, managing their crops and feeding stock, they are still slow to recognize the benefits to be derived from keeping a system- atic set of books. Farming is a diversified business of considerable magnitude. The farmer pays out a large sum of money through many channels during the year and his income is from various sources. As a good business man he should know the cost of productions and maintenance, not only of his operations as a whole, but of each specific operation. He should know the cost of producing a bushel of grain, com, potatoes or any other product of the soil. He should know the cost of feeding cattle and hogs and the net earnings of his dairy. If he keeps a record of these things he will know which feature to improve and encour- age and which to eliminate. The farmer, like the merchant, should make a complete inventory of all of his possessions at least once a year, placing on each item a fair cash value. With each succeeding inventory he should add to it, if his property has increased, and he should also make a reasonable reduction for depreciation, especially of the perishable property. Many farmers hesitate, believing that book-keeping is intricate and hard to master and that it will require too much time. This, however, is not the case. A modified system is very simple and to make daily records will require but a few moments of the farmer's time. If the farmer can interest his boys or girls in book-keeping, they will take delight in keeping the records and reporting from time to time just what each department of the farm is doing. Only three inexpensive books are required, namely, a day-book, journal and ledger. Farmers who have adopted systematic book- keeping unhesitatingly state that it is indispensable to them and should be to any farmer who wants to know the details of his business. A practical and simple system which will serve as a splendid guide to those who are inexperienced in book-keeping can be secured by sending ten cents to the Soil Culture Department of Deere & Company. ST4 INDEX Page ALFALFA 161 Requirements 163 Inoculation Sometimes Necessary 163 Qualities of Alfalfa 163 When to Sow 164 Amount of Seed to Sow 164 Bacteria 164 Cultivation 165 Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Con- stituents 166 ALKALI 12 What Is Alkali? 12 How to Remedy Alkali Soils 12 Crops Adapted to Alkali Soils 13 Seeding Alkali Soils 13 BABLET 119 Varieties 119 Soils 120 Rotation 120 Seeding . . .120 Composition of Bariey 121 BEEF CATTLE — Feeding and Care of . ... 244 ~ Open Shed vs. Confinement 244 Box-Fed vs. Stall-Fed 244 Feeding Corn in Various Forms to Steers . . 245 Good Rations 246 Sugar-Beet Pulp 247 BEOOAB WEED 179 Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Con- stituents 179 BUCKWHEAT . 125 CALVES — Feeding and Care of 231 How to Care for the Dairy Calf 231 Feeding the Calf 231 Martm's Rations for Calves . . . 234 Pens 234 Scours 234 CLOVEB Winter-Killing Seeding Varieties Rotation Harvesting . .166 ... .169 .169 170 172 ... 172 Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Con- stituents 172 CORN 87 Value of Corn 87 Source of Fertility 87 Utilization of Various Elements Existing in the Soil 87 Advantage of Feeding Corn to Live-Stock . . 89 Fertility 91 Is Fertility Waning? 92 Seed 93 Wisconsin Experiments with Dififerent Varieties 95 Barren Sulks 96 Seed-House 97 Cultivation 100 Length and Depth of Roota 102 Kind of Cultivator to Use 102 When to Use the Mulch Harrow 104 How to Raise 100 Bushels of Com Per Acre . 104 COTTON 141 The Seed-Bed 142 Fertility 142 Rotation 144 Seed 144 Diseases and Pests 144 Remedies 147 The Boll-Weevil 147 COW PEAS 173 Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Con- stituents 175 Page DAIBT COWS— Rations for 221 Good and Poor Rations 222 Ear Corn Compared with Corn-and-Cob Meal 223 Corn and Mixed Grains 225 Ground Oats and Bran 225 Kaffir Meal 225 Gluten Feed Compared with Wheat Bran and Corn Meal 226 Cotton Seed Meal Compared with Various Feeds 226 Dried Brewers* Grains Compared with Wheat Bran 226 Corn Silage Compared with Corn Fodder . . . 227 Com Silage Compared with Sugar Beets .... 227 Soilage vs. Pasture 228 Grinding Grain for Cows 228 Com Silage vs. Com Fodder 229 A Well-Balanced Ration 229 A Good Ration for an Average Herd 230 Various Rations for Dairy Cows 230 A Safe Guide 230 DAIBTINQ 215 Testing a Cow 217 Selecting a Herd 219 Care of the Cow and Dairy Buildings 219 Contagious Abortion in Cows and How to Prevent It 221 DRAINAGE 37 Why Lands Are Made More Productive by Drainage 37 Drain Tile Improve the Soil Physically 39 Drainage Prevents Surface Washing 39 Water-Holding Capacity of Soil 39 Power of Soil to Absorb Moisture from the Air 40 Size of Drain Tile to Use , 40 Amount of Drain Tile Requireil Per Acre . . 41 Depth of Drains 41 How to Lay Pipe 41 DRY-LAND FARMING 150 The Seed-Bed 150 Plowing 151 Use of Harrow, Disc and Packer 151 Kind of Implements to 'Joe 151 Storing Water 153 Subsoiling 154 Conserving Water 155 Soils Adapted to Dry-Land Farming .... 155 Capillary Attraction 156 Summer Fallowing 157 Surface Mulch 158 Fertility 158 Rotation 158 Planting 159 Seed 159 Drouth-Resisting Crops 160 FARM GARDEN FLAX 261 125 FOREWORD 3 GRASSES 180 Essential Features to Be Observed in Grow- ing Grasses 18O Adaptation to Soil and Climate 180 Character of the Seed-Bed 180 Varieties 18O Timothy 180 Kentucky Blue Grass 180 Redtop 182 Orchard Grass 182 Brome Grass 182 Johnson Grass 183 Rye Grass 183 Bermuda Grass 183 Quack Grass 183 ESect of Grasses on Soil 184 276 INDEX —Continued Page GOOD KOADS 268 MILO MAIZE. Page . 126 HAY, Making How to Cure Hay . HORSES (Feeds) . . HOW CAN THE FAKM BE MADE MORE ATTRACTIVE? IRRIGATION Important Things to Be Observed in Irri- gating Benefits of Using the Two- Way Plow KAf FIB CORN LIME LIVE-STOCK Value of Live-Stock to the Farmer . . . . Stock- Raising Profitable Relation of Stock to Prices of Products . Relation of Stock to Fertility Breeds Her«f ords Shorthorns Galloways Aberdeen-Angus Sussex Other Breeds Dairy Cattle The Ideal Dairy Type Holsteins Jerseys Guernseys Ayrshires Other Breeds Feeding Rations The Nutrients in Feeds How to Determine a Balanced Ration . Water Air MANURES Definition of Kinds Plant Food in Stock Feeds Plant Food in a Ton of Fresh Dung .... Plant Food in Urine Composition of Farm Manures Composition of Litter Plant Food Removed by Crops Humus Value of Humus Dairy Cow in Wisconsin Preserving Manures Value of Manure Composting Loss from Leaching. Evaporation, Etc ... . How to Spread Cost of Spreading Manure Benefits of Manure Results of Various Tests Results from Spreading with a Spreader and by Hand Top-Dressing Growing Crops Green Manures Effect of Green-Manuring Commercial Fertilizers Lime Quantity of Lime to Apply Kind of Lime to Apply When to Apply Lime How to Apply Lime Salt Feat, Muck, Leaf Mould Poultry Manure MILLETS... Varieties, . . Uses Seeding. . , . Harvesting. 185 185 252 263 41 42 42 125 79 198 198 198 198 199 200 201 201 201 202 202 202 203 203 206 206 206 206 206 210 210 211 212 213 214 49 49 49 50 50 51 51 51 53 55 55 57 61 61 63 63 65 67 69 69 71 73 74 75 76 79 81 82 82 82 83 84 85 187 187 189 189 189 MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 270 Quantity of Seed to Sow Per Acre 270 Number of Pounds to the Bushel in Different States 271 Capacity of Corn Cribs 271 Population of the United States 272 Land Area of United States in Acres 272 Land in Farms, Acres in the United States 272 Improved Lands in Farms, Acres in the United States 272 Acres of Improved Farm Land in the States 272 Average Acreage Per Farm in the United States 273 Average Improved Acres Per Farm in the United States 273 Total Value of All Farm Property, Per Farm, in the United States 273 Average Value of All Farm Property in the United States 273 Value of All Farm Products in 1912 in the United States 273 The Size of the Seas 273 Area of Oceans in Square Miles 273 Size of the Great Lakes 273 MODERN FARMING METHODS 14 Essential Features to Be Observed 14 Stock-Raising 14 Crop-Raising 15 The Seed-Bed 15 Water 18 Humus 20 Fertility . 20 Rotation 22 How Plants Feed 22 Seed 23 Cultivation of Plants 23 OATS SoU Fertility . Rotation Varieties Seed Diseases^ and How to Prevent 106 107 107 107 107 107 108 Oats for Forage 108 Digestive Nutrients 109 PLOWING 24 Why We Plow 24 When to Plow 24 How to Plow , 24 Depth to Plow 25 Cropping Lessens Amount of Humus 26 Influence of Different Systems of Farming Upon Humus Content of Soil 26 When Not to Till Deep 27 Benefits of Deep Tillage 27 Soil Which Admits of Deep Plowing 28 Deep Plowing Without Bringing Subsoil to the Surface 29 The Jointer 29 Subsoil 30 Different Types of Subsoil Plows 31 Benefits of Subsoiling 32 When Not to Use the Subsoil Plow 33 POTATOES 131 SoU 131 Depth to Plow 132 Depth to Plant 132 Fertilizers 132 Cultivation 133 Seed 134 How to Cut Seed 134 Diseases 135 Planting '. 135 Harvesting 136 Storing 136 INDEX— Continued POULTRY Breeds Feeding Feed for Laying Hens The Hen House . Diseases RAPE Soil Time to Sow . . Uses EICE Page . 253 254 25G , 258 260 261 189 . 191 191 . 191 . 128 ROTATION Value of Rotation Crops Which Should Not Succeed Each Other Lucerne or Alfalfa Clover Lime Winter-Killing A Good Rotation RTE 43 43 45 45 45 47 47 47 123 Digestible Nutrients in Rye Products 123 SALT 83 SEED How to Test SEED-BEU SEPTIC TANK. 98 99 265 SHEEP AND LAMBS— Feeding and Care. . . 248 Exposure vs. Confinement 250 Salt 251 Corn Silage vs. Roots. 251 Alfalfa Hay vs. Prairie Hay 251 SILO .191 Food Value of the Corn Plant 193 When to Fill the Silo 193 Silo Construction 195 Capacity of a Silo 197 Summer Silo 197 SOIL 10 What Is Soil? 10 Essential Inorganic Elements of 10 Requirements of Plants in 10 Productiveness of 10 How to Improve Physical Condition of. Formation of Classification of Sedentary Soils Transported Soils Sand Clay Silt Loam Weight of Soils .... SPELTZ Feeding Speltz Page 11 SWEET POTATO. SWINE Types and Breeds . Care and Feed. . . . Care of Pigs .... Feeding Pigs . . Various Rations . . SUGAR BEETS Soils and Fertilizers . Drainage Cultivation . Rotation TOBACCO 9 9 9 9 121 122 137 207 207 . 235 . 235 236 238-243 139 139 140 141 141 VELVET BEANS Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Con- stituents VETCH .... Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Con- stituents 119 177 17H 178 179 WHEAT .109 Varieties. .109 Germination Ill Loss in Weight During Germination. . Ill Roots Ill 111 112 113 111 115 116 117 Stooling Seed-Bed Rotation Fertility Manures Seed Seed Should Be Adapted to Locality Insects 117 Seeding 117 Roller and Harrow 118 Digestible Nutrients in Wheat 119 ILLUSTRATIONS Page Field of Corn 16 Sun-Baked Soil 17 The Ideal Seed-Bed 18 Different Kinds of Seed-Beds 21 Plow in Operation 25 Deep Plow in Operation 29 Plow Equipped with Subsoil Attachment .... 30 Subsoil Plow in Operation 31 Seed-Bed Showing Escape of Moisture 34 Seed-Bed Showing the Effect of a Mulch 34 Seed-Bed Not Disced Before Plowing 35 Seed-Bed Disced Before Plowing 35 A Good Seed-Bed 35 The Disc Harrow 36 The Two-Way Plow 43 Corn in Rotation with Oats and Clover 44 Herd of Guernsey Cows 48 A Manure Pit 52 Manure Spreader 54 How Fertility Is Lost 56 Cheap Manure Pit 68 Poor Way to Spread Manure. . . ., 60 Spreading Manure from a Wagon 62 Placing Manure in Piles 64 Loading Manure 66 Brownies at Work 68 Top-Dressing Corn 70 Top^Dressed Meadow 72 Sowing Lime with a Manure Spreader 78 Field of Boone County White Corn 88 Field of Reed's Yellow Dent Corn 90 A Good Type of Seed-Corn 94 Brown's Seed-Corn Tester 98 Surface Cultivator 100 Page Results of Cultivating to Different Depths. 101 Combination Cultivator 103 Cutting Wheat on a Dakota Farm 110 Corrugated Roller 118 Field of Kaffir Corn 124 Potato Digger in Operation 136 Flexible Pulverizer and Packer 152 Subsoil Plow 154 Alfalfa 162 Alfalfa Cultivator 165 Field of Clover 168 Field of Cow Peas 174 Field of Soy Beans 176 Dain Side-Delivery Hay Rake 186 Hay Loader 188 Dain Hay Stacker at Work 190 Dain Power Baler at Work 192 Silos 194 Filling a Silo 196 A Typical Beef Animal 202 Imported Dorset 204 The Hampshire Hog 208 Pure-Bred Guernsey Calves 216 A Modem Dairy Barn 218 Lord Balam 220 Bopeep 224 Wyandottes 254 Leghorns 255 Brahmas 256 Plymouth Rocks 257 White-Crested Black Polish 259 R & V Triumph 263 Cream Separator* Churn and Washer 264 Septic Tank 266 278 "THE SOIL B THE BASIS OF ALL WEALTH"