piiii«il'>!i ' ^; J' r-i COR^^IELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES ITHACA, N. Y. 14853 JOHN M quN LIBRARY NK1510 .cfT'iser'"' '''^"^ oiin ^ ^924 030 688 448 Overs -.*■' SUPPLIED TO SUBSCRIBERS ONLY. Sug gestions in Design: A COMPREHENSIVE SERIES OF ORIGINAL SKETCHES IN VARIOUS STYLES OF ORNAMENT, ARRANGED FOR APPLICATION IN THE DECORATIVE AND CONSTRUCTIVE ARTS, By John Leighfon, F.SJ., M.R.I. , ILLUSTRATOR OF "THE MORAL EMBLEMS" AND "THE LYRA GERMANICA" AND AUTHOR OF "THE LIFE OF MAN SYMBOLIZED," " MADRE NATURA," &c. &c. TO WHICH IS ADDED DESCRIPTIVE AND HISTORICAL LETTERPRESS, WITH EXPLANATORY ENGRAVINGS, By James Kellaway Colling, f.r.i.b.a., AUTHOR OF "GOTHIC ORNAMENTS," "DETAILS OF GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE," "ART FOLIAGE," "ENGLISH MEDIEVAL FOLIAGE," "ART BOTANY," &c. &c. N attempt to ornament or to enrich by decoration the ordinary works turned out by the hand of man has been the aim of every age, from the earliest and the remotest times. Even among the savao;e tribes of the world this love of ornamentation is as apparent as it is among our most modern and art-loving craftsmen. It is, however, a melancholy fact that many highly-gifted workers in the numerous branches of trade and manufacture are frequently going astray, or are continually repeating common and hackneyed forms, in their efforts to enrich their works, for the want of a mere " suggestion," — not an elaborately worked-out idea, but for an original thought, or as the French more happily put it a motif, which will suggest, by some slight turn or alteration, a form or kind of enrichment which may be adapted to their purpose. A work supplying this desideratum, would be a perfect boon in the hands of the art worker, and has long been sought after. To meet this want the present series of " Suggestions " in many distinct species of ornamentation has been carefully brought together and arranged for practical use. These suggestions have not been taken from other examples, or collected from already published works apart from those by their author; they are throughout original, designed in the spirit, and with the proper art feeling of the various styles to which they severally belong, and are the accumulated result of long and arduous studies, extending over many years of investigation and thought. They are aids to design more than for servile imitation or direct appropriation, serving to represent the type of many designs rather tlian portraits of any. The object of the author, therefore, being that of presenting suggestions, leaving the designer or art-workman to modify, or adapt them to his own purposes, the work will be found to be eminently suited to the wants of nearly every one who has occasion for decoration in whatever form; — to the worker in stone, wood, metal, ivory, glass, and leather, — to the house- painter, decorator, manufacturer of wall papers, carpets, curtains, and fioor-cloths, — to the potter, weaver, calico printer, engraver and lithographer, — as well as to others too numerous to mention. For the convenience of reference, the various styles are placed, as far as possible, in their true historical order, and the descriptions aid this arrangement by giving some slight but necessary account of the various developments and different phases of ornamental art. The illustrations embodied in the text are all taken from actual examples, and serve to give a clear impression of the characteristic features of the various styles of architecture and ornamentation which have been developed in the different countries of the vporld. The work, therefore, is divided into twenty-eight chapters, as follows — Chap. 1. Introduction. Chap. 14. Moorish Ornamentation. Byzantine do. Gothic do. Ornamental Metal Work. Geometric Ornament. LabjTinths and Inlays. Blazonry and Heraldic Ornament. Renaissance Ornamentation. do. Elizabethan and JacobeaiL do. French— Louis XIV. and XV. Floral Sprigs and Vignettes. Floral Ornament (Miscellaneous). Figures, as applied to Ornamentation. Animals, Chimeras, and Trophies. Letters, Monograms, &c. It may be proper to state that Mr. Leighton has been awarded medals for his ornamental and decorative designs at all the great International Exhibitions at which he has competed. In 18-51, he obtained a First Class in the Fine Arts, and a Service Medal, having assisted the late Mr. Owen Jones in the arrangement of that remarkable collection. At Paris, in 1855, he had a First Class; and again at London in 1862, where he obtained a Prize Medal, and also one for Services as Superintendent to the Arts Design Committee, under Sir H. Cole, C.B., D. Maclise, E.A., and Sir Digby Wyatt, F.S.A. At Paris in 1867, he again had a First Class, and at Philadelphia in 1876 a First Class in the Fine Arts. At Paris in 1878, Mr. Leighton served on the Jury, which placed him out of competition ; his services, however, were acknow- ledged by receiving the high compliment of an autograph letter from H. R H. The President of the Pioyal Commission. Suggestions in Design will comprise 102 Plates, containing more than eleven iundred distinct and separate "suggestions." The text will be accompanied by above two hundred Illustrative Engravings, taken from existing examples. *^* The work will be handsomely printed on royal 4to, and will be completed in twenty parts at fifty- cents, or five divisions at two dollars each. Each part will contain five pages of engravings and eight pages of letterpress, and each division will be composed of four parts. 1. Introduction. Chai ). 14. 2. General Principles, which should be 1.5. adhered to in Architecture and the 16. Decorative Arts. 17. 3. Ornament of Savage Tribes. 18. 4. Egyptian Ornamentation. 19. 5. Assyrian do. 20. 6. Greek do. 21. 7. Etruscan do. 22. 8. Pompeian do. 2.3. 9. Eoman do. 24. 10. Chinese do. 2.5. 11. Japanese do. 26. 12. Indian do. 27. 1.3. Persian do. 28. .=dk^ SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN. '"^$r' DESIGN A BEING A COMPREHENSIVE SERIES OF ORIGINAL SKETCHES IN VARIOUS STYLES OF ORNAMENT. AEEANGED FOR APPLICATION IN THE DECOEATIVE AND CONSTRUCTIVE ARTS. BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A., AUTHOE or "THE LIFE OF MAN SYMBOLIZED," "MADK^ NATUEA," ETC. WITH DESCRIPTIVE AND HISTORICAL LETTERPRESS, By JAMES E' "^QOLLING, f.r.i.b.a., AUTHOR OF "GOTHIC ORNAMENTS," &c. NEW YORK: D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 1, 3, AND 5 BOND STREET. 18 8 1. (2) Q r j^--^. Z^ A' 2.9-4^^^ X IV K IS 10 ^ Ill PUBLISHEES' PREFACE. DESIRE to ornament or to enrich by decoration the ordinary works turned out by the hand of man has been common to every age, and even among |; savage tribes this love of ornamentation is as apparent as it is among our S^ ' ^"^ ^ most modern and art-loving craftsmen. It is, however, a melancholy fact that many gifted workers in the numerous branches of trade and manufacture are frequently led astray, or are at best often repeating common and hackneyed forms, in their efforts to enrich their works, for the want of a mere "suggestion" — not an elabor- ately worked -out idea, but an original thought, or as the French more happily put it a motif-ywhicii would suggest, by some slight turn or alteration, a form or kind of enrich-, ment- adapted to their purposa A work supplying such suggestions has long been Sought after, and would doubtless prove a boon in the hands of art-workers. The present series of " Suggestions " was therefore projected, in which many distinct species of ornamentation have been carefully brought together and arranged for practical use. The designs are the production of Mr. John Leighton, a gentleman well known in the art world, who has been awarded medals for his ornamental and decorative designs in all the great International Exhibitions at which he has competed, and who served on the jury at the Paris Exhibition of 1878. They have not been taken from other examples or collected from already published works by other authors ; they are throughout original, conceived in the spirit and with the proper art feeling of the various styles to which they severally belong, and are the accumulated result of long and arduous studies They are intended as aids to design rather than for servile imitation or direct appropriation, serving to represent the type of many designs and not the exact portraits of any. The object of the author, therefore, being to present suggestions, leaving the designer or art-workman to modify or adapt them to his own purposes, it is hoped that the book will be found eminently suited to the wants of all engaged in decorative and ornamental work. For the convenience of reference, the various styles are placed, as far as possible, in their true historical order, and the descriptions aid this arrangement by giving brief but clear accounts of the various developments and different phases of ornamental art. The illustrations embodied in the text are mostly taken from actual examples, iv Ptiblishers Preface. and serve to convey a good idea of the characteristic features of the various styles of architecture and ornamentation which have been developed in the different countries of the world. It may be proper to state that the nucleus of the present work, bearing the same title, was published by ]\Ir. Leighton under the novi cle lAume of "Luke Limner," in 1852-53, but it then contained less than half the number of examples (47 Plates). This original work was the first of its kind in which all the styles of ornament were disj^layed. It was begun when Gothic art, under the influence of Pugin, was paramount — when Owen Jones had only published his Alhamhra, and his Grammar of Ornament had not even been thought of. Indian art was then only beginning to be ajipreciated, and the art-value of Japanese work was still unknown. This smaller work was highly valued at the period, and the marked success it met with has induced the author to revise and redraw the original plates, as well as to add to their number to such an extent, that the book may justly be considered a new one. In the smaller Avork there was no letterpress beyond a slight description of the Plates. The publishers of the present work, feeling this want, and resolved to spare neither expense nor trouble to make the work thoroughly useful, sought the aid of Mr. J. K. Colling, a well-known writer on ornamental art. It is hoped, therefore, that the extensive addition of descriptive and historical matter by this gentleman, with the numerous engravings introduced throughout the text, will render the book a valuable help to the artist and art-workman. V. CONTENTS, PAGE LIST OF THE PLATES, ix CHAPTER I.— INTRODUCTION. Drawing in primitive states of Society — Its importance as a part of Education — Design — Need for a groundwork or motif — Architecture — Connection between Nature and Art — Principles of Regularity and Irregularity in Nature — Plant and Animal Forms — Crystals of Snow — Examples of Ornamental Forms, 1 CHAPTER II.— GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN. Forty General Principles of Design founded upon the Practice of Art iu the best ages, 11 CHAPTER III.— ORNAMENT OF SAVAGE AND EARLY TRIBES. Innate Love of Ornamentation among Primitive Paces — Their Art imbibed from Nature — Carving out of Surface — Their Symbolism — The Potter's Art coeval with Written Language. Description of Plate 1, .... 15 CHAPTER IV.— EGYPTIAN ORNAMENTATION. Its Antiquity — Two great Periods — The Pyramids and the Temples — Adaptation of Sculpture and Paintiiig — Mouldings unfrequent — Cornice — Hieroglyphics — Columns and Capitals - - Colossal Statues — Tombs — Mode of Drawing and Sculpturing — Painting — Colours used -- Building Materials — Eock-hewn Temples — Treatment of Flat Surface — The Sun and Sacred Beetle — The Papyrus, Lotus, and Palm. Description of Plates 2, 3, -J, . 19 CHAPTER v.— ASSYRIAN ORNAMENTATION. Excavations at Khorsabad and Nimroud — Palace at Kouyunjik — Bas-reliefs — Exterior of Palaces — Entrances — Walls — Sun-dried Bricks faced with Alabaster — Remains at Persepolis and Susa — Similarity between the Architecture of the .Jews and the Assyrians — Lotus and Bud Ornament — Delicacy in Wall Sculptures — Floors — Terra-cotta Cylinders — Carved Ivory — Bronze Tools and Implements — Colour — Silver and Gold Plates — Pelasgic-Greek leased on Assyrian — Guilloche, Patera, and Wave-scroll. Description of Plates .5, 6, . 28 CHAPTER VI.— GREEK ORNAMENTATION. Early Inhabitants of Greece — Their Colonies — Magna Grrecia and Ionia — Asia Minor the cradle of Hellenic Art — Its Elements — Archaic Spiral Ornaments— -The Suastika^ Greek Sculpture — The Parthenon— Phidias — The PropylaBum and the Theseum — Polychromatic Decoration — Antefixal Oinaments — The Erechtheum — The Monument of Lysicrates — Tower of the Winds — Acanthus and other Foliage — Echinus or Egg-and- tono-ue, Eeel-and-bead, and enriched Ogee — Antique Sculpture in Europe;in Museums — Terra-cotta Vases, called Etruscan. Description of Plates 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 34 CHAPTER VII.— ETRUSCAN ORNAMENTATION. Early Colonization of Etruria — Modern Discovery of Vases — Probably made by Greek Potters — Antiquity of the Ceramic Arts — The Ancient Potter's Wheel — Excellence of Work produced — Ornaments on Vases — Vases of two cla.sses — Process of Painting and Baking — Subjects represented — Figures and Foliage — Variations upon Greek Forms — Care and Skill required — Forms and Names of the Vases — Bronze work and Jewelry — Armour and Weapons — Tools — Mirrors. Description of Plate 13, -13 CHAPTER VIII.— POMPEIAN ORNAMENTATION. Excavations at Herculaneum and Pompeii — Result — Divisions of a Pompeian House — Architectural Details- Colouring and Painting — Mosaics - Greek Bronzes — Intensity of Colours — Arabesque Devices on the Walls — Extravagance and recklessness of co.st in Decoration. Description of Plate 14 47 vi Contents. CHAPTER IX.— ROMAN ORNAMENTATION. PAGE Style borrowed from the Greek — Tuscan and Composite added by tlie Romans — Greek Artists and Works — Use of the Orders extended — Roman Application of the Arch — The Pantheon — Basilica of Maxentius — Aqueducts — Bridrres — Groining — Ornamental Details and Sculpture — The Corinthian and Composite Capitals — Cornices — Mouldings, Fasoias, and Friezes — Houses, Baths, and Public Buildings — Mosaic Pavements — Elaboration of Ornament — The Sphinx, Triton and Griffin, with extremities passing into Foliage — Vases and Tazzas — Marble Chairs, Baths, Altars, &c. — Paintings. Description of Plates 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 51 CHAPTER X.— CHINESE ORNAMENTATION. Origin of Chinese Art involved in Mystery — They possess Elements of a great Nation — Excel in Constructive Talent — Ornamental Workmanship — Garden Structures, &c. — Bricks —Roofs and Tiles — Wooden forms, repeated in Stone, Marble, and Metal — Houses — PaiToics — Graves — Tombs of the Ming Dynasty — Peking — Imperial Temples — Pagodas — Polychromy — Ceramic Art — Porcelain — Its Ornamentation and Harmonious Colouring — Light, Shade, and Perspective — Woven Fabrics -- Paper-hangings — Facility in Drawing — Diapers — Embroidery Pattern — Borders — Fret form — Key and Imbricated Diapers — Carving in Wood, Ivory, and Jade — Lacquer ware — Enamelling — Metal work — Bells — Iron Bridges — Josses. Description of Plate 21, . 57 CHAPTER XL— JAPANESE ORNAMENTATION. Japanese Art closely allied to that of China — Houses and Temples mostly of one story — Formed of Wood with Bracketting — Roofs — Tiles and Terra-cotta Ornaments — Arrangement of Houses — Temples — Tombs — Egg-and-tongue Fret — Scroll and Bud — Ornamentation of common Fabrics — Fertility of Invention — Their love for Variety — Find geometrical Precision in Nature beneath apparent Confusion — Shun equality of Parts — Have no precise Rules for Art Compositions — Love of the Irregular dominant — Their power of obtaining Variety — Ability of Drawing — Birds, Plants, Flowers, Fish, and Insects rendered with Fidelity — Deficiency in drawing the Human Figure — Lantlscapes quaint — Smaller Figures full of Fun — In C'olour judicious — Decoration in Lacquer ware — Crests or Badges — Red Sun, the Emblem of Japan — Evil Spirits — Colour Printing — Paper — Its application — Pottery — Enamelling — Their Artistic feeling — Japanese work not all good. Description of Plates 22, 23, 24, 63 CHAPTER XII.— INDIAN ORNAMENTATION. Architecture and Ornament of India an intricate subject — Many Styles — Stone Temples erected about 250 B.C. — Jain and Buddhist Architecture almost identical — Early Remains — Structural Buildings and Cave Temples — Chaitya Halls — Dagobas — Viharas — The Kylas, a complete Temple internally and externally cut out of the rock — The Paths of Mahavellipore — Topes — Gateways — Construction of Rails — Rail at Amravati — Other styles of Architecture — Great Temple of Bhobaneser — Arch not on true principle — Bracket Cajiitals — S-shaped Bracket Strut — Temple of Vimala Sah — Saracenic or Moorish engrafted upon the Hindu Styles — Bulbous Domes — Inlay with precious Stones and Marbles — - The Moguls — Palace at Delhi — Palaces at Agua, Allahabad, and other places — Tombs — Taje Mahal — Styles extend over a vast period of time — Lavishness of Labour and Elaboration — Architectural Forms simple — Buildings like Sculptured Rocks — Every inch of space ornamented — The Lotus — Roses or Pateras — Beads or Pearlings — Flowing Lines — Cieonietrical Diaper — Buddhist Emblems — Inlay Work — Modern Carving — Woven Fabrics — Plant form conventionalized. Description of Plates 25, 26, ................. 72 CHAPTER XIII.— PERSIAN ORNAMENTATION. Ruins of Persepolis — Palace of Darius and Hall of Xerxes — Human-headed winged Bulls — Colunnis with double Capital — Susa — Rock-cut Tomb of Darius — Arab Conquest — Mosques — Tiles — Glazed Bricks — Colour — Ispahan — The Maidan or Bazaar-- Palaces — Tiles with Geometrical Figures and Inscriptions — Porcelain — Carving d yo?«r — Sherbet Spoons— Metal work - Textile Fabrics — Carpiets — Seal and Gem Engraving — Illuminated Manuscripts. Description of Plate 27, .81 CHAPTER XIV.— MOORISH OR SARACENIC ORNAMENTATION. Co-extensive with Mohammed.anism — Damascus — Mosque of Alwalid II, -Bagdad — The Moors in Spain — Mosque of C'ordova — Toledo — The Alhamlira- Style, lirick covered with tiles or stucco — Forms, without surface enrichment, simple — The ] )ome — Minarets - Horse-shoe Arch - - Cusping — Columns — Corbelling — Exampile from Owen Jones — The Fret — The Star f(irm — Pavements and Wall Decoration — Ornament confined to surface — Decorative Forms double — Colouring — Rules from (jwen Jones — Arms and Armour — Furniture. Description of Plates 28, 29, 30, 31, 86 Contents. vii CHAPTER XV.— BYZANTINE ORNAMENTATION, WITH NOTICES OF ROMANESQUE AND CELTIC. PAGE Origin of Byzantine and Eomauesque Art — Constaiitine — Justinian — Chureli of St. Sophia —San Vitale — Difference between Eastern and We.'itern Empires — The Greek and Latin Grosses — Ghurch of St. Mark, Venice — Semicircular Arch — Vaulting and Groining — The Dome — Greek Taste — Byzantine and Komarjesque Fohage — Church of St. Sergius — Anthemion Ornament — Foliage — Wall Mosaics — Borders, &c. — Elooi-s — Churches of St. Sophia, St. Francis at Assisi, St. Mark, and Duomo at Florence — Influence of Celtic or Runic Ornamentation — Stone Crosses of Ireland — Celtic and Anglo-Saxon Manuscripts — Wooden Churches of Norway — Norman Churches — Interlacing forms — Serpent Worship — Sculptures at Saintonge and Poitou — Souillac — Eesemblance between Doorways in Italian and Norwegian Churches — Ely Cathedral — Norman Churches and Cathedrals — Canterbury — Lincoln — Enamelling — Carving in Ivory — Chair of Maxiniian — Ivory used to decorate Books, Reliquaries, &c. Description of Plates 32, 33, 34, . 04 CHAPTER XVI.— GOTHIC ORNAMENTATION. Limit of term " Gothic" — Divided into Early, Middle, and Late, or Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular — French Terms — Windows — Lancets — Tracery — Arches — Roofs — Groining — Fan-groining — King's College Cambridge, St. George's Chapel Windsor, and Henry VII.'s Chapel Westminster — Sculptured Foliage : Early English, Decorated, Perpendicular — Wood work — All Saints', Evesham — Sculpture — Heraldic Emblems — Grotesque Animals — Elizabethan Style — Stained Glass — Canterbury and Salisbury Cathedrals — Grisaille — York Cathedral — Figures, Colour, and Foliage — : Large Figures, in Niches with Canopies — Domestic Windows — Quarry work — Walls — Gilding and Colouring in Roofs or Groining — Tile and Marble Floors — Goldsmitlis' and Jewellers' Art — Chalices, &c. — Tapestry — Arras. Description of Plates 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 101 - CHAPTER XVII.— ORNAMENTAL METAL WORK. Subject here principally limited to Bronze and Ii-on — Ancient Workers in Bronze — Art jjerfected by Greeks — Bronze Sculpture — Hollow Castings — Tooling and Chasing — Works of Phidias and other Greek Artrsts — Horses at St. Mark's, Venice — Antique Bronzes — Constantine — Statue of St. Peter — Bronze work in Britain during Celtic Period — Ireland — Monumental Bra.s.ses — Queen Eleanor's Monument, Westminster Abbey — Latten — Effigy of Henry III. — Tomb in Henry VII.'s Chapel — Forged Iron — Hinges — Mode of Formation — Open- work Screens — Keyhole Plates and Door Handles — Cabinet Hinges — English Smiths of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries — Hampton Court Palace Screens — Cast-iron — Early Castings — Chiselled Iron of French workmanship — Mode of Casting — Injudicious Treatment of Cast-iron — Cast Twisted Bars. Descrip- tion of Plates 41, 42, 43, 44, 109 CHAPTER XVIIL— GEOMETRIC ORNAMENT. Geometrical form foundation of Ornamental Art — Traced through all periods — Also in leading lines of Foliage — In accordance with Nature — Eegidarity and Irregularity — The Triangle, Square, and Circle — Hexagon, Octagon, and Ellipse — Combinations — Pentagon — Geometrical Changes — Geometrical Formation in Bands, Mouldings, &c. — Diapered Surfaces — Intricate Inlays reduced to their Geometrical Elements. Description of Plate 45, . 117 CHAPTER XIX,— INLAYS, LABYRINTHS, AND DIAPERS. Inlaying of gi-eat Antiquity — Floors — Formed of TesseriB — Battle-piece from Pompeii — The Process in England — Frieze from the Albert Hall — Colours — Roman . Sectile Pavements — Pantheon at Rome — Church of St. Francis at Assisi — Byzantine Glass Mosaic — Dr. Salviati — Albert Memorial — Roman Mosaic — Wall Mosaics in St. Peter's and St. Paul, Rome — Portraits of the Popes — Copies from Raff'aele, &c. — Drawing, Expression, and Colouring perfect — Miniature Works in Mosaic — Wall Mosaics not prevalent during Mediajval Styles in England — Painting — Peterborough Cathedral — Tomb of Henry III — Shrine of Edward the Confessor — Inlaid Floors — Westminster Abl:>ey — Canterbury Cathedral — Flint Inlay — Labyrinths in Floors — Church of St. Bertin — Cathedral of Chartres — Incised Work — Tintern Abbey — Canterbury — Memorial Chapel to Prince Albert — Gloucester Cathedral — Encaustic Tiles — Marquetry — Parquetry — Flat Diapers — Painting, Stencilling, or Printing — Sculjjtured Diapers — Terra-cotta Diapers. Description of Plates 46,47,48, 121 CHAPTER XX.— BLAZONRY AND HERALDIC ORNAMENT. The terra Blazonry — First Forms and Figures — Ancient Symbols — The Crusades — Crests — Coats of Arms — Progress of Heraldry— Shields— The Field— Tinctures— Furs— Partition Lines— Ordinaries -Charges— Marshalling — Quartering — Cadency — Badges or Cognizances — Knots — Rebus — Seals — Mottoes — Supporters — Flags. Description of Plates 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 127 vm 136 Contents. CHAPTER XXL— RENAISSANCE ORNAMENTATION. Eise of the Style in Italy — Brunelleschi — Bramaiite and Michael Angelo — Spread of the Style in France — Early Examples of it in England — Torrigiano and Hans Holbein — Characteristics of the Style — Italian Palaces — The Style in Venice ~- San Micheli, Sansovino, and Andrea Palladio — Arabesque Decorations — Ornamental Furniture — Marquetry — Carved Woodwork and Furniture — Flemish Carved Work — Gold and Silver smith's work — Benvenuto Cellini — Niello or Black Inlay — Ceramic Earthenware or Majolica. Description of Plates 55 to 68 (inclusive), CHAPTER XXII.— ENGLISH RENAISSANCE ORNAMENTATION (Elizabethan and Subsequent Periods). Its First Introduction — Hans Holbein — Classical Forms — A Picturesque Transitional Style produced ~ Tudor Mansions — Monuments — Escutcheons — Arabesque Work — Fire-places — Staircases — Carving — Wains- cotting — Tapestry — Stamped and Gilded Leather — John Shute — .John Thorpe — Robert Smithson — Inigo Jones ~ Fire of London — Sir Christopher Wren — Vanbrngh, Hawksmoor, Gibbs, and Cliambers — Stuart and Eevett — Grecian Style — French Furniture — Wren's School of Carving — Grinling Gibbons — Dutch Furniture — Queen Anne Style — Gilded Furniture — Chippendale — Better Style influenced by Chambers and the Brothers Adam — Cipriani and Angelica Kauffman — Vernis-Martin. Description of Plates 69, 70, . . 144 CHAPTER XXIIL— FRENCH RENAISSANCE ORNAMENTATION. Francis I. introduces Italian Artists — Fontainebleau — The Louvre — Tuileries — Late additions to the Louvre — Versailles — Louis XIV. Style — Francois and Jules Hardouin Mansard — Louis XV. Style — Watteau — Other Painters and Decorators — Rococo — Bnhl-work — Ormolu — Tapestry — Maison des Gobelins — Louis XVI. Style — Style of the First Empire — Renaissance the National Style — Modern Work in Paris. Description of Plates 71, 72, 73, 150 CHAPTER XXIV.— FLORAL ORNAMENTATION. Nature the original source of Ornamental Foliage, and should be constantly referred to — Art — Natural Forms to be altered — Revival not Art — Leading Lines — Angular — Flowing — Radiation — Flowers — Geometrical Figures — Law of Growth — Leaves — Not necessary to adhere closely to Natural Form -Greek Acanthus — Natural Principle — Suggestive Examples. Description of Plates 74 to 84 (inclusive), ........ 155 CHAPTER XXV.— FIGURES, ANIMALS, CHIMERAS, AND TROPHIES. Representation of the Human Form — May be introduced in Decoration to give a higher tone — Greek Terra Cotta — The Romans — Foliage and Figures combined — Roman Altar — Frieze — Giiffins — Festoons — Amalgamating Animals, Birds, Insects, and Chimerical Forms constant in Italian, French, and English Renaissance — Celtic Ornamentation on Cro.sses and Manuscripts — Chimeras — Trophies — Armour and Warlike Implements — Pastoral, Hunting, and Musical Trophies — Modern Trophies — Grinling Gibbons — Imitation not Art — Objects shouhl have an Emblematical or Allegorical Meaning. Description of Plates 85 to 96 (inclusive), .... l63 CHAPTER XXVL— LETTERS AND MONOGRAMS. Manuscripts embellished ages ago — Egyptian Papyri — Hieroglyphics — Hebrew Letters — Egyptian Papyrus Scrolls — Parchment — Paper — Classical Manuscripts — Capital Letters — Uncial Style — INIaguscule and Miuiscule — "Codex Argenteus" of Ulpihilus — Psalter of St. Germain de Pres — New Testament in Cottonian Library — Book of Genesis at Vienna — Other Specimens in Libraries of Paris, Oxford, and London — Age of Justinian — Palimpsests — Cardinal Angelo Mai — Ancient Irish Versions of the Gospels — Irish Saints distinguished Scribes — Their Schools famous throughout Europe — St. Columba — St. Cuthbert — Durham Book, &c. — Diffusion of Irish Manuscrii)t3 — St. Boniface — St. Kilian — St. Gall — Saxon Illumination died out — Ingulphus — The Plantagenets — French Influence — English Illumination — Gothic Manuscripts — Queen Mary's Psalter — Invention of Printing — Gutenburg and Caxton — Ornamental Letters — Designed by the best Artists —Monograms. Description of Plates 97, 9S, 169 MISCELLANEOUS. Description of Plates 99, 100, 101, 175 D.iSCRIPTKlN OF TItK SYMBOMCAr. FldUUES IN TUK Fill INTISPIECE, 176 IX LIST OF THE PLATES. Frontispiece — containing Symbolical and other Figures. (Described at page 176.) 17 Examples. SAVAGE TEIBES. 1. Primitive Forms, comprising Frets, Flowing and Zigzag Lines, &c., EGYPTIAN. 2. Friezes, &c., 3. Figure, Animals, Lotus Ornament, Winged Globe, &c., . 4. Lotus, Papyrus, Cartouches with Hieroglyphic Writing, ASSYPJAN. 5. Lotus and Bud, Palm, &c., 0. Eagle-headed Lions, Sacred Tree and Pomegranates, &c., GEEEK. 7. Atlantes, Anthemion, Meander and Fret Forms, &c., 8. Frieze Enrichment, &c., 9. Heads of the Fates and of Minerva, Figures, &c., 10. Antefixal Ornaments, Telamon, &c., .... 11. Ivy-leaf Borders, Frets, &c., ..... 12. Brush-formed Ornament, ETRUSCAN. 13. Heads, Foliage, and Mirror, Convolvulus Ornament, . POMPEIAN. 14. Painted Panel, Wall Decoration with Arabesque Borders, &c., ROMAN. 15. Animals, Masks, Termini, and Fountain, 16. Figures and Running Ornaments, 17. Ornaments for Painting or Carving, 18. Medallions, Figures, and Animals, 19. Altar, Trophy with Heads of Hercules, Ajax, and Agamemnon, 20. Friezes, Ornamental Vase, &c., CHINESE. 11 12 17 21 13 12 14 12 11 18 8 11 9 12 15 11 12 9 9 21. Panels, Screens, &c., JAPANESE. 22. Birds, Flowers, &c., 23. Fish Ornaments, Landscape, Overlapping Circles, &c., 7 24. Geometrical, Animal, and Flower Forms, -13 12 INDIAN. 25. Pine and other Conventional Forms, 26. Surface Decoration, Borders, &c.. 13 16 List of the Ptates. PERSIAN. 27. Ornaments for Engraving, Tile.s, Textile Fabrics, &c., MOORISH. 28. Borders, Centre.s, and Surface Decoration, 29. Battlement, Centres, and Panels, .... 30. Foliated and Geometrical Ornament, .... 31. Panel and Surface Decoration for Painting or Inlay, 14 Examples. 14 11 13 13 BYZANTINE. 32. Celtic and other Ornaments, Interlaced Combinations for Inlay, 33. Anglo-Norman and Byzantine Enrichments, 34. Norman, Anglo-Saxon, and Byzantine Ornaments, .... GOTHIC. 35. Seal, Vesica Panel, Tracery Panels for Metal Work, Rood-screen, 36. Tracery, Panels, and Diapers, 37. Emblematical Book Cover, 38. Tracery and other Panels, and Foliated Decoration, 39. Panels and Plate Tr.^cery for Metal Work, . 40. (Superficial.) Tiles and Painted Decoration, . METAL WORK. 41. Designs for Wrought and Cast Iron Work, 42. FiNiAL, Hinges, Bracket, Corner for Book Cover, and Keyhole Plate, 43. Vane, Brackets, Railings, &c., 44. Vane, Door Handles, Key Plates, Terminal Ornament, . . . , 9 8 12 10 16 2 8 14 25 . 11 . 12 . 16 GEOMETRICAL. 45. Forms for Inlay, Glazing, &c., 13 LABYRINTHS AND INLAYS. 46. Various Geometrical Combinations, INLAYS AND DIAPERS. 47. Panel, Borders, and Surface Ornaments, . 48. Panel and Surface Decoration, BLAZONRY. 49. Faith, Hope, and Charity, Crowns, Royal Sceptre of England, Crozier, 50. Seal, Helmet, Shields, il-c, 51. Arms with Supporters, Rebus, Badge, lVc, 52. Designs for Medals or Seals, Crowns, and Devices, BLAZONRY AND BADGES, 53. Medal, Royal Arms, Crowns, vV-c., BLAZONRY AND REBUSES. 54. Arms, Rebuses, Medallions, &c., . RENAISSANCE. 55. Flemish Pilaster, Figures for Stone Carving, &c., 56. Tympanum, Panel, Tail-piece for Painting, Bracket in Metal, &c., 57. Figures, Ac, for Carving, 11 14 21 &-C., 9 8 8 14 11 List of the Plates. XI PLATE 58. Carving, String-courses, Panels for Niello or Buhl Work, 59. Figures, &c., for Stone Carving, 60. Arabesque Panel and other Subjects for Carving or Painting, 61. Heraldic Tympanum and other Designs, 62. Designs for Inlay and Carving, 03. Heraldic Devices, Composition for Statuary, Frame for Glass, &c.. RENAISSANCE (SUPERFICIAL). 64. Borders, Centres, and Surfaces, 65. Fabric and other Patterns for Centres, &c., . 66. Patterns for Textile Fabrics, 67. Patterns for Marquetry and Engraving, . 68. Wall Diapers, Panels, Patterns for Lace Work, &c., RENAISSANCE (ELIZABETHAN AND JACOBEAN) 69. Strap and Cartouche Enrichments, 70. Heraldic Monument and other Devices, . 10 E xamjj les 5 „ 9 „ 8 ,, 9 T! 9 11 11 6 5 10 RENAISSANCE (LOUIS XIV. AND XV.). 71. Arms, Spandrels for Metal Work, Scroll and Stalactite Ornament, Ac, . 72. Rococo Scroll Work, &c,, 73. Panel, Arms and Rococo Shell and Scroll Work, FLORAL SPRIGS. 74. Rose, Poppy^, Teazle, &c., 9 75. Fuchsia, Thistle, Lily, Bindweed, &c., .9 76. Hyacinth, Catch-fly, Pink, Pomegranate and Poppy, Leaves and Berries, &c., 14 77. Maple, Hemlock, Maize, Buds and Leafage, 9 78. Conventional and other Flowers and Leafage, Foliated Scrolls, , .13 79. Oak, Vine Scroll Work, Foliated Cross, Fruit Sprig, &c., . . . .12 80. Grass form, Pea, Oak, &c., 13 81. Dock Leaves and Hart's-tongue, Ferns, Grass, &c., 13 FLORAL (MISCELLANEOUS). 82. Borders and Centres for Painting, Marble or Wood Inlay, and Woven Fabrics, 11 83. Centres, Borders, and Surface Decoration, 15 84. Geometrical Combinations filled in with Foliage, 14 FIGURES. 85. Clock Panel, and Panels of Morning, Noon, Evening, and Night, 86. Panels (Consolation, Gltardian Angel, and Satan Reposing), and Finials, . 87. Panels and Frieze for Painting, and Sprites avith Conventional Foliage, . 88. The Wagon of Love, War and Peace, Agriculture, Work, Sport, &c., . 89. Double Female Head, Halberdier, Plant Form with Female Heads, Animal Contrast, Pilgrims of Love, &c., 90. Satyr, Medallions, Venus, Ceres, &c., 91. Sport, Snowdrop and Rosebud, the Ocean, Love and Cupid, Muse and Lyre, &c., 92. Tragedy and Comedy, Youth and Age, Ornamental Brackets and Friezes, . 11 9 10 Xll List of tJie Plates. PL.^TE ANIMALS (CENTEES). 93. Anijials, Birds, Fish, and Insects, . 94. Birds, Insects, &c., arranged ornamentally, CHIMERAS. 95. Dragons, Mirth and Melancholy, Dolphins, Grasshopper-bird Dragons, Bats, &c., TROPHIES, &c. 96. Wine, Beer, and Tobacco. Fish, Fowl, and Flesh, . . . _ . LETTERS, MONOGRAMS, &c. 97. Various Letters treated ornamentally, 98. Letters arranged ornamentally in Panels, on Shields, e^-c, .... MISCELLANEOUS. 99. Panel, Support for Pedestal, Central Form for Inlay, &c., .... 100. Centres and Borders, Ornamental Cresting, &c., 101. Dado, Border, Ornamental Square, Mask, Date-plate, Lamp, Ac, . 1 1 Examples. 9 19 20 11 12 12 SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN. CHAPTER I. INTEODUCTION. N the most primitive states of society, among the earUest efforts of the human hand Avas tliat of forming- re- presentations of the natural objects by which man found himself surrounded. This was done either by tracing the form of the object in outline, which we call drawing, or making an imitation of the actnal body of the thing, which Ave denominate sculpture. Of the two, drawing is the earliest, for the object must in some shape be drawn before it can be sculptured. They are, in fact, intimately connected, for the power of draw- ing not only exists in the use of the pencil, but it may be expressed by the knife, the axe, the chisel, and the gouge. We may, therefore, speak of the excellence of the drawing in a piece of sculpture, equally with that which we see in outline upon paper or canvas. There is the same wonderful force find power of draAving in the sculpture of Michael Angelo that there is in his frescoes. DraAving is the origin of all writing — indeed what is writing but simply draAving in a certain set and conventionalized form? Writing is the power of draAvjng rapidly specially arranged foi'ms called "letters," and combining them to convey to the eye a definite meaning. Originally, as in the Egyptian, a rude representation of the object stood for the Avoi'd itself, and from this mode of expressing thought the art has gradually grown up, in the process of time, of making a combination of twenty-six arbitrary charac- ters express all our ideas. It has been discovered of late years that drawing Avas practised Avith considerable ability even in prehistoric times. "We may think it," says Mr. William Maskell,i " to be sufficiently strange, in tracing the early history of the art of carving or engrav- ing in ivory, that Ave should be able easily to carry it, upon the evidence of extant ex- amples, to an antiquity long before the Christian era; through the Roman, Greek, Assyrian, and Jewish people, up to an age antei'ior to the origin of those nations by centuries, the number of Avhich it may be difficult accurately to count. These very ancient examples are of the earliest Egyptian dynasties; yet, betAveen them and the date of the earliest noAv knoAvn specimens of Avorks of art incised or carved in ivory, there is a lapse of time so great that it ^"Ivories, Ancient and ]\re(H[Eval;" South Kcn^lnr/ton Jifiiseitm Ilandhoolc. Suggestions in Design. may probably be numbered by thousands of years." In caves at Le Moustier and at La Madelaine in the Dordogne, many fragments have been found, of hate years, of tusks of the mammoth and of reindeer's bone and horn, upon which have been discovered incised drawings of various animals, which no one can examine without acknowledging their merit. The animals are carefully and vigorously drawn. The heaviness and slug- gishness of the mammoth is as easily recog- nized as the grace and activity of the rein- deer.^ In short, these extraordinary pre- historic drawings are from the hands of men who were neither beginners nor blunderers in their art. They are the work of skilled artists, and the modern draughtsman would scarcely exceed their firmness and decision as well as their evident rapidity of exe cution. But to what does all this tend, this mere proof of the extreme antiquity of drawing? Why, to the fact that the power of the hand to represent form seems to have come to man by instinct, and that such a wonderful power would not have been given but for tlie very highest purposes. But if such pre- cision and accuracy of drawing were attained in prehistoric times, that they equal modern Avorks, where is our advance? Does it not suggest to our minds that drawing is an art which has been neglected among us? Has not our power of ex[)ressing our ideas by the means of, what I have called, conventional drawing, the art of writing, led to our neglecting that of true drawing? No doubt but that it has. Drawing has become the art of only a few among us ; it has, therefore, not attained that high power and given us ' Copies of these may be fmmd in Sir .Tiilm Luljljock's worlc on The Orir/in of Civilization. that ftvcility of command over expression in the fine arts, that it assuredly Avould have done, had it been the practice of the many. Our hands have become cramped by civiliza- tion, as our feet have become ill-formed by our modern boots and shoes. How many men, for instance, are there, even among practised carvers and modellers, Avho can draw with facility and readiness? Numbers of them have to depend upon some one else to draw and design their work for them, be- fore they can attempt its execution. But is this as it should be? We never shall have high-class art workmanship in this country until the artisan, the executant, is also the designer of his own work, and this he can never be unless he practises the power of drawing. Nothing is more common than to see chil- dren take naturally to drawing. Yet ANhen they go to school this instinct is neglected, and as they grow up it is totally discouraged, so that at length they lose all power of ex- pressing even the most simple forms on paper. Doubtless there are luany examples to the contrary, but as a general rule this is invari- ably the case. Instead of which no education should be considered complete without a knowledge of drawing. This, however, is speaking of mere ordinary education. How much more must this power of delineating form be imperative to the student in art-workmanship; or to one who may be desirous of taking advantage of these "suggestions in design?" Without this necessary skill with the pencil he cannot make use of them in the way that the author has intended that they should be used. That is, that they should not be taken as mere copies for imitation to avoid the necessity of designing, but tliat tliey should be looked Introduction. upon and studied as hints, or motifa, as the French happily express it, for designs of his own. None of the " suggestions " are taken hterally from old examples, yet nearly all are divided into the styles of different countries or specific periods. They are rather attempted to be designed with the feeling of the various countries, with the in- tention of pointing out how many ordinary and well-known forms may be made original by some simple variation, and thus to en- deavour to awaken in the mind of the student the power of design. Without doubt we have, through the various art schools which have been estab- lished of late years throughout the country, a wonderful increase in the art of drawing, but many of them are apt to fall into the error of obliging their pupils to make ela- borately "shaded" drawings. Now it should be distinctly remembered that " shading " is not di'awing. That although it may be use- ful, yet the art of delineating form in simple outline with facility and precision, is ten times more important and ten times more valuable than the mere art of shading. Yet many of these pupils are obliged to spend ten hours over shading to one that he spends upon actual drawing. However, having now pointed out the very great importance of the power of drawing, and that without it no progress can be ex- pected or hoped for in the decorative arts, it should be properly understood of what " design " consists. Design may be considered to be of various degrees according to its originality, which is that quality that distinguishes it from the mere repetition of previously arranged forms. On the other hand, this must not be con- founded with novelty, which is a totally different quality. Design may be described as the embodiment of thought. For instance, we may speak of design in architecture, such as that of a large and im- portant building, and we may perceive that every portion of it is sometliing new, and such as we had never seen before. If, how- ever, we observe that the forms are fantastic or whimsical; that there is a want of pro- portion, a deficiency of light and shade, and the detail is badly drawn, we say at once that this is made new in form and appearance solely for the sake of novelty. There is no thouglit or conception, and the elements of true design are wanting. Again, the Avork may possibly be only a repetition of some- thing which has been done before; or it may be but a collection of different parts obtained from many other works, put together in a species of patchwork of the most incon- gruous kind. But some trifling variations are introduced, upon the strength of which the author rests his claim for a new design, or he trusts that the sources from Avhich he obtained his materials will not be detected, and so he will gain credit for originality. These are cases of the very lowest class of design. But if the building be one where beauty of proportion has been carefully studied, the light and shade arranged to give agreeable variety and pleasure to the eye, the detail well considered and the orna- mentation distributed with due regard to architectural embellishment, although every feature may not strike us as perfectly new and original, yet that design when it thus exhibits thought and testhetic feeling is of the very highest class. Unfortunately we in these times have been landed, so to speak, at a summit from Avhich we complacently view the world of S/iggesfioJis ill Design. art below, and think that it is not necessary to strive to rise any higher. We have all the styles of the earth spread out before us, and we think that we have but to take up that one which is most to our fancy to obtain all we want. Hence we fall into copyism, and try to delude ourselves that this is the whole art of design. It is cei'tain that no one can design or invent any Avork of art, solely and entirely new, without partially cojiying, or taking ideas from either nature or art. We must have some groundwork or motif to work upon. We have to learn all tliat has been done in art before our era, and to see how nature has been adapted and convention- alized by diiferent people in former ages. We have to sift the good from the bad, the true from the false, and again study the works of nature in search of new forms and fresh modifications. For there are no forms in the Avhole arena of art which have not originally been taken from nature. - With proper study design may be exer- cised by all who have practised the art of drawing, even down to the humblest crafts- man. It may possibly be only in a small degree ; let him, however, but stamp his work witli thought and add thereto one touch of beauty culled from nature's stores, and he will have created a work of art. To assist this effort is the object of tliese " sug- gestions," and it will be observed that they aim at encouraging tlie artisan — he that has to Avork out the smaller and less important details— to add hj his OAvn " cunning liands " the ornamentation to a Avork, of Avhatever kind it may Ijc. It is not only the master minds AViiich help on the position of art in the Avorld, but it is also tlie combined might and poAver of the Avorkers, if only they can be guided in the right and true direc- tion. Before, however, a man can design orna- ment of Avhatever description, he should knoAV something of architecture. It is the gram- mar or foundation of the Avhole, and Avithout this knoAvledge he is never sure of not going astray. Architecture is founded upon a combination of geometrical forms, and these combinations are so infinite that they are practically inexhaustible. Noav as all geo- metrical forms are obtained from nature, it folloAVS that if Ave seek fresh inspiration, we are most likely to obtain it by referring to nature. One portion of this Avork gives a great variety of the forms of ornamental art, accompanied by a short description of the architecture Avliich has been practised at various epochs in different countries, from the earliest to the latest times,- — Laying before the student a map, as it Avere, of the art of the Avorld. But the latter part of the Avork, and i^erhaps by far the most important, is devoted to studies taken en- tirely from nature, Avithoiit reference to any style Avhatever. For nature is of no style, and therefore is ecjually applicable to any phase of art. Persons may assert that they cannot perceive any connection between nature and art, and it has been said that Ave do not find straight lines in nature. It may be quite true that Ave do not find mathematically straight lines, but avc find them straight enough for all practical purposes. What can be straightcr than the line formed by the horizon of tlie ocean, or the perpendicular stem of the lir-tree? Lines are to lie found angular also, as in the branching of ferns, as Avell ao forming eveiy variety of curves and spirals. I Introduction. Tliey are of constant occurrence, we have but to search for them. In tlie accompany- ing figure, we find some elegant curved hues in a fish (Fig. 1), which is from the Mediter- ranean, more especially in the vigorous curves of the crest-fin with the lines sweeping from it. Spiral lines are seen in the tail of the twelve-thi-ead plume bird {Epimaduis albus) of New Guinea, Fig. 2. These are only two Fig. 2. examples selected at random from thousands of other instances. All geometrical forms are found in nature, such as the circle, the triangle, the square, the pentagon, and others. But nature is often so irregular that the geometrical basis cannot always be readily traced. It requires study and careful research to discover that amidst all the irregularity there is regularity — tliut all lias been planned and is conform- able to rule. The ordinary geometrical figures are seen most distinctly in cross sections; as the circle, in the suc- cession of rings in an onion wlien cut across; the triangle, in a section of the stem of the sedge; the square, in the stem of the dead-nettle; the pentagon, in the stem of the common bramble; and so on. These forms will often appear again in the leaves and flowers of a plant. Thus the . square or cross-form is followed in the mode of the branching of the leaves of the dead-nettle, and the leaves and flowers of the bramble are arranged upon the pentagon. But nowhere is the geometry of nature seen more clearly than in crystallization. All the solid figures of geometry are found among the metals and minerals. But one of the most charm- ing instances of this nature is the minute crystals of snow. They are composed most- ly of stars of six points, in a great variety of beautiful forms. They are found fallin"' in minute tufts or flakes consisting of two or three of the crystals frozen together, in certain conditions of the atmosphere, when they do not become decomposed by the warmth or moisture of the lower strata, and in calm weather can be plainly seen by the naked eye. The collection of examples of these given in Figs. 3 to 8 shows the great variety which exists in these curious little star forms, and which are represented about twice the natural size. They consist of a combination of the triangle and hexagon, radiating in lines from the centre, or are compounded of minute triangles and hexa- gons arranged symmetrically. Their delicate 6 Suggestions in Design. lines always presei'vc the hexagonal angles of 30° or 60°, and sometimes they assume leaf-like forms which seem to suggest, with- out much alteration, beautiful designs for hexagonal tiles. Imperfect crystallization of the same kind may be seen also on the window-pane of a frosty moi'uing, the leafy combinations of which are most suggestive A Fig. 3, Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 8. Fig. 6, Fig. 7. and elegant. The angles formed l)y the branching arc here the same as in the stai's, the reason being that G0° is tlie angle at which water crystallizes in freezing. There is, however, the other princi})le which is found in nature, and which may be often legitimately taken advantage of in art — that of irregulai'ity. Wc know that the Japanese, especially, have made constant use of this, and now that Japanese works have been so largely imported into this country of late years, manjr of our own artists have affected to adoi)t the same principle. Thus we now come across instances where it is carried out in the most ludicrous and eccentric manner possible. Such as circular Introduction. designs on porcelain plates, the natural position of wliich would appear to bo the centre of the plate, put on one side so that the edge cuts off a part of the design, while Fig. 9. other parts of circles are made to overlap the first. This is, at least, a most dangerous course, because if worked out and applied through everything, Ave should arrive at a state where no design or previous arrangement would be Fig. 10. required — no thought necessary ; we should have but to use things at random and all would be attained. This may be all very well up to a certain point, and upon a limited scale, but it may be easily carried too far, so as to destroy tlie whole art of design. The children's play-table. Fig. 9, exhibits a certain amount of quaintness in represent- ing accurately tlie confusion in which it was left, but there is no design. Everything is thrown about at random, and there are objects in nature which arc also totallv irregular, Fig. 11. such as the forked flames of fire and the arrangement of the stars at night. Fig. 10. But when we come to the spider's web, Fig. 11, we find that nature has taught the insect a certain amount of symmetry, and he radiates his lines from a centre, and keeps all his rings carefully parallel to each other, but the position of the insects and the foliage to which the web is attached give Fig. 12. variety and destroy too great a tendency to regularity. Eiu'ichment of surface is obtained by the breaking it up by ornament, which may be arranged either symmetrically or unsym- metrically, or by a blending of both. The Japanese, as has been said, adopt the irre- gular and un symmetrical. Of this character are the flowers in rain, Fig. 12; tadpoles 8 Stiggestioiis in Design. in a pool, Fig. 13; sand on the sea-shore, Fig. 14, with the footprints of man and birds, sea-weed and shells, which we may call Fie;, i:?. primitive, in distinction to Fig. 15, the artifi- cial. This exhibits the forms indicative of Fig. 14. modern civilization, snch as the boot marks, horses shoes, the twisted rope, writing on Fi-. 15. ■ \\\>\--^. the sands, and broken pipe. All this may be described as ornamentation of surface when used as decoration, but of a very low type. When we, however, find horizontal, perpen- dicular, and spiral lines in nature, and we Fig. 16. proceed to arrange these symmetrically, we endeavour to produce a higher class of Fis. 17 design, as in the slightly conventionalized I'orms of the grass and ivy on a brick wall, Introduction. 9 Fig. 16; or if we- take advantage of the sug- gestion obtained by the reflection in water of a reed on a river's bank, Fig. 17; but Fig. 18. by the fish and the swallow we obtain variety. The beauty of symmetry is taught us again in all animal and insect form, where the two halves are always alike. Radiation we have seen in the snow crystals, but it is found also in a vast number of flowers, as in the conventional form, Fig. 18. The kalei- Fig. 19. I 1^1 //X//\.//\./'%:. -o^^-o-o- doscope teaches us the value of radiation combined with symmetrical arrangement of colour. Repetition alone is pleasing to the eye, and has been used as a source of the orna- 3 mental from time immemorial. Repetition of simple straight lines, as in Fig. 19, is of constant occurrence in the formation of en- Fig. 20. S^5\S\5lSt. im!i^^\m\m richments for mouldings or bands; while curved forms, as in Fig. 20, are still more ornamental, and are to be met with in various styles of architecture. Forms may occasionally be varied by ex- pansion or contraction, as in the case of the Greek vase, Avhich may on the one hand be expanded to the soup tureen, or contracted to the candlestick on the other, as indicated by Fig. 21. Tliis may be to the loss of beauty, as we perceive it in its more perfect form in the centre; but at the same time Fig. 21. the other forms are beautiful in their degree, because they are more appropriate to the purpose for which they are intended than the central vase would have been. Thus it is throughout art — those forms are the most H 10 Suggestions in Design. beautiful that are the most fitted fc^r the purposes to which they are appUed. There are certain principles of this sort which have been followed as rules in art in all ages, although when art has been degraded and become merely the subject of ruling fashion during a period of vitiated taste^ such rules have been often broken through and disregarded. Still the artist has been glad to return to them again after such degraded phases have passed away. In the following chapter some of the most important of these principles have been collected and compactly arranged for con- venience of reference. For the facility of remembrance, consistent with clearness of expression, they are made as concise as possible. General Principles. 11 CHAPTER II. GENEEAL PEINCIPLES OF DESIGN. ^^91 HE following are some General Principles of Design, which should be adhered to in Archi- ^';;^:;:r^^-:^;^,.^ i,^ tecture and in the Decorative Arts : — 1. Architectural members that support, or appear to give support, as columns and piers, should be regulated in size and strength according to the weight, apparent or real, they have to carry, and according to the material of which they are composed. In wood-work the construction may be hollow for columns, and open and framed together for piers ; stone and brick should be solid, and arranged in horizontal beds or courses, wliile iron should be cast hollow, and made greatly less in size, or diameter, than what is required foi' other materials. Cast-iron should be used in compres- sion, wrought -iron in tension. 2. Supports should be upright and not bent or crooked. If spiral, twisted, or of other decorative form, the core should be sufficient to give tlie relative or apparent strength. Curved legs of chairs and tables are, therefore, objectionable. 3. Piers should be arranged to come over piers and voids over voids. That is, windows and other openings should be arranged, as far as possible, to come over one an- other, and the walling between them be brought up solid from the foundations. In modern construc- tion, in consequence of the great strength of iron, this rule is often broken through. Iron columns are frequently substituted for piers of masonry. 4. Stability of construction should be ap- parent as well as real. Where the walling is removed the girders, iron columns, or other constructive substitutes, should not be concealed. 5. Construction should be the origin of de- coration and ornament. Ornament in relief shoiild not be added to, or over- laid upon the construction. For example, wreaths and festoons are fre- quently placed so as to hang over arches, mould- ings, and other enrichments. They thus are separate from and added upon the construction, and, therefore, never aid the beauty of a work. For the further elucidation of this imjiortant principle, which is so constantly violated in Ee- naissance .ind Rococo work, see Nos. 6, 9, and 12. G. All ornament should be taken or worked out of the solid material, and not added upon it. In carving a panel the ornament should bo worked out of it, and not carved separately and afterwards glued upon it. Again, in wall surface, the carved enrichments should be taken out of the wall, and not added to it. 7. Avoid shams both in construction and oniamentation. 8. Utility should be considered before de- coration. All decoration is objection- able that interferes with the usefulness of the object to which it is applied. Many handles to domestic articles, especially in cast-iron, have been made so ornamental that the enrichments often seriously hurt the hand when they are grasped. 12 Suggestions in Design. 9. All ornament should be subordinate to the object ornamented; and if kept duly subordinate the object cannot be over-ornamented. Take, for example, an Indian sandal-wood box; the form of the box is not in any way altered by the vast amount of ornament ^v'orked upon it. The box can never be over-ornamented while the form remains unaltered, although it may be liter- ally crowded with enrichment. The true position of ornamentation, in most late styles, has become degraded by being made into the thing itself, instead of serving, as it should do, merely to enrich it. Thus a lily, or convolvulus, has been made into a candlestick, the corolla forming the bowl to receive the candle, instead of the flower being used to ornament the candlestick. The first, is its false position; the last, its true one. Whenever we hear of a work being over-ornamented, it arises invariably, in some way, from ornament being thus thrust into a false position. 10. All ornament should be founded upon a geometrical basis. This is also a natural law which may be found in nature by study and observation. 11. Natural growth should be the law in ornament, and branches or scrolls made always to flow in their growing direction. Never make foliage grow two ways. 12. Flat surfaces should have a sufficient amount of flatness in their ornamenta- tion as not to destroy their quality of flatnes.s. A beautiful example of this may be seen in the carved diapered spandrils of the triforium arches in the choir of Westminster Aljbey. 13. The carved, sculptured, or moulded sur- face of ornament, should not be wrought into such violent liglit and shade, as to confuse it with the more intense shadows which should relieve it from the ground on which it is placed. Thus the modelling of the surface of a leaf, as in the Acanthus, should not lie divided up into deeply -wrought channels, as seen in late Roman work, but be kept comparatively flat as in the Greek. 14. Undercutting of a carved enrichment, when wrought out of the solid, should not be so great as to make it appear to have been afterwards inserted, or glued into its position. 1;1 Carving should never be executed in party-coloured materials, such as fig- ured marbles, or wood with strongly marked grain. IG. Simplicity in composition is far more difficult of attainment than complica- tion. 17. Elegance of leading lines is of more con- sequence than after adornment. For this reason the scroll form of enrichment has been so universally adopted in all ages, because of its beauty as a leading line or stem. 18. That form is the most beautiful that is the most appropriate for its purpose. 19. Branch lines in ornamentation should be made to flow smoothly out of each other — but there are some exceptions to this rule, as when the angular or the opposite curve is used. 20. Natural forms, plants, animals, and the like, cannot be rendered literally for the purposes of ornament, but require to be treated in a conventional manner. The degree of imitation that is suit- able depends upon many circum- stances, such as the nature of the materials, or the distance that the object is to be placed from the eye of the spectator. What is meant by conventional treatment, is that departure from nature which is absolutely necessary to the successful api)lication of natural forms to ornamental art; and, as conventional General Principles. 13 treatment is always varying according to circum- stances, it follows that no fixed rules can Le laid down for direct guidance. 21. Work should not be thrown away by an object being made too elaborate in detail for its position. Carving should be simplified according to the height at which it is placed. For example, a rose which might be made double when placed near the level of the eye, would be improved and bo more effective if made single, when situated far above it. 22. Objects should be elongated in their proportion according to the height at which they are placed, to allow for the foreshortening which takes place when seen from the ground. This refers, especially, to finials and pinnacles placed at a considerable height. 23. Light and shade in carving should be duly balanced, and extreme contrasts of high light and deep shadow carefully toned down by intermediate degrees of shade. No positive rule can be laid down for this. It must depend upon the eye and judgment of the artist. It is, however, right to draw attention to its great importan;e. 24. A rough material such as coarse-grained sandstone, requires bi'oader treatment • and a greater contrast of light and shade than a fine-grained material, such as ivory or marble. For this reason, and the deficiency in power of our daylight, Greek mouldings and other enrich- ments have very little eff"ect when executed in the rough materials usually adopted in this country. They are too delicate and refined for our climate and our materials. 25. Decoration should not be pictoiial, shaded to imitate work in relief, or represented in perspective. 20. Colours should not represent material, but be considered decorative only. 27. Positive colours should never be used in juxtaposition or upon each other, but always separated by white, black, or gold. All colours are affected, more or less, by those with which .they come in contact. Adjoining Ijright coloui's therefore affect each other in different proportions, but both suffer, and neither of them are seen true. Hence the necessity of separating them. White and black are relative terms, and all those shades are meant which approach closely to light on the one hand and darkness on the other. But a "broken" white (tliat is, with a slight adnuxture of colour) or intense and deep greys may be often substituted with good effect for the more positive colours, known as white and black. 28. The same colours in different tones, as light and dark chocolate, called " self- tints," may be used one upon another. We perceive this principle in nature when Ave examine the fronts and backs of leaves, the back being generally of a lighter tone than the front. It may be observed, again, in the new and old foliage of the ivy, when the young leaves come out in spring. 29. The primary colours, red, blue, and yellow, shoidd always be used sparingly and in small quantities, as Ave see in nature, where the secondaries, greens, often toned down by the tertiaries, greys and browns, always predominate. .1 Eed. The primary coloiu's are -^ Blue. ( Yellow. I Orange. Green. 1 Puiple. Olive. The secondary The Tertiary J. Brown. ( Grey. 30. ColoLU'S on fight grounds appear darker, on dark grounds lighter than they really are. 4 ^ 14 Suggestions in Design. 31. If colour be applied to ornament in relief, the ground should be daidcer than the ornament. There is an ex- ception to this -where gold is used. 32. Harmony of colour can only be produced by contrast, but all contrast is not harmony. Harmony is an agreeable contrast, — that is, pleasing to the eye as a chord is to the car in music. No positive rules can l)e laid down for the harmony of contrasts. It appears to depend very much upon what is called an "eye for colour." Mr. J. G. Grace says that "an experienced artist can bring any two colours together." He, how- ever, has given the following useful list of agreeable contrasts : — 1. Black and warm brown. 2. Violet and pale green. 3. Violet and light rose colour. 4. Deep blue and golden brown. 5. Chocolate and Ijright blue. 6. Deep red and grey. 7. Maroon and warm green. 8. Deep blue and j»ink. 9. Ghocolate and pea green. 10. Maroon and deep blue. 11. Claret and buff. 12. Black and warm green. 33. As our primary colours are not perfect, we are often obliged to oppose them to dull and dark colours in order to raise them in the scale of brightness, so as to make them appear of more perfect tones. The most refined carmine when compared with the natural colour of the scarlet geranium is reduced, by contrast, to almost a brick-colour. 34. It is a very easy matter to reduce the brightness of colours, Ijut less so to make them a})iiear bright. 35. All secondary and tertiary colours should be graduated to harmonize with the primaries. 3G. In using the primaries it should be understood that blue retires, yellow or gold advances, while red holds an intermediate position. Field gdves the proportions of the primaries which neutralize each other to be 3 yellow, 5 red, and 8 blue, thus showing that it would take only three superficial feet of yellow to neutralize 8 of blue. Yellow rejiresents light; red, heat; and blue, cold. 87. Design must necessarily be defective if applied indiscriminately to different materials. All materials require dif- ference of treatment according to their nature. 38. Originality should never be adopted for the sake of novelty only. 39. Unity Avithout variety produces uni- formity and insipidity. Variety with- out unity resvdts in confusion, or the absence of design. 40. There are two different principles in architecture: the horizontal, in the classic buildings of antiquity; and the vertical, in the edifices of the mediaeval period. The first is represented by the beam, the second by the arch. These principles are founded upon the practice of Art in the best ages, and are advocated in the body of the Work, where it Avill be seen that they are further eluci- dated. I Savage and Early Tribes. 15 CHAPTER III. OENAMENT OF SAVAGE AND EAELY TEIBES. jT is not an unprofitable study, when we endeavour to go back for the purpose of examining the works of those earher races of men among whom some of the most elementary forms of ornamentation have arisen, to see by what means they tried to decorate and make more beautiful, the utensils, implements, or wea- pons tliey were forming. For whether it be a domestic vessel, a canoe, a paddle, or a war-club, we know that they must have dwelt upon them with pleasure, while they covei'ed them with various lines and forms. They patiently carved their canoes and other wood-work with notches and curves of every description, until they gave the whole surface a quiet richness and beauty, that it did not before possess. This they did, too, from an innate love of ornamentation, which became without doubt fascinating to their eyes. How did this love of enrichment arise in them? Why, they looked up into the sky of a calm day, and they saw it flecked with delicate white fleecy clouds, frequently so minutely divided as to appear like fairy-land — or, upon a clear night they beheld it studded and covered with thousands of stars sparkling like diamonds. They looked upon the sea-shore and observed the delicately rippled snrface of the sand as left by the receding tide — or, thev examined the shingly beach covered with beautiful shells and pebbles. They saw how the earth which they trod was carpeted with herbs of all kinds, with their flowers of bright colours at frequent intervals. They beheld the trees clothed with their various leaves of exqui- sitely graceful forms. They looked also at many of the wild animals and found them striped or spotted in the most beautiful man- ner. And so on, throughout all nature, until they came, after examining things more nar- rowly, to the wonderful colours of birds and insects — " Fairy-framed and many-coloured things, Who worship Him with notes more sweet than words, And innocently open their glad wings, Fearless and full of life." ^ Thus the primitive races, seeing all nature clothed with beauty, imbibed their love of art, and as children of nature, covered their arms and utensils with the simple forms which came readiest to their hands, or were most easily made with their rude instru- ments. But tlieir ornament oftentimes was of use as well as for enrichment. The carv- ing of the handles of their war-clubs gave them a roughness sufficient to assist the hand in seizing them firmly. As the striped form of the tiger of the jungle, too, produced terror in their minds, so for the same reason they tattooed their faces (Fig. 22) and other parts of the body, in order to ' Lord BjTon's Childe Harold. 16 Suggestions in Design. strike terror into tlieir enemies, and they used violent and repulsive colours to heighten the effect of their punctured lines. The carving of surface they did upon the Fipr, 22. true principle upon which ornamentation should be applied. Their lines and forms were cut out of the surface and not added upon it. Thus we find that the earliest inspirations of nature Avill invariably lead men right if they will but follow these natural promptings. Instead of Avhich, as man becomes more educated, he scorns the works of nature, thinking he can safely trust to his own powers. He soon begins to pile up his ornament upon his own works, loses their original and appropriate forms in crowded and vulgar ornamentation which he overlays uj^on them, until at length he arrives at an agglomeration of forms, which although consisting of large masses, often of very beautiful workmanship, ai'o neither useful nor convenient for tlie purposes in- tended. Thus it was, after the lapse of time, that abuses in ornamentation arose, and buildings became overloaded with useless and superfluous parts, so that their oi'iginal construction oftentimes became in a great measure veiled, and they at length assumed numerous features of unmeaning exuber- ance. The forms of enrichment used by the savage tribes of the South Sea Islands are simply geometrical, or are suggested by nature, and are frequently flowing and grace- ful. Much of their work, however, has a mystical air, and may jiossibly have a mean- ing, or a symbolical character. " It is only beginning to dawn upon us how wide and comprehensive this system of symbolism had become in past times. It seems to have embraced everything. The flowers of the field were symbols; the trees of the forest had each some sacred meaning ; the animal world figures largely in the old system; the stars are known to us from the zodiac or forms of living things, which are older than any his- tory we possess."^ Although there is an extreme rudeness in the forms used by savage ti'ibes, yet there evidently is a meaning which runs through them, and there cannot be a doubt that many of them are of a highly symbolical character, had we the power to read or interpret them. They do not approach any- thing which may be dignified as Avorks of art. Still they are the germs of art, and they usually possess art feeling. The saA^age races appear, in many cases, to have drawn their figures and other devices without much care or thought, much as boys would draw with a piece of chalk. There are certain careless inutations of the human form, but all proportion or expression is wanting. As primitive designs they should be examined, for it is from such attempts as these that art arose, and to an artistic mind they will frecpiently offer suggestions that may 'I'^iciui a imjiLr nil Symbulism, read at tlie Society of Arts by Mr. Williaiii Siiiipsou. Savage and Early Tribes. 17 be sought for iu vain even in more perfect works. We owe much to the potter's art for hand- ing down to us many of the forms of early ornament, from the ease in Avhich zigzag and other hues are made in wet clay, and then rendered indelible, from the effects of time, by the aid of fire. Of all the skilled works of man perhajjs those of terra cotta are the earliest of which Ave possess actual examples. Birch, in his History of Ancient Pottery, tells us that "the existence of earthen vessels is coeval with the formation of a written language, 2000 — 3000 years B.C." Dr. Schliemann, in his Troy and its Remains, gives examples of early ornament upon vases and other works. Ou perforated terra cottas, which he found in great numbers, and which he calls " whorls," are representations of animals, such as stags, made simply by an incised line in the most primitive manner; a single line serving equally for body, legs, head, and horns. Yet the potters wlio formed these were, no doubt, in many re- spects, highly civilized ; but they repeated the rude forms, from habit, that liad been used by many generations of potters before them, Plate 1. Nos. 1 and 2. What are called frets or meanders are common in all early work ; of such are these rude frets, which are ancient Mexican. No. 3 is an ornament of somewhat similar character. Strange, uncouth variations of such forms, which possibly had a meaning of which we have no solution, are found in the ancient cities of Mexico and Central America. These ornaments are apphcablc 5 to the enrichment of narrow bands of stone- work or other material. No. 4 may have been suggested by feathers, and consists of gracefully flowing lines, fitting one into the other. They represent incised lines engraved on a plain surface. Nos. 5, 7 , and 8 are enrichments for upright surfaces. The first appears like an impress in clay of a hieroglypliical character. No. 7 looks to be a series of birds' heads piled one upon another, as on a door post, and reminds one of the rude cats' heads of our own Norman work. No. 8 is evidently from matting. Similar zigzag lines are to be found worked out in many ways. The zig- zag has been noticed by various archaeologists as being one of the earliest and most widely spread of all ornaments which are to be found among the most jorimitive Avorks of mankind. We may easily imagine it com- mencing Avith the scratched lines on Avet clay, or the alternate notching of a stick, as in Figs. 23 and 24. Trom this by an angular Fig. 23. Fig. 24. VnTTV^^VTV Fig. 25. Fig. 26. tool the Avorkman soon arrived at the zigzag formed by recessed triangles. Fig. 25, and the star-form, Fig. 20, all of Avhich are com- mon on tlie clubs of the South Sea Islanders. These ornaments are all monotonous, and 18 Snggesfio?is in Design. simple repetitions of tlie same form. Repe- tition, however, is one of the means of giving pleasure to the eye, so common, that it is of constant occurrence in every known style or mode of ornamentation. It is equally frequent in nature. No. C is a peculiar example of a crowned figure, and may possibly represent a prisoner taken in battle, and condemned to occupy a confined and cramped position. The head has a beard, the biceps of the arm is indi- cated by a scroll, and although nearly bodi- less, the knee, calf, and aidcle-bone are clearly expressed, but in an odd conven- tional manner. No. 9 consists of flowing and interlacing lines, combined with faces, and running into a beak or species of bird's head at the top. No. 10 may represent a mask with large goggle eyes, mouth and tongue. It is after the manner of a tattoed face, as seen among the New Zealanders. No; 11 exhibits the use of colours, con- sisting of red, black, and white, and is apparently taken from leaning blocks, such as bricks, each being imjjressed with a stamp. If made continuous, it will be observed that the red and black alternate at regular intervals. No. 12 is a carved idol, which besides the rudely formed side figures of grotesque shapes, contains in the centre the sugges- tion of a face with two eyes, appearing as if rising above the triangle. No. 13 is ancient Mexican. It is strange and uncouth, without much beauty of form, and probably contains the name of some great personage or king, as tlie centre is formed of what appear to be arbitrary char- acters. No. 14 is a diaper with animal or cat's head, triangles and stripes. It also serves to show how prevalent geometrical figures were, even in the rudest ages. The angle squares contain a diagonal cross or saltire with square centre containing a diagonal square of the same breadth as the saltire. These angle squares might easily pass for medicTSval tiles. Nos. 15, 16, and 17 are applicable for bands of stonework executed in relief or incised. No- 15 may have been suggested by steps added to an imperfect fret. No. 10 by the surf of the sea. A somewhat similar form is found in the Greek. No. 17 is an incised line consisting of two alternating semicircles dove tailing into one another, looking like a folded ribbon or plaited cloth. ]\Iany more rude yet highly suggestive forms might have been given, but these are considered sufficient, to give a tolerable idea of the primitive cftbrts of maidiind in the ornamentation of surface. Egyptian Ornamentation. 19 CHAPTER IV, EGYPTIAN OBNAMENTATION. ■-I WlTfn- I HE great antiquity, the vast size, grandeur and perfection I of workmanship, — the myste- I I'ious hieroglyphics, brilliant colouring, and strange symbols by which the monuments of Egypt are covered, all combine to render them objects of intense interest. The mind of the beholder is impressed with the conviction that the world has hitherto produced nothing, in the truly sublime, tliat excels Egyptian architecture. At a remote period, which is at least two thousand years before the Christian era, Egypt was a highly civilized country with a vast and teeming population. These early workers, who were far in advance of the rest of the world in the cultivation of the arts, covered their land with grand enduring monuments — pyramids, temples, obelisks, colossal statues, and tombs, many of which have lasted to our own time. Some of them are in the form of gigantic erections, built in limestone or sandstone, while others are hewn out in the sohd rock itself Of the three pyramids of Gizeh, two of them are at once the oldest and the largest structures in the world. One of them rises to a height of about 500 feet, which is higher than any tower or steeple in existence, and the other is but very httle less. The great pyramid stands upon nearly eleven acres of ground; its base is square, and its four fiat sides slope backwards, like the steep roof of a house, giving it the most simple as well as the most lasting and strongest of all forms. In the middle of this mountain of stone is a small chambei", covered with a flat stone, and entered by a narrow passage, tlie enti'ance to which was carefully concealed and built up in solid masonry. Within that chamber was the sarcophagus which contained the king's body; the preservation of which is supposed to have been the sole object for the erection of this enormous pile. Egyptian chronology is an obscure and diffi- cult subject, upon Avhicli it would be useless to enter here; but it may be briefly mentioned that the early history of this extraordinary people is divided by themselves into no less than thirty-one periods corresponding with the dynasties which reigned over the country till the conquest of Alexander the Great. Modern writers recognize two great peiiods, dui'ing the first of which the pyramids were erected. The more remarkable of these belong to the fourth dynasty, and are situated in the neighbourhood of Memphis, the royal city of the ancient kingdom of Lower Egypt. The second period is represented by the temples and other works erected by the kings of the later dynasties, who reigned at Thebes in Upper Egypt. With the second period, which commenced with the twelfth dynasty, a new era is apparent in the character of the architecture. K series of magnificent 20 Suggestions m Design. temples, palaces, and tombs, enriched with columns, sculpture, and painting to an ex- traordinary degree, replace the simj^le forms and style of tlie earlier period. The pyramid no longer appears, but the pyramidal form is frequent, and manifests itself in the in- clined wall surfaces of tlie temples and in the obelisks, which are two of the principal features of the style. Tlie Egyptians, moreover, surpassed all succeeding ages and styles in the poAver of adapting sculpture and painting to the decoration of their buildings. Their colos- sal figures and avenues of sphinxes group themselves, with their obelisks and temples, into one great design. Their historical paintings, also, gliding by degrees into hieroglyphics on the one hand and into sculpture on tlie other, succeed in harmon- izing all the arts into one grand wdiole. Some slight idea of the magnificence of their works may be obtained from Fig 27, whicli is a restoration of the great temple of Luxor, at Thebes. It shows tlie broad sacred way, leading to the tcm])lc, fiankcd on either side with variously headed sphinxes. an apjiroach which was sometimes more than a mile long; the obelisks, on each side of the entrance ; the gigantic seated statues of their kings, or pharaohs, as they were called; and the lofty coloured poles bearing banners floating in the wind. The surface of the pylon itself was covered with highly coloured sculp- tures of the victorious Eameses, or other pha- roah, in his chariot with extended bow slaying his enemies, trampling them under his horse's hoofs, or dispersing them in flight. On the other hand he would be re- 23resented seated on his throne, in godlike atti- tude dispensing blessings to those around him. The whole approach, probably, lined with thousands of soldiers and slaves, with various chai'iots, was well calculated to im- press every beholder with the utmost awe on approacliiug the fane of their aods! Fig. 28. tsMSSHSit:, Mouldings arc of unfiequent occurrence upon their temples, wdth the exception of a bold hollow cornice by which the propylon^ or entrance is crowned. Fig. 28, the hollow be- ing filled in the centre by a winged globe, as in No. 10, Plate 8. The torus at the foot ' The propylon, from the Greek pro, before, and pylm, a portal, «as the ciitr.-ince to an Eiryptian temple, and consisted of two huge pyramidal towers, which were sometimes as much as '200 feet wide and 100 feet higli ; in the centre of these was the grand gateway, from 30 to 00 feet in height (Fig 27). Egyptian Ornamentation. 21 Fis. 29. of the hollow is contmued down the angles of the bnilding, the remamder of the wall face being left unbroken for the purposes of surface decoration in sculpture, painting, and hieroglyphics, after the manner of No. 13, Plate 4. The interior of their temples consisted of open courts suiTOunded by columns, and halls having numerous col- umns, carrying a series of stone lintels, which supported the enor- mous flat stones that formed the ceilings and roofs. This will be better understood by reference to Fig. 29, which shows the similar construction of the roof of a propy- lon. The columns, although mostly circular in plan, vary considerably, and their capitals Fig. 30. are of several forms, but of a limited number of types and many varieties. The temple of Luxor contains some which are formed of a cluster of eight shafts, or as if eight stalks of the papyrus plant were tied together by bands, Fig. 30, the plan of which is given at Fig. 31, On the top of each division is an unopened bud of the same plant forming the capital. The shafts get smaller towards their base, and rise out of several leaflets as in the natural plant. The columns are usually covered with hieroglyphics. The Hall of Columns in the temple of Karnac has the side columns derived from a single stalk of the papyrus plant of much the same general form as the previous example, but circular 6 Fig. 31. instead being shafted (Fig. 32), and the Fig. 32. Fig. 33 capital is formed of one unopened bud. The large columns of the pj„ 34 centre avenue are in the form of single stalks of an older growth, with a full- blown flower for the capi- tal. Fig. 33. Other capitals are formed of four flowers, as shown by No. 8, Plate 2, which represents the half of a capital developed or laid out flat. Capitals are also sometimes composed of four Isis heads rising out of the flowers, with Fig. 35. Fig. 3G. Fig. 37. small temples above, as in Fig. 34, Avhich is from the colonnade at Philaj. Other examples 22 Suggestions in Design. Fig, 38. are very gracefully formed of the fioAvers of the lotus, Figs. 35, 36, or of palm leaves, Fig. 37. Of this last the temple of Esneh has a number of beautiful varieties. A series of piers in the Memnonium at Thebes, have their fronts formed of colossal statues, 30 feet high, representing Eameses II., under the type of Osiris, the great Egyptian divinity, and hus- band of Isis, holding the crook and flail, emblematical of his protecting care of his people and of his power to punish evil-doers. Fig 38. The carving of his own tomb out of a solid rock appears to have been one of the chief, objects of an Egyptian king during the entire period of his reign. According to the num- ber of years he continued on the throne, so would appear to be the extent of his tomb, and he went on adding chamber after chamber, diving deeper and deeper into the earth until arrested by the hand of death. It there- fore happens that these tombs are scarcely ever complete. Side by side with chambers finished and decorated with paintings repre- senting nearly every kind of employment in life, are others in various stages of i:)rogress, some half tunnelled in the rock, others with the stone brought to a smooth surface pre- pared for painting and sculpture; some jDartially carved, others carved and partly painted ; so that in a succession of chambers the whole process is seen, which each in its turn had to undergo. The extraordinary dryness of the climate of Upper Egypt has, no doubt, contributed greatly to the perfect preservation of the decorations of these rock-cut tombs. It may be interesting to state the manner of proceeding. The wall was first chiselled and brought to a smooth surface, or plastered and covered with a yellow wash. Lines were then ruled perpendicularly and hori- zontally with red colour, forming squares all over the Avail, corresponding Avith the proportions of the figures to be draAvn upon it. The subjects of the painting, and the hiex'oglyphics, were then draAvn on the Avail Avith a red line, most probably by some in- ferior artist, from a document or model divided into similar squares; then came the chief artist, Avho Avent over the figures and hieroglyphics Avith a black line and Avith a firm steady hand, giving expression to each curve — deviating here and confirming there, the former red line. The line thus traced Avas then followed by the sculptor. In this stage there are instances of a foot or head having been completely sculptured Avhile the rest of the figure remains in outline. The manner of sculpturing these objects in Ioav relief Avas either simply by incising, or by first incising the line round the object and then moulding the surface Avithin to corre- spond Avith the various parts represented. This is indicated in the example No. 4, Plate 2. In the Assyrian Avail subjects the ground is Avorked aAvay so as to leave the object raised above it, although A'ery slightly; but in the Egyptian the ground is left standing, and the object is sunk beloAV its level, although the surface of the ornament is moulded, as in the example Fig. 39, and as shoAvn by the section Fig. 40. This pro- cess is distinguished as being in caw relievo. wmrmF^fw Fig. 40. Egyptian Ornamentation. 23 The next process was to paint the figures in the prescribed colours ; and in some cases the painted line deviates from the sculptured line, showing that the painter was tlie more important workman, and that even in this last process no possible improvement was omitted. There are other instances where a considerable deviation from the position of a leg or an arm has been made after the sculpture was completed and painted. The part was recarved and the defective portion filled in with plaster, which having since fallen out furnishes this curious evidence of their practice. The whole of this may be seen in various tombs at Thebes, but in none so well as in that discovered by Belzoni. When this tomb, which is that of Oimenepthah I. (b.c. 1200), was opened by this enterprising trav- eller, it was found in the same state of fresh- ness as when closed on the death of its occu- pant. The sarcophagus found there, which is formed out of one solid block of alabaster, was removed, and is now in Sir John Soane's Museum in Lincoln's-Inn Fields. It is one of the most interesting objects that has ever been brought to this country, and deserves careful study. It is covered with hierogly- phics and figures inside and out, which re- present a complete history of the supposed wanderings of the souls of men after deatli ; showing their passage, by a boat, through the various gates of Hades, and their struggles to overcome the evil one, who is typified in the form of a serpent. There are also specimens of paintings brought from some of the tombs of Thebes in the British Museum which are very inter- esting, and with the exception of a few pecu- liarities, extremely well drawn. One espe- cially, which represents an Egyptian of high rank in a boat, accompanied l)y his Avife and child. He is fowling in the marshes, in which there is a cat among the rushes, remarkably well expressed, catching some of the birds, and evidently trained for that purpose. There are others representing entertainments, at which music and dancing are being per- formed; slaves bringing oxen, while others are driving geese; slaves carrying hares, corn, and a gazelle; offerings being brought to the gods; besides many other subjects. The colours used by the Egyptians are usually simple ones, such as red, blue, and green, with black, yellow, and wliite — the three first being the most frequent combina- tion. The primaries are used invariably with judgment and knowledge. Red and blue are never found in juxtaposition with- out the separation of a narrow line of white or yellow. Black is invariably contrasted with yellow; gilding is employed sj^aringly, and generally with considerable taste. The excellent materials for building natu- rally found in the country, determined in a great measure their style of architecture. They had an abundance of both limestone and sandstone, and at Syene, in Upper Egypt, unlimited cpiantities of beautiful granite, of different kinds, capable of receiv- ing a very high polish, and resisting the action of the elements for an indefinite length of time, as may be seen by the perfect polish still remaining on many of the Egyp- tian antiquities now in the British Museum. Of this granite, which is mostly of a beautiful red, they were able to obtain enormous blocks, some of the obelisks of this mate- rial being as much as 80 or 90 feet long, wholly in one stone. The largest of these, which is at the temple of Karnac, weighs not less than 297 tons, and these, in many 24 Suggestions in Design. cases, had to be transported from one end of the country to the other. ^ Basalt, marble, limestone, freestone, and alabaster Avere also fonnd beyond all limit. The country, how- ever, was very deficient in timber, especi- ally that sort proper for building. Oak is not to be found, and the fir used by the pre- sent inhabitants has to be imported from Arabia. Bricks dried in the sun were sometimes used even in large structures, but Avere probably faced Avith stone or granite. The masonry is ordinarily set in mortar, com- posed of lime or plaster and sand, but in some instances cements of a bituminous nature Avere employed. There are, hoAvever, many cases Avhere no mortar or cement can be detected. Some of the temples, and many of the tombs, Avere hcAvn out of the rock itself The architecture, therefore, of these Egyptian pharaohs Avas an enduring one, and their ambition appears to have been to make their Avorks last throughout all time. Their tem- ples Avere roofed Avith large flat stones, as alread}^ mentioned, and no appearance of sloping roofs, pediments, or arclies is any- where to be traced. One of the most valuable lessons to be gained by the study of Egyptian architecture is the exquisite treatment of flat surfaces. These Avere for a tAvofold purpose; that of serving as a public record of the greatness and poAver of this extraordinary nation, and ' The obelisk now erected on the Thames Embankment, whieh was brought over to this country at the expense of Mr. Erasmus Wilson, originally stood with others in front of one of the ancient Egyptian temples, although many centuries afterwards it was removed and set up in Alexandria by Queen Cleopatra, from which circumstance it obtained the name of "Cleopatra's Needle." This obelisk, which is 68 feet in height, was hewn out of one block from the quarries of Syene. It is of the quality of granite, called from the name of the quarries. Syenite ; and it is supposed that it was formed and polished un the spot where it was raised. at the same time for the artistic embellish- ment of their Avorks. This enrichment of flat surface among the Egyptians Avas at the same time essen- tially symbolical, and was mainly derived from natural objects treated in a conventional manner. These, combined Avith hieroglyphics, constituted the basis of nearly all their orna- mentation. The sun itself, as one of their objects of adoration, Avas introduced orna- mentally in a great variety of symbolical forms; as in the Avinged globe. No. 10, Plate 3. But there is another image of the sun Avhich should be mentioned. A ball or sun is frequently found in connection Avith a beetle, and this insect Avas looked upon as a sacred object. This appears to be due to the beetle depositing its egg in the refuse of some animal, and after forming the portion containing the egg into a small ball, burying it in the earth Avhere it Avill catch the rays of the Avarm sun, and in due time bring forth a perfect insect. This circumstance seems to have connected the insect in the mind of the Egyptians Avith the creator, of Avhom the sun Avas the symbol. A round ball or sun Avas therefore placed above the head of the deified beetle, as shoAvn in the hieroglyphics No. 13, Plate 4. The disk also surmounted other deified forms, such as the haje. No. 2, Plate 3, and many other sacred objects. Among plants the types employed in Egyptian ornamentation Avere fcAV, and Avere mostly confined to the papyrus, the lotus, and the palm. The equilateral triangle is said to have been a sacred conventional sign, as being the supposed origin and source of all things. It is even thought that the pyramids, Avhich Avere formed of four equi- lateral triangles meeting together in a point Egyptian Ornamejitation. 25 at the apex, had from this reason a highly symbohcal meaning. The stem of the papyrus being of a triangukxr form seems to have recommended it to notice, and when we find columns formed of bundles of this plant there can be no doubt again of their symbolical signification. The lotus, which was sacred in India as well as in Egypt, was Fi". 41. symbolical of the new birth or eternal life. It formed the ideal symbolization of the seasons succeeding from generation to gen- eration — bringing back life when there ap- peared to be nothing but the apathy of death. Tlie'i'eappearance of the sacred lily of the Nile, upon the lowering of the waters, season after season, gave promise of a happy land. Thus when Ave see this flower represented, as it so frequently is, upon a mummy case (Fig. 41), it was regarded as an emblem of faith in an eternal life where this worshipped flower would bloom for evermore. It is 7 first seen in bud (Fig. 41), then while still in bud, rising through the conventionally ex- pressed water until the fully expanded flower on the top indicated that the waters having receded, it was henceforth Avelcomed as the harbinger of plenty and a happy land where scarcity would be never known. The palm-tree was the tree of life, and was supposed to be the sacred tree in the paradise of Osiris. The zig-zag was the type of water, or the Nile itself Thus a deeper meaning than mere enrichment pervaded all Egyj)tian ornamentation, giving nearly every form an ideal and a poetical signification. Some forms which they used, such as the meander and scroll, as well as a few others, had apparently no such meaning, unless, indeed, we have now lost the means of their inter- pretation. Tlie vigour, accuracy, and power of drawing exhibited by the Egyptians in all their works have never been surpassed, although, from their religious principles, they purposely retained such stiff" and rigid forms — to all appearance resisting the freeness of their hand. The laws Avhich guided them in their art were thus closely connected with their religious principles. Plate 2. No. 1. Head crowned with leaves and buds. The beard and hair crimped horizon- tally as represented in Egyptian sculpture. No. 2. Frieze Avith floAvers and buds in low relief groAving from Avater. No. 3. Geometrical arrangement of leafage or palm grove, with croAvned serpents beloAv. The haje, or African cobra, Avhen excited stands erect and swells out its body as here represented. The serpent Avas considered sacred in Egypt. It is not uncommon to 26 Suggest io7is ill Design. find entire sculptnred friezes and borders composed of a succession of these cobras, each surmounted by a disk to indicate their sacred chai'acter. No. 4. The pajDyrus in flower, bud, and seed. It is thus represented in low relief on the pedestal or altar in front of Hapi- moon, the god of the Nile, with other aquatic offerings. The statue is in black granite, and is now in the British Museum. It was brought from Karnac. No. 5. Frieze or cavetto containing heads of the goddess Isis, which are thus found crowned with small temples (see also Fig. 34). The heads are alternated with serpents and palm-trees. No. G. Leaf cornice. The only kind of cornice found (if it can be called a cornice) is formed by a large hollow springing from a torus or bold bead, as in Fig. 28. No. 7. Frieze of lotus and cartouche alternating. Hieroglyphics surrounded by an oval line either upright or horizontal, called a cartouche, are of frequent occurrence and indicate a proper name, as that of a monarch, the one in the centre of this ex- ample reading KLEOPATEA. The two signs on either side of the lower bird indicate the feminine. No. 8. One-half of a bell-shaped capital, developed or laid out flat. Many of the capitals have the upper portion or lip of the bell formed of four arcs of a circle surround- ing a square, after the manner of a quatrc- foil. No. 9. Lotus growing in water, with band of eyes and stars above. "Water was usually represented by zigzag lines. The band con- taining the star indicated the heavens, and, probably, the eyes represented those of the deities, looking down upon the acts of men. No. 10. Symmetrical arrangement of elon- gated incised lines with lotus and buds. No. 11. Ornament formed of the lotus. Band of reeds and vulture. The universal application of the lotus, or water-lily of the Nile, which was a sacred plant among the Egyptians, is very remarkable, and is found in every variety among the paintings and sculpture. Plate 3. No. 1. Baboons and fig-tree. The power of the Egyptian artists in expressing the character of animals by little more than simj^le outline was very I'emarkable. No. 2. Bundles of lotus with the haje or cobra surmounted by a globe or sun. No. 3. Spoon or ladle formed of a slave bearing on his head a bundle of reeds and lotus. In the Louvre and British Museum FiR. 42. Fig. 43. Fig. 44. are many utensils ornamented by the lotus, but the use of the figure in this instance is somewhat questionable. There are exam- ples also of a fish being converted into a dish, a hand into a scoop, &c., but such in- stances are rare. These conceits, however, are not confined to the Egyptians, for we find Etruscan and early Greek vases com- posed of figures and heads, with cavities in the cranium (Figs. 42, 43), or covered with rudely formed animals, Fig. 44, and Egyptian Ornamentation. 27 Greek lamps made out of masks, feet, hands, animals, &c., but such applications are hai-dly within the province of refined taste. ^ No. 4. Cobra with the disk and flower ornament. No. 5. Duck, showing the conventional treatment of the feathers as if formed of platted reeds. No. 6. Centre ornament formed of triple fish and lotus flower. Nos. 7 and 8. Painted bands, such as are found on mummy cases. See also Fig. 41. No. 9. Star-form tile or diaper. No. 10. The winged globe, accompanied by asps, the type of the sun, a sacred emblem of the highest order, and usually placed over the entrances to the temples. The wings are supposed to be those of the hawk, and are also symbolical of the sun, on account of the elevation to which this bird continued its flight, and of the faculty which it was considered to have, of looking at the sun with a steady gaze. No. 11. Bold lotus treatment with flowers, being the same in all four ways that it is looked at. The flatceiUngsof the temples were usually covered by painting in this manner. No. 12. Frieze formed of bearded heads ornamented with head-dresses of banded reeds, alternating with lotus buds. Plate 4. No. 1. Lotus and aquatic plants bound together and arranged symmetrically. 1 Of a similar character, also, are the owl-headed vases found by Dr. Schliemann on the site of Troy. No. 2. Fan-shaped standard ornament. No. 3. Lotus band. Many of the mummy coverings, as in the British Museum, have bands and enrichments of this character, executed in gold and colour. See Fig. 41, also incised as Fig. 45. No. 4. Emblem of security alternating with buds. Nos. 5 and 6. Diapers or tiles. No. 7. Throne bound by aquatic plants and the lotus of the Nile, emblematical of Egypt and its fertility. No. 8. Lotus flowers and buds growing on the water. No. 9. Border formed of a row of temples on a river. An example of doubtful taste, and rather to be avoided. No. 10. Band for painting. Bound reeds with lotus flowers and buds. No. 11. Bundle of lotus with the emblem of security and feather crest. No. 12. Papyrus with emblems of stabiUty above. Rs- -is- No. 13. Ornamental ? f M ? U M i frieze or band divided by T^Ji^^VjyG reeds with cartouches and * T * T * hieroglyphic writing. Illl 1111 Nos. 14 and 15. Papy- rus and lotus. Fig. 45 represents the lotus as incised in granite, from the collar of a figure upon the cover of a sarcophagus in the British Museum. No. 16. Decorated cartouche or shield. No. 17. Circular ornament with lotus growing in water. 28 Suggestions in Design. CHAPTER V. ASSYEIAN OENAMENTATION. >HE style of ait wliich Las been brought to liglit of late years by the excavations of M. Botta, French consul at Mosul, and Mr. Layard, has revealed to us some marvellous work of a kind hitherto unknown, but we cannot go so far as to say that these excavations have brought to liglit any complete style of architecture. M. Botta, on the part of the French gov- ernment, commenced his excavations at Khorsabad in 1842, and in the space of a few months a large number of halls and chambers were completely explored, belong- ing to a magnificent edifice whose walls were all panelled with sculptured slabs. In November, 1845, Mr. (now Sir) Austen Henry Layard commenced his excavations upon tlie great mound of Nimroud, and after some considerable trouble came upon those colossal human-headed lions and bulls which are now in the British Museum. After some months' labour, five-and-twenty halls and chambers were explored, all panelled Avith slabs of alabaster— some sculptured with figures, others merely in- scrilx'd Avith Assyrian writing, engraved upon tlie stone in what is called, from their peculiar shape, arrow-headed or cuiicifoi'm characters. Upon Mr. Layard's return to Assyria in 1840 further discoveries soon fol- lowed ; among others the vast and magnifi- cent palace of Sennacherib at Kouyunjik, built about 700 years B.C. Some idea of the enormous extent, and of the richness and variety of decorations in this palace, may be formed Avhen it is mentioned that "no less than seventy-one halls, chambers, and passages were exj^lored, Avhose walls, almost without an exception, were panelled with slabs of scidptured alabaster, recording the wars, the triumphs, and other great deeds of the As.syrian king; that by a rough calculation about 9880 feet, or nearly two miles of bas-reliefs, Avith twenty-seven portals formed by colossal Avinged bulls and lion sphinxes, Avere uncovered."^ Among the most interesting bas-reliefs discovered are some representing the king hunting lions in a royal park or paradise ; a campaign against the Arabs, Avho are mounted on dromedaries; a palace Avith all its architectui-al details, and a bridge Avith pointed arches; the trans- porting of the colossal bulls; numerous battles and sieges; as Avell as one Avhere the Avails of a city arc being knocked doAAai by a battering-ram. The most important of these sculptures have noAv been placed in the British Museum, and may be there studied. The exterior of these palaces, Avhich Avere nearly S(|uare, had generally tAvo facades, Avhich consisted usually of three entrances, each entrance being flanked by tAvo colossal human-headed bulls or lions. An eagle- ' yincirh and Babylon, by Sir A. H. LayarJ. Assyrian Ornamentation. 29 headed lion of tins character is given at No. G, Plate 6. The walls, which were of extraordinary thickness, were solidly constructed of sun-dried bricks, and were usually panelled or faced Avith slabs of alabaster or some other stone, elaborately carved with figures and other subjects in low relief as before mentioned. The whole of the upper parts of these buildings, with the exception in some cases of a few feet of sun-dried brick wall, have fallen in and perished. All that remain, therefore, of the Assyrian edifices are those lower parts v.dnch being faced with stone have been able to resist the ravages of time. But little is known of what the upper parts consisted, further than that most probably they were of wood. Among the edifices uncovered were some that had evidently been destroyed by fire, the ruins being buried in charred Avood, and the alabaster almost reduced to lime. At Nimroud many entire beams of cedar and other woods were found in the ruins, some still entire, others that fell to an almost impalpable powder as soon as exposed to the air. It is supposed by Mr. Fergusson that in the remains of the palaces of the ancient Persian kings found at Persepolis and Susa we have a clue to the restoration of the upper stories of the Assyrian palaces. That columns of a similar character to those there found were employed to carry the massive beams which formed the framework upon which the roof rested. Some of these columns are double-headed, of which No. 1 1, Plate 6, offers an example of a similar character. The shafts were fluted and the bases were en- riched, after the manner shown by the ex- amples Nos. 4, 5, 12, and 13, Plate 6. How far this supposition is Avell founded 8 it is hard to say; but although Ave see a vast quantity of beautiful sculpture, it is evident Ave have only the remnants of a style Avhich in its entirety must have possessed great grandeur and beauty. That it Avas originally derived from the Egyptian there can be little doubt; still there are many marked and broad differences. There is one point connected Avith the remains discovered at NincA-eh Avhich adds great interest to them: the similarity Avhich appears to have existed betAveen the archi- tecture of the JcAvs and the Assyrians. In the description of Solomon's Temple given in the book of Kings the Avails appear to haA'e been covered up Avitli carved Avoodwork much in the same manner as the Assyrian palaces Avere panelled in stone: "And he built the Avails of the house Avithin Avith boards of cedar, both the floor of the house, and the Avails of the ceiling: and he covered them on the inside Avith Avood, and covered the floor of the house Avith planks of fir. . , . And the cedar of the house Avithin Avas carved Avith knops and oj^en floAvers; all Avas cedar; there Avas no stone seen" (i Kings vi. 15, 18). Again, " The tAvo doors also Avere of oliA^e tree; and he carved uj)on them carvings of cherubim, and palm-trees, and open floAvers" (verse S2). These Avinged figures, although carved upon the doors, appear to ansAver to the Avinged figures guarding the entrances to the Assyrian palaces. In the mention of the " lily-Avork " Avhich formed part of the " chapiters that Avere on the top of the pillars" (i Kings vu, 19), Ave are strongly reminded of Egyptian or Assyrian ornamentation, in Avhich the lotus, the lily of the Nile, forms such an ever-recurring en- richment. This floAver occurs constantly and in a great variety of forms. It appears in 30 Suggestions in Design. the Assyrian, in the lotus and bud ornament, No. 2, PLate 5. Hence in all probability the " lily-work" of Scripture Avas of this Assyrian character. It also indicates that as " King Solomon sent and fetched Hiram out of Tyre" to woi'k the "molten brass" (or bronze) of the Temple, that the Phoenician had a likeness to the prevailing styles of the time. The delicacy and the extreme care with which the Assyrian wall sculptures are Avrought, developing the minutest detail with the precision of works in ivory, is most re- markable. They are in extremely low relief, scarcely projecting more than from a quarter to half an inch. The ground upon which the sculp- ture is wrought is Avorked down — that is, in has- relief, and no parts are in cavo- relievo,asis so fre- quently the case in the Egyptian. Many of the Fig. 4(3. Fig. 47. K m D D D D m D L c Fig. 48. ^ dresses of the fig- ures are covered with minute dia- pers, as shown by Figs. 46 and _^ 47; and Fig. 48 is an ornamented band from a head-dress. The faces of all the figures are in profile, as in the Egyp- tian; but the shoulders are more natural, and not squared so much as in the Egyptian sculptures and paintings. The eyes, Avhich in the Egyptian are in front view instead of in profile, are in three-quarter view. There are many examples of the palm, date- palm, the vine, fig, tree-fern, and the lily, as well as a tall-growing grass, probably maize, introduced upon many of the sculp- tures. The sacred tree is also a conspicuous object occurring frequently. It appears to be a palm-tree conventionally arranged Avith a single and sometimes a double band of floAvers or palms surrounding tlie centre tree. A portion of one is given at No. 13, Plate 5. Judging by the examples in the British Museum from the palace at Nimroud, their floors also appear to have been often sculp- tured. The largest example in the Museum, which is Avrought in very low relief, appar- ently in Avhite marble, is formed into square divisions or panels, the centre of each of Avhich is occupied by a rose or patera, from Avhich radiate to the angles four fir-cones, and alternating Avith them, spreading to the sides of the scpiare, are four lilies or lotus floAvers. These sf[uare cen- tres are repeated, forming a diaper over the Avhole sur- fiice, separated by bordei's filled Avith paterte, Fig. 49. The Avhole is surrounded by a general border, in Avhich occurs the lotus and bud enrichment, No. 2, Plate 5. The Assyrians Avere also great Avorkers in terra cotta, of Avhich they made most im portant u se. ' ' Assyrian s Avrote on terra cotta cylinders, or holloAV hexagonal prisms. The cuneiform characters Avere stamped Avith a prismatic stick or rod, or perhaps by the edge of a square of metal. It is supposed that 20,000 of these clay tablets or ancient books of the Assyrians, containing the litera- ture of the country, have been discovered.^ ' An acci.mit of tlie flood has been translated from these clay cylinders, and was read liy the late Mr. George Smith before the Biblical Society. Fig. 49. Assyrian Ornamentation. 31 Thus while the paper and parchment learning of the Byzantine and Alexandrian schools has almost disappeared after a few centuries, the granite pages of Egypt and the clay leaves of Assyria have escaped the ravages of time and the fury of barbarism."^ Not only did they also fabricate every kind of vessel which they required in terra cotta, but they made peculiar kinds of enamelled bricks and tiles, inlaid in colour, from Avhich the enrich- ment No. 19, Plate 5, is taken, and there can be no doubt that with these they laid many of their floors, and perhaps lined the walls of some of their apartments. There are ex- amples in the British Museum of cast figures in terra cotta, Avith the terra cotta moulds from which they have been produced. In carved ivory the Assyrians show con- siderable skill, and some of their works in this material are also inlaid with coloured enamel. Many examples in ivory are in thin plates, probably for inlaying upon other work, and are incised with lotus and bud, Fig. 50. palm ornaments, borders of paterge, and guilloche bands. Fig. 50 is a double guilloclie from one of these incised bands in ivory, and is very similar to those found on the capitals of the columns of the Erechtheum at Athens. Although iron was used by the Assyrians, as well as by the Egyptians, it does not appear to have been very plentiful, and bronze was evidently the most common ' History of Ancient Pottery, by Samuel Birch, F.S.A. metal. Knives, adzes, axes, saws, and other implements were usually made of bronze. Many bronze bowls have been found, en- graved witli various ornaments, while some are very skilfully formed in repousse work; that is, the figures and other enricliments are raised by being beaten up by a hammer from the back, so tliat they stand in relief, the details being finislied by the graver or other tools upon the face of the Avork. In colour the ancient Assyrians, like the Egyptians, seem to have revelled. Foi' it is well known that the bas-reliefs which lined the walls of their palaces Avere all painted and gilded, and in some cases covered Avith silver and gold plates. Upon this point M. Texier, speaking of Persepolis, says, "I am sure that there Avas not a corner of the palace in Avhich could not be found the most careful and delicate painting. It was the same at Khorsabad, at Nimroud, and also at Ecbatana, the cajntal of Media, Avhere, according to Polybius, describing the palaces of the kings of Persia, the porticoes, peristyles, and the Avails Avere covered Avith plates of silver and gold, Avhich Avere jDillaged by the soldiers of Alexander." In this again Ave see a similarity to the Avork of Solomon's Temple, in the description of Avhich it is stated that " the Avhole house he overlaid Avith gold;" and that this Avas probably done in gold plates Ave have the further explanation in reference to the doors, that he "covered them Avith gold Jitted upon the carved work" (i xii ^mgs VI. o;>l We discover, therefore, by these Assyrian antiquities Avhich have lain so long hidden from vieAv, but Avhicli noAv form such a magnificent collection in our national mu- seum, that the ancient Assyrians cultivated the arts with no mean poAver six or seven 32 Suggestions in Design. centuries before our era. In their sculptures we find every variety of action and move- ment expressed with great judgment and ability. Although the nmscles of the arms and legs of their figures are represented in excess, it shows that they took nature for their guide, and did not follow a mere con- ventional rendering of the human form, as was the case Avith the Egyptians. Symbolism, as in all early forms of archi- tecture and decoration, was a guiding prin- ciple, and entered very much into most forms of Assyrian art, although not to the same extent as in Egyptian sculpture and orna- mentation. Most of the Assyrian wall sculptures were purely historical records of events, which took place during the reigns of the various Assyrian monarchs whose deeds they chronicled. The primitive or Pelasgic Greek was evi- dently based very much upon the Assyrian ornamentation, and the form of the Greek honeysuckle may be undoubtedly traced to such examples as No. 13, Plate 5, and No. 3, Plate 6. The guilloche, so frequent in the Greek, is found in the Assyrian, as in the lower part of No. 19, Plate 5. The double guilloche, as found in the capitals and bases of the Erechtheum, may be seen on Assyr- ian ivories, as already noticed. Fig. 50. The patera also, which is of such frequent occurrence in the Greek, is found in the Assyrian, Fig. 49. What is commonly called the wave or " Vitru- vian scroll," is not un- common, as in the ex- ample Fig. 51, which is from the British Museum. Without, therefore, in any way depreciating the skill of the Greeks or the refinement which their genius stamped upon Fi". .51. their works, it is extremely valuable and interesting to note from what sources they borrowed some of their forms. Plate 5. No. 1. Lotus and bud ornament, evidently a reminiscence of some of the Egyptian orna- mentation, enamelled or inlaid with colour. No. 2. Lotus and bud ornamentation sculptured in low relief, after the manner of that forming a border to the pavement from the palace at Nimroud, now in the British Museum. Nos. 3 to 9. Small ornaments, parts of thrones and chairs from the wall sculptures. No. 10. Centre ornament, giving four different varieties or terminations after the manner of those found among the Assyrian sculptures. No. 11. Foot of sculj^tured chair or throne. No. 12. Castellated termination, suggested by forms found among the sculptures. No. 13. Palm flower from the terminals of the sacred tree, probably the origin of the Greek honeysuckle. Nos. 14 and 15. Centre ornaments. No. 16. Wave and bandolette pattern for painting. No. 17. Fan and fir-cone ornament. The fir-cone frequently occurs in Assyrian orna- ment, and some of the priests in the sculp- tures have fir-cones in their hands. No. 18. Fir-cone and lotus-bud ornament, somewhat resembling the patterns found edging the robes of the Assyrian kings. The fir-cone is symbolical of lire, the lotus of water. No. 19. Fan or Palm ornament and alter- nating bud with guilloche band below. These are found executed in black and white in a species of glazed earthenware tile. Assyrian Ornamentation. 33 No. 20. Reeded columns with lotus-bud capitals supporting reel and bead, from Per- sepolis. No. 21. Opening bud and fir-cone border, from the edgings to the draperies of the figures in the sculptures. Plate 6. No. 1. Eagle-headed lions and Cirnament, designed in the Assyrian manner. No. 2. Eosette or patera. These are of frecjuent occurrence in the sculptures, as in the pavement from the palace at Nimroud, forming bands of ornament which divide the whole into sc[uares, tlie squares being filled in with fir-cones and the expanded lotus. No. 3. Fan or palm ornament in metal filled in Avith enamel in two colours, from Nineveh. A form of flower Avhich is pro- bably the origin of the Greek honeysuckle. Nos. 4 and 5. Enrichments from the bases of columns found at Persepolis. These are not strictly Assyrian, but in a closely allied style. No. C. Colossal eagle -headed and winged lion, after the remains found at Nineveh and Persepolis. These monsters, found guard- ing the portals of Assyrian palaces, may in many respects be taken as models of apjDropriate conventional treatment of animal forms, the majestic strength of the creature being well maintained Avithout a too literal imitation of nature, tlie graceful attributes of the bird being combined Avith that of the quadruped. The Avinged bnlls and human- headed lions in the British Museum have the forelegs straighter than in our example, and consequently tliey have a greater appear- ance of strength. They have also, when vicAved diagonally, five legs. Tliis is a de- fect Avhich is caused by the attempting tocom- l^ine semi Avith Avhole relief The muscles of the legs are very much exaggerated. No. 7. Sacred tree and pomegranates. These sacred trees occur upon the sculjDtures in different forms, often Avith priests or Avinged eagle-headed figures on either side, Avith a fir-cone in one hand advanced toAvards the tree, and a vessel in the form of a bucket in the other, said to be symljolical of the sacred elements, fire and Avater. No. 8. Sacred ornament Avith acorn ter- minations. No. 9. Diaper and fringe from the sculp- tured hangings iipon the chariot horses. Many of the dresses, harness, and other accessories upon the king's robes, their chariots and horses, are elaborately orna- mented and executed Avith minute delicacy. See Figs 46, 47, and 48, already given. No. 10. Bas-relief diaper from the sculp- tures, inclosed pateras and semi-pateras. The sculptures Avhich lined the Avails of the palaces Avere invariably in very Ioav relief, never casting deep shadoAvs or violating that appearance of solidity and flatness so desir- able in mnral decoration. No. 11. Twin lions, after the manner of an Assyrian SAvord-hilt. The capitals of columns from Persepolis are frequently formed Avith double heads in this manner. Double-headed capitals are also found in the Indian, as may be seen in the sculpture of the cast of the gatcAvay from the Sanchi Tope in the South Kensington Museum. No. 12. Enrichment from the capital of a column from Persepolis. No. 13. Sculptured base from a Persepoli- tan column. 9 34 Suggestions in Design. CHAPTER VI. GREEK OENAMENTATION. IYSTERY and fable enshroud the early histor}^ of Greece. The primitive inhabitants Avere called Pelasgi, hence we hear of archaic Greek art being dis- tinguished as Pelasgic. At an uncertain but very early date, an Asiatic people named the Hellenes immigrated into Greece, in some cases expelling the Pelasgi, and in others intermingling Avith them, so that in process of time all the inhabitants of the country came to be called Hellenes. The Greeks were from an early period a great colonizing people, planting colonies and settlements in Asia Minor and the islands of the Archipelago, so that their in- fiaence became diffused over an extensive region, including portions of Italy, Sicily, and other parts of Europe and Western Asia. Wherever the Greeks settled they appear to have preserved their nationality; indeed, the cities and teriitory in Southern Italy which they had occupied were collec- tively called Magna Graecia. In no country inhabited by the Hellenic race, Avith the exception of Athens itself, Avere the arts more highly cultivated than in the ancient Greek colony of Ionia in Asia Minor. Besides many other Avorks, the lonians erected the magnificent temple of Diana at Ephesus, Avhich Avas considered one of the seven wonders of the Avorld. Greek art can, Avithout doubt, be traced to the Egyptian and the Assyrian, although the Athenians and other Hellenic races purified and refined the forms handed doAvn to them. The remains Avhich have been found of the mausoleum at Halicarnassus all point to- Avards this origin. Mr. E. P. Pullan, in a lecture Avhich he delivered at the Royal Institution ^ on the " Excavations in Asia Minor," after adverting to Asia Minor as the land of Homer and the Iliad, said '' that it Avas the cradle of Hellenic art, in Avhich respect also it Avas invested Avith a never- dying interest. It was there that they could best study the relations between classical art and architecture and those of ancient Egypt and Assyria. At Halicarnassus they found that the oldest Greek remains bore a distinctly Assyrian character. At Assus, also, Avhere there Avere to be seen the ruins of some of the most ancient Hellenic temples, they had been struck Avith the pal- pable traces of the same assyrianizing ten- dency. The Greek sense of beauty had, hoAvever, infused a ncAv life into the more antique and ruder forms borroAved from the banks of the Tigris, the Euphrates, and the Nile." Thus the more these early Avorks in Asia Minor are explored, the more com- pletely Avill the connecting links betAveen Greek, Assyrian, and Egyptian ait be supplied. The elements of all architecture are fcAV ' January 22, 1876. Greek Ornamentation. 35 Fig. 52. p n n r and simple^ but in the Greek more espe- cially so. If we take it for granted that we cannot have a building without walls and a roof or covering, it will be found that the elements are limited to the pier, the lintel, the arch, and the bracket. The Greeks used the first two only — the pier and the lintel. For columns are simply reduced piers, rounded for convenience or beauty, and with a capital added to give a firmer bear- ing to the lintel which they carry. The lintel is also called the architrave, and upon it rested a second course named the frieze, which carried the roof The eaves of the roof ]3rojecting over the frieze became the cornice. The slope of the roof gave the form of the pediment at each end of the building, as indicated bythe small diagram of part of the Parthenon, Fig. 52. These simple and primitive forms of construction, when enriched by the con- summate skill of the Greeks, were the sole elements of their architecture. The prototype of the Doric order is to be found in the Egyptian, and the origin of the beautiful Greek anthemion ornament, as I have already mentioned, may be traced back through the Assyrian to the Egyptian. There exists an example of what is con- sidered to be Pelasgic Greek art in the Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae; and a por- tion of the ornamentation found sculptured in low relief in bands upon the doorway leading to this treasury is represented in Fig. 53. The examples of this archaic Fig. 53. Fig. 54. period which have been hitherto brought to light are very few, but the recent discoveries of Dr. Schliemann at Mycense may prove the means of further elucidating the sub- ject. From his de- scription, however, of the tombs wliich he has explored, they do not appear to possess many ai'chitectural or ornamental features. He speaks frequently of ".spiral lines." In one case he says " there was found a very large one-liandled golden goblet, decorated with two rows of leau- tiful spiral lines." These I assume to be very similar to those on the stonework shown in Fig. 53, which also occur in rows of two and three deep. Spiral lines of somewhat similar character are found in the Assyrian^ and they aj^pear again in the wave scroll (sometimes called the Vitruvian scroll), an example of which, from the roof of the Monument of Lysicrates, is given in Fig. 54. Dr. Schliemann also mentions that many examples of that curious cross occur at INTycense which he so frequently met with in the ruins of Troy. This he calls a suastika (Fig. 55), and says it is thought to be the emblem of the holy fire, the arain of the Brah- mans. It is Avorth noticing that it occurs also in many other forms of archi- tecture, as the Etruscan, the Indian, and the Byzantine. It was in sculpture, more especially, that the Greeks made such a vast and wonderful advance beyond the works of all previous nations. No period during the whole course Fig. 55. ?i^ 36 Suggestions hi Design. of their art history affords so striking an instance of sudden and rapid progress, as during tlie age of Pericles, Avhich lasted only from 466 to 429 B.C. Athens at that time had reached the height of her greatness. "She had now, in fact, become the capital not merely of Attica, or even of Greece proper, but of the whole civilized world; and by the liberal rewards which her princely wealth enabled her to bestow on men of genius and learning, had drawn into her bosom the most eminent philosophers, orators, poets, and artists, from all parts of the earth." ^ It appears to have been the primary object of Pericles to render Athens the most brilliant city in the Avorld, not only for power, but for the display of works of art and the cultivation of literature. The Par- thenon, the most important and the most beautiful of all the buildings erected at Athens during this period, Avas commenced by Pericles in 444 B.C. Standing on the higliest part of the Acropolis, this noble temple was dedicated to Athena (called Minerva by the Komans), the tutelary god- dess of Athens. Its form Avas of the utmost simplicity: a pai'allelogram 227 feet long and 100 feet broad, consisting of a continuous peristyle of columns inclosing the cella, which formed the actual temple. It is of the Doric order, and Avas erected under the superintendence of the architects Ictinus and Calhcrates. The Avhole edifice Avas constructed of Pentelic marble, Avith ex- ception only of the tiles of the roof, Avhich Avere of Parian. The temple Avas adorned Avitli those master- pieces of sculpture executed by or under the immediate control of the ' Chambers's Histury of Greece. sculptor Phidias, many portions of which are noAV deposited in the British Mus- eum, and knoAvn as the Elgin Marbles. These, as must be acknoAvledged by all Avho examine them, evince a Avonderful poAver; the human and animal forms being full of life and motion, combined Avith the utmost gracefulness in composition. They far exceed anything that had existed before that time, and for sculpture pos- sessing such high and intellectual char- acteristics Ave may search in A^ain during all the centuries Avhich have elapsed since the age of Pericles. They therefore remain to us as precious models and examples of the highest class of art; and although one may regret their having been torn from the temple Avhich they adorned, yet possessing them, as Ave do, we ought to appreciate them as treasures of priceless Avorth. The Avhole of these sculptures had refer- ence either to the goddess Athena, or to the people by Avhom the temple Avas erected. They may be divided into three classes: — 1. The statues filling the typanums" of the pediments. These consist of figures much above the size of life, and at one end refer to the birth of Athena or Minerva from the head of Zeus (Jupiter), and at the other to the contest betAveen Athena and Poseidon (Neptune) for the soil of Attica, 2. The metopes, or squai'e spaces in the fi'ieze betAveen the triglyphs, Avhich Avere filled Avith alto-relievos representing the ex- ploits of the goddess herself and the strug- gles between the Centaurs and Lapithje. 3. The frieze or band Avhich ran entirely round the top of the external Avails of the cella, sculptured Avith figures in bas-relief ^ Triangular spaces formed by the slope of the roof at each end of the temple. Greek Ornamentation. 37 representing the Panathenaie festival, cele- brated in honour of Athena, and held once in four years, in the third year of each Olympiad. Many of the figures in the procession are on horseback, others are about to mount; some are in chariots, others on foot. But the chief object of the entire procession is the delivery of tlie em- broidered veil and mysterious baskets into the hands of the reigning archon and a priestess. These sculptures were, after all, but a portion of the matchless works of Phidias which originally beautified the temple. The acroteria or pedestals on the pediments sup- ported groups of sculptured figures, which, doubtless, wei^e of the greatest excellence; and the temple contained also a statue of the goddess Athena, said to have been one of the greatest works of Phidias, and wrought by his own hands. It was formed of ivory and gold, and was 47 feet high. The interior of the temple was divided into two parts, the inner one containing the statue of the goddess. Other examples of Doric architecture exist at Athens, none of which, liowever, are so rich in sculpture as the Parthenon. Of these may be mentioned the Propylajum or en- trance to the Acropolis, and the Theseum or Temple of Theseus. The latter, although much smaller, is second only to the Parthe- non. It was erected about thirty years before that building, which it resembles in its most essential points. The Theseum was ornamented Avith a sparing hand, but the arrangement of the sculpture was so judiciously managed as to produce the greatest possible effect. The ten metopes in front of the eastern portico exhibit the labours of Hercules, while those on the flanks refer to Theseus. The sculptures from the pediment have dis- appeared. Remains of the painting are in some parts vei'y conspicuous. Although it was for some time disputed, there is now but little doubt that painting, or what is more correctly termed poly- cliromatic decoration, formed a conspicuous and distinguishing feature in all the Greek temples, and that not only architectural mem- bers, but the beautiful and delicate sculpture as Avell, was elaborately painted and gilded. But as to what the colours were, or Avhat portions were gilded, there is still a con- siderable difference of opinion; there can be no question, however, that the Greeks used strong and positive colours. In excav- ating near the Parthenon "there were found many pieces of marble, and among these frag- ments parts of triglyphs, of fluted columns, and of statues, particularly a female head. These three last-mentioned fragments were painted with the brightest red, blue, and yel- low, or I'ather vermilion, ultramarine, and straw-colour, Avhich last may have faded in the earth. The colours are laid on in thick coats. The female face had the eyes and eyebrows painted."^ Distinct traces of ver- milion, and other colours also, can still be distinguished, although in minute quantities, in some of the examples preserved in the British INIuseum. As to the forms of the painted enrichments we have clear evidence, as their outlines are frequently indicated on the marble by an incised line engraved by a sharp tool, which was probably done by the aid of stencil-moulds. It is necessary to explain that the mould- ings of the Doric temples were, Avith very few exceptions, left plain and nncarved, but 1 Mr. Braeebridge in Wordsworth's Atlims and Attica. 10 38 Suggestions in Design. Kg. 5B. were enriched b)^ painting; while, on the contrary, the mouldings of the Ionic tem- ples Avere elaborately carved as well as painted. Upon the cymatium of the raking cornice of one of the pediments of the Parthenon was discovered a very elegant form of the anthemion ornament,^ Fig. 56, and probably the fillets above and below it, as well as the plain fascia of the cornice, were covered with fret ornaments. As a rule, plain fillets, bands, fascias, friezes, and the abacuses of capitals were ornamented by what is commonly called the Greek fret or meander — in a simple form on the smaller members, but more elaborate on the larger surfaces. Fig. 57 is a meander from the Fig. oS. fragment of a frieze dug up near the Par- thenon, and supposed to have formed a portion of that building. The meander ornament, variously treated, is common on all the other temples, both Doric and Ionic, as well as upon Greek vases and dresses. It Avas frequently used to enrich the beams that formed the ceilings of the temples, and divided them into srpiare panels or spaces called lacunaria. These were usually painted ' Another very similar example is given in Stuart & ]{cvetf3 Antiqaities of Athens, from a frieze in the .small Ionic temple on the Ilissus. a bright blue, with gold stars, to indicate the heavens, as in Fig. 58; or they contained combinations of the anthemion ornament, Fig. o^<), which is formed of the honeysuckle and lotus. Fig. 60 represents one of the antefixal ornaments which terminated the rolls of the tiles above the cornice at the sides of the Parthenon. Fig. 59. Fig. 60. The Ionic order, which at first Avas confined to the Ionian states in Asia Minor, is said to be coeval Avith the Doric. A very simple example of this order existed at Athens, in the small temple Avhich stood on the banks of the Ilissus, but is noAv destroyed. The richest and the most beautiful example, hoAVCA-er, still remains in the triple temple on the Acropolis, called the Erechtheum. It contained the Temple of Erechtheus, the Temple of Athena Polias, and the Temple of Pandrosus. War and other causes hindered the completion of this temple; and an interesting inscription has been found, Avhich contains the particulars of a minute professional survey of the un- finished parts, made shortly after the erec- tion of the building, and conducted under the direction of an architect named Philocles. The date of this temple is supposed to be a little later than that of the Parthenon. The Erechtheum has three porticoes, two of Avhich are Ionic, very richly decorated, Avith the anthemion ornament sculptured Greek Ornamentation. 39 under the volutes of the capitals, and form- ing a band round the neck of the column, the whole being of extreme delicacy of execution. The same ornament is also used as a continuous frieze under some portions of the entablature. The mouldings of the entablatures, as well as the capitals of the antse and other parts, are most beautifully carved. Of the remains of these which have been brought to this country, and are now deposited in the British Museum, the late Sir Digby Wyatt said in his Slade lectures, " I may aver without hesitation, that there are no other archi- tectural fragments so beautiful in all the world." Fig. 61 represents one of the Fig. Gl. friezes or bands from the capitals of the antse. Fig. 62 is the enrichment from the Fig. 62. Fig. 63. cymatium of the great doorway; and Fig. 63, a patera — a form of ornament which is of frequent occurrence in Greek archi- tecture — from the architrave of the same doorAvay. The portico of that part of the Erech- theum called the Pandroseum is supported by female figures called Caryatides in lieu of columns. These figures have a kind of Fig. 64. architectural cap upon their heads, upon which rests the entablature. With excep- tion of these figures there is no trace of any sculpture having ever existed in any pait of the Ereclitheum. In the British Museum there is an example of a Carya- tide figure, of great elegance and beauty (Fig. 64), which was found near Rome, but is of Greek workmanship of the best period. There are other examples of Ionic temples in Asia Minor, the remains of which show that they must have been of considerable beauty, more especially the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, the Temple of Diana at Ephesus, and the Temi^Ie of Min- erva at Priene. Portions of these works have been brought to this country and are now in the British Museum. Of the Corinthian order there is but one purely Greek example in existence — the small Choragic Monument of Ly.sicrates at Athens, the workmanship of which is carried to the highest pitch of refinement. This monument is known to have been erected in the year 335 B.C. There is another example of a foliated capital in the Tower of the Winds at Athens, but it cannot strictly be called Corinthian. Although it has been supposed that the Corinthian capital Avas invented by Callimachus, there cannot be a doubt that it was borrowed in some measure from the bell-shaped capitals of the Egyptians. The capital in tlie Tower of the Winds appears to be intermediate between the Egyptian and the fully developed Corinthian, from its having no angle volutes. The Greeks were, apparently, the first 40 Suggestions in Design. FiK. e.5 people who developed the acanthus foliage. Nothing of the same character can be found in any previous style of architecture. It formed the leafage of the Corinthian capital, and as far as Ave can judge by the small capital from the Monument of Lysicrates, it was of great beauty and elegance. Fig. 65 shows a portion of one of the leaves from the capital. On the roof of the same monument are Fig. 66. Fig. 67. some beautiful scrolls having sheaths of the acanthus foliage. One of these scrolls is given, Fig. 66, from VuUiamy's examples of ornamental sculpture in architecture. The Greek acanthus foliage is of a sharp spiky form, and is supposed to be conventionalized from the plant Acanthus lanceolatus. Similar foliage is to be found in some of the examples of an- tefixal ornaments which are fre- quently of terra cotta. It is seen again combined wdth the honey- suckle upon the stehe or sepulchral monuments of the Greeks, Fig. 67. In all the examples the same character of sharp zigzag outline of the foliage Avith circular eyes is to be dis- tinguished. It is much to be regretted that so fcAV examples of such elegant foliage have been preserved in Greece. In all proba- bility, when the Romans overran the country they became so enamoured with this species of ornament that they carried with them to Italy many specimens of it, Avhich are now lost for ever. Besides the acanthus the Greeks did not select many natural types for their foliage, and employed even these in a highly conven- tional manner. They consisted principally of the honeysuckle, of which an example from the roof of the Monument of Lysi- Fig. 68. ,69. crates is given. Fig. 68 ; the laurel, of which a very beautiful wreath (Fig. 69) is from the Monument of Thrasyllus; the holly, of which Fig. 70 is an example, in a sculptured moulding from the Erechtheum; and the lily or lotus, as seen in the anthemion orna- ments. But it must be remembered that Greek ornament is considered to be purely aesthetic and ideal, devoid of all symbolical meaning, and that it can be but obscurely traced to Greek Ornamentation. 41 Fig. 71. natural types. What is called the " Greek honeysuckle " has but slight rescmhlance to that flower, and it appears more probable that it is a refinement upon the palm as found in Assyrian sculptures. Again, the acanthus foliage is as likely to have l^een suggested by the thistle or the sea-holly as by the natural acanthus. The Greeks pursued principles rather than a literal adherence to nature. These principles embraced sim- plicity and gracefulness of form, symmetry, and repetition. Symmetrical ornaments are found in such examples as Fig. 67; repetition in Figs. 68 and 70, and in the long lines of the echinus or egg-and- tongue moulding (Fig. 71), in the astragal or reel-and-bead, and in the enriched ogee or cyma-reversa. That they sought beauty by simple repeti- tion may be seen from the long vistas of columns in their porticoes and peristyles. But they further understood the value of re- petition with variety, as found in their sculp- tures. In the Panathenaic frieze the long- procession of graceful horses and their riders are repeated with regularity but variety. So with the metopes of their entablatures. The triglyi^hs carry out repetition only, but the sculptures of the metopes add variety. The Parthenon is the liighest exemplification of the principle " unity with variety." The beautiful antique statues and bas- reliefs, of which examples are now pre- served in nearly every important public museum of Europe (such as the Apollo Belvedere, the Venus of Milo, and a vast number of others), are for the most part of Greek workmanship, and many of them 11 of the best period. As long as Greece remained free, sculpture retained its high character, but upon the capture of Corinth in 146 B.C. thousands of magnificent works of art were dispersed. Many were sold, while others were sent to Eome. From this period the history of Greece must be sought in that of Eome. Greece became a mere province, and licr inhabitants will- ingly exercised their talents for their new masters. The most important manufacture of the Greek period of which remains exist, was that of terra-cotta vases, and on these we find all the cliaracteristic ornaments of the best epoch of Greek decoration. These vases, which are commonly termed Etruscan, will be more fully described in the following chapter. Plate 7. No. 1. A free adaptation of the anthemion orna- ment. Many varieties of it are found on Greek vases. No. 2. The honeysuckle and lotus alternating, but not connected by scroll work, as in tlic anthe- mion ornament. The arrangement is after the manner of the Egyptian, from M-hicli the Greek orna- ment was derived. No. .3 are examples of flower-form ornaments, usually termed paterre, frequently found in Greek architecture. Derived from the Assyrian. No. 4. A simple form of frieze ornament for painting. Nos. -5 and 6. Atlantes, given as suggestions for introducing in front of a pier or pilaster to support the entablature above. See also No. 4, Plate 10. The idea of these male figures, which are some- times called Telamones or giants, is taken from the temple of Agrigentum, where they are represented supporting the superincumbent weight upon their head and arms. No. 7. A four-way wave scroll, forming a panel for inlay or painted decoration. Nos. 8, 9,10,11, 12 contain suggestions for meander 42 Siiggesiioiis in Design. (jr fret form for gold and colour, alternating with square enrichments containing animal, vegetable, and fish forms. Frets are of constant occurrence in Greek painting. Other variations will be found in Plates 8, 9, 11, and 12. Plate 8. No. 1. Frieze enrichment, somewhat after the manner of those from the Erechtheuni. See Figs 61 and 62. No. 2. Anthernion ornament reversed and alter- nated. Nos. .3 to 10. Various suggestions for narrow band enrichments, in character similar to those found on Greek vases. No. 11. Trident forms of enrichment for coloured decoration. No. 12. Heart-form enrichment; arranged in a circle for colour on a gold ground. No. 1 .3. Honeysuckle and scroll enrichment issuing from an acanthus leaf. No. 14. Circle containing chimera treading upon a snake, with a border formed of the wave orna- ment. Plate 9. No. 1. Disk containing the heads of the Fates. Nos. 2 and 3. Heads of Minerva with borders of bud forms. Nos. 4 and b. Continuous \\y enrichments, as found on Greek vases. No. 6. Altar with Pan and Bacchante. No. 7 and 8. Circles containino- a vase with foliao-e also ivy, vine, grapes, and laurel, similar to examples found on vases. No. 9. Fret band. Nos. 10 and 11. Diagonal foliated enrichments for borders. No. 12. The honeysuckle and lotus, with flowers and scroll work, but having an Assyrian or archaic Greek character. Plate 10. No. 1. Honeysuckle and lotus with paterte. Nos. 2 and 3. Enrichments after the manner of the antefixal ornaments which formed the finish of the roof tiles on temples. No. 4. Telamon supporting a frieze enriched by the echinus or egg-and-tongue ornament. Nos. .5 and 6. Wave-line honeysuckle and \\j ornaments, after the manner of those found on Greek vases. No. 7. Douljle or reversed lotus ornament. No. 8. A variation upon the anthernion ornament. Nos. 9, 10, and 11. Leaf ornaments, for painting in the style of the Greek vases. Plate 11. No. 1. Centre leaf ornament, the two sides varied. No. 2 and 3. Ivy -leaf ornaments. No. 4. Leaf border with tendrils. No. .5. Honeysuckle and scroll: panel-painting, Ijlue on gold ground. No. 6. Marble inlay for pavement or wall decora- tion. No. 7. Meander fret border, with angle ornament for a ceiling, in colour or low relief. Nos. 8, 9, 10, and 11. Continuous leaf ornaments for narroT,\' bands or borders. Nos. 12, 13, 14, 1.5, 17, and 18. Border enrichments of various design, for painting or inlay. No. 16. One portion of continuous leaf or flower enrichment. Plate 12. No. 1. Brush-formed ornament, with inclosing lines. No. 2. Honeysuckle centre, with flowing scrolls and leafage iox painting. No. 3. Centre enrichment, with line interlaced scrolls and honeysuckles. No. 4. Painted panel. Goddess on a winged wheel, with meander border. No. .5 Heart-form scroll and honeysuckle border. No. 6. Frieze or border, with enriched panels and fretwork. No. 7. Hanging honeysuckle ornament. No. 8. Honeysuckle within heart-form, with branching scrolls and leafage, after the manner of foliage frequently found on the Greek vases. Etruscan Ornainentation. 43 CHAPTER VII. ETEUSCAN OENAMENTATION. TEUEIA, the modern Tuscany, was a large and important country in Central Italy. Its colonization and early history are involved in much uncertainty It is supposed by some, that the Etruscans emi- grated from Lydia in Asia Minor at a period long before the Christian era, and that they carried with them the germs of Greek art. They appear to have made early progress in the art of working bronze and the precious metals, but more especially in the production of beautiful pottery ware, seen in the elegant vases found so plenti- fully in various parts of the country Many thousands of these vases were discovered in the year 1829; about three thousand being excavated from the site of Vulci alone. They were found in small grotto tombs, some- times built, but usually hollowed out of the rocks, and are of various styles and periods of art. Some writers, notwithstanding the fact of there being Greek inscri^jtions upon many of the vases, claim them as purely Etrus- can works; while others assert that they were imported from Greece. The difficulty, how- ever, of transporting them in such numbers, in consequence of their extreme fragility, renders it more probable that the potters themselves rather than their products were j imported. Potteries producing works of the [ highest style of art existed at Athens and | Corinth, and as it is well known that Etruria I received fresh infusions of Greek blood at various times, it may be assumed that among these colonists Avere potters and artists, who brought with them the neces- sary skill for fabricating and painting these beautiful objects. From the vast numbers found, these vases had evidently been for a long period in great demand among the Etruscans, and this circumstance Avould doubtless attract fictile artists from Athens and other places throughout Greece. Al- though popularly known as Etruscan, these vases may therefore be considered of Greek workmanship, and in fact many vases in similar styles have been found in Athens, Corinth, Sicily, Samos, and other Greek islands. The ceramic arts are among the earliest practised by mankind; Avorks in burned earth or terra cotta are found in Egypt, and in many parts of the habitable globe, but nowhere more plentifully than in Asia Minor and the various states of Greece. Although the Egyptians never attained to any high degree of excellence in this art, yet the use of such vessels among them Avas universal. The celebrated fiesh-j^ots of Egypt were of ■ terra cotta, and for many IDurposes for Avhich iron is now used, clay was in use during the time of the Pharaohs. The ancient potter's wheel Avas of very simple contrivance, and Avas turned by the foot of the Avorkman himself; yet the 44 Suggestions in Design. excellence of the work produced by it was marvellous. Some of the vases, not to speak of then' exquisite forms, were nearly as thin as writing paper. The ornaments on Greek archaic vases consist mostly of concentric circles, spiral and herring-bone lines, as well as meanders, Avave scrolls, chequers, zigzags, and other simple foi'ms. Among other figures Dr Schliemann found the Trojan terra cottas^ covered with a species of cross which he calls a "suastika" (see Fig 55). The suastika in more perfect Abases of the early Greek period is found further developed Fig. 72. into the form shown by Fig. 72, and this may not improbably have been the origin of the Greek fret or meander. These oniaments were diversified by the introduction of the forms of flowers, animals, and insects, all draAvn with the childish simplicity of early art, and they may be considered as belonging to the heroic or early age of Greek art. The later and more perfect Greek, or as they are popularly called Etruscan vases, are enriched by the introduction of figures and animals of a much higher and more artistic character, and some of the more recent of them are elaborately decorated with that highly aesthetic .skill for Avhich Greek workmanship is so justly valued. These vases may be I'oughly divided into two classes: — The first having black figures and ornaments on a red ground, the natural colour of the clay, as in the examples shoAvn by Figs. 73 and 74; the second with the figures left of the natui-al colour and the ground painted lilack, as shown by Figs. 75, 76, and 77. In tlie former class, the figures ' See Troy ami its Remains, by Dr. Henry Schliemann, edited by P. Smith. are in silhouette with incised lines, but in the latter the vaiious parts of the figure and the Fig. 73. Fig. 74. Fig. 75. Fig. 77. drapery are draAvn Avith a black or broAvn line. The earliest class, that is, black on red, belongs to a date about 600 b.c. ; the second may be reckoned to be about a century later, and extended OA'er a period of about 300 or 350 years, Avhen the manu- facture seems to have ceased. During this long period, as may be supposed, con- siderable varia- tion took place in the style of enrichment and also in the forms of the vases. The later produc- tions Avere more covered Avith figures and ornament, and Avere much less severe in style, than the earlier. Other colours besides the primitive ones of black and red, and also gold, Avere frequently made use of upon the later vases. The painting appears to have been done after the vase Avas dried in the sun. It Avas then covered Avith a fine siliceous glaze, and sent to the furnace to be carefully baked. Etruscan Ornamentation. 45 Afterwards it was returned to the work- shop, where a workman or painter Avith a pointed tool scratched in the details, when the decorations Avere black. But it is evident that these stiff lines were quite inadequate to express those softer con- tours, which melted, as it were, into one an- other, and which marked the more refined grace and freedom of the rapidly advancing schools of sculpture and painting. By chang- ing the colour of the figures to red or orange, according to the nature of the clay, the artist was enabled to draw lines of a tone or tint scarcely darker than the clay itself, but still sufficient to express all the fine anatomical details; Avhile the more important outlines still continued to be marked with a black line finely drawn. The change was produced by tracing the figures on the clay with a fine point, and then working in the whole ground in black. The subjects represented upon the vases relate most frequently to heroic personages, such as Jason, Achilles, Hercules, and others belonging to Greek mythology; but many scenes are of a more ordinary and even of a domestic character. Thus some represent the chase, the public games, women drawing water at a fountain, or employed in their in- door occupations. The figures are generally drawn in profile, full faces being very rare. Temples also are occasionally introduced, with Doric or Ionic columns. Many of the dresses are diapered or bordered with ornament, and armour and altars are of frequent occurrence, as well as furniture, such as chairs, upon Avhich some of the figures are seated. Many curious parti- culars may be learned from these vase pictures, in reference to the Hellenic ritual, games, festivities, and domestic life; and there are 12 Fig. 78. Fig. 79. representations of many products, in.stru- ments, and processes in the mechanical arts. Besides figures and similar subjects, Etrus- can vases were also very elegantly enriched by bands of beautiful foliage, formed with spirals and honeysuckles of the most varied description, of which an ex- ample is given in Fig. 7 8. These enrichments are full of the most valuable suggestions to the ornamen- tist. They bear great similarity to the decorations found in Greek architecture, and many of the bands contain some beautiful variations upon the Greek an- themion or- nament — one of Avhich is indicated by Fig. 79. Frequently more natural foliage is intro- duced, as in Fig. 80, which repre- sents the berries of the ivy alter- nating witli the plain leaves of the ivy, which in nature are always found of this undivided form when on the same stem which bears the floAvers and ber- ries. The Greek Fi" Fig. 81. s«/>M/M>, Fig. 82. TT fj\&. egg-and-tongue or echinus orna- ment. Figs. 81 and 82, is com- monly introduced very skilfully varied, from the more rigid sculptured form. Upon the 46 Suggestions in DesigJi. Fig Fig. 84. Fig. 8.5. handles of many of the vases a heart form or leaf enrichment with a central stem is of constant occurrence, Fig. S3. The meander, with flowers or crosses at intervals, almost invariably occurs as a band round the vase under the feet of the figures, as if to represent the ground. Other characteristic ornaments are an olive-leaf band (Fig. 84), and a leaf or bud with interlacing semicircles, as in Fig. 85. This last is again fur- ther varied, as in Fig. 86, which may also be considered as another variation of the anthemion ornament. There are besides a vast variety of the most elegant arrange- ments of Greek leaf and scroll form to be found upon these vases, and the large collection of them Avhich is now in the British Museum presents end- less examples for the purposes of study. They all appear to have been painted by hand, and the lobes of the leaves and flowers, when in black, are evidently produced rapidly by a species of brush hirm united and brought together with the utmost grace and elegance. When, however, the ornament is left in red, as is so frequently the case in the second class of vase, the process is much more diflicult, and the skill required is proportionately greater. The painter has then to go round the leaves and scrolls, leaving them of the colour of the Fig. 86. ground, as in Fig. 84. Even such elaborate enrichments as that shown by Fig. 79 are frequently left in red and the ground filled in black. Although the artist was doubtless assisted by a tracing upon the clay, yet the care and skilful handling required to stop- out the ground and leave the ornament in red must have been very great. The forms Avhich these vases present is an- other clement of beauty, and an interesting and valuable study to the art-workman, but into this subject it is impossible to enter wdthiu the limits of the present Avork. The names of only a few of the diff'erent kinds show the variety wdiich existed among them: as the hyclria, for Avater; the amphora, for wine; the krater and cmihaiiha, large vases v/ith two handles; and the oinochoe, or Avine jug. The lekythos is an elegant form of upright vase, as shown by Figs. 73 and 74; the sitnla or bucket. Fig. 75 ; and the kiilix, Fig. 76, of which Fig. 77 shows the top or in- side. These forms Avere modified and altered during the long period of time the manu- fiicture lasted, and in some of the later vases the figures and enrichments Avere executed in relief. The Etruscans Avere also skilful workers in metal. Besides fictile vases, great quan- tities of bronze Avork and jcAvelry of the verv highest degree of excellence have been ■J ~ ~ discovered in the excavations. The smaller works in pure gold consist of diadems and coronets set Avith intaglios and precious stones; also hair-pins, earrings, cohars, necklaces, bracelets, rings, and other objects, all Avorked Avith such perfection, extra- ordinary lightness, and delicacy, that they leave far behind all modern examples of the jeweller's art. Armour and Aveapons, and many instruments requiring a fine edge, such Pompeian Ornamentation. 47 as razors, saws, and other tools, were made of bronze, which seems to have combined tensile strength, hardness, and elasticity in a remarkable degree, far surpassing the modern metal Avhich we call bronze. Their bronze candelabra were eagerly sought after both by the Greeks and Eomans. Mirrors, also, have been discovered in great nundoers, formed of thin plates of bronze, one side of which was sufficiently polished to reflect objects. Most of these are circular disks with a handle attached to them, and on the back of the disk a design is incised in outline, representing generally some mytho- logical subject, encircled by an ornamental border. Vases Avere sometimes made of bronze, and were often enriched with beautifully wrought figures, and handles of scroll-work arranged with great elegance. Plate 13. Nus. I and i. Heads and foliage, after the manner of a more free and careless Ijrush form, e^•idently ^w^ 1 ^P^'W^ "WW are not discarded liy them, and geometrical diapers (Fig. 123) are adopted Avhenever it suits their purpose. INIauy of their diapers are the same as those used by the Chinese, some of which will be found illustrated on pages Gl, G2. The Japanese do not appear to have any precise rules for their guidance in their compositions ; but they usually attain a happy Ijlending of the regular with the irregular — the symmetrical Avith the unsym- yapanese Ornamentation . 67 metrical. At one time the sole ornamenta- tion of an object consists simply of a bird on a branch of bamboo (Fig. 124) ; at another, Fig. 124. the Avhole surface is entirely covered with elaborate ornamentation, circles and other forms being arranged in a perfectly regular manner, yet variety is obtained by the way in which these forms are filled in, or by the arrangement of the subsidiary ornamentation. Their natural love of the irregular is still dominant. When geometrical diapers are used, they are broken off" abruptly, or are left in parts uncompleted. At other times the colours are varied, or the diaper is cut into some prescribed form, but repetition is seen and acknowledged as one of the means of obtaining beauty The regular is sometimes maintained by the bringing of the irregular into geometrical forms; as when birds and foliage are an-anged in circles, squares, hexagons, or other figures — for example, the bamboo in Plate 24, No. 2. The regularity of the circle is occasionally broken by the overlapping of another circle, Plate 23, No. 7; or it is bent over the edge of the object. Their power of thus obtain- ing variety is apparently unhmited. They never appear to be long of one mind, but are always seeking for change in design ; at the same time they invariably retain an artistic balance, either by form, colour, or plain space. Variety is the distinguishing char- acter of Japanese work, yet it never fails in symmetry; though in what constitutes sym- metry these artists have a very different feeling from what we have. The arts in Japan may be said to depend in an eminent degree upon the picturesque, though rarely to reach the pictorial. That is to say, the Japanese never 2:)roduce a picture, because the principal element of pictorial art — light and shade — is wanting. Art of the highest kind may, and often does, exist without chiaroscuro, as in the com- positions of riaxman, which owe none of their world-wide fame to hght and shade or colour. In the works of Japanese artists may be observed the effects of light and dark, somewhat akin to that of chiaroscuro, rendered with much truth to nature, and a dignified simplicity that many of our artists would find it difficult to imitate. In ability of drawing Japanese examples vary greatly; therefore it is of the utmost consequence to the art student to know what to study. ]\Iany of their rocks, skies, and water appear to be borrowed directly from the Chinese, and are represented purely in their own conven- tional and peculiar manner, but their rendering of birds, plants, and flowers (Figs. 125 and 126), fish and insects, is marvellously true to Kg. i26. nature, and all done with the lightest touch of the brush. Cranes, storks, ducks, and geese (Fig. 127) have all their characteristic move- ments hit off with wonderful pre- cision and fidelity. When, however, we come to the higher class of drawing, as in the human figure, we find a deficiency. Fig. 125. 68 Suggestions The hands and feet are seldom drawn well; the heads, although possessmg great ex- pression, are not natural; the dresses are awkward and clumsy; and -the whole, bor ders closely upon caricature. The larger coloured examples are remarkable for a cer- tain typical rendering of the human face, not to be found in smaller engravings or in Fig. 128. 6^V '^ \ nature, — a droll sort of leer pervading all (Fig 128) Avith an Egyptian uniformity Apart from defective draw- ing the examples are interesting, showing much expression and action ; whilst in colour they are suggestive, some of the hues and patterns being extremely handsome. Their landscapes are very quaint, aerial perspective seeming to be beyond their power, except in a few cases, such as where white mists, rain, fog, and snow have been attempted. In depicting clouds the Japan- ese artist seems sorely puzzled — the tinted ribbons he stretches across the lieavens looking lilvc labels for inscriptions rather than floating vapours. Fig. 129. A, c, and D are from the smaller works ; B, a typical mouth, from the larger. m Design. The smaller examples of figures from their picture-books, of which they are very fond, are full of fun and expressive drawing, being quite equal in spirit to anything done in this country at the present day, and yet accomplished with few lines and little effort. Fig, 129. Many of these have been engraved in Sir Rutherford Alcock's works. The best are figures in movement — porters lifting, balancing, and carrying their loads; an acrobat poising his companion; a juggler; street boys full of mischief, or weeping over broken di.shes; ladies bathing, or caught in storms of wind and rain ; and, indeed, depicting almost every phase of social and domestic life. The cleverness with which the dif- ferent attitudes and expressions are touched off by their ever-facile pencil is Avell worthy of note. In composition two or more figures unite in the production of admirable lines; though, like the early artists of other nations, the Japanese make their point of sight very high, all their figures appearing as if looked down upon. In colour they are very judicious, rarely producing discords, either in their attempts at picture-making or in decorative art. Their style is quiet and refined, they use full low- toned colours in preference to excessively brilliant ones, in this respect difiering from the Chinese. Of course it is not meant that the Japanese artists do not use In'ight colours, foi- few know their value better; but they use them in comparatively small proportions, cleverly supporting and conti'asting them Avith the secondaries, and Japanese Ornamentation. 69 other compound colouvs, which they use hi grounds and large masses generally The principles of surface decoration adopted by the Japanese can nowhere be better seen than in their lacquer ware, which exhibits the greatest fertility of invention. The manner in Avhich flowers and birds are bent and twisted over surfaces is highly curious, as also the Fig. 130. suggest way they ideas for shapes — sometimes so true to nature as to make one Avonder at the draughtsman's skill, in others so highly conventionalized as to make one doubt the authority Haw- thorn, blackthorn (Fig. 130), bamboo, and rush are very common and characteristically rendered, as also cranes and tortoises, and landscapes touched in golden outline. Small round ornaments are very popular in Japan, jDrobably from their resemblance to the crests or badges of the daimios — forms defended by law, in the same way as lions rampant and dragons displayed, are popular among ourselves. It is curious that nearly all these badges (Fig. 131 a,b,c,d,e) should be derived from floral ornaments. Fig. 131. Japanese heralds being doubtless guided by some principle — for in a first book for children may be found a popular badge in its I 18 conventional form, with a plant it is derived from, E, Fig. 131. A red sun, or rather a red ball, as Ave should call it, is the emblem of the empire of Japan, and is seen frequently in their books, as Avell as on their official documents. Their belief in the air being peopled Avith evil spirits causes the Japanese artists to bring in dragons and other imaginary animals into their decoration and carvings. They represent the typhoon as a horrid dragon tearing up the earth and sea ; thunder and lightning they depict as a grotesque demon, Avith a mallet or stick in each hand, beating half a dozen cymbals arranged in a circle over his head; and the Avinds, as an old man of sinistei- aspect, Avith an inflated bag on his shoulders, allowing the Avind to escape from the corners, Avhicli are held by his hands. They have many other demons of a similar character, some of Avhich, like the Chinese, they carve upon their buildings as a protection against others. The Chinese are known to have been skilled as engravers upon Avood and metal long before Europe had dreamed of tomes in black-letter; but Avho, a few years ago, Avould have ventured to claim for Japan also, a similar priority in colour-printing? Yet this appears really to be the case; for in no instance do their specimens bear evidence of having been copied from anything done in the Avestern Avorld, being hand-proofs, worked in flat tints, Avithout a press. If their printing excites our surprise, Avhat shall Ave say of their paper? Certainly Ave have nothing like that article Avhich plays so important a part in Japanese life, serving a hundred purposes miknown to us: alike protecting them and their houses from Avind and Aveather; Avindows, coats, and haixlker- 70 Suggestions in Design. chiefs being all made out of that substance. It is not manufactured from rags, as our papers are, but of the bark of the paper mulberry, which famishes an article much tougher than ours. The toughness and pliability of this paper is surprising, espe- cially in the thinner sorts. The papers by which their walls or screens are covered internally exhibit great originality, variety, and striking effects of colour and pattern. In pottery, as in some other arts, the Japanese greatly excel Europeans. The ornamentation of their works, of whatever kind, is skilfully adapted from nature, and is rendered in a striking and appropriate manner peculiar to themselves. In the art of enamelling, especially in that sort known as " cloisonne," they are very proficient. But whether it be porcelain, leather, paper, wood, stone, metal, textile fabrics, or any other material, the skill displayed in the decoration of these various substances is worthy of all praise. In artistic feeling they possess much of which our works are often lamentably deficient. The ease and facility which are so apparent in Japanese drawing, when contrasted with some of our own stiff and laboured productions, are qualities that we may look upon Avith envy and wisely seek to imitate. At the same time, in the examination of Japanese art, we must be careful to dis- criminate between that which is worthy of imitation and that which is vicious in prin- ciple. For there can be no greater mistake than to suppose, because we find such subtle art feeling among the Japanese, that there- fore all their work must be equally good. Those who have taken up Japanese art, and who aflfect the manner of the Japanese in their own works, will probably, like most copyists, be more liable to seize upon and reproduce their errors rather than to catch their better qualities. The object, therefore, of every art-student should be — not to copy, but to seek inspiration at the same fount that they have sought theirs — nature; and then to embody his conceptions in his own way, after having learned what he can, not only from the Japanese, but from every other available source. Plate 22. No. 1. Aquatic birds and river plants, all full of expression. Japanese treatment of circular figures is very various. No. 2. An unsymmetrical arrangement of inter- laced lilies. No. 3. A wheel or spring form, as if in movement. No. 4. A curious diaper of conventional birds swimming on water, rejDresented as looking down upon them. No. .5. Birds as seen in rain. No. G. Sections of flowers unsymmetrically ar- ranged. No. 7. Bird pattern arranged symmetrically. No. 8. Birds and flower brought into a circle. No. 9. Butterfly diaper ; the insects being placed bi-symmetrically and counterchanged in colours. No. 10. Square on octagonal form, placed on the key or fret diaper, similar to what is found in the Chinese, Fig. 112. No. 11. Conventional flower decoration. No. 12. Natural flowers on a conventional form. Plate 23. No. 1 presents an interesting example of the synmietrical arrangements which are occasionally met with. It embraces a great variety of objects, very cleverly disposed and full of life, as if on the ' sea-shore: a crab in the centre, with lobsters on each side, dolphins and fljang-fish; one of the tlying-fish forming the centre over the crab being represented skimming the distant water and approaching towards us. The breakers on the shore are very conven- tionally rendered, giving the Avhole an odd mixture and quaint conceit, which is far from being un- pleasing. yapanese Orname7itation. 71 No. 2. Classic forms imitative of Greek or Roman furniture are sometimes met with in Japanese works, as in this example, which represents a tripod- chair in which is placed a vase of flowers. It is probably a recollection from books shown them by missionaries or others from the West. An imi- tative people are sure to be struck with any new form they may see. No. 3 contains some of their peculiar fret-forms growing from a bulb, the whole being arranged in the form of a trefoil issuing fi'om a circle. No. 4 is a conventional and yet lifelike arrange- ment of interlaced fish surrounded by a narrow border of water, which partakes of the general outline, and by its dark colour throws up the fish with great distinctness. No. 5 is somewhat of the same character as No. 3, taking up the vase-form, which is filled in with fret and leaf ornaments. No. 6 is a landscape, with bird of prey evidently intent upon the fish, which is attempting to ascend the cascade. The sun with clouds, the gnarled trunk of the tree, and the plants in the foreground are all worth noticing, and are highly characteristic of Japanese art when representing nature. No. 7 shows two overlapping circles, as may have been suggested by seals or coins. The first contains a fan, with a floor indicated by fret-work, and the sky studded with stars. The underlying circle has a wheel form of eight arms indicated in two colours. Pattern upon pattern, and form upon form, is by no means uncommon in Eastern art, but the way in which circular patches are placed upon frets and grounds is peculiar to China and Japan. Plate 24. . No. 1. Four-petalled flowers contained in contin- uous vesicas, the colours alternately change on each side the centre line. The lower margin contains a ribbon border. No. 2. Hexagonal figure formed with bamboo, the articulations of the stem forming the angles, from three of which issue a triple arrangement of leaves, the centre ones meeting in the centre of the circle and the lateral ones turning down to the unoccupied angles. The ground is spread witli flowers irregularly. No. 3 is a hexagon with three spirally-formed petals, alternating with what are apparently meant for stamens. No. 4. Fans, a damio's device. An odd admixture of animal and vegetable life, among which is seen a portion of a sculptured head in bas-relief. The birds among the reeds, the animal climbing a tree, the mermaid and her ofispring, and the triple arrangement of the leaves of the water-lily, each of which also contains the flower, — but, above all, the poor old horse standing shivering in the wind up to his fetlocks in rank coarse grass, which is evi- dently not inviting to his pjalate, — all show what intensity of expjression these artists are able to throw into comparatively minor objects. Not a line out of place or that could be spared. No. 5 is a fret diaper in two colours, carried diagonally Ijy a Z-like line. No. G is a leaf border with fret edge on a matted ground. No. 7 is a treble diagonal key-fret border, with zicjzao- edges and circles in the intervals. No. 8 contains one of these extraordinary con- ventional birds, which, although so unlike anything in nature, is yet full of life and vigour. The clouds are indicated by curiously formed curly out- lines. No. 9 is a border formed of the nautilus, sailing on a conventional sea, with the sand of the sea-shore in the foregTound, and curiously formed clouds above. No. 10 has a triple leaf-formed arrangement, with a spur or three-pronged figure in the centre. No. 11. An S-form on an oval flower. No. 12 represents a tortoise and aquatic animals among reeds and bamboo. No. 13. Fish with water and land back-ground. Nothing seems to come amiss to the Japanese, — every form in nature is introduced in some shape or other. Whatever does not in any way accord with their ideas of the beautiful is altered by them at once, and rendered in their own odd, conventional manner. 72 Suggestions in Design. CHAPTER XII. INDIAN OENAMENTATION. I HE vast extent of the country, and the endless variety of examples of its ancient art which are still extant, render the examination and study of the architec- ture and ornament of India a difficult and extremely intricate subject. Instead of one style of architecture, many styles have ex- isted, some of which commenced many cen- turies before our era. And there is the further difficulty, that we possess scarcely any documents to assist in unravelling the large and truly tangled skein of the history of Indian art. Mr. Fergusson, our highest authority on Indian architecture, says:-' "One of the greatest difficulties that exists — perhaps the greatest — in exciting an interest in Indian antiquities arises from the fact, that India has no history properly so called, before the Mahommcdan invasion in the 13th century. Had India been a great united kingdom, like China, with a long line of dynasties and well recorded dates attached to them, tlie task would have been comparatively easy, but nothing of the sort exists or ever existed within her boundaries. On the contrary, so far as our knowledge extends, India has always been occupied by three or four different races of mankind, who have never amalgamated so as to become one people, ' Ilistoni (if Indian rind Eastern Architecture — a valuable work, to which we are much indebted for the material of this chapter. and each of these races have been again sub- divided into nimierous tribes or small nation- alities, nearly, sometimes wholly, inde- pendent of each other — and what is worse than all, not one of them ever kept a chron- icle or preserved a series of dates commenc- ing from any well-known era." This absence of any historical record is the more remark- able, because India possesses a written literature of great variety and extent. At a very remote period, siipposed to be about 3000 years B.C., the Aryans, a people coming from Central Asia, entered India across the Upper Indus. About six or seven centuries before Christ Buddha was born, although Buddhism did not become the state religion until about 250 B.C. With the adoption of Buddhism, temples and other works, which iweviously had been of wood, were erected in stone. From this period, therefore, we have a series of architectural monuments handed down to us which are Buddhist in style, and are so for five or six centuries after that time, when Buddliism ceased to be the religion of the country. Then arose the architecture of the Jains, but the religion of the Buddhists and that of the Jains are so similar that the style of their architecture and their sculptures are almost identical. These early remains are very numerous, and consist of structural buildings and cave temples cut out of the solid rock. The Indian Ornamentation. 73 character of the former is that of great elaboration of ornament, the entire surface of the structure being covered with sculp- tured work. The caves are cut out in exact imitation of the interior of an actual structural building. The most interesting of these are the Chaitya Halls, or places of worship of the early Buddhists. They are exact coun- terparts of the churches of the Christians, not only in form but in use. One of the oldest of these, probably executed before the Christian era, is situated at a place called Bhaja. Fig. 133 in a plan and Fig. 134 a transverse section of this Chaitya Hall. It is 60 Many other Chaitya caves exist, the largest and finest of Avhich is at Karli on the road between Bombay and Poouah. In plan and section it is very similar to the one already described, consisting of a nave and aisles terminating in an apse round which the aisle is carried. It is 126 feet loug by 45 feet 7 inches in width, but it is only about 45 feet from the floor to the apex. Fifteen pillars on each side separate the nave from the aisles; each pillar has a tall base, an octagonal shaft, and richly orna- mented capital, on Avhicli kneel two elephants, each bearing two fig- ures, all very much better executed Intc-rior of the Bisma Kiii'in, Ellora. feet in length, and in the form of nave | than such ornaments usually are. Above this and aisles, with a semicircular end, in the Fig. 1.3.3. axis of Avhich is a dagoha or altar. These caves ap- pear to imitate wooden structural buildings, and in their details are a transition from the use of wood to The ceihngs, which are semicircular in the centre and a quadrant of a circle for the aisles, have ribs ^^ • 1 cut in the rock, but Avhich are ^^ ' evidently copied from the wooden forms of previous structures. In front was a wooden screen, Avhich has now disappeared, but the holes to receive its posts and the mortises by which it was attached to the stonework are still there. stone. Fig. 132, springs the roof, semicircular in general sec- tion, and ornamented, even now, by a series of wooden ribs probably coeval with the ex- cavation. Immediately under the semi-dome of the apse, and nearly where the altar would stand in a Christian church, is placed the dagoba. The general effect of these Chaitya caves will be more clearly understood by Fig. 134, Avhich represents the interior of the Bisma Kurm, at Ellora. This indicates the stone-ribbed ceiling of the nave, with the dagoba, containing a sitting figure of Buddha, in the semi-circular apse. These peculiarities are found more or less developed in all the other caves of the same class in India, varying only with the age and the gradual change that took place from the purely Avooden forms that prevail in these 19 74 Suggestions Fig. 135. ancient caA^es to the stone arcliitecture in the more modern ones. Other caves, called Viharas, Avere formed Avith a central hall, Avith cells aronnd, as in Fig. 135, from Ajunta. They AA^ere a species ^ . . )-| of monasteries for the Budd- T ■ ■ ■ ' t1 hist priests or hermits. Such monasteries AA^ere also fre- quently erected in regular structural buildings, and of several stories in height. Besides the caA^es already desci'ibed, others have not only been excavated in- ternally, but have been carved and formed on the outside as Avell, so as to present the appearance of buildings erected in the usual Avay. Of these the rock-cut temple at Ellora, knoAvn as the Kylas, is one of the most notable examples. It belongs to the ninth or tenth century. In describing the Kylas Mr. Fergusson says that, " it is not a mere interior chamber cut in the rock, but is a model of a complete temple, such as might have been erected on the plain. In other Avords, the rock has been cut aAvay externally as Avell as internally, but in cutting aAvay the rock around it to provide an exterior, the AA'hole has necessarily been placed in a pit." This difficulty has been avoided in the Ratlis or pagodas of Mahavellipore, as these Avere hcAvn out of enormous boulders of granite Avhicli Avere found lyiug near the sea-shore. They present the appearance of perfect iso- lated structures, and are supposed to be as early as the tenth century. Among the monuments Avhicli have been left by the Buddhists none arc more interest- ing than those Avhich are called topse. The most extensive group of these is that knoAvn as the Bhilsa Topes, from a toAvn of that in Design. name in the kingdom of Bhopal, near vi^hich they are situated. The group comprises about twenty-five or thirty examples, and the princiiDal one among them is knoAA'n as the great tope at Sanchi. Little is knoAvn regarding their object, but it is supposed that they Avere for containing precious relics, or to mark some spot sanctified by the pre- sence or by some act of Buddha. The tope at Sanchi, constructed about 500 B.C., con- sists of a solid dome somcAvhat less than a hemisphere, 106 feet in diameter and 42 feet in height. On its top is a flat space about 3-1 feet in diameter, formerly surrounded by a stone railing, some parts of Avhich are still lying there; and in the centre of this once stood a feature knoAvn to Indian archaeolo- gists as a tee. The Avhole Avas surrounded by stone rails, Avhich inclosed a sijace of about 140 feet in diameter. These rails are supposed to have been erected about 250 b.c. There are also four gateAvays, or torans, as they are more properly called. Of these the south gateAvay is the oldest, dating about 10 A.D.^ These gatcAvays are covered Avith the most elaborate sculptures both in front and rear, representing A'arions scenes in Buddhist mythology. They are formed of tAvo upright square posts in stone and three horizontal beams above, slightly arched in the centre, extending considerably beyond the ujDrights, and looking like a gigantic piece of timber-Avork Avliich has been imitated and copied in stone. But it is the sculptures and ornamentation, Avhicli are executed Avith great care and minuteness, that cause these gateways, very deservedly, to be considered excellent examples of Indian art at one ^ A cist of the eastern gateway from this tope lias now been placed in the South Kensington Museum. It is supposed to have been erected a little later than the south gateway. In dian Ornameii fa tioii . /o of its best periods. The front of one of the piers of the eastern gateway, for they are Fig. 138. all dift'erent, is divided into stories containing figures with columns in bas relief, and among these we perceive the two- headed capital, similar to those found at Perse- polis. There are other parts which strongly re- mind one of Assyrian work. The side of one of the piers or upinghts is filled in with foliage (Fig. 13G), consisting of large flowers probably meant for water-lilies, and some of the spandrels between them are composed of the lotus, having a strong resem- blance to the Assyrian — (Plate 5, No. 2). These and other Fv' Vi headed serpent or naffa. The top rails are lield in tlieir position by tenons cut on the top of the pillars, and the rails, wliich are lens-shaped, are slipped into holes prepared to receive them on eitlier side of the pillars, the whole showing an essen- tially wooden construction. These rails play an im- portant part in Buddhist ar- chitecture, and upon them iksM the workman lavished tlie utmost resources of his ait. The rail which has been discovered at Amravati, of which some portions are preserved in the India Museum, is covered with intricate ornament and elaborate sculpture of ^ a most inter- esting acter. char- Fig. 13.S.— Great Temple at Bhobaneser. parts evidently point to a certain amount of classical origin. The rails that surround the topes to which these gateways are the entrances, are also formed in stone and put together after the manner of wood-work, and are frequently very richly sculptured. The rail at the Sanchi tope is quite plain, but in a smaller one in the same group circular discs are added in the centre of each pillar and half discs at top and bottom (Fig. 137), The pillars are octagonal, and the discs are carved with roses, animals, and the five- There are various other styles of In- dian architec- ture, diflfering essentially from those of the rock-cut temples and topes, and in which the buildings are regularly constructed of solid masonry. Of these it will be suf- ficient to mention the great temple of Bhob- aneser as the type of many others (Fig. 138), which seems almost certainly to have been built by Zelat Indra Kesari, who reigned from A.D. C17 to 657, — and taking it all in all it is perhaps the finest examjDle of a purely Hindu temple in India. The Hindus, although they frequently used the arch form for their roofs, never erected them upon tlie true principle of an 7Q arcli, with radiating voussoirs or truncated wedges, but invariably kept the beds of their stonework horizontal, as seen in the well- known example of the Treasury at INIycenae. It Avas, in fact, a series of brackets or corbels, advancing towards each other as they rise, and at last closed in with ' ^ a sinuie stone ; the internal surface being then worked to an arched form. The capitals of their piers or columns were all again formed upon the same principle, that is, by brackets, to reduce the intermediate Fig. 139. Suggestions in Design. ever, the bearing is long, the weight is relieved by the curious shaped strut or truss formed of S-shaped brackets, mentioned above, which, springing from the lower capital, seems to support the middle of the beam. In the early part of the thirteenth century the country was conquered by the Moham- medans, who at once commenced erecting mosques upon a grand scale, or altering native temples to suit the purposes of their own religion. From that time a Saracenic or Moorish char- tU 1i< space to be spanned by the flat stone beam, Fig. 139 Even a kind of stone strut, which is often found lising from the columns, is formed by a series of S-shaped brack- ets joined together The Jaina domes, ceilings, and curved roofs, which are extremely numerous, are all formed upon the same horizontal or bracketing system. The temple of A^imala Sah, on Mount Aboo, is one of the most perfect and beautiful of the Jaina temples. It is constructed wholly in white marble, and dates from about the year 1032 a.d. Fig. 140, which represents a portion of the dome and the pillars supporting it, will give some general idea of Indian bracket construction. The columns finish with the usual bracket capital, from which an upper portion is carried up Avith additional brackets, and upon these rest the great licams or archi- traves which support the dome. As, how- "^mi'iliSih Tiini leiui le Mrunt \boo it was not until a acter was ingrafted upon the native Hindu styles, and the Moorish arch was introduced. But the native ar- tists, who were largely employed by their new masters, constructed it at '3 first upon the hori- zontal principle, and later period that they learned the manner of erecting a true arch by the aid of voussoirs, The bulbous domes of the Moors, as well as many other features, were also introduced at this period, and a new style was, in course of time, engendered which in many respects differed essentially from the ancient Hindu which had hitherto prevailed in India. In this fresh development, which was mainly due to Saracenic influences, there arose an extreme fondness for inlay with precious stones and coloured marbles, and decoration of every kind was carried to the utmost exuberance and elaboration. After the Mohammedan conquest many Indian Ornamentation. 77 powerful dynasties were established, among the most splendid of which was that of the Moguls, which commenced about a.d. 1494. and had its seat at Delhi. The palace of the Moguls at Delhi built by Shah Jehan, is, or rather Avas, the most magnificent palace in the East — perhaps in the world. It measures IGOO feet east and west by 3200 feet north and south. Many other palaces were erected pre- viously to that at Delhi, at Agra and other places by Akbar, who reigned from 1556 to 1605, and who was one of the greatest builders of his race. The palace at Allahabad, which was the favour- ite residence of this monarch, has been nearly obliterated, its materials being used to repair the fortifications. But in spite of English desecration the plan of tlie great hall can still be made out. Besides their magnificent palaces, each Mogul emperor in India, like the Egyptians of old, appears to have employed himself in building his own tomb. Of these, many beautiful examples still remain, which amply testify to the skill and extraordinary talents of the architects and sculptors of that time. One of the most justly celebrated as well as the most elegant is the Taje Mahal at Agra, erected by Shah Jehan as the mauso- leum of his queen Muntaz Mahal. It is almost impossible to convey an idea of the 20 ^i^^ 141.— Interiur of tlie Taje ilalml at Af,Ta, extreme beauty and delicacy of this monu- ment, or of its complexity of design. Beautiful as it is in itself, the Taje would lose half its charm if it stood alone. It is its combination with other works — the jilatform on which it stands, with its tall minarets, and the perfect manner in which each is subordinated to the other — which makes up a whole that can- not be matched again in the Avorld. The mausoleum proi^er is surmounted by a dome 58. feet in dia- meter and 80 feet in height, and the light is admitted through double screens of white marble trellis work, of the most exquisite design, one on tlie outer and one on the inner face of the walls. These serve to temper the glare that would otherwise have been in- tolerable in a building composed entirely of white marble. The interior is represented in Fig. 141. In the centre of this apartment, and seen in the softened gloom of the subdued light, is the octagonal inclosure formed by a rich screen of perforated work of white marble, Avithin Avhich stand the tombs — that of Muntaz Mahal in the centre and of Shah Jehan on one side. These tombs, as Avell as the screens Avhich surroiind them, are exquisite examples of that system of inlaying Avith precious stones AA'hich became the great characteristic of the style of the Moguls after ■ *K -S ^ ^ '^ ■ g-^^^g- 78 Suggestions in Design. the death of Akbar. Mr. Fergusson says, "All the spandrels of the Taje, all the angles and more important architectural details, are heightened by being inlaid Avith precious stones, such as agates, bloodstones, jaspers, and the like, combined in wreaths, scrolls and frets, as exquisite in design as beautiful in colour, and relieved by the pure white marble in which they are inlaid." From this cursory glance at the architec- ture of India, and the illustrations of it which have been given, it will be understood ^ ^ that it consists of a r^^ series of styles, extend- ing over a vast period of time. That these various styles natur- ally form two great divisions, each of which is perfectly distinct and sejDarate from the other: 1 Hindu Architecture, which embraces the -whole of the periods previous to the Mohammedan conquest; and, 2, the architecture subsec[uent to that conquest, and extending to the present time, which may be more properly distinguished as Indo-Saracenic. What one is more particularly struck with, is the extraordinary lavishness of labour, — the wonderful ela1:)oration of the ornamenta- tion, combined with the utmost luxuriance of fiincy, — the picturesqueness of outline, and the grandeur of the masses which Hindu architecture displays. In most instances the architectural forms are very simple, some- times consisting almost entirely of very steep roofs or lofty domes, apparently adopted for the sole purpose of shoAving how much sculpture and carving can be dis- played upon them. The buildings look like sculptured rocks ; indeed it may be said that they are really so. For, apart from those temples which are carved externally as well as internally out of the living rock, these indefatigable Hindu workers seem to have piled up mountains of stone in flat layers or beds like the natural rock itself, in the same manner as the Egyptians piled up their pyramids. Then commencing at the apex, as in the great temple at Seringham, and many other examples, ^ ^ ^^p they proceeded to carve, literally, everj^ inch of space with figures and elaborate ornament until they reached the ground; and whatever the amount of ornamen- tation, it A'ery seldom obtruded itself so as to destroy the dignity or impair the general form of the structure Avhicli it enriched. Whatever the sect or religion, they carried out their Avorks in the most durable of materials, and spared neither time nor labour even in modern times. Whether the material Avas granite, amygdaloid trap, or marble, the Avork had to be Avrought into the most intricate and difficult forms, often- times into the most elegant and delicate tracery. A AvindoAv in a desecrated mosque at Ahmedabad — in form a slightly pointed arch — has tracery representing three ordi- nary trees and four palms, their branches, leaves, and floAvers extending over its Avliole surface. IMr. Fergusson says, " It Avould be difficult to excel the skill with Avliich the vegetable forms are conventionalized just to the extent required for the purpose." f SI 1 J 1 u tl T je -Ma) 1 Indian Ornamentation. 79 Fig. 143 Among plants the lotus was constantly used by the Buddhists, and evidently had a typical and symbolical meaning. The large roses or pateras, found on the rails and on the gateways of the topes, were striking and conspicuous forms of ornament. String- courses and bands formed of minute repre- sentations of the rails surrounding the topes, are of frequent occur- rence, consisting of two or three horizontal beads with square cross- bands at intervals (Fig. 143). The large horse-shoe windows that lighted their Chaitya Halls was another con- structive form which was turned into orna- ment. Continuous beads or pearlings are often met with, as in the border lines formed of them in Figs. 145, 146, also beads at inter- vals carved out of a horizontal bead (Fig. ^■■#^ 144) ; four - petalled roses placed in a hol- low at intervals, Fig. 145. Another exam- 144. Kg. 145. ui inui U .u.iAAiAAAAAJj, pjg couslsts of roses Fig. 146. XT.JJTJ.I.J.I JLJ.AJ. J J JT3J with intermediate ones coming partially behind the others, Fig. 146. Other varieties have one edge of each rose concealed by the next. The flowing line shown in Fig. 147 is frequent, and the continuous scroll is not un- common. The Assyrian hon- ey-suckle and lotus is found on the capital of a commem- orative pillar at Allahabad, and capitals liav- ing a strong resemblance to the Corinthian •^ J A 1 1 ,IJ. .1 -T .H S-^1 .IJ^JHTJ^n^ Fig. 147. have been found in a monastery at Jamal- giri, pointing evidently to a classical origin. Upon the lower part of the tope at Sar- nath, near Benares, p;,, ^jy is a very ingenious '~ and singular diaper wrought in the stone work, con- sisting of a geo- metrical arrange- ment of great in- tricacy, a portion of which is represented by Fig. 148. Many of the ornaments upon the Buddhist remains are emblems, conspicuously among which may be often observed tlie five and seven headed iiaffa or serpent, the stiastika (see Fig. 55), and a triformed ornament called the tristd. In the inlay Avork of the later Mogul period the beauty of the design is beyond all praise, and is often of the most elaborate description, representing all kinds of flowers worked in the most skilful manner in precious stones, the stones being carefully picked for each particular leaf or petal, so that all sliad- ing of the surface of the leaves is obtained by the graduated natural colour of the stones themselves. Fig. 149 represents a portion of an inlaid border of modern work- manship. Native artists appear to have a natural instinct common to most eastern nations for producing really art works, and they still are gifted even at the present time, when uninfluenced by European ideas, to an extraordinary degree. In modern carving, as in Fig. 150, which is from a carved sandal- wood box in the India Fig. 14fl. 80 Suggestions in Design. Fig. 150. Museum, we perceive the same feeling and artistic delicacy that is found in works exe- cuted centuries before our era. When we turn to woven fabrics, for the beauty of which In- dia has been justly celebrated for many centuries, we observe the same fulness and elaboration of ornament that we perceive in their carvings and inlays; added to which their warm and harmonious colouring gives them a quiet richness and charm which is particularly agreeable. In fabric ornament the Indian pine enters more into the designs than almost any other form, and has been worked out in thousands of variations both of minute detail and colour: sometimes by repetition in borders or diaper w^ork, at others as the central feature of an elaborate floral composition. The outlines of modern Indian ornamen- tation are often ungraceful, although the filling in is usually extremely rich and ingen- ious. Plant form is frec[uently very elegantly conventionalized, especially a branching flower often met with, resembling the car- nation, as in No. 12, Plate 25, the whole flower flowing with its leaflets after the manner of a feather. Flowing lines wdth a repeated conventional flower, as in No. 13, Plate 26, are very characteristic both in modern carving and woven fabrics. Plate 25. No. 1. Upright outline ornamentation of con- ventional form.s, which liave occasionally a slight resemblance to the classic. Often atrain filled in with minute detail. No. 2. Conventional growing ornament. No. 3. Vase and flowers, arranged after the manner of a branching tree. Nos. 4 and .5. Foliated sj^rigs. No. 6. Superficial pattern, for woven fabric in colours. No. 7. Pear and heart shaped ornament, with flowers slightly varied from nature. No. 8. Pine-cone section, for shawl or other woven fabric. No. 9. Symmetrical and non-symmetrical or- nament combined in symmetrical outline, for colour. No. 10. Symmetrical growing pattern, for raised Avork or for two colours. No. 11. Symmetrical disjointed pattern, for raised work, inlay or colour. No. 12. Flowing feather-formed flower border, for colour. No. 13. Border of alternating and flowing triple leaf in red and gold. Plate 26. No. 1. Cross arrangement of heart-formed leaves, diapered with foliage. No. 2. Upright branch-leaved ornament. No. 3. Foliated heart-form symmetrical ornament. No. 4. Surface decoration growing from central octafoil filled in with cross form and foliage. The star completed by eight lobes of leaf form. Nos. 5 and 6. Sprigs conventionalized from nature. Nos. 7 and 8. Upright patterns of sjinmetrical ornament for coloured decoration or inlay. Nos. 9 and 10. Flowing and u^jright borders, for lace or other delicate work. No. 11. Border to use any way. Red ornament with gold bead or pearled outline upon black. No. 12. Disjointed diamond border in blue, white, and gold. No. 13. Flowing wave-line flower and leaf border for carving in low relief or inlay in hard wood, the lines engraved and filled in black. No. 14. Diagonal bordering filled in with double pine and branched leaves. The following diagonal form to be reversed so as to leave a triangle lietween filled in Avith half leaf-form flower. Nos. 15 and IG. Sprig-form flowers on ornamental forms. Indian detail fits one part into another so that the whole surface is covered with minute form or intricate combinations of colour. Persian Orjimnentation. 81 CHAPTER XIII. PEESIAN OENAMENTATION. EESIA has existed as a separate and independent kingdom from I a very remote period. The con- quests of Alexander the Great in ancient times, and those of the Moguls, the Arabs, and the Afghans in times more recent, have each left this ancient king- dom comparatively unchanged, — not from its power of resisting attacks, but from its faculty of absorbing its conquerors; and this long-continued national existence has probably been favourable in developing art among the people, for even before the time of Alexander they had attained a very high degree of perfection in architecture and sculpture. Art in Persia, as exemplified by the ruins found at Persepolis and its neighbour- hood, dates from a very remote age. These ruins are probably nearly of the same age as the works of the Assyrians excavated at Nineveh, and they bear a strong resem- blance to the latter. Persepolis was the favourite residence of some of the ancient Persian kings, and the ruins found there are of great extent. The remains of the palace of Darius and the hall of Xerxes indicate a magnificence and grandeur which must have been unequalled when the buildings existed in their original splendour. In some cases sculpture occurs upon the walls and human-headed winged bulls guard the entrances, which are almost facsimiles of those found in Assyrian palaces. But features have been discovered in the architecture of Persepolis which are not to be found at Nineveh, yet having such affinity of character that what is found in the one place assists in explaining much that is wanting in the other; and this, together with the correspondence in other features, shoAvs conclusively that the styles of Nineveh and Persepolis are one and the same. Among the most important of these misshig forms found at Persepolis, are columns which have a double capital formed of the halves Fig 151 of animals, but with bases and other parts which are similar to Assyrian work. The explorations of Mr. Loftus at Susa have laid bare the foundations of a palace almost identical with the palace of Xerxes at Persepolis, and among these ruins have been found col- umns of a similar character (Fig. 151). Others are again seen in the rock-cut tomb of Darius at Naksh-i-Rus- tam. This form of capital is also extremely interesting as pointing to the evident origin of the double-headed animal capitals found in the early Hindu temples. For several centuries after the Arab 2] 82 Suggestions in Design. conquest, which occurred A. p. G41, there is a complete blank in the architectural history of Persia. Scarcely any examples of woi'k from that period until about the thirteenth century are known to exist. This arises mainly from the circumstance that Persian palaces were built of perishable materials which have gone entirely to decay, the walls being usually of sun-dried bricks, roofed and covered with wood. Among the oldest re- mains of this period are probably the ornamental glazed tiles Avith which the domes and walls of the Mohammedan moscpies were decorated. The mosques in which this mode of protection and decoration was principally adopted are among the few buildings that remain. In some cases the whole building, both externally and inter- nally, was covered with a perfect mosaic of tiles or glazed bricks, of brilliant colours and intri- cate patterns. Colour has always been in Persia a more essential element of architec- tural magnificence than form, and but few examples in any European style of orna- mentation can, for richness, be compared with that of Persia during its zenith in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries of our era. " Persia is in all probability the country from which the Arabs derived the arts afterAvards developed by them in Spain and elsewhere. The powerful khalifs of Bagdad no doubt summoned to their court men of science and learning from all the countries under their sway, Persia furnishing them with architects and other artists. Skilled Persian Avorkmen Avere no doubt employed in large numbers in decorating the mosques and palaces in the Arab capital, situated as it Avas on the very frontier of their OAvn country. Thence, doubtless, arose the so- called Arabian or Arabesque style of ornament, afterAvards so widely spread and noAv so Avell knoAvn. The peculiar pendant orna- mentation of vaults and niches, of Avhicli the Alhambra is so typical an example, is identical in style Avith that used throughout Persia to the present day. Speci- mens have been found of this sjDccies of con- struction in the ruins of Phages, a city finally destroyed six hundred years ago. Persia, al- Avays an artistic country, could hardly have borrowed it from her rude conquerors."^ The most successful epoch of this form of Persian art Avas during the reign of the great Shah Abbas, Avhicli terminated in 1629. His Avorks rendered Ispahan one of the most splendid and magnificent cities of the East. Among these Avorks, by far the most celebrated Avas the great IMaidan or bazaar, Avith its accompanying moscjue and othei- subordinate buildings. It occupies an im- mense rectangular area, 2600 by 700 feet; the principal court measures 225 by 170 ' Uandlo, k of Persian Art, hy Major E. IMurdocli Smith, E. E. e of Sultan Hussein at Ispahan. Persian Ornanicittatiou. 83 feet, and is surrounded on all sides by faQades in tlie richest style of Persian poly- chronmtic decoration, the brilliancy of which is almost unrivalled by any other example of its class. The mosque is surmounted by a dome 75 feet in diameter and externally 165 feet high. Of nearly the same period and same style is the mosque of Sultan Hussein at Ispahan, represented by Fig. 152. The Persian princes showed great taste and splendour in their palaces, but from the character of the buildings they did not admit of so much architectural display as their mosques. They generally consisted of a number of pavilions and detached halls, with trees and gardens connected by covered arcades or long lines of canals, and adorned with elegant fountains. The various parts were frequently of great beauty, and elabor- ately ornamented, but were wanting in architectural grand eur. The practice of decorating buildings in Persia by encrusting them with tiles of various patterns, both externally and inter- nally, was very prevalent in early times, and has continued in general use until the present day. Different kinds of tiles, often embrac- ing very elegant geometrical combinations, are also in common use for floors, jjlinths, and dados in private houses. The impression produced was generally pleasing, and the colouring was often brilliant and extremely effective. The more ancient tiles had a metallic lustre, and parts were sometimes in relief. These were used principally for embellishing the domes and walls of mosques and other sacred buildings. They were in some instances of great size, very elaborate, and having Kufic inscriptions from the Koran. The smaller uninscribed tiles were com- monly divided into various geometrical figures and combinations, as in Fig. 153, Fig. loa. which is of an octa- gonal star form and glazed, the pattern beiug in chocolate and white. These fit into and are com- bined with rich dark blue tiles of a cross form, Avhich fill up the interstices left by the star-formed tiles, forming a very agreeable and highly effective pattern. JNIany of these tiles are as early as the thirteenth century. In other cases the tiles are all kept square, and pj, ^r^ the figures or geometrical com- binations are worked upon the tiles themselves, each tile forming a centre, as in Fig. 154, which is a diagonal cross in dark blue upon a circle and foliage in light green, the ground being -\Ahite; or the design is carried on, as in the example Fig. 155. The general line on this tile is a frequent one in Persian work, and may be called the alter- nated tulip pattern. The colours are dark blue and light green, on white ground. The porcelain of Persia, although not equal to that of China or Japan, is often of great excellence. The Persians valued the works of China highly, for numerous articles are not only imitations but actual copies of Chinese porcelain, and many of them bear makers' marks in Chinese characters. The art of pottery, however, gradually degener- ated after the time of Shah Abbas, since whose reign nothing of much value has been produced. The earthenware of the present 84 Suggestions in Design. day, as regards both materials and work- manship, is of the commonest descrijDtion. That the knowledge of art has been long widely spread among the Persians is shown by the great pains they take to ornament articles of daily use and of little intrinsic value. The form of the object having been decided upon, the whole surface is then covered with elegant ornamentation of various design in low relief. This practice is common to the Moors, Arabs, Indians, and nearly all Eastern nations where the religion of Mohammed prevails, and to the style to which the general term Saracenic art may be applied. An innate artistic feeling appears to follow the course of Mohammedanism, which enables the people to beautify an object without distorting or twisting its shape; a fault which is so common among ourselves, under the mistaken idea of mak- ing it more beautiful. All their decoration is flat and unobtrusive, full of ingenious devices both of foliage and figures, and inter- laced with the most extraordinary combina- tions of geometrical lines. The method of carving a jour, that is, pierced, and without a ground, appears to have been long practised in Persia, and is still much employed in the ornamentation of houses and other buildings, particularly for doors and Avindows, as well as for terrace balustrades and similar works. Pierced ornamental work is also introduced upon carved wooden boxes and other articles. Some remarkable specimens of this work are sherbet spoons carved in pear- tree. They have large flat handles in orna- mental pierced work with very deep and thin bowls, which are partly supported underneath and connected with the handle by a kind of keel or rib in carved pierced work. These spoons are made almost ex- clusively at Abadeh, a large village in the centre of Persia, and the only implement employed in carving them is said to be an ordinary penknife. Many of the examples of Persian decor- ation in metal work are as old as the Arab conquest. The art is still practised by the Persians at the present day with very little diminution of its beauty, and the skilful manner in which firearms, sword blades, bits, and stirrups are engraved or damas- cened is worthy of the highest praise. The more remarkable examples of orna- mentation in metal consist of a gi'eat variety of objects elaborately engraved, with foliage and figures, in geometrical divisions, and covering nearly the entire surface, giving the object a very rich and chaste appearance. In this manner are decorated bowls, vases, lamps and lamp-stands, hookahs, incense- burners, and every variety of utensil and vessel to which metal is applicable. These are usually of steel, brass, or copper, and are often also pierced or damascened in silver or gold in addition. The example Fig. 156 is an engraved border from the Fix. 156. edge of a bronze basin, the interstices of the ornament being filled in with black varnish. When the intervening spaces between the foliage are cut away, the foliage is arranged with connecting branches so as to support itself In the example Fig. 157, which Persian Oynamentation. 85 Fig. 157. is from a brass incense-burner, and Fia- 158, from a brass lamp-stand, both from the South Kensington Museum, the black portions are entirely cut out, and engraving introduced upon the flowers or animals where necessaiy. These are indeed Avorks of very great beauty. In addition to the openwork, engraved '^'^^f^^^^^P medallions are frequent- " ' ly introduced, containing hunting scenes and other subjects, as well as in- scriptions filled in mth black varnish or inlay of silver. The en- graved medallions are introduced among the pierced work, as shown by Fig. 159, which is from another brass incense -burner. Many of the minute representations of men, animals, and monsters are liighly artistic, and are ingeniously interlaced with foliage and scroll-work, separated by borders and en- Fig. 159. Fig. 158. graved lines, or margins of geometrical or- nament or continuous scroll-work. The people of Persia have long been celebrated for their various kinds of tex- tile fabrics, and more especially for their carpets. The Persian habit of sitting and sleeping upon the ground naturally leads to an extensive demand for fabrics specially made to meet the requirements of that custom. The designs for these articles are very numerous, display Fig. i6o. a remarkable facility of ,^ „ ^ tary form frequent- /AV_^Z_^^=Si^_\_/A ly adopted, and Avhich Avas Avorked out in a variety of different Avays, Avas the star shape, 23 Fig 171 90 Suggestions sometimes called the ''star of Solomon," Fig. 170. These frequently exhibit the utmost exuberance of fancy, and Avhen united to the multiplicity of forms in their foliase and other combinations offer a wide and interesting field for study. They con- tain innumerable hints and suggestions for desio-u, Avhich cannot fail to be of the ut- most value to those who are in search of materials from which to elicit new beauty and eleo-ance in ornamentation. Combinations of the star form are also worked out with great ela- boration in glazed tiles for mosaic pavements and wall decoration. Fig. 171 presents an ex- ample of the latter from the Alhambra, the colours being blue, green, buff, yellow, and purple, separated by white lines. Moresque ornamentation is very much confined to the decoration of surface. But although literally covered with intricate form, embracing lines of the greatest elegance and beauty, the ornamentation is so subordinated to the object itself, whatever it may be, that no part can be said to be over -ornamented — all is pro- perly subdued, and no j^art is more prominent than another. We find this prin- ciple so invariably adhered to in Eastern art, and it is one so necessary to all truly artistic work, that the attentive student would do well to pause and consider its importance. It gives a character and charm to all Mohammedan work, which may be sought for in vain elsewhere, unless this simple principle upon which the Orientals in Design. proceed has been fully understood and adhered to. The decorative forms used for surface work are usually double,— that is, the main lines are geometrical combinations of inter- Fig. 172. lacing straight lines, and formed of two fdlets; Avhile the filling-in, or secondary Fig. 173. forms, arc hiterlaciiig curved lines of foliage, with centres of star forais at intervals, as in Fig. 172, from the Alhambra. There is also a very slight difference in the planes of the two systems, the surface of the foliage being kept slightly lower than that of the fillets. Frequently there is a third species of ornamentation, which is introduced upon the leaves of the foliage itself, as indicated on Fig. 173, from a ceiling in the Alhambra. Moorish or Saracenic Ornamentation. 91 This latter system was sunk out of the second, and flowed across the leafage, as the divisions do in feathers, or the veins of leaves in nature. An acorn form is of fre- quent occurrence as a starting-point, and ties or bands across the stems are often introduced. The forms may be but slightly taken from nature, but one line is made to flow and fit into another so gracefully and yet so naturall}^, that it becomes plainly evident that natural principles have Ijeen closely adhered to although literal form has not.i In the natural leaf we can trace very dis- tinctly how beautifully all the central rib- lines radiate from the parent stem ; hoAV each leaflet diminishes towards the extremities, and how each area is in proportion to each leaflet. It is this subordination of hue upon line and form upon form, which is only an adherence to natural laws, that the Ori- entals carry out with marvellous perfection — which invariably gives their compositions such grace and elegance. In their system of colouring the Moors adopted certain fixed principles. They always used colour to assist in the develop- ment of form and as a means of bringing out the constructive features of a building. In this they followed the guiding inspiration of nature. For example, flowers are separ- ated by colour from their leaves and stalks, and these again from the earth in which they grow. So also in the human figure every change of form is marked by a change of colour; thus the colour of the hair, the eyes, the eyelids, and lashes, the sanguine complexion of the lips, the rosy bloom of 'It is a peculiarity in tliis st3-le, that no animal form is ever found, and even the foliage is very unlike anything which is to be observed in nature. This arises from the imitation of animals, and even that of foliage, being forbidden by the Koran. the cheek, all assist in producing distinct- ness, and more visibly Ijringing out the form. Had nature applied only one colour to all objects, they would have been indistinct in form as well as monstrous in aspect. The colours employed by the Moors on their stucco-work were in all cases the primaries, him, red, and yellow {gold). The secondary colours, orange, green, and /;^^?7?fe, occur only in the tiled or mosaic dados, which, being near the eye, formed a space of repose from the more brilliant colouring above. During all early periods of art, as amongst the Egyptians and the Greeks, the primary colours were nearly always exclusively employed ; whilst, during the decadence, the secondary colours became of more importance. Thus, in Egypt, in the Pharaonic temples, we find the primary colours predominating; in the Ptolemaic temples, the secondary. So also on the early Greek temples we find the primary colours, whilst at Pompeii every variety of tone and shade was employed. With the Moors, as a general rule, the primary colours were used on the upper i>or- tions of objects, the secondary and tertiary on the lower. In using the colours hliie, red, and gold, they took care to place them in positions where they could be well seen, and where they would add most to the enrich- ment of the general effect. In the depths of moulded surfaces they placed red, the strongest colour of the three, where it might be softened by shadow, never on the surface ; they placed hlue in the shade, and gold on surfaces exposed to light. It is evident that by this arrangement alone could the true value of the colours be obtained. The several colours were either separated by white bands, or by the shadow caused by 92 Siiggesfio?ts in Design. the relief of the ornament itself; — and this appears to be an absolute principle required in colourino- — colours should never he alloicecl to ii)ipinr/e upon each other} The Moors were long celebrated for the manufacture and artistic decoration of arms and armour. Among the productions of this kind none were more justly famous or more delicately worked than swords, and the sword manufactory of Toledo acquired great celebrity from the perfection with which the blades were tempered. Tiie most noteworthy specimens of this work now existing are the sword, dagger, and double- handed sword which belonged to Boabdil, the last king of Granada, now in the possession of the Marc|uis of Villaseca, at INIadrid. The sword is 39 inches long, has a Toledo blade, and the hilt is formed of solid gold enamelled in blue, white, and red. The dagger is of great artistic merit. The hilt is of iron ornamented with ivory delicately engraved in arabescpie. The blade is dama- scened in gold Avith Clufic inscri23tions on each side. The scabbard is most beautiful. Its chapes are made of silver enamelled in green, and the remainder is of crimson velvet embroidered in gold, from which hangs a fine tassel of silk and gold thread. A small eating knife is fitted into this same scabbard, but it possesses no artistic merit. The double-handed sword lias an iron cylindrical hilt, inlaid with ivory, and on it appears the motto of the Kings of Granada, " God alone is the Conqueror/' in Cufic letters. Tiie helmets used by the Spanish Moors were similar in form to those of the Christians, but the shields were more varied. ' This account of the method of colouring pursued in the decoration of the Alhambra, is condensed from Owen .Jones. They were generally round, formed of wood or thick coAv-hide, and Avere decorated outside in a variety of Avays, sometimes Avith pierced iron plates, or bands of leather forming arabesques; and at other times Avith an ornamentation of iron, and leather embroidered Avith gold and silver, Avith rich hanging tassels and pendants. The JNIoorish style as aj^phed to furniture is sometimes found in Spain, in combina- tion Avith the Gothic. A very remarkable specimen of this combination of Moorish and Christian art exists at the Academia de la Historia, Madrid, consisting of a trip- tych of very large dimensions, formerly in the church of the Monasterio of Piedra in Arragon. When the doors are closed six compartments appear on each, surrounded by a border headed by a Avide cornice. This cornice is divided in sixteen spaces formed by arches adorned by stalactite ornamentation in the Moorish style; inside each span is painted the figure of a saint; there are also subjects from the life of our Lord. The border Avhich surrounds these doors is formed of a beautiful geometrical ornamentation in the purest oriental style, Avhile in the upper and loA\'er parts are inscriptions in Gothic characters Avith the date 1390. Another interesting specimen of this combination of styles is a recess or cupboard of the fourteenth century, noAV in the South Kensington INIuseum, and formerly in the court of an old house at Toledo. It is 5 feet 4 inches liigh by 8 feet Avide; and is composed of an outer arch, Avith the tympanums ornamented with fine arabesques in relief, made of stucco. The arch is surrounded Avith two Latin inscriptions in Gothic characters; and it forms the MoorisJi or Saracenic Ornamentation. 93 opening to the cupboard, \yliicli is about a foot deep, and is divided into two compart- ments with two rows of shelves. Each of these is supported by a series of Moorish arches, the tympanums of which are ornamented with tracery, or an ornamenta- tion of leaves in a geometrical and oriental manner On the lower shelf is a Spanish inscription in Gothic characters. Plate 28. No. 1. Interlaced ornament with foliage. Nos. 2 and 3. Upright borders — interlaced fret, and foliage with interlaced form. No. 4. Symmetrical flowing form. It is a common characteristic feature in Moorish ornament for one form to be flowing round and fitting in to fill up the interstices left by another form. Nos. .5 and 0. Small symmetrical ornaments. Nos. 7 and 8. Outline centres of foliated and interlacing form. Nos. 9 and 10. Flowing, ano-ular, and interlaced terminals. No. 11. Geometrical diaper. No. 12. Interlaced square and diagonal design, with cross-form foliage in the centre. No. 13. Interlaced geometrical design for tile flooring or parquetry. • No. 14. Interlaced outline ornament. Platb; 29. No. 1. Arabesque pierced stone battlement inlaid with flat foliage. Nos. 2 and 3. Upright ornaments, honeysuckle and pine. No. 4. Geometrical and foliated centre ornament. Form laid upon form. No. .5. Cross-form pine ornament. No. G. Eight-pointed star filled with radiating foliage, in oval or vesica; the intermediate space being diapered with pointed ogee line from star, and foliage. Nos. 7 and 8. Oblong centres for panel decoration in colour. No. 9. Interlaced fret tile pattern. There is a great variety of patterns, somewhat similar to this, to be found in the wall decoration of the Alhambra, all formed by the intersection of equidistant lines, and which, Owen Jones observes, could be traced through the Arabian to the Greek fret. A pecu- liarity, however, which the Moorish fret possesses is the addition of the diagonal line, without which the power of interlacing would be greatly limited. No. 10. Flowing foliated upright form for colour or enoTaving. No. 11. Panel in low relief for colour with shield surrounded by foliage. The Moors occasionally in- troduced the shield charged with armorial bearings, but not very frequently. The elaborate diapers and other designs on tlie walls, and other parts, in the Alhambra are all woiked in low relief in plaster and after\vards 2ncked out in colour and gold. Plate 30. No. 1. Upright flower interlaced with geometrical trilobed line. Nc id 3. Conventional foliated forms with semi-conventional leafage. No. 4. Pointed quatrefoil centre filled in with foliage. Nos. .5 and G. Damascene ornaments for metal. No. 7. Geometrical sujjerficial ornament for colour or inlay. Nos. 8 and 9. Geometrical outlines for diapers, which may be further filled in with foliage according to the scale of the work or the degree of richness required. No. 10. Arabian sci-olls working one into the other, as is so frequently the practice in the style. No. 11. Disjointed interlacing ornament. Nos. 12 and 13. Oblong panel decoration formed with flowing and interlaced line and heart-form centre filled in with foliage. The two sides varied. Plate 31. Nos. 1 and 2. Oblong panel formed with interlaced fret-form sqviare centre, carried into scroll foliage. Two sides varied. Nos. 3 and 4. Terminal flowers. Conventional- ized harts'-tongue leaf and honeysuckle. No. .5. Centre ornament for panel in low relief, and colour, interlacing foliated forms. Nos. G and 7. Geometrical upright diapers for paper or wall decoration. Nos. 8 and 9. Interlacing arabesque foliage, for colour and slight relief. 24 94 Suggestions in Design. No. 10. Double triangle in circle, interlacing with hexao-onal form and circles. Nos. 11 and 12. Interlaced square and diagonal lines, with foliage for diaper or panel decora- tion. These designs do not follow literally the principles found in Arabesque ornament, but are intended to suggest the application of a few of their ingenious and beautiful lines to' the purposes of modern ornamentation. CHAPTER XV. BYZANTINE ORNAMENTATION, WITH NOTICES OF ROMANESQUE AND CELTIC. E here employ the term Byzantine in its most ex- i tended sense, as including \ what is usuallydenorainated Romanesque art. Out of these two great divisions certain sub-styles are considered to have arisen, as the Lombardic, our own Norman, and perhaps the Celtic or Irish, the last of these being principally exemplified in illuminated manuscripts, stone crosses, and similar works. The Byzantine form of architecture originated in the ancient city of Byzantium or Constantinople, wdiicli upon the division of the Eoman Empire became the seat and capital of the Eastern or Greek Empire. It has, therefore, in many of its minor details, an evident Greek oi'igin. The Romanesque, as its name indicates, arose out of Roman architecture; it spread throughout the whole of Europe, and was much more extensively adopted than the Byzantine. There was, however, a charm, a greater richness and a beauty, about Byzantine art that produced a strong undercurrent in its favour. Its influence was almost universally felt, and from the fourth to the twelfth centuries Byzantine art was eagerly sought after, and it was a style largely employed in those countries professing the Greek form of the Christian religion. When Constantine, the first Christian Emperor of Rome, removed the seat of empire from Rome to Byzantium, about a.d. 330, he determined that his new capital should stand without a rival for magnificence and beauty. In this view he carried Avith him as far as possible all the arts of Rome, and also encouraged the employment of Greek artists, inviting them to Byzantium, as Avell as others from Persia, or from whatever country the highest talent could be obtained. Thus originated that combination of Roman, Greek, and Oriental architecture which has been denominated Byzantine. The most important period of this style was the time of Justinian, who ascended the throne a.d. 527. He was a great builder of churches, and erected the celebrated Church of St. Sophia as well as others at Constan- tinople. Contemporary with the erection of St. Sophia was that of San Vitale at Ravenna, Byzantine Ornamentation. 95 which was founded by the piety of Juhaii, the treasurer of Justinian. From tlie time of Constantine to that of Justinian there appears to have been no marlced difference between the architectural styles of the Eastern and Western Empires, but with Justinian a distinct separation of the empires took place, which induced a de- cided difference between tlieir styles of ar- chitecture. Continued disputes were main- tained between the East and West, and differences in the forms adopted in the arrangement of churches became strongly marked. The Greek cross inscribed within a square and sui'mounted by a dome, Avith four smaller domes over the arms of the cross, was the typical plan adopted by the Byzantines; while the form of the Latin cross, founded upon the old Roman basilicas, and terminating with a circular apse, was the plan adhered to by Rome. Existing buildings of purely Byzantine character are few and isolated, although Byzantine features may be distinguished in many. In Venice the style was carried out in all its purity, and the grand Church of St. Mark, commenced in the tenth century and erected by Byzantine architects who had been invited from Constantinople, remains one of the finest monuments of the style. The most prominent feature in the Byzantine and Romanesque styles, distin- guishing them strongly from the antique Greek and Roman, was the universal adop- tion of the semicircular arch, and the entire omission of the classic entablature. The arch was made to spring immediately from the capital itself without the intervention of the entablature (Fig. 174). This had been done previously by the Romans in some of Fig. 174. their latest works, as in the palace of the Emperor Diocletian at Spalatro, but it did not become the uni- versal practice until a later period. This mode of employing the arch without an en- tablature produced a complete revolntion in architecture. In the Romanesque it led to the development of vaulting and groining, and in the Byzantine to "the extended use of that most beautiful of all architectural features the dome. F]'om the sixth to the twelfth centuries Greek taste was held in the highest esteem in Constantinople and throughout the East. Thence were distributed over Europe num- erous Avorks of ornamental art, which were eagerly sought after, such as richly woven and embroidered stuffs, Avood and ivory carvings, ornaments in gold and other metals; enamels and paintings on panel, and many other objects of Byzantine art. Numbers of these Avere brought to this country by crusaders returning from the Holy Land, or by traders from Venice and other eastern cities. These Avere justly esteemed treasures of art, and became ob- jects of admiration and examples for imita- tion among our native artists. When the separation betAveen the Eastern and Western Churches occurred, and their architectural styles diverged, a marked dif- ference naturally foUoAved in the various architectural details. The Byzantine foliage Avas strongly tinged by a Greek feeling, and preserved much of the sharp zigzag out- lines of the antique acanthus leaf, Fig. 175; the Romanesque, on the contrary, foUoAved the soft rounded lobes of the leafage of the Roman capitals, Fig. 176. 96 A distinctive and characteristic feature in Byzantine foliage, and one which may be plainly traced in many examples of our Fig. 175. Fig. 170. own Norman work, is its being nearly all carved with a V section from out of the surface of the stone; also a peculiar fitting together of the points of the leafage, so as to leave scarcely any portion of the ground to be seen, as in Fig. 177, which is a large car- Fig. 177. ved stone bead or string course from the Church of St. Sergius at Constantinople. The anthemion ornament of the Greeks, carved after the same manner and arranged in a heart-form, is of frequent occurrence, and is thus found used as a string-course or Fig. 178. as the abacus to capitals in many of our Norman buildings. Fig. 178 is the heart- form anthemion ornament as found at Constantinople, and examples almost iden- tical may be observed in this country, These are plainly reminiscences of the antique Greek foliage, retaining the sharp zigzag outline and simple V section of sur- face, as in Fig. 175, as distinguished from Siiggestio/is in Design. the round -lobed foliage of the Eoman period, Fig. 176. This sharp form of foliage indicates the employment of Greek artists during the early development of Byzantine architecture. A favourite aiTangement of the heart-form enrich - Fig. 179. ment, frequently met with in early Greek churches, was that in the form of a cross, as in Fig. 179 from St. ]\Iark's at Venice. Occasionally carvings are found which are evidently direct imitations from nature, and indicate a desire to depart from the more ordina.ry con ventional foliage, as in the example Fig 180 from the same church. Another impor- tant and distinc- tive feature in Byz- antine art was the covering the walls with gorgeous mo- saics, executed in colours on gold grounds, representing colos- sal figures of the Deity, and of saints, apostles, and prophets. Ghrss mosaic formed in small geo- Fig. 183. Fig. 181. metrical pat- terns in gold and colour was also of frequent occurrence in borders, panels, and other minor details. Of these Fig. 181 from St. Sophia, and Figs. 18-2, 183 from the Church of St. Francis at Assisi, represent some of the most simple Byzantine Ornanienfatiou.. 97 forms. This beautiful mode of decorating wall surface with a profusion of mosaics in gold and colours forms one of the most lovely and imposing features of the Byzantine style of Fig. 182. architecture. In St. Mark's at Venice the whole of the vaults and domes are literally Fig. 183. covered with gorgeous colour in this im perishable material.-^ Floors were frequent- Fig. 184. ly inlaid with marbles of the most costly description. Fig. 184 is an example from Fig. 18.5. s H V \ ^ ■•■ \ \ A. 1 W m\ \K W ^^ Tl li LJliiHi ^ ^^^-Scandinavian type, which sometimes gives to it a compound character, and makes it difficult or impossible to say from what source much of it is taken; — still there are generally certain broad charac- teristics, with remains of classic treatment, that mark the style with tolerable distinct- ness. All our Norman churches, cathedrals, and other remains, which are distinguished by having semicircular arches, belong to the Byzantine or Romanesque style, although the style is modified by the introduction of other features. The purest example of the Romanesque in this counti-y is the choir and Trinity Chapel of Canterbury Cathedral, the foliated capitals of which are very perfect specimens of the Romanesque modification of the classic Corinthian. It should be noticed that at Canterbury, and in several other examples which are late in the style, many of the arches are pointed, although ' Dictionnaire Eaisonne de V Architecture Fraiigaise, by Y. le Due. article "Seulpture." 100 Suggestions in Design. only slightly so; thus foreshadowing, as it were, the great alteration which was about to take place. To show how nearly, in point of time, the round-arched style approached the Gothic, it may he mentioned that the work at Canterbury was not completed until the year 1184, and yet Lincoln Cathedral Avas begun to be rebuilt in the Early English style in 1186. Among the arts which were brought to great perfection by Byzantine artists was that of enamelling. The enamel was often made in small pieces and applied as precious stones are, and attached to the object to be decor- ated. Many fine pieces of enamel, however, were complete in themselves. Unhappily, owing to the value of the pure gold of which so many of the finest examples of sacred vessels and royal ornaments, arms, and plate Avere made, very fcAv Bjzantine enamels are noAV in existence. Carving in ivory, Avhich descended from the Greeks, was also an art much practised during the early Byzantine period. One of the most celebrated rehcs of this class is the throne or chair of Maximian, Arch- bishop of Ravenna, Avhich Avas executed about the middle of the sixth century. It is noAV preserved among the treasures of the Cathedral at Ravenna, and is engraved in the great book of Du Sommerard. It is entirely covered by plaques of ivory, arranged in panels carved in high relief, Avith scenes from the Gospels and figures of saints. The borders and intermediate spaces are filled Avith foliated ornaments; birds and animals; and flowers and fruits. From the time of Charlemagne ivory Avas nnn-e and more used for the decoration of ecclesiastical fnrniture, especially for the covers of books, reliquaries, pyxes, retables, episcopal combs, croziers, and pastoral staffs. Beautiful and highly interesting examples of Byzantine carvings in ivory, exemphfying great skill both in the Avorkmanship and design, are to be found in our museums, and Avill amply repay close examination and careful study. Plate 32. No. 1. Interlaced cross-form in square, for execu- tion in low flat relief. Byzantine. No. 2. Celtic initial letter I, after the manner of the Anglo-Saxon manuscripts, with skeleton animal. No. .3. Interlacing pearl-work, with nail-head border. Norman or Celtic. No. 4. Double bird and scroll work, somewhat after the manner of the Anglo-Saxon manuscripts. To be worked in gold and colour. Nos. h and 6. Circles containing cockatrice and stag, eccentrically twisted. No. 7. Band of interlaced ribbon and foliage. Nos. 8 and 9. Interlaced geometrical combinations for inlay. Plate 33. No. 1. Dragons in low relief for the tympanum of a doorway of Anglo-Norman character, inter- laced in the Celtic manner. The two sides are varied. No. 2. Diaper in low relief and picked out in colour, finishing with cresting upon top. No. 3. Emblematical form of fish, eagle, and serpent united — a symbol of Christian evangelism. No. 4. Cherubim with heads formed of the emblems of the four e^-angelists. "Wings covered with eyes to symbolize the all-seeing presence of the Deity. No. .5. Upright ornament with interlaced animal form. No. G. String-course of bird monstei-s forming scrolls. Anglo-Norman or Celtic. No. 7. Frieze of sharp-lobed Byzantine foliage, arranged in the manner of the Greek anthemion ornament. Many varieties of the anthemion orna- ment are to be found in Byzantine ornamentation. A heart-form arrangement, evidently upon the same type, is of frequent occurrence. See Fig. 178. No. 8. Interlaced star-formed frieze. These star patterns are sometimes found in the Byzantine, but. Gothic Oriiainentatioii. 101 are more frequent in Moorish worlc, in whicii they are sometimes carried out in the most intricate manner. The animals' heads incUcate that the work is Byzantine, as animal form is never introduced in the Moorish. Plate 34. No. 1. Norman bas-relief, having the Celtic character of interlacing long-necked animal form with foliage. Nos. 2 and 3. Foliated animal form in the Celtic manner, as found in Anglo-Saxon manuscripts. No. 4. Alternating fret-formed diaper for colour or low relief. Forms of a similar character are found sculptured in low relief on the Irish crosses. Nos. .5 and G. Borders or string-courses, in upright formed design of Byzantine or Romanesque char- acter. No. 7. Double dragon scroll of Celtic or Irish character. Nos. 8 and 9. Drop and final ornaments. No. 10. Byzantine foliated enrichment for execu- tion in low relief. No. 11. Cross heart-form panel for painting. No. 12. Panel for painting or inlay. Diamond and semicircles interlaced. CHAPTER XVI GOTHIC OENAMENTATION. Following the round-arched or Romanesque style of archi- tecture, there arose the style I termed Gothic, which is dis- tinguished principally by the general use of the pointed arch. Originally when the opprobrious name "Gothic" or barbarous was given, it embraced the whole of the architecture of the middle ages, including the Saxon and Norman of our own country ; but now it is found more convenient to limit the application of this term to the Pointed style. In our own country the development of the Gothic style commences about the end of the twelfth century, and the style continues in use during the thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth, and part of the sixteenth centuries. This period is divided into Early, Middle, and Late Gothic; or, according to the more technical language now in use, into Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular. The Early English style lasted throughout the thirteenth century, and included the long reign of Henry III. The Decorated prin- cipally occupied the fourteenth century, and answers pretty nearly to the reigns of the three Edwards. The Perpendicular was the style of the fifteenth century, and was carried also partly into the sixteenth century. These three divisions also answer pi^etty nearly to the terms used in France, namely, ''Style ogiral jynmUif^' "Style secondaire" or " Rayonnant," and "Style tertiaire" or "Flamboyants But the French terms apply to periods rather earlier than ours— the Style primit if commenc'mg about fifty years before the Early English. Among the most prominent distinctions markinsT the divisions of Gothic Architecture, and one easily recognized, is the form of the 26 102 Suggestions in Design. window, and the progress of "tracery" in its decoration. At first the window was nsed singly, having an acutely pointed arch, and was what is commonly called a " lancet window," Fig. 189. Soon two lancets were Fig. 189. Fig. 191. Fig. 190. put together, Fig. 190; and then a group of three, with the centre light frequently higher than those at sides, called a " triplet," as in Fig. 191. These forms Fig. 192, mark the Early English period. The next pro- gression was to throw a general arch over the two hghts, and to pierce the intermediate space, first Avith a simple circle, and then with a quatrefoil, as in Fig. 192. This gave rise to what is called Fig. 193. Fig. 194. "tracery," and groups of two, three, four, or more lights were associateil together under one general arch, the mullions at the head of the window heiug continued in curves and enriched by cusping, forming various foliated figures. Fig. 193 gives an example of a threedight Decorated Avindow Avith geometrical tracery. This form of Fig. 195. Avindow Avas in use early in the fourteenth century; at a later period in the style the lines became floAving, Fig. 194. Other exam- ples of flowing tracery Avill be found in the plates. Early in the fifteenth century these forms Avei'e abandoned, and there came into use a more upright form of tracery, in Avhich the perpendicular lines of the mullions ran through the head of the Avin- doAV, and to Avhich the name " Perpendicular" has been given. See Fig. 19.3. Another characteristic of the dififerent periods Avas the form of the pointed arch ^'=^- l^«- Kg, 197. Fig. 198. itself When first adopted it was seldom used less than the equilateral, and often much more pointed. Fig. 196; but in the second period it Avas frequently less than the equilateral. Fig. 197; and in the later pciiod of the Perpendicular the " Tudor " or four- centred arch came into use, Fig. 198. Again, in the roofs, the Early English Avere high pitched, forming about an equi- lateral triangle. During the second period, the Decorated, they became of a more moderate pitch; Avhde in the third, the Perpendicular, they became so flat as to necessitate the use of lead for covering them. Groining is another feature by Avhich the progress of the styles is marked. In the Norman period groining was simply the inter- section at right angles of t^o semicircular vaults, Avith at most square or round ribs at Gothic Ornainentatioii. 103 Fig. 199. the diagonal intersections. With the introdnc- tion of pointed instead of round arches came increased Ughtness in the contours of the groining and elegance in the moulding of the ribs, with elaborately carved bosses placed at the intersections. In the middle period the groining became richer and the number of the- ribs was increased; and in the fifteenth century the ribs formed a per- fect net- work of great intricacy. During the Perpendicular era, also, " fan " groining was invented, in which the whole surface of the groining was covered with tracery radiating after the manner of a fan. A specimen of this mode of vaulting from the Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick, is shown in Fig. 199; and fine examples of it are also found in King's College Chapel, Cambridge, St. George's Chapel, Windsor, and Henry Vll.'s Chapel at Westminster. With the adoption of the pointed arch in the thirteenth century arose a perfectly new and fresh creation in sculptured foliage. The conventional and traditional forms of the Byzantine and Eomanesque foliage, which Avere more or less based upon the classical renderings of the acanthus, were entirely abandoned, and a style was origi- nated superior perhaps to anything which had been seen before. The artists went to nature, and simply by following their own mode of rendering natural form in stone they produced an architectural flora which possesses a grace and beauty entirely its own. Their principal type was a round- lobed triple leaf, said to be the water-avens (formerly called the herha benedicta or " holy herb"), which these artists of the thirteenth century looked upon as emblematical of the Holy Trinity. It is, however, more probable that they followed the threefold principle which they found ran through other plants besides the water-avens — more particularly the clover, wood - sorrel, and hepatica. They further observed that Fig. 200. nature carried the same tri- plicity through compound leaves, such as those of the columbine, creeping crowfoot, and the parsley Combining these natural principles with a beautiful spiral evolution of form, they worked out a system of ornamentation of extreme beauty and vigour. Fig. 200, an example from the galilee porch of Ely Cathedral, shows the treatment of the simple trefoil united to a spiral stem. This was often varied by making the leaves compound, and increasing Fig. 202. Fi- 201. the sidxlivisions into three triple -lobed leaflets (Fig. 201), or dividing them into four or five lobes, as in Fig. 202, from Stone Church, Kent; but still they preserved their emblematical and symbolical character. All the main lines in Early English foliage are flowing, and the leaves grow out of the 104 Suggestions in Design. parent stem in graceful and tangential curves. In large spandrels, as in those at Stone Church, a portion of one of which is shown, Fig. 202, the main stems are arranged in grand scroll lines, which oppose and harmonize Avith the lines of the surrounding architecture, and from these scrolls the leaves branch off in easy curves. The surface modelling and the central ribs of these leaves are peculiar, and deserve attentive study. Generally the main lobe of the leaf has a strong and vigorous square rib diving down into a deep hollow, as in Fig. 200, the end of the lobe beyond being frequently raised into a swollen form in the centre. Then again the lobe of the leaf is occasionally filled, as in the side lobes. Fig. 201, by a large bulbous form. The foliage, therefore, although evidently taken direct from nature, is yet full of peculiarities which are alone found at this period. Nature is apparently concealed under a rendering which is highly conventional, and these artists appear to have taken a delight in hiding, as it were under a veil, the otherwise purely natural types from which their foliage was derived. The cross form of leafage, another highly symbolical form, was developed by these early workers in a variety of ways. From a four-petalled flower, or the terminal leaves of a branch having opposite foliage, such as the lilac and maple, containing the same elements as the flower, they formed their dog- tooth moulding (Fig. 203), which they sculp- tured in long hues filling the deep hollows of their arches and mouldings. They also covered their walls with cross-leaved diapers (No. 12, Plate 36), as may be seen in the spandrels of the choir arches at Westminster Abbey. The cross form worked out in tlie foliage is also found in the bosses of their ceilings and in their stained glass. But, above all, every chancel of every church throughout the king- rig- 203. dom was enriched by abeautifuUy arranged Is^ r A. I form of gable cross. In the capitals of this period the foliage invariably rises directly from the necking, either with flat stems or with broad plain leaves like the common plantain. It rises gradually out of the surface, the heads Fig. 204. Fig. 205. turning over in crochets or bunches, as in Fig. 204. In other examples, although ris- ing as before from the necking, the foliage flows round the capital in graceful curves, as in Fig. 201. At the end of the thirteenth and the commencement of the fourteenth century a more extended rendering of nature was developed, and a greater variety of natural types was adopt- ed; but the symbolical meaning which ran through the ornamen- tation of the thirteenth century was in some degree neglected. The artist, seeking fresh beautv from natural form, wrought into his Gothic Oynamentation. 105 Fig. 2013. works with consummate skill the ivy, the maple, the hawthorn, and the oak, as well as the vine (Fig. 205), the bryony, the mallow, the hop, and many other plants ; and he also introduced the fruit and flowers chai^acter- istic of each species. With these are some- times mingled ani mals, birds, and otlier fanciful forms or non- descript creations. The diaper-work on wall surfaces is less frequent than in the Early style, but when it Fig. 207. does occur it is much richer and is formed with natural foliage, as in an example from Lincoln Cathedral — Fig. 200, which con- sists of the hawthorn, maple, and oak. An- other example (seen in Fig. 207), from a tomb in the church at Winchelsea, is filled with a single ^ ^^^^ Fig. 209. vine leaf and a cruciform ar- rangement of the maple. The most charactei'istic ornament of this period is the ball-flower. Fig. 208 It con- sists of a round bud or flower with a triple opening clasping a ball inside, placed in rows in deep hollow mouldings. It occurs so frequently in some buildings, as in the south aisle of Gloucester Cathedral, that every hollow in the mouldings, as well as the tracery in the windows, are filled with them to the exclusion of any other kind of ornamentation. Foliated capitals have the foliage arranged on the I invariably used, and foliated diaper work 27 bell in a horizontal manner, instead of the more legitimate method of rising from the necking perpendicularly (Fig. 200), and the foliage occupies tlie whole space between the abacus and the necking in a boss-like form. The scroll arrangement of the stems in foliage was less frequent than in the previous period ; and as the style ad- vanced foliage became less natural, and stems were al- most entirely omitted. Leaves became divided into long strap-like lobes, and the sur- face of the leafage, as it became more con- ventional, was carved in an undulating or bulbous manner. After a time the foliage became so exaggerated as to appear almost like a collection of round knobs or swellings rising out of deep hollows. It had, however, an extremely rich and elaborate appearance, with a sparkling effect of light and shade. During the fifteenth century, the period of the Perpendicular style, architecture as an art became so highly scientific that constructive ex- ecution, or masonic excellence, took al- most a higher place than beauty of form, and the architectural carver lost much of his early artistic power. The application of elaborately panelled tracery and canopy work took the place of the earlier kinds of ornamentation. FoUage was less used during this period than in either of the previous ones. Capitals of piers Avere very much reduced in size, and were usually devoid of foliage. For the enrichment of wall surface, tracery panelling was almost 106 Suggestions in Design. was totally abandoned. Foliage^, especially that of the vine, was frequently introduced in the hollows of the cornices of small works, such as tombs and screens. These were crowned usually by an open-worked orna- ment, which has been called the Tudor flower or "strawberry-leaf ornament," Fig. 210. The rose, a distinctive cognizance during the wars of the Roses, Avas a frequent and conspicuous enrichment. The treatment of wood-work seems to have made an advance during this later period, and the carving in seating and screen work was very delicately executed. Fig. 211. Fig. 212. I although a conventional use of the gouge is conspicious. To this age belong most of our beautiful and elegant oak rood-screens, which are often elaborately painted and gilded, with figures of saints painted in the lower panels. The timber roofs of this period are frequently highly ornamental, being enriched with bold and effective carv- ing. The bosses at the intersections of the timbers are often of good character, although carved square and flat, as in Figs. 211, 212, from All-Saints' Church, Evesham. Greater scope was given to sculpture than foliage at this period, especially in large works, some of the doorways of the conti- nental cathedrals being crowded Avith sculpture. Figures Avere placed in niches Avith elaborate canopies above. Shields and heraldic emblems of every description Avere also commonly used, and grotesque animals and monsters often took the place of foliaae but Avere seldom, as heretofore, mixed or amalgamated Avith foliage. Although the carving of the fifteenth century evinces great skill and facility in the use of tools, yet the freedom of form and the graceful curves and spirals of the earlier styles Avere entirely lost. ToAvards the middle of the sixteenth century Gothic architecture Avas almost superseded by the pseudo-classic style of Elizabeth's reign. Much of the old Gothic character, hoAvever, lingered for a consider- able time, and is often found mixed up Avith the more classic forms of this later style. These examples shoAv hoAv the carvers of a later period still lovingly adhered to their older associations. During the middle ages the use of stained glass in AvindoAvs Avas a striking and important source of decoration to build- ings of nearly every kind, but more esjie- cially to cathedrals and churches. The glass of the thirteenth century Avas of tAvo kinds: the one richly coloured Avith medallions and panels of small figure subjects accompanied by foliage, as seen in the AvindoAvs of the eastern portion of Canterbury Cathedral; the other Avas Avithout figures and Avitli less colour, and Avas formed by various com- binations of geometrical lines in naiTOw strips of colour, the Avhole surface being covered Avith the conventional foliaa;e of the period painted in black or broAvn lines, as in the example shoAvn in Fig. 213 from Salisbury Cathedral. This species of glass is knoAvn as grimilk glass, and is highly characteristic of the Early English style. The five lancet Avindows of the north tran- sept of York Cathedral, commonly knoAvn as the "Five Sisters," are filled Avith the original glass of this character. During the fourteenth century figures Avere more Gothic Ornamentation. 107 frequently introduced in tlie glass, with an increase of colour, and the foliage became more natural. Towards the close of this period single figures occupying a consider- able portion of each light, with canopies above them, were frequently used. In the fifteenth century, the Perpendicular period, tlie general character of the glazing became more uniform, and consisted mostly of large Yvi. 213. figures of saints or apostles, each occupy- ing an entire light, placed in niches with elaborate canopies. In very large windows these niches and figures were arranged one above the other so as to fill the whole light. The draperies of the figures often consisted of large masses of colour, and the colouring was much richer, with a greater proportion of yellow, than heretofore. In domestic windows arms and heraldic devices were abundantly introduced, accompanied by mottoes or inscriptions on long narrow scrolls, and the only colour used Avas the yellow stain. Quarry-work, each quarry containing a sprig of foliage with yellow leaves, with borders to the lights in brighter colours, was also very common for plainer buildings, or as a ground for the heraldic work. To make the walls of churches harmonize with the gorgeously coloured windows they Avere decorated and enriched with colour as well. Gilding and colouring were often freely introduced in the roofs or groining; and the floors w-ere also made to accord by the more sombre tones of encaustic tiles or inlaid marble. The artists of the Gothic period excelled also in the goldsmith's and jeweller's art, for which England has been celebrated even in Saxon times. We have, however, very few specimens remaining of this art,^ which doubtless was largely employed for English shrines. The shrines and other minor works preserved at Aix-la-Chapelle, Cologne, Mar- bourg, Tournay, Evreux, and other places on the Continent, abundantly display the ex- cellence of design and the exquisite beauty of the gold and silver smith's work, tlie enamel work, and the jewelry which were lavished upon them. Chalices and sacra- mental plate, reliciuaries, and numerous other objects, were executed with the utmost perfection of art and workmanship. During the fourteenth century tapestry hano'inas were introduced in the halls of the nobility, and Arras became famous for its beautiful fabrics of this kind. They were at first employed to line the walls of halls at the back of the dais, which Avas 1 The crozier of William of AVykeham, Bishop of AVinohester, preserved in New College, Oxford, is one among the very few specimens of English workmanship which has been preserved to our day. 108 Suggestions in Design. occupied by the high table. Tapestry, indeed, became the favourite ornament of the later medicieval period, and in processions and on state occasions great displays of rich stuffs and hangings were made, representing, as Froissart relates, "various scenes and histories to the delight of all beholders." Plate 35. No. 1 represents a seal after the mediaBval manner, A figure under a canopy, seated on a throne repre- senting vigilance (the greyhound) and power (the lion), between two angels, who are presenting the one a book, and tlie other a shield. No. 2. Vesica panel with St. Michael supported by saints overcoming the evil one. The lion of St. Mark below. Nos. -3, 4, 5, 6, 7. Tracery panels of various design for metal-work. Small tracery work of this char- acter was much in use for locks and plates during the fifteenth century. Many specimens are very elaborately cut. The metal was usually in plates of several thicknesses fastened together with pins or bolts. The ground was sometimes covered with scarlet cloth, or decorated by painting, as is No. 7. No. 8. One compartment of an oak rood-screen (style fifteenth century). The figure introduced in the open-work above is an outline for painting. No. 9. A band or frieze of flowing tracery, of late fourteenth-century character. No. 10. Asquareboss for carving in oak. Fifteenth- century character. Plate 36. No. 1. Vesica under a canopy with the pascal lamb, and monogram "John Lambe;" for engraving on brass or other metal. No. 2. Decorated or fourteenth-century flowino- tracery, from tlie back of the altar, Beverley Minster. No. .3. Angle of panel with carved frame consist- ing of tracery and foliage, with painted and gilded panel in the centre. No. 4. Panel for wood- work, with vine-leaves and grapes. No. 5. Vesica with angel carrying a shield emblazoned with the sun of Christianity enlighteninsT the Negro, emblematical of the motto, "Lord, lighten our darkness." Composition for painting. No. G. Panel for wood-carving (fifteenth century) with head of king with sceptre. Crowned heraldic shield with monogram and supporters. Linen-fold panel below. No. 7. Ornamental fillet. No. 8. Late French Flamboj^ant Gothic tracery panelling, for pierced carved work in hardwood or ivory. No. 9. Tracery panel for carving, with paintings or inlay of boar and fawn. Nos. 10 to 16. Compartments for stone carved diapers, each division by repetition forming a sepa- rate and distinct pattern. Examples of stone diaper work are to be found in Westminster Abbey, Bever- ley Minster, M^inchelsea Church, &c. — See also Figs. 20G, 207. Plate 37. Design for a book cover, the New Testament, and back for the same, in naturalesque Gothic. Among the foliage is introduced the lily as the emblem of purity, and the passion-flower as emblem- atical of the passion of our Lord. In the centre is the cross with the sacred monogram. The dove as emblematic of the Holy Spirit descending from above within a triangle for the Trinity and a circle for eternity. The cross as emblematical of Christianity vanquishes the evil spirit, which is represented as a winged serpent in the act of falling. In the corners are the emblems of the evangelists, and the capitals of the slender columns are formed by angels bearing shields containing the emblems of the passion. The back contains a vesica, in which is the Holy Virgin and Child, surmounted by the heart and cross, Avith angels at the sides in adoration. The foliage is composed of the rose, ivy, and lily. Plate 38. No. 1. Late German-Gothic panel with bordered vesica containing painting or low-relief carving of the Virgin and Child, with the emblems of the evangelists at the corners. No. 2. Panel with flowing tracery, containing shield with lieraldic double-headed eagle, for carving or metal work. No. 8. Carved oak panel, French Flamboyant Ornamental Metal Work. 109 tracery. The Flamboyant form of tracery is also found occasionally in English work, as in the west front of York Cathedral, and other buildings. The English artists, however, did not carry it to excess as in France. Although it was adopted in late Decorated work, the flowing forms were soon neglected for the Perpendicular, which form of tracery was never adopted by French artists. Hence the reason for their carrying the Flamboyant to such an excess. No. 4. Head of tracery panelling having interlaced lily foliage, with heart-form filled with branched radiating triple foliage. No. 5. Lily in interlaced tracery form, with flat strawberry foliage, flowers and fruit, and thistle leaves. Nos. G, 7. Tracery panels with foliage, for carving or metal work. No. 8. A suggestion for the combination of foliage and tracery, with crowned pine and heart. The parts blacked in are pierced. Suitable for embossing. Plate 39. No. 1. Vesica panel filled with geometrical and flowing Decorated tracery. Nos. 2, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14. Forms of plate tracery for metal work. No. 4. Canopied head of niche, for metal work. No. 5. Head of angle niche, for carving in oak. Nos. 3, G, 7, 10. Small oblong and circular tracery panels for carving. Might be applied to furniture. No. 8. Flowing tri-form panel, representing the burial of the dead, the passage of the river Lethe after death, and the ascension into heaven. Plate 40 (Superficial). No. 1. Decorative panel; conventional arrange- ment of the rose. Nos. 2 and 3. Decorative and geometrical forms for wall-papers or draperies. No. 4. Upright design for heraldic crowned shield and supporters, with circular and flowing lines combined. Nos. 5 to 22. Designs for encaustic tiles or squares for repetition as diapers for painted wall decoration, — comprising, among other forms, interlacing lines, rose and crown, lily, fleur-de-lis, rose, shann-ock, and thistle, maple leaf, horse-chestnut leaf, dolphin, crosses, and lion. No. 23. Koyal arms with Tudor rose, oak and acorns (England). No. 24. Diaper containing a combination of the thistle, St. Andrew's cross, and fleur-de-lis (Scotland). No. 25. Combination of flowing lines with harp, shamrock, and stars (Ireland). — The last three designs are intended for painted wall decoration, or might be adapted to bookbinding or other flat surface. CHAPTER XVII. OENAMENTAL METAL WOEK. MONG all the decorative arts no more comprehensive subject is to be found than that of metal work. It not only embraces the working of bronze, brass, iron, and other metals, but it also includes the delicate and intricate processes connected 28 with the working of the precious metals gold and silver. Pull reference to the decorative use of these more noble metals would alone be sufficient to form a treatise in itself; the subject, therefore, is here neces- sarily treated in a concise manner, and prin- cipally limited to the use of bronze and iron. 110 Siiggestious in Design. The mixture of copper and tin called bronze, and its application to nearly every purpose to Avliich metal can be applied, dates from a very remote period in history, even before the use of iron was known or un- derstood. The Egyptians, Assyrians, and Phoenicians were great workers in bronze; and the latter people in very early times, perhaps a thousand years before the Christian era, traded largely with Britain in copper and tin ores, which they obtained from Devonshire and Cornwall. Other supplies of these minerals may also have been procured from Arabia and Persia, and perhaps from Northern India. Not only do the sacred writings make frequent mention of the use of brass, by which bronze is generally understood to be meant; but classical wr-iters, both Greek and Latin, are full of references to numer- ous Avorks in metal. Homer and Hesiod describe with great minuteness the shield and armour of Achilles, and the shield of Hercules, — and by the frequent allusion to the use of plates of brass, or more correctly bronze, show how commonly they Avere applied to the decoration of walls and furniture. It was the Greeks, more especially, who brought the art of woidving in bronze to perfection. Not only were statues cast by them in this metal more colossal than have been ever done since, but the architraves, doors, and many ornaments of their temples, the prows of their war-galleys, their armour and weapons, and many instruments requir- ing a fine edge, such as razors, saws, axes, chisels, were all made of bronze. The Egyptians and Greeks had also some means of liardening and tempering these instru- ments with which we are unacquainted. The early Greek sculptors, all of whom appear to have largely worked in bronze, executed many of their works by hammering out the metal plates in relief from the back and then fastening them together with pins or rivets. In the case of figures, these hammered plates, called sphyrelaton or tor- eutic work by the ancients, were probably fastened on a wooden core or model. This is similar to the repousse or beaten work of our own day. The invention of hollow castings, in which the metal is kejDt to a given thickness by an inner core composed of modelling clay and plaster, is attributed by Greek writers to the Samian artists Ehcekos and Theodoros, whose date is considered to be between B.C. 580 and 540. The process, however, was practised in Egypt at an earlier date, and it is probable that these artists only brought it to greater j^erfection. As the art of casting advanced, the thickness of the metal was greatly reduced, vmtil the minimum Avas arrived at consistent Avitli strength and durability. Bronze of a very fine quality and rich colour was used, and its effect was greatly enhanced by skilful tooling and chas- ing after the Avork Avas cast. Parts Avere also sometimes inlaid Avith gold and silver or enamelled in colour. Numerous great artists Avorked in bronze during the flourishing age of Greece; among others Ave hear of Myron, Avho executed a celebi'ated group of Jupiter Avith IMinerva and Hercules at Sanios, a statue of Erechtheus at Athens, and a group of Minerva and Marsyas, of Avhich latter figure there is an antique copy in marble in the Lateran Museum at Rome. The Discobolus in the British Museum, Avhich represents a young athlete in the act of throAving the dis- Ornamental Metal JVork. Ill cus, is believed to be a copy of a celebrated bronze statue executed by this sculptor. To Cresilas, a follower of the school of INIyron, has been ascribed the statue of a Wounded Amazon in bronze, of which some antic[ue copies in marble are still extant. Phidias executed a group of thii'teen bronze statues, whicli were presented by Athens to Delphi in memory of the victory of Marathon. He also cast colossal and other fi":ures of Minerva, particularly one made from the bronze spoils of Marathon, which, some seventy feet in height, crowned tlie summit of the Acropolis at Athens, and became a typical representation of the goddess. Some idea of the extent to which bronze was employed for scvdpture may be formed from the statement that a Roman consul, in the year 130 B.C., found at Athens three thousand bronze statues, and as many at Rhodes and Olympia. Of these numerous works, many of which were doubtless of transcendent merit, comparatively few have been preserved to our own time, the value of the metal itself almost invariably leading to their destruction. Of large works, the horses at St. Mark's in Venice, the colossal figure of Hercules now in the Vatican, the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius at Rome, with a few others of life size, are almost the only examples Avhich remain. Antique bronzes of smaller size, many of them from Pompeii and Herculaneum, are to be found in most European museums, espe- cially the National Museum at Naples. We have in early records soon after the reign of Constantino, many notices of gifts to churches of works in bronze, showing that casting and chasing in that material was still carried on. The most important specimen which has been preserved from those days is the seated statue of St. Peter, in St. Peter's at Rome. Its date is about A.D. 450, and the figure is unusually good for the debased art of that period. The chair or throne of Dagobert, now in the Louvre, is another famous bronze ascribed to the seventh century. With regard to beauty of form and perfection of casting in bronze, the old in- habitants of Britain rivalled the most skilful workmen of the present day. During the later Celtic period the shields and other objects were not only enriched with enamel, but were carefully executed in relief with no mean artistic power. Admirable Avorks in copper, executed in Ireland about the eleventh century, are still preserved, among which may be mentioned the so-called St. Patrick's bell, cleverly in- laid with gold filigree Avork of Celtic char- acter and set with crystals. The Irish from a very early period were skilful workers in gold and precious stones, besides being good bronzists, and they carried the art of enamelling on metal to great perfection. The use of engraved brasses as monumen- tal tablets in this country commenced about the thirteenth century. They were at first imported from Germany and Flanders, but were subsequently manufactured in England, and in no country are these memorials so numerous. They Avere often formed of several pieces of brass shaped to the outline of the figure or other object, and inlaid to an even surface on a slab of stone or marble. The engraving on the larger number of English brasses Avas certainly the able Avork of native hands. These brasses Avere some- times enamelled or inlaid Avith colour, and canopies of great elegance Avere frequently arranged above the figures. 112 Suggestions in Design. The beautiful monument to Queen Eleanor in Westminster Abbey, who died in 1291, consists of an altar-tomb of grey marble enriched with shields and niches of carved work. On a table of bronze gilt, ornamented with a lozenge diaper in which are engraved the arms of Castile and Leon, reposes the effigy of the queen, a work of the greatest merit. The head rests on cushions arain diapered with the arms of Castile and Leon, above which is an angular canopy of metal at one time richly gilt. Eound tlie verge of the table runs an inscription in raised letters. On the northern side is a screen of wrought-iron work, which will be described presently. The bronze effigy was the work of Master William Torell, goldsmith and citizen of London. Many other excellent works still exist in bronze — or as the metal was called in the middle ages latten — both in Westminster Abbey and elsewhere. Among these it will be sufficient to mention the effigy of Henry IIL, which lies next to the tomb of Queen Eleanor; and the magnificent bronze work forming the tomb in Heniy VIL's Chapel, the effigies being the work of Torregiano, an Italian. The screen inclosing the tomb, also of bronze, formed of tracery with statuettes in niches, is of English workman- ship. At the commencement of the twelfth century arose that extensive use of iron forged and united by the hammer Avhile at a red heat which formed so conspicuous a mode of ornamentation during the middle ages. Both the Saxon and Norman smiths displayed the utmost ingenuity,and arrived at great perfection in this branch of Avork. Be- sides the numerous other objects to which it was applied, the hinges of church doors were 1 expanded into beautiful ornamental forms, until they literally covered the whole door with elaborate and elegant combinations of scroll-work. These hinges were executed in different modes according to the nature of the work. Some of the most simple and yet effective, of the twelfth century, were formed in a great measure out of one piece of iron. A plate ■ of that metal being cut as shown at a, Fig. 214, was heated, and the tongues a, a, a Fig. 214. twisted Avhile hot into the spirals b, b, b. The whole branch was again heated and then bent to tlie required form. Afterwards, when the parts were all prepared, they were welded to the centre band of the hinge at d. The scrolls when fastened to the door with nails had the appearance shown by c. In the thirteenth century, when scroll- work with leafage was adopted, as in the example Fig. 215, from St. Mary's, Norwich, every small leaf or sprig had to be formed separately, and afterwards attached by welding to the main spirals. When each branch was completed, and the scrolls and leaves carefully regulated, they were welded Onianiental Metal IFork. 113 to the centre band of the hinge. As it was a difficult matter to finish these principal weldings neatly and evenly, more especially when the scrolls became large and heavy, they were usually concealed by a species of doubled -over leaf, as shown in detail at a, Fig. 215. These leaves and flowers, as at a and B, were produced by stamps made of Fig. 210. hardened iron, and containing a mould or the reversed form of the object to be stamped. No doubt there were formerly in existence many other beautiful works in iron, such as open-work screens of elaborate scroll Avork, but which from the lapse of time and other causes have nearly all disappeared. One now remaining, on the north side of the tomb of Queen Eleanor, before mentioned, was for a number of years thrown aside as worthless old iron, and has not very long been restored to its original position. Fig. 216 is a portion of this elegant and elaborately wrought screen. Every panel or division tluTjugh- out its whole length is of a dif- ferent design; and it will lie observed that the scroll work is so delicate that in some cases bands have been added at a later period to strengthen and keep it in position. Keyhole plates and door handles were favourite objects of art Avith the mediccval smith, and many examples of these are found of quaint form and very skilfully designed. Cabinet hinges, especially in the fifteenth century, Avere frequently executed in tAvo or three layers or plates of iron, as in Fig. 217, (shoAvn in section at a), each plate being Fig. 217. cut differently to develop tracery or other work. In this example cupped-trefoil floAvers are placed in the centres of the trefoils, Avhich are held in position by the nails. Nos. 2, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, Plate 39, give designs for small ornamental panels, and a key-plate, of this species of metal Avork. These Avere sometimes left open Avithout a oround, as in Nos. 2 and 14; or the ground Avas covered Avith crimson cloth, Nos. 11 and 12, or gilded leather, No. 13. 29 114 Suggestions in Design. English smiths maintained tlieir excellence of workmanship, and produced vast numbers of admirable examples of their skill, during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Many of these existed in London and its neighbourhood until a few years ago, but they are now fast disappearing. Some very beautiful iron Avork in the form of gate screens existed until lately at Hampton Court Palace, but as they were fast perishing from exposure to the atmo- sphere they have been removed, and are now preserved in the South Kensington and Bethnal Green Museums. They were designed and exe- cuted by Huntingdon Shaw, a native of Not- tingham, about the year 1G95. One of the pilas- ters, 01" side portiojis, of one of these screens is rejDresented by Fig. 218. The use of cast-iron is a much more modern application than that of wrought-iron. The first iron castings in England were made in 1543, in Sussex, by Ealph Page and Peter Baudc, but the process did not come much into use until a considerably later date. The railing round St. Paul's Cathedral, which dates about 1710 and was cast in Sussex, is said to be some of the earliest cast-irou work put up in London. Fig. 219 represents a bolt said to l:)c of chiselled iron of French workmanship, dating about 1550; but it is probably an early exam2:)le of cast-iron, although perhaps finished by the aid of the chisel. Iron is particularly well suited for the casting of such work, as it can be done with the utmost precision and beauty without having to be touched after it leaves the mould. Iron is cast from a mould foi'med in sand. When the sand, which is of a soft and clammy nature, is properly prepared and firmly packed Avitln'n an iron frame, the wood or metal pattern of what is intended to be cast is pressed into it, so as to leave a clear and Avell-defined impression. The pattern is then taken out by loosening it all round, tak- ing care that the sand does not give Avay or become in- jured. The otherhalfofthe mould is then worked with the same pat- tern in a simi- lar frame; this half has pins whicli enter into holes that correspond in the fii'st half, causing the two halves of the pattern to fit exactly to each other. Canals are provided for the metal to run through, small holes are made to allow the air to escape, and when all is ready the molten metal is poured in. It is of great importance to avoid air-bubbles in casting, and the more time alloM'ed for cooling the better, because when rapidly Ornamental Metal li^ork. 115 cooled the iron does not become so tough as when cooled gradually. In making patterns for iron castings an allowance of about one- ciglith of an inch to every foot has to be made for the contraction of the metal in cooling. No material has suffered so much by injudicious treatment as cast-iron. Every material, no matter of what kind, when used for constructive or ornamental purposes has a treatment or mode in which it should be used which is more peculiarly its own, and if not so used, it assumes, more or less, a false position. This is never more conspicu- ous than when one material has been made to imitate the appearance of some other material. In this respect cast-iron has been degraded by every variety of false treatment more than any other material. At one time it has been made to look like stone work, at another it has had the character of wood work given to it, but even more frequently still attempts have been made to give it the appearance of wrought-iron. The ease with which iron is cast into various ornamental forms aids this attempted imitation, but it invariably fails to be successful. To give iron the heaviness of stone by casting it with broad surfaces but hollow or in thin plates is a piece of deception which caimot be too strongly condemned, yet it has been so used in numerous instances. On the other hand, to make it imitate the light- ness and freedom of lines of wrought or forged iron is to expose it to be destroyed by breakage, as iron when cast is so much more brittle than when wrought. In design- ing cast-iron, therefore, the several parts should be moderately stout, arranged throughout to be of about the same size and thickness of metal; and when of open work, to have attachments wherever practicable. In scrolls frequent connections or ties should be contrived, so that no part be left un- supported and liable to be broken off. Ornamentation and foliage should never be excessive upon cast-iron, because it becomes an easy mode of concealing bad casting. Nothing is more difficult than to keep sharp, straight edges and angles in the sand mould; and in cheap work, therefore, we often see an attempt to conceal bad and inferior casting under an accumulation of wretched ornament. An excess of foliage should be avoided, espe- rig. 220. cially when introduced on a a ground in high relief, for the reason that there can be none of Avliat is called underciUting in cast-iron, as every part in relief requires to be bevelled so that the model may be drawn out of the sand, as shown by the section Fig Rg. 221. 220. When ornament is much raised from the sur- face, thick bevelled edges, as at A, Fig. 220, become very disagreeable, and have a clumsy appearance Avhen the work is Adewed diagonally. No matter how good the modelling may be, if these thick and clumsy edges are persist- ed in they will invariably destroy all artistic feel- insc in a work. It follows, therefore, that all surface ornamention in this material should be of a flat, delicate, and slightly relieved character, so as to avoid deep chamfered edges. Another false application to which cast- iron is subjected is that of casting it in twisted 116 Suggestions in Design. bars for iron railing. This is a form which is admirably adapted for wrought-iron, and it is one which a skilful smith can produce with great perfection; but the cast twist, show- ing the clumsy junction of the moulds, be- comes nothing but a miserable imitation. In pierced or open work with cast-iron, such as railings, no form is more appropriate than the sc|uare bar, and all ornamentation should grow out of it, as shown by Fig. 221. Plate 41. No 1. Portion of cast-iron grille or railing with wrought-iron twisted spike. No. 2. Wrought-iron cross in plate-metal; lower portion in cast work, with angels, heart, and crown. No. 3. Cast-iron pierced cross or finial, with the head of our Saviour. No. 4. Cast-iron key-plate with ornamentation in bas-relief; dragon and shield charged with mailed hand and bent rapier, with the motto, "True as steel," Dragons holding ring, horse-shoe, file, and arrow- head. No. .5. Finial or ornament for metal-cresting, intended to be worked in wrought-iron. No. 6. Grille Avith gablet and fleur-de-lis ter- minal in cast-iron, with panels partially filled in with pierced iron-plate. No. 7. Design for cast-iron railing, the twisted bars are more suitable for wrought than cast work. Plate 42. No. 1. Cast-iron finial with St. George and the Dragon, shield witli St. George's cross gules on argent. No. 2. Wrought-iron hinge, with crenated foliage. No. 3. Wrought-iron hinge, with eyes and wings. No. 4. Cast-iron hinge, shown broken for applica- tion to different lengths. No. .5. Cast-iron hinge with cock and motto "Vigilans; C. K. 73." No. fi. Cast-iron hinge, with raised edges and flowers in low-relief. No. 7. Bracket for gas in brass formed with pan- si es. No. 8. Bracket for gas in brass formed with fuchsias. This systenr, however, of making gas jets come out of flowers is not to be commended. No. 9. Metal corner for book cover or other purposes. No. 10. Key-plate, in two layers or plates of metal. No. 11. Ornamental head for nail. Plate 43. No. 1. Copper vane with fish and initials "I. E." Nos. 2 and 3. Brass corners or ornaments for wooden book covers. No. 4. Cast-iron staircase railing in square iron.. No. .5. Ornamental terminals for railing in cast- iron, principal one surmounted with pelican upon ball. Nos. G and 7. Bosses or bolt heads. No. 8. Bracket for light in chased brass, with chameleon, viper, and snail. No. 9. Portion of cast-iron srrille or railinci'. No. 10. Keyhole plate or escutcheon, with Love on the heart and armed with the key of love. No. 11. Wrought-iron key -plate with incised ornamentation, for alms-box, with the impaled hands and feet and wounded heart, to represent the five wounds of our Saviour. No. 12. Bronze handle or knocker, with head of hound. Plate 44. No. 1. Wrought-iron finial and copper vane, witli stars and swallow. Nos. 2, 8, 9, 13, and 14. Door-handles for bronze or wrought-iron, with cut or moulded plates. Nos. 3, 10, and 11. Wrought-iron key-plates, the first with entwined dragons worked on plate. Nos. 4 and 5. Ornamental nail heads. Nos. G and 7. Foliated scroll work for wrought- iron or brass. No. 12. Ornamentation in wrought-iron, crowned V, with rose, shamrock, and thistle. No. l.i. Metal bow for kej', which may he executed as shoAvn or pierced. No. 16. Wrought-iron foliated terminal ornament. Geometric Oynament. 117 CHAPTER XVIII. GEOMETEIC ORNAMENT. fT^;="^?^ ■v^v^^v%-"''V^-C-V-v EOMETPJCAL form is the foundation of all ornamental 1; art, however much the em^ I ployment of it may sometimes be concealed or obscured. It is only in some late and extravagant styles (such as the Louis XV.), in which novelty alone was sought for, that this principle is little heeded or altogether abandoned; but in the best periods of art it wall unquestion- ably be found, upon careful examination, that ornamentation was invariably set out upon a geometrical basis. In the Persian, the Moorish, and the Arabian styles geo- metrical combinations have been carried to a vast extent, and made to interlace and ramify into an infinite variety of the most complex arrangements and intricate designs. The Chinese and Japanese are extremely fond of diapering portions of their Abases and other Avorks with geometrical com- binations of lines filled in Avith colour. In Indian Avork also, although the lines are sometimes more erratic than those used in other countries, they are nevertheless generally founded upon the same simple geometrical figures. A similar principle of geometric arrange- ment prevailed during the Byzantine era, but it was not wrought out to the same degree of complicacy as in the Mohammedan styles. It Avas found of the greatest use for marble inlays and mosaic decorations, which Avere such important features during that period. Many of these geometrical combinations have been handed doAvn to the Gothic and other styles, and Avere employed more particularly for designs for early stained glass, inlaid pavements, and par- cpietiy. In these arrangements some are found Avhich may be distinctly traced through all the previous great periods of art — even going back to the Greek, the Assyrian, and the Egyptian. Not only may geometrical form be found in such combinations, but it may also be traced in the setting-out or leading lines of all decorative foliage. Geometrical lines form the groundwork upon Avhich such foliage AA'as designed. At no period is this more distinctly seen than in the foliage of the Greek, the Moorish, and the Byzantine styles. This practice is in perfect accordance Avith natural laAvs, the shapes of all leaA'es and floAvers being based upon geometrical forms. There are two great principles in nature Avhich are ahvays acting in opposition to each other — regularity or geometrical symmetry, and irregularity or absence of order. These are ever present, — the regular as an under- lying power, but irregularity runs riot so as, apparently, to obscure or obliterate all geometrical precision. To create true art- Avorkmanship Ave must in like manner em- 30 118 Suggestions in Design. brace the two principles — order and disorder, regularity and irregularity, but from our limited powers we must always hold much closer to the former than to the latter. It will be perceived, therefore, how necessary it is to study geometric form. All curved and straight lines are based , upon the simple geometrical figures, the I triangle, square, and circle, — with their compounds, the hexagon, octagon, and ellipse. With these a vast variety of the most elegant combinations can be made, many of which have been used in almost every period of ornamental art. The principles of geometric ornament are the same in all styles of decoration, and the Fi". 222. Fig. 223. Fig. 224, simple elementary combinations are to be found, more or less, in all of them. It is a fact worth noticing, that the geometrical figures have led to similar results in various quarters of the globe, which probably have had no connection or correspondence with each other. This may be observed by com- paring the Chinese, Japanese, and Indian lines of ornamentation with Romanesque and Gothic forms. The careful observation of the different modes of treatment upon the same lines, as exhibited in different and distinct styles, cannot fail to lead the student to greater power and facility in design, and this study should therefore be cultivated wlierever opportunity offers. No entirely fresh geometrical combina- tions can be invented, although the ori- ginal ones may be varied and recondjined indefinitely. If we commence with the triangle, one of the first and most simj^le arrangements is that of the double triangle drawn from the hexagonal points in the circle, Fig. 222.^ Then by the aid of the radius, from the same points, we can form what is commonly called the " Kite Star," Fig. 223. This may be varied by finding the intermediate points of the hexagon upon Fig. 225. Fig, 226. Fig. 227. the circle, and striking therefrom the arcs of a circle touching the six points of the hexagon, and forming three interlacing vesicas, as in Fig. 224. This Avill be seen ornamentally treated at No. 5, Plate 05, and, with the reverse curve, at No. 3, Plate 83. The triangle and square, with the hexagon and octagon, are used more than any other figures for mosaic inlay, and it is extra- Fig. 228. Fig. 229. ordinary the vast number of diflerent combinations which it is possible to obtain upon these few simple figures. Figs. 222 and 223 may be repeated so as to cover an extended surface as a diaper or inlay, instead of being used as a centre. If two squares are placed in a circle, fis in Fig. 225, they give an octagon in the centre, with eight right-angled triangles, a form which may be carried into various combinations. Using the same points on ' Oombinatiuns upon tlie double triangle will be found at No. 10, Plate HI, and No, 4, Plate 65, Geometric Ornament. 119 the circle with arcs struck from the points, as in Fig. 226, forming vesicas, they give the cruciform flower-form, the points of the intermediate vesicas representing the calyx. The pentagon is also an elegant form, but it is incapable of being combined to any great extent. When the pentagonal points are united in a star, as in Fig. 22.7, it makes what is called the Pentalpha. It is the Fig. 230. Fig. 231. most common form in flowers, as in Fi^:. 228, which represents a five-petalled flower of a pointed shape, with the intermediate points of the calyx. Another natural pentagonal arrangement is that of Fig. 229, which roughly represents the primrose, formed of five heart-shaped petals. To exemplify how simply and easily Fig. 232. Fig. 233. changes may be made in geometrical combinations, giving entirely new and different results, suppose we take No. 11 from Plate 45, which is a combination of diagonal squares, with crosses at the inter- sections used for glazing. If we omit the crosses it forms another well-known pattern for glazing. Fig. 230. Eetaining the original diagonal squares, but removing the smaller squares to the sides of the diagonal ones, as in Fig. 231, we produce a series of crosses. Omit half of each smaller square, that is, cut out of each diagonal square four right-an- gled triangles, as in Fig. 232, and we obtain a totally different result, namely, a tile pattern in two colours, each tile being of the same form throughout.^ Alter the position of each right-angled triangle, so as to cut out four portions from each square at an angle of 45 degrees instead of 90, and we have another very interesting com- bination, each division being of the same form, and fitting one into another, Fig. 233. Another combination for tiles is given at Fig. 234, in which the original lines of the diagonal squares are indicated. Each tile is Fig. 234. Fig. 235. here precisely alike, but the colours in the alternate tiles are changed, making ap- parently a complicated, but in reality an extremely simple pattern. A variation will be again found at No. 4, Plate 34. Now going back to the diagonal squares, but subdividing them and using circles in- stead of the smaller squares, as in Fig. 235, we obtain a pattern which has been used for marble inlay. Omit half of each circle, and we arrive at a series of pointed quatrefoils and crosses, as in Fig. 236. Reverse the position of half the semicircles, and we get a mediaeval tile pattern in two colours, Fig. 237, all of which are of similar form fitting alternately into each other. Many other different results may be obtained upon the ' No. 9, Plate 84, is another variation upon the same lines. 120 Suggestions in Design. same general lines, but these examples will be sufficient to show the importance of the study of geometrical combinations as the basis of ornamentation. In bands, string-courses, mouldings, or borders the same geometrical formation is necessary. Ornaments set out on squares are of frequent occurrence. If we divide a moulding into squares, and divide each Fig. 236. square diagonally, as in Fig. 238, Ave obtain the saw-tooth ornament; with a slight ad- dition, as in the second half of that figure, it becomes foliated; add another diagonal line, as in Fig. 239, and we have the nail- head ornament; form this into four leaves, and it gives the dog-tooth ornament, as in the second half of that figure. Reversed semi- Fk'. 23S. A/ / / circles, made continuous, form the ordinary wave-line, which may be variously altered by increasing the radius, and two interlacing wave-lines give the ordinary guilloche, No. C, Plate 8. Upon such simple and elementary forms, or others of ec^ually rudimentary character, are arranged a multitude of other kinds of mouldings, string-courses, or borders, more or less complicated, particularly in Greek and Roman ornamentation, of which examples will be found in the plates. By studying the method by which tliey are formed tlie student may soon learn to design others for himself which will be equally applicable for similar purposes. Geometrical formations are also necessary for much larger enrich- ments. Tliey form the "setting-out lines," that is to say, the foundation lines upon which ornamental forms are placed, whether they be of foliage, of colour, or any other species of decoration. Diapered surfaces require to be divided into geometrical divisions, and these may be varied according to the material to which they are applied — such as the glazing of windows, wall-papers, parquetry, tile-work, or mosaic inlay. The accompanying plate presents many useful examples of these. It will also be observed tliat a great number of tlie ornaments and designs in other plates throughout this work are set out and arranged geometrically upon similar prin- ciples. To seek to reduce intricate inlays and ornament to their simple and elementary geometrical lines will be found a useful and valuable study. It not only enables the student to discover on what simple elements the most enriched ornamentation may be founded, but it furnishes him with the means of devising variations Avhich he may himself clothe in a different manner. Plate 45. No. 1. Eight-pointed star, for inlay in marble or wood Tlie lines indicate the mode of contrasting the C(jlours, which may be black, white, red, and j'ellow. No. 2. Square form suited for glazing, inlay, or tilled in with ornament, foiuided on a four-petalled Hower. No. .3. Eight-petal flower-form with cross in centre. Groundwork or lines for ornamental square panel decoration. Nos. 4 and .5. Geometrical diapei's for colours or glazing with tinted dass. Inlays, Labyrinths, and Diapers. 121 No. 6. Eight-pointed star in vesica, with four divisions filled in with flamboyant lines. May be filled in with tracery or foliage. No. 7. Cross arrangement formed by semicircles interlaced; the angles being indicated as filled in with flower-buds. The same general form may be ornamented and varied in a numbier of difi'erent ways, still retaining the leading lines. The form is a very ancient one, and was much used by the early Christians. The cross vesicas, Fig. 226, was another favourite and early arrangement. Probably, in times of persecution, they were valued as being emblem- atical of the cross, without having an actual cross too plainly indicated. No. 8. Six-petal flower-form or " kite star," with spherical triangles on the hexagon, contained in a circle and square. This combination of spherical triangles, when repeated, gives the lines of what is known as the " Canterbury diaper," which is a very elegant diaper sculptured in stone in low relief on the south side of the choir. It is there filled in with six-petalled flowers and trefoils. No. 9. Combination of square and five circles in the form of a cross or quatrefoil, for glazing or marble inlay. No. 10. Interlaced guilloche bands, for diaper in low relief filled in with colour. No. 11. Combination of square with double diagonal bands and crosses at the intersections for glazing. Without the crosses it f(jrms a well-known pattern for glazing, often found in Elizabethan and other old English houses. No. 12. Hexafoil, containing concave-sided hex- agon and six-petalled flower. No. 13. Trefoil intersected by the triple petals of the snoM'drop. Centre for glazing in tinted glass. CIIArTER XIX. INLAYS, LABYEINTHS, AND DIAPEES. HE practice of inlaying one material with another for pur poses of decoration is of very great antiquity, as is shown by Egyptian and Assyrian specimens of such work preserved in the British Museum. How far this ai^t was practised by the ancient Greeks we do not precisely know, as so few examples of their inlay have been handed down to us, but we read of a mosaic pave- ment in the temple of Olympia, and of the colossal statues made by Phidias being formed of gold, ivory, and ebony, and inlaid with precious stones. Among the Romans, whose desire for magnificence led them to adopt every kind of costly enrich- ment, inlaid floors of the most elaborate and 31 Fig. 2.10. elegant character came into ^(tx'j general use, not only in Rome, but to some extent in every country which they at any time occupied. Many beautiful examples of these inlaid floors have been brought to light in England, and others are still being occasionally dis- covered. They were mostly formed of small framients or cubes of terra cotta or marble, techni- cally called tesserce, Fig. 240. These cubes, seldom more than three-quarters of an inch square and often less (« a, Fig. 240), were set in cement, and combined into various geometrical and other figures, the colours and patterns being produced by the Q i^^ 122 Suggestions in Design. Fig. 241. different kinds of marble or other materials used. The art reached such perfection that tesselated pavements embraced representa- tions of human figures, animals, and fishes, as in the example Fig. 241, from an ancient Roman mosaic in the South Kensington Museum. Landscapes, flowers, and foliage were also depicted with equal success. Probably the most notable specimen of ancient mosaic that has come down to us, is a battle piece discov- ered at Pompeii in 1831, and now preserved in the museum at Naples. In this remark- able work, the subject of which is one of Alexander the Great's Asiatic victories, men and horses in action are represented with great spirit, the figures being nearly as large as life. The process of forming pavements and other works in ceramic tesserse has been of late years pursued in England with great success. A frieze of this description, of large size, has been executed, surrounding the whole of the exterior of the Royal Albert Hall at South Kensington. The colours used were only three in number: buff for the figures, which were outlined in black, on a chocolate ground, and the sizes of the tesserte varied from about a quarter of an inch to one inch square. The Romans frequently adopted another method of constructing mosaic pavements, which was called seciile, or sliced work. This was formed of different slices of choice marbles, which produced their effect solely by contrast of the shape, colour, and veining of the various kinds which Avere brought together. The finest specimen of sectile work now extant is the pavement of the Pantheon at Rome, where specimens of the principal marbles, each of great superficial extent, are arranged in alternate round and square slabs. A similar species of marble paving is frequently met with in early mediaeval buildings in Italy, as in the example Fig. 242, from the church of St. Francis at Assisi. It consists of a triangular ar- rangement Fig. 242. of similar forms in white, gray, and red mar- bles. From the middle of the fourth centu- ry, when Christianity began to extend itself over Europe and the seat of the Empire had been removed to Constantinople, the oriental taste for gold and splendour superseded the purer practice of the Ro- mans, and Byzantine glass mosaic came into fashion Mosaic was extensively em- ployed by the Byzantines for wall decoration and for the enrichment of vaults and ceilings. It was used to some extent on the exteriors as well as in the interiors of their buildings. The pieces of opaque glass, or coloured enamels, employed in this kind of work were very irregular in size and shape, and the ground upon which the sixbjects were represented was almost invariably of gold. A great variety of shades and tones of colour were produced in these glass enamels, and the material for the gold grounds was formed by placing gold-leaf between two sheets of clear glass, Avhich were then put into a kiln Inlays, Labynnths, and Diapers. 123 and heated until the whole became homo- geneous. The sheets Avere then broken up into the required sizes. The manufacture and working of this species of enamel mosaic, known as Vene- tian or Byzantine, has been successfully revived by Dr. Salviati, who has established works at Murano near Venice. Many ex- amples of this work have been put up in this country, such as those executed by him at the Albert Memorial, Hydepark. The enamel is cut into shapes not quite regular, and these are put together more or less near to each other, so that between them the joints are plainly seen, and the surface is left rough. Another kind of mosaic is that which is formed in Rome, where the work — different from the Venetian — is made thoroughly smooth by rubbing or polishing the surface, and the stone or enamels have their edges fitting closely one to another. The best specimens of this kind of pictorial wall-mosaic are to be found in St. Peter's and in the recently rebuilt church of St. Paul outside the walls, Rome. The gigantic pictures of the four evangelists that adorn the pendentives under the dome of St. Peter's, and the long series of circvdar pictures (each about four feet diameter) introduced as a decorative band along each side of the nave of St. Paul, representing portraits of the popes from St. Peter onwards, are in rough surfaced mosaic. These pictures have the effect of frescoes of great excellence, and are imperishable in colour. The portraits of the popes in St. Paul were executed at Rome within the last thirty years. ^ But the most perfect specimens of pictorial wall-mosaic are the ' The atelier of the Vatican is said to possess material for mosaic work in above three thousand tints and shades. copies from pictures by Raffaele and other great masters which are placed in some of the chapels of St. Peter's. In these the drawing, expression, colouring, and general effect arc so well rendered, and the fitting together of the tesseree so perfect, that they impress the beholder as paintings of rare merit. Most of the pictures are reproduced on a scale much larger tlian their originals, and the surface of the mosaic being polished they jDresent the appearance of paintings in oil. These examples, however, although put together witli such rare perfection, are not considered so good for the purpose of wall decoration as the earlier, although rougher and coarser, mosaics of St. Mark at Venice, or INIonreale in Sicily. Mosaics have a character of their own, which neces- sitates a certain conventional manner, and all attempts to make them look like pictures in oil for wall decoration should be avoided. Miniature works in mosaic continue to be pro- duced in Rome and in Florence for the decor- ation of jewelry and other ornamental articles. In the media;val styles of England wall- mosaics do not appear to have ever been prevalent, but there cannot be a doubt that English artists painted and diapered their walls and ceilings upon the same principle, and even in some cases in imitation of inlay. Of this a notable example is the very early painted ceiling of the nave of Peterborough Cathedral. Almost the only example we possess of the glass or enamel mosaic of the middle ages is that which still partially remains upon the tomb of Henry III. in Westminster Abbey. The shrine of Edward the Confessor, which was erected by Henry, has been also richly inlaid with mosaic work, but it is now nearly all destroyed or picked out; the forms, how- 124 Suggestions in Design. ever, of the inlay are still discernible upon the cement in which it was embedded. The floor of Edward the Confessor's Chapel is very richly inlaid with various kinds of marble, and the pavement before the altar of the Abbey is of a similar description. The materials of this pavement were brought from Eome by Abbot Ware about 1267. Portions of another richly inlaid marble floor are seen in the Trinity Chapel of Canterbury Cathedral. This contains the signs of the zodiac in circles, but one portion of the same pavement is filled in Fig. 243. with geometrical combinations of marble, por- phyry, &c. Fig 243 presents a specimen of this inlay All these works are no doubt of foreign origin, most probably Italian. A form of flint inlay, which is found upon the exteriors of tlie fourteenth and fifteenth century churches in Norfolk and Su-ffolk, is also Avorthy of a passing observation. It consists of the forms of tracery, inscriptions, or monograms, cut out in free-stone, tlie spaces being then filled in flush Avith the stone work Avith split and square flints. The diff'erence of colour developing the forms in strong contrast, the eff'ect is ricli and pleasing, and gives a distinctive character to the churches of these counties Avhich is not found in any other part of England. The large marble floors of the naves or transepts of some cathedrals, more especially on the Continent, were sometimes laid out in the form of labyrinths. No. 1, Plate 46, is similar to one Avhich existed in the church of St. Bertin at St. Omer, and which is said to have been destroyed because the children and strangers in folio Aving its course dis- turbed the services of the church by their noise. No. 2 is the plan of a circular one which still remains in the Cathedral of Chartres. Such labyrinths Avere generally placed near one of the entrances, and were supposed to be emblematical of the manner of approaching the temple at Jerusalem : because during the time of the crusades the Avay Avhich led to the temple AA^as marked by a number of turns and stopping places, in Avhich the pilgrims remained to pray before reaching the holy place. In like manner pilgrims Avent on their knees upon these labyrinths, praying at every turn, and patiently folloAved the tortuous course until they arrived at the centre, Avhich was considered the holy place. Another excellent mode of enriching pavements Avas by incising the form, and filling the incisions Avith black or a dark- coloured cement. Several monumental tablets at Tintern Abbey, and part of the pavement at Canterbury Cathedral, repre- senting the four seasons and the signs of the zodiac, already referred to, are of this description. This method of incising pave- ments is Avell Avorthy of study and further development for modern Avork, as it has a very excellent eft'ect and does not involve so much labour as inlay. The Avail decoration in the memorial chapel to Prince Albert at Windsor, done by Baron Trequcti for the royal family, as Avell as some of the pavements Avhich have been executed by other artists in the restoration of our cathedrals, are also of this description. A good modern example Inlays, Labyrinths, and Diapers. 125 is that in the choir of Gloucester Cathedral by the late Sir G. Gilbert Scott. The subject is the life of man from Adam to Jesus Christ. In the manufacture of encaustic tiles the ornament is produced by an inlay of a coloured clay different from the body of tlie tile. The original tile, which is usually of red clay, is formed under great pressure by means of a steel die, which stamps the pattern on the face to about one eighth of an inch in depth. When the tile is dry, but before being burned, a yellow clay, technically called a slip, is made up to about the consis- tency of cream and poured over the face of the tile, completely filling up the incised portion. After this has been allowed to dry, the superfluous clay is removed by the aid of a steel scraper, and the tile is ready for the kiln. When more than one colour is required for the ornament upon the tile, the more expensive colour, such as blue, is care- fully poured into those parts required to be of that colour, and when this is dry the yellow slip is added. Care must be taken that the clay used for the slip is not liable to shrink in the burning, or cracks will be produced between the inserted clay and the incised form. During the seventeenth century a species of wood inlay, called raar5'Mg^;7/, was apj^lied very extensively to the ornamentation of furniture- It was formed of thin veneer, and required a considerable amonnt of skill in its execu- tion. Flowers, birds, and other objects were imitated by different coloured woods, and shaded by partially burning the surface with a hot iron. This was done with remarkable exactness to nature, but the result was rather too like a laborious and inferior imitation of a painting than a work of art. Another kind of wood inlay, of a largei- and much simpler description, termed parquetry, has been long legitimately applied to floors, especially upon the Continent, where the use of carpets is not so common as with us. Flat diapers are veiy much of the same character as inlays, and may, of course, be executed in the same mannei', but they are more frecpiently done for wall decoration by painting, stencilling, or by printing, as on wall-papers. Examples are given for these on Plates 47, 48. Sculptured diapers in stone, as found in M^estminster Abbey and other places, already referred to, Chap, xvi., are exceedingly costly from the great amount of labour they incur; but a very similar effect and with equal beauty may be obtained by the use of terra cotta. In fact, this is one of the many legitimate uses of terra cotta, where one mould Avill produce an unlimited number of the same forms in a material which is comparatively indestruc- tible, and that will effectually resist the influence of the atmosphere for an incredible lenctli of time. And it seems a more reason- able process than to set men laboriously to carve repetitions of the same forms over the whole surface of a wall. Plate 46. No. 1. Labyrinth inlaid in marble of two colours, somewhat similar to one which existed in the church of St. Bertin at St. Omer. No. 2. Circular labyrinth from the nave floor of Chartres Cathedral, formed of blue and white stone inlay; other colours are also used in different parts. No. 3. Flaming star with coronet and date, for inlay. No. 4. Panel with centre cross, borders, and other portions of various designs, for geometrical inlay or parquetry. Nos. 5 and 6. Strap and geometrical inlay border. No. 7. Border with combinations of right-angled triangle. 32 126 Suggestions in Design. No. S. Foliated inlay border with scalloped edges. No. 9. Inlay border, white and black interrupted hexagons. Nos. 10 and 11. Chinese or Japanese geometrical diapers, for painting on porcelain or for inlay. These are both formed on the triangle and hexagon. Plate 47. No. 1. Triangular interlacing bands for diaper for parquetry or other inlay, with stars at the inter- sections of the white bands. Nos. 2 and 3. Variations upon the last combina- tion, with flowers at the intersections, and cubes fillincf in between the triangular bands. A combi- nation of cubes formed upon the hexagonal lines, in black, white, and gray marble, was a favourite form of pavement in the last century. It is, however, a very objectionable pattern, from its representing the cubes as if in jDcrspective with one angle standing up, — thus losing the character that pavement should have — that of looking flat and even for walking upon. No. 4. Interlaced incised line, on white stone or marble filled in with black cement. Four varieties of borders, incised and filled with cement. The broader bands may be filled with cement of a different colour, or inlaid with coloured stone or marble. Nos. 5, G, 7, and 8. Foliated diapers upon imbri- cated or fish-scale lines, for painting, stencilling, or wall-papers. Nos. 9 and 10. Geometrical tile pavements, on triangle, and one form fitting by reversing into each other. No. 11. Border of interlaced ribbon, formed by incised line, and filled in with black or coloured cernent. The ground tooled in lines to give variety of surface. Nos. 12 and 13. Upright foliated and geometrical desigrLS, for painted dados for rooms, or for executing in paper. No. 14. Marquetry border for woods of various colours and shades. Plate 48. No. 1. Incised brass filled in with black cement, the broader portions with colour. A crest formed of a mason's lewis with the motto "Hold fast," for the name " Lewis." No. 2. Panel for line-painted decoration, with ground filled in with colour. Continuous ribbon, with variations upon the motto " Amour par tout." No. 3. Panel for painted decoration upon the same motto in English, " All for love," with contin- uous line forming hearts and true lover's knot, filled in with shamrock foliage. Nos. 4, 5, 6, and 7. Four varieties of four-leaved diaj)er, with four other varieties of leaves at the sides. For painting, stencilling, or wall-paper. No. 8. Centre of interlaced crescents. No. 9. Centre containing triple arrangement of oak foliage in two colours. No. 10. Star and cloud diaper. No. 11. Diaper formed of triple gyi-ating cones and lines. No. 12. Alternating letter Z diaper. No. 13. Fish diaper with conventional water. Nos. 14, 1.5, IG, and 17. Fret and open-line diapers or filling-in, for enrichment of surface in china or porcelain. No. 18. Alternate-leaved bands for surface decor- ation. One-half of band may be also applied to metal cresting. No. 19. Outline fleur-de-lis, leaf, and berries, for pattern of textile fabric. No. 20. Acorn-and-heart enriched band for painting. No. 21. Stencil pattern for self-tone decoration — that is, the ornament stencilled in the same colour as the ground but darker, or vice versa. Blazonry and Heraldic Ornameiit. 127 CHAPTER XX. BLAZONKY AND HEEALDIC OENAMENT. N Heraldry the term Blazoniy is applied to the description and to II the representation of all heraldic I figures, devices, or compositions, as well as to the arrangement of the component members and details of any heraldic composition. The word, here used in its most extended signification, carries us back to a very early period, when it was the prevalent custom for both individuals and communities to be distinguished by some sign, device, or cognizance. War and the chase would naturally furnish the first forms and figures, worn upon some part of the person or emblazoned on the shield as a mark of distinction. A man's physical powers or peculiarities as a warrior or a hunter, or the issue of some exploit in which he may have been engaged, would, in many cases, determine his distinctive personal cognizance. If swift of foot, or strong of hand, or fierce in demeanour, or patient of hardship, he would naturally seek to symbolize himself under the form of some animal distinguished pre-eminently for one or other of those qualities. For it is natural that man should find symbols of his own physical attributes in the inferior animals; because in mere swiftness, or strength, or such like qualities, certain animals are superior to man. The next thing would be to render this personal symbolism hereditary. A man's son would feel a natural pride in preserving the memorial of his father's reputation, by assuming and also by trans- mitting his device. It would be the .same with the comrades of a chief and with the subjects of a prince. Thus a system of heraldry would gradually rise and become established. Nearly six hundred years before the Christian era ^schylus described the her- aldic blazonry of the chieftains who united their forces for the siege of Thebes. The well-known eagle was the symbol of ancient Rome, the standard of Persia was an eagle di.splayed, and the state of Athens was dis- tinguished by an owl. It is, however, to the Crusades, which were begun in the year 1096 and terminated about 1270, that we owe in a great measure the mediaeval system of heraldiy, and the emblazonment of arms on shields. Among the many and important results of those romantic enterprises were great changes in the weapons and armour of the Western chivalry; and these changes were accom- panied by the introduction of an infinite variety of armorial devices, especially the adoption of crosses of various forms and colours. The Crusade confederacy would necessainly require a more definite system of military standards and insignia than had previously prevailed. The use of improved defensive armour also, combined with a better system of organization and discipline 128 Suggestions in Design. in the armour-clad bands, rendered it necessary for each warrior of any rank to assume and wear a personal cognizance, without which he could not be distin- guished on the battle-field, where the known presence of certain individuals was of grave importance. The device of each baron and knight would naturally be assigned, with certain modifications, to their respective retainers and followers. For this reason cre.f^s were introduced and placed on bascinets and helmets. Fig. 244,^ and some recognized device was dis- played upon all knightly pennons or banners. These were again em- blazoned upon the rich surcoats worn by the knights over their armour, and upon the coverings of their chargers, as well as upon the shields borne by the warriors (No. 4, Plate 50). Such is the origin of CoaU of Amu, a term which is still in common use at the present day. In England, during the reign of Henry III. heraldry assumed a more definite character than it had done before, and in the long and brilliant reign of Edward III. it attained its culminating point. Again, during the Lan- castrian era and throughout the wars of the Ptoses heraldry maintained its reputation and popularity, but with the decline of Gothic architecture it too showed simis of a coming degradation. Such has been its long and gradual rise and its decadence; ' See also the examples Nos. 1, 4, 5, 6, Plate 50; and others in following plates. Fig. 245. and although now somewhat in the position of a dead language, still its use is never likely to be abandoned so long as jiride of rank exists, and individual and family distinctions are required. Heraldic com- positions are of extreme value as historical and genealogical evidence, and if rightly understood may yet become a powerful auxiliary in the ornamental treatment of symbolized forms and images. Early heraldic shields vary very consider- ably in their forms, the simplest having the contour of an inverted pointed arch, some- what stilted, as shown at No. 2, Plate 50. The shields used by the Normans in England were long and tapering, as seen borne by the knightly effigies in the Temple Church, London. To these succeeded al- most triangular, heater-shaped shields. In later times their forms were often of the most fanciful description. Fig. 245 represents tlie form known as the Tudor shield. It has a notch on one side for the support of the lance used in tournaments. The ground or surface of the shield is called the field, and here are depicted the figures or charges which make up the coat of arms. The side of the escutcheon which is opposite to the left hand of the person looking at it is the dexter or right side of the shield, and that opposite the right hand the sinister or left side. The tinctures, or colours generally used in heraldry comprise two metals and five colours, and are named : — Or, Gold or j^ellow, represented in engrav- ing by clotted work. Argent, . Silver or white, cdivays left j^lain. Gules,... Red, perpendicular lines. Azure, ... Blue, horizontal lines. Blazonry and Heraldic Ornament. 129 Sable,... Black, horizontal and perpen- dicular lines crossing each other. Vert, Green, diagonal lines from right to left. Purpuro, Purple, diagonal lines from left to right. It is an invariable rule in blazoning that metal should never be placed upon metal, nor colour upon colour. There are also what are called Furs, which are not only used for the linings of robes and garments of state, the linings of the mantle, and other ornaments of the shield, but also in the coat armours themselves. Those in most common use are : — Ermine, represented by sable spots on a white field, Fig. 240; Ermines, a black field with white spots. Fig. 247; Erminois, a gold field with black spots. Fig. 216.— Ermine. Fig. 217.— Ermines. Fig. 218.— Erminois. Fig. 248; Vair white and blue, represented by small escutcheons placed in a line. Fig. 249; Counter- Vair, small escutcheons, placed base against base and point against point. Fig. 2-50; Potent, the field covered with figures like crutch heads, termed potents. Fig. 251; Counter -fotent, having the Fig. 250.— Counter-Vair. Fig. 251.— Potent. No. .5, Plate 54; Party 2Kr cross or quarterly, when the field is divided by two lines, the one perpten- dicular and the other horizontal, as in the sinister shield. No. fj, Plate 50, and in the royal arms No. 12, Plate 53. These all admit of being enwailed, wavv, embattled, dovetailed, &c., and have diminutives. The earliest devices upon the shield are simple figures called Ordinaries; these are nine in number, and each admits again of being engrailed, &c., as with the pailition lines of the shield. 1. The Chief, Fig. 252, formed by a horizontal line, contains in depth tlio uppermost third part of the field. No. 8, Plate 53, is an example of a chief wavy, and No. 9 a chief embattled. The diminutive of the chief is the Fillet, the contents of which must not exceed one-fourth of the chief, of which it always occupies the lowest portion. 2. The Pale, Fig. 253, consists of two perpendi- cular lines, drawn from the top to the l.iase of the shield, and occupies one-third of its centre. The pale has two diminutives — the Pallet, one-half of the pale in width, and the Endorse, one-half of the pallet. 3. The Bend, Fig. 254, is formed by two parallel lines, drawn from the dexter chief to the sinister Fig. 262.— Cliief. Fig. 2.51.— Bend. Fig. 255,— Fesse. figures arranged after the manner of counter- vair, Fig. 250. Shields are divided by lines, called Partition- lines, which are distinguished by different names according to their several forms. The shield is said to be party or divided by these lines, as Party |jer pale, when it is divided equally by a perpendicular line, as No. 7, Plate 50; Party per f ess, when equally divided by a horizontal line. No. 3, Plate 50, and base. It contains a fifth part of the shield in breadth if uncharged, and a third part if charged. No. 1, Plate 51, and No. 6, Plate 54, are examjoles, which would be described as being charged with stars in the first case, and with three escallop-shells in the second. The diminutives of the bend are the Bendlet, one-half the bend, and the Cotise, one-half the bendlet. A bend when issuing from the sinister instead of the dexter chief is distinguished as a Bend Sinister, No. 5, Plate 50. 4. The Fesse, Fig. 255, is formed by two horizontal lines, occupying one-third part of the field, and is always confined to the centre. 5. The Bar, Fig. 256, is the same as the fesse, but it occupies only one-fifth of the field. The bar is 33 130 Suggestions in Design. never borne singly; when the field is covered by bars, it is said to be Barry. In the same way the field may be covered with pales, when it is termed Paly. The bar has two diminutives— the Cloaet, half the liar, and the Barruld, which is half the closet. C. The Chevron, Fig. 257, is formed of two lines placed pyramidally, like the rafters of a house. The che^Ton has two diminutives — the Chevronel, half the chevron, and the Gowple-dose, half the chevronel. 7. The Cross, Fig. 258, is formed by the meeting of two perpendicular with two horizontal lines Fig. 256.— Bar. Fig. 257.— Chevron. Fig. 26S. -Cross. about the centre of the shield, and when charged occupies about one-third of the field, but otherwise it contains one-fifth. The varieties of the cross are very numerous, but Figs. 259-203 represent some of the most usual forms, as the cross moline, fitche'e, fatee, aveUane, and the cross croslet. Fig. 259.— Cross Jloline. Fig. 260.— Cross Fitchee. Fig. 261.— Cross Pati5e. 8. The Saltire, or diagonal cross. Fig. 264, is a combination of the bend with the bend sinister. It contains one-fifth of the field, but one-third when it is charged. It has no diminutive. ^ ^ ^:> Fig. 262.-Cross AveUane. Fig. 2C3.— Cross Croslet. Fig. 264.- Saltire. 9. The Pile, Fig, 205, a wedge in form, generally issues from the middle chief and extends towards tlie middle base of a shield. Occasionally, however, this ordinary is borne in the same direction as the bend; or it may issue from various parts of the incLjsing line of a shield. Charges are often jdaced and arranged after the form of the ordinaries; thus charges may be in Chief, that is, arranged along the top of the shield, without the chief itself being indicated. In the same manner charges may be said to be in Fesse, in Cross, &c. 265.— Pile. Fig. 266.-Orle. Fig. 267.— Tressure. The shield may have a border, which continues all round the edge, is parallel to the boundary of the shield, and contains one-fifth of the field. This may be again engrailed, indented, &c. The Orle, Fig. 200, is an inner border of the same shape as the shield, but it does not touch the extremities of the shield, the field beinff seen within and around it on both sides. The Tressure, Fig. 207, a diminutive of the orle, usually half its breadth, and generally borne fleury and counter-fleury; as seen in the arms of Scotland. The charges upon a shield consist of every description of figure or bearing, both animate and inanimate, such as beasts, birds, and fishes; lozenges, trefoils, quatre- foils, roses, stars, crescents; guttes, or drops of liquid of difi'erent colours; or roundles, being plates or coins of metal, or if of colour represented globnlai'. These and a vast number of other objects are used as charges, and may be placed in various positions upon the shield, and of different colours. In the blazoning of charges, be they of what nature or kind soever, whether animate or inanimate, if they are intended to be of the natural colour of the things they represent, they must be termed j'jroper. The art of disposing more than one or several coats of arms upon the same shield is termed MarshaUing. Coats of arms are thus marshalled on various accounts: namely, to show descent, marriage, alliance, adoption, or the gift of the sovereign. Such coats as betoken marriage are borne Blazonry and Heraldic Ornament. 131 pale -wise, that is, the man bears his coat on the dexter half of the shield and the woman on the sinister half If a man marries two wives, the arms of the first is placed in the chief on the sinister side and the second in the base. If more than wo, the sinister side is again subdivided accordingly. When a shield is quartered or divided into four parts, it shows the bearer's alliance to two or more families, as when a man quarters his mother's arms with his father's, but it should be observed that the paternal coat is always placed in the fii'st quarter. When a coat is borne with four or more quarterings, and any one or more of those quarterings are again divided into two or more coats, this compound division is indicated as counter-quartered, and the four primary quarters are distinguished as grand quarters. The first person who quartered arms in England was King Edward III. He bore the arms of England and France, quarterly, in right of his mother Isabel, daughter and heir of Philip IV. of France. The same king afterwards changed his arms to those of France and England, placing France in the first and fourth quarters upon his laying claim to that kingdom. By Cadency heralds distinguish the different individuals, or the several branches of the same family, all of whom, in right of their common descent, inherit and bear the same arms. A shield of arms may be thus "differenced," either by modi- fying or adding to the original blazon, or by introducing upon the shield some fresh charge, which has a special and a separate existence of its own, as a "difference." Thus the Prince of Wales bears a label in chief across the royal arms as a difference, the second son a crescent, and so on; each son or descendant of a family having inserted some alteration or addition to the original arms, without interfering with or altering the paternal coat otherwise than as a mark of " dif- ference." Apart from coats of arms. Badges or Cognizances were much in favour during the palmy days of mediaeval heraldry, and, indeed, they were in iisc before the adoption and recognition of regular coats of arms. Badges consist of figures or devices assumed for the purpose of being borne either absolutely alone, or in con- nection with a motto, as the distinctive cognizance of an individual or a family of rank and importance. They Avere commonly used for the decoration of costume, military equipments, horse trap- pings, household furniture, and were worn by household servants and other retainers. Pieces of plate and other valuable objects were also adorned and marked by the badge, and in seals they appear as the accessories of shields, and sometimes as diapers. The sovereigns of England adopted a great variety of badges, at the head of which stands the Planta Genista, that simple sprig of broom-plant which gave the name Plantagenet to one of the proudest and most powerful famiUes. Second only to the Planta Genista in interest are the White and Pted Roses of the rival Plan- tasenets of York and Lancaster. Edward the Black Prince adopted the sun rising out of clouds, in addition to the three ostrich- feathers, and the motto "Ich dien" (I serve). A black swan ducally gorged and chained was the badge of the De Bohuns. Fig. 268 132 Suggestions ill Design. Fig. 268. is a representation of this badge from the brass to Alianore De Bohun, Duchess of Gloucester A.D. 1399, in Westminster Abbey. The same device was sometimes borne as a crest as well as a badge, as in the case of the famous badge of the Earls of Warwick, — the bear chained to a ragged staff. To this Shakspeare refers in the second part of Henry VI., where he makes Clifford conclude his threatening- address to Warwick with the words : — "Might I but know thee hj thy household badge." To which Warwick replies: — ■ "Now, by my father's badge, old Neville's crest, The rampant bear chain'd to the ragged staff." — This badge as well as several others have given the names to many inns, such as the "White Hart "of Richard II., the " Silver (or White) Swan " of the house of Lancaster, and the "Rose and Crown." The last with the initials V.R., may also be deemed the national badge, as the Thistle is that of Scotland and the Harp of Ireland. Among other devices which were used as badges w^ere certain entwined cords, dis- tinguished by the title of Knots, such as the Stafford Knot, the Bouchier Knot, and others. The badge sometimes took the form of a Rebus, which Avas a favourite method of heraldic expression. It was formed by an allusion to the name or profession of the bearer. There are many quaint and curious examples remaining of such devices. For instance, in St. Alban's Abbey the monument of Abbot Ramrydge contains figures of rams, each of which has, on a collar, the letters Fig. 269. KYDGE. The tun to represent the syllable "ton" was in great favour in olden times — as for example, a bolt or arrow through a tun for Bolton (No. 4, Plate 54); a musical note called a long inserted into a tun for Langton; a hen sitting on a tun for Henton; a fire beacon formed of a tun on a pole with a ladder placed against it, for Beckington; and the hat and tun for Hatton. Abbot Islip in his chapel in Westminster Abbey gives two forms of his rebus: one a human eye and a small branch or "sH^d" of a tree; the other, a man in the act of falling from a tree, with the motto issuing from his mouth "I slip!" Such heraldic puns are distinguished as Canting Heraldry. Beautiful and elaborate seals were held in high esteem in the middle ages, and were frequently charged with heraldic insignia and designs of varied and fixnciful character. Fig. 269 represents the seal of Henry Plantagenet, second son of Edmund, first Earl of Lancaster. The motto so frequently borne with coats of arms or crests was a brief epigrammatic sentence, supposed to be in some manner charactei'istic of the bearer, and was usually placed on a scroll either beneath the shield or about the crest. It sometimes contained a pun upon the name, as for Neville, Ne rile Veils ("Form no mean wish;" or, " Desire Neville"). As also in the well-known instance of the Vernons, Avhose motto is Vey non semper vlret {" Spring does not always flourish"). The shield of arms is frequently flanked by supporters, Nos. 1 and 4, Plate 51, Avhich consist of human or of imaginary beings, or Blazonry and Heraldic Ornament. 133 of any living creatures wliatever, whicli act as if guarding or supporting the shield, as do the lion and unicorn on either side of the royal arms. Supporters are only borne by the royal family, peers of the realm, knights of the Garter, knights grand crosses of the Bath, and a few others. From a very early period heraldic devices have been emblazoned upon Flags of various kinds. The three principal varieties of these mediaeval ensigns were the pennon, the banner, and the standard. The Pennon was of small size, pointed or swallow-tailed, borne immediately below the lance-head, and charged with the badge or other armorial device of the knight whose personal ensign it was. The Banner was square in form, or nearly so, and was charged with the coat of arms of the ownei', and not with any other device. The national banner of England, commonly called the "Union Jack," contains the crosses of St. George for England, of St. Andrew for Scotland, and of St. Patrick for Ireland. The Standard was of large dimensions, and usually of considerable length in pro- portion to its breadth. It was emblazoned with a full coat of arms and quarterings, as in the case of the royal standard of Great Britain. Standards appear to have been used solely for the purpose of display. There are many other flags, such as those belonging to the military and naval services, but they are too numerous, and their forms too intricate, to be entered ujdou here. It was a prevailing custom in the middle ages to emblazon the sails of ships with armorial insignia, and thus the sails them- selves became flags.^ ' For fuller information on Blazonry and Heraldry the reader is referred to the following works, as standard authorities : Dugdale's Plate 49. No. 1. A cartel for the commencement of the tournay: black and white. This example exem- plifies a change which sometimes takes place in a shield of arms, termed counterchanging. It denotes a reciprocal exchange of metal for colour, and colour for metal, either in the same charge, or the same composition as in this instance, where sable is counterchanged with arg-ent. No. 2. Faith, Hope, and Charity, with Justice and Mercy above. Faith, shield divided into light and darkness, party per fess or and sable, charged with a cross resting upon the neck of a serpent surmounted on a skull. Sin and Death overcome by the power of the cross, which has for crest the celestial crown. Supporters two angels holding the lower shields. Hope, party per fess sable and sea proper, charged with the firmly planted anchor as the last. Charity, on a shield party per pale sable and or, the pelican feeding its young with its own life blood, propei", the heart below gules, being typical of love. The term proper indicates the natural colour of any object. No. 3. Sword of state, with A, King's crown; B, Duke's coronet; c. Marquis; D, Earl; E, Viscount; and F, Baron. No. 4. Papal Tiara, or triple crown, cross and keys of St. Peter. No. 5. Austrian Imjoerial crown. No. G. Crown of Charlemagne. No. 7. Crown of France. Louis le Gi'and (XIV.). No. 8. Bishop's crozier. No. 9. The royal sceptre of England surmounted by the orb and cross. The orh, a separate ball of o-old six inches in diameter, upon ^\dlich is placed a o-olden cross enriched with diamonds, pearls, and other precious stones, is placed in the monarch's rio-ht hand before the coronation; and after the ceremony is borne in the left, while the sceptre is borne in the right. Plate 50. No. 1. An esquire's helmet and mantling or and sable, with crest of pelican feeding its young. The Baronage, 1675; Nesbit's System of Heraldry, 1722; Edmondson's Complete Body of Heraldry, 1780; and later editions; Planch^'a Pursuivant at Arms: Parker's Dictionary of Heraldry; Clark's Introduction to Heraldry, 14th edition, 1845, small octavo; Boutell's Manual of Heraldry, 1863, octavo. 34 134 Suggestions in Design. mantling or lambrequin was a small mantle attached to the helm, and hanging down over the shoulders of the wearer. It is often so adjusted as to form a Ijaek-ground f^ y^i; plaster frieze at Audley End. Plaster de- corations were used plentifully at this period, more especially for ceilings. Many fine examples of these still exist. They are usually divided by intricate geometrically formed panelling, ornamented with foliage, heads, animals, shields, pendants, and many other devices. Fireplaces were also favourite subjects for ornamentation. These were fi^equently flanked by grotesque terminal figures sup- porting a highly ornamented cornice covered with arabesque work; above which the space to the ceiling would be again enriched by columns or pilasters surmounted by an entablature inclosing panels containing paintings or armorial bearings. Square staircases with heavy open-work balustrades and carved newels, often of a very ornate character, Avere of frequent occurrence, and added greatly to the dignity and grandeur of a house. Carving both in wood and stone was largely adopted, but it was usually of a somewliat coarse character. Rooms were often panelled with oak wainscotting and divided by Corinthian or other pilasters; although tapestry hangings were still largely used. In the reign of James I. a manu- factory for tapestry was established at Mort- lake in Surrey, by an artist named Francis Crane. This manufactory was patronized by the king, and afterwards by Charles I., for whom were wrought a considerable number of hangings remarkable for the beauty of their execution. Among others were tapestries worked from the cartoons of Raffaele repre- senting the acts of Christ and the Apostles. These cartoons were found in a manufactory at Brussels, and were bought by Charles I. by the advice of Eubens. They were until lately preserved in the galleries of Hampton Court Palace, and have latterly been removed to the South Kensington Museum. Stamped and gilded leather Avas also used as a substitute for tapestry, and great quan- tities of this material were imported from Flanders. But in England also the art of ornamenting leather was practised with success. Leather hangings, hoAvever, never entirely superseded tapestry, notAvithstand- ing their advantages of not suff'ering from dust, damp, or the ravages of the moth, and of losing little of their freshness and bril- liancy through lapse of time. Among the English artists of Elizabeth's time Avhose Jlames have come doAvn to us, is that of John Shute (flourished from 1558 to 1608), Avho AA^as employed by the Duke of Northumberland, and Avho published the earliest Avork in England on practical archi- tecture, entitled "The first and chiefe Grounds of Architecture used in all the ancient and famous Monyments, Avith a farther and more ample Discourse uppon the same than has hitherto been set forthe by any other. 15G3." But the designs of most of the principal mansions and palatial edifices English Renaissance Ornamentation. 147 erected during the reigns of Elizabeth and Jam-es are due to John Thorpe/ who was an artist of no mean power. A very interesting and vahiable manuscript foho volume illus- trative of some of his works, and containing many designs which were not executed, is preserved in Sir John Soane's Museum, Lincoln's Inn Fields. He was succeeded in his work by his pupil Robert vSmithson, who completed Wollaton Hall, Nottingham- shire, which had been commenced by Thorpe. The Elizabethan and Jacobean style con- tinued in use until the time of Inigo Jones (1572-1662), in the reign of Charles I. In the early works of Jones the characteristics of the style may still be traced; but after having travelled and studied in Italy, more especially the works of Palladio, he infused a more strictly classical character into the architecture of the day, and endeavoured to introduce a purer style, which should super- sede the incongruous although often quaint and picturesque mixture which was so much the fashion during the reigns of Elizabeth and James. The career of Inigo Jones properly commenced during the time of James I., by whom he was largely em- ployed in designing masques for the court. His first employment as an architect, as far as has been recorded, Avas at the University of Oxford in 1605. His works were exceed- ingly numerous: among those which have been most admired is the Banqueting House at Whitehall, which was erected by Charles I. as a portion of the palace he intended building, but to which parliamentarian troubles put a stop. The designs for the palace (of which the Banqueting House formed but a very inconsiderable portion) ' The dates of Thorpe's birth and death are not known, but he was engaged upon AVoUaton Hall in 1588, and finished Holland House, Kensington, in 1607. have been published, and had they been executed, would have formed, beyond all comparison, the finest building of the kind in the world. The small part erected is sufficient to attest the great ability of Inigo Jones as the earliest English architect of the pure Renaissance style. He erected the Church of St. Paul, Covent Garden, and was appointed architect for the repairs of Old St. Paul's, which were commenced in 1633. He added the Roman poilico to the west front of that building. The fire which destroyed London in 1666, a few years after the death of Jones, brought into notice the talents of Sir Christopher Wren (1632-1723), whose practice com- menced during the reign of Charles II. and was continued into the reign of George I. The great number and the excellence of his works are too well known to need any de- scription. Besides St. Paul's Cathedral, no building of any importance was erected during the last forty years of the seventeenth century of which he was not the architect. Among architects who were Wren's con- temporaries or successors Sir John Van- brugh (1666-1726, the architect of Blenheim House — built in the reign of Queen Anne), Hawksmoor, Gibbs, and Sir William Cham- bers,^ may be mentioned as the more dis- tinguished. Towards the end of the eight- eenth century great interest for Greek architecture was created by the pubhcation of the Antiquities of Athens by James Stuart and Nicholas Revett, commenced in 1762, and by other Avorks on Greek architecture produced by the Dilettanti Society, which speedily followed. In England at this time the taste for the Italian Renaissance died 1 Sir William Chambers (1726-1796), who published a well-know-n treatise on architecture, was more particularly a follower of the Palladian school. 148 Suggestions in Design. out, and a modernized version of the Grecian style was largely adopted in its stead. That was superseded by the Gothic revival of our own day, which in its turn appears now to be passing away, except for eccle- siastical architecture, to give place to the latest and most fashionable version of the Renaissance, the so-called " Queen Anne style." Towards the latter part of the seventeenth century, during the reigns of Charles II. and James II., French furniture was largely im- ported into this country; but under the ausjiices of Sir Christopher Wren there arose about this time a school of ornamental carvers of great excellence. This had a con- siderable influence upon furniture, but more particularly in the decoration of houses by carved oak panelling and wainscotting, with the doors and chimney-pieces carved to correspond. Of this school the principal artist was Grinling Gibbons (1648-1721), who, although of Dutch extraction, was born in England. He carved foliage, birds, fish, flowers, busts and figures, as Avell as drapery and lace, with astonishing dexterity. He ap23ears with his assistants to have done an enormous amount of work, and excellent examples of his style, much of which was peculiar to himself, are to be found in the choir of St. Paul's Cathedral, St. James's Church, Piccadilly, Hampton Court Palace, the Library of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Chatsworth in Derbyshire. During the reigns of William and ]\Iary the fashion set in very strongly fiir Dutch marquetry furniture, and a vast number of examples, most of them vicious in respect of design, were soon imported into this country. These consisted of bandydegged chairs and tables, upi-ight clock-cases, bureaux or writ- ing cabinets, and many other pieces of fur- niture which ofl;ered surfaces available for this species of inlay. The inlays presented all the gay colours of tulips and other flowers depicted from nature l)y stained or self-coloured woods, and shaded by scorching and browning the surface in lines or other- wise by the aid of hot irons. With the reign of Anne and the com- mencement of the eighteenth century English carvers and cabinet-makers were more largely employed upon furniture, but they followed closely the style of the French and other furniture which was then being imported. There did not exist at this time any such style as that which is now pojDu- larly denominated the "Queen Anne style." As the century advanced the extravagancies of the French were followed more than before. Gilded furniture was introduced, and legs of chairs and tables and the fronts of drawei's became curved and undulated as if for the sole purpose of displaying the marquetry work or showing the skill with which the cabinet makers could avoid all straight lines. Among the most prominent names for wood carving and furniture of the eighteenth century was that of Thomas Chippendale, who worked from the middle to the end of the century. Some of his work is very creditable, although much of it is designed in an exaggerated French style. There Avas, however, among the more educated classes a taste for a better style of furniture, which was owing to the influence of Sir AVilliam Chambers and the brothers Adam. Robert and James Adam (1728- 1794) Avcre of Scotch extraction. Besides many private houses, they built the Adelphi and I'ortland Place in London. But they designed a great deal of very graceful English Renaissance Ornamentation. 149 furniture, as well as carriages and sedan- chairs. Polished steel fire-grates belong to this period, and probably were first intro- duced by the brothers Adam. Satin-wood came into fashion during the latter half of the eighteenth century, and Cipriani, a Florentine, who came to England in 1755, as well as Angelica Kauffraan (1741-1807), both painted medallions and borders on table tops and fronts and on harpsichord cases. A process belonging to the same period should also be noticed, called after the inventor vernis-martin ivork. Vernis-Martin, born about the year 1706, was a carriage painter of heraldic ornaments, flowers, &c. His work is commonly found on furniture such as tables or book-cases, as well as on needle-cases, snuff-boxes, and fans, on a gold ground, and protected by a fine transparent lac polish, the composition of which he kept a profound secret, although he had many imitators. Plate C9. (Elizabethan and Jacobean.) No. 1. Angle strap ornament with conventional strap, scroll, and monogram " W. S." This kind of ornamentation was often executed in plaster or stucco on ceilings or walls. No. 2. Bolt and scroll with cartouche shield con- taining initials " E. R." tied together with cord, the ornament forming one-half of oblong frieze enrich- ment executed in oak, with shield o-ilded. No. 3. Bolt and strap oval central ornament, with cartouche work and shield at bottom charged with cross spurs. Arabesque line enrichment or niello-work in the centre. No. 4. Cartouche shield within a diamond form, with the device of a falcon on a crescent tearing or o killing a rat. Star, shell, and cross arrows. Date, " 1551." Time of Edward VI. No. 5. Hanging cartouche scroll-W(jrk, with ribbons and label from a ring in lion's mouth. Surmounted by an exploding fire-ball. No. G. Bolt and strap device for stucco, with cupids and motto. Bust of queen, masks, &c., with festooned drapery and looped-up cords. Plate 70. (Elizabethan and Jacobean.) No. 1. Square with tapering pilasters or ter- minals and cartouche scroll-work. Sliield contain- ing monogram " C. C. I." No. 2. Cartouche shield, with flowers within a gi'ate. No. 3. Cartouche shield, with arabesque orna- ment in the centre inlaid in two colours. No. 4. Small heraldic monument of the Jacobean period. Shield, or; on a bend, sable, three hearts, argent; between two dexter hands, gules. Crest, a hand holding a flaming heart, placed on a closed knight's helmet from which issues an elaborate foliated mantling. Motto, " Labour and Love." The frame, which has knee corners, is surmounted by a segmental broken pediment, filled in with crowned and winged sprite. No. 5. Rustic pole for long panel or pilaster, with ribbon, foliage, and hanging shield; charged with monogram " G. A." on sable ground. No. 6. Bolt and cartouche ornament for frieze on one side of centre shield or other enrichment. Central mask with interlacing; circle, with nail- heads and diagonal terminal ornaments. No. 7. Central ornament, flat relief in alabaster on black marble, bolt and scroll with dolphins. Shield containing the arms of Shakspere, or; on a bend sable, a spear of the first. Initials and date of Shakspere 's birth. No. 8. Small niche of cartouche scroll-work, en- twined with rope, containing the subject in high relief of the " Lion in Love." Above, as a terminal ornament or crest, is the burning heart and inter- lacing rope. No. 9. Ornament of bolt and square band work, with diagonal band interlaced and tying same on to ceiitre enrichment. 38 150 Suggestions in Design. C H A P T E E XXIII. FEENCH EENAISSANCE OENAMENTATION. Y no people in Europe was the I revived Italian style of archi- tecture taken up witli greater eagerness than by the French, who gave it the name of the "Eenaissance." They have also, under the several variations through which it has passed, adhered to it steadily up to the present time, until they have thoroughly made it their own national style. Francis I., who returned from Italy in 1515, induced several Italian artists to visit France, to whom he promised ample em- ployment. Among others he succeeded in obtaining the services of Benvenuto Cellini, Vignola, Primaticcio, and Serlio, all men of high repute in their own country. Cellini devoted himself more especially to gold and silver smiths' work, and although he spent but a few years in Paris, he was the means of raising the goldsmith's art in France to the very highest excellence. One of the most important works of this reign was the Chateau de Fontainebleau, the favourite palace of Francis, and upon which Primaticcio was permanently engaged. Serho was also consulted upon this and other works, and Vignola sojourned two years in France to assist the king in his architectural projects. The rebuilding of the Palace of the Louvre in Paris was also commenced, but this appears not to have been the work of Italian artists, although Serlio is said to have been invited to furnish designs for it. The architect was Pierre Lescot (1510-1578), and the sculptor the celebrated Jean Goujon (1515-1572). The old palace was a medi- teval chateau, which Francis I. determined to pull down and rebuild. The portion which was then erected, and completed in 1548, is the south-west angle from the Pavilion de I'Horloge down to the river front. It is universally considered the most successful work of the period, and it formed the key-note for the remainder of the build- ing, which has been erected in succeeding reigns. The Palace of the Tuileries was commenced by Catherine de Medicis in 1564, from the designs of Philibert de Lorme (died 1577). Henry IV. added the long gallery of the Louvre, connecting that building with the Tuileries on the south side. Other parts were added by Louis XIV. and succeeding monarchs, but the whole was not completed until recently by the Emperor Louis Napoleon, who connected the Louvre with the Tuileries on the north, and thus combined the whole into one grand palace. This completeness, however, was again de- stroyed, and the Tuileries now lies in ruins. Every sovereign in France continued to erect palaces, but the largest and most im- portant of these works Avas that at Versailles, erected by Louis XIV. in the course of his long reign. It was carried out from the designs of the architect Francois Mansard French Renaissance Ornamentation. 151 (1598-1666), who was succeeded by his ne- phew Jules Hardoum Mansard (1645-1708). The style of this enormous building externally is somewhat grand, but heavy and sombre. Internally many of the apartments and Fig. 283. galleries are of great richness and beauty; but towards the latter part of this reign French artists gave way to frittered-up ornament and wild unmeaning forms, which, however, suited the age as being rich and showy in appearance when gilded. Fig. 283 gives a good example of the elaborate nature of room decoration in the time of Louis XV. It forms a portion over the head of a chimney glass, and which would be richly gilded, the centre of the upper portion being filled with a painting. Paintings upon walls and ceilings, framed by elaborate ornament, Avere of frequent occurrence, and consisted of subjects from the supposed inhabitants of Arcadia, as cupids, nymphs and fawns, shepherds and shepherdesses, playing pipes and dancing or amusing themselves in innocent games among their flocks. Many of these were executed by the painter Watteau (1684-1721), who was celebrated for these kind of subjects; but the taste gave rise to a whole school of painters and room-decorators, among whom may be mentioned Delafosse^ Coypel, and the Le Pautre family. Nos. 6, 7, 8, 9, Plate 71, Nos, 3, 4, Plate 72, and No 8, Plate 73, are typical examples of this class of ornamental decoration. What are commonly known as the c and s scrolls w^ere introduced everywhere, and this kind of decoration, which reached its lowest depths during the reign of Louis XV, became so fashionable that objects were literally covered up by it, until they lost all form of beauty, and became nothing but unmeaning extravagances of the worst possible character The ornament being so universally gilded, also, gave rise to its being formed in putty composition and glued on, which still further helped to degrade and vulgarize its character. From the constant introduction of shells, the absence of straight Hnes, and the admix- ture of a fanciful form of rock-work, this style was known, by way of reproach, as the Rococo, from roc-coquille, rock and shell cux-ves. No style of ornament, however, has retained its position for so great a leno'th of time. It has been the favourite style, until very recently, of all gilded 152 Suggestions in Design. I'ig. 284. picture-frame makers, as well as gold and silver smiths, some of whom still adhere to it. No doubt it possesses great advan- tages for modern requirements— in that it needs but very little thought in designing, it may be added to in any direction, and, for gilded work, it can easily be produced from moulds in composition which may be bent to any form and stuck on with glue. In the better and earlier class of work the ornament, however, is not devoid of grace added to a con- siderable a- mount of play- fulness, as will be seen by the example. Fig. 284, which re- presents a por- tion of a carved pilaster from the stall work at Notre Dame in Paris. For the furniture of the royal palace of Versailles a new material was extensively employed, called buhl or hotde marquetry, which owes its name to the maker Andre Charles Boule, who Avas born in 1642. He was made the head of the royal furniture department, and was lodged in the Louvre. Buhl-work consists of a pecvdiar kind of veneered surface composed principally of tortoise-shell and thin brass. The brass forms a pattern of scroll work or flowers and the shell the ground, while the edges and angles of the object, whether a table, cabinet, or other Avork, were concealed and protected by chased mouldings or ornaments in gilded brass called ormolu. In 1539 Francis I. established a manu- factory for tapestry at Fontainebleau, under the direction of Serlio, and Henry II. estab- lished a second manufactory in the Hospice de la Trinite in the Rue -St. Denis, Paris. Henry IV. gave a new impulse to the art by introducing workmen from Italy and Flanders. A colony of Flemish Avorkraen had also been attracted to Paris, Avho, after a time, became settled in a house in the Faubourg St. Marcel, Avhere for more than tAVO centuries a family of dyers named Gobelin had been established. During the reign of Louis XIII. , and the greater part of that of Louis XIV., these manufactories continued to produce very remarkable and beautiful hangings in tapestry; but it AA^as under the administration of the great Colbert that these Avere united and concentrated in the Maison des Gobelins. The house itself Avas bought by the king in 1G67, and a general manufactory of upholstery for the croAvn Avas established in it. The painter Lebrun (1619-1690), Avho Avas placed at the head of the establishment, gave a great im- pulse to its actiAdty, and it soon eclipsed by its artistic superiority the manufactories of tapestries AAdiich were still in existence in Flanders. Thus Avere commenced and estab- lished these celebrated manufactories, Avhich haA^e continued Avith remarkable success to the present day. Upon the accession of Louis XVI. (1774) a retuin Avas made in architecture and decoration to a much higher standard in art, and the classic Avorks of the Greeks, Avhich then began to engage the attention of Europe, had their influence upon the orna- mentation of the period. Room decorations and furniture soon reached the highest point of elegance that French Renaissance art, of a sumptuous kind, had touched since the French Renaissance Ornamentation. 153 )\ sixteenth century. The pauelhng of rooms, usually painted white and the ornament gilded, was designed in severe hues with Fig. 285. straightmouldingsand pilasters, forming a remarkable and striking contrast with the pre- vious style, where every form, wherever pos.sible, was dis- torted into the utmost variety of curves. The pilasters were decorated with well designed carved work (Fig. 285), but which was extremely fine and delicate, partly carved in relief, but partly drawn and painted or gilt. The minute and intricate character of the ornamentation at this period may be perhaps better understood by reference to Fig. 286, which is from the lock-rail panel, only seven inches in breadth, of an inter- nal door in tlie Hotel des Postes at Paris. The houses built for members of the bril- liant court of Queen Marie Antoinette were Fig. 286. filled with admirable work in tliis manner, and the furniture was of the most delicate and recherchd description. Fig. 287 is from a table of the period, carved and gilt, and with the festoons and other enrichments 39 finely chased and applied in ormolu. The royal factories of the Gobelins and of Sevres turned out also their most beautiful produc- tions to decorate rooms, furniture, and table service. In the former of these, tapestries were made for wall hangings, for chair backs, seats, and sofiis. Ptich silks from the looms Fig. 287. of Lyons, and from Lucca, Genoa, and Venice were also employed for this kind of furniture. During this brilliant period we meet with the names of several artists em- ployed for painting the panelling of rooms, the lunettes over chimney fronts, and the panels of ceilings, — Fragonard, Xatoire, and Boucher are among the foremost of these. Other artistes, such as Delafosse, Lalonde, Cauvet, and Salembier, designed arabesques, decorative work, and furniture. With the first Empire the style was devel- oped into one which was still more gorgeous, but wanting much in refinement, although it was considered more classic, and followed more closely in many respects the Greek. All was arranged for show and glitter, and although more pretentious, it was far inferior to that of the time of Louis-seize. 154 Suggestions in Design. FiK The Kenaissance may be said to form the national style of the French, and it has been so since its first introduction in the "time of Francis I. Although much varied at different epochs, it has always been prac- tised by them with remarkable success, and this and other countries have at various times closely followed them. The style has almost invariably been the one adopted by the French in their public buildings; the Gothic being used only in a few very excep- tional cases, such as the church of St. Clo- tilde at Paris. The result of this is therefore, that in modern work France, especially in Paris, can point to some very successful modifications of the Eenaissance, particu- larly in her street architecture, much of which possesses great beauty and elegance 288. combined with ap- propriately arranged forms. Many of the enrichments found in recent buildings are very well designed, and worked out with a degree of life and aesthetic feeling which we often look for in vain among ourselves. Fig. 288, an enriched moulding found in some of the later works, is a small example of this, but in it Ave perceive a rather happy variation upon tlie egg-and- tongue moulding of the Greeks. Plate 71. No. 1. Arms of the "Grand Monarque" Louis XIV. arranged for the tympanum of a doorway. Azure; three fleurs-de-lis, or. Figures representing Fame, History, and Love, which is quite in charac- ter with the pretentious and grandiloquent manner of the time. Nos. 2, .3. Spandrels for engraving on metal work or for inlay. Tliese give the character of many of the confused lines of scroll work of the period, called liuhl-work. No. 4. Scroll grotesque mask. No. 5. Scroll and stalactite frame containing a portrait of the " Grand Monarque." The general form shows how beauty of oT-itline is lost, and nothing gained but showy elaboration. No. G. Mermaid and mask of river-god, with dolphin, shell, and rock work. The bad construction of this most vicious style is clearly apparent in this example. No. 7. Stalactite, shell, and rustic interlaced drop corner, for picture or glass frame. No. 8. Mask and dragon with scroll-work for upper part of leg to gilded console table. Period, late in the reign of Louis XIV. No. 9. Ditto, with draped mask. The legs for tables or other objects were never made straight in this style. Plate 72. No. 1. Centre portion of frieze of cornice with shepherd and dog. A great affectation of playing at shepherds and shepherdesses existed in the reign of Louis XV., and sculpture and paintings intro- ducing Arcadian life and scenes were of frequent occurrence. No. 2. Scroll Avith sitting figure of Justice resting on the fasces. No. 3. Conventional Rococo scroll with lattice, vine, and dragon, showing the combination of C scrolls and rock work. Metal vase or flagon in the centre. No. 4. Half of centre ornament for bottom of frame or panel, with lion's head and scroll-work. Lattice and fruit. This was the character of the gilded panelling inclosing paintings, silk, or glass, so often adopted in French room decoration of the Louis XV. period. No. .5. Keystone of decorative arch, carrying fire-vase, cupid, bee-hive, flowers, stalactites, bul- rushes, (tc, with festoon and drop from ke3rstone. No. G. Scroll with satyr's head and fruit inclos- ing female head. No. 7. This figure is neaidy an exact copy of a French example, and serves to show the vice in the compositions of the time. It is a caricature upon the Egyptian, being a sphinx dressed a-la-viode, and holding a fan. In the centre an ordinary <.lressing-glass, initial, and crown above. The back- ground formed by pyramid. Floral Onuunentation. 155 Plate 73. No. 1. Angle scroll for frame, Louis XV. style. No. 2. Composition of natural fruit and flowers issuing from shell or scroll. The mixture of the natural and artificial is seldom successful. One is too strictly copied from nature, while the other is bad in form, the main endeavour appearing to be to get rid of straight lines. No. 3. Scroll with cupid dressed d-la-militaire. Conceits of this kind were of common occurrence. No. 4. Shell containing cupid, Venus or mermaid, and dolphin, with shell finial, coral, water, &c. No. 5. Oval shield, arms of France — azure; three fleurs-de-lis, or; surrounded with shells and scroll work and stalactite drops. No. 6. A later and better example of flat-panel decoration in low-relief, and may be considered as an example of Louis XVI. work, although not entirely free from the vicious lines of the Rococo. An elegantly fonned vase in the centre, and a partial return to straight lines in the work beliind. No. 7. Portion of frame or .shield with cockle- shell and scroll work. No. 8. Upper portion of a gilded support for a cut-out and .shaped console table, Louis XV. period. The extent to which the tops of tables and other works were shaped was something ridiculous. It would appear as if the main idea of beauty was to avoid the straight line. Furniture M'eis often termed bornhe work from the constantly occurring curves of surface. CHAPTER XXIV. FLORAL ORNAMENTATION. I KIGINALLY all ornamental foliage has been taken from nature, although in some cases H it gets altered so considerably from its natural type that at length it be- comes doubtful from what source it has been obtained. Thus what is called acanthus foliage in the Greek, but more especially in the Roman, becomes, from repetition through many generations, so unlike the natural acanthus that at first sight it would appear not to have been taken from the natural plant at all; hence it is necessary to trace it back to its earliest use and most simple form before its natural character can be clearly seen. When foliage in this manner has become artificial, artists seem to neglect its true source, and are content to go on copying and recombining that which they have found done before them. This occurs more or less at all periods of art, but more espe- cially in periods of decline. Consequently, it cannot be insi.sted upon too strongly, as a matter of the utmost importance, that the artist, in designing foliage, should be again constantly referring to nature, and studying with assiduity and patience the beautiful forms he will find hidden there. Not that he should neglect the woi'ks of his predecessors in art; on the contrary, if he desires to be an adept in his applications 156 Suggestions in Design. from nature he must at the same time de- vote himself to the study of all such works, of whatever style or period, iu order to obtain a competent knowledge of how the artists of former times have rendered nature for the purposes of creating foliated ornament. Without a definite clue to this knowledge, and the careful observation of what others have done, the student will be at a loss to know how to proceed himself For one thing is perfectly clear, no literal copying of nature will ever form artistic ornament. There must be something added of the artist's own conception — something that he does not find in nature or in the works of other men — and which stamps the work as one of his own creation. This is the test, and the only one that can be allowed, of what constitutes true art. Art — a word which has been so vulgarized and degraded in the present day, for trade purposes, that it really becomes a question whether people at all understand what is meant by the term. It is therefore necessary that it should have its true definition. All natural forms must be rendered differently and altered for art purposes. They have usually to be made more geo- metrical and symmetrical than in nature. In the ordinary mode of speaking all natural forms have to be conventionalized — that is, sufficiently altered as to make them applicable and suitable to the material in which they are wrought, to the purposes to which they are applied, or the position they are intended to occupy. No positive rules can be given for the manner of doimr this, beyond a few general ones. If definite rules could be laid down, art would no longer exist. Every age has had its own peculiarities, and every people have had their own conventional mode of expression. Resuscitation of any former mode of ex- pression, however accurate and painstaking such revival may be, does not constitute true art. Yet how often has mankind made this mistake! How frequently are we en- deavouring to reproduce the style of some former age! Experience, then, has taught us, as a general rule, that foliage and flowers cannot be represented as ornament precisely as we see them in nature ; that for the various purposes for which they may be required Fig. 289. Fig. 290. they have to be altered and modified in different degrees according to the circum- stances under which they are applied. In the first instance we have to decide Tipon the leading- lines or stems upon which the orna- ment is to be com- posed. These may Fig. 291. be arranged in a variety of difterent modes, such as that of symmetrical branching; angular as in Fig. 289, or flowing. Fig. 290. If the foliage is to be continuous the scroll or spiral hue, Fig. 291, may be adopted. These may be again varied according to the character of the foliage by Floral Or7tamentatio7i. 157 Fig. 292. which they are clothed, but the branching shoukl invariably represent natural growth, and not be made to flow in two diff"erent directions. Crooked form, such as we often find in nature, should be altered to gracefully flowing lines, or rigidly straight ones; and it is as well to remember that upright or ascending lines represent life, while hanging or drooping ones are suggestive of decay and death. Another simple arrangement for foliage Fig. 293. is that of radiating from a centre, after the manner of regular flowers. These radiate and arrange them- selves naturally iij)on thegeometricalfigures, and when reduced to the principles upon which they are formed will be found to be formed upon a regular plan. Thus the snowdrop is formed upon the triangle. Fig. 292; the willow-herb. Fig. 293, upon the square or cross form; the stone-crop upon the pentagon or five- pointed star. Fig 294; the lily upon the hex- agon or double tri- angle. Fig. 295 ; the pilewort crowfoot on the octagon, Fig. 296, Many other flowers, retaining the same geometrical arrangements, give again numer- ous beautiful variations upon these forms, all of which should be studied and carefully drawn that they may be at hand when required for art purposes. 40 Fig. 294. Fig. 295. It should be observed, also, that when any flower is formed upon a geometrical figure, or number, as the number five, for example, there are five sepals in the calyx^ and five petals in the corol- la, and that these invari- ably alternate with each other. Besides this there will be five sta- mens, alternating with the corolla; or if there are ten, as in the stone-crop. Fig. 294, they are in two sets of five each, alternating with each other. If the stamens are of Fig. 296. an indefinite number, as in the wild rose, they will still be a multiple of the number five. But more than that, the number will be sometimes carried through the whole plant, as in tlie common bramble. In this instance the section of the stem is pentagonal, Fig. 297, the leaves bi^anch alternately, forming a spiral line, from each angle of the stem, as indicated by the letters a, b, c, d, e, and are formed each of five leaflets. The number in a flower will sometimes appear again in the seed-vessel, as in the 3-celled seed-vessel of the lily; thus carrying on the three -fold * ' arrangement of the flower. (Fig 295.) " " The law of growth in a flower will be found to be the same as in a branch. A 'Flowers have usually four sets or parts: (1) the pistil, or end of the seed-vessel, forming the centre, surrounded by (2) the stamens — thread-like filaments supiporting the anthers, containing the pollen ; (.3) the corolla, or floral envelope ; and (4) the caly.K — the green portion at the back, and which serves as a protection to the flower while in the bud. Fig. 297. A 158 Suggestions in Design. Fig. 298. flower is simply a stunted and terminal axis with its leaves, while a branch is an elon- gated or growing axis with its leaves, and, as it develops, its lesser branches. If, there- fore, a branch is viewed from the top, as in the lilac, Fig. 298, a similar arrange- ment will be seen as in cross-formed flow- ers. Fig. 293. This cross form is due to the leaves growing opposite each other in pairs. In many cases of opposite leaves the stem also is sc^uare, as in the dead-nettle. But in alternate-leaved branches the leaves issue spirally from the stem, forming a star or flower form of five or six points, when viewed from the top. This is well seen in the oak. Fig. 299, where the end leaves of a branch often grow at almost the same level. The leaves alternate as indicated by the letters upon the diagram. Fig. 299. This law of growth in nature, being the Fig. 300. same in flowers and branches, is important for the purposes of art. For as the forms of leaves are often more beautiful and orna- mental than the forms of the petals in flowers, it shows that it is perfectly legitimate and natural to substitute leaves for petals in forming flowers for art use. In carving, one of the most beautiful characteristics of the flower, that of colour, is necessarily lost; the artist, therefore, should endeavour to supply that loss by increased beauty of form. This has been frequently done at previous periods of art, as in the Fig. 301. example Fig. 300, from the soffit of an antique Roman cornice. Leaves in na- ture vary from a plain and simple form to that of the most intricate and complicated. A simple leaf consists of one single lamina issuing from a single footstalk, and may have its edges uncut or entire, as in the hlac, Fig. 298; serrated, as in the elm; or lobed, as in the oak. Fig. 299. The geometrical figures are again apparent in the forms of leaves — as the trian- gi;lar arrangement or trefoil in the clover, Fig. 302, the pentagon in the ivy. The geometrical arrangement of five-lobed leaves is shown by Fig. 301, in which the leaves of the water-crowfoot, buttercup, and ivy are laid upon a penta- Fig. 302. Fig. 303. gon. A compound leaf has several leaves (or leaflets, as they are then called) arranged upon the same general footstalk, each leaflet being separate and distinct with its own footstalk branching out of the main one. The most simple compound leaf is termed binate, consisting of two leaflets issuing from one point, as in the everlasting pea; the next ternate, three leaflets, as in the Floral Ornainentation. 159 Fig. 304. clover, Fig. 302; palmate, five leaflets, the Virginian creeper; and digitate, Fig. 303, in the horse-chestnut, in which all the leaflets radi- ate from one point in the footstalk. Other com- pound forms are : pinnate, where two or more leaflets are borne in pairs on each side of the centre stalk, as in the rose. Fig. 304; biternate, Fig 305; and bipinnate. Fig. 306; as well as many others, which soon become much too complicated for the purpose of ornamen- tation. It is curious to see how nature ad- Fig. 305. heres to first princi^jles by retaining the forms of simple leaves throughout all com- pound leaves. If we connect the points of the radiating lines or midribs in Fig. 303 by an inclosing line, as indicated on the left-hand side of the figure, we obtain the usual cordate leaf, as in the violet. Doing the same with Fig. 304 gives an oval leaf, as the dock; Fig. 305 a trilobed leaf, as in the water-avens ; while a doubly-compound leaf, as in Fig. 306, will give a five-lobed leaf like the sycamore; and so on throughout all other compound leaves. The same laws invariably run through both those that are simple and those that are compound; indeed it not unfrequently happens that it is age Fig. 306. alone which produces the more compound forms. Nature is so prolific in form that no two leaves, or even the two halves of a leaf, are precisely alike. This may be ob- served most distinctly in the forms of the leaves of the common hawthorn. It follows, therefore, that it is perfectly in accordance with nature to simplify, alter, or omit parts from leavesand flowerswhen found necessary for the purposes of art, provided that the omissions or alterations are made naturally. To learn how to do this it is Fig. 307. necessary to observe nature closely under different circumstances. For instance, if it be desired to simplify the form of a leaf, it should be examined when in a young state, for then it has a lesser number of divisions than when more mature, but at the same time the younger leaf displays the same general character as the older one. In a strawberry leaf, for example. Fig 307, we find the three leaflets with serrated edges; but if we examine a very young leaf we find the serrations are few, as in Fig. 308, which is from a yoang leaf from the same plant as the older one. In the leaf of the haw- thorn several very elegant variations may be found by observing its form at difierent periods of its growth. Now this is a very important principle, and one that may be 160 Suggestions in Design. constantly taken advantage of in art ; for it frequently happens, that in consequence of ■ the minuteness of the work or its distance, when placed in position, from the observer, leaves are often too complicated, and it is necessary to reduce the number of their parts. Thus a compound leaf may be pro- perly reduced to a simple one, a five lobed leaf to three lobes, or the lobes omitted altogether, according to what is most appli- cable for the required purpose. This is a power which was much overlooked even in antique works. In the Corinthian capital in all the Eoman examples the leaves in- variably consist of the same number of lobes (we have no means of comparing them in the Greek, as there is but one example).^ Whether the capitals are large or small, or placed at a great height, the whole of the parts are always the same, giving the capital a confused appearance when seen from a distance. Refer to Fig. 93 for the formation of the Corinthian capital. Again, it is not necessary to adhere closely to the form of natural leaves. The Greeks, if they adopted the acanthus leaf, never followed it literally, but appear more to have adhered to a principle which they recognized in nature, and which equally belonged to the thistle, the sea-holly, and other plants as well as to the acanthus. They seem to have observed the beauty, crispness, and vigour of growth in stiff- leaved, prickly foliage, and from that formed a leaf of their own creation, which has been the admiration of all ages, and has been more followed and copied than any other form of decorative foliage which has ever existed. ' The capital from the Monument of Lysicrates, the existing re- mains of which are very imperfect, A portion of one of the leaves of the capital is given in Fig. 05. The artist, therefore, need never scruple in the alteration of his leaves taken from nature, so long as he does so upon principle and not mere whim. He must know why he takes from or adds to any natural form. He may increase his foliage in scale or decrease just as it may suit his purpose or be required by its situation. If he proceeds in this way he is at perfect liberty to cull from the beauties of one species and add them to those of another, or to omit any portion which he finds inapplicable to his purpose. He will then, if he succeeds, create foliage of his own, which will have all the char- acteristics of nature — be quite natural without being a servile copy of nature her- self The following examples of Floral Sprigs have therefore been designed as suggestions, in the hope of elucidating and explaining the manner of conventionahzing flowers and foliage without adhering too literally to nature; — culling from all natural form, without strictly adhering to any, where departure becomes advisable; but at the same time never losing sight of nature without an efficient reason. It must be understood that it is not supposed that there are not other modes of treating even the same flowers. There are indeed many, and perhaps all equally good, for this is just the point where the hand of the true artist is felt. By working upon his subject, although he may have started with an idea or " motif" which was not his own, if he elicits fresh beauty and infuses it into his own work, due to his own power of thought, he will have created for himself something new in art. If he stops at imitating, he may talk loudly, as too many do, of art, but he will fail to produce it. Floral Ornameiitat ion. 161 Plate 74. No. 1. A composition of Rose, Corn-flower, Wheat, and Holly. No. 2. The Teazle arranged symmetrically for carving in low relief. No. 3. TropceoliLtn speciosuon, arranged for painting, the flower being laid out symmetrically. No. 4. Fancy floret, with serrated leaves in two colours. No. 5. The Poppy, with seed-pods arranged orna- mentally. No. 6. Flower with radiating leaves surrounding the stalks after the manner of Goose-grass. No. 7. Heath-like sprig. No. 8. Water-lily and Eel. No. 9. Conventionalized flower of the Knapweed for carving. Plate 75. No. 1. Arrangement of the Fuchsia for painting. Centre of panel or other decoration. No. 2. Scroll of berries and curled leaves. No. 3. Bindweed growing out of and entwining rustic pole. No. 4. The Thistle arranged ornamentally, for carving in low relief, out of the surface. The ground being left standing level with the higlrest portion of the carving. Technically known as cavo-relievo. Nos. 5 and 6. Flower sprig and glasses arranged ornamentally. No. 7. The Lily, arranged symmetrically ami growing from combined hearts, as an emblem of purity. No. 8. Ivy for painting or stamped work, for book covers. No. 9. Plant with seeds, called the "Pope's Money." Curved stems embracing leaf. Plate 76. No. 1. Outline foliated forms, spirals and leaves. No. 2. Stick and scroll forms with flowers and berries. Root entwined ornamentally. No. 3. Symmetrically arranged tulip-like flowers and leaves growing from bulb with ornamental root. No. 4. Founded on Hyacinth growing in glass with ornamentally arranged root. No. .5. Hanging basket with arrangement of flowers. No. 6. Symmetrical arrangement of the Catch-fly. No. 7. The Pink, ornamentally treated. No. 8. Spirally arranged flower growing from stick. No. 9. The Pomegranate and Poppy for painting in a panel. No. 10. Currant leaves and hanging berries entwined spirally. No. 11. Eqiiisetv/in or Horse-tail, with ornamental accompaniments formed of the seeds of the Shep- herd's Purse. Nos. 12 and 13. Hanging and scrolled florets. No. 14. Open pea-pods and tendrils, for painting on a dark ground. Plate 77. No. 1. The Maple with seed-vessels arranged symmetrically. No. 2. Flower with bulbous roots, scroll stems, and ivy-form loaves. . No. 3. Group of outline sprigs for painting: Hemlock, &c. No. 4. Tubular flower with plaited leaf. No. 5. Opening leaves or bud-form. Many valu- aljle suggestions may be obtained by observing plants while expanding their leaves and flowers. No. G. Central leaf-bud with partially opened leaves, springing from plai:it-form. No. 7. Arrangement of scrolled leafage with pine or seed, for carving in low relief. No. 8. Maize ornamentally treated for carving. No. 9. Ivy-leaves arranged on a fig-leaf for painting. Plate 78. No. 1. Conventional flower and leafage. No. 2. St. John's Wort, with pinnate leaves and ornamental root. No. 3. Leafage and flowers conventionalized for painting. Nos. 4 and .5. Polyanthus arranged as centres for painting on panels. No. 6. Tulip conventionalized. No. 7. Orchid treated synanetrically for paintmg or flat carving. No. 8. Leaves arranged upon leaves for colour or woven fabric. Nos. 9 and 10. Fohated scrolls. 41 162 Suggestions in Design. No. 11. Seven-lobed leaf with raised eyes and sj^lit interlaced stem for carving out of surface. No. 12. Horse-chestnut leaves on 1\^\ and — No. 13. Maple on Ivy: symmetrical sprigs for centres or diapers. Plate 79. No. 1. Acorns and Oak with leaf-galls and orna- mental root for carving. No. 2. Conventional scroll and fruit for painting or illumination. No. 3. Leaves of Torraentilla and conventional flowers for painting. No. 4. Bulbous plant (Leek) with seeds and scrolled root, arranired for carvincj out of the surface with raised ground in cavo-relievo. No. .5. Vine scroll, with grapes and tendrils orna- mentally treated. No. 6. Scroll of heart-form leaves and flower for painting. No. 7. Sprig of Easpberry. No. S. Foliated cross for gold and colour. No. 9. Fruit sprig. No. 10. Scroll of Passion-flower entwining stick. No. 11. Strawberry sprig, with simplified leaves. No. 12. Leaf ujDon leaf with enlaced stem. White upon gold. Plate 80. No. 1. Grass-form plant with seeds, arranged symmetrically for carving in panel. No. 2. Fir-cone and conventional leafage. No. 3. Sprig with radiating leaves. The two halves varied. No. 4. Scroll of Fuchsia, growing from stick. No. 5. Arum. No. G. Honeysuckle and trefoil leaves. No. 7. Scroll sprig — Lilj^. No. 8. Arrangement of common garden pea, with leafage and tendrils, carved out of the surface. The tendrils on the ground incised in double lines. Nos. 9, 10, 11, 12. Ornamental sprigs. No. 1 .". Frieze-panel of oak and acorns for stone carving, the light and shade of the leaves being increased by leaf -galls. Plate 81. No. 1 Central sprig with seeds of Pomegranates. Nos. 2 and 3. Sprigs arranged from nature for painted decoration. Nos. 4 and 5. Foliated forms for carving. No. 6. Dock leaves and Hart's-tongue fern, arranged for carving out of the surface, and dec- orated by gold and colour. Nos. 7 and 8. Sprigs. No. 9. Geometrically aiTanged sprig Avith plaited leaves. No. 10. Strawberry plant with fruit and flowers. No. 11. Ferns, Grass, and May-fly ornamentally treated. Opening fronds of Hard-fern and Polypody. No. 12. Symmetrically arranged flower-sprig for decoration or woven fabric. Wild Sage. No. 13. Conventional Rose for black-and-s'old o decoration. Plate 82 (Miscellaneous). The designs on the following Plates are arranged for various decorative purposes: in the flat for paint- ing, inlay, or carving; in the form of centres, borders, or for the enrichment of surfaces. Many of the examples may also be apj^lied to other purposes, such as encaustic tiles, stained glass, stamped leather- work, paper-hangings, calico-printing, and also to the ornamentation of the products of the loom and the printing-pre.ss. No. 1. Upright border or panel of double flowing wave-line, interlaced with broken line, and filled in with Ivy and other foliage. For painted decor- ation. No. 2. Conventional triangular centre figure with foliage, for marble or other inlay. No. 3. Symmetrical palm-leaf flower on eight- pointed irregular star-form, for wood inlay. No. 4. Upright and alternately inverted flower border, for woven fabric. No. .^. Bindweed leaf pattern upright border growing on ribbon. Painted decoration. No. G. Boriler carved in low relief. \\y with interrupted central stem and curved branches set out upon interlacing vesicas. No. 7. Interlaced geometrical form on diagonal square filled in with Ivy leaves and berries. No. 8. Cruciform arrangement of flowers in a pointed ([uatrefoil. No. 9. Symmetrical flower growing from a whorl of eight leaves, for painted arched panel. No. 10. Cruciform treatment of the Passion- Figures, Animals, Chimeras, and Trophies. 163 flower, for mosaic inlay with gold ground. The leaves, flower, and buds being bordered with a white line. No. 11. Moresque forms alternating with a diagonal arrangement of fig-leaves on a gold ground. Platk 83 (Miscellaneous). Flowing scroll border with buds ano No. 1. flowers. No. 2. Triangled trefoil filled in with flowing foliage. No. 3. Curved hexagonal star in a circle with interlacing lines and filled in with foliao-e. No. 4. Pansy, flower and leaf border for woven fabric or decoration on cjold ground. No. .5. Leaf and twig border with berries, for calico or other printed work. Ivy-leaved Toad-flax, No. 6. Horse-chestnut border for coloured decoration. No. 7. Upright flowing border. No. 8. Symmetrical ornament for border or other purposes. No. 9. White and black alternating leaf border growing from wave-line stem. No. 10. Holly scroll border with berries, for decoration on a gold ground. Nos. 11 and 12. Upright arranged geometrically formed borders filled in with flowers, for decoration or inlay. No. 13. Lemon plant with flowers and fruit, for chintz pattern or other printed decoration. No. 14. Bell-flower border, in upright divisions. No. 1.5. Border, upright divisions of flowers, alternating with mushrooms and five-pointed stars, for decoration on gold ground. Plate 84 (Miscellaneous). No. 1. Interlacing circles and square, on a quatre- foil filled in with heart-form leaf foliage. For inlay. Nos. 2 and 3. Borders for inlay or decoration. Nos. 4 and 5. Diamond panels filled in with geometrical lines and foliage, for stamped leather or other purposes. No. C. Geometrically arranged flowing diaper, filled in with foliated and eight-pointed star forms. For carpet. No. 7. Circle divided into curved triangular o compartments and filled in with acorns, &c. No. 8. Hexagonal arrangrement curved triangles filled in with ivy leaves and star centre, for inlay. No. 9. Diaper formed by squares with interlaced diagonal lines, filled in with four-petalled flower in the centre and fir-cones placed diagonally. Other divisions filled in with crosses and eight-petalled flowers at the angles. Encaustic tiles. No. 10. Flowing scroll, flower, and leaf border for decoration. No. 11. Geometrical border for tiles or inlay. No. 12. Zigzag alternating flower border, for painted decoration or paper-hanging. No. 13. Upright acorn border alternating with bud. No. 14. Leaf-form border for decoration or incised work. CHAPTER XXV. FIGUEES, ANIMALS, CHIMEEAS, AND TROPHIES. [CULPTUEED Art, in the repre- sentation of the human form, is the highest and the most ele- vated species of architectural decoration. Whether by statues or by works of sculpture in relievo, the beauties of the human figure, portraying its actions, its various passions and emotions, have occupied the highest artistic intellects for many ages. Since the time of Phidias, 164 Suggestions in Design. when marble and bronze were first endowed with the semblance of life and action, artists have gone on producing that highest and most beautiful of all created forms, until we are in possession of a perfect world of sculpture, the treasures of almost every age and country. To this higher class of sculpture the following plates do not pretend to approach. But there are numerous instances Avhere the living form may be judiciously introduced among other decorative features, to give these a higher tone and object; or to work out some symbolical or allegorical meaning, by which to create a more important and direct interest in ornamentation than can be obtained by the use of foliated forms alone. For this purpose, and to give the decorative artist a more extended aim for his ornamen- tation, the following plates have been designed, in the hope that they Avill offer suggestions in furtherance of these objects. They have, therefore, been arranged in a conventional mode apphcable to decoration, with various meanings and intentions, which will be seen on examining them, and which the description of the plates will more fully point out.^ The Greeks introduced the human figure in their works in an ornamental and purely decorative manner as well as in a sculptur- esque one, and in combination Avith scroll foliage. Fig. 309 is an elegant example of this, taken from an anticjue Greek terra cotta, pro- bably used in connection with roofing tiles. The Romans also adopted the same practice, but carried the intermixture of foliage and figures even further, by combining the figure with the foliage itself, * See also Plates 7, 10, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 55, 56, 57, 59, 61, 62, as in the boy or cupid. Fig. 310, in which the extremities are finished in leafage and Fig. 309. scroll work. This example is from an antique Roman altar executed in white marble. A Fij?. 310. somewhat si- milar figure is found in an antique frieze, with the remains also of a portion of an animal among the foliage, Fig. 311. Griffins facing each other, with a vase or torch between them, formed a very Fig. 311. usual aiTangement, as in the example Fig. 312, which is taken from a marble statue of Figitres, Animals, CJiimeras, and Trophies. 165 a Roman emperor at Rome, and formed a part of the ornamentation upon the l^reast- plate. This subject is also found frequently arranged in the frieze of an antique temple. Festoons of flowers hanging from the horns of bullocks' heads, with masks between, was a common arrangement for antique altars, as in Fig. 313, and which is found again applied to the friezes of temples. This practice of amalgamating animals, birds, and even insects, as well as all kinds of monstrous and chimerical forms, in order to give life and variety to ornamentation, has been a common one in most styles of architecture. In the Byzantine, the Moorish, and some other styles, however, nothing of the kind is found, but that arises from a laAV which prevailed a- gainst us- ing animal form. With these exceptions the practice has become almost universal, and in the modern Italian and in the French and English Renaissance^ such combinations occur constantly and in great profusion. An Italian example of a centaur terminating in foliage, and accom- > See Plates 69, 71, 72, 73. Fig. 313. panied by birds, is given in Fig. 276, page 139, from a frieze upon the tomb of St. ApoUonio, in the cathedral at Brescia. Another example, Fig. 278, on the same page — the Lion of St. Mark, with the tail running into foliage — is from Venice. The Celtic ornamentation, as found upon the ancient Irish crosses and in the Anglo- Saxon manuscripts, exhibits another form of animal combination of the most extra- ordinary character. Wholly devoid of vegetable form, it consists almost entirely of strange monstrous animals and nonde- script birds interlaced and woven together with the utmost intricacy. Somewhat of this character are the designs on Plate 93. In the Ano'lo-Norman, foliage was added to these strange animal forms, as in No. 1, Plate 34. When figures depart very much from nature they are more properly distinguished as Chimeras, and in the formation of these the designer, like the poet, is allowed a consider- able license. A mere natural improbability, Avhere natural imitation is in no degree essential, is the privilege of the fancy; but mechanical disproportions and impossibil- ities, violations of the most palpable laws of gravity, cannot be otherwise than offensive. Nothing can bring them within the range of good taste, as they are essentially obnoxious to aesthetic sensibility, which is the truest test of propriety in art, the effect being analogous to a discord in music. We may be extremely grotesque or fanciful without beinc ridiculous. There need be no limit to the formation and designing of chimeras, for nature is not their test ; but if we com- bine monsters in oui- scrolls, or place animals upon the tendrils of plants, it is absolutely necessary to proportion them in 42 166 Suggestions in Design. Fig. 314. size to tlie strength of the tendril or stem upon which they are placed. Besides figures, chimeras, and every kind of fantastic form, many other objects have been pressed into service as aids to decoration and ornamentation. Of these the sculp- tured representa- tions of armour, arranged as tro- phies as if taken in war, are conspicuous in the Koman and Renaissance styles. The Romans frec[uently formed groups of armour, with swords, pikes, and other warlike imple- ments, into compositions for bas-reliefs for the enrichment of panels and other portions of their structures. This practice was re- vived by the Italians of the sixteenth century, and the fashion was followed very much in France during the reign of Louis XIV., even to the studied imitation of Roman armour, as in the example Fig. 314, which is from the Palace of Versailles. The insatiate craving after novelty, more especially in France during the eighteenth century, in the decoration of the Avails of apartments, led to the formation of pastoral trophies formed of shepherds' crooks, spades, and garden rakes, hung up by garlands of flowers; hunting trophies, bows, arrows, quivers, and horns; as well as musical trophies (Fig. 315), and many others. Buftets and side-boards for dining-rooms, in modern times, have been covered by carved trophies referring to the food brought to table, such as those given consistmg of on Plate 96. Grinling Gibbons in his carvings introduced dead game, all kinds of fish, shell-fish such as crabs and lobsters, as well as nets and other implements belonging to sport. This cannot be considered a very high-class mode of decoration, but it can have this said in its favour, that it has a direct meaning which is easily understood, and it is far preferable to the literal copying of Roman trophies of armour shown in Fig. 314. The blind adherence to any species of ornamentation peculiar to a period which has long passed away, whether it be that of Rome or any other country, is highly objectionable. Mere imitation is not true art. It should be the aim of the ornamen- tist to rise above puerile copying, and to endeavour to give by the aid of whatever objects he introduces an emblematical or an allegorical meaning to his decoration. This mode of representation has been carried to the fullest extent in ecclesiastical decoration, where sacred symbols are often used which have a twofold or emblematical meaning. These when skilfully adapted cannot fail to give an intelligence and character to such work which greatly enhance its value. Plate 85 (Figures). No. 1. Design for clock panel, with dial of twenty- four hours and allegorical figures of Day and Night. Nos. 2, 3, 4, .5. Decorative panel paintings of Morning (sunrise and cock-crow), Noon (the mid- daynieal), Evening (twilight and repose from labour). Night (.sleep and rest). A certain amount of poet- ical feeling and the adoption of conventional forms are necessary in the treatment of commonplace subjects for decoration. Plate 86 (Figures). No. 1. The consolation of the cross, bj^ the side of which springs the lily as the emblem of puritj'. Figures, Animals, Chimeras, and TropJiies. 167 Babe being borne to heaven in tlie arms of an angel. No. 2. The guardian angel guiding Innocence through the slough of despond: Evil being sub- dued and their footsteps being sustained by tlie cross. No. 3. Satan reposing, with the emblems of war and strife hung up and at rest. The branch full of thorns but devoid of leaves or fruit. No. 4. Finial for spire or pinnacle, formed by the angel of the resurrection listening for the signal to sound the trumpet. No. 5. Mercury, for a finial or vane. No. G. Finial, for a spire. The avenging angel. Plate 87 (Figures). No. 1. Panel containing within a triangle the nymph of love between fire and water. Attendant figures holding medallions, filled with the phcenix rising from its own ashes and the pelican feeding its young with its blood. No. 2. Sprite and spider, with web on a con- ventional tree. No. 3. Sprite and snail, with conventional foliage. No. 4. Decorative painted panel. Lovers trans- fixed by the dart from the bow of Cupid. Rose and lily foliage. Arcadian treatment. No. 5. Night. Fairy issuing out of a lily sprinkling dew over the earth. No. 6. Morning. Child awakening, and lark in the heavens singing to welcome the rising sun. No. 7. Border. Greyhound and hare in fern; bird rising, and snake escaping in the grass. Plate 88 (Figures). No. 1. The wagon of Love, within the magnet of Love, which has a power over all, typified by the form of the horse-shoe. No. 2. War. Profitless glory leading only to death, as indicated upon the shield. No. 3. Peace; leading to rest, happiness, and plenty. The shield of repose emblazoned with the dove and olive-branch. No. 4. Agriculture. Sculptural panel for bas- relief. Nos. 5 and 6. Scroll masks in profile. No. 7. Babe starting on the periioas voyage of life, being ileposited in tlie ark Ijy an angel. No. S. Allegorical head. The smiling earth teeming with life and industry. No. !). Butterflies and female mask. No. 10. Work. Shield on a box, charged with eye and hand, and the motto " Travail," Worl-. The box bound with iron and dove-tailed, the work of the smith and carpenter, who are represented in the side compartments. No. 11. Sport. Boys riding a race, for painting in monotone. Plate 89 (Figures). No. 1. Double female head; AVisdom and Folly. Torch entwined by sei'pent for wisdom, and two moths approaching the flame of the torch indicative of folly. No. 2. Halberdier. Bronze figure for supporting a lamp, for the newel of a staircase. No. 3. Plant form, with Beauty issuing from the flowers. No. 4. Bracket, formed of a female bust. No. 5. Emblem of love. The rose and Hly embracing. No. 6. Arabesque panel in black and white, emblem- atical of love and fancy. No. 7. Animal contrast. No. 8.' Pilgrims of love, with the heart yet untouched. Decorative frieze for painting. No. 9. Cupid's target, with the heart wounded and pierced by love's dart. To pair with the last. Plate 90 (Figures). No. 1. Female terminal or antefixal ornament. No. 2. Bread and wine, arranged symbolically. No. 3. Musical plant, indicative of the harmony of nature. No. 4. Satyr with wine fountain, surrounded by the foliage of the vine. Nos. 5 and C. Medallions, containing male and female heads, for sculpture or painting. No. 7. Birth of Venus, who is supposed to have sprung from the foam of the sea. No. 8. Ceres, with horn of plenty. No. 9. Venus migrating. No. 10. Will-o'-the-wisp, or the fairy of the night pool. 168 Suggestions in Design. Plate 91 (Figures). No. 1. Sport. Ornamental decorative panel, painted on o'old ground. Nos. 2 and 3. Snowdrop and Rosebud. Might be applied as carved arm-rests for chairs or stalls. No. 4. Composition emblematical of the ocean. No. 5. Love swung by Cupid in a bower of roses. Centre for panel decoration. No. G. Muse with lyre, for sculpture. Supporting figure on one side of shield. Nos. 7 and 8. Ornamental centres for panels. Sage being instructed by water-sprite, and the midnight tale, tete-d-tete. Plate 92 (Figures). No. 1. Masks of Tragedy and Comedy. Orna- mental spandrel for placing between arches, with vine foliage, &c. Nos. 2 and 3. Medallions containing male and female heads — Youth and Age. Nos. 4 and 5. Figures for supporting lamps. Nos. 6 and 7. Sun and moon. Decorative centres. No. 8. Triple shell trefoil panel. No. 9. Cupids and goat, with ivy-leaf scroll. Border for decoration. No. 10. Bracket. Pink of Love. No. IL Bracket. Cupid reposing. No. 12. Wine, with scroll of vine foliage. Dec- orative border or frieze. Plate 93 Animals (Centres). No. 1. Trefoil for inlay. Triply united bats. No. 2. Circle containing running hares united by the ears, forming a triangle. The arms of the Isle of Man consist of three legs following each other after the same manner. No. 3. Triply-united foxes, with fowls and nests. No. 4. Triangular combination of dragon-flies, for inlay or flat sculpture. No. 5. Three dog's-heads united. No. 6. Pentagonal bird centre. No. 7. Triply-united cranes with interlaced wings, after the manner of Celtic ornamentation. For sculpture in low relief. No. 8. Circle containing a triangular combination of fish. For painted decoration. No. 9. Centre for decorative panel. Pentagonal arrangement of cranes and snakes. No. 10. Three skates in a whirlpool. No. 11. Hexagonal combination of three pelicans and three fishes. Centre for inlay. Plate 94 (Animals). No. 1. Pelican and eel among bulrushes. For painted decoration. No. 2. Arrangement of bulrushes, eel, toad, dragon-flies, &c. No. 3. Foliage with birds and nests. Natural- esque treatment for printed fabric. No. 4. Border with a conventional representation of water, out of which grow the water-lily and bulrushes, alternating with dragon-flies. Printed border for woven fabric or earthenware. No. 5. Panel for painting or mosaic inlay with gold ground. Foliated scroll in colour with pheasant and fox-head centre. No. 6. Composition of swan, fish, arum, and bulrushes. No. 7. United flamingos on a fish. No. 8. Snail and star border, for porcelain decoration. No. 9. Ornamentation for printed or woven fabric. Grass stem and seeds, with caterpillar, chrysalis, and butterfly, on foliated ground. Plate 95 (Chimeras). No. 1. Dragon and pine. Sculpture in bas-relief. No. 2. Toad-stool and snake, with head of Despair flanked by nondescript imps. For carving. No. 3. Mirth and Melancholy, or Tragedy and Comedy, under the wings of a harpy. Carved head over doorway in alto-relievo. No. 4. Dolphins devouring human bodies. Composition for pedestal. No. 5. Monogram and chimerical figure. No. (j. Gras.shopper-bird dragons, symmetrically arranged with foliage. For carving out of surface. No. 7. Poppy and bats with moon, indicative of sleep. For printed cliintz. No. 8. Border for decoration. Fight among nondescript dragons. Plate 96 (Trophies, &c.). No. 1. Wine, with scroll of vine. No. 2. Beer, with hop and barley growing out of barrel. Letters and Monograms. 169 No. 3. Tobacco, growing out of pipe. These are for painting or carving in low relief. No. 4. Fish. Net and shell with trident, &c. No. .5. Fowl. Turkey, goose, and cock, sur- mounted by feathers and dish, with motto. No. G. Flesh. Beef, mutton, pork, venison, and hare, with spear and bow, the whole surmounted by a boiling pot upon the fire. These three last trophies are for carving on panels of dinin^r-room buffet. CHAPTER XXVI. LETTERS AND MONOGRAMS. liONG ages before the invention of printing, even from the early period when writing wasfirst prac- tised up to the present time, it has been customary to embellish manuscripts with pictures, ornament, and polychromatic decoration. The ancient Egyptians wrote thus upon rolls of papyri, and their hiero- glyphics were almost invariably painted with the liveliest tints. The extraordinary dexterity which they acquired in the mode of expressing complicated forms by a few rapid touches, and the life and spirit with which ornaments were executed in these papyri, are truly remarkable. The precise extent to which the Greeks and Romans, from whom we obtain our letters, were in- debted to the Egyptians for the origin and use of alphabetical symbols is not deter- mined; but of one thing we may be certain, that all modern letters have been originally suggested by hieroglyphical forms. Rude but rapidly made drawings or j^ictures of na- tural objects were, in the first instance, used as the readiest means of indicating the name of the thing, as a head for a head, a mouth for a mouth, an oivl for an owl, &c. But the 43 Egyptians found tliat these pictures would not express thoughts or feelings, the names of persons or countries; and the first step towards overcoming this difficulty was to use the picture, not for the object itself, but for a sound or syllable, — as a head became the syllable pe, a mouth ro, an owl mo; and the next step was to use these characters for letters. The Hebrew letters were formed upon the same principle, each letter being also a word indicating some object; thu.s, jod or J signified a hand ; daleth or D, a door ; beth or B, a house; gimel or G, a camel, and so on. When once forms were thus adopted to express sounds instead of objects their pictorial character was abandoned, they became simplified, and formed what we call letters. The obvious utility of this practice soon effected a wonderful advance in Avritten language, the knowledge of it spread rapidly, and was at length imparted to the Greeks and Romans. Letters were further simplified and perfected by them, reduced in number according to the sounds which were ascribed to each, and formed into an alphabet. 170 Suggestions in Design. The scrolls used for writing upon by the Egyptians were made of the leaves of the papyrus, the common flowering-rush of the Nile. Two leaves of the rush were pasted together with the hbres of one leaf at right angles to the other, and after being cut square, about twenty of these pieces were glued together, end to end, to form a roll. The Greeks and Komans used the same material for writing, and large quantities of the leaves of the papyrus were imported yearly into Greece and Rome from Egypt for that purpose. It was not until the time of the Roman Empire that parchment was substituted for the papyrus, in consequence of the supply of the latter substance falling short. It is said that Julius Ceesar was the first person who divided books into pages, and after his time they began to assume the modern form. Paper, which is supposed to have been invented in China, is of comparatively modern introduction. It was first made on the Continent about tlie beginning of the fourteenth century, and great quantities of it had to be imported into this country. It was not made in England, except a coarse brown sort, until the French refugees intro- duced the manufacture of white paper in the year 1690. The purest of the classical manuscripts were written in regularly-formed capital letters. One of the most important Latin illuminated manuscripts which is known to exist is the square Virgil of the Vatican. This originally contained fifty paintings, five of which are now almost entirely effaced. The text is written throughout with con- siderable regularity in capital letters in black ink, and its only ornaments are paintings of subjects derived from the ^Eneid. Another variety of writing in capital letters was that known as the uncial style, which was the first approximation to a cursive or running hand. The letters in this style generally resemble capitals, but instead of being angular are to a great extent com- posed of rounded forms. Specimens of the uncial character may be traced in the fourth century, and it appears to have changed little until the seventh. St. Jerome, writing in the fourth century, exclaims in a well- loiown passage, ''Let those who will have old books written in gold and silver on purple parchments, or, as they are commonly called, in uncial letters — rather ponderous loads than books, — so long as they permit me and mine to have poor copies, and rather correct than beautiful books." The uncial character, or rounded capital, was a transition to the minuscule or " lower- case " letters, which at length became distinct characters from the capitals, the latter being generally knoAvn as maguscule, in contra- distinction to the minuscule. The principal volumes still existing written in uncial characters are the celebrated " Codex Argenteus " of Ulphilus, Avritten in gold and silver letters on a purple ground, in the fourth century; the Psalter of St. Germain de Pres; a fragment of the New Testament in the Cottonian Library; and a copy of the book of Genesis in the Imperial Library at Vienna. The three latter are believed to have been executed during the fifth and sixth centuries. The libraries of the Vatican, as well as those of Paris, Oxford, and London, contain other specimens of brilliant ancient manuscripts, Avritten in gold and silver letters, for the most part no doubt at Byzantium previous and immediately subsequent to the Letters and Monograms. 171 age of Justinian. There can be very little question that an important modification in the character of illuminated manuscripts^ and indeed of all decorative art, took place during the impulse given to the arts by the important works carried on by command of this emperor during the middle of the sixth century. So far as ancient texts are concerned, some of the most valuable now extant are those which belong to the peculiar class of books known as Palimpsests, that is, books which have been written twice over, the original writing having been as far as possible expunged, in order to provide a fresh surface for receiving later transcripts. Cardinal Angelo Mai, the celebrated librarian of the Vatican, who was born in 1779, prosecuted the work of deciphering the original writing on such manuscripts with so much zeal and ability as to give back to the world many writings that had hitherto been considered hoj^elessly lost. While all was dark in Europe, with the exception of the flickering light still casting an occasional ray from Constantinople, a new light was springing up in the islands of the West. It is not certain when Ireland was first christianized, but it is generally admitted to have been at a very early period. The Irish were in possession of some of the most ancient versions of the Gospels, dating as early as the sixth century, and these works were elaborately executed in that peculiar kind of ornamentation called the Celtic, Avhich has been before noticed, consisting of interlacing lines or bands, and interweaved birds and animals. Many of the Irish saints were distinguished scribes, and their schools became so famous throughout Europe that they Avere resorted to by students from distant lands. In the school of Finian, which is said to have included no less than three thousand scholars, the great St. Columba or Co- lumkill, who was born in Ireland a.d. .521, was instructed in many arts, and in that of illumination he became specially and justly famous. About the middle of the sixth century St. Columba founded the celebrated mon- astery in the island of lona, which was afterwards removed to Lindisfarne on the coast of Durham. From this spot the arts taught in the schools of Ireland were communicated, by St. Cuthbert and his learned associates, to various monastic institutions, more particularly to that of Glastonbury. How identical the practice of the scribes who exercised their art at Lindisfarne was Avith that of Ireland may be seen by a comparison of manuscripts knoAvn to have been illuminated in Ireland, with such Avorks as the Durham Book or Gospels of St. Cuthbert and others, Avhich we cannot doubt were executed in this country.^ The remarkable diffusion of manuscripts written by Irish scribes is accounted for by the exemplary efforts of the Irish and early Anglo-Saxon missionaries. Thus St. Boni- face, the apostle of Germany (born in Devon- shire about the year 680), carried Avith him to that country his precious book of the Gospels, still preserved as a highly-prized rehc at Fulda. St. Kilian took Avith him to Franconia books still preserved at Wurtzburg. The public library of St. Gall in SAvitzerland contains records of the labours of the Irish saint Avho gives his ' See Professor Westwood's elegant work, The Minialures and Ornaments of Anglo-Saxon and Irish Manuscrifjts, reproduced in exa<;t facsimile, large folio. London, 1868. 172 Suggestions in Design. name to the town and the canton. Not only did these interestmg volumes help to form the schools of caligraphy which after- wards became celebrated in Germany and elsewhere, but in the monasteries which they founded the saints themselves educated scribes to imitate the Avritings originally brought from Ireland. Distracted by the invasion and final ascendency of the Danes, and afterwards by the conquest of the Normans, the art of Saxon illumination almost entirely died out in this country. In the year 1091, Ingul- phus, in alluding to the fire which destroyed the noble library of his abbey at Croyland, states that the juniors in his monastery were unable to decipher the Saxon character, that letter having been, as he says, "for a long while despised and neglected by reason of the Normans, and now known only to a few of the more aged." The development of a new style in place of the extinguished Saxon was slow. With the accession of the Plan- tagenets, however, in 1154, and the marriage of Henry II. with Eleanor of Guienne, French influence acquired a marked pre- dominance in English illumination, and for nearly a hundred years after this the pro- gress in England and France was parallel and almost identical. In the purely Gothic manuscripts, in which pictures Avere freely introduced, from 1250 to 1400, extreme fineness in execution, tenderness of colour, gentleness of expression, piquancy of ornament, and elegance of composition may be regarded as almost invariable attributes of French productions. In England, on the other hand, the style was not so harmonious, but more vigorous, the colouring was fuller and deeper, the action of the figures more intense, the power of expression more concentrated, and reaching occasionally in its energy almost to caricature. The sense of humour was always freely developed, and a more generally active sentiment of life imjDressed upon design not only in figure subjects, but in ornament. In the English examples monkeys and other animals, dragons, and comic incidents were very frequently intermingled with graceful foliage and heraldic embellishments. A vast number of illuminated manuscripts exist, extending doAvn to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. They are executed in many and various styles, Avhich cannot be here entered upon; some are enriched with flowers most naturally and beautifully finished upon gold grounds. One of the most perfect productions of the English school is the celebrated book known as Queen Mary's Psaltei-, Avhich appears to have been executed about the year 1 320 for a member of the Willoughby family. It con- tains 320 leaves, and is filled throughout Avith beautiful illuminations. In the later manu- scripts Ave find that the painter began to usurp the office of the scribe, and the farther Ave proceed the more does the legitimate object of illumination seem to be departed from. In the earlier stages a geometrical arrangement is obtained Avith conventional ornament inclosing gold panels, on Avhich are painted groups of floAvers slightly conventionalized; in the later, Avhere the painter has full sway, floAvers and insects are represented casting their shadoAvs on the page, to the total neglect of the true principles of the art of illumination. The invention of printing put an end to the Avork of the scribe. The credit of the discovery of printing by the aid of movable metal types is attributed to the German Letters and Monograms. 173 John Gutenberg, about 1438; and in or about the year 1471 a press was set up m Westminster Abbey by Wilham Caxton, Avho is said to be the first who introduced printing into this country. The previous attempts at printing were by means of wooden blocks engraved with the characters in rehef, each page of the book of course requiring a separate block to be engraved. Gutenberg adopted the ancient custom, as in illuminated manuscripts, of using a large ornamental letter at the commence- ment of books and chapters, richly ornamented with flowers and foliage, animals and birds, and sometimes printed in a different colour from the other parts of the page. This mode of decoration was largely followed by others, and many examples of elegantly designed letters by Albert Durer, Hans Holbein, and the best artists of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries are still in existence. These were drawn and engraved on wood, and introduced into the type in the same manner as they are at the present day; and they were sometimes coloured by hand. It is said that the initial letter spaces were in some cases left blank by the early pi'inters, to be afterwards filled in with ornamental letters by the illuminator. Ornamental letters for the commencement of chapters were very little used during the eighteenth or the beginning of this century, but of late years the custom, which is a good one, has again been revived, and an example of it is seen in the present work. Such initials, however, are not often now used of the size or prominence, or designed with so much care, as they were for the more important books that were issued during the latter part of the sixteenth cen- tury. In the writing of manuscripts in early times it was a common practice, in order to save labour, to run letters together by one stroke of the pen. This practice gave rise to the combining of two or more letters, usually those of a person's name, in an ornamental form. These combinations were called Monograms, from their being arranged or woven together as one letter; and out of this again arose, in mediseval times, the rebus, as noticed in a previous chapter. A very early monogram, perhaps the earliest, is that which was used by Constan- tine as the sacred luonogram for the name Christ, formed by the combination of the Greek letters P (ro) and X (chi), as in Fig. 316, and standing for the Fig. sie. Greek word Cliristos and also TTV) forming a cross. Another sacred ^ | ^. monogram, with which we are '' I I ^ more familiar, is the Latin one -^—^ I. H. S. This is supposed to form the first three letters of the Greek word for Jesus, but the more common acceptation is that it stands for the initials of the Latin words Jesus Hominum Salvator, "Jesus the Saviour of men" — although this is probably a later appli- cation. In many mediaeval examj^les of this monogram a C is substituted for the S. This was the soft C, which stood for S, and it appears to have been adopted simply because it balanced the I better than the S. The mark of contraction, a thick oblong stroke, so often used in manuscripts, was added across the head of the H, as in Fig. 317, where it stands as the mark for contraction and also forms the sign of the cross. Monograms were also occasionally arranged in the form of the cross to indicate a man's Christian faith, as in the LB. of Fig. 318, for "John Baret," from his tomb 44 174 Suggestions in Design. in St. Mary's Church, Bury St. Edmund's. Monograms of the Holy Virgin combining the letters M. A.E.I. A are sometimes found Fig. 317. Fig. 318. Fig. 320. Fig. 319. m remaining in churches, as in Fig. 319, from Ufford Church, Suffolk. Carved monograms are frequent among architectural decorations, as in Fig. 320 for "Hugo Oldham," the monogram of Bishop Oldham, from his chajiel in Exeter Cathedral; alsoG.F.T.,inrig. 321, for "George Flaccett," Abbot of West- minster, carved upon his tomb in Westminster Abbey. Several of the kings and queens of England introduced their monograms upon their coins. Some of the farthings of Queen Elizabeth have her monogram upon them surmounted by the crown; and Charles II. introduced a triple arrangement of C's on a fourpenny piece, interlaced as in the three crescents in No. 4, Plate 60. On other coins of the same king two C's back to back, sur- mounted by a crown, are met with. On the half-crown of William and Mary a combin- ation of W and M are found, and the same combination is also met with upon some of the keystones of the window heads at Hamp- ton Court Palace. Many other examples of monogram work might l^e given ; but these are perhaps sufficient to show that it has always been a favourite practice, and one that may well be taken advantage of by the ornamentist. Plate 97. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4. Letters B, 0, E, A, ornamented after the manner of variou.s manuscripts. No. .5. Shield containing the sacred monogram I. H. S. on a red cross. No. 6. Initial letter I, in the Celtic or Irish style. No. 7. Letter G, enriched with foliage and ribbon. No. 8. Cross with crown of thorns and I. H. S. No. 9. Letter H, formed with rope and inter- laced with foliage. No. 10. Initial letter A, Irish or Anglo-Saxon. No. 11. Rustic letter S on wood Avork. No. 12. Crest, locomotive engine rampant. No. 13. Letter W in relief in panel. No. 14. Shield with letters A. D. J. No. 15. Letter N, interlaced lines. No. IG. Letter S formed with ribbon and foliage. No. 17. Shield containing monogram J. K. C. No. 18. Strap or ribbon letter N. No. 19. Letter Y inlaid with foliage. Plate 98. No. 1. MonogTam B. G on a shield. No. 2. Letter S with interlaced lines. No. 3. Letter Q filled in with lilies on ground divided into gold and blue. No. 4. Monogram V. A on a shield with oak foliage. No. .5. Letter M. No. 6. Hollow initial letter I interlaced with narwhal on wave ground. No. 7. Letter K, enriched with foliage and flowers. No. 8. Initial word As. No. 9. Letter F with sportsman and owl entwined by foliage. No. 10. Illuminated letter 0. No. 11. Letter W, monk and wine in a cellar, with vine foliage. No. 12. Letter R, with strawberry. No. 13. Monogram 0. E, with hart and dart. No. 14. Letter Z, zany with sun-flowers. No. 1.5. Letter K, formed with oak branches and acorns. No. IG. MonogTam B. E. I. No. 17. Monogram LA. on shield. No. 18. Monogram T. R on a leaf. No. 19. Monogram on a shield, J.P.N. No. 20. Monogram I. S. Miscellaneous. 175 MISCELLANEOUS. HE three Plates which are placed under this heading, consist of designs of varied character, which did not come within the scope of any of the foregoing- divisions, or were omitted for want of suffi- cient space. They will be found to contain some useful suggestions, although they mostly do not belong to any particular style. Their purposes and motifs are indicated in the following description. Plate 99. No. 1. Angel issuing from the sun, the emblem of light, with entwined ribbon or scroll, containing the motto, Hon art en Bieu, "His art is from God." No. 2. Griffin support for a pedestal. For carving in stone. No. 3. Sitting leopard : support or bracket for a console table. No. 4. Panel containing a- shield charged with an ancient ship with a sail, having, on a canton, a fleur- de-lis (arms of Paris). The shield hung on a con- ventional oak-tree, bearing acorns and leaves with leaf -galls. No. 5. Jupiter typified by the eagle, grasping the thunderbolt and fed by cupid. Composition for painting. No. 6. Ornamental central form, suggesting an animal's head with horns. For inlay. No. 7. Leaf -sprig with cupids disturbing a nest of young birds. No. 8. Ivy-buds treated symmetrically. No. 9. Lunette for painting, containing the head of an ancient soldier, with leather casque and couvre- nuque, on a decorated gTOund. No. 10. Triangular fret for ornamental band. No. 11. Band or frieze formed of flowing triple leaves, on plain leaf-forms. Plate 100. No. 1. Ribbon star or centre interlaced with scroll work of two kinds. No. 2. The passion-flower treated symmetrically. No. 3. Ornamental shield, with arrow. Sable, and chief or. The whole surmounted by the interlaced double L, for Louis or Lewis. No. i. Scroll foliage and flowers arranged geo- metrically and countei-.changed for inlay. No. 5. Eccentrically formed panel containing an arrangement of the pansy and spiral seed-vessels. The centre flower chai'ged with the shamrock and fleur-de-lis. No. G. Irregular hexagonal panel with interlaced foliage. No. 7. Circle divided hexagonally by flowing wheel-like curves, filled with scroll foliage counter- changed. No. 8. One division of an ornamental cresting for engraving on metal. No. 9. Symmetrical arrangement of rose and round-lobed foliage for the centre of a panel. No. 10. Foliated and scrolled centre for carving in cavo-relievo. No. 11. Frieze enrichment divided hj diagonal squares, and interlaced by eccentrically designed foliage. No. 12. A variation upon the Moorish fret as given at Fig. 168. Plate 101. No. 1. Ornamental squares for painted diaper \vork, or to l;e used alternately for a string-course or band. No. 2. Palette charged with the initial P in inter- laced lines, with foliage, maul-stick, and brushes. No. 3. Ornamental ma.sk. Old Age. No. 4. Raffaelesque painting for pilaster or panel. No. 5. Date-plate with the monogram "I. L." No. 6. Ornamental cross for metal work. No. 7. Harp-formed bracket, consisting of a female bust terminating in an animal's claw. 176 Suggestions in Desigjt. No. 8. A bronze vase-shaped tripod lamp, entwined by a serpent. No. 9. Diaper for a dado for painting or wall- paper. No. 10. Triangularly divided border filled in with foliage. No. 11. A supporting dolphin for a pedestal. No. 12. A bracket or support formed by a com- bination of foliage and the leg of a lion. FRONTISPIECE. 1. Centre. The artist and artisan having pro- duced a vase or cup, which has been suggested by the form of the lily, are comparing it with the plant — both having been influenced by the same feeling or mutual understanding, as indicated by the union of the hands in the window above. 2. Geometry. The compass, with a flower and a newt (plant and animal life). The circle divided into semicircle and quadrant. The circle containing the double triangle or hexagonal star. The circle with the square and octagon. These primary figures when united to the curves found in plant and animal life are the basis of all beautiful forms in art. 3. The star and ivy diaper — suggested by viewing external nature through the casement. 4. Conventionalism necessary in the highest art — as shown by the antique and medieval modes of rendering the lily and the honeysuckle. 5. Opposite forms united by art — beauty of one kind blended with that of another, as that of the fish with the human female form. 6. Symmetrical imitative representations for dec- oration or ornament should be taken directly from nature. 7. The infinity of form, as exhibited in twenty- four varieties of natural leaves. 8. 9, 10, 11. The architecture of all ages, as repre- sented by columns. 8. The Egyptian (2000 B.C.) majestic, massive, and enduring. Conventionalized from the papyrus plant. 9. The Assyrian (900 B.C.) as exemplified by one of the columns from Persepolis (destroyed 300 B.C.), and supposed to be similar to those which supported the upper stories of the palaces at Nimroud and Khorsabad. It bears an affinity to the Indian columns with bracket capi- tals, and was the precursor of the Greek Ionic. 10. Grecian Ionic from the Erechtheura at Athens (400 B.C.). The Doric, however, is more characteristic of Athenian art, as seen in the Parthenon; but the Ionic is considered coeval with the Doric, and was much used at an early period in the Grecian states of Asia Minor. 11. The Gothic, the type of the mediae val art of Europe (A.D. 1200). The column consisted of small shafts clustered round a centre core, and was not limited to height as in the antique examples. The columns supported pointed arches, and the main lines of Gothic architecture were vertical, with great height and extreme lightness of construction. The columns of antiquity, usualty distinguished as classic, carried horizontal beams, pro- ducing solidity and gi-andeur without extreme height. 1. TRIBUS SAUVAGES. SAVAGE TRIBES. WILDE STAMME. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S A. EGYPTIEN. 2. EGYPTIAN. AEGYPTISCH. [ 1 1 1 1 w/iAi \M ^"ii»==^im ii"i»- >MM\I6 ¥f¥tT SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON. F.S.A. BLASON. 49. BLAZONRY. H ERALDIK. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. BLASON. 50. BLAZONRY. HERALDIK. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON. F.S.A. 51. BLASON. BLAZONRY. HERALDIK. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. BLASON. 52. BLAZONRY. HERALDIK. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. 53. BLASON, INSIGNES. BLAZONRY & BADGES. HERALDIK, ZEICHEN. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. 54. BLASON, &c. BLAZONRY & REBUSES. H E R A L D I K, U. S.W. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGh BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A, 5 5. RENAISSANCE. RENAISSANCE. RENAISSANCE. '^^"tf^^ ^ ii^^Sf^^Mi te^''^ Ic *T^«E^^ l'T)j'\ f ^IJKj^t; jf If] J ^Hlfi!^ 5 *^'''^mf^ |lrai 'mn Mm K4i \ l!^/^^^^^^''^^*!v j^ > ^^^ S£^wBk. '% <^ "if^ aimi^^i ■^ A\ Il^W ^S^ L^ ^M| m ^S*^ ^ ^HR , . ^^!^U Wfe^ .^^l/t' '^ ^m<'^ ^iw^w l^m ^^ Ju^^ETy i^^^r Emm,. \ litfi UtnC^^^HU \M9^^y/i 8^-=' il^E^ ifvw PSi!m~ fm^v ^Jj^^P^^lV* ^-a SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGh BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. 56. RENAISSANCE. RENAISSANCE. RENAISSANCE SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. RENAISSANCE. 57. RENAISSANCE. RENAISSANCE. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIQHTON, F S.A, 5 8. RENAISSANCE. RENAISSANCE. RENAISSANCE. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. 59. RENAISSANCE. RENAISSANCE. RENAISSANCE. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F S.A. RENAISSANCE. 60. RENAISSANCE. RENAISSANCE. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. RENAISSANCE. 61. RENAISSANCE. RENAISSANCE. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGr BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. 62. RENAISSANCE. RENAISSANCE. RENAISSANCE. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. RENAISSANCE. G3. RENAISSANCE. RENA ISSANCE. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON. F.S * RENAISSANCE. 64. RENAISSANCE (SUPERFICIAL) RENAISSANCE. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. 65. RENAISSANCE. RENAISSANCE (SUPERFICIAL). RENAISSANCE. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. 6 6. RENAISSANCE. RENAISSANCE (SUPERFICIAL). RENAISSANCE. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIQHTON. F.S.A. \ 6 7. RENAISSANCE. RENAISSANCE (SUPERFICIAL). RENAISSANCE. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. 6 8. RENAISSANCE. RENAISSANCE (SUPERFICIAL). RENAISSANCE. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. 69. RENAISSANCE. RENAISSANCE. (ELIZABETHAN AND JACOBIAN.) RENAISSANCE. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. RENAISSANCK. 70. RENAISSANCE. (ELIZABETHAN AND JACOBIAN. RENAISSANCE. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S A. 71. RENAISSANCE. RENAISSANCE. (LOUIS XIV. AND LOUIS XV.) RENAISSANCE. 4 ^ ? 1 i 1 m 1 i 9 1 i ^MJf\M ip ^ ^ut^y \i SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. RENAISSANCE. 72. RENAISSANCE. (LOUIS XIV. AND LOUIS XV.) RENAISSANCE. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. RENAISSANCE. 73. RENAISSANCE. (LOUIS XIV. AND LOUIS XV.) RENAISSANCE. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY .JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. BRINS FLORAUX. 74. FLORAL SPRIGS. BLUTHENZWEIGLEIN. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON. F.S.A, BRINS FLORAUX. 75. FLORAL SPRIGS. BLUTHENZWEIGLEIN. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LKIGHTON. F.S.A. BRINS FLORAUX. 76. FLORAL. SPRIGS. BLUTHENZWEIGLEIN. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. 77. BRINS FLORAUX. FLORAL SPRIGS. BLUTHENZWEIGLEIN. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON. F.S.A. BRINS FLORAUX. 78. FLORAL SPRIGS. BLUTHENZWEIGLEIN. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. 79. BRINS FLORAUX. FLORAL SPRIGS. BLUTHENZWEIGLEIN. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. 80. BRINS FLORAUX. FLORAL SPRIGS. BLUTHENZWEIGLEIN. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON. F.S.A, BRINS FLORAUX. 81. FLORAL SPRIGS. BLUTHENZWEIGLEIN. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. P L A N T E S. 82. FLORAL (MISCELLANEOUS) PFLANZEN. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. P L A N T E S. 83. FLORAL (MISCELLANEOUS). PFLANZEN. r--r-;if;---iM?--'---i SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. 8 4. P L A N T E S. FLORAL (MISCELLANEOUS). PFLANZEN. BY JOHN LEIGHTON. F.S.A. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN FIGURE 85. FIGURES. FIGUREN. Matin. MORNING. MoKGEN. Midi. NOON. S<5^ SoiR. EVENING. Abend. NuiT. NIGHT. Nacht. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. FIGURES. 86. FIGURES. F I G U R E N. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F S.A. FIGURES. 87. FIGURES. FIGUREN. BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN FIGURES. 88. FIGURES. FIGUREN. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON. F.S.A. FIGURES. 89. FIGURES. F I G U R E N. ii^^W^!*"'^'"^W^ ^g^ME' /^ i^^ M. ^fi^jHSp^^^^Si^ ''A Rl 1 Ik ^1 W (m sk^ ^ ^feaJ^BJ^SStf^liTmi"^! nl^O^ P^^ •^BBlfe^^— — -^T^ ^K3B^^ ^rr^ SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. FIGURES. 90. FIGURES. FIGUREN. 7 "^^^S^ ^ 4 % ^ 1 t^^ iWtfi m > SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON F.S.A. FIGURES. 91. FIGURES. FIGUREN. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A- FIGURES. 92. FIGURES. FIGUREN. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. A N 1 M A U X. 93. ANIMALS. (CEN TRES.) T H I E R E. BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN ANIMAUX. 94. ANIMALS. T H I E R E. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON. F.S.A. C H I M E R E S. 95. CHIMERAS. CHI MA REN. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A- 9 6. TROPHIES, &c. TROPHIES, &c. TROPHEEN, U.S.W. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. LETTRES, &C. 97. LETTERS, MONOGRAMS, &C. buchstaben, u.s.w. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. 9 8. LETTRES, &c. LETTERS, MONOGRAMS. BUCHSTABEN, U.S.W. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. 9 9. MISCELLANEOUS. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON. FF.*. 10 0. MISCELLANEOUS, SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. 101. MISCELLANEOUS. SUGGESTIONS IN DESIGN BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A. rrz Price, 60 Cents. A COMPREHENSIVE SERIES OF ORIGINAL SKETCHES IN VARIOUS STYLES OF ORNAMENT, ARRANGED FOR APPLICATION IN THE DECORATIVE AND CONSTRUCTIVE ARTS. BY JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A., ILLUSTRATOR OF "THE MORAL EMBLEMS" AND "THE LYRA GERMANICA," AND AUTHOR OF "THE LIFE OF MAN SYMBOLIZED." "MADRfi NATURA." ETC. TO WHICH IS ADDED DESCRIPTIVE AND HISTORICAL LETTERPRESS WITH EXPLANATORY ENGRAVINGS, By JAMES K. COLLING, r.R.l.B.A.. AUTHOR or "GOTHIC OKNAHBNTS," "DETAILS OF GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE," "ART FOLUGE," "XMCUSH MEDIEVAL FOLIAGE," "ART BOTANY," ETC. MEDALS AWARDED TO JOHN LEIQHTOJI, fAA. NEW YORK: D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 1, 3, AND s BOND STREET. Subscriptions receiyed only for the entire -work. SUPPLIED TO SUBSCRIBERS ONLY. Suggestions in Design A COMPREHENSIVE SERIES OF ORIGINAL SKETCHES IN VARIOUS STYLES OF ORNAMENT, ARRANGED FOR APPLI- CATION IN THE DECORATIVE AND CONSTRUCTIVE ARTS, By JOHN LEIGHTON, F.S.A., M.R.L, Illustrator of "The Moral Emblems " and "The Lyra Germanica," and author of "The Life of Man Symboliied," " Madre Natura," etc., etc. TO WHICH IS ADDED DESCRIPTIVE AND HISTORICAL LETTERPRESS, WITH EXPLANATORY ENGRAVINGS, BY JAMES KElLAWAY COLLING, F.R.LB.A., Author of "Gothic Ornaments," "Details of Gothic Architecture," "Art Foliage," "English Mediaeval Foliage," "Art Botany," etc., etc. AN attempt to ornament or to enrich by decoration the ordinary works turned out by the hand of man has been the aim of every age, from the earliest and the remotest times. Even among the savage tribes of the world this love of ornamenta- tion is as apparent as it is among our most modern and art-loving craftsmen. It is, however, a melancholy fact that many highly-gifted workers in the numerous branches of trade and manufacture are frequently going astray, or are continually repeating common and hackneyed forms, in their efforts to enrich their works, for the want of a mere "suggestion," not an elaborately worked-out idea, but for an original thought, or, as the French more happily put it, a motif, which will suggest, by some slight turn or alteration, a form or kind of enrichment which may be ada; ted to their purpose. A work supplying this desideratum would be a perfect boon in the hands of the art-worker, and has long been sought after. To meet this want the present series of " Suggestions " in many distinct species of ornamentation has been carefully brought together and arranged for practical use. These suggestions have not been taken from other examples, or collected from already published works apart from those by their author; they are throughout original, designed in the spirit and with the proper art feeling of the various styles to which they severally belong, and are the accumulated result of long and arduous studies, extending over many years of investigation and thought. They are aids to design more than for servile imitation or direct appropriation, serving to represent the type of many designs rather than portraits of any. The object of the author, therefore, being that of presenting suggestions, leaving the designer or art-workman to modify, or adapt theni to his own purposes, the work will be found to be eminently suited to the wants of nearly every one who has occasion for decoration in whatever form: to the worker in stone, wood, metal, ivoiy, glass, and leather; to the house-painter, decorator, manufacturer of wall-papers, carpets, curtains, and floor-cloths; to the potter, weaver, calico-printer, engraver, and lithographer, as well as to others too numerous to mention. For the convenience of reference, the various styles are placed, as far as possible, in their true historical order, and the de- scriptions aid this arrangement by giving some slight but necessary account of the various developments and different phases of ornamental art. The illustrations embodied in the text are all taken from actual examples, and serve to give a clear impression of the characteristic features of the various styles of architecture and ornamentation which have been developed in the different countrias of the world. The work, therefore, is divided into twenty-eight chapters, as follows: Chap. r. Introduction. Chap. 10. Chinese Ornamentation. Chap 21. Ren^ssance Ornamentation. 2. General Principles, which should be II. Japanese "Suggestions in Design" will comprise one hundred and two Plates, containing more than eleven hundred distinct and separate "suggestions." The text wUl be accompanied by above two hundred Illustrative Engravings, taken from Sngexampl^ gravmgs •.♦Handsomely printed on royal 4to, comprising twenty parts, at fifty cents a part. Each part contains five pages of en- mgs and eight pages of letterpress. The work, complete, is bound in one volume, half morocco, at sixteen dollars. D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, l,3,& 5 Bond Street, New York. I wf