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THE 
 
 HISTORY AND SCIENCE 
 
 EDUCATION 
 
 FOR INSTITUTES, NORMAL SCHOOLS, READING CIRCLES 
 
 AND THE PRIVATE SELF-INSTRUCTION 
 
 OF TEACHERS 
 
 BY 
 
 WILLIAM J. SHOUP, M.S. 
 
 AUTHOR OF GRADED DIDACTICS ; EASY WORDS FOR LITTLE LEARNERS AND 
 HOW TO USE THEM ; SHOUI''s GRADED SPELLER, ETC. 
 
 NEW YORK ■ : • CINCINNATI ■ : • CHICAGO 
 
 AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 
 
A, \V\0^*i 
 
 Copyright, 1S91, by 
 AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY. 
 
 Press of J. J. Little & Co. 
 Astor Place, New York 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 Prefatory, 5 
 
 I. Empiricism and Beyond, g 
 
 II. The Development of the Mental and the Moral 
 
 Faculties, 15 
 
 III. The Objective Period of Life — The Kindergarten, 22 
 
 IV. How the Kindergarten System may be made Service- 
 
 able to the Ordinary School, . ... 32 
 
 V. Object Lessons especially adapted to the Latter 
 Part of the "Objective Period" of the Child's 
 School Life, .... . .40 
 
 VI. Object Lessons Continued and Amplified, . 49 
 
 VII. Recapitulation and Elucidation of the Perceptive 
 and the Conceptive Faculties, with a Brief Gen- 
 eral Statement of our Mental Phenomena, . . 57 
 VIII. Importance of Certain of the Conceptive Faculties, 
 
 with Methods of cultivating and utilizing them, 68 
 IX. The Third Stage of Intellectual Development, 78 
 X. The Fourth Stage of Intellectual Development. 
 Inductive Reasoning and its Application to Teach- 
 ing, 86 
 
 XL The Rational Combination of the Inductive and 
 
 the Deductive Methods in Teaching, . . 94 
 
 XII. The Moral Faculties and their Cultivation, . . 106 
 XIII. The Moral Faculties and their Cultivation — Con- 
 tinued, . . . 115 
 
 PART II. 
 
 I. A Glance at the Antediluvian World, the Import- 
 ance of Writing as an Educational Factor, with 
 a Sketch of Chaldean, Babylonian, and Assyrian 
 
 Education ... 123 
 
 (3) 
 
4 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 II. Education, Systems of Instruction, etc., in Ancient 
 
 Egypt, India, and China 133 
 
 III. The Education and Schools of Ancient Greece, . 145 
 
 IV. Education and Schools of Ancient Rome, . . . 156 
 V. The Evolution of the New Old World, . . 165 
 
 VI. The Educational Forces in Europe during the Me- 
 dieval Ages, ... . 177 
 VII. The Italian Renascence and the Revival of Learn- 
 ing, 190 
 
 VIII. The English Renascence and the Educational Prog- 
 ress of Europe in the Sixteenth Century, . 200 
 
 IX. Educational Reformers 210 
 
 X. Educational Reformers — Continued, .... 220 
 XI. The More Recent Educational Awakening in Foreign 
 
 Lands, 234. 
 
 XII. American Education during the Colonial Period, 247 
 
 XIII. The Fostering Hand of the General Government in 
 
 Education, 264 
 
 XIV. The Development of the American System of Com- 
 
 mon Schools, 274 
 
 XV. The Present American System of Common Schools, . 290 
 
 Index, 305 
 
THE HISTORY AND SCIENCE 
 OF EDUCATION. 
 
 THE EVOLUTION OF MIND AND THE CONSEQUENT 
 
 SCIENCE OF EDUCATION APPLIED TO THE 
 
 ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 PREFATORY. 
 
 Let no one suppose that the higher departments of the 
 teacher's profession are attained without some effort, or 
 that honorable distinction is the result of chance. There 
 is no royal road to preferment here, any more than in other 
 departments of professional life. Here, as elsewhere, 
 
 " The heights by great men reached and kept, 
 Were not attained by sudden flight; 
 But they, while their companions slept, 
 Were toiling upward in the night." 
 
 If you expect to rise above the rank of a non-professional 
 teacher and become an educator in the higher and better 
 sense of the term, you must make yourself familiar with 
 the laws that govern the development of the human mind ; 
 and you must learn to adapt your teaching to those laws. 
 Having made this advance, you should learn to regard 
 
 (5) 
 
6 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 your calling as a profession rather than a trade, and should 
 expect, too, the more desirable positions and the better 
 salaries. 
 
 Let no one persuade you that to gain such honorable 
 position in the higher departments of educational work at 
 the present time is any trivial matter. There are those 
 who will tell you that there is no science in teaching, and 
 that for you to study the " philosophy of teaching " is to 
 waste your time. How can these people know, having 
 themselves confessedly never " wasted any time " in the 
 study ? 
 
 There are those who will tell you that the salaries paid 
 are inadequate to compensate you for any such outlay 
 of time and labor. The salaries paid where non-profes- 
 sional work will pass unchallenged are as high as are paid 
 for a similar grade of work in other callings, and to expect 
 skilled workmen's wages for unskilled workmen's labor is 
 scarcely honest. The additional compensation is usually 
 fully commensurate with the additional preparation re- 
 quired for the higher grades of work. 
 
 They will tell you next that teaching is a thankless task. 
 If you are willing to continue on from year to year, going 
 through the same old routine and doing mechanically 
 the work laid out for you by others, do you really think 
 you would be entitled to any superabundant amount of 
 gratitude ? Those who find teaching a thankless task are 
 usually those unworthy of thanks. To the teacher, indeed, 
 there is always genuine gratitude from those whose opin- 
 ions she most highly prizes. It is difficult to see how 
 any one can derive much real pleasure from the thanks 
 of those whom he knows in his secret heart he has not 
 instructed in the most enlightened way. Make yourself 
 worthy the gratitude of those for whom you labor, and 
 you will surely receive it in most generous measure ; and 
 
PRE FA TOR Y. 7 
 
 you will then enjoy it, too, in a way you never could have 
 done when, as an honest man or woman, you felt that you 
 did not deserve it. Teaching is not a thankless task, 
 though the falsehood has been repeated so often that 
 many have actually been led to believe it, notwithstand- 
 ing the abundant evidence to the contrary on every hand. 
 
 " But," your Job's comforter will urge, " teachers be- 
 come narrow-minded and are regarded as of little value in 
 a social way." Undoubtedly too many do grow narrow- 
 minded and lose caste in the community. There is but 
 one way to avoid this, and that is to make yourself broad- 
 minded. The second part of this objection is, however, 
 like the last one considered, much more traditional than 
 real. There is no natural prejudice against the teacher's 
 calling, and on this side of the ocean teachers have always 
 enjoyed high social rank". In exceptional cases it has been 
 because the individual was unworthy of association with the 
 better class of people, and not because his occupation or 
 profession was deemed degrading by the broad common 
 sense of the community. In Great Britain, however, until 
 within the present generation, the case was somewhat dif- 
 ferent ; but here, too, the prejudice seems to have been 
 caused by the nature of the men who occupied the teacher's 
 desks. Since the government has taken more direct con- 
 trol of the schools and provided them with teachers worthy 
 of the name, this prejudice has rapidly waned, and ere long 
 the teachers of England will enjoy the high social rank the 
 dignity of their profession justly entitles them to claim. 
 
 It is recorded that the ancient Romans, wishing to cast 
 an indignity upon one of their most distinguished citizens, 
 elected him to an office corresponding to that of our road 
 supervisor or path-master. But he filled the office so well, 
 and improved the public highways to such an extent that 
 he raised the office to one of high dignity, and made it 
 
8 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 coveted and sought after by those aspiring to honorable 
 distinction. 
 
 So let our teachers bring credit upon their office by 
 improving the work of the schools, and we shall hear no 
 more about the teacher's office being less honorable than 
 that of the other learned professions. 
 
 Occasionally some Anglo-maniac, aping the English airs 
 of a quarter of a century ago, still attempts to assert his 
 own superiority by reiterating the obsolete assertions of his 
 trans-Atlantic models, that our professional teachers are in- 
 ferior, intellectually, to men in the " learned professions." 
 In answer to one of these, the author showed in a magazine 
 article, recently, that the educational standard among our 
 professional teachers is much higher than that of any other 
 profession — the ratio of college-trained men and women 
 among them being more than twice as great as that in 
 any other calling; while it was also shown that the stand- 
 ard among those who are commonly classed as non-profes- 
 sional is much higher than that required for entrance into 
 the lower ranks among either doctors, lawyers, or minis- 
 ters. Will you not do your part in making our calling still 
 more honorable in the estimation of the public — by making 
 it so in fact ? 
 
HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 EMPIRICISM AND BEYOND. 
 
 Empiricism. — During the world's earlier stages of 
 civilization— before the science of chemistry was known, 
 and while anatomy, physiology, and hygiene were yet very 
 imperfectly understood— the effects of various herbs and 
 drugs in killing or in curing, as the case might seem to 
 be, were carefully recorded. 
 
 It is probable that many of the " cures " were due to 
 other causes than the drugs administered; while the deaths 
 or relapses may have often been due to causes other than 
 the apparent ones. But imperfect as the system was, much 
 of it has stood the test of more modern scientific experi- 
 ment, and is retained by the most enlightened physicians. 
 
 The doctors of those times knew little of the nature of 
 disease or of medicines, but people afflicted with certain 
 diseases seemed to be helped in the majority of cases by 
 given remedies, and they, therefore, prescribed these to 
 others similarly afflicted. 
 
 Such a system of practice — practice based on the results 
 of observation rather than on scientific investigation of 
 principles — is styled empiricism; the person who employs 
 it is said to be an empiric; and his methods are said to 
 be empiric or empirical. 
 
 (9) 
 
io HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 The value of any such system must obviously depend on 
 the extent of the observations on which it is based, and 
 the care with which they are made. In any event, it is 
 certainly a much more rational system than the reverse 
 one — of merely assuming a certain course to be correct, 
 and then continuing to practise it in spite of disastrous 
 results. 
 
 However contemptuously certain classes of writers may 
 speak of our "practical men," it is certain that without 
 empiricism the machinery of every-day life would soon get 
 sadly out of gear, and much of it would come to a dead 
 stand. It has been stated, and not without reason, that 
 there is no surer test of the relative degree of civilization of 
 a country than the amount of soap it consumes; but how 
 many of the millions who employ this cleansing agent most 
 abundantly possess any definite knowledge either of the 
 chemical composition of the soap itself or of the real science 
 of its agency in removing soil and grease ? Three fourths 
 of us, probably, are as ignorant of these things as are " the 
 great unwashed." More than this, it must be acknowledged 
 that the most expert chemists are not always models of 
 personal cleanliness. 
 
 Neither can it be disputed that much of the world's most 
 practical work in mechanics, engineering, invention, etc., 
 is done by men who do not possess, in the scientific sense, 
 a knowledge of the principles they employ. Many of our 
 most accurate surveyors could not demonstrate a single 
 one of the formulEe they use if their life depended on the 
 effort, and few telegraph operators, comparatively speak- 
 ing, are scientific electricians. 
 
 Beyond. — Thus far, your work in Didactics has doubt- 
 less been largely of an empirical nature — i. e., your con- 
 clusions have been drawn from experience rather than 
 from investigations of the nature of the human mind and 
 
EMPIRICISM AND BEYOND. u 
 
 the laws of mental development. Recognizing the fact that 
 the great majority of our teachers must for many years 
 to come be drawn from the graduates of the common dis- 
 trict schools, with little special training for their work, it is 
 usually the aim of works on education to present for the 
 inexperienced teacher's use such devices and methods, and 
 ^such adaptation of studies to the age of the pupils, as have 
 been found most practicable under ordinary circumstances. 
 Though these may all be really based on scientific prin- 
 ciples, and may have been abundantly tested by the experi- 
 ence of the most trustworthy teachers, it has been deemed 
 prudent to defer the philosophy of education until the 
 student-teacher's age and experience should render such 
 investigations more easy and profitable. It is believed that 
 the inexperienced will, by following such practical direc- 
 tions, teach a much better school than would he who sets 
 out in a way of his own, without chart or compass to guide 
 him, and learns only through experience's proverbially dear 
 school. 
 
 The carpenter's apprentice may get along very well in 
 many departments of his work by following the directions 
 of the master-builder, and the edifice when completed may 
 be both as beautiful and substantial as though each ham- 
 mer and chisel had been wielded by a master hand ; but 
 had the untrained builder attempted to do the work un- 
 aided by the architect's directions, it would have proved a 
 most unshapely building when completed; if, indeed, the 
 loose-jointed structure had not toppled over and buried him 
 beneath its rubbish as the reward of his folly. Besides 
 this, he would have wasted much time and material in the 
 " cut-and-try " methods he was forced to adopt in his labor. 
 But there will come a time when this same workman, if he 
 is attentive to the directions given him, will have gained 
 such skill in the use of tools, and such knowledge of the 
 
12 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 structure of buildings, that he will weary of doing mere ap- 
 prentice work, and will aspire to become a master-builder 
 or architect himself. With his present practical knowledge 
 and skill, the gulf will not be an impassable one, and by a 
 comparatively small amount of earnest study he may pass 
 from being the mere follower of the directions of others to 
 be himself a director. 
 
 Do you say it would have been much better had this 
 would-be builder studied carefully the science of architec- 
 ture before laying hand to the hammer or the saw — that he 
 would then have known why each mortise was to be made 
 in each particular beam, and why material of a given kind is 
 most suitable for the foundation, of another kind for the 
 superstructure, and of a still different kind for the roof ? No 
 doubt such knowledge would have been valuable, and had 
 not the material been selected for him, or at least had he 
 not been given instruction by the master-mechanic as to 
 what kinds to employ for each particular stage of the work, 
 it would not only have been highly presumptuous, but posi- 
 tively criminal in him to begin as he did. But being in- 
 formed what kind of material to use, he set to work without 
 stopping to analyze its properties. He assumes, as he has 
 a right to do, that the knowledge of the master-builder is 
 reasonably reliable, follows his directions, and at once be- 
 gins acquiring skill in the use of tools, and knowledge of 
 the structure of buildings. During the time he is thus en- 
 gaged, he is learning, too, in the most practical way pos- 
 sible, the various groperties of the material on which he 
 labors, and is acquiring a fund of information that will be 
 of infinitely more value to him when he becomes a master- 
 builder himself, than if it had been learned only theoret- 
 ically. 
 
 Then, too, the building had to be reared in a given time 
 and a sufficient number of skilled workmen could not be 
 
EMPIRICISM AND BEYOND. 13 
 
 procured. The few who could be had were needed either 
 in laying out the work for the unskilled artisans, and 
 directing them in the use of tools, or their labor was de- 
 manded in the higher grades of work, which only skillful 
 hands can do at all. 
 
 Just so it is in the work of teaching. In the ideal state, 
 all our teachers should not only be trained in the branches 
 they are to teach, but they should also have a systematic 
 knowledge of the nature and functions of the human mind 
 and soul — i. e., they should be trained in mental and moral 
 philosophy. 
 
 But it must yet be many years before this ideal state of 
 things can exist; and, like true philosophers, we must take 
 things as we find them, and make the most of them. As 
 Wendell Phillips observes, " Common sense plays the game 
 with the cards it has. It does not ask an impossible chess- 
 board, but takes the one before it and plays the game." 
 
 Most of our teaching must, of necessity, be done by 
 apprentices, but " there is always plenty of room higher 
 up," and it is presumed that you are now qualified to go a 
 step beyond mere empiricism and investigate the laws of 
 mental and moral development, and the consequent studies 
 and methods of instruction best adapted to the various 
 stages of the child's unfolding mind. 
 
 It is not proposed to give here any thing like a sys- 
 tematic course in psychology or mental philosophy. It is 
 only proposed to present as much of the nature of the 
 mind and its faculties as may be necessary to a rational 
 idea of the underlying principles of common-school edu- 
 cation. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER I. 
 
 Empiricism illustrated by ancient medical practice. The weakness 
 and the value of medical empiricism shown. The usefulness of empiri- 
 cism in every-day life — mechanics, engineers, telegraphers, even in- 
 
14 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 ventors may do excellent practical work without a scientific knowledge 
 of the principles involved. 
 
 The student-teachers now better prepared for more scientific work. 
 The teacher's progress illustrated by that of the carpenter's apprentice, 
 who becomes a master-builder. 
 
 How the empirical knowledge gained in his apprenticeship may 
 further his later scientific researches. 
 
 Why and how apprentice- wqrk-fmay^ be used vutfaout injury to the 
 building. Why it was necessary to employ apprentice work. 
 
 Why teachers should study mental and moral philosophy. 
 
 Since it is impossible, at present, to procure any large number of 
 teachers thus qualified, common sense dictates that we do the best we 
 can with the material we have. 
 
 The present work is by no means a treatise on psychology — it merely 
 gives, in a very brief and simple form, the primary laws of mental and 
 moral development, and their practical application to school work. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. 
 
 Other causes being equal, in whose hands would you rather trust your 
 life in the case of dangerous sickness — the empiricist, or the scientifi- 
 cally trained physician ? Why ? 
 
 Admitting the fact that a man may be a successful farmer without 
 any scientific knowledge of the chemical composition of soil, fertilizers, 
 etc., can you still state any good reasons why it is desirable that we 
 have scientific agriculturists ? 
 
 Admitting the fact that excellent work may be done by teachers who 
 know nothing of the theory of education, would you regard this as a 
 sufficient excuse for not studying the theory as well as the practice of 
 teaching ? 
 
 Can you show that the teacher of an independent rural school has 
 more pressing need of an understanding of the underlying principles of 
 education than has the teacher of any given grade in a city school? 
 
 Is the fact that you have taught for some time by empirical methods 
 a reason for, or against, your now studying the scientific principles 
 underlying mental evolution ? Why, or why not ? 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MENTAL AND THE 
 MORAL FACULTIES. 
 
 It has been said, " There is nothing great on earth but 
 man, and there is nothing great in man but mind." If by 
 " mind " is meant not only man's intellectual faculties, but 
 his moral faculties as well, this statement will doubtless 
 hold ; and since education consists mainly in the develop- 
 ing and the training of these god-like faculties, it must be 
 apparent that there is no secular calling or profession 
 higher than the teacher's. 
 
 " Cultivation of the Senses." — But the mind is 
 reached, in childhood and youth, mainly through the 
 senses, and as the senses are acted upon through physical 
 organs, it must be apparent that the training of the mind 
 is influenced to a very great degree by the pupil's physical 
 organization — that is, by influences largely beyond the 
 teacher's reach or control. The organs of the senses are 
 the tools or implements by which the mind is supplied, or 
 by which it supplies itself with food and clothing, so to 
 speak ; and it is all-essential that these tools be in proper 
 condition for use. 
 
 Theoretically, therefore, a system of education should 
 begin with the cultivation of the organs through which the 
 senses act, as the skillful mechanic grinds and whets or 
 files and polishes his tools. But, practically, the tempering 
 of the mind's tools is a matter far beyond the teacher's 
 reach. He can not give the weak and watery-eyed clear 
 vision, any more than he can make the deaf hear. The 
 
 C'SJ 
 
1 6 I ir STORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 causes which affect these are much too deep-seated in the 
 system to be visibly affected by any amount of "training'' 
 which the teacher can give. It may take several genera- 
 tions of the most careful observance of sanitary laws to re- 
 produce healthy and acute organs of sight, hearing, touch, 
 taste, or smell. 
 
 Care of the Organs of Sense.— It behooves the 
 teacher, however, to guard with the greatest care such 
 tools as nature has furnished the little ones for the cultiva- 
 tion of their minds. As the carpenter watches his appren- 
 tice to see that he does not dull or ruin his saws and planes 
 and other tools by cutting into half-hidden nails or grit, so 
 the faithful teacher will watch that her apprentices do not 
 ruin their infinitely more valuable tools of the mind by 
 careless using. This is especially true of the eyes — the 
 organs of the highest of the senses. While she can not cure 
 weak eyes, she may, by proper vigilance and the influence 
 which her position affords her, prevent their further injury, 
 and here the old saying that " an ounce of prevention is 
 worth a pound of cure " has peculiar application. The 
 judicious tempering of the light in a school-room for a 
 single term may do more toward acute vision in a commu- 
 nity than seven generations of the strictest observance of 
 sanitary conditions in the way of curing the mischief when 
 it has once been done. 
 
 It is the true province of the teacher, therefore, to train 
 the mind in the proper using of such tools as nature, or per- 
 verted nature, has provided it. 
 
 Physical education, the tempering of the mind's imple- 
 ments, is the foundation of education. Ay, it is even more 
 than this— it is the sub-stratum of rock, or clay, or mud, or 
 shifting sand, on which the structure stands or falls, but it 
 is usually laid long before the teacher has any thing to do 
 with the pupil. 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FACULTIES. x>j 
 
 The Faculties of the Mind — Before discussing the 
 various faculties of the mind in detail, the following general 
 facts regarding intellectual and moral development should 
 be first considered : 
 
 The human mind, though in many respects a most com- 
 plex organism, is one indivisible substance, having various 
 states and modes of action ; these states and modes of 
 action are called Faculties. The various faculties fol- 
 low certain laws of evolution ; they may be developed by 
 being properly trained on appropriate themes, or they 
 may be dwarfed and stunted by being exercised on inap- 1 
 propriate subjects, or by being overstrained. In addition^ 1 
 to this, they may admit of improper or abnormal develop- 
 ment. The mind communicates with the external world 
 through five channels — Touch, Taste, Smell, Hearing, and 
 Sight. The faculties are first exercised on material objects 
 and the phenomena of the external world through the 
 senses ; these material aids, therefore, greatly promote the 
 activity of all the faculties of the mind. 
 
 Though the same faculties exist in most minds, their 
 natural force differs widely in different individuals, and the 
 same processes that will develop them in one child may be 
 inadequate in another ; still, there are certain general prin- 
 ciples that apply to the great mass of unfolding minds. 
 There are certain of the faculties, such as attention, that 
 require some effort of the will to bring them into action — 
 these are called voluntary faculties. And since the child 
 is naturally of a social nature, and since pleasure is one of 
 his chief incentives to action, he is usually best trained in 
 company with others of his own age, and by whatever 
 means the most pleasure may be commingled with the 
 effort of attention. Kind nature has also provided a cer- 
 tain amount of refining pleasure in the healthful exercise 
 of the faculties ; and the love of the beautiful and of the 
 
 2 
 
1 8 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 wonderful are also actuating principles in the child-mind ; 
 their gratification is, therefore, to be considered of great 
 importance in all rational systems of instruction. Modes 
 of instruction which violate these principles are apt to give 
 rise to harsh and cruel modes of discipline, and to turn the 
 hearts of the little ones away from that which would other- 
 wise have proved their chief delight. 
 
 The repetition of the same or similar acts gives rise to 
 habit. The habits of attention and concentration of the 
 mind to any subject are the key-stones of education. It 
 is not to be expected, however, that the habit of concen- 
 trating the faculties upon a single point, for any considerable 
 length of time, can be fully attained by children ; their love 
 of change and novelty precludes this. Let the primary 
 teacher ever bear this fact in mind. 
 
 Some of the faculties naturally repose or lie compara- 
 tively dormant until a later period of life. The attempt to 
 develop these faculties before their natural time is doubtless 
 one of the chief causes of children's distaste for school. 
 
 The faculties are never so vigorous as when they are 
 exercised voluntarily, and they are never thus exercised 
 on unnatural subjects or before their natural time. The 
 natural teacher is, therefore, the one that studies to place 
 before the pupils such mental aliment as they, at that par- 
 ticular stage of their intellectual development, most crave. 
 Children have a natural craving for knowledge, as well as 
 for occupation, and they need only to be directed to the 
 proper mental nourishment in order to educate themselves 
 to a very large degree. 
 
 The vigor of any one of the faculties, and the desire for 
 its further development, increase as it has been judiciously 
 exercised. The sooner a faculty is called into healthful 
 action, the greater, ordinarily, will be its vigor ; but the 
 teacher must be sure that the action is healthful. He can 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FACULTIES. 19 
 
 not, therefore, have too thorough knowledge of the laws of 
 mental evolution, nor can he be too vigilant in studying 
 the development of his scholars' minds. 
 
 The cultivation of the reasoning faculties must not be 
 too long delayed, but it is ruinous to attempt to force these 
 before their natural time, as is so often done in our common- 
 schools: The faculties, in their evolution, act and re-act, 
 more or less, upon one another. Thus, the moral faculties 
 are stimulated by the development of the intellectual facul- 
 ties, and vice versa. These should, therefore, be cultivated 
 simultaneously. 
 
 For the purpose of cultivation, the faculties may be 
 arranged in certain groups, but the cultivation of one of 
 these is apt to develop others more or less. Our subjects, 
 as well as our methods, of instruction must, of course, be 
 varied to suit the different classes or groups of faculties 
 under training. 
 
 The human mind, even in early infancy, is far from being 
 a sheet of blank paper on which impressions are written 
 by the hands of the various senses. There is a living soul 
 back of all this that reads and classifies all these impres- 
 sions. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER II. 
 
 The mind of man is the noblest work of the Creator ; to train it is a 
 lofty calling. 
 
 The mind is reached through the senses — the senses are the tools of 
 the mind. Theoretically, then, education should begin with cultivating 
 the eye, ear, etc. 
 
 Practically, this lies beyond the teacher's sphere. The teacher 
 should, however, carefully guard from injury the sight, etc., of her 
 pupils. 
 
 The teacher's province is to train the mind in the use of the senses. 
 
 General facts of mental and moral development. 
 
 The mind an invisible entity — its faculties. 
 
 Development of the faculties by training — Stunting — Abnormal 
 development. 
 
20 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Five channels of communication with the external world — the mind 
 first developed through these. 
 
 General principles that apply to unfolding minds. 
 
 The voluntary faculties. The use to be made of companionship, of 
 the pleasure of mental effort, of the love of the beautiful and of the 
 wonderful. 
 
 Habit — Attention and Concentration — Young children can not con- 
 centrate their minds on a subject, except for a very brief time. 
 
 Some of the faculties partly dormant until a more mature age. 
 
 Importance of developing the faculties in their due order, and of 
 exercising them upon appropriate subjects. 
 
 The natural love of knowledge. 
 
 The vigor of the faculties increases with proper exercise. They 
 should be called into healthful action as early as may be — hence the 
 importance of teachers knowing the laws of mental development. 
 
 The faculties, in their development, stimulate one another. The 
 moral and the mental should be cultivated simultaneously. 
 
 The faculties may be arranged in groups— the subjects of the methods 
 of instruction will vary according to the group under training. 
 
 The infant mind is not a sheet of blank paper for the senses to write 
 impressions on. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. 
 
 What are some of the ways in which pupils may injure their sight ? 
 
 What means should teachers take to prevent this ? 
 
 Are any of the other organs of the senses liable to be injured in con- 
 nection with school duties? If so, what, and how? 
 
 Is it right to hold the pupil to account for the imperfect learning of 
 lessons when there is reason to believe that his failure is due to natural 
 inability ? 
 
 What is your opinion of the teacher who ridicules his pupils under 
 such circumstances ? 
 
 What do you think of the propriety of such things as "dunce blocks" 
 and " dunce caps " in school ? 
 
 Are the faculties apt to be symmetrically developed in self-educated 
 men ? Why, or why not ? Give some noted examples. 
 
 Are the large classes in our graded schools well calculated to meet 
 the various shades of natural ability in pupils ? What statements in 
 this chapter apply to this question ? 
 
 It is stated in this chapter that the love of the beautiful and the won- 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FACULTIES. 21 
 
 derful are actuating principles in the child-mind, and their gratification 
 is, therefore, to be considered as of great importance in all rational sys- 
 tems of instruction. In what ways can the teacher apply these in the 
 ordinary school ? 
 
 How long may you reasonably expect to hold the attention of the 
 six-year-olds to any given point ? 
 
 When their attention begins to waver, what should you do ? 
 
 If you find it impossible to hold your pupils' attention at all to any 
 subject you may be trying to present to them, what should you con- 
 clude ? 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE OBJECTIVE PERIOD OF LIFE— THE KINDER- 
 GARTEN. 
 
 Childhood : The Objective Period The various 
 
 stages of man's life have been differently classified by dif- 
 ferent writers of high authority. Pythagoras gave but 
 four, while others give five, six, seven, etc., and Solon in- 
 sists on ten such periods or divisions in our career from 
 the cradle to the grave. 
 
 But whatever artificial sub-divisions philosophers may 
 make, and however difficult it may be to draw exact lines 
 of demarkation, two great periods are as strongly marked 
 as are those of spring and summer — viz.: manhood or wo- 
 manhood and the period which precedes it. 
 
 While it is true in a certain sense that " men are but 
 children of a larger growth," the added growth has brought 
 with it many new and greatly altered conditions, both of 
 body and mind. " When I was a child I spake as a child, 
 I understood as a child, I thought as a child ; but when I 
 became a man, I put away childish things," wrote the in- 
 spired and most learned apostle ; and he but recorded the 
 experience of the millions of every land and nation. Up 
 to this great turning-point, the child has been largely de- 
 pendent upon others — his parents and his teachers ; but 
 henceforth he was designed to provide for himself or to 
 assume charge and instruction of others. 
 
 This first great epoch of human life — the age when we 
 are in a measure dependent upon others for guidance and 
 support — may be roughly divided into three periods, viz. : 
 
 (22) 
 
THE OBJECTIVE PERIOD. 23 
 
 Childhood or infancy, boyhood or girlhood, and youth. The 
 mental traits of these three periods are as different as are 
 their physical characteristics, and each accordingly demands 
 its own peculiar studies and methods of instruction. 
 
 Childhood, or infancy, embraces that period of our life 
 extending to about the seventh year. It is characterized 
 by extraordinarily rapid growth and development of all the 
 physical organs. 
 
 This stage in the child's mental growth has been not in- 
 aptly termed " The Objective Period." That is, the little 
 one is now most largely dependent for its mental food on 
 objects foreign to or outside of itself. Its mind is much 
 more receptive than self-active, its manifestations of self- 
 activity being chiefly in the way of efforts to retain and 
 classify the myriads of impressions which come to it from 
 without, through the soul's five open gateways — tasting, 
 seeing, hearing, feeling, smelling. This is, therefore, the 
 great preparatory period of intellectual development. 
 
 Perceptive and Conceptive Faculties. — The faculties 
 most prominent in this period of the child's career are those 
 known as the perceptive faculties — that is, those fac- 
 ulties which, in the main, have to do with the reception of 
 impressions from without through the senses. It must also 
 be borne in mind that, especially toward the close of this 
 period, the mind begins to have more or less definite con- 
 ceptions of things as the result of impressions received. 
 It begins to think of the qualities or properties of things, 
 aside from the things themselves, and we say that the con- 
 ceptive faculties are being developed. 
 
 The memory is especially active, and impressions now 
 made are apt to be the more lasting. This fact should be 
 utilized by every primary teacher, though care must be 
 taken, at the same time, not to abuse this opportunity by 
 storing the soul's workshop with a lot of material which 
 
24 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 it will not be called upon to use for years to come, and 
 which will then be found so rusted by disuse as to be prac- 
 tically worthless. 
 
 The most natural educators of the little ones are now 
 their mothers, and the author has small sympathy with 
 those philosophers who would either rob the mother of this 
 sacred office or excuse her from its duties. The Creator has 
 implanted in her heart an instinct deep as the very fountains 
 of her soul, which insures much closer sympathy from her 
 in her offspring's wants than any others can have, no matter 
 how carefully trained they may be in the laws of physical 
 development and mental evolution. God pity the children 
 who are reared without a mother's tender love and watchful 
 care ; and God pity, too, the woman who assumes mother- 
 hood lightly esteeming the care and instruction of her little 
 ones ! 
 
 There is a time, however, toward the close of this Objec- 
 tive Period of the child's career — say, during the time he is 
 from five to seven years of age — when the mother's care 
 is often largely drawn to her more tender offspring, and 
 when she needs the devoted primary teacher's aid. 
 
 Instruction during this period must be in the most rudi- 
 mentary parts of the scholastic branches, and in its earlier 
 stages it were better, no doubt, that no instruction in the 
 ordinary studies of the schools be given. This is pre- 
 eminently the period for objective teaching, and as it is 
 characterized by intense activity and a love for play on the 
 part of the little learner, kindergarten methods are espe- 
 cially adapted to it. A brief statement of this system is 
 therefore here appended. 
 
 A Brief Statement of Froebel's Kindergarten Sys- 
 tem.* — The Kindergarten (Ger., children s garden) is a 
 peculiar system of education, founded by Frederick Froebel 
 
 ♦Adapted from the " Dictionary of Education and Instruction." 
 
THE KINDERGARTEN. 25 
 
 designed to precede all other elementary training, and to 
 prepare the child for regular instruction by exercising all its 
 powers, so as to render it self -active. While the reformers 
 of education before his time, including Pestalozzi, whose 
 assistant Froebel was, treated the youthful mind, more or 
 less, as a passive recipient of truth, goodness, and beauty, 
 it was his fundamental idea to set the child to do whatever 
 it could be induced to do as a kind of amusement, exercising 
 its observing faculties in connection with its playthings and 
 games, and thus to create in it an interest in learning. He 
 discovered, by means of half a century's attentive practice 
 in teaching, in association with many other excellent educa- 
 tors, that the faculties of many children are stunted in infancy 
 and earliest youth by the want of appropriate mental food ; 
 that every child may be developed (may develop itself) into 
 a self-educator by appropriate amusements ; and that, in 
 this manner, pleasure may be made the most efficient in- 
 strument in the first stages of education. He, therefore, 
 studied all the plays and games in use from the most an- 
 cient times in order to find their special adaptation to men- 
 tal and bodily growth, and thus formed a complete philo- 
 sophical system of early intellectual culture. This culture 
 was to begin in the earliest stages, with ball plays, accom- 
 panied by snatches of song and rhyme ; later with a sphere, 
 a cube, and a cylinder of wood, used for various amusing 
 exercises, and calculated to enliven the attention and in- 
 crease the self -activity of the child. The two little books 
 for mothers, which contain his suggestions for this purpose, 
 disclaim any merit of invention ; he considers them derived 
 simply from a diligent observation of the methods of many 
 excellent and successful mothers. But it was not from books 
 alone that he intended mothers should learn how to train 
 their children. They were to be educated, as young chil- 
 dren, in a kindergarten, and afterward, before graduating 
 
26 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 from the upper classes, to learn the art of infant education in 
 a model kindergarten. It was in this way that he hoped to 
 render, in the course of time, all mothers true educators of 
 infancy, the centers of happy family circles, and the priest- 
 esses of a higher humanity, so that they might be " in har- 
 mony with themselves, with nature, and with God." 
 
 But mere family education being liable to one-sidedness 
 and exclusiveness, social education should begin early in 
 order to complement the former. During a part of the day 
 the child should be in company with many other children 
 of the same age, he said, and should engage in such plays 
 as supply, in a gradually ascending scale, proper food for 
 the mental and bodily appetites and functions, while mak- 
 ing the company of little ones as happy as possible. This 
 can be done only under the guidance of a true teacher, 
 who should be a woman, capable, by natural endowments 
 and previous study, to take the place, in this respect, of the 
 mother. The locality should be a hall in a garden, with 
 flowers, shrubs, and trees, each child having his own flower- 
 bed, so that he may learn how to raise plants and to enjoy 
 nature. The playful occupations of the pupils comprise a 
 great variety of plays in a given order, which, however, 
 should not be absolutely fixed, but should afford a healthy 
 change, without inducing habits of imperfect attention and 
 restlessness. None of these occupations were the invention 
 of Froebel ; they had all been practised more or less before 
 his time. But their combination into a harmonious whole, 
 their adaptation for mental food in every direction, and their 
 development in detail, must be set down as his creation; and 
 the experience had with them in many hundreds of kinder- 
 gartens is said to justify the wisdom of the system. There 
 is still much controversy among the followers of Froebel 
 themselves in regard to minor details ; and some improve- 
 ment has been made upon his own first practical realization 
 
THE KINDERGARTEN. 2 -j 
 
 of the idea, which, from insufficiency of means, could not 
 be all that he desired; but the indefinite perfectibility of 
 the system in practical details, according to its principles, 
 insures its progressive success. 
 
 The exercises of the kindergarten are alternately carried 
 on in a sitting, and in a standing or walking position, for the 
 sake of a salutary change, and are partly such as can, with- 
 out special training, be guided by any good teacher ; namely, 
 singing; the reciting of child-like poetry, committed to 
 memory by means of the teacher's frequent repetition; 
 light gymnastics, marching exercises, and easy ball plays; 
 acting the doings of men and animals; all these accompanied 
 from time to time with song, or turned into objective lessons 
 by frequent conversations on the things mentioned or repre- 
 sented; also, amusing employment with playthings called 
 gifts, of which there are several sets. The guidance of 
 these occupations requires a practical training on the part 
 of the teacher, and a theoretical study which can never be 
 too thorough if the pupil's mental and moral development 
 is to become what Froebel intended it to be. 
 
 The teacher is not to teach them, but to lead his pupils 
 by suggestions conveyed in questions or conversation, so 
 that the child may become inventive. The teacher is to 
 abstain from all learned lore — from using abstract expres- 
 sions. Abstract notions are severely banished from the 
 kindergarten; it is merely concrete things, which the child 
 can learn through the senses, and can clothe in his own 
 language, and can become familiar to him by his own men- 
 tal assimilation. Neither is discipline to be maintained by 
 authority, or by any mechanical means, but by the sugges- 
 tions of the teacher, and by the pupils' own absorption in 
 the interest of their occupations.* Thus children are, at an 
 
 * This is the way the case is most commonly stated by the more radical adherents 
 to the principles of Froebel ; but in practice it requires some modification. Said 
 
28 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 early age, enabled to discipline themselves through pleasant 
 employment; to submit to the will of the majority of their 
 equals, on the one hand, or assert, on the other, their own 
 free volition, if they can induce others to agree with them. 
 Thus, they are to take their first lesson in moral self- 
 government. 
 
 Owing to the necessity of special skill and training in 
 order to conduct a kindergarten efficiently, many persons 
 who undertake this work fail, through want of preparation, 
 to produce the results designed. In this way, spurious 
 kindergartens have caused much complaint, and brought 
 considerable discredit upon the system. The test of a 
 good kindergarten is its obvious effect upon the pupils in 
 exciting cheerfulness, intelligence, activity, and a fondness 
 for the school work. If, on the other hand, the children 
 dislike the school, it is an evidence that there is a want of 
 
 Miss Brown, of Boston, in her paper on the " Application of Froebel's Principles 
 to the Primary School " before the National Teachers 1 Association at Chicago : 
 
 u In our schools there should be more of that wise winning, by which a child is 
 led to do the right cheerfully and willingly. Still, even in the kindergarten, the 
 little ones should feel the power behind the throne. We believe that children have 
 an intense respect for law and order, however careless they may be themselves. 
 It is right, it is imperative that a child shall feel himself obliged to do certain 
 things, and refrain from doing others, because it is a required or expected thing. 
 And if the kindergartner or teacher be as firm as she is winning, the children will 
 not chafe under her little restrictions. There should be times in the kindergarten 
 when the children arc required to remain quiet for a time, while in some position 
 not irksome. If such little devices are not employed, how else can the child be- 
 come accustomed to the long sittings in the primary schools ? 
 
 " Do not some kindergartners err from an excess of patience? We have more 
 than once seen the kindergartner stand over a naughty child for half an hour 
 striving to win him to do a thing ; whereas a wise mother would have settled the 
 matter in about thirty seconds by insisting upon prompt obedience both as duty 
 and privilege. We believe most heartily in that wise direction of the will that 
 secures a voluntary obedience from the child. Personal issues are to be avoided 
 in the school and kindergarten as well as the home. Still, the child must realize 
 that obedience is not always to be a choice with him ; that he owes it to others 
 who have a right to expect that unquestioning, cheerful service. Some of our 
 most loyal kindergartners have maintained that we do violence to the child's 
 nature by insisting. Yet how shall he escape this great burden laid upon him by 
 nature and life?" 
 
THE KINDERGARTEN. 
 
 29 
 
 tact and skill in its management. There may, indeed, exist 
 in such a school all the occupations recommended by 
 Froebel, and each may be used according to the estab- 
 lished formula ; but if the spirit in which the exercises are 
 to be conducted is missing, if the treatment is mechanical, 
 all the moral influence which should spring from the 
 cheerful self-activity of the child is lost. If, too, the 
 teacher shows always the calm and dignified deportment 
 of the ordinary class disciplinarian, instead of entering 
 with all her heart into the harmless joy from which the 
 child's self-government is to take a fruitful growth, and 
 calming only the troublesome excess of this mirth by now 
 and then a look, a word, or a gesture, she is not well-fitted 
 for her calling. A genuine kindergartner will, like the 
 best of mothers, take a lively interest in remedying, as 
 far as possible, the bodily, mental, and moral defects of 
 every child under her care — uncleanly and disorderly hab- 
 its, want of attention, stammering, color-blindness, a bad 
 gait or posture, imperfect articulation, etc. She will, in 
 this way, earn the gratitude of the children and their 
 parents, and exert a great moral influence. Her efforts in 
 this respect are, in a great measure, facilitated by the plia- 
 bility of the child's powers, as well as by its desire to avoid 
 ridicule, and to enjoy the society of its comrades. Abun- 
 dant experience teaches that there need be no incurable 
 cases of the above kind among children who have the full 
 use of their senses; that all children may learn drawing, 
 singing, correct enunciation, and many other arts and 
 accomplishments that are by common prejudice pro- 
 nounced attainable by those only who are specially gifted. 
 It is evident, therefore, that a kindergartner can hardly be 
 too well educated; and, also, that no education repays so 
 abundantly its cost. 
 
3 o HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER III. 
 
 Various stages of life reckoned by different authors. 
 
 The great natural division into the two periods of minority, and 
 manhood or womanhood. 
 
 Three divisions of minority: infancy, or childhood; boyhood or 
 girlhood; and youth. 
 
 The Period of Childhood : Extends to about the seventh year. 
 Characterized by rapid growth. The Objective Stage. The prepara- 
 tory period. Perceptive Faculties most prominent. The Conceptive 
 Faculties also begin to play an active part. Memory peculiarly reten- 
 tive. How this fact should be utilized. 
 
 The mother the most natural educator of the very young child. 
 When the primary teacher's aid becomes useful. 
 
 Object teaching and instructive plays are better adapted to beginners 
 than the usual school studies. 
 
 Brief Account of the Kindergarten : Its fundamental idea is to 
 render the child's powers self-active by free exercise. The child is 
 thus trained to educate himself. 
 
 Froebel studied the games of all times and nations, to select and 
 arrange those most conducive to the happy and symmetrical develop- 
 ment of the child. 
 
 The kindergarten training was at first intended to be used both by 
 mothers and teachers. The kindergarten should have u. garden at- 
 tached where the children may play and work. 
 
 Kindergarten exercises consist of marching, singing, playing games, 
 playing with the gifts, etc. 
 
 The teacher must have a thorough special training. 
 
 No abstract expressions are to be used. Discipline must not be 
 maintained by authority — Some modification of this statement. 
 
 No kindergarten which children do not enjoy is a good one. 
 
 It should remedy personal defects and bad manners. 
 
 The kindergartner needs special gifts, thorough training, and wide 
 knowledge. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. 
 
 What is apt to be the influence on a child's character by removing 
 him from his mother's care during a considerable portion of each day, 
 before he is about five years of age ? 
 
THE KINDERGARTEN. 3 1 
 
 Can you trace any connection between this and the fact that the 
 children of the very wealthy often turn out badly ? 
 
 What about the children of the wretchedly poor ? 
 
 Would you regard kindergartens for ordinary children, below the age 
 of four or five, a blessing to the little ones or a misfortune ? 
 
 What would you think of their influence on the wretched children of 
 the streets, in the great cities, with no mother worthy of the name ? 
 
 What of their influence on the children of the very wealthy and others 
 whose children are so often given over to the care of nurses and other 
 domestics ? 
 
 What influence would their general introduction, at this tender age, 
 be apt to have ? Why ? 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 HOW THE KINDERGARTEN SYSTEM MAY BE MADE 
 SERVICEABLE TO THE ORDINARY SCHOOL. 
 
 Froebel's Gifts. — To carry out more practically his 
 idea of inducing the child to educate itself through pleas- 
 urable employments, commonly called play, Froebel de- 
 vised a system of apparatus to be given to the children, as 
 material for interesting and instructive occupation. Hence 
 the name "gifts." Later teachers have improved and 
 extended Froebel's "gifts," until the set now embraces 
 twenty. They are here given for reference only : 
 
 i. Six soft balls of various colors, the use of which is to teach color 
 (primary and secondary), and direction (forward and backward, right 
 and left, up and down) ; also to train the eye, and to exercise the hands, 
 arms, and feet in various plays. 
 
 2. Sphere, cube, and cylinder, designed to teach form, by directing the 
 attention of the child to resemblances and differences in objects. This 
 is done by pointing out, explaining, and counting the sides, edges, and 
 corners of the cube, and by showing how it differs, in these respects, 
 from the sphere and the cylinder. The manipulation by the child 
 should, of courss, precede this demonstration by the teacher. The 
 child's self-activity will prompt it to place these forms in various posi- 
 tions and combinations, so as to realize in its conceptions everything 
 that is analogous or dissimilar in them. 
 
 3. A large cube divided into eight equal cubes, the object being to 
 teach both form and number, also to give a rudimental idea of frac- 
 tions. 
 
 4. A large cube divided into eight oblong blocks, designed to teach 
 number and a simple variety of form (cube and parallelopiped). 
 
 5. A large cube divided into twenty-seven equal cubes, three of the 
 
 (32) 
 
THE KINDERGARTEN SYSTEM. 33 
 
 latter being subdivided into half cubes, and three others into quarter 
 cubes (forming triangular prisms). This is a further continuation and 
 complement of (3), but affording much ampler means of combination, 
 both as to form and number. 
 
 6. A large cube so divided as to consist of eighteen whole oblong 
 blocks, three similar blocks divided lengthwise, and six divided breadth- 
 wise — a still further continuation of the ideas involved in (3). 
 
 7. Triangular and quadrangular tablets of polished wood, affording 
 the means of further exercise in reversing the position of forms and 
 combining them; and presenting, in addition, illustrations of plane sur- 
 faces, instead of solids, as in the previous gifts. This arrangement, 
 placing the surfaces after the solids, recognizes an important principle 
 of education — that we should pass from the concrete to the abstract, 
 the square being a side of the cube, and the triangle deduced from the 
 prism. 
 
 8. Sticks for laying : Wooden sticks, about thirteen inches long, to 
 be cut into various lengths by the teacher or pupil, as occasion may re- 
 quire. These sticks, like most of the previous gifts, are designed to 
 teach numerical proportions. The multiplication table may be practi- 
 cally learned by means of this gift. The forms of the letters of the 
 alphabet and the Roman and Arabic numerals, may also be learned. 
 
 9. Rings for ring-laying, consisting of whole and half rings of various 
 sizes, in wire, for forming figures ; designed to develep further ideas of 
 form ; also to afford a means for developing constructiveness of the 
 pupils, and practice in composing simple designs. 
 
 10. Drawing slates and paper, consisting of slates ruled in squares, and 
 paper ruled in squares, for the purpose of enabling the pupil to draw 
 or copy simple figures in a methodical manner, the ruling aiding them 
 in the adjustment of proportions. 
 
 11. Perforating paper, ruled in squares on one side only, with perfor- 
 ating needles, affording more advanced practice in producing forms and 
 executing simple designs. 
 
 12. Embroidering material, to be used for transferring the designs 
 executed on the perforating paper, by embroidering them with colored 
 worsted or silk on cardboard. 
 
 13. Paper for cutting : Squares of paper are folded, cut according 
 to certain rules, and formed into figures. The child's inclination for 
 using the scissors is thus ingeniously turned to account, and made to 
 produce very gratifying results. 
 
 14. Weaving paper Strips of colored paper are, by means of a steel 
 
 3 
 
34 
 
 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 or wooden needle of peculiar construction, woven into a differently 
 colored sheet of paper, which is cut into strips throughout its entire 
 surface, except a margin at each end to keep the strips in their places. 
 A very great variety of figures is thus produced, and the inventive 
 powers of the child are constantly brought into requisition. 
 
 15. Plaiting material, including sets of flats for interlacing, so as to 
 form geometrical and fancy figures. 
 
 16. Jointed slats ( gonigraphs), for forming angles and geometrical 
 figures. 
 
 17. Paper for intertwining : Paper strips of various colors, eight or 
 ten inches long, folded lengthwise, used to represent a variety of geomet- 
 rical and fancy figures, by plaiting them according to certain rules. 
 
 18. Paper for folding, consisting of square, rectangular, and triangu- 
 lar pieces, with which variously shaped objects may be formed. 
 
 19. Material for peas work, consisting of wires of various lengths, 
 pointed at the ends, which are passed through peas that have been 
 soaked in water for six or eight hours ; these are then used to imitate 
 various objects and geometrical figures. Cork cubes are sometimes 
 used instead of peas, as being more convenient. 
 
 20. Material for modeling : Modeling knives, of wood, and model- 
 ing boards, by means of which various forms are modeled in beeswax, 
 clay, putty, or some other soft substance. 
 
 The Kindergarten Spirit. — " What has the kindergar- 
 ten to do with the work of the ordinary school ? " does some 
 one ask ? Much, in many ways. First of all, it illustrates 
 the great principle of the necessity of making school-work 
 attractive to the little learners. If it only induces our 
 teachers to put just a little of the kindergarten spirit into 
 the primary work of the district school, it will repay a 
 thousand-fold the little time we have here devoted to it. If 
 it impresses on the minds of our teachers the fact that the 
 child-mind deals with the concrete rather than the abstract, 
 and if it induces them to conform their instruction to this 
 fundamental principle, it will make them much better 
 teachers of the little ones than the great majority of their 
 predecessors. 
 
THE KINDERGARTEN SYSTEM. 35 
 
 If it succeeds in impressing the truth that activity is one 
 of the Heaven-implanted laws of childhood, and induces our 
 teachers to furnish employment for each little pair of willing 
 hands, it will bring joy and gladness to many a childish 
 heart, and engender such a love for school that study will 
 be a delight. If it impresses upon our primary teachers the 
 utter unreasonableness of expecting the children to sit quiet 
 three-quarters of their school day, with nothing whatever 
 to occupy their attention save looking into space's vacancy 
 and doing their utmost not to think of any thing, it will have 
 saved many a budding mind from blight. 
 
 In addition to all this, it is believed by many of the 
 most thoughtful educators that the highest utility of the 
 kindergarten system is attained when it is applied in con- 
 nection with primary school work rather than when entirely 
 divorced from it. 
 
 It is true that love for play is one of the chief attributes 
 of the little learner's soul, and there can be small doubt that 
 the Creator designed this attribute as much for an imple- 
 ment of self-education to the child as for a means of letting 
 sunshine into his little heart; but toward the close of the 
 " Objective Period " of his career — the time from five to 
 seven in the average pupil's life — more serious occupations, 
 like those of the best primary schools, may well be inter- 
 spersed. While it is emphatically true that " all work and 
 no play makes Jack a dull boy," it is doubtless equally true 
 that all play and no work may tend to make him frivolous. 
 
 The amount of kindergarten spirit, or actual kindergar- 
 ten occupation, which can be interwoven with the ordinary 
 school routine, will depend largely on the teacher's own 
 originality — in fact, the success or failure of the work itself 
 must rest to a very great degree on this, since many of 
 the " gifts " admit of almost endless variety of application. 
 
 Applications of the Gifts. — Let us glance at a few of 
 
36 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 these variations— such as any bright teacher of a primary 
 room in a graded school, or of a district school, may easily 
 evolve if it is undertaken in the true spirit of a teacher. A 
 few minutes' work of this sort occasionally would certainly 
 be time well spent. 
 
 Take, for example, the "third gift." These little cubic 
 blocks may easily be used, not only to amuse and instruct 
 the child by drawing his attention to their most obvious 
 qualities, but they may also be employed to cultivate in 
 him the sense of the beautiful and tasteful, as the result of 
 order and harmony and symmetry. An important princi- 
 ple of Froebel's system was to accustom the child to de- 
 velop symmetrical forms and figures by slight changes and 
 alterations, rather than by destroying the whole original 
 figure, and then reconstructing it entirely anew. There is, 
 indeed, much more in such a habit than at first appears 
 upon the surface, as every scientist, or artist, or skilled me- 
 chanic will affirm. 
 
 Thus, as Mr. Hoffman so aptly illustrates, place first the 
 eight cubes before the child as they stand in the box. 
 Then induce him to place one of the upper layer to each 
 of the four sides of the lower, beginning at the middle and 
 proceeding to the right, as shown below : 
 
 + + X f- ■#■ 
 
 Face to double Face to /ace. Edge to edge. Face to face. Face to double 
 face. /ace. 
 
 Or such as the following : First make an oblong, four 
 blocks long and two blocks wide; and when alterations 
 are made, let them be made with both hands on each of 
 the two columns at once. Thus, take the two from the 
 upper end of figure i and place them at the bottom, edge 
 to edge, as in figure 2; then move two more from the top 
 
THE KIXDERGARTEN SYSTEM. 37 
 
 with the two hands simultaneously, as shown in figure 3; 
 then two more, evolving figure 4; and then, by the reverse 
 process, the three preceding forms may be evolved from 4, 
 and so on through an almost endless number of symmetri- 
 cal forms, which any ingenious teacher may easily discover. 
 
 I A A. ^\ 
 
 1. 2. 3. 4. 
 
 The child not only loves play, but he loves dearly well 
 to "make something," and this craving, to be of use in the 
 world, should be early encouraged and cultivated. Let him, 
 therefore, construct numerous forms of utility, his vivid im- 
 agination supplying what the figures lack in detail. Thus, 
 a key, (1), will, by slight changes, grow into an umbrella, 
 (2); a goblet, (3); a candlestick and burning candle, (4); 
 a fruit dish, (5); a hammer, (6); a sofa, (7); a wagon, (8); 
 a bench, (9); a table, (to); etc., etc., etc. 
 
 t +YiY 
 
 1. 
 
 T 1-9 Hi M m 
 
 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 
 
 With the fourth gift, these industrial forms may be ex- 
 tended to a much wider range of objects, and the embryo 
 architect, or smith, or sculptor, may here find ample food 
 for his inventive genius or occupation for his ever-willing 
 hands. 
 
 With the " fifth gift " a vast amount of arithmetical and 
 
3 8 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 geometrical work may be introduced — much more than any- 
 ordinary primary school usually attempts to do. 
 
 From these simpler forms the little ones may be led on, 
 step by step, until they will have laid in a fund of informa- 
 tion or experience that will make the transition to subjec- 
 tive work or abstract reason natural and easy. It will not 
 now be so difficult for the mind to look inward and study 
 itself, for the obvious reason that it now finds something 
 tangible to study there. And all this, if judiciously intro- 
 duced by the teacher, need not interfere in the slightest 
 with the pupils' regular school work; but, by breaking up 
 its monotony and by supplementing it in various ways, will 
 rather help it along, and lay a broad and deep foundation 
 on which to build for the future. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER IV. 
 
 What has the Kindergarten to do with the Work of the 
 Ordinary Teacher ? It shows the value of making school work pleas- 
 ant. Impresses the fact that the concrete precedes the abstract, that 
 activity is a necessity to a child — that it is cruel to make him sit still 
 and do nothing. 
 
 Many believe that kindergarten methods are of more value as aids to 
 primary work than they are when used alone. 
 
 The love of play as an educational force. 
 
 With children from five to seven, work may well be interspersed 
 with play. 
 
 Much depends on the teacher's ingenuity. 
 
 Uses that may be made of the Gifts in an Ordinary School . 
 Use of the Third Gift to teach order and symmetry. New symmetri- 
 cal forms developed by slight changes. Illustrated exercises with the 
 eight small cubes. 
 
 The child loves to "make something.'' flow this desire may be 
 gratified in the use of the Third Gift — in that of the Fourth Gift. 
 
 Primary arithmetic and geometry may be taught with the Fifth Gift. 
 
 Real progress that may be made by the use of these exercises. 
 
 They will not interfere with regular school work. 
 
THE KINDERGARTEN SYSTEM. 3g 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. 
 
 When primary teachers are exhorted to carry "the kindergarten 
 spirit" into their work, what do you understand the injunction to 
 mean ? 
 
 When it is stated or implied in this chapter that the beginners in our 
 district schools are often required to sit three fourths of the time with 
 nothing whatever to do save trying to " keep still," are the facts at all 
 over-stated ? 
 
 How may the teacher very easily procure Froebel's Third Gift with- 
 out buying it ? 
 
 Can you suggest any other way by which the lesson on developing 
 symmetrical forms and 6gures by slight changes may be impressed ? 
 
 What other objects than the ones given in the figures may be made 
 with the Third Gift ? With the Fourth Gift ? 
 
 What other means than the ones suggested in the text can you sug- 
 gest for encouraging the child's desire to be of use in the world ? (Let 
 this subject have much more than a mere passing thought.) 
 
 State some of the arithmetical and geometrical work which you 
 think might be profitably illustrated by the Fifth Gift. 
 
 What others of the kindergarten Gifts do you think you might use to 
 advantage in primary teaching ? 
 
 Should the games of the playground ever be utilized for educational 
 purposes in any such way as are the in-door kindergarten occupations ? 
 Why, or why not ? 
 
 Is it true, as is often stated by the kindergarten teachers, that allow- 
 ing a child to use any of the kindergarten Gifts carelessly — that is, 
 without following out the purpose for which the Gift was especially 
 designed — is detrimental to his habits of thought? Why, or why not? 
 
 Would, or would not, the same objection hold against letting children 
 play with building blocks, etc., at home? 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 OBJECT LESSONS ESPECIALLY ADAPTED TO THE LAT- 
 TER PART OF THE " OBJECTIVE PERIOD " OF THE 
 CHILD'S SCHOOL LIFE. 
 
 Object Lessons.— As before stated, the objective 
 period of the child's life is the age of all others best 
 adapted to Object Lessons. The reason is obvious : the 
 little learner's mind has been principally engaged thus far 
 in the reception of impressions of external objects through 
 the senses, and be has, by the time he enters school, 
 reached that stage of intellectual development when both 
 the conceptive and perceptive faculties are in more or less 
 active operation. He is now prepared to idealize and 
 generalize his impressions more or less, and he naturally 
 desires to clothe them in language. 
 
 In most of our cities and towns, and in many of our 
 country districts, too, for that matter, "Object Lessons" 
 will be found in the prescribed course of instruction. The 
 framer of the course of study may never have seen a genu- 
 ine object lesson given, and he may not know any one who 
 has seen one; but the expression sounds well, and gives 
 the course an air of " up-with-the-times," so it is put in on 
 general principles. The result is, in many cases, that the 
 teacher, who has never seen any thing of the sort, makes an 
 attempt to carry out the requirements of the schedule, and 
 succeeds about as well as one would in giving a lesson on 
 the violin, without previous training on that much-abused 
 instrument. These abortive attempts at giving object 
 (4°) 
 
OBJECT LESSOXS. 41 
 
 lessons have, in many sections, brought the system into 
 disrepute ; and there is undoubtedly much truth in the 
 assertion that the object lessons, as conducted in the 
 majority of our schools, are the most objectless of all lessons. 
 
 Many, in attempting to conduct these exercises, seem to 
 have no purpose in view further than that of complying 
 with the requirements of the course of study, and so the 
 exercise becomes frivolous, and therefore positively harm- 
 ful to the pupils' habits of thought and recitation. The 
 exercise that leaves no definite impression of its object on 
 the minds of the little ones is worse than a failure. It 
 cultivates purposeless habits, creates in the minds of the 
 children a distaste for the exercise, and in some cases a 
 disposition to turn the whole matter into ridicule — a state 
 of affairs which, it is needless to add, is in the highest 
 degree detrimental to discipline. 
 
 Misconception of True Purpose The failure in 
 
 giving these lessons has been due in many other cases to a 
 misconception of their real purpose on the teacher's part. 
 In an examination which the author assisted in conducting 
 some years ago, the applicants were asked to explain what 
 they understood object lessons to be. The great majority 
 answered, in substance, that they consist in holding up 
 objects before the scholars and then telling them all about the 
 objects thus shown. 
 
 Such a lesson, while it might impart a little information, 
 by the pouring-in process, would utterly fail in the real 
 purpose for which these lessons are designed — that of cul- 
 tivating the perceptive and the conceptive faculties of the 
 little learners. 
 
 The real object of these exercises should ba to induce 
 the children to see with their own eyes, hear with their 
 own ears, feel with their own fingers, taste with their own 
 tongues, then idealize these perceptions, and give their 
 
42 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 conceptions expression in accurate language — first spoken, 
 then written. 
 
 It has been held by some educational writers that one of 
 the prime purposes of the object lesson is the cultivation 
 of the senses themselves. With all due respect for the 
 opinions of these writers, the author does not believe that 
 the amount of such teaching which our schools can give 
 would be liable to sharpen the senses of our pupils to any- 
 appreciable degree. He does not believe that children, 
 however carefully trained in object lessons, would have any 
 sharper vision, any more acute sense of hearing, touch, 
 taste, etc., in the ordinary sense of the terms, than have 
 those who have had no training of the kind at all in the 
 school-room. But there are " those who, hearing, hear not, 
 and seeing, see not," in natural as well as in spiritual 
 things. It is not the province of the object lesson to pro- 
 vide our pupils with the senses themselves — Nature usually 
 does this — but rather to give them skill in their use, to 
 train them to give heed to the impressions which are made 
 in the mind through the senses — to cultivate, in short, the 
 conceptive rather than the perceptive faculties, though of 
 course this must be done through the perceptive faculties. 
 
 Conception — Imagination — By the investigation of a 
 few different substances containing any given property, the 
 mind forms a conception of this property aside from, or inde- 
 pendent of, any one of the objects considered. That is to 
 say, the idea of its qualities, apart from the subject itself, 
 becomes now a distinct object of contemplation. This men- 
 tal process is what we mean by conception. The province 
 of this faculty is to store the mind with ideas formed from 
 its previous perceptions (impressions through the senses), 
 through the aid of close attention and memory. These gen- 
 eralizations of our perceptions have an elevating influence 
 on the mind, and it is often disposed not to stop with the 
 
OBJECT LESSONS. 43 
 
 simple conceptions thus derived, but to go further and ex- 
 tend these into creations more or less original. This fac- 
 ulty is called imagination, though it is in reality only a higher 
 developed form of conception. It is especially character- 
 istic of the latter part of the objective period of the child's 
 life, and it may be utilized by the skillful teacher in making 
 the most commonplace subjects intensely interesting. To 
 the average child of this age, the stick with a rag tied 
 around it becomes a veritable living baby, a paragon of all 
 the virtues, graces, etc., that usually belong to this most in- 
 teresting object of juvenile contemplation ; while a crooked 
 stick with a string for a bridle becomes a genuine prancing 
 war-horse, of extraordinary speed and valor. 
 
 It is the predominance of this faculty that renders the 
 objective age so well adapted to the imparting of moral and 
 religious impressions ; the conceptions derived from the 
 perceptions are now so easily extended to the realms of 
 the unseen spiritual world that they become ever after so 
 real that it is next to impossible to eradicate them entirely 
 from the soul. " Give me the training of your children 
 until they are seven years old," said a distinguished ecclesi- 
 ast, " and I will forever protect the great majority of them 
 against the seductive teachings of the materialist," and this 
 statement doubtless contains a large degree of truth. Ob- 
 ject lessons may, by only a slight extension of the concep- 
 tions, be so directed as to impress indelibly the deepest 
 spiritual truths. 
 
 Association. — The faculty of association, too, is now 
 brought into play, and with the conceptions of new proper- 
 ties, new forms, and new ideas of various kinds, certain 
 arbitrary sounds and signs are associated. The name of 
 the property, idea, or thing, whether spoken or written, be- 
 comes associated with the idea itself, and inseparable from 
 it thereafter. The object lesson, therefore, should always 
 
44 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 be made a language lesson, both in the way of extending the 
 pupils' vocabulary in a natural way, and for the purpose of 
 cultivating accuracy of expression. As Mr. Tate so aptly 
 expresses it : " This habit of clothing our conceptions in 
 language is the highest exercise of the representative fac- 
 ulty. It completely objectifies our ideas, and gives, as it 
 were, a two-fold existence to the products of thought. 
 Words and ideas exercise a reciprocal influence on each 
 other : the visible representation suggests its correspond- 
 ing idea, and the idea suggests the corresponding represen- 
 tation." 
 
 The whole matter is thus admirably stated in a work 
 styled " The Cultivation of the Senses," * — a name which 
 is, however, somewhat misleading, since, as before stated, 
 it is not so much the senses themselves that are cultivated 
 by these lessons as the faculties they supply with aliment. 
 
 Classification of Object Lessons. — " Object les- 
 sons for infant schools may be conveniently grouped into 
 four classes, corresponding to the ages of the children : ist, 
 Lessons in which the main purpose is to lead children to 
 perceive the parts and the more obvious qualities of objects, 
 zd, Lessons calling attention to the less obvious qualities 
 and uses of objects. 3d, Lessons involving an easy classi- 
 fication of things. 4th, Lessons directing attention to the 
 adaptation of means to ends, and thereby exercising the 
 reason. The same subject may be treated in all these ways, 
 the teacher remembering that the senses should be chiefly 
 exercised first, the conceptive faculty next, and the reason- 
 ing faculty last of all. 
 
 "As far as possible, even in the primary school, lessons 
 relating to connected and kindred subjects should be given 
 in a series, so that the relations between things may be 
 
 * " The Cultivation of the Senses." Eldredge and Brother, Philadelphia. 
 
OBJECT LESSONS, 45 
 
 perceived, and in order that new knowledge may be linked 
 on to the old. ' Alike in its order and its methods,' says 
 Herbert Spencer, ' education must conform to the natural 
 process of mental evolution ; there is a certain sequence in 
 which the faculties spontaneously develop, and a certain 
 kind of knowledge that each requires during its develop- 
 ment; and it is for us to ascertain this sequence and sup- 
 ply this knowledge.' 
 
 Apparatus — " The teacher should in all cases take care 
 to provide himself beforehand with the apparatus necessary 
 for his lesson, the apparatus and the experiments made 
 with it being, if properly used, in themselves the lesson, 
 and the teacher merely a demonstrator, whose function is 
 not so much to communicate knowledge by word of mouth 
 as to direct and test the child's powers of observation and 
 reasoning. Careful attention should be paid to the order 
 in which the experiments are performed, and the specimens 
 displayed. 
 
 " If possible, the teacher should have the actual object on 
 which the lesson is given placed before the children; and a 
 specimen of it should be given to each child. For instance, 
 if the lesson were on a daisy, each child should have a 
 daisy, and should examine it for himself, under the teacher's 
 direction, first taking off one part and then another, and 
 laying each part carefully aside. An enthusiastic teacher 
 will always be on the lookout for specimens for the illus- 
 tration of his lessons, and will take advantage of times and 
 opportunities to secure them. I recently heard a lesson on 
 the bee, and found that the teacher had the forethought 
 to secure a complete hive of dead bees, from which he was 
 enabled to furnish every child a handful at the beginning 
 of the lesson. 
 
 " If the actual object can not be had, then a picture of it 
 should be introduced; but it should not be forgotten that a 
 
46 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 picture is only an imperfect symbol of the object which it 
 represents. It is, of course, a more perfect symbol than a 
 word, because it is not arbitrary, and bears some resem- 
 blance to the real thing; but it is addressed to only a single 
 sense, and is very liable to mislead even that. It can give 
 no idea, except by way of suggestion from the association 
 of ideas, of resistance, weight, texture, etc. Pictures that 
 are not on the same scale as the objects represented should 
 contain some familiar object to furnish a standard for rela- 
 tive measurement. A picture of a mouse should contain a 
 cat. A picture of an elephant should contain a man. This 
 rule should be invariably observed in lessons on Natural 
 History. 
 
 Use of Blackboard — "As an auxiliary to all other 
 modes of illustration, the blackboard should be freely used. 
 Every teacher should be able to draw rapidly and effect- 
 ively before his class. An illustration may often be drawn 
 on the blackboard when no other form of illustration is avail- 
 able. Children love to see a drawing grow under their 
 eyes. Moreover, a blackboard drawing enables the teacher 
 to present a complex object little by little, and to exagger- 
 ate the scale of important parts of an object that are too 
 small to be clearly seen in a model or complete drawing. 
 In lessons on subjects in which form plays an important 
 part, as in botany, it is well to get the children to copy for 
 themselves the forms set before them. 
 
 New Words — " In his desire to get children to acquire 
 real knowledge, the teacher should not forget the impor- 
 tance of their acquiring verbal knowledge commensurate 
 with it. Words are indispensable as the symbols of knowl- 
 edge, and should be taught as occasion requires, care being 
 taken that the knowledge of the thing or quality takes 
 precedence of the knowledge of the word designating it. 
 There are some qualities that are common to large classes 
 
OBJECT LESSONS. 47 
 
 of objects. It is not necessary to introduce these into every 
 lesson on objects possessing them. Once well learned, the 
 teacher may assume the knowledge of them, and direct his 
 attention more particularly to distinctive qualities. All the 
 new words should be written on the blackboard, and an 
 abundance of examples should be given and required in 
 which the words occur. 
 
 '• Teachers can not be too careful in performing experi- 
 ments, in handling and arranging specimens, and in draw- 
 ing and writing on the blackboard, to set an example of 
 neatness, order, and symmetrical arrangement. Clumsy ex- 
 periments, disorderly heaps of specimens, bad drawings, 
 illegible writing, and confused blackboard work, have nec- 
 essarily a bad moral and intellectual effect on the minds of 
 the children before whose eyes they are constantly pre- 
 sented." 
 
 ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER V. 
 
 The "objective period" the time for object lessons. The child's 
 perceptive and conceptive faculties are active; he is competent to form 
 general ideas, and express them in language. 
 
 " Object Lessons " often placed in courses of study because they are 
 fashionable. Attempts to give them by those who have never learned 
 how. The result spiritless and indifferent at best, often ridiculous and 
 subversive of discipline. Common misconception that object lessons 
 consist in description of objects by the teacher. 
 
 On the contrary, the real aim is to lead the pupils, first: to observe; 
 second, to express their observations. 
 
 The object of such lessons is not to cultivate the senses, but the capa- 
 bility of the mind to use them — to train the conceptive faculties through 
 the perceptive ones. 
 
 The process and the province of conception. 
 
 Imagination ready and vivid in children. This fact may be utilized 
 in producing profound moral and religious impressions on the child s 
 mind. 
 
 The faculty of association comes into play in teaching the child the 
 spoken and written word that belongs to each new idea. 
 
48 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 The object lesson should always be a language lesson. 
 
 The reciprocal influence of words and ideas upon each other. 
 
 Object lessons for infant schools : Divided into four classes : 
 1st, perceiving the more obvious qualities ; 2d, the less obvious ; 3d, 
 classification ; 4th, adaptation of means to ends. 
 
 Connected subjects should be given in a series. 
 
 Apparatus should be prepared and experiments tried beforehand. 
 
 Have the actual object, if possible. 
 
 Precautions to be observed when pictures are used. 
 
 Use of the blackboard. 
 
 Language lessons. 
 
 Neatness and order. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. 
 
 Did you ever give object lessons to your pupils? If so, what were 
 some of the principal difficulties you encountered ? 
 
 Did your pupils seem to enjoy the exercise, and did it seem to you, 
 upon the whole, that it was profitable ? 
 
 How frequently do you think such lessons should be given, and how 
 long should they be ? 
 
 Through how many years of the pupil's school-life should pure object 
 lessons be continued ? 
 
 What distinction would you draw between object lessons and object 
 teaching ? 
 
 When a child sees an object for the first time, what kind of a faculty 
 is he exercising — perceptive or conceptive ? 
 
 When you ask him such a question as " How many legs has a fly ?" — 
 he having no specimen before him — what kind of faculty is brought 
 into play ? 
 
 Is it possible for us to think without language ? 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 OBJECT LESSONS CONTINUED AND AMPLIFIED. 
 
 In giving object lessons, the subjects first selected 
 should be of the simpler kinds — those whose parts or prop- 
 erties are most obvious — but the lessons should at the 
 same time be made difficult enough to impress upon the 
 minds of the pupils the fact that they are learning some 
 thing, or at least turning their previous knowledge to 
 some account. To spend the whole time of an exercise 
 in impressing upon the class the astounding fact that the 
 table has four legs, does not tend to cultivate their respect 
 for the system. It is well, in the beginning, to introduce 
 such lessons as will afford the little ones some opportunity 
 to gratify their love of activity, as was illustrated in the 
 earlier kindergarten gifts. In the second stage common 
 objects should be introduced — bearing in mind the neces- 
 sity of directing the attention of the pupils to such facts as 
 may have escaped their observation. 
 
 The most interesting classes of subjects are those con- 
 nected with natural history. Here there is so much that 
 even children of an older growth usually fail to see that 
 the lesson, when skillfully conducted, becomes intensely in- 
 teresting. It is wonderful how much the sharp eyes of 
 the little tots may be led to discover in such an object as a 
 feather, a bee, a fly, etc., etc. 
 
 The more prominent parts of the human body may also 
 be made of interest, and the exercises on these may be 
 4 (49) 
 
5° 
 
 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 turned to the most practical account in connection with 
 such subjects as temperance physiology. 
 
 We now pass to a more practical illustration of the con- 
 ducting of this most important school-room exercise. 
 
 A SYSTEMATIC SERIES OF OBJECT LESSONS ON THE HEAD 
 AND ITS MORE OBVIOUS PARTS OR ORGANS. 
 
 Points to be developed : 
 
 i st. — The position of the head. 
 2d. — Its general shape. 
 3d. — The parts on the right-hand side. 
 4th. — The parts on the left-hand side. 
 5th. — The fact that the two sides are just alike. 
 6th. — The covering of the head, and its use, care, etc. 
 7th. — The eyes — their parts, position, care, use, etc. 
 8th. — The nose — its position, care, use, etc. 
 9th. — The ears — their position, shape, care, use, etc. 
 10th. — The mouth — its position, use, abuse, etc. 
 nth. — The fact that all the organs of the head are 
 placed in the best possible position for the purpose for 
 which they are designed; the lesson which this teaches, etc. 
 First Lesson. — The teacher, laying her hand on Lucy's 
 head, asks the class : " What part of Lucy is this, scholars ? " 
 The answer comes promptly, " It's her head." If they 
 are disposed at first to answer in too loud or too boisterous 
 tone, it must be checked, and the answer must be given 
 again in the proper tone. There must be proper freedom 
 in connection with all such exercises, or they will lose much 
 of their spirit and sparkle, and consequently much of the 
 purpose for which they are designed will be lost ; but at 
 the same time, the familiarity of the exercises must not 
 under any circumstances be permitted to degenerate into 
 rudeness or insolence. The interest and enthusiasm must 
 
OBJECT LESSONS AMPLIFIED. ^ 
 
 be natural if permitted to transgress the ordinary bounds 
 of school-room decorum. 
 
 The tone of assurance in which some will be disposed to 
 answer the first question may indicate that they regard the 
 question an insult to their intelligence, and reading between 
 the lines, you may possibly trace such answers in the tones 
 as " Do you take us for babies ? " or, possibly, such choice 
 bits of play-ground slang as " What do you take us for ? " 
 etc., etc. If so, it will be well before going further to con- 
 vince some of those who have manifested the most assurance 
 that possibly their knowledge is not quite so extensive as 
 they think. 
 
 To this end, call up one of the most noisy and ask him 
 to point out to the class the limits of Lucy's head. It will 
 be found that there is a wide difference of opinion among 
 the members of the class — some supposing that it is only 
 the part above the ears and not including the face ; others 
 that it includes the ears but not the chin ; still others that 
 it includes all above the shoulders ; while a few may be 
 disposed to exclude the neck. 
 
 The merit of this little discussion will be the fact that it 
 will convince the members of the class that they need to be 
 a little more thoughtful in regard to common things, and 
 that they may have wrong ideas about the things with which 
 they think they are most familiar. This point being fairly 
 established, the answers to subsequent questions will prob- 
 ably be couched in more respectful tones. This is enough 
 for the first lesson. 
 
 Second Lesson. — Pass in the next exercise to the 
 second point to be developed — the head's general shape — 
 and ask questions something like the following : " James, 
 what is th.e shape of a boy's or a girl's head ? " 
 
 James looks at the heads of his classmates for a few 
 moments, and then answers, but with less assurance than 
 
S 2 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 in the first lesson : " The boys' and girls' heads are 
 round." 
 
 Teacher, holding up a ring : " What is the shape of this 
 ring ? " All agree that it is round, and in answer to the 
 question whether the heads of his classmates are shaped 
 like rings, Frank explains that he means that " They're 
 round the other way." Then Fred comes to his relief with 
 the suggestion that " They're round and long." 
 
 The teacher, picking up the pointer, answers: " Well, this 
 pointer is ' round and long.' Are the heads of the boys and 
 girls shaped like the pointer ? " 
 
 Lizzie has grown excited and makes the comprehensive 
 assertion that " It's round all over ! " 
 
 The teacher, taking a confiscated marble from the desk, 
 says : " This marble seems to be ' round all over ; ' are the 
 heads of the scholars shaped just like the marble ? " A few 
 think so at first, but after a little discussion all agree that 
 they are not shaped just like a marble. 
 
 The teacher then asks each member of the class to name 
 some thing that is " round," telling the rest to watch sharply 
 to see whether any of the round things that are named are 
 shaped like the head of a boy or girl. Among the things 
 mentioned will probably be some that are not round in any 
 sense, and such answers must not be permitted to pass un- 
 challenged. 
 
 Finally, after a large number of round things have been 
 mentioned and in turn rejected as not being shaped like a 
 child's head, Carrie mentions an egg, whereupon several 
 agree at once that she has found it. But it is not until her 
 older brother, Carl, comes to her assistance with the explana- 
 tion that the big end of the egg is the forehead, and the 
 little end the chin, that all are led to see the resemblance. 
 
 The teacher then congratulates the little folks on having 
 discovered the right answer, and then tells them to look 
 
OBJECT LESSONS AMPLIFIED. 53 
 
 into the faces of all their companions and notice the fact 
 that though no two of them are exactly the same shape, 
 they are all egg-shaped. She then explains that any thing 
 "round" in this way is said to be oval (from ovum, an 
 egg)- 
 
 The teacher writes this new word on the board and asks 
 the pupils to mention other things that are of an oval shape. 
 This will be amply sufficient for the second lesson. 
 
 Third Lesson — The question of shape having been 
 satisfactorily settled, we pass in the next exercise to the 
 third topic— the organs or parts ou the right-hand side of 
 the head, beginning at the top. 
 
 The teacher now asks questions somewhat as follows : 
 " Lizzie, what is there at the top of the head on the right- 
 hand side ? " Lizzie answers somewhat cautiously: " I think 
 the forehead is at the top of the right-hand side of the head." 
 A number of hands go up to dispute this, and finally Lizzie 
 concedes that only one half of the forehead is on the right- 
 hand side, though she at first had one or two earnest support- 
 ers who stoutly affirmed that there are two foreheads — one 
 on each side. After some discussion and measurements it 
 is next decided that the eyebrow comes next, then the eye- 
 lid, the eye, and the ear. But the nose gives rise to a 
 somewhat heated discussion, several being confident that 
 we have two noses. The teacher, acting as umpire, de- 
 cides that we have but one nose though we have two nos- 
 trils-one on either side. (This is another new word in 
 their vocabulary, and the teacher writes it on the board.) 
 
 It' is then decided in order, with no very great amount of 
 discussion — for the little folks are already beginning to have 
 a clearer understanding of matters— that we have also one 
 cheek, one half of an upper lip, one half of a lower lip, one 
 half of a mouth, and one half of a chin on the right-hand 
 side. Henry is now called on to state in a connected way 
 
54 
 
 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 the various organs of the right-hand side of the head, which 
 he does as follows: " On the right-hand side of the head 
 there is one half of the forehead, one eyebrow, one eye- 
 lid, one eye, one ear, one nostril, one cheek, one half of the 
 upper lip, one half of the lower lip, one half of the mouth, 
 and one half of the chin." This closes the third topic and 
 the third lesson. 
 
 Fourth Lesson The teacher, in the fourth exercise, 
 
 tells the scholars to look very carefully for one minute at 
 the left-hand side of each other's heads, and then be pre- 
 pared to tell what parts they contain. At the end of the 
 allotted time a dozen eager hands go up, and finally Jennie 
 is accorded the distinguished honor of being allowed to 
 state that the left-hand side of the head contains "one half 
 of the forehead, one eyebrow, one eyelid, one eye, one 
 ear, one nostril, one cheek, one half of the upper lip, one 
 half of the lower lip, one half of the mouth, and one half 
 of the chin." 
 
 The teacher then asks what the class have discovered 
 about the two sides of the head; but the answers at first 
 indicate that the little folks do not catch her idea. So she 
 again asks Henry to state what the right-hand side con- 
 tains, and then asks Phoebe to repeat what the left-hand 
 side contains, and then again asks the class what they can 
 say about the two sides. This time half of the class, or 
 more, see the point to the question, and answer with one 
 voice : " The two sides of the head are just alike." 
 
 Additional Lessons may follow on such topics as the 
 covering of the head, the hair, with some practical thoughts 
 regarding its proper care; the eyes, their prominent parts and 
 use, with the development of the fact that they are placed 
 in the best possible position, and are especially protected ; 
 the nose, and its use and care : why it is placed just above 
 the mouth; the ears and their care and use: why they are 
 
OBJECT LESSONS AMPLIFIED. 55 
 
 shaped as they are ; the mouth and its use and abuse, etc., 
 etc. 
 
 In all such exercises as the above the teacher may easily 
 direct the thoughts of the little ones in such a way as to lead 
 them to discover the fact that their Creator has exercised 
 the utmost kindness in providing these organs, and also 
 locating them in the very best place possible for the pur- 
 poses for which they were designed. 
 
 If the members of the class have learned to write or print 
 with some degree of facility, they may now, after having 
 first been allowed to tell orally what they have discovered 
 about the head, be permitted to write it out on their slates. 
 They will now have something worth the writing, and 
 it will afford them unusual pleasure to be permitted to 
 write it. 
 
 Object lessons as distinct exercises should be continued 
 through only the first two or three years of the pupil's 
 school life ; but object teaching should be continued, in con- 
 nection with various departments of study, throughout the 
 entire common-school course. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER VI. 
 
 In giving object lessons, the subjects first chosen should be simple, 
 but not too simple. 
 
 What classes of objects should be used in the first and in the second 
 stage? 
 
 The best objects are those connected with natural history. 
 
 Why the study of the more prominent parts of the human body is 
 specially desirable. 
 
 Systematic Series of Object Lessons on the Head : 
 
 Table of eleven points to be brought out. 
 
 Detailed description of first lesson — on the limit and position of the 
 head. 
 
 How to check boisterousness and presumption. 
 Second lesson : the shape of the head. The word oval. 
 
56 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Third lesson: the organs on the right side of the head. 
 Fourth lesson: the organs on the left side of the head. Comparison 
 of the two sides. 
 Suggestions as to the Additional Lessons : 
 How the little ones may be shown the goodness of the Creator. 
 Writing out their discoveries. 
 
 How long a period object lessons should be continued. 
 How long object teaching should be continued. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. 
 
 Is it true, as implied in the opening sentence of this chapter, that 
 children are apt to be of a utilitarian turn of mind with reference to their 
 studies ? If so, should the teacher encourage or discourage it? Why? 
 
 Are we most apt to overestimate or underestimate the knowledge and 
 intelligence of children when they first enter school ? 
 
 What do you think is apt to be the case with reference to our esti- 
 mate of the understanding of pupils in the more advanced grades? 
 
 Would you consider such an object as a stone, a poker, or a pieoe of 
 lead as being well adapted as an early object lesson ? Why, or why 
 not? 
 
 In giving a series of object lessons on some one thing, do you think 
 it best first to give lessons on the thing as a whole, and then pass to the 
 consideration of the various parts ; or to begin with the investigation of 
 the parts, and consider the thing as a whole last ? Why ? 
 
 If you were to give an object lesson on a brick, what points would 
 you aim to lead your pupils to mention or discover ? 
 
 Suppose that you were going to study the fly, what points would you 
 aim to develop in the first lesson? 
 
 How many lessons do you think might be profitably devoted to such 
 a subject ? 
 
 Make an outline of them. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 RECAPITULATION AND ELUCIDATION OF THE PER- 
 CEPTIVE AND THE CONCEPTIVE FACULTIES, WITH 
 A BRIEF GENERAL STATEMENT OF OUR MENTAL 
 PHENOMENA. 
 
 It seems advisable, before passing to the consideration 
 of the Knowing and Reasoning Faculties, with the studies 
 and methods best calculated to develop them, first to review 
 the ground already traversed in part, and to elucidate 
 several points that have thus far been merely touched 
 upon. 
 
 The mind has various different states and modes of 
 action. These states and modes are called Faculties. 
 
 Our mental phenomena may be divided into three classes : 
 
 First. Intellect, pure and simple, comprising those 
 faculties by which we perceive, remember, compare, con- 
 ceive, imagine, know, and reason. 
 
 Second. Emotions, comprising both the passive ones 
 of feeling or experiencing pleasure or pain; and the active 
 ones which affect our conduct toward others, such as 
 love, envy, pity, blame, hatred, anger, etc. 
 
 Third. The Will, the faculty by which we exercise self- 
 control, and which, therefore, constitutes man a free moral 
 agent, and which is doubtless more especially the faculty 
 by virtue of which he was said to be created in the image 
 of God. 
 
 The Intellectual Faculties. — Our four successive 
 Stages of mental evolution may be thus expressed : (i) I 
 
 (57) 
 
5« 
 
 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 perceive a thing ; (2) I receive an idealized impression of 
 the properties, qualities, characteristics, etc. , of a class of 
 things apart from any one particular thing of its class ; (3) 
 I know or understand a principle or proposition ; (4) I can 
 prove or demonstrate the proposition. 
 
 The annexed tabulated statement of the Intellectual 
 Faculties is adapted from Tate's " Philosophy of Educa- 
 tion." It is not expected that the teacher shall memorize 
 it before studying the explanations that follow ; but it is 
 intended rather as an index in keeping the groups of facul- 
 ties more clearly in mind. It should be checked off in the 
 mind, so to speak, as we advance in its explanation. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF THE INTELLECTUAL FACULTIES. 
 
 STAGES OF DE- 
 VELOPMENT. 
 
 CHARACTERISTIC 
 CLASS OF FAC- 
 ULTIES. 
 
 GENERAL CHAR- 
 ACTER OF 
 EACH CLASS. 
 
 INDIVIDUAL FACULTIES IN 
 EACH CLASS. 
 
 1st stage. 
 
 The Perceptive 
 faculties. 
 
 Intuitive. 
 
 Sensation. Perception. 
 Attention. Observa- 
 tion. Retention . 
 Primitive judgment or 
 intuitive perception. 
 
 2d stage. 
 
 The Concep- 
 tive or Repre- 
 sentative fac- 
 ulties. 
 
 Re presen ta- 
 tive. 
 
 Memory. Imitation. 
 Conception. Imagi- 
 nation. Association. 
 Recollection. Repre- 
 sentation as exhibited 
 in language. Primi- 
 tive judgment associ- 
 ated with conception. 
 
 3d stage. 
 
 The Knowing 
 faculties, or 
 the faculties 
 of the Under- 
 standing. 
 
 Cognitive. 
 
 Abstraction. Classifica- 
 tion. Generalization. 
 Explicit comparison, 
 etc. 
 
 4th stage. 
 
 = — . — 
 
 The Reasoning 
 faculties. 
 
 Cogitative. 
 
 Reason as exercised in 
 Induction, Deduction, 
 etc. 
 
RECAPITULATION AND ELUCIDATION. 59 
 
 The faculties involved or called into operation in the 
 first stage are called the Perceptive Faculties ; those in 
 the second, the Conceptive or Representative Facul- 
 ties ; those in the third, the Knowing or Cognitive 
 Faculties ; those in the fourth, the Reasoning or Cogi- 
 tative Faculties. 
 
 The first two of these have already been considered, 
 more or less, but a restatement of their peculiar provinces, 
 at this point, seems advisable before passing to the con- 
 sideration of the latter two. 
 
 The Perceptive Faculties collectively are those which 
 have to do with the reception of impressions from the ex- 
 ternal world through the medium of the senses. This is 
 both a passive and an active stage. If the mind were, as 
 has been stated by some, a mere sheet of white paper on 
 which the impressions from without fall as do the light 
 rays on the chemically prepared plate in photographing, it 
 would be wholly passive, and there the evolution of mind 
 would have to stop, since there would be nothing back of 
 these impressions to take notice of them. But as the 
 primitive soul stands back of all these impressions, ready 
 to receive them and assimilate them, it is active as well as 
 passive in its operations ; and since it is the primitive 
 judgments or -intuitions that take up and utilize these 
 impressions, the general character of the perceptive facul- 
 ties is said to be Intuitive. 
 
 The special faculties involved in this group are, as shown 
 in the table, Sensation, Perception, Attention, Observation, 
 Retention, and Primitive Judgment, or Intuitive Percep- 
 tion. We shall now consider them in detail. 
 
 We perceive a rose by the sense of sight, of smell, or of 
 touch, or by any two of them, or all of them combined, 
 and the perception gives us the sensation of pleasure. 
 
 We perceive (i. e., become aware of the presence of ) a 
 
60 HISTOR Y AND SCIENCE OF ED UCA TION. 
 
 bramble by the sense of touch, perhaps, and the perception 
 causes in us the sensation of pain. 
 
 It is impossible for us to conceive of any mental prog- 
 ress, even in the mind's perceptive stage, without some 
 attention on its part to the impressions made ; hence 
 attention, though of a feeble nature, must of necessity 
 accompany each perception. 
 
 Observation is of two different kinds, or it assumes 
 two different forms. First, the half-unconscious and par- 
 tially involuntary act we call by that name, — as the observa- 
 tion of an infant, or of an idle spectator. In this sense it 
 is clearly a perceptive faculty. In the other sense, obser- 
 vation may be in the highest sense a voluntary act, per- 
 formed in accordance with some design or definite pur- 
 pose, as the observation of an Indian in following a trail, 
 the observation of a physician in diagnosing a disease, the 
 observation of a scientist in studying a specimen for class- 
 ification, etc. In this latter sense, observation becomes a 
 highly complex mental exercise, and is properly classified 
 with the reasoning rather than the perceptive faculties. 
 
 Retention is a primitive or rudimentary form of mem- 
 ory — the power by which the mind, with no apparent effort 
 or intention of its own, retains the impressions it has 
 received through the senses. Its operations may be clearly 
 traced in very young infants. A babe but a few weeks old 
 recognizes its mother's face and even any dress that she 
 has commonly worn. It is evident that without this fac- 
 ulty there could be no mental progress, since in that case 
 the sensations would fade out as fast as produced, and no 
 material could be stored up for the use of the conceptive 
 faculties. It is a rudimentary form of memory. 
 
 Intuitions. — The subject of Primitive Judgments, or, 
 as they are more commonly and better called, Intuitions, is 
 one of great importance, as these are the basis of all our 
 
RECAPITULATION AND ELUCIDATION. 61 
 
 knowledge. As before remarked, perception has its passive 
 and its active side. The passive side is the impression 
 made on the brain through the eye, the ear, or some other 
 organ of sense, and transmitted in some mysterious manner 
 to the mind. The active side is the intuition, the instant, 
 irresistible conviction — " the impression I have just re- 
 ceived came from some thing, some real existence, which 
 is not myself." There is thus a double line of communi- 
 cation between the mind and the external world. The ray 
 of light, for instance, that brings the image of the external 
 object into the mind, and the intuition which goes out from 
 the mind to that object, and says, " There is a thing there, 
 and that thing is not I." 
 
 All our knowledge and all our reasoning start from in- 
 tuitions, which afford us an unquestionable and immova- 
 ble basis. The demonstrative reasoning of geometry is all 
 founded on certain axiomatic truths, intuitively known ; as, 
 " Things that are equal to the same thing are equal to each 
 other"; "The whole is greater than any of its parts"; 
 " The whole is equal to the sum of all its parts,'' etc. 
 
 Intuitions are thus universal and invariable, the same in 
 the savage and in the civilized man, in the infant and in the 
 sage ; they are necessary and absolute, for we instinctively 
 act upon them, whatever may be our theories in regard to 
 them. They are in harmony with the realities of existence, 
 for the same God who made nature made also the mind of 
 man. 
 
 While we speak of intuitions as the basis of knowledge, 
 it must not be understood that they are the only source of 
 knowledge. The intuitive perception does not even begin 
 to act until some object is presented to the mind through 
 the senses. The sources of knowledge are, in fact, three : 
 Sensation, Reflection, and Intuitive or Primitive Judgment. 
 
 The Conceptive Faculties. — The second stage of intel- 
 
62 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 lectual development may be called the Conceptive Period. 
 In this epoch of the mind's evolution a great advance is 
 made over the first, or Perceptive Period. During the for- 
 mer period the mind was largely engaged in receiving im- 
 pressions of the external world and assimilating them. It 
 has now advanced so far that it has forged these crude im- 
 pressions into more general ideas. The form, color, size, 
 and other properties of things have now taken form in the 
 child's mind, aside from the individual things that produced 
 the impression*, and he now sees with his mind's eye ideal- 
 ized forms of men and birds and trees and other familiar 
 objects, entirely independent of any particular individual in 
 any of these classes of objects. 
 
 An illustration may be drawn from the recently invented 
 process of composite photographing. When the light rays 
 from a single individual are fixed by the photographing pro- 
 cess on the plate, we have the exact picture of that person 
 or thing ; but when the images of two are impressed upon 
 the same plate successively, we have an image condensing 
 into one the medium or the average of the features of 
 both, and when a score or more of those of various shades 
 of complexion and casts of features are combined in one we 
 have what is known as a "composite photograph." It does 
 not resemble any one particular individual of the group, 
 but represents in one the combined effect of all the linea- 
 ments, regardless of race, color, etc. It is neither English 
 nor German, nor Irish nor Scandinavian ; it may not be 
 Ethiopian or Caucasian, male or female ; it is the idealized 
 genus homo. 
 
 In some such way as this the mind forms a composite 
 picture of all its individual impressions, and sees, aside from 
 any one member of a class, its idealized or general form. 
 
 As the mind is now capable of representing all the indi- 
 viduals of the same general kind by this one idealized form 
 
RECAPITULATION AND ELUCIDATION. 63 
 
 it has pictured, the general character of this group of fac- 
 ulties is said to be representative. 
 
 Memory — The first special faculty to be considered in 
 this group is memory. We exercise this power when we 
 recall ideas with a full and distinct consciousness of the 
 connection between the original idea and its recollection. 
 " Memory is a repetition of a mental operation accompanied 
 by a consciousness of its prior existence. When we re- 
 member any thing, we reproduce the mental operation con- 
 nected with the actual perception of it," as the needle o\ 
 a phonograph travels back over the impressions it formerly 
 made in the wax, and communicates again to the vibrating 
 diaphragm the same undulations it originally received from 
 the voice of the speaker. When memory has reached this 
 stage of development, voluntary attention becomes an im- 
 portant factor. We look long and earnestly on an object 
 we desire to remember; we impress upon our minds not, 
 indeed, a complete and accurate image of it, but an ideal- 
 ized reproduction. These ideas, stored up in the mind, are 
 probably at first recalled by accident, but the mind gradu- 
 ally acquires the power of recalling them at will, which con- 
 stitutes the faculty of Recollection. 
 
 The faculty of imitation is so prominent at this period 
 that the most superficial observer must have noticed it. 
 The pupil now delights to draw pictures or representations 
 of the idealized objects he carries in his mind, and the ju- 
 dicious teacher will utilize this principle in his system of in- 
 struction. It is mainly dependent on observation and memory. 
 
 Conception is the faculty which gives its name to the 
 entire group. By it we form general ideas. Its office is to 
 fill the mind with ideas which can be expressed by common 
 nouns — ideas which exist only in the mind, and which ren- 
 der it more self-reliant and capable of thoughts which are 
 more than a succession of sensations. 
 
64 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 " Imagination is a higher kind of conception; the lat- 
 ter is reproductive, the former productive, or creative. 
 Imagination modifies and combines our recollections and 
 conceptions in such a way as to make new ideal exist- 
 ences." 
 
 The faculty of association is the one that enables us to 
 arrange our ideas in order and to represent them by sys- 
 tems of signs and symbols. We associate certain sounds, 
 for example, with certain ideas, and by this means we 
 attain spoken language. We associate, again, these sym- 
 bolical sounds with written characters which represent 
 them, and we have written language. In spoken and writ- 
 ten language we have the great means whereby knowledge 
 is stored up and communicated. 
 
 By memory we store up knowledge, by recollection 
 we recall it, and by means of language we give it repre- 
 sentation and share it with others. 
 
 A Priori Knowledge. — In all the operations of the 
 mind in these earlier stages the faculty of primitive judg- 
 ment or intuition still plays a prominent part. It stands 
 back of these as a sort of umpire to decide all doubtful 
 questions, and its decisions are instinctively followed as 
 being infallible. This primitive knowledge, this knowl- 
 edge which was born with us, this knowledge which is not 
 the result or outgrowth of our own experience, is what is 
 known as a priori. It is distinguished from the a poste- 
 riori, or knowledge which is the result of our experience. 
 As these terms are often used in all works which discuss 
 the operation of the mind and its evolution through edu- 
 cational agencies, the teacher will do well to remember 
 their significance. 
 
 It should be stated here that there are those who attempt 
 to get along without assuming the a priori; these are they 
 who refer everything to experience. They are, for the most 
 
RECAPITULATION AND ELUCIDATION. 65 
 
 part, those who are unwilling to acknowledge the agency 
 of a Creator. It seems impossible to escape the conviction 
 through any rational process of reasoning, that if there is 
 in the mind anything beyond its own experience, it must 
 be due to some power beyond itself. The author believes 
 that he is stating the case with the utmost fairness when he 
 says that, unwilling to accept such conclusions, it becomes 
 necessary for these philosophers to dispute the /acts in the 
 face of the most abundant evidence. 
 
 For instance, the mind receives an impression of some 
 external object through the senses, and instantly forms an 
 intelligent perception of the properties of this object, with- 
 out any intelligence there to make note of the impression ! 
 This is what the denial of the a priori must inevitably lead 
 us to. For if, as some have argued, our so-called a priori 
 knowledge or intelligence is only inherited experience, it 
 only shifts the difficulty back a step in reasoning. It in- 
 volves the question as to how, then, our original ancestor 
 gained the intelligence which he transmitted. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER VII. 
 
 It seems best, before going farther, to treat more fully of the Percep- 
 tive faculties. 
 
 What we mean by faculties. 
 
 Our faculties divided into three groups — Intellect, Emotions, Will. 
 
 The Intf.llectual Faculties : 
 
 Four stages of mental evolution — Perceiving, Conceiving, Knowing, 
 Demonstrating. 
 
 Tabulated statement of the Intellectual Faculties. 
 
 The four groups of faculties. 
 
 The Perceptive Faculties : 
 
 Definition. The passive and the active side of perception. Intuition. 
 The special faculties of the perceptive group : Sensation ; Perception ; 
 Attention ; Observation — two kinds ; Retention, the basis of progress ; 
 Intuition. 
 
 5 
 
66 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Intuitions : 
 
 The active side of perception. The. proof of the existence of the ex- 
 ternal world. 
 
 Axioms — intuitively known — the basis of geometry. 
 
 Intuitions are universal, invariable, absolute. 
 
 The three sources of knowledge. 
 
 The Second Stage — Conceptive Period. 
 
 Impressions have now been generalized into conceptions. 
 
 The process of forming a conception illustrated by composite pho- 
 tography. 
 
 Why this group of faculties is called representative. 
 
 Memory — description of its processes illustrated by the phonograph. 
 
 Voluntary attention — its importance. 
 
 Recollection. 
 
 Conception — origin of common nouns. 
 
 Imagination — the higher form of conception. 
 
 Association — spoken and written language. 
 
 How we store up, recall, and express knowledge. 
 
 Imitation is prominent and should be utilized. 
 
 Intuition stands back of all these as the umpire. 
 
 A priori and a posteriori knowledge. 
 
 The school of philosophers who deny the existence of a priori knowl- 
 edge. The probable reason of this denial. 
 
 Refutation of the theory that a priori knowledge is inherited experi- 
 ence. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. 
 
 What do you understand the words active ani passive to mean as used 
 in the second paragraph of this chapter ? Give illustrations. 
 
 Where is it said that " Man was created in the image of God," and 
 what is said about it ? 
 
 Is it possible to conceive of perception without assuming that there is 
 intelligence already in the soul ? Why, or why not ? 
 
 Can it be shown to a child that its own mind bears in it the evidence 
 of a Creator? If so, how? 
 
 What do you understand instinct to be ? 
 
 If a child were born without any of the senses, would it be possible 
 for it to make any intellectual progress ? 
 
 What can you say of Laura Bridgman ? 
 
 Does it seem to you that the sense by which we judge of the rough 
 
RECAPITULATION AND ELUCIDATION. 67 
 
 ness or smoothness of an object, and that by which we judge of the 
 weight or pressure of things are the same sense ? 
 
 What is the sense by which we become aware of pain ? 
 
 Of what use is this sense to us? 
 
 Why do the brutes have the senses more highly developed than 
 men ? 
 
 Fish found in subterranean lakes have no eyes. Would you infer from 
 this that light forms the eye and gives the sense of light ? If not, how 
 do you account for the fact ? 
 
 Does a brute possess the faculty of perception ? How can you show 
 this ? 
 
 Does he possess the power of conception ? Prove your statement. 
 
 Do these facts prove that he possesses a priori intelligence ? Why ? 
 
 Does he possess memory ? Have we any evidence that he possesses 
 recollection ? 
 
 Has he the faculty of imitation ? Prove your statement. 
 
 Have we any evidence that a brute possesses the faculty of imagina- 
 tion? 
 
 To what extent does it possess the faculty of association ? 
 
 Why is it impossible for animals to advance intellectually from gen- 
 eration to generation as men do ? 
 
 Why is a deaf person usually dumb ? 
 
 Does he lack any faculty ? 
 
 Explain your statement. 
 
 Explain how he learns to read and write. What faculty does he em- 
 ploy in this ? 
 
 Give an illustration of the subjective. Of the objective. 
 
 Can the subjective exist without the objective ? Prove your state- 
 ment. 
 
 Can the objective exist without the subjective ? Prove your state- 
 ment. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 IMPORTANCE OF CERTAIN OF THE CONCEPTIVE FAC- 
 ULTIES, WITH METHODS OF CULTIVATING AND 
 UTILIZING THEM. 
 
 Memory and Recollection. — The faculties of memory 
 and recollection are so closely related that their cultiva- 
 tion may be best considered together. These, again, are so 
 much dependent on attention that it has been asserted 
 if we take care to engage the attention, the memory will 
 take care of itself. It is well, however, to bear in mind the 
 difference between memory and recollection. 
 
 The former is a receptive or passive faculty but little 
 under the control of the will. It depends so largely upon 
 the physical impressibility of the brain that it has been de- 
 clared by some authorities to be even beyond the reach of 
 education. Though it is more a passive than an active 
 faculty, the impressions may, undoubtedly, be more deeply 
 furrowed in the tablet of the brain by successive repetitions 
 of the sight, or sound, or smell, or taste, or touch that pro- 
 duces them, or the image may be more deeply graven by 
 using two or more of the senses in impressing it, or by 
 holding the object of contemplation for a longer period ol 
 time before the mind. It will be seen that this is, in reality, 
 not cultivating the faculty at all— it is simply impressing a 
 given fact upon the brain. It will doubtless be just as dif- 
 ficult to impress the next one as though the first had not 
 been so deeply furrowed by the successive strokes of the 
 senses' hammer and chisel. The trait of mind, then, which 
 (68) 
 
IMPORTANCE OF CONCEPTIVE FACULTIES. 69 
 
 needs cultivating in order to secure memory, is the power 
 of holding the mind down to the contemplation of an object 
 or a fact until the impression is so deeply furrowed in the 
 tablet of the brain that the next impression will not oblit- 
 erate it. Whatever, therefore, secures close attention must 
 tend to cultivate the memory. Now, the attention is held 
 to an object or theme by various devices : first of all, 
 by making it attractive in some such ways as were illus- 
 trated in the chapter on the Kindergarten and Object 
 Lessons. But as activity is a law of child-nature, it is dif- 
 ficult to hold the attention, even by these pleasing devices, 
 for any very considerable length of time ; and as a pleasant 
 association in connection with the impression is also an im- 
 portant factor in its retention, the minds of the children 
 should not be held down to the contemplation of the object 
 long enough to weary them. The next day, and the day fol- 
 lowing, the impression may be repeated, until by repetition 
 the facts or words or principles, or whatever else may be 
 brought under observation, are indelibly impressed. These 
 three things, then, are important factors in cultivating the 
 memory — i. e., in fixing perceptions in the mind — close at- 
 tention, pleasant association, and frequent repetition. But 
 pleasant association is chiefly a means of fostering atten- 
 tion, and repetition is only bringing the object under ob- 
 servation or contemplation again and again, and thus 
 bringing the attention to bear on it for a longer time than 
 can be done during one exercise, so it will be seen that 
 all the real devices which either the teacher or the pupil 
 brings into play for the purpose of cultivating the verbal 
 memory are ultimately reducible to attention. But back of 
 all this is the physical impressibility of the brain, which 
 differs very widely in different individuals ; and, with an 
 equal amount of attention on the part of two different 
 pupils, the results may be found to be very unequal. 
 
70 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Value of the Memory. — Much has been written both 
 for and against the value of the memory, in its ordinary 
 sense, as an educational factor. In the old-fashioned sys- 
 tems of education, in which the principal occupation of the 
 schools was the study of Latin, it was the one faculty more 
 than any other that was found serviceable ; and that it was 
 exalted by the old-time pedagogues beyond its merits there 
 can be little doubt. But with the introduction of other 
 branches of study, and the consequent neglect of the dead 
 languages in the lower-grade schools, there came a reac- 
 tion ; and it has been the fashion among many of the ad- 
 vocates of the new education to hold verbal memory in 
 contempt. 
 
 Says Mr. Tate : " We hold that an unusual manifestation 
 of this power in childhood tends to counteract the health- 
 ful development of the other intellectual powers. The boy 
 who can readily commit the language of others to memory 
 is not compelled to exercise his judgment upon the ideas 
 which are intended to be conveyed to his mind ; besides, 
 through want of discrimination on the part of the master, 
 boys with a ready memory almost invariably rise to the high- 
 est places in the school, and thus no adequate inducement 
 can be held out to them to cultivate any other faculty ; they 
 consequently seek distinction by the path which is most ac- 
 cessible to them. . . . That boy whose memory is cul- 
 tivated at the expense of his judgment can not become a 
 really useful member of society ; his vanity is inflated by 
 unmerited applause, and he is unconsciously led to indulge 
 in dreams of future greatness which will never be realized. 
 On the other hand, the boy with a slow, unostentatious, re- 
 collective memory is slighted and discouraged. A teacher 
 should never compliment a boy for having a good natural 
 memory ; boys of this kind soon enough gain distinction 
 for themselves, for a good memory is a truly remarkable 
 
IMPORTANCE OF CONCEPTIVE FACULTIES. 71 
 
 sort of thing, which meets with patronage in all companies 
 and from all classes of society ; and" it is further important 
 to observe that there is no gift of which a boy more readily 
 becomes unduly and obtrusively vain than that of memory." 
 
 Again, the same author says : " Memory [Recollection?'], 
 to a great man, is an humble, confidential servant — a sort of 
 keeper of the stores — who is expected to guard and pre- 
 serve carefully what is committed to his charge, and at the 
 same time be always ready to bring forward any thing at 
 the moment it is wanted." 
 
 Very good, Mr. Tate, but how is this same " confidential 
 servant" and "keeper of the stores" "to bring forward 
 any thing the moment it is wanted " unless that same thing 
 shall have been first placed in store ? This would, indeed, 
 be a most convenient servant for either a " great man " or 
 a small one to have in his household — one that would go 
 far toward solving the problem of living on a pedagogue's 
 salary. It is difficult to see how this " keeper of the stores " 
 can bring up potatoes, or flour, or bacon, or what-not, from 
 your intellectual cellar unless he has first stored them there. 
 If they are not there, they can not be " brought forward." 
 
 No doubt the power of recollection, the power of re- 
 calling at will the essential features of our impressions, is a 
 higher faculty than mere verbal memory ; but the author 
 believes that a good verbal memory will be found greatly 
 to assist this faculty rather than to hinder it. 
 
 Undoubtedly, whe'n we look on a landscape we may see 
 many minor details which may soon fade from the memory 
 and leave us still a very good general conception of it ; but 
 these same minor details greatly aided us in forming our 
 conception of the view, and the more of them that are re- 
 tained, other things being equal, the more vivid will be our 
 conception of it. 
 
 Ought Some Things to be Forgotten ? — In Kiddle 
 
72 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 and Schem's Cyclopaedia of Education is "the following : 
 " Perhaps one of the questions which deserve careful con- 
 sideration in education is what ought to be forgotten. The 
 human mind is limited in its range, and can not reproduce 
 every thing. Ought it to put into its store-house anything 
 that it can not hope to reproduce ? We think that it ought. 
 Where the aim is to produce in the pupil a clear idea or 
 notion, many particulars must be adduced which, studied 
 attentively for a short time, will render the notion clear and 
 distinct ; but it is not necessary that the mind should re- 
 tain all these particulars. This is the case, for instance, 
 in geography. In order to form a correct notion of a 
 country, many particulars must be carefully weighed ; but, 
 after the notion has been attained, the pupil will wisely drop 
 a great deal of the knowledge which he has temporarily 
 mastered, deeming it enough to know where he can get the 
 knowledge when he wants it. Again, when the object is to 
 inculcate a great principle of action, the same course may 
 be pursued. If, for example, a teacher wishes to impress 
 upon his pupils the true idea of toleration, he may choose 
 many incidents in history to bring it home to their minds, 
 and may go into the minutest details of these incidents in 
 order to awaken interest; but he succeeds in his purpose if 
 he leaves a strong and accurate general impression, even 
 though the pupil forgets most of the details which have 
 been given him." 
 
 All this doubtless is, in the main, true. Knowing the 
 limited capacity of the mind, the judicious teacher does not 
 expect his pupils to retain all the minor details that have 
 aided him in forming a general conception of any subject in 
 geography, history, etc.; but every one is conscious of the 
 fact that he does not purposely " drop " any "of the know- 
 ledge that he has temporarily mastered." As a matter of 
 fact, he willingly retains all that he can of it, and the only 
 
IMPORTANCE OF CONCEPTIVE FACULTIES. 
 
 73 
 
 reason that he " drops " any of it is the fact that his memory- 
 is defective, and the matter drops out of its own accord. 
 The average student has judgment sufficient to know that 
 the facts and incidents that enabled him to form a more or 
 less imperfect conception of the subject under considera- 
 tion would be valuable material for that before-mentioned 
 "keeper of the stores " to " bring forward " whenever he 
 wishes to revivify that subject. If these details enabled 
 the student to form a clearer conception originally, they 
 will as surely enable him to form a clearer and more trust- 
 worthy recollection of it. But the teacher, knowing the 
 limits of the average mind, does not expect it will be pos- 
 sible for the average pupil to remember all these minor 
 incidents, and he does not, therefore, drill on them as he 
 does on the more obvious features. It is maintained, how- 
 ever, that the student who, without much effort, is able to 
 retain these details, has a great advantage over him who 
 has not this power, and that his conception of it years after 
 is apt to be much clearer. 
 
 For the foregoing, and many other reasons which he 
 might present, did space permit, the author believes that 
 verbal memory is a great aid to recollection, and is, there- 
 fore, an invaluable factor in any rational system of educa- 
 tion. 
 
 More than this, as the brain is naturally more impressible 
 in youth than in later years, he is persuaded that advan- 
 tage should be taken of this principle to provide the mind 
 with food for thought in future years. 
 
 "Would God," says Mr. Carlyle, "some one had taught 
 me, when young, the names of the grasses and the constel- 
 lations ! " 
 
 The Faculty of Imitation is of such special value in 
 education that every judicious teacher will both employ and 
 cultivate it. A moment's investigation here will show how 
 
74 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 some of the faculties reciprocally act on each other. Imi- 
 tation, as before stated, depends largely on memory, since > 
 unless the object is before the eyes at the time of sketch- 
 ing it, the mind must draw on memory for all the details. 
 When the object is before the eye at the time of drawing, 
 the accuracy of the sketch must necessarily depend, to a 
 large degree, on the accuracy of the pupil's observation, 
 since he can not put into the sketch what he fails to observe. 
 So it will thus be seen that Imitation fosters close attention; 
 but close attention has before been shown to cultivate the 
 memory more than all things else combined ; and memory 
 again facilitates imitation. 
 
 The faculty of Imitation, again, engenders pleasant as- 
 sociation in the minds of the little ones in connection with 
 the subjects to be sketched, since the child, as well as the 
 man, takes pleasure in contemplating the works of its own 
 hands or brain, and all this tends to make the acquisition 
 of knowledge a pleasant thing, and renders knowledge 
 itself, therefore, a pleasant object of contemplation. "When, 
 on the other hand, knowledge is associated with kicks and 
 cuffs, and dunce-blocks and brutal epithets, and weari- 
 some tasks, it is difficult to see how the child can well 
 classify it among the pleasant and desirable acquirements. 
 
 Drawing. — Drawing, then, is both a means and an end, 
 and primary teachers who neglect it not only fail to avail 
 themselves of a most valuable auxiliary, but also neglect 
 a positive duty. It should have its place in every primary 
 course of study, and every primary teacher should be qual- 
 ified to give instruction in it. 
 
 It is not the author's intention here to lay out a course 
 in primary drawing for the guidance of teachers; there are 
 many inexpensive text-books which do this. He would 
 only caution them to bear in mind that it is the making of 
 something that gives relish to the whole exercise in the 
 
IMPORTANCE OF CONCEPTIVE FACULTIES. 75 
 
 children's minds, and that the drawing lessons, therefore, 
 should, from the very first, be in the line of pictures or 
 sketches of familiar objects — not in the making of meaning- 
 less and wearisome marks, marks, marks. 
 
 It is well, of course, to cultivate the hand and the judg- 
 ment, but this is just as well done when the marks are so 
 combined as to make them mean something. 
 
 Imitation is also utilized in teaching writing, or penman- 
 ship, and by taking proper advantage of it most children 
 may be trained to become not only legible but beautiful 
 writers at a comparatively early age. The pupil first imi- 
 tates the copy, but after a number of repetitions the con- 
 ception of the letters is formed in his mind, and his hand 
 thereafter forms letters, and even words, automatically, 
 without any seeming thought of their details. 
 
 The faculty of Association lies at the foundation of 
 teaching beginners to read, and the primary teacher who is 
 cognizant of this fact will neglect no opportunity to take 
 advantage of it. Realizing that he has learned to associate 
 spoken words with the objects or ideas which they repre- 
 sent, the teacher will endeavor to lead him on to associate 
 these objects or ideas with the written or printed word. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Close connection of memory and recollection, and their dependence 
 upon attention. 
 
 Difference between memory and recollection. 
 
 Memory a passive faculty, largely dependent on the physical impres- 
 sibility of the brain. 
 
 The memory can scarcely be trained directly — the faculty to be cul- 
 tivated is attention. 
 
 Attention may be secured by making the thing to be remembered 
 interesting by pleasant association, by repetition. 
 
 Why equal attention will not secure equal results in different indi^ 
 viduals. 
 
76 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Discussion of the Value of Memory as an Educational 
 Factor. 
 
 The old-fashioned, possibly excessive esteem for it, and the new- 
 fangled contempt for verbal memory. 
 
 Mr. Tate believes a good verbal memory a positive disadvantage, as 
 tending to make a boy vain of his facility, and leading him to neglect 
 training his judgment. 
 
 He also speaks of memory as a humble servant — a keeper of the 
 stores, who brings forth whatever may be needed. 
 
 Query as to how this good servant is to bring forth stores unless they 
 have been first laid in. 
 
 A good verbal memory must always be a help rather than a hindrance. 
 
 The general conception and the details. 
 
 Kiddle and Schem on " What ought to be forgotten." 
 
 It is not to be expected that all the minor details of a subject can be 
 recollected, but there is no advantage in forgetting them. 
 
 To forget any item of knowledge must be a loss rather than a gain. 
 
 Advantage should be taken of the superior impressibility of the brain 
 in early life to lay up a good store of useful knowledge. 
 
 Imitation : Its special value in education. 
 
 Reciprocal action of memory and imitation. 
 
 Imitation cultivates attention, and engenders pleasant associations. 
 
 Drawing is both a means and an end. 
 
 It should always have a place in primary instruction. 
 
 The children should draw outlines of objects, not be drilled on mean- 
 ingless and wearisome marks. 
 
 Imitation is also utilized in teaching penmanship. 
 
 Association is the faculty at the foundation of teaching beginners to 
 read. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. 
 
 Do we remember sights ? 
 
 Do we recollect them ? Explain these statements 
 
 Do we both remember and recollect Sounds ? Smells? Tastes? Im- 
 pressions of Touch ? Explain your statements. 
 
 It has been stated that memory depends very largely on attention ; 
 that the memory is a prominent faculty in early childhood ; and that the 
 attention at this period is weak. How can these statements be recon- 
 ciled ? 
 
IMPORTANCE OF CONCEPTIVE FACULTIES. 77 
 
 Would you regard early childhood as a good time for the study of for- 
 eign languages? Why, or why not? 
 
 Does the study of a foreign language without its grammar afford valu- 
 able mental discipline ? Explain your statement by reference to the 
 faculties it cultivates. 
 
 Can you give any other reasons than those given in the text in favor 
 of cultivating the verbal memory ? 
 
 Can you give any reasons aside from those quoted from Mr. Tate 
 against it ? 
 
 As a matter of fact, is it possible to "drop" any thing intentionally 
 from the memory ? Can we forget at will ? 
 
 Should a child's first exercise in drawing be from nature or from mod- 
 els ? Why? 
 
 Will he learn easier from imitation, or from analysis ? 
 
 How will these statements apply to his learning to write? To speak ? 
 To read ? 
 
 What method, then, of teaching reading to young children seems to 
 you the most philosophical ? 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE THIRD STAGE OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOP- 
 MENT. 
 
 Understanding It will be remembered that the third 
 
 stage of intellectual evolution is that point at which we may 
 be said to "understand," in the higher sense of the term, 
 a principle or proposition. In one sense we have this fac- 
 ulty from the earliest dawn of our mental being ; but it is 
 in the spontaneous exercise of our primitive judgments — it 
 is an act of unreasoning judgment, more instinctive than 
 intellectual in its nature. We know things with absolute 
 certainty, but we can hardly be said, in the higher sense of 
 the term, to understand them until we have arrived at this 
 understanding by the exercise of some of our intellectual 
 faculties. 
 
 During the earlier stages of intellectual development the 
 mind has been laying in a large store of material. It has 
 worked up its perceptions of the external world into a vast 
 number of conceptions, or idealized forms of existence; and 
 now, by its inherent energy and acquired strength, it is able 
 still further to investigate the conceptions stored up, as well 
 as to direct its attention more critically to the external 
 world, and to classify, arrange, and systematize whatever 
 falls under its observation. When it arrives at conclusions 
 now, it must of necessity understand them, since it has 
 worked them out for itself. 
 
 Forming Conclusions While this faculty is usually 
 
 well developed with regard to most matters outside of his 
 studies at a comparatively early stage of the pupil's school- 
 (78) 
 
THE THIRD STAGE. jQ 
 
 life, he is often only half sure of even the most obvious 
 propositions connected with his recitations. He arrives at 
 his conclusions by legitimate means, perhaps, but he has 
 done it in such a half-hearted and purposeless way that he 
 is often ready to abandon these conclusions without an 
 effort to defend them. It is obviously the teacher's duty 
 to endeavor to break up this half-hearted, uncertain habit 
 among boys and girls, and, as far as possible, to cultivate 
 in them the habit of rational assurance in their conclu- 
 sions; not, of course, that brazen kind which is the out- 
 growth of mere egotism, but the modest certainty of those 
 who have not jumped at their conclusions, but have arrived 
 at them by careful thought, and who feel, therefore, that 
 they have reason to believe themselves right, and to hold 
 to their convictions until evidence be adduced to the con- 
 trary. 
 
 The teacher who rebukes a pupil for asking an explana- 
 tion of why he is wrong, when there is occasion to correct 
 any of his statements, makes a grave mistake — provided 
 always that the pupil does not ask in an insolent way. It is 
 better rather to encourage his rational assurance by question- 
 ing him in the Socratic fashion, until he is led to discover 
 his own mistake, and thus arrive at the proper conclusion 
 by methods at least partly native to himself. This will train 
 him in habits of correct thought, and thus give him each 
 day more and more reason to have faith in his conclusions. 
 
 It is well for a class to have confidence in the infallibility 
 of their teacher's judgment, but it is vastly more important 
 that they be led to exercise such care in arriving at con- 
 clusions that they will have intelligent faith in their own 
 judgments. The class of scholars that change their answer 
 without a moment's hesitation, on the slightest mark of non- 
 acquiescence on the teacher's part, are not being educated 
 in any proper sense of the term. 
 
80 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Cognitive Faculties. — For the reason that the faculties 
 involved have now to do with knowing, or comprehend- 
 ing, by the aid of the understanding, their general char- 
 acter is said to be Cognitive, as shown in the table on 
 page 58. The more important of the individual faculties 
 involved are, as shown in this table, abstraction, classifica- 
 tion, generalization, explicit comparison, analysis, and Judg- 
 ment. 
 
 By this it is meant to be stated that the capability of 
 the mind in doing these special acts, or its susceptibility of 
 being in these states, is now to be employed in attaining to 
 intellectual understanding. 
 
 Abstraction is the withdrawal of the mind from certain 
 things or phenomena for the purpose of concentrating it 
 upon other things or phenomena. The objects of pheno- 
 mena thus singled out for consideration are said to be ab- 
 stractions. " The utility of abstraction," says Schuyler, " is 
 evident : for by it we avoid the distraction and confusion 
 which would result from considering many things at the 
 same time. But it is not asserted that the mind can not 
 at the same time attend properly to more than one thing. 
 An illustration of abstraction is found in the philosopher, 
 who, absorbed in thought, walks the crowded street, obliv- 
 ious of what is going on around him. He is in a state of 
 abstraction." 
 
 Abstraction is not only necessary in order to concentrate 
 the mind on any given subject or phenomenon, for the pur- 
 pose of investigating it, apart from the distracting influences 
 of others, but it is also necessary to efficient study under 
 any circumstances. It is here as much as anywhere else 
 that the principle of " learning to do by doing " has appli- 
 cation. The habit of abstraction is only acquired by its 
 practice. The teacher can, however, make it more practi- 
 cable on the pupil's part by her general management of 
 
THE THIRD STAGE. 8 1 
 
 the school.* The less there is to distract the pupil's atten- 
 tion from study, the easier will it be for him to abstract his 
 mind from his surroundings and concentrate it upon the 
 theme or subject under investigation. 
 
 But valuable as this faculty is for purposes of study,^ 
 it may be cultivated in a wrong direction, and become a 
 veritable monstrosity. The person is then said to be 
 " absent-minded." For the teacher, especially, this is most 
 unfortunate, since his pupils will soon detect it, and take 
 advantage of it to work annoyance. The properly edu- 
 cated man is the one that can devote his undivided atten- 
 tion to any theme of consideration without losing con- 
 sciousness of whatever else is going on about him. Unless 
 he retains the power of rousing himself at any moment, he 
 is unfitted for the practical duties of life, and will certainly 
 be imposed upon. 
 
 Generalization is that faculty by which the mind is 
 enabled to examine its own conceptions, discover their 
 
 * Many a pupil wastes much the greater part of his time from the fact that his 
 attention is distracted by his surroundings. It is often his own fault, no doubt, 
 but the teacher's efforts to keep "order," or noisy methods of conducting reci- 
 tations, are often the most distracting element in the school. A misdemeanor 
 of some kind has been committed, or is supposed to have been committed, and 
 instead of watching quietly to discover the offender, the teacher disturbs the 
 whole school by inquiring in a loud tone of voice, ll Who dropped that pencil ? " 
 " Who is studying so loud ? " or who did this, that, or the other real or imaginary 
 mischief. Every pupil in school is now interrupted in his study, his line of 
 thought is broken, and it may take him some time to get down to quiet work again. 
 Especially will this be true if , in addition to this general inquiry, the teacher stops 
 to deliver a long lecture on the general depravity of the pupils, or administers cor- 
 poral punishment to some one in the presence of the rest. For this reason, as well 
 as for many others, it were better that when punishment must be administered it 
 be done in private. 
 
 Then, again, it is exceedingly difficult to abstract the mind from its surroundings 
 when the teacher habitually speaks in a loud and unnatural tone of voice in con- 
 ducting the recitations. The author has a vivid recollection of a school he once 
 visited, in which the teacher's tones in shouting out words to the spelling classes 
 were actually startling. If they really succeeded in abstracting their minds from 
 the teacher's habitual racket, they must afterward have found small difficulty in 
 meditating in a nail factory. 
 
 6 
 
82 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 common properties, and group them into more general 
 classes. It also has reference to the mind's power of exer- 
 cising similar judgment with reference to external objects 
 of contemplation. Thus the child, from having seen a 
 great many dogs, forms an idealized conception of that, to 
 him, most interesting animal; in the same way he forms a 
 conception of the cat, the sheep, the cow, the horse, the 
 pig, etc. Now, by a further examination of these various 
 conceptions, he discovers one general point of resemblance 
 — they each have four legs. He thus has evolved the idea 
 of a quadruped. 
 
 Again, he may observe a number of figures, or different 
 forms, like the following : 
 
 They are very unlike in shape and size, but if he has 
 been properly trained to use his eyes, the pupil will detect 
 almost at a glance their one point of resemblance, and be 
 able to refer them to a common class. He sees that they 
 each have four sides, and he thus evolves the general 
 notion of a quadrilateral. This he should be led to dis- 
 cover for himself, and when he has done it he is apt to 
 "understand " what a quadrilateral is. He should then be 
 encouraged to give a definition of it in his own words. If 
 the definition prove faulty, the teacher should not correct 
 it, but should lead the pupil to correct it himself by asking 
 him questions after the Socratic * fashion. Thus, if he 
 should frame his definition from looking at (i) alone, he 
 might say that a quadrilateral is a figure bounded by four 
 equal straight lines and having four equal angles. The 
 teacher should then, instead of correcting him in the 
 
 * For illustration of the Socratic method, see Chapter III., Second Part. 
 
THE THIRD STAGE. 
 
 83 
 
 ordinary way, ask whether (2) is then a quadrilateral. A 
 little reflection will lead him to see that one part of his defi- 
 nition is wrong, since this figure has not four equal sides. 
 He may then possibly say that it is a figure having four 
 straight sides and four equal angles. If so, the teacher 
 may ask him whether his definition applies to (3). He 
 now discovers that the angles are not necessarily equal, and 
 he is thus enabled to construct a perfect definition. This 
 is the way that definitions should generally be evolved. 
 The pupil should be led to a full comprehension of the 
 idea, and should then be asked to describe it. When he 
 has done this, he may fairly be said to know or understand 
 it, and until he has done this his understanding of it may 
 be safely doubted. 
 
 Comparison is the simultaneous examination of two 
 phenomena for the purpose of deducting resemblances 
 and differences. It is a most valuable educational agency, 
 and it may be illustrated by reference to any two of the 
 foregoing figures. Thus, in (1) and (3), for example, the 
 pu'pil should be led to discover the following points of 
 resemblance : 1. They are each enclosed by lines. 2. 
 All the lines in each are straight lines. 3. The opposite 
 sides of each are parallel. 4. They each have four angles. 
 5. The opposite angles of each are equal. 
 
 Points of difference : 1. While all four of the angles of 
 (1) are equal, only the opposite angles of (3) are equal. 
 2. They are of unequal altitude. 3. They are of unequal 
 area. 4. They are of different form or shape. 5. While 
 the angles of (1) are all right angles, those of (3) are all 
 oblique. 
 
 When this faculty is applied to the investigation of 
 phenomena other than objects it may become much more 
 involved, but this will be sufficient to illustrate its applica- 
 tion in arriving at an intellectual understanding of facts. 
 
84 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER IX. 
 
 The third stage of intellectual development, where we really under- 
 stand. 
 
 This power of understanding principles distinguished from the pri- 
 mitive understanding of the infant. 
 
 The mind has now accumulated a considerable store of conceptions, 
 and is able to work out conclusions, to classify and systematize. 
 
 The lack of confidence in their own conclusions frequently shown by 
 pupils. 
 
 The teacher should endeavor to cultivate a reasonable assurance in 
 pupils and should not rebuke them for asking respectfully why they are 
 wrong, when correcting their statements, but lead them, by judicious 
 questions, to see and correct their errors. 
 
 It is of great importance that pupils should learn to reason so care- 
 fully and clearly that they may feel confidence in their conclusions. 
 
 The Cognitive Faculties : Enumeration of the more important 
 ones. 
 
 Abstraction — defined — illustrated — necessary to successful study — 
 how the habit may be formed — how the teacher can provide favorable 
 conditions for its cultivation. 
 
 Mow some teachers interrupt their pupils' studies and render abstrac- 
 tion impossible by noisy and meddlesome methods of discipline, by 
 scolding, by administering corporal punishment in public, by conduct- 
 ing recitations in an unnaturally loud tone. 
 
 Dangers of excessive abstraction. 
 
 This is peculiarly unfortunate for a teacher. 
 
 The properly educated person is he who can concentrate his mind on 
 a subject, and yet not lose consciousness of his surroundings, or the 
 power to rouse himself promptly when necessary. 
 
 Generalization — the classifying power. Illustrated by the child's 
 observations of domestic animals, by his study of quadrilaterals of dif- 
 ferent shapes. 
 
 Leading the child to form definitions, and to correct them when faulty, 
 illustrated by the quadrilaterals. 
 
 Comparison — defined — value as an educational factor — illustrated by 
 comparing two of the quadrilaterals. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. 
 
 Does the bee " understand " the nature of the cells it so perfectly 
 constructs ? By what power does it work ? 
 
THE THIRD STAGE. 85 
 
 Does a boy ''understand" the law of atmospheric pressure -when he 
 lies down to drink from a spring ? By what power, or faculty, then, 
 does he know that the water will rise into his mouth in opposition to 
 the force of gravity ? 
 
 Has it been your experience that the mind is directed only to the 
 external world during the earlier stages of its existence ? 
 
 Why is it that the knowing, in the sense of the understanding facul- 
 ties, are apt to take more vigorous hold of matters outside of school than 
 inside ? 
 
 How may the teacher check undue egotism on the part of a pupil with- 
 out, weakening his rational assurance ? 
 
 Can you name any other school-room transactions than those men- 
 tioned in the text that would be liable to distract attention ? 
 
 Is it good logic to say that pupils must be accustomed to study in the 
 midst of distracting exercises, since in after life they will often be 
 obliged to abstract their thoughts amidst the most distracting surround- 
 ings? m 
 
 What are some of the logical conclusions from the above statement, 
 if valid ? 
 
 What was the theory of the old-fashioned " loud school " ? 
 
 What arguments can you advance in favor of administering necessary 
 discipline in the presence of the school? What arguments can you ad- 
 vance against it ? 
 
 Did the public punishment of culprits in the ' ' good old times " tend 
 to increase or to diminish crime ? 
 
 Can you give other illustrations of the employing of the faculty of 
 generalization ? Give other applications of comparison. 
 
 What is meant by analysis? Give illustrations. 
 
 What is the reverse of analysis called ? Give examples. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE FOURTH STAGE OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOP- 
 MENT. INDUCTIVE REASONING AND ITS APPLI- 
 CATION TO TEACHING. 
 
 We discovered in the last chapter a great advance of the 
 mind's intellectual grasp in the third or cognitive stage of 
 its evolution. We saw how it acts by its reflective power 
 upon its former stores of information, and molds these into 
 general principles and abstract truths. We saw, also, how 
 it may reach outward, and by comparison, abstraction, 
 analysis, and other powers, classify, systematize, and arrange 
 until order is made to appear where to the less developed 
 understanding seems confusion. We have seen that the 
 human mind, by the exercise of these faculties, rises far 
 beyond the realms allotted to the brute creation, who have 
 not this god-like power of seeking after, finding out, and 
 knowing general truths. 
 
 Reason. — But exalted as this stage of intellectual evolu- 
 tion is, it is not the highest. There is still a loftier height 
 to which the soul may climb, and the path by which its feet 
 ascend almost to the celestial gates is Reason. Step by 
 step it climbs, its horizon widening until its vision well-nigh 
 sweeps the universe and scans the lurking-place of many a 
 hidden world; it makes the solar waves its toys and play- 
 things, using them in sportive picture-making; it grasps 
 the waves of light that journey from the very verge of 
 space's shoreless sea, and forces each to tell the secrets of 
 its far-off home; it reaches forth its subtile hand to grasp 
 (86) 
 
THE FOURTH STAGE. 87 
 
 the all-destroying thunder-bolt, and makes it tame to do its 
 will and bear its messages around the earth with speed 
 that makes the flight of Puck in Shakespeare's dream seem 
 ordinary. Aye, more than this, it turns the pages of the 
 ponderous stone-clasped volumes of creation's genesis, and 
 reads the records of a million years ago; and who shall say 
 what deeper hidden mysteries it may yet solve ? 
 
 It is this tremendous force, this inner power of man 
 that laughs at time and space, and penetrates the secrets 
 of the deep; it is this untamable, resistless spirit, throned 
 within a little mass of living clay; it is this most subtile, 
 most ethereal essence — most like himself of all that the 
 Creator trusted to man's care — it is Reason, with its bound- 
 less possibilities, that is now for a season to be trusted to 
 your hands, to set in order or to disarrange, to plume for 
 loftier flights or to clip its wings, to leave it groveling in 
 the dust, companioning with creeping things or wallowing 
 with swine ! 
 
 Deduction and Induction. — Reasoning is of two gen- 
 eral kinds or, more properly speaking, it assumes two gen- 
 eral forms: In the exploration of a great river system, one 
 may start at the mouth of the main stream, and by follow- 
 ing it up, explore in turn its countless tributaries, with all 
 their branches; or, pursuing the reverse process, we may 
 start at the beginning of the various rivulets, and trace 
 them downward to their common mouth at the great ocean. 
 In the one case we have reached the smaller through the 
 greater, the special through the general; while in the other 
 we have reversed the process, and arrived at the greater 
 through the less, the general through the special. The 
 former method is called Deduction; the latter, Induc- 
 tion. 
 
 Inductive Reasoning Induction, or the Inductive 
 
 Method of Reasoning, may be further illustrated thus: 
 
88 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Two bodies of very unequal weight, as a coin and a feather, 
 are placed at the same height in a long glass tube from 
 which the air is carefully extracted by an air-pump. When 
 let fall, they are both seen to strike the bottom of the tube 
 at the same instant — that is, they both have fallen through 
 this space in the same time. 
 
 The noticing of the fact that these two bodies fall through 
 this particular space in the same time is a fact of observa- 
 tion. I may infer from this observation that should I re- 
 peat the experiment, under the same circumstances, at an- 
 other time; or that, should I use any other coin and any 
 other feather; or that, should I use any other two substances 
 whatever, the conditions as to the vacuum remaining the 
 same, the same results would follow. Such a conclusion, 
 or supposition, is known as an Inductive Inference, or as 
 an Induction. Let us now examine the grounds for such 
 inference. 
 
 Law of Universal Causation Our object in per- 
 forming the experiment has been to satisfy our minds as 
 to whether bodies of different weights, or different specific 
 gravity, will fall equally fast if acted on by gravity alone. 
 We know of but one thing that could interfere with their 
 free motion, and that is the resistance of the air. By pump- 
 ing out the air we have "isolated the phenomenon," and 
 may now observe the effect of gravity alone. 
 
 We are assuming that there is a cause for the falling of 
 these objects, that nothing can happen without a cause, 
 and that no changes in the happening can take place with- 
 out being preceded or attended by circumstances which, 
 if rightly understood, would fully account for them. 
 
 This principle, though we may not frame it in words, is 
 what is known as " The Law of Universal Causation; " and 
 it is acted on by rational men in all the practical affairs of 
 life. 
 
THE FOURTH STAGE. 
 
 89 
 
 No doubt this law is in part the result of our deductions, 
 drawn from our earliest experiences, but it is also a neces- 
 sary condition of our thought — an intuition. 
 
 Law of Uniformity of Nature. — We have tried the 
 above experiment with only one coin and one feather, and 
 at only one time; why should I infer that if I used differ- 
 ent coins and feathers, or performed the experiment at dif- 
 ferent times, the result would be the same ? By another 
 law, as deeply seated in our nature as the one dbove con- 
 sidered, we know instinctively that the same causes or com- 
 bination of causes will invariably be followed by the same 
 effects or combination of effects; or, to state the proposi- 
 tion in different words, that " Wherever the same antece- 
 dents, and none others, are introduced, the same conse- 
 quents will invariably follow. This principle is known as 
 The Law of the Uniformity of Nature." 
 
 Thus, it will be seen, we have arrived at a general truth 
 from the investigation of a particular phenomenon. Induc- 
 tion is, therefore, seen to be the legitimate inference of the 
 general from the particular. 
 
 Converse of the Law does not Hold It is neces- 
 sary to observe, and to impress upon the minds of our 
 pupils the fact that the converse of the Law of the Uni- 
 formity of Nature does not hold, though, of course, we 
 should use none of this technical language. While it is 
 always true that the same cause (no counteracting circum- 
 stances) will produce the same effect, it 'does not follow, 
 by any means, that the same effect is necessarily produced 
 by the same cause, though much of the reasoning among 
 children, and even among children of a larger growth, is 
 apt to be of this fallacious nature. We may illustrate its 
 absurdity in some such way as this : 
 
 A given dose of poison may be sure to produce, death 
 unless its effects are counteracted; but it would be most 
 
9° 
 
 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 absurd to assume, for this reason, that wherever death 
 occurs it is due to poison. It must also be observed that 
 an effect is not necessarily due to one cause alone. It 
 may require the combined action of several to produce 
 it. Thus, death may be the result of an enfeebled con- 
 stitution, in conjunction with some sudden illness or 
 over-exertion or any one or more of a score of other 
 causes, no one of which alone would have proved fatal. 
 So, too, it must be ever borne in mind that the success or 
 failure of a pupil may not be wholly or even principally 
 due to the cause we happen to have in mind at the 
 moment, even though we may be certain that it was in 
 operation; neither can we affirm with certainty that the 
 general success or failure of school is due to any given 
 method. In arriving at legitimate conclusions in matters 
 of this kind the greatest care must be observed. Many 
 of the tests to be applied will naturally suggest themselves 
 to the keen-witted teacher, but in order to be able to guide 
 pupils safely it would be well to read carefully some good 
 work on Inductive Reasoning. 
 
 Induction and Science. — Most of the physical sci- 
 ences are based so largely on observation and experiment 
 that the Inductive Mode of reasoning is especially adapted 
 to them and, for the same reason, they are especially 
 adapted to its cultivation. By performing a few simple 
 experiments in natural philosophy, with the aid of such 
 apparatus as any intelligent teacher may extemporize, 
 enough of the general laws of nature may be illustrated 
 to start the mind of many a thoughtful boy or girl to 
 thinking and investigating for itself. 
 
 The author well remembers an evening spent at the 
 home of a friend in a rural district, where the intelligent 
 teacher had that afternoon been giving a few such experi- 
 ments in homespun science. The heads of the boys were 
 
THE FOURTH STAGE. 9 i 
 
 full of it, and it was late before their intelligent discussions 
 of the principles involved were ended. 
 
 Inductive Method should not be too strictly fol- 
 lowed — A strict adherence to the Inductive Method, in 
 our ordinary teaching, would require that instead of teach- 
 ing definitions, principles, and rules, and afterward illus- 
 trating them by facts, we first call the pupil's attention to 
 a sufficient number of facts to establish the principle, or 
 rule, or definition, and then require him to make it for him- 
 self. Undoubtedly this is the more scientific way, but it 
 will be observed that the books which profess to be written 
 on the Inductive Plan usually state the principle in the 
 blackest of full-faced type at the beginning of the section 
 devoted to its discussion. The reason is that this gives 
 the pupil something definite to work to, and the principle 
 is, therefore, often mastered in a much shorter time, and 
 stated in clearer terms, than the pupil would be apt to work 
 out wholly by himself. 
 
 The stating of a principle first, or the giving of a defini- 
 tion before its explanation, is not objectionable, in case the 
 full explanation immediately follows. It is the giving of 
 definitions, and the statement of principles and rules, with- 
 out explanation or illustration, that made the old system of 
 Deductive Methods so void of good results. 
 
 The Deductive Method of reasoning is not without its 
 value, even in common-school education, and our next 
 chapter will be devoted to illustrating the rational combi- 
 nation of the two methods in teaching. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER X. 
 
 Lofty character of the third stage of mental development. 
 The much more exalted nature of the fourth stage, or Reason. 
 Brief summary of some of the more wonderful achievements of the 
 human reason. 
 
 Two general forms of reasoning — Inductive and Deductive. IHus- 
 
9 2 
 
 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 trated by exploring a river system, beginning at its various sources, or 
 beginning at its mouth. 
 
 Deduction proceeds from the general to the particular; Induction 
 from the particular to the general. 
 
 Inductive Reasoning • 
 
 Illustrated by the falling of a coin and a feather in a vacuum. 
 
 The inductive inference from this experiment. 
 
 Examination of the grounds of this inference. 
 
 Principle of Universal Causation. We know this principle both by 
 intuition and by experience. 
 
 The Law of the Uniformity of Nature. 
 
 Statement of the chain of inductive reasoning from which we infer the 
 law of falling bodies in a vacuum. This shows how the general may be 
 legitimately inferred from the particular. 
 
 The converse of the Law of the Uniformity of Nature does not hold 
 — illustration. 
 
 An effect is not necessarily due to one cause alone. The success or 
 failure of a* pupil or a school will probably depend on a combination of 
 many causes. The greatest care necessary in considering whether we 
 have found all the causes of any effect. 
 
 The Inductive Method of reasoning specially applicable to the Physi- 
 cal Sciences. The study of these sciences especially adapted, therefore, 
 to train minds in inductive reasoning. Excellent and far-reaching 
 results that may follow from showing children a few experiments in 
 natural philosophy. 
 
 We do not strictly adhere to Inductive Methods in our ordinary teach- 
 ing, because, while their use is stimulating to the mind, yet their exclu- 
 sive use makes the way too hard for the little learner, forcing him to find 
 everything out for himself, instead of giving him the benefit of what 
 older and wiser people have learned by ages of research. 
 
 It is not objectionable to state the principle first, if its explanation 
 immediately follows. It is rules without explanations that should be 
 avoided. 
 
 The Deductive Method is not without its value, even in common- 
 school work. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. 
 
 Can you mention any other wonderful things, aside from those men- 
 tioned in the text, that have been discovered or accomplished through 
 man's reason J 
 
THE FOVkTH STAGE. 93 
 
 Can you give a clear, original illustration of the difference between 
 induction and deduction ? 
 
 To which class does reasoning from analogy belong ? Give an illus- 
 tration. 
 
 Is there any difference between induction and empiricism ? If so, 
 what? 
 
 Can you give some other illustration of the fact that we instinctively 
 assume the law of universal causation ? 
 
 Can you give other illustrations of the fact that we assume the law of 
 the uniformity of nature ? 
 
 What are some of the mistakes or errors most liable to be made by 
 the careless in the application of this law ? 
 
 Give other illustrations of the fallacy of assuming that the same effect 
 is produced by the same cause. 
 
 Why does the same cause not always seem to produce the same effect ? 
 
 Mention a few of the more simple experiments that may be performed 
 by the teacher in order to wake up the mind and set pupils to investi- 
 gating the laws of nature by the inductive process. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 THE RATIONAL COMBINATION OF THE INDUCTIVE 
 AND THE DEDUCTIVE METHODS IN TEACHING. 
 
 It was stated in the last chapter that the Inductive 
 Method of reasoning starts from the observation of the 
 particular, and by the application of the Laws of Universal 
 Causation and Uniformity of Action in Nature, arrives at 
 general principles. It was also stated, but without ex- 
 tended illustration, that the Deductive Method follows the 
 reverse course — starting with the general and leading back 
 to the special. 
 
 How the Inductive precedes the Deductive. — It 
 will be seen that the general principle must be established 
 before the Deductive Method can be applied, and that un- 
 less this general principle be intuitive, like the axioms in 
 mathematics, for example, the Inductive must necessarily 
 precede the Deductive. Thus, the surgeon, from having 
 dissected a few bodies, or from having seen them dissected 
 by others, learns the science of Anatomy. In the few sub- 
 jects he has examined he has observed that each internal 
 organ has its special locality, shape, relation, size, etc. He 
 therefore reasons by induction, not only that the members 
 of the human race generally have the organs he has found 
 in the individuals investigated, but that these organs will 
 have the same general locality, shape, size, etc., in all in- 
 dividuals, except in such few cases as, owing to counter- 
 acting circumstances, have had the uniform course of 
 nature interrupted, and are, therefore, exceptional or ab- 
 (94) 
 
INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE METHODS. 9 g 
 
 normal. His faith in the fact that the cases he has exam- 
 ined are the normal rather than the abnormal is greatly 
 strengthened, and amounts to positive certainty when he 
 compares the results of his own observations with the re- 
 corded observation of a multitude of others. He now rea- 
 sons deductively, when any individual of the human species 
 requires surgical treatment, that this subject, being a mem- 
 ber of the human race, must have such or such an organ 
 in such or such a place, and must not have it located an 
 inch or two inches above or below this point, or to the 
 right or the left of it. On this evidence he stakes the 
 life of the patient, and thrusts his lance, knowing that he 
 will not pierce a vital organ or sever any of the larger 
 veins or arteries. His reasoning, reduced to the form of 
 a syllogism, is something as follows : 
 
 " In the human body the organ O is located at the posi- 
 tion L; it is N inches in diameter. This patient is a mem- 
 ber of the human race; therefore he has the organ O in the 
 locality L, and with the diameter N. Consequently, if I 
 pierce this wound or ulcer at the distance of more than 
 one half of N inches from the center of L, I will not strike 
 the vital organ O." 
 
 Should he now be ignorant of the fact that the large 
 artery A runs just above the center of O, and should he 
 sever this with his lancet, causing the death of the patient, 
 he would be held responsible in the courts for the death of 
 the person in question. Not having all the facts of Induc- 
 tion which he should have had, it has been impossible for 
 him to make the necessary Deduction, and the result is 
 death to the patient and ruin to the surgeon. 
 
 If such a rigid enforcement of justice were to be applied 
 to the Doctors of the Mind and Surgeons of the Soul, how 
 many of us would be outside of prison walls ? Probably 
 only those who had already been hanged. 
 
$6 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OP EDUCATION. 
 
 Necessity of Thorough Knowledge. — The anatomy 
 of mind is quite as much a science as is that of physical 
 organism; and, like the latter, it is an Inductive Science, 
 all that is valuable in it being the result of observation and 
 experiment; and though it may not be possible for each 
 one of us to make all these observations and conduct these 
 experiments ourselves, before beginning the work of teach- 
 ing, the results of the observations of thousands of compe- 
 tent observers have been recorded, and we should, as far 
 as possible, avail ourselves of them before presuming to 
 thrust the lance among the subtile tissues of the soul. If 
 it is criminal negligence for the surgeon not to have suffi- 
 cient inductive knowledge of the human system to enable 
 him to make the requisite deductions as to where it is dan- 
 gerous to probe, or how to dress and treat a wound, what 
 must be said of those of us who attempt to teach, in utter 
 ignorance of the anatomy of mind and soul ? 
 
 The mutual relation of the Inductive and the Deductive 
 may be further illustrated by, and applied to, our ordinary 
 school-work in arithmetic. 
 
 Deduction without Induction. — By courtesy of the 
 publishers of this work, the author has before him a copy 
 of one of the first arithmetics ever printed in the Eng- 
 lish language. It is called " The Schoolmaster's Assist- 
 ant," and is dedicated "to the Reverend and Worthy 
 Schoolmasters in Great Britain and Ireland," by Thomas 
 Dilworth, Schoolmaster in Wapping, 1742. It is further 
 stated that the work is a " Compendium of Arithmetic, 
 both Practical and Theoretical." But in spite of this state- 
 ment, there is not the slightest attempt at the explanation of 
 a principle from beginning to end. The principles are all 
 stated dogmatically, in the form of rules, and the pupil is 
 then set to work to apply these, deductively, in the solution 
 of problems. More than this, the rules are often so blindly 
 
INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE METHODS. 
 
 97 
 
 stated that it is difficult to see how pupils were enabled to 
 follow them. 
 
 Here is the way subtraction is treated, and it is a fair 
 illustration of the way all other subjects were handled, be- 
 fore the Inductive methods came into use: 
 
 Q. What is the use of Subtraction ? 
 
 A. By taking a less Number from a greater, it shows the difference 
 between both. 
 
 Q. How many Sorts of Subtraction are there ? 
 
 A. Two : Simple and Compound. 
 
 Q. What is Simple Subtraction ? 
 
 A. Simple or Single Subtraction is the finding a difference be- 
 tween any two Numbers whose Signification is the same; as, the Differ- 
 ence between 6 yards and 4 yards, is 2 yards. 
 
 Q. How are Numbers to be placed in Subtraction ? 
 
 A. With Units under Units, Tens under Tens, &c. , as in Addition. 
 
 Q. What Rule have you for the Operation of Subtraction in gen- 
 eral ? 
 
 A. When the lower Number is greater than the upper, take the 
 lower Number from the Number which you borrow, and to the differ- 
 ence add the upper Number, carrying one to the next lower Place. 
 
 Q. What Number must you borrow when the lower Number is 
 greater ? 
 
 A. The same which you stop at in Addition. 
 
 Q. How do you prove Subtraction ? 
 
 A. By adding the Remainder and the lesser Line together, which will 
 always be equal to the greater Line. Or, By subtracting the Remain- 
 der from the greater Line, and that Difference will always be equal to 
 the lesser Line. 
 
 Q. What is Compound Subtraction ? 
 
 A. Compound Subtraction produces a difference between any two 
 Sums of divers Denominations. 
 
 And then, without so much as even an attempt at illus- 
 trating the mechanical solution of a problem, the pupil is 
 given a long array of examples, both in simple and com- 
 pound subtraction, couched in language which fairly bristles 
 7 
 
98 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 with the dictatorial air of the old-time schoolmaster — like 
 the following : 
 
 There were 4 Bags of Money, containing as follows, viz. The First 
 Bag 34/., the second Bag 50/., the third Bag 100/., and the fourth Bag 
 150/., which were to be paid to several persons ; but one of the Bags 
 being lost, there were but 234 /. paid ; / demand which Bag was want- 
 ing ? 
 
 This is an example of teaching entirely by the Deductive 
 Method. The idea that pupils could be led to understand 
 the rules they employed does not seem to have found lodg- 
 ment in the heads of the school-masters of the good old 
 days. How pupils ever managed to follow, even in the 
 most mechanical way, such rules as the following is a 
 mystery : 
 
 Q. How do you reduce a Fraction of one Denomination to the Frac- 
 tion of another, but less, retaining the same value ? 
 
 A. Multiply the given Numerator, by the Parts of the Denominators 
 between it, and that Denomination you would reduce the fraction to, 
 for a new Numerator, and place it over the given Denominator. 
 
 Possibly most of us could still work such a problem, in 
 spite of this rule, but it is safe to say that very few of us 
 could follow the rule. Yet this is just what our great-grand- 
 fathers were compelled to do, and it wouid doubtless have 
 been a painful experiment for one of them to have at- 
 tempted to solve a problem by any other means than by the 
 rule laid down, or to 'have asked why he did so and so. It 
 was all-sufficient that the rule said so; and the worst of it is 
 that this method of teaching is not yet wholly obsolete. 
 The author must not be understood as condemning utterly 
 the use of rules. He will illustrate presently how they 
 may be rationally employed; but it is the habit of requir- 
 ing children to work blindly by meaningless rules that is 
 objected to, especially in cases where they might easily be 
 
INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE METHODS. 
 
 99 
 
 led, by Inductive methods, to a clear conception of the prin- 
 ciples involved. 
 
 Deductions derived from Induction. — Let us sup- 
 pose that the pupil, wholly unfamiliar with the subject, is 
 given such a problem as this : 
 
 " Divide f by f ." * 
 
 The teacher may go on and explain inductively the process 
 leading to the required solution, and this is a very good 
 way, but not the best. Rather so direct the minds of the 
 pupils, by skillful questionings, as to lead them to discover 
 the principle or rule in part for themselves. 
 
 The teacher may question them somewhat as follows: 
 " How many times are 5 men contained in 10 hours ? " 
 They will answer in substance that 5 men can not be said 
 to be contained at all in 10 hours, because they are not the 
 same kind of things. Their attention has been drawn to 
 this fact long before, but it is well to have them keep it 
 fresh in mind. Changing the question, " How many times 
 are 2 gallons contained in 40 quarts ? " After a few mo- 
 ments' hesitation, most of the pupils will correctly answer, 
 " Five times." When asked to explain how they obtained 
 this result, they will say, in substance, that 2 gallons equal 
 8 quarts, and that 8 quarts are contained in 40 quarts, 5 
 times. 
 
 "What did you have to do, then," they may be asked, 
 " before dividing ? " They will say that they had to " make 
 the numbers alike," or to "change them to the same name," 
 or something else that means about this. The teacher may 
 then say that we commonly speak of this as " reducing them 
 to the same denomination." 
 
 Then might follow some such question as, " How many 
 times are § contained in 4 ? " As they have had previous 
 drill in this kind of work, they should promptly answer, 
 " Six times," and when asked for an explanation, they will 
 
loo HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 say that 4 is equal to twelve thirds, and two thirds are con- 
 tained in twelve thirds six times. 
 
 Then, again, in answer to the question, " What did you 
 really do, before dividing?" they will say that they re- 
 duced the two numbers to the same denomination. 
 
 It is then asked: " What must we- really do before divid- 
 ing I by § ? " Some of the class will see that we must, in 
 fact, reduce them to a common denominator — an opera- 
 tion with which they are already familiar. The members of 
 the class may then be permitted to perform this reduction, 
 and they will soon have the results — jj- = \\ and \ = \\ . 
 They will now have no difficulty in seeing that fourteen 
 twenty-firsts are contained in fifteen twenty-firsts iy 1 ^ times, 
 for the same reason that 14 bushels are contained in 15 
 bushels, or that 14 things of any kind are contained in 15 
 things of the same kind i T 1 T times. 
 
 They could now, undoubtedly, work any other example 
 of this kind by following out the same Inductive Method 
 of reducing to a common denominator, and dividing, as we 
 have here done; but this would be much too slow for prac- 
 tical purposes; so, now that the pupils understand what 
 they must really do, the teacher may pursue these induc- 
 tions a little further to evolve a very practical general 
 statement or rule. 
 
 In reducing the above two fractions to a common de- 
 nominator, let the pupils only indicate the multiplication by 
 means of the proper signs, without actually performing the 
 work — that is, by multiplying both terms of each by the de- 
 nominator of the other. 
 
 Thus : — = - — — and — = The teacher next re- 
 
 7 7X3 3 3x7 
 
 minds the pupils that since these fractions have now a com- 
 mon denominator, the first of them is divided by the second 
 by dividing its numerator by the numerator of the second 
 
INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE METHODS. 101 
 
 — that two thirds are contained in four thirds twice, etc. 
 etc. Consequently, 
 
 r y o 2X7 
 
 ; must be the same as (? x?)-f (2 x 7); or, 
 
 7x3 3X7 V 
 
 ^ X % 
 
 stated in the fractional form, - — -• 
 
 2x7 
 
 Now, by inspecting this result it will be seen that the 
 numerator is made up of the product of the numerator of 
 the dividend and the denominator of the divisor; and that 
 the denominator of the answer is the product of the denom- 
 inator of the dividend and the numerator of the divisor. 
 That is, the upper part of the dividend has been multi- 
 plied by the lower part of the divisor, and the lower part of 
 the dividend has been multiplied by the upper part of the 
 divisor — the same result we would obtain by inverting the 
 terms of the divisor, and then multiplying the numerators 
 together for a new numerator, and the denominators to- 
 gether for a new denominator. This principle should be 
 further illustrated by the solution of other problems. 
 
 Thus : l^.|. = 3Ji|-H^il = 3iii I the same result as 
 7 8 7x8 8x7 5x7 
 
 would have been obtained by inverting §, making it f, and 
 
 then multiplying £ by it. 
 
 Or, in other words, --=-|- = ^-x-= -— • 
 7 8 7 5 7x5 
 
 From this and other illustrations it will be seen that to 
 divide one fraction by another, we invert the terms of the 
 divisor and then multiply, or proceed as in multiplication, or 
 multiply the numerators together for a new nutnerator and the 
 denominators for a new denominator. This same rule may, 
 of course, be arrived at by other methods of induction. 
 The pupils having now fairly reached the rule by legitimate 
 inductions, should be permitted to employ it ever after in 
 their practical work. To require the pupil to re-explain 
 
102 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 every principle every time he uses it is nearly, if not quite, 
 as illogical as to require him to use it without any expla- 
 nation at all. The making of the rules is Induction; the 
 applying them to the solution of problems is Deduction. 
 The actual course of reasoning which the pupil employs, 
 though he does not frame it in words, would be: "Any 
 problem in division of fractions may be solved by invert- 
 ing the terms of the divisor, and proceeding as in mul- 
 tiplication. This is a problem in division of fractions; 
 therefore it may be solved by inverting the terms of the 
 divisor, and then proceeding as in multiplication." 
 
 General Observations on the Use of both Methods 
 
 in Teaching In most cases the rule will be reached by 
 
 much simpler induction than in the case of division of frac- 
 tions, and in many cases the inductions are so obvious 
 that the intelligent pupil sees the method of solution at a 
 glance, and needs no rules. This is true in most of the 
 cases of percentage and its applications, and rules in such 
 cases serve rather to confuse than to help the pupil: here 
 he works best by employing only deductive methods. But 
 there are many other cases, such as multiplying or divid- 
 ing one fraction by another, finding the greatest common 
 divisor and the least common multiple, multiplying or divid- 
 ing one decimal by another, square and cube root, arith- 
 metical and geometrical progression, simple and compound 
 proportion, and most of the problems in mensuration, where, 
 without the use of derived rules or formulae, his progress 
 would be much too slow for the practical purposes of a stirring 
 age. More than this, there are even a few cases where it be- 
 comes necessary to employ the deductive method, and work 
 by rule without having made the inductions and deductions 
 on which the rules are based. Thus, every pupil should 
 know how to find the circumference, or area, of a circle from 
 its diameter, but he can not understand why he multiplies the 
 
INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE METHODS. 
 
 103 
 
 diameter by 3.1416 to find the circumference, or why he 
 multiplies the square of the diameter by .7854 to find the 
 area, until after he has studied geometry and been drilled in 
 the higher applications of deductive reasoning employed in 
 demonstration. No more can he understand many of the 
 other rules of mensuration, such as finding the contents of 
 a sphere, a cone, a pyramid, etc. But these are exceptional 
 cases, not the rule by any means, and the teacher must see 
 that in cases where the rule can be reached through induc- 
 tive reasoning, the pupils do no blind, unthinking work. 
 
 For reasons similar to the ones given here, both methods 
 should be employed in grammar, spelling, and their kindred 
 branches; and we will greatly err in teaching if we do not 
 lead our pupils to draw many valuable deductions from 
 their rich stores of inductive inference in history, geog- 
 raphy, and other branches. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER XI. 
 
 Restatement of the Inductive Method. 
 
 The Deductive follows the reverse course. 
 
 A foundation must be established before the Deductive Method can be 
 applied, unless it is intuitive. 
 
 The Inductive, therefore, usually precedes the Deductive 
 Method : This illustrated by the case of a surgical operation. How, 
 in his inductive studies, the surgeon determines that the cases he has 
 examined are the normal, rather than the abnormal — His responsibility. 
 
 How the teacher would fare if held equally responsible for mischief 
 done. 
 
 The anatomy of the mind, like that of trie body, is an inductive 
 science. 
 
 How we may supplement our own personal experience. 
 
 Teaching is largely a deductive science, based on the inductive scienee 
 of the mind. 
 
 Illustration of the Folly of using the Deductive alone, 
 from "The Schoolmaster's Assistant": (i) All its principles and 
 rules stated dogmatically and blindly. (2) Illustration from the subject 
 of subtraction. (3) Reduction of fractions to lower denominations. (4) 
 
104 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 What our great-grandfathers had to contend against. (5) This method 
 not yet wholly obsolete. 
 
 The combination of inductive and deductive reasoning in teaching 
 further illustrated — in relation to the problem of dividing one fraction 
 by another. 
 
 By inductive processes, directed by the teacher's questions, the pupils 
 are led to see clearly that this can be done by reducing both to a com- 
 mon denominator. By further inductions, they are led to evolve the 
 short-cut of the common rule. 
 
 The reason of a rule once understojd, the pupil should not be re- 
 quired to explain it whenever used. 
 
 Division of fractions involves much more difficult reasoning than most 
 problems in arithmetic. In many cases the inductions to be made will 
 be seen at u glance by a bright pupil. This is especially true in Per- 
 centage. In such cases it is best to use no rules. In many cases, how- 
 ever, rules are necessary; but they should, as far as possible, be led up 
 to inductively. There are a few rules, however, that can not be explained 
 in common school work because they depend on the higher mathemat- 
 ics. Examples of such rules. 
 
 Both methods of reasoning should be employed in teaching other 
 branches than arithmetic : as language, history, and geography. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. 
 
 Can you show, by deductive reasoning, that Illinois and Iowa must 
 be largely engaged in raising hogs ? Make a statement of the process 
 by which a pupil should arrive at such a conclusion, even though his 
 geography said nothing on the subject. 
 
 Is it wise to have pupils memorize the productions of each State and 
 Territory ? Why, or why not. 
 
 Illustrate how the pupil should be led to determine, by induction, the 
 industries and products of New Mexico, of Wyoming, of Idaho. 
 
 To what extent can they be led to determine, by induction, the habits, 
 customs, and general characteristics of the future population of these 
 various sections ? 
 
 When we say of a person that "he is a far-sighted business man," do 
 we mean that he reasons from induction or from deduction ? Give illus- 
 trations. 
 
 Can the man who measures the circumference of a circle by a tape 
 line, and finds that it is 3. 1416 tirne.s the diameter, be said to Jjave estab- 
 
INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE METHODS. 
 
 l°5 
 
 lished the fact by induction ? What is such a process commonly called ? 
 Is it better, in an educational way, than no proof at all ? Why, or why 
 not? 
 
 Is it, or is it not, true that from having inspected a geometrical series, 
 and observed the fact that the 2d term is found by multiplying the J st 
 term by the ratio, the 3d by multiplying the 1st by the square of the ratio, 
 the 4th by multiplying the 1st by the cube of the ratio, etc., we do not 
 know positively that the loth term will be found by multiplying the 1st 
 by the gth power of the ratio ; or, in general, that the nth term will not 
 be found by multiplying the 1st term by the (n — i)st power of the ratio' 
 
 What process of reasoning is this ? Does it arrive at an absolute dem- 
 onstration of the rule ? 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 THE MORAL FACULTIES AND THEIR CULTIVATION. 
 
 Our Moral Faculties may be said, in general, to be those 
 powers of the soul that are called into operation in know- 
 ing the right and the wrong, in discriminating between 
 them, and in determining our actions with regard to them. 
 
 Conscience — That there exists such a thing as abstract 
 goodness or Tightness is a fact of which the soul is intui- 
 tively conscious, and it is impossible for us to conceive of 
 it being otherwise. For any rational being to believe that 
 truth is a vice and that falsehood is a virtue, or that dis- 
 honesty is right and that honesty is wrong, is as far beyond 
 our power of conception as that he should be so constituted 
 as to believe that two parallel lines can form an angle with 
 each other, or that effects may exist without causes. There 
 is such a thing as right, and truth, and virtue, and the 
 knowledge of this fact is as inseparable from us as is our 
 very being. It does not follow from this, however, that 
 we intuitively know that any given act, or motive, or line 
 of conduct is right or wrong. Before determining this, the 
 mind must compare the given motive or action with the 
 intuitive model its Creator has provided, to see whether or 
 not the two agree. The determining of the Tightness or 
 wrongness of any specific act or motive is, therefore, seen to 
 be a matter of judgment, and it is as liable to error as are 
 matters of judgment on questions in which the moral ele- 
 ment plays no part. The faculty which makes this com- 
 (106) 
 
CULTIVATION OF MORAL FACULTIES. 107 
 
 parison of the Tightness or wrongness of an act or motive 
 with the perfect model is called Conscience. 
 
 Dependent on Judgment Let us thoroughly under- 
 stand this point before proceeding further, since a great 
 amount of misunderstanding exists regarding it. Every 
 rational creature knows intuitively that honesty is right, 
 and that dishonesty is wrong. But every person is often 
 uncertain where to draw the line between prudence and 
 dishonesty in business affairs. If his judgment dictates 
 that he can not conduct a certain line of business with a 
 less profit than 20$, his conscience will dictate that his 
 duty to his family will not allow him to charge less than 
 this; but if, on the other hand, his judgment dictates that 
 10$ is all that is necessary in order to do business, his 
 conscience will dictate that he ought not to charge 20$. 
 The act of judging as to the amount of profit necessary in 
 order to cover expenses and yield a reasonable return for 
 the money, etc., invested, is not conscience, as this decides 
 no moral question; but the determining whether it is right 
 or wrong to charge 20$ when 10$ is sufficient, necessitates 
 the comparing of this act with the soul's God-given ideal, 
 and this is an act of conscience. It will, however, depend 
 on and be governed in its decision by the former judgment 
 as to the necessary profits. If this former judgment is 
 wrong in regard to 20$ being necessary, the decision of 
 conscience will do an injustice to the public; and if the 
 judgment that 10$ is sufficient proves wrong, the con- 
 science, in deciding that he ought not to charge more than 
 this, will do an injustice to the tradesman and his family. 
 
 Again, every one knows that "to steal is base." But 
 there come times in the experience of men, under certain 
 circumstances, when the judgment has to decide whether 
 certain acts are theft or not — as when, in time of war, the 
 soldiers forage for subsistence, or when it seems to become. 
 
108 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 necessary to appropriate the property of others to sustain 
 the life of the helpless. If the judgment decides that 
 these acts are not theft, the conscience may approve of 
 them; but it is evident that in case the judgment erred in 
 this decision, the decision of the conscience, based on this, 
 would prompt a wrong act. How far the person is morally 
 responsible for his acts, under these circumstances, is an- 
 other question. It is only held that our conscience is liable 
 to err in its decisions. 
 
 For this reason, two persons may hold directly opposite 
 views in regard to the Tightness of an action, and both be 
 perfectly "conscientious " in regard to it. We will do well 
 to keep this fact ever in view in our dealings with chil- 
 dren. No child can possibly be induced to believe a thing 
 is right as long as his conscience dictates that it is wrong; 
 and to require him to do the act under such circumstances 
 must, of necessity, compel him to do violence to his 
 conscience and to his moral nature. The teacher should 
 at least give him clear reasons as to why the action is 
 right before requiring him to do it. If she can not give 
 such reasons for the Tightness of the act — that is, if she 
 can not clearly show that it falls under some one of the 
 general classes of acts that are self-evidently right — she will 
 do well to stop and consider as to whether her own judg- 
 ment may not be at fault. Cases of this kind frequently 
 occur in school. For example, a boy sees something or 
 other done behind the teacher's back that causes him to 
 laugh (for some inscrutable reason, things do seem funny 
 in school that one could not be induced to laugh at else- 
 where). The teacher turns suddenly on the giggling boy, 
 and demands to know what he is laughing at. To tell 
 will doubtless get one of his playmates into trouble, and 
 he often reasons that it would be wrong for him to do this. 
 To tell, he thinks, would be mean, while to obey his teacher 
 
CULTIVATION OF MORAL FACULTIES, 
 
 roo 
 
 on general principles is only right. His conscience, there- 
 fore, casts its ballot against the "mean " act nine times out 
 of ten, and he will bear the severest punishment rathef 
 than turn informer. Generally, it is imprudent to ask 
 such questions as the one in this case. The chances are 
 that compelling the pupil to answer (if, indeed, the teacher 
 succeeds in doing .this^ will compel him to do what he 
 intuitively feels to be wrong, and his moral nature is weak- 
 ened by the act of yielding. There are cases where the 
 teacher is justified in calling pupils as witnesses and re- 
 quiring them to testify; but these should be cases where it 
 can be clearly shown to any reasonable pupil that the mat- 
 ter ought to be told. 
 
 Moral Judgment of Others It is seen that our moral 
 
 judgments do not stop with determining the Tightness or 
 wrongness of our own actions. They reach outward and 
 compare the actions of others, as well as those of our- 
 selves, with our inborn perfect conceptions of moral recti- 
 tude. The operations of the mind in arriving at a decision 
 as to the Tightness, and, consequently, the oughtness, of 
 an act or course of conduct, are very similar, whether it be 
 with reference to ourselves or to some one else. Says Dr. 
 McCosh, page 251, in his admirable work on "The Intui- 
 tions of the Mind '' : 
 
 " We seem first to have a necessary conviction in regard to the moral 
 nature of our own actions, and thence we arise to convictions which 
 look to moral qualities, which, being apprehended by us, we declare to 
 be good or evil, wherever they are to be found, and whoever may be the 
 possessor." 
 
 With the deepest respect for the opinions of the learned 
 psychologist above quoted, the writer is inclined to think 
 that Dr. McCosh used his own exalted soul rather than that 
 of the composite man in arriving at such a conclusion. 
 With a man of his high character, it may be possible to 
 
110 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 judge of his own motives and actions first, but with those 
 of us who stand on the average moral plane, the reverse 
 process is apt to be the one adopted. We are much more 
 apt to apply the moral test first to the actions of others than 
 to ourselves. There are so many passions and desires at 
 play within our own breasts, and these exercise such an 
 influence over the conscience, that in the average man or 
 woman it is apt to lose some of its primal energy, and in 
 some cases to go well-nigh to sleep. But the moral judg- 
 ment never slumbers with regard to the conduct of our 
 neighbors. It is a matter of every-day experience with 
 most of us that motives which pass unchallenged in our 
 own secret souls meet with our severest criticism when 
 they are manifested in another. We do not, therefore, 
 judge of the wrongness of his acts or motives by reason- 
 ing that such an act or motive would be wrong in us; but 
 from the fact that selfishness does not influence our moral 
 judgment when it is /us act that is under contemplation. 
 We are prepared to compare it, not with our own actions 
 (which would in most cases excuse his folly), but with the 
 intuitive standard in our soul, and this condemns him. 
 
 Our Judgment of Others applied to Self. —This prin- 
 ciple may be utilized to excellent advantage in quickening 
 the conscience when it has been lulled into a half-uncon- 
 scious state, and here is the practical part of this discussion. 
 We do not from our horror of our own imperfections turn 
 to contemplate the sins of others; but, on the contrary, our 
 judgments of the sinfulness of certain acts in others may 
 be so presented to us as to cause us to reflect on our own 
 faults, and put a check on our own evil passions, appetites, 
 desires, etc. 
 
 Thus, take Nathan's parable of the ewe lamb, and note 
 its effect on the mind and character of David, as recorded 
 in the twelfth chapter of II. Samuel. 
 
CULTIVAT10H OF MORAL FACULTIES. m 
 
 David had been guilty of the most horrible of sins, it will 
 be remembered. In order to secure to himself Uriah's wife, 
 he had caused Joab to place that worthy man in the front 
 rank of the battle, where he might be slain; yet all this 
 array of heinous sins does not trouble his stupefied con- 
 science. But the Lord, who had made his soul, knew how 
 to arouse the conscience of even this besotted murderer: 
 
 " And the Lord sent Nathan unto David. And he came unto him 
 and said unto him: There were two men in one city, the one rich and the 
 other poor. The rich man had exceeding many flocks and herds: But 
 the poor man had nothing, save one little ewe lamb, which he had 
 bought and nourished up: and it grew up together with him, and with 
 his children: it did eat of his own meat, and drank of his own cup, and 
 lay in his bosom, and was unto him as a daughter. 
 
 " And there came a traveler unto the rich man, and he spared to take 
 of his own flock and of his own herd, to dress for the wayfaring man 
 that was come unto him; but took the poor man's lamb, and dressed it 
 for the man that was come to him. 
 
 ' ' And David's anger was greatly kindled against the man ; and he said 
 to Nathan: As the Lord Iiveth, the man that hath done this thing shall 
 surely die; and he shall restore the lamb four-fold, because he did this 
 thing, and because he had no pity. % 
 
 "And Nathan said to David: Thou art the man. . . . Thou 
 hast killed Uriah the Hittite with the sword, and hast taken his wife to 
 be thy wife, and hast slain him with the sword of the children of Am- 
 nion. . . And David said unto Nathan, I have sinned against 
 the Lord." 
 
 It will be observed that from that day onward David was 
 a very different man. • There are times in the lives of most 
 of us when we need a Nathan to force home the truth to 
 us, " Thou art the man ! " through some such practical 
 object lesson; and as the boy is the grown-up man in min- 
 iature, his conscience may often be quickened, and his 
 course of life may be changed for the better, by pursuing 
 just such methods still. The teacher who has tact may 
 often by the telling of a story (a parable) induce pupils to 
 
112 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 compare their own actions with the actions they are so free 
 to pass judgment on in others, and so condemn themselves. If 
 the teacher can succeed in doing this, it is efficient moral 
 training — about all that any one can accomplish so far as 
 working reformation is concerned. The simple adminis- 
 tration of punishment, without leading the pupil to feel 
 any real sorrow or sense of shame for his offence, may be 
 sometimes necessary for the good order of the school, but 
 it produces no lasting effect upon his own character. If he 
 is sorry, it is that he has been caught, and not that he is 
 guilty. 
 
 It has become fashionable among certain classes of teach- 
 ers to speak contemptuously of all moralizing. We hear it 
 called " The goody-goody style of teaching morals," " Cant- 
 ing," etc. No doubt it may be overdone, or be injudi- 
 ciously applied, but if applied as above suggested, when 
 the occasion demands it, it becomes a potent force in the 
 moral training of the young, and the teacher who neglects 
 it on proper occasions falls short in an important duty. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER XII. 
 
 The moral faculties defined as a whole. 
 
 The knowledge of abstract moral right and wrong shown to be intui- 
 tive. 
 
 But this may not be applied to special cases without an act of judg- 
 ment. 
 
 This judgment liable to error. 
 
 The faculty which makes this comparison and renders judgment is 
 conscience. 
 
 The conscience illustrated, 1st, From the merchant's decision as to 
 proper rate of profits; 2d, As to when " to steal is base." These show 
 that conscience may prompt a wrong act. 
 
 For this reason two disputants may both be perfectly conscientious. 
 
 The wrong that may be done a child by requiring him to do what he 
 believes to be wrong. 
 
CULTIVATION OF MORAL FACULTIES. 113 
 
 What the teacher should first do. 
 
 The impropriety of commanding a pupil to turn informer in regard 
 to trivial matters. 
 
 When the teacher is justified in calling pupils as witnesses. 
 
 Our moral judgments are exercised on the acts of others. 
 
 Dr. McCosh's statement shown not to apply to ordinary people. 
 
 Why we see faults of others more readily than our own. 
 
 We are not led to see the sins of others from the contemplation of 
 our short-comings, but by comparing them with our intuitive conception 
 of moral right. 
 
 How, on the contrary, our judgment of the follies of others may be 
 utilized in convicting ourselves. 
 
 Illustrated by Nathan's parable. How to apply this in teaching. 
 
 Why this affords the more valuable kind of moral training. 
 
 Those who speak contemptuously of moralizing, and what they call it. 
 
 It is useful in its proper time and place. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. 
 
 Does the person who seems to have little or no appreciation of the 
 immorality of his own acts hold others accountable for the violation of 
 honesty, truthfulness, etc., etc.? What does this fact show? 
 
 Explain the moral significance of the statement that " there is honor 
 among thieves." 
 
 Can a person who has no judgment be properly said to have a con- 
 science ? 
 
 Is such a person morally responsible for his actions ? 
 
 As a matter of fact, is he held legally responsible ? 
 
 Are people of " sane mind " equally responsible for their conduct in a 
 moral sense? (Compare your answer with Matthew xxv. 15; Luke 
 xix. 12.) 
 
 Should the fact be impressed upon the graduating classes of our 
 schools that they have higher moral responsibilities than have those who 
 have not enjoyed their privileges ? If so, on what grounds ? 
 
 Is it true that a teacher has no higher moral responsibility than good 
 people generally have ? Why, or why not ? 
 
 Is it true, in a moral sense, that "it makes no difference what a man 
 believes so long as he is sincere " ? Why, or why not ? 
 
 Is a man morally responsible for his conduct while intoxicated ? Do 
 you think this fact should be impressed upon the minds of the young ? 
 
Il 4 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Can two disputants both be conscientious in regard to their positions? 
 Can they both be right? Explain your statement. 
 
 Should tale-bearing be encouraged by the teacher with reference to 
 the conduct of pupils ? Why, or why not ? Are there any exceptional 
 cases, and if so, what are some of them ? 
 
 Give an illustration of the practical application of Nathan's parable 
 in school management. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE MORAL FACULTIES AND THEIR CULTIVATION— 
 Continued. 
 
 It was shown in the last chapter that the mind intui- 
 tively recognizes the reality of abstract goodness, Tightness, 
 justice, etc.; that the soul determines the Tightness of a 
 thing, and consequently the oughtness of its course of action 
 in regard to it, by comparing it with the inborn intuitive 
 standard; and that the faculty which makes this compari- 
 son and consequent decision is Conscience. It was held 
 that while the soul's intuitive standard is infallible, the com- 
 parison of any particular motive or line of conduct with 
 this standard is as liable to error as is any other decision 
 of the judgment, and that therefore the Conscience may, 
 and often does, lead us into error — that is, into doing things 
 or pursuing lines of action that may work injustice to 
 others, or violate the laws of God, and are therefore in 
 themselves morally wrong. The Conscience is thus seen to 
 be not an infallible guide; but as it is the only guide we 
 have in determining the oughtness of a course of conduct, 
 we must follow it or do violence to our whole moral nature. 
 
 It was also held that for this reason the child should 
 not be required to do any thing that violates his con- 
 science, unless it is certain that the greatest good to the 
 greatest number absolutely requires that this be done; 
 and that, therefore, it is an imperative duty, before re- 
 quiring a pupil to perform any act of this kind, to use all 
 reasonable means to persuade him that the thing he hesi- 
 
 ("5) 
 
Il6 III STORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 tates to do is right, since, if the teacher succeeds in thus 
 persuading him, his conscience will not trouble him in the 
 doing of the act, and his moral nature will not, therefore, 
 suffer violence. 
 
 Moral and Intellectual Culture Interdependent 
 
 From the foregoing it is evident that intellectual disci- 
 pline must of necessity be right in line with moral educa- 
 tion. The conscience makes its decision on the result of a 
 judgment whose accuracy will be reliable, or unreliable, in 
 proportion as the judging power of the mind is strong or 
 feeble. Intellectual education — especially such intellectual 
 education as develops the knowing and reasoning powers 
 — must, therefore, be conducive to morality. It enables 
 the soul to discover whether or not any proposed course of 
 action conforms to its inborn model of moral Tightness, 
 and thus, in the most direct manner possible, it assists the 
 conscience in determining the oughtness of the case. 
 
 And yet there are many most excellent people who have 
 actually been led to believe that intellectual culture is a 
 dangerous thing ; for this statement has been so often 
 made by the thoughtless that even many of the ordinarily 
 thoughtful have accepted it, without taking the trouble to 
 investigate its truth, and thus discover the fallacy that lies 
 so near its surface. It is undoubtedly true that we some- 
 times educate a rogue, but it is a hundred times as often 
 true that the education given makes the undesirableness 
 of a dishonest or immoral life so evident that the rcgue 
 that would have been becomes a useful member of society, 
 and that the naturally lewd pursues the paths of virtue. 
 
 The Will. — But above our intuitive knowledge of 
 abstract Tightness, above our judgments, and above the 
 decisions of the conscience regarding our duty in any 
 given case, there sits enthroned the regal power of choice. 
 It is the experience of every one that when the other 
 
CULTIVATION OF MORAL FACULTIES. 117 
 
 moral faculties have arrived at and rendered their decis- 
 ion, that we ought or ought not to do a given thing, we 
 still have the power of deciding whether to do or not to 
 do. This autocrat, this Czar of all the Faculties, is called 
 the Will. 
 
 The Will is supreme ruler in our mental and moral 
 kingdoms — the Commander-in-Chief of our Army and 
 Navy, and even the Head of our Church. The conscience 
 is his moral Attorney-General, ever ready with advice, 
 couched in language most imperative, but if he chances to 
 be in a wayward mood, as is too often the case with most 
 of us, he disregards all this, and orders the reverse thing 
 done ! The thing is therefore done, but conscience still 
 exercises its high prerogative of judging between this 
 decision and its faithful standard, and then the whole 
 nature of that complex organism we call our being is 
 distressed. 
 
 That the Will is, in one sense, free to act, in spite of 
 Conscience and of Reason, is within the consciousness of 
 every reflecting mind ; but that it is very greatly restrained, 
 or constrained, by judgment, conscience, motives, passions, 
 or desires, is equally apparent. In the first sense, the Will 
 may be said to be free; while in the second, it may be 
 under such restraint or constraint of the other faculties as 
 practically to be said to be in subjection to them. In so 
 far as it serves to control our evil passions and desires, it is 
 evidently a power for good; but in so far as it yields to 
 these, and gives them license to run riot in the soul, it is a 
 power for evil. 
 
 The ideally moral man is the one whose judgment is 
 such that it invariably enables his conscience to discover 
 the moral Tightness or the moral wrongness of a course 
 of action, and whose Will as invariably yields to the 
 promptings of his conscience with reference to his course 
 
Ii8 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 of action in regard to it. Such a man will keep all his 
 baser passions and desires in complete subjection; for his 
 judgment will exhibit the true character of each of these 
 to his conscience; which, upon comparing with the soul's 
 intuitive moral ideals, it instantly pronounces wrong, and 
 advises the Will as to the proper course of action to pur- 
 sue. The Will, conscious of the fact that this advice 
 ought to be followed, yields prompt obedience, and the 
 man walks on — a Man. 
 
 There is much more that might be said with reference 
 to the power and limitations of the Will, but space forbids. 
 The teacher who would pursue the subject further is re- 
 ferred to any standard work on psychology, moral phi- 
 losophy, or metaphysics. The same may be said with 
 reference to nearly all the other moral or mental faculties. 
 As stated at the outset, this is not designed to be a treatise 
 on psychology. 
 
 Morality best learned by Practice After all, the 
 
 most practical way to teach morals in our schools is to set 
 the pupils to the practicing of practical morality. It has 
 been so often affirmed that we learn to do by doing that 
 the statement is in danger of losing its potential energy; 
 but here is a case where we not only learn to do by doing, 
 but learn to be by being. By being led in the pleasant 
 paths of virtue, day by day, our feet become accustomed to 
 the way, and follow it as much from habit as from choice, 
 and thus, from being in these pleasant paths from day to 
 day, and week to week, and month to month, we are prone 
 to linger longer, and return again — and thus we learn to be 
 from being moral. 
 
 There are many auxiliaries which the teacher can em- 
 ploy in moral training, and these, as far as possible, he 
 should adopt. Whatever tends to elevate, refine, and 
 spiritualize, is directly in this line. The good, the true, 
 
CULTIVATION OF MORAL FACULTIES. n 9 
 
 and the beautiful are so closely interwoven in the warp 
 and woof of the soul's wedding garment that the absence 
 of the one is apt to leave the others threadbare. 
 
 The influence which the beauty of the landscape, the 
 glory of the sunset, the grandeur of the billows exerts over 
 the moral nature must be apparent to even the most slug- 
 gish soul; and in their contemplation one's better self is apt 
 to gain the mastery. Under such influences it is easier to 
 be good. 
 
 Let our teachers ever bear this principle in mind, for 
 it applies as well inside as outside of the school-room. 
 Beauty, order, system, ornamentation, decoration, neatness 
 — all these are moral agencies, while cleanliness is pro- 
 verbially next of kin to godliness. A cheerful spirit and a 
 dingy, dusty, cobwebbed, unswept school-room are as in- 
 congruous as are the songs of birds with a dreary, drizzly 
 morning. 
 
 Given such inside decorations and outside ornamentation 
 in harmony, with the school-house perched on a desolate, 
 wind-swept hill, donated for educational purposes because 
 the soil is so barren that nothing but mullein-stalks will 
 grow upon it ; with nothing to greet the eyes of the little 
 ones save dreariness and desolation multiplied; with no 
 hum of bees, no song of birds, no sound of whispering 
 leaves, no any thing to greet the ear, unless it be the croak 
 of the ill-omened crow, the harsh gratings of the sun- 
 scorched mullein-stalks, or the wailing of the mindless.wind 
 — given such surroundings and associations as these from 
 year to year, it is safe to predict that the souls which have 
 been thus habitually subjected to their influence will take 
 on and reflect something of the general bleakness, and 
 harshness, and desolation. 
 
 Music as a Moral Agent. — Another powerful auxiliary 
 in training children for the better life is music. It is the 
 
120 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 natural out-flow of a joyous heart, as may be seen by any 
 who will study bird-life in its happiest surroundings. Not 
 only is this true, but such is the magic of its power that 
 it acts upon the souls of all who fall beneath its soothing 
 sway and engenders in their hearts something of the ecstasy 
 that gave it birth within the singer's soul. When exercised 
 on proper themes, it appeals'directly to the loftier emotions, 
 and thus becomes a potent force, impressing gratitude, and 
 love, and lofty patriotism. 
 
 The teacher should, however, see that it is exercised on 
 proper themes. It is not held that all our songs should be 
 of a serious nature, but it is maintained that they should 
 never be allowed to degenerate into the frivolous, silly 
 nonsense so often heard in schools. Especially should we 
 never encourage or permit the singing of those songs de- 
 signed to burlesque and ridicule the higher aspirations of 
 the soul. 
 
 Teaching Morality by Example But most of all, 
 
 morality is impressed by the object lessons of the teacher's 
 daily life and mien. When bitter fountains produce sweet 
 water, when corrupt trees yield nutritious fruits, when men 
 gather grapes from thorns and figs from thistles, then, and 
 not until then, may we expect temperance impressed by 
 the intemperate, honesty by the dishonest, chastity by the 
 unchaste, reverence for God and holy things by the pro- 
 fane and the irreverent. 
 
 Standing face to face with such responsibilities, the 
 strongest-hearted teacher well may tremble and ask the 
 question, " Who can stand within His holy place ? " But 
 as an echo from the soul's profoundest depths comes 
 back the answer from the lips of him who uttered it so 
 many centuries ago: " He that hath clean hands and a pure 
 heart." 
 
CULTIVATION OF MORAL FACULTIES. 121 
 
 ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Recapitulation of Prominent Points in Chapter XII. 
 
 Intuitive conception of moral right. 
 
 Comparison of proposed lines of conduct with this infallible standard. 
 
 Decision of Conscience. 
 
 The judgment, and consequent decision of conscience, may be erro- 
 neous, thus leading us to do a wrong act conscientiously. But, as we 
 have no other guide, we must follow conscience or do violence to our 
 natures. 
 
 For this reason ,-tlje child should be shown, if possible, that a dis- 
 tasteful task, or/duty, "is right, 'before requiring him to do it. 
 
 From the foregoing; it is shown that intellectual education is a valua- 
 ble auxiliary to moral training. 
 
 The case summed up andyestated. 
 
 Why some excelhmt_people believe intellectual training dangerous. 
 
 For each person educated to be a rogue, many are trained to be good 
 citizens, and the lewd are drawn into the more inviting paths of virtue. 
 
 The Power back of All the Other Moral Faculties — the 
 Will. 
 
 The commander-in-chief of our army and navy; the head of our 
 church, so to speak. 
 
 It may overrule Conscience and Judgment, and is in this sense free. 
 But it may be so greatly influenced by Conscience, Judgment, Motives, 
 Passions, Desires, etc., as to be said to be in subjection to them. 
 
 When it is a power for good and when a power for evil. 
 
 The ideally moral man defined and illustrated. 
 
 The limited scope of this book, and where the teacher must look for 
 further light. 
 
 We not ouly learn to do by doing, but in the moral sphere we learn to 
 be by being. 
 
 How we learn to practise morality from habit as well as from choice. 
 
 Auxiliaries which the Teacher may employ in Moral Train- 
 ing • 
 
 The good, the true, the beautiful, interwoven in the warp and woof 
 of the soul's wedding garment. 
 
 The influence of the beauty of the landscape, etc. 
 
 This applies as well inside of the school-room as outside. Illustrated. 
 
 The picture of the forbidding school-house on a desolate hill, with its 
 
122 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 dreary play-ground, and the influence this has on the character of those 
 subjected to it from year to year. 
 
 The influence of music. 
 
 It should be exercised on proper themes — gratitude, love, patriotism, 
 etc. 
 
 It should never be used to inculcate frivolous ideas or to burlesque 
 the nobler sentiments of the soul. 
 
 The object lesson of a strictly moral life en the teacher's part. This 
 fact emphasized. 
 
 Who may stand within this holy place ? 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. 
 
 Does the will exercise control over the action of the perceptive fac- 
 ulties ? The conceptive faculties ? The cognitive faculties ? The cog- 
 itative faculties? Explain your statement. 
 
 Would it be possible for the will to prevent a man learning any- 
 thing whatever ? Explain your statement. 
 
 Is it possible for the will to prevent the conscience from acting and 
 reproving it ? 
 
 What is meant by "breaking a child's will " ? 
 
 As commonly understood, is it right or wrong to " break a child's 
 will " ? Explain your statement. 
 
 Mention some other school-room aids to the practice and inculcation 
 of practical morality, aside from those given in the text. 
 
 What is your opinion of the practical effects of the self-reporting sys- 
 tem? The principle of trusting entirely to pupil's honor during ex- 
 aminations? Of giving credit in the pupil's class standing for ''work 
 done out of school " ? 
 
 Can you show that religious convictions are likely to influence the will 
 in deciding in accordance with the dictates of conscience ? 
 
HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 PART II. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 A GLANCE AT THE ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD, THE IM- 
 PORTANCE OF WRITING AS AN EDUCATIONAL FAC- 
 TOR, WITH A SKETCH OF CHALDEAN, BABYLONIAN, 
 AND ASSYRIAN EDUCATION. 
 
 Few, if any, studies ought to be of deeper interest to 
 the progressive and conscientious teacher than the History 
 of Education. He ought to know what systems were in 
 use in by-gone ages, and he should study their influence 
 upon the nations that employed them. 
 
 He should be familiar, too, with the innovations of more 
 modern times, and should retain such and only such as 
 have been weighed in the balance of experience and found 
 good. 
 
 Teachers should especially avoid announcing to the 
 world as new discoveries methods and systems which are 
 as venerable as the hills, making themselves as ridiculous 
 as would be the inventor who should now announce as a 
 new discovery an atmospheric engine; or the mathematician 
 who should publish as an original discovery the astonish- 
 ing fact that the square described on the hypothenuse of a 
 right-angled triangle is equivalent to the sum of the squares 
 on the other two sides, or the geographer who should just 
 discover that the earth is a sphere. 
 
 (123) 
 
124 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 The Antediluvian World. — The question, What was 
 the intellectual condition of mankind in antediluvian times? 
 can only be imperfectly answered from occasional glimpses 
 caught from the lifting of the curtain by the sacred his- 
 torian. It is difficult to agree with those who would have 
 us believe that all mankind developed from a state of 
 nature but little in advance of the brute creation. 
 
 If our first parents were created in the image of God, 
 surely it was not in a physical but in an intellectual and 
 moral sense; and they are represented at the completion of 
 the biblical creation as intelligent, reasoning creatures, ca- 
 pable of holding conversation with each oth^r and acknowl- 
 edging entire obligation and obedience to their Creator. 
 
 But until men had multiplied upon the earth, it is evident 
 that any thing in the nature of schools would be impracti- 
 cable. Doubtless, children were taught by their parents 
 what their duty was to God and to each other; and it is 
 highly probable that the lessons derived from those ter- 
 rible examples of disobedience, of covetousness, and of 
 anger which had brought such sorrow upon the race, and 
 had doubly degraded a member of that primitive com- 
 munity, making him a fugitive and a vagabond on the 
 earth, were strongly impressed upon the minds of the 
 young, and it is, therefore, highly probable that moral 
 instruction antedates all other. 
 
 But toil and necessity, ever the mother of invention and 
 improvement, drove the earliest heirs of these heaven-given 
 blessings in disguise to provide for their physical comfort; 
 and so we find that Cain was not only a tiller of the ground, 
 but that after being driven by the Divine displeasure into 
 that mysterious land eastward from Eden, he also builded 
 a city for the habitation of his children, and named it with 
 pardonable pride after his first-born son, Enoch. Doubt- 
 less the architecture of this first city was of the rudest 
 
THE ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD. 125 
 
 type; but we learn that Tubal-Cain, in the seventh genera- 
 tion from Adam, while that patriarch still walked the earth, 
 "was an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron;" 
 and more than this, that Jubal, the half-brother of Tubal- 
 Cain, " was the father of all such as handle the harp and 
 the organ." 
 
 Thus we see that in the earliest twilight of the race 
 they had already made such advance in material civiliza- 
 tion as to become artificers in brass and iron, and that — 
 which is still more interesting — they had so far advanced 
 intellectually as to invent the harp and the organ, and cul- 
 tivate music, among the most refining of all the inventions 
 of the race. 
 
 Writing an Intellectual First Meridian There is 
 
 no evidence, however, that the use of writing was known 
 to the antediluvian world. It was probably long centuries 
 after this, but still in the early twilight of the ages, that this, 
 the greatest of arts,, was developed, an art of such impor- 
 tance, in an educational sense, that it has become an intel- 
 lectual prime meridian, a line which, in modern times, di- 
 vides between the civilized and uncivilized among nations, 
 and among individuals in enlightened communities is the 
 boundary line beyond which stretches the dark realm of 
 illiteracy. 
 
 When we speak of education, therefore, unless otherwise 
 specified, it is always understood to have reference to ac- 
 quirements in the use of written language, or in some 
 science 01 branch of study learned principally through the 
 use of books. An unlettered mechanic, for example, is 
 never spoken of as an educated man, no matter how skill- 
 ful he may be in his particular calling. Neither can we, in 
 any sense, consider a wild Indian an educated man on ac- 
 count of his woodcraft, or his familiarity with the denizens 
 of his native wilds. 
 
126 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 The Chaldeans, Babylonians, and Assyrians. — It 
 is probable that written language had its earliest origin in 
 the valley of the Nile; but it is certain that in the fertile 
 valleys formed by the Euphrates and the Tigris, at a time 
 penetrating so far back into the dim vistas of the long ago 
 that all efforts to give it definite date must be conjecture, 
 an entirely independent system of writing had birth, and 
 here, through the lapse of centuries, it grew to maturity, 
 and developed a most wonderful civilization.* Here, too, 
 for more than two thousand years, countless volumes, with 
 their records of the throbbing life and thought of these 
 well-nigh forgotten nations, have lain hidden from the 
 sight of men, buried deep beneath the mounds of earth 
 that are now the only marks of the sites of once mighty 
 cities. It remained for the scholarship and ingenuity of 
 the nineteenth century to unclasp these long-closed books, 
 read their unfamiliar pages, and publish their wonderful 
 revelations to the world. 
 
 Nimrod organized the Chaldeans and the various tribes 
 occupying the lower part of the valley into a single, strong 
 government, about 2300 b. c, and founded Babylon. Cer- 
 tain of these tribes emigrated further northward about 2000 
 b. c, and are afterward known as the Assyrians ; in the 
 thirteenth century b. c. they conquered their Chaldean, or 
 Babylonian, neighbors to the south, and for the space of 
 six hundred years the great Assyrian Empire ruled the val- 
 ley, with Nineveh as its capital. 
 
 But in the eighth century b. c. the Babylonians regained 
 
 * Says Rawlinson, in his " Ancient Monarchies" • " In Babylonia almost every 
 branch of science made a beginning. She was the source to which the entire 
 stream of Eastern civilization may be traced. It is scarcely too much to say that 
 but for Babylon real civilization might not even yet have dawned upon the earth, 
 and mankind might never have advanced beyond that spurious and false form of 
 it which in Egypt. India, China, Japan, Mexico, and Peru contented the aspira- 
 tions of the people." 
 
THE ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD. 127 
 
 independence, and finally, in 625 b. c. Nineveh fell, and 
 with it all its palaces and temples, with their marvelous 
 libraries and works of art. Babylon is now again made the 
 capital, and we have what is known as the Later Babylo- 
 nian Empire, until conquered by Cyrus the Great in 538 b. c. 
 
 Assyrian Books. — Yet through all these vicissitudes — 
 though nations rose and fell, and the very sites of the great 
 cities were forgotten — their books, written in the cuneiform 
 characters on baked clay tablets, or delicately graven on 
 cylinders, have been marvelously preserved from the hand 
 of the destroyer, and from their pages we are now enabled 
 to read the wonderful records of the old Chaldean times. 
 
 From the buried ruins of the palace of Asshurbanipal, 
 one of the Assyrian kings, the following inscription has 
 been unearthed : 
 
 "Palace of Asshurbanipal, King of the world, King of Assyria, to 
 whom the god Nebo, and the goddess Tashmit, have given ears to 
 hear and eyes to see what is the foundation of government. They have 
 revealed to the Kings, my predecessors, this cuneiform writing, the mani- 
 festation of the God Nebo, the god of supreme intelligence. I have 
 written it upon tablets ; I have signed it ; I have placed it in my pal- 
 ace, for the instruction of my subjects.'' 
 
 Many of the books in this library were copies of Baby- 
 lonian books of still greater antiquity, and these were 
 doubtless, in many cases, copies of still older Chaldean 
 records. One of these copied books gives an account of 
 the Flood, written hundreds of years before the days of 
 Moses. There have been found in this library works on 
 mathematics, astronomy, astrology, geography, history, 
 grammar, law, and the natural sciences. Lenormant says 
 of these last-named works : " We may well be astonished 
 to learn that the Assyrians already had invented a scien- 
 tific nomenclature similar in principle to that of Linnaeus." 
 
128 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 The animal kingdom was scientifically divided and sub- 
 divided into families, genera, and species. Their astron- 
 omy was not a mere catalogue of the stars, but was of so 
 high an order that they had calculated the length of the 
 sidereal year more accurately than could be done by most 
 professors of astronomy even in our own day. This has 
 led many to believe that they must have used telescopes, 
 and as a further evidence of this it should be stated that a 
 glass lens has been found among the debris of one of these 
 buried cities. The fact, too, that many of the tiny cylin- 
 ders found among the ruins are engraved in characters so 
 small that it requires the use of a microscope to read them, 
 is strong evidence that such instruments must have been 
 used by those whose hands traced these delicate lines more 
 than a thousand years before the use of letters was even 
 known in ancient Greece. 
 
 Everything seems to have been done systematically in 
 those remote ages, and on a tablet found in Asshurbanipal's 
 library is a notice to visitors that they must give the libra- 
 rian the number of the book they wanted, when it would be 
 brought them. This indicates that it was a public library, 
 and, what is still more interesting, that the public were able 
 to read its books. 
 
 A people having advanced to so high a degree of civili- 
 zation as this could not have been without schools and 
 colleges, and we should scarcely feel astonished if tablets 
 should be unearthed containing the minutes of the Baby- 
 lonian Teachers' Normal Institute or of the Nineveh County 
 Educational Association ! 
 
 Babylonian University We catch a glimpse of the 
 
 educational system of the later Babylonian Empire from 
 the account given in the first chapter of the Book of Daniel 
 This record discloses the fact that there then existed some- 
 thing like a State University at the capital, to which even 
 
THE ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD. 129 
 
 the captive Israelites were eligible. The qualifications re- 
 quired for entrance were: to be "without blemish, well fav- 
 ored, skillful in all wisdom, cunning in knowledge, under- 
 standing science, and ability to stand in the King's palace." 
 The course of instruction extended through three years, and 
 the studies were " the learning and the tongue of the Chal- 
 deans." The Chaldee must have been nearly as much oi 
 a dead language at that time as is the Greek and Latin in 
 our own, so the course of study in the Babylonian Univer- 
 sity twenty-five centuries ago was very similar both in its 
 nature and extent to the courses pursued in the higher in- 
 stitutions of the present day. Everything seems to have 
 been provided by the State in this institution. Not only 
 was instruction provided free of cost to the students, but 
 they were even boarded at the King's (that is, the nation's) 
 expense. More than this, we find that they were subjected 
 to examinations, and at their final graduation they were ex- 
 amined by the King himself as to their " wisdom and under- 
 standing. " 
 
 Neglect of Morals and Consequent Fall. — But not- 
 withstanding the high degree of education which existed in 
 these old-time nations, moral culture seems to have been 
 utterly neglected, and many of their habits and customs 
 became too abominable to be even mentioned. It is doubt- 
 less more than a coincidence that but five years before the fall 
 and utter destruction of great Nineveh, with its walls a hun- 
 dred feet in height, with its innumerable towers of defence, 
 and with every luxury which art could devise, the terrible 
 judgment recorded in the second chapter of Zephaniah was 
 pronounced against her : 
 
 "And he will stretch out his hand against the North and destroy 
 
 Assyria; and will make Nineveh a desolation and dry like a wilderness. 
 
 And flocks shall lie down in the midst of her: all the beasts of the nations; 
 
 both the cormorant and the bittern shall lodge in the upper lintels of it; 
 
 9 
 
130 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 theii voice ■shall sing in the windows; desolation shall be in the thresholds, 
 for he shall uncover the cedar work. This is the rejoicing city that 
 dwelt carelessly, that said in her heart, ' I am and there is none beside 
 me.' How is she become a desolation, a place for beasts to lie down 
 in !" 
 
 When Xenophon with his Ten Thousand marched over 
 this region some two centuries later, so utterly had every 
 vestige of the doomed city disappeared that no mention 
 whatever is made of it ! The judgment pronounced against 
 Babylon, at that time said to be a city much larger than the 
 London of the present, was, if possible, even more terrible 
 than that of her northern sister, and has been quite as liter- 
 ally fulfilled. 
 
 " And Babylon, the glory of the kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldees' 
 excellency, shall be as when God overthrew Sodom and Gomorrah. It 
 shall never be inhabited, neither shall it be dwelt in from generation to 
 generation; neither shall the Arabian pitch tent there; neither shall the 
 shepherds make their fold there ; but wild beasts of the desert shall lie 
 there and their houses shall be full of doleful creatures; and owls shall 
 dwell there and satyrs shall dance there ; and the wild beasts of the 
 islands shall cry in their desolate houses and dragons in their pleasant 
 places. And her time is near to come and her days shall not be pro- 
 longed ! " 
 
 Something more than mere literary culture and scientific 
 attainments is necessary for the perpetuity of a nation, and 
 we will do well to heed the terrible lessons taught us here. If 
 we permit the training of our youth to degenerate into in- 
 tellectual culture only, and neglect utterly their morals; if 
 we devote sacred things to unholy uses — in short, if we fol- 
 low the example set us by these people whose land has long 
 centuries since become an utter desolation, we need not 
 expect that any exception will be made in our case, and it 
 will some day require no Daniel to interpret the writing on 
 our wall. 
 
THE ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD. 131 
 
 May it never be written of us in the future as one of our 
 own great poets has written of these by-gone nations: 
 
 " Where empires towered that were not just, 
 
 Lo, the skulking wild-fox scratches in a little heap of dust ! " 
 
 ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER I 
 
 Object and scope of Part II. 
 
 Importance of the History of Education to the Teacher: 
 
 (a) That we may study the influence of the various systems of education, 
 upon the peoples that employed them. (b) That the teacher may be 
 able to retain the good and discard the bad. (c) That the teacher may 
 not announce as new that which is ancient. 
 
 The Antediluvian World: (a) Our source of information in re- 
 gard to it. (b) Reasons for rejecting the theory that men have ad- 
 vanced from a state of nature, (c) Schools at first impracticable. (d\ 
 What the children were doubtless taught, (e) The great cause which 
 drove them to intellectual development. (/) The first city, (g) The 
 first artificer, (k) The invention of music, (i) What this implies. 
 
 The Invention of Writing: (a) No evidence of it in the antedi- 
 luvian world, (i) Where and when it had its birth, (c) What it di- 
 vides between —among nations and among individuals, (d) What edu- 
 cation means, as here used. 
 
 The Chaldeans, Babylonians, and Assyrians: (a) Here an in- 
 dependent system of writing was invented and developed. (b) How 
 the records have been preserved, (c) Historical sketch, (d) Descrip- 
 tion of their books, (e) Inscription on a palace, and library, (f) The 
 antiquity of some of the books, (g) Nature of some of the books. (It) 
 Wonderful extent of the knowledge of the people, (i) What this is 
 thought to imply. (_/') Evidence that the people could read, (k) 
 Schools and colleges implied. 
 
 Educational System in the Later Babylonian Empire: (a) 
 A university at the capital, (b) Who were eligible, (c) Qualifications 
 for entrance. (d) The course of instruction, (e) Provided by the 
 State, (f) The King the final examiner. 
 
 Moral Culture Neglected: (a) The state of morality abominable. 
 
 (b) The judgment passed on Nineveh, (c) Its swift and terrible fulfill- 
 ment, (d) The judgment pronounced against Babylon, (e) The lesson 
 to be drawn from these. 
 
132 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. 
 
 The answers to these questions may be found in almost any good general 
 history or encyclopaedia of recent date. It is earnestly recommended Lhat teachers 
 read carefully on as many of these topics as practicable, as this will lead to a 
 much better understanding of many matters referred to in the text.] 
 
 "What can you say of the Aryans and their dispersion ? 
 
 Where were Babylon and Nineveh, and what can you say of their 
 greatness? 
 
 What can you say of the nature of the cuneiform writing? 
 
 Give an account of the Behistun Inscription and its importance. 
 
 What can you say of the manners and customs of the Assyrians and 
 Babylonians ? Of their religion ? 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 EDUCATION, SYSTEMS OF INSTRUCTION, ETC., IN 
 ANCIENT EGYPT, INDIA, AND CHINA. 
 
 Egypt. — We pass from the valley of the Euphrates and 
 the Tigris to that other great oasis in the world-encircling 
 desert — Egypt, that strange realm of the long ago, whose 
 very name causes a sinking sensation in the heart, akin to 
 that produced by the presence of death. It is the land of 
 the mysterious, the abode of the weird, the empire of the 
 dead ! Here, in the tombs of those who walked the streets 
 of Thebes, of Memphis, of Heliopolis, four thousand years 
 ago, have been wonderfully preserved from the hand and 
 tooth of Time the records of those far-off days. And here, 
 too, as in Assyria and Babylon, the key to those long-closed 
 volumes has been found; and their pages are now read with 
 almost as much precision as are ancient Greek and Sanscrit. 
 
 Origin of Geometry. — From the earliest dawn of his- 
 tory, the Nile, swollen high by months of rain, has annually 
 inundated the Valley of Egypt. Rising in that dim land of 
 darkness, whose secret is not yet fully known, even to the 
 most daring traveler, and bearing in its turbid waters the 
 rich alluvial soil from Ethiopia and the Soudan, it has made 
 the desert to blossom like the rose. But the great river bore 
 a richer boon by far to the dwellers in its valley than that 
 of the fertile soil from distant Ethiopia; for, in its annual 
 overflow, it washed away the boundary lines and land- 
 marks from its valley, thus compelling the people to devise 
 measures for their recovery, and for a more accurate sur- 
 
 (i33) 
 
134 
 
 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 vey or measurement of these fertile and valuable lands. 
 Thus, stone by stone, was erected that grandest of monu- 
 ments to Egyptian intellect, the science of geometry, a mon- 
 ument which shall stand when the time-enduring Sphinx 
 shall have ceased her weird vigils, and when the proud, 
 gigantic pyramids shall have crumbled into dust. The 
 Egyptians were compelled to think, to reason closely, and 
 so, being stirred by necessity to intellectual activity, they 
 became for ages the most highly civilized nation on the 
 globe. 
 
 Egyptian Education. — Though caste existed in Egypt 
 from the earliest times, it does not seem to have debarred 
 any very considerable part of the people from the privi- 
 leges of at least the rudiments of an education, in which 
 respect it contrasts most favorably with India, the other 
 great stronghold of this system. Education was, however, 
 both exoteric and esoteric — the former outside, practical, 
 intended for the masses, to enable them to perform the 
 ordinary duties of every-day life in the shops or on the 
 marts; while the latter was inside and secret, destined to 
 train a favored few for the priesthood, and other high posi- 
 tions in government or society, including army officers, 
 professional men, judges, architects, literary men, and 
 physicians. 
 
 The education of the common people included reading, 
 the ordinary mode of writing, and the rudiments of arith- 
 metic — the abacus being used in giving instruction in num- 
 bers on the banks of the Nile more than three thousand 
 years ago. The children were also instructed in the trades 
 or callings of their parents. It is not to be understood, 
 however, that they were taught in school; that is a much 
 more modern invention. The statement probably means 
 nothing more than that the parents were required to train 
 their children to habits of industry; and the system of caste 
 
SYSTEMS OF INSTRUCTION. 
 
 '-35 
 
 forbade that this industry should be in any other line than 
 that of the father. 
 
 When we say that the children of the common people 
 were granted the privilege of a rudimentary education, an 
 exception must be made in the case of swine-herds, who 
 seem to have been regarded as outcasts, not unlike the 
 Pariahs of India. It is interesting to contrast the social 
 position of men of this calling here with that of men of 
 similar occupation just across the Mediterranean, where, in 
 the days of Homer, we hear much about " the noble swine- 
 herd. " The Paraschites, or those who prepared the bodies 
 of the dead for embalming, were also an outcast class, at 
 whom to cast stones was the duty of every passer-by, if 
 Ebers is to be credited. 
 
 The curriculum in the higher Egyptian schools seems to 
 have been an extended one, including arithmetic, geom- 
 etry, mensuration of land, astronomy, chemistry, archi- 
 tecture, sculpture, painting, music, morals and manners, 
 and a system of medicine. The female children of the 
 higher classes were eligible to this course, and many of 
 them availed themselves of their privileges. 
 
 The following bit of criticism by an Egyptian teacher, 
 of an effort at composition, hae been found and translated. 
 It will serve to show how very similar were the trials of 
 teachers three or four thousand years ago to those of some 
 at the present day: 
 
 " It is very unimportant what flows over thy tongue, for thy composi- 
 tions are very confused. Thou tearest the words to tatters, just as it 
 comes into thy mind. Thou dost not take pains to find out their force 
 for thyself. If thou rushest wildly forward thou wilt not succeed. I 
 have struck out for thee the end of thy composition, and I return to 
 thee thy descriptions. It is a confused medley when one hears it; an 
 uneducated person could not understand it. It is like a man from the 
 lowlands speaking with a man from Elephantine," 
 
136 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Their teachers were required to lead strictly virtuous 
 lives, and they were forbidden to eat and drink that which 
 would make them gross and indolent. This was thought 
 to be necessary, that similar habits might be inculcated 
 in the young. But what else might be expected from 
 a people four thousand years behind the times! Some 
 estimate of the public ideal of life and its duties impressed 
 by this system of training may be obtained from the fol- 
 lowing extract from the Book of the Dead, enclosed in 
 every mummy-case, as the soul's defence before Osiris, in 
 the other world: 
 
 " I have not been idle. I have not been intoxicated. I have not told 
 secrets. I have not defrauded. I have not slandered. I have not 
 caused tears. I have given food to the hungry, drink to the thirsty, 
 and covering to the naked." 
 
 Let us hope that Osiris did not scrutinize too closely. 
 
 Schools of high grade are known to have been fostered 
 at Thebes, Memphis, Heliopolis, and other cities, and it 
 was doubtless in one of these that Moses became "learned 
 in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and mighty in words 
 and in deeds," more than five hundred years before the 
 siege of Troy. The Egyptian education was early bor- 
 rowed by the Greeks, and after long centuries it returned, 
 greatly improved by its foreign sojourn. Under the fos- 
 tering care of the Ptolemies many schools were established 
 in Alexandria and other cities of the Delta, and here were 
 gathered students and philosophers from all the civilized 
 world. Here, too, were collected libraries, such as can 
 scarcely be rivaled even in these days of making many 
 books. 
 
 But war, and bigotry, and oppression — ever the enemies 
 of culture and wisdom — have done their work, and the 
 glory of Egypt has long since departed from the Nile; but 
 
SYSTEMS OF INSTRUCTION. 137 
 
 until the waves of thought, here set in motion forty cen- 
 turies ago, shall break upon the shores of Eternity, the 
 glory of Egypt shall live. 
 
 India— Caste We have seen that in Egypt children 
 
 were destined, as a general rule, to follow the callings of 
 their parents, but to this there must have been many ex- 
 ceptions, since the monuments frequently show that men of 
 distinction had risen from no parentage worthy of note. 
 This would naturally follow in a land where the blessings of 
 intellectual education were withheld from few, and where, 
 in consequence, mental superiority would have a chance to 
 make itself known; and, being known, it would take its 
 proper place in that aristocracy to which even kings and 
 emperors have in all lands bowed. But in India, to be 
 born of low-caste parentage was to be condemned to a life 
 of intellectual bondage from which escape was an absolute 
 impossibility. 
 
 Of the low castes, there were first the Sudras, who were 
 condemned to a life of servitude. But hard and cruel as 
 was their fate, there was still a lower depth of human deg- 
 radation and misery— that of the Pariahs, or outcasts. 
 So scrupulously was all education withheld from these two 
 castes that if by accident a Sudra or Pariah came in hear- 
 ing of a Brahmin's voice while teaching, the poor wretch 
 must instantly thrust his fingers in his ears and run as if for 
 his life, and in case he actually heard any of the words of 
 the Brahmin's lectures he was condemned to have boiling 
 oil poured into his offending ears; and for a second offence 
 he was condemned to certain death. The priest who should 
 knowingly impart any instruction to one of these poor creat- 
 ures was not only condemned to death, but to the most 
 uncomfortable quarters in perdition afterward. Verily, an- 
 cient India would have been an earthly paradise to that 
 class of Americans who so vehemently condemn the public 
 
138 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 schools for " educating the ' lower classes ' out of their 
 sphere." It is difficult to listen with patience to these self- 
 appointed American Brahmins, who having themselves 
 shared the blessings of our free institutions, would deprive 
 others of their God-given birthright, and condemn them to 
 perpetual intellectual bondage. Let all such emigrate to 
 India; America can bear their loss. 
 
 Hindoo Education The three higher Hindoo castes, 
 
 the Brahmins, or priests, the Warriors, and the Merchants, 
 were allowed the privileges of education; but here, as else- 
 where in the ancient world, education was both exoteric 
 and esoteric. The warriors and the merchants might be 
 instructed in the former, which included the rudiments of 
 arithmetic, language, science (so-called), poetry, philoso- 
 phy, astronomy, history, popular religious doctrines, juris- 
 prudence, and some slight knowledge of medicine. Their 
 science was, however, of the absurdest nature; their history 
 was about as reliable as, and quite similar to, that of the 
 famous Baron Munchausen. They did not think it worth 
 while to record any thing that was probable or even possi- 
 ble, since matters of this kind would not be interesting; so 
 they filled their histories with the exploits of men a hun- 
 dred thousand miles or so in height, and with breadth of 
 shoulders to match. It is needless to remark here, paren- 
 thetically, that this class of historians is not yet quite ex- 
 tinct, even on this side of the Atlantic — especially when 
 they write of wars and military chieftains. Their astron- 
 omy, too, was as fanciful as is a modern railroad map; while 
 their medical knowledge was but little better than that now 
 obtained by that class of illiterate adventurers among us 
 who, after " residence " at a medical college for a few 
 months, are licensed to butcher or poison their fellow men 
 as fancy takes them. 
 
 The esoteric education of the Brahmins included, in ad- 
 
SYSTEMS OF INSTRUCTION. 
 
 139 
 
 dition to the above, higher mythology, the mysteries of their 
 sacred shrines, mathematics, and astrology. Though the 
 Hindoo science was generally worthless, its poetry was of 
 a high order, and its metaphysical speculations were, upon 
 the whole, about as profitable as such speculations have ever 
 been. When they had learned to doubt all the evidences 
 of the senses which God has implanted for their guidance, 
 and when they had finally reached that sublime height of 
 intellectual insanity which leads men to disbelieve in their 
 own existence — they were then regarded as competent to 
 guide their fellow-men in the stern duties of every-day life, 
 duties as terribly real and earnest then as now. What 
 wonder that under such instruction they became a nation 
 of dreamers, and that they utterly neglected for so many 
 long centuries to see with their eyes, and hear with their 
 ears, those truths of nature which are so obvious that even 
 the brute creation recognize them ? 
 
 That their ethics was, however, of a high order, may be 
 seen from the following quotations from the Laws of Manu, 
 the standard of the ancient Brahmins : 
 
 " Devising means to appropriate the wealth of other men, resolving on 
 any forbidden deed, and conceiving notions of atheism or materialism, 
 are the three bad acts of the mind. Scurrilous language, falsehood, 
 indiscriminate back-biting, and useless tattle, are the four bad acts of 
 the tongue. . . . He whose firm understanding obtains a command 
 over his words, a command over his thoughts, and a command over 
 his whole body, may justly be called a triple commander. The man 
 who exerts this triple self-command with respect to all animated creat- 
 ures, wholly subduing both lust and wrath, shall by those means attain 
 beatitude." 
 
 And this, of a later date, from the Ethics of Buddhism : 
 
 " There are three sins of the body: i. The taking of life — murder. 
 3. The taking of that which is not given — theft. 3. Impurity. There 
 
140 
 
 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 are four sins of speech: I. Lying. 2. Slander. 3. Abuse. 4. Unprof- 
 itable conversation. There are three sins of the mind: 1. Covetous- 
 ness. 2. Malice. 3. Skepticism. There are also five other evils that 
 are to be avoided: 1. The drinking of intoxicating liquors. 2. Gam- 
 bling. 3. Idleness. 4. Improper associations. 5. The frequenting of 
 places of amusement." 
 
 The education of woman, among the ancient Hindoos, 
 was of such a nature as to fulfill to the highest degree the 
 ideal of that class of modern writers who are alarmed lest 
 she be educated out of a state of dependence on man, and 
 thus lose something of her — well, of her traditional viny 
 nature, as it were. The Brahmins gave her no opportunity 
 to sacrifice any of her poetic charms in such an unwomanly 
 way. They made it a great disgrace for her to learn to 
 read; and when the "sturdy oak" to which she had so 
 beautifully clung was stricken down, she was " encour- 
 aged " to attach her tendrils to the rough projections of 
 his funeral pile, and display her charms and graces from 
 its summit. 
 
 China. — We pass from India across the Himalaya Mount- 
 ains, and find ourselves among the teeming millions of the 
 Celestial Empire. Here we find conservatism crystallized. 
 As the people are to-day, so they were ten centuries ago; 
 and as they were then, so they were, substantially, in the 
 days when blind old Homer wrote the Odyssey and the 
 Iliad. Since the days of Con-fut-see (Confucius) they have 
 deemed it sacrilege to advance beyond the precepts of that 
 sage, and even he only compiled, at a time when Rome 
 was still without an alphabet, the writings of those who had 
 so long preceded him that their works had become well- 
 nigh forgotten. But in spite of their iron-clad conserva- 
 tism, the Chinese have stumbled upon some of the greatest 
 discoveries of the civilized world. Here gunpowder and 
 the use of firearms were known while all Europe was still 
 
SYSTEMS OF INSTRUCTION. I41 
 
 armed with the primitive bow and spear; and here, too, 
 the printing-press was known and used at a time when such 
 a thing had not been dreamed of in the West, and when but 
 few even of the kings of nations could trace in the murky 
 darkness of the times the characters of a written page. 
 
 Chinese Schools. — Schools have existed in China from 
 time immemorial. A boy, in ancient times, was first given a 
 course of home training, consisting of reverence for parents 
 and ancestors, repeating precepts of morality, committing 
 extracts from the Chi-King, counting to 10,000, and a care- 
 ful drill in the proper use of his native language. At the 
 age of five or six he was sent to school, where, upon enter- 
 ing, he was required to make obeisance first to Con-fut-see; 
 and secondly, to the next greatest man, his teacher. The 
 school exercises consisted mainly in writing the Chinese 
 characters, practice in the fundamental principles of arith- 
 metic, lessons in morals and manners, chanting odes from 
 the Chi-King, and in the narrating and explanation of 
 Chinese history by the teacher. Returning home, it is 
 said the young heathen were required to salute, first, 
 the domestic spirits ; second, their ancestors ; third, their 
 parents ; and, lastly, any strangers who might be present. 
 It might be profitable to compare the deportment of these 
 lads with many of their Christian fellow-urchins thirty or 
 forty centuries later — but comparisons are odious. The 
 course of instruction in the primary schools extended 
 through from three to five years, according to the apti- 
 tude of the pupils, for in those days it had not yet been 
 discovered that all minds may be made to fit the same 
 mold, and thus be all carried through a long course of 
 study in the same time. 
 
 These lower schools were supported by local authority 
 rather than by the State at large, but it seems that most of 
 the male children were permitted to attend. Female chil- 
 
142 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 dren were, however, not admitted; but it is said that most 
 of them were taught to read, write, and sing at home. 
 
 There was a higher course designed for the children of 
 the nobles, the wealthy, and such of the children of the 
 poor as had distinguished themselves in the common 
 schools. In addition to this, there was a seminary in 
 each large city, to which admission was gained through 
 the governor. After a prescribed course of study, the 
 graduates of these institutions were again examined; and 
 if they sustained the severe ordeal they were permitted to 
 enter the Imperial College at Pekin. Here, after a further 
 three years' course of study, the students were again sub- 
 jected to a still more severe examination, and the few who 
 passed were then appointed to some office in the govern- 
 ment. This was civil-service reform with a vengeance. 
 
 But long as was the Chinese course of study, it seems to 
 have been well-nigh valueless, except in strengthening the 
 memory. It contained little or no mathematics, beyond the 
 rudiments of arithmetic; it included no language, except 
 their mother tongue; its history was so interwoven with the 
 fabulous as to render it worse than useless for all practical 
 purposes; and its science was, for the most part, unworthy 
 of the name. The course seems to have consisted mainly 
 in the parrot-like committing to memory of long lists of 
 meaningless names of sages and heroes, either real or apoc- 
 ryphal; and it is recorded that the child-like Ah Sin was 
 as skillful then in blandly tucking away in his spacious 
 sleeves astonishing quantities of things he did not under- 
 stand as was his illustrious namesake of more modern 
 times when examined by William Nye. One of those an- 
 cient keys is now preserved in the library of Harvard Uni- 
 versity, doubtless as a warning to the faculty that if they 
 put it in their curriculum, which is to be blindly memo- 
 rized, they need not be surprised if Young America resorts 
 
SYSTEMS OP INSTRUCTION. 143 
 
 to the same dark ways, and eke the same vain tricks, as did 
 his almond-eyed brother of the " Middle Kingdom " two 
 or three thousand years ago. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER II. 
 
 Education, Schools, etc., in Egypt: (a) The associations thai 
 cling about its very name. {l>) How the records have been preserved. 
 (<:) The key to the Egyptian writing. (d) The influence of the Nile 
 on the country. (<•) On the intellectual activity of the people — Geom- 
 etry. (/) Caste, (g) Contrast with India, (h) Exoteric education. 
 (?) Esoteric education. (/) The education of the common people, {k) 
 Industrial education. (/) The excluded classes, (m) What the educa- 
 tion of the higher classes included. («) Females eligible, {o) Speci- 
 men of a teacher's criticism, (p) The exemplary life of the teacher. 
 (q) The high ideal of life and its duties, illustrated by the soul's de- 
 fence before Osiris, (r) Where the schools of high grade were estab- 
 lished, (s) Moses' education. (t) Egyptian education borrowed by 
 the Greeks and fostered by the later Greek Emperors of Egypt. («) 
 The cause of the decline of Egypt in glory. (v) Though dead, it still 
 lives . 
 
 India, and its Educational Institutions : (a) The influence ot 
 caste — Compared with that of Egypt. (i) Sudras. (2) Pariahs. — 
 Reflection regarding American Brahmins. (3) The three higher castes. 
 (4) The Warriors and Merchants received exoteric education. — What it 
 included, and its character. (5) The Brahmins received esoteric edu- 
 cation — What this was. (6) The poetry, metaphysics, etc., of the Hin- 
 doos. (<:) The general influence of their metaphysics on the character 
 of the thought of the people, (d) Their ethics: (1) From the Laws 
 of Manu. (2) From the Ethics of Buddhism, (e) The education of 
 woman among the ancient Hindoos. 
 
 China, and its Educational Institutions : (a) Conservatism 
 crystallized, (b) The influence of Confucius — the nature and antiquity 
 of his work, (c) What they stumbled upon in spite of this, (d) An- 
 tiquity and nature of their schools. (1) Home training. (2) School 
 training. (3) Comparisons are "odious." (4) The time required not 
 a Procrustean bed. (5) Primary schools supported by local authority. 
 (6) Females not admitted, but taught at home, (e) A higher course, 
 for the nobles, etc. {/) A seminary in each large city, (g) The Im- 
 
144 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 perial College, (i) The course, and the nature of the studies pursued. 
 (2) The destiny of the graduate — Civil-service reform. (3) Secret 
 keys sometimes used in the examinations — Reflection. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. 
 
 What can you say of the hieroglyphic writing ? 
 
 What can you say of papyrus and its preparation and use? 
 
 Describe the Book of the Dead. 
 
 What can you say of the monuments and art of the Egyptians ? 
 
 Describe their religion. 
 
 What can you say of their art of embalming ? 
 
 Give an account of the Rosetta Sione and its importance. 
 
 What can you say of the Sanscrit language and literature ? 
 
 What is Brahmanism ? Buddhism ? 
 
 Describe the Hindoo mind. 
 
 What can you say of Confucianism ? 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE EDUCATION AND SCHOOLS OF ANCIENT GREECE. 
 
 As the solar light and heat received upon the earth un- 
 told centuries ago have been treasured up in beds of car- 
 bon, and are now resolved back into their original forms, or 
 transmuted into electricity, magnetism, vital force, or other 
 forms of physical energy, so the intellectual warmth and 
 light of by-gone ages are treasured up in books, and by a 
 sort of conservation of mental energy are now made to re- 
 appear in waves of thought, transmuted in their passage 
 through the human brain into a myriad of varying forms. 
 The poetry, the philosophy, the ethics, the mythology, the 
 science, and the art of ancient Greece shine out from 
 nearly every modern classic page; often, indeed, trans- 
 formed in their passage through the later author's brain 
 into new shades or forms of thought, but still easily trace- 
 able to their Hellenic home. 
 
 There was little among the Greeks, during the Heroic 
 Age, to correspond with our ideas of a school, unless the 
 oral transmitting from generation to generation of the im- 
 mortal poems of Homer, and the less stirring but more prac- 
 tical works of Hesiod, may be so regarded. There were also 
 gatherings for the purpose of chanting the Orphic hymns, 
 and it is said that some instruction was given on the subject 
 of medicine, but this last was probably nothing more than 
 the imparting of certain hygienic principles. The legend 
 that Homer in his earlier days was a school-teacher prob- 
 ably has no foundation in fact, since it is extremely doubt- 
 k> (145) 
 
146 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 ful whether Cadmus had then yet arrived with his magic 
 letters from the east-land. 
 
 When we speak of Greece, at least after the dawn of 
 authentic history, 776 b. c, it is not of one nation under a 
 single government, with the same institutions and habits of 
 life and thought. It would be difficult to conceive of any 
 two civilized peoples more unlike than were the Spartans 
 and the Athenians. The educational system of the former 
 was harsh, brutalizing, and soulless, while that of the latter 
 was refining, elevating, and spiritualizing. Let us glance 
 first at Sparta. 
 
 Spartan Education Lycurgus, having incurred the 
 
 ill-will of the Queen of Sparta, absented himself for many 
 years, during which time he traveled in foreign lands and 
 studied the laws, the manners, the customs, and the educa- 
 tional systems of the then most civilized nations of the 
 earth. Returning home, he was, on account of his superior 
 intelligence, looked to for guidance in raising Sparta from 
 the state of anarchy into which she had sunk. He thereupon 
 prepared the Rhetra, a system of regulations by which his 
 countrymen were afterward guided. 
 
 By this system a child was regarded, not as belonging to 
 its parents, but to the state. It was to be inspected at its 
 birth, and if not strong and healthy it was to be destroyed. 
 At the age of seven such male children as were deemed 
 worth the raising were consigned to the care of public teach- 
 ers. They were allowed only the most scanty fare, not 
 enough to sustain life unless they could supplement it by 
 hunting or stealing. If the theft was discovered it was 
 most severely punished; but if not, it was regarded as a bit 
 of commendable enterprise. The youth who was constantly 
 held up to the Spartan boys for emulation was one who, 
 having stolen a fox and hidden it under his cloak, was ac- 
 cused of the theft, but stoutly denied it, and submitted to 
 
SCHOOLS OF ANCIENT GREECE. 147 
 
 cruel scourging without a groan. During all this time 
 Reynard was vigorously gnawing out the young hero's 
 vitals, and he finally fell dead without acknowledging that 
 he had been so clumsy in his stealing as to be detected. 
 
 The physical education of the boy was of the severest 
 kind, and that the future soldier might be trained to bear 
 hardships unquestioningly, he was flogged in the most bar- 
 barous fashion, sometimes even dying under the torture, 
 which he was expected to bear without a sign of pain. The 
 intellectual education afforded was very meager, including, 
 in addition to reading and writing, only the elements of 
 arithmetic and a drill in brevity in expressing thought, the 
 Spartans considering it a sin to use two words where one 
 would answer. From this last feature of their system we 
 have our word laconic, from Laconia, the province of which 
 Sparta was the capital. 
 
 The young Spartans were said to be instructed in truth- 
 fulness, the government of their passions, and reverence for 
 the gods. But how impressive '' lessons of truthfulness " 
 would be with the hero of the fox story constantly in 
 mind, the reader may judge. Possibly he may himself be 
 giving instruction in morals and manners under circum- 
 stances equally embarrassing. The young Spartan was 
 taught "the government of his passions" by encouraging 
 him to prowl the country at night for the purpose of 
 murdering any of the wretched Helots (state slaves) who 
 might fall in his merciless way ! " Reverence for the gods " 
 he doubtless was taught, for " as their laws were, so their 
 gods were." 
 
 The Spartan girl was afforded privileges of education, 
 both physical and intellectual, similar to those enjoyed by 
 her brothers. But it was an education which ignored all 
 ideas of refinement, culture, and family ties. The result 
 may be easily imagined. " The Spartan mother," on whom 
 
148 HISTOR V AND SCIENCE OF EDUCA TION. 
 
 so much sentiment has been wasted, was in reality but 
 little better than an Amazon, a rough, coarse creature, with- 
 out natural affection, and whose fists were even more to be 
 feared than was her tongue. 
 
 Reared without the tender and endearing influences of 
 home and mother, the boy developed into a creature with- 
 out pity, filial affection, or any other virtue save loyalty to 
 Sparta. Such are some of the natural fruits of a system 
 of education which ignores all culture and refinement, and 
 which invades the sacred functions of the home. To 
 Sparta can be attributed little that went to make Greece 
 great. It has been truly said: " There was no Spartan 
 sculptor, no Laconian painter, no Lacedemonian poet /" 
 
 Athenian Education. — But we turn to Athens — a 
 more inspiring field. About 638 B. c. Solon modified their 
 laws, reorganized civil society, and, in the judgment of 
 historians, must have established their schools, as it is 
 difficult otherwise to account for the excellence of those 
 in vogue in his day. The Athenian educational system 
 included both intellectual and physical culture, and every 
 citizen was required to see that his son was taught to read 
 and to swim. He was also obliged to rear him to some 
 useful occupation. 
 
 The child was left under the exclusive care of his 
 parents until he attained the age of seven, when he was 
 sent to the primary schools, accompanied by a faithful slave 
 or other attendant. This leader of the boy was called a 
 pedagogue; he was not, however, in any sense a leader of 
 the child's intellectual steps, as neither he nor any one 
 else, except the relatives of the teacher, was permitted to 
 enter the school on penalty of death ! There were, how- 
 ever, some thorns in the roses with which the Athenian 
 teacher's path was strewn. The school day began with the 
 rising of the sun, and only closed with its setting. Disci- 
 
SCHOOLS OF ANCIENT GREECE. 149 
 
 pline was well laid on with the birch when necessity seemed 
 to require it, which is said to have been pretty often. 
 
 The schools were all under the supervision of the state, 
 and were styled elementary and higher. In the former 
 were taught the alphabet, spelling, reading, writing, and 
 probably the elements of arithmetic. In the higher 
 schools the pupils were required to commit and recite, or 
 declaim, the finest passages of the Greek poets and histo- 
 rians, the teacher explaining their meaning and emphasiz- 
 ing their most important truths. He also gave instruction 
 in poetical composition, penmanship, elocution, music, elo- 
 quence, and the principles of the fine arts. Parents were 
 allowed to direct the order in which the various studies of 
 the higher course should be taken up. But this must, from 
 the very nature of the case, have been subject to certain 
 limitations, unless human nature has undergone a radical 
 change in these later days! 
 
 When the youth reached " manhood " — sixteen years — 
 he entered a probationary stage, during which he might 
 study, if he wished, ethics, dialectics, politics, and mythol- 
 ogy. At eighteen he was enrolled in the list of citizens, 
 and after two years of public service he was permitted to 
 devote his whole after-life to study, if he were so inclined. 
 The number who availed themselves of this privilege at a 
 later date was not few, and it is to them that Greece owes 
 most of her greatness. It was evident that only those 
 whose time was not otherwise occupied could thus devote 
 their lives to study, and it is an interesting fact that our 
 word school is derived from the Greek word schole — mean- 
 ing leisure. 
 
 The poor and the slaves were not instructed, nor were 
 the females, except the hetera — those intended for lives of 
 doubtful virtue — that they might be the more attractive! 
 A system similar to this seems to have existed in ancient 
 
150 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Japan, and, if a later writer may be credited, it exists in 
 China at the present day. 
 
 Socrates It was not until the time of Socrates and 
 
 Plato that Greece's educational sun reached its meridian 
 glory. About the middle of the fifth century before Christ 
 a most unprepossessing figure might have been seen sit- 
 ting in the public places or walking about the streets of 
 Athens, questioning all who would listen to him. He kept 
 no school himself, but few men's teachings have exerted so 
 wide an influence. The following description would apply 
 to almost any day's experience of that wonderful teacher 
 for more than thirty years: 
 
 " Gradually the crowd gathered round him. At first he spoke of the 
 tanners, and the smiths, and the drovers, who were plying their trades 
 about him, and they shouted with laughter as he poured forth his 
 homely jokes. But soon the magic charm of his voice made itself felt. 
 The peculiar sweetness of its tone had an effect which even the thun- 
 der of Pericles failed to produce. The laughter ceased; the crowd 
 thickened; the gay youth, whom nothing else could tame, stood trans- 
 fixed and awe-struck in his presence; there was a solemn thrill of 
 words, such as his hearers could compare to nothing but the mysterious 
 sensation produced by the clash of drum and cymbal in the worship of 
 the great mother of the gods — the head swam, the heart leaped at the 
 sound, tears rushed from their eyes, and they felt that unless they tore 
 themselves away from that fascinated circle they should sit down at 
 his feet and grow old in listening to the marvelous music of this second 
 Marsyas." 
 
 He has left us no writings, but his philosophy and his 
 methods of teaching have been faithfully transmitted by 
 some of his devout and renowned disciples. The Socratic 
 method of teaching may be illustrated by the following ex- 
 ample: 
 
 Mcno. — Socrates, we come to you feeling strong and wise; we leave 
 you feeling helpless and ignorant. Why is this ? 
 
SCHOOLS OF ANCIENT GREECE. 
 
 ISI 
 
 Socrates. — I will show you (calling up a young Greek and making a 
 line in the sand). Boy, how long is this line? 
 
 Boy. — It is a foot long, sir. 
 
 Soc. — How long is this line ? 
 
 Boy. — It is two feet long, sir. 
 
 Soc. — How much larger would be the square constructed on the sec- 
 ond line than on the first line ? 
 
 Boy. — It would be twice as large, sir. 
 
 Under the direction of the boy, Socrates constructs two squares in 
 the sand, thus: 
 
 D 
 
 »■— 
 
 Soc. — How much larger than the first did you say the second square 
 would be ? 
 
 Boy. — I said it would be twice as large. 
 
 Soc. — But how much larger is it? 
 
 Boy. — It is four times as large. 
 
 Soc. — Thank you, my boy, you may go. Meno, that boy came to me 
 full of confidence, thinking himself wise. I told him nothing. By a 
 few simple questions I led him to see his errors and discover the truth. 
 Though really wiser, he goes away feeling humbled. 
 
 This is the method which practical teachers of to-day- 
 use — leading, by judicious questions, the young learner to 
 discover his own errors, notwithstanding the discovery by 
 some of our new lights, that the pupil should never be ques- 
 tioned. 
 
 Plato was one of Socrates' pupils. After sitting for ten 
 years at the feet of that sage, he traveled abroad, and after 
 his return expounded in the gardens of Academia the great 
 principles of his master, with such improvements as his own 
 genius had added. In his " Republic " and his " Laws " he 
 gives us his theory of education. He lays down laws for 
 distinguishing between good and bad teachers, and urges 
 the state to use the utmost care in their selection. Though 
 be believed in physical training, he very greatly modified the 
 
I5'2 
 
 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Spartan ideas of exercise and diet. He would soften the 
 character by music, in its Greek sense — that is, by the dif- 
 ferent kinds of poetry and such of the arts and sciences 
 as were supposed to be presided over by the nine muses 
 (history, lyric poetry, comedy or idyllic poetry, tragedy, 
 choral dance and song, erotic poetry and mimic imitations, 
 sublime hymn, astronomy, and epic poetry). He also 
 urged the importance of music in its modern sense. 
 
 For intellectual culture he would teach arithmetic, geom- 
 etry, astronomy, and to such as would attain to eminence, 
 philosophy. He also recommends rhetoric, and the laws 
 of taste, and he strongly urges the necessity of moral cul- 
 ture, reverence for the gods, respect for parents, chastity, 
 and reverence for law. 
 
 Aristotle was one of Plato's pupils. After an absence 
 of some years, during four of which the future Alexander 
 the Great was under his tuition, he returned to Athens, 
 and established his Lyceum. Here, for thirteen years, he 
 taught two classes daily, walking with them in the groves. 
 His morning lectures were to the more advanced of his 
 pupils, and treated of dialectics, physical science, and the 
 more profound principles of philosophy. His afternoon 
 walks and talks were with a larger company, during which 
 he discussed political, ethical, and rhetorical questions. 
 His school attracted attention in all parts of the civilized 
 world, and its influence is strongly felt even at the present 
 day. 
 
 In his " Politics " he enumerates four principal branches 
 as necessary to a good education — gymnastics, music, gram- 
 mar or language, and the art of design. Geography, under 
 his hand, first assumed the form of a science. Of natural 
 history he was the father, and of logic he was the inventor. 
 He also advocated the education of women. 
 
 Alexandrian University. — The schools of Athens, 
 
SCHOOLS OF ANCIENT GREECE. 
 
 153 
 
 though somewhat degenerated, continued to attract atten- 
 tion for a hundred years after Aristotle's death, when they 
 were eclipsed by the Greek schools at Alexandria, under the 
 fostering hand of the Ptolemies. The author can not close 
 this chapter without quoting from that most admirable work, 
 Barnes's " General History," the following description of 
 the Alexandrian University : 
 
 "The library comprised at one time in all its collections seven hun- 
 dred thousand volumes. The museum was a stately marble edifice, 
 surrounded by a portico, beneath which the philosophers walked and 
 conversed. The professors and teachers were all kept at the public 
 expense. There were connected with the institution a botanical and 
 zoological garden, an astronomical observatory, and a chemical labora- 
 tory. To this grand university resorted the scholars of the world. At 
 one time in its history there were in attendance as many as fourteen 
 thousand persons. While wars shook Europe and Asia, Archimedes 
 and Hero, the philosophers ; Apelles, the painter; Hipparchus and 
 Ptolemy, the astronomers; Euclid, the geometer; Eratosthenes and 
 Strabo, the geographers; Manetho, the historian; Aristophanes, the 
 rhetorician; Apollonius, the poet, labored in quiet upon the peaceful 
 banks of the Nile. Probably no other school of learning has ever ex- 
 erted so wide an influence. When Caesar wished to revise the calendar 
 he sent for Sosigenes, the Alexandrian. Even the Christian Church 
 drew from what the ancients loved to call " the divine school at Alex- 
 andria " some of its most eminent fathers, as Origen and Athanasius. 
 Modern science itself dates its rise from the study of nature that began 
 under the shade of the Pyramids." 
 
 But how have the mighty fallen ! There is still in Alex- 
 andria a great university, but it is now great only in size. 
 It is attended by none but the fanatical Mohammedans, and 
 it is stated on good authority that there is not a single 
 professor in the whole institution who knows the multiplica- 
 tion table. For a thousand years Greece shed forth a luster 
 compared with which that of most other nations of the long 
 ago pales into insignificance; and though her sun went down 
 well-nigh two thousand years ago, its beams, transmitted in 
 
154 
 
 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 a myriad of forms, supply intellectual impulse still to all the 
 reading, thinking world. 
 
 " Fair Greece ! sad relic of departed worth ! 
 
 Immortal though no more ; though fallen, great ! " 
 
 — Byron. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER III. 
 
 The Transmutation of Greek thought. 
 
 The Heroic Age: 
 
 No schools nor writing. The poems of Homer and Hesiod. Orphic 
 hymns, and medical instruction. Was Homer a school-master ? Cad- 
 mus. 
 
 Greece not one nation. Difference between Athens and Sparta. 
 
 Sparta: 
 
 (a) Lycurgus travels. Why? (b) What he studies, (c) When he 
 returns is looked to for guidance, (d) He prepares the Rhetra. (e) By 
 this system the child belongs to the state, (f) If weak, destroyed. 
 (g) Male children at the age of seven consigned to the care of public 
 teachers, (h) Their scanty fare, (t) How they supplemented this. 
 (j) The young martyr, (k) Severity of physical education. (/) What 
 the literary education included, (m) Their moral (?) instruction. («) 
 The education of the Spartan girl, (o) Its fruit. (p) The " Spartan 
 mother.'' (q) No great men produced. 
 
 Athens : 
 
 (a) Solon's work. (J>) What Athenian education included, (e) What 
 was required of each parent, (tf) The child remained at home until seven 
 years old. (e) Then went to school with a. pedagogue, (f) Who might 
 visit the school, (g) Length of school day. (h) Discipline, (i) Schools 
 under care of the state, {j) What was taught in the elementary schools. 
 (i) The higher schools. (/) Parents allowed to select the order of the 
 studies of their children, {m) The ' ' probationary age " and its studies. 
 («) What at eighteen ? (o) Origin of the word school, (f) The poor and 
 slaves, (a) The females and the hetera. (r) The age of Socrates and 
 Plato: (i) The appearance of Socrates and his habits. (2) Extract from 
 Barnes's History. (3) The Socratic method illustrated, (s) Plato : (1) 
 By whom educated? (2) He travels, and on his return establishes his 
 school in the gardens of Academia. (3) What he advocated in his ' Re- 
 public " and his "Laws." (t) Aristotle : (1) Plato's pupil. (2) Teaches 
 Alexander the Great. (3) He establishes the Lyceum — Its description, 
 
SCHOOLS OF ANCIENT GREECE. 155 
 
 (4) What he advocates in his "Politics." (u) The schools of Athens 
 after Aristotle's death. 
 
 The Alexandrian University — How have the mighty fallen ! 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. 
 
 What can you say of Homer ? What are his two great works ? (Be 
 sure to read some good translation of them, if you are unable to read 
 them in the original.) 
 
 Describe the general character of the works of Hesiod. Why was he 
 so unpopular among the Spartans ? 
 
 What can you say of Sappho and her writings ? Of Anacreon ? Of 
 Pindar ? 
 
 What can you say of the writings of ^Eschylus ? Of Sophocles ? Of 
 Euripides ? 
 
 Who were the Greek Comedians? Give an account of their pro- 
 ductions. 
 
 Who were the three great Greek historians ? Give a short sketch of 
 them and their works. 
 
 Who was the greatest Grecian orator ? 
 
 Who were the Seven Sages ? and what were they noted for ? 
 
 Describe the Academic School of Philosophy. The Peripatetic. The 
 Epicurean. The Stoic. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 EDUCATION AND SCHOOLS OF ANCIENT ROME. 
 
 Greece embodied the culmination of the intellectual 
 forces of the ancient world. Her political power passed 
 away, but in matters of education she remained pre-eminent. 
 The Greeks were the school-masters of the nations; and 
 Rome, the mistress of the world, received her learning, her 
 art, her literature from conquered Greece. In fact, after 
 the decline of Greek learning and literature, it can scarcely 
 be said that any other great intellectual light shone on the 
 earth until the dawn of the modern world in the Renas- 
 cence, the great new birth of intellectual activity, itself 
 largely due to a revival of Greek learning. 
 
 About the year 753 b. c. a number of shepherds, driven 
 by volcanic disturbances from their home in the Alban hills, 
 founded a new city by the Tiber. Rumon was their word 
 for river; hence their town came to be called the river-city, 
 or Rome. 
 
 After the lapse of four hundred years Rome had absorbed 
 a few neighboring cities; and what was more important, the 
 long and memorable struggle between the Patricians, or no- 
 bility, and the Plebeians, or commoners, had ended in the 
 complete victory of the Plebeians. Rome now ceased to 
 be an aristocracy and became really a republic. She was 
 still, however, an obscure little state, with no splendor and 
 little learning, but she had freedom, energy, and an un- 
 conquerable spirit. 
 
 In three hundred and fifty years more, at the time of the 
 (156) 
 
SCHOOLS OF ANCIENT ROME, 157 
 
 birth of Christ, the world held no power but Rome. Her 
 eagle-standards glittered from barbarous Britain to the 
 ancient empires of the Nile and the Euphrates; her military 
 roads traversed all lands, and her omnipresent armies en- 
 forced peace and orderly government on the conquered 
 nations. 
 
 The early Romans were the Purftans of the ancient world. 
 They were much superior in purity of life to all ancient 
 peoples except the Hebrew. Five hundred and fifty years 
 of frugal living, of self-denial for the public good, of stern 
 virtue and rigid morals, gave Rome the strength that con- 
 quered the world. But with ever-increasing conquests came 
 unlimited wealth and power, unparalleled luxury and mag- 
 nificence, and unexampled corruption. 
 
 Shortly before the beginning of the Christian era the old 
 form of government fell; there was no longer virtue enough 
 in the people to make a republic possible, and the nation 
 became the Roman F/npire, ruled by the Caesars. The first, 
 two hundred years of the empire is the time of Rome's 
 highest material power and splendor, of the greatness of her 
 literature and her architecture; but the worm of moral rot- 
 tenness was at the root of all this magnificence, and the 
 empire finally fell because it was bankrupt in manhood. 
 
 Early Roman Education. — After this slight outline of 
 Roman history, we return to the consideration of Roman 
 education. The Romans had no idea of education by the 
 state. In the earliest ages the children were taught at home. 
 The mother trained them in reverence for the gods and 
 their elders, and in strict obedience. The father taught his 
 boys reading, writing, and a little arithmetic. The sons 
 were also educated by constant companionship with their 
 father, even when he was engaged in public business. Thus 
 they were trained, says Mommsen, " wholly for the family 
 and wholly for the state." The father held absolute au- 
 
158 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 thority over his children, even to the power of life and 
 death. The sons remained under this authority as long 
 as their father lived; the daughters until marriage. Some 
 authors maintain that only a few persons of the highest 
 rank could read and write; but the later authorities seem 
 to agree that these accomplishments were general, even 
 among the lower classes. 
 
 The earliest historical mention of a Roman school is in 
 the story of Virginia (b. c. 449): 
 
 " With her small tablets in her hand and her satchel on her arm, 
 Forth she went bounding to the school, nor dreamed of shame or 
 harm." 
 
 Later Roman Education. — With the conquest of the 
 Greek cities in the south of Italy (about 270 b. a), and es- 
 pecially with the conquest of Greece itself a century later, 
 Greek learning was introduced at Rome. Greek teachers 
 were imported — usually as slaves — schools were multiplied, 
 and the range of study greatly increased. The first Latin 
 school-book of which we have any knowledge is a transla- 
 tion of Homer made by a Greek slave about 250 b. c. The 
 Romans had at this time no literature of their own. At a 
 later period the poems of Virgil, Horace, and others, and 
 the orations of Cicero were studied in the schools. We have 
 quite extended accounts of the Roman schools at the begin- 
 ning of the Christian era. They were of three grades. The 
 primary schools taught the old and still popular curriculum 
 of " the three R's." The little ones learned their letters' at 
 home from alphabet blocks, as they do now. Reading was 
 taught by the syllabic method — a method well adapted to the 
 perfectly simple and uniform spelling of the Latin language. 
 The letters, syllables, and words were chanted in concert, 
 after the teacher's dictation. The arithmetical calculations 
 ■ — which must have been sadly hampered by the Roman no- 
 
SCHOOLS OF ANCIENT ROME. 
 
 *59 
 
 tation — were accomplished by counting on the fingers, 01 
 by the aid of stone counters and a tablet ruled in columns. 
 The child learned to write on wax tablets, the master hold- 
 ing and guiding his hand. Afterward he used pen and 
 ink, writing on the backs of second-hand strips of papyrus. 
 The copies set were moral maxims. No doubt Roman 
 boys often wrote the maxim quoted by Paul from Menan- 
 der and still found in our copy-books: " Evil communica- 
 tions corrupt good manners." Discipline was very severe. 
 The Roman school-masters, like the English ones of the 
 last generation, believed a boy's learning must be " well 
 flogged in." Plautus says that for missing a single letter 
 in his reading a boy was " striped like his nurse's cloak," 
 and Martial, hundreds of years later, says " the morning air 
 resounded with the noise of floggings and the cries of suf- 
 fering urchins." " Morning air," indeed, for the schools 
 began at daybreak. 
 
 As a knowledge of Greek was essential, children were 
 early placed in the care of Grecian slaves — so early that 
 they sometimes learned Greek before they did Latin. As 
 they came to school age, these slaves led them to school 
 and back, the attendant of the boys being called a peda- 
 gogue, as in Greece, and that of the girls a nutrix (nurse). 
 It will be noticed that the Romans made one great advance 
 on Athenian education — learning was not forbidden to the 
 girls. 
 
 In the higher schools, the critical study of Latin and 
 Greek masterpieces was pursued. The wonderful system 
 of Roman law was studied: every school-boy was expected 
 to know by heart the Twelve Tables which were regarded 
 as its foundation. Declamation and oratory were studied 
 with the most minute attention, and with such regard to 
 complex rules of gesture, etc., that accomplished orators 
 in mature life found it necessary to keep themselves in 
 
160 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 constant practice, as a pianist does. Geometry and music 
 were included in the branches of study. 
 
 At sixteen the boy came of age, and henceforth might 
 attend the lectures of any philosopher he chose. His edu- 
 cation was usually completed by a course at Athens, or 
 perhaps at Rhodes or Alexandria. 
 
 Books and Libraries The Romans in time produced 
 
 a stately and splendid literature, largely imitated from 
 Greek models. Books, once so excessively scarce and 
 expensive, became plentiful and almost as cheap as in our 
 own day. There existed in Rome private libraries of 
 60,000 and even 100,000 volumes. It should be remem- 
 bered, however, that when the ancients spoke of a book 
 they commonly meant what we should call a chapter — and 
 their chapters were usually very short, besides. It still 
 seems incredible that books should have been so multiplied 
 by copying them out by hand; but this was done by slave 
 labor. Fifty or a hundred copies were often made at one 
 time, one slave reading aloud, while the rest wrote what 
 he read. Books were usually made of papyrus, as cheaper 
 than parchment. The separate slips were first written, then 
 pasted together and wound on a little roller, which had or- 
 namental knobs on the ends, and was enclosed in a hand- 
 some case, with the author's name upon it. Books made 
 of parchment, however, were sometimes cut in leaves and 
 sewed together, like those of the present day. An ancient 
 private library (the room) has recently been excavated in 
 Rome. It was circular in shape, with alcoves for books, 
 and between the alcoves marble busts of authors. 
 
 Besides all the private libraries with their slave copyists, 
 there were regular publishing houses in Rome. One thou- 
 sand copies were usually issued as the first edition of a new 
 book. There were twenty-nine public libraries, of which 
 the Ulpian, founded by the Emperor Trajan, was the 
 
SCHOOLS OF AXCIENT ROME. 161 
 
 most important. Some of the magnificent colonnades 
 erected by Roman nobles for the public benefit and their 
 own glory, where people might walk sheltered from sum- 
 mer's sun and winter's wind, were adorned with numerous 
 maps of the different countries of the empire, drawn from 
 government surveys. 
 
 Civil Engineering is not mentioned as among the 
 studies pursued in Roman schools, but it certainly was 
 taught somewhere with wonderful success. Not to speak 
 of the immensity and grandeur of Roman architecture, the 
 military roads were marvels both of engineering skill and 
 solid workmanship, and the magnificent aqueducts that 
 supplied not only Rome, but every city of any size, with 
 abundant pure water, are the wonder and despair of all 
 succeeding ages. So skillful were the Roman engineers 
 that they could run a tunnel miles in length, starting from 
 opposite sides of a mountain, and meeting in the center. 
 
 The Emperors and Education. — As Roman rule was 
 extended over the civilized world, the various seats of 
 Greek learning passed under her dominion, including the 
 philosophic schools of Athens and the great university of 
 Alexandria. The Roman emperors did much to foster 
 literature and learning. The right of Roman citizenship, 
 so highly prized by the Apostle Paul, was conferred on all 
 foreign teachers who should settle in Rome. New schools 
 of high repute sprang up in the provinces, as at Mitylene, 
 in Asia Minor; Marseilles, in France; and Cordova, in 
 Spain. 
 
 The first college supported by the state, established in 
 the Roman Empire, was one founded by the Emperor Ves- 
 pasian (a. d. 69-79), and completed by Adrian (a. d. 117-38!. 
 It was called the Athenaeum. Antoninus Pius (a. d. 138-61) 
 founded similar schools in all the chief cities of the empire. 
 He also established a school for orphan girls, in memory 
 
162 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OP EDUCATION. 
 
 of his deceased wife. The success of this incited him to 
 establish similar schools for both sexes in Rome and other 
 cities. 
 
 Christian Education By the close of the second cen- 
 tury the old order was manifestly perishing; but a new 
 force was coming into the world, and the great uplifting 
 power of Christianity began to be felt. With the Christian 
 Church came the Christian parish school, both modeled on 
 the Jewish synagogue; and now for the first time the great 
 moral force conserved through 1500 years in the Hebrew 
 race was poured into the current of the world's life. The 
 two great elements of purity of life and of human equality, 
 unknown to the Roman Empire, but trained into the Jew 
 through forty generations, were now sent into the world, 
 with all the multiplied spiritual force of Christianity. Its 
 blessings came first to the poor and lowly — to women, to 
 children, and to slaves. The great regenerating idea that 
 any one of the least of these was as precious in the sight 
 of God as the Caesar on his throne, began to enter into 
 the hearts of mankind, and the lofty and lovely character 
 of Christian women was viewed with amazement by their 
 heathen neighbors. Christian schools of high grade began 
 to arise. The first was founded in Alexandria (a. d. 181) by 
 the side of the great pagan university; and one at Caasa- 
 rea was established about forty years later. Meanwhile, the 
 more highly educated pastors and bishops taught pupils at 
 home, not merely theology, but the learning of the day. 
 
 The Alexandrian University* was one of the last strong- 
 holds of paganism; here the philosophy of neo-Platonism 
 — Plato with oriental modifications — was originated and 
 taught. And here we find in the fourth century, in the 
 character of Hypatia, a striking instance of how far Chris- 
 
 * See page 153. 
 
SCHOOLS OF ANCIENT ROME. ^3 
 
 tian ideas had modified their professed enemies. Hypatia 
 was the beautiful and noble daughter of a professor of 
 philosophy, who, on her father's death, succeeded to his 
 professorship. The beauty and elevation of her character 
 equaled the brilliance of her intellect. Though she called 
 herself a pagan, Christianity alone made such a woman 
 possible. Unhappily, she fell a victim at last to the intoler- 
 ance of a Christian bishop. In a. d. 389 Alexandria became 
 a Christian university. 
 
 As early as the beginning of the fourth century, Christian 
 schools, which taught all the branches of learning known 
 to the times, were established in Rome, Carthage, Milan, 
 Treves, Autun, Marseilles, aijd Lyons. In the hundred and 
 seventy-five years which intervened between this period 
 and the final downfall of the empire, similar schools were 
 established in many other cities. Amid the constant tur- 
 moil and terror of barbarian invasion, however, the quality 
 and quantity of learning imparted in the schools had greatly 
 deteriorated, and with the fall of the empire the long night 
 known as the Dark Ages fell upon Europe. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Greece the school-master of the ancient world. 
 
 Brief outline of Roman history — founding of the city — struggle be- 
 tween the two orders — conquest of the world — fall of the republic — 
 splendor of the empire — decay and fall. 
 
 Early Roman education entirely domestic — narrow and severe, but of 
 high moral tone. First mention of a Roman school. 
 
 Introduction of Greek education— the first Latin school-book— the 
 primary schools. How reading was taught— arithmetic — writing — the 
 severity of the discipline — teaching Greek to children. 
 
 Curriculum of the higher schools— literature— law— oratory— philo- 
 sophy. 
 
 Literature and books in Rome — number and extent of private libra- 
 ries — how books were manufactured — cheapness and abundance — de- 
 scription of a library in a private house. 
 
1 64 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Public libraries — the Ulpian — maps of the empire in the public eolon- 
 nades. 
 
 Great skill of the Romans in civil engineering. 
 
 The acquisition of universities by conquest. Schools founded by the 
 emperors — orphan asylums of Antoninus. 
 
 The Christian Church and Christian schools modeled on the Jewish 
 synagogue — elements which the Hebrew race contributed to civilization 
 — Christian doctrine of human equality — character of the Christian 
 women. 
 
 Christian colleges at Alexandria and Csesarea. The University of 
 Alexandria one of the last strongholds of paganism — Hypatia. Chris- 
 tian colleges established through the empire. 
 
 The general decay of learning. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. 
 
 What is the great epic poem of the Latin language ? 
 
 Who were some of the leading historians ? 
 
 Is there a dramatic literature in Latin ? 
 
 What was the Ptolemaic theory of the motions of the sun, moon, 
 and planets, as taught at the Alexandrian University, and generally 
 believed down to the dawn of modern times ? 
 
 Who was considered the greatest orator of Rome ? 
 
 What is meant by the phrase " The Christian Fathers " ? 
 
 What great work was done by St. Jerome? For what is Augustine 
 celebrated? What is the meaning of the name Chrysostum, and why 
 was it given ? 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE EVOLUTION OF THE NEW OLD WORLD. 
 
 As the private soldier sees little or nothing of the plan 
 in the mind of his general, and often seems to be march- 
 ing on to certain doom when he is in reality only doing his 
 little part in a great plan, so the various tribes and nations 
 of the evolving higher life of the middle ages, not seeing 
 the plan in the mind of Him with whom a thousand years 
 are as but a single day, must often have felt, in very truth, 
 that "God had forgotten the world." And so, too, the 
 student of history, unless he can succeed in grasping first 
 of all a general idea of the great contending forces that 
 were acting and reacting on each other to forge out the 
 higher and nobler civilization of the modern world, will 
 lose the most valuable part of the study of the history of 
 education. 
 
 We have seen in our study of the evolution of mind 
 and moral character in the individual that the highest 
 ideal may be reached in just the way we know it is reached 
 — by constituting man a free agent with the power to fol- 
 low his own free will, but with the unvarying pole-star of 
 eternal truth implanted in his soul to guide him in the 
 path of moral rectitude. And as nations are but the 
 aggregation of individuals, the great ideal of national life 
 is very similar. Nations, like men, must work out their 
 own characters, and stand or fall as they regard or dis- 
 regard the eternal laws of truth and justice. So, too, as 
 the highest personal character is only attained by years 
 of discipline of the baser powers of the soul, and perhaps 
 
 (165) 
 
i66 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 even through the experience of its own folly, the higher 
 civilization of a nation is attained along the same rigid line 
 of discipline. 
 
 Again, the civilization of an epoch does not depend on the 
 attainments of any one nation, but on the aggregate of the 
 intelligence and moral worth of all combined; and it must, 
 therefore, be apparent to any thoughtful mind that, taking 
 the world as it was at the beginning of our era, the evolu- 
 tion of the higher Christian civilization must be the work 
 of tedious centuries. 
 
 If we study the middle ages with this thought in view, 
 we shall certainly not find them wholly "dark." There is 
 ever a pillar of light before the advancing host — a light 
 which, however much obscured by the fog and the mist 
 engendered by the meeting and commingling of the 
 warmer currents of the New with the chilling dampness of 
 the Old, still shines on, and this advancing, leading light is 
 Christianity. 
 
 In looking back over the mediaeval times from the van- 
 tage ground of the nineteenth century, the wonder is not 
 so much that these ages were dark, as that any gleam of 
 light at all was kept alive. 
 
 It will be remembered that the Roman eagles, early in 
 our era, had spread their broad wings over a great part of 
 the then civilized and much of the uncivilized or half-civ- 
 ilized world. Speaking roughly, the Roman dominion was 
 now bounded by the Rhine, the Danube, the Euphrates, 
 and the great deserts of Africa. Wherever in the West the 
 Roman standards were planted, there, for the most part, 
 Roman institutions were established, the Latin language 
 was in time naturalized, and in too many cases the vices 
 of the fast-decaying civilization of Rome were engrafted 
 without many of the elevating influences of its earlier and 
 better life. 
 
EVOLUTION OF THE NEW OLD WORLD. 167 
 
 Decay of Rome — The Roman of these later times 
 was a proud, ambitious creature, devoid of natural affec- 
 tion, with little love for any thing save Roman supremacy 
 and the gratification of his own baser passions. He recog- 
 nized no law of pity or compassion, and his religion, so far 
 as he now professed any, consisted for the most part in 
 shrewd bargainings with the gods for temporal power or 
 sensual indulgence. For want of any thing worse to wor- 
 ship, altars were erected to the embruted emperors, where 
 vows and prayers were daily offered. " Not even the 
 Egyptians, crouching in grateful admiration before a croc- 
 odile," says Zerffi, "so outraged humanity as did these 
 polite Romans, rendering divine honors to an emperor like 
 Aurelius Commodus, who fought seven hundred and thirty- 
 five times as a common gladiator in the arena before the 
 enervated people." 
 
 If we can imagine, in these better days, a people so 
 brutalized that they found their chiefest pleasure in look- 
 ing on these gladiatorial contests — combats in which men 
 fought to the death with swords or spears, or three-pronged 
 forks; shows in which wild beasts, made ravenous with 
 hunger, were turned loose in the arena to devour men and 
 women, and even helpless children — if we can picture to 
 our minds such scenes as these, we may gain some faint 
 conception of the influence that went forth from Rome to 
 all her western provinces during the five hundred years of 
 her slow, leprous death. This may give the first impres- 
 sion of what the new Christian education and humanizing 
 power had to contend against in its earliest struggle for 
 existence * 
 
 * In the year 404, Telemachus, an eastern monk, suddenly appeared in the 
 arena of the Colosseum at Rome between two gladiators, and with prayer and 
 gesture bore his testimony against these unchristian games. The Prsetor Aly- 
 bius immediately ordered his slaughter. Struck with his grand heroism, the Em- 
 peror Honorius abolished the shows and never afterward were they permitted. 
 Telemachus was canonized, and is now in the Saint's Calendar.— Soutkwick. 
 
168 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Barbarian Invasions. — But this was not its only nor 
 perhaps its greatest obstacle. No sooner had it gained an 
 uncertain foot-hold in .the more southern provinces of the 
 empire, than there poured in from the north and east vast 
 hordes of pagan and barbaric conquerors, overrunning the 
 land from time to time, and not only undoing much that 
 had been done, but bringing with them their heathen gods 
 and barbarism. The first important influx of this descrip- 
 tion was that of the Goths, from the north shore of the 
 Danube, who were driven from their native land by the 
 Huns, a fierce swarm of hideous barbarians from the dis- 
 tant east, in the latter part of the fourth century. In the 
 early part of the fifth century, part of the Goths, under 
 Alaric, captured and sacked the city of Rome itself. Ger- 
 man tribes about the same time were pressing south into 
 France, and from thence passed southward into Spain, and 
 in time a virtually independent kingdom was established 
 here. In a similar way came other incursions, the conquer- 
 ors forming new states in the west, the germs of modern 
 European nations. 
 
 One tribe of cruel invaders that were especially ruthless 
 is known as the Vandals. Fortunately, however, these 
 formed no permanent settlements in Europe. They lin- 
 gered for a time in Spain, and then, leaving ruin in their 
 path, they passed to northern Africa. This was during the 
 first half of the fifth century, and from these destroyers we 
 have our English " Vandalism." 
 
 But in spite of all these invasions and their consequent 
 ruin and devastation, in spite of the utter rottenness of the 
 "Roman civilization, the new power was not crushed out, 
 and instead of being conquered by the invading hordes, it 
 conquered them, and by its elevating power raised them to 
 a higher plane. The growth was indeed slow, for it re- 
 quires a vast amount of moral and intellectual energy to 
 
EVOLUTION OF THE NEW OLD WORLD. 169 
 
 elevate society just a little, even under favorable circum- 
 stances, and when war and pillage is the normal state of 
 things the task becomes stupendous. 
 
 Rise of the Romance Languages. — By the time of 
 the Teutonic settlements in Western Europe, Latin had 
 become the common speech of France and Spain, as well 
 as Italy, the native languages still lingering only in a few re- 
 mote corners, as among the Basques. The language which 
 the German invaders therefore found it necessary to learn 
 in order to get on well in their southern homes was Latin 
 — or, rather, such a. form of Latin as was spoken by the 
 common people of these remoter provinces, which was 
 naturally much corrupted from the pure Latin of the great 
 classic writers. 
 
 As the Germans learned to speak these dialects, they 
 became still more corrupt, and a large number of Teutonic 
 words and idioms crept in. So, in time, the common lan- 
 guage of Italy, France, and Spain became corrupt Latin 
 dialects, which were used in common conversation; though 
 in writing, the few that had acquired this art still used fairly 
 good Latin for centuries afterward. 
 
 No one thought of writing in the common speech, which 
 now began to be known as Roman, in distinction from the 
 written language, which was called Latin. Thus, out of the 
 various " Roman " dialects some of the principal languages 
 of Europe took their rise, and these are therefore desig- 
 nated the "Romance" languages — Italian, French, Proven- 
 gal, and Spanish. 
 
 Latin in the Schools. — From the consideration of the 
 foregoing, it will at once be seen why Latin gained such 
 foot-hold in all the schools of the middle ages, and why it 
 lingered in the lower schools so long after the common 
 speech had been reduced to writing. 
 
 In the earlier mediwva'. times one must needs learn 
 
170 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Latin before he learned to write, and it thus came to be 
 regarded as the very starting-point of education. He who 
 could not speak Latin must remain wholly illiterate. And 
 from the force of habit, much of this custom lingered in the 
 educational systems of Western Europe long after the ne- 
 cessity for it had ceased to exist. In fact, this tendency to 
 teach Latin first and last and all the time was one of the 
 great hindrances to the cause of popular education, even 
 down to very recent times. So much of a boy's time was de- 
 voted to this subject that there was little left for the study 
 of his own language — " the vulgar tongue " — and every 
 thing else went almost wholly by default. This tended, 
 too, to make school-life a synonym of all that was weari- 
 some and distasteful, since the study of Latin by the old- 
 time methods presents few attractions to the average boy 
 or girl at the age of seven or eight. 
 
 Mohammedan Learning. — Another element which 
 exerted a mighty influence on the educational and general 
 civilizing forces of the mediaeval world was Mohammed- 
 ism. That the Arabs, or Saracens, wielded a good as well 
 as a baneful influence on the character of the age can 
 scarcely be disputed by any impartial historian; but that 
 their influence was as salutary as many more recent writ- 
 ers have contended is more than doubtful. Some of these 
 writers seem to believe that there were few, if any, of the 
 graces and virtues which the Saracens did not possess, while 
 they willingly ascribe to them all the learning of the medi- 
 aeval times, as well as much that was then totally unknown. 
 
 That Saladin, for example, possessed many high qualities 
 is undoubtedly true; but that he and his followers were the 
 paragons depicted in Scott's " Talisman," is too much of a 
 strain on credulity. And again, when we find historians 
 asserting that the Saracens of the mediaeval times " gave 
 to algebra and trigonometry their modern forms," and that 
 
EVOLUTION OF THE NEW OLD WORLD. i-j X 
 
 they introduced "the Indian method of numeration" — in the 
 face of the facts that much of both algebra and trigonom- 
 etry " in their modern form '■>' came into use long after the 
 Saracens had been driven out of Spain, and after they had 
 ceased to lay any claim to scholarship, and the fact that 
 the Hindoos had no method of numeration other than the 
 decimal system (which all nations everywhere have used 
 from the earliest dawn of history); and when others tell us, 
 again, that the Arabs introduced the system of notation 
 which bears their name, in the face of the fact that Boethius 
 employed the nine Hindoo signs in his mathematical works 
 more than two hundred years before the Mohammedan 
 hosts set foot in Spain — when facts like these confront the 
 student of educational history, he feels disposed not only 
 to believe that the Saracen has been greatly overdone, but 
 also to receive with a large grain of allowance other seem- 
 ingly exaggerated statements by these same authors re- 
 garding the Arab's erudition. 
 
 Still, making all due allowance for exaggeration, there 
 can be no doubt that the Mohammedan movement gave a 
 new impulse to thought during the seventh, eighth, ninth, 
 and tenth centuries. The Koran enjoined on all good Mo- 
 hammedans that they should read it, and this fact of itself 
 gave a wonderful impetus to elementary education; then 
 disputes soon arose among the Mussulmans, as among the 
 early Christians, as to the correct interpretation of the ten- 
 ets of their faith, and this induced the study of the Greek 
 philosophers. So, when they overran northern Africa in 
 the seventh century, and Spain in the eighth, giving to the 
 conquered people everywhere their choice of " the Koran, 
 tribute, or the sword," they brought the germs of this new in- 
 fluence with them; and when the clash of arms was over, and 
 the new Saracen Empire was firmly established in Spain, 
 it rapidly developed to maturity. Mohammedan schools 
 
172 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 were multiplied; great universities were established during 
 the eighth and ninth centuries, and in the first half of the 
 tenth century there are said to have been no less than 
 seventeen of these great educational centers, attended by 
 many thousands of students, not only Mohammedans, but 
 Christians from all parts of Europe. Great libraries are 
 said to have been conneeted with some of these institutions 
 — the one at Cordova numbering 600,000 volumes. It is 
 very probable, however, that the word " volume " here is to 
 be understood in the sense in which it was used at Rome 
 at an earlier day — to mean, not books, as we understand the 
 word in common conversation, but chapters, and often very 
 short ones at that. We will do well also to compare such 
 statements with the one that when these same Mussulmans 
 took Alexandria, the flames of its four thousand baths were 
 fed six months with the priceless manuscripts from the 
 libraries of the Ptolemies, Osman declaring: "If the manu- 
 scripts agree with the Koran, they are useless; if they dis- 
 agree they should be destroyed;" and also the statement 
 that a Saracen physician refused to go to Bokhara, at the 
 invitation of the Sultan, on the plea that his private library 
 would make four hundred camel-loads. It seems probable 
 that some of these statements may be explained on the 
 theory of "oriental figurativeness." 
 
 Progress of Christianity. — The first struggle of the 
 new civilization was, however, not with Mohammedism, but, 
 as indicated at the opening of this chapter, with the power 
 of Rome, which early set itself to crush out that which had 
 the hardihood to face the all-pervading moral leprosy. Yet 
 when it was seen how heroically these Christians suffered 
 martyrdom; when it was observed by their heathen neigh- 
 bors that the children of these persecuted people practised 
 a high morality, which they could not help admiring, how- 
 ever much their own lives were at variance, when the 
 
EVOLUTION OF THE NEW OLD WORLD. I?3 
 
 chastity of thought and conversation of the Christian 
 maidens was contrasted with the rudeness of their own 
 daughters; when the Christian wife and mother was com- 
 pared with that of the pagan — when the various graces of 
 the Christian education forced themselves upon the obser- 
 vation of the Romans, they called forth encomiums from 
 even the fiercest of the pagan writers. 
 
 In this way the leaven slowly worked until the beginning 
 of the fourth century, when the new faith was professed by 
 the Emperor Constantine, and then, with the power of the 
 empire to sustain it, and its own inherent virtue to com- 
 mend it, made most rapid progress; and notwithstanding 
 its temporary check under the Emperor Julian, it had won 
 its way by the beginning of the fifth century, to nearly all 
 parts of the empire, and the great majority of those within 
 its borders were at least nominal professors of its tenets. 
 
 Christian Learning vs. Paganism. — This naturally 
 gave a mighty impulse to the Christian schools, but the 
 barbarian invasions for the next two hundred years well- 
 nigh destroyed their influence in many sections, and in 
 others totally uprooted it. What primary schools remained 
 were for the most part devoted to the oral teaching of the 
 doctrines of the Church, and in some of them writing was 
 entirely unknown. One great hindrance to the cause of 
 education in its ordinary meaning during this troublous 
 period was the fact that all the learning of the previous 
 age was in the Latin language, and this was so interwoven 
 with paganism that the Church feared its influence on the 
 popular mind, which doubtless still retained more or less of 
 the abandoned faith. The ecclesiasts naturally regarded the 
 soul as of much more value than the mind; and they felt, no 
 doubt, that they were driven to a choice between the two. 
 That they were not wholly wrong in this, especially in the 
 earlier centuries of this epoch, while the people were still 
 
174 
 
 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 half-pagan in thought, is doubtless true. It is held by 
 some that even in this age, with eighteen hundred years of 
 Christian civilization back of us, young men come out of 
 certain of our colleges with more of pagan philosophy than 
 Christian ethics in their heads. Says Symonds, in his 
 "Revival of Learning," page 59: 
 
 " The Church, while battling with paganism, recognized her deadliest 
 foes in literature. Not only were the Greek and Latin masterpieces 
 the stronghold of a mythology that had to be erased from the popular 
 mind; not only was their morality antagonistic to the principles of 
 Christian ethics; in addition to these grounds of hatred and mistrust, the 
 classics idealized a form of human life which the new faith regarded 
 " as worthless. What was culture in comparison with the salvation of 
 the soul ? ... It was easy to pass from this state of mind to the 
 belief that learning in itself was impious." 
 
 The writings of these times abound in fierce denuncia- 
 tions of the classics. Gregory of Tours cries: " Let us shun 
 the lying fables of the poets." Alcuin regretted that in 
 his boyhood he had preferred Virgil to the legends of the 
 saints, and he stigmatized the Latin writers as " wanton;" 
 and even Augustine deplored his time spent in reading 
 Virgil. Some of the monkish scribes gloried in their own 
 ignorance, and they regarded bad grammar as a sign of 
 grace. Thus even Gregory the Great writes: " The place of 
 prepositions and the case of nouns I utterly despise, since 
 I deem it unfit to confine the words of the celestial oracle 
 with the rules of Donatus." It would be easy to fill a vol- 
 ume with similar quotations from the ecclesiastic writers 
 of the fifth and sixth centuries, but these must suffice. 
 Symonds sums up the whole matter in these words: 
 
 " Thus. the opposition of the Church to paganism, the conviction that 
 Christianity was alien to [Roman] culture, and the absorption of intel- 
 lectual interest in theological questions, contributed to destroy what had 
 remained of sound scholarship in the last years of the Empire. The 
 
EVOLUTION Of THE NEW OLD WORLD. 175 
 
 task of the Church, moreover, in the middle ages, was not so much to keep 
 learning alive as to moralize the savage races who held Europe at their 
 pleasure. Pure Latinity, even if it could have been instilled into the 
 nations of the North, was of less moment than elementary discipline in 
 manners and religion. It must not be forgotten that the literature of 
 ancient Rome was artificial in its best days, confined to a select few, 
 and dependent on the capital for its support. After the dismemberment 
 of the Empire, the whole of Europe was thrown open to the action of 
 spiritual powers who had to use unlettered barbarians for their ministers 
 and missionaries. To submit this vast field to classic culture at the 
 same time Christianity was being propagated would have been beyond 
 the strength of the Church, even had she chosen to undertake this task, 
 and had the vital forces of antiquity not been exhausted." 
 
 On this important question, Sir Alfred Lyall, an Anglo- 
 Hindoo official who has had abundant opportunity to study 
 the influence of paganism in real life, says: " At a time when 
 pagan tribes and communities pressed into the Church, 
 nothing but a supreme ecclesiastical authority saved Chris- 
 tianity from falling back into a sort of polytheism." 
 
 ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER V. 
 
 The evolution of the higher civilization through the downfall of the old. 
 
 Nations, like men, must work out their own destiny through expe- 
 rience of their own follies. 
 
 The working out of the Christian civilization the necessary work of 
 tedious centuries. How we should, therefore, regard the middle ages. 
 The wonder in looking back over them. 
 
 What the New Civilization had to contend against : 
 
 (a) The extent of the Roman power.^ (b) The degenerate Roman 
 civilization, as exhibited in the worship of the emperors, the gladiatorial 
 combats, and wild beast fights, (c) The invasion of the barbarians — 
 Goths, Vandals, Huns, etc. 
 
 The new power not crushed out, but, on the contrary, wins the invad- 
 ers to the new faith. The growth necessarily slow. Why ? 
 
 Latin had become the common speech in southern Europe. The 
 original language. Influence which the invading Germans had on the 
 common speech. 
 
I 7 6 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 The distinction between Latin and "Roman" — Hence the rise of 
 the " Romance Languages." 
 
 How the study of Latin in the primary school had its origin ; and how 
 this system clung to the schools beyond its natural time. Its influence 
 on popular education. 
 
 The Influence of Mohammedism: (a) It exerted some good in- 
 fluence as well as bad; but the good has been exaggerated — Saladin.— 
 "Algebra and trigonometry in their modern forms." — "The Indian 
 method of numeration and notation." (^i The cause of the good influ- 
 ence which they actually did exert, (c) The multiplication of schools, 
 universities, and libraries. (</) How the statements in regard to some of 
 them are to be understood and received. 
 
 The Struggle of the New Civilization with the Power of 
 Rome: (a) The moral influence which the Christian home exerted. (/») 
 The conversion of Constantine — Its rapid progress then for a season. 
 (<-) Its checks, (i) Julian. (2) Barbarian invasions. 
 
 The primary schools now devoted to the inculcation of the doctrines 
 of the Church, and secular education crowded out. 
 
 All the learning in the Latin language, and this so pagan that the 
 ecclesiasts feared its influence on the half-pagan population, and so 
 tabooed it. Query: Were they wholly wrong in this ? What Symonds 
 says on this subject. 
 
 Statements from the writers of that date in regard to the classics: (a) 
 Gregory of Tours, {b) Alcuin. (<) Augustine. 
 
 How some even gloried in their ignorance of grammar — Gregory the 
 Great. 
 
 The matter summed up by Symonds. Sir Alfred Lyall's statement. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. 
 
 Give a sketch of the life of Mohammed. What do you understand 
 by the Hegira ? t 
 
 What can you say of the Koran ? Who were the Saracens ? 
 
 How much of the world did the Moslems conquer? Where were 
 they finally checked in Europe ? 
 
 Sketch the effect which this battle probably had on the destiny of 
 the modern world. 
 
 What can you say of the general condition of modern Mohammedan 
 countries? 
 
 What can you say of some of the early persecutiens of the new faith! 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE EDUCATIONAL FORCES IN EUROPE DURING THE 
 MEDIAEVAL AGES. 
 
 In our last chapter we glanced at some of the great 
 forces that were most potent in shaping the destiny of 
 the New Old World. We found arrayed on one hand 
 Christianity, with its advancing torch, amid the encircling 
 darkness, and on the other the seductive influence of the 
 luxurious but soulless Roman civilization, and the brute 
 force and paganism of the many invading tribes of fierce 
 barbarians. 
 
 As time advanced, and the danger of relapse to pagan- 
 ism decreased, the Church began to feel the necessity of 
 educating, as well as humanizing and moralizing, society, 
 and a middle course was adopted. Latin seemed necessary 
 for ecclesiastical uses, for the interpretation of the Script- 
 ures and the Fathers, and for the establishing of a common 
 means of communication among those who spoke different 
 languages. Grammar had, therefore, to be taught in the 
 schools; and this naturally introduced some of the Latin 
 authors. Hence, writers who had formerly been utterly con- 
 demned were now adopted as a sort 'of necessary evil; and, 
 to render them less dangerous to the student, the scribes 
 often sought to make them edifying at the expense of their 
 original meaning. Thus, Virgil and other great authors 
 were made to say what would have much astonished them. 
 So much like a mediaeval monk was Virgil made to seem 
 that the following legend of St. Paul's having visited the 
 
 12 (177) 
 
178 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 tomb of the great poet at Naples was sung in the church 
 service for St. Paul's day: 
 
 " When to Virgil's tomb they brought him, 
 Tender grief and pity wrought him 
 To bedew the stone with tears: 
 What a saint I might have crowned thee, 
 Had I only living found thee, 
 
 Poet first and without peers ! " 
 
 Several of the great Latin authors were read to some 
 extent by the more scholarly throughout the middle ages, 
 but the general knowledge and intellectual vigor necessary 
 for the comprehension of these workg was generally want- 
 ing, and it thus happened that epitomes and digests, and 
 the revised forms before referred to, were most in demand. 
 
 " Of Greek there was absolutely no tradition left. When the names 
 of Greek poets or philosophers are cited by mediaeval authors, it is 
 at second hand from Latin sources ; and the Aristotelian logic of 
 the schoolmen came through Latin translations made by Jews from 
 Arabian manuscripts. Occasionally it might happen that a Western 
 scholar acquired Greek at Constantinople, or in the south of Italy, 
 where it was spoken; but this did not imply Hellenic culture, nor did 
 such knowledge form a part or parcel of his erudition. Greek was 
 hardly less lost to Europe then than Sanscrit in the first half of the 
 eighteenth century." — "Revival of Learning." 
 
 Mediaeval Text-books and Course of Study. — We 
 
 will gain a clearer idea of the education and the schools of 
 the earlier part of the middle ages from an examination of 
 the text-books and courses of study then in vogue. The 
 course of instruction was generally divided into what was 
 known as the Trivium and the Quadrivium. The former 
 (three roads) included grammar, logic or dialectics, and 
 rhetoric; and the latter {four roads) included music, arith- 
 metic, geometry, and astronomy. We shall greatly err, 
 however, if we assume that these studies implied any thing 
 
%■ 
 
 EDUCATIONAL FORCES IN EUROPE. T79 
 
 like what they do in our day, or that any very considerable 
 part of the population came under the influence of any one 
 of them, excepting music used in religious services. 
 
 " The usual, and indeed the almost universal, text-book in all these 
 studies, for nearly a thousand years, was the Satira or Satyricon of Mar- 
 cianus Mineus Felix Capella, an encyclopaedia in nine books of these 
 sciences, in which prose and poetry alternate about equally. This sin- 
 gular work, which has come down to our own times, was written about 
 A. D. 470. The first two books are entitled 'De Nuptiis Philologice el 
 Mercurii' [The Marriage of Philology and Mercury], and give, with 
 copious verbiage, a narration of the adventures of Mercury in search of 
 a spouse, his rejection by Sophia [wisdom], and Psyche [the soul], and 
 his final wooing of Philologia; the subsequent books introduce in turn 
 the children of this redoubtable pair, in character, beginning with 
 Grammar, armed with the needful implements of her art, and recount- 
 ing her history and achievements; she is followed successively by Dia- 
 lectics [Logic], Rhetoric, Geometry, Arithmetic, Astronomy, and 
 Music, each of whom declares her attainments, in alternate verse and 
 prose. 
 
 " The meagerness of the instruction in these studies may be inferred 
 from the fact that the arithmetic occupies but a brief space, and gives 
 only the digits and their fractions, without any valuable instruction, 
 even in the elementary rules. It is mainly occupied with discussions 
 concerning the mystical virtues of certain numbers. The grammar is 
 equally brief, and dwells principally upon the names and powers of the 
 letters. The geometry is very little better, though Euclid's work was 
 not rare. The other books, except that on dialectics, are nearly value- 
 less. Aristotle was the basis of all dialectic instruction, though his 
 works were not available in Latin until a few years later. 
 
 ' ' The only formidable rivals of Capella in the publication of these 
 encyclopedic text-books were Cassiodorus and Isidore, who flourished in 
 the sixth century. Their works are even more meager in instruction 
 than that of Capella — the arithmetic of Cassiodorus occupying but two 
 folio pages, and not containing a word even of the elementary rules of 
 the science. His geometry occupies about the same space, and con- 
 tains only a few axioms. The grammar and rhetoric are of about 
 equal value. Music then, as later, was confined mostly to church 
 chanting; and astronomy was only a brief epitome of the system of 
 Ptolemy, and did not even explain the cause of eclipses. And these 
 
180 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 were the text-books for the next thousand years! And even in these, 
 few went beyond the Trivium. 
 
 " Boethius [in the early part of the sixth century] translated several of 
 Aristotle's and Plato's works, and himself wrote treatises on arithmetic, 
 rhetoric, music, geometry, and the quadrature of the circle. He also 
 translated the works of Euclid, Archimedes, and Ptolemseus of Alex- 
 andria. But his works were too learned for the age in which he lived, 
 and seem never to have come into very general use. The intellectual 
 nadir of the world was approaching; in the seventh century ignorance 
 sounded its lowest depth. Isidore, Bishop of Seville (570-636), is 
 almost the only man of this period of darkness who could lay claim to 
 any considerable scholarship, and his attainments in science would be 
 regarded as exceedingly meager in our times; yet he was at that day 
 considered a prodigy of learning. It is recorded to his honor that he 
 attempted to diffuse education among his clergy, and established a 
 school at Seville. He also prepared an encyclopaedia, near the close of 
 his life, in which he attempted to give to the world a compendium of 
 the knowledge which appeared so vast to his contemporaries. 
 
 ' ' This work was in twenty books. The first three were devoted to the 
 seven liberal arts [the trivium and guadrivium~\, and may be supposed 
 to furnish a risumi of his knowledge in regard to them; but they do 
 not contain one tenth of the information to be found in our most ele- 
 mentary school-books. Under the head of arithmetic, for instance, he 
 only explains that arithmetic and the names of numbers are derived from 
 the Greek, speaks of their usefulness, especially in enabling us to under- 
 stand the mystic sense of some passages of Scripture, and divides them 
 into even and odd numbers; and then proceeds to speak of geometry. 
 In grammar, he had evidently no knowledge of syntax and very little 
 of etymology; he confounds rhetoric with dialectics, and considers astrol- 
 ogy a valuable department of astronomical knowledge. The remaining 
 books are occupied with such topics as these: medicine; law; the Scrip- 
 tures; God; an account of heretics and their opinions; languages, of 
 which he specifies three principal ones — Hebrew, Greek, and Latin; a 
 Latin dictionary with very fanciful derivations; man and the parts of 
 the body; animals; the world and its visible phenomena; geography; 
 great cities; precious stones; agriculture; war; the drama, etc.; miscel- 
 laneous subjects. 
 
 " On most of these topics the ideas enunciated are crude, fanciful — 
 often, indeed, absurd. Yet, if we compare the attainments necessary for 
 the preparation of such a work with those possessed by the kings, 
 
EDUCATIONAL FORCES IN EUROPE. 181 
 
 nobles, and even the bishops and inferior clergy of his time, we can 
 readily understand why he should have had so exalted a reputation. 
 Of the kings then reigning in Europe, very few were able to read, and 
 still fewer to write. . . . 
 
 '" Schools were attached to the cathedrals and the monasteries, and 
 had been, in many cases, since the latter part of the fourth century; but 
 the children were at this period seldom taught either to read or write. 
 The ability to repeat and chant the Credo, the Pater Nosier, the Ave 
 Maria, and a few Latin hymns, without any idea of their signification, 
 was the extent of their instruction." — Philobiblius' " History of Educa- 
 tion." 
 
 Ancient Irish Schools. — In the sixth and seventh 
 centuries, while learning was at its lowest ebb on the con- 
 tinent, the Irish schools flourished, and were considered 
 the best in Europe. The condition of England in matters 
 educational was much better at this time than that of the 
 continent, but the great English Bede, himself the most dis- 
 tinguished scholar of the time, assures us that nobles and 
 students of lower rank went by hundreds from England to 
 the Irish schools. One great peculiarity of these schools 
 was that, in addition to the usual curriculum of convent 
 schools, they taught a twelve years' course in the Irish 
 language and literature. This is the earliest example in 
 Europe of education in the vernacular. Some of the teach- 
 ers in the Irish schools were laymen. 
 
 Charlemagne. — The first decided move toward a higher 
 intellectual stage on the continent was made by Charle- 
 magne toward the close of the eighth century. In a tour 
 through Italy he fell in with Alcuin, who had been educated 
 at York, England, and who was at that time the head of a 
 school established by the Archbishop of York; and this able 
 and learned man was induced by the great emperor to make 
 his residence at his own court. Charlemagne placed him- 
 self and his entire household under Alcuin's tuition, and not 
 only did they themselves make rapid advancement, but the 
 
1 82 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 example set by the emperor was contagious. The cathedral 
 schools were reopened and improved, the Roman literature 
 was again brought to light, the manuscripts corrected and 
 for the first time punctuated. He issued two addresses to 
 the priesthood, insisting on a higher standard of education 
 among themselves, and more efficient instruction in the 
 schools. Alcuin finally withdrew from the court, on account 
 of age, and then established an excellent school at his Ab- 
 bey of St. Martin of Tours, about the opening of the ninth 
 century. From this educational center other able teachers 
 went out, and had the successors of Charlemagne set equally 
 good examples, there can be little doubt that the permanent 
 revival of learning need not have been postponed; but after 
 his death the good cause was soon abandoned, in spite of 
 the efforts of a few heroic men, and the old order was re- 
 sumed, though some of the effects of the good work lingered 
 on amid the darkness. 
 
 Alfred the Great. — The next great patron of learn- 
 ing to be noted during this epoch was Alfred the Great. 
 In the British Isles, the cloistral schools of York, Canter- 
 bury, Oxford, Cambridge, and of Ireland had been far in 
 advance of most of those on the continent, but the masses 
 were still totally illiterate. The civil disorders which pre- 
 ceded Alfred's reign, together with the Danish invasions, 
 and the consequent destruction of the convents, schools, 
 and libraries, both in England and Ireland, had induced a 
 state of ignorance and wretchedness such as had been 
 theretofore unknown among the subjects of his realm. Up 
 to this time there had been but few books written in the 
 vulgar tongue, and the good king, wisely judging that his 
 people needed books in a language they could understand, 
 translated with his own hand, amid a multitude of other 
 most exacting cares, the works of Eoethius, before referred 
 to, and others; and he induced other scholars to engage in 
 
EDUCATIONAL FORCES IN EUROPE. 183 
 
 similar useful work. He re-established many of the mo- 
 nastic schools, and used every effort in his power to place 
 them in the care of able teachers. 
 
 Religious Orders — But in England, as on the conti- 
 nent, this revival of learning was but transient, and it 
 did not long survive its noble patron; the tenth century 
 in England is regarded as one of the darkest in its intel- 
 lectual history. Among the lights which glimmered in the 
 intellectual darkness of this period, some of the monastic 
 orders should be mentioned. The Benedictine Monks, for 
 example, devoted themselves to the work of instruction, 
 and in the tenth century they did much efficient work. 
 The orders of Chartres and Citeaux, founded near the close 
 of the eleventh century, also did valuable service in the 
 maintaining of the monastic schools. Their labors were 
 most felt in Germany, where, during the tenth and eleventh 
 centuries, many schools of the better class were established 
 and maintained by them. In these schools, in addition to the 
 seven liberal arts of the trivium and quadrivium, painting 
 and poetry and the Greek and Latin literature were taught, 
 and valuable libraries were collected. The cathedral and 
 collegiate schools of Germany during the closing centuries 
 of the middle ages, says " Philobiblius," surpassed the con- 
 ventual in their curriculum of study, and in their freedom 
 in the use of the Latin and Greek authors. But this free- 
 dom was confined to Germany. Elsewhere throughout 
 Christendom the Greek and the Latin of the Augustine 
 Ages were prohibited studies. 
 
 Nor must " The Brethren of the Common Life," organ- 
 ized in Holland about the middle of the fourteenth cen- 
 tury, by Gerard de Groot, for the purpose of teaching and 
 reforming the vicious be forgotten. Thomas a Kempis was 
 one of their pupils at Deventor, and it was doubtless in 
 part to their influence he owed his greatness. In a few 
 
184 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCA'IrON. 
 
 years they had over a hundred schools, and in less than a 
 century they had found their way into most of the cities of 
 northern Europe. 
 
 Some idea of the nature of the discipline in the schools 
 during the latter part of the middle ages may be gained 
 from a glance at the title page of almost any of the text- 
 books of the period. It is adorned with the picture of a 
 schoolmaster, armed with a bundle of rods of no tender 
 growth. The code of the school at Worms, in the latter 
 part of the thirteenth century, runs as follows: "Any pupil 
 whose bones have been broken, or who has been severely 
 wounded by his master, in chastising him, shall have the 
 right of quitting the school without paying the honorarium.'' 
 
 The education of girls received but little attention 
 throughout this epoch. A few schools for the instruc- 
 tion of girls in reading were to be found in the larger 
 cities in the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries; 
 but beyond this female education seems to have received 
 little attention. A writer of the fifteenth century defines 
 the proper education of woman to consist in " knowing how 
 to pray to God, to love man, to knit, and to sew ! " 
 
 The Schoolmen. — During the twelfth and thirteenth 
 centuries there sprang up a new scholastic philosophy, the 
 essence of which lay in subtle quibbles, and in the artful 
 fence of logic. Such profound questions as how many 
 angels could stand on the point of a needle, whether a 
 spirit could pass from one point to another without pass- 
 ing through the intermediate space, etc., etc., were vehe- 
 mently discussed by the ablest thinkers for more than two 
 centuries; and great universities sprang up to champion 
 one side or the other of these wordy wars. Twenty-three 
 such universities are said to have been thus organized, and 
 they were thronged by many thousands of eager students, 
 This is what is known as the era of the schoolmen. 
 
EDUCATIONAL FORCES IN EUROPE. 185 
 
 Yet, though the questions discussed during these fierce 
 contests were, for the most part, utterly impractical, and 
 though their decision added nothing to the material pros- 
 perity of the age, they awakened keen intellectual activ- 
 ity, and thus prepared the way for the more modern 
 revival of learning. 
 
 Mediaeval Universities and Colleges. — The term 
 university, as used in the middle ages and at a later 
 date, was very different from the sense in which we now 
 employ it. It usually consisted of a company of learned 
 men, who gave lectures to vast crowds of students on the 
 various topics of the course of study. Often there was no 
 building, nor any thing else to mark its existence, save the 
 faculty and students. The colleges were originally lodging 
 halls, endowed by the benevolent for the use of students. 
 Those in the colleges were subjected to certain regulations, 
 restraining them from the riotous conduct then so common 
 among students outside, who were known as "students at 
 large." In time, certain tutors and professors attached 
 themselves to the "colleges," for the purpose of giving 
 special instruction to those who required it, and thus the 
 college of our modern times was developed. 
 
 Bacchanten and Schutzen. — In Germany a class of 
 preparatory schools sprang up. It was the custom all over 
 Western Europe for the professors of the various higher 
 institutions to wander from place to place in quest of new 
 ideas or better positions. In time the students began to 
 follow the example of their teachers, and, under the name 
 of Bacchanten, they often wandered for many years from 
 one university town to another, too often leading vagrant 
 and lawless lives, studying a little, but devoting most of 
 their time to the sowing of wild oats. They possessed 
 many exemptions from the laws of the countries through 
 which they wandered at will. They seem to have made the 
 
1 86 history and science of education. 
 
 most of these privileges, and as they sometimes traveled 
 in large companies, they became the terror of the citizens. 
 To make matters worse, it was the evil custom of the times 
 for these wandering vagrants to attach to themselves young 
 boys, whom they professed to teach; but their real object 
 in most cases seems to have been to compel these lads to 
 beg and steal for the support of their merciless masters. 
 The boys thus utilized by the Bacchanten were known as 
 the Schutzen, or A, B, C Shooters, and the autobiography 
 of Thomas Platter, a Swiss, at the beginning of the six- 
 teenth century, gives us a most vivid idea of the wretched 
 life of these poor lads as it was then and had been for many 
 years. 
 
 Thomas became a Schutz at the age of nine. There 
 were eight in the company to which he belonged, three 
 of whom were Schutzen; and these three were obliged to 
 beg and steal for the support of the other five, who often 
 whipped the little fellows most cruelly, requiring them to 
 eat what was left after their own repasts, and to sleep in 
 the filthy straw of the barns, or in the open air, while they 
 themselves lodged at the inns. The party stopped succes- 
 sively at Nuremberg, Dresden, and Breslau, suffering much 
 from hunger on the road, and eating nothing for days but 
 raw onions and salt, or roasted acorns and crabs, and sleep- 
 ing in the open air, since none would take them in, and 
 frequently the dogs were set upon them. At Breslau, 
 he says, there were seven parishes, each with its separate 
 school, supported by alms, no Schutzen being allowed to 
 beg outside of their own parishes. At the schools, Bac- 
 chanten had small rooms with straw beds, but the poor 
 little Schutzen slept on the hearth in winter, and in the 
 heaps of grass in the church-yard during the summer. 
 When it rained, they took refuge in the school-house. 
 There was such "excellent begging "at Breslau that the 
 
EDUCATIONAL FORCES IN EUROPE. 187 
 
 whole party at first were made sick from overeating. The 
 lads were " treated " to such an extent at the beer houses, 
 too, that they were often intoxicated. But the wandering 
 fever soon took possession of the Bacchanten again, in 
 spite of this excellent begging, and they tramped back, 
 first to Dresden and then to Ulm. " Often I was so 
 hungry," says Thomas, " that I drove the dogs in the 
 streets away from their bones, and gnawed them." The 
 Bacchanten now became so cruel that Thomas ran away; 
 and he was often in danger of being recaptured, for his 
 merciless master had no desire to lose so valuable a pro- 
 vider. Finally, after similar experiences with other Bac- 
 chanten, he reached Schlettstadt, where he found " the first 
 school in which things went on well." He had now been 
 a Schutz for nine years, but had not yet been taught to read ! 
 It is a satisfaction to know that in spite of all this waste 
 of time he now not only learned to read, but in time be- 
 came a noted scholar and teacher. Even at that late date, 
 we learn from this biography that there were so few books 
 in use that nine Bacchanten studied together in one room 
 — one reading while the rest made written copies. But the 
 printing-press was just coming into use, and from that day 
 on knowledge was rapidly increased in the earth, and the 
 then necessary evil of teaching wholly by lecturing began 
 to wane. Yet so persistent is the force of custom once 
 established that this relic of the mediaeval ages still sur- 
 vives to some extent, though the necessity for such waste 
 of time and labor passed away with the incoming of the 
 Age of Books. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Retrospect of Chapter V. 
 
 The necessity of educating as well as humanizing the population of 
 the new old world- 
 
t88 history and science of education. 
 
 Other reasons why the study of Latin was revived. Hence grammar 
 and the Latin authors are resurrected. 
 
 The middle course adopted to render the pagan authors less danger- 
 ous — Virgil made to read like a mediaeval monk. 
 
 Latin authors always read by a few; but the general ability to appre- 
 ciate them was wanting, even if it had been thought advisable to use 
 them. 
 
 Statement from the " Revival of Learning " regarding Greek. 
 
 Course of Study in Vogue: (a) The Trivium — grammar, logic 
 and rhetoric, (b) Quadrivium — music, arithmetic, geometry, and as- 
 tronomy, {c) Meagerness of these. 
 
 Text-books: (a) Satira — its nature and scope. (b) The works of 
 Cassiodorus and Isidore — their nature and scope, (c) The works of 
 Boethius, and their high character, (d) The works of Bishop Isidore, 
 and their character. 
 
 The nature of the schools attached to the monasteries. 
 
 The Irish Schools: (a) Thronged by English students. (£) A 
 twelve years' course in the vernacular. 
 
 Charlemagne and his influence on the intellectual activity of his age. 
 
 The influence of the Danish invasion on the English and Irish 
 schools. 
 
 Alfred the Great and his influence on the intellectual life of Great 
 Britain. 
 
 Ecclesiastical Educational Orders and their Good Work: 
 (a) Benedictine Monks, (b) The orders of Chartres and Citeaux, with 
 their work in Germany, (c) The Brotherhood of Common Life, and 
 its work in Holland, etc. 
 
 School discipline in the middle ages. Female education of this epoch. 
 
 The era of schoolmen; its nature and effects. 
 
 The terms "university" and "college," as then employed. 
 
 German preparatory schools. Wandering professors and " Bacchan- 
 ten." 
 
 The Schutzen, or "A, B, C Shooters" — Thomas Platter's account 
 of their pitiable lot. 
 
 The lecture system then necessary for want of books. Ls it neces- 
 sary now ? 
 
 supplementary questions. 
 
 What can you say of Clovis and his influence in shaping ihe new 
 civilization ? The Venerable Bede ? St. Boniface ? St. Patrick ? 
 
EDUCATIONAL FORCES IN EUROPE. , 189 
 
 What were the Crusades, and what was their influence on the civili- 
 zation and education of the middle ages ? 
 
 What can you say of chivalry and its influence on education ? 
 
 Who were the troubadours, and what was their influence on educa- 
 tion and civilization ? 
 
 Contrast Europe at the close of the middle ages with its condition 
 at the opening of that epoch. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE ITALIAN RENASCENCE AND THE REVIVAL OF 
 LEARNING. 
 
 State of Learning at the Close of the Dark Ages. 
 
 — We have reached now the time of the birth of the mod- 
 ern world, the rising of the sun of free intellectual activity, 
 the splendid day-star of the Renascence. It is true that 
 light had been slowly increasing in Europe by fits and 
 starts during the later centuries of the dark ages. The 
 Saracen schools had given out a light brilliant in compar- 
 ison with the surrounding darkness. In the eastern branch 
 of the Roman Empire, founded by Constantine in the 
 fourth century, and lingering on with steadily failing power 
 until Constantinople finally fell into the hands of the Turks 
 in 1453, Greek was still a living tongue, and Greek litera- 
 ture was still studied; an occasional scholar from Constan- 
 tinople brought a gleam of Greek learning to Italy. It is 
 claimed that Greek was taught in the German universities 
 from the twelfth century onward; among Italian scholars 
 mathematics had made considerable progress, using and 
 improving upon the materials derived from the Saracens, 
 who had learned geometry and algebra from the Greeks 
 and Hindoos. Friar Roger Bacon, in England, had even 
 begun scientific investigations, but he was three hundred 
 years ahead of his time. In philosophy, the subtle but 
 barren disputations of the schoolmen showed an immense 
 waste of mental acuteness on the most valueless subjects. 
 The Renascence a Revolution. — The Renascence 
 (190) 
 
THE ITALIAN RENASCENCE. 
 
 I 9 I 
 
 was not merely progress along the old lines — it was revolu- 
 tion. It was the emancipation of thought; it was the re- 
 vival of the lost sense of literary form and artistic beauty; 
 it was an eager thirst for learning, an enthusiasm for fame 
 and literary achievement, kindled by a contact with the two 
 great literatures of the ancient world. During the dark 
 ages the capacity for ideas had become latent. Nothing 
 was of importance but mystical, magical, or ecclesiastical 
 subtleties. " Against this mental misconception, this orig- 
 inal obliquity of vision, this radical lie in the intellect," 
 says Symonds, " the Restorers of learning had to fight at 
 least as energetically as against brute ignorance and dull- 
 ness. To purge the mind of fancy and fable, to prove that 
 poetry, apart from its supposed prophetic meaning, was 
 delightful for its own sake, and that the history of the 
 antique nations, in spite of paganism, could be used for 
 profit and instruction, was the first step to be taken by 
 these leaders of modern progress." 
 
 It must not be understood that the middle ages did 
 nothing for human progress: their great work was to Chris- 
 tianize Europe. That Christian ideas came, during the 
 dark ages, to permeate thoroughly the human mind and 
 human institutions can hardly be said; we could not say 
 that of the most Christian nation of to-day. But the 
 world had taken a long march beyond paganism. The 
 ideas of the priceless worth and dignity of the human soul, 
 and of man's accountability for his fellow-man's spiritual 
 welfare, were deep in the heart and conscience of the 
 mediaeval world. 
 
 Of "the Fatherhood of God and the Brotherhood of 
 Man " they had at least a partial conception. This is 
 strikingly illustrated by the way Strabo and Columbus 
 looked at the same conjecture. Strabo, about the begin- 
 ning of the Christian era, guessed that there might be 
 
192 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 populous islands in the other hemisphere, yet added in- 
 differently: "But these speculations have nothing in com- 
 mon with practical geography, and if these islands exist, 
 they can not support peoples of like origin with us." But 
 in Columbus's soul of fire, after fifteen centuries of the 
 ^ humanizing influences of Christianity, this same conjecture 
 ' ' u awakened a consuming anxiety to reach those possible 
 ~'h<S /' s ' an ds and win their benighted inhabitants to the better 
 " '. life. 
 
 Mission of the Italian Renascence The Renas- 
 cence began in Italy; but the Italian Renascence preceded 
 the English by nearly two hundred years. In its national 
 condition, Italy at this time resembled ancient Greece. 
 It was not a nation — the national idea was coming into 
 being in the other countries of Europe, but Italy, like 
 Greece, was a number of brilliant, ardent, wealthy, inde- 
 pendent cities, in a state of eager rivalry with one another. 
 In these mediaeval republics, birth and rank were of little 
 advantage. The prizes of life fell to men of ability and 
 knowledge. Even the humblest had the utmost possible 
 inducement to make all he could of himself. 
 
 To these eager minds, the dispersion of Greek scholars, 
 consequent on the imperiled condition of the Eastern Em- 
 pire, slowly falling piecemeal into the grasp of its Moslem 
 foes, brought just the mental food they needed. 
 
 There were many forces that worked together to produce 
 the Renascence, but in Italy, at least, the main cause was 
 the recovery and study of the Greek and Latin classics, 
 aided by the ever-present object lessons of the grandeur of 
 Roman architecture and the loveliness of Greek sculpture. 
 Besides, Italy felt herself the heir of Roman greatness. 
 She did not look forward, as she has so successfully done 
 in our day, to a new, united Italy, but back to Rome. To 
 her consciousness in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, 
 
THE ITALIAN RENASCENCE. 193 
 
 her true and only path of national development was in the 
 line of reviving the glory of Rome. 
 
 The Italian Renascence was not so various, in either its 
 causes or its effects, as was the same movement in northern 
 Europe; it had neither the religious nor the nation-making 
 force that it had at the north. The one great mission of 
 the Italian Renascence was to acquire and to transmit to 
 Europe a knowledge of the classics. 
 
 " At the critical momen t when the Eastern Empire was being shattered 
 by the Turks, and when the other European nations were as yet unfit 
 for culture, Italy saved the arts and sciences of Greece and Rome, and 
 interpreted the classics. It is impossible to exaggerate the benefit con- 
 ferred upon Europe by the Italians at this epoch. The culture of the 
 classics had to be reappropriated before the movement of the modern 
 mind could begin; before the nations could start on a new course of pro- 
 gress, the chasm between the old and new world had to be bridged over. 
 This task of reappropriation the Italians undertook and achieved alone. 
 It was effected by long and toilsome study, by the accumulation of manu- 
 scripts, by the acquisition of dead languages, by the solitary labor of 
 grammarians, by the lectures of itinerant professors, by the scribe, by 
 the printing-press, by the self-devotion of magnificent Italy to erudi- 
 tion." — Symonds. 
 
 Dante and the Italian Language Before consider- 
 ing farther the Italian Renascence, let us go back a step to 
 the great poet who forms the connecting link between the 
 mediaeval and the modern world. Dante was born in 1 265 ; 
 he began his Divine Comedy with the fourteenth century; 
 and he is the first great man of the modern, as well as the 
 last great man of the mediaeval world. Besides writing one 
 of the few masterpieces of all time, besides preserving for 
 us in his imperishable pages both the soul and the outer 
 form of the mediaeval world, he created, as one might say, 
 the Italian language. Before him it was supposed that Latin 
 alone was a fit instrument for literary use; but he took 
 13 
 
t 9 4 
 
 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 the despised language of the people, rude, unformed, un- 
 polished, wrote in it his mighty epic, and evolved the 
 musical and majestic Italian tongue. 
 
 In the latter part of the same century another great 
 poet, born and bred in a distant land, but trained by Italian 
 travel and Italian learning, performed the same great ser- 
 vice for his mother tongue. Thus, Chaucer, a true son of 
 the Italian Renascence, almost two centuries before the 
 English Renascence, created out of a barbarous medley of 
 Norman-French and Anglo-Saxon the English language; 
 and when the English Renascence at last came, its poets 
 found this magnificent instrument ready to their hand. 
 
 The Italian Renascence had no religious tendency. It 
 was distinctly worldly in its tone, joyous and tolerant of 
 all opinions. Its professors were so imbued with their 
 classic studies that they had a way of expressing their re- 
 ligious sentiments in the terms of the old mythologies, but 
 the Church well understood that their paganism was only 
 on the surface. As for their morality, the less said the bet- 
 ter; it was that of their race and time, and what that was 
 students of history well know. 
 
 Petrarch, poet and scholar, was the apostle of the Re- 
 nascence, and fired his countrymen with his own burning 
 zeal for the study of the Latin masterpieces. 
 
 Rescue of Ancient Manuscripts. — The first duty of 
 the lovers of the new learning was to discover and rescue 
 the precious manuscripts lying neglected in convent libra- 
 ries. Too often they were found covered with rust and 
 mold, lying in rooms with broken windows and unfastened 
 doors, whatever pages had been blank on one side appro- 
 priated to write psalters on, and their margins clipped off 
 for amulets. 
 
 To find and obtain a copy of some old classic, no journey 
 was too long and perilous, no privation or fatigue was ac- 
 
THE ITALIAN RENASCENCE. 195 
 
 counted worth considering, no price was extravagant. The 
 heaviest disappointment of a scholar's life was when he 
 thought himself about to recover a manuscript of Livy or 
 Tacitus, and failed. 
 
 The so-called universities of the day were like those of 
 Germany, mentioned in Chapter VII., only assemblages of 
 teachers and pupils, without buildings or apparatus, and 
 almost without books. The salaries of the teachers were — 
 to some extent — paid by the city which was the proud pos- 
 sessor of the university; and when the payment was not 
 satisfactory, the university brought the penurious town 
 council to terms by walking off bodily to some rival city. 
 These universities taught chiefly law, theology, and medi- 
 cine. When they came to have a teacher of the classics 
 attached, he was rated lower than the regular faculty. To 
 teach a Latin author to pupils who had no text, no lexi- 
 con, no grammar, no histories or classical dictionaries, the 
 teacher was obliged first to dictate the text to his pupils, 
 then add the whole grammar, the definitions, the prosody, 
 the historical and critical comments, and whatever else 
 might be necessary for its mastery. There were no longer 
 slaves to copy books, as in imperial Rome — all honor to 
 mediaeval Christianity for the fact — and books were exces- 
 sively scarce and dear — about fifty. cents a page, which is 
 about the same as $2.50 a page would be in our time, with 
 the depreciated purchasing power of money. The copyists, 
 too, were ignorant and careless, and their work painfully in 
 need of a proof-reader. 
 
 Introduction of Greek — Against all difficulties the 
 classic learning made its way. For nearly the whole four- 
 teenth century, however, the Latin alone was studied. Fi- 
 nally, in 1396, the republic of Florence invited Chrysoloras, 
 a learned Greek of Constantinople, to take a chair in its 
 university, and paid him a liberal salary. " Thus," says one 
 
196 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 of his pupils, " after being lost for seven centuries, Greek 
 learning returned to Italy." Pupils crowded to his lessons 
 with an enthusiasm that our age can not comprehend. After 
 a surfeit of knowledge for four hundred years, this age can 
 not even guess at the starved eagerness of the Renascence. 
 The student before mentioned gave up his law studies to 
 devote all his time to Greek, reflecting that there were 
 Doctors of Law in every city, but that Chrysoloras was the 
 only competent teacher of Greek in Italy. This student 
 devoted himself to Greek with such ardor that he dreamed 
 all night of what his teacher taught him by day. 
 
 ' ' The scholars who assembled in the lecture rooms of Chrysoloras felt 
 that the Greek texts of which he alone supplied the key contained those 
 elements of spiritual freedom and intellectual culture without which the 
 civilization of the modern world would be impossible, nor were they 
 mistaken in what was then a guess rather than a certainty. The study 
 of Greek implied the birth of criticism, comparison, research. It opened 
 philosophical horizons far beyond the dream-world of the churchmen 
 and the monks, it stimulated the germs of science, suggested new astro- 
 nomical hypotheses, and indirectly led to the discovery of America." — 
 Symonds. 
 
 In spite of this honorable example of the University of 
 Florence, the universities generally did not receive the new 
 learning with any great cordiality. The "humanist" pro- 
 fessor, as he was called, held a less permanent position and 
 received a lower salary than the regular faculty of law, 
 theology, and medicine. 
 
 It is curious to reflect that there ever was a time when 
 the classics were an innovation, and were frowned upon by 
 the conservative devotees of practical studies. But the 
 classics have turned the tables since then with a vengeance; 
 and it is equally curious to reflect that from the revival of 
 learning down to within the memory of men still living, 
 Greek and Latin were the end and aim of education, and 
 
THE ITALIAN RENASCENCE. I97 
 
 the study of English and the physical sciences was frowned 
 upon by the conservatives as an innovation ! How far the 
 force of intellectual inertia may now carry the swinging 
 pendulum to the opposite side remains to be seen. 
 
 The Revival of Learning developed not so much in the 
 old universities as in the courts of liberal and accomplished 
 princes, who were themselves among its most eager and suc- 
 cessful students. The nobles of France and England, at 
 this same time, could scarcely write their names. 
 
 For another century the great work of scholarship went 
 on. In the middle of the fifteenth century, so high had 
 the esteem for classic learning risen that one of its leading 
 professors was chosen Pope. He began the magnificent 
 Vatican library, still the richest depository in the world of 
 classic manuscripts, making what was then a noble collec- 
 tion of five thousand volumes. Before the close of the 
 century, another Italian, revolving in his mind, with the 
 fiery imagination of the Renascence, vague hints and theo- 
 ries of the classic writers, had come to the fixed conclusion 
 that " the merry world was round," had sailed on his ad- 
 venturous voyage, and had discovered the most momen- 
 tous secret of the earth — the New World — 
 " Hid of old time in the west.'' 
 
 Before the close of this century, too, the great inven- 
 tion of printing had multiplied infinitely the means and 
 the opportunities of scholarship. All things were ready 
 for the sixteenth century, with its revival of learning all 
 over Europe, with its dawn of scientific research, and with 
 
 its poetry : 
 
 ' Those melodious bursts which fill 
 The spacious times of great Elizabeth 
 With sounds that echo still." 
 
 The Renascence and the Fine Arts Meanwhile, 
 
 what, aside from its great mission of recovering and trans- 
 
198 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 mitting classic learning, had the Italian Renascence accom- 
 plished ? It produced no great original literature, as in 
 Spain and England. Petrarch was its first and best poet, 
 and he was far below Dante. Literary capacity was over- 
 weighted with scholarship, and declined into mere correct- 
 ness and elegance of manner. In the fifteenth century, the 
 language " created by Dante as a thing of power, polished 
 by Petrarch as a thing of beauty, trained by Boccaccio as 
 the instrument of melodious prose," was abandoned for 
 literary purposes, and the greatest ambition of every au- 
 thor was to write Latin and Greek with classic purity and 
 elegance. 
 
 The great original achievement of the men of the Italian 
 Renascence was in the fine arts. In decorative art of all 
 kinds, in architecture, in sculpture, they showed their 
 splendid genius; but it is in the art of painting that they 
 won their special preeminence, and stand unrivaled and 
 unapproached. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER VII. 
 
 The Dawn of the Renascence: {a) The gloom of the "Dark 
 Ages" becomes less dense, {b) Light from the Saracen schools, (c) 
 Learning preserved in the Eastern Empire, (d) Mathematical progress 
 in Italy. (<?) Friar Roger Bacon, (f) The scholastic philosophy. 
 
 The Renascence not merely a Growth, but a Revolution: («) 
 What the restorers of learning had to contend against, (i) The mission 
 of the middle ages, (c) Progress of Christianity illustrated by the views 
 of Strabo and Columbus. 
 
 The Italian Renascence: (a) Political state of Mediaeval Italy. 
 (b) The immigration of Greek scholars. (<:) Object lessons in ancient 
 art. (d) Italy the heir of Rome, (e) Her mission to save and trans- 
 mit ancient learning, (f) Dante and Chaucer, (g) Italian Renascence 
 had no religious tendency. (A) Petrarch. (i) The rescue of ancient 
 manuscripts, (j) The migratory universities, {k) Teaching without 
 books. (/) Scarcity and cxpensiveness of books, (m) Chrysoloras. (n) 
 Conservative opposition of the universities, (o) The courts of learned 
 
THE ITALIAN RENASCENCE. 
 
 199 
 
 princes, (p) The Vatican library, (q) Columbus, (r) The invention 
 of printing, (s) Aside from erudition, the achievements of the Italian 
 Renascence were not in the line of literature, but in that of art. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. 
 
 What can you say about palimpsests ? 
 
 What can you say of the Vatican library of the present time ? 
 
 What is the subject of Dante's Divine Comedy? 
 
 How can you show from this work that Dante, in the beginning of 
 the fourteenth century, had correct notions of the shape of the earth, 
 and of terrestrial gravity? (See " Inferno," canto 34.) 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE ENGLISH RENASCENCE AND THE EDUCATIONAL 
 PROGRESS OF EUROPE IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Summary of the Sources of Modern Civilization 
 
 It may be said that the causes which led to the evolution of 
 modern civilization were all in operation by the dawn of the 
 sixteenth century. They may, perhaps, be reckoned as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 i. The general Christianization of Europe. 
 
 2. The Crusades, which subjected a large proportion of 
 the population to the broadening and enlightening influ- 
 ences of travel, and brought back to Europe much of the 
 knowledge and culture of the East. 
 
 3. The invention of the mariner's compass, with the con- 
 sequent discovery of the water route to India, and of the 
 New World. 
 
 4. The breaking down of feudalism, with its oppressions. 
 It was in England alone, however, that this beneficent 
 change had been fully accomplished, though the system 
 everywhere showed signs of decay. In France it lingered 
 until it disappeared in the great explosion of the French 
 Revolution one hundred years ago. 
 
 5. The rise of the nations of modern Europe, and the 
 breaking up of the old state of things, wherein everything 
 was controlled by the two central powers— the Church and 
 the Empire. 
 
 6. The invention of gunpowder. Gunpowder is a great 
 equalizer: it made one man as good as another for fighting 
 
 (200) 
 
THE ENGLISH RENASCENCE. 201 
 
 purposes, and forever destroyed the ascendency of the 
 robber barons, whose stone castles and steel armor had 
 enabled them to lord it at will over the community. 
 
 7. The rise of the great commercial cities, which accumu- 
 lated wealth, and afforded centers of refinement and edu- 
 cation. 
 
 8. The revival of the study of the classics. 
 
 9. The progress of the vernaculars of Europe to the 
 status of written languages. At the beginning of the six- 
 teenth century Latin was still the language of the learned 
 world, but the vernaculars also had acquired the dignity of 
 written tongues. Besides the poems of Dante and Petrarch 
 and the prose of Boccaccio in Italy; the poems of Chaucer, 
 and Wycliffe's translation of the Bible in England, there 
 had been works of less dignity composed in the popular 
 languages for the popular ear — such as the poems of the 
 troubadours and trouveres in Provence and France, of 
 the Minnesingers in Germany, of the minstrels and ballad 
 makers in Great Britain. The great mediaeval epic of the 
 Nibelungen Lied in German and Norse, the Icelandic Ed- 
 das, and the cycles of Romance legends clustered around 
 the names of King Arthur and Charlemagne, must also be 
 named in this connection. So that, upon the whole, the 
 way was well prepared for the general use of modern lan- 
 guages for literary purposes in the sixteenth century. 
 
 10. The invention of printing. 
 
 In the time of the Renascence, or just preceding it, the 
 great nations of Europe * each contributed some special 
 gift to the foundations of modern civilization, as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 Italy. — Classic learning and the fine arts. 
 
 Holland and Germany. — The invention of printing. 
 
 *»Europe, in these chapters, is commonly used in its historical sense, which did 
 not until quite recent times include Russia. 
 
202 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Portugal. — The discovery of the ocean route to the East 
 Indies. 
 
 Spain. — The discovery of America. 
 
 England.— The Elizabethan drama and inductive philos- 
 ophy. 
 
 France. — The first great prose literature of modern 
 Europe. 
 
 Poland.— In the person of her great son, Copernicus, 
 proved to the world the marvelous truth that the sun, and 
 not the earth, is the center of our system. 
 
 It must not be understood that the particular nation to 
 which each of these discoveries, etc., is assigned enjoyed 
 in all cases a monopoly of its contribution. The revival 
 of learning, for example, was common to Europe, but 
 Italy took the lead. Spain, also, developed a national 
 drama, inferior to the English, but still of brilliant quality 
 and great extent. 
 
 There was one momentous change in matters educational 
 which came to pass in many of the states of the north of 
 Europe — the general attempt made to teach the lower 
 classes to read and write. Schools for all the children of 
 the community began to be established in these countries. 
 
 Having thus summed up some of the causes and the 
 benefits of the Renascence, it may be well to inquire what 
 were its gifts to the future; what living seeds did it implant, 
 to spring up and bear fruit in our own age ? 
 
 These may be accounted two: freedom of thought and 
 the spirit of scientific research. It may be said that the 
 causes of all that makes our lot so superior to that of our 
 ancestors may be found in these two sources, together with 
 the ever-extending leaven of Christianity. 
 
 Before the close of the fifteenth century, Italian scholars 
 were lamenting that learning had already left Italy and 
 fled beyond the Alps to Germany. 
 
THE ENGLISH RENASCENCE. 203 
 
 The Invention of Printing. — The middle of this 
 century saw the great invention which was to make 
 learning and literature the possession of the many in- 
 stead of the few. Long before this time, books had been 
 made by cutting a page, both pictures and words, on a 
 block of wood, and printing impressions therefrom. Copies 
 of such " block -books " are still extant. This was really a 
 kind of rude wood-engraving, but the invention was never 
 extensively used. 
 
 What man or nation can claim the honor of making the 
 great advance to movable types has been long in dispute, 
 but the latest edition of the Encyclopasdia Britannica, after 
 an exhaustive examination of the evidence, decides that 
 printing was invented by Laurens Coster, in Harlem, Hol- 
 land, about the year 1445; that it was carried to Mayence 
 (Mainz), Germany, by his apprentice, Gutenberg, in 1450, 
 was there much improved, and was then speedily introduced 
 into all the leading cities of Europe. The oldest specimens 
 of printing extant are two copies of an indulgence, granted 
 by Pope Nicholas V. in behalf of the kingdom of Cyprus, 
 printed at Mayence in the year 1454. 
 
 Tradition says that wooden types strung on threads were 
 first used; but whether this be true or not, the use of metal 
 types was very early introduced. At first every apprentice 
 of the new art, when he mastered his trade and went to 
 some other town to practice it, carried with him no type or 
 molds, but made his own molds and cast his own type, 
 in imitation of the handwriting he was to copy. It is said 
 that Italic type originated by copying Petrarch's handwrit- 
 ing. In order to need only a small font of type, it was 
 customary to print but one page at a time, though by the 
 year 1477 the art of printing was generally diffused 
 throughout Europe. The most famous of the early print- 
 ers, both for elegant workmanship and for their profound 
 
204 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 interest in the spread of learning, were the Aldi, in Venice, 
 and the Caxtons, in England. " In the last thirty years of 
 the fifteenth century, ten thousand editions of books and 
 pamphlets are said to have been published throughout 
 Europe — the most important half of them in Italy — and all 
 the Latin authors were accessible to every student before 
 it closed. Almost all the more valuable authors of Greece 
 were published in the first twenty years of the century 
 which followed." 
 
 The English Renascence The light of the new 
 
 learning was now spreading fast beyond the Alps. Eng- 
 land possessed what might be called, compared with the 
 state of the rest of Europe, freedom, stable government, 
 and peace. It was in England, therefore, that the northern 
 Renascence reached its fullest development. 
 
 In the fourteenth century England had seemed, as be- 
 fore indicated, to be starting out on a great development 
 of literature and learning. Not to dwell further upon the 
 glorious dawn of poetry in Chaucer, to translate the entire 
 Bible from the Vulgate into the vernacular, as Wycliffe did, 
 was a stupendous feat, both of learning and literary ability, 
 for that age; bat the Hundred Years' War put an end to 
 all these fair prospects. At the dawn of the sixteenth 
 century, although England possessed her two famous old 
 universities, as well as a number of schools of lower rank, 
 such as Eton and Winchester, yet the learning taught in 
 them was as lifeless and meager as that of Italy in the 
 thirteenth century. Then Grocyn, a fellow of Oxford, 
 went to Italy, studied Greek, and returned to Oxford to 
 teach it. His example was followed by Linacre and Colet, 
 and before 1520 Oxford was full of the new learning. 
 The young Erasmus, destined to be one of the great schol- 
 ars and educational reformers of the century, had gone 
 from his native Holland to Paris, hoping to reach Italy and 
 
THE ENGLISH RENASCENCE. 205 
 
 study Greek; but despairing of reaching Italy, he went to 
 Oxford, as the only other place where the learning he so 
 longed for could be gained. He " had given up his whole 
 soul to Greek learning." He learned Greek, wrote new 
 grammars embodying a more rational system of instruction 
 in the classics, and became a teacher at Cambridge. To 
 the old scholastic curriculum of the university had now 
 been added mathematics, Aristotle in his original form 
 instead of his mediaeval travesties, and Greek literature; 
 and students came in crowds. Says an eye witness: "The 
 students rush to Greek letters; they endure watching, fast- 
 ing, toil, and hunger in the pursuit of them." 
 
 There were conservatives, of course, who opposed the 
 new learning; and Henry VIII. sent for a Cambridge 
 preacher and rebuked him for the intemperate zeal with 
 which he preached against it. At Oxford the students had 
 actual fights over it, in which the combatants styled them- 
 selves Greeks or Trojans, according as they were for or 
 against the Greek learning. But the struggle was soon 
 over; the new learning triumphed on every hand, and 
 new schools sprang into being every day. More grammar 
 schools were founded within a few years than in the three 
 preceding centuries. Even so obscure a town as Stratford- 
 upon-Avon had one of these institutions, where Shake- 
 speare gained that " little Latin and less Greek " for which 
 the scholarly Ben Jonson felt a contempt like that of an 
 Eastern university of to-day for a backwoods college — yet 
 the backwoods college sometimes turns out great men, not- 
 withstanding. 
 
 But the founding of new schools, the study of Greek, 
 improved methods of instruction — these in themselves are 
 small things after all. The great thing was the wonderful 
 awakening of mental life which followed "the burst of the 
 two great classic literatures upon the world." "For the 
 
206 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 first time," says Taine, " men opened their eyes and saw." 
 They saw life, and reproduced it in the most splendid dra- 
 matic literature of the world; they saw nature, and began 
 to study it; ay, and one man at least saw the future. In 
 Sir Thomas More's "Utopia,"* he anticipates the modern 
 world. He deals with the labor question, which men have 
 yet been able to settle only in Utopia; he dreams of the 
 reform of criminal law, of cities built in accord with sani- 
 tary laws, of universal free education, of perfect religious 
 toleration — and the modern world is living out his dreams. 
 
 Educated Women. — Another evidence of the emanci- 
 pation of thought and enthusiasm of learning in this age 
 is the number of highly educated women we find. Court 
 beauties who, two hundred years later, were considered 
 all-accomplished if they could "spell well," were now dili- 
 gent and successful students of Latin and Greek. Lady 
 Jane Gra}', of tragic fate, at the age of sixteen could not 
 only read, but speak and write, Latin and Greek, besides 
 French and Italian. Queen Elizabeth, as is well known, 
 was an accomplished Greek and Latin scholar, while both 
 Mary of England and Mary of Scotland had a good knowl- 
 edge of Latin. In the Italian universities, with their ex- 
 tremely high standard of classic scholarship, lady profes- 
 sors were not uncommon. The University of Ferrara 
 appointed Olympia Norata a lecturer on the classics at the 
 age of sixteen. The same lady afterward translated the 
 Psalms into Greek verse. 
 
 Bacon and Modern Science. — One more person, rep- 
 resenting a special tendency of this age and exerting an 
 immeasurable influence upon our own, must be named — 
 Francis Bacon, styled the father of inductive philosophy 
 and of modern science. It is sometimes asked why, as 
 
 * An imaginary country called Utopia — *'. 
 
THE ENGLISH RENASCENCE. 
 
 207 
 
 Bacon made no scientific discoveries himself, and as the 
 particular form of induction developed in the Novum Or- 
 ganum, which seemed to him an infallible instrument for 
 the discovery of truth, has never, in fact, been used, nor 
 is it capable of practical use. Yet, after all, the popular 
 instinct that makes him the spiritual father of science is 
 true. The actual work has been done by specialists, by 
 men of less imperial powers than his, but who concentrated 
 their abilities on some one point of the vast field. If the 
 instrument that he devised for the investigation of nature 
 shows that he knew too little of nature to rightly formulate 
 the method of its study, yet the inspiration of scientific 
 study comes from him. The true object of philosophy, he 
 taught, is to increase our knowledge or to add to our power. 
 The systems of the schoolmen did little of either. Let the 
 wise men of the earth strive to gain knowledge which will 
 help their fellow-men; let man, the thinker, aid man, the 
 laborer; let him investigate the secrets of nature that he 
 may wield her powers; let him seek learning, not to satisfy 
 curiosity, or to win reputation, or to acquire wealth, but as 
 " a rich store-house, for the glory of the Creator and the 
 relief of man's estate." This, then, is Bacon's glory: that 
 in an age when the learned world thought learning meant 
 Latin and Greek, he, the wisest, broadest, most comprehen- 
 sive intellect of his time, pointed out as the true field of 
 study that which should subject the powers of nature to 
 man's use. The power-loom, the sewing-machine, the self- 
 binder, the steam-engine, the locomotive, the telegraph, and 
 the telephone — these are but a few of the alleviations of 
 labor and of the life of our common humanity that have 
 been found in the path he pointed out. 
 
 Elizabethan Literature. —Before we leave the subject 
 of the general educational influences of the English Renas- 
 cence, a few lines must be given to the Elizabethan litera- 
 
208 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 ture. Thus far the progress of education has seemed to be 
 inseparable from that of literature; but beyond this period, 
 as education becomes a science by itself, we shall consider 
 literature no more. 
 
 It was not the letter that killeth, but the spirit that 
 maketh alive, that English authors caught from the revival 
 of learning. Their poetry has in it the note of splendid 
 and triumphant achievement of that age that had not only 
 rediscovered 
 
 " The glory that was Greece and the grandeur that was Rome,'' 
 
 but had discovered the virgin world of the West, teeming 
 with wealth, and still more with romantic possibilities; of 
 the people who had conquered the Invincible Armada, and 
 saw in all Europe no power that they should fear. 
 
 Great poems have been written in the English language 
 since that day, but none so full of the joy of existence, none 
 with the spontaneous fire and fervor, none with the inde- 
 scribable richness, sweetness, and ringing melody of rhythm. 
 
 The very highest point of literary achievement is the 
 development of a great national drama. But twice in the 
 history of the world has this consummate flower of poetry 
 and national life bloomed in its perfection — once in the 
 Athens of Pericles, and once in the England of Elizabeth. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Summary of ten causes which led to the development of modern civil- 
 ization. 
 
 Special contributions of different nations of Europe to the glory of 
 the Renascence. 
 
 The revival of learning common to Europe. — Two germs of growth 
 implanted in the future. 
 
 The Invention of Printing: (a) Who was the inventor, Coster 
 or Gutenberg? (i) Earliest specimens of printing extant. (V) Every 
 printer his own type-founder, (d) Imitation of handwriting, (e) Print- 
 
THE ENGLISH RENASCENCE. 
 
 209 
 
 Ing one page at a time, (f) The Aldi and Caxtons. (g) Progress in 
 printing the Latin and Greek authors before 1520. 
 
 The English Renascence: (a) Comparatively peaceful state of 
 England, (i) Chaucer and Wycliffe. {c) Introduction of Greek learn- 
 ing from Italy, (d) Grocyn, Colet, Linacre, Erasmus, (e) Enthusiasm 
 of students. (/) Opposition, (g) New grammar schools, (h) New 
 life of the age. (i) More's " Utopia." (j) Learned ladies, (k) Bacon 
 and the inductive philosophy. (/) Elizabethan literature. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. 
 
 What effect did the invention of printing have on spelling ? What 
 on the price of books ? How did it encourage authorship 1 What is 
 the earliest great poem of the Elizabethan period, and who is its au- 
 thor? Whom does the " Faerie Queene " there described represent ? 
 
 Why was the drama more of an educational force in that day than in 
 our own ? What subject were many of Shakespeare's plays especially 
 adapted to teach ? Who was Ben Jonson, and for what is he famous ? 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 EDUCATIONAL REFORMERS. 
 
 In the general intellectual eagerness and activity of the 
 Renascence attempts at reforming the old methods of in- 
 struction were to be expected. Accordingly, from the six- 
 teenth century on, we find a succession of writers and 
 teachers who lay down for the guidance of the profession 
 more excellent methods of teaching. For hundreds of 
 years there is a succession of these voices crying in the 
 wilderness of dreary rote-teaching of unexplained Latin 
 grammar, pleading for more sensible methods of instruc- 
 tion in the classics, and later for a wider range of educa- 
 tion. Small effect they had in their own time on the gen- 
 erality of schools, but in our age their ideas have begun to 
 bring forth fruit. " Other men labored and we are entered 
 into their labors." There is little in the latest educational 
 theories — in the much-vaunted " Quincy Methods," for in- 
 stance — whose germs may not be found in the writings of 
 these old-time reformers. 
 
 The Jesuit Schools.— Before considering the history 
 and theories of individual reformers, let us glance at the 
 one systematic and thoroughly organized, wide-spread sys- 
 tem of schools which was known to the seventeenth and 
 eighteenth centuries — that of the Jesuits. By virtue of 
 their compact organization and thorough supervision, what- 
 ever of excellence there was in one of their schools was 
 shared by all. When the Society of Jesus was first formally 
 recognized by a Bull of Paul III., in 1540, the education of 
 (210) 
 
EDUCATIONAL REFORMERS. 211 
 
 boys was assigned as one of its special objects. From vari- 
 ous Popes it obtained powers for founding schools and 
 colleges, for granting degrees, and for lecturing publicly 
 at universities. 
 
 In 1584, the General of the Order appointed a school com- 
 mission consisting of distinguished Jesuits from the various 
 countries in Europe. This commission was in session at 
 Rome for almost a year, and it drew up the code of gov- 
 ernment and course of instruction by which the Jesuit 
 schools have ever since been controlled. This code and 
 course of study were never even revised until the present 
 century. 
 
 A Jesuit went through an eighteen years' course of study 
 and training before he was admitted to full membership. 
 From four to six of these preparatory years were spent in 
 teaching primary classes. The teacher began with the low- 
 est class and went up the school with it. Certain classes, 
 however, were instructed by professed members, who taught 
 the same grade year after year. Pupils were not received 
 younger than fourteen years, nor older than twenty-four. 
 Instruction was gratuitous, but those who were able paid the 
 cost of their board. There were five classes (later increased 
 to eight), one year each being assigned to the four lower 
 grades, and two years to the highest grade. The school 
 hours were remarkably short for that time — two and a half 
 hours in the forenoon and the same in the afternoon, with a 
 full holiday each week. 
 
 To teach by repetition was a leading principle. The mas- 
 ter, when he assigned a lesson for the next day, went over 
 the whole with the class, teaching it to them. The next 
 day they recited— wrote translations, construed, parsed, etc. 
 Reviews were incessant, one day each week being devoted to 
 this purpose. There was a grand final review and examin- 
 ation at the close of each term, and finally, in the three lower 
 
212 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 classes, the latter half of each year was devoted to a review 
 of the studies of the preceding half. Exceptionally bright 
 pupils could thus take this lower course in a year and a half. 
 
 Great pains were taken not to weary or overtask the 
 pupils. Thoroughness was insisted upon, but the lessons 
 were very short — in the lower grades, only four lines of a 
 Latin author per day. The discipline was gentle, the rod 
 being reserved for the most extreme cases — all of which is 
 in happy contrast to the brutality of mediaeval schools, and 
 even of English ones down to a very recent date. The 
 teachers were enjoined to win the love of their scholars, 
 and to watch carefully over their health. 
 
 Great use was made of the principle of emulation, each 
 pupil having a professional rival appointed him. Prizes, 
 medals, and rewards of all kinds were lavishly offered. 
 Each class was separated into divisions called Rome and 
 Carthage, which held periodical contests with each other. 
 
 Mr. Quick, from whose admirable work this account is 
 mainly condensed, querying as to the cause of the great 
 success and popularity of the Jesuit schools, thinks that 
 one chief reason may have been that they worked to a defi- 
 nite end — they had just so much to do, and they were then 
 through — unlike English grammar schools, where there is 
 no special limit. It will be noticed that in this respect, as 
 in many others, the Jesuit schools resembled our American 
 graded school. The principle of emulation, for instance, 
 is strongly appealed to by our system of ranking according 
 to averages; our hours of school and methods of discipline 
 are much the same; the frequent reviews are another point 
 of resemblance; while the arrangement of classes is like 
 that in such of our schools as use half-yearly grades — with 
 this difference: with us it is the exception, not the rule, 
 for a pupil to take each grade twice. The thorough super- 
 vision of the teachers, and the strict adherence to system 
 
EDUCATIONAL REFORMERS. 
 
 213 
 
 and uniformity in class work, were also like our schools, 
 and strikingly unlike the English. The results sought and 
 obtained must also have resembled those of a graded school 
 • — viz.: the bringing of all the pupils, by persistent drill, to 
 a uniform standard of acquirement. 
 
 In the practice of espionage, elevated into a system in 
 these schools, it is to be hoped our schools have no share. 
 In the age of the pupils taught, and in the course of study 
 pursued, the Jesuit schools differed widely from ours. 
 
 The course of study, aside from the characteristic theo- 
 logical and ethical training of the Jesuits, was almost ex- 
 clusively Latin, some Greek, and a very little mathematics 
 taught in the higher grades. The pupils were required to 
 converse in Latin as far as possible. Reading and writing 
 the vernacular was not permitted to be taught except by 
 special permission of the Provincial, an officer next in rank 
 to the General of the Order. It is likely, however, that 
 the pupils, at the age at which they were admitted, were 
 supposed already to have acquired this knowledge. 
 
 The aim of the Jesuit schools was not to cultivate judg- 
 ment or independent thought — the latter, indeed, they 
 aimed to suppress. Neither was it their design to furnish 
 their pupils with scientific or practical knowledge. They 
 trained principally the verbal memory and dialectical readi- 
 ness; they aimed merely to make brilliant Latinists and 
 fluent rhetoricians. But, such as these schools were, they 
 were long the most flourishing and popular, and, in some 
 respects, the best in Europe. The wisdom of the council 
 that elaborated a system in many respects so excellent, 
 and so far in advance of its age, commands our admira- 
 tion. The great fault of the system was that it failed to 
 advance with the age, and its once vigorous life became 
 fossilized. 
 
 Let us now consider some of the more prominent Edu- 
 
214 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 cational Reformers, from the Renascence down to our own 
 times. 
 
 From the first introduction of the New Learning into 
 Northern Europe, efforts were made to improve the methods 
 of instruction in the classics. Liby, Colet, and Erasmus 
 wrote improved grammars, while Cardinal Wolsey recom- 
 mended sensible methods. Ascham's " Scholemaster," the 
 first work on pedagogics in the English language, recom- 
 mended teaching Latin and Greek by translating the classic 
 author first into English, then back into his own language. 
 This method ought to have become fashionable, as Queen 
 Elizabeth acquired her much admired scholarship under 
 Ascham's teaching. Many were the teachers, writers, and 
 thinkers who labored to introduce rational methods into 
 Latin teaching, but without affecting the schools in general. 
 The method in vogue even down to our own century — 
 wearisome and mechanical to the last degree, consisting 
 largely of repetitions of grammatical rules, themselves writ- 
 ten in Latin — may best be appreciated by reading the vivid 
 descriptions in Erckmann-Chatrian's " College Life of 
 Maitre Nablot." 
 
 Scientific Discoveries. — But while the Jesuits and all 
 the other teachers of Europe were concerned only as to how 
 they might best teach the classics, great thinkers in the 
 different countries of Europe were making those brilliant 
 discoveries which constitute the beginnings of modern 
 science. Copernicus's great discovery of the true relations 
 of the sun, moon, and earth has already been mentioned. 
 Three great men carried on his work. Galileo, in Italy, 
 invented the refracting telescope, the same in principle as 
 the magnificent instrument recently made for the Lick Ob- 
 servatory. By its aid he discovered the satellites of Jupiter 
 and the spots on the sun, showing its rotation on its axis, 
 and confirming the theory of Copernicus. Tycho Brahe, 
 
EDUCATIONAL REFORMERS. 
 
 "5 
 
 the Dane, spent his life in the observation of the heavenly 
 bodies. He seems to have been a great observer rather 
 than a great reasoner, but associated with him was Kepler, 
 the German, who was a reasoner indeed. He discovered 
 that the planets move around the sun in ellipses, not in cir- 
 cles, and demonstrated the three laws of planetary motion 
 which have ever since been known by his name. He also 
 almost discovered the law of universal gravitation, a dis- 
 covery which, fifty years later, became the crowning glory 
 of Sir Isaac Newton's splendid contributions to science. 
 Nor was it in astronomy alone that great advances were 
 made. Galileo discovered the laws of the pendulum's vi- 
 bration, and the true laws of falling bodies, after Aristotle's 
 fallacious ones had been accepted without question for 
 nearly two thousand years; he partly understood atmos- 
 pheric pressure, and he invented a thermometer. Napier, 
 a Scotchman, gave to the world his great invention of log- 
 arithms, by which the profound mathematical calculations 
 of modern astronomy and physics became possible. The 
 English biologist, Dr. Harvey, made the first great physio- 
 logical discovery since the times of the ancients. He found 
 out the true course of the double circulation of the blood, 
 the office of the heart, and, in fact, all that we now know 
 on this subject, except about the capillaries. He even 
 
 • inferred their existence, but could not actually find them, 
 for lack of the compound microscope, not yet invented. 
 
 j The Innovators — With all this burst of scientific en- 
 lightenment, not to speak of the daily growing knowledge 
 of geography brought back from distant lands and seas by 
 explorers and adventurers, it is not strange that it began to 
 occur to some advanced men that the modern world had 
 something to learn besides Latin and Greek. Hence arose 
 the class of educational reformers whom Raumer, the Ger- 
 man historian of education, calls the Innovators. 
 
216 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 According to Mr. Quick, the chief demands of the In- 
 novators have been in substance: ist, that the study of 
 things should precede or be united with the study of words; 
 2d, that knowledge should be communicated, where possi- 
 ble, by appeals to the senses; 3d, that all linguistic study 
 should begin with that of the mother tongue; 4th, that 
 Latin and Greek should be taught to such pupils only as 
 would be likely to complete a learned education; 5th, that 
 physical education should be attended to in all classes of 
 society for the sake of health, not simply with a view to 
 gentlemanly accomplishments; 6th, that a new method of 
 teaching, framed "according to nature," should be adopted. 
 
 Their notions of method have, of course, been very 
 various, but their systems mostly agree in the following 
 particulars: (1) They proceed from the concrete to the 
 abstract, giving some knowledge of the thing itself before 
 the rules which refer to it. (2) They employ the student 
 in analyzing matter put before him, rather than in pro- 
 ceeding systematically according to rule. (3) They require 
 the student to teach Jmtiself under the supervision of the 
 master, rather than to be taught by the master, or receive 
 anything upon his authority. (4) They rely on the interest 
 excited in the pupil by the acquisition of knowledge, rather 
 than on coercion. (5) Only that which is understood should 
 be committed to memory. 
 
 Montaigne. — Montaigne may be considered one of the 
 first Innovators. It may seem hardly fair to reckon a mere 
 gentleman of leisure and essayist among those strenuous 
 souls " of whom the world was not worthy," who have de- 
 voted themselves with unsparing enthusiasm to the work 
 of educational reform. But this is the usual order of pro- 
 gress. There comes at last the man of action, of convic- 
 victions, of fanaticism, perhaps, who forces the world to 
 consider, to combat, and finally to accept the ideas which 
 
EDUCATIONAL REFORMERS. 
 
 217 
 
 many thinkers and writers before him have formulated 
 and elaborated. Montaigne stands indubitably in the 
 order of intellectual succession, and is as much the pre- 
 cursor of Rousseau as the latter is of Pestalozzi and Froe- 
 bel. He would discard grammatical teaching in language, 
 as was done in his own case; would have the child study 
 things rather than words; would try to teach him to 
 think, to find things out for himself, to educate himself. 
 He would also pay great attention to physical train- 
 ing. 
 
 Ratich. — In the early years of the seventeenth century 
 there was a man named Ratich traveling through Europe, 
 offering to sell to princes and universities the secret of an 
 educational method whereby any one, young or old, might 
 learn with ease and in a very short time any tongue, dead 
 or living He was also willing to found a school, wherein 
 all the arts and sciences might be rapidly learned and ad- 
 vanced. He also heid himself ready to take a contract to 
 introduce and peacefully maintain throughout Europe a 
 uniform speech, government, and religion! Archimedes's 
 offer to move the world if anybody would supply the ful- 
 crum, was a mere bagatelle compared to what Ratich pro- 
 posed to accomplish. 
 
 He seems, however, though eccentric, not to have been 
 a mere impostor. His honesty is shown by his refusal 
 of Prince Maurice's offer to engage him, and pay the 
 expenses of his school, provided he would confine himself 
 to teaching Latin. Many great and wise men were im- 
 pressed by his arguments. Helvicus declared that Ratich 
 was right — we should study our own language and the 
 sciences, instead of confining ourselves to Latin. The 
 town of Augsburg employed him to reform its schools; 
 two princes afterward united to give him a school of his 
 pwn ? with everything he wanted in the way of apparatus, 
 
218 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 etc. Neither of these experiments succeeded. Once more 
 it was shown that there is no royal road to learning. His 
 system was not practical, but in some of his theories he 
 largely anticipated later reformers. Among his maxims 
 were: "Everything after the order and course of nature; 
 one thing at a time; one thing again and again repeated; 
 nothing shall be learned by heart; knowledge of the thing 
 itself must be given before that which refers to the thing; 
 everything by experiment and analysis; the rod should 
 never be used to enforce learning, but to correct offenses 
 against morals only." 
 
 Milton The renowned name of John Milton is en- 
 rolled on the list of pedagogues. He not only taught, but 
 wrote a famous tract on Education. But the course of 
 study he lays down is adapted only to the needs of intel- 
 lectual giants, and need not detain us, save to remark that it 
 was as full and complete on the practical as on the literary 
 side. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Small effect of the labors of the early reformers on the generality of 
 schools in their own time. 
 
 The Jesuit Schools: (a) Only organized system of their time. (b) 
 The School Commission of 1584. (c) The Jesuit teachers, (d) Age of 
 pupils — gratuitous instruction. (e) Grades and school hours. {/) 
 Teaching by repetition, (g) Length of lessons — discipline. (//) Emu- 
 lation, (i) Definite course of study, (j) Parallel between the Jesuit 
 schools and our own. (i) Course of study and aim of the schools. 
 
 Individual Reformers: (a) Lily, Colet, Erasmus, (b) Ascham's 
 " Scholemaster." (c) Persistence of mechanical methods in the Latin 
 schools — illustrated by Maitre Nablot. 
 
 Progress of Science: Copernicus, Galileo, Tycho Brahe, Kepler, 
 Napier, Harvey. 
 
 The Innovators: (a) Their demands. (b) Their methods, (c) 
 Montaigne, (d) Ratich — his extravagant promises — his theories and 
 his practical failure — his maxims, {e) Milton. 
 
EDUCATIONAL REFORMERS. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. 
 
 2ig 
 
 What was the ancient belief in regard to the circulation of the blood 
 and the use of the arteries? Before Harvey's time, what was considered 
 the function of the liver in circulation? What that of the heart? Was it 
 known that the right and left sides of the heart do not communicate ? 
 
 What is meant in England by a " Public School," such as those of 
 Rugby, Eton, etc.? What is the principal study in these schools?* In 
 the Universities of Cambridge and Oxford ? 
 
 Do you think, under these circumstances, there has been reason for 
 the revolt against the old education in England? 
 
 Has there been any such emphatic reason for protesting against the 
 study of classics in the United States ? 
 
 * One of the writers who have been urging less exclusive classical education in 
 England declares he happened to discover one day that an Eton boy, who stood 
 well in an advanced class, had never heard of the multiplication table; but having 
 bought six pairs of silk hose at seven shillings each, knew no way to ascertain 
 their cost but by adding' 7 six times ! 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 EDUCATIONAL REFORMERS— Continued. 
 
 Comenius. — We come now to John Amos Comenius, 
 one of the greatest names in the history of education. He 
 was born near the close of the sixteenth century, in the 
 Moravian village of Comna, became Chief Bishop of the 
 Moravian Brethren, lived a life of tireless activity to the 
 age of eighty years, and was, in addition to his extensive 
 pastoral duties, a practical teacher and a voluminous writer 
 on educational and philosophical subjects. He was the 
 first in the modern world to bring to the work of educa- 
 tional reform both the trained skill of an experienced 
 teacher and the philosophical breadth and depth of a great 
 metaphysician. 
 
 During the Thirty Years' War he lost his property, his 
 wife and child, and was finally banished from his country 
 for political reasons. He then took refuge in the Polish 
 town of Leszno, and became a teacher in the Moravian 
 school there. While thus employed, he studied all the books 
 he could find on the subject of education, especially the 
 writings of Ratich, Helvicus, Andrje, and Bacon — "by read- 
 ing of whom," he says, " I was raised in a good hope that 
 at last those so many various sparks would conspire into a 
 flame; yet observing here and there some defects and gaps, 
 as it were, I could not contain myself from attempting 
 something that might rest upon an immovable foundation, 
 and which, if it might be once found out, should not be 
 subject to any ruin. Therefore, after many workings and 
 
EDUCATIONAL REFORMERS. 221 
 
 tossings of my thoughts, by reducing everything to the 
 immovable laws of nature, I lighted upon my Didactica 
 Magna, which shows the art of readily and solidly teach- 
 ing all men all things." Afterward he wrote a number of 
 other profoundly philosophical works, but it is the general 
 opinion that his views are best learned from the Didactica 
 Mag?ia. 
 
 Principles of Comenius. — It will be seen, from the 
 following epitome* of his principles, translated from Paroz's 
 " Universal History of Education," how largely the best edu- 
 cational ideas of our own day were anticipated by Comen- 
 ius. In fact, the general foundation principles to which 
 every reformer since has tried to conform his system may 
 be found in this summary : 
 
 1. Instruction is easy in proportion as it follows the 
 course of nature. 
 
 2. Instruction ought to be progressive, and adapted to 
 the growing vigor of the intellectual faculties. 
 
 3. It is a fundamental error to begin instruction with 
 languages and terminate it with things — mathematics, natu- 
 ral history, etc.; for things are the substance, the body, 
 while words are the accident, the dress. These two 
 portions of knowledge should be united, but we should 
 begin with things, which are the objects of thought and 
 of speech. 
 
 4. It is also an error to begin the study of language with 
 grammar. We should first present the subject matter in an 
 author or a well-arranged vocabulary. The form — i.e., 
 the grammar — does not come till afterward. 
 
 5. We should first exercise the senses (perception), then 
 the memory, then the intelligence, and lastly the judgment 
 (reasoning). For science begins with the observation; the 
 
 * This is Prof. Payne's summary. 
 
222 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 impressions received are then imprinted upon the memory 
 and the imagination; the intelligence next seizes upon the 
 notions held in store in the memory, and from them deduces 
 general ideas; finally, the reason draws conclusions from 
 the things sufficiently known and coordinated in the in- 
 telligence. 
 
 6. It is not sufficient merely to make the pupil compre- 
 hend; he should also learn to express and to apply what he 
 has comprehended. 
 
 7. It is not the shadow of things which impresses the 
 senses and the imagination, but the things themselves. It 
 is then by a real intuition that instruction should begin, and 
 not by a verbal description of things. 
 
 8. By observation, the pupil should first gain a general 
 notion of an object, and should then observe each part by 
 itself and in its relation to the whole. 
 
 9. Talent is developed by exercise. We learn to write 
 by writing, to sing by singing, etc. 
 
 10. The study of languages ought to begin with the 
 mother tongue. A language is learned better by use, 
 by the ear, by writing, etc., than by rules, which should 
 follow use in order to give it greater exactness. 
 
 In the time of Comenius, the Jesuits alone had a syste- 
 matic course of study, but he laid down one of his own. 
 The Jesuits had no primary schools, but it was this depart- 
 ment of education on which Comenius laid most stress. 
 There should be public schools, he held, where only the 
 mother tongue is used, for all children between the ages of 
 six and twelve; and there they should learn to read and 
 write well and grammatically, to cipher, to measure and 
 weigh, and to sing; he would also teach the catechism and 
 Bible history, general history, the figure of the earth and 
 motion of the planets, physics and geography, and a general 
 knowledge of arts and handicrafts. After this, for those 
 
EDUCATIONAL REFORMERS. 22$ 
 
 who desired higher education, he advocated the Latin 
 school or gymnasium, and then the university and foreign 
 travel. 
 
 Comenius's success as a practical teacher seems to have 
 been considerable. One city and country after another 
 sent for him to reform its schools; and at one time he 
 was called to England, where he hoped to be able to carry 
 out one of his life-long dreams, of founding a college of 
 learned men to work together in the investigation of the 
 laws of nature, according to the plan of Lord Bacon; 
 but war breaking out, his hopes were not realized. 
 
 The Orbis Pictus. — Cornenius was the author of the 
 most widely used school-book ever written. It was called 
 at first the Janua Linguarum Rescrata; but in its more pop- 
 ular illustrated form it received the name of Orbis Pictus. 
 It was translated into ten European and four Asiatic lan- 
 guages, and was reprinted in successive editions for almost 
 two* hundred years — first appearing in 1631, and being 
 reprinted in this country in 181 2. In this work, Cornenius 
 got the better of the classicists by an ingenious device. 
 Europe felt no anxiety to teach anything but Latin; so 
 Cornenius gave them a first Latin book that was a sort of 
 encyclopaedia of general information and scientific truths. 
 It was printed in parallel columns of Latin and German, 
 and in the form of familiar conversations. The Orbis Pictus 
 was the first illustrated school-book ever published, and 
 carried out Comenius's idea of teaching by appeals to the 
 senses. Each subject was illustrated by a small engraving, 
 in which everything named in the letter-press below was 
 marked with a number, and its name was found connected 
 with the same number in the text. 
 
 The Janua was, for the age, an admirable conception, 
 but less hap'py in its execution. Cornenius made the mis- 
 take, in the outset, of trying to use in it every word in the 
 
224 HISTORY AMD SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Latin language, and of never using the same word twice. 
 Besides these faults in the plan, great philosophers have 
 seldom been distinguished by their ease and vivacity in 
 writing for children. It has taken many weary centuries to 
 evolve that thing of beauty and miracle of pedagogical 
 skill — the modern text-book. 
 
 We are compelled to pass rapidly over much of the suc- 
 ceeding ground, and can mention but a few of the more 
 prominent " reformers." 
 
 Locke, the English philosopher, wrote a treatise on ed- 
 ucation which has had great influence in his own country. 
 He insisted strongly on the importance of physical and 
 moral culture, laying great stress on the value of " harden- 
 ing " boys by exposure and privations, excessive early 
 rising, etc. Doubtless his plan would have succeeded in 
 producing a hardy race, on the principle of the survival 
 of the fittest. In intellectual education he had much the 
 same ideas as the other Innovators. 
 
 The Jansenists. — The schools of the Jansenists, at 
 Port Royal, in the seventeenth century, were celebrated for 
 moral, religious, and scientific enthusiasm. Their school- 
 books on logic, grammar, and geometry were long consid- 
 ered the pest in Europe. Arnauld, Pascal, Fenelon, and 
 many other famous names belong to them. They stood 
 for progress, as the Jesuits did for conservatism.- Unfor- 
 tunately, they incurred the suspicion of the Church and 
 the enmity of the Jesuits, and after a long struggle they 
 were suppressed. 
 
 Rousseau. — The next writer who exerted a command- 
 ing influence on educational ideas was J. J. Rousseau, whose 
 life (1712-78), nearly spanning the eighteenth century, 
 was one of the great forces of that hot-bed of revolution 
 and change. Rousseau's ideas seem to us* rather senti- 
 mental, but it must be remembered that they were a revolt 
 
EDUCATIONAL REFORMERS. 
 
 225 
 
 against the excessively conventional and artificial society 
 of his day. 
 
 It is difficult to distinguish between what we owe to Rous- 
 seau and what we owe to his age. It is true that many of 
 the ideas he advocated were the outgrowth of the general 
 advance of the eighteenth century, many of them had been 
 enunciated before — his educational theories, for instance, 
 were hinted by Montaigne, and almost their entire founda- 
 tion may be found in the English philosopher Locke; but 
 it was Rousseau who presented these ideas with the conta- 
 gious enthusiasm which carried captive the hearts, not only 
 of his own nation, but of Germany. 
 
 All Rousseau's books were published during the last six- 
 teen years of his life; the three more important ones in the 
 years 1761 and 1762; yet it seems impossible to overesti- 
 mate his all-pervading influence. It was Rousseau's " New 
 Heloisa " which awakened an enthusiasm for a return to 
 nature, and for a sentimental sort of virtue, in the most 
 artificial, immoral, and heartless society of history — the 
 court of Louis XV. It was his " Social Contract " which 
 supplied the governmental theories of the French Revolu- 
 tion, and, to some extent, those of our own. 
 
 Our Constitution was fashioned by practical statesmen 
 who had the wisdom to take the best that the slow growth 
 of centuries had produced in the English race from which 
 we sprang, free it from inconveniences and oppressions, 
 adapt it to our new conditions, and embody it in the wisest 
 and most successful plan of government yet tried upon the 
 earth. But the sonorous preamble of the Declaration of 
 Independence is an echo of Rousseau. It was he, in short, 
 who suggested all the sentimental side of the French Revo- 
 lution, the cry of liberty, equality, fraternity, the use of the 
 word " citizen," the great fraternal feasts in the Champs de 
 Mars, the festival of the Supreme Being, and so forth. 
 
226 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 The " Emile,'' the third of his great works, dealt with 
 educational ideas, and fell upon fruitful ground in a so- 
 ciety eager to welcome all new ideas, especially those 
 relating to the improvement of the race, and brought face 
 to face with the problem of education by the suppression 
 of the Jesuits, the only teachers of the time. As Quick 
 justly observes, many of Rousseau's ideas are still familiar 
 to us, though the " Emile " is no longer read; we call them 
 by the name of Pestalozzian principles, or, more generally, 
 the New Education. The details of his plan appear ab- 
 surd and fanciful enough, but it is in the spirit of his work, 
 in its fruitful influence upon society that we must look for 
 its true value. It " turned the hearts of the fathers to the 
 children," and awakened a vivid idea of the importance 
 and value of family life and parental care. It was the influ- 
 ence of " Emile " alone which made it fashionable for the 
 high-born mothers of France to nurse their own babies, 
 instead of committing them to the care of peasant foster- 
 mothers. It is the glory of Rousseau that while all his pre- 
 decessors, except Comenius, from Ascham down to Locke, 
 had considered solely the education of young gentlemen, 
 he, true to that intense feeling, not for but with the people, 
 which characterized his whole life, thought only of the 
 proper training of a human being. In his hands the ideal 
 of education first became not aristocratic but democratic. 
 
 Strange as some of Rousseau's theories were, we yet owe 
 to him many of the best ideas, many of the most benefi- 
 cent actual improvements of modern education. If others 
 had announced these ideas before, it was Rousseau who 
 gave them a widespread influence, and made them accepted 
 not merely by the minds, but by the hearts of men. 
 
 " The sum of the merits of Emile, as a writing, upon education is not 
 to be lightly counted. Its value lies in the spirit which animates it, and 
 
EDUCATIONAL REFORMERS. 22 -j 
 
 communicates itself with vivid force to the reader. It is one of the 
 seminal books in the history of literature, and in such books the worth 
 resides less in the parts than in the whole. It touched the deeper springs 
 of character. It filled parents with a sense of the dignity and moment 
 of their task. It cleared away the accumulation of dogged prejudices 
 and obscure and inveterate usage, which made education one of the 
 dark and formalistic arts; and it admitted floods of light and air into the 
 tightly closed nurseries and school-rooms. It effected the substitution 
 of growth for mechanism. A strong current of manliness, wholesome- 
 ness, simplicity, and self-reliance was sent by it through Europe, while 
 its eloquence was the most powerful adjuration ever addressed to paren- 
 tal affection to cherish the young life in all love and considerate solicitude. 
 It was the veritable charter of youthful deliverance." — Morley. 
 
 Basedow (pron. bah! -zeh-do) was a disciple of Rous- 
 seau who attempted to work out his ideas in a school at 
 Dessau, called the Philanthropin. This school seems to 
 have been a sort of uproarious and unsystematized kinder- 
 garten, where the children had a most jolly time. They 
 were not kindergarten babies, however, but older children, 
 on whom it was above all things incumbent — in their par- 
 ents' opinion — that they should learn Latin. Latin they 
 were accordingly taught in a series of hilarious games. 
 
 Goethe, Kant, Oberlin, great men throughout Europe, 
 took the liveliest interest in the school, and looked for it 
 to regenerate the race. It was a failure, of course, as any 
 scheme of learning or living without work must always 
 be; but it was one of the forces that helped to break 
 down the barriers of the old order, and let some light and 
 air into the prison of old-fashioned education. 
 
 Pestalozzi. — In 1746, Pestalozzi, the most famous of 
 educational reformers, was born at Zurich. His philos- 
 ophy of education may nearly all be found in Comenius 
 and Rousseau; he was a man who scarcely ever succeeded 
 in any practical undertaking — teaching, or anything else. 
 Whence, then, comes his high place among educators ? 
 
228 HIS TORY AND SCIENCE OF ED UCA TION. 
 
 First among the causes of his popularity is the genuine, 
 unselfish goodness of the man. Rousseau and Basedow 
 were mean and selfish profligates, but Pestalozzi's life was 
 characterized by unceasing and absolute devotion to the 
 good of his fellow-men. The purity of his soul, the depth 
 of his sympathies, his " enthusiasm for humanity," com- 
 mand our hearts. Second, he wrote two famous books — as 
 well as several less noted ones — " Leonard and Gertrude," 
 a novel of Swiss peasant life, and many years later, " How 
 Gertrude Teaches her Children," a pedagogical work in 
 story form. The third, and perhaps the strongest, reason 
 is that he was the inventor of object teaching — a practical 
 method of carrying out the dictum of all the Innovators, 
 that teaching should begin with appeals to the senses. 
 (For an account of the principles of object-teaching, with 
 illustrative lessons, see Part I.) A fourth reason very 
 probably is that it is the fashion in the nineteenth cen- 
 tury to look to Germany for educational light, as it was 
 in the eighteenth to look to France. 
 
 The most striking episode of Pestalozzi's life was when, 
 in the Napoleonic wars, he was sent by the government to 
 take charge of the destitute, strayed, and orphaned chil- 
 dren in the war-desolated town of Stanz. He gathered 
 them into the only habitable room in an unfinished con- 
 vent, where he taught them by day, watched over them by 
 night, and shared their scanty food. With only a single 
 servant to help him, he mothered, comforted, nursed, and 
 taught them all. At one time he had eighty pupils, part 
 of them being lodged in the neighboring peasant huts. 
 Most of them were utterly ignorant; and as he had no 
 books, he taught them by objects and by word of mouth, 
 and with wonderful success— the one success of his life. 
 This school continued for about a year, when the building 
 was occupied by the French as a military hospital, and the 
 
EDUCATIONAL REFORMERS. 229 
 
 school was broken up, in time to save Pestalozzi's health 
 from utter wreck. Afterward he had charge of a well- 
 equipped school at Yverdun, but his utter lack of system 
 and method, his " unrivalled incapacity to govern," to 
 quote his own words, and his financial imbecility, all made 
 it impossible for him to manage a large school, and it 
 proved an inglorious failure. What survives of Pestalozzi 
 is his system of object teaching, the stress he laid on pri- 
 mary education, and his devoted enthusiasm. His general 
 principles, of teaching according to nature, of proceeding 
 from the simple to the complex, etc., are but repetitions 
 of Comenius and Rousseau. 
 
 Fellenberg, who was at one time his associate, a man 
 with capacities for organizing and governing, afterward 
 conducted a famous and highly successful school, partially 
 on Pestalozzian principles. 
 
 Jacotot (pron. zha-co-to'), a French normal-school teacher 
 (1770-1840), has contributed some of the most striking and 
 original ideas in the history of education. His three famous 
 paradoxes, "All human beings are equally capable of learn- 
 ing," "Every one can teach, even that which he does not 
 know himself," " Everything is in everything," obviously 
 need to be taken in a Pickwickian sense. His more sensible, 
 practical principles were, that a teacher's business is to cause 
 his pupils to learn things of themselves; to investigate, to 
 examine, to judge; that what is learned should be learned 
 so as to be absolutely known, and should be repeated so 
 often that it can not be forgotten; that whatever new knowl- 
 edge we acquire should be connected with what we had 
 before. Jacotot's methods in elementary instruction seem 
 to contain the Word Method in embryonic form. 
 
 Froebel. — Nearly contemporary with Jacotot is the 
 German Froebel (1782-1852). He was distinguished by 
 the same deep devotion to childhood that characterized 
 
23° 
 
 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Pestalozzi. He probably comes nearer being a canonized 
 saint of education, in the minds of his enthusiastic follow- 
 ers, than any other reformer. The underlying idea of his 
 system is the self-development and self-education of the 
 child by its own spontaneous activity. The teacher's office 
 is merely to secure full opportunity for this self-activity, to 
 watch and guide, but not to restrain or constrain it. (For 
 an account of his system and methods, see Part I.) 
 
 Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841), a prof essor of 
 philosophy at Konigsberg and Gottingen, a profound and 
 original thinker, devoted the labor of his life to evolving a 
 strictly scientific philosophy of pedagogics. No other the- 
 ory of teaching can be compared to his for completeness, 
 originality, and logical exactness of thought. His ideas 
 are the extreme opposite of Froebel's. Froebel's teacher 
 is a gardener, whose duty is to give the infant mind a fav- 
 orable opportunity to grow. Herbart's is an artist, whose 
 business is to build up a noble and symmetrical character. 
 Froebel's first idea is freedom from restraint; Herbart's, 
 subjection to righteous law. We have not space even to 
 outline his system of pedagogical philosophy, nor would it be 
 intelligible to any but metaphysicians, but his fundamental 
 idea is this: The one great aim of education is the building 
 up of moral character, the training of the will; intellectual 
 education is only a necessary means to this end. The one 
 thing to be attained is inner freedom — that state of the will 
 in which it promptly executes the dictates of reason and 
 conscience, unhindered by the temptations and delusions 
 of sense. Truly a noble conception; nor is there lacking 
 practical wisdom in the means suggested for carrying 
 it out. 
 
 Spencer. — Among educational reformers of our own 
 time an almost superstitious reverence is paid to Herbert 
 Spencer's " Treatise on Education." Mr. Spencer's intellec- 
 
EDUCATIONAL REFORMERS. 23 1 
 
 tual greatness is universally conceded, but he is not a guide 
 to be followed blindly, either in philosophy, religion, or 
 education. There are many excellent ideas in his treatise — 
 which ideas may be studied in the summary of Comenius's 
 principles on page 221 — but his distinctive doctrine is that 
 mental discipline and power can be just as well acquired by 
 studying one thing as another, and hence we should study 
 only what is of the most practical value; that physical 
 science is of more practical value than anything else; hence 
 education should be solely scientific — artist, sculptor, and 
 poet, all need, first of all, to study science. In short, he 
 is as much of a fanatic in behalf of scientific studies as the 
 ultra conservatives are on the side of the classics. 
 
 Bain. — Alexander Bain is another philosopher of our 
 day who has written on educational matters. He advances 
 an interesting application of the law of the Conservation 
 and Correlation of Forces. His doctrine is, briefly, that a 
 man has so much vital force, which may be expended in 
 labor, in intellectual effort, or in emotion; but that which is 
 used in one way can not be used in another. This statement 
 is respectfully recommended to the consideration of those 
 who teach that manual labor is a rest from study, and 
 study a rest from work — that sawing wood is an admi- 
 rable means of repose for man or boy exhausted by mental 
 application. 
 
 Arnold Low. — Of the long list of practical educa- 
 tional reformers of our day it is scarcely necessary to speak. 
 The revered name of Dr. Arnold of Rugby, who showed 
 how much more gentleness and Christian manliness could 
 do for the moral and intellectual improvement of boys than 
 was ever accomplished by the brutal floggings of his prede- 
 cessors, will occur at once to the mind of every well-informed 
 teacher. Mr. Low, the member of Parliament who did so 
 much for the establishment of " Board Schools " in England, 
 
232 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 and has labored so hard to convince the English people that 
 education and Latin are not synonomous terms, should not 
 be forgotten. 
 
 Mann. — In our own country, Horace Mann was, perhaps, 
 more distinctively an educational reformer than any one 
 else has been; but, in fact, educational reform in this coun- 
 try has been a matter where, as is fitting in a republic, thou- 
 sands and hundreds of thousands have labored together 
 for the common weal. It has not been so much the occa' 
 sional flash — something between a guiding star and an ignis 
 fatuus — of some genius whose schemes were half-helpful and 
 half-chimerical; it has been a steady and permanent growth, 
 helped on by innumerable willing workers. It has been 
 what might be expected when a great, free nation sets itself 
 to the work of training its children for citizens. The story 
 of its progress may be read in the concluding chapters of 
 this book. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER X. 
 
 Comenius: (a) His life. (b) Educational studies. (c) Didactica 
 Magna, id) Summary of Comenius's opinions, (e) His system of pri- 
 mary schools. (/) Hopes to found a university on Bacon's plan. {g\ 
 The Janua and the Orbis Pictus. 
 
 Locke: His ideas of " hardening." Jansenist School at Port 
 Royal. 
 
 Rousseau: (a) His time, (b) The "New Heloisa" — the "Social 
 Contract." Influence of the latter in France — in America, (c) The 
 "Emile" — absurd in detail, but a book of power in its spirit and 
 influence — its democratic ideas — Morley's opinion. 
 
 Basedow: His play school — interest it awakened in Europe — its 
 failure. 
 
 Pestalozzi: (a) His philosophy not new, his life a practical failure — 
 whence his high place? (b) Four reasons: purity and zeal — literary 
 genius — inventor of object teaching — a German. (c) His school at 
 Stanz — his devotion, difficulties, and success, (d) School at Yverdun — 
 cause of its failure, (e) Grounds of his fame, (f) Fellenberg's Pesta- 
 lozzian school. 
 
EDUCATIONAL REFORMERS. 
 
 233 
 
 Jacotot: (a) His three paradoxes. (l>) His practical principles — ■ 
 germ of the Word Method. 
 
 Froebel: See Part I., Chapters III. and IV. 
 
 Herbert Spencer: (a) Not an infallible guide, (i) His distinctive 
 educational principle. 
 
 Alexander Bain: Application of the principle of the Correlation 
 of Forces. 
 
 Practical reformers of our own day: Dr. Arnold, Mr. Low, Horace 
 Mann. Educational reform in America a general movement. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. 
 
 Is the 8th Principle of Comenius more in accordance with nature than 
 the method frequently advocated, that we should teach the parts first, 
 and then the whole ? Why, or why not ? Illustrate. 
 
 Does the method of teaching a beginning class in Latin in our high 
 schools generally conform to Principle 4 ? 
 
 Comenius, Pestalozzi, and Froebel all gave their deepest attention 
 to the training of young children — was this a new thing in the world ? 
 What can you say of the general opinion of the importance of children 
 down to very recent times ? Is there danger now that we will go too 
 far in the other direction, and consider children too much and their 
 elders too little ? 
 
 What names can you mention of eminent American teachers and edu- 
 cational reformers ? 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 THE MORE RECENT EDUCATIONAL AWAKENING IN 
 FOREIGN LANDS. 
 
 Having now traced the progress of education and edu- 
 cational thought through the various reformers down to the 
 beginning of our own era, let us glance briefly at the more 
 recent great awakenings in some of the more important 
 foreign states. 
 
 In studying the educational reports of these countries, 
 one is filled with amazement at the progress which the 
 world has been making in these later days. At such times 
 he realizes something of the true force and significance of 
 the oft-repeated but little comprehended stanza: 
 
 " We are living, we are dwelling 
 In a grand and awful time; 
 In an age on ages telling — 
 To be living is sublime ! " 
 
 Where but a few centuries ago the common people were 
 literally bought and sold with the land by each petty des- 
 pot; where the peasantry had no rights that were considered 
 worth the mentioning by those who considered themselves 
 divinely appointed to live in luxury by the toil and sweat of 
 others; where the masses were as unlettered as the very cat- 
 tle on the hills ; where the life of nine tenths of our fellow- 
 men was one unceasing round of toil and misery; where the 
 mind and the soul partook of the servile bondage of the 
 body; and where, in consequence, ambition, hope, and faith 
 (234) 
 
RECENT EDUCATIONAL AWAKENING. 235 
 
 were fettered down with chains they had no power to rend 
 — where all these relics of the grim, barbaric past still lin- 
 gered at so late a date that their frowning ruins crown each 
 beetling crag, the nineteenth century has shed its radiant 
 beams, and the school-house, with all the beneficent associ- 
 ations which cluster round its name, now nestles in the val- 
 ley ! The children of the poor have now the good tidings 
 of intellectual freedom taught them, and thus another of 
 the signs of the fruition of the Christian era is fulfilled. 
 Aye, more than this: if the blind do not actually receive 
 their sight; if the deaf are not literally made to hear; if 
 the dumb are not made to speak; if the outward forms of 
 all these miracles are not actually performed throughout 
 the Christian world in this high-tide of the animating power 
 of Christian civilization, an equally marvelous miracle is 
 being wrought on every hand, and the spirit of the good 
 deeds which the Prince of Peace performed upon a very few 
 is now extended to a countless multitude of sufferers! The 
 blind are largely compensated for their want of sight; the 
 deaf and dumb are trained to hold intelligent communion 
 with their fellow-men; the insane and feeble-minded, now 
 no longer the butt of brutal ridicule, are kindly cared for 
 in asylums; while hospitals, equipped with every comfort 
 and with all the medical skill that the marvelous science of 
 this age can furnish, are everywhere provided for the suffer- 
 ing poor. 
 
 All this is but the legitimate fruition of the spirit of the 
 Christian civilization, which throughout the mediaeval and 
 the later centuries had been slowly but yet surely permeat- 
 ing society, until the glorious dawning of the Nineteenth 
 Century. To live ten years in such an age as this is 
 worth a thousand in Methuselah's time. 
 
 The table given on page 236 will present a general view 
 of the wonderful work now being done in some of the 
 
236 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 principal countries of the world, as well as in some others 
 which, though not so important to the world at large, are 
 of special interest to Americans. The term " school pop- 
 
 Reference Table of Comparative Statistics of Elementary 
 Education in Foreign Countries, gleaned from the Latest 
 Available Statistics. 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 Austria 
 
 Hungary 
 
 Belgium 
 
 France 
 
 Bavaria (Ger.) 
 
 Prussia (Ger.) 
 
 Saxony (Ger.) 
 
 England and Wales. 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Italy 
 
 lapan 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Russia in Europe 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 British India 
 
 Cape Colony 
 
 f British Columbia 
 
 , I Manitoba 
 
 •a I New Brunswick 
 
 2 -I Nova Scotia 
 
 rt Ontario 
 
 ^ I Prince Edward Island 
 
 L Quebec 
 
 Jamaica 
 
 Argentine Republic 
 
 Chile 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Hawaii 
 
 New South Wales 
 
 Queensland 
 
 South Australia 
 
 Victoria 
 
 West Australia 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 Tasmania 
 
 16,440 
 16,305 
 
 4,805 
 79,755 
 
 7.I3 1 
 34,016 
 
 =■154 
 i9, T 73 
 
 3,092 
 
 8,024 
 4 2 ,555 
 29>58g 
 
 4,066 
 28,329 
 
 4,386 
 82,953 
 
 494 
 4,5°o 
 
 723 
 1,741 
 
 862 
 
 1,957 
 172 
 
 2,164 
 467 
 504 
 
 1,846 
 9 1 
 
 204 
 
 2,679,638 
 
 1,836,459 
 
 325.656 
 
 4,662,668 
 
 842,628 
 
 4,838,247 
 
 533, 8 76 
 
 4,553,75: 
 
 615,498 
 
 1,071,791 
 
 1.914,400 
 
 3,192,599 
 
 593,65S 
 
 I ,539-975 
 
 434,080 
 
 2,062,657 
 
 75,7 r 3 
 
 4.027 
 
 16,926 
 
 68,583 
 
 105,137 
 487,496 
 
 21,983 
 217,041 
 
 6i,57i 
 133,642 
 
 78,810 
 
 99,466 
 
 9,016 
 
 S85,438 
 
 50,295 
 
 44,405 
 
 226,197 
 
 4,156 
 
 106,328 
 
 15,418 
 
 54,467 
 23,457 
 
 8,694 
 135,216 
 21,930 
 66,023 
 
 8,768 
 87,455 
 11,645 
 11,709 
 41,210 
 26,483 
 17,214 
 24,389 
 
 8,365 
 
 i,5° 2 
 
 1,567 
 
 7,364 
 494 
 
 5,460 
 686 
 
 3,369 
 
 2,279 
 300 
 2,865 
 i,348 
 1,081 
 4,175 
 
 2,721 
 378 
 
 7,555 
 3,398 
 3,M7 
 
 1,426 
 
 9,752 
 
 2,3 lS 
 
 3, 2 S9 
 
 859 
 
 575 
 
 9,851 
 
 6,569 
 
 575 
 
 3,969 
 
 1,256 
 
 3,973 
 
 366 
 176 
 441 
 125 
 
 293 
 
 107 
 
 146 
 
 o-o 
 
 $4,930,574 
 2,746,753 
 
 16,212,000 
 3,420,322 
 
 27,754,524 
 4,395,020 
 33,275,968 
 
 4,901,166 
 
 4,419,235 
 
 7,537,668 
 
 5,872,447 
 
 5,378,838 
 
 2,852,855 
 
 2,604,858 
 
 950,248 
 
 71,152 
 
 352,849 
 
 413.967 
 
 620,000 
 
 3,043,461 
 
 "5,599 
 
 2,657,494 
 
 130,494 
 
 460,849 
 150,766 
 
 2,065,109 
 874,012 
 441,584 
 
 2,810,199 
 9,236 
 
 1,584,029 
 io5,355 
 
RECENT EDUCATIONAL AWAKENING. 237 
 
 ulation " is so misleading — being based as it is on so many 
 different ages — that it is not here employed, but the ratio 
 of enrollment to the entire population is given instead. 
 It must be borne in mind that these figures, aside from 
 the normal schools, have reference only to the " elemen- 
 tary " schools — i. e., to those below the grade of high 
 schools. 
 
 The school age varies in these countries, but from five or 
 six to fourteen or fifteen is the general rule. In Belgium, 
 Italy, the Netherlands, and Queensland it is six to twelve. 
 In England and Wales the school age is obligatory from 
 five to fourteen, but pupils may be admitted as young as 
 three. This is the only case where the minimum age is less 
 than five. The only foreign country in which the maximum 
 age is above sixteen is Ontario, where it is twenty-one. The 
 average period of " school-age" is a little more than eight 
 years in the principal countries of the world. The expen- 
 ditures include, as a rule, teachers' salaries, supervision, 
 etc. For France the amount is that expended by the state 
 alone. For England and Wales and Scotland the cost of 
 night schools is included. In the following countries the 
 elementary schools are free: France, Italy, Switzerland, Al- 
 geria, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Nova 
 Scotia, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Costa Rica, Guate- 
 mala, Argentine Republic, Chili, Ecuador, Victoria, Queens- 
 land, and New Zealand. In these the cost of elementary 
 education is defrayed by state and local funds. In the 
 remaining countries a portion of the cost is met by tui- 
 tion. 
 
 Great Britain — The present school system of Great 
 Britain was established in 1870, and since that date ele- 
 mentary education has been making rapid strides. A 
 glance at the statistics in the annexed table will show the 
 great progress made since that date. 
 
238 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 PROGRESS IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 Schools Inspected 
 
 Accommodation: 
 
 Day Schools 
 
 Night Schools ...... 
 
 Average attendance: 
 
 Day Pupils 
 
 Night Pupils 
 
 Number of Teachers. 
 
 1870. 
 
 8,281 
 1,878,584 
 
 1,152,389 
 73,375 
 
 1874. 
 
 12,246 
 
 2,861,319 
 10,507 
 
 1,678,759 
 48,690 
 
 4 8 > 2 34 
 
 1875- 
 
 3,146.424 
 13,055 
 
 1,837,180 
 48,382 
 
 1876. 
 
 14,368 
 
 3,426,318 
 14,810 
 
 1,984,573 
 49,858 
 
 58,457 
 
 1877- 
 
 15,287 
 
 3. 6 53.4i8 
 16,169 
 
 2,150,683 
 57.785 
 
 62,870 
 
 1887. 
 
 !9.i73 
 
 j- 4.553,751 
 
 f 3.470,509 
 87,455 
 
 The progress of elementary education in London is said 
 to be especially satisfactory. There is now a total enroll- 
 ment in the state-aided elementary schools of that city of 
 nearly 700,000 pupils, with an average daily attendance of 
 almost half a million. The average expenditure per child, 
 in 1887, was $15. 33, of which $9.00 was charged to " rates," 
 and $1.70 to "fees," leaving $4.63 per pupil to be met from 
 "Government Grants." 
 
 " The results of the examinations show that the teaching of element- 
 ary subjects has reached the highest point yet attained. The percent- 
 ages of passes were: arithmetic, 87.3; writing, 90.6; reading, 95.7. 
 
 " With respect to other subjects, Chairman Diggle says: ' There is a 
 space of time daily set apart for the purpose of teaching the children, 
 through Bible lessons, the essential principles upon which right conduct 
 depends. In every school the children are taught to sing, and to sing 
 by note. By means of extension exercises and drill, not only is the 
 physical well-being of the children promoted, but habits of discipline 
 and obedience are formed. The boys are taught drawing, while needle- 
 work is similarly taught in the girls' departments. All the children take 
 English as a class subject, which means that a certain amount of repe- 
 tition is learned, and a simple knowledge of English grammar is 
 acquired. 
 
 " ' Practically, all the boys are taught geography, while it is taught to 
 only about ten per cent, of the girls. On the other hand, more than 
 9,000, or about eleven per cent., of the girls acquired some knowledge 
 of practical cookery. History, which as a class subject is still unde- 
 
RECENT EDUCATIONAL AWAKENING. 239 
 
 fined in the educational code, and of which the systematized course is 
 left wholly to the discretion of her Majesty's inspector and the school 
 teacher, is only taught systematically to 3,400 boys and 600 girls. 
 This shows a slight increase in the number of girls, as compared with 
 the previous year, but a decrease of 1,000 in the number of boys.' 
 
 "He observes further that 'The great danger which apparently 
 threatens the steady progress of elementary education is the pressure 
 which is constantly being exerted to render obligatory additional sub- 
 jects of instruction, without reference to the varying circumstances of 
 the children, or the settled conditions of elementary school life. We 
 are in danger of destroying the efficiency of elementary education by 
 attempting to teach a little of many things, instead of teaching what it 
 is practicable to teach thoroughly and well. Of the children in the 
 London board schools, ninety-six per cent, leave school before the age 
 of thirteen years. While the child attends school he is taught for about 
 five hours daily, for five days in the week. In the case of a large propor- 
 tion of the children, their home circumstances either altogether preclude, 
 or render extremely difficult, the preparation of home lessons in aid of 
 the ordinary school work. When they are absent from the influence of 
 the school they are surrendered to the education of the street. It is 
 quite impossible to carry out an ambitious educational programme under 
 such conditions as these. But what it is possible to do is to teach the 
 elementary subjects thoroughly and intelligently, and in such a manner 
 as to instill into the minds of the children the desire for knowledge, 
 and a sense of enjoyment in its pursuit.' 
 
 " In 1885 the board began an experiment in manual training for 
 boys in one of the schools. The boys are selected from the seventh 
 standard, and instructed in carpentry two afternoons in each week. 
 Through the liberality of the city guilds, a sum of $4,875 has been pro- 
 vided for the purpose of extending the experiment. In consideration 
 of the fact that ninety-six per cent, of the children leave school before 
 they are thirteen years of age, the chairman urges the importance of a 
 more efficient system of evening or continuation schools, by which their 
 instruction may be continued long enough to insure lasting results. Ele- 
 mentary education is conducted, as has been noted, in board and volun- 
 tary schools. The latter are established mainly by the several religious 
 denominations." — Report of Commissioner of Education. 
 
 France In France they have naturally had stormy 
 
 times in establishing a school system on a sound educa- 
 
240 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 tional basis, but despite all the turmoil there has been 
 steady progress. 
 
 Thus, in 1876 there were 71,547 primary schools in 
 France, while ten years later we find 79,755. This is an 
 increase of 8,200 schools, or an average gain of over 800 
 schools per annum. The number of teachers had also in- 
 creased during the same decade from 110,709 to 135,216, 
 or at the rate of nearly 2,500 per year. 
 
 The enrollment, too, during this period had increased 
 almost 1,000,000. To convey a clearer conception of the 
 nature of the schools of France, the following statement of 
 their course of study in the secondary grades, compiled 
 by President Eliot, of Harvard, is transcribed : 
 
 [In the Preparatory Class, and in the eighth and seventh classes, the num- 
 ber of hours of teaching per -week is 20, including one hour a week for 
 drawing.^ 
 
 PREPARATORY CLASS. Age 8 years. 
 
 French. — gj hours a week. Reading, spelling, writing, and the 
 most elementary rules of grammar. 
 
 German or English. — 4 hours a week. Exercises in reading and 
 writing. Pronunciation. Accent. Indispensable paradigms. 
 
 History. — ij hours a week. Biographies of illustrious men — trav- 
 elers, patriots, inventors. Talks on great personages in French his- 
 tory down to 1789. 
 
 Geography. — i\ hours a week. Meaning of the principal terms in 
 physical geography, illustrated from the town or county. Outlines of 
 the physical geography of France. Geographical drawing illustrated 
 with the globe, chart, and blackboard. The continents. 
 
 Arithmetic. — 1\ hours a week. Mental arithmetic — whole num- 
 bers. 
 
 Object Lessons. — 1 hour a week. Coal, metals, coins, clouds, 
 rain, snow, ice, springs, brooks, lakes, wells, canals, sea-water, salt, 
 wind, storms, familiar animals and plants. [This set of subjects lasts 
 two years.] 
 
 Drawing. — 1 hour a week. Straight lines, angles, circles, poly- 
 
RECENT EDUCATIONAL AWAKENING. 241 
 
 gons, stars, ellipses, spirals, the curves of plants, first notions of per- 
 spective. [This set of subjects lasts three years.] 
 
 EIGHTH CLASS. Age 9 years. 
 
 French. — 9 hours a week. Reading, spelling, writing, grammar, 
 and little compositions. Descriptions reproduced. 
 
 German or English. — 4 hours a week. First notions of grammar, 
 reading, writing, spelling, common phrases. English text-book — Miss 
 Edgeworth's Tales. 
 
 History. — \\ hours a week. Outline of French history to Louis 
 XI. 
 
 Geography. — 1£ hours a week. Elementary geography of Europe, 
 Asia, Africa, America and Oceania. Voyages of discovery. 
 
 Arithmetic. — 2 hours a week. Whole numbers. Exercises in 
 mental arithmetic. Easy problems. 
 
 Object Lessons and Drawing. — 1 hour a week each. Same as for 
 the Preparatory Class. 
 
 SEVENTH CLASS. Age 10 years. 
 
 French. — 9 hours a week. As in previous years. Syntax. 
 
 German or English. — 4 hours a week. Grammar. Auxiliary and 
 irregular verbs. Easy prose. Exercises in reading and conversation. 
 English text— Sanford and Merton, and Old Poz. 
 
 History. — 1\ hours a week. History of France from Louis XI. to 
 1815. 
 
 Geography. — 1£ hours a week. Elementary geography of France. 
 
 Arithmetic and Geometry. — 2 hours a week. Whole numbers 
 and decimals. Metric system. Geometrical figures. 
 
 Stones and Soils. — 1 hour a week. Limestones, lime-kilns, mor- 
 tars, plaster, clay, bricks, pottery, quartz, flint, grindstones, granite, 
 sands, drift, mold, soils, fossils, quarries, volcanoes. 
 
 Drawing. — 1 hour a week. Same as for the Preparatory Class. 
 
 Germany. — The above is sufficient to show that French 
 education, from the age of eight to ten, is rather a serious 
 matter. But heavy as his tasks may be, the French boy 
 has the satisfaction of knowing that his German neighbor 
 has still more serious ones imposed upon him. So difficult 
 16 
 
242 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 is the course of study in the average German school that 
 pupils are obliged to study weary hours outside of school, 
 and when for any cause they miss an evening's study, it is 
 said they find it difficult again to overtake their classes. 
 More than this, they have been accustomed to carry home 
 so many ponderous books on such a multitude of subjects 
 that the authorities have recently enacted laws in certain 
 of the German states forbidding the imposing of such 
 heavy loads on tender children ! The query that suggests 
 itself is whether it would not be wiser to reform their 
 courses of study, so that the bearing home of these griev- 
 ous burdens would be no longer necessary. But aside 
 from this overloading of their course, the German states 
 have generally well-managed schools. It should, of 
 course, be borne in mind that each state is independent 
 in its school affairs. They seem to have generally aban- 
 doned the theories of their earlier educators in regard to 
 infant training, and the mothers now are wisely permitted 
 to retain their little ones at home until they reach the age 
 of six. Then, too, the primary teachers in the German 
 schools are, for the most part, thoroughly prepared for 
 their work, as witness the fact, by a glance at the table on 
 page 236, that Bavaria sustains eighteen well-equipped 
 normal schools, Saxony nineteen, and Prussia one hundred 
 and thirteen ! 
 
 Excessive Centralization. — Space will forbid even 
 the mentioning of the schools and colleges of the various 
 other European states, further than to state in general 
 terms that, with scarcely an exception, they are making 
 rapid progress, and that, too, in some cases against seri- 
 ous obstacles. Probably the greatest hindrance in the way 
 of their efficiency is the extreme centralization of their 
 management. Their very perfection of organization is, 
 perhaps, their worst defect. The schools are so far re- 
 
RECENT EDUCATIONAL AWAKENING, 243 
 
 moved from the control of the people that they are apt to 
 lose personal interest in them; and in some cases it is even 
 to be feared that they are regarded as burdens to be 
 shunned, like military service. 
 
 On this important subject, note what Dr. Leonard Bacon 
 has to say regarding the schools of Switzerland as com- 
 pared with our own : 
 
 " My friend, the village pastor near my house just outside of Geneva, 
 looked puzzled when I told him that, on the American plan of public 
 education, we had worse schools and better education than in Switzer- 
 land; that our average boy gets far inferior instruction, and our average 
 man knows a great deal more. But it was true, nevertheless; and before 
 we got through with the subject, I believe he saw the point of it. 
 
 " Their system of public education is the pride of Geneva. It begins 
 with the primary school, and culminates in the university with its many 
 faculties for all departments of science, and its technical schools for fine 
 and useful arts. And the system, down to the organization of the pri- 
 mary school of the poorest and remotest peasant village of the little 
 canton, is operated and directed from the Bureau of Public Instruction 
 in the Hdtel de Ville at Geneva. Consequently it is well directed. 
 Teachers are appointed, books and apparatus purchased, courses of 
 study determined, at the center of government of the tiny state, by 
 experienced officials, under the direction of a member of the executive 
 council; and it 'goes without saying' that the work is better done 
 than if it were in the hands of local committees in each village, pre- 
 disposed to the encouragement of native talent. All the dignity of the 
 government is brought to bear to sustain the prestige of the schools. 
 
 "How excellent is this school organization, both in the city high 
 schools and in the ordinary school of a country village, I have reason 
 gratefully to testify; and I could not but acknowledge to my friend, the 
 pastor, that this work of the Bureau of Public Instruction was far better 
 done than that of the average ' school deestrict ' committee in America, 
 and that the average working of the school was more effective. Yet there 
 is no mistake about it — the people are nothing like so well educated a 
 people. This is obvious in their very faces, but also in a hundred more 
 statistical forms of evidence; as, for instance, in the annual examina- 
 tion of the militia recruits, who consist of all able-bodied young men 
 arriving at a certain age. The number of these who have forgotten, 
 
244 
 
 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 from disuse, the very rudiments of their school-learning is so large as 
 to have become a subject of anxious consideration to the friends o£ 
 popular education. 
 
 "' But,' asks my friend, the pastor, 'wherein lies the difference? 
 We have the same free institutions. Liberty and equality are perhaps 
 more emphatically built into the basis of our constitution than of yours. 
 Every man has the stimulus of an unlimited career open to him here, 
 as with you. It is* not strange that in a state like Prussia, for all its 
 superb and ubiquitous school system, the growing peasant should re- 
 lapse into stupid illiteracy, simply from lack of use. But Switzerland 
 is a free country, if any is, Every man has his share in the affairs of 
 the country.' 
 
 " 'Yes,' said I, ' in the affairs of the country, and that is all; not in 
 the affairs of the town, and parish, and local school. Suppose that 
 your peasants here had it on their hands to see that the village school 
 was what it ought to be, and should begin to find it important that their 
 children should have as good advantages as their neighbors'; do you 
 not think there would be a different state of things in the village?' 
 
 " ' I do, indeed,' thought the pastor, • and a pretty mess it would 
 be!' 
 
 " 'I have no doubt you are right. Things would get sadly mixed. 
 When it came to appointing a new teacher, the jury of the vicinage 
 would not be reliable for an intelligent verdict. On the subject of the 
 course and methods of stud)', they would not be clear in their views. I 
 can not picture to myself the agents of Hachette, and Firmin Didot, and 
 the other great publishers, going about to the members of the village 
 school committee, to urge the superior merits of their respective school 
 geographies, or approaching the leading farmers of the neighborhood 
 with arguments on the excellence of the Pestalozzian or inductive 
 method, as represented in their new French grammar. There is no 
 doubt that this kind of direction would be bad for your village school, 
 and still worse for the school system of the canton. It would break 
 up its beautiful symmetry, and set everything at sixes and sevens. But 
 it would do more than the finest organization can do to accomplish the 
 ends for which schools and school systems exist. It would give you, 
 by and by, what we have in America, a farm and village population 
 capable of directing the schools of their own children. Your people 
 have not faith in the American principle that it is better for a commun- 
 ity to manage its own affairs, and do it badly, than to have them well 
 managed from the outside. Your democracy is of the French type 
 
RECENT EDUCATIONAL AWAKENING. 245 
 
 which does not go much beyond giving to all the people n voice in 
 creating a central administration, which then absorbs into itself all 
 conduct of local affairs, instead of leaving them to the people locally 
 interested in them. 
 
 " And so, with many words, scarce persuaded I my Swiss brother that 
 our better education in America was owing, not indeed to our worse 
 school system, but to the things which make our school system worse.'' 
 
 ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER XI. 
 
 How the progress of educational thought has been traced down to 
 the beginning of our own era. 
 
 What is proposed in this chapter. 
 
 One's feelings on studying the educational reports of recent date. 
 The wonderful change. — How the spirit of Christian civilization has 
 permeated society. — Illustrations of this. 
 
 What the general reference table on page 236 shows. Why " school 
 population " is not given in this table. The kind of schools which this 
 table includes. The school age in foreign countries. — The average 
 period of school age. What the column of expenditure includes. 
 
 Countries in which the elementary schools are free. Their nature in 
 the remaining countries. 
 
 The Present School System of Great Britain : (a) When 
 established, (b) Table showing its progress. 
 
 Elementary Education in London : (a) Enrollment and daily 
 attendance, (i) The average expense per child, (c) Proficiency illus- 
 trated, (d) Course of study, (e) The danger that waits the schools. 
 (/) The age at which children leave school, (g) The amount of time 
 spent in school, (h) Home lessons impracticable, (z) Evening schools 
 needed. 
 
 France: (a) Stormy times. (6) Steady progress illustrated, (c) The 
 course of study . — Its heaviness. 
 
 Germany: (a) Each state has its own system, (ft) The course of 
 study generally heavier than that of the French, (c) The boy's study 
 out of school, and his load of books, (d) Recent laws regarding this. 
 (e) Children not now sent to school untill six years old. (/) The high 
 qualification of teachers, as shown from the normal schools. 
 
 Dr. Bacon on the great obstacle in the way of most European school 
 systems. 
 
246 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. 
 
 Compare the condition of the unfortunate classes in modern Chris- 
 tian lands with that of similar classes in other lands and other ages. 
 
 Contrast the schools of to-day with those of ioo years ago. 
 
 In what respects do you consider that there has been the greatest 
 progress ? 
 
 How do you account for the fact that the per cent, of school enroll- 
 ment is so low in some of the South American states? In Russia? 
 Belgium ? Itaiy ? 
 
 How do you account for the school enrollment's being so high in 
 Japan, as compared with other pagan countries ? 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 AMERICAN EDUCATION DURING THE COLONIAL 
 PERIOD. 
 
 Peculiar interest attaches to the beginnings of education 
 in this land of schools and colleges, but in the present 
 chapter we can do little more than glance at a few of the 
 more important of these. The facts here stated have been 
 gleaned from a variety of sources, but chiefly from the re- 
 ports of the Commissioner of Education, and from Boone's 
 " Education in the United States." 
 
 New England. — The importance of learning was well- 
 nigh universally acknowledged by the early settlers of New 
 England, where the people prized it next to their religion. 
 The first school entry for Boston is the record of a public 
 meeting held April 13, 1635. ^ n this meeting " it was gen- 
 erally agreed upon that our brother, Philemon Purmont, 
 shall be intreated to become schoolmaster for the teaching 
 and nourtering of children with us." The grant of thirty 
 acres of land along Muddy River, assigned to the brother, 
 was, two years after, "publicly confirmed." Thenceforth 
 the civil action in education runs throughout the civic 
 record. 
 
 The conception of the educational responsibility of the 
 state is most forcibly expressed in the two acts of 1642 
 and 1647, passed by the general court [legislature] of the 
 Massachusetts Bay Colony. By the former, the selectmen 
 of every town were required to " have a vigilant eye over 
 
248 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 their brethren and neighbors, to see, first, that none of them 
 shall suffer so much barbarism in any of their families as 
 not to endeavor to teach, by themselves or others, their 
 children and apprentices so much learning as may enable 
 them perfectly to read the English tongue, and knowledge 
 of the capital laws, under penalty of twenty shillings for 
 each neglect therein." 
 
 The same act further provides that " all parents and 
 masters do breed and bring up their children and appren- 
 tices in some honest, lawful calling, labor, or employment, 
 either in husbandry or some other trade profitable for 
 themselves and the commonwealth, if they will not' or 
 can not train them up in learning to fit them for higher 
 employments." 
 
 While universal education was thus enjoined, the law of 
 1647 went further, making the support of schools compul- 
 sory, and the blessings of them universal. By this law 
 every township containing fifty householders was required 
 to appoint a teacher, " to teach all children as shall resort 
 to him to write and read; " and every town containing one 
 hundred families or householders was required to " set up 
 a grammar schoole, the master thereof being able to in- 
 struct youth so farr as they may be fited for the univer- 
 sity." We can not estimate the full scope of the provision 
 unless we keep in mind that the term " grammar school," 
 in the old laws, always meant a school where the ancient 
 languages were taught, and where youth could be " fited 
 for the university.'' 
 
 "Thus," says a commentator, " were recognized and em- 
 bodied in a public statute the highest principles of political 
 economy and of social well-being — universal education and 
 the prevention of non-producers among men. " 
 
 Similar laws were adopted in Connecticut; but Rhode 
 Island seems to have made no attempt at establishing 
 
EDUCATION DURING COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 249 
 
 anything like a general school system until after the Revo- 
 lutionary War. 
 
 Nature of the Schools. — Of the real efficiency of these 
 schools but little can be learned, except by way of infer- 
 ence from the nature of their teachers, the subjects pursued 
 in them, and the text-books in use. It is affirmed that of 
 the twenty-two masters of the Plymouth school, from 1671 
 to the Revolution, twenty were graduates of Harvard, and 
 it is probable that the " grammar schools " generally were 
 taught by men of high classical attainments. It was prob- 
 ably true, however, then, as in later times, that the masters 
 or principals of this grade of schools were appointed on 
 account of their supposed ability to teach Latin and Greek, 
 without much reference to their other natural or acquired 
 qualifications. Still, these schools were undoubtedly much 
 better taught than were those in the rural districts, where, 
 if cotemporary writers may be trusted, the teachers were 
 often woefully incompetent. For a statement of the qual- 
 ifications of teachers at about the time of the Revolution, 
 when it is fair to assume that the conditions were better 
 than at this earlier period, see Chapter XIV. 
 
 The salaries of the teachers varied according to the na- 
 ture of the schools and the ability of the district to meet 
 the expense. It is stated that, previous to 1800, the wages 
 of masters varied from four to ten dollars per month, 
 while mistresses received from fifty cents to a dollar 
 and a half per week. They generally " boarded around," 
 however, and consequently had but few expenses. It 
 must also be borne in mind that the purchasing power of 
 money was then much greater than at the present time. 
 Female teachers were the rare exception in colonial 
 times, as indeed they were until long after the Revolu- 
 tion. 
 
 Text-books. — A glance at the nature of the text-books 
 
25° 
 
 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 in use will help us further to form an estimate of the na- 
 ture of the early New England schools: 
 
 Up to 1665, Richard Mather's Catechism and the Bible 
 were almost the only books used. Then the New Testa- 
 ment, and the Psalter, containing the Psalms, the Proverbs, 
 the Sermon on the Mount, and the Nicene Creed, were 
 introduced. The Horn-Book was also introduced at an 
 early date, and the far-famed New England Primer sup- 
 planted the Catechism toward the close of the seventeenth 
 century. The classes were ranked as follows: (1) The 
 Psalter Class, or beginners; (2) the Testament Class; and 
 (3) the Bible Class. 
 
 The " Horn-Book," above referred to, was an English 
 production. It consisted of a pasteboard sheet contain- 
 ing the alphabet and as many monosyllables as could be 
 crowded into the space, set in a frame like a slate, and 
 covered on both sides with transparent sheets of horn to 
 protect its precious characters from the touch of the little 
 learners' fingers. 
 
 Spelling and reading were taught from the same book — 
 a long mechanical course in the former often preceding 
 the latter, and this practice was continued far down beyond 
 the Revolution. It was no uncommon thing in these old- 
 time schools for a teacher, after having had a " spelling 
 class" under his tuition for months, to inquire incidentally 
 whether they could read. The New England Primer was 
 a famous book in its day. It was first issued during the 
 latter part of the seventeenth century; was revised and 
 enlarged many times, and continued in use until the close 
 of the eighteenth century. It must be seen to be appre- 
 ciated. For a further account of early school-books, see 
 Chapter XIV. 
 
 Education of Girls With all New England's proud 
 
 record as the pioneer in popular education, the fact must 
 
EDUCATION DURING COLONIAL PERIOD. 251 
 
 be recorded to her discredit that the literary education of 
 her girls was almost totally neglected during the first hun- 
 dred years of her history. 
 
 "Before the close of the last century most New England towns had 
 made some provision for the education of girls, either in short summer 
 terms, or at the noon hours, or other intervals, of the town (boys') 
 school. But no such opportunity was afforded girls to make the most 
 of themselves as had been forced upon boys for a half-dozen genera- 
 tions. There were certain schools that were not only eminently suc- 
 cessful as schools, but were agencies of wide influence in educating 
 public sentiment, and at the same time of service in publishing the 
 possibilities of the female mind. , . . The most vigorous and 
 systematic experiment, however, and the most vigorously and sys- 
 tematically antagonized, was in Boston. As early as 1700 there had 
 been ' writing-schools ' to which girls were admitted. They were 
 irregularly maintained for nearly a hundred years, but to no definite 
 purpose. Instruction was usually given by the teachers of the common 
 schools, but between the regular sessions. About 1787, Mr. Caleb 
 Bingham, with an illustrious reputation as a teacher, proposed to open 
 a real school for girls, where, besides writing, they should be taught 
 reading, spelling, arithmetic, and English grammar. Immediately 
 upon opening, his school-room was filled. The supply created a de- 
 mand. More sought admission than could be accommodated. With 
 the selectmen's daughters in school, female education was becoming 
 popular. It was proposed to establish three new schools for girls, 
 called "reading-schools." Now was introduced a curious organiza- 
 tion. Pupils attending a writing-school in the morning in one build- 
 ing, were, in the afternoon, in another building, by another set of 
 teachers, instructed in the "reading-school." While the girls were in 
 one school, the boys were in another; and, to avoid too great hazard, 
 the girls were only allowed to attend school six months in the year. 
 This came to be called, very appropriately, the ' ' double-headed " sys- 
 tem, and it continued until near the middle of the present century." — 
 Boone. 
 
 Harvard. — The beginning of higher education in this 
 section dates from the founding of Harvard College by the 
 general court [legislature] of Massachusetts Bay Colony, 
 
252 
 
 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 in 1636. This, it will be remembered, was but sixteen 
 years after the landing of the Pilgrims in the unbroken 
 wilderness, and but six years after the founding of Boston. 
 
 About $2,000 was at first appropriated by the legisla- 
 ture, and additional gifts, in books and cash and general 
 supplies, were made, and the school opened with a small 
 attendance two years afterward. A few years later each 
 family gave a shilling, a sheep, a string of wampum, or a 
 peck of corn for its support, and the income of the ferry 
 between Boston and Cambridge was appropriated for the 
 same purpose.* It seems to be in strict accord with the 
 eternal fitness of things that this earliest college in Amer- 
 ica should continue to be, by general consent, the first in 
 point of excellence as well as age. 
 
 New York. — The fragmentary records and occasional 
 notes of the beginnings of education in the Empire State 
 which have survived colonial transfer and revolutionary con- 
 fusion, repeat in dimmer but still legible characters the prin- 
 ciples so clearly marked in the Puritan colony. 
 
 The settlers of New Amsterdam brought an ideal from 
 their native land; there they had been participators in the 
 advantages of the first system of common schools ever 
 established in Europe. The West India Company were 
 bound by the national authorities to maintain in their 
 distant colony in the wilderness of the New Netherlands 
 "good and fit preachers, schoolmasters, and comforters 
 of the sick." As the government bound the company, so 
 they in their turn obliged the patroons to support in their 
 
 * It is an interesting fact that this great university, as well as most other early 
 educational and religious institutions in this country, resorted to the questionable 
 practice of raising funds through lotteries, during " the good old days." In 
 1775 Harvard realized §18,000, and in 1811, $29,000, from the sale of lottery tickets. 
 Columbia College, Union College, Hamilton College, academies everywhere, and 
 even the common-school funds, in some cases, were assisted in this way. Verily 
 the world is growing better. 
 
EDUCATION DURING COLONIAL PERIOD. 253 
 
 several agricultural colonies a minister and a schoolmaster. 
 Until 1633 the double function devolved upon one person. 
 Then " teachers of approved learning " were introduced 
 by the governor, and several schools established, one of 
 which, that of the Reformed Protestant Dutch Church, 
 still attests the early conviction of the public responsibility 
 in the instruction of the young. These schools were open 
 and free to all children who chose to attend them. Even 
 in the private schools established for the children of the 
 wealthy, no one could teach without a license from the 
 civil and ecclesiastical authorities. 
 
 During the Dutch period the schoolmaster, in order to 
 supplement his income, was accustomed to dig graves, ring 
 the church bells, and act as chorister and town clerk. At 
 the time of the surrender of the Dutch in 1664, almost 
 every town in the colony had its school and its teacher; 
 but after the occupation by the English, these schools were 
 largely broken up. Still, it is recorded that during the 
 English period some of these schools were continued by 
 Dutch masters who taught English as an accomplishment. 
 
 At as early a date as 1702, free grammar schools were 
 established by law in the city of New York; but it was not 
 till 1795 that the general common-school system of the 
 State was established. 
 
 Delaware. — Mixture of peoples is a striking feature of 
 the early settlements along the left bank of the Delaware; 
 but amidst the diversity of social customs and religious 
 observances and industrial aptitudes which characterized 
 Quakers, Moravians, Lutherans, Swiss Mennonites, and 
 Catholics, there was a singular unanimity of feeling with 
 respect to education. That the Dutch and Swedes estab- 
 lished little schools in connection with their churches, as 
 had been done in Manhattan, and watched them with jeal- 
 ous care, is not a matter of conjecture. Among the records 
 
2 54 
 
 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 of the Dutch government on the Delaware is an account of 
 the labors of Evert Pietersen, who arrived in the colony as 
 schoolmaster, comforter of the sick, and setter of psalms, 
 April, 1657, and in August of that year had twenty-five 
 pupils. It is said that the first school for girls in the col- 
 ony was established at Lewiston, Delaware. The Swedes 
 established schools at Uplandt (now Chester), Tinicum, and 
 elsewhere. 
 
 Pennsylvania In December, 1682, the first legislative 
 
 assembly met at Chester, and one of its three acts was the 
 passage of the "great law.'' In this Penn made provision 
 for the education of the youth of the province, and enacted 
 that the governor and provincial council should erect and 
 order all public schools. The school clause of Penn's law 
 was as follows : 
 
 " Be it enacted by the authority aforesaid, That all persons within the 
 province and territories thereof having children, and all the guardians 
 or trustees of orphans, shall cause such to be instructed in reading and 
 writing, so that they may be able to read the Scriptures and to write by 
 the time they attain to the age of twelve years, and that they then be 
 taught some useful trade or skill, that the poor may work to live, and 
 the rich, if they become poor, may not want; of which every court shall 
 take care. And in case such parents, guardians, or overseers shall be 
 found deficient in this respect, every such parent, guardian, or overseer, 
 shall pay for every such child, five pounds, except there should appear 
 incapacity of body or understanding to hinder it." 
 
 Subsequent legislation reaffirmed the provisions. Thus, 
 by act of assembly it was required that the laws should be 
 taught in all the schools of the province, and in 1693, at an 
 extra session called to resist the usurpations of Governor 
 Fletcher, the assembly passed a second school law which 
 provided for the education of the youth in every county. 
 Among colonists ripe for such legislation the school spirit 
 was naturally expansive. Beside elementary schools, free 
 
EDUCATION DURING COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 255 
 
 to both sexes, private schools and classical schools for boys 
 multiplied. In 1749 the germ of the University of Penn- 
 sylvania sprang up in the form of an academy and charita- 
 ble school, supported by subscription. It was chartered 
 and endowed in 1753, erected into a college in 1755, and 
 became a university in 1779. 
 
 New Jersey. — Schools were early established in New 
 Jersey, and when Philadelphia was but a year old an island 
 in the Delaware River was appropriated to education in the 
 Burlington settlement. It was provided that the revenues 
 from the soil or rent of this land were to be enjoyed " by 
 all the families equally." This is one of the very oldest 
 permanent school-funds in America, and the revenues from 
 it are still enjoyed by the town. A few years later a law 
 was passed authorizing the establishing of schools in 
 any town of the colony — " the consent of the major part 
 of the inhabitants to be binding upon all, even to the 
 distress of their goods and chattels," for the support 
 of the schools. This seems very much like the present 
 American principle of public schools. The law was not, 
 however, mandatory upon the towns, and they might or 
 might not establish schools, as they saw fit. It should be 
 recorded to the honor of the colonists that within ten years 
 after the passage of the law, all the counties had availed 
 themselves of its privileges, and, considering the poverty 
 of the people and the sparseness of the population, these 
 schools were, for the most part, generously supported. 
 The people seem to have been so well satisfied with the 
 system that for the space of a hundred years nothing 
 further was desired. 
 
 Virginia. — The early school history of Virginia centers 
 in the establishment of the College of William and Mary. 
 The documents in which it is comprised — namely, the peti- 
 tion from the general assembly and the charter from their 
 
256 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 majesties — fairly illustrate the educational theory of the 
 Virginians. When a school was necessary, to the " end 
 that the Church of Virginia might be furnished with a 
 seminary of ministers of the gospel, and that the youth 
 might be piously educated in good letters and manners, 
 and that the Christian faith might be propagated amongst 
 the western Indians" — " a place of universal study, or per- 
 petual college of divinity, philosophy, languages, and other 
 good arts and sciences " — the people turned to the gen- 
 eral government and made their desires known. 
 
 Toward the endowment of the college, William and 
 Mary contributed one thousand nine hundred and eighty- 
 five pounds, raised out of the quit-rents of the colony; one 
 penny a pound on all tobacco exported from Virginia and 
 Maryland; the office of surveyor-general, with all its is- 
 sues, fees, etc.; ten thousand acres of land lying on the 
 south side of Blackwater Swamp, and ten thousand acres 
 in Pamunky Neck. This is the only educational institution 
 in America that received aid from the mother country. 
 
 Taxation continued to be an important source of rev- 
 enue to the institution; thus, in 1726, a duty was laid on 
 liquors for its benefit by the House of Burgesses; in 1759, 
 a grant was made to it of the tax on peddlers; and from 
 these various revenues it was, in 1776, the richest college 
 in North America. 
 
 The responsibility of government, the necessity of su- 
 pervision, the justice of a school tax, characteristics all of 
 the modern system of free public education, are embodied 
 in the charter history of this honored institution. " Nor 
 was it unfortunate," says the Commissioner of Education, 
 " that public interest in this instance was first directed to 
 superior learning. Some forces work most effectually by 
 downward pressure; systems of education beginning with 
 the elements have been known to exhaust themselves in 
 
EDUCATION DURING COLONIAL PERIOD. 257 
 
 contracted bounds; but the university virtually involves 
 the necessary antecedents, as the subsequent history of 
 education in Virginia indicates." 
 
 The Southern States — The Southern colonies met 
 with great difficulties in their plans to promote common- 
 school education. The royal governors were generally 
 opposed to public instruction, and would not allow the 
 people to have common schools.* One of the governors 
 of Virginia, Sir William Berkeley, said: "I thank God 
 there are no free schools nor printing in the colony, 
 and I hope there will not be these hundred years, for 
 learning has brought disobedience, heresy, and sects into 
 the world, and printing has published and scattered 
 them." 
 
 Common-school education in most of the Southern 
 States was not, however, neglected in colonial days to the 
 extent that many have supposed, and it is clearly unjust 
 to hold the people responsible for the sentiments of their 
 royal governors; and yet we are very apt to form our 
 opinions from just that sort of evidence. 
 
 The United States Commissioner of Education, after a 
 careful examination into the facts of the case, publishes 
 over his own name, in a document just issued from the 
 Bureau of Education, the following card: 
 
 " The growth of the American public-school system, and its excellence, 
 have imparted a peculiar interest to the history of the Massachusetts 
 colonies, in which its essential principles were first promulgated and 
 developed. Massachusetts, however, did not stand alone in its efforts 
 for the establishment of schools. The same purpose animated her sis- 
 ter colonies. This is particularly true of South Carolina." 
 
 Space will forbid to give here the abundant evidence on 
 
 * Governor Nicholson, of South Carolina, formed an honorable exception to this 
 rule. 
 
 17 
 
558 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 which this statement is based, but no impartial reader can 
 peruse Circular No. 4, issued from the Bureau of Educa- 
 tion in 1889, without being thoroughly convinced of its 
 truth. 
 
 South Carolina As early as 17 12 the assembly passed 
 
 laws for the establishing and maintaining of a free gram 
 mar school in Charleston, " for the use of the inhabitants 
 of South Carolina; " and it was further enacted "that any 
 schoolmaster settled in a country parish, and approved by 
 the vestry, should receive ten pounds per annum from the 
 public treasury," and that the "vestry should be authorized 
 to draw from the same source twelve pounds toward build- 
 ing a school-house in each of the country parishes " 
 Prof. Rivers, in his " Early History of South Carolina," 
 says: 
 
 " The Society for Propagating the Gospel sent out missionaries not 
 only to preach, but ' to encourage to setting up of schools for the 
 teaching of children.' Their schoolmasters were required ' to take 
 especial care of the manners of the pupils in and out of school; warning 
 them against lying and falsehood and evil speaking; to love truth and 
 honesty; to be modest, just, and affable; to receive in their tender 
 years that sense of religion which may lender it the constant principle 
 of their lives and actions.' The want of schools, however, was not im- 
 mediately remedied, and such urgent appeals were made to the society 
 that in 171 1 they established a school in Charleston under Rev. William 
 Guy. In the previous year several persons having bequeathed legacies 
 for founding a free school, an act was passed (1712) for this pur- 
 pose, and soon afterward for extending similar benefits to all the 
 parishes." 
 
 That the Charleston free grammar school was not sim. 
 ply established on paper is attested by a tombstone in 
 St. Philip's church-yard with the following inscription, the 
 words " Free School " being given prominence, as here 
 indicated: 
 
EDUCATION DURING COLONIAL PERIOD. 259 
 
 The Rev 6 - Mr John Lambert 
 
 Late Master Principal and Teacher of Grammar 
 
 And Other Scie?ices Taught in the 
 
 FREE SCHOOL 
 
 At Charlestown for y" Province of South Carolina 
 
 And Afternoon Lecturer of this Parish 
 
 Of St. Philip's — Charlestown — 
 
 Departed this Life [suddenly) on y" 4th August 1729 
 
 -Blessed is this servant whom his Lord when 
 
 He cometh shall find so doing 
 
 By an act of the legislature, passed February 23, 1722, 
 the justices of the courts were authorized to purchase 
 lands, erect a free school in each county and precinct, and 
 to assess the expense upon the lands and slaves within their 
 respective jurisdictions. They were to appoint masters who 
 should be "well skilled in the Latin tongue," and be al- 
 lowed twenty-five pounds proclamation money per annum. 
 Ten poor children were to be taught gratis yearly, if sent 
 by the justices. In 1734 an act was passed, the preamble 
 of which is so pertinent that it is here quoted: 
 
 " Whereas, By the blessing of Almighty God, the youth of this Prov- 
 ince are become very numerous and their parents so well inclined to 
 have them instructed in grammar and other liberal arts and sciences, 
 and other useful learning, and also in the principles of the Christian 
 religion, that the free school erected, authorized, and established in 
 Charlestown for this purpose is not sufficient fully to answer the good 
 intent of such an undertaking: And, whereas, Several of the inhabi- 
 tants of this Province who have a numerous issue and live at such a 
 distance from the said free school now established in Charlestown, that 
 their circumstances may not be sufficient to permit them to send their 
 children thither to be educated, whereby they maybe deprived of so 
 great a benefit; and it therefore appearing necessary that one or more 
 schools be founded and erected in other part or parts of this Province 
 
26o HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 as shall be most convenient for carrying out so laudable a design, we 
 therefore pray your Most Sacred Majesty that it be enacted,'' etc. 
 
 The author believes that the unprejudiced reader will 
 agree with him that these do not sound like the words of 
 these who were unmindful of the education of the young 
 — especially when it is remembered that the population of 
 the entire province was then but a little over seven thou- 
 sand. 
 
 We shall greatly err, however, if we suppose from this 
 that common schools were generally diffused throughout 
 the South in colonial times. That the system was only a 
 partial success was largely due here, as in other sections, 
 to the utter lack of supervision. The school officers being 
 responsible to no one, in many cases diverted the funds 
 from their appropriate use. But yet, that both South 
 -Carolina and her neighboring Southern colonies not only 
 made an honest effort to establish common schools, but 
 that they actually maintained them in many cases against 
 seemingly insuperable obstacles, must be recorded to their 
 honor. The fact that the schools were only partially 
 " free '' was equally true in the Northern colonies, not 
 only in colonial times, but down to a much later date. 
 (See Chapter XIV.) 
 
 Nine Colonial Colleges. — At the close of our country's 
 colonial period, nine colleges existed. Although most of 
 these were more or less endowed and controlled by the 
 state, they were yet denominational in character. Three 
 were Episcopalian, three Congregational, one Presbyte- 
 rian, one Baptist, and one Dutch Reformed. From their 
 halls went forth a continuous succession of cultured and 
 strong-minded men, well calculated to sit in the councils 
 of the nation during her stormy Revolutionary epoch. 
 
 Harvard, the first of these great institutions of higher 
 
EDUCATION DURING COLONIAL PERIOD. 2 6l 
 
 education, has been already mentioned. Its motto was 
 " For Christ and the Church," and among its alumni 
 are many of the most noted names in American litera- 
 ture. 
 
 The second of these old-time colleges, William and 
 Mary, has also been referred to. It served as a type for 
 most of the subsequent Southern colleges, and was the 
 great training-school of Southern chivalry. Though it 
 furnished to the nation a galaxy of brilliant lights, and 
 graduated many of our most noted statesmen, it yet failed 
 in one of the original humane purposes for which it was 
 established— the education of the Indians. It is recorded 
 that the few Indians educated within its walls, instead of 
 going back to instruct their brethren, usually relapsed into 
 barbarism themselves. 
 
 Connecticut, not to be outdone by her sister colony, and 
 seeing the great advantage which Massachusetts derived 
 from Harvard, determined, at an early date, to establish 
 a similar institution of her own. Accordingly, ten worthy 
 clergymen assembled in 1700, near New Haven, and each, 
 placing a Tiurhber of volumes on the table at which they 
 were sitting, said: " I give these books for the founding of 
 a college in this colony." This was the beginning of 
 Yale College, named in honor of Elihu Yale, of New 
 Haven, who contributed liberally toward its endowment. 
 It has sent out many illustrious men, and it vies with 
 Harvard in the standard of its scholarship. 
 
 The College of New Jersey, commonly called Princeton, 
 was founded in 1746. It was established, like its sister 
 institutions of colonial times, for the education of Christian 
 ministers, and it has sent forth many noted divines, and 
 other illustrious men. 
 
 Columbia College, formerly called King's College, was 
 founded in the city of New York in 1755. It has always 
 
262 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 sustained a high reputation, both for classical and scien- 
 tific instruction. 
 
 During the same year that Columbia was established, 
 the University of Pennsylvania was founded in Phila- 
 delphia, by Benjamin Franklin. {See page 255.) 
 
 Brown University, at first known as Rhode Island Col- 
 lege, was founded at Providence in 1764, by the followers 
 of Roger Williams. ^cir f 7j!U, st^T Ock<. "' 
 
 Dartmouth College was founded at Hanover, N. H., 
 in 1769, to provide Christian education for the Indians. It 
 has always borne a high reputation, and has sent out some 
 of our most noted men, among whom were Daniel Webster 
 and Rufus Choate. 
 
 Rutgers College, formerly called Queen's College, 
 was established at Brunswick, N. J., in 1770, by the 
 Dutch Reformed denomination. 
 
 Most of these institutions were closed during the Revo- 
 lution. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER XII. 
 
 How Learning was prized in New England by the Earliest 
 Settlers : (a) The first school entry in Boston, (i) The acts of 
 1642 and 1647. (c) The term "grammar school." (d) What a com- 
 mentator says, (e) Connecticut and Rhode Island. 
 
 The Efficiency of the Schools : («) Grammar-school teachers. 
 (h) Rural schools. (<r) Salaries, (d) Female teachers scarce. U) The 
 text-books. (/) Classification, etc. (g) The education of girls. 
 
 The founding of Harvard. — Its sources of revenue, etc. 
 
 New York : (a) What the surviving fragmentary records of New 
 York show, (b) What the West India Company required, (c) What 
 the patroons were obliged to support, etc. (d) The change of 1633. 
 (e) The schools full. (/) The qualifications of the teachers in private 
 schools, (g) How the masters supplemented their salaries, (h) The 
 schools in the English period, etc. (i) The conception of a State 
 system entertained. (/) Free grammar schools in the city, etc. 
 
 Early Education along the Delaware : (a) The mixed popula- 
 
EDUCATION DURING COLONIAL PERIOD. 263 
 
 tions. {$) Unanimity of feeling. (<r) Dutch and Swede schools, (d) 
 Everet Pietersen's work, (e) The first school for girls. (/) Provisions 
 of the " great law." (g) Requirements that the laws be taught in the 
 schools. (A) Provision for education in every county. (») The ex- 
 pansive school spirit among the Quakers. (J) The evolution of the 
 University of Pennsylvania. 
 
 New Jersey schools — the Burlington fund — the later laws. 
 
 Southern Education : (a) The College of William and Mary. 
 (6) The petition from the legislature, (c) The endowments, (a") The 
 only school helped by England, (e) Aided by taxation. (/) Charac- 
 teristics of free education, (g) " Downward pressure." 
 
 The Difficulties which the Southern Colonies met in estab- 
 lishing Common Schools : (a) The opposition of the royal governors, 
 etc. (i) Common-school education not neglected to the extent many 
 have supposed, (c) What the United States Commissioner of Educa- 
 tion says, (d) Circular No. 4, 1889. (e) The act of 171 2, etc. (/) What 
 Prof. Rivers says, (g) Lambert's tombstone, (k) Schools established 
 by taxation in every county and precinct, by act of 1722. (z) The quali- 
 fications of the masters required. (J) Preamble to the act of 1734. 
 (6) One reason why the South Carolina schools were not more efficient, 
 etc. 
 
 The Nine Colleges at the Close of the Colonial Period : (a) 
 Their denominational character, (b) Their value to the infant nation, 
 (c) Harvard, (d) William and Mary, (e) Yale. (/) Princeton, (g) 
 Columbia, (h) The University of Pennsylvania. (») Dartmouth, (/) 
 Rutgers. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. 
 
 To what causes do you attribute the educational spirit of the American 
 Colonies ? 
 
 Contrast the general characteristics of the New England colonists 
 with those of the Middle colonists. Of the Southern. 
 
 Compare the spirit of caste in colonial times with that of the present 
 day. How do you account for the change ? 
 
 How do you account for the fact that the village "grammar schools'' 
 in the early days sustained so extended a course in Greek and Latin ? 
 Does this fact indicate that they were designed primarily for the educa- 
 tion of the masses ? 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE FOSTERING HAND OF THE GENERAL GOVERN- 
 MENT IN EDUCATION. 
 
 We have seen how, in the colonial period of our coun- 
 try, the educational spirit was implanted and slowly de- 
 veloped, in spite of many adverse circumstances. Those 
 small beginnings were undoubtedly the germs from which 
 the great American system of common schools has been 
 evolved, though it was not until after the formation of our 
 Federal Government that they began to assume anything 
 like their present character. Indeed, it may be fairly 
 questioned whether, without the fostering hand of the 
 general government, our State systems of common 
 schools would have ever attained their present high de- 
 gree of excellence. 
 
 Section Sixteen. — After the erection of the original 
 thirteen States into independent republics, and before the 
 adoption of the Federal Constitution, the Continental Con- 
 gress made the first great move toward universal education 
 by the State. Most of the American statesmen of that 
 early day, without regard to party, sect, or section, seem 
 to have assumed that "a government, as the organ of 
 society, enjoys the right, and is vested with the power, to 
 meet the necessity of public education." So the question 
 of governmental aid to the cause of education seems to 
 have met no serious opposition in the Congress of the 
 Confederation, and no member raised his voice against it 
 in the discussion of the ordinance of T785, " for ascertain- 
 (864) 
 
GENERAL GOVERNMENT IN EDUCATION. 265 
 
 ing the mode of disposing of lands in Western Territory. " 
 This provided: " There shall be reserved the lot No. 16 of 
 every township for the maintenance of public schools within 
 said township." 
 
 The manner of establishing these schools, or by whom, 
 was not mentioned. It was a reservation by the United 
 States, and established a principle which finally dedicated 
 one thirty-sixth part of all public lands in the United 
 States, with certain exceptions as to mineral, etc., to the 
 public schools. In the Continental Congress, July 13, 1787, 
 according to order, the ordinance for the government of 
 the " territory of the United States northwest of the river 
 Ohio," came on, was read a third time, and passed. It 
 contained the following : 
 
 " Art. 3. Religion, morality and knowledge being necessary to good 
 government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of 
 education shall forever be encouraged." 
 
 This policy at once met with enthusiastic approval from 
 the public, and was tacitly incorporated into the American 
 system as one of its fundamental organic ideas; but whether 
 the public schools thus endowed by the United States were 
 to be under national or State control remained a question, 
 and the lands were held in reservation merely until after 
 the admission of the State of Ohio. 
 
 April 30, 1802, Congress, in the act authorizing the for- 
 mation of a State government in the eastern portion of 
 the Northwestern Territory (Ohio), enacted the following 
 proposition, which was offered for the acceptance or rejec- 
 tion of the convention called to form the constitution of 
 Ohio. (Up to this time no transfers by the United States 
 of title or control of the sixteenth section of reserved school 
 lands had taken place.) 
 
266 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION, 
 
 That the section number sixteen in every township (and where such 
 section has been sold, granted, or disposed of, other lands equivalent 
 thereto and most contiguous to the same) shall be granted to the inhabi- 
 tants of such township for the use of the schools. 
 
 The people of Ohio complied with the above stipulation; 
 and the act, 1803, in addition to the above, provided — 
 
 " That the following several tracts of land in the State of Ohio be, and 
 the same are hereby, appropriated for the use of schools in that State, 
 and shall, together with all the tracts of land heretofore appropriated 
 for that purpose, be vested in the legislature of that State in trust for 
 the use aforesaid, and for no other use, intent, or purpose whatever." 
 
 Thus Congress transferred the reserved school lands, 
 Section 16 in each township, and provided an indemnity for 
 such sections as had already been sold or taken prior to 
 survey, to the State of Ohio, in trust for the United 
 States and the people of the State for schools. Prior to 
 this, laws were silent as to how the proceeds of these re- 
 served lands were to be applied, or by whom. Compacts 
 between the United States and all the other States admit- 
 ted into the Union prior to 1820 also contained the above 
 provisions. 
 
 In the act for the organization of the Territory of Oregon, 
 August 14, 1848, Senator Stephen A. Douglas inserted an 
 additional grant for school purposes of the thirty-sixth 
 section in each township, in all States thereafter to be 
 admitted, making the reservation for school purposes the 
 sixteenth and thirty-sixth sections, or r,28o acres in each 
 township. 
 
 Lands for Universities. — -July 23, 1787, Congress, in 
 the " Power to the Board of Treasury to contract for the 
 sale of Western Territory," ordered " That not more than 
 two complete townships be given perpetually for the pur- 
 pose of an university, to be, laid off by the purchaser 01 
 
GENERAL GOVERNMENT IN EDUCATION. 
 
 267 
 
 purchasers as near the center as may be, so that the same 
 shall be of good land, to be applied to the intended object 
 by the legislature of the State." Thus was inaugurated 
 the present system of taking from the public lands, for 
 the support of seminaries or schools of a higher grade, two 
 townships at least, and in some instances more, to each of 
 the States containing public lands, and special grants have 
 also been made to private educational enterprises. 
 
 The following . statement shows the number of acres em- 
 braced in the grant of Section 16, in some of the States, and 
 Sections 16 and 36 in others, for school purposes; also, the 
 number of acres embraced in Sections 16 and 36 reserved 
 for the same purposes in the organized Territories. 
 
 SECTION 16. 
 
 ACRES. 
 
 SECTIONS 16 AND 36. 
 
 ACRES. 
 
 Ohio 
 
 704,488 
 
 650,317 
 985.096 
 
 1.199,139 
 902,774 
 837,584 
 786,044 
 
 1,067,397 
 886,460 
 908,503 
 905,144 
 958,649 
 
 
 6,719,324 
 2,969,990 
 3,329,706 
 2,801,306 
 3,985,428 
 2,702,044 
 
 3,715,555 
 2,488,675 
 4,309,368 
 3,003,316 
 5.366,451 
 5,H2,035 
 4,050,347 
 3,068,231 
 3,480,281 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Utah 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 67,893,919 
 
 
 
 The land donated by the general government to the 
 States and Territories for university purposes amounts to 
 nearly one and a quarter million acres. Nor is this all. 
 By act of 1862, Congress enlarged the national educa- 
 tional endowment system by the donation to each State of 
 
268 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 thirty thousand acres of public land not otherwise reserved 
 for each senator and representative to which such State was 
 entitled, under the apportionment of i860, for the support 
 of colleges for the cultivation of agricultural and mechan- 
 ical science and art. 
 
 The law contained a provision for location in place and 
 an issue of scrip in lieu of place locations. The Commis- 
 sioner of the General Land Office, in 1875, in the case of 
 the State of Colorado, ruled that the grant attaches to a 
 new State without further legislation. 
 
 " In place " means that the States having public lands in 
 their limits were to take such lands in satisfaction of their 
 allowance under this law. " In scrip " means an issue of 
 redeemable land scrip, assignable, which might be located 
 according to law and stipulations in the act, to States which 
 had no public lands within their limits from which their 
 allowance could be satisfied. 
 
 The lands entered " in place " were sold by the several 
 States and the proceeds used to endow agricultural col- 
 leges. The " scrip " was sold by the several States (in 
 most cases) and the proceeds used for the same purpose. 
 
 The total amount of land thus generously donated to the 
 States will, when all have been admitted, amount to about 
 ten million acres. 
 
 Still again, by act of T836, Congress gave the surplus of 
 thirty million dollars, then in the United States treasury, 
 to the several States, to be usad by them for educational 
 or other public purposes. Sixteen of the twenty-six States 
 then organized devoted either the whole or a part of this 
 fund for the maintenance of common schools. Eight of 
 the States, viz.: Alabama, Delaware, Kentucky, Missouri, 
 New York, Ohio, Rhode Island, and Vermont, appropriated 
 the whole of their share, aggregating nearly ten million 
 dollars, to this purpose. Eight other States devoted an 
 
GENERAL GOVERNMENT IN EDUCATION. 2 6g 
 
 aggregate of over nine million dollars to similar purposes, 
 so that in all more than nineteen million dollars of this 
 munificent donation went directly to the support of com- 
 mon schools. 
 
 AI! these magnanimous donations from the general gov- 
 ernment have greatly encouraged the formation of schools 
 in the newer States, and by their reflexive power they have 
 doubtless exerted a salutary influence on the educational 
 institutions of the older States. 
 
 Distribution of Permanent Funds It will be seen 
 
 by the original wordings of the acts which donated lands 
 for the support of common schools that it was evidently 
 intended that each township should receive the proceeds 
 of its own section, and in the case of some of the first 
 States receiving the donation, this plan was adopted. But 
 as the land in some townships was much more valuable than 
 in others, this system afforded some townships almost suf- 
 ficient revenue for the entire support of their schools, while 
 in others, where the land was poor, and where in conse- 
 quence the help of the government was most needed, it 
 afforded little revenue. This was so manifestly unjust, 
 and so contrary to the spirit of the laws which made the 
 grant, that, in most cases, the lands have been given to the 
 States as a whole, and the proceeds of their sale or rent 
 has been distributed pro rata to the various districts of 
 the State. In most cases these funds have been wisely 
 invested, and the most sanguine advocates of the educa- 
 tional land-grants could scarcely, have anticipated more 
 desirable results than have been achieved. 
 
 Not the least of the salutary influences of these great 
 donations has been the fact that they have necessitated the 
 establishing of State educational systems; and so, in most 
 of the newer States, these great interests have been placed, 
 from the very first, under competent supervision — and it is 
 
270 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 to this that the educational systems of the Western States, 
 in particular, owe much of their present high degree of 
 efficiency. In nearly every case there has been a State 
 Superintendent of Public Instruction, vested with general 
 supervisory powers; a county superintendent, to whom is 
 entrusted the more personal supervision of the schools of 
 his own county; while the local control of each district, 
 with certain limitations, has been wisely entrusted to its 
 own board of directors. 
 
 It is evident that as the States grow older, and their pop- 
 ulation increases, the relative amount of their revenue from 
 the permanent school funds (the interest on money re- 
 ceived for the sale of school lands or money received for 
 their rent) must gradually decrease; but as the various 
 districts are then, for the most part, abundantly able to 
 support their schools from local taxation, the falling off is 
 scarcely felt. The help from the general government is 
 greatest at the time when such help is most needed — when 
 the pioneers are making themselves homes on the frontier, 
 and when, owing to the sparseness of the population, the 
 burden of supporting efficient schools unaided would be 
 most oppressive. 
 
 Tables of Permanent Funds. — The following tables 
 will show the relative amount of support which the various 
 sections of the United States now receive from the perma- 
 nent school funds, as well as from other sources: 
 
general Government in education. 271 
 
 
 School revenue per cap- 
 ita of population 
 6 to 14. 
 
 School revenue per cap- 
 ita of average at- 
 tendance. 
 
 Section. 
 
 (For States included, 
 see page 226.) 
 
 s . 
 u £ 
 
 c a 
 
 b c 
 
 o»S 
 
 l§ 
 fa 
 
 .24 
 .08 
 .18 
 .20 
 
 .88 
 .64 
 
 V 
 
 K 
 
 a 
 
 V 
 
 55 
 
 a 
 
 2 
 fa 
 
 2.07 
 1.83 
 1. 18 
 1.36 
 5.78 
 
 I.9O 
 
 in 
 
 8 
 
 rt 
 
 "3 
 CJ 
 O 
 
 a 
 2 
 fa 
 
 c/i 
 <D 
 U 
 
 s 
 
 
 (A 
 l-i 
 
 <u 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 fa 
 
 c . 
 
 c c <u 
 
 ~ aj X 
 
 Q.-3 en 
 6 § S 
 2- 2 
 fa fa 
 
 •34358 
 
 • H3 -27 
 
 .362.13 
 
 1.571.78 
 
 (it 
 V 
 X 
 rt 
 
 "rt 
 
 
 S 
 O 
 
 H 
 
 fa 
 
 V 
 O 
 
 )H 
 
 s 
 
 
 W 
 
 u 
 
 <U 
 
 -c 
 
 
 s 
 
 2 
 fa 
 
 North Atlantic 
 
 South Atlantic 
 
 North Central 
 
 n.90 
 
 i-75 
 
 1.60 
 
 10.29 
 
 "•55 
 
 7.42 
 
 .84 
 •35 
 •23 
 1.03 
 
 1-39 
 
 •75 
 
 16.61 
 
 3-13 
 
 2.88 
 
 I3-46 
 
 15-52 
 
 1.20 
 
 .62 
 
 ■ 42 
 
 1-37 
 
 1.87 
 
 
 •95 
 
 
 United States 
 
 2.77 
 
 10.92 
 
 1. 12 
 
 PERCENTAGE OF THE WHOLE REVENUE RECEIVED FROM EACH SOURCE 
 
 NAMED. 
 
 Section. 
 
 North Atlantic 
 
 South Atlantic 
 
 South Central , 
 
 North Central , 
 
 Vv estern 
 
 United States 
 
 •3 o . 
 
 C C rt en 
 
 1-53 
 2.00 
 
 5-64 
 8.65 
 
 4-49 
 
 5-98 
 
 17.06 
 45-64 
 36 99 
 9.80 
 29.49 
 
 17-74 
 
 76 
 43 
 50 
 
 74 
 58 
 
 69 
 
 04 
 64 
 16 
 14 
 93 
 
 28 
 
 It is seen from the foregoing that from the very incep- 
 tion of the general government down to the present time its 
 policy has ever been to lend its aid to the establishing of 
 
272 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 common schools, as the surest guarantee of its own per- 
 petuity, as well as for the happiness of the people. And 
 yet, with a hundred years of unbroken precedents staring 
 them in the face, there are those who profess to believe 
 that there are no precedents authorizing the passage of 
 an educational bill proposing to distribute a necessary 
 amount among the States for educational purposes in 
 the ratio of the illiteracy of their population ! The main 
 object is, of course, to render aid to the war-impoverished 
 South in her efforts to. educate the freedmen and remove 
 the dark and ominous cloud of illiteracy which hangs over 
 that section of our country. And when it is remembered 
 that between the years 1870 and 1890 the Southern peo- 
 ple have, out of their penury, expended more than forty 
 million dollars for the purpose of educating the children 
 of their old-time slaves, it would seem that every impulse 
 of humanity, as well as public safety, should prompt the 
 passage of this most righteous and much-needed law. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 The American system of common schools not fully developed until 
 after the Revolution. 
 
 The Continental Congress makes the first great movement toward 
 universal education. — (a) The ordinance of 1785. (/>) The ordinance 
 of 1787 and its provisions, (c) The question of control unsettled until 
 1802. 
 
 The act of Congress in admitting Ohio, (a) 1802. (6) 1806. 
 
 Compacts in admitting other States prior to 1820. The provisions of 
 1848, admitting Oregon. The act in regard to university lands, 1787. 
 
 Table showing land received by the States for common-school pur- 
 poses. 
 
 The grant of 1862 for Agricultural Colleges, (a) Meaning of " In 
 place" and " In scrip." {&) Amount of land thus given. 
 
 The surplus of 1S36, and its distribution. 
 
 All these grants have tended to encourage the early establishing of 
 
GENERAL GOVERNMENT IN EDUCATION. 
 
 273 
 
 school systems by the new States, and have exerted a reflex influence 
 on the old. 
 
 The earliest, and the more recent and better method of applying the 
 proceeds of the common-school lands. 
 
 How the grants have tended to uniformity in the formation of school 
 systems in the States. The nature of the systems formed. 
 
 Why the relative amount of revenue from permanent school funds 
 decreases as the States grow. Why this worlcs no hardship. 
 
 Table showing the relative amounts of revenue in the various sec- 
 tions of the United States from the permanent school funds. 
 
 Table showing percentage from each source of revenue. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. 
 
 Can you trace any connection between the American educational sys- 
 tem and the recent great awakening in Europe? 
 
 What educational institutions has the general government established 
 and maintained on its own responsibility? 
 
 What branch of instruction is provided by the general government 
 in many of our denominational colleges? 
 
 Would you, or would you not, regard this as establishing a legal pre- 
 cedent in favor of the State supplying other non-sectarian professor- 
 ships in these higher institutions ? Why, or why not ? 
 18 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMERICAN SYSTEM OF 
 COMMON SCHOOLS. 
 
 We have seen that the germs of the common-school sys- 
 tem of the United States were planted alike in the New 
 England, the Middle, and the Southern colonies very early 
 in their history ; but these small beginnings were only 
 germs. It needed the genial warmth and light of free- 
 dom's sun to develop them. The "free " element in these 
 early schools applied in the main only to such children as 
 were too poor to pay tuition ; and it is easy enough to 
 understand the influence which such a distinction would 
 foster in any community. It tended directly to engender 
 that most non-American of institutions — caste in society. 
 The stigma of pauperism cast upon a child is of all 
 things most ruinous to its self-respect, and the result of 
 the charity feature of the early schools was that poor but 
 intelligent parents, in many cases, rather than subject their 
 offspring to such blighting influences, preferred to retain 
 them at home. The would-be aristocrats looked with equal 
 disfavor on the "free schools," because some of the "pauper 
 element " did attend them, and because they, therefore, 
 feared their own children might lose caste from seeming to 
 associate with this class of people. 
 
 School Rates. — With the inauguration of the Republic 
 a new era dawned upon the land, and the old aristocratic 
 notions began gradually to give way. But the inertia of 
 (2/4) 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN SCHOOLS. 275 
 
 established customs is hard to overcome, and it was long 
 before the obnoxious school-rate system yielded in the 
 older States, though its evil effects grew less and less ap- 
 parent as the population became more and more American 
 in spirit. In the newer States, especially in the great 
 Northwest, owing in part to the influence of the benefi- 
 cent grants of the general government, but more to the 
 democratic spirit so characteristic of the frontier, the com- 
 mon schools were, as a rule, made wholly free from the 
 first ; and this, no doubt, re-acted strongly on the older 
 States. Still they clung to the old-time system of " rates " 
 with wonderful tenacity, and it was not until toward the 
 close of the first quarter of this century that elementary 
 instruction was made " public " in its present sense, even 
 in Boston ; nor was the system generally adopted in other 
 sections of Massachusetts until some time later. In fact, it 
 was not until within the last quarter of a century that the 
 older States generally sloughed off the anti-American feat- 
 ures of their systems and made the schools entirely free to all. 
 
 The " fees " in the old-time schools took different forms 
 in different sections ; but they were generally assessed at a 
 certain pro rata part of the cost of tuition. In the rural 
 districts the rate usually included also the board of the 
 teacher ; while in Rhode Island the pupils were assessed 
 for fuel up to 1833 ; and it was not until 1848 that the 
 fees were entirely abolished in that State. In Vermont 
 the tuition system was retained until 1864 ; in New York 
 until 1867; in Connecticut until 1868; and in New Jersey 
 until 1 87 1. 
 
 Growth of Free Schools. — As each State is at liberty 
 to manage its own educational affairs in its own way, it is 
 not strange that there should have been much diversity 
 in the development of the various State systems ; but the 
 careful student can easily trace through the history of 
 
276 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 most of them, not only a gradual advance, but also an 
 equally gradual approximation toward one great system — 
 the public, non-sectarian, non-partisan education of every 
 child within our borders. This seems to have been the 
 legitimate outgrowth of the genius of our system of free 
 government, and is its most natural concomitant. 
 
 At the close of the Revolution, educational institutions 
 of every kind were naturally in a chaotic state ; but the 
 various colonies, as well as the general government, were 
 awake to the necessity of an intelligent citizenship, and 
 seven of the new republics proceeded to introduce general 
 educational provisions into their constitutions. Of the re- 
 mainder, two continued for some time under their colonial 
 charters, and the rest adopted constitutions which guaran- 
 teed all the powers and privileges involved in the establish- 
 ment of schools. Five, at least, proceeded by specific 
 legislation to develop common-school systems. 
 
 Nor was the movement in the cause of popular education, 
 at this period, confined to either State or general govern- 
 ment — the public mind was aroused to the importance of 
 the subject. Dr. Benjamin Rush, of Pennsylvania, but ten 
 years after affixing his name to the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence, memorialized the legislature of his State in favor 
 of a thorough system of popular education — urging " that 
 it was favorable to liberty, as freedom could only exist in 
 an intelligent community ; that it favors just ideas of law 
 and government ; that learning in all countries promotes 
 civilization and the pleasure of society; that it fosters agri- 
 culture, the basis of national wealth; that manufactures of 
 all kinds owe their perfection chiefly to learning; that its 
 beneficial influence is thus made co-extensive with the 
 entire scope of man's being, mortal and immortal, indi- 
 vidual and social." At a later period, the same great man 
 addressed a congressional representative from Pennsylvania, 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN SCHOOLS. 277 
 
 declaring that "the attempts to perpetuate our existence 
 as a free people by establishing the means of national credit 
 and defense " are " feeble bulwarks against slavery com- 
 pared with the habits of labor and virtue disseminated 
 among our people; " adding, "Let us establish schools for 
 that purpose in every township in the United States, and 
 conform them to reason, humanity, and the state of society 
 in America," and then will " the generations which are 
 to follow us realize the precious ideas of the dignity and 
 excellence of republican forms of government." 
 
 Neither was this early appreciation of the value of com- 
 mon schools in a government of the people, by the people, 
 and for the people, confined to any one section or party. 
 That there were prominent men in the South who keenly 
 felt the need of popular education by the government is 
 seen from a conversation that General Francis Marion, 
 of South Carolina, the " Swamp Fox," held with his biog- 
 rapher, in 1795 : 
 
 We fought for self-government ; and God hath pleased to give us 
 one better calculated, perhaps, to protect our rights and foster our vir- 
 tues and call forth our energies and advance our condition nearer to 
 perfection and happiness than any other government that ever was 
 framed under the sun. But what signifies this government, divine as 
 it is, if it be not known and prized as it deserves ? This is best done 
 by free schools. 
 
 Men will always fight for their government according to their sense 
 of its value. To value it aright they must understand it. This they 
 can not do without education. And, as a large portion of the citizens 
 are poor, and can never attain that inestimable blessing without the aid 
 of government, it is plainly the duty of government to bestow it freely 
 upon them. The more perfect the government, the greater the duty to 
 make it well known. Selfish and oppressive governments must hate 
 the light and fear to come to it, because their deeds are evil. But a 
 fair and cheap government, like our republic, longs for the light, and 
 rejoices to come to the light, that it may be manifested to come from 
 God, and well worthy of the vigilance and valor that an enlightened 
 
278 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 nation can rally for its defense. A good government can hardly ever 
 be half anxious enough to give its citizens a thorough knowledge of 
 its own excellencies. For, as some of the most valuable truths, for 
 lack of promulgation, have been lost, so the best government on earth, 
 if not widely known and prized, may be subverted. 
 
 It was one thing, however, to legislate in favor of popu- 
 lar education, while to put such a system into successful 
 operation, with neither school-houses, rational text-books, 
 nor reasonably competent teachers, was quite another. 
 
 Old-time Teachers. — The houses were not so difficult 
 to provide in a land where logs and labor were plentiful ; 
 but the procuring of suitable books and competent teach- 
 ers was a more serious problem. The following extract 
 from the preface of Lee's Arithmetic, written in 1797, 
 gives some light regarding the material from which the 
 common-school teachers of that day had in many cases to 
 be drawn : 
 
 The boy, advanced perhaps some way in his teens, is sent to a winter 
 school for two or three months to complete his education ; for he can not 
 attend in any other season, nor then indeed but quite unsteadily. But 
 as he is almost a man, he must go to school to cypher ; and as he has 
 but a short time for the business he must cypher fast. He goes to school, 
 vulgarly speaking, ram, perhaps scarcely able to form an arithmetical 
 figure. His master sets him a sum in adding, and it may be he tells 
 him he must carry one for every ten ; but why, is a mystei y which neither 
 master nor scholar gives himself any trouble about ; however, with a 
 deal of pains he at length gets his sum clone, without ever being asked 
 or knowing how to read the sum total, or any number expressed in the 
 statement. (I have actually known a lad of eighteen, who after having, 
 in this way, gone over all the first rules of arithmetic, at a common school, 
 was utterly unable to read or enumerate any number consisting of four 
 places of figures.) But it is cyphering, and that is sufficient. If he is 
 taught to commit any of the rules to memory, he learns them like a parrot, 
 without any knowledge of their leason, or application. After this 
 manner he gropes along fiom rule to rule, till he ends his blind career 
 with the Rule of Three ; and in the end, the only and the truest account 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN SCHOOLS. 2 -jg 
 
 he can give of the whole is, that he has been over it. But he has com- 
 pleted his school education, and is well qualified to teach a school him- 
 self, the next winter after. 
 
 Had the teachers of this period been simply ignorant, the 
 case might not have been so bad; but there is abundant 
 evidence that many of them were grossly immoral as well. 
 The teacher's calling had become so degraded by illiterate 
 adventurers and others in some sections, before the begin- 
 ning of the war, that to raise it now to a standard of even 
 respectability was no light task. A writer in 1763 states 
 that " at least two-thirds of the education of his day in 
 Maryland was derived from instructors that were either 
 indentured servants or transported felons." "Not a ship 
 arrives,'' he states, " either with redemptioners or convicts, 
 in which schoolmasters are not as regularly advertised for 
 sale as are weavers, tailors, or any other tradesmen." 
 
 A few years later the country was overrun with English 
 and Irish adventurers, who took upon themselves the pro- 
 fession of teaching — being fit for nothing else. Dr. Dar- 
 lington, of Pennsylvania, characterized the country school- 
 master in 1788 as being "often a low-bred, intemperate 
 adventurer of the Old World," and further affirms that he 
 was on a par with the popular estimate of the teacher's 
 profession at that time. In a pamphlet issued in 1791, the 
 teacher of the period is described as a " foreigner, shame- 
 fully deficient in every qualification for instructing youth, 
 and not seldom addicted to gross vice." 
 
 A writer in the early part of this century speaks of the 
 backwoods teachers in the South as follows: " Careless, 
 inefficient teachers are employed; in some of the lower 
 districts they have actually converted the schools into gym- 
 nastic academies, where, instead of studying philosophy in 
 the woods and groves, as the Druids did of old, they take 
 
280 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 delight in the more athletic exercise of deer and rabbit 
 hunting; and it is a fine sight to see the long, lean, ser- 
 'pentine master ... at his stand, . . while the 
 
 younger peripatetics are scouring the woods and hallooing 
 up the game." It is also hinted that some of these "long, 
 lean " gentlemen had an understanding with their directors 
 by which they divided the school funds among themselves. 
 With such standard-bearers, it is not strange that during 
 the first quarter of this century the progress of the com- 
 mon schools was slow, and that the common-school system 
 was equally slow in gaining friends. There were, however, 
 some honorable exceptions to the classes of teachers above 
 described, and there were even among the pioneer peda- 
 gogues of the Republic some veritable educational re- 
 formers. Such, for example, was Christopher Dock, of 
 Pennsylvania, who, it is affirmed, actually used a black- 
 board in his schools, and taught primary arithmetic in a 
 rational way, even before the Revolution. There, too, 
 was Chauncey Lee,* of Eastern New York, who in 1797 
 proposed a metric system of weights and measures, which, 
 had it been adopted, would certainly have had some ad- 
 vantages over the present metric system. Mr. Lee's plan 
 
 * The following from Lee's Arithmetic, published just as our Federal money 
 was first coming into use, shows clearly the true significance of our dollar sign, 
 on which so much ingenious speculation has been expended: 
 
 Table of Federal Money (1797). 
 
 10 Mills (|) Make 1 Cent, characteristic, || 
 10 Cents Make 1 Dime, " ^ 
 
 10 Dimes Make 1 Dollar, " > 
 
 10 Dollars Make 1 Eagle, il E 
 
 This is plainly the genesis of the %. The single mark means mills, the double 
 mark cents; the double mark with a single slightly curved cross, dimes: and with 
 a double cross, dollars. As the denomination " dimes " is not used in business 
 transactions, its characteristic soon disappeared, and in rapid writing the dollar 
 characteristic assumed its present slightly modified form. 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN SCHOOLS. 
 
 2S1 
 
 was to let the principal unit of each table remain un- 
 changed, and arrange a system of decimal multiples and 
 subdivisions of this. Such a system could easily have 
 been adopted, without causing the confusion incident to 
 an entire change, such as the present metric system in- 
 volves His proposed table of liquid measure was as fol- 
 lows — the gallon remaining unaltered: 
 
 io Pints make I Gallon, 
 
 10 Gallons " I Federal Barrel, 
 
 io Barrels " I Hogshead. 
 
 It is evident that the above table, and most of the others 
 proposed by this wide-awake Yankee, might easily have 
 been put in use had Congress seconded his efforts. 
 
 Then, too, the various colleges, which at the close of the 
 war began rapidly to multiply, both in numbers and influ- 
 ence, were sending out constant streams of students to 
 teach in the rural schools. We catch a glimpse of the 
 beneficent influence of this class of teachers on the rural 
 districts, during the early part of this century, from Whit- 
 tier's inimitable Snow-Bound* and as time advanced and 
 
 * Brisk wielder of the birch and rule, 
 The master of the district school 
 Held at the fire his favored place. 
 Its warm glow lit a laughing - face, 
 Fresh-hued and fair, where scarce ap- 
 peared 
 The uncertain prophecy of beard. 
 Born the wild, Northern hills among, 
 From whence his yeoman father wrung 
 By patient toil subsistence scant, 
 Not competence and yet not want, 
 He early gained the power to pay 
 Hischeerful, self-reliant way; 
 Co«ld doff at ease his scholar's gown 
 To peddle wares from town to town, 
 Or through the long vacation's reach 
 In lonely lowland districts teach. 
 
 Happy the snow-locked home wherein 
 He tuned his merry violin, 
 Or played the athlete in the barn, 
 Or held the good dame's winding yarn, 
 Or mirth provoking versions told 
 Of classic legends rare and old, 
 Wherein the scenes of Greece and Rome 
 Had all the common-place of home, 
 And little seemed at best the odds 
 'Twixt Yankee peddlers and old gods. 
 
 A careless boy that night he seemed; 
 But at his desk he had the look 
 
 And air of one who wisely schemed, 
 And hostage from the future took 
 In trained thought and lore of book 
 
282 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 higher institutions of learning multiplied, their influence 
 for good on the teaching force became more and more 
 potent and salutary. 
 
 Early Text-books. — The second great hinderance to 
 the rapid progress of the schools, both before and after the 
 Revolution, was the want of suitable text-books. Some 
 of the books in use during colonial times were referred to 
 on page 250 ; and these continued on into the second 
 quarter of this century in certain sections, though after 
 the Revolution school-books began to multiply. 
 
 Dilworth's Spelling Book, by the author of the fearfully 
 and wonderfully made arithmetic from which quotations 
 were made on pages 97 and 98, had been introduced into 
 this country about the middle of the eighteenth century. 
 This book also contained a grinning skeleton of English 
 grammar, and it remained in use to some extent until within 
 the memory of men still living. There were several other 
 spellers of various grades of dullness ; and one by Mr. 
 Pierce, a Pennsylvania teacher, also contained the rudi- 
 ments of grammar. But the great speller of the age was 
 Webster's, first published about the close of the Revolu- 
 tion. It went through many editions, and was still in 
 general use down to the middle of this century. It served 
 one great purpose, if no other — it furnished its author 
 with funds during the twenty years he was laboring on 
 his world-renowned dictionary. During many years, more 
 than a million copies of this dingy old blue-covered book 
 were annually sold. 
 
 In 1785 Mr. Webster also wrote a Reader — the " Third 
 Part " of his " Grammatical Institute of the English Lan- 
 guage." The modest title of this book was, "An Avieri- 
 can Selection of Lessons in Reading and Speaking ; Calcu- 
 lated to Improve the Mind, and refine the Taste of Youth ; 
 and also to instruct them in the Geography, History and Poli- 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN SCHOOLS. 283 
 
 tics of the United States. To which are prefixed Rules in 
 Elocution and Directions for giving Expression to the prin- 
 cipal Passions of the Mind." With such an outfit it could 
 seem that little more in the way of text-books could 
 have been needed ! This book had also a large sale, 
 having no rivals worth the mentioning until near the close 
 of the century. Then came Bingham's " American Pre- 
 ceptor " and " The Columbian Orator." After this came 
 the " English Reader," containing an admirable list of 
 selections, though without any attempt at grading. Then 
 came the " American Moralist," " The Art of Reading," 
 and Goldsmith's " Roman History." Another reading- 
 book of the early part of this century was Webster's 
 " Account of the Historical Transactions of the United 
 States after the Revolution." This, of course, was an 
 effort to combine the studies of history and reading, as 
 has been so often done in later years. 
 
 It is said that the earliest arithmetic published in the 
 New World was a work by a man named Hodder, about 
 the first of the eighteenth century. The title of his book 
 was, " Arithmetic, or that necessary art made most easy ; 
 being explained in a way familiar to the capacity of any 
 that desire to learn in a little time." It passed through 
 many editions, and for years was practically the only text 
 on the subject of "cyphering" in use. The statements 
 here made regarding this last-named work are drawn from 
 Boone's " Education in the United States," as are many 
 others in this chapter, and they are, no doubt, correct ; 
 though in case the book was published at the early date 
 here given, it was certainly not then known in England. 
 In the preface to Dilworth's Arithmetic (" Schoolmaster's 
 Assistant"), published about 1742, we learn that up to 
 that time no text of any kind had been in use. Says its 
 author : 
 
2S4 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 " I should have been very glad to have seen an Attempt of this Nature 
 stamp t by the Authority of some Person of Distinetion and of better 
 Abilities ; but since no abler Hand has undertaken it, I hope its homely 
 Appearance will not lessen its Usefulness." 
 
 After this come a number of testimonials, ending with 
 the following signed by a long list of teachers : 
 
 We whose Names are underwritten, having perused this Book intitled, 
 The School Master's Assistant, do recommend it to be used in 
 SCHOOLS, for the speedy Improvement of Youth in Arithmetic, as the 
 only one for that purpose that has yet been made public. 
 
 It is evident from this that English pedagogues knew of 
 no work on arithmetic in the English tongue prior to 1742. 
 There was an American reprint of this work in Philadelphia 
 in 1790, and it is probable that copies of the English edi- 
 tion had been in use in the colonies for many years. The 
 fact that a reprint of this book was issued fifty years after 
 its first publication does not speak well for the text -book 
 progress of the age. 
 
 The most famous of the old-time arithmetics were Pike's 
 and Daboll's. The former was first issued about the be- 
 ginning of the Revolution. This was a rather more pre- 
 tentious work than its predecessors, containing an appen- 
 dix of forty pages of algebra for the use of academies. 
 Daboll's Arithmetic was issued about the same time, and is 
 well, if not faiiorably, remembered by many who have 
 not yet readied their allotted three score years and ten. 
 Among the early works on language were Bailey's 
 " English and Latin Grammar," issued early in the seven- 
 teenth century, and Cheever's " Latin Accidence," first 
 published in 1645, and reissued from time to time during 
 the succeeding two hundred years. Bingham's "Young 
 Lady's Accidence," issued 1790, is noted as the first work- 
 on English grammar used in the Boston schools. But 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN SCHOOLS. 285 
 
 the most famous of the pioneer works on grammar was 
 that of Lindley Murray, published first in England, and 
 reissued in America about the beginning of this century. 
 It has been regarded as legitimate plunder for many who 
 have since written on the subject, and has recently been 
 republished. 
 
 It seems that little was attempted in the way of geogra- 
 phy till about the time of the Revolution, when Jedediah 
 Morse's " Universal Geography " was introduced. This was 
 a little i8mo volume, containing four maps, and was prac- 
 tically the only book of the kind in use for many years. 
 
 Mention has been already made of Webster's historical 
 reader (1788). About 1791, a new edition of Morse's 
 Geography was issued, containing " Historical Accounts of 
 the European Settlements in America, the Thirteen States ; 
 and of Europe, Asia, and Africa." Other histories were 
 regularly issued as our country grew, and some of these 
 earlier works are extremely interesting reading. That a 
 deep interest was early felt in this important branch of 
 study is evidenced by the following : 
 
 At a meeting of " The American Academy of Language 
 and Belles Lettres," held in the city of New York, October 
 20, 1820, the following preamble and resolution were 
 unanimously adopted : 
 
 As the proper education of youth is in all communities closely con- 
 nected with national prosperity and honor ; and as it is particularly 
 important, in the United States, that the rising generation should pos- 
 sess a correct knowledge of their own country, and a patriotic attach- 
 ment to its welfare. 
 
 Resolved, That a premium of not less than $400, and a gold medal 
 worth S50, be given the author, being an American citizen, who within 
 two years shall produce the best written history of the United States, 
 and which, with such history, shall contain a suitable exposition, char- 
 acter, and interests, absolute and relative, of the American Republic : 
 calculated for a class-buuk in academies and schools. This work is to 
 
2 86 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 be examined and approved by a committee of the institution, in reference 
 to the interest of its matter, the justness of its facts and principles, the 
 purity, perspicuity, and elegance of its style, and its adaptation to its 
 intended purpose. By order of the Academv — Alex. McLeod, Sec'y. 
 
 Four authors competed for the above prize, and the 
 committee, after a careful comparison of the merits of the 
 books presented, awarded the prize to Salma Hale for 
 his work, entitled " A History of the United States, from 
 their first Settlement as Colonies to the Close of the War 
 with Great Britain, in 1815." 
 
 A half-hour's perusal of this dingy little book will con- 
 vince any one that the Academy's premium was wisely 
 awarded. Different editions were issued from time to 
 time, as the history of the country grew — one in Cincin- 
 nati as late as 1849. 
 
 As a further evidence of the interest felt in the study of 
 our country's history in the early years of this century, Mr. 
 Hale states in the preface to his first edition that he had 
 begun the work many years before, but as several other 
 works on a similar plan had appeared before its completion, 
 he laid it aside, until seeing the award offered by the Acad- 
 emy, he concluded another book must be needed, and so 
 took courage to finish it. 
 
 But, generally, the school-books of the earlier part of 
 this century, though a great improvement on their prede- 
 cessors, are not to be compared in excellence either of 
 authorship or mechanical and artistic execution with those 
 of the present. 
 
 There has been constant progress all along the line in 
 every department of school work, but in nothing else so 
 much as in the text-books of the common schools, and 
 perhaps in no other department is the progress so notice- 
 able as in the style and execution of our reading-books. 
 It is but little more than half a century since any attempt 
 
DEVELOPMENT OP AMERICAN SCHOOLS. 287 
 
 was made at grading the reading-books placed in the hands 
 of the little folks, and the style of matter and general make 
 up of the readers were of a nature to repel rather than to 
 attract a child. It is, in fact, "only within the past genera- 
 tion that writers for children have learned to adapt their 
 style and their vocabulary to the child-mind. Here is an 
 extract from the Youth's Companion of 1836, and it fairly 
 illustrates the style of literature that was considered the 
 proper thing for the nursery fifty years ago ; in fact, it is 
 from that department of the Companion headed " The 
 Nursery : " 
 
 A TALK WITH MY LITTLE DAUGHTER. 
 
 Juliana. — I rose very early this morning, mother, have got all my les- 
 sons for the day, attended to my work, and have been anxiously waiting 
 for you to come in and finish the account about infanticide. 
 
 Mother. — I love to have you diligent, my daughter, and am willing that 
 you should be prompted by curiosity to press forward in the acquisition 
 of knowledge, but I want you to be influenced by a higher and more noble 
 motive even, that of glorifying God. We will, however, proceed with 
 the account without too much digression. 
 
 Here, too, is a picture of the model household and the 
 good little boy, from the same paper : 
 
 The following spirited cut, from another number of the 
 
288 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 same paper, illustrates the ideal school and teacher fifty 
 years ago : 
 
 ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 The colonial schools only the germs of the American system. The 
 " free '' element in these schools, and its non-American influence. The 
 result of this (a) on the poor ; (b) on the rich. The change that came 
 with the Republic. — Why slow. The systems in the newer States en- 
 tirely free, owing (a) to land grants ; (b) to the democratic spirit of the 
 frontier. — Their influence on the older States. The school-rates cling 
 on in Boston, etc. The " fees " have different significance : (a) Usually 
 for tuition, (b) Board, etc., of teachers, (c) Fuel, (d) Abolished in 
 Rhode Island, 1848. (e) Vermont, 1864. (/) New York, 1867. (g) 
 Connecticut, 1868. (h) New Jersey, 1871. 
 
 Why the systems took different forms. What the careful student of 
 history may still trace. 
 
 The chaotic condition at the close of the Revolution. The colonies 
 and general government awake to educational interest. The public 
 mind also awakened, as il ustrated by (a) Dr. Rush, of Pennsylvania ; 
 (b) General Marion, of South Carolina Difficulties in the way ; (a) No 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN SCHOOLS. 289 
 
 school-houses, etc. (l>) Lack of suitable teachers ; as illustrated (1) 
 From Chauncey Lee's statement in his Arithmetic. (2) What a cotem- 
 porary writer says of the Maryland teachers. (3) The country overrun 
 with foreign adventurers who taught (?) school. (4) Dr. Darlington's 
 statement regarding' Pennsylvania teachers, at the close of the war. — 
 The popular estimate of the profession. (5) Pamphlet of 1791. (6) 
 The Southern "peripatetics.'' Honorable exceptions: (1) Christopher 
 Dock and his work. (2) Chauncey Lee and his efforts. (Origin of the %.) 
 (3) The college student's influence, as illustrated from " Snow-Bound. " 
 (c) The progress hindered by the lack of proper books. (1) Those 
 already referred to on pages 97 and 98. (2) Dilworth's Spelling Book. 
 (3) Pierce's and others. (4) Webster's and its wide use. (5) Webster's 
 Reader and its title. (6) Bingham's American Preceptor, the Colum- 
 bian Orator, English Reader, etc. (7) The first combination of history 
 and reading. (8) Hodder's Arithmetic, (g) Dilworth's School-Mas- 
 ter's Assistant," and its claims.— The American reprint. (10) Pike's and 
 Daboll's Arithmetics. (11) Early grammars. (12) Early geographies. 
 (13) The beginning of history in schools. (14) The "premium his- 
 tory. " (15) None of these books can compare with those of the pres- 
 ent. (16) Progress in reading matter for children. — Youth's Compan- 
 ion in 1836. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. 
 
 What were some of the causes that retarded the progress of the com- 
 mon-school system in the Southern States before the late war ? 
 
 Can you show that common schools and higher institutions of learn- 
 ing are reciprocally helpful to each other ? 
 
 How do you account for the decline of " classical education '' during 
 the past quarter of a century ? 
 
 Does it seem to you that the present curriculum of the common 
 schools could be much improved ? If so, in what particulars ? 
 
 What do you regard as some^pf the most serious obstacles that are 
 liable to beset the schcxiU in the future? How can they be averted? 
 19 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 THE PRESENT AMERICAN SYSTEM OF COMMON SCHOOLS 
 —GLEANED PRINCIPALLY FROM THE REPORTS OF 
 THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Though, as was shown in Chapter XIII, the general 
 government has ever fostered educational institutions, 
 and has done much to encourage the individual States in 
 establishing and maintaining common-school systems, each 
 State is yet wisely left to manage its own schools in its own 
 way. There is, however, such unity of feeling among the 
 various sections that the school systems developed have, 
 for the most part, much in common, and there can, without 
 impropriety, be said to be an American system of common 
 schools. 
 
 Each individual State has, indeed, a system of its own; 
 but those of the same section are usually so nearly allied 
 that, in our limited space, we can best study them in groups. 
 It is evident, however, that when comparisons are made 
 the statistics on which they are based must be reduced 
 to the same standard, or prove mischievously misleading. 
 Probably the one item on which there is the widest di- 
 versity is that of " school age — ranging, as it does, from 
 eight to sixteen in Texas, to " all ages " in Massachusetts 
 The following table will show the school age for free at- 
 tendance, for compulsory attendance, and for distribution 
 of funds in the various States and Territories. The group- 
 ing here given will be the one adhered to when "divisions " 
 are subsequently mentioned: 
 (290) 
 
THE PRESENT AMERICAN SYSTEM. 
 TABLE OF SCHOOL AGES. 
 
 29I 
 
 States, 
 
 Territories, and 
 
 Divisions. 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 u 
 a 
 rt 
 
 ■d 
 a 
 
 ri 
 <u 
 K 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 rt v 
 
 Ih 
 
 O u 
 en 
 
 13 
 s 
 
 
 u 
 
 c 
 
 
 3 
 
 •° . 
 
 .»■§ 
 
 boo 
 
 States, 
 
 Territories, and 
 
 Divisions. 
 
 u 
 
 c 
 m 
 
 C 
 
 •u 
 ri 
 <u 
 
 V 
 
 u 
 
 fa 
 
 •0 
 
 c 
 
 4> 
 
 tf U 
 
 ttf) 
 >*rt 
 v. 
 
 O <u 
 in 
 
 ia 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 d 
 
 
 "E </> 
 •2 B 
 
 «2 O 
 
 OJ 
 tX) 
 
 < 
 
 North Atlantic Div. : 
 
 4-21 
 
 S-zi 
 5-20 
 all ag. 
 5 up. 
 4-16 
 5-21 
 5-18 
 6-21 
 
 6-21 
 6-21 
 6-17 
 5-21 
 6-2 1 
 6-21 
 6-18 
 6-18 
 6-21 
 
 6-2C 
 
 6-21 
 7-21 
 5-21 
 
 6-18 
 8-16 
 
 6-21 
 
 6-16 
 8-14 
 8-14 
 8-14 
 7-15 
 8-16 
 8-14 
 7-12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a-'X 
 5-20 
 
 s-15 
 s--s 
 
 4-16 
 * 
 
 6-21 
 5-20 
 
 5-21 
 6-21 
 6-21 
 
 t 
 6-18 
 6-21 
 
 6-20 
 6-21 
 7-21 
 S-zi 
 
 (T-l8 
 
 8-16 
 
 6-21 
 
 North Central Di- 
 vision: 
 Ohio 
 
 6-21 
 
 6-21 
 
 6-21 
 
 5 up- 
 
 4-20 
 
 5-21 
 
 5-21 
 
 6-20 
 
 6-20 
 
 6-20 
 
 5-21 
 
 5-21 
 
 6-21 
 6-21 
 6-21 
 5-20 
 6-18 
 6-18 
 6-18 
 5-21 
 6-21 
 4-20 
 6-21 
 
 all ag. 
 
 8-14 
 
 
 
 8-14 
 
 8-14 
 
 
 
 8-16 
 
 
 
 8-m 
 8-14 
 8-14 
 8-14 
 
 8-14 
 
 6-121 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8-14 
 8-14 
 7-15 
 
 
 
 8-14 
 
 6-14 
 
 
 New Hampshire.. 
 
 
 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Rhode Island ... 
 
 New York 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 South Atlantic Div. : 
 
 Michigan .... 
 Minnesota 
 
 6-21 
 
 5-20 
 4-20 
 5-21 
 5-21 
 6-20 
 6-20 
 6-20 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 
 5-21 
 
 5-21 
 
 
 Western Division: 
 
 North Carolina... 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Florida 
 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Arizona 
 
 Utah 
 
 6-21 
 6-21 
 5-20 
 6-18 
 
 
 6-18 
 
 
 
 6-18 
 
 
 
 5-21 
 
 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 4-20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 To base comparison on ages so diverse as the above 
 would be so obviously misleading that the comparisons 
 might justly be styled "odious." Whenever comparisons 
 are here made they will, therefore, be reduced to the uni- 
 form basis of six to fourteen — the natural time required to 
 complete the common-school course of eight years. 
 
 It will be seen from the table that twenty-four States 
 
 * Distributed in part according to total population. 
 + Distributed according to number of taxable citizens. 
 % Distributed according to attendance. 
 
292 
 
 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 and Territories have compulsory attendance laws, and that 
 twenty-five have not. 
 
 The compulsory school age, unlike the free attendance 
 age, has one well-defined characteristic, which the geograph- 
 ical classification adopted in the table clearly exhibits ; it 
 is entirely wanting in the two Southern divisions. 
 
 Every North Atlantic State has compulsory attendance 
 laws except Pennsylvania, and the same is true of every 
 North Central State except Indiana, Iowa, Wisconsin, and 
 Missouri. "In many instances, however," says the Com- 
 missioner of Education, " the compulsory laws, if not 
 actually dead letters, are practically so." It will be seen 
 that the compulsory education age in most States covers 
 a period of six years, from the age of eight to that of four- 
 teen. 
 
 In the proportion of children enrolled in the public 
 schools, the North Central States are at present far in 
 the lead, having one hundred and twenty-one pupils in the 
 public schools for every one hundred children six to four- 
 teen years of age. 
 
 Notwithstanding the tremendous strides that have been 
 taken in the development of the school systems of the 
 Southern States during the last ten years, they are still 
 far behind the Northern States in regard to proportion of 
 children enrolled in the public schools. In the South At- 
 lantic States only eighty-nine, and in the South Central 
 States only seventy-nine, children out of every one hundred, 
 six to fourteen years of age, are enrolled. This results in 
 a great degree from the excessive proportion of children 
 to grown persons met with in the Southern States ; for if 
 we compare the proportion of total population enrolled, the 
 disparity which appears to the prejudice of the Southern 
 States largely disappears, as will be seen from the annexed 
 table. 
 
THE PRESENT AMERICAN SYSTEM. 
 
 2 93 
 
 TA3LE OF ENROLLMENT, ETC. 
 
 Divisions. 
 
 (.For States included, see 
 page 291. J 
 
 si 
 
 go. 
 
 — ^ 
 
 H 
 
 % 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 .9 
 
 c 
 c 
 <! 
 
 0) 
 OJ 
 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 °£, 
 
 ft* 
 
 Average number en- 
 rollment to each 
 100 of total popu- 
 lation. 
 
 Average number en- 
 rolled to each 100 
 of population 6 to 
 14. 
 
 
 3,065,272 
 1,649,455 
 1,859.521 
 4,829,767 
 401,645 
 
 21,518 
 49,600 
 61,500 
 
 i5S,*54 
 18,000 
 
 •71 
 3-JO 
 3-48 
 3-32 
 4.69 
 
 2.66 
 
 19-43 
 19 06 
 17.49 
 
 n -57 
 16.86 
 
 114.70 
 89.12 
 78.92 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 United States 
 
 11,805,660 
 
 3°5i772 
 
 20.38 
 
 104.97 
 
 No account is taken here of the duration of attendance 
 at school, but only of the circumstance that the pupils' 
 names were on the school registers. If the element of 
 time is taken into consideration, the South appears much 
 more at a disadvantage. 
 
 One other great advantage which the Northern States 
 possess is the much larger number of taxpayers in pro- 
 portion to the number of children to be educated. Even 
 if the relative wealth of the North and South were equal, 
 which is far from being the case, each taxpayer of the 
 former section would have a far less burden to bear in the 
 work of getting all the " schoolable " children within the 
 schools, since nearly all the burden of taxation rests upon 
 the white population. 
 
 Said the late Hon. Henry W. Grady, of Atlanta, Ga., 
 at the Boston Merchants' Banquet, December 12, 1889: 
 "Since 1865 the South has spent $122,000,000 in edu- 
 cation, and this year it is pledged to $37,000,000 more. 
 Although the blacks pay but one thirtieth of the taxes, they 
 get nearly one half of the funds. " 
 
 According to recent returns, the number of pupils daily 
 
294 
 
 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 attending all the public schools in the United States while 
 they are in session is, on an average, 7,571,416. 
 
 As in the case of enrollment, it is not possible to deter- 
 mine the exact yearly increase, but a very fair approximation 
 places it at 218,500, or at the yearly rate of 2.89 per cent. 
 
 The greatest increase in average attendance is observ- 
 able in the South ; in both of the Southern divisions it is not 
 only remarkably large, but it is to be noted that it exceeds 
 the increase of enrollment ; in other words, not only more 
 pupils are going to school there, but also the attendance of 
 those who do go is more regular. This is an evidence 
 of increased appreciation of public schools not to be over- 
 looked. 
 
 TABLE OF AVERAGE ATTENDANCE. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Number of pupils 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 
 
 in average daily 
 
 to 
 
 
 v 
 
 
 
 attendanceto 
 
 
 
 § 
 
 
 
 each 100 of — 
 
 8.S 
 
 o/g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Divisions. 
 (For States included, see 
 
 
 en 
 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 
 
 •° 2 
 
 page 2 9I .) 
 
 
 V 
 
 u 
 
 d 
 
 \o 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 & 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 CO 
 
 O 
 & 
 
 _d 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 t> rt 
 
 
 < 
 
 < 
 
 H 
 
 04 
 
 W 
 
 << 
 
 
 I ,995,39 2 
 I10357654 
 1,218,223 
 
 3,oS5 ; oii 
 267,136 
 
 8,300 
 54,400 
 64,500 
 81,700 
 
 9,600 
 
 218,500 
 
 .42 
 5-54 
 5-59 
 2-75 
 3-7 6 
 
 
 74.67 
 55-95 
 5I-70 
 76.63 
 70.19 
 
 65.10 
 62 79 
 
 65-5 1 
 63.25 
 66.51 
 
 28.06 
 
 
 
 97 
 46 
 9i 
 
 26.92 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 2479 
 =3-59 
 
 
 
 
 
 7157*1416 
 
 2.89 
 
 
 67.32 
 
 64.13 
 
 25.29 
 
 
 
 
 It will be seen that the rate of average attendance for 
 the United States (2.89 per cent.) exceeds slightly the rate 
 of increase of enrollment (2.66 per cent.); this indicates a 
 greater regularity of attendance for the country at large. 
 
 The average for the United States is 64.13; that is, for 
 every one hundred pupils enrolled during the school year 
 
THE PRESENT AAIER/CAN SYSTEM. 
 
 2 95 
 
 sixty-four attend daily, on an average, during the sessions 
 of the schools; or, looking at the matter in another light, 
 each pupil enrolled is present, on an average, sixty-four 
 days out of every one hundred his school is in session. 
 
 It will also be seen that regularity of attendance is 
 greatest in the Western division (66.51), and least in the 
 South Atlantic division (62.79), but that it is nearly uni- 
 form in the different sections of the country ; more so, 
 perhaps, than any other single item which admits of sta- 
 tistical record. 
 
 This regularity of attendance is far from being as high 
 as is to be desired. Compulsory attendance laws do not 
 seem to affect it to any appreciable extent, as it is some- 
 what higher in the South Central States, where there are no 
 compulsory laws, than in the North Central States. It 
 will probably depend for improvement upon a growing 
 appreciation of the benefits of a public-school education. 
 Such as it is at present, however, it is far in advance of 
 any former period, and the progress it has made in the last 
 semi-decade is especially noteworthy. This virtually unin- 
 terrupted growth in the regularity of school attendance will 
 become very apparent from an inspection of the following 
 tabular statement: 
 
 Ratio of average daily attendance to enrollment at various 
 periods since 1871-72; computed from the Annual Reports 
 of the Bureau of Education. 
 
 YEAR. 
 
 £>2 
 
 « a 
 
 rt C 
 ^•.2 
 
 QJ O 
 
 ■3D 
 
 a a 
 u o 
 
 Q . 
 
 1071-72 . 
 1876 -77 
 1881-82 
 1886-87 ■ 
 
 60.31 
 66.67 
 64.13 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 59.29 
 60.95 
 6i .67 
 65 . 10 
 
 Per ct. 
 58.26 
 5?-<9 
 59-85 
 62.79 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 56.34 
 6551 
 
 Perct. 
 57- r 4 
 59.40 
 60.94 
 63- 2 5 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 62.42 
 63.60 
 66.51 
 
296 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 The tendency suggested by the foregoing figures is un- 
 mistakable; they show conclusively the steady growth of a 
 sentiment in favor of popular education — a growth not 
 confined to any one part of the country, but extending 
 throughout its length and breadth. 
 
 This remark will be seen to possess greater force when 
 it is considered that there has been an increase in the 
 proportion of children enrolled as pupils, as well as an 
 increase in the proportion of the number enrolled who 
 attend regularly. 
 
 In the subjoined table, column two shows how many 
 days' attendance each child six to fourteen years of age 
 would have been able to obtain if the actual attendance 
 had been divided up among such children equally. This 
 quality possesses greater significance, as a measure of the 
 amount of schooling given in a community, than perhaps 
 any other single one that can be deduced from the data 
 supplied. 
 
 NUMBER OF DAYS OF SCHOOL AND ATTENDANCE. 
 
 Divisions. 
 (For States included see page 291.) 
 
 The total attendance 
 •is equivalent to an 
 
 attendance of each 
 person 6 to 14 for 
 days. 
 
 00- 
 
 "U 
 
 v v 
 
 n c P 
 c « = 
 
 H a 
 
 rt s 
 
 V Q. 
 
 « £■? 
 flj ra a 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 -2 
 
 d >, 
 
 .3 
 
 bc° 
 rt 
 
 < 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 121.23 
 
 74-94 
 58.96 
 92,10 
 
 4 
 
 North Atlantic 
 
 143.40 
 
 47.08 
 io 3-33 
 
 100.89 
 
 189.62 
 127.74 
 94.23 
 144.66 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 96.79 
 
 I53-04 
 
 
THE PRESENT AMERICAN SYSTEM. 2g7 
 
 The greatest relative amount of schooling is given in 
 Massachusetts— enough, in fact, to provide each child six to 
 fourteen years of age with 194.79 days, or 9.74 months of 
 twenty days each. From this the numbers range down to 
 39.51 days in Alabama, about one fifth of that given in 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 The summary of column two exhibits vividly the disparity 
 in the amount of schooling given in the different sections 
 of the country. In the statistics given in the table relating 
 only to the number of pupils going to school, without re- 
 gard to the length of time they went, the inequality is con- 
 siderable, yet still within bounds ; but it is when the element 
 of time is introduced, and the whole school population 
 brought into consideration, that the disparity between the 
 sections is brought into strong relief. 
 
 The "average duration of schools in days," given in 
 column four, is the average length of session of the schools 
 in days when to each school is given a weight proportioned to 
 its average daily attendance. This is manifestly the proper 
 basis upon which to compute the average number of days 
 the schools were in session during the year. A school with 
 ten times the average attendance of another school should 
 count for ten times as much. 
 
 The greatest duration of attendance, 189.62 days, is seen 
 to be in the North Atlantic division ; the least, 94.23 days, 
 in the South Central division, so far as can be ascertained 
 by the reports. 
 
 Of the States which furnish data for tabulating the 
 changes in the duration of schools, eighteen show an in- 
 crease, eight a decrease, and three no change. This indi- 
 cates a decided balance in favor of more days of schooling 
 in a year, and this when taken into consideration with the 
 increased regularity of attendance, shows a condition of 
 affairs full of promise as regards the number of days' school- 
 ing given to each pupil. 
 
298 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 High Schools. — By far the greatest public high-school 
 enrollment is found in the North among the older States. In 
 the North Atlantic division, out of every one thousand pupils 
 enrolled sixty-four are in high schools. Maine leads in this 
 respect, with seventy-seven out of every one thousand. 
 
 In the North Central States, twenty-eight pupils out of 
 every one thousand, and in the Western States seventeen, 
 are in high schools. The average for all the States report- 
 ing is thirty-five. 
 
 Private Schools. — So far as can be determined, private 
 schools have received their greatest development in the 
 North Atlantic division, where n. 17 per cent, of all pupils 
 are enrolled in this class of schools ; that is, out of every 
 one hundred pupils enrolled in schools of all kinds, eleven 
 are enrolled in private schools. Illinois and California show 
 a large private-school enrollment. For all the States report- 
 ing, 8.56 per cent, of their total enrollment is to be found 
 in private schools, leaving 91.44 per cent, for the public 
 schools. 
 
 Displacement of Male Teachers — The whole num- 
 ber of different teachers in the United States, according to 
 the latest returns, is 352,231. A comparison of the in- 
 crease of the whole number of male teachers with that of 
 female teachers shows to what extent one sex is displacing 
 the other. The different sections of the country present well- 
 marked distinctions in this matter. In the North Atlan- 
 tic States, at the present time, only twenty-three teachers 
 out of every one hundred are male ; then come the North 
 Central and Western divisions, in which about one third of 
 all of the teachers are male ; in the two Southern divisions 
 the males are in the majority — in the South Central division 
 largely so. Though no considerable change in the rela- 
 tive number of teachers of each sex is noticeable for any 
 two consecutive years, yet when the last ten years are 
 
THE PRESENT AMERICAN SYSTEM. 
 
 2 9 g 
 
 taken into account, a decided displacement of male teach- 
 ers is apparent, extending through every section of the 
 country, except in one instance. This displacement will 
 be seen from the following tabular statement : 
 
 Percentage of male teachers at intervals of five years since 
 1876-77, computed from the Reports of the Bureau of Edu- 
 cation. 
 
 Year. 
 
 The 
 
 United 
 States. 
 
 North 
 Atlantic 
 Division. 
 
 South 
 Atlantic 
 Division. 
 
 South 
 Central 
 Division. 
 
 North 
 Central 
 Division. 
 
 Western 
 Division. 
 
 1876-77. 
 1881-82. 
 1886-87. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 42-37 
 39-39 
 35-95 
 
 Per cent. 
 28.88 
 26.11 
 22.63 
 
 Per cent. 
 63.20 
 58.66 
 52.25 
 
 Per cent. 
 60.25 
 67.46 
 62.23 
 
 Per cent. 
 44.28 
 38.14 
 32.64 
 
 Per cent. 
 44-65 
 36.27 
 33-96 
 
 It will be observed that in the North Atlantic division, 
 where the relative number of male teachers was smallest in 
 1876-1877, the displacement of males has been going on 
 nearly as extensively as in any other section. " Whether 
 this process can continue without detriment to the best 
 interests of the schools, especially as regards the education 
 of the older boys," says the Commissioner of Education, 
 "is a question worthy of serious consideration." 
 
 Changes in Teaching Force. — The average annual 
 number of changes in the teaching force to every one hun- 
 dred teachers' positions varies exceedingly in the several 
 States reporting the necessary data — so much so as to sug- 
 gest a greater or less degree of inaccuracy in the reports 
 made. The averages for the North Atlantic, North Central, 
 and Western divisions, however, are tolerably uniform, 
 being 25.41, 28.60, and 27.15, respectively. The want of 
 permanency in the teacher's position is one of the greatest 
 drawbacks to the progress of the public schools to a higher 
 degree of efficiency. 
 
300 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OE EDUCATION. 
 
 Expenditure. — The total annual expenditure for com- 
 mon schools, according to late statistical reports, is $115,- 
 103,886 ; and the expenditure is increasing at the rate of 
 nearly $4,000,000 a year. This amounts to an annual ex- 
 penditure of about $2 per capita of the total population ; 
 &10.27 per capita of the school population, six to fourteen 
 years of age ; and $15.40 per capita of average daily at- 
 tendance. The schools are kept open an average length 
 of one hundred and thirty-five days, so that each dollar 
 expended provides about nine days' schooling. 
 
 It will be observed that this is based on total expenditure 
 for school purposes. If it were based on the amount paid 
 teachers only, as is done in some States, each dollar would 
 yield about thirteen days' schooling ; and the annual ex- 
 penditure per capita of population would be about $1.40. 
 
 It will be seen from the subjoined table that the greatest 
 relative expenditure for school purposes during the past 
 ten years is in the western division ; and when it is re- 
 membered that seven out of eleven commonwealths of this 
 division were, at the date of this report, still under Ter- 
 ritorial government, and, therefore, deriving no revenue 
 whatever from their school lands, the educational spirit of 
 this section of our country becomes a matter worthy of 
 special commendation. In traveling through the far West, 
 the building most apt to attract the attention of the stran- 
 ger's eye is the palatial school house seen in almost every 
 town. 
 
 The annual amount now expended for salaries of su- 
 perintendents and teachers in the entire country is about 
 $80,000,000, and the amount is increasing at the rate 
 of more than two and a half million per annum, or at the, 
 rate of nearly three and a half per cent. This exceeds the 
 rate of increase of either the school population or average 
 attendance. 
 
THE PRESENT AMERICAN SYSTEM. 
 
 30: 
 
 Of the total amount expended for schools, 14 per cent. 
 is now expended for sites, buildings, furniture, libraries, 
 and apparatus ; 70 per cent, for the salaries of superintend- 
 ents and teachers ; and 16 per cent, for all other purposes. 
 
 The older North Atlantic States are expending propor- 
 tionately quite as much of their school moneys for sites, 
 buildings, etc., as the newer North Central States, and con- 
 siderably more than the Western States. The least rela- 
 tive expenditure of this permanen tcharacter is met with 
 in the Southern States. 
 
 The annexed table shows the relative increase of school 
 population, enrollment, and expenditures for school pur- 
 poses in the various sections of our country during the ten 
 years from 1877 to 1887. 
 
 INCREASE IN SCHOOL POPULATION— ENROLLMENT AND EXPEN- 
 DITURES. 
 
 
 Pop. 6 to 14. 
 
 Enrollment. 
 
 Expenditure. 
 
 Divisions. 
 
 (For States included 
 see page 291.) 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 v . 
 rt u 
 
 v m 
 
 1- 41 
 
 
 2% 
 
 V u 
 
 1- - 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 U W 
 1— 1 
 
 
 
 V ■ 
 
 2$ 
 
 St 
 
 u a 
 
 (U — 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 'ie 
 
 a 
 
 O 
 
 V ■ 
 bnU 
 
 58 
 a S 
 
 u a 
 a— ' 
 0. 
 
 
 379,365 
 39°,2I5 
 634,192 
 963,458 
 
 159,475 
 
 16.5 
 
 26.7 
 36.8 
 32.0 
 72.1 
 
 165,267 
 609,965 
 693,299 
 
 1,105,804 
 
 143.972 
 
 5-7 
 S8.7 
 83.4 
 29.7 
 58.3 
 
 6,853,777 
 2,546,757 
 2,184,932 
 18,164,767 
 2,779,965 
 
 21.7 
 50.4 
 65-4 
 51. 1 
 75-9 
 
 
 
 North Central 
 
 
 
 United States 
 
 2,528,705 
 
 29.0 
 
 2,718,307 1 31.1 
 
 32,530,198 
 
 41. i 
 
 There are a multitude of facts pertaining to the real effi- 
 ciency of any school system which statistical tables do not 
 and cannot show. Doubtless a comparison of our Ameri- 
 can school system with that of several of the European 
 nations would not show well on paper. But if by their fruits 
 
30? 
 
 HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 ye shall know them, we have nothing to fear from the com- 
 parison. With all their faults, the common schools of the 
 United States have unquestionably produced a population 
 unparalleled in the annals of history for general intelli- 
 gence. It may be safely asserted that no other nation of 
 the earth has ever had so large a proportion of reading, 
 writing, thinking men and women as has our country at the 
 present day ; and that these qualities are due to the benefi- 
 cent influence of the common school is evidenced by the 
 fact that they are everywhere most prominent in the sec- 
 tions where the schools have had the strongest foot-hold. 
 If you would know their history, look about you ! 
 
 ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Each State has its own system, yet all have much in common. Why? 
 
 Why we may best study them in groups. 
 
 Statistics reduced to a common basis. Why? 
 
 The school-age. — Table. Why six to fourteen is here adopted as the 
 basis of comparison. 
 
 States with Compulsory Laws : (a) Wanting in the South, (i) 
 In North Atlantic section, (c) North Central section, (ct) The 
 duration of the compulsory period. 
 
 Proportion of Children Enrolled : (a) North Central section 
 in the lead, (b) The Southern sections still behind. Why ? (c) In 
 what sense the disparity largely disappears, (d) ^'o account here taken 
 of duration, (e) An,additional advantage which the North possesses as 
 compared with the South. — The negroes bear but little of the expense. 
 
 Average Daily Attendance : (a) Total average attendance. (6) 
 Yearly increase. (c) The greatest increase in the South, (ft) The 
 rate of increase exceeds the rate of enrollment, (e) The average for 
 the United States, and what this means, (f) Regularity greatest in 
 the Western section, (g) Least in South Atlantic. (/;) Nearly uni- 
 form in most sections. (;') The influence of compulsory laws, (j) On 
 what attendance must depend for improvement, (k) Now in advance 
 of any former period. (I) What the table shows, (in) Table of aver- 
 age attendance, etc. (i) In each division. (2) Increase per year. (3) 
 Increase per cent, each year. (4) Number of pupils in average daily 
 
THE PRESENT AMERICAN SYSTEM. 303 
 
 attendance to each one hundred of total population, population six to 
 fourteen, and enrollment. (5) Pupils to each teacher. 
 
 Table of Duration of Schools : (a) Average number of days for 
 each child six to fourteen, each year. (1) Greatest in Massachusetts. (2) 
 Least in Alabama, (b) Attendance in days to each pupil enrolled, (c) 
 Average duration of schools in days, when each school is given weight 
 in proportion to its size. (1) Greatest in North Atlantic. (2) Least in 
 South Central, (d) Increase in number of days as well as in regularity. 
 
 High-school Attendance : (a) Greatest in North Atlantic. (b) 
 But few public high schools in the South. (1) District of Columbia. 
 (2) Georgia, (c) North Central division, (d) United States. 
 
 Private Schools : (a) In North Atlantic, (b) Illinois and Califor- 
 nia, (c) United States. 
 
 Teachers : (a) Whole number. (6) Ratio of displacement of 
 males, (c) Table, (d) What it shows, (e) Change in the teaching force. 
 
 Total Annual Expenditure : (a) Increase, {b) Per capita. (*■) 
 six to fourteen, {d) Of average attendance, (e) What each dollar pro- 
 duces. {/) The same when reduced to teacher's wages. 
 
 The greatest expenditure per capita in the Western division. — Why 
 this is especially praiseworthy. 
 
 Annual Amount expended for Superintendents and Teach- 
 ers : (a) Rate of increase, (b) Exceeds that of population and attend- 
 ance. 
 
 Proportional Rates of Expenditure for Different Purposes : 
 (a) School-house fund, 14 per cent, (b) Salaries, 70 per cent, (c) 
 Contingent, 16 per cent, (d) New England. (1?) West. (/) South. 
 
 Table of increase in ten years in sundry matters. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. 
 
 What can you say of the work of Horace Mann in shaping the pres- 
 ent school system of the United States ? 
 
 Mention some others who have borne a prominent part. 
 
 Do you agree with Dr. Bacon that centralization in management is 
 fatal to the real efficiency of the schools? Why, or why not? 
 
 How do you account for the fact that in the North Central division 
 of the United States there has been but 5.7 per cent, of increase in at- 
 tendance during the last ten years, while the school population has in- 
 creased nearly three times that amount ? 
 
INDEX. 
 
 (3°5) 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Abacus, used in Egypt, 134. 
 
 A, B, C Shooters (Schutzen), 185, 
 186, 187. 
 
 Absent-mindedness, 81. 
 
 Abstraction, faculty of, 80. 
 
 Academia, 151. 
 
 Active and Passive, 5g. 
 
 Activity, a law of childhood, 35, 
 69. 
 
 Act of 1802, 265. 
 
 Act of 1836, 268. 
 
 Africa, 171. 
 
 Age, School, 148, 291. 
 
 Alcuin, 174, 181. 
 
 Alexandria [an], 153, 160, 161, 
 172. 
 
 Alfred the Great, 182, 183. 
 
 Algebra, 170, 190. 
 
 Alphabet, 149, 158. 
 
 Analysis, faculty of, 80. 
 
 Anatomy, an inductive science, 94. 
 
 Animal Kingdom, classified by 
 Chaldeans, 128. 
 
 Antediluvians, educational condi- 
 tion of, 124, 125. 
 
 Antoninus, founds first orphan 
 asylum's, 161. 
 
 A Posteriori, explained, 64. 
 
 Apparatus, 45, 90. 
 
 A Priori, 64, 65. 
 
 Apprentice work, etc., 11, 13. 
 
 Arabs [ians], 170, 171. 
 
 Archimedes, 153, 180. 
 
 Architecture, 124, 135, 161, 198. 
 
 Are teachers inferior to members 
 of other professions ? 8. 
 
 Aristotle, 152, 180. 
 
 Arithmetic [s, ian], 134, 139, 141, 
 142, 149, 152, 157, 158 ; early, 
 97, 278, 280, 281, 283, 284. 
 
 Arnold, Dr., 231. 
 
 Art, 149, 198. 
 
 Artificer, the first, 125. 
 
 Ascham, 214, 226. 
 
 Asshurbanipal, 127, 128. 
 
 Association, faculty of, 43, 64, 69, 
 75- 
 
 Assurance, rational, 79. 
 
 Assyrian [s], 126, 127. 
 
 Astrology, 127, 139. 
 
 Astronomy, 127 , 135, 152, 178, 
 202, 214, 215, 222 - 
 
 Athenaeum, 161. 
 
 Athens [ians], 148, 150, 161. 
 
 Attendance, comparative table, 
 294, 295, 296. 
 
 Attention, faculty of, etc., 59, 60, 
 68, 69. 
 
 Attractiveness, nece-^ary to atten- 
 tion, 69. 
 
 (307) 
 
3°8 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Augustine, on Virgil, 174. 
 Average duration of schools, table, 
 
 297- 
 Awakening, educational, 206, 226. 
 Axioms, 61, 94, 179. 
 Babylon [ian, ians], 126, 127, 12S. 
 Bacchanten, 185, 186. 
 Bacon, Dr. Leonard, on Swiss 
 
 schools, 243. 
 Bacon, Francis, 206, 220, 223. 
 Bacon, Friar Roger, 190. 
 Bain, Alex., educational iheory, 231. 
 Barbarian invasions, 163, 168, 173, 
 
 182. 
 Basedow, 227. 
 
 Beauty, help to moral culture, 119. 
 Bede, Venerable. 181. 
 Benedictines, their educational 
 
 work. 183. 
 Board Schools, 231, 238. 
 Boccaccio, 198, 201. 
 Boethius, 171, 180, 182. 
 Book of the Dead, 136. 
 Boston, first school entry, 247. 
 Boyhood, age of, 23. 
 Brahmanism, 137. 
 Brethren of the Common Life, 183. 
 Brown University, 262. 
 Buddhism, 139. 
 Buried cities, 127, 133. 
 Cadmus, 146. 
 Cain, first architect, 124. 
 Cambridge, Eng., 182, 205. 
 Canterbury, 182. 
 Capella, author of the medieval 
 
 text-book, 179. 
 Carlyle on early instruction, 73. 
 Cassiodorus's mediaeval text-book 
 
 179. 
 Caste, Egyptian, 134; Hindoo, 137. 
 
 Catechism, 222. 
 
 Centralization of European schools, 
 
 239. 
 
 Chaldean [s], 126. 
 
 Change, a law of child nature, 18. 
 
 Changes in teachers, annual aver- 
 age, 299. 
 
 Charlemagne, the champion of 
 education, 181. 
 
 Charleston free grammar school, 
 258. 
 
 Chartres and Citeaux, work of, 
 183. 
 
 Chaucer and the English language, 
 194, 201, 204. 
 
 Chemistry, 135. 
 
 Childhood, period of, 23. 
 
 China [esej, 126, 140, 142. 
 
 Christianity, rise, growth and edu- 
 cational influence, 162, 172, 173, 
 192, 200, 202, 235. 
 
 Chrysoloras, 196. 
 
 Circulation of blood discovered, 
 215. 
 
 Civil engineering, Roman, 161. 
 
 Civil service reform, Chinese, 142. 
 
 Classic learning, 196, 210. 
 
 Classification, faculty of, 80. 
 
 Cognitive faculties, 58, 80, 86. 
 
 Colet, 214. 
 
 College [s, iate], 128, 142, 161, 
 181, 185, 205 ; colonial. 251, 
 255, 260 
 
 Colonial education in United 
 States, 247-262 ; Massachusetts, 
 247; Connecticut. 248 ; New Am- 
 sterdam, 252 ; Delaware, 253 ; 
 Pennsylvania, 254 ; New Jersey, 
 255 ; Virginia, 255 ; South Car- 
 olina, 257. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 3°9 
 
 Columbus, product of Christianity, 
 197. 
 
 Comenius, 220 ; principles of, 221. 
 
 Comparative amount of schooling 
 given, 297. 
 
 Comparison, faculty of, 80, 83. 
 
 Composite photographs, illustrat- 
 ing conception, 62. 
 
 Composition, 149. 
 
 Compulsory attendance laws, 292, 
 
 295- 
 
 Conception, 63, 78. 
 
 Conceptive faculties, 23, 42, 58, 
 61, 68. 
 
 Confucius, 140. 
 
 Conservation and correlation of 
 intellectual force, 231. 
 
 Conservatism, 140, 205, 224. 
 
 Conscience, 106, 109, 115. 
 
 Constantine, 173, 190. 
 
 Cookery in London schools, 238. 
 
 Copernicus, astronomer, 202, 214. 
 
 Cordova library, 172. 
 
 Coster, Laurens, inventor of print- 
 ing, 203. 
 
 Course of study, 128, 142, 149, 
 178, 211, 213, 222, 238. 
 
 Criticism of Egyptian composition, 
 
 135- 
 
 Crusades, influence of, 200. 
 
 Cuneiform writing, 127. 
 
 Dante, 193, 198, 201. 
 
 Dark ages, 163, 187. 
 
 Decimal system, 171. 
 
 Declamation, 149, 159. 
 
 Deduction, deductive reasoning, 
 87, 91, 94. 
 
 De Groot, Gerard, 183. 
 
 De Nuptiis, etc., mediaeval text- 
 book, 179. 
 
 Deventor, school of, 183. 
 Dialectics, 149, 152, 179. 
 Didactica Magna, 221. 
 Dilworth, first English arithmetic, 
 
 96. 
 Discipline, 18, 28, 51, Si, 147, 159, 
 
 184, 212. 
 Dispersion of Greek scholars, 192. 
 Division of fractions (inductive and 
 
 deductive treatment of), 99. 
 Dock, Chr., of Penn, 280. 
 Drama, 208. 
 Drawing, 47, 74. 
 
 Dreariness, not conducive to mo- 
 rality, 119. 
 Dresden, 186. 
 Eddas, Icelandic, 201. 
 Educational systems, 145. 
 Educational progress, 234 ; table, 
 
 236. 
 Educational reformers, 210-233. 
 Education, denned as here used, 
 
 125. 
 Education engenders morality, 
 
 116. 
 Ego and non-ego, 61. 
 Egypt pan J, 126, 133, 135. 
 Elementary schools, 149, 236. 
 Elizabethan drama, 202. 
 Elizabethan literature, 207. 
 Elizabeth, Queen, 206, 214. 
 Emancipation of thought, 206. 
 Emilius (Emile) of Rousseau, 226. 
 Emotion, faculty of, 57. 
 Empiricism, 9. 
 Emulation, 212. 
 Encyclopedias, 179, 223. 
 England, English, 181, 194, 197, 
 
 200, 237. 
 English renascence, 200-209. 
 
3i° 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Enrollment, comparative, table of, 
 
 301. 
 Erasmus, 204, 214. 
 Esoteric education, 134, 138. 
 Espionage, 213. 
 Ethics, 139, 148. 
 Eton, 204. 
 Etymology, 180. 
 Euclid, 153, 180. 
 Evolution of Christian civilization, 
 
 165-176. 
 Evolution of modern civilization, 
 
 165-167. 
 Examinations, 129, 142. 
 Exemplary life of teachers, 120, 
 
 136. 
 Exercise develops faculties, 17, 
 
 Exoteric education, 134, 13S, 
 Expenditure, annual, in United 
 
 States, 300. 
 Experiments, 47. 
 Faculties defined, 17, 57, 59' 
 Falling bodies, laws of, 88, 215. 
 Female education, 140, 147, 152, 
 
 159, 161, 206, 251, 
 Female teachers, 26, 206, 298. 
 First city of the earth, 124. 
 Flogging, 147, 159, 212, 231. 
 Florence, 196. 
 Foreign education, statistics of, 
 
 236. 
 Fox story. Spartan, 146. 
 FYance, French, etc., 169, 202, 
 
 22S, 229, 239. 
 Freedom of the Will, 117. 
 Free elementary foreign schools, 
 
 23S. 
 Free schools in United States, 260, 
 
 274. 
 
 Froebel, 24, 217, 229. 
 
 Galileo, 215. 
 
 Generalization, faculty of, 80, 81. 
 
 Genesis of $ sign, 280. 
 
 Geography, 127, 180, 215, 222: 
 
 early geographies, 285. 
 Geometry, 133, 152, 160, 178, 224. 
 German [y], 183, 185, 201, 225, 
 
 228; el. and normal schools, 241. 
 Gifts, Kindergarten, 27 ; list, 32 ; 
 
 3d gift, 36. 
 Gladiatorial combats, etc. , 167. 
 Goths, invasion of, 168. 
 Grammar, 127, 152, 177, 180, 205, 
 
 211, 213, 222, 224. 
 Grammar schools, 205, 212. 
 Grammars, early, 284. 
 Gray, Lady Jane, 206. 
 Greece, 127, 145, 156. 
 Greek, 127, 158, 159, 171, 180, 
 
 183, 190, 198, 205, 213, 215. 
 Gregory, of Tours, 174 ; the Great, 
 
 174- 
 Grocyn, 204. 
 Growth of regularity of attendance, 
 
 table, 296. 
 Gunpowder, invention of, 200. 
 Gutenberg, improver of printing, 
 
 203. 
 Gymnastics, 152. 
 Habit, 18. 
 
 Harvard College, 251, 260. 
 Harvey, circulation of blood, etc., 
 
 215. 
 Head, object lessons on, 50-54. 
 Healthy action of faculties, 18. 
 Hebrew [s], 128, 157, 162, 180. 
 Heloisa, The New, 225. 
 Henry VIII., 205. 
 , Heroic age, Greece, 145. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 3" 
 
 Hesiod, Greek poet, 145. 
 Heterae, 149 
 
 Higher ideal of teaching needed, 5 
 High [er] schools, 149, 159, 298. 
 Hindoo [s], 137, 138,171. 
 Histories of United States, early, 
 
 286. 
 History, 127, 141, 142, 222. 
 History of education, importance 
 
 of, 123. 
 Holland, 183. 
 Home education, 124, 148, 157, 
 
 162, 226. 
 Homer, Greek poet, 135, 145, 158. 
 Horace, Roman poet, 158. 
 Horn-book, 250. 
 
 " How Gertrude teaches her Chil- 
 dren," 228. 
 Humanists, 196. 
 Huns, invasion of, 168. 
 Hypatia, 162. 
 
 Ideal moral man defined, 117. 
 Illiteracy, 125, 197. 
 Imagination, faculty of, 43, 64, 
 
 222. 
 Imitation, faculty of, 63, 73. 
 Increase of school population and 
 
 expenditure, 301. 
 India, 126, 137. 
 Induction [ive], 86, 88, 94. 
 Industrial education, 134, 149, 222, 
 
 23T, 238. 
 Industry, 37. 
 Infancy, period of, 23. 
 Innovators, the, 215-232. 
 Inscription, ancient palace, 127. 
 Intellect, 57. 
 
 Intellectual faculties, 58, 80. 
 Intuitive [ion], 59, 60, 106. 
 Irish schools, ancient, 181. 
 
 Isidore, 180. 
 
 Italian renascence, 190-199. 
 
 Italic type, 203. 
 
 Italy, Italian, 169, 181, 193, 201. 
 
 Jacotot, 229. 
 
 Jansenists, 224. 
 
 Janua Linguarum Reserata, 223. 
 
 Japan, 126. 
 
 Jesuit schools, 210, 222, 224, 226. 
 
 Job's comforters, 7. 
 
 Jubal, inventor of harp, etc., 125. 
 
 Judgment, 79, 106, 107, 108, 213, 
 
 221. 
 Juvenile literature in 1836, 286, 
 
 287. 
 Kant, 227. 
 Kepler, 215. 
 Kiddle and Schem, on " what to 
 
 forget," 71. 
 Kindergarten, illustrated, 24; in or- 
 dinary schools, 32, 227. (See 
 
 Gifts) 
 Knowing faculties, 78-85. 
 Koran, required ability to read, 
 
 171. 
 Laconic, 147. 
 Land-grants to States, table of, 
 
 267. 
 Land-grants for universities, etc., 
 
 267. 
 Language Lessons, 54. 
 Latin, 129, 166, 169, 173, 177, 179, 
 
 180, 183, 195, 201, 213, 215, 
 
 223, 227. 
 Law, 127, 159, 180. 
 Learning to do by doing, 118, 
 
 222. 
 Leisure — school, 149. 
 *' Leonard and Gertrude,'' 228. 
 Liberal arts, seven, 180, 183. 
 
312 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Libraries, 127, 128, 136, 153, 160, 
 
 172, 182, 197 
 Literature, inseparable from early 
 
 education, 198, 204. 
 Locke, 224, 226. 
 Logarithms, 215. 
 Logic, 152, 178, 224. 
 London, schools of, 238. 
 Lowe, Robert, 231. 
 Lyall, Sir Alfred, quoted, 175. 
 Lyceum, Aristotle's, 152. 
 Lycurgus, 146. 
 Male teachers, displacement of, 
 
 299. 
 Malpractice, 96. 
 Manners, 135, 141. 
 Mann, Horace, 232. 
 Manu, laws of, 139. 
 Manuscripts, ancient, 194, 197. 
 Maps, ancient Roman, 161. 
 Mariner's compass, 200. 
 Marion, General, on public schools, 
 
 277. 
 Marseilles, universities, 161, 163. 
 Mathematics, 127, 139, 142, 205, 
 
 213. 
 McCosh, Dr., 109. 
 Medical education, 135, 138, 143, 
 
 180. 
 Mediaeval ages, etc., 165-190, 235. 
 Memory, 23, 60, 63, 6S, 70, 142, 
 
 213, 221. 
 Mensuration, 135. 
 Metaphysics, 138. 
 Mt-tric system, Lee's, 280. 
 Milton, 218. 
 Minnesingers, 201. 
 Mohammedans [ism], 153, 170, 
 
 176. 
 Monastic orders, 183. 
 
 Monks, 174, 183. 
 
 Montaigne, 216, 225. 
 
 Moral faculties, 106-122. 
 
 Moral instruction, 43, 55, no. n8, 
 
 124, 129, 136, 141, 147. !52, 
 
 177, 224. 
 Morley on " Emile," 226. 
 Mosaic history, 124. 
 Mothers, 24, 26. 
 Music, 119, 125, T 35, 149. J 52, 
 
 160, 178, 181. 
 Mythology, 139, 149. 
 Napier, 215. 
 Nathan's parable, III, 
 Natural history, 49. 
 New education, the, 226. 
 New learning, the, 204, 214. 
 New old world, 165-176. 
 Newton, 215. 
 Nibelungen Lied, 201. 
 Nile, 126, 133. 
 Nine American colleges at close of 
 
 colonial period, 260. 
 Nineteenth century, 166, 235. 
 iNineveh, 126, 127, 128, 129. 
 Noisy teaching, 81. 
 Normal schools, 229, 236, 242. 
 Notation and numeration, 171. 
 Novum Oi'ganum, 207. 
 Objective period, 23, 35, 42. 
 Object lessons, 40, 49. 
 Object teaching, 24, 55, 229. 
 Observation, 59, 63, go, 95, 222. 
 Occupation, 35. 
 Olympia Norata, Lady Professor, 
 
 206. 
 Orbis Pictus, 223. 
 Ordinance of 1785, 264; of 1787, 
 
 265. 
 Origen, 153. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 313 
 
 Originality, 35. 
 
 Origin of writing, 125. 
 
 Orphan asylums, 161, 228. 
 
 Orphic hymns, 145. 
 
 Osman, 172. 
 
 Oval illustrated, 52. 
 
 Oxford, 182. 
 
 Paganism, 173, 174, 177. 
 
 Painting, 135, 198. 
 
 Paraschites, 135. 
 
 Pariahs, 135, 137. 
 
 Parish schools, 162. 
 
 Pascal, 224. 
 
 Paul the Apostle, 159, 161, 177. 
 
 Pedagogics, first English, 214. 
 
 Pedagogue, 148, 159. 
 
 Perceptive faculties, perception, 
 23, 58, 59, 62, 78, 221. 
 
 Peripatetics, 152. 
 
 Permanent school funds, table of, 
 269, 270, 271. 
 
 Pestalozzi, 25, 217, 226, 227. 
 
 Petrarch, 194, 198, 201. 
 
 Philanthropin , Basedow's, 227. 
 
 Philosophy, 138, 151. 
 
 Phonograph, 63. 
 
 Physical education, 16, 147, 148, 
 151, 217, 224. 
 
 Physical impressibility of brain, 
 70. 
 
 Physical science, 90, 231. 
 
 Physiology, 49. 
 
 Pictures, 45. 
 
 Plato, 151, 152, 180. 
 
 Platter, A, B, C Shooter, 186, 
 187. 
 
 Plautus on Roman school disci- 
 pline, 159. 
 
 Pleasure, 17. 
 
 Plymouth school, 249. 
 
 Poetry, 138, 197, 201. 
 
 Polish, 198. 
 
 Politics, 149, 152. 
 
 Portugal, 202. 
 
 Preparatory schools, 185. 
 
 Primary schools, etc., 158, 173, 
 
 202, 222, 228. 
 Primitive judgment, 60. 
 Printing, 141, 197, 201, 203. 
 Private schools, enrollment, 294. 
 Probationary stage, 149. 
 Properties vs. substance, 62. 
 Prose literature, 202. 
 Ptolemy, 153, 179. 
 Quadrature of circle, 180. 
 Quadrivium, 178. 
 Qualifications of teachers, 136. 
 Qualities of objects, 4G. 
 Questioning, etc., 150. 
 Quick, quoted, etc., 212, 216, 
 
 226. 
 Ratich, 217, 220. 
 Raumer, 215. 
 
 Rawlinson on Chaldeans, 126. 
 Readers, early, 282. 
 Reading, 134, 148, 14-;, 157, 184, 
 
 187, 202, 213, 222. 
 Reason, 86, 134. 
 Reasoning faculties, 19, 58, 221, 
 
 222. 
 Recollection, 63, 68, 71. 
 Renascence, 190-210. 
 Repetition, 68. 
 Retention, 60. 
 Reviews, 212. 
 Revival of learning, 178, 183, 184, 
 
 190, 197, 198, 201. 
 Rhetoric, 152, 179, 180. 
 Rhetra, 146. 
 Romance languages, 169. 
 
3 J 4 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 " Roman " language, 169. 
 
 Roman history, 157, 167. 
 
 Rome [an], 156, 157, 163, 192. 
 
 Rote teaching, 210. 
 
 Rousseau, 224. 
 
 Royal road to learning, 227. 
 
 Rules, 98, 102. 
 
 Rush, Dr. Benjamin, on public 
 
 schools, 276. 
 Salad in, 170. 
 Salaries, 6; of N. E. teachers prior 
 
 to 1800, 249. 
 Saracens, 170, 190. 
 Satyricon, 179. 
 Scholastic philosophy, 184. 
 School age, 211, 222, 237; in States, 
 
 table of, 291; in foreign coun- 
 tries, 236. 
 School [s], 124, 128, 134, 135, 141, 
 
 145, 148, 149, 153, 156, 158, 159, 
 
 162, 169, 171, 173, 181, 182, 
 
 184, 185. 
 School-day, 148, 159, 211. 
 " School-master's Assistant," 96, 
 
 284. 
 School-population, 236, 238. 
 School-rates, 274, 275. 
 Schoolmen, 181, 184, 207. 
 Schutzen [A, B, C shooters], 185, 
 
 186. 
 Schuyler, Dr., 80. 
 Science, 138, 142, 152, 197. 
 Scientific research, ed., etc., 202, 
 
 206, 207, 231. 
 Sculpture, 135, 192, 198. 
 Self-education, 18, 27. 
 Sensation, 59. 
 Senses, 15, 16, 42, 44, 46, 221, 
 
 228. 
 Sewing in London schools, 238. 
 
 Shakespeare, 205. 
 
 Sidereal year found by ancients, 
 
 128. 
 Singing, 222. 
 Sixteenth section, 264, 265, 266, 
 
 267. 
 Social contract, 225. 
 Social education, 26. 
 Social standing of teachers, 7, 8. 
 Socrates, 149, 150. 
 Socratic method, 79, 150. 
 Solon, 148. 
 
 Spartans, 146, 148, 152. 
 Specialists, 207. 
 Spelling, 149. 
 
 Spain, 168, T69, 171, 198, 202. 
 Spelling-books, Dilworth's, Pierce's, 
 
 Webster's, 282. 
 Spencer, Herbert, 230. 
 Stages of life, 22. 
 State education, 129, 149, 151, 
 
 157- 
 Strabo, the geographer, 153, 191. 
 St. Martin of Tours, 182. 
 Students at large, 185. 
 Subtraction, 61, 97. 
 Sudras, [37. 
 Supervision, 212, 269. 
 Swineherds, 135. 
 Syllabic method, 158. 
 Syllogisms, 87, 102. 
 Symmetrical forms developed, 36. 
 Symonds, 174, 196. 
 Syntax, 180. 
 Table of educational progress in 
 
 England and Wales, 238. 
 Taine, 206. 
 Tale-bearing, 108. 
 Tate, 44 , on memory, 70 ; table of 
 
 intellectual faculties, 58. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 3*5 
 
 Teachers, 152, 158, 159, 161, 181; 
 
 character of early, 278, 279, 280; 
 
 number of, in United States, 
 
 298. 
 Telescope, 128; invention of, 214. 
 Text-books, 158, 178, 179, 180, 
 
 184, 223, 224, 282, 286; early 
 
 New England, 249, 250. 
 Theft, encouraged in Sparta, 146. 
 Thirty-sixth section, 267. 
 Thomas a Kempis, 183. 
 Three R's, 158. 
 Transmutation of mental energy, 
 
 145. 153. 
 Trigonometry, 171, 
 Trivium, 178, 180, 183. 
 Troubadours and Trouveres, 201. 
 Truthfulness, 147. 
 Tubal-Cain, 125. 
 Tycho Brahe, 214, 
 Type, how first made, 203. 
 Understand [ing], 78, 83. 
 Uniformity of nature, 89, 94. 
 United States' aid to education, 
 
 264-273. 
 Universal causation, law of, 88, 
 
 94. 
 
 Universal education, 222, 226, 
 Universal history of education, 221. 
 University [ies], 128, 153, 166, 
 
 172, 185. 190, 195, 196, 205, 260, 
 
 261, 262, 
 Vandals, 168. 
 Vatican library, 197. 
 Vigor of faculties, 18, 
 Virgil, 158, 174, 177. 
 Virginia at Rome, 158. 
 Visitors prohibited, 148. 
 Vulgar tongue, or vernacular, 170, 
 
 182, 201, 222. 
 Wandering professors, 185. 
 Will, the, 71. 
 William and Mary College, 256, 
 
 261. 
 Winchester, 204. 
 Wolsey, Cardinal, 214. 
 Word-method, 229. 
 Writing, 75, 125, 134, 141, 149, 
 
 157. I5 8 . 159, 160, 170, 174, 
 
 187, 202, 222. 
 Wrong, 106, 108, log. 
 Wycliffe, 201, 204. 
 Xenophon, 130. 
 York, England, 181. 
 
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