fyxmll llTOmitg pibOTg THE GIFT OF. ft■^9 8-7-l^- loJTnr/itf, Cornell University Library PE 1068.U5B62 English for the non-English 3 1924 027 347 446 Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tlie Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924027347446 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH BY NORMAN FERGUS BLACK, M. A. Author of Black's First Reader and A History of Saskatchewan and The Old North West REGINA BOOK SHOP, LIMITED PUBLISHERS AND BOOKSELLERS REGINA, SASK. E,V- Copyright by CHAELES S. PETERSON 1913 UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO To the Registrar of the University of Toronto: We beg to report that the Thesis of Mr. Norman F. Black, M. A., on "EngHsh for the Non-English," to- gether with his discussions of the questions set in the History of Philosophy and Ethics, the Principles of Psychology and Ethics, the Science of Education, and the History and Criticism of Educational Systems, qualifies him for the Degree of Doctor of Pedagogy. (Signed) W. S. Ellis, Sinclair Laird, O. J. Stevenson, H. T. J. Coleman. To the Senate of the University of Toronto, Gentlemen : I hereby certify that the Thesis above mentioned has been accepted by the Senate of the University of Toronto for the Degree of Doctor of Pedagogy, and that Mr. Black has complied with all the Regulations in accord- ance with the Statute in that behalf. (Signed) James Brebner, Registrar. TO ALL THOSE desirous that English be made familiar to the whole citizen body, and, to that end, interested in the teaching of English to children inheriting some other mother tongue, this little book is addressed. PREFACE. The main topics of the following treatise are the im- portance of making English a common tongue, familiar to all citizens, and the means by which experience has shown that this goal can best be attained. Its pages are not intended merely for professional teachers. To every citizen the problem of wisely educating our immigrants and those of our fellow-countrymen who are still unfamil- iar with the English language is one of importance. Its right solution involves the creation of an enlightened pub- lic opinion that will vigorously support a wise policy on the part of those officially entrusted with the guidance of educational affairs. The attention of Trustees and School Managers is especially called to Chapters II and III, and the latter part of Chapter IV. In these passages answers will be found to such questions as the following: How fast have we a right to exjwct non-English pupils to progress in the mastery of English? Is the teacher's familiarity with her pupils' mother tongue a qualification of primary importance? What should be the language of the play- ground? What are the arguments for and against the teaching of languages other than English in our ele- mentary schools ? What special equipment may Trustees economically provide to aid the teacher of non-English speaking classes? What reforms in the solution of the question may Trustees advance on their own initiative? Members of legislative bodies are invited to give their special attention to Chapters III and VIII. The author's task of collecting facts, methods, and fi PREFACE opinions from those dealing with non-English speaking pupils in so many parts of Great Britain, the United States and their various dependencies, would have been impossible of fulfilment without the assistance of many scores of correspondents. Some of these have written several times and at considerable length. Owing to somewhat excessive modesty a large number of his correspondents have asked the writer to suppress their names, and a considerable number of others failed to sign the questionnaires they had painstakingly filled out. The following list includes the remainder of the large body of superintendents, inspectors, teachers, and other educators who replied to the author's communications. Their courtesy and readiness to help is most gratefully acknowledged : Abbott, F. H., Assistant Commissioner of Indian Af- fairs, Washington, D. C. Anderson, Alexander, Superintendent Education, Prince Edward Island. Anderson, J. T. M., Inspector Schools, Yorkton, Sas- katchewan. Argue, W. P., Superintendent, Vancouver, British Columbia. Baezynski, Joseph, Teacher. Ball, A. H., Vice-Principal, Normal Sch'ool, Regina, Saskatchewan. Basham, Geo., Teacher, Janowski School, Dauphin, Manitoba. Bates, Mary, Teacher, Tacoma, Washington. Beaufre, Sister, Convent, St. Norbert, Manitoba. Berry, Lillian, Teacher, Frank, Alberta. Blacklock, R. F., Chief Clerk, Saskatchewan Depart- ment of Education, Regina, Saskatchewan. Blair, R., Chief Education Officer, London, England. Bloch, A. F., Principal, Polish Training School, Winni- peg, Manitoba. PREFACE 7 Blondin, Edith, Teacher, Cornwall, Ontario. Boyce, J. F., Inspector Schools, Red Deer, Alberta. Brown, J. B., Supervisor for Crete Nation Indian Schools, Muskogee, Indian Territory. Brown, J. W., Inspector Schools, Medicine Hat, Alberta. Brown, W. J., Principal, Belmont School, Philadelphia. Bruce, C. S., Inspector Schools, Shelburn, Nova Scotia. Bryden, C. W., Teacher, Indian School, Misawasis, Canada. Butchard, A. B., Inspector Schools, Vegreville, Alberta. Campbell, J, W., Indian Superintendent, La Pointe, Indian Agency, Ashland, Wisconsin. Carter, W. S., Chief Superintendent of Education, Frederickton, Nova Scotia. Chadsey, C. E., Superintendent of Education, Denver, Colorado. Chammet, Beatrice, Teacher, P. S. 177, Manhattan, New York. Chrustowski, H., Teacher. Clarke, Ethel, Teacher, McCaul School, Toronto, Ontario. Clarke, Geo. W., Town Clerk, Whitechapel, East Lon- don, England. Clayton, S. J., Teacher, Night School, Calgary, Alberta. Coffin, E. W., Acting-Principal, Normal School, Calgary, Alberta. Collins, Mildred B., Teacher, Tomali, Wisconsin. Coombes, Jos., Inspector Schools, Saskatoon, Sas- katchewan. Cooper, Miss S., Teacher, Victoria St. School, Toronto, Ontario. Condon, R. J., Superintendent Schools, Providence, Rhode Island. Corcoran, W., Secretary Young Men's Christian Asso- ciation, Winnipeg, Manitoba. 8 PREFACE Cornman, Oliver P., Associate Superintendent of Schools, Philadelphia. Cox, Nellie, Teacher, Muskogee, Indian Territory. Cullen, Annie E., Teacher, Ryerson School, Toronto, Ontario. Dale, Professor J. A., Department of Education, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec. Dartt, M. L., Principal, Mayflower School, Cleveland, Ohio. Davies, G. H., Registrar, Wales University College, Aberystwyth, Wales. Davies, J. H., Organizer of Education, Ruthen, Wales. Davies, Leah, Teacher, Infant Class School, St. Dog- maels. West Cardigan, Wales. De La Bruierer, Superintendent Public Instruction, Quebec. Dexter, E. G., Commissioner of Education, Porto Rico. Dietz, E. A., Teacher, P. S. 65 G., Eldredge Street, New York City. Dockstader, C. A., Methodist-Indian Mission, Coxolo, British Columbia. Duff, James, Inspector Schools, Regina, Saskatchewan. Dunlop, J. E. S., Inspector Schools, Carberry, Manitoba. Dunnell, H., Inspector Manual Training Schools, British Columbia. Durham, Josie L., Supervising Teacher, Manila, Philip- pine Islands. Eby, E. O., Teacher, Laird, Saskatchewan. Elson, W. H., Superintendent of Schools, Cleveland, Ohio. English, Gertrude, District Superintendent, Chicago, Illinois. Evans, W. D., Teacher, The Council School, Salva, Pembrokeshire, Wales. Field, W. S., Director Evening Schools, Boston, Massa- chusetts. PREFACE 9 Finn, F. G., Inspector Schools, Morden, Manitoba. Fitch, Martha, Teacher, Toronto, Ontario. Fletcher, R., Deputy-Minister of Education, Winnipeg, Manitoba. Fleury, J. M., EngHsh-French Training School, Ottawa. Gebers, G. F., Assistant Inspector of Schools (Zulu), Durban, Natal, South Africa. Gordon, C. M., Superintendent of Schools, Minneapolis, Minnesota. Gordon, J. S., Inspector High Schools, Victoria, British Columbia. Hartley, A. H., Inspector Schools, Castor, Alberta. Hartley, W. C, Inspector Schools, Carmen, Manitoba. Hatcher, A. J., Teacher, Elkhorne, Manitoba. Haywood, R., Superintendent, Grand Forks, North Dakota. Hewgill, John, Inspector Schools, Moosomin, Sas- katchewan. Hogben, G., Inspector General of Schools, Wellington, New Zealand. Hooper, A. W., Inspector Schools, Brandon, Manitoba. Huff, J. D. D., Superintendent City Schools, Manila, Philippine Islands. Hutcherson, E. B., Superintendent Schools, Regina, Sas- katchewan. Hutchison, J. F., Inspector Schools, Kinistino, Sas- katchewan. Hydred, Alfred J., Teacher, Old Montague St., White- chapel, England. James, H. E. H., Director of Education, Haverford- west, Wales. Johnson, H. H., Superintendent Cushman Indian Schools, Tacoma, Washington. Kennedy, A. H., Inspector Schools, Weyburn, Sas- katchewan. Knox, Geo. P., Assistant Superintendent, St. Louis. lO PREFACE Lannan, Annie A., Teacher, St. Mary's School, Regina, Saskatchewan. Lawrence, J. D., Assistant Inspector, P. S., Georgetown, British Guiana. Levy, Esther, Teacher, P. S. 177, New York City. Little, J., Teacher, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan Lopp, W. T., Chief of Alaska Division Bureau of Ed- ucation, Seattle, Washington. Loram, C. T., Inspector of Schools, Durban, Natal, South Africa. Lucas, Philip, Superintendent, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Martindale, W. C, Superintendent, Detroit, Michigan. Maxwell, W., Superintendent, New York City. McCoomb, E. H. Kemper, Manual Training High School, Indianapolis, Indiana. Mclntyre, D., Superintendent, Winnipeg, Manitoba. Mclntyre, W. A., Principal Normal School, Winnipeg, Manitoba. McKay, A. H., Superintendent Education for Nova Scotia. MacKenzie, A. Roy, Teacher, Stettler, Alberta. McKerricher, D. A., Inspector Schools, Lethbridge, Alberta. McNeill, M. J., Inspector Schools, R'iver Bourgeois, Nova Scotia. Merchant, F., Teacher, Tynecastle, Saskatchewan. Merchant, F. W., Inspector Normal and Model Schools, Toronto, Ontario. Mihaychuk, W. J., Teacher, English-Ruthenian School, Arbakka, Manitoba. Millar, Miss, Teacher, Mayflower School, Cleveland, Ohio. Moffitt, Mary, Teacher, Saskatchewan. Morgan, Inspector, Lethbridge, Alberta. Morse, L. S., Inspector Schools, Digby, Nova Scotia. Moyer, Beatrice, Teacher, Benito, Manitoba. PREFACE II Murney, Lillian, Principal, Murray Hill School, Cleve- land, Ohio. Murphy, Sister, Teacher, Indian School, Odanah, Wis- consin. Nivens, Chas., Normal School, Regina, Saskatchewan. Noble, Irene, Teacher, Craig, Saskatchewan. O'Brian, J., Inspector Schools, Regina, Saskatchewan. O'Connor, J. J., Teacher, Lejord, Saskatchewan. Olynic, Chas., Teacher, Ruthenian School, Saskatche- wan. Parker, S. D., Inspector Schools, Winnipeg, Manitoba. Parr, W. J., Inspector Schools, Killamey, Manitoba. Patterson, Kate, Teacher, Saskatchewan. Peairs, H. B., Supervisor, Indian Schools, Lawrence, Kansas. Peterson, W. M., Supervisor, Indian Schools, Indian Office, Washington, District of Columbia. Phaneuf, V., Teacher, Edmonton, Alberta. Phillips, Emil M., Teacher, L. C. C. Hanbury St., White- chapel, London, England. Pilkington, K., Teacher, Morden, Manitoba. Pitzer, Hugh, Indian Superintendent, Pawhieska, Okla- homa. Pollock, Mary, Teacher, Pawhieska, Oklahoma. RadcliflFe, S. J., Principal, Normal School, London, Ontario. Rankin, Miss, Normal School, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. Richardson, J. W., Teacher, Buchanan, Saskatchewan. Richman, Julia, District Superintendent, Manhattan, New York. Roberts, L. J., J. I. M. S., Ceenfau, Llandudno, Wales. Robinson, Alex., Superintendent of Education for British Columbia, Victoria. Ross, J. I., Chief Inspector Schools for Alberta, Ed- monton. Ryan, Mrs. Jno., Teacher, Hoodoo, Saskatchewan. 12 PREFACE Sansom, C, Inspector Schools, High River, Alberta. Schuler, Louise, Teacher, Indian School, Lawrence, Kansas. Scott, A. M., Superintendent Schools, Calgary, Alberta. Seath, Jno., Superintendent Education for Ontario, To- ronto. Secombe, America J,. Teacher, Indian School, Lawrence, Saskatchewan. Shiels, Albert, District Superintendent Evening Schools, New York City. Shiels, C. J., State Superintendent for Minnesota, St. Paul. Shimberg, Jeanette, Teacher, Brooklyn. Soland, A. P., Superintendent, Newark, New Jersey. Soper, F. A., Superintendent, Baltimore, Maryland. Spearing, J., Teacher. Squires, Professor Vernon P., University North Dakota. St. Victor, Sister, St. Louis, Saskatchewan. Stanley, Elizabeth, Teacher, Oraiki, Arizona. Story, J. D., Under Secretary, Dept. of Pub. Instruction, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. Sweeney, L., Assist. Supt., Providence, Rhode Island. Tapscott, A. N., Teacher, Laird, Saskatchewan. Taylor, E. J., Supt. of Education for North Dakota, Bismarck. Thibaudeau, P. H., Insp. Schools, Lacombe, Alberta. Thorkildson, J. P., Teacher, Indian Mission, Kispiox, British Columbia. Toews, A. L., Teacher, Winkler, Manitoba. Trimble, M. M., Teacher, Portage la Prairie, Manitoba. Van Moll, Katherine, Teacher, Zuni Boarding School, Blackrock, New Mexico. Walker, E. H., Insp. Schools, Dauphin, Manitoba. Ward, A. A., Teacher, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. Warrington, Hattie L., Teacher, Saskatoon, Saskatche- wan. PREFACE 13 Watson, J. Bernard, Teacher, Prince Albert, Saskatche- wan. White, J. P., Principal, Normal School, Ottawa, Ontario. White, H., Principal, North East Public School, Phil- adelphia, Massachusetts. Whitfield, J. E., Indian Supt. Tullahassee, Oklahoma. Weidenhammer, A., Insp. Schools, Morden, Manitoba. Wyte, F. L., Sec. Supt. of Education, St. Louis, Mis- sissippi. Williams, A., Director of Education, Adelaide, South Australia. Williams, A. P., Teacher, Rhyd-ddu-Cl. School, New Car- narvan, Wales. Young, A. L., Insp. Schools, Winnipeg, Manitoba. Commissioner of Education, Washington, District of Columbia. Supt. Schools, New Orleans, Louisiana. Supt. Schools, San Francisco, California. Supt. Schools, Seattle, Washington. Supt. Schools, Washington, District of Columbia. Dept. Public Instruction for Cape Colony. Moqui Indian School, Arizona, U. S. Stoney Point Indian School, Ontario. To this list of helpers must in fairness be added the name of Vida Katherine Scott Black, but for whom the task culminating in the publication of this little work would have been impossible. Norman F. Black. 2062 Retallack St., Regina, March 25, 1912. CONTENTS. Chapter. Page. Preface 5 I. The Problem 17 II. How Rapidly Should We Expect Beginners in English to Progress ? 25 III. The Place of the Child's Mother Tongue in the School 45 IV. Certain Outstanding Difficulties and Causes of Discouragement, with Suggestions as to How They May Be Met 80 V. General Principles Underlying the Teach- ing of English to Children Unfamiliar With It 98 VI. Methods and Devices for the Teaching of English 108 VII. The Teaching of Reading and Spelling to Beginners in English 134 VIII. What Education Departments and Normal Schools Are Doing and May Do to Assist Teachers in Transforming Aliens Into Citizens I45 IX. Bibliography 156 Appendices 168 A. Report of Chicago School Committee on the Teaching of English. B. Q)urse of Study in English for Grades I and II in Porto Rico. C Detailed Syllabus of First Year's Work m Eng- lish, Manila, Philippine Islands. D. Questionnaire, upon the replies to which the author's treatment of the subject of this work is chiefly based. ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH CHAPTER I The Problem Perhaps this little book may be read by some who have not realized to what an extent, in many parts of the English-speaking world the elementary schools exist for the teaching, not primarily of the arts and sciences ordi- narily thought of as constituting the school curriculum, but of the English language itself. Even within the British Isles tens of thousands of pupils of all ages are enrolled for instruction who enter upon their studies with no knowledge of English. These include not only the children of aliens resident in the United Kingdom, but also great numbers whose ancestors have been British citizens practically from time out of mind. In the first year of this century the census showed 927,- 824 persons in Wales who spoke Welsh in addition to English, and 280,905 who could speak only Welsh. Even in 1912 about 93 per cent of the population of Cardigan- shire are reported as Welsh-speaking, and Mr. G. H. Davies, Registrar of the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth, informs the writer that as regards that country "it would probably be an under estimate to state that 50 per cent of the children know no English when they enter the elementary schools." That Welsh is far l8 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH from being moribund is indicated by the fact that during the last twenty years of the nineteenth century approxi- mately 10,000 volumes were published in the vernacular of Wales. In still other parts of the United Kingdom the non- English speaking population is by no means inconsider- able. In 1901 the bilingualists of Scotland numbered 202,700, and 28,100 could speak only the Scottish-Gaelic. In Ireland the corresponding figures were 620,189 and 20,953. I" Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Clare, Galway, Mayo, Sligo and Donegal, one-fifth of the population were Gaelic-speaking. In the Channel Islands the language of ordinary life is still, in a great measure, old Norman French and French has maintained its place as an official language; it must be added, however, that here English is taught in the parochial schools and is already familiar practically to all. In the great cities of the United Kingdom, especially in London, the non-English speaking population is of course large. In the capital, Yiddish especially is the home-language of many thousands of children. If English is ever to be understood and spoken from John O' Groat's to Land's End, and from Malin Head to Cape Clear, it will be the result of wise teaching in the elementary schools. It is to further the great task of so extending the knowledge of English that this book is written. Vast as the problem is in the Old Homeland, it is much more so in the United States and its dependencies and in the British Dominions beyond the Seas. Of India, with its three hundred million inhabitants and its hundreds of languages and diversified dialects, we need not speak. In practically every British Colony great numbers of the people are entirely ignorant of English. Indeed, in South Africa, Mauritius, Canada and else- where other languages enjoy in certain respects the same official status as English. The same statement applies THE PROBLEM 19 in certain dependencies of the United States,— Porto Rico, for example. In this island approximately 20,000 pupils enter the schools annually, ignorant of English, but as a result of energy and wise method the English lan- guage is making astonishing headway. It is the work of the elementary schools to extend the knowledge of our language both to the aboriginal peoples and to the chil- dren of immigrants from all parts of the world, and to Americans and British patriots alike it is an undertaking of vast significance. Educational work among the Indians of Canada and the United States is difficult to discuss accurately with- out entering upon details that would here be out of place. This arises chiefly from the great diversity of the Indian tribes, both in attainment and in capacity as regards civili- zation. "Thousands of American Indians are now to all intents and purposes the equals in wealth, thrift, industry and intelligence, of the average white man," writes Pro- fessor A. J. Chamberlain, Ph. D., of Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts.* On the other hand, many thousand Indians are still barbarous nomads and other thousands have been touched by our civilization only to be destroyed. A sidelight on the diversity of results fol- lowing upon attempts to civilize the Indians is thrown by the fact that in the Indian languages there are fifty- five families or linguistic stocks north of Mexico that are as distinct from each other as they are from the Indo- European family. Some tribes are rapidly becoming extinct, but it is safe to say the North American Indians as a whole are not destined to disappear unless by amalga- mation with the whites, and the problem of their educa- tion must therefore be faced in all seriousness. It is worth while to consider the following quotation from the * Vide article on North American Indians, in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, Eleventh Edition. 20 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH report of the Canadian Deputy Superintendent General of Indian affairs for the year ending March 31st, 191 1 : "The number of Indians in the Dominion is always a subject of interest. The prevalent notion that the Indian is gradually disappearing is not sustained by statistics, and in any locality where the Indians have passed through the period of exhaustion that must be met by any aborig- inal race in contact with civilization, it is found that the , population is either stable or upon the increase. The fol- lowing comparison of the population of the Six Nation Indians for five year periods since 1880 is a notable record and proves that the recuperative force of the race is remarkable. The word 'recuperative' is used advisedly, as the gloomiest prophecies were made in the middle of the last century as to the speedy and total extinction of the people of the League. " Six Nations, 1880 3,204 Six Nations, 1885 3,216 Six Nations, 1890 3,425 Six Nations, 1895 3,629 Six Nations, 1900 3,988 Six Nations, 1905 4,267 Six Nations, 1910 4,402 " The total Indian population of Canada is about lio,- 000 and that of the United States, including Alaska, about three times that number. The Indian schools of Canada enroll over 11,000 pupils and those of the United States and Alaska considerably over 30,000 and 4,000, respec- tively. This is about one-tenth of the Indian population. This work is important, but that of extending the Eng- lish language to the much more numerous and widely scat- tered immigrants from continental Europe and from Asia is still more so. In the night schools of New York City alone there were reported, in 191 1, forty thousand five hundred and seventy-six non-English-speaking pupils, in addition to the multitude of non-English-speaking chil- THE PROBLEM 21 dren for whom provision was made in the day-schools, "In order to provide for the instruction of such children," writes the Superintendent, "we have formed hundreds of special classes for the purpose of teaching these children the English language." In the United States and Canada the proportion of such children varies greatly in different towns and cities. They are numerous almost everywhere, though in some communities to be sure, they constitute an exceedingly small fraction of the total enrollment. However, the problem of teaching English to young children entirely ignorant of that language confronts at least some of the teachers in thousands of schools scattered over every province and state of Canada or the Republic. Philadelphia, for example, reports 66 different public schools in which from lo per cent to 98 per cent of the children speak Italian or Yiddish as their Mother-tongue. In a dozen of these schools each enrolling from 1,000 to 2,059 pupils, the Italian and Hebrew children constitute 90 per cent or over of the enrollment. Similar figures might be quoted from an indefinite number of cities in all parts of the United States and Canada. A like state of affairs exists in thousands of rural school districts. In the maritime provinces of Canada there is a considerable Acadian French population and . in Quebec English is the language of but a small minority. In numerous counties of Ontario French and German are widely spoken. In Manitoba there were in 1912 some 140 bilingual schools in French communities, about 60 English-German schools, and nearly 100 districts in which the teaching is done in English and Polish or in English and Ruthenian. This is in addition to numerous Ice- landic communities and districts with representatives from many other lands. In Saskatchewan the "foreign" schools, so-called, are scattered everywhere. They are somewhat less numerous in Alberta and rare in British 22 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH Columbia. There is, however, no province of Canada in which the problem of wisely teaching English to children of some other tongue is not urgently demanding atten- tion. A similar situation faces educators in very many States of the Union, especially in the west. Even in localities where the English language predomi- nates, the annual influx of vast numbers of immigrants ignorant of the country produces a problem worthy of consideration by statesmen, and indeed, by all thoughtful citizens. It is manifest that the presence of unassimilated multitudes, soon exercising an ill-understood franchise, constitutes, under democratic institutions, a very serious menace. The danger is rendered at once more serious and less generally evident by the tendency of such new comers to congregate in communities having but little in- tercourse with the English-speaking majority. This may occur, as facts above quoted will indicate, either in the larger cities, — where whole wards are, to all practical intents, simply foreign towns transplanted to America, — or in sparsely peopled regions opened but recently to occupation and permanent settlement. The writer has for some years been a much interested student of the educational problem thus created. He has supervised the teaching of English in a very considerable number of schools and has felt that a need exists for a book that would serve three main purposes , first, to bring the problem to the attention of a larger number of thoughtful and influential people ; second, to outline prin- ciples and methods for the guidance of teachers; and third, to suggest directions in which Education Depart- ments and Normal Schools might give more effective help. No other such book is at present extant, but it is to be hoped that this little treatise will not long have the field to itself. The author acknowledges with gratitude the invaluable assistance rendered by educators in all parts of the Eng- THE PROBLEM 23 lish-speaking world. It may not be amiss to outline how this cooperation was secured. The basis of a bibliography on the subject of teaching English to non-English speaking pupils was obtained, through the courtesy of the Commissioner of Education at Washington. Then preliminary letters were sent to all the provincial education departments in Canada and a score or more state or city education departments in the United States, asking the following questions : 1. Can you give any information as to the number or percentage of pupils that annually enter the schools of your province (state, or city), ignorant of the Eng- lish language ? 2. Does your Department issue any circulars of sugges- tions or similar documents for the guidance of teach- ers of non-English-speaking pupils? 3. Have you any provision for the special training of teachers to meet this difficulty ? 4. Please name the Inspectors of Schools in your prov- ince (city or state), who are likely to be best informed and most interested in the matter of teaching English to non-English-speaking pupils. 5. Can you name me any other educationists with whom it would be wise for me to communicate in this matter? Letters of like character went to Alaska, Newfound- land, England, Wales, Porto Rico, Manila, British Guiana, Mauritius, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia and elsewhere. Similar communications, specially seeking information as to how teachers are being prepared to teach English to children speaking some other mother tongue, were sent to a score of normal schools and other training colleges. At the same time the writer placed himself in com- munication with the Indian Departments of Canada and 24 ENGUSH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH the United States, enlisting their assistance, which was generously given. Guided by the answers received to the letters indicated above, the author now wrote to about one hundred and fifty inspectors, superintendents and directors, in every quarter, who had been named as likely to be experienced and well informed as to wise methods. These gentlemen in turn named teachers who were meeting with special success in teaching non-English- speaking pupils, and between five hundred and fifty and six hundred copies of a questionnaire* on the subject were issued to those closely in touch with the problem. Many of these letters remained unanswered but a process of natural selection was at work and, generally speak- ing, replies were doubtless sent by those most interested in the question and most competent to assist in its solu- tion. The names of a large number of these kind col- laborators are contained in the preface and many will appear again in subsequent pages ; the names of others are suppressed in deference to the owners' modesty or for other cogent reason. In no case is it because their con- tributions have not been useful. This and the writer's personal experience, observations and reflection constitute the basis upon which rest the opinions expressed in the following pages. Views will be quoted and methods presented which do not in all cases meet with the writer's unquestioning approval, or which bear upon aspects of the subject with which his experi- ence has not brought him in touch. In all such cases, however, the views and methods set forth will be those of experienced teachers, inspectors and superintendents, who are dealing with the subject at first hand, and should therefore command the respectful consideration of all students of the problem. * Vide Appendix. D. CHAPTER II How Rapidly Should We Expect Beginners in English to Progress? As an inspector of schools on behalf of the Govern- ment of Saskatchewan, the writer was especially im- pressed with the diversity of opinion existing as regards what constitutes satisfactory progress in the teaching and acquiring of English. Results that in one district were apparently considered quite satisfactory by teacher, pupils, trustees and parents, would be cast entirely into the shade by results that a few miles on were accepted as merely ordinary. Frequently, on the occasion of his first visit the inspector would find the beginners practically at a standstill in certain schools, while in others, operating amid substantially the same conditions, the general prog- ress would be amazingly rapid. The fair comparison of one school with another is of course difficult. Pupils learning English will do so much more rapidly if they have opportunities to mingle freely with English-speaking play-fellows and classmates. Of two non-English-speaking communities, that lying nearest to an English community will usually show the better results, especially if the stores, markets and places of business generally are found chiefly in the latter settle- ment or district. On the other hand, in a large and self- contained "foreign" community the children are likely to make slow progress in English, because of the absence of a sufficiently powerful incentive. Again, there seems reason to believe that the rapidity of the pupils' progress in acquiring a competent knowledge 25 26 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH of English depends partly on their parents' nationality. Some races appear to be naturally good linguists ; others — such, for example, as the Anglo-Saxon peoples — ^are gen- erally wretched linguists. Moreover, the difficulty pre- sented by a new language depends largely upon how novel it is in syntax and inflection, as compared with the mother tongue. These and other difficulties and sources of discouragement will be treated of at some length in a later chapter. For the present the writer wishes but to emphasize his profound conviction that none of these impediments, and no combination of them, is sufficient to account for the slow progress made in many schools. The real cause of failure, when it occurs, is either irregularity on the chil- dren's part or incompetency on the teacher's part, or else a mixture of the two. The best teacher in the world cannot satisfactorily teach a new language to little children whose instruction is con- tinually being interrupted by absence from school. Here the necessity for reform lies at the doors of the parents and school officers. At the same time it is well to remem- ber that if the teacher really is competent, — if the school- room is a place of sympathy, of timely merriment, of order, of enthusiastic devotion to progress, — then, in the vast majority of instances, irregularity will not long char- acterize its pupils. In the last analysis, therefore, the measure of the chil- dren's progress is the teacher's skill. In many localities those entrusted with the teaching of English and the other ordinary school subjects, to children who hear little or no English outside the schoolroom, are themselves deplorably deficient in scholarship and especially in knowl- edge of the English language. Among the correspondents with whom the present writer has discussed this topic were some who were recommended by their inspectors or superintendents as among the best qualified teachers en- RAPIDITY OF PROGRESS 27 gaged in such work, but whose letters were marred by continual errors in grammar, spelling and English com- position. "They be blind leaders of the blind. And if the blind lead the blind, both shall fall into the ditch." However, in numerous cases that have come under the writer's personal observation, distinctly unsatisfactory results were being attained by teachers who in ordinary schools would have had at least average success. When visiting such schools it was the writer's custom, on seeing how the land lay, to take practically complete charge for half a day or more. The aim would be, not to impart a certain amount of knowledge to the pupils, but as a help to the teacher, to illustrate varied methods of meeting the difficulties that lay in his way. After the children were dis- missed a long conversation with the teacher would follow and frequently the latter would take extensive notes of suggestions offered. When such a teacher would be visited again the improvement noted in his classes would almost invariably be deserving of hearty congratulation. The fault had been primarily not with the teacher per- sonally, but with those responsible for his professional training. Are satisfactory results being obtained in the school or schools in which the reader is directly interested ? The proper answer to this question may be rendered easier by an examination of the progress made in other schools. In his questionnaire, alluded to in Chapter I, the writer therefore included the following request: "Report, with whatever definiteness is possible, about how rapidly a fairly bright pupil should progress in the mastering of English." Of course an ambiguity lurked in the last four words of the question. The mastery of a language is a task that may engage a life-time of study and experience. In the present connection we simply mean such a knowledge of the new tongue as will enable learners subsequently to 28 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH progress, under English teaching, with practically the same rapidity as do the children of English-speaking parents. The first twenty answers received are typical of those subsequently submitted and it seems well worth while to quote them at some length. A Nova Scotian inspector writes as follows: "The child should so progress that at the end of the sixth year of school he should be taught many of the subjects through the medium of the English language." More rapid progress is looked for by Mr. J. M. Fleury, the trained and experienced Assistant in the English- French training school in connection with the Ottawa Normal School, to whom Principal White referred my question. Says he: "After attending school for four years a fairly bright French pupil should be able to under- stand, to speak, to read, and to write English enough to use it in daily life and to continue his studies, if he choose, in that language alone." A Manitoba inspector, who modestly prefers that his name should not be quoted, though he has in his schools some 1,400 children who do not speak English at home, answers in the following terms: "In French schools I find that pupils in grade two know very little English. There is a noticeable difference, however, from grade to grade. In grade eight they speak English very nicely, and write it so that they can pass the ordinary examina- tion in English. This, of course, is under favorable con- ditions in the convent schools. Germans, Ruthenians and others acquire English with less difficulty than do French pupils." Another inspector from the same Province, W. C. Hartley, B. A., reports of beginners in English: "In three years they should be equal with English-speaking pupils of similar age. Bright pupils will do even better, and after they catch up to the English they almost invari- RAPIDITY OF PROGRESS 29 ably make better progress than the English children do." Chas. Nivins, B. A., of Regina Normal School, an experienced inspector, declares that the children of non- English-speaking parentage should be doing the same work as those of English-speaking parentage in two years. Mr. A. Roy MacKenzie, of Stettler, Alberta, a teacher actively engaged in this work, has had experience with Norwegian, French, Dutch, German and Finnish children, his present scholars being almost all Finlanders. He reports more rapid progress than most of the foregoing answers might lead one to expect : "In this school it takes children beginning at six or seven a year and a half to be able to express themselves clearly, while a pupil over twelve will easily get such a mastery of the language in six months." Inspector Coombes, of Saskatoon, who also has had per- sonal experience in meeting this problem, reports a specific instance : "In one summer one bright little German girl named Dorothy Schmidt learned to talk English very well. When she came she could not say a word, it seemed to me, but was shy and backward. Before fall she'd chat away to me so that we could understand one another without much trouble at all. I have known pupils who could read, speak and write good English after two sum- mers and a winter at an English school. I should say it depends upon the age of the pupil, his brightness and his teacher." Miss Lillian Berry, of Frank, Alberta, should speak with some authority. Her pupils include Bohemians, Moravians, Hungarians, Servians, Finns, Russians and other Slavs, Italians, Swedes, Japanese, Chinese, Aus- trians and French. This lady examined the school regis- ters of the preceding three or four years and on that basis has reported in the following terms : "I find that it has taken the average child of non-English-speaking par- entage four years to cover the work of standards one, 30 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH two and three, some taking a little longer and some not so long." This indicates that the mastery of English has involved one additional year's study. Inspector J. T. M. Anderson, of Yorkton, is a specialist in this subject and holds decided views as to how rapidly beginners should progress: "In one year of regular attendance a child, under the proper teacher, should be able to speak very good English and to read and write very fairly. ... A beginner should complete Grade I work in two years, and many will do it in less time. Where they are not doing so it is because the teachers do not know how to handle this phase of the work." Inspector O'Brien, of Regina, has also had practical experience as a successful teacher in non-English-speak- ing communities. He is in substantial agreement with the correspondent quoted just above. In his opinion begin- ners should be ready for the primer in three months and should complete the public school course in about one year longer than children from English-speaking homes require. Very valuable assistance and information has been placed at the writer's disposal by Mr. W. M. Peterson, of the Washington Indian Office. In the Indian schools of his district the enrollment reaches 4,646, and in his fifteen years' experience in teaching English to Indians he has faced the problem with children representing the languages and dialects of eighty-nine different tribes, besides others speaking German, Swedish and Spanish. He writes as follows : "An ordinarily bright pupil should be able to make himself understood in all matters that come within his experience after six months of school- ing. Among Indian pupils progress in the written lan- guage is much slower." Miss Mary Bates, of Cushman Trades School, Tacoma, Washington, reports in a similar vein as regards the progress to be expected of Indian children. "Six months RAPIDITY OF PROGRESS 31 drill, according to the methods indicated in the outline accompanying your questionnaire, should give a child such a knowledge of English as will enable him to begin regu- lar Grade I work and continue fairly well through the grades." Miss Bates' observation as regards the progress of children above the ordinary age differs somewhat from that of others whose opinions have been quoted above. "More time is required for an older boy before he is ready to do regular grade work." Another very valuable contributor to our symposium is Miss Beatrice Chammet, who has charge of newly arrived immigrant children in Public School 177, Man- hattan, New York City. According to this authority, "a fairly bright pupil at the end of five or six months should speak and read English quite fluently and intelligently. Writing, on the other hand, takes longer, for this includes spelling." Still another New York specialist in this work, Miss E. A. Dietz, of P. S. 65 G., Eldridge Street, reports that such a pupil "Can gain a fair working knowledge of Eng- lish with six to eight months of instruction." About nine out of ten of her pupils come to her without any previous schooling. "Girls of twelve to fourteen have to begin work suited to young children and it is hard to find work at once simple enough and yet interesting. Hand and brains are alike untrained. . . . Pupils who have had no instruction in their mother-tongue are slower as a rule." Her report as to the rate of her pupils' progress, Miss Dietz amply substantiates by several sets of uncor- rected class exercises, some of which will be quoted later. Mr. A. Weidenhammer, of Morden, Manitoba, has had exceptional experience as a teacher and inspector of Ger- man-English schools and his opinion should carry cor- responding weight : "In three months, the average child, if properly taught, should acquire a vocabulary of the common words in use. In a year he should be able to 32 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH carry on a fairly intelligent conversation, and in two years most of the difficulties should be mastered as far as speaking is concerned. At the end of the public school course the foreigner should possess the same knowledge as the child of English parentage." In Winnipeg the problem of teaching English to pupils inheriting some other mother-tongue is naturally pressing in some schools. Upon request of Superintendent Mc- Intyre, Principal W. J. Sisler has kindly given me a full report of his opinions and observations, based on exten- sive experience. "My first school was in a Swedish settlement at New Stockholm, Saskatchewan, where at that time scarcely a word of English was spoken except at school. The children there learned to speak better English than in many English-speaking communities." . . . An ordinarily bright beginner "should be able to carry on a fair conversation in three months, though his vocabulary will, of course, be limited. Facility with written work will depend on the age of the child." Mr. Sisler, like Miss Dietz and others, comments on the fact that "children who have already had several years' train- ing in their motherland will learn to write English much sooner than others." Inspector E. A. Walker, of Dauphin, Manitoba, also reports that progress is very rapid under proper condi- tions. "If attending an English school an average child will learn to speak English quite well in four to six months." Even in purely foreign speaking communities he reports, "I know of schools where the pupils who attend regularly have mastered English fairly well in a year." Miss Annie E. Cullen, reporting for Chinese, German, Italian and Russian beginners in the Ryerson School, Toronto, finds that her foreign pupils, being generally a little older than her English-speaking beginners, are quite able to keep up with the latter and master English as RAPIDITY OF PROGRESS 33 well. Some of her Chinese boys have learned to read fluently in four months. Miss S. Cooper, another Toronto teacher, Victoria Street School, announces that her classes include repre- sentatives of China, Russia, Germany, France, Roumania, Austria and nearly every other European country except Spain and Portugal. "In a few months a fairly bright child will acquire a serviceable knowledge of English." Miss Katherine A. Pilkington, primary teacher at Mor- den, Manitoba, vigorously disclaims any title to being called a specialist in this phase of teaching, but sends the following interesting notes: "A Galician boy ten years old attended school twenty-nine and a half days before midsummer and all the fall term; he read through the Primer and two supplementary Readers and partly through the First Reader. He was promoted January 3rd to Grade II in the ne;xt room and is getting along rapidly there. I have had German pupils do better than the Ga'ician, and a little Jewess six years old read through five primers from September until December 22nd. The Jewess started school after Easter." One more quotation in this connection and we will have completed the evidence of our twenty witnesses. Mr. Fred. B. Smith, M. A., Regina, has had experience in teaching English to non-English-speaking pupils in Ger- many, Belgium and Canada, and has taken special train- ing for such work. He writes as follows: "A fairly intelligent child, entering Grade I without any knowledge of English, should be able to read any part of the Primer at the end of eighteen months, and if the Primer-instruc- tion has been painstaking and thorough a German child will fully hold its own with an English-speaking child, when it comes to the First Book. The Primer is all-im- portant. The subsequent rapid acquisition of the lan- guages depends absolutely upon the care with which the foundation is laid." 34 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH At the imminent risk of making this chapter somewhat monotonous the writer has given a practically verbatim report of the answers made on this topic by the first twenty correspondents who undertook to frame a definite reply to the query regarding what progress in English should be expected. Subsequent answers did not differ materially. Good teachers everywhere are getting results, with children of all nationalities, amazingly superior to those with which teachers and school authorities of dif- ferent ideals and methods are satisfied. Is it not time for some of us to wake up? Do the pupils under your supervision acquire a com- petent knowledge of English, enabling them to compete on practically equal terms with children of English-speak- ing parents, within a few months or a year ? If not, the teaching methods are wrong and should be remedied immediately. There is no reason to be discouraged, but there is conclusive reason to enquire how other teachers produce such results. To clinch our arguments let us glance over a few typi- cal samples of work in English by beginners in some of the more successful schools. Before me lies a discarded exercise book filled with the work of Margaretha Plock, a little Dutch maid. She entered Miss Pilkington's class at the age of eight, know- ing no English, and nine months later moved away, leav- ing this book behind her. It is full from cover to cover with neat work, admirable from every standpoint. Here are some samples of the child's "mathematical compo- sition" : 1. "If a little boys coat cost lo dollars and his rocking- horse Y2 as much. All together will cost 15 dollars. 2. Three cows have twelve legs. 3. A stick a foot and a half long is 18 inches long. 4. I quart and i pint 3 pints. 3 quarts and i pint 7 pints." RAPIDITY OF PROGRESS 35 Here is one of little Margaretha's "weather exercises" : "Grade II Junior, Morden, Manitoba Canada. Tuesday April 6, 1909. The sun is shining. The sky is blue. The wind is still. It is a very fine day." Finally, consider the following uncorrected letter: Morden Man. April, 19. 1909. Dear mother, A paper doll ran away to see another paper doll. Another paper doll came in and said have you heard the news? One said No what is it ?" Another said is it about me? Another said is it about the rose or the lily Another said is it about the cat or the dog Another said is it about the tea-party Why, No one has guessed right. And now, I am going to tell. So just listen Be sure to hear every word They say — " But a wind came by just then and it said to itself "Just see me make those paper dolls fly!" So it blew them north and south and east and west and up and down and round and round and they never heard the news. Your loving Margaretha Some may object that perhaps our little Dutch girl is a genius. Well, a whole class of geniuses is unlikely to be found, so let us examine an ordinary class exercise of which sixteen copies, all correct, are submitted by a group of immigrant children in Miss Dietz's schoolroom. The pupils are Russians, Roumanians, Greeks and Italians, 36 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH who commenced two to five months earlier, ignorant of English and without any previous education. The sen- tences were developed from a conversation lesson, most of the words having been used before in other combina- tions. They were written on the blackboard as given by the children and then used for oral and written exercises. "Last night the snow fell softly. We did not hear it fall. It was too soft and light. We could scarcely walk to school this morning. After school we can have snow fights. We can ride on sleds. We can make a snow man." January 15, 1912. Here is a sample of seat work from another group in Miss Dietz's room. A chart of sentences with verbs miss- ing hung before the class and the pupils supplied the miss- ing words from a list alongside. None of the children knew a word of EngHsh when they entered the school : "Last night it was snowing. To-day the wind is blowing. Some men are working in the street now. The street is covered with ice. Before school some boys were playing in the street." Eight copies of this exercise were submitted and all were correct. The signatures are interesting: 1. I have been in school two months. I have been in America two months. I was born in Russia in 1898. — MOLLIE LiFSCLUTZ. 2. I have been five months in school. I have been in America five months. I was born in Russia. I am ten years old. — Minnie Sapolanski. 3. I have been in school four months. I have been RAPIDITY OF PROGRESS 37 in America four months. I was born in Russia. I am eleven years old. — Paula Scharnich. 4. I have been in school four months. I have been in America four months. I was born in Russia in 1902. — Dora Schwartzbekg. 5. I have been nine months in school. I have been twelve months in America. I was bom in Russia. — Ida ZWERND. 6. I have been in school nine months. I was born in Russia. I am twelve years old. — Bessie Mazin. 7. I have been seven months in school. I was born in Russia. I am sixteen years old. — Minnie Sklar. 8. I have been in school two months. — Sarah Her- man. Here are a couple of uncorrected compositions for- warded by Miss G. Clark, of McCaul School, Toronto. The first was written by Hazel Vinsky, who had left Rus- sia six months previously and six weeks later had entered her Canadian school with no knowledge of English. The same statements apply with regard to the writer of the second exercise, Annie Weingarten. Both compositions were neatly written WASH DAY. The little boy who has blue blouse is playing with soap-suds. His sister who is washing has on a red dress. There is a boiler on a stove. I see a green washtub is on a stool. The baby who is kneeling has a white dress. On the floor is the doll's clothes. The boy has yelow curly hair. I see a little girl has black hair. WASH DAY. The little girl is washing and the doll is clothes. The little girl who is washing has on a red dress. I see a green wash-tub. The wash-tub is standing on the stool. The boy is playing with the soap-suds. I see the boy standing near tiic stove. The boy has on blue blouse. 38 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH The little girls has curly hair. I see the little baby is kneeling on the box, and she has on white dress. The door is brown. The little baby girl stockings is on the floor. The door is brown. The topic in hand is of such fundamental importance that the reader will find it well worth while to examine in detail the following exercises submitted by Miss Chammet. The writer is sorry that he cannot present the work in facsimile to show its neatness. Regarding the first series the teacher makes the following comments : "These are original stories based on the picture entitled 'The Blacksmith.' For a few days before these stories were written we had oral conversations on the picture. All new words were written on the blackboard and served as spelling lessons for the next few days. Then stories were written without any assistance. The Register of the class is 25.* It being a special class, the number is kept small." No. I. The Blacksmith. Ben works very hard. He hammers the whole day long. His hammer is heavy but his arm is strong. Ben says to Harry "Would you like to be a black- smith?" Age 13. Nationality, Russian. I have been studying English for 4j4 months. GussiE Sheinak. No. 2. The Blacksmith. Ben is a Blacksmith. He works from morning till night. He says to Augusta, "I must help my father. He works very hard." Age, 14^2. Nationality, Russian. I have been study- ing English for 4J^ months. Zelda Girgus. *The attendance on this occasion was 22. RAPIDITY OF PROGRESS 39 No. 3. The Blacksmith. Ben is holding the horseshoe with a pair of pinchers in his left hand, and he is hammering with his right hand. He says to Augusta, "Look out, a spark will fly into your eye." Age, 12}^. Nationality, Russian. I have been study- ing English for 4^/^ months. MoLLiE Sandy. No. 4. The Blacksmith. Ben is holding the hammer in his right hand. He said to Harry, "I must help my father, because he is very poor. Ben says to Augusta, "I have no time to make a horse- shoe for your little horse." Age, 10. Nationality, Russian. I have been studying English for 10 weeks. HiLOLA DeREVENSKY. No. 5. The Blacksmith. Ben has an apron on. Harry is in the forge. Ben said to Augusta, "Please open the door a little." Age, 10. Nationality, Russian. I have been studying English for 7 months. Rachel Surne. No. 6. The Blacksmith. Ben is working in his father's forge. He is hammering the horse-shoe while the iron is red- hot When he will finish it he will put it in cold water to cool. Augusta says to Ben, "Will you please make me a little horseshoe for my little horse?" 40 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH Age, iiyi. Nationality, Russian. I have been study- ing English for 7J^ months. RosiE Sheinak. No. 7. The Blacksmith. Ben works from morning till night. He felt very warm standing near the big fire. Augusta said to Harry, "Come out and play, it is very warm here." Age, 12. Nationality, Russian. I have been studying English for 4 months. Sade Kobotz. No. 8. The Blacksmith. Ben is holding the hammer in is right hand. He is making a horseshoe. He says to Harry, "This is hard work" Nationality, Greek. I have been studying English for 5 weeks. Andromahe Tratores. No. 9. The Blacksmith. Ben IS working in a forge. He is hammering a horseshoe on the anvil. He says to Augusta, "Go to my father he will make a horseshoe for your little horse." Age, 14. Nationality, Russian. I have been studying English for ^/^ months. Beckie Goodman. No. 10. The Blacksmith. Ben's father is a Blacksmith too. He warks very hard. Ben says to Harry, "I feel very warm here. Age, 12. Nationality, Russian. I have been studying English for 3J4 months. Lillie Dolger. RAPIDITY OF PROGRESS 41 No. II. The Blacksmith. Ben has a hammer in his hand. He is hammering the horseshoe with his hammer. Ben said to Harry, "Would you like to be a black- smith?" Age, 9J4. Nationality, Russian. I have been studing English for ij^ months. Rose Bernstein. No. 12. The Blacksmith. Ben is in his foge, Ben is a blacksmith, he maid a big fire and set to work. He says to the children, "I have a lote of work to do to-day. He said to Harry, "Please, open the door, it is very warm here." Age, 15. Nationality, Russian. I have been studying English for 2 weeks. Rebecce Rotkiss. No. 13. The Blacksmith. Ben is standing near the hot fire. He opend his collar because he felt very warm. He said to Augusta, "Isnt it very warm here ?" Age, 12. Nationality, Russian. I have been studying English for 4}^ months. Yetta Gikgus. No. 14. The Blacksmith. Wen Ben finishes the horseshoe he will put it away, until he nees it. Harry said to Augusta, "Come out and play, wen Ben finishes the horseshoe, he will call us." Age, iij4. Nationality, Russian. I have been study- ing English for 5 months. Jennie Cohen. 42 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH No. 15. The Blacksmith. Ben is in his father's forge. He is making a horse- shoe. He says to Harry, "this work make me very strong, I like it." Age, 14J4. Nationality, French. I have been studying English for 3J^ months Leah Goldberg. No. 16. The Blacksmith. Ben's father is out side he is shoeing a horse. Ben must help his father because they are very poor. Ben says to Augusta, "I can not put away the horse- shoe now. It will get cold." Age, II. Nationality, Russian. I have been studying English for 4j/$ months. Lena Sheet. No. 17. The Blacksmith. Augusta and Harry are in the forge they are watching Ben making a horseshoe. Harry says to Ben, "I would like to make a horseshoe Will you let me try ?" Age, 11^2. Nationality, Russian. I have been study- ing English for 4}^ months. Sarah Paley. No. 18. The Blacksmith. Ben is a Blacksmith. Ben said to the children "Please open the door I feel very warm." Age, II. Nationality, Russian. I have been studying English for 4j^ months. Gertie Nomberg. No. 19. The Blacksmith. Ben is a blacksmith. He rolled up his sleeves and set to work. He said, "Would you like to be a blacksmith too?" RAPIDITY OF PROGRESS 43 Age, 10. Nationality, Russian. I have been study- ing English for 3^ months. Helen Relkin. No. 20. The Blacksmith. Ben wroked very hard, a blacksmith must be a strong boy. Augusta says to Ben, please mak me a horseshoe for my little horse. Age, 10. Nationality, Russian. I have been studying English for 5 months. Minnie Wickman. No. 21. The Blacksmith. Ben is a blacksmith. Ben is holding the horseshoe with a pair of pinchers, an the anvil. Harry said to Ben, "I Would like to be a blacksmith, to ?" Age, 13. Nationality, Russian. I have been studying English for 4j^ months. Dora Numberg. No. 22. The Blacksmith. Ben is a strong boy. Ben is a Blacksmith. Ben works very hard. Ben works morning to night. Age, 8. Nationality, French. I have been studying English for ^Yz months. Sophie Goldberg. Miss Chammet also forwarded the dictation lesson for January 24th, 1912 : Spelling. I. ducks 5. bam 9. farmer 2. pond 6. keeps 10. afraid 3. flower 7. kitten 4. grow 8. water 44 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH Mary has pretty flowers in a box. She says, "I will water my flowers." Nineteen puipls were present for this test and their exercises lie on the writer's table. The word "spelling" occurs once with a single "1," "prett)^' appears once as "pritty," "says" appears once as "saiys," "water" appears once at "woter," and the final "s" of "flowers" is twice missing. The commas, periods and quotation marks are in every case correct. Such exercises to any number might be reproduced from schools in many quarters, but the most skeptical must now be convinced that marvelous results are obtain- able by the teacher who knows his business. Trustees, parents, fellow teachers! Let us cooperate to give the little folk, handicapped by ignorance of the language of the majority, a fair chance. Let us insist on such results as under proper methods are being obtained in so many schools, and let us see to it that adequate pro- vision is made for the training of teachers for this work. Let bad methods be replaced by good, and good ones developed into better. Because their teachers have not been adequately prepared for their tasks, children in hundreds upon hundreds of schools are wasting precious months and years. Ignorance is blossoming into stu- pidity and will bear fruit in social incompetence and per- haps in crime. Let us learn from each other and, with the least possible loss of time, give the pupils in our schools the real key to citizenship, — a competent knowl- edge of the language of the majority in the land imder whose flag they dwell. CHAPTER III The Place of the Child's Mother Tongue in the School In the present chapter we shall consider a number of questions of the very first importance in relation to the education of children acquiring the English language; questions regarding which much diversity of opinion exists and many bitter disputes have raged and still are raging, to the injury of our schools. Let us, therefore, make a special effort to free ourselves from prejudice and preconceived ideas of all sorts, and examine the evi- dence and arguments dispassionately, giving a fair and impartial hearing even to those with whom we disagree. Broadly speaking, the questions to be considered are three. First, — In a school for children whose mother tongue is not English, should the language of the home be known and used by the teacher imparting a knowledge of English? Second, — To what extent, in what manner, and to what advantage may the use of English be secured on the playground? Third, — Should the mother tongue of such children be formally taught, as a school sub- ject? Under each of these topics many other questions are of course subsumed. We shall endeavor to bear in mind that in treating of these problems it is less impor- tant to emphasize what is abstractly desirable than what is really practicable under existing conditions. Let us con- sider the th'-^e major topics in order named. Nova Scotia deserves special credit for having made a serious oflScial effort to find the proper answer to the first 45 46 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH question, — is it imperatively necessary that the teacher of non-English-speaking children should be familiar with and make systematic use of the pupils' mother tongue? A commission was appointed on the i8th of April, 1902, and reported its apparently unanimous findings before the end of the same month. The contents of this report are so important that no apology is needed for reproducing its salient features here at some length. "Your Commission have devoted twelve long sessions, extending over more than a week, to enquiries concern- ing and the consideration of this highly important sub- ject. . . . All the evidence before your Com- missioners goes conclusively to show that, while there is no appreciable difference in intellectual capacity between French and English-speaking pupils or between French and English-speaking districts, the average rate of progress of the former is considerably less than that of the latter. Weighty testimony was forthcoming to show that while this is the case, French-speaking pupils are generally more regular school attendants and often more eager learners than English-speaking pupils in the same Inspectorial Districts. "Your Commissioners have unanimously reached the conclusion, that the French-speaking sections of the Province have been and continue to be at a very serious disadvantage in the matter of education. They believe a measure of that disadvantage to be incident to and insep- arable from their position as small French-speaking com- munities in the midst of large English-speaking ones. They believe further, however, that a considerable part of that disadvantage is due to misconception on the part of more or less incompetent teachers. . "Your Commissioners find that the fundamental error in dealing with the French Schools, which must be held responsible for many of their short-comings, has been the assumption that they must be taught exclusively in Eng- lish. They find that with startling uniformity and per- sistency attempts have been made and are being made to THE MOTHER TONGUE 47 educate children from French-speaking homes and with none but French-speaking playmates by means of the EngHsh language alone, sometimes from the lips of teach- ers who can speak nothing but English. They find from the testimony of experts that even were such teachers masters of the most approved methods of teaching a for- eign language but meager results could be anticipated from their best efforts under such conditions. They find that with the inexperienced, ill-taught and often other- wise incompetent teachers ordinarily available for em- ployment in such schools the efforts, however conscien- tious, made to teach the children to speak English are, as might be anticipated, largely a failure. "Your Commissioners are unanimously of the opinion . that the general education of French-speak- ing pupils should be carried on concurrently with their acquisition of the use of English, and that this can be successfully accomplished only by the use of their vernac- ular .... (and) that, as far as practicable, in the French-speaking schools of this Province, only bi- lingual teachers should be employed. "Your Commissioners have been forced to this last conclusion because they are convinced that only French- speaking teachers are ordinarily competent to manage and properly instruct French-speaking pupils from French- speaking homes in French-speaking communities during the earlier years of their school attendance or until they have acquired a working knowledge of the English lan- guage. ... "Your Commissioners have further unanimously agreed upon the following recommendations which they make to your Honour as the logical outcome of their above conclusions : "First, 'that a special series of French readirig-books suitable for grades one to four should be prescribed for use in French-speaking school sections.' "Second, 'inasmuch as the evidence given before your Commissioners shows conclusively that the majority of schools in French-speaking sections are not making satis- factory progress, largely in consequence of faulty 48 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH methods in teaching English, that the Council of Public Instruction should provide a short course, of some weeks' duration during the summer holidays in the Normal School, for the purpose of imparting to bi-lingual teachers the most approved methods of teaching English in such sections, and that teachers attending such course be treated in the matter of traveling expenses in the same manner as is now provided for those attending the regu- lar sessions of the Normal School.' "Third, 'that, for the future, Inspectors of schools be required to make a special annual report to the Depart- ment of Education on the general progress of such schools but particularly on the progress made in the study and use of English and on the methods adopted in teach- ing it.' » With reference to his Report and the topics involved in it. Dr. A. H. MacKay, Superintendent of Education for Nova Scotia, has written the author of this treatise as follows : "We had a commission considering the matter in the year 1902. Following their recommendations we have provided French Readers for the first four years of the common school course, during which time foreign lan- guage pupils are to be trained colloquially in the use of English, so that thereafter all the instruction may be in English. "We have an extra Inspector for the French Schools who visits the settlements in three or four parts of the Province. He does not, however, take the place of the regular English Inspector, and his title is 'Special Visitor of the Acadian Schools.' He, of course, co- operates with the other Inspectors and is under them. "In affiliation with the Rural Science School at the Normal and Agricultural Colleges in Truro we have, during the summer vacation, a bi-lingual school for the purpose of training Acadian teachers to teach English colloquially in these Acadian schools." THE MOTHER TONGUE 49 Under the Nova Scotian system, therefore, the aim is now to teach EngHsh "so effectively that by the end of the fourth year, the pupils can henceforward be effect- ively instructed through the medium of the English language."* In this connection the reader will remember that in the preceding chapter it was shown that great numbers of teachers in all parts of the English-speaking world find it quite practicable to give their pupils, in a year or less, such a knowledge of English as to enable them henceforth to receive effective instruction through the medium of English alone and to progress as rapidly in general education as do children of English-speaking parentage. The personnel of the commission unanimously subscrib- ing to the rather startling propositions contained in the Nova Scotian Report is interesting from various stand- points that will suggest themselves to the thoughtful reader : "Reverend P. Dagnaud, of Church Point. "W. E. McClellan, of Halifax. "Professor A. G. Macdonald, of Antigonish. "Reverend W. M. LeBlanc, of Arichat. "Alexander McKay, Supervisor of Schools, Halifax. "Honorable A. H. Comeau, of Meteghan River. "Reverend A. E. Mombourquette, of East Margaree. "M. J. Doucet, M. P. P., Grand Etang." The opinions held in this matter by the Nova Scotian Educational Authorities are shared by very many people in very many places, though the writer's correspondence with Education Departments dealing with the problem in all parts of the English-speaking world indicates that Nova Scotia stands practically alone in America in offi- *The findings of Dr. Merchant with regard to the English- French schools of Ontario should be compared with the Nova Scotia report. They are discussed later in the present chapter. 50 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH daily maintaining the doctrine that progress in the learn- ing of English requires the teacher's knowledge and use of the vernacular. Individual representatives of the various other Education Departments emphatically sup- port the Nova Scotian dictum. Dr. Parmelee, of Quebec, for example, in a discussion of bi-lingualism at the Im- perial Education Conference in London, 191 1, is reported as saying: "Our experience abundantly proves that we must at first give instruction in the mother-tongue." Under some American systems the authorities, while less dogmatic, emphasize the desirability of teachers being familiar with the mother-tongue. From Cleveland, for example, Mr. William B. Elson, Superintendent of Schools for that city, writes as follows : "We have special schools in immigrant districts in which non-speaking children of whatever age or grade are placed. These schools are kept small in number, the instruction being by small group or individual. So far as possible we have teachers assigned to these schools who are familiar with the prevailing language of the immigrant child, or, otherwise, it is the duty of the teacher to acquire some knowledge of the prevailing tongue represented in her school to the end that she may better be able to communicate with the children, and in- struct them." The letters received from teachers actually engaged in this work indicate that about sixty per cent consider a knowledge of the vernacular an important qualification. It is pointed out that such a knowledge involves the saving of much valuable time. It facilitates the teacher's efiEorts to gain from the first the sympathy and interest of her pupils. It enables the instructor to foresee and provide against linguistic difficulties, to explain the mean- ing of idiomatic expression and of terms, the force of which cannot easily be indicated by objects, acting or pictures, and to assist the pupils in recognizing the dif- THE MOTHER TONGUE 51 ference in meaning between words more or less synonymous. It renders possible various valuable in- tellectual exercises based on the comparison and contrast of the two languages. It is helpful in maintaining dis- cipline and in guarding against the use of bad language about the schools. It is of special utility as providing for friendly and confidential intercourse between the teacher and the parents and thus it supplies a needed and effective means for promoting more regular at- tendance. These advantages are evident and, to the writer's think- ing, incontrovertible. The question is, however, whether in actual practice a sufficient number of teachers pos- sessing such linguistic qualifications can be secured who likewise possess other and more important qualifications. Wide spread inquiry and observation indicates that this is not the case. Indeed a very large number of those teachers who pointed out these advantages could them- selves speak no other language than English, and yet were meeting with striking success. Where the non-English speaking pupils are all pos- sessed of the same mother-tongue the teacher, in the writer's opinion, should possess, from the start or acquire as soon as possible, some familiarity with it. However, if even only this were insisted upon it would, in actual practice, shut out from the schools in non-English speak- ing communities the great majority of adequately trained teachers otherwise available. In discussing the conditions under which the English- French schools of Ontario are working, Dr. Merchant officially reports as follows: "Attention is called to the comparatively large num- ber of teachers without certificates. . . . The Inspector informed me that he had objected to the engaging of cer- tain of these teachers in Ottawa, but that they had been retained by the R. C. Separate School Board in opposi- 52 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH tion to his wishes. ... A large proportion of those Hold- ing temporary certificates have had no professional train- ing except that given in Summer school. "The academic attainments of teachers with Tempo- rary certificates are varied. About fifty per cent, of these teachers come from the Province of Quebec. About one-half of these hold the Model diploma for that Province, the requirements for which are about equivalent for those for entrance to the Model School in Ontario. With few exceptions, the remain- der of the teachers from Quebec either hold lower grade Provincial diplomas or come from private institu- tions. Of those trained in Ontario, about five per cent, have Entrance to the Faculty of Education or Entrance to the Normal standing; about thirty per cent.. Entrance to the Model ; about thirty per cent, have passed the High School Entrance Examination and have had from one to two years' training in High or Continuation Schools; about twenty per cent, have passed the High School En- trance Examination but have had no High School train- ing; the remainder have no Departmental standing. A few have been trained in the United States and a few in France. "Of the teachers in English-French Schools visited, twenty-two have not sufficient command of English to speak the language with any degree of freedom. These teachers are practically not English-speaking. . . . Eighteen others, whose attainments are somewhat higher than those just mentioned, are yet so lacking in ability or confidence in the use of the language that they are unfitted to be teachers of English. . . . "Many of the remaining teachers speak English with a French accent, which is more or less strongly marked." Dr. Merchant's statistics indicate that about eighty per centum of the English-French schools of Ontario are in the hands of teachers either with no semblance of legal qualifications or else holding certificates lower than Second Class. From the Educational Mecca of Canada THE MOTHER TONGUE S3 such statistics as these are somewhat startling and de- serve serious consideration. In other parts of the Empire where a bi-lingual system is rnaintained the ilHteracy and inefficiency of the only available bi-Iingual teachers is even more deplorable, if less surprising. Inspector Loram, of Durban, South Africa, gives as his first outstanding difficulty in secur- ing the teaching of English in schools for East Indian children, the fact that "the teachers are themselves weak in English. They are content to speak pidgin English themselves. One of my teachers wishes to question in number; he holds up four marbles and asks, 'What marbles I am?' ! ! ! I" Under existing methods such are the difficulties that practically everywhere confront bi-lingual schools even when but one language other than English is widely prevalent in the community. If schools such as these must be surrendered to ignorance and incompetence, what about those hundreds of schoolrooms in which the non- English speaking beginners represent not one single nationality, but from three or four to a dozen or fourteen ? If the teachers of these classes must be possessed of a familiarity with the vernacular languages of their pupils there is nothing for it but to close up such schools and give up the problem in despair. It, consequently, is a matter of the very first importance to examine the opinions and evidence offered by that forty per cent of the writer's correspondents whose experience leads them to the conclusion that a knowledge of the pupils' mother- tongue is not at all essential in the teacher's efforts to communicate rapidly and effectively a competent com- mand of the English language. Mr. A. P. Soland, City Superintendent of Newark, New Jersey, reports that apart from the multitude of non-English speaking pupils annually entering the public schools under his supervision, two or three thousand such 54 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH beginners are enrolled in evening schools. He continues as follows: "To instruct them in English we employ a number of teachers who speak the native language of the pupils and others who do not. Our experience proves to us that, as a rule, teachers who do not speak the vernacular of the non-English speaking pupils are more successful than are those who do. I will not attempt to explain the seeming anomaly. I have no doubt, however, that your experience as a teacher readily suggests to you the probable reason for the non-vernacular-speaking teachers' greater success." Inspector Young, of Winnipeg, is suggestively guarded in his reply. "It should be an advantage for the teacher to be able to speak the mother-tongue if the teacher has sufficient determination to use it only when necessary to explain a point which the child would not understand in English. Generally speaking, however, I find that these children make better progress with an English teacher." Inspector A. B. Butchard, Alberta, like many others, answers in very similar terms. The teacher's knowledge of the pupil's mother-tongue is an advantage, says he, "If he uses it with judgment. There is a danger of fol- lowing the line of least resistance and using it too much." Principal Sisler, of Winnipeg, is exceedingly emphatic on this point. "The most important qualification should be a knowledge of English, and training, both profes- sional and non-professional, equal to that required for teaching English-speaking children. Knowledge of the pupil's home language should be the last of the qualifi- cations required. The great fault with our 'Foreign' schools is that poorly trained teachers have been sent to them, as a result of the idea that a knowledge of the children's language is a necessary qualification. This is THE MOTHER TONGUE 55 a fundamental mistake. I know by experience that a knowledge of the home language is not necessary." Inspector O'Brien, of Regina, considers that "While a knowledge of the vernacular on the teacher's part may be an advantage to him, it is not to the pupil. The fact that the instructor does not know the child's mother tongue drives both him and the pupil to valuable steps, or devices, which they would not otherwise use and which open up fresh vistas of instruction." Inspector Hartley, of Manitoba, has pointed out that while it is an advantage for the teacher, as he is able the better to understand ideas his pupils wish to com- municate, it is better for the teacher not to use the vernacular with younger pupils. "I speak some French," he continues, "but I find better results without the use of it at all. When children must speak in English, they try, but if they feel they can make you understand through their own language they will not make the necessary effort to do so through English." Inspector Morgan, of Lethbridge, Alberta, considers that a knowledge of the vernacular is possibly an ad- vantage, "but the teacher can succeed without ability to speak the mother tongue of the pupils." Many other Inspectors and Supervisors speak much more emphatically. Take, for example, this reply from Inspector E. H. Walker, of Dauphin, Manitoba: "In the case of my Ruthenian schools, I have always been of the opinion that the vernacular-speaking teachers do too much for the children. The children find that it is not necessary for them to put forth very much mental ef- fort ... I find that the schools where English teachers are employed do the best work in English." Inspector Anderson, of Yorkton, Saskatchewan, be- lieves that a knowledge of the vernacular is of very little advantage and introduces a strong temptation. "The 56 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH mental effort of the pupils is not likely to be such as will make for rapid development. Generally speaking, a native teacher is the worst in my estimation. Get an English teacher for a foreign school every time." Another experienced Inspector not heretofore quoted — himself not of Anglo-Saxon origin — writes as follows: "I am strongly opposed to the teacher using any for- eign language in the school room or on the grounds. I am not opposed to the pupils or the teacher knowing a second or third language, but I DO want them to know the English. And I find that just in proportion to the teacher's use of another language, or the pupils' use of it on the playground, so the English language suffers. I urge my Swedish and other foreign teachers to go into English communities to teach, and urge Trustees in foreign settlements to hire thoroughly English-speak- ing teachers." Similar opinions might be quoted from experienced Inspectors, Supervisors, and Superintendents in prac- tically every part of Canada and the United States. But let us now see what the teachers themselves have to say in this connection. A very successful teacher in Regina, after admitting certain possible general advantages, writes: "In gen- eral I think the pupils will learn English faster if the teacher cannot speak their language." Another, writing from Alberta, says : "In many cases the effort put forth on the pupil's part to explain to me, or on my part to explain to him, I believe impresses the meaning." A teacher in Washington, who has met with exceptional success, answers as follows : "I do not think it an ad- vantage. There is the tendency in that case for the teacher to use the pupils' language in addressing them, and thus to delay progress with English. The continual hearing of any language helps the learners to grasp it more easily. During the first few months of my ex- THE MOTHER TONGUE 5;: perience with children who knew no English, I used the bi-lingual system, but although many things may be said in its favor, I believe the purely English method better, as the pupils will learn to express their ideas more quickly and easily." The following is from a clever specialist in New York. "I have never felt specially hampered by not be- ing able to speak my pupils' mother tongue, though it would be advantageous in developing abstract ideas. It seems to me that a knowledge of a child's former en- vironment and cultural inheritance is far more valuable than a knowledge of his language." From a Western mining town with a heterogeneous population comes a report from a teacher who has met with unusual success: "I cannot see," says she, "that it would be an advantage for me to speak their mother tongues. Moreover, with never less than ten or eleven nationalities represented, it would be impracticable." Superintendent J. J. D. Huff, of Manila, Philippine Islands, considers that "it is not necessary to speak the dialect of the children in order to teach English." Says he : "It is not necessary to know anything about the child's dialect. Eleven years ago I went into a provincial town where no one knew a word of English and I did not know a word of the native dialect or of Spanish. Within a month's time I had established a limited means of com- munication in English. The teacher can't avoid picking up a little of the dialect as he goes along, and he may use it to a small extent to show the meaning of the English equivalent by translation. However, he could get along without it." From teachers who speak the mother tongue of their pupils and who are attaining real success in imparting English — that is, those who within a year place non- English speaking pupils in a position to receive the same instruction as others and with practically equal effect- S8 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH iveness — reports indicate very limited use of the ver- nacular in the schoolroom. Here are some characteristic quotations : "I use the mother tongue only occasionally ; it should never be freely used." — "I use the mother tongue of my pupils as little as possible in school." — "Yes, I can speak it, but I use it to a very limited ex- tent." — "I use the mother tongue of my pupils only in explaining important orders from headquarters, which must be executed immediately and occasionally in teach- ing words of abstract meaning." — "I speak Icelandic, but only use it when in doubt as to my pupils' understanding a particular English word." — "Personally I do not use the Indian tongue of the tribe with which I am dealing at the time, except as a means of keeping myself in mind of the difficulty the pupils have in getting the English." — "The well-understood rule was 'English only.' Abroad we went on the supposition that the classroom, during the lesson period, was in England." — "I never use my knowledge of the pupils' mother tongue as a direct means of communicating English. In rare cases it may wisely be employed to awaken sympathy between teacher and pupils, in the case of extremely timid children." — "When- ever it is really necessary to use the mother tongue at all in the classroom the word, command, or explanation should be given first in English, then in the vernacular, and immediately repeated, slowly and emphatically, in English." We are now in a position to summarize our conclu- sions regarding the answers to the first of the three main questions to which this chapter is devoted. In those localities that insist upon the teacher being able to speak the mother tongue of the beginners in English it takes as a rule fully twice as long for the pupils to acquire a working knowledge of English as it requires in numberless good schools conducted by teachers ignorant of the vernacular. From the stand- THE MOTHER TONGUE 59 point of Trastees or parents, therefore, in the selection of teachers, good scholarship, fluent and idiomatic English, thorough normal training, a natural gift for teaching and abundant sympathy, enthusiasm and adapt- ability, are infinitely more important than familiarity with the pupils' mother tongue. At the same time, to the teacher who has sufficient wis- dom and self-control never to use the vernacular in the schoolroom except as the lesser of two evils, a knowl- edge of the mother-tongue has been shown to be of a value real even if very secondary. It is abundantly clear that the keynote to the correct teaching of English to beginners is the practically exclu- sive use of that language in the schoolroom, and that where this is not bringing the desired results the fault must be sought in the teacher's personal and professional qualifications. It is noteworthy that even in the Province whence emanated the ill-starred report first quoted in this chapter, the authorities have found it necessary to author- ize for the general use and guidance of their teachers in non-English speaking localities, "The Berlitz System of teaching English." As every one familiar with language teaching is of course well aware, an outstand- ing characteristic of this method is insistence upon the exclusive use of the language that is being taught. Let us now pass to a consideration of the use of English in the playgrounds of schools such as those to which this treatise is devoted. Many of my correspondents report very incomplete success in securing English outside the classroom, but practically all are agreed as to the importance of ef- forts along this line. A Welsh teacher of experience and reputation makes the following confession, which is typical of many; after reporting his inability to secure the use of English on the playground, he adds : "I have made efforts from time to time, but found it impossible. 6o ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH Even inside the school the children speak only Welsh to one another." From others, however, we learn that a successful beginning is frequently made by pointing out to the pupils the importance of practising their English and inducing them, of their own accord, to at- tempt to use it exclusively in the recesses on certain days of the week. Little or nothing can be accomplished without the cooperation of the parents, as a rule, but this the judicious teacher can generally obtain to a suf- ficient degree. The weight of authority seems to be {distinctly adverse to compulsion until a well-defined school custom has been established under which the speaking of English is expected of each other by the pupils themselves. Use of English can, of course, easily be secured if there are a few children of English-speak- ing parentage in attendance. The presence of repre- sentatives of numerous nationalities also encourages the use, upon the playground, of English as a common tongue. While failure is admitted in numerous quarters, many teachers report distinct success in this connection. "This has been my strongest influence," writes Mr. A. Roy MacKenzie. "The children pick up English words in their games, because they frequently do not have words of their own that exactly correspond. When excited they exert every effort to express themselves, and words learned in this way are not easily forgotten." In a similar vein Mr. E. H. Walker reports as follows: "My assistants were of the opinion that the pupils learned English in the playground better than in any other way. They became so interested in play that they undoubtedly learned names and other words more quickly than they could otherwise have done." Teachers who succeed in making English the language of the playgrounds are unanimous in the opinion that such success depends more upon the teacher's habitual THE MOTHER TONGUE 6l presence, supervision, and participation in the sport, than upon anything else. They are also of one accord in greatly emphasizing the importance of introducing English games. For the girls and younger children these are commonly of the type of "London Bridge is falling down," "Drop the handkerchief," "Farmer in his den," and singing games in general. For the boys such games as "I spy," "Pull away," "Prisoner's base," and the like are similarly valuable. An English vocabulary as ex- tended as possible should be associated with all such' games. Discretion is necessary in the correction of errors made on the playground, but the teacher should have a very watchful ear for them and should later introduce school exercises based thereupon. English-speaking children must, if necessary, be warned not to laugh at mistakes, and all pupils should be encouraged habitually to as- sist each other. Even outside the limits of the school grounds the same principles should be applied. Older members of the family may help greatly in many cases by teaching two or three new words daily and by encouraging the children to reproduce the stories they have learned at school. A great mutual advantage may be gained if the pupils, as they learn the language, are encouraged themselves to teach it to parents and other friends at home, still ignorant of it. This is a most important matter, and Trustees and parents should give a teacher the heartiest cooperation in promoting the use of English outside the schoolroom. Hearty praise for those who make an honest attempt will generally be found more effective than other more stringent measures. The learning of English must be- come a thing of joy and pride. We shall now turn to the third main question set apart for discussion in this chapter. It was expressed in the 62 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH following terms in the writer's questionnaire issued to Inspectors, Superintendents, and Teachers: "Is it the pupil's interests to devote a part of the regular school hours to formal teaching of his mother-tongue, if it be not English? If so, how much of the teacher's time should be thus employed? (Teachers experienced in dual language schools are requested to answer these questions with special care.)" The answers received were numerous and interesting, and deserve serious ex- amination. It has not proved practicable, in all cases, to separate the answers to this third question from those offered to the other two treated in this chapter. Con- sequently, in discussing schools in which the mother- tongue of non-English speaking pupils is made a formal subject of instruction, further opinions and evidence re- garding the general use of the vernacular in and about the schoolroom will be advanced incidentally. A large number of educators everywhere are wholly opposed to teaching in the elementary schools any lan- guage other than English. Supervisor W. M. Peterson, Washington, seems to express the prevailing American view in the following answer: "In this country I object to the teaching of any language but English in the primary schools. The United States is an English-speaking country and all citizens should learn to recognize this fact." This posi- tion has been so tenaciously held by American educators and administrators in general that the question is now hardly ever raised in the United States. In the new American Dependencies, however, circum- stances are different and important bi-lingual school sys- tems exist. That of Porto Rico is particularly interest- ing. The following extract is from Commissioner Dex- ter's report, dated August lo, 1910: "The new course of study for graded schools, which THE MOTHER TONGUE 63 was put into effect throughout the island at the beginning of the school year, 1909-10, requires a separate text-book in English for the pupils of each grade from the first up. In almost every town the strongest English graded teachers were assigned to the first grades by the school boards and Supervising Principals, at the suggestion of the department, and English graded teachers almost equally as proficient to the second grades. The Spanish graded teachers were, as a rule, assigned to third and fourth grades, where they taught Spanish and possibly one other subject. In order that the pupils of these grades might be permitted to do all, or practically all, their work in English as the course of study requires, these Spanish graded teachers would exchange rooms with the English graded teachers and the teachers of English in such a way that while they were teaching Spanish in a room other than their own, the English graded teacher, or the teacher of English, as the case might be, would be teaching a certain subject in English in their rooms. The teachers of English, who are nearly all Americans, were placed in charge of grades five, six, seven, and eight. It has been our experience that the teachers of English obtain far better results in every way with the pupils in the higher grades than with those in the lower grades, whereas the reverse is true in regard to the Poroto Rican teachers. In this way English has been made the medium of instruction in practically the entire graded-school system of the island, enrolling 35,- 000 pupils. To be exact, 89.5 per cent of all graded schools were taught wholly in English during the past year, as compared with 66.7 the preceding year; 9.9 per cent were taught partly in English, and 0.6 per cent had English taught as a special subject. In 1908-9 there were 127 graded schools in which no English whatever was taught, whereas throughout the year 1909-10 there was not a single one. Thus a pupil entering the school system of Porto Rico receives all his instruction in Eng- lish from the first grade until he graduates from the high school or the normal school. In addition to the sub- jects regularly found in the curriculum of the better 64 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH school systems in the United States, our pupils receive instruction in Spanish throughout the course. Very lit- tle difference is to be noticed between the work being done by a pupil in a given grade in Porto Rico, and that being done by a pupil in the same grade in the United States. In this way the predictions made by my predeces- sors regarding the teaching of English in the public schools of Porto Rico have been fulfilled without any hardships to teachers or pupils, and with very little friction." In the Union of South Africa there are two official languages, Dutch and English, and the schools are bi- lingual. A valued correspondent from that quarter, whose name is regretfully suppressed at his request, favors the preservation of Dutch, French, German, and Zulu in the schools. Up to Standard IV, however, he would have the instruction in English only. "My ex- perience," says he, "teaches me that children have no great difficulty in using English as the medium in the lower classes. . . . This unorthodox opinion is the result of experience. The practice of translation must be broken at all costs, if the work in English is to be ef- fective. The children must, from the first, be taught to think in English. By the time the children are in Standard IV the foundations of English have been firmly laid, and the children can undertake a study of their own more highly inflected languages without danger to their English. Where the two languages proceed pari passu we have a mixture of idioms which it is difficult to eradicate. ... In Standard V let English continue to be the medium of instruction, but let the mother tongue be taught intensively an hour a day." Perhaps the most successful results yet obtained in schools where some language other than English is not only a medium of instruction, but a subject of special study, have been reached in the bi-lingual schools of THE MOTHER TONGUE 65 Wales. Inspector L. J. Roberts, Ceinvan, reports, under date of February, 1912: "We in Wales now aim not merely at giving the chil- dren a good knowledge of English, but at giving them a sound literary knowledge of Welsh as well. It is only a little over twenty years ago that Welsh was allowed in the schools at all. , . . Most Welsh children are able to speak English fluently by the time they leave school, and it may safely be asserted that (except in some dis- tricts) a Welsh child can write (and in most cases speak) English as well as a child from the heart of England." W. D. Evans, of the Council School, Salva, Pem- brokeshire, in discussing the progress in English made by the children in the bi-lingual schools of Wales, says : "A fairly bright pupil should, within two years, make sufficient progress in the mastery of English, (a) to speak fairly correct English; (b) to read fluently easy passages from the Reading Books; (c) to write simple sentences dictated by the teacher or framed by himself." A like rate of progress is reported by my Welsh corre- spondents, in general. "When a child attains the age of seven he ought to be able to speak and read the English language fluently," says Miss Leah Davies, of the Infant Council School, St. Dogmaels. "When he attains the age of nine he ought to be able to converse, read, and write easy composition." Owing, no doubt, to the peculiar social and industrial conditions of the Principality, Wales seems, fortunately, to secure a proportion of efficient bi-lingual teachers, ex- ceeding that generally available elsewhere. Nevertheless the enormous numbers of citizens of Wales who are still monolinguists would seem to suggest the possibility that even the Welsh system is not one of Heaven-inspired perfection. Mr. J. O'Brien is among the Canadian Inspectors ad- 66 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH verse to the maintenance of bi-Hngual schools and pos- sessed of the considerable courage necessary to the ex- pression* of such views. Among the Principals of large schools, Mr. Sisler, of Winnipeg, may be taken as a repre- sentative of like opinions. In reply to the question quoted above, he answers, "Decidedly not! To learn to speak one language in addition to learning to read and write it, is a task of sufficient difficulty. If a child is to gain any facility in the use of English he must have constant practice in it and learn to think it. If another language has a place in school that language will be used for explanations, to the detriment of English." "In my experience all the time is required for the study of English," says Miss Berry, whose successful work has already been commented upon. "Instruction in the mother-tongue should not be given in school hours," writes Mr, A. Roy MacKenzie. "Pu- pils can express themselves more easily in it, hence they will use English only when compelled." Mr. J. J. O'Connor, of Lajord, Saskatchewan, after several years successful experience in German-English schools, says, "I believe there is not time for the foreign child to gain a good knowledge of both languages." He therefore, advises that the establishment of dual-lan- guage schools be discouraged. Negative answers were also received from teachers in Manitoba and Eastern Canada. The controversy on this subject, of late, has become so bitter that intimida- tion hampers the free expression of opinion. The bigots are by no means all on one side, and racial pride and * One educator of prominence who believes that the bi-lingual system as it exists in his territory is unfavorable to the learning of English requests the suppression of his name in this connec- tion, adding : "I am a civil servant and am not allowed to air my views without permission on controversial subjects." Various other correspondents have declared themselves similarly ham- pered in the expression of opinion on this important subject THE MOTHER TONGUE 67 prejudice are generally so loud-spoken that the voice of experience and sound pedagogy cannot be heard. In the interest of peace and the welfare of our children it is high time that clamor should give place to dispassionate study of the facts. Some correspondents think the formal teaching of the mother-tongue politic, even if associated with acknowl- edged disadvantages. Inspector Gjombes, for example, views the benefit as very doubtful, but believes that the wishes and sentiment of the parents should be shown consideration. Inspector Boyce, of Alberta, reports gratuitous vernac- ular teaching by Missionaries, during the school vacation, in Norwegian, Swedish, and Finnish districts. "I see no objection to such a course," he remarks, "especially when the district cannot afford a yearly school." He adds, however, "In my opinion, if dual language teaching can be avoided, it is far better." Various correspondents emphasize the valuable addi- tional influence that may be acquired and exercised by a teacher in a "foreign" community if he is considered an authority on the proper use of the mother-tongue, as well as of English. Mr. Edgar Eby, of Laird, Sas- katchewan, living in a community speaking low German, teaches both English and High German, and believes that this policy "raises the teacher's status," and in- creases the general interest in and respect for the school. Inspector A. L. Young is one of those that point out that the answer to the whole question depends largely on how long the pupil's school life is likely to be. "Gen- erally speaking, however," says he, "I would recommend teaching the mother-tongue if it be French or German." The wisdom of teaching the mother-tongue in school hours "depends on the character of the community amid which the pupil is to live," says Mr. J. Bernard Shaw, Prince Albert If the community be large, relatively 68 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH self-contained, and possessed of a vernacular of genuine and considerable literary or commercial value, there is a wide-spread feeling among teachers, that the mother- tongue should be taught. Most of these correspond- ents would exclude from the elementary schools all non- English languages but German and French, though some would admit Ruthenian, Icelandic, and Polish.* Mr. A. L. Toews, teacher, of Winkler, Manitoba, remarks in this connection, "I never would recommend to take up my own mother-tongue — :low German — -as a language subject in school. It is best to take all the time possible for the English, though High German may properly be taught for the last hour of the day." Of time devoted to teaching the vernacular "there should be absolutely none," says Inspector Anderson, "unless we make allow- ance for German and French. The sooner we get rid of the subordinate European languages, the sooner will we be in a position to make citizens of the vast num- bers that now, with their confused Jargons, cover our prairies." On the other hand, numerous reputable educators are distinctly favorable to the dual language system. Here is the reply of Inspector Weidenhammer, who, himself, learned English in a public school and who has had ex- ceptionally wide and intimate experience with German- English schools: "In my schools one hour a day is de- voted to the teaching of German reading and writing. As long as the law in regard to the Public School sub- jects is complied with, I see no reason why this plan should be abandoned. A child can readily learn two, or even three, languages if properly taught. Preference must, however, at all times be given to the teaching of English. That the children lose nothing by learning the two languages was proved last summer at our High * Native colored children are taught to read and write in Zulu aa well as in English, in the schools of Natal! THE MOTHER TONGUE 60 School Entrance examination* Of 35 candidates for this examination, all German children, 29 were success- ful, and 5 passed with honors, taking 80 per cent of the marks. In my school in Ontario, it was nothing un- usual for a German child to head the list of successful candidates at the High School Entrance examination for Waterloo County." Inspector Hartley, of Manitoba, believes it wise to keep up the practice of the mother-tongue, and considers one hour, daily, adequate to this end. "If persistent and intelligent effort is made to teach English, the languages will be on a par in three years, when both may be used concurrently." Inspector Kennedy, Saskatchewan, believes "it is well to have children study their mother-tongue, so that our own language and literature may be enriched by the folk- lore, legends, songs, etc., of the races that are being in- corporated in our nation. Moreover, it is not well to allow a child to forget its background." Mr. Fred B. Smith, M. A., believes he has found the concurrent teaching of German advantageous to the teaching of English, "Properly managed the mother- tongue lesson may be of use in a comparison of the two languages, and thus incidentally a means of learning English. Three hours a week is ample. It should be remembered that very little pure German is spoken by our immigrant classes. The concession involved in teaching their mother-tongue in the elementary schools is a wise one, but as years pass by it will become less and less necessary." The writer found considerable interest in the considera- tion of the views of representatives of the so-called "native" teachers, who are the natural representatives of the most intelligent element in the "foreign" com- * Held at Morden, Manitoba, 1911. go ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH munities. Mr. Jos. Baezynski may be taken as their spokesman. Says he: "Before all, the teacher should not be a nationalist, but a good Canadian citizen, as it is in the interest of the growing generation to become good citizens. To know the reading and writing of their own language, however, does not prevent their being good Canadians and it helps them in studies at home. As there are many good books which may be read to their parents, who would not under- stand English and never were in school themselves, it makes the parents happier, and at the same time they learn of what use the school and education is. Parents are very glad to hear their children read their newspapers in the evenings and it facilitates correspondence with the numerous friends and relations in the mother country. As many of the languages are essentially phonetic it does not take long to learn to read and write them." Mr. Baezynski would not recommend more than three hours a week, nor teach more of the mother tongue than what is necessary to be able to read and write it. The important suggestion is offered, by a number of authorities, that while the mother tongue should be taught, it should not find a place in the early grades. Writes Sister St. Victorie, of St. Louis, Saskatche- wan, "It is in the pupil's interest to learn his mother tongue, but I think it is greatly retarding progress to learn his own language and commence the English lan- guage at the same time." — "In schools where pupils know very little English," says Miss Lannan, of Regina, "I would not teach any other language until they ac- quired a good working knowledge of English." — In- spector Morgan, Alberta, also thinks that the whole time should be given to English until the children acquire the habit of thinking in that language, when instruction in the mother tongue may be advantageous. — Similar THE MOTHER TONGUE j\ opinions are expressed by various teachers of ex- perience. The dual language system in Ontario has recently been the subject of an acrimonious controversy, in which party politics, racial jealousies, and religious animosities have done much to darken counsel. In consequence the Ontario Government, in 1910, instructed F. W. Mer- chant, D. Paed., Inspector of Normal and Model Schools, thoroughly to investigate the subject. His report, to which references have already been made, was published, by order of the Legislative Assembly, in March, 1912. This document is so important and likely to exercise so powerful and widespread an influence, that the writer feels obliged to devote considerable space to some of its contents. In collecting data for his report, Dr. Merchant made a special inspection of 269 of the 345 French-English schools in Ontario, examining the work of 538 teachers. His conclusions, as regards the status of these schools, are expressed in language of studied moderation. "It is evident," says he, "from an examination of the re- sults of all the tests applied, that the English-French schools are, on the whole, lacking in efficiency. The tests combine to show that a large proportion of the children in the communities concerned leave school to meet the demands of life with an inadequate equipment in education." The causes of this inefficiency of bi- lingual schools, as compared with the English schools of the same Province, Dr. Merchant finds to be chiefly the obvious additional load placed on pupils and teachers by the dual-language system; excessive irregularities in attendance; the preponderance of teachers with inade- quate academic and professional training; and disre- gard of departmental regulations. Assuming, without discussion, the desirability or neces- 72 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH sity of retaining the bi-lingual system, Dr. Merchant ex- presses the following views regarding the language of instruction : "The best results are obtained when the medium of instruction is in the beginning the mother-tongue. Life in the ordinary school is so different from the life of the home that the child on entrance to school finds himself in a strange and perplexing environment. He is bewil- dered if the language he hears in his lessons has no meaning for him, and for a long time he makes but lit- tle progress. When he appears to learn, he is usually but repeating meaningless words. ... "The transition from French to English is best made gradually through the method of double teaching. Ac- cording to this plan, a lesson is first taught in French and then repeated or reviewed in English. During the first part of the lesson, the child is expected to become familiar with the subject matter of the lesson; during the second part, his attention is given mainly to grasping the thought and expressing himself in English. This method is employed with success in number work from the beginning. The vocabulary of arithmetic is so lim- ited that the child learns readily to use the English words in counting and in combining numbers without confus- ing them with the French equivalents, if new terms are introduced slowly. The best results in elementary arith- metic found in the schools were obtained in this way. Care was taken to develop the first notions of numbers through the free use of objects and to associate the verbal symbols, whether French or English, directly with the objects or operations. When the lesson consists of the mere repetition of number names little meaning is attached to the words, whether two sets of symbols are used or but one. The explanations of the more abstract processes are given in French. It is obvious that a child must have a fairly good grasp of language to understand the explanations of such operations as 'carrying,' 'bor- rowing.' "The use of English in the teaching of the other sub- THE MOTHER TONGUE 73 jects is introduced in a similar manner at subsequent stages. The more concrete phases of a subject are first selected for the English review, and the more abstract presented later as the child gains power in the use of the language. On the one hand, the teacher seizes every opportunity to introduce English, even when the child in putting forth effort comprehends but vaguely or re- motely the meaning of the words; on the other, she is constantly on the alert to prevent the child from learn- ing by rote combinations of purely meaningless words. The tendency is strong, even when the child is learning through the mother-tongue, for the lesson to degenerate into the mere recitation of verbal formulas. This ten- dency becomes much stronger when a secondary medium of instruction is used. "The time when English should be used continuously as the language of instruction depends on the ability of the student and the language conditions of the locality in which the school is situated. Where English is spoken quite generally in a community and by the community and by the children on the playground, young children learn in a surprisingly short time sufficient English to follow the school lessons. In fact, where the child is not shy and mingles freely with the English-speaking children, he makes, after a few months, good progress in the ordinary English school. This is the case with most foreign children in our city schools. In sections where the only language spoken in the homes and by the children on the playground is French, progress in Eng- lish is necessarily much slower. "When a fair amount of attention is given to English conversation, reading and composition, and reasonable pains are taken to introduce English gradually as the language of instruction in Forms I and II, all subjects, with the exception, of course, of French, are taught suc- cessfully through English in Form III* This rule should not be regarded as presenting absolute limitations on either hand. In some of the best schools in exclusively * The italics are my own.— N. F. B. 74 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH French-speaking districts, both urban and rural, English is used quite generally at an earlier stage, yet frequently in such schools French may be employed to advantage in the upper classes to convey a delicate shade of mean- ing or to suggest the appreciation of a subtle feeling." Later in his report Dr. Merchant says: "The organization which gives, on the whole, the most satisfactory results requires the pupil to remain three years in Form I and two years in Form II, during which time English is made gradually to replace French as the medium of instruction. At the end of this period the most backward pupil should have sufficient command of the language to follow with comparative ease lessons conducted in English."* By referring to the earlier quotation, it will be seen that this means that English cannot as a rule be used to advantage as a general medium of instruction till the pupil has been in attendance five years! If instead of turning for purposes of comparison to those parts of Canada where the pupils of non-English parentage seem to make the slowest progress. Dr. Merchant had investi- gated methods in those provinces which render English effectively available as a teaching medium in a mere fraction of the time generally required in Ontario, Que- bec or Nova Scotia, his conclusions would perhaps have been different. Dr. Merchant's five years' preparatory course would even make the four year limit officially recognized in Nova Scotia almost tolerable by compari- son. In Manitoba, Saskatchewan or Alberta, the writer does not believe that there exists a school inspector who would tolerate such delay in the mastery of EngUsh. In the United States the progress that Dr. Merchant appar- ently considers satisfactory would certainly be looked upon as most unsatisfactory, if one may judge from the opinions submitted elsewhere in these pages. Be it ♦The italics are my own. — N. F. B. THE MOTHER TONGUE 75 remembered, the writer is speaking from his personal knowledge of the rapidity with which English may be introduced as an effective medium for general instruc- tion, and that his conclusions are supported by the suc- cessful experience of hundreds of teachers in all parts of the English-speaking world. What is implied in allowing the mother-tongue to be the chief medium of instruction for the first four or five years of the pupil's school life ? It means that a startling proportion of the children from bi-lingual schools will close their school life without an adequate knowledge of the English language. Dr. Merchant examined into the age and school attainments of 1,692 pupils of eleven years of age and upwards who had left school, and of these, 484 never had reached Form III, — the class in which, under average conditions, Dr. Merchant thinks that English should come into use as the recognized medium of instruction. Reducing these figures to the forms of percentages, it will be seen that over 34.97 per centum of the pupils whose school record was investi- gated left school while in Forms I or II. Even this is an inadequate statement of the facts. Many pupils, as a matter of fact, leave school before reaching the age of eleven. Moreover, of the 21,389 pupils in the schools upon which Dr. Merchant reports, 16,807, o^ 78-57 per centimi, are included in the first two forms. It is only fair to repeat that Dr. Merchant advocates the gradual introduction of English as a medium of instruction in the lower grades, but it will scarcely be gainsaid that if a child's knowledge of English be so inadequate as still to require the habitual use of the mother-tongue for teaching purposes, it will also be deplorably inadequate for the ordinary intercourse of every-day life out of school. Let it be clearly understood by all those who are inter- ested, that the children of non-English-speaking par- y6 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH entage may be properly taught to read and write their mother-tongue and, at the same time, rendered suffi- ciently familiar with English to progress satisfactorily under English instruction from the second school year or earlier. It is not a question of excluding the mother- tongue; it is simply a question of whether the children shall be familiarized with English. If they are to acquire the latter tongue in school at all, it must, in an enor- mous nurtiber of cases, be in Forms I and II, or equiva- lent grades. If they are at present attempting to do so, and are failing, it is because the teachers do not under- stand their business and the Education Department has not been taking proper means to secure their familiarity with intelligent methods. To gainsay these propositions is to reveal deplorable ignorance of what is being suc- cessfully accomplished in hundreds of schools. In the Roman Catholic Separate Schools in Eastern Ontario and in the "Districts," French is habitually employed "in teaching all subjects except English (com- position, grammar, reading, and spelling)," Dr. Mer- chant informs us. "In these schools English is regarded simply as one subject among others in the course of study. Approximately 80 per cent of the Roman Catho- lic Separate Schools in Eastern Ontario and 90 per cent of the Public and of the Roman Catholic Separate Schools in the Districts conform more or less completely to this type." In reporting the procedure of 937 classes at the time of his inspection. Dr. Merchant gives the language of instruction as English for 246 classes, French for 359 classes and mixed for 332 classes. "In about 85 per cent of the schools in which the language of instruction is specified as English and French in Forms III and IV," he adds, "French is the language most extensively used." In giving orders French only was used in slightly over THE MOTHER TONGUE 72 467 of the classes; and unmixed English only in the proportion of less than one case out of four. Such are the disgraceful conditions into which the English-French schools of Ontario have been allowed to drift during the past twenty years. They show a tend- ency observable practically wherever bi-lingual systems exist. The so-called bi-lingual schools steadily tend to cease to be bi-lingual, unless the use of English as the language of instruction be imperatively demanded as the condition for the payment of school grants. In the pres- ence of such a situation. Dr. Merchant's approval of the use of the vernacular, as the chief teaching medium for the first five years of the child's school life, is little less than calamitous. If his advice is officially approved, conditions will be worse for English in Ontario ten years hence than they are to-day — Ontario's experience should be a warning to all other parts of the English-speaking world.* *A bulletin issued June 19, 1912, by the Ontario Department of Education gives the details of the government's regulations regarding the teaching of French in bi-lingual schools. Pro- vision for the teaching of French, that is, reading, grammar, and composition, is made for Forms I to IV for the year 1912 and 1913. The bulletin, however, makes no reference to what will follow after 1913. Headed "Roman Catholic Separate Schools and English-French Public Schools and Separate Schools," the bulletin is a "circular for instructions for the school year, September to June, 1912- 1913." Subject to the approval of the supervising inspector, the course of study shall be modified. "(l) Where necessary in the case of French-speaking pupils, French may be used as the language of instruction and com- munication; but such use of French shall not be continued beyond Form I, excepting during the school year of 1912-1913, when it may also be used as the language of instruction and communication in the case of pupils beyond Form I, who, owing to previous defective training, are unable to speak and under- stand the English language. "(2) In the case of French-speaking pupils who are unable to speak and understand the English language, well enough for the purposes of instruction and communication, the following provision is hereby made: 78 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH In the preceding pages we have tried fairiy to present every important aspect of the controversy regarding the teaching of languages other than English in our public schools. The following are the conclusions arrived at by the writer himself, as the result of his experience and investigations. English must be the dominant subject in all elemen- tary schools. If, however, the parents desire taught another language of acknowledged practical value, the writer would favor granting their request. This should, however, be subject to the condition that the school be kept in operation at least 150 days in the school year and the search for a vernacular-speaking teacher must not be allowed to delay the opening of the school at the proper date, if teachers otherwise qualified are available. "(a) As soon as the pupil enters the school he shall begin the study and the use of the English language. "(b) As soon as the pupil has acquired sufficient facility in the use of the English language he shall take up in that lan- guage the course of study a^ prescribed for the public and separate schools." Paragraph four reads: — "For the school year of 1912-1913 in schools where French has hitherto been a subject of study the public or the separate school board, as the case may be, may provide under the following conditions for instructibn in French reading, grammar and composition in Forms I to IV (see also provision for form V in public school regulation 14). "(S) In addition to the subjects prescribed for the public and separate schools : "(i) Such instructions in French may be taken only by pupils whose parents or guardians direct that they shall do so. "(2) Such instructions in French shall not interfere with the adequacy of the instruction in English, and the provision for such instruction in French in the time-table of the school shall be subject to the approval and direction of the supervising inspector and shall not in any day exceed one hour in each class room. "(3) Where, as permitted above for the school year of 1912- 1913, French is a subject of study in a public or separate school, the text-books in use during the school year of 1911-1912, in French reading, grammar and composition shall remain author- ized for use during the school year of 1912-1913." THE MOTHER TONGUE 79 This last provision should be enforced under heavy pen- alties, and no "permit" or special certificate ought to be issued to incompetent or ill-trained persons merely because they can speak some language other than English. The school grant should be rigorously withheld for every day in which more than one hour of the teacher's time is devoted to any language other than English and as a general rule not more than half that time should be allowed. The teaching of reading and writing in the vernacular should in all cases be postponed until the child has completed the work of Grade I at least and, so far as possible, the reading matter used in the mother- tongue lessons, should be of a character to increase the pupil's intelligent interest in and love for the land in which he dwells and the flag that flies over it. In all ele- mentary schools receiving state aid, the language of in- struction should be English, except in teaching the mother-tongue itself and possibly in conducting moral and religious instruction where this is made a recognized subject of formal study. CHAPTER IV Certain Outstanding Difficulties and Causes of Discouragement, With Suggestions as to How They May Be Met Before considering in detail the pedagogical princi- ples underlying the wise teaching of a new language, or the practical methods and devices in which such princi- ples may be embodied,, it seems well slightly to clear the ground by passing in review certain conditions that too frequently involve the teacher of non-English-speaking pupils in discouragement and failure. It must be admit- ted of these difficulties that their name is legion. Hap- pily, all of them are never found operating concurrently. They vary from school to school, and from teacher to teacher working amid the same or precisely similar sur- roundings. In his questionnaire, the writer asked what these chief sources of difficulty are; and the answers received have called feelingly to his attention such a host of adverse influences, small and great, that one might wonder at success ever being attained. Nevertheless, as we have seen, splendid success is being attained in many quar- ters as one after another the impediments to progress are removed. Indeed, a problem clearly realized is already half solved and in many cases teachers are meet- ing with indifferent success simply because they have failed to analyze the complex influences that render their task difficult. 80 OUTSTANDING DIFFICULTIES 8l To perform the herculean task of acquiring a new language, a learner must be actuated by an exceedingly strong incentive. In very many schools for non-English- speaking children beginners come with an enthusiastic and clearly grasped determination to learn the English language just as fast as possible. Under such circum- stances progress is relatively easy. In other schools, however, situated in the heart of a large and more or less self contained non- English-speak- ing settlement, beginners have little or no real incentive to learn the new tongue. They may never hear it spoken outside of school, and those whom they naturally love and idealize the most are not less perfect to them because entirely ignorant of English. Of the great world beyond their home or colony or township they know and care nothing, and into it they have as yet probably no desire ever to penetrate. Under such circumstances the teacher is face to face with a very real difficulty. To solve it he must first make himself in a real sense a member of the community. He must show himself in all things ready to learn as well as to teach. He must study the local point of view. He must make it manifest that he is primarily a friend and only secondarily a school teacher. No opportunity to offer help and cooperation of any sort must be ignored, especially if scope for applying the results of his own education present themselves. He must remember the doctrine of the greatest of teachers and "be the servant of all." This does not imply that in any sense he is to forget his dignity or at any time "to curry favor." Nothing can be more fatal to success than that. But if he plays his difficult part aright he will soon find suspicion giving way to respect and affec- tion. Then the very fact that he, the teacher, possesses a given knowledge or accomplishment will to his dis- ciples be sufficient motive for painstaking effort to acquire it. §2 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH Moreover, there will almost always be some leading spirits in the community to whose intelligence successful appeal may be made and whose cooperation will give his work the needed impetus in the start. This task has been successfully performed time and again under cir- cumstances superlatively discouraging, and the obstacles, to the right teacher, will be but a challenge which he will unhesitatingly accept, knowing from the outset that he can and will succeed. Easy tasks are for weaklings, heavy tasks are for the heroic. If the incentive to learn does not already exist, the teacher must create it. Inspec- tor Kennedy, of Saskatchewan, wisely says, "Sympa- thetic contact is the first difficulty." Indeed, as one very successful teacher writes, "Once an ambition is aroused, I do not think there are any more difficulties than in teaching English-speaking children." In such communities as those of which we are speak- ing, the teacher may have to counteract adverse influences emanating from those who should be his chief allies. Localities have come under the writer's personal obser- vation, and others have been reported to him by his cor- respondents, in which the clergy were actively or pas- sively the teacher's chief opponents. Such a condition of affairs is manifestly preposterous, as the primary aims of church and school are so closely akin as to be almost identical. The best way to meet the difficulty is, in the first place, never by word or action to admit its existence. "He that would have friends, must show himself friendly." The teacher should arrange to come into per- sonal and familiar contact with the clergyman, asking his advice and boldly assuming that his assistance will be available. Courtesy and a kindly study of human nature are all important. A few quiet talks regarding the teacher's aims in the community's interest will in most cases be followed by a disappearance of the difficulty in OUTSTANDING DIFFICULTIES 83 question. No obstacle need exist between one person and another, if either is willing to go around it. Another source of discouragement lies in the fact that if children hear English spoken only by the teacher, it becomes in a peculiar way, for the children, the lan- guage of an individual. An observant correspondent makes the following remarks in this connection: "Chil- dren under such circumstances come to associate the English language with one particular voice and accent. I have known pupils who could understand the teacher, and make brave attempts to speak English to her, become dreadfully at sea when spoken to or questioned by a different voice." This phenomenon has been observed by the writer and commented upon by various other inspectors and superintendents. Under such circum- stances the teacher must guard carefully against obtrusive peculiarities in his own manner of speech, and should make every effort to secure, as frequently as possible, friendly school visits from other English-speaking per- sons. Of course, this difficulty will tend rapidly to dis- appear as the children learn to speak to each other in English. When the vacations are long the teacher in a foreign- speaking community is often heart-sick to find to what an extent the English so laboriously taught in the preced- ing session has been forgotten. Infinite patience is neces- sary. No useful purpose will be served by upbraiding the children. Moreover, the teacher should comfort himself with the thought that much of what seems lost is merely covered with dust. Many things, to all appear- ances utterly forgotten, will presently be recalled again, and the rest at all events will be the more easily learned the second time. In some communities the teacher must continually be on guard against bad language, slang and imperfect Eng- 84 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH lish, which the children hear away from the school. Much discretion will then be needed. The chief motive to which appeal should be made for the avoidance of such language should be the teacher's kindly, quiet and unmis- takable disapproval. If he has won the children's hearts, this will be enough. If he has not yet done so, that is his immediate task. Another common source of failure and discourage- ment in communities such as we have been considering is the desolating home sickness and loneliness to which the teachers are frequently a prey. It is often difficult to obtain a boarding house offering the rudest substitutes for comforts to which the teacher has probably been all his life accustomed. The dishes set before him include many that, before his arrival in the "foreign" district, it had not entered into his heart to conceive. He must become accustomed, very likely, to live and move and have his being in an atmosphere saturated with garlic. All about him may seem strange, — dress, customs, lan- guage, and local interests. Very likely, if he does not speak the vernacular, he is compelled to pass long lonely hours in compulsory silence. Even if conversation be practicable, it may be almost impossible for him to find topics of common interest. Unless he exert himself wisely, his loneliness and isolation will be worse than Robinson Crusoe's before he found Friday. Fortunately to very many teachers in foreign-speaking districts, this picture will seem overdrawn. Unfortunately, to others it will not. If indeed the teacher finds himself thus situated, what is he to do to escape the depression that renders success in anything impossible? The correct advice is easy to give, though hard to carry out. If he finds himself isola- ted he must come out of his isolation, remembering the fable of Mahomet and the Hill. His companions do not share his interests; then he must set himself reso- OUTSTANDING DIFFICULTIES 8$ lutely to understand and acquire theirs. If his own are superior, he will later have opportunities for introducing them. He should study the language of the community and make himself familiar with the folk-songs and legends of the people. Many interesting hours have been spent by the writer conversing with old peasants from the remoter countries of Europe and with Indians and half-breeds. It is possible thus to gain valuable glimpses of human life and customs to which few but teachers in such communities have access. The teacher must, how- ever, guard against social deterioration. The writer has observed teachers of exceptional academic qualifications lose their grip upon the finer things and subside, to all practical intents, to the intellectual level of ignorant immi- grants, the victims of a thousand years of darkness and oppression. Visits as frequent and regular as possible should be made to adjacent English-speaking settlements, or to teachers in adjoining "foreign" districts. Another recourse, of an importance incapable of exag- geration, is to be found in books. It is frequently wise for the teacher to enroll himself in connection with an extra-mural course under the auspices of some Univer- sity, or to undertake preparation for some academic or professional examination. For a teacher who has not formed and cannot acquire a genuine love of study and reading, prolonged residence in a "foreign" settlement is likely to be a form of mental suicide. Let us call to mind Ruskin's great words about books: "We cannot know whom we would ; and those whom we know, we cannot have at our side when we most need them. All the higher circles of human intelligence are, to those beneath, only momentarily and partially open. We may, by good fortune, obtain a glimpse of a great poet, and hear the sound of his voice; or put a question to a man of science, and be answered good- 86 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH humouredly. We may intrude ten minutes' talk on a cabinet minister, answered probably with words worse than silence, being deceptive; or snatch, once or twice in our lives, the privilege of throwing a bouquet in the path of a JPrincess, or arresting the kind glance of a Queen. And yet these momentary chances we covet; and spend our years, and passions, and powers in pur- suit of little more than these ; while, meantime, there is a society continually open to us, of people who will talk to us as long as we like, whatever our rank or occupa- tion; talk to us in the best words they can choose, and with thanks if we listen to them. And this society, be- cause it is so numerous and so gentle — and can be kept waiting round us all day long, not to grant audience, but to gain it; kings and statesmen lingering patiently in those plainly furnished and narrow anterooms, our bookcase shelves — we make no account of that company — perhaps never listen to a word they would say, all day long! . . . Will you go and gossip with your housemaid, or your stable-boy, when you may talk with queens and kings; or flatter yourselves that it is with any worthy consciousness of your own claims to respect that you jostle with the common crowd for entree here, and audience there, when all the while this eternal court is open to you, with its society wide as the world, multi- tudinous as its days, the chosen, and the mighty, of every place and time ? Into that you may enter always ; in that you may take fellowship and rank according to your wish; from that, once entered into it, you can never be outcast but by your own fault; by your aristocracy of companionship there, your own inherent aristocracy will be assuredly tested, and the motives with which you strive to ta!ke high place in the society of the living, measured as to all the truth and sincerity that are in them, by the place you desire to take in this companv of the Dead." Many of the difficulties involved in teaching English arise from the extraordinary dissimilarity often existing between that language and the one in which the children OUTSTANDING DIFFICULTIES 87 think. "In the case of foreigners of some nationahties," writes Miss Cooper, of Toronto, "especially for example the Chinese, their methods of thought seem so different from our own that it is difficult to get into touch with them." "The order of words and sentences," says the Ency- clopaedia Britannica, in discussing Mongolian languages, "is pretty much the opposite of that which we follow. In a simple sentence the indication of tense and place, whether given by an adverb or a substantive with a preposition, always comes first; then comes the subject, always preceded by its adjective or genitive; then the object and other cases depending on the verb; last of all the verb itself preceded by any adverbs that belong to it. ... The periods are longer than in other lan- guages, a single one may fill several pages." The Magyars, Hungarians, Finns, and various other representatives of the Finno-Ugrian family of languages, numerous in many of our schools, meet similar stupen- dous difficulties in passing from their own to our forms of thought. To them the only method of word forma- tion is by suffixes. Distinctions of gender are practically unknown. In some of these languages the object may be incorporated in the verb. Sentences of types that seem entirely natural to Indo-Europeans are almost im- possible of expression in languages of this family. In the case of all other Non-Aryan languages, notably the various Indian tongues, a similar state of affairs impedes progress. Equivalence of function between important English parts of speech and those of such lan- guages is frequently impossible to establish. There may, for example, be no distinct demarcation between the noun and the verb or perhaps between the adjective and the verb. Numerous fine distinctions in expression that are ignored in English may have great prominence in the pupil's mother-tongue and vice-versa. English 88 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH copulas and auxiliary verbs, without the equivalents of which it would seem to us that the exchange of ideas would be impossible, may be utterly alien to the learn- er's mode of thought. Mr. W. M. Peterson offers an excellent example: "The verb to be in all its forms is the greatest difBculty in my experience, for the reason that no (North Ameri- can) Indian language with which I am familiar has any- thing to represent it. I say to the child, 'Where is your father?' His reply is, 'My father, at home?'" Even within the great Indo-European family of lan- guages there exist diversities in the forms of thought and expression that are very noteworthy, though the diffi- culty is relatively less. Unlike languages of various other families, most of the Aryan tongues possess words more or less analogous to our articles, — the, a, or an, — but great difference in their variety and function may exist. Even in French and German the difficulty is prominent. Again, the verb properly equivalent to the English to have may be used, where with us to be would seem inevitable. The methods of negation may be almost the reverse of ours, — French verbs, for example, regu- larly requiring a double negative. The use of the same word as an auxiliary and as an independent verb is most perplexing. Such expressions as "What did he do?" may be almost permanently inexplicable. Methods of tense formation are often exceedingly dissimilar, and our frequent ellipses, constituting no difficulty to us, may be utterly sense-destroying to the beginners. Examples of difficulties arising from fundamental dissimilarity between the mother-tongue and English might be multi- plied to any extent. In such facts as these, perhaps all unknown to the teacher, lie the clue to multitudes of difficulties. In all such cases the writer is convinced that the teacher would derive much assistance from a careful examination of OUTSTANDING DIFFICULTIES 89 an English grammar of the pupils' mother-tongue. Even if the instructor does not intend or hope to master the vernacular language, a general survey of it will bring prominently before his mind some of the outstanding difficulties w^ith which his pupils are contending. Closely allied to the topic of which we have just been treating, is the matter of pronunciation. Many of the commonest English sounds are practically peculiar to that language, or at all events may occur but rarely in others, including that of his pupils. "Th" is a notable example. The sound represented by the letter "h," aspirated in the English sense of that word, practically never occurs in French, or in the Slavic languages ; and beginners, when they once acquire it, will tend to insert it indiscriminately before all initial vowel sounds. Final "s" is very hard for Belgians and various other peoples. "All open, round sounds, — drop-jaw sounds, — present a phjysical difficulty with Finns," remarks Miss Alena Ward, of Coleman, Alberta. "Their mouths almost refuse to round or open broad. The same applies to Russians." The distinction between "d" and "t," final, or "p" and "b," initial, constitutes a tremendous diffi- culty in some quarters. Some of our commonest vowel sounds, such as "e" in get, "i" in hit, "a" in all or in at, and others apparently as easy, are frequently very diffi- cult to teach. The discussion of how these and similar difficulties in pronounciation are to be met will find a better place in a future chapter. It is sufficient for our present purposes to point out their existence and to assure all concerned that they may be successfully overcome. Speaking from twenty-three years' experience as a teacher and inspector, Mr. A. Weidenhammer, of Mani- toba, says: "It requires patience and perseverance. Unless a child had a physical defect I have never had a failure." Frequently another group of difficulties arises from the go ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH habits, chatacters, and dispositions of the little folk intrusted to the teacher's care. It will often happen that in his beginners' class he will have children from ten to fourteen years of age. Methods of teaching, discipline and class management entirely suitable to ordinary first-grade pupils will prove burdensome to such children, especially if they have had no school training in their native lands. Such pupils must be specially encouraged with hope of speedy pro- motion, and should be distinguished by appointment to monitorships of different sorts. In handling beginners of this kind it is exceptionally imperative that the teacher study his pupils and adapt his methods to them and not to preconceived notions of what beginners should be like and may be like in other schools. Shyness, timidity and taciturnity, all but insuperable, very commonly characterize non-English-speaking begin- ners. It not infrequently happens that a child will be some weeks at school before he can be induced to open his mouth at all in any attempt to speak. The teacher must do all that in him lies to win the new-comer's heart and thus to loosen his tongue. If despite his best and kindliest efforts this process proves slow, the teacher should comfort himself with the knowledge that though these children may seem to be making no progress at all they may in reality be acquiring a good deal, pain- fully laying the foundations for future rapid advance- ment. Generally speaking, this initial diffidence will soon disappear, if the teacher be manifestly sympathetic, and if the early language lessons be made sufficiently spirited and informal. On the occasion of his visits to various schools in which he found the teachers discouraged by their inability to get the beginners to make the first start, the writer has always met with complete success by fol- lowing some such introductory methods as those to be discussed in future chapters. Generally speaking, he OUTSTANDING DIFFICULTIES 91 would seat himself and gather the children around him in a close, irregular circle, perhaps taking the littlest on his knees. Children and instructor would examine to- gether some comical and easily understood picture. If, as often Happened, a good burst of laughter could be produced, the icy walls within which the pupils had been living, would be dissolved in a moment, and more Eng- lish learned in the ensuing five minutes than in a week of solemnity. This diffidence will, in occasional cases, be succeeded by an over-confidence almost equally disconcerting to the teacher. It may show itself in habitual inattention to the seemingly unimportant points which make so great a difference in the use of a language. The pupil finds to his delight that at last he can at least make himself under- stood. Details with regard to word order, the choice of prepositions and grammatical distinctions generally, then seem trivial to him. In remedying these defects of speech the teacher must take care not to discourage free and spontaneous expression. Corrections should not be made until the child has finished and if possible the incor- rect form should not be repeated. Much of the difficulty which the teacher will meet is a consequence of the narrow bounds circumscribing the children's experience. Topics familiar to little ones in other environments will be distressingly new to them and must at first be carefully excluded. Inexperienced teachers frequently for a time believe that their pupils are making rapid progress in English and in general knowledge, when they are simply over- loading their mechanical memory. They may be able to reproduce many things that the teacher has said, while understanding hardly anything at all. This occurs most frequently where phonic methods are injudiciously used. In reading, the pupils may simply name the words in the order of their occurrence, without a thought for their 92 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH meaning. In one of the many schools in which this has been observed by the writer, one of the pupils read the following familiar passage with great distinctness and self-satisfaction : "Fred. And. Will. Are. Going. To. The. Pond. They. Both. Are. Fond. Of. Fishing. Fred's. Rod. Is. So. Long. That. It." The page here ended and the pupil put down his book with an evident sense of having performed his recitation with great credit. Of course, no such thing will occur if the teacher be properly upon his guard. We have noted many and diverse possible causes of failure, but the most important yet remain. They have their source in the habits, character, disposition and train- ing of the teacher. As has already been suggested, the trouble frequently consists in the teacher's failure to realize his own prob- lems. This shows itself in a thousand ways. One of these is a tendency to undue haste. The teacher expects too much of his pupils, fails to realize their standpoint, and inconsiderately attempts to follow with non-English- speaking pupils whatever courses he has found success- ful in teaching children of English parentage. Such mis- takes will show themselves especially in connection with assignment of lessons. The teacher must take very little for granted. He must not only tell the pupils what is to be done, but must frequently have the children also tell it to him over again. He must learn to follow what one of my correspondents calls the teacher's golden rule: "Make haste slowly." It is necessary to get rid of the incubus involved in the idea that it is imperatively neces- sary to accomplish a pre-determined amount of work in a given time. There is never good reason for such hurry as precludes whatever drill the particular pupils con- cerned show that they require. The supreme necessity is endless patience and uncon- OUTSTANDING DIFFICULTIES 93 querable good humor. Ridicule of all sorts is nowhere so out of place as in the teaching of beginners in English. To the right teacher almost all children will prove lovable. Those in "foreign" speaking communities are no excep- tion to the rule, and when the teacher really learns to know them he will find them to be much more like than unlike children in general. Does not David Harum say that there is about as much human nature in some folk as there is in others, if not more? Much heart-burning will be avoided if the teacher carefully postpones the use of the primer until he is thoroughly sure that the children are ready for it. This may not be before the end of three months or more. In the meantime the blackboard must be the teacher's stand- by. He must have a systematic timetable having abun- dant provision for language lessons, and when he has made it, he must not fall down and worship it. He must speak very slowly and distinctly himself, with constant care as to pronunciation and sentence structure, and he must habitually require that answers be in the form of complete sentences. So far as possible he must keep oral and written work abreast. It may also be remarked that he will often find it advantageous to request more advanced pupils or English speaking children to take part in recitations especially designed for beginners. All these suggestions may seem very obvious, but generally speaking the main source of failure in this work is lack of discretion in just such matters. The probability is that the teacher will never have received any adequate instruction bearing upon the teach- ing of English to children who have never used it. Likely enough, the text-books supplied will be lamentably un- suitable. The subject must then be given definite serious study, and help must be sought in every possible direc- tion. In the long run, however, success will depend upon the teacher himself. 94 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH Trustees have their part to play. It is their duty ener- getically to support the teacher's efforts in combating irregularity, which is the great bane of most of these schools. It seems self-evident, but is nevertheless very frequently forgotten, that even Aristotle, the patron saint of pedagogs, could not teach a pupil a half mile away. It is furthermore the business of the trustees to see that the teacher is supplied with the equipment neces- sary for his task. The greatest essential is large black- boards placed not more than twenty-two inches above the floor, and supplied with curtains so that blackboard work previously prepared may be kept fresh and interesting until the time comes to use it. Sets of weights and meas- ures are invaluable. Nothing equally useful in so many ways can be obtained so cheaply as a pint of wooden shoe pegs. The teacher must also have bristol-board or card- board in abundance, for making charts, and for mount- ing pictures and other material for use in seat work. Every school should have some such apparatus as a home-made gelatine copying pad. This may be made of three parts by weight of gelatine to six or eight of glycerine. Exercises in supplementary reading and lan- guage work may be manifolded upon this. They must be written on smooth paper in hektograph ink. The paper when dry is laid face down on the gelatine, to which a sufficient amount of ink will adhere to reproduce many copies upon blank sheets subsequently laid one at a time upon the gelatine. The remaining ink will be absorbed and disappear in a day or so, leaving the pad ready for further use. A set of toy dishes and miniature kitchen utensils will be invaluable. The trustees should also see to it that the school has plenty of supplementary primers and other easy reading matter, as well as refer- ence books for the teacher. The work of teaching English can be done perhaps nowhere else as well as in Kindergartens. Incidentally, OUTSTANDING DIFFICULTIES 95 it may be said that generally speaking no children in the community so seriously need the elevating influences for which the Kindergarten stands as do the children of the poor and ignorant. It is therefore the duty of the ad- ministrative authorities to encourage and support in every way the establishment of free Kindergartens in immigrant communities. Furthermore, serious and sympathetic con- sideration should be given to establishing creches in which children under school age may be cared for and become familiar with the use of English from their earl- iest and most impressionable years. Incidentally, it may be remarked that the creation of such departments will largely eliminate one of the chief causes of irregularity. The older children of the poor are very commonly de- tained from school to superintend the little folk, whom their parents are obliged to leave on going to their work. In urban districts, trustees in very numerous quarters have learned the wisdom of establishing special classes for beginners in English, especially for those older than ordinary primary pupils. In some American cities hun- dreds of such ungraded departments have for years been in very successful operation. The following is a quotation from a recent Report of the Providence School Committee : "The establishment of these special classes has done much towards raising the standard of work in our regu- lar primary rooms. The teachers for these classes have been selected with great care, in order to secure for these backward and foreign children the teaching power and the sympathy and encouragement necessary to bring them forward more rapidly than is possible in the regular classes. Promotion from group to group and froni class to class has been given at any time that progress is evi- dent, and each child is made to understand that this spe- cial grading is solely for his benefit. The work provided 96 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH is suited to the ability of each child, who feels that his teacher is able and willing to give him the individual help and encouragement he needs. Because of these condi- tions we have had some examples of most wonderful progress." The trustees' most responsible duty, however, is that of wisely selecting their teachers. All kinds of pressure is brought to bear on the local authorities to secure the appointment of teachers without the qualifications neces- sary for the successful teaching of English. To those ill-informed regarding proper methods, the teacher's familiarity with the prevailing home language is likely to seem of paramount importance; whereas, as has been amply demonstrated, such an accomplishment is by no means essential and is infinitely less important than gen- eral culture, proper normal training and a thorough mas- tery of English. It is the trustees' business to know this and to govern themselves accordingly. It is also the trustees' duty to prevent the discourage- ment and impaired success inevitable if the classes num- ber more than twenty-five or thirty pupils. Even when the individual instruction essential to non-English pupils is not a feature of the school work, the failure to employ a suflSciently large staff involves culpable extravagance in the employment of public money. Throughout this chapter we have of necessity been considering chiefly the disheartening aspects of work with non-English speaking pupils. Those who have not yet had experience in this connection should perhaps be reminded again that in no one school and in no one teacher's experience will all the difficulties enumerated present themselves. They must also bear in mind that to the true teacher perhaps no other field offers so much interest. In the vast majority of cases the beginners will come to their tasks with an enthusiasm and industry very rarely witnessed in schools for English-speaking chil- OUTSTANDING DIFFICULTIES 97 dren only. Every week and indeed every day brings its reward in the form of distinctly noticeable progress, and the teacher is sustained by a deep consciousness that he is really doing something daily that will be of great, in- dubitable and permanent value to the children, so much of whose future success and happiness depends almost solely upon him. CHAPTER V General Principles Underlying the Efficient Teaching of English to Children Unfamiliar With It The writer would have it clearly understood from the outset that it is not his aim in the present chapter to attempt any erudite discussion of the general problems of language teaching. Indeed, it is his special aim delib- erately to isolate for consideration a relatively narrow field and to treat merely of those general principles which are basic to rational and practical methods in relation thereto. Few problems in practical pedagogy have of late aroused so much valuable though often acrimonious de- bate as has the question of how living languages should be taught. In this as in other connections initial definite- ness would preclude much useless controversy. Any modern language is a bewilderingly complex whole. The aims for which it may rightly be studied may be character- ized by the widest dissimilarity. The students engaged upon it may be cultivated adults, youths in secondary schools and colleges, children in intermediate and gram- mar grades, beginners at school already equipped with some previous knowledge, other school children entirely ignor- ant of it, or perhaps infants in the home. It is impera- tively necessary, therefore, that, before methods are de- cided upon, careful consideration should be given to the following questions: First, — Whom are we going to teach? Second, — What are we going to teach? Third, — 98 GENERAL PRINCIPLES 99 Why are we going to teach it? Fourth,— Under what circumstances is the teaching to be done? In connection with the problem to which this little book is devoted much serious harm has been done by well meaning and scholarly educators who are primarily and perhaps exclusively experienced in the education of adults and college students. Even if the best method of teach- ing a new language to advanced students were a matter of general agreement (which it most certainly is not), it would by no means follow that this was the best method of introducing such a subject to minds less ma- ture. The advanced student will have acquired a capa- city for accurate comparison and for generalization, of which the instructor would be insane not to take the greatest possible advantage. Moreover, the student will already be possessed of considerable knowledge of the science of language, the product of years of study in the grammar of his vernacular and perhaps of other tongues. This again places at the instructor's disposal an initial equipment of the greatest utility in introducing a new language. Furthermore, students of this stage will be capable of much self-guidance based upon the pains- taking mastery of linguistic and syntactical rules and principles of many kinds. Rational memory will now probably be at its best; associative retention is likely to be diminishing in power ; and self-consciousness will have so developed as seriously to complicate the teacher's task. Manifestly, methods applicable at this stage must differ widely from those employed with younger pupils. Moreover the subject matter itself in the case of older students will be by no means identical with that to which young beginners should first be introduced. For one thing, the required vocabulary will be enormously more complex. To express it briefly, it will be an adult vocab- ulary. In the field of subjective language it will include 100 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH the vocabulary of mature reflection and reason and of complex emotion. Even what may for convenience be called the objective language of maturity will include many areas foreign to the interest and needs of child- hood. Language, in short, is a reflex of the experience of him who uses it, and varies with it in extent. Methods with advanced pupils will be defined not only by the characteristics of the students and the nature and extent of what is to be taught, but also by the complex purposes for which such instruction is given. These may include the introduction to a new literature, the psychological examination of the same and of anal- ogous mental processes embodied in the speech of dif- ferent peoples, a more or less valuable disciplinary course in mental gymnastics, conversational facility, and many other aims. Contrasted with all this the problem actually present- ing itself is the case of the elementary teacher intro- ducing English to a class of young children. The aim at first involves little more than that of developing ease in the intelligible use of a new medium of communica- tion. Success will require the use of methods almost wholly independent of deliberate comparison, conscious generalization or the guidance of grammatical rules. The subject matter to be taught is, fortunately, infinitely less complex than that confronting advanced students of a new tongue. Childish experience is exceedingly narrow. Subjective language is but slightly necessary, as the pupils still think almost exclusively in concrete images and the necessary objective vocabulary is limited within very narrow bounds. Suggestibility is at its height, motor reaction spontaneous, and self-consciousness less ham- pering than in later years. Finally, the general surround- ings amid which the teacher of advanced classes does his work will be vastly different from those environing the GENERAL PRINCIPLES lOI learners who are taking the first steps in English in an elementary school. Let us recall the four questions the answers to which were to constitute our preliminary guide in the discussion of methods. The pupils we are to have in mind will be, almost exclusively, young children with no previous knowledge of English. The vocabulary with which we shall have to deal will be characteristically objective and exceedingly limited in scope. The aim will be to pro- vide, with the utmost possible rapidity, the means neces- sary to the teaching of the ordinary school branches through the medium of English. Finally it will be borne in mind that we are framing methods suitable for school- room application by teachers of average ability over- whelmed with a bewildering variety of duties, and neces- sarily, in most cases, not possessed of extensive linguistic attainments. Let us now turn to educational psychology, upon which rational methods will ever be found to rest. One of the most important psychological doctrines that has of late been given due prominence for the first time is the prin- ciple that a child's thought is never dissociated from muscular activity, every idea having its motor aspect and remaining incomplete until objectified in action. This explains the endless imitations to which the little child devotes most of his energy. In order to make his own the new ideas that are dawning upon him, he is busily acquiring kinaesthetic data, which, as O'Shea has pointed out very conclusively, are as essential to him as are his auditory and visual data concerning the subject in hand. As he grows older, interpretation through mus- cular activity becomes less imperative, because "he bears in his organism the distinguishing elements of number- less imitations, the motor phases of which have seem- ingly wholly disappeared."* ♦O'Shea's "Dynamic Factors in Education," page 33. I02 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH One principle of sound method will therefore be that the initial appeal is to be made not merely or chiefly through eye or ear, but through action. A study of the psychology of imitation emphasizes the fact that the process is from the general to the specific. The early correlations in imitative action, and indeed in all voluntary action, are practically accidental. The imi- tative action supplies the child with an idea, and the motor correlation of that idea leads to the impulsive or spontaneous performance of an action broadly analogous to the one imitated. At first the child probably per- ceives only those elements in the imitated process which at least closely approximate things that he himself has previously done. As the imitation is subsequently re- peated, more and more specific attention is devoted to the subsidiary processes involved in the act as a whole, until these gradually become sub-conscious. The interest in the imitation is observed to remain, generally speak- ing, until the act can be performed with certainty and ease. All this applies to the acquisition of speech, as much as to any other imitative process. The preliminary childish babble of meaningless sounds plays its part in preparing for controlled motor activity. The bearing of these facts upon language teaching is obvious. The pupil must be led to imitate, as best he can, relatively complex wholes which have for him some rea- sonably evident general significance and immediate inter- est. As attempt after attempt is made to reproduce the unfamiliar sounds, the detailed elements in the process should gradually be given prominence, through oral phonic analysis and synthesis and through detailed imita- tion of the position and movements of the teacher's vocal organs in producing elementary sounds. These characteristically analytic processes must be followed by others characteristically synthetic, as the difficult details GENERAL PRINCIPLES 103 are mastered and come to be performed without con- scious volition. Just as the child remains intensely inter- ested in stair-climbing, as an end in itself, until he can mount the steps with facility and rapidity, so under a wise teacher will he remain interested in acquiring the correct pronunciation until fluency and accuracy are attained. The teacher who knows his psychology will not expect beginners to imitate his pronunciation with accuracy. He will know that they do not even hear it with accuracy. The stimulus which his spoken word provides is unitary in nature, as far as the child is concerned, and the imita- tive motor process which it induces is likewise unitary. The elements are therefore inevitably neglected at first and can be brought to the child's attention only by a patient and painstaking process extending over a con- siderable time. In teaching writing, the observant teacher will have noted that he attains his purposes more easily by directing imitative attention to the way he moves his hand, rather than to the written product of the move- ment. Similarly in teaching a new sound he will progress most rapidly by directing attention to the way he uses the organs of speech specially involved, rather than merely to the sound itself. Pupils, for example, to whom the sound of "th" presents great initial difficulty will dis- cover with delight and surprise that they have uncon- sciously produced it when they have been led slightly to protrude the tongue, holding it lightly between the teeth, and to force out their breath. Again to quote Professor O'Shea: "Do everything you can to aid the learner in gaining just the right motor expression ; this is the whole of the law and the gospel." It must not be thought that this implies that the educa- tion of the auditory tract is itself not of the very greatest importance. The writer once met a German who, after 104 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH reaching manhood, mastered English pronunciation so thoroughly that he mistook him for an Englishman. On learning the stranger's nationality, the writer jocularly remarked that if his acquaintance would patent and pub- lish the means by which such mastery had been acquired, he need no longer work at his ordinary occupation, what- ever that might be. "My ordinary occupation," said he, "is the secret of the whole thing. I am a piano tuner and consequently I learned to listen before coming to this country." In developing the capacity for accurate hearing the teacher may direct attention to the recognition of all kinds of ordinary sounds, — the characteristic notes of various birds, the barking of different kinds of dogs, the hum of insects, the sound of special bells, of musical instruments, the sounds of winds, the variation of songs as sung in different keys, and so on. This whole topic is exhaustively treated by Professor Halleck in his de- lightful book on the Education of the Central Nervous 'System. Our study of initial general principles must include those bearing upon the advantages and disadvantages of correlations between the vernacular and the language which is in process of being learned. It is an interesting discovery of physiological psy- chology that as new languages are acquired new cortical areas are brought into specific use. Consequently a brain lesion involving the destruction of a specific fringe of a given cortical centre may result in aphasia which will affect the patient only with regard to a certain recently acquired language. After having thoroughly mastered German, for example, the victim of disease may find himself utterly unable to speak, read or write it while his use of French may be scarcely impaired at all. A detailed examination of the pedagogical significance of GENERAL PRINCIPLES 105 these psychological truths would here lead us too far afield, but the subject is well worthy of a serious stu- dent's investigation.* Irrespective of such physiological considerations it is a fact of observation that to a person who is a master of several languages, each of them constitutes a distinct psychical system. When he is speaking one, he is, under normal circumstances, totally oblivious of the others. To the extent to which this is not true his speech will be halting and inaccurate. The cross-associations that ob- trude themselves will result in the unconscious inter- mingling of words from various languages, such as High School teachers meet so frequently in the case of pupils passing from a recitation in French to one in German. Even when there is an etymological basis for such cross- associations, they are likely to exercise a very pernicious influence unless it be carefully guarded against. The learner familiar with the English word defiance finds special difficulty in remembering the meaning, use and pronunciation of the French word defiance. If the pupil's mother-tongue be some such language as Low * In his work on Brain and Personality (p. 99) William Hanna Thompson, M.D., LL. D., quotes from Professor Hinshelwood, of the University of Glasgow, "the case of a highly educated man who was brought to him for an attack of ordinary word-blind- ness. He could read his native English in print only with the greatest difficulty, and words in writing scarcely at all. As Dr. Hinshelwood was told that the patient had learned Greek, Latin and French, he first tested him with Greek, when the patient was surprised and delighted to find that he could read Greek perfectly, as he did paragraphs in Homer, Thucydides and Xenophon. Then testing his Latin he could read it far better than he could English, but not so perfectly as Greek, while in French he made more mistakes than in Latin, but still read it a great deal better than he could his native English. The only explanation, of course, of this case is that the injury to his brain matter nearly ruined the English shelf, then damaged to a less extent the French, then still less the Latin shelf, while the Greek shelf escaped entirely." Other similar cases may be found described by various authorities. I06 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH German he will readily acquire fluency, but with diffi- culty acquire accuracy, in the use of English, for the very reason that so many of the words are alike in the two languages. Occasions will arise when the specific com- parison of analogous forms of speech in the vernacular and in English may wisely be employed. Generally speaking, however, it is evident that the wisest method of teaching English will aim at eliminating for the time being from the learner's consciousness all memory or thought of his vernacular tongue. Considerations such as these, it is pretty evident, in- volve important general principles for the guidance of those entrusted with the task of teaching EngUsh to classes of young children unfamiliar with that language These are included in the following summary of the conclusions to which our present study has led us. In the next chapter we will set forth methods and devices embodying these various general principles for school- room application. We have seen that the problem to be met by the teacher of English in the elementary schools is distinctly differ- ent from that faced in the teaching of a modem language to advanced students. We have observed that correct methods must rest upon a basis of interested activity. We have noted that the imitative processes develop from the general to the specific and have more relation to the doing of something in a given way than to the result consequent upon the action. We have examined the justification of the deliberate and systematic analysis of complex sounds into their phonic elements; the best methods will involve this and other special devices for producing kinaesthetic experience necessary to controlled imitative reproduction and for developing the capacity for accurate and discriminative hearing. Finally, that method of teaching will be most efficient which gradually GENERAL PRINCIPLES 107 creates for the new language an independent psychical system, in which cross-associations and transitions to and from the mother-tongue are reduced to a minimum. The guide to wise methods and the scientific explanation for their practical success is conformity to the principles here laid down. CHAPTER VI Methods and Devices for the Teaching of English It is a bright Spring morning as we drive up to the pretty new schoolhouse of Newhope. About the door- way is a little group of children, clad in the gay colored and bulky garments favored by so many European immi- grants. Seated on the doorstep, unconscious of our approach is the smiling girl whose happy duty it will be to transform these little aliens into citizens. They are very shy and quiet and their eyes are big with a sense of the importance of their first day in school in the new land. The shyest of them all, however, is sitting under the teacher's protecting arm and though she and her pupils cannot as yet comprehend each other's speech, the language of smiles is understood by all and nobody seems entirely at a loss as to the meaning of the little package of candies the young lady has just produced. But the sound of our approaching vehicle is heard and all eyes turn our way. "Good morning, Miss Robinson. You do not look half as pleased to see me as I am to see you." "Why surely, you have not come to inspect me this morning?" said she. "This is our very first day and we have not even started yet." "That is good, for it will make my work easy," said the visitor. "I have not come to inspect you to-day, any- way. I have done that before. I have come, like these children, to learn something, and to help a little if I can. io8 METHODS AND DEVICES 109 If I can't help you, you will at least help me, so that I can advise other people that don't know so much about how to begin as you do. I am glad to see that I am in time to get a share of those candies, too." "Well, those candies are not going to be eaten now, and if you are really going to be a pupil and not an inspector I suppose I must find a place for you. Every- body that is very good will get some of the candies by and by. Do you know any of the children?" "Why, yes. This is little Marie Schmidt. I saw her when I was here a few months ago helping to get this school district started. Good day, Marie. How are you? Shake hands with me. That is the way. And you other children will shake hands, too, won't you? That is right. — Now, Miss Robinson, while I am taking my horse to the stable you will get the children into the school." In a few minutes we return to find the children seated at their desks with expectancy written big on every fea- ture. At her throne of office sits Miss Robinson with face aglow, behind a big nosegay of fresh flowers. Near her stands the senior trustee, who has dropped in for a few moments to speak to the children and welcome their first teacher. He has little command of English and is addressing the pupils in their mother-tongue, encourag- ing them to work their hardest to learn English and the many other good things Miss Robinson will have to teach them. After a few friendly words and congratulations ex- changed by the inspector and the trustee, Mr. Schmidt excuses himself to return to the many urgent tasks which he has for the time put aside to perform his duties as a citizen. Miss Robinson stands at the front of the classroom, the school register in her hands, and apparently reading from it : no ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH "Inspector X, stand up, please," she says, with a smile. The inspector performs her bidding and she bows. "Thank you, Inspector X. Sit down." "Marie Schmidt, stand." Marie does so, blushing furiously. "Thank you, Marie. Sit down." "Johann, stand." The little lad identified as Johann by the glances of his classmates does not move, except to crouch lower in his seat. After a moment's pause. Miss Robinson nods reas- suringly to the nervous child and passes on to the next pupil. This little fellow finds his feet and Miss Robin- son walks to him and pats him approvingly on the shoul- der before telling him to take his place. In like manner name after name is called until all have answered several times by rising in their places when spoken to, even including little Johann. The teacher then has the children rise together and shows them how to come forward for a recitation and then to return to their places, as rapidly and quietly as possible. The tongues of the more vivacious are by this time loosening and, as the children are almost all naively unaware of schoolroom conventions, a tendency to whis- pered conversation is in evidence. This is checked by Miss Robinson who, smilingly shaking her head, places her hand over the mouth of one of the speakers. The hint is quite effective and decorum is restored. Then comes the first "lesson." In due time the chil- dren will be divided into groups, according to their age, intelligence and possible previous schooling in the Old Country, but as there are only a dozen present and this is the first day, no such classification is yet made. The class is summoned to the front of the room, where Miss Robinson gathers them about her in an irregular cluster, at the same time reproducing her little packet of sweet meats. METHODS AND DEVICES III "Take a candy, Inspector." The invitation is promptly accepted. "The Inspector takes a candy," says the teacher in a slow distinct voice. "Marie, take a candy." When the child does so the teacher says, "Marie takes a candy." A similar formula accompanies the gift of a sweet to each of the children. "I put my candy on the table," says the teacher. The Inspector does likewise, repeating her words aloud. After some little difficulty all the children imitate the ac- tion and speech. "I take a candy and I eat it," says the teacher, suiting the action to the words. The Inspector does likewise. "The Inspector is eating a candy," says the teacher, and the children repeat the words. Similarly they announce in due time, first in chorus and then separately, that Marie is eating a candy, that Johann is eating a candy, and so on. The diminished package is then put away and the children are sent to their seats. It is now time for a recess and, after several abortive attempts, the children are taught to pass out quietly to the playground, whither they are followed by the teacher and her guest, lest the little people should think that it is time to go home and act accordingly. "My playground is the most important part of my school, for the teaching of English," says Miss Robin- son. "I find that it is a great mistake to be too busy to join the children at recess. In a few days I shall have taught them a number of jolly, noisy games, introducing all the English terms I can. Experience has taught me. like many others, that that is the very best place to en- courage the habitual use of the new language out of school. In a month, or perhaps less, we shall speak almost nothing else during the recess of Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays. I won't use any other com- pulsicm, however, than praise and encouragement, and it 112 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH may take a little longer. Before the end of the term we shall extend the use of English at recess to Tuesdays and Thursdays. I carefully prepare for special games by teaching action words, such as run, jump, hide, hunt, strike, pat, clap, drop, sit, stand, etc., and introduce games involving such actions, which we of course talk about in English. Often I ask the children to explain the games they are playing. I take note of grammatical errors and of unknown but necessary words, and after- wards use the games as a basis for language lessons in school. All this helps to introduce the habitual use of English." "Do you not think, Miss Robinson, that you have at- tempted a good deal too much English already for one day?" objected the Inspector. "Yes," said she, "I would think so if the teaching of English had really been my main object this morning. Hereafter I shall introduce new words, chiefly action verbs and the names of common objects about the school- room or brought from home on purpose, very gradually indeed, giving endless drills. To-day, however, my chief aim was to accustom the children to the schoolroom and to me, and to set them at their ease by having them do something enjoyable to themselves. Some of the chil- dren will have forgotten most of the new words already, but they will come easier next time and meanwhile the shy little creatures have become somewhat used to the sound of their own voices and have found that nothing very dreadful happens even to those that make mistakes." "But, granting all that, is it not best to commence with isolated words, easily understood, rather than with com- plete sentences, as we did to-day?" "Perhaps. Personally, however, I prefer to use com- plete sentences practically from the first, though very many other equally successful teachers think it best to teach a number of action verbs, and a few names and METHODS AND DEVICES 113 qualifying words before introducing ordinary complete sentences. There is room for difference of opinion. Miss Chammett, of New York, advised me to teach words in phrases, by preference, and to have these precede sen- tences as a rule. Certainly, it is better to go too slowly than too quickly in this work. However, my own ex- perience leads me to think that all three kinds of sen- tences — statements, questions and commands — should be made familiar as soon as possible. "You will have observed that I use a great deal of chorus answering at first. I know that according to the books that is bad pedagogy, and no doubt it is so in schools for English-speaking children; but like most others who have had experience in such schools as this, I find the device very useful at first. Without it I should probably never have got a word from little Johann within three weeks. In some ways concert repetition of memorized selections serves the same purpose, and it is perhaps less likely to be abused. Chorus answering must of course be eliminated after Grade I." In response to further questions, the teacher continued to explain her methods something as follows : "From the very first I introduce systematic drill in the performance of actions in response to requests. They include all ordinary class tactics. This I find prevents much hesitation, disorder and loss of time in school work. Such drills are often transformed into amusing games by the introduction of all manner of humorous com- mands. The actions are described by me and by the pupils as they are performed. We make all our lan- guage lessons as informal and merry as possible. There is generally something seriously the matter if a session goes by without a hearty laugh in which we all join. "The diiferent types of instruction proceed side by side from the first, but I find it an advantage to myself to keep them somewhat distinct from each other in my 114 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH own mind. Thus, sometimes thef chief aim of the lesson will be the teaching of important verbs with illustrative actions. "Other recitations will be naming lessons. Under this heading I would include the teaching not only of common names, but also adjectives and adverbs; big, bigger, big- gest, long, round, pretty, sweet, red, well, slowly, care- fully, and the like. I make systematic use of contrast and comparison whenever possible. "In a third type of lessons, I devote myself expecially to teaching important sentence forms, employing words previously learned. We make sentence after sentence according to the same general plan, — for example, using the same subject and object with different verbs, various adjectives with the same noun, various subjects or ad- verbs with the same verb, and so on. The uses of the demonstrative adjectives and demonstrative pronouns {this, that, these, those) should receive early and syste- matic attention. "In a fourth type of lesson we are specially concerned with definite drill on the use of common prepositions. In repeating the sentences we throw special emphasis on the preposition until its meaning is clearly grasped. Here again, where possible, systematic use is made of contrast and of action verbs : Tut the book ON the table,' 'Put the bell ON the book,' 'Put the hat ON the bell,' and so on. In teaching prepositions the drill should be con- tinued until the pupils can describe the location of several objects in a group, — 'The knife is ON the book BE- TWEEN the pen and the keys.' Care must of course be taken not to allow the special stress on prepositions to become in later stages a mannerism in speech or reading. "My fifth type of lesson constitutes my great standby. It consist of oral composition or conversation, based upon pictures. We use the pictures first to suggest names of common objects previously overlooked or omitted, then METHODS AND DEVICES 115 to develop the story. For this purpose pictures of all sorts are collected by the children and myself, funny ones especially. Illustrated catalogues and other advertise- ments provide material of very great value, the 'stories' then generally taking the form of telling what the things represented are for, or 'do.' Lessons are frequently based upon pictures drawn by the pupils, and, indeed, they and I are drawing pictures everlastingly. I draw very badly myself, but sometimes I think that is not a disadvantage, for it adds to the fun and keeps the chil- dren from being discouraged with their own crude at- tempts. In selecting pictures of everyday scenes I pre- fer, first, to use scenes from the children's motherland, if they remember it clearly, and, later, others from near and distant parts of their adopted country. When speak- ing of the old lands, it is very important that nobody refer to these children as 'foreigners.' They are generally pathetically anxious not to be considered outsiders. In most cases, that is their main motive for learning English. "My sixth type of language lesson is simply free con- versation. This work is based more, perhaps, on reports of the children's own experiences than upon anything else, but variety is essential. The children are encour- aged to ask the English names of objects at home, and the elaborate descriptions and explanations I require before giving the name sometimes provide good conver- sational lessons. "In story telling I commence, in as far as possible, by reproducing in English old tales and legends of the chil- dren's motherland. Sometimes I even succeed in getting the children to piece together in English some bit of their hereditary folk-lore that is unknown to me. I am so interested in learning these new stories that the little folk are still more interested in communicating them. Often they are at a serious loss for words and then Il6 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH they will struggle by pictures and actions to make me understand what happened next. "I am always on the lookout for suitable Scriptural passages, mottoes, and proverbs as well as for well worded nursery rhymes and other humorous or standard verses and prose quotations for reproduction lessons. "We make very free use of 'dramatization,' and some- times we deliberately imitate memorized passages in our written composition. You remember the famous ditty about 'The Purple Cow'? No? Here it is: "I never saw a purple cow, I never hope to see one ; But I can tell you, anyhow, I'd rather see than be one." "One day something led me to talk about the Eskimos and to follow up our conversation by a written exercise on the same topic. I observed one pupil, after a period of apparently despairing inactivity, suddenly commence to write, with every evidence of amused satisfaction. This is what he wrote: "I never saw an Eskimo, I never hope to see one ; But I can tell you, anyhow, I'd rather see than be one." "We have been speaking of language lessons only, be- cause everything else is made subservient to them, but I commence the teaching of reading the first week. By the end of an ordinary language lesson I have collected and arranged for oral reading from the blackboard a series of connected sentences growing out of it, and these form a convenient basis for subsequent written desk work, both for copying and for dictation. By the way, these sentences, having been 'developed' orally, are first written by individual children, on the blackboard, the METHODS AND DEVICES 117 spelling, punctuation, etc., being corrected, if necessary, by other members of the class. I then recopy the sen- tences so as to give the completed blackboard exercise or paragraph a more uniform appearance. In so far as possible, oral composition, silent reading, oral reading, copying, and independent written composition should proceed side by side. "Almost all written compositions take the form of letters to me or to somebody else. I think it important to emphasize letter-writing for such children as these even earlier than for those from English-speaking homes. To be able to write an English letter is a highly admired and valuable accomplishment and produces a deal of parental joy and pride. Such evidence of the children's progress greatly encourages regular attendance. "Each school subject — arithmetic, drawing, writing, singing, etc. — is made primarily a language subject, and offers special advantages for teaching given groups of words or forms of expression which it is desirable for the children to master. Every teacher will have noticed this more or less, but my attention was especially called to it by the New York Syllabus for the teaching of Eng- lish to such classes. In writing lessons, for example, it will perhaps be more convenient than at any other time to teach such words as right hand, left hand, thumb, fin- ger, wrist, arm, elbow, shoulder, desk, pencil, pen, paper, ink, up, down, stroke, straight line, slant, light, heavy, capital, small, and so on. The words to be taught will, of course, vary with the children's environment, but they must not be chosen at haphazard. The teacher should outline systematically the general vocabulary she is going to introduce during the first few months. "As new words of whatever sort are learned I place them on one or more of a series of charts, grouping them according to meaning, association, spelling, or some such basis. This provides convenience in reviews and Il8 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH drills. Much of my early non-success was due to not having half enough of these lessons. In making my charts I use a box of cheap rubber stamps, including all the letters of the alphabet, as soon as the children are ready for print. In the meantime I write them with a small paint brush, a broad printing pen, or, if that fails me, with a stick armed with a rag. Any port will do in a storm! If possible, I get the trustees to supply me with moline, a material specially suitable for writing or printing upon ; but if that is not forthcoming I can at least get a roll of heavy wrapping paper, which is much better than nothing. I find arithmetic exceptionally valu- able as an aid to the teaching of English. One useful device used in this connection is the invention of oral and written problems by the pupils themselves." But this has been a long recess and, though long and frequent intermissions are especially important and valu- able in the education of children such as those with which we are here specially concerned, it is high time we let Miss Robinson and her charges return to their school- room. To head off possible letters of inquiry from Superin- tendents in search of teachers, it may be well to explain that Miss Robinson is a composite rather than an indi- vidual. Thanks be to Heaven, there are hundreds of her; but, alas and alack! there are not nearly enough to supply all the schools that need her services. A variant of the "action" type of lesson is familiar to all students of the Gouin Method of teaching modem languages. It is technically called "the theme." A theme is a language exercise based upon the execution of some command or the attainment of some end involving a more or less considerable series of intermediate actions. These are performed and described by the teacher (if neces- sary), by the pupil or pupils performing them, and by the rest of the class, who constitute a kind of Greek METHODS AND DEVICES 119 chorus describing the performance they witness. If the aim of the theme be "to open the door," it will involve a series of sentences such as the following : RosiE. "I stand up." The Class. "Rose stands up." RosiE. "I walk toward the door." The Class. "Rosie walks toward the door." RosiE. "I get to the door." The Class. "Rosie gets to the door." RosiE. "I stop at the door." The Class. "Rosie stops at the door." RosiE. "I put out my hand." The Class. "Rosie puts out her hand." Rosie. "I take hold of the knob." The Class. "Rosie takes hold of the knob." Rosie. "I turn the knob." The Class. "Rosie turns the knob." Rosie. "I push the door." The Class. "Rosie pushes the door." Rosie. "I move the door." The Class. "Rosie moves the door." Rosie. "I turn .the door on its hinges." The Class. "Rosie turns the door on its hinges." Rosie. "I have opened the door." The Class. "Rosie has opened the door." Rosie. "I let ^o the knob." The Class. "Rosie lets go the knob." Rosie. "I return to my place." The Class. "Rosie returns to her place." Such an exercise is built up sentence by sentence until the pupil can readily repeat the whole. In this method the verb is taken as the heart of the sentence and the clear understanding of it by the child is essential. When, later on, the theme is written upon the blackboard, it is customary to write the verb again to the right of each sentence in order to keep it prominently before the pupils. I20 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH Colored chalk will come in useful in this connection. The steps in the complete process under this method are seeing, doing, hearing, understanding, speaking, reading, copying, and reproducing to dictation. There is opportunity for illimitable ingenuity on the teacher's part in the use of games for language work, not only in the playground but in the schoolroom. Many old-fashioned talking games, such as "Animal, Vegetable, or Mineral," "Clumps," "Rival Camps," and the like, may be used to great advantage. Miss Dietz writes as follows: "I have found the games of keeping house and playing store very useful and interesting to children of all ages. I have a collec- tion of toy dishes, household utensils, etc. One child acts as storekeeper. He and the buyers must do the arithmetic involved in their purchases, and the store- keeper must render an account at the end of his turn. The 'mother' directs the children's tasks, tells them what utensils they need, sends them to the shop, and so forth." Various games may be invented after the plan of spell- ing matches. The pupils question their schoolmates in English. Those successfully responding take their seats. The game continues until every one has met at least one test successfully. Very frequently it is more advan- tageous for the pupils to do the questioning in language exercises than it is for the teacher to monopolize this duty. The game may be varied by substituting com- mands for questions. In that case, the children perform- ing the commands would be required to describe their actions. Further variations may be introduced in con- nection with such games, with children fairly advanced, by having the pupils write their questions and commands on the blackbcard. Or, again, the pupil on the one side performs an action and a pupil on the other describes it orally or on the blackboard. Valuable exercises may be given in which pupils METHODS AND DEVICES 121 slightly vary a given sentence in as many ways as possible by the use of modifiers. In so far as is practicable, all emendations should be developed from the class. The pupils should be taught to look upon this as "helping" rather than "correcting" each other. Closely allied to the use of games as a means for lan- guage teaching is the use of calisthenics, finger plays, action songs, and rote singing in general, with a view primarily to their bearing upon English. Children are supremely interested in doing things, and in connection with those things in which they are most interested it is easiest to arouse useful conversation and to introduce new words. Experience shows that singing is of very great assistance in developing careful enunciation. It is true that marly singers render even their mother-tongue unintelligible, but they would soon cease to do so if their audiences could bring to bear upon them the means at the teacher's disposal in her class. While special periods should of course be set apart for such exercises as these, their chief use should be at the close of ordinary lessons suggesting them, or at times when the physical and men- tal condition of the pupils reminds the observant teacher of the desirability of a variation from the ordinary class routine. Attention must be given by the teacher in every lesson to the recognition and judicious improvement of faulty pronunciation. This requires on the teacher's part the cultivation of a quick ear. The difficulties will vary more or less with the nationality of the pupils. Some will find the commonest English vowel sounds hard to acquire and will substitute easier variants. If these latter are not eliminated and accuracy insisted upon, habits of speech will arise which will for all time betray the pupil's foreign origin. The teacher should be especially on his watch against errors such as those indicated in the fol- lowing table: 122 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH (i) The confusion of "b" and "p,"' — saying Mease for please; (2) "d" and "t," — saying town for down, hants for hands; (3) "d" and "th,"— saying den for then. Some will substitute "z," "ss," "i," or "t" for "th"— saying zat for that, or wiss for lyji/s, or tink for fAJMife, or ^M for thin. The distinction of the sounds of "th" as in "this" and as in "thumb" requires close attention. (4) The confusion of "v," "f," and "w,"— saying wine for vine, vine for wine, fine for vine. (5) "g" and "k," — saying ko for gro. "j" and soft "g" are frequently pronounced like J in pleasure. (6) "wh" and "w," — saying wen for when. (7) "sh" and "ch," — saying shildren for children. The slovenly pronunciation of such endings as -ing, -less, -ment, -ness, must be guarded against. Many find difficulty in learning the sounds of "ng" in such words as singing and finger. There will often be a tendency to emphasize "r" initial, or to ignore it when it comes at the end of a syllable. In some communities "oi" will be habitually substituted for "ir," as goil for girl, unless the teacher takes steps to prevent it. The tendency strongly to aspirate final consonants, so as really to produce an additional syllable, is characteristic of the children of some nationalities. The sharp sound of "s" is difficult for many, and in such cases special attention must be paid to the pronunciation of plurals. The letter "1" is the bete noir of Chinese children and of some others. Indeed, in mastering English pronunciation, the children of each nationality have their own characteristic diffi- culties, which the teacher should clearly recognize. This formidable list of likely difficulties in pronuncia- METHODS AND DEVICES 123 tion has been given because the writer has observed a tendency on the part of many teachers to become so habituated to common errors that they cease to notice them at all. Others are vaguely aware that something is wrong, but they do not realize just what it is. The remedy for these various defects and others of a similar character is to be found in patient, kindly, untiring drill. This should be preceded by the most careful ob- jective teaching of the proper position and use of the vocal organs specially involved in each case. This may have to be repeated many, many times, but if the teacher does not despair the pupil will at last succeed. He may have to develop muscles that hitherto have lain quite dormant, and this is a tedious process. It is not impos- sible, however, if the pupil be still young. His organs are still plastic and he has at all events quite as much command over them as has the child of English-speaking parentage when beginning to talk. Sometimes, of course, the mispronunciation may be the inevitable result of de- fective teeth. The recognition of such a cause will save both pupil and teacher from much unnecessary sense of discouragement. Sometimes a whole series of errors will arise from the habit which the child has acquired of holding his vocal organs in a general position suitable for speech in his mother-tongue, but not suitable for English speech. For example, as was pointed out in an earlier chapter, Ruthenian children habitually tend to hold their tongue too far back in the mouth. It will sometimes prove desirable, therefore, to direct one's efforts towards rem- edying a fundamental error of this character rather than to devote oneself merely to overcoming the resulting errors, one at a time. It must be admitted, however, that it is much easier to give this suggestion than to act upon it! The English practice with regard to word- 124 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH accent is particularly difficult for French children to mas- ter. Here, again, endless patient drill and watchfulness are necessary. The inexperienced teacher should perhaps be reminded that it frequently happens that in a community in which the teacher is practically the only English speaking per- son, the children often acquire a more accurate mastery of English than that which is characteristic of most chil- dren whose mother-tongue it is. The New York official manual advises the teacher to prepare sound charts for purposes of drill. These should show the symbols of difficult sounds as illustrated in common words containing them. Upon the same chart should appear words involving sounds that are apt to be confused with the ones under consideration. These spe- cial charts will be in addition to the ordinary phonic table with key words which the teacher will construct, adding each new sound symbol as it is taught. This latter chart may perhaps be most conveniently kept upon the blackboard for easy and continual reference. It is hard to overstate the manifold uses to which this idea of special charts or permanent exercises prepared by the individual teacher to meet the special needs of her particular pupils may successfully be put. This is par- ticularly true in connection with the teaching of gram- matical peculiarities and other idiomatic constructions. The only method by which these usages can be impressed is that of persistent repetition. Someone has said that nobody does well anything to the doing of which he has to devote any thought. This epigram is ahnost literally true in connection with the use of languages. Inflection for tense, person, number, case, variations for gender, and similar linguistic conventions, must be so wrought into the learner's motor system that he will never have to consider which of two forms is right. This involves the METHODS AND DEVICES 125 assigning of the same or similar exercises very many times, and if they have been transcribed by the teacher to a chart much time and labor will be saved. Special verbs offer special difficulty to children of spe- cial nationalities and therefore call for drill based upon separate charts. Thus, German children are perplexed for lack of a past tense form for must, or of a past participle for can. It will be remembered that the cor- responding verbs in German are not similarly defective. The teaching of the perplexing idiom "I have to" would occur in this connection. It may be added that idiomatic constructions such as this are most easily taught by intro- ducing them freely in stories and commending those who employ them. They should be postponed, however, until the children are sufficiently advanced to grasp the idea without separating the words. Special charts continually in use should be devoted to the verbs "to be" and "to have." They should consist of a series of easy sentences involving all the common forms of these verbs, but in each case the verbs should be omitted, it being the business of the child to insert the proper form in copying or in the equivalent oral exer- cises. As a general rule, at the bottom of charts of this character there should be a list of all the words necessary to complete the sentences. In the case of French children, and of some others as well, a chart will be in demand illustrating our method of negation and interrogation. Our use of the auxiliary do causes much difficulty, in this connection. The use of the articles, o, an, and the, is a stumbling- block, especially to those who in their mother-tongue have no definite article. Some teachers recommend that no name ever be taught in dissociation from an article or possessive adjective. At all events, much practice should be given in the insertion of the proper article. 126 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH A somewhat similar difficulty occurs in connection with the meaningless introductory expletive in the phrases "there is," "there are." The writer has personally found this difficulty most easily met by reference to equivalent expression in the mother-tongue, such for example, as, "es gibt" in German, and "il y a" in French. Senior pupils will generally be available who on a point like this can assist teachers ignorant of the vernacular. Very many of the writer's correspondents bemoan the difficulty of teaching the correct use of prepositions and especially of the finer shades in their distinctions. This is not surprising, as it is a rare thing for the adult sons and daughters of English speaking parents to use our prepositions correctly. Only the simplest prepositions of place and means should be introduced at first, but as occasion arises, in the effort of the class to meet a real need in the expression of thought, more difficult preposi- tional locutions should be taught. Definite attention and similar methods must be devoted to teaching the use of such words as much, many, and few, with their degrees of comparison, and of justifiable colloquial abbreviations, such as isn't, can't, don't, won't. Many other peculiarities of the English language, which the pupils will discover but too frequently, will call for similar treatment. The most important of these is the question of word order. This presents increasing diffi- culty in proportion to the degree to which the word order of the mother-tongue differs from our own. If the children manifest any method in their madness, the teacher may be sure that they are systematically, even if unconsciously, imitating the word order of their ver- nacular. Special errors will then continually recur, and the teacher must construct exercises to meet them. For example, German children must be trained not to post- pone the perfect participle in compound tenses nor the METHODS AND DEVICES 127 verb in subordinate clauses, to the end of the sentence. For pupils of many nationalities, exercises to guard against the non-idiomatic insertion of modifiers of the verb between it and the object will also be needed. In teaching idioms involving elliptical constructions the teacher should reestablish the full expression or statement, and then teach the abbreviated form as an equivalent. Opinion differs as to how homonyms should be treated. Some thoughtful teachers are of the opinion that words alike in pronunciation but different in meaning should never be deliberately associated or taught at the same time. Whether or not they be first introduced in the same lesson, the most successful practice seems to justify ultimately linking them for purposes of comparison or contrast. It is manifestly necessary, though certainly difficult, thoroughly to familiarize the children with words such as week, weak; flour, flower; through, threw; hour, our; ate, eight; two, to, too; be, bee; sent, scent; blew, blue; buy, by; right, write; wood, would; know, no; knew, new; and so on. The most difficult phase of language teaching is that involving what is commonly called subjective language, — words and sentences the meaning of which cannot be indicated directly by any form of objective illustration. Fortunately, as far as children are concerned, every-day language is to an overwhelming extent objective in char- acter. Nevertheless, ideas of right and wrong, good and bad, and words expressive of emotions of various kinds, must be taught at a very early stage. In this connection, more perhaps than in any other, the teacher is justified in falling back upon the temporary use of the mother- tongue, if she can speak it. This must not be her chief reliance, however. Generally speaking, beginners in Eng- lish must learn the significance of necessary subjective or 128 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH abstract expressions by the same process through which this department of the mother-tongue itself is learned. It is chiefly a matter of inference. The difficult expres- sions are repeated over and over again in the child's hearing, and in practical relation to objective facts with which he is familiar and in which he is interested. In actual practice the pupils will be found soon compre- hending such expression as the following (quoted from New York Syllabus) : Good! Right! Wrong! Very good! Yes! No! Thafs good! Thafs right! No! No! That is not right! Try again. Thank you. You are a good boy. Is that right f Do you think so? I like that. I am glad. That is fine. That was well done. I am glad you remember. You could not do better. I am pleased with you. Do your best, and so forth. Abstract nouns are at first to be avoided, as far as possible, and when they are used it should be in definite and obvious relation to the concrete object or action in which the ideas are immediately embodied. Words ex- pressive of emotions may generally be rendered compara- tively easy by the teacher's gesture or facial expression, or by the use of pictures. Here, as elsewhere, abundant patience and unwearying repetition are essential to suc- cess. By the way, a warning may be in order against the excessive use of the gestures, useful and necessary as they are at first. The children must learn that though their shoulders and hands may be treated as organs of speech when conversing in their mother-tongue, they are not to be so used in ordinary English conversation. The correction of errors in the use and arrangement of words involves the principles indicated above with re- gard to errors in pronunciation. Spontaneity must not be unduly curbed. The spirit of fault finding must be totally absent and the learners must not be disheartened METHODS AND DEVICES 129 by ceaseless reminders of their all too discouraging tend- ency to fall into errors. Nevertheless, the teacher must be observant at all times and, even when it seems best for the time being to ignore certain errors, they must be borne in mind in framing subsequent exercises. So far as possible, it is wisest to specialize from time to time on certain typical errors until they have practically dis- appeared. It is very important that the pupils' answers should at all times be expressed in complete sentences. Apart from written exercises, such as have already been suggested for seat employment, many other kinds of "busy work" (to use a very objectionable but well established technical term), should be devised in connec- tion with language. Perhaps the most important forms are word building and sentence building. Material for these exercises may be purchased from any school sup- ply company, but better results will be obtained if the teacher make her own. For word building it is scarcely necessary to explain that each pupil should be supplied with an envelope or box of familiar letters. For sen- tence building he must have a similar outfit of complete words. They may be written on little slips of bristol board which the pupil arranges on his desk so as to form a series of sentences. These may subsequently be copied. In preparing material of this sort a great deal of time and labor may be saved by the judicious use of a gelatine copying-pad such as was described in an earlier chapter. Free illustrative drawing constitutes a form of seat work very valuable in relation to language teaching. Years ago, when teaching in an Indian school, the writer obtained his best results in oral and written composition in connection with this device. Given seat work having been assigned in any of the school subjects, pictures were distributed among the children and laid face down upon the desk. As each pupil completed the given task he I30 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH was at liberty to examine the picture and make it a basis for independent work of his own. This was treated as a privilege and reward for industry, and guaranteed that the children at the desks would be usefully employed until other recitations were completed and the teacher was again at leisure. The pupils greatly enjoyed subse- quently explaining their pictures or reading the "stories" they had written. The device is, of course, a familiar one, but is not sufficiently used. Various forms of manual work will be found valuable in the teacher's efforts to cultivate the pupils' control of his fingers, and to render the schoolroom a place of joy- ous and varied activity. In the present connection, how- ever, the greatest utility of such exercises lies in their use for language teaching. At the author's elbow lies a collection of samples of such work, kindly forwarded by Miss M. M. Trimble and done by "foreign" pupils in the schools of Portage la Prairie, Manitoba. The samples include paper weaving (for which teachers and pupils may prepare their own material) ; the outlining of pic- tures with needle and thread on perforated cards; knit- ting of wrist-bands, tea-pot holders, babies' boottees, other useful articles, and doll's clothing ; plain sewing, embroid- ery, drawn-work, and ornamental work with colored floss. The children whose work is represented in these admir- able samples range in age from five to eleven. Where the equipment is available, shop work proves especially valuable for the boys. With such work as this may be included gardening in various forms, and experimental and observational work with regard to the growth of grain, trees, etc. Space compels the omission of detailed reference to numerous other devices used by successful teachers. Mention may be made, however, of weather charts, as providing a convenient basis for informal conversations METHODS AND DEVICES 131 from morning to morning. The comparison and choice of suitable descriptive terms will prove helpful. Of course, the teacher will accompany the pupils from time to time on rambles and excursions of all kinds. Vis- its to zoological and botanical gardens, aquaria, and similar places of public resort will be very useful. Visits to the open fields and woods, or to the store windows, may be even more so. The teacher will not succeed in language work or in anything else without a very carefully prepared but rather elastic programme in which provision is made not merely for recitations but for the careful supervision of seat work. According to the writer's experience, teach- ers tend generally to make their recitation periods too long. With little children it is usually wisest to have two or three lessons in a given subject at different times in the same day rather than one lengthy recitation. The matter of seating must of course receive careful attention. The blackboard is continually in use and care must be taken that the numerous pupils with defective eyesight are so placed as to relieve them as far as pos- sible from unnecessary eye-strain. When, as usually hap- pens, the members of the beginners' class include chil- dren of all the way from five to twelve years of age, the grouping must not be so mechanical as to compel pupils to occupy desks too large or too small for them. Reasonable physical comfort is the substratum upon which normal intellectual activity must rest. In this same connection reference may be made, parenthetically, to the extreme necessity for the careful supervision of ventilation in such schools as those of which we are speaking. Children tending to inactivity should be sur- rounded by those of decidedly studious habits. Inspect- ors and Supervisors very frequently find the arrangement of the pupils exceedingly faulty, but if the importance of 132 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH the matter is brought to the teacher's attention her com- mon sense will suggest the necessary remedies. One of the most interesting facts rendered evident by the numerous answers received to the writer's question- naire is that the most successful teachers everywhere have independently evolved methods substantially iden- tical. Once the general principles are grasped the meas- ure of the teacher's success will be her fertility in devel- oping new applications and devices, and her readiness to borrow others from every source that is available. Throughout the preceding chapter we have had in mind the presentation of methods specially suited to use with children of five to ten years of age. It must not be forgotten that where kindergartens exist, they lend themselves excellently to the effective teaching of little ones under age for the ordinary schools. Indeed, kinder- garteners will recognize in many phases of the methods advocated simply an adaptation of kindergarten ideas to primary school conditions It is impossible here to discuss in detail the variations in methods that wise teachers will introduce with pupils of somewhat advanced years. They will not take kindly to many of the childish occupations and devices well suited to little children. Various experienced teachers point out the advantages of nature study as providing a basis for interesting and valuable language work with adult pupils. The methods to be used must vary with the students, but, speaking broadly, the underlying prin- ciples remain constant. The primary essentials are the almost exclusive use of English in the classroom ; the inti- mate correlation of language with the normal activities and interests of everyday life; the organization of the new vocabulary added from day to day, on the basis of an obvious association of ideas ; persistent and systematic review and drill ; observant care as to the correct use of METHODS AND DEVICES 133 the vocal organs in producing difficult sounds; and, finally, unconquerable perseverance, patience, good hu- mor, and unaffected friendliness.* *The foregoing chapter was completed when the author received the Report of the Chicago Committee on the Teaching of English in Elementary and Evening Schools. As an indica- tion of the steps being taken by the educational authorities in wide-awake communities, to provide guidance for the teachers of children from non-English homes, this Report, by the kind permission of Mrs. Ella Flagg Young, Ph.D., LL.D., Superin- tendent of Schools for Chicago, is published in full as an appendix to this little book. CHAPTER VII The Teaching of Reading and Spelling to Begin- ners IN English One query in the author's questionnaire which called forth the expression of many interesting opinions was as follows: "With pupils learning English how soon would you commence to teach reading?" In the opinion of some such authorities as Inspectors Hartley and Butchard of Alberta, and Inspector Hewgill of Saskatchewan, there should be no hurry. The pupils should first learn to converse before they are encountered by the second difficulty of recognizing the written signs of the words they have just learned to understand. Some are even satisfied if a good beginning is made within the first year. Some recommend that reading be postponed until the child has acquired an English vocabulary similar to that of the Primer or First Reader. In bi-lingual schools, in certain quarters, very satisfactory results are reported by one correspondent when the teaching of read- ing in English is not begun until the second year. Some successful teachers — Miss Beatrice Moyer, of Benito, Manitoba, for example — would commence earlier vrith pupils nine years of age or upwards, but would postpone teaching reading to younger children until the second year. Almost all teachers who have answered the question, however, think that the start should be made consider- ably earlier. Miss Bates of Tacoma, Washington, would ^34 READING AND SPELLING 135 begin after six months' drill; Mr. McKenzie of Stettler, Alberta, in the case of children under ten, would intro- duce reading in about three months; Inspector Morgan of Alberta, as soon as the children are able to give sim- ple, intelligent, and intelligible replies to easy questions about common, everyday things; Miss Dietz of New York introduces a simple story from the chart by the third week; and many others would postpone the teach- ing of reading only until a few introductory words and sentences have been taught orally. The advantages attendant upon the simultaneous training of eye, ear, and hand are emphasized by Miss Nellie Cox of Mus- kogee (formerly of Porto Rico) and by very many others. Indeed, more than seventy per cent of those who ex- press an opinion are firmly convinced that the teaching of reading should be introduced from the very beginning. This large majority find that concentration of attention upon the written symbol helps to establish new and impor- tant lines of association which render memory more tenacious of newly acquired spoken words. In this in- stance the writer finds himself in agreement with the majority, but all schoolroom methods should of course be sufficiently elastic to admit of the judicious treatment of exceptional cases. If, for example, the beginners are exceedingly young and have correspondingly slight con- trol over both their vocal organs and their fingers, the wise teacher will be very careful not to discourage them by an overwhelming variety of new tasks. As to the best methods of introducing the teaching of reading in classes that are just making a beginning in English there is much less unanimity of opinion. A considerable majority favor methods essentially identical with those adopted in the best schools for English-speak- ing children, and frame their teaching almost entirely upon the phonic basis. Many, of course, would not intro- 136 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH duce phonics immediately even with English-speaking children, and a still larger number consider the early in- troduction of phonics disadvantageous in the case of non- English-speaking children, even if wise in the ordinary elementary school. The arguments advanced in favor of delay in the intro- duction of phonics are various. For example, phonic word- lists convenient for use with English children are sure to contain numerous terms not sufficiently valuable to be so soon added to the vocabularly of the child who is just beginning the language. The motJt important objection involves a paradox. The very ease and excellence of this way of orally interpret- ing new words is its bane in "foreign" schools, if exclu- sively used, from the first. A child of average intelH- gence masters the phonic sound symbols with such ease and rapidity that it is almost impossible for him to fol- low the meaning with equal speed. His attention is diverted from the word as a whole and from the idea it should convey, and concentrated upon the task of rap- idly analyzing and synthesizing meaningless symbols. If the ruinous habit of mere word naming be once acquired, its elimination involves a discouraging and all but impos- sible task. Every inspector and supervisor of experience has examined numerous classes of non-English-speaking pupils who were able to read any simple passage with ease and fluency, but to whom the real meaning was en- tirely unknown. Clever pupils the more readily fall into this snare. By virtue of a quick ear and some attention to punctuation they may even read with considerable apparent expression, imitating the inflection and emphasis given to the same or similar passages by the teacher or by more advanced pupils. Natural vanity may complicate the situation by preventing the children from confessing their ignorance. Of course, in almost all cases it is really the teacher's READING AND SPELLING 137 fault if pupils acquire the habit of word naming, no mat- ter what method of teaching reading is employed. Conse- quently many teachers of exceptional ability and a gen- uine skill in the phonic method do not experience any serious difficulty in this connection, and obtain results quite as satisfactory as do those who introduce reading by some other plan. However, while oral phonic analysis and synthesis should certainly be used systematically from the first, for the development of correct pronunciation, the writer's advice to inexperienced teachers in charge of "foreign" primary classes would be to postpone phonic methods in teaching reading, proper, until a reasonable start had been made by some form of the "look and say" method. As soon as it may safely be done, special emphasis should, however, be placed upon phonics so that at the earliest possible moment the pupils may acquire independence and learn to interpret new matter for themselves. This is the more important on account of the deplorable irregu- larity of attendance characteristic of so many schools for non-English-speaking children, and on account of the unfortunate brevity of their average school life. As al- ready indicated, systematic phonic drill is doubly valuable in schools for non-English-speaking children as a means of directing the pupils' attention in a pointed and effective manner upon precise reproduction of the elementary sounds of the language. Among his many correspondents agreeing with the writer in these views are Inspector Hartley, Alberta, Inspector Anderson, Saskatchewan, In- spector Morgan, Alberta, Miss Dietz, New York, Miss Fitch, Toronto, and numerous others, whose experience must command exceptional respect. As to whether the beginning should be made with isolated words or with sentences opinions further differ. Miss Fitch, for example, believes that a word repre- sents a more complete and complicated thought to the 138 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH beginner in English than to an English-speaking child, consequently she argues that while it may be best to begin with the complete sentence in the case of English children, it is advisable to begin with the word in the case of the others. While there is undeniable truth in the ideas upon which Miss Fitch and those who agree with her base their methods, the writer is inclined to the opinion that the best results, especially as regards expression, are obtained when an easy sentence is taken as the primary unit. It should be slightly varied by the substitution of simple words, the process being from the sentence to the word and ultimately from the word to its phonic ele- ments. There seems to be the soundest psychological justification for this order of procedure, and experience has amply demonstrated that it can be successfully fol- lowed in practice. It should be unnecessary to say that the child ought to read and write script with considerable ease before print is introduced and that even when the transition is being made to the reading of print he should not be allowed to copy it except in script. Not one English- speaking adult in a hundred can correctly make in print the first ten letters in the alphabet, and the writer has never yet met a teacher who gave evidence that he could do so. This is no drawback to anyone, however, for the art of printing may safely be left to signmakers and typesetters. Except in the textbook, if print ever finds a justifiable place in primary work, it will be almost ex- clusively in connection with laboriously careful black- board exercises in which the written and printed forms appear side by side. These lessons should be very few and, if placed upon the blackboard at all, should remain there till all need for such devices has passed. The great majority of the most successful teachers find no need READING AND SPELLING 139 even for this much use of print outside of the children's text books. As has been indicated elsewhere, one of the most preg- nant sources of discouragement and delay, in the teaching of reading, is the premature introduction of printed primers. With ordinary children time will in the long run be saved if the text book does not come into use for three months. No hard and fast rule can be given, however. Some classes will be ready earlier and others will require a still longer preparatory process, and much will depend on the character of the primers that are to be used. The point to be emphasized is that however long a period is required to gain ready familiarity with script reading, it should be taken. The speed of future progress depends upon the thoroughness with which this initial work is done. The exercises placed upon the blackboard for reading lessons should of course be based directly upon the lan- guage lessons immediately antecedent. As throughout the day new words are introduced in various connections they should be systematically listed, on a part of the blackboard reserved for this purpose, and introduced as soon and as frequently as possible in subsequent reading lessons. The sentences to be read should ordinarily be developed from the pupils themselves. This facilitates training in expressive reading. The sentences should treat of subject matter intrinsically interesting and should be so related as not to violate the law of continuity. It is very rarely necessary to fall back upon isolated or dis- jointed sentences such as many teachers habitually use in primary reading lessons. Practice should, of course, be given in silent as well as in oral reading. In such exercises the sentences may take the form of commands or the pupils may be re- quired, after reading the passage silently, to turn their 140 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH backs to the board and reproduce the substance of what they have read. As soon as possible free use should be made of blackboard directions in connection with seat occupations, but this must not be done at the risk of leaving any pupil uncertain as to what is necessary. Closely allied to the teaching of reading is the teaching of spelling. This presents enormous difficulties on ac- count of the extraordinary irregularity of English orthog- raphy. The teacher's motto must be "divide and con- quer." In the first place the spelling exercise should in- clude no words not of primary utility in every-day affairs. Many terms properly to be included even in the ordinary vocabulary of speech and suitable for use in reading lessons should receive but little attention in this connec- tion in the case of children who are just acquiring the art of English speech. Thus the teacher will obey the first part of the proverb quoted above. It is necessary, however, not only to "divide" but to "conquer." Such words as are chosen for the spelling lesson must be absolutely mastered. The primary neces- sity is not to study the spelling of a given number of words, but to acquire automatic accuracy in the spelling of those that are taught. Habits will thus be established that may safely be trusted to prevent slovenly work in this direction as the pupil grows older. The writer has rarely witnessed a spelling lesson which he did not con- sider so long and difficult as to produce more bad results than good. Most inaccuracy in spelling arises from insufficient concentration of attention upon the specific peculiarities of the particular words that are to be learned. These words should be placed upon the blackboard and care- fully examined and discussed by pupils and teacher. Often the only possible error in a lengthy word will center around a single letter. This letter should then be specially emphasized by underscoring, or by the use READING AND SPELLING 141 of colored chalk. Oral spelling is generally introduced altogether too soon. When, however, the pupils are ready for such drill, the anomalous letter may with advantage be given special emphasis in oral spelling. The effect is often rather comical, which helps to impress the ir- regularity. The words should, of course, be divided into syllables. This will almost entirely remove the difficulty from most long words. A second source of erroneous spelling is faulty pro- nunciation and indistinct articulation. The spelling les- son must therefore be very largely an exercise in orthoepy. Many difficulties may be reduced by grouping words manifestly related in spelling. For instance, the elements of a compound word and the primitive in the case of derivatives should be taught either before or at the same time as the compound or derivatives itself. All other common compounds or derivatives involving the same simple word should be grouped with it in spelling. Thus, for example, such words as friends, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness, unfriendliness, friendless, and friendship might all, very properly, be included in the same lesson. It is a great mistake to base the lesson merely upon a heterogeneous list of words occurring on a given page of the reader, or to exclude from it any common word merely because it is not contained in the printed reading lesson. Utility, analogy, and association should guide the teacher in selecting the words for any given exercises. Unless the spelling list is injudiciously difficult the teacher may be sure that her method of presentation is at fault if any considerable number of errors occur. The misspelling of words in the lesson shows that it has not yet been learned, and the subsequent drill should be merely a continuation of the previous teaching. Any words misspelled in a given lesson should of course be included in the spelling lesson next following,, and about 142 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH every fifth spelling period should be devoted exclusively to review. To a large extent spelling is a matter of mere motor activity, consequently the preparation of the lesson should include considerable copying and recopying. This is eas- ily overdone, however, and it is by no means rare to find children writing a word correctly two or three times and then incorrectly a score of times on the same page. The most careful supervision is therefore necessary. The important point is not that the word should be written any stated great number of times, but that it should be written with care and attention. Insistence on the proper formation of letters is vital in the case of poor spellers. The too early elimination of all formal attention to phonics commonly increases the difficulties of children in the intermediate grades; whereas, various important phonic principles find no proper place in work with be- ginners. On the other hand, however, the teacher, prac- tically from the first, must carefully guard against blind faith in phonic spelling. Many educators of the highest distinction are empha- sizing the importance of encouraging the movement toward simplified spelling, largely on account of its im- portance to the education of children from non-English- speaking homes. Dr. A. H. MacKay, Superintendent of Education for Nova Scotia, writes as follows in this connection : "In the Province of Nova Scotia we are now endeavor- ing to stimulate the more rapid simplification of English spelling, though this movement cannot be expected to accomplish very much for some years to come. Could this be rapidly accomplished it would be a tremendous educational gain in every part of the British Empire where native and foreign people find the mastery of Eng- lish so difficult" An intensely interesting debate on this subject occurred READING AND SPELLING 143 at the Imperial Education Conference, London, Eng- land, 191 1. Some of the valuable papers and addresses there delivered upon this topic are included in the Nova Scotia Journal of Education for October, 191 1. At the conclusion of the discussion the Conference unanimously adopted the following resolution, among others in the same connection: "That the Conference is of the opinion that the sim- pUfication of spelling is a matter of urgent importance in all parts of the Empire, calling for such practical steps in every country as may appear most conducive to the ultimate attainment of the end of view — the creation in connection with the subject of an enlightened public opinion, and the direction of it to the maintenance in its purity and simplicity, among all English-speaking peoples, of the common English tongue." A similar movement is receiving most influential official encouragement in coimection with the Dutch language and various others which do not present half the diffi- culty involved in English speUing. Throughout the United States great progress is being made in this reform. The leading newspaper publishers, university professors and other educationalists of Chi- cago, for example, have given their written approval of the direction of the reform of English spelling by the Simplified Spelling Board of the English-speaking peoples. Among the other advocates in Canada and the United States are Inspector J. F. Boyce, of Alberta ; Vice-Prin- cipal Deamess of London Normal School, Ontario ; Isaac I. French, of New York; Henry Holt, New York; David Starr Jordan, of Leland Stanford University; William F. MacLean, Toronto; William H. Maxwell, Superin- tendent of Education for New York, and scores of other educational leaders of the very highest rank. The writer, therefore, advises all teachers, especially 144 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH those engaged in the instruction of non-English-speaking children, always to give preference to the simpler of two forms when both are used by good authorities, and, so far as his local superiors will permit, to adopt the simpli- fications recommended by the Simplified Spelling Board. Full information may be obtained by writing to Mr. C. G. P. Scott, Secretary of the Board, i Madison Avenue, New York; to Alexander McQueen, Corresponding Secretary, O. S. S. S., Victoria School, London, Ontario, or to the British Secretary of the Simplified Spelling Board, 44 Gt. Russel Street, London, England. CHAPTER VIII What Education Departments and Normal Schools Are Doing and May Do to Assist Teachers in Transforming Aliens Into Citizens In connection with the teaching of the national tongue to non-English-speaking children the first great duty de- volving upon those entrusted with the administration of our school systems and the training of our teachers is that of realizing the nature and importance of the prob- lem. Nothing was rendered more evident, by the writer's extensive correspondence with such authorities, than the fact of the amazing ignorance of the matter manifested by education departments and normal schools in general. In many quarters in which the non-English-speaking population to be served is exceedingly large the heads of the school systems seemed unaware that any special prob- lem existed. Indeed, the chief education officer in one enormous metropolis replied in so many words that "the subject is not one of special difficulty." It is very excep- tional for an education department to be in possession of any specific information regarding the number of non- English-speaking beginners entering its schools, or re- garding any special means that are taken by anybody to assist teachers, or prepare them for efficient service in foreign-speakirig communities. The whole problem is, as a rule, officially ignored, being left to the independent initiative of teachers, principals, and superintendents. It is encouraging to observe, however, that this official 145 146 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH indifference is not universal. In Porto Rico, for example, the Department of Education has faced the problem with admirable energy and eminently satisfactory results. In consequence the people of that island are becoming Eng- lish-speaking with amazing rapidity. The detailed cur- riculum and suggestions for the teaching of English promulgated under the authority of the Porto Rico De- partment of Education are deserving of careful examina- tion. The course of study in English for the first three years in Porto Rican graded schools is given in Appendix B. Exceptional success is also being attained in many English-Spanish schools in the Philippines. Upon re- quest of Miss Jessie L. Durham, Supervisor, Fourth District, Manila, P. I., Superintendent John D. D. Huff has forwarded a copy of the detailed outline for intro- duction work in English in use in that city. For the guidance of inexperienced teachers, this syllabus, which is to be found in Appendix C, outlines daily lessons cov- ering the whole first year's work. Among the American city systems that of New York should be mentioned in this connection. An exceedingly useful pamphlet, which has already been mentioned sev- eral times, is issued for the guidance of teachers of non- English classes.* Various other cities, states, and prov- inces are also devoting serious attention to the problem in its many phases. In many parts there is a crying need for definite legis- lative reforms. Means must be found greatly to lengthen the ordinary school year where it is still less than two hundred days. This could be accomplished to a con- siderable extent by making the per diem school grant materially and increasingly higher after the first hundred days of the school year. The laws with regard to compulsory education are very * Vide Appendix A for similar circular of suggestions issued in Chicago ADMINISTRATIVE AIDS 147 generally unsatisfactory and miserably enforced. The ideal will of course not have been reached in this con- nection until such laws have become practically unneces- sary, as they now are, for example, in various parts of Germany. In the meantime half a loaf is better than no bread, and machinery must be supplied by our Edu- cation Departments to secure the delivery of at least the half loaf. In most of the American states making any claim to educational efficiency, the compulsory education law re- quires attendance for the full period during which the school is kept open. It is believed by many educators that such stringent provisions are inapplicable in new settlements where the assistance of children may be at times very urgently required upon the farms. If this be so, the general law for the state or province should be sufficiently elastic to meet such special conditions, and at the same time to encourage or require the practicable maximum of regularity. The "local option" principle here finds a place. The rate payers or school adminis- trators of any locality should have the power to extend the compulsory period beyond that required for the prov- ince or state at large, as rapidly as local conditions and public opinion will justify a step in advance. Experience has shown the futility of entrusting the enforcement of compulsory education to school trustees or managers, especially in rural communities. Provision must be made for the automatic enforcement of the law. School districts might be grouped for this purpose. In- deed already in some progressive states the whole coun- try is thus subdivided into attendance districts. The writer believes that it should be the duty of the school or municipal authorities to prepare and continually revise lists showing the names and ages of the children their schools are intended to serve. Teachers cannot be ex- pected to unearth this information. Then from month 148 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH to month each teacher should report the names and ad- dresses of children who have missed a given number of sessions. If satisfactory reasons are known to the teacher, they should appear upon the report. Upon the receipt of this report by the attendance ofiScer, it should be his duty either personally or by letter to communicate with the parents or guardians concerned. In the case of foreign-speaking citizens the English letters should be accompanied by a version in the vernacular. For the first offence the communication issued by the attendance officer should consist chiefly of a very kindly explanation of the law and of the importance of regular attendance, coupled with a request for explanation of the child's ab- sence. Where no satisfactory excuse is forthcoming the next delinquency should bring a sharp, stern threat, and subsequent failures to obey the law should be followed in every case by suitable punishment. Under some circum- stances it might be well to add the imposed fine to the culprit's school rates, collecting it with them and by the same machinery. Another problem with which the central authorities should deal is that of the adaptation of the curriculum to the special needs and circumstances of non-English-speak- ing children. The same principles should here govern that apply to the framing of curricula for schools in gen- eral. Supervisor J. H. Brown, of Muskogee, Okla- homa, expresses the following opinion : "All depends on the location, probable future occupation and industrial surroundings of the pupils. Usually more industrial train- ing, with the literature and mathematics pertaining thereto, is needed in the case of Indian or immigrant children than in the case of others." This generalization is probably too sweeping, but it indisputably points in the right direction. The authorized curriculum must be characterized by sufficient elasticity to render it wisely applicable in the face of special con- ADMINISTRATIVE AIDS 149 ditions. In some schools it may be wise to allow be- ginners in English, who are fairly well advanced in other subjects, to take the geography, arithmetic and nature study of grades more advanced than that represented by their English attainments ; although, to be sure, time will usually be saved in the long run in such cases if the student devotes such attention to his English as will ren- der possible his very early transference to the grade for which his general intelligence and information fit him. In schools where older children enter as beginners and can remain under formal instruction but for a brief period, oral work should manifestly receive considerably more attention than written work. As pointed out by various correspondents, no teacher would willingly eliminate from the curriculum of his non- English-speaking pupils any subject that rightfully finds a place in the studies of other pupils. The supreme aim is to make citizens and to this end there should be the maximum of similarity in the studies of different schools that is compatible with due subordination to special needs. The writer, like the overwhelming majority of his cor- respondents, considers that the difference should be one of stress, rather than of subjects of study. The curriculum should make provision for special in- troductory work dominated by the pressing need of teach- ing English as early as possible in the case of non-Eng- lish-speaking beginners. They should be placed at first in what might be called Grade I B., in which they would receive most of the special instruction in language that is not necessary in the case of children from English-speak- ing homes. After their promotion from this class to the ordinary Grade I, their curriculum should be substantially the same as for other children in the same or similar com- munities. Even yet, however, the emphasis must for a long time fall upon the English branches. It may be wise, in drawing, for example, to confine attention almost ISO ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH wholly, for a considerable period, to free hand and illus- trative work, while the music may properly consist almost entirely of rote singing. For the guidance of inexperi- enced teachers all such rational variations from the stan- dard curriculum should be indicated as clearly as possible in the official instructions. Another great service will be rendered in the interests of the education of non-English-speaking children in par- ticular when Education Departments courageously recog- nize the desirability of admitting in some degree at least the reforms advocated by the champions of simplified spelling. This topic has already received attention else- where, and those who, on account of prejudices which we all share, refuse to give the matter any serious con- sideration are simply checks upon the progress of a re- form which is as inevitable as to-morrow's sunrise. Education Departments which hold in their own hand the appointment of Inspectors, Superintendents and Supervisors, should manifestly consider the needs of non-English-speaking children in making their selection. Many such officials with large numbers of these pupils under their jurisdiction have candidly confessed to the writer their deplorable ignorance as regards proper methods of teaching English to beginners. It should at all events be the duty of such an officer, when he enters upon his duties, to render himself familiar with the sub- ject by studying the available literature and visiting schools where successful methods are employed. In some Canadian provinces an official "visitor" or assistant inspector, presumed to possess special qualifications for the supervision of the education of non-English-speak- ing children, cooperates with the regular inspector of schools, though in no sense supplanting him. This is at best a makeshift device, though it may be of some value. Let us turn now more especially to the work of the Normal Schools. One of the questions in the writer's ADMINISTRATIVE AIDS 151 questionnaire read as follows: "At what institution or from what person have you received most help in this connection?" A significant inference may be drawn from the fact that scarcely five per cent of the answers mention a training school of any description. On the other hand, answers such as the following were received from every quarter: "The present system of training teachers, so far as the preparation for the teaching of foreign-speaking children and for rural school work in general is concerned, is more or less of a farce." — (In- spector J. F. Boyce, Alberta) ; "This is an all-impor- tant problem and I am strongly in favor of its being emphasized at the Normal Schools. The vast majority of our teachers know nothing of how to handle this ques- tion." — (Inspector J. T. M. Anderson, Saskatchewan) ; "Special training is unquestionably much to be desired, but I have seen none in Normal Schools." — (Supervisor J. B. Brown, Indian Territory). If necessary, letters could be quoted from many Normal School Principals, admitting that in their institutions this problem receives either no attention at all, or is treated in an exceedingly superficial manner. It is to be candidly admitted that the training neces- sary for success in ordinary schools covers a large part of the ground required for the teaching of non-English- speaking schools. The character and culture of the teacher are more important than her methods. She must be resourceful, original, adaptive and full of love for children. The training required is chiefly one in spirit. Methods will largely depend upon constantly varying local conditions. Whatever be the teacher's special train- ing her most important professional and non-professional qualifications must be such as will place her at least upon an equality with trained teachers in ordinary schools. The practice of admitting to this work men and women, or boys and girls, whose general ignorance properly shuts 152 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH them out from any other department of teaching, is on a par with the ancient poHcy of entrusting the ordinary elementary schools to disabled soldiers and incompetents in general. Thorough professional training along ordinary stand- ard lines is then essential; this admission must not ob- scure the equally undeniable proposition that Normal Schools serving communities which include any con- siderable number of non-English-speaking people are culpably derelict in their duty if they are not supplying special training for the special work which we have un- der consideration. In various provinces of Canada, and indeed in many other parts of the English-speaking world, an attempt is made to meet the difficulty by maintaining dual-language Normal Schools and similar institutions. These may serve useful ends, but it must never be forgotten that the great majority of those engaged in teaching non-English classes have to do with pupils speaking a great variety of mother-tongues. It is manifestly impossible, there- fore, to meet the general problem in this way. Further- more, any recognition of de facto distinct school systems, based on differences of racial origin, and existing side by side in an English-speaking Province or State, is in- herently vicious in principle, and should, therefore, be avoided so far as possible in practice. In various states and provinces special schools exist for the training of those whom for lack of a better name are commonly designated as "native teachers." Gradu- ates of these institutions have deplored to the writer the disadvantages involved in segregation from English teachers-in-training ; and numerous Inspectors haVe com- mented upon the fact that "native teachers" graduating from the ordinary Normal Schools do much better work, in the teaching of English especially, than is done when the training has been taken in one of these special schools. ADMINISTRATIVE AIDS 153 Education Departments that have inaugurated these costly experiments are to be congratulated upon having at least tried to do something to meet a pressing need. The writer is of the opinion, however, that if the same money were expended in scholarships which would en- able promising young men and women from immigrant communities to attend the ordinary High Schools and Normal Schools of their adopted country, much better results would follow. Valuable results are obtained in numerous quarters by oflFering vacation courses for teachers of "foreign" schools. These should be held in centres where schools for non-English-speaking children are open during that portion of the year, as no amount of instruction will be of much value without abundant practical observation of good methods actually in use with live children. It is un- necessary to add that similar opportunities for observa- tion should be available to the teachers in training in ordinary Normal Schools. It would be an easy task to frame an interesting and valuable syllabus of lectures for Normal Schools seri- ously vuidertaking the preparation of their graduates for possible employment in "foreign" schools. Most of the work would be of a character that would prove in- valuable even if the teachers never had occasion subse- quently to meet the problem of the non-English-speaking child. Inspector Kennedy, Saskatchewan, shrewdly re- marks: "It would be well to have our Normal Schools train all our teachers as though for this work. English children would then be considerably better taught." Apart from such special instruction taken by all teach- ers-in-training, provision might wisely be made for brief supplementary courses. Those profiting by them should receive recognition in the form of a special diploma, and the scholarship plan might well be used to encourage attendance. 154 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH Candidates for such diplomas should receive special instruction in manual work of all kinds, particularly those forms that may be introduced with little or no ex- pensive apparatus. Exceptional attention should be devoted to oral expres- sion, story telling and the acquirement of familiarity of the simple folk lore of various nations. In the linguistic course the work should be partly theoretical and partly practical. The teachers in train- ing should gain some general knowledge of the main out- standing characteristics of languages spoken by peoples whose children are likely to be found in the schoolrooms. If to this can be added some practical training in the actual use of the more important of these languages, so much the better. It must never be forgotten, how- ever, that facility and accuracy in English is infinitely more important than acquirements in any other tongue. In framing a series of lecture-topics the writer would naturally follow much the same course as that embodied in this little book. It would be the duty of the lecturer to make plain the enormous importance of training children in the use of English. He should pass in review the out- standing difficulties in connection with such work and would indicate the means which experience has shown to be the best adapted to meeting them. The general prin- ciples of language teaching should be made plain, and the treatment of special idioms and sounds should be taught. The student should be familiarized with half a dozen typical lesson methods and introduced to a multitude of useful class devices with which such work may be varied. The place of the mother-tongue in the schoolroom should be seriously discussed and the prospective teachers should be given clearly to understand with about what rapidity their pupils should progress. Attention should be called to useful books or periodicals and it goes without saying ADMINISTRATIVE AIDS 155 that abundant opportunity for practical teaching under skilled supervision should be provided. If it be objected that the course outlined above is too ambitious, it is at all events seriously to be hoped that Normal Schools will devote to the problem at least more attention than they are generally doing at present. To ignore the need is merely a confession of incompetence, and to recognize it without effectual providing against it is something little better. CHAPTER IX Bibliography In his questionnaire the writer enquired, "What book have you found of practical value in your efforts to develop a good method of teaching English to children of foreign-speaking parentage?" Seventeen out of every twenty of those who replied to the questionnaire left this question unanswered or said that they had found none. In this lies the raison d'etre of the present little treatise. The whole subject has been astonishingly neglected by educational writers and, so far as the writer is aware, — and he has certainly been at pains to inform himself, — there is no other book extant that even attempts to treat of the question in any comprehensive way, or to or- ganize the opinions and methods of the army of teachers who in so many quarters are successfully meeting the problem. Nevertheless, there are books of value on the subject and the author hopes that in some degree this chapter may increase their already considerable sale. As many as possible of them should find a place in the private library of every teacher of non-English pupils and in the bookcase of all schools attended by such children. It goes without saying that the whole available literature on the subject should be found in all Normal Schools and in all other libraries seriously intended to supply reference material for teachers. Almost no effort seems hitherto to have been made to prepare even a rudimentary bibliog- 156 BIBLIOGRAPHY 157 raphy on the subject. A brief list of reference works is appended to the New York Syllabus for the teaching of English to foreigners, but much valuable material has been published since that manual was drawn up. The works bearing more or less directly on the sub- ject may be classified under the following headings. They are not mutually exclusive in every respect, however, and in consequence the same book might be placed in more than one group. (a) General discussions of language methods. (b) Works giving a more or less detailed explana- tion of direct methods of teaching modern lan- guages. (c) Special reading books for foreign students and teachers' manuals to indicate their use. (d) Ordinary primers for practice reading. (e) Hand books on phonics, seat occupation, etc. (f) Books to aid teachers in acquiring their pupils' mother-tongue. (g) General works on the Foreign Problem, ad- dressed to Normal School teachers, administra- tive authorities and citizens generally. (h) Periodical literature bearing on the problem in its various phases. For the reader's convenience the publisher's address is given in almost every case, but to save repetition it is relegated to a footnote at the end of the chapter, the ref- erence being indicated by index figures. When prices are given they are generally copied from the Cumulative Book Index, published by the Wilson Company, of Min- neapolis, and to be found in every public library or good book store. The distinguished philologist, Henry Sweet, M. A., Ph. D., LL. D., is the author of an interesting work en- 158 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH titled "The Practical Study of Languor ge^' (278 pp.)"^ As stated in the preface, "its object is, first, to determine the general principles on which a rational method of learning foreign languages should be based, and then to consider the various modifications these general prin- ciples undergo in their application to different circimi- stances and different classes of learners." Valuable con- tributions are made to the discussion of these topics, but the book includes considerable matter that the ordinary elementary teacher will not find bearing very directly or truly upon the task of teaching a modicum of practical English to young children as a means to the effective treatment of the other school subjects through that lan- guage. His chapters on Phonetics, Varieties of Pronun- ciation, and Difficulties of Language, will probably be found the most helpful. While Professor Sweet makes mention of the distinction that is proper between methods for young children and methods for adults, he very mani- festly knows most about the latter. He is sometimes un- justifiably dogmatic in his criticisms of various methods eminently suitable for children, in certain phases of their work; and occasionally his conclusions are marred by lapses into the meaningless phraseology of an obsolete psychology. "In learning our own language, we begin young and we give our whole time to it," he says in one place (p. 97). "Our minds are perfect blanks, and we come to it with all our faculties fresh and unworn." Surely nonsense about tabula rasa and "fresh and un- worn faculties" should no longer find a place in the pages of a scholar such as Professor Sweet. His Elementar- buch des gesprochenen Englisch (1891),^ and his Primer of Spoken English ( 1895) ,^ properly belong elsewhere in this bibliography, but may be here mentioned as likely to be of more value to elementary teachers than will the work first above named. In group (a) belongs also Dr. Leopold Bahlsen's BIBLIOGRAPHY 159 Teaching of Modern Languages (1905; 97 pp.).^ which, like Professor Sweet's Practical Study of Languages, is intended chiefly for teachers in secondary schools and colleges. The same remark applies to Volume XVII in Heath's Pedagogical Library, which consists of essays by thirteen educators whose contributions are grouped under the title. Methods of Teaching Modern Lan- guages (217 pp.)-* The chapter most valuable in the present connection is that by Professor C. F. Kroeh on "The Natural Method (Explained)." It should be read in connection with Professor W. T. Hewett's chapter on "The Natural Method (Criticised)." To elementary teachers who, on the one hand, bear ever in mind the distinction between methods wise in the case of mature pupils and those wise in the case of young children, and who, on the other hand, are not to be carried away by pedagogical catch phrases, the whole debate on the teach- ing of living languages will be of interest and value. The literature on the subject is now extensive, but the aver- age busy teacher, seeking practical guidance for the con- crete problem of how she is to better her teaching of English to her young pupils unfaHiiliar with that lan- guage, will find in such books a superabundance of straw in proportion to the grain. She will derive more help from the works included in group (b), setting forth in detail direct methods of teach- ing languages. The exponents of such direct methods are almost innumerable, but the most important known to the writer are Gouin and Berlitz. The methods of the former seem specially popular in New York, where, as has been shown, results of exceptional interest have been obtained; Berlitz, however, is named much more fre- quently by successful teachers of non-English children elsewhere. Gouin's Art of Teaching and Studying Lan- guages (1892; 7/6; 430 pp.),* should, however, be care- fully examined by everyone really interested in the sub- l6o ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH ject. As in the case of the books already named, this will be found more fruitful by teachers in secondary schools than by those in elementary schools, though, as a matter of fact, the methods set forth are best adapted for use in primary schools. The books embodying the opin- ions and methods of Guoin's chief rival are The Berlitz Method: English (First Book, 90c; Second, $1.25) f The Berlitz Method for Children, (7Sc) ;^ The Berlitz Method of Teaching Language,^ and English Methods for For- eigners ($1.00).' The teacher of non-English-speaking beginners will find valuable suggestions for special meth- ods in all of these works. If she be wise, she will not base her system exclusively on any one of them, and, in reading the expository and polemical chapters, she will strike the superlative ending from most of the adjectives and adverbs laudatory and damnatory. The writer has found help, especially in their intro- ductory chapters, in texts embodying various "propri- etary" methods, — those of Rosenthal, De Brisay, and others. Books belonging to group (c) are yearly becoming more numerous, and there are few of them from which the teacher will not gather valuable practical suggestions, even when the books are unsuitable for use by her pupils. Wilfred C. Thorley's Primer of English for Foreign Students, (1910; 60c; 276 p.),^ for example, embodies certain devices and forms of expression of which the writer of this chapter would not approve, and the book is especially intended for use with adult stu- dents; nevertheless, it will be found very suggestive by all teachers of non-English pupils. The same is true of Robert's English for Coming Americans, (1911 ; 50c and 30c; 276 p.),* his Manual and Charts, to accompany the above, and his First Reader, (196 pp; 50c; 1910),^ which have been found very widely useful in night schools for adults. Many of the writer's correspondents have found BIBLIOGRAPHY l6l especially valuable Harrington and Cunningham's First Book for non-English-Speaking People (1904; 25c; 125 pp.),* and the Language Lessons (1904; 25c; 147 pp.). issued to accompany it. Swan and Betis' Scenes of English Life (3 parts, is. each)," offers a some- what valuable collection of "themes" or "series" les- sons, of the Gouin type. Book I treats of Chil- dren's Life (dressing, toilet, meals, housework, etc.) ; Book II, of English Family Life and Trades; Book III, of the Country, (farm, garden, houses, sports, etc.). There are absurdities enough in the nature and extent of the vocabulary, but there is also good matter in these books. Other little texts that should have a place on the teacher's table are M. F. Sharpe's First Reader for For- eigners; ( 191 1 ; 40c) ;^" F. Houghton's First Lessons in English for Foreigners; (1910; 40c) ; O'Reilly's English Book for Foreigners, (1911 ; 15c, pa.) ; ^^ S. R. O'Brien's English for Foreigners; (1909; 50c);" F. S. Mintz' First Book for Foreigners, Parts I and II, ( 1909 ; I, 30c ; II, 45c). Prior & Ryan's How to Learn English, (1911 ; S5c),* and Rippmann's First English Book, should also be named in this connection. There are also several read- ers for similar pupils of greater advancement, but they will scarcely prove adapted for young children. Rob- ert's Second Reader (50c),* Harrington and Moore's Second Book for non-English-Speaking People (1904; 30c),* and Wallach's Second Book in English for For- eigners (1910; 50c), ^^ should be mentioned, however. Longman's English Course for Indian Schools, by J. C. Allen, has proved useful in some quarters. As we go to press (March, 1913) reading books for foreign adult be- ginners are in course of preparation by Rev. J. M. Shaver, B. A., settlement worker, Fort William, Ontario, and by the Board of Social Service and Evangelism, 436 Confederation Life Building, Toronto. The teacher of non-English classes should, of course. i62 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH be provided with an abundance of ordinary primers for supplementary or practice reading. Fortunately, there is a great wealth of good books for such purposes. Men- tion may be made of Lewis' Lippincotfs Primer (1910; 30c) ;^* Howell's Primer (1910; 2Sc) ;^* Taylor's Werner Primer; Grover's Sunbonnet Babies Primer (40c) ;^* Holton's Primer ( 1901 ) •^'^The Ontario Phonic Primer;" Morang's Modern Phonic Primer, Parts I and II, ( 1904 ; loc, iSc), Gage's Phonic Primer ;^^ Bass' Beginner's Reader; The Riverside Primer and Reader ;^^ Cyr's Dra- matic Reader;^ The Hiawatha Pi'imer; Beebe and Kings- ley's First Year Nature Reader, and Beebe's Picture Primer (1910; 25c) ;^° The Arnold Primer,^' and the First Reader (1899; 148 pp.; 30c ),^ written by the au- thor of this thesis; but many other excellent primary reading books are also available. Scarcely any will not amply repay examination, in spite of serious defects that mar them all. Like every one else engaged in primary work, but to a special degree, the teacher of non-English classes should be a student of the best manuals on reading-lesson meth- ods and seat occupation. Only a few of the many good handbooks need here be named. Nellie Dale's The Teach- ing of English Reading,'^ and her Further Notes on the Teaching of English Reading,^ will appeal to many, and Annie E. Cullen's Steps in the Phonic System,^^ and Seatwork Occupation (loc),^" will be of use. Reimold's Primary Language Book {1908; I, 36c; II, 42c), ^^ has proved useful to teachers of non-English beginners in Porto Rico and elsewhere. Primary Reading in Ten Cities (1908),^^ is a valuable manual. The writer will not attempt to give a comprehensive list of the books best adapted to helping teachers who wish to make themselves more or less familiar with their pupils' maternal languages. Those who are in earnest in this wish will easily obtain the necessary textbooks. BIBLIOGRAPHY 163 introductory to any one of the major languages spoken in the homes of our school children. Stern's Studien und Plaudereien (280 pp.),^ is a delightful example of the use of the new language as a medium, and apart from those whom it will help to acquire an elementary knowl- edge of conversational German, many teachers familiar with that tongue will find it very suggestive and refresh- ing reading, as an example of direct methods. Such little works as Lady Bell's French Without Tears, Parts I, II, and III (I, gd; II, is; III, is 3d) ;" Jetta S. Wolff's Les Frangais en Menage (ish. 6d),^* and Hodges and Powell's Le Frangais chez Lui (is 3d),''* are among the books that will serve a similar purpose as regards French. To acquire the pronunciation some study of phonetics is practically essential, as a check and a guide. Some easy work in a phonetic transcription may then be read to advantage. The present writer found Paul Passy's L'Evangile de Luc en Transcription Phone- tique'* very helpful. Books treating of the duties and responsibilities of the citizen body in general and Normal School and adminis- trative authorities in particular, as regards the educa- tion of our non-English speaking peoples, are as yet de- plorably scarce. Dr. Roberts, the author of several text- books named above, has covered part of the field in his work entitled Immigrant Races in North America.' In that book he classifies the new comers by race, language, religion, etc. Among the first serious articles on the problem that appeared in any of our magazines was Jos. H. Wade's essay on The Teaching of English to Foreigners in the Elementary Schools. This was published in the Educa- tional Review of April, 1904. The methods and results for New York City may there be found indicated. Numerous practical suggestions are afforded to guide teachers and interesting information is given regarding l64 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH the remarkable success already achieved. Among the most noteworthy articles on the subject that have since then appeared in our periodical literature are the fol- lowing : English, Gertrude E. — "Teaching English to Foreigners." Educational bi-monthly, 2: 58-61, October, 1907. — "Language as an Asset for Our Foreign-Bom Citi- zens." Survey, 22: 677-679, August 14, 1909. Moore, Sarah W. — "The Teaching of Foreigners." Sur- vey, 24: 386, June 4, 1910. New York (City) Department of Education. — Sylla- bus for Teaching of English to Foreigners in the Evening Schools. New York, 1906. 14 p. O'Brien, Sara R. — "Teaching English to Foreigners." School-work, 8: 430-437, February, 19 10. Salem, Clara R. — "Plan in Composition for C. Grades." Schoolwork, 6: 458-459, February, 1908. Staubenmuller, Gustave. — "Teaching English to For- eign Children." In National Education Association JoiuTial of Proceedings and Addresses, 1905, p. 413-21. "Teaching English to Foreigners in Evening Schools." Schoolwork, 1 : 43-54, October, 1902, Staubenmuller, Gustave. — "Teaching non-English-Speak- ing Pupils in Day and Evening Schools. Educa- tional Foundations, 20: 535-545. May, 1909. The Teaching of English to Foreigners in the First Two Years of Elementary Schools. Schoolwork, 2 : 285-92, November, 1903. Illustrated. Report of Committee on Teaching of English in Ele- mentary Day and Evening Schools. Published by Chicago Education Department, 191 1. In the foregoing pages something at leasl has been contributed to the small beginnings yet made upon the BIBLIOGRAPHY l6s task of compiling a bibliography bearing on the special work of educating the tens of thousands of pupils who annually enter our schools ignorant of our national lan- guage. The writer hopes that, by many co-workers bet- ter qualified than he, the task will be carried forward without avoidable delay. There is a very real need to be met The author's present undertaking is now completed. An attempt has been made to attract to the problem of making real citizens out of our alien peoples the interested attention of a greater number of the friends of educa- tion in all walks of life. It has been shown that in many quarters the beginners lose much valuable time or are practically shut out from ever mastering English in school ; and, with the assistance of a very numerous corps of his fellow-teachers, the writer has proven that, if right methods are used, the non-English-speaking child should be delayed certainly not more than a year in his passage through the elementary schools. We have seriously studied the extent to which English and the mother- tongue respectively may rightly be used in the school and in the play-ground. The outstanding difficulties in con- nection with imparting to beginners a competent knowl- edge of English have been rehearsed, and suggestions have been offered to teachers and school officers as to how these obstacles are Seing successfully overcome in many localities. We have devoted some attention to the principles underlying the wise teaching of the new tongue to young children and have differentiated between the language problem of our elementary schools and that of our secondary schools. We have examined at con- siderable length the methods used by successful teachers in language lessons and in the teaching of the language arts. Attention has been called to important legal and administrative reforms that the existing circumstances l66 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH render imperatively necessary; and, finally, an attempt has been made to render the general literature bearing on the subject more easily accessible to all interested in this exceptionally important topic. With the wish that this little book may be of real service to the boys and girls who enter upon their studies with the heavy handi- cap of ignorance of the language of their coxmtry, the writer lays down his pen. REFERENCE LIST OF ADDRESSES OF PUBLISHERS OF WORKS NAMED IN THE FOREGOING BIBLIOGRAPHY (i) Henry Hoh & Co., 34 W. 32nd St., New Work. (2) Oxford University Press (American Branch), 29 W. 32nd St., New York. (3) Ginn & Co., 29 Beacon St., W., Boston, and 2301- 231 1 Prairie Avenue, Chicago. (4) D. C. Heath & Co., 110-120 Bolyston St, Boston, and 225 4th Avenue, New York. (5) Geo. Philip & Son, 32 Fleet St., London, E. C. (6) Brentano's, Cor. 5th Avenue and 27th St., New York. (7) M. D. Berlitz, 1122 Broadway, New York. (8) The MacMillan Co., 66 5th Avenue, New York. (9) Young Men's Christian Association Press, 124 E. 28th St., New York, and 44 Paternoster Row, Lon- don, E. C. |(io) American Book Cq., 100 Washington Square, New York, and 521-530 Wabash Avenue, Chicago. (11) Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 4 Park St., Boston. (12) Silver, Burdett & Co., 85 5th Avenue, New York, and 218-223 Columbus Avenue, Boston. (13) J. B. Lippincott Co., E. Washington Square, Phil- adelphia. (14) Hinds, Noble & Eldredge, 31-35 W. 15th St, New York, and 1425 Arch St., Philadelphia. BIBLIOGRAPHY 167 (15) Werner School Book Co., Purchased by Ameri- can Book Co. (16) Rand, McNally & Co., 160-174 Adams St., Chi- cago, and 40-42 E. 22nd St., New York. (17) Canada Publishing Co., Toronto, Canada. (18) W. J. Gage & Co., Toronto, Canada. ( 19) Copp, Clark & Co., Toronto, Canada. (20) March Bros., 208-212 Wright Avenue, Lebanon, Ohio. (21) World Book Co., Park Hill, Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York. (22) Educational Publishing Co. (23) Edward Arnold, 41-43 Maddox St., Bond St., W. London, England. (24) Librairie Fermin Didot, 56 Rue Jacob, Paris. (25) MacMillan Co., Toronto, Canada. APPENDIX A Report of Committee on Teaching of English, Elementary Day and Evening Schools, Chicago, 191 i In April, 191 1, the Superintendent of Schools appointed a committee, consisting of the following members of the Education Department, to prepare a report containing suggestions on teach- ing English in the elementary day and evening schools to children and adult foreigners : Gertrude K English, District Superintendent. Samuel B. Meek, Principal of Washington School. Mary I. Purer, Principal of LaFayette School. William Hedges, Principal of Jackson School. Mary B. Catelain, Principal of Foster School. Chas. H. Ostrander, Principal of Nixon School. Advisory Members: Henry C. Cox, District Superintendent; William M. Roberts, Assistant Superintendent. The results of the conferences held by this Committee are printed in this booklet form, that principals and teachers may avail themselves of the suggestions that have grown out of the work of the Committee. The problem of teaching English to children from non-English speaking homes divides itself according to the age of the children, according to their previous training, and according to the number in membership in any particular school. The principals who receive large numbers of the older children prefer to have special classes for them. They find that teachers specially skilled in this work, who concentrate on the problem, advance the children more rapidly than those who attempt to meet additional difficulties while this one is pressing. Although the children are started in special classes, they should be moved forward as rapidly as their acquisition of English warrants, until they reach the grade for which their age, physical growth, and social interests fit them. Their proper advancement is a matter demanding constant alert- ness on the part of teacher and principal. 168 APPENDIX A 169 So far the management of children over eight years of age has been considered, but some schools enter many non-English speak- ing children mider the age of eight. It is possible that the teacher may have forty-five or more of these children, few of whom have had the benefits of kindergarten training. The kindergarten teacher who has the opportunity of helping the favored small folk, needs to keep in mind that her children should tell what they do quite as often as they offer the motor response of per- forming the act Only a partial development results from the act, unless the motor activity of articular language is combined with the less subtle one. The grade teacher needs to bear in mind this same principle of action, do and say, act and speak. Many and various are the agencies, organized and adventitious, which drain children away from the main stream in a well- managed school, the stream which has its head waters in the kindergarten and its outlet in the liberal opportunity of the day or evening high school. Among these, the language difficulties must be recognized as an important factor. Fourth grade teachers find that the geography page means little to many children ; fifth grade teachers find the problems untranslatable; at each of these grade crossings some are left behind to stagnate; in the two successive grades the gates are more difficult of manipulation and a comparatively small number are carried forward to the triumphant success of graduation. The anomaly of a stream, the greater part of which is held back, retarded, spreads out in statistical tables. The difficulties caused by physical defects should be recognized under expert examination at an early stage. Agen- cies are at work to overcome the effects of malnutrition, truancy, and impositions upon childhood. Removals to more favorable residence quarters should not result in demotion for even a half year, for the frequent removals of the habitually-migratory mul- tiply these half years disastrously. The language difficulty is the one to which your committee has directed its energies. Indeed, there is a suspicion in the minds of many that a mastery of the English would result in fewer demotions of transferred pupils. The reduction of the number of pupils to the teacher is the first step in ensuring an increase of numbers in the grammar rooms, and the consequent increase in the number of graduates. Action sentences should at first be the leading feature of the language as well as the reading period. But the execution of the command, "Run," for instance, is not sufficient. The action should be accompanied by the oral expression, — "I run" ; later, by "I am running." After the pupils have mastered a few of these simple action-sentences, the names of various objects in the room should l^ ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH serve as a basis for enlarging the vocabulary and expanding the sentence forms : I run to the door. I run to the desk. I walk to the table. The acquisition of new verbs should go hand in hand with the learning of new nouns. Next may follow the combining of two distinct acts, and the oral expression : I run to the door, and walk back to my seat This, fairly well mastered, could be followed by the performance of a series of related acts: I rise. I walk to the door. I open the door. I go into the hall. I shut the door. The pronoun of the third person, singular, may be approached through the pupils' given names : John looks, — is looking out of the window. He is looking out of the window. The remaining personal pronouns should also be taught objectively. The adjectives and adverbs most commonly used should be next taken up. Color, size, and shape; then, weight, texture, and the like. The plan is, to begin with those most easily understood, those which most readily lend themselves to objective teaching. I find a red ball. I take the red ball in my hand. I show it to the teacher. I put the red ball on the desk. In addition to the inanimate objects in the room, the children themselves furnish a good vocabulary. The various articles of wearing apparel, the parts of the body, can be made nuclei about which activities and attributes center. The verbs, wash, clean, iron, brush, comb, sew, rip, tear, trim, cut, mend; the adjectives, clean, thick, thin, soft, smooth, rough, shiny, may be thus acquired objectively; adverbial expressions such as, every day, every morning, to-day, yesterday, Sunday, will suggest themselves in this connection. The home may be used as a center from which to gather language material. By means of a doll's house and of various toys, the essential features of the home environment may be brought into the school room. The personal relationships of pupils, father, mother, sister, baby; the furnishings of the toy parlor, dining room, kitchen, bedroom ; small samples of the most common condiments, pepper, sugar, salt ; all these furnish material of vital interest for conversation. The oral expression of consecutive, related acts in reference to home activities, may be made valuable. Thus : I rise in the morning. I wash myself. I comb my hair. I eat my breakfast Or, in connection with the toy kitchen : I polish the stove. Mother sweeps the floor. Sister dusts the chairs. Brother makes a fire. Father lights the gas. Pictures of domestic animals are aids in language work. They APPENDIX A 171 widen its scope and bring into the pupil's vocabulary new expres- sions; such as, sing, draw, ride, pull, catch, watch, bark, eat; fly, mouse, meat, butter, cheese, milk, fur, horns, feathers, wings. At this point, the short story compiled by the teacher and based on the acquired vocabulary, plays an important part. For instance: Maiy has a dog. His name is Rover. He is a big, black dog. He likes to play. When Tom rolls a ball on the floor. Rover runs after it and tries to catch it. The pupils should be led to reproduce such stories orally, at first. After a little practice in this, they should be led to construct a few connected sentences of a similar nature. These may be their more or less crude interpretations of language pictures presented to them. The streets furnish the following vocabulary : Sidewalk, fence, house, cottage, garden, tree, grass, car, trolley, wire, wood, brick, stone, cement, roof, steps, porch, grocery, drugstore, meat market, across the street, next door. When this point has been reached, the pupil is fairly well prepared to tell what he has seen on his way to school ; on his way to the meat market ; on his way to the park. Sense training and picture study may be combined with this. Pictures showing domestic and farm activities, pictures of pets, pictures showing games, furnish material for conversation. This outline makes available over five hundred of the most common words. But whatever method is pursued, the aim should be to enable the pupil in the shortest possible time to fit himself for his proper place in school. Vocabulary of phrase is quite as necessary as a vocabulary of words. Good morning, Good afternoon. Good evening. How do you do? Thank you, are easily acquired and used. What time is it? with the appropriate answers to this question, is useful. The correct prepositions should be insisted upon; I go to the store, I go to my aunt's, across the street from, behind; the expression, "in back of," should be absolutely tabooed. I was in the city, I was at the fire, should be repeated to avoid the incor- rect use of "to" in similar situations. The value of dramatization in enabling children to interpret what they secure from the telling of stories and the reading cannot be overestimated. Proceeding from the dramatic render- ing of a single sentence, crystallizing into action the statement on the printed page, the children may be led to express an entire story through change of attitude and voice. Later, the little stories may be read in dialogue style by two or more children. 172 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH PHONICS While children are learning to read, they should have lessons in word building, using words which have meaning for them. The mere calling of combinations in order to introduce certain conso- nants in connection with certain vowels should be discouraged. In the second grade, phonics should play an important part, but the condition mentioned in regard to first-grade work should be adhered to, viz. : that no word is to be introduced merely for the sake of securing a combination, but because the child needs the word, understands it, and is able to use it. The long and short vowels should be recognized through their position, in words ending in the silent "e," and those ending in a consonant, as well as in those having the double vowel. By the time the children have finished their second grade work, they should be able to enunciate clearly all the consonant sounds and to pronounce words written on the blackboard or selected from the text-books. Exer- cises in oral expression should be given to individuals and to the class. The exercises prescribed by the teachers of music will be found exceedingly helpful, and the course pursued by those specially delegated to teach oral expression to the defective, may be utilized by the teacher of normal children. In third grade, the children should be required to find in the new words the parts which have already been given to them in first and second grades, and from these parts they should be able to make out and pronounce many of their words. DiflScult com- binations of consonants, such as gr, tr, br, th, St, sts, require special drill. These exercises do not constitute reading lessons: they should be given without interrupting the sentences, as a drill preliminary to requiring a child to read the words which they involve. Additional help will be needed by the children in fourth grade, but above that they should be able to use the dictionary, and to recognize the common diacritical marks which enable adults to determine pronunciation from a book of reference. Any extended practice in marking vowels or consonants should be discouraged, since the value of this work lies in the power gained in the use of the dictionary. PERSISTENT ERRORS These are common to the majority of pupils in foreign districts, but not peculiar to them. In the lower grades, the correction of these errors by means of written work alone is an extremely laborious and unsatisfactory process. Oral exercises are much APPENDIX A 173 more eflfective, although correction of errors in written work should not be wholly avoided, even in the second grade. Correct Use of You in the Plural.— Have a number of pupils, five or six, stand before the class. Have some pupils in the class address one of those who are standing: You are stand- ing. Then, pointing to all who are standing, let him again say: You are standing. A drill of this description, based on various activities of individuals in a group, and of the group considered collectively, will show the pupils vividly that there is but one form— you — for both niunbers. With abundant, persistent drill, the wrong-language habit may be overcome, or the pupil may be made conscious of the fact that he needs to watch himself in order to avoid the mistake. Have (Showing Possession).— A row at the front. What have you? I have a pencil. What has he? He has a pencil. The Proper Position of I. — Two children come before the class. They are led to find some similarities in their apparel or in their personal appearance, and to express them thus : You and I have light hair. You and I have blue waists. The children who have remained seated should then be called upon to make similar statements with reference to the two children in the front and themselves : Harry, John, jind I have blue eyes. Elimination of Superfluous Ands: The children play they are ordering household supplies, stationery, books, toys, buying Christinas presents, birthday presents. One pupil may be the grocer or baker. Others order of him. Irregular Verbs : I took a ball from the table. I threw the ball to Harry. Harry caught it. The children saw me throw it and saw Harry catch it. Comparison : Compare children as to height, weight, age ; John is taller than Fred. Children compare their own height with that of other pupils. Fred is taller than I. Find the tallest among four or five. The smallest Fred is the taller of the two, and the tallest of these three, four, five. As tall as — ^not so tall as — this, that, these, those, by comparing. In securing correct written English, the first steps consist in letting children write their sentences on the board, under the supervision of the teacher. This may be profitably begun in the latter part of first grade and continued in the second grade. These sentences should be short and simple; the teacher will see that the capitals and periods are used. In third grade the children should be encouraged to write upon the board a short paragraph, each one expressing his own ideas of a story that has been told, or of some incident that ha3 taken place under his observation. 174 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH The initial efforts will be crude, possibly without proper punctua- tion, and the spelling will not be satisfactory ; but the teacher can ask the child to select one thought and tell her the sentence which expresses it. She can thus lead him to capitalize and punctuate the sentence, and while she is not likely to eradicate all the errors at once, she can set him to thinking about the correct forms of expression. Other children, whose work is not on the board, will readily notice what is going on and many will correct their mis- takes through the correction of the work of this one child. The older custom of carrying home the papers and indicating the errors upon them is not so effective as this correction under the personal supervision of the teacher. Parallel with this work, beginning with the third grade, there should be a certain amount of dictated work, taken possibly from the reader. The children should be led to observe the sentences in the book, the spelling, punctuation, and capitalization, and they should be held to account, after a reasonable degree of practice, for the reproduction of such work in a correct manner. As this work will progress parallel with the freer work in English expres- sion, it should guide and assist the mechanical side of the latter. Through the instruction of children in private schools, where a foreign language is used as a means of giving information, and where the use of English is meager, there come together in certain schools a number of children who are fitted by age and acquire- ment for work in the fifth or sixth grade. Their use of Ejiglish, however, is limited and, in consequence, they are frequently held back. It is the opinion of some that these children should be placed according to their grading in the school from which they have come, but that much of their time should be devoted to English. The study of the industries of this great city is of special interest to the foreigners because they expect to take their places as soon as may be possible among the workers. They have a desire to know the possibilities for them in the way of making a living. The study of industries gives them an acquaintance with what is being done and what is possible for them to do later, and what preparation is necessary to success in the line of work which they choose. Many foreigners engage in trade in merchandise of different sorts. To these especially, the knowledge of the com- mercial relations of the cify are interesting. This study makes it possible for them to know where the things necessary for food and bodily comfort are obtained and how they reach Chicago; to know what things are made here and to what places they are APPENDIX A 175 sent. Such knowledge helps to place the foreigner on a basis of self-support. William M. Roberts. Assistant Superintendent English should not be taught to the adult foreign-born people in the evening schools by the methods used in teaching a foreign language to pupils in secondary schools. The secondary school method assumes that the pupils have some acquaintance with the grammar of their own language, and introduces in proper sequence the facts as to the construction of the new language, basing the mode of presentation on analogous facts in the struc- ture of the pupils' own language. Not many of the evening school adult foreign pupils have a working knowledge of the grammar of their own language. They must learn English by hearing it spoken and by trying to speak it, much as their children learn it in the day school. Adults learn a new language much as a child does, by hearing it spoken and by trying to speak it, but with this difference, that they are learning to substitute new words for old ones that are habitually associated in their minds with the objects of thought. The task is, of course, more difficult for them than for the children, for they continue to think in their own language, and use it in the home. It is only by constant use of the new language in conversation and writing, to the exclusion of the old, that the habit of associating the thing and its new name is formed. It is a mistake to assume, as many immigrants do, that the best teacher of English for them is one who understands their language, and who can "explain" the words, that is, translate for them. On the contrary, he is the poorest teacher. The continual reversion to the old language as a medium for making clear the new language, tends to confirm the habit of thinking in the old while speaking in the new. This is not favored for one who is learning a foreign language while continuing to live in his own country; it is abso- lutely wrong for one who intends to live in the new country. He must master the new language as the chief, often the only, medium for communicating with his associates, and he must therefore learn to think in the new language. Instead of gaining time by learning from a teacher who uses the "translation" method he is really losing time. Most teachers of the adult foreigners in the evening schools fall easily into two classes, when we consider their methods of teaching. One teacher tries to get the students to understand i;6 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH English and the other tries to get them to speak it. There are all degrees of excellence among teachers of the two classes, but the one motive or the other governs the teaching method of each. In the one class there is much reading from the book and blackboard and getting after the meaning of words and sentences. Under a skillful teacher the students understand much of what is read, always much more than can be repeated by them in English, and their delight in their growing ability to read understanding^ keeps them interested and keeps them in school. In the other class there is little reading of English from book or blackboard, but much speaking by individuals, and by the class, of simple sentences understood by all. Under a skillful teacher who keeps up a sufficient rate! of progress in the introduction of new matter, the students grow in ability to speak, and they use with confidence what little English they know. Their delight in this keeps them interested and keeps them in school. The students in the first class, after a term in the evening school, may be able to get more out of the daily paper, but those in the second class will be more at ease in situations which require them to make themselves understood in English. All would bef better for having both kinds of training. There are a few teachers who combine the two kinds of work in one lesson, or who give exercises in both kinds of work in the same evening, but they are resourceful teachers who give much thought to the preparation of material for conversation and read- ing. The text-books prepared for children in the elementary schools do not treat of subjects with which adults are concerned, and, for that reason, they are not only uninteresting to adults, but they do not contain the vocabulary of most value to them. They find it necessary to communicate with their English speak- ing associates, their employers, the merchants from whom they buy, the conductors of the street cars, and they need the words of such ordinary conversations among adults. A book for the teach- ing of English to adults should be written in simple English, but should deal with the ideas and interests of adults. There are some books of the kind, but two faults are common to most books written for this purpose. There is usually too rapid progress from easy English to English hard to understand, and the treat- ment of subjects of daily life is not such as to make them inter- esting. The lessons are sometimes commonplace to the verge of dullness. APPENDIX B EXTRACT FROM COURSE OF STUDY FOR PORTO RICAN GRADED SCHOOLS English— First Grade Teachers of First Grades are expected to begin their work with some one of the charts supplied by the Department, introducing a Primer as soon as the pupils can recognize at sight the words used on about fifteen pages of that chart. Use of the chart should be continued in connection with the Primer until it is evident that such drill is no longer needed. Words should be taught as wholes and not by syllables. During the first term, and longer with some classes, there should be daily drill with cards upon words already learned. Early in the year, children should begin to write short sentences on the blackboard. Teachers should study carefully whatever directions are given in the Primer sup- plied for their respective rooms. I — I.* Oass-room orders. Names of common objects in school. I — 2. Greetings. Names of common objects in school con- tinued. Is and are. Big and little. Common action verbs as run, jump, stand, sit, erase, etc. I — ^3. Common action verbs continued. Has and have. Names of colors. I — 4. Conversations based upon pictures in the Primer and Chart. Names of the days of the week. Names of domestic animals. I — 5 and I — 6. Conversations continued. His and her. The Primer will probably be finished by this time. Teachers will use other Primers available, as supplementary work. *The thirty-six weeks' work for each grade is divided into six parts for the guidance of inexperienced teachers in planning their term's work. — N. F. B. 177 178 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH Second Grade The course in language for the grade is outlined to follow the series of simple language and reading lessons given during the First Year. The first two weeks should be spent in reviewing the work given during the preceding year as a preparation for the lessons as provided by the text. These lessons should always be preceded by word and object study and followed by a short written exercise. Special care must be given to proper pro- nunciation and clear and distinct enunciation. It is impossible to lay too much stress on these two points, so absolutely neces- sary to the proper use of the English language. Spelling, both oral and written, should be a distinct exercise and receive careful attention. Teachers should read and study very carefully the notes to be found at the bottom of the pages and also the "Instructions to Teachers," pages 90-93, Reimold's Book I. The pictures, most of which represent scenes familiar to the children of Porto Rico, may be used as a basis for conversation lessons following the work study, but preceding the actual read- ing lessons. In conversation lessons aim at free and spontaneous expression with as much stress laid on proper sentence formation as is compatible with free expression. Do not allow corrections to be made until after the pupil has finished recitation. Avoid repeating the incorrect form. Frequent reviews should be given to keep the new words well in mind and make them a part of a permanent vocabulary. Give phonetic drill on word families such as: Man, fan, can;, dog, log, hog; came, same, name; etc., using no diacritical marks. First Primary Language Book — Reimold. II — I. Pages 9-13. Review and drill. II — 2. Pages 14-26. II— 3. Pages 27-37. II— 4. Pages 38-48. Note: On page 38 and on all succeeding pages substitute the word "ox" for "carabao." II— 5- Pages 49-65. II — 6. Pages 66-81. Review book. Note: Lessons 37-38, pages 70-71, use as blackboard exercises, substituting the word "district" for "province." Names of district and town in Porto Rico for those given in text. APPENDIX B 179 Third Grade in — I. (a) Review the most important parts of the work of the third grade. (b) Have much drill in the use of is or are; was and were; have and has. (c) Lead the children to construct original sentences with words used daily in the schoolroom and with those naturally connected with a child's life and experiences. Ex. — The present' and past of words such as the following should be taught prac- tically : write, wrote; read, read; march, marched; jump, jumped; hop, hopped; play, played; etc In, on, under, etc. (d) Have frequent exercises in simple description of pictures and teach such objective lessons as the teacher thinks best suited to increase the child's vocabulary. (e) Memory Work and Spelling. Ill — 2. Reimold's Second Primary Language Book, pages 11-26. Statements and questions. Nouns, common and proper. Use of comma. Object and picture lessons. Memory Work, Spelling, Dictation. Ill — ^3. Reimold's Second Primary Language Book, pages 27-45. Singular and plural of nouns. Verbs as action words. Addresses and very simple letter forms. Object and picture lessons. Memory Work, Spelling, Dictation. Ill — 4. Reimold's Second Primary Language Book, pages 46-63. Abbreviations and names of days, months, titles, etc. Reading and writing dates. Plurals. Possessives. Adjectives. Ill — s. Reimold's Second Primary Language Book, pages 64-78. Simple notes of invitation copied and written. Pronouns : I, you, he, she, they, it. Adverbs. Present of the verb to be. Ill— 6. Reimold's Second Primary Language Book, pages 78-87. Am, is, are, was, were. Future of the verb to be. Progressive present and past. Questions with what, where, when, why. Drill on such words as ate, eight; see, sea; etc. Letter Writing. Suggestions : Avoid teaching rules and definitions which pupils carmot easily understand. Memory work should be taught throughout the year. The teacher should divide this work, teaching the easier selections first. In teaching spelling care should be taken to select only such words as pupils will need in ordinary, every day conversation. Words little used and of obscure meaning should be avoided. l8o ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH Special attention should be given to the teaching of picture and object lessons during the first three periods of six weeks so as to enlarge the pupils' vocabulary and to prepare them for the more difficult work of the last three periods. APPENDIX C COURSE OF STUDY IN ENGLISH In the Schools of the Fourth District, Manila, under the Super- vision of Miss Jessie L. Durham and Superintendent Huff First Grade — First Semester Teacher must have objects. They must have two or more of each kind of that singular and plural may be illustrated and must keep these objects on the desk every day during the year. Small and large boxes ; round and square boxes ; small and large sticks ; shells of different sizes; balls; cubes; small jars; toy horses, dogs, cats, dolls, kites, hats, baskets, fans, etc.; bottles; cups and saucers; plates; square and round colored papers; besides objects that may be kept permanently on the teacher's desk. Perishable objects such as flowers, leaves, and fruits should often be brought into the schoolroom. Pictures of animals as well as toys may be used. JUNE Once each week take an action lesson from Colloquial English. Cover the first ten sentences. First Lesson: What is your name? My name is What is my name? Your name is (teacher's name). What is this boy's (or girl's) name? His (her) name is Teach this by rote, individually taking it up again once in a while during the whole first year until each pupil can give his name quickly, also the name of his teacher, and the names of many of his classmates. Second Lesson: A dog, a boy, a girl, a hat, a dolL The teacher shows the objects and repeats the names with the indefinite article which means one. Pupils repeat the names, each child handling the object and naming it. i8i l82 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH Third Lesson: The same objects in pairs. Teach the pupils to name them alone, and in pairs, i. e., a boy, two boys. Fourth Lesson: What is this? Hand the object to pupil and pupil answers: This is a Use the same objects: What are these? Hand the pair of objects to pupil, who answers : These are Fifth Lesson: Teach the same questions : What is this? This is a What are these? These are Use the five objects already mentioned and add a pencil, a book, and a kite, as single objects and as pairs. Sixth Lesson: The same eight objects singly and in pairs. The teacher holds up object and asks: What is this? Do not give the object to the pupil. The pupil answers : That is a Give the object to the pupil and ask, pointing to it: What is that? The pupil answers : This is a Seventh Lesson: The same lesson repeated. Eighth Lesson: The teacher holds up a pair of objects and says: What are these? The pupil does not take objects but answers: Those are Give the pair of objects to the pupil and pointing to them ask: What are those? The pupil answers, holding the pair of objects: These are ; Ninth Lesson: The same lesson repeated. In the beginning the language lessons are all rote work, but by actions teach them to understand that this means a single object in the pupil's hand and these means a pair of objects in the pupil's hand. "That" means a single object in another person's hand, and "those" means a pair of objects in another person's bands. Tenth Lesson: A hand, a foot, a head. APPENDIX C 183 Touch your head and say : I have a head. Each pupil touches his head and repeats : I have a head. Eleventh Lesson: Touch your head: I have a head. Touch the pupil's head: You have a head. Touch a third person's head and say: He (she) has a head. Teach pupils to do the same. Twelfth Lesson: Use the same sentences: I have a You have a He has a ; adding dress, book, pencil. Be sure that each one understands, giving the proper action with the words I, you, he (she). Thirteenth Lesson: Hold up objects or pictures of objects that have been already named, ask: What can you see? I can see a (dog). Fourteenth Lesson: Add a fan, a cat, a ball, also pairs : What can you see ? I can see two balls, etc. Fifteenth Lesson: Add a goat, a stick, a basket, and pairs. Sixteenth, Seventeenth, Eighteenth Lessons: Sometimes have children only come to the teacher's table and touch objects, naming them, i. e., a ball, a fan, etc. Sometimes take up an object and say: I have a ( ). Sometimes the teacher holds up an object and says : What is this? The pupil answers: That is a Sometimes the pupil holds up the object and asks another: What is this ? The other pupil answers : That is Sometimes the teacher takes an object, and gives an object to each pupil, then asks: What have I? The pupil spoken to answers: You have (Teacher) What have you? (Pupil) I have (Teacher, pointing to one of his classmates) What has he? (Pupil) He (she) has Sometimes the teacher takes up an object and asks: What can you see? The pupil answers: I can see , etc. JULY Teach Colloquial English beginning with eleventh sentence. Finish the work required for July. l84 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH First Lesson: What is your name? My name is What is my name? Your name is What is his (her) name? His (her) name is Where do you live ? I live How old are you ? I am years old. How old am I ? You are .... years old. How old is he (she)? He (she) is years old. Second Lesson: Teach to the pupils that in speaking of a thing near to the speaker one must use this; for plural these. Things distant from the speaker are that, or those. Drill each pupil: he touches the things near him and names them, saying: This is He points to a thing on the other side of the room and names it, saying: That is , etc. Third Lesson: Have a big book and a little book, a big ball and a little ball, etc. Drill on these words. Take the big ball and give the little ball to one pupil, then say : I have a large ball. You have a small ball. Pupil repeats, drill. Fourth Lesson: Have long sticks and short sticks, etc. Drill the pupils on these words : I see a long stick, etc This is a short stick, etc. I can see two short sticks. Use objects. Fifth Lesson: My, your, his, her, hand, foot, head, dress. Hold up your hand : This is my hand. Lift the pupil's hand : This is your hand. Point to another pupil's hand: That is his (her) hand. Drill, using the other words. Sixth Lesson: I have my book. You have your book. He has his book. Drill, using pencil, handkerchief, coat, or the things that all realize are their own property. Seventh Lesson: Black, white, red, yellow, blue. Teach these colors by means of colored papers. APPENDIX C 185 Eighth Lesson: Review, and add green, orange, purple. Ninth and Tenth Lessons: Continue lessons on colors. My coat is white. My shoes are black. Your dress is blue, etc. I have a white coat. I have a yellow paper, etc. I can see a red paper. You can see a blue pencil, etc. Eleventh Lesson: Round, square. This is a round ball. That is a square box. I have a round basket. You have a square basket. I can see a round box. He can see a square box. Twelfth Lesson: Review long, short, big, little, round, square. Use objects all of the time. Thirteenth Lesson: Pupils go through the action named. Teacher runs across the room and says : I run. He says to the pupil : Run. The pupil runs, and says: I run. The teacher walks and says : I walk. He commands the pupil to walk. The pupil walks and says : I walk. Ask: What do I do? The pupil answers: You run (walk). When the pupil runs (walks), ask: What do you do? The pupil answers: I walk (run). Fourteenth Lesson: Repeat Lesson 13, adding: I jump. Fifteenth Lesson: Go through the action, and learn to tell what is done. Door, window. I walk to the door (window). You walk to the door (window). He (she) walks to the door (window). I run to the door (window). You run to the door (window). He (she) nms to lie door (window). Sixteenth Lesson: Juan, can you run? Yes, I can rtut Can you jump? Yes, I can jtmip. Can you walk? Yes, I can walk. Can you run and jump? Yes, I can run and jump. l86 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH Seventeenth Lesson: Can you run? Yes, I can run. Can Juan run? Yes, he can run. Can I run? Yes, you can run. Can the dog (cat), (horse), (goat), (pig) run? Yes, the dog (cat), (horse), (goat), (pig) can run. Can the chair run? No, the chair cannot run. Can the table run? No, the table cannot run. Eighteenth Lesson: Can the goat walk? Yes, the goat can walk. Can the pencil walk? No, the pencil cannot walk. Can I walk? Yes, you can walk. Can Maria walk? Yes, she can walk. Can the goat jump? Yes, the goat can jump. Can the book jump? No, the book cannot jump. Colloquial English 26, 27, 28, 29 First Lesson: A round basket, a square basket, a banana, an orange. The teacher says: I have a round basket. She puts a banana in the basket and says : A banana is in the round basket. Pupils do the same. The teacher takes the square basket and says : I have a square basket. She puts an orange in the square basket and says: An orange is in the square basket. Pupils do the same. The teacher asks : Where is the banana ? The banana is in the round basket Where is the orange ? The orange is in the square basket. Second Lesson: Jar, in, on. Ask: Where is the jar? Pupils answer: The jar is on the table. The jar is on the floor. The ball is in the basket, etc., etc. The teacher places the object each time before asking where is the ? Third Lesson: Review in, on, adding under. Fourth Lesson: Toy kite, and toy bird. APPENDIX C 187 What is this? That is a kite. Show a picture of the kite flying and bird flying. Repeat : The kite can fly. What can the kite do? The kite can fly. What can the bird do? The bird can fly. Can the bird fly? Yes, the bird can fly. Can the kite fly? Yes, the kite can fly. Can the boy fly? No, the boy cannot fly, etc., etc. Fifth Lesson: Eggs, bird's nest Bring these objects to school. Hold up an egg. What do you see ? I see an egg. I see a nest, etc Give the egg to a pupil : What have you ? I have an egg, etc. Put the egg in the nest. Ask: Where is the egg? The egg is in the nest. What color is the egg? The egg is white, etc., etc. Sixth Lesson: Drill the same as in Lesson 5, using a box and a ball. Seventh Lesson : Several flowers and leaves. What is this? That is a leaf (flower). Where is the leaf (flower) ? The leaf (flower) is on the table. What color is the leaf (flower)? The leaf (flower) is Can you see the leaf (flower) ? Yes, I can see the leaf (flower). Hide the leaf (flower) : Can you see the leaf (flower) ? No, I cannot see the leaf (flower). Drill. Eighth Lesson: Take different shells and give the same sort of lesson with them. Ninth Lesson: Fans, cups. Handle the object. What is this? What is that? What are these? What are those? What have you? I have a fan. Have you a fan? Yes, I have a fan. Have I a fan? No, you have not a fan. What have you? I have a cup. Have I a cup? No, you have not a cup. All Filipinos use the words yes and no wrong, when speaking English, therefore it is necessary to drill the pupils carefully on this lesson. Tenth Lesson: Drill the same as Lesson 8, but use all the objects that have l88 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH been used before and that must be kept continually in the teacher's desk. Eleventh Lesson: The teacher says to the pupils, today we pl^ ball, showing ball. What is this? That is a ball. What have I? You have a ball Have you a ball? No, I have not a ball. Can you see the ball? Yes, I can see the ball. The teacher throws the ball to one pupil, who catches it and says: I throw the ball to Pedro. Pedro catches the ball. Do this several times. Take the ball again. Throw the ball to a pupil and ask : What do I do ? You throw the ball. Ask : What do you do ? I catch the ball. What do we do? We play ball. Twelfth Lesson: Repeat the ball game. Thirteenth Lesson: Have a big ball and a little ball. Play a ball game again. What do I do ? You throw the little ball, or you throw the big ball, etc. Fourteenth Lesson: Make bean bags with covers of the eight colors, black, white, red, yellow, blue, green, orange, purple. Play with them. I throw the red bean bag. I catch the green bean bag, etc., etc. I play with the bean bags. Fifteenth Lesson: Repeat Lesson 14. Sixteenth Lesson: The bean bag is under the table. The ball is on the table. Ask: Where is the bean bag (ball) ? Pedro, throw the big ball to Juan. What do you do? I throw the big ball to Jxian, Throw the ball on the floor, what do you do ? Throw the ball under the seat. Throw the yellow bean bag to the door (window). Seventeenth Lesson: Pedro, put the big ball in the round box. What do you do? I put the big ball in the round box. Juan, put the blue bean bag under the chair. What do you do? I put the blue bean bag under the chair. APPENDIX C 189 Felix, put the square box by the window. What do you do? I put the square box by the window. Martin, get the square box. What do you do? I get the square box. Tomas, get the blue bean bag. What do you do? I get the blue bean bag. Florencio, get the big baU. What do you do? I get the big ball, etc., etc. Eighteenth Lesson: The same as 17, using different objects. SEPTEMBER The lesson in Q)IIoquial English from Sentence 30 finishes September work First Lesson: Have a jar of water with a fish or two in it What is this? That is a fish. (Teacher) The fish can swim. What can the fish do? The fish can swim. Where is the fish? The fish is in the jar. (Teacher) Water is in the jar. The fish can swim in the water, etc, etc Can you swim? Yes, I can swim. Second Lesson: Has the fish a head? Yes, the fish has a head. Has the fish hands? No, the fish has no hands. Have you hands? Yes, I have hands. Teacher shows the tail and fins and names them. Has the fish a tail? Has the fish fins? Third Lesson: Teacher have a plate of rice, and a cup of water. Teach eat, drink. I eat rice. What do I do? You eat rice. I drink water. What do I do? You drink water. Drill. Can you eat rice ? Yes, I can eat rice. Can you drink water? Yes, I can drink water. Drill. Fourth Lesson: An orange, a stone. What is this? Is the orange round? What color is the orange? Is the orange green? Is the orange big? Where is the orange? 190 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH Can you see the orange? Have you an orange? Throw the orange to me. Teacher says: The orange is soft. The stone is hard. Give the orange to the pupils and have them feel it. Is the orange soft? Yes, the orange is soft. Give the pupils the stone and have them feel it. Is the stone hard? Yes, the stone is hard. Throw the stone to me, etc., etc. Fifth Lesson: Give another lesson similar to illustrate hard, and soft. Shells are hard. Fruits are soft. Sixth Lesson: Take, carry, bring. What is this ? That is a book. Juan, take this book. What do you do ? I take the book. Carry the book to the window. What do you do? I carry the book to the window. Bring me the book. What do you do? I bring you the book. Drill all pupils. Seventh Lesson: Similar lesson, using other objects beside the book. Eighth Lesson: Teacher brings many leaves and flowers to school. What is this? What is that? Where is the leaf (flower)? What color is the leaf (flower) ? Can you see the leaf (flower) ? What have I? Teacher says: Juan, I give you this leaf. Have pupil say: I thank you. Then ask: What do I do? You give me a leaf (flower). What do you do? I take the leaf (flower). Give each pupil a leaf or a flower and have each one say: I thank you, and answer the questions, What do I do? and What do you do? Have the pupils keep the leaf or flower because you gave them to them. Ninth Lesson: Have enough pieces of square or round paper of different colors to give each pupil one. What is this? Is this paper square (round)? What color is this? Juan, show me a red paper. Felix, show me a square, blue paper. APPENDIX C 191 Drill in picking out the shape and color. Then give one to each pupil as in Lesson 8. Then teacher write on the blackboard : This is my paper. Each pupil copy this on his piece of paper. Tenth Lesson: Have some sticks of different sizes and a knife. What is this? That is a stick (knife). Is the stick long (short)? Yes, the stick is long (short). Juan, take the stick (knife). What do you do? I take the stick (knife). Put it on the table. What do you do? I put the stick (knife) on the table. Is the stick hard? Yes, the stick is hard. The teacher takes the knife and cuts the stick and says : I cut the stick. Then he asks: What did I do? You cut the stick. Juan, take the knife and cut the stick. The pupil will perform the action : What do you do ? I cut the stick. Drill. Eleventh Lesson: A similar lesson. Cut bread or fruit. Teacher have a dull knife and a sharp knife. I cut the bread with the knife. What do I do? You cut the bread Tvith the knife. Juan, cut the banana with the knife. What do you do ? I cut the banana with the knife. Try to cut with dull knife. Teach the words dull, sharp. This knife is dull. This knife is sharp. I can cut with the sharp knife. I caimot cut with the dull knife. Twelfth Lesson: Have sticks and unsharpened pencils. Teacher takes knife and sharpens a pencil and says: I sharpen the pencil. What do I do? You sharpen the pencil. Let pupil sharpen the pencil and tell what he does. Take a stick and whittle it: I whittle the stick. What do I do? You whittle the stick. Let pupils whittle sticks and tell what they do. Thirteenth Lesson: Juan, come here. What do you do? I come to you. Juan, go to the window. What do you do? I go to the window. Drill different pupils. Teacher says: I come to school. Then he asks: Do I come to school? Yes, you come to school. Do you come to school? Yes, I come to school. Drill. _ Teacher says : I go home after school. Then he asks : Do I 192 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH go home after school ? Yes, you go home after school. Do yotl go home after school? Yes, I go home after school. Fourteenth Lesson: Have some marbles or little stones, or shells or seeds. What is this? What are these? Are they big? Are they hard? Are they round ? Pupils answer these and similar questions. Give each pupil 5 or lo. What have you? Show the pupils how to play Jacks with these marbles. What do you do ? I play Jacks. Make a circle : What do you do ? I make a circle. Fifteenth Lesson: Open your books. Shut your books. What do you do? We open our books or we shut our books. Open (shut) your eyes. What do you do? We open (shut) our eyes. Open (shut) your mouth (hands). What do you do? We open (shut) our mouth (hands). Drill. Sixteenth Lesson: Juan, open (shut) the door. What do you do? I open (shut) the door. Felix, open (shut) the window. What do you do? I open (shut) the window. Pedro, open the chalk box, etc. Drill. Seventeenth Lesson: Stand. What do you do? We stand. Sit. What do you do? We sit. Drill. Hold up your hands. What do you do ? We hold up our hands. Put down your hands. What do you do? We put down our hands. Drill singly : I stand. I sit. I hold up my hands. I put down my hands. Eighteenth Lesson: Show pictures of birds flying, a boy flying a kite, people work- ing, children playing. What is this? That is a picture. Can you see the bird? Yes, I can see the bird. Teacher says: The bird is flying. Then he asks: Is the bird flying? Yes, the bird is flying. If you can see a bird or a fly flying call the pupils' attention and ask: Is the fly (bird) flying? Yes, the fly (bird) is fljong APPENDIX C 193 _ Can you see the boy and his kite ? Yes, I can see the boy and his kite. Is the kite flying? Yes, the kite is flying. Can you see the man working? etc. Can you see the children playing? etc' Colloquial English as given in the Circular First Lesson: I have a nose. I have a chin. I have a head. I have two hands. I have two feet. I have two eyes. I have two ears. In naming these objects touch them or show them to the class. He (she) has (Point out the objects.) We have (All show objects in unison.) Second Lesson: Repeat Lesson i. Third Lesson: An action game. Pupils pay strict attention and do not make mistakes in performing the action given by the teacher. After the pupil has performed the action ask what do you do? and the pupil must answer correctly in the words in which the teacher gave the command. Change objects but same command. Go to the door (window). I go to the door (window). Come to my desk (table). I come to your desk (table). Get your hat. I get my hat. Give me your book. I give you my book. Take my pencil I take your pencil. Fourth Lesson: Repeat this game. Fifth Lesson: Game, pay attention and follow command. Teacher ask what do you do? Answer in the words of the command. Change objects but same command. Put the pencil into the box. Put the on the desk Put the book under the table. (chair). Put the slate on the floor. Where did you put the pencil? Put the pencil with the paper. Where did you put the book ? Put the ball in the window. Where did you put the slate? Put the in the basket. Where did you put the pencil ? Put the in the hat. Where did you put the ball ? 194 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH Sixth Lesson: Repeat the sth. lesson. Seventh Lesson: Teach near. The chair is near the table. The boy is near the window (door). Where is the chair? The chair is near the table. Where is the boy? The boy is near the window (door). Teacher places the objects in diflferent places, then asks Where is the , pupils answer, and be sure that in, into, on, under, near are used correctly. Eighth Lesson: The teacher goes out of the door and says : I go out of the door. Teacher comes in and says: I come into the room. Re- peat, then ask What do I do? You go out of the room, or you come into the room. Juan, go out of the door. What do you do? I go out doors. What does Juan do? He goes out doors. Juan, come in. What do you do? I come into the room. What does Juan do? He comes into the room. Drill. Ninth Lesson: Repeat Lesson 8. Tenth Lesson: What is your name? What is my name? What is his (her) name? What street do you live in? What is the number of your house? Where is the school house? What grade are you in? What is the number of your room? Eleventh Lesson: Teacher touches one pupil and says: This is (Juan Santos), This is (Felix Fernandez). Then the teacher touches the near- est one and asks Who is this? This is Who is that? That is Drill Which boy is Juan Santos? I am Juan Santos, or if another pupil answers he points to the right person and says : That boy is Juan Santos. Twelfth Lesson: Repeat the nth. lesson asking for many different pupils. Thirteenth Lesson: Juan, can you jump? Yes, I can jump. C^n you run? Yes, APPENDIX C 195 I can run. Can you run and jump? Yes, I can run and jump. Have the pupils go through the actions. Pedro, can you see Juan rim and jump? Yes, I can see Juan run and jump. Drill different pupils on this. Felix, go out of the door. Come in the door. Can you go out and in the door? Yes, I can go out and in the door. Tomas, can you see Felix go out and in the door? Yes, I can see Felix go out and in the door. Francisco, shut the window. Open the window. Can you open and shut the window? Yes, I can open and shut the window. Victor, can you see Fran- cisco open and shut the window? Yes, I can see Francisco open and shut the window. Fourteenth Lesson: Bring some fruits, also grass and water, pictures of animals eating or drinking. I eat chicos. He (she) eats chicos. We eat chicos. The horse eats grass. I drink water. We drink water. The dog drinks water. The boy eats and drinks. The carabao eats and drinks. Pupils go through these actions and teacher asks questions which they answer. Fifteenth Lesson: Have a pupil write his name on the blackboard. What do you do? I write on the blackboard. Have a pupil read something that the teacher writes on the blackboard : Can you read? Yes, I can read. Can he write? Yes, he can write. Can he read and write? Can you carry the chair? Can you bring the chair here? Drill on bring and carry. Sixteenth, Seventeenth, Eighteenth Lesson: Review. Second Semesieb november First Lesson: Teacher walks around the room and carries a book and says : I walk around the room. I am walking around the room. I carry the book. I am carrying the book. Repeat several times, then let different pupils imitate the teacher. 196 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH Each pupil carries the book and tells what he is doing. Then drop the sentence I walk, I carry, and use only the form I am walking around the room. I am carrying a (Carry different objects). Second Lesson: Have a pupil run around the room: What are you doing? I am running around the room. Place two pupils in front of the class and throw the ball from one to another. Ask one: What are you doing? I am throw- ing a ball. Ask a pupil who is not playing: What are the boys (they) doing? The boys (they) are throwing ball. Ask: What is Juan doing? He is throwing the ball. What is Pedro doing? He is catching the ball. What are the boys (they) playing? The boys (they) are playing ball. Third Lesson: Teach pupils to unite two or more sentences in telling what they do. Felix, come here. What do you do ? I come to you. Take the basket from the table, what do you do? I take the basket from the table. Carry the basket to your seat, what do you do? I carry the basket to my seat. Teacher takes the basket and puts it back on the table and says, now, Felix, come here, take the basket from the table, and carry it to your desk, and tell me what you do. Felix says, suiting the actions to his words : I come here, I take the basket from the table, and carry it to my desk. Drill different pupils on the same actions. Fourth Lesson: This lesson is similar to Lesson 3, but the teacher be sure to use only three requests and all in the present tense. Pedro, come to the table, take the ball and put it in the square box, and tell me what you do. (The pupil must suit the actions to the words) I come to the table, I take the ball and put it in the square box. Drill. Juan, come to the table, take the blue bean bag and put it in the window. (Suit the action to the words) I come to the table, I take the blue bean bag and I put it in the window. 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, loth, Lesson : Teacher drill on similar sentences. Do not use more than three sentences. APPENDIX C 197 Use only the same sentences that have been used singly before during the first semester. Always the present tense. Eleventh Lesson: Bring some bananas or chicos or other fruit to school. What is this? Can you eat the chicos (bananas)? Give some to pupil to eat: Is it good to eat? Do you like ? (bananas) Are you eating a ? (banana) Drill. Twelfth Lesson: Bring same fruits, also some sugar, and vinegar and lemon. Name each one and ask the same questions as in Lesson nth. Taste the sugar and say: The sugar is sweet. Taste the lemon and say: The lemon is sour. Is the sugar sweet? Yes, the sugar is sweet. Is the lemon sour? Yes, the lemon is sour. The sugar tastes sweet The lemon tastes sour. Thirteenth Lesson: The same fruits and sugar: Do you like to eat sugar? (lemon, etc.) Yes, I like to eat sugar. Why? Because it is sweet. Do you like to eat lemons? No, I do not like to eat lemons. Why not? Because they are sour. Fourteenth, Fifteenth Lesson: Repeat 13th. lesson using other illustrations. Sixteenth Lesson: Teach face, teeth, comb, hair, towel; Teacher have a basm of water and a comb. Show nie your head. All pupils touch head and say: This is my head. Show me your face. All touch face and say: This is my face. Show me your teeth. These are my teeth. Show me your hair. This is my hair, etc, etc. DECEMBER First Lesson: Teacher washes hands in basin of water and says: I wash my hands. Teacher wipes hands on towel and says: I wipe my hands on the towel. Then the pupil does the same and teUs what he does. Drill. Wash face. Comb hair. igS ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH Second Lesson: Drill on same lesson and teach: I am washing my face (hands). I am wiping my hands. I am combing my hair. I am washing my teeth with a tooth- brush. Third Lesson: Have papers, square and round of different colors. Give a review lesson on colors and shape. Then give each pupil a piece of paper and have them write their name on it. What are you doing? (We are or) I am writing my name. Have them copy a drawing of a hat from the board. What are you doing? (We are or) I am drawing a hat Tell the pupils when we are writing and drawing we are work- ing. What are we doing? We are working. Drill. If the teacher knows how, he can have the pupils make objects from the paper: I am making a paper windmill. Fourth Lesson: A lesson similar to Lesson 3. Give pupils sticks; let them count with sticks. (I am) We are counting. (I am) We are working. (I am) We are building houses. Drill. Fifth Lesson: Several flowers of different colors and sizes, some with sweet odors, also some cologne. What is this? That is a flower. What color is it? Show me the red flower. Show me the little white flower. What is the name of the flower? Drill on the colors, the sizes, big and little, and the names of the flowers. Teacher smell the flower and say: It smells sweet. 1 like the odor. Juan, come her and take this small white flower and smell it. What do you do? I come to you and take this small white flower and smell it Do you like its odor? Yes, it smells sweet. Drill. Felix, come and get this cologne and smell it. What do you do? I come and get the cologne and smell it Do you like the odor? Yes, I like the odor. Does it smell sweet? Yes, it smells sweet. Felipe, come and get the large red (Japonica) and smell it. What do you do? I come and get the large red (Japonica) and smell it. Do you like the odor? It has no odor. Drill the same kinds sentences but change the flowers. APPENDIX C 199 Sixth Lesson: Repeat this lesson with other fresh flowers. Seventh Lesson: Bring many leaves of the common plants that they all will recognize. Have them in the desk. What kind of leaf is this? It is a (banana) leaf. Drill till they name all leaves. Felix, come here and show me the (large banana) leaf. The pupil comes and finds the leaf described by the teacher and holds it up. This is the (large banana) leaf. Drill. Juan, come and get the little leaf and show it to Pedro. What do you do ? I come and get the little leaf and show it to Pedro. DrUl. Eighth Lesson: Repeat the lesson with other fresh leaves. Ninth Lesson: Some cheap fruit, enough so you can give some to the chil- dren. Some ripe and some green (or unripe). What is the name of this fruit? The name of that fruit is Drill. Is it round? Is it soft? Juan, come here and feel this What do you do? I feel this Is it soft (hard) ? Yes, it is soft (hard). The teacher show the ripe fruit and the unripe fruit and name them: Hold up the ripe fruit. Is this ripe? Yes, it is ripe. Is this unripe? Yes, it is unripe. Drill. Felix, can you come and show me the ripe , (unripe) ? He comes and says : This is the Eat it, is it good ? Yes, it is good, or no, it is bad. Teacher says : The ripe fruit is good to eat. The unripe fruit is bad to eat. Drill. Do you like ripe (unripe) fruit? Yes, I like ripe fruit. No, I do not like unripe fruit. Tenth Lesson: Bring other fruits and give the same kind of lesson, adding: Juan, do you like to eat the ripe ? Yes, I like to eat the ripe Is the ripe sweet? Yes, the ripe is sweet. Is the unripe fruit sweet? No, the unripe fruit is not sweet 200 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH Teacher says: The unripe fruit is sour. Is the unripe fruit sour? Yes, the unripe fruit is sour. Eleventh Lesson: Teach by rote the following verse; children must not copy it and study it, but the teacher repeats it line by line and pupils repeat after him. If you have a picture that illustrates the verse show it to the pupils and ask some questions about it Use only the form of questions that have been used before: Little boy blue, Come blow your horn, The sheep are in the meadow; The cows are in the corn. Where is the little boy who takes care of the sheep? He is under the haystack fast asleep. Twelfth Lesson: All repeat the verse of the nth. lesson. Have 2 or more ears of corn on the table. What is this? That is an ear of corn. Take off kernels and show them : This is a kernel of corn. Can you see the kernel of corn? The piece that remains after all kernels have been removed is the cob: What is this? That is a corn cob. Can you eat the corn? Do you like to eat corn? Can the horse eat corn? I cook the corn before I eat it. Use the same sentences that have been used before in describ- ing other things. Do I cook the corn before I eat it? Thirteenth Lesson: Dress, coat, slippers, shirt, pantaloons. This is my My (coat) is (white). Your (dress) is (red). I have green ( ) slippers, etc., etc Use the same kinds of sentences that have been used before. Fourteenth Lesson: Repeat the 13th. lesson. Add skirt, waist, shoes, stockings, SOX. APPENDIX C 20I Fifteenth Lesson: Use a picture of a dog barking. Also if you hear or see a dog around the yard, call attention to the dog. What is this? Can the dog run and jump? The dog barks. Can the dog bark? Is the dog barking? Does the dog eat rice? Amplify the lesson using only the same kinds of sentences that have been used before. The dog has four legs. Has the dog four legs? The dog has a tail. Has the dog a tail? The dog wags his tail. Can the dog wag his tail? The dog barks and wags his tail when he is happy. What does the dog do when he is happy? Sixteenth Lesson: A picture of goats, or animals in school yard if there are any. The baby goats are kids. The goats bleat. Can the goats bleat ? Teacher make the lesson using only the forms of sentences that have been given. JANUARY, First Lesson: Use a picture of chickens and chickens in the yard and give a lesson similar to lessons 15 and 16 of December. The hen lays eggs. The hen clucks to call her little chickens to her. The cock crows. Second Lesson: Pictures of the sun, the moon and stars. The sun shines in the day time. The moon and stars shine at night Is the sun shining? The teacher develops a lesson similar to previous lessons. Third Lesson: Teach by rote the following verse : Twinkle, twinkle, little star; How I wonder what you are, Up above the world so high. Like a diamond in the sky. Can you see the sun? Can you see the stars? Are the stars little? Are the stars shining? No, the stars are not shining. Is the sun shining? Yes, the sun is shining. Teacher says: The stars shine in the sky. Do the stars shine 202 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH in the sky? Yes, the stars shine in the sky. Does the sun shine in the sky? Teacher says: The sky is high. The grass is low. Is the sky high? Is the sun (stars, moon) high? Is the grass (flower) low? What color is the grass? Show me the sun. Show me the grass. Fourth Lesson: School, school-house, schoolroom, school-mates. Children, do you like to come to school? Yes, we like to come to school. Juan, is this your schoolroom? Felix, where is our schoolhouse? Pedro, have we (two) rooms in our schoolhouse? How many rooms have we in our schoolhouse? The children in school are our schoolmates. Francisco, is Pedro your schoolmate? Drill. Fifth Lesson: Repeat lesson 4. Give a lesson naming the articles of furniture in the school- room, the windows and doors, and asking and answering ques- tions about them. Use always the forms of questons that have been given. Sixth Lesson: Give a lesson reviewing shapes, round, square, big, little, short, long, using your boxes, balls, etc., and sticks. Seventh Lesson: Give a lesson reviewing colors, and making things of colored sticks or papers. Eighth Lesson: Big and little, tall and short. Place two pupils in front of the class, a big and a little one. Is Juan a big boy? Is Felix a little boy? Yes, he is a little boy. Juan, are you a big boy? Felix are you a little boy? I am a little boy, but you are a big boy. The same with other pupils, A tall boy and a short boy. The same kinds of sentences. Ninth Lesson: A watch or a clock. You have a watch. The watch is round. The watch has a face. It has two hands. I have two hands. The watch has a APPENDIX C 203 little hand and a big hand. The watch ticks. I can hear the watch tick. Develop a lesson similar to other lessons. Tenth Lesson: Right hand, left hand. Right foot, left foot. Review the parts of the body as named before: head, eyes, ears, mouth, nose, teeth. Add arm, leg, fingers, toes. I run and jump with my feet and legs. I write with my hands. Develop a lesson similar to other lessons. Eleventh Lesson: Review Lesson 10. Twelfth Lesson : Teach by rote: Three little rules we all should keep. To make life happy and bright; Smile in the morning, smile at noon. And keep on smiling at night. I can read and write. I can laugh and cry. I can smile. Thirteenth Lesson: Review Lesson 12. Fourteenth Lesson: A picture representing a child asleep. Felix, close your eyes, and go to sleep. Felix is asleep. Is Felix asleep? Can you sleep? Show me how you sleep. Open your eyes and wake up, Felix. Felix is awake. Develop this lesson. Fifteenth Lesson: Have an American flag. This is a flag. It is red, white, and blue. The stripes are red and white. The stars are white. The stars are in a blue field. The flag waves. I can wave the flag. A flag is in front of the schoolhouse. Let the children make flags from colored papers or with col- ored crayons. Develop this lesson. Sixteenth Lesson: Have a belL 204 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH The bell rings. Juan, can you ring the bell ? I can hear the bell ring. The bell is small. Develop a lesson. Only use the forms of sentences that have been given. FEBRUARY First Lesson: Learn by rote: Hearts like doors open with Ease to very, very little keys; And ne'er forget that they are these: — I thank you, and if you please. Develop a lesson. Second Lesson: Review Lesson i. Third Lesson: Juan, go to the table and take a piece of chalk and write your name on the blackboard, and tell me what you do. Juan does this saying: I go to the table, and take a piece of chalk and write my name on the blackboard. Drill. Felix, get the little ball and put it in the round basket and carry it to your seat and tell me what you do. I get the little ball and put it in the round basket and carry it to my seat. Drill. Give the commands, insist on children paying close at- tention and repeating the actions exactly as given by the teacher. Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Lesson: Similar lessons. Seventh Lesson: Juan, come here. What do you do? I come to you. What did you do ? Teacher says : I came to you, and have pupil repeat it, 1 came to you. Drill. Felix, go to the door. What do you do? I go to the door. Teacher say: What did you do? You went to the door, then ask What did you do ? and pupil says : I went to the door. Drill. Eighth Lesson: Drill on these two forms changing the word door for some other place. Juan, come here. What did you do? I came to you. Felix, what did Juan do? He (she) came to you. Pedro, go to the APPENDIX C 205 door. What did you do? I went to the door. Francisco, what did Pedro do? He went to the door. Drill. I go to the door. Juan, what did I do? You went to the door. Felix, I come to you. What did I do ? You came to me. Drill. Ninth Lesson: Use other places instead of door. Similar lesson to Lessons ? and 8, using the words come, came, go, went, correctly. I go to the door (window, table, chair, desk, etc., etc.). I come to you (my seat, window, door, table, chair, desk, etc.). You went to the You came to me. He (she) went to the He (she) came to me. Juan, do you like to come to school? Yes, I like to come to school. Do you come to school every day ? Yes, I come to school every day. Felix, do you go home at 12 o'clock? Yes, I go home at 12 o'clock. Juan, did Felix come to school this morning? Yes, Felix came to school this morning. Francisco, go out of the door. Pedro, did Francisco go out of the door? Yes, Francisco went out of the door. Francisco, come in. Luis, did Francisco come in? Yes, Francisco came in. Drill. Tenth Lesson: Learn by rote: I'm glad I am a little child. And have the afternoon for play; For if I were a busy bee, I 'spose I'd have to work all day. When do you come to school? I come to school in the morn- ing. When do you play? I play in the afternoon. When do you go to sleep? I go to sleep at night. When does Juan come to school? He comes to school in the morning. When does Juan play? He plays in the afternoon. When does Juan go to sleep? He goes to sleep at night. Eleventh Lesson: Repeat the verse of Lesson 10. Juan, what are you? I am a boy. Felix, what are you? What am I? You are a man (woman). Felix, what is Pedro? He is a boy. Felix, is Pedro a child? Yes, he is a child. Am I a child? No, you are not a child, you are a man (woman). Have we many children in this room? Yes, we have many chil- 206 ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH dren in this room. Do we play in school? No, we do not play in school. Are we playing? No, we are not playing. Are we speaking English? Yes, we are speaking English. Can you speak English? Do you like to speak English? Can you read English? Can you write English? Drill. Twelfth Lesson: A description game. Teacher takes an object from the table and holds it behind him. Pupils do not see what object it is. I have a large, round white object, I can play with it. What is it Juan? (Answer, It is a ball.) If Juan does not answer right, say no. Then repeat the descrip- tion asking some one else. If two pupils fail show the object and say: The large, round, white object is a ball. I can play with it. Pupils must all pay strict attention to your description, and they must not guess carelessly but know exactly what it is from the words that you have used in the description. I have a small round paper object, I can put a shell in it. What is it, Felix? (Answer, It is a box.) I have a large, square, wooden object, I can put a bean bag in it. What is it, Pedro? (Answer, It is a chalk box.) I have a soft, red object, I can throw it to you. What is it, Francisco? (Answer, It is a bean bag.) I have a long, wooden object, I can write with it, what is it, Luis? (Answer, It is a pencil.) Use in this game only the objects that have been used during the year and are in the Teacher's table. Use the words in the descriptions that have been used in the diflferent lessons. Thirteenth and Fourteenth Lesson: The same game as Lesson 12, but in these lessons let a pupil take an object and without letting his companions see it, describe it and ask one of his classmates the question. What is it? Fifteenth Lesson: Have a box of matches, a candle, a toy native stove and a few very small sticks. What is this? It is a candle (a box of matches, a stove). I open the box. What is in the box? Matches are in the box. I take a match and strike it. What do I do? You take a match and strike it. The match bums. What does the match do? It burns. Let it burn till it almost burns the hand : It can burn my hand. I blow it out and I throw it away. What do I do ? You blow it APPENDIX C. 207 out and throw it away. Juan, you can strike a match and light the candle. What do you do? I strike a match and light the candle. Luis, you may blow out the candle. What do you do? I blow out the candle. Sixteenth Lesson: Review Lesson 15. Felix, you may come and make a fire in the stove. (The pupil lays two small sticks in the stove and lights them.) I make a fire in the stove. Pedro, put out the fire in the stove. I put out the fire in the stove. The fire bums the stick. Can the fire bum the stick? Is the fire burning? No, the fire is not burning. MAKCH First week: Review all the verses that have been learned during the semester. Develop the words Today, Yesterday, Tomorrow. Second week: Use the names of the days of the week in sentences. Leara by rote: A child should always say what's true. And speak when he is spoken to. And behave mannerly at table; At least so far as he is able. or Two little hands so soft and white. This is the left, this is the right. Five little fingers stand on each, So I can hold a plum or a peach. But if I should grow as old as you. Lots of little things these hands could do. Third week: Develop the action words: buy, sell, also, market, shop, (shop means tienda). Fourth week: Review lessons. APPENDIX D. PRELIMINARY OUTLINE AND QUESTIONNAIRE, UPON THE REPLIES TO WHICH THE AUTHOR'S TREATMENT OF THE SUBJECT OF THIS WORK IS CHIEFLY BASED. To Accompany "Questionnaire" Issued by Norman F. Black, M. A. of Regina, 2067 Retallack Street. Outline Plan, Offered as Basis for Discussion, on Methods OF Teaching English to Pupils Who Do Not Speak That Language on Entering School. stages or types of lessons N. B. — The teachers whose methods are sjmopsized below think it best to divide the work into six stages or types of instruction, introduced or, more accurately speaking, emphasized, in the order named. Each tsrpe of instruction is continued indefinitely, how- ever, along side of those others introduced later in the Course. First: The names of common objects of interest in and around the schoolroom are taught. Second : Employing names previously learned and making free use of gestures to make clearer the meaning and to show its comprehension, sentences are then introduced based on such forms as the following :— "This is "; "That is "; "I have "; "You have "; "He has "; "I see "; etc. Third: Definite drill follows on use of common prepositions. Special emphasis is thrown on the preposition till its meaning is clearly grasped and where possible systematic use is made of contrast.— E.g, "The table is ON the floor". "The book is ON the table". "The bell is ON the book". "The hat is ON the bell"; etc.— "The bell is UNDER the hat", etc. Fourth: As early as possible, systematic drill is introduced in the performance of actions in response to commands. These in- clude all ordinary class tactics. Such drills are often transformed into amusing games by introducing humorous commands. Ac- tions are described by teacher and pupils. 208 APPENDIX D 209 Fifth: Oral composition based on pictures forms staple from now on. The pictures are used first to suggest names of com- mon objects previously overlooked or omitted and then to de- velop the "story". Illustrated catalogues and other advertise- ments provide material of special value, the "stories" then gen- erally taking form of telling what the things represented are for, or "do". Lessons are frequently based on pictures drawn by pupils. Sixth: Free conversation.— Reproduction of interesting tales, nursery rhymes and other humorous and standard verse or prose. — Reports of experiences and observation at home, etc. — Written composition. — Letterwriting is introduced earlier than for chil- dren from English-speaking homes. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS Language lessons are made as informal and merry as possible. The teacher frequently laughs with her pupils but never at them (in their presence). Very free use is made of chorus answer- ing, especially at first. Pupils are encouraged to assist and cor- rect each other. Praise is used freely. Every lesson (arithmetic, drawing, writing, etc) is made a language lesson. Singing is used to cultivate correct articulation. Teacher frequently ac- companies pupils on walks to answer questions and encourage free expression. Criticisms and suggestions relative to the foregoing outline or information regarding other methods will be gratefully received. Please See Questionnaire. Norman F. Black, M. A. 2067 Retallack Street, Regina. qtjestionnaire on methods of teaching english to pupils Who Do Not Sfeak That Language on Entering School. N. B. — ^To obviate repetition, please read all the questions be- fore writing answers to any. (i) What criticisms or suggestions would you oflfer on the methods indicated in the accompanying "Outline"? (2) Gimpare or contrast your own method with that in the "Outline" (3) Name the outstanding difficulties you meet in teaching English to non-English-speaking children. (4) Have you foimd any particular English idioms especially 2IO ENGLISH FOR THE NON-ENGLISH hard to teach? , If so, what and why? How do you meet the difficulty? (5) Have you found any particular English sounds especially hard to teach? If so, what and why? How do you meet the difficulty? (6) Describe teaching devices in language work, that you have used successfully and that have not been indicated above or on the accompanying "Outline". (7) What book have you found of practical value in your efforts to develop a good method of teaching English? (8) At what institution or from what person have you re- ceived most help in this connection? (9) Name some specially successful teachers of foreign chil- dren, giving addresses. (10) Are you able to secure the use of English in the play- ground? , If so, how? (11) Do you speak the mother tongue of your non-English- speaking pupils or of any of them? , If so, to what extent do you use it in school? (12) Is it an advantage for the teacher to be able to speak the mother tongue of pupils learning English? Give reasons. (13) With pupils learning English, how soon would you com- mence to teach reading? (14) Do you recommend the same methods of teaching read- ing as with English-speaking children? , If not, briefly in- dicate difference and reasons. (is) Should the curriculum of schools for children of foreign parentage differ from that of ordinary schools? , If so, in what regards? (16) Is it in the pupils' interest to devote part of the regular school hours to formal instruction in his mother tongue if it be not English. If so, how much of the teacher's time should be thus employed? (Teachers experienced in "dual language" school are requested to answer these questions with special care.) (17) What were the languages of the children to whom you have taught English? Underline the predominating language if several are named. (18) Indicate sources of failure or discouragement not already alluded to, that, through experience, you have learned to avoid. (19) Report, with whatever definiteness is possible, about how APPENDIX D 211 rapidly a fairly bright pupil should progress in the mastering of English. (20) Have you suggestions to offer regarding the training of teachers for schools in non- English-speaking communities? (21) Are you sending samples of work done by children of foreign extraction? , If so, please mark the samples in each case, so as to show as exactly as posssible: — (a) The name, age and nationality of the pupil by birth and parentage. (b) How many dajrs he has been at school. (c) Whether he knew any English on first coming to school. (22) Should occasion arise, am I at liberty to quote your name in making use of the opinions or material you place at my dis- posal? (23) Am I justified in looking forward to receiving from you before next March any further report? Uncorrected sam- ples of work done by the same pupil at different stages of the first and second school year are specially desired. Also if you borrow any suggestion from this Questionnaire or the accom- panying "Outline", your experience when you have tested the stiggestion in the classroom will be welcome. Let us help each other I Address Norman F. Black, M. A, 2067 Retallack St, Regina, Sask., Canada.