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TH 6123 C7™" ""'"wsrty Library 
 ®!™l!i3Mi5fim!l?.^''''^^" plumbing, hot air and 
 
 3 1924 003 633 496 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tliis book is in 
 tlie Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003633496 
 
STANDARD AMERICAN PLUMBING 
 
 HOT AIR AND HOT WATER HEATING 
 
 STEAM AND GAS FIHING 
 
 Among the subjects this valuable book treats of are Sani- 
 tary Plumbing, covering details regarding the installation 
 of hot and cold water drainage systems. 
 
 MODERN HOT Water, hot Air and 
 
 STEAM HEATING 
 
 Heating systems, steam boilers, piping system,, radii^tois, 
 hot water heating, estimating, piping and fittings. 
 
 STEAM AND GAS FITTING. 
 WORKING DRAWINGS. 
 
 FULLY ILLUSTRATED 
 
 By clow and DONALDSON 
 
 Special Exclusive Edition 
 
 Printed by 
 
 FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. 
 
 EXPRESSLY FOE 
 
 SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY 
 CHICAGO, ILL. 
 . 1919 - 
 
Copyright 1911 
 
 BY 
 
 FREDERICK J. DRAKE 
 
 Copyright 1914 and 1918. 
 
 BY 
 
 FREDERICK J DRAKE & CO. 
 
HOUSE DRAINAGE. 
 
 The fact that plumbing during the past ten 
 years has reached a most remarkable stage of de- 
 velopment in the construction of improved 'sys- 
 tems of sewerage, house drains, ventilation and 
 fixtures, is due to several causes. 
 
 In the first place, the manufacturers of plumbing 
 supplies in their pursuit of commercial supremacy 
 have employed a number of sanitary engineers, 
 who by experimenting and investigation, have 
 perfected systems and fixtures which are a pre^ 
 ventative against the dangers 6f sewer gas and 
 their subsequent results, such as typhoid, scarlet 
 fever, dysentery, etc., coming as they frequently 
 do from no apparent cause, as far as modem 
 science will permit. 
 
 Secondly, good and safe plumbing has ceased 
 to be a luxury. Its protection against the above 
 mentioned diseases, and its safeguard to good 
 health, have made it a necessity. Hereitofore 
 many earnest, well-meaning persons, not appre- 
 ciating the import3nce of correct drainage and 
 plumbing, were inclined to sacrifice this vital fac- 
 tor in their buildings, and even to-day the remark 
 of some builder is often heard, to the effect that 
 the balance of the house has cost so much more 
 
 ^. 7 
 
8 HOUSE DRAINAGE 
 
 than was originally intended, that no more money 
 than is absolutely necessary can he expended for 
 the plumbing. The knowledge and skill which is 
 employed for the construction of the rest of the 
 house, should be as carefully applied to the sewer, 
 ventilation, bath and toilet rooms, and. their fit^ 
 tings. 
 
 Modem knowledge has taken the place of igno- 
 rance and neglect, and the fixtures and systems, 
 which were thought good enough ten years ago, 
 are to-day branded as old, on account of their not 
 being a proper safeguard against disease. Every 
 builder should weigh these facts well, and make 
 himself familiar with the dangers arising from 
 putting in a poor system, as even the smallest 
 lealc will cause sickness and often death. 
 
 The first subject to be taken up in the plumbing 
 line, is the house drain, which are the pipes which 
 carry from the house the liquid and soil refuse. 
 The accumulated waste from food, clothing and 
 bathing, tends to decay, and must be removed 
 promptly and properly, or disease wUl result. 
 The sewer which conveys the matter from the 
 dwelling, must be absolutely perfect. In all cases, 
 the sewer pipe within the foundation wall, should 
 be extra heavy cast-iron pipe, coated inside and 
 out with hot asphaltum, and should run through 
 the foundation wall, and the connection should be 
 made to the vitrified sewer at least ten feet out- 
 side of the building wall. The connection be- 
 
HOUSE DRAINAGE 
 
 tween the iron and vitrified soil pipe should be 
 carefully made at X and cemented tight with a 
 good grade of Portland cement. A good idea is to 
 incase the connection at X in a block of concrete, 
 which will prevent the breaking of the joint at 
 this point. 
 
 In the drawing Fig. 1 an installation is shown 
 which is commonly used by a great many plumb- 
 
 B 
 
 11*1^^^^ 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 ers, but which has many disadvantages. The 
 trap at A, which is placed in the connecting 
 sewer, to prevent the ingress of foul gases; from 
 the main sewer, is in a poor location, on account 
 of its inaccessibility. The vent opening to the 
 fresh-aij inlet at B ventilates the house system of 
 drain pipes. This vent is often placed between 
 the sidewalk and the curb, or in the front yard. 
 The vent bonnet is very liable to become loose or 
 
10 HOUSE DRAINAGE 
 
 broken, which will permit of dirt, stones, and 
 sticks falling into the opening so left, and choke 
 the sewer, which necessitates digging down to the 
 bottom to clean it out. Another objection to plac- 
 ing a vent in a position such as shown, is that 
 grass and other vegetation is liable to grow up 
 around and into it, thereby destroying its effi- 
 ciency. When a main disconnecting trap must 
 be located outside of the building and under- 
 ground, there should be built a brick manhole 
 around it for easy access. The manhole for this 
 purpose, should be two feet and five inches in 
 diameter at the base, and closed on the top with 
 a limestone cover, three inches in thickness, with 
 an eighteen-inch diameter round casit-iron lid, 
 which should have a one-inch bearing on the stone 
 all around. 
 
 The drainage system illustrated in Fig. 2 is a 
 very excellent one for a residence. The fittings 
 as shown are standard stock articles, and conse- 
 quently reduce the cost to a minimum. In the 
 ordinary residence, a four-inch pipe is sufficiently 
 large enough to carry away all of the sewerage. 
 A drainage pipe must not be so large, that the 
 ordinary flow of water will fail to float and carry 
 away the refuse which ordinarily accompanies 
 water. The pipe should be laid to grade, or a 
 fall of one foot in forty feet. Care should be ex- 
 ercised to allow a large enough opening in the 
 wall where the pipes pass through it, and espe- 
 
HOUSE DRAINAGE 
 
 11 
 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
12 HOUSE DRAINAGE 
 
 daily over them, to allow for setting of the wall 
 without touching the pipes. 
 
 Extra heavy cast iron soil pipe, not less than 
 four inches in diameter, coated inside and out 
 with hot asphaltum, should be used in all cases . 
 for house, drainage. 
 
 At A is shown a double-vent opening running 
 trap. By calking a four-inch brass ferrule, with 
 a brass-trap screw ferrule, into the hub at C, an 
 opening which gives free access to the drainage 
 system bn the sewer end is obtained. Care should 
 be talcen in making this joint, and a good grade 
 of spun oakum should be packed around the fer- 
 rule, with an iron yarning tool. The hub should 
 then be run full at one pouring with soft molten 
 lead, and then thoroughly calked with a blunt 
 calking iron, which will make an absolutely air- 
 tight joint. The trap-screw cover should be 
 screwed tightly into the ferrule with a good plia- 
 ble gasket. It is very necessary that this joint be 
 hermetically sealed, as the pipe X will constantly 
 be loaded with sewer-gas from the main sewer, 
 and any defective work si this joint will allow 
 the gas to escape into the basement. The vent 
 opening at B is to be treated in the same man- 
 ner, giving an opening which permits easy access 
 to the trap. 
 
 The air vent pipe D is run at an angle of forty- 
 five degrees, and the extension E, which is run 
 to the surface in this particular instance, is run 
 
HOUSE DEAINAGE , 13. 
 
 close to the foundation wall, and the elbow calked 
 on the top of the pipe, which prevents a possibil- 
 ity of any sticks, stones or other debris getting 
 into same and retarding a thorough circulation. 
 In order to have this drainage system properly 
 vented, the fresh-air inlet pipe should be the same 
 size as the drain pipe. Where it is impractical 
 or impossible to run this fresh-air vent up close 
 to the foundation wall and turn it over as shown, 
 it can be run as shown by F, and when placed in 
 the yard the inlet pipe can be capped with a regu- 
 lar air vent-cap fitting. Care should be taken in 
 placing this fresh-air inlet, so that the chances 
 of having it knocked off and broken will be as 
 small as possible. 
 
 The extension piece in all cases should be long 
 enough to permit of the opening in the vent-cap 
 being, at least, eight inches above the ground. 
 In the drawing the sewer or drain pij)e is shown 
 above the floor. In cases of this kind rests or 
 supports should be provided at an interval of five 
 feet, or in other words at every joint, to prevent 
 the same from sagging and probably breaking 
 the joints. When placed underground the top of 
 openings B and C should be on a level with the 
 flooring. In case of a shallow sewer in the street, 
 the piping can be suspended from the ceiling, 
 with a good heavy hanger supported by a joist 
 damp or swivel joint, which will permit the 
 
14 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 hanger being shQrtened or lengthened after the 
 pipe has been hung. 
 
 Connection to Main Sewer. The method of 
 making this connection is generally regulated by 
 local conditions, and the rules and regulations 
 established by ordinance of the town or city in 
 which the work is to be done. The connection of 
 the house sewer to the main or street sewer should, 
 if possible, always be made with a Y, or if there 
 is no y connection on the main available, then the 
 house sewer should be laid in such a manner that 
 it will strike the main sewer at an angle to the 
 direction of flow of sewage in the main sewer. 
 This will greatly facilitate the flow of sewage from 
 house sewer into main sewer. The house sewer 
 pipe should have an upward incline of ^ inch per 
 foot as it extends from the street main toward the 
 building, and it should terminate at a point not 
 less than 5 feet from the outside of the foundation 
 walls, where connection is to be made with the 
 cast iron soil pipe extending into the building. 
 
HOUSE DRAINAGE 15 
 
 Size of House Sewers. The size of the sewer 
 leading from the building to the street main is 
 governed by the quantity of sewage to be disposed 
 of. In large installations it often becomes neces- 
 sary to use more than one. Care should be taken, 
 however, not to install too large a sewer, nor to 
 give the same too much pitch or incline toward 
 the street. There are two reasons for this: (1) 
 If the sewer is too large it "svill pot be flushed as 
 it should be, since the water passing through it 
 will reach only part way up its sides, thus allow- 
 ing the floating matter to adhere to the sides, 
 the result of which will sooner or later be an 
 accumulation that will cause a stoppage of flow. 
 
 (2) If the sewer has too much pitch the water 
 will rush through it so rapidly that the solid mat- 
 ter will be left behind and very likely be de- 
 posited on the bottom and sides of the pipe, thus 
 forming an obstruction to the discharge of matter 
 which follows. 
 
 The basic principle controlling the successful 
 disposal of sewage through pipes is flotation; 
 that is, the velocity of flow of the water should be 
 such that the solid matter will be floated along 
 with the water. It has been found by experiment, 
 and also by practice, that an average velocity of 
 276 feet per minute will carry all matter from the 
 sewer. In estimating the required size of sewer 
 from house to street main a good rule to follow 
 is to have the sewer pipe one size larger than the 
 8oil pipe. 
 
16 
 
 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 Table 1 will facilitate calculations for fall re- 
 quired of various sized sewers in order to give the 
 velocity of flow required to remove all matter from 
 the pipes. 
 
 Size of Sewer 
 
 Fall, or 
 
 Pitch Required 
 
 Vel 
 
 ocity of 
 
 Flow 
 
 2 inch 
 
 1 foot in 20 feet 
 
 276 feet per 
 
 minute 
 
 3 " 
 
 
 •• 30 " 
 
 276 
 
 " 
 
 ' 
 
 
 • 
 
 4 " 
 
 1 " 
 
 " 40 " 
 
 276 
 
 " 
 
 • 
 
 
 • 
 
 5 " 
 
 1 " 
 
 " BO " 
 
 276 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 * 
 
 6 " 
 
 ^ 1 ** 
 
 •■ 60 " 
 
 276 
 
 " 
 
 ' 
 
 
 * 
 
 7 " 
 
 '1 " 
 
 " 70 " 
 
 -276 
 
 " 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 8 " 
 
 1 " 
 
 " 80 " 
 
 276 
 
 " 
 
 * 
 
 
 ' 
 
 9 " 
 
 1 " 
 
 " 90 " 
 
 276 
 
 " 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 10 " 
 
 1 " 
 
 "100 " 
 
 276 
 
 " " 
 
 " 
 
 TABLE 1. 
 
 FAULi PER FOOT FOR VARIOUS SIZED SEWERS AND HORI- 
 ZONTAL SOIL PIPES. 
 
 Rain Leaders. All down spouts, or rain water 
 pipes leading to, and connected with the house 
 sewer should be equipped with traps at their base. 
 The required size for house drains for carrying 
 away rain water is given in Table 2, the values 
 given therein being based upon an average rain- 
 fall. 
 
 size of Pipe 
 
 One-fourth Inch Fall 
 Per Foot 
 
 One-half- Inch Fall 
 Per Foot 
 
 5 inch 
 
 6 " 
 
 7 " 
 ■ 8 " 
 
 ■ " 
 
 '3,700 sC ft. of roof area 
 5,000 " " " ;' " 
 
 6,900 ■ " " 
 
 11,600." " " " 
 
 11 600 
 
 5,500 sq. ft. of roof area 
 
 7,500 - " 
 
 10,000 
 
 15,600 
 
 17.400 
 
 TABLE 2. 
 SIZES OF HOUSE DRAINS TO CARRY RAIN WATER. 
 
HOUSE DRAINAGE 
 
 17 
 
 Capacity op Drain Pipe Under Different Amounts 
 
 OP Fall. 
 
 Gralloms per Minute. 
 
 Size of Pipe. 
 
 1-2 inch fall 
 per 100. feet. 
 
 3 inch fall ~ 
 per 100 feet. 
 
 6 inch fall 
 per 100 feet. 
 
 9 inch fall 
 per 100 feet. 
 
 3 In. 
 
 4 " 
 & " 
 9 " 
 
 12 " 
 15 " 
 18 " 
 20 " 
 
 21 
 
 36 
 
 84 
 
 232 
 
 470 
 
 830 
 
 1300 
 
 1760 
 
 30 
 
 52 
 
 120 
 
 330 
 
 680 
 
 ' 1180 
 
 1850 
 
 2450 
 
 42 
 
 76 
 
 169 
 
 470 
 
 960 
 
 1680 
 
 2630 
 
 3450 
 
 52 
 
 92 
 
 206 
 
 570 
 
 1160 
 
 2040 
 
 3200 
 
 4180 
 
 Size of Pipe. 
 
 12 inch fall 
 per 100 feet. 
 
 18 inch fall 
 per 100 feet. 
 
 24 inch fall 
 per 100 feet. 
 
 36 inch fall 
 per 100 feet. 
 
 3 In. 
 
 4 " 
 6 " 
 9 " 
 
 12 " 
 15 " 
 18 " 
 20 " 
 
 60 
 
 108 
 
 240 
 
 660 
 
 1360 
 
 2370 
 
 3740 
 
 4860 
 
 74 
 
 132 
 
 294 
 
 810 
 
 1670 
 
 2920 
 
 4600 
 
 5980 
 
 85 
 
 148 
 
 338 
 
 930 
 
 1920 
 
 3340 
 
 5270 
 
 6850 
 
 104 
 184 
 414 
 1140 
 2350 
 4100 
 6470 
 8410 
 
 7ABLB } 
 
CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS. 
 
 Floor drains, when used in cellar or bas^nent, 
 should be connected to the leader side of a rain 
 leader trap wherever it is possible. Some sanitary 
 engineers go so far as to say that floor drains 
 should never be used, their objection to them be- 
 ing that the floor is not washed often enough to 
 furnish sufficient water to maintain a water seal 
 at all times against sewer gas ingress, and their 
 argument is well taken, but floor drains in a base- 
 ment are very convenient, and should be part of 
 a well-installed sanitary sewer system. 
 
 In case of a seepage of water through the foun- 
 dation walls, during a rainy period, it is well to 
 be provided with some means to carry the water 
 away quickly, without having to resort to the 
 laborious praftice of pumping. 
 
 The evils of a floor drain are not so much due 
 to their inefficiency, as they are to the care taken 
 of them. The cemented floor basement of the 
 modem home today is just as important to be 
 kept clean as the bathroom, and the thorough 
 housekeeper takes just as much pride in it, and 
 realizes the necessity for having it so from a sani- 
 tary standpoint.- 
 
 The old method of installing a floor drain or 
 18 
 
CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS 
 
 19 
 
 floor outlet whicli consisted of placing a running 
 trap in tlie line of drain pipe to the catch-basin, 
 and ruiming a piece of pipe to the floor level and 
 simply closing the opening with a bar strainer 
 grate is wrong. The grate, even when cemented 
 into the hub end of the pipe, will in time become 
 loosened, and dirt and other rubbish will soon 
 clog up the trap and render it useless. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 As before said, the grgat objection to a base- 
 ment floor drain in the ordinary house, is that 
 there is seldom sufficient water used on the base- 
 ment floor, to maintain a perfect water seal in the 
 trap. To neglect to see that the floor drain trap 
 is not always filled with water and to argue 
 against its installation on that point is wrong. 
 
 Floor drains should never be used without a 
 back-water valve, which will prevent SRW«r water 
 from backing up into the basement .4 xjymlxa" 
 
20 ceujAR or basement, drains 
 
 of different styles of floor drains are shown, which 
 are built on the proper lines. The one shown in 
 Fig. 3 is a combination floor drain and back-water 
 gate valve. This accessible cleanout cellar drain 
 flushing cesspool and back-water gate trap valve 
 combination has much to be commended. It has 
 a hinged strainer, through which seeping and 
 floor waste water finds a direct outlet to the trap 
 and sewer. The trap has a deep water seal, which 
 is always desirable, and is always provided with 
 a brass back-water gate valve or flap-valve which 
 will not rust and which will close and hold tight 
 against a back flow fronl the sewer. It also has 
 a tapped opening to which a water supply pipe 
 can be attached, and by means of a valve being 
 placed on the pipe at some convenient point, the 
 drain trap can be throroughly flushed and cleansed 
 by simply opening the valve for a few minutes 
 at a time. 
 
 Another method oftentimes used to provide for 
 a floor outlet to sewer is to run a piece of iron soil 
 pipe from the trap on the sewer to the floor level, 
 and to caulk into the hub of the pipe a brass fer- 
 rule or thimble with a brass screwed cover, which 
 is screwed down tight against a rubber gasket, as 
 shown in Fig. 4. An outlet of this character is 
 only opened when occasion demands, by unscrew- 
 ing and removing the cover imtil its need is past. 
 
 In Fig. 5 is shown an extra heavy cesspool 
 STJJtable for barns, carriage room and places of 
 
CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS 
 
 4 . 
 
 Fig. 5 . 
 
22 CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS 
 
 like nature. The top is sixteen inches square, 
 the body ten inches deep and has a four-inch out- 
 let, suitable for caulking into the hub of a four- 
 inch iron sewer pipe. The top cover or grating 
 is heavy enough to permit of horses, wagons and 
 carriages passing over it. The second grating or 
 strainer is of finer mesh, which catches any ob- 
 stacles which might clog up the sewer, it can be 
 lifted out by the knob and easily cleaned at any 
 time. The deep water seal in this trap is one of 
 its good features, the bell or hood not only serves 
 to maintain a water seal, but where used in stables 
 is a shield over the outlet to prevent oats or grain 
 of any description which might fall through the 
 second strainer from getting into' the sewer. 
 
 Care should be taken to prevent the bottom of 
 the cesspool from filling up with fine strainings. 
 
 Fig. 6 is a combination floor strainer and back- 
 water seal and is used in the hub of a sewer pipe 
 which extends down to the trap placed in the 
 sewer run. The rubber ball prevents the flooding 
 of the basement from backing up of water, by be- 
 ing floated to seat above. 
 
 In Fig. 7 is shown a floor drain and trap, de- 
 signed especially for hospital operating rooms 
 and other places where it is desirable not only to 
 cleanse thoroughly the floor, but also to remove 
 all sediment from the trap itself for obvious sani- 
 tary reasons. The trap is of cast iron, and is 
 enamelled insida This gives it an impervious 
 
CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS 23 
 
 Fig. f. 
 
24 CMLLAR OB BASEMENT DRAINS 
 
 and smooth surface and prevents the trap from 
 becoming coated and slimy. This trap is provided 
 with heavy brass east flushing rim and has a brass 
 removable strainer. 
 
 In the septional view is shown the method by 
 which the water supply is connected to both the 
 rim and trap, by means of which not only every 
 portion of the body may be cleansed, but also all 
 sediment removed from the jet inlet at the bottom. 
 
 The trap is built especially to maintain a deep 
 seal and is, three inches in diameter. 
 
ROUGHING IN 25 
 
 The roughing in of a system of plumbing re- 
 quires the most careful measurements possible on 
 the part of the plumber, owing to the fact that 
 when this portion of the job is completed, the soil 
 pipe is, or should be, in its proper location, the soil 
 stack connected with it and extending through the 
 roof of the building; also all branch soil pipes 
 leading from the main stack to their proper loca- 
 tions, under, or near the various fixtures, so that 
 when the floors are laid no changes will be re- 
 quired, for be it remembered that all roughing in 
 must be completed before the floors of the build- 
 ing are put down. • Fig. 8 shows a plan of the 
 roughing in work to be done in the basement. 
 
 The soil pipe is shown, with its various 
 branches, each having a certain function to per- 
 form, and it is easily seen that good judgment, 
 and accurate measurements are necessary in order 
 to bring each branch to its correct location. 
 
 Fig. 9 is a vertical section of a two-story and 
 basement building, showing all parts of the plumb- 
 ing system, including the main soil stack con- 
 nected at its bottom end with the house drain pipe, 
 while its top extends through the roof. A careful 
 study of Figs. 8 and 9 will show that good work 
 is required on the part of the plumber to locate 
 each tee, and Y in its proper place. 
 
26 
 
 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 
 
 «,S,V<«.^ 
 
 Fig. 8 
 
ROUGHlNa IN 27 
 
 In addition to tlie branch soil pipes wliicli are 
 to receive the discharge from the closets, there 
 are vent pipes for the purpose of relieving the air 
 pressure on the system, thus preventing siphon- 
 age, and maintaining a circulation of air through- 
 out the entire system at all times. These pipes 
 are clearly shown in Fig. 9. Then there are the 
 water pipes which are to supply water to the 
 various fixtures ; and drain pipes for receiving the 
 discharge from the different fixtures and passing 
 the same on into the main soil stack. It is a good 
 plan for the plumber to make a correct memoran- 
 dum of all roughing in measurements, and pre- 
 serve it for future reference. 
 
 Cutting Soil Pipe. As before stated, the soil 
 pipe should be extra heavy cast-iron pipe. When 
 the proper measurements have been taken, and 
 memoranda made of the same, it will be next in 
 order to cut the soil pipe into lengths to corre- 
 spond with the measurements. 
 
 The best tools to use for this purpose are a 
 diamond point cold chisel, and a machinist's ham- 
 mer. " Some workmen use a three wheel cutter for 
 cutting this pipe, but there is always a liability of, 
 cracking the pipe with this tool, owing to the fact 
 that the pipe is not of a uniform thickness. Hav- 
 ing determined by measurement the point where 
 the cut is to be made, mark it with a piece of chalk 
 around the circumference of the pipe, then lay the 
 pipe on the floor, placing a narrow piece of wood 
 directly under the marked place, and proceed with 
 the chisel and hammer. 
 
28 
 
 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 n^vn 
 
 
 - — r 
 
 -Efi^... H!E.S\PLr-\C^ 
 
 Pig. 9 
 
ROUGHING IN 29 
 
 Making Soil Pipe Joints. Joints that will not 
 leak should be the motto of every good plumber, 
 and this should apply, not only to joints that are 
 visible, but also to those joints in the soil pipe 
 which are in many cases entirely hidden from 
 view, owing to their location. Special care should 
 be exercised in making the joint which unites the 
 cast-iron soil pipe with the vitrified sewer pipe" 
 just outside the walls of the building. There are 
 several patented devices that may be used for 
 making this joint, orit may be made by the same 
 method as are the joints in the main sewer, that 
 is by the use of cement. 
 
 The joints in the soil pipe proper, within the 
 walls of the building should be made with oakum 
 and melted -lead, by first caulking the oakum 
 tightly in the space provided for the joint, leaving 
 a space of 1 inch to I14 inches in which to pour 
 the lead, which should also be caulked after it has 
 cooled. In caulking the lead due care should be 
 exercised not to use a heavy hammer, since great 
 pressure is brought to bear upon the hub,\^nd 
 there is danger of cracking it. In the making of 
 a joint in a horizontal soil pipe greater skill is 
 required than on a vertical pipe, and it becomes 
 necessary to use an asbestos joint runner in pour- 
 ing the lead. 
 
30 
 
 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 Putty, or soft clay are sometimes used for hold- 
 ing the lead, but not as good results are obtained 
 as with the asbestos, which can be clamped around 
 the pipe tightly, leaving an opening at the top for 
 pouring in the lead. Always pour the joint full 
 at one pouring. If by accident, or mistake the 
 joint is not poured full, at the first pouring, it 
 becomes necessary to pick out the lead, and repour 
 it. The lead used in making these joints should 
 be entirely free from solder, or other metals, and 
 it should always be hot when poured. It is good 
 practice to place some pulverized resin in the 
 space before pouring the lead. This will prevent 
 any trouble from possible dampness. Table 4 
 gives the weight of lead and oakum required for 
 soil pipe joints in various sized pipes. 
 
 Size of Pipe 
 
 Lead per Joint 
 
 Oakum per Joint 
 
 2 inch 
 
 3 " 
 
 4 " 
 
 5 ■' 
 
 6 " 
 
 Hi pounds 
 
 3 ounces 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 S 
 
 9 
 
 TABLE 4. 
 LEAD AND OAKUM REQUIRED FOR SOIL PIPE JOINTS. 
 
 Fig. 10 shows the plumbing for a two tenement 
 house, also method of using test plugs. 
 
 Fig. ir shows the plumbing for a three tenement 
 building. 
 
 Fig. 12 shows a method of running a long line of 
 soil pipe on the cellar wall. 
 
ROUGHING IN 
 
 31 
 
 Fig. 10 
 
32 
 
 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 K\w\ \.c^«c1v, 
 
 Fig. li 
 
EOUGHING IN 
 
 33 
 
 FiE. It 
 
34 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 Roof Construction. Eeference to Figures .10 
 and 11 will show that the diameters of the main 
 soil stacks are increased just under the roof, by 
 means of an increaser, and the enlarged diameter 
 continues through the roof. This is for the pur- 
 pose of preventing the stack from becoming 
 clogged with hoar frost in cold weather. 
 
 Figures 13 and 14 show several different meth- 
 ods of roof connections ; called by plumbers, ' ' roof 
 flashings." These are for the purpose of prevent- 
 ing rain water from following down the outside of 
 the pipe below the roof. Soil pipes should not be 
 less than four inches in diameter, and both soil, 
 and vent pipes should extend at least eight inches 
 above the roof, and if, at this height the opening 
 would be near the doors or windows of an adjoin- 
 ing building, these pipes should be extended so as 
 to bring the opening to a point not less than fif- 
 teen feet from such doors or windows ; and these 
 openings should be not less than six feet from any 
 ventilator, or chimney opening of the building 
 they are installed in, or any adjoining building. 
 Otherwise they are liable to be declared a nui- 
 sance. The increasers for enlarged diameter of 
 these pipes should extend at least one foot below 
 the roof, and the openings of these pipes must 
 have no caps or cowles affixed to, or over thoir 
 tops. 
 
 In many cities the connection of soil, or vent 
 pipes with a chimney flue is prohibited. 
 
ROUGHING IN 
 
 35 
 
 l\0«T 
 
 S'FftK V 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 13 
 
36 
 
 PBACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 Fig. 14 
 
ROUGHING IN 37 
 
 Pipe Supports. The foot of eveiy vertical 
 soil, rain, or waste pipe should be permanently 
 supported by a solid brick, stone or concrete pier 
 properly constructed, by using cement mortar, or 
 cement concrete, or if such material is not avail- 
 able, some other foundation equally as solid 
 should be used. The weight of the vertical soil 
 stack in most buildings is usually very heavy, and 
 when not properly supported, there is danger of 
 the pipe settling, the consequence of which would 
 be the opening up of more or less of the joints, 
 thereby causing leakage. In addition to supports 
 at the bottom, these pipes should also be provided 
 with floor rests at intervals of every second floor 
 through which they pass. Soil pipes under the 
 floor of the basement should be properly laid, rela- 
 tive to grade, and should also be provided with 
 adequate supports that will not settle. In case 
 these pipes are above the basement floor they 
 should be supported on solid piers, or they may 
 be suspended from above as shown in Fig. 12. 
 Where horizontal pipes are to be supported by 
 suspension, strap iron stirrups, and not hooks are 
 to be used. 
 
 Fresh Air Inlets. Fig. 15 shows two methods 
 for admitting fresh air to the basement soil pipe. 
 Fig. 16 shows the roughing in plan for the base- 
 ment of a store or office building; while Figures 
 17, 18 and 19 show the roughing in and plumbing 
 of a Modern Engine House for the use of the Fire 
 Department. 
 
38 
 
 PEACfldAL PLUMBING 
 
 Fig. 15 
 
HOUaSlNG IN 
 
 3d 
 
 Fig. 16 
 
PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 •^n Tuoo^ or 
 
 
 
 iTvaoiv or 
 
 <k^vp^nau^ 
 
 , To ^t.vv.^iv 
 
 
 
 
 
 o•»^^l»u■^ 
 
 
 Fir. 17 
 
ROUGHING IN 
 
 41 
 
 
 
 K\-V_ 
 
 e^ <j\\ut. .YWH SvKce 6t- 
 X \ "t«VKP »oo^ ^*W0 
 
 gi^ ^ fga «s^ Bs< K^ 
 
 CKST \«fl»\ S\T\tv 
 
 
 V>«\HQ«>'\ 
 
 Fig. IS 
 
42 
 
 PHACTICAL PLUMBIMG 
 
 Fig. 19 
 
HOUGSINO IN 43 
 
 Figure 20 shows the plumbing for a modern 
 stable, and is self-explanatory. Figures 21 to 28 
 Bhow enlarged views of the connections to the 
 various fixtures required in the plumbing of a 
 two-story and basement residence as shown in 
 Fig. 9. These illustrations are self-explanatory, 
 and need no further comment. It will be noticed 
 that the work starts in the basement on the con- 
 nections for the wash trays, and servant's water- 
 closet, Fig. 21. Next come the fixtures on the first 
 floor, consisting of the refrigerator, kitchen sink, 
 and lavatory. These are shown in Figs. 22, 23, 
 and 24. The waste, or drip pipe from the refrig- 
 erator. Fig. 24, should not be directly connected 
 with any soil pipe, rain water lead, or any other 
 waste pipe; but should discharge into an open, 
 water supplied sink, or over a deep sealed trap, 
 as shown in Fig. 24. It should be as short as 
 possible, and should be disconnected from the re- 
 frigerator, or ice box by at least four inches. In 
 buildings where refrigerators, or ice boxes are 
 located on two or more floors, the waste and vent 
 pipe should be continuous, and should run through 
 the roof, care being taken also, that it does not 
 open within six feet of an open soil, or vent pipe. 
 The size of a waste pipe for refrigerators for two 
 floors, or less should "be at least one and one-half 
 inches; two inches for three floors and over, and 
 two and one-half inches for five floors and over. 
 
44 
 
 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 Fig. 20 
 
FIXTURE CONNECTIONS 
 
 45 
 
 
 Fig. 21 
 
46 
 
 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 i ' 
 
 
 Wtpeo 
 3ott\\ 
 
 
 hdi 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 L^ 
 
 a' 
 
 
 Fig. 22 
 
FIXTURE CONNECTIONS 
 
 47 
 
 
 
 Pig. 23 
 
48 
 
 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 Fig, 24 
 
FIXTURE CONNECTIONS 
 
 49 
 
 CO^^^^€■C^^\ot^a 
 J^ VIKTOR 
 
 
 Fig. 26 
 
50 
 
 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 Fie. 26 
 
FIXTURE CONNECTIONS 
 
 51 
 
 Fig. «7 
 
52 = 
 
 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 Fig. 28 
 
TRAPS. 
 
 A. trap is a device or fitting used to allow the 
 free passage through it of liquids and solids, and 
 still prevent the passage of air or gas in either 
 direction. There are two kinds df traps used on 
 plumbing fixtures known as syphon .traps and 
 anti-syphon traps. The simplest j trap is the sy- 
 phon trap— a horizontal pipe bent as ghown in 
 
 ; Fig. 29. 
 
 Fig. 29. This forms a pocket which will retain 
 enough liquid to prevent air or gas from passing. 
 The dip or loop is called the seal, and should 
 never be less than one and one-half inches. This 
 type of trap is what is known as a running-trap. 
 This is not a good trap to use, and it is only capa- 
 ble of withstanding a very low back pressure. 
 
 ' ' * 53 . ^'r ■ . 
 
54 
 
 TBAPS 
 
 The trap most generally used is what is known 
 as the S trap, as shown in Fig 30. When this trap 
 is subjected to a back-pressure, the water backs 
 up into the vertical pipe, and naturally wUl with- 
 stand a greater pressure than the running-trap 
 type— about twice as much. 
 
 The trap shown in Fig 31 is what is known as 
 a P trap, and in Fig 32 as three-quarter S trap, 
 and has the same resisting power as the S trap. 
 
 A trap may lose its seal either by evaporation, 
 self-syphonage or by suction. There is no danger 
 
TRAPS 
 
 55 
 
 of a trap losing its seal in an occupied house 
 from evaporation, as it would take a number of 
 week's time, under ordinairy conditions, to evapo- 
 rate enough water to destroy the seal. 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 
56 
 
 TRAPS 
 
 A trap can be syphoned when connected to an 
 unvented stack, and then only when the waste 
 pipe from the trap to the stack extends below the 
 dip, so as to form the long leg of the syphon as 
 in Fig. 33. 
 
 Fig 33. 
 
TBAPS * 57 
 
 "When two fixtures are installed one above the 
 other, with unvented traps and empty into one 
 stack, the lower trap can be syphoned by aspira- 
 tion. The water emptying into the stact at the 
 higher point in passing to the trap inlet of the 
 lower fixture, creates a partial vacuum which 
 sucks the water out of the' trap at the lower point. 
 To prevent this, what is known as back-venting 
 is resorted to, back-venting not only protects the 
 trap against syphonage, but relieves the seal from 
 back-pressure, by equalizing the pressure on both 
 sides of the seal. All revent pipes must be con- 
 nected to vent pipes at such a point that the vent 
 opening will be above the level of the water in 
 the trap. 
 
 In Fig. 34 two basins are shown connected to 
 soil pipe with S traps and back— vented into the 
 air-Vent pipe, both connecting into the attic into 
 an increaser, which projects through the roof. 
 This drawing is given to illustrate the proper 
 back-venting to prevent syphonage of basin traps, 
 and when it is necessary to run separate stacks 
 for wash basins, such as are sometimes installed 
 in bedrooms, the main waste stack must be two 
 inches in diameter and the vent pipe one and one- 
 half inches, either cast iron or galvanized wrought 
 iron. 
 
 Non-syphon traps are those in which the seal 
 cannot be broken under any reasonable condi- 
 tions. Some water can be syphoned from the best 
 
58 
 
 TRAPS 
 
 of non-syphon traps made, but not enough to d& 
 stroy their seal. The commonest non-syphoning 
 
 Fig. 34 
 
TRAPS 
 
 59 
 
 trap is known as a drum trap, which is four inches 
 in diameter and ten inches deep. Sufficient water 
 always remains in this trap to maintain its seal, 
 even when subjected to the severest of tests. 
 
 Fig. 35 shows a trap, which is the type general- 
 ly used to trap the bathtub. This trap is provided 
 
 Pig. 
 
 with a brass trap-screw top for clean-out pur- 
 poses, made gas and water tight against a rubber 
 gasket. A trap of this kind, would not be suitable 
 for a lavatory, its principal fault being that owing 
 to the enlarged body they are not self-cleaning, 
 affording a lodging place for the depositing of 
 sediment. 
 
60 
 
 TRAPS 
 
 The non-syphon trap to be used is one in which 
 the action of the water is rotary, as it thoroughly 
 scours the trap and keeps it clean, such as is 
 shown in Fig. 36. This trap depends upon an 
 inner partition to effect this rotary movement, 
 and is so constructed that its seal cannot be brok- 
 en by syphonic action and is permitted by health 
 
 Fig. 
 
 and sanitary departments, where it is impossible 
 to run a separate vent pipe to the roof. 
 
 One of the oldest traps is the Cudell trap, as 
 shown in Fig. 38. The rubber ball being of slight- 
 ly greater specific gravity than water rests on the 
 seat and forms a seal when the water is not flow- 
 ing through the trap. This ball prevents the seal 
 
TRAPS 
 
 61 
 
 of the trap being forced by back-pressure, and 
 acts as a cbeck against back flow of sewerage 
 should drain stop up, and provides a seal if water 
 is evaporated. 
 
 Fig. 37 shows the old Bower trap. The water 
 seal is maintained by the inlet leg, extending 
 
 Fig. 38 
 
 down into the body below the outlet. The bot- 
 tom of this trap is glass, brass or lead, which- 
 ever is desired, and can be unscrewed from trap 
 and thoroughly cleaned. 
 
SOLDER. 
 
 The composition and properties of solders are 
 a matter of considerable interest to all metal 
 workers, but the subject is of especial import- 
 ance to plumbers, because on the quality and 
 purity of solder depend in a large measure the 
 reliability and good appearance of their work. 
 Nothing is more annoying, nor is there anything 
 so productive of bad work, waste of time, and 
 consequent irritability and bad temper, as the 
 trying to do good work with bad material, par- 
 ticularly if that material is wiping or plumbers' 
 solder. Until recent years it was invariably the 
 practice for plumbers to make their own solders, 
 either from the pure lead and tin, or, old joints 
 and solders were melted down, and tin added in 
 proportion. Of late years it is becoming quite 
 unusual for plumbers tq know anything about 
 solder-making. Plumbers consider it more eco- 
 nomical to buy it, already made, from firms who 
 make solder-making a branch of their manu- 
 facturing trade. Another advantage is, that if 
 supplied by a firm of good standing it can gen- 
 erally be depended upon for purity and uniform 
 quality. 
 
 Good plumbers' solder should consist of two 
 
 63 
 
SOLDER 63 
 
 parts of lead to one of tin, but the proportions, 
 of course, vary according to the quality of the 
 constituent parts. Tin, for instance, varies very 
 much in quality, and no fluxing or a super- 
 abundance of the tin will make good solder if 
 this metal is of an inferior kind. It is, there^ 
 fore, far the most economical in the long run to 
 use tin of the very best quality. 
 
 As the exact proportions, as they are gener- 
 ally given, depend to "^ very great extent upon 
 the condition of the two metals, it follows that 
 the mere mixing of certain quantities of tin and 
 lead . does not necessarily make a composition 
 that will serve the purpose that it is intended 
 for, but a plumber with an experienced eye can 
 detect at a glance the inferiority and usefulness 
 of such solders when required for the execution 
 of good work, . 
 
 Although it is not absolutely necessary that a 
 good solder-maker should be a plumber, it is 
 important that he should have a considerable 
 knowledge of the appearance of solder in proper 
 condition. In the absence of a practical test, 
 there are certain indications by which the solder 
 may be judged, whether it is good or bad. The 
 most common practice is to run out a strip of 
 solder on a smooth level stone. As soon as the 
 strip is nearly cold, the quality of the solder or 
 the proper proportion of tin and lead can be de- 
 eimined by the appearance of bo^ surfaces. It 
 
64 SOLDER 
 
 is important, before runniHg the solder ont on 
 the stone, that it should be at such a heat as 
 to allow the solder to run freely. A tempera- 
 ture just below red heat is the most suitable for 
 this purpose, if the solder is not hot enough, it 
 will have a dull white look, whether it is good 
 or bad. 
 
 If it is in good condition, it should have a 
 clean, silvery appearance, bright spots should 
 also form on the surface from an eighth to a 
 quarter of an inch in diameter. As a rule, the 
 larger the spots the finer is the solder, although 
 some kinds of tin will not show large spots, 
 however much is used. In such cases they 
 should appear more numerous. 
 
 If the strip has a dull, dirty appearance and 
 a mottled surface, it is evident the solder is not 
 as pure as it should be. It probably contains 
 some mineral impurities, which can generally be 
 removed by well heating the solder in the pot, 
 and stirring into it a quantity of resin and 
 tallow. These substances have but very little, 
 if any, chemical effects, either upon the solder 
 or the foreign matters it may contain, but the 
 action that seems to take place is that they 
 combine with the lighter mineral matters by 
 what may be called adhesive attraction, and 
 cause them to rise to the surface, where they can 
 be skimmed off. There are some earthy impurities 
 that get into the solder, the specific gravities of 
 
SOLDER 65 
 
 which are probably much lighter than the solder 
 itself, but which will not rise to the surface un- 
 til assisted by means of fluxes. It must be re- 
 membered that although tin has a specific gravity 
 of 7.3 and lead 11.445, it is therefore, necessary 
 to well stir the solder while it is being poured 
 into the moulds, as the tin will continually rise 
 to the top, yet if it were not stirred at all after 
 it was once mixed, the lower portion would not 
 be wholly deprived of tin, showing that the 
 greater specific gravity of the one does not 
 wholly displace the other. The, same is true of 
 certain impurities, which are not removed until 
 they are washed out, as it were, by means of 
 fluxes ^uch as resin and tallow. 
 
 The greatest enemy to plumbers' solder is 
 zinc. If the slightest trace of this metal gets 
 into a pot of solder, it is almost a matter of 
 impossibility to wipe joints with it, especially 
 underhand joints. 
 
 When zinc is present, the strip of solder has a 
 dull, crystallized appearance on the surface. The 
 tin spots are also very dull and rough, and not 
 at all bright and clean. When solder of this 
 kind is being used for wiping, the first thing 
 noticed is that a thick, dirty dross forms on the 
 surface directly after it is skimmed. It is im- 
 possible to keep the surface clean for even a 
 second. When it is poured on a joint, it sets 
 almost instantly, and it matters not at what heat 
 
66 SOLDER 
 
 it is used. As soon as one attempts to move it 
 with the cloth, it breaks to pieces, and falls off 
 the joint. 
 
 In the case of branch joints when an iron is 
 used, the solder cools in hard lumps, and breaks 
 away like portions of wet sand. There are two 
 or three ways of extracting zinc from solder, 
 one is to partly fuse it, and when it is nearly 
 set to pulverize it until the particles are sep- 
 arated as much as possible. The whole is then 
 placed in a pot or earthenware vessel and sat- 
 urated 'with hydrochloric acid, commonly called 
 muriatic acid. The acid dissolves the zinc and 
 produces chloride of zinc; the latter can be 
 washed out with clean water and the solder re- 
 turned to the pot in a comparatively pure state. 
 This method cannot be recommended as a cer- 
 tain, cure, because of the diflSculty there exists 
 in dividing the particles to such an extent as to 
 expose the whole of the zinc that may be con- 
 tained in it, and considering the small amount 
 of zinc that is sufficient to poison a pot of solder 
 it, is doubtful if the acid process is radical 
 enough in its action to thoroughly eradicate the 
 zinc, without repeated applications. 
 . Sulphur is the best, thing to use for this pur- 
 pose. 
 
 Wien a pot of solder has been found to be 
 poisoned with zinc, it is heated to just below a 
 red heat. Lump sulphur is broken up and graa- 
 
SOLDER 67 
 
 nlated, it is then screwed up tight in three or 
 four thicknesses of paper, and u this form is 
 thrown into the pot and held helow the solder 
 with a ladle. As the paper hums the sulphur 
 rises through the solder, comhines with the zinc, 
 , and floats on the surface. The solder is well 
 stirred so as to thoroughly mix the sulphur with 
 the whole of the contents of the pot, the dross 
 which is formed by this process is then skimmed 
 off with a ladle and thrown away as useless. 
 
 In the case of the sulphur, although it is gen- 
 erally called a flux, the action that takes place 
 is altogether different to that of resin and tal- 
 low. It may safely be inferred by reference to 
 the results of chemical combinations that the 
 zinc, having a great affinity for sulphur, as soon 
 as it comes in contact, forms sulphide of zinc, 
 this is really a substance similar to zinc blende, 
 a common form of zinc ore. In this condition, 
 the specific gravity being considerably reduced, 
 it readily rises to the surface of the solder, 
 where it can be skimmed off with a ladle. 
 
 The question naturally arises— why is it the 
 sulphur does not combine with the lead to which 
 it also has an, affinity, and thus form sulphide of 
 lead? If lead is heated only just above its melt- 
 ing point and then some sulphur is mixed with 
 it, a substance would be formed similar to ga- 
 lena, or sulphide of lead. But if the tempera^ 
 ture is raised several degrees higher the sulphide 
 
68 SOLDER 
 
 gives up the lead, and either floats to the top 
 or passes off in the form of gaseous vapor, chem- 
 ically termed sulphurous anhydride. There- 
 fore, by heating the solder containing zinc to a 
 temperature just below redness, it is hot enough 
 to prevent the sulphur combining with the lead 
 and tin, but not sufficiently heated to cause the 
 sulphur to give up the zinc, which -fuses at a 
 temperature of 773 degrees Fahrenheit, whereas 
 lead fuses at 612 degrees Fahrenheit, and in com- 
 bination with tin as solder at 441 degrees Fah- 
 renheit. The difference in the melting points 
 is in all probability the principal cause of the 
 sulphur attracting the zinc and leaving the lead 
 and tin comparatively unaffected. 
 
 Another method of extracting the zinc from 
 solder is to raise the temperature to a very 
 bright red heat, if this is continued long enough 
 the zinc vaporizes and passes off in a gaseous 
 state. 
 
 The latter is a very wasteful process because 
 it cannot be done without a large proportion of 
 the tin becoming oxidized. The oxide gathers 
 in the form of a powder on the surface, and is 
 what is commonly known as putty powder. One 
 of the most common means of spoiling solder is 
 the last mentioned. 
 
 The flowing of solder, especially that used 
 with the copper-bit, depends to a large extent 
 upon the fluxes that are used for tinning pur- 
 
Solder fi9 
 
 poses. For soldering lead only a very simple 
 flux is necessary, namely, a little tallow and 
 powdered resin. The same kind of flux is' also 
 very often used for tinning and soldering brass 
 and copper, and there are many plumbers who_ 
 use nothing else but a piece of common tallow 
 candle, which seems to answer the purpose very 
 well. For soldering iron, zinc, and tin goods, chlor- 
 ide of zinc, or what is commonly called killed 
 spirit of salt, is generally used, although it is 
 not necessary to kill the hydrochloric acid when 
 zinc "has to be soldered. Soldering fluids and 
 preparations have been invented which have, to 
 a very large extent, superseded the common 
 fluxes. The disadvantage of spirit of salt is ow- 
 ing to the tendency it has to produce oxidation 
 on iron, and chlorides on zinc, after the solder- 
 ing is done. 
 
 It would be interesting to try and find out the 
 reason why a combination of metals fuses at 
 such a low temperature when compared with the 
 fusing points of the component parts of the 
 alloys. It is necessary to bear in mind the fact 
 that all metals, and indeed all matter, are com- 
 posed of minute particles or molecules, and that 
 there is nothing existing that is a strictly solid 
 imiform mass. It is also acknowledged that 
 the molecules of different substances always as- 
 sume a distinctive shape, and when metallic 
 matter is crystallized, as it is said to be when it 
 
70 SOLDER 
 
 becomes solid by the action of cold, tbese par- 
 tiples are attracted to eacb other by a force of 
 more or less power according to the nature of 
 the metal, whether it is said to be hard or soft. 
 
 Now the force by which these aggregations of 
 minute particles are held together is what is 
 called cohesive attraction, and the power of this 
 force to hold the particles together depends to 
 a very great extent upon the particular shape 
 which these extremely small particles assume, 
 and the amount of surface which they present 
 to each other. It is very easy to conceive that 
 if a number of bodies have mutual attraction 
 for each other, the larger the surface that comes 
 in contact the more force is there exerted one 
 with the other. If, for instance, the particles 
 take' the form of spheres like a number of mar- 
 bles, the surface in actual contact is compara- 
 tively very small indeed, the same would be the 
 case if they were very irregular in form. But 
 if each particle took the form of a cube, or 
 some other regular body, the attraction would 
 be greatly increased, as each of the particles 
 approached and fitted into its proper place. It 
 is not contended that the molecules are actually 
 attracted into absolutely close contact, because, 
 as a matter of fact, they are not. In every sub- 
 stance, however hard and solid it might appear 
 to be, there are certain interstices between the 
 particles which are called pores, the capacities 
 
SOLDER ?1 
 
 of which vary according to peculiar conforma- 
 tion of the particles, and the degree of affinity 
 which one set of particles may have for others 
 in the same mass. It follows then that as a rule 
 the hardness or softness of any substance de- 
 pends, ac(?ording to the theory of cohesive at- 
 traction, upon the close and compact nature of 
 the molecules, and the large or small spaces or 
 interstices between them, that is, so far as the 
 action of heat is concerned. If it is required to 
 make a hard substance soft and pliable, some 
 power is necessary to exert a reactionary in- 
 fluence upon the attractive force which causes 
 the particles to cohere. Now the only powers 
 that will effectually produce this result is heat, 
 when heat is applied to nearly all metallic sub- 
 stances, the first thing it does is to enlarge the 
 bulk by the almost irresistible force of expan- 
 sion. The effect that heat has on a solid is 
 to cause the particles to be thrown farther apart 
 from each other by a repulsive force, overcoming 
 to a certain extent the force of cohesive attrac- 
 tion. This repulsive action continues to increase 
 as the temperature is raised, until the attractive 
 force has to give way to the force of gravity. 
 
 The result is the particles will no longer co- 
 here in a mass, but fall away from each other 
 and become in a state of fluid, and if they are 
 not kept together in a vessel of some kind dw-- 
 ing their high temperature they will run in any 
 
72 SOLDER 
 
 direction by the influence of gravity like ordi- 
 nary liquids. When a metal is in such a con- 
 dition it is said to be melted or fused. There 
 are some metals, zinc for instance, the particles 
 of which are separated to a much greater ex- 
 tent than is the case with fusion oilly. For if 
 the heat is applied so that the temperature is 
 raised above fusing point, evaporation takes 
 place, and the molecules are driven off in the 
 form of vapor. 
 
 When two distinct metals are mixed together, 
 such as tin and lead, the cohesive attractiou is 
 modified to a large extent, because the molecules ' 
 of one have a comparatively small affinity for 
 the other. Of course tin has a certain amount of 
 affinity for lead, in fact, if there were no affinity 
 between the two, solders would be useless on 
 lead, because tinning could not be effected if 
 such were the case. But what seems certain is. 
 when the two metals are alloyed, the molecules 
 are not held together by the same attractive forc«' 
 that is exerted when a metal is not alloyed, that 
 is, the particles of one metal do not, by reason of 
 their difference of construction or conformation, 
 have the same affinity for each other as they do 
 when they are not intermixed with othei' parti- 
 cles of a different nature. 
 
 Consequently, when such combinations of met- 
 als are subjected to the action of heat, the par- 
 ticles mutually assist each other to separate, and 
 
SOLDER 73 
 
 gravitate like liquids to a level surface, with a 
 mucli lower degree of temperature than is re-^ 
 quired to obtain the same effect when the metals 
 are melted separately. 
 
 Then with regard to wiping solder, it retains 
 its fluid and plastic state for a much longer 
 time than lead or tin would before they are mix- 
 ed, showing that the particles, probably for the 
 same reason, do not solidify so quickly as they 
 would in a separate state. If they did, joint- 
 wiping would, of course, be impossible, for on 
 the peculiar power that solder has to retain its 
 heat, or rather the effects of heat, depends the 
 success of the most important parts of plumbing 
 work. An alloy of lead and tin contracts consid- 
 erably in cooling, the result of this can be seen 
 when a solder pot is placed on the fire. Before 
 the bulk of the solder melts, but as soon as that 
 part which is near the hottest part of the fire 
 begins to fuse, the molten metal forces its way 
 up to the top, between the sides of the mass of 
 solder and the sides of the pot, this often con- 
 tinues until the top of the unmelted mass is 
 covered with a melted layer which has forced its 
 way there, showing that when the solder cooled 
 it contracted into a smaller space than it occu- 
 pied when it was in a fluid state. Consequently, 
 when the lower part of the solder is melted first, 
 the expansion that takes place forces it of neces^ 
 sity to the top, because there is not room for the 
 
74 SOLDER 
 
 increased bulk in the spaxje it was reduced to 
 during the process of cooling. But if antimony, 
 the fusing point of which is 840 degrees Fahren- 
 heit, is added to lead and tin, the result is just 
 the reverse, for on cooling this alloy expands. 
 The latter alloy is generally used for casting^ 
 types for printing, the proportions of which are 
 two of lead, one of antimony, and, one of tin, 
 although a more expansive alloy is made of 
 nine of lead, two of antimony, and one of bis- 
 muth. Then with regard to the hardness of 
 metals, it is not always that the hardest metals 
 require the highest temperature to fuse them. 
 Tin, for instance, is much harder than lead, yet 
 it fuses at a temperature nearly 200 degrees Fah- 
 renheit lower than lead. 
 
SOLDER 
 
 75 
 
 
 Decimal Parts of an 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 1-64 
 
 .01563 
 
 11-32 
 
 .34375 
 
 43-64 
 
 .67188 
 
 1-32 
 
 .03125 
 
 23-64 
 
 .35938 
 
 11-16 
 
 .6875 
 
 3-64 
 
 .04688 
 
 3-8 
 
 .375 
 
 
 
 1-16 
 
 .0625 
 
 
 
 45-64 
 
 .70313 
 
 
 
 25-64 
 
 .39063 
 
 23-32 
 
 .71875 
 
 5-64 
 
 .07813 
 
 13-32 
 
 .40625 
 
 47-64 
 
 .73438 
 
 3-32 
 
 .09375 
 
 27-64 
 
 .42188 
 
 3-4 
 
 .75 
 
 7-64 
 
 .10938 
 
 7-16 
 
 .4375 
 
 
 
 1-8 
 
 .125 
 
 
 
 49-64 
 
 .76563 
 
 
 
 29-64 
 
 .45313 
 
 25-32 
 
 .78125 
 
 9-64 
 
 .14063 
 
 15-32 
 
 .46875 
 
 51-64 
 
 .79688 
 
 5-32 
 
 .15625 
 
 31-64 
 
 .48438 
 
 13-16 
 
 .8125 
 
 11-64 
 
 .17188 
 
 1-2 
 
 .5 
 
 
 
 3-16 
 
 .1875 
 
 
 
 53-64 
 
 .82813 
 
 
 
 33-64 
 
 .51563 
 
 27-32 
 
 .84375 
 
 13-64 
 
 .20313 
 
 17-32 
 
 .53125 
 
 55-64 
 
 .85938 
 
 7-32 
 
 .21875 
 
 35-64 
 
 .54688 ■ 
 
 7-8 
 
 .875 
 
 15-64 
 
 .23438 
 
 9-16 
 
 .5625 
 
 
 
 1-4 
 
 .25 
 
 
 
 57-64 
 
 .89063 
 
 
 
 37-64 
 
 .57813 
 
 29-32 
 
 .90625 
 
 17-64 
 
 .26563 
 
 19-32 
 
 .59375 
 
 59-64 
 
 .92188 
 
 9-32 
 
 .28125 
 
 39-64 
 
 .60938 
 
 15-16 
 
 .9375 
 
 19-64 
 
 .29688 
 
 5-8 
 
 .625 
 
 
 
 5-16 
 
 .3125 , . 
 
 
 
 61-64 
 
 .95313 
 
 
 " 
 
 41-64 
 
 .64063 
 
 31-32 
 
 .96875 
 
 21-64 
 
 .32813 
 
 21-32 
 
 .65625 
 
 63-64 
 
 .97438 
 
 Melting Points of Alloys 
 
 OF Tin, Lead, and Bismuth. | 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Bismuth. 
 
 Melting 
 Point in 
 Degrees 
 Fahren- 
 heit. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Bismuth. 
 
 Melting 
 Point in 
 Degrees 
 Fahren- 
 heit, 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 199 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 372 
 
 - 1 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 201 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 
 381 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 212 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 385 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 246 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 392 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 28^ 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 466 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 334 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 552 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 367 
 
 
 
 
 
 TABLS 6 
 
76 
 
 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 Weight of Twelve Inches Square of Various Metals. 
 
 BO 
 
 ■gp 
 
 
 • CO 
 
 §■3 
 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 .S 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 tV 
 
 2.50 
 
 2.34 
 
 2.56 
 
 2.75 
 
 2.69 
 
 2.87 
 
 2.37 
 
 2.25 
 
 3.68 
 
 % 
 
 5.00 
 
 4.69 
 
 5.12 
 
 5.50 
 
 5.38 
 
 5.75 
 
 4.75 
 
 4.50 
 
 7.37 
 
 A 
 
 7.50 
 
 7.03 
 
 7.68 
 
 8.25 
 
 8.07 
 
 8.62 
 
 7.12 
 
 6.75 
 
 11.05 
 
 % 
 
 10.00 
 
 9.38 
 
 10.25 
 
 11.00 
 
 10.75 
 
 11.50 
 
 9.50 
 
 9.00 
 
 14.75 
 
 
 12.50 
 
 11.72 
 
 12.81 
 
 13.75 
 
 13.45 
 
 14.37 
 
 11.87 
 
 11.25 
 
 18.42 
 
 % 
 
 15.00 
 
 14.06 
 
 15.36 
 
 16.50 
 
 16.14 
 
 17.24 
 
 14.24 
 
 13.50 
 
 22.10 
 
 A 
 
 17.50 
 
 16.41 
 
 17.93 
 
 19.25 
 
 18.82 
 
 20.12 
 
 16.17 
 
 15.75 
 
 25.80 
 
 y. 
 
 20.90 
 
 18.75 
 
 20.50 
 
 22.00 
 
 21.50 
 
 23.00 
 
 19.00 
 
 18.00 
 
 29.50 
 
 tV 
 
 22.50 
 
 21.10 
 
 23.06 
 
 24.75 
 
 24.20 
 
 25.87 
 
 21.37 
 
 20.25 
 
 33.17 
 
 'A 
 
 25.00 
 
 23.44 
 
 25.62 
 
 27.50 
 
 26.90 
 
 28.74 
 
 23.74 
 
 22.50 
 
 36.84 
 
 H 
 
 27.50 
 
 25.79 
 
 28.18 
 
 30.25 
 
 29.58 
 
 31.62 
 
 26.12 
 
 24.75 
 
 40.54 
 
 % 
 
 30.00 
 
 28.12 
 
 30.72 
 
 33.00 
 
 32.28 
 
 34.48 
 
 28.48 
 
 27.00 
 
 44.20 
 
 1 8 
 
 32.50 
 
 30.48 
 
 33.28 
 
 35.75 
 
 34.95 
 
 37.37 
 
 30.87 
 
 29.25 
 
 47.92 
 
 % 
 
 35.00 
 
 32.82 
 
 35.86 
 
 38.50 
 
 37.64 
 
 40.24 
 
 32.34 
 
 31.50 
 
 51.60 
 
 41 
 
 37.50 
 
 35.16 
 
 38.43 
 
 41.25 
 
 40.32 
 
 43.12 
 
 35.61 
 
 33.75 
 
 55.36 
 
 1 
 
 40.00 
 
 37.50 
 
 41.00 
 
 44.00 
 
 43.00 
 
 46.00 
 
 38.00 
 
 36.00 
 
 59.00 
 
 Weight of Metals. To Find Weight in Pounds. 
 
 Aluminium 
 
 Brass 
 
 Copper 
 
 Cast-iron 
 
 Wrought-Iron 
 
 Lead 
 
 Mercury 
 
 Nickel 
 
 Tin 
 
 Zinc 
 
 ..cubic inches 
 
 X 0.094 
 
 X0.31 
 
 X0.32 
 
 X0.26 
 
 X0.28 
 
 X0.41 
 
 X0.49 
 
 X0.31 
 
 XO.26 
 
 X0.26 
 
 TABLlB 6 
 
HOW TO MAKE SOLDER. 
 
 Plumber's wiping solder, for use with the 
 ladle and the soldering cloth, is made up by 
 melting together pure lead and block tin in the 
 proportion of 2 pounds of lead to 1 pound of 
 tin. Plumber's fine solder is made of abotit equal 
 parts of those two metals. Strip solder— used 
 with the copper-bit— is made in the proportion 
 of 2 poimds of tin to 3 pounds of lead. Gas- 
 fitter's solder may be made in the proportion of 
 8 pounds of tin to 9 pounds of lead, tinsmith's 
 copper-bit solder is 1 pound of lead to 1 pound 
 of tin. The proportion of lead and tin may vary 
 within certain limits without apparent effort on 
 the solder. 
 
 Plumber's wiping solder, when in a bar, 
 should have a clean grey appearance, and not be 
 dirty-looking. The ends of the bar should be 
 bright, and show several tin spots mottled over 
 their surfaces. In use, the solder should work 
 smootli, and not granular. The tin should not 
 separate from the lead on the lower part of the 
 joints. One test for the quality of solder is to 
 melt it and then pour on to a cpld but dry stone 
 about the size of a dollar, and take note qf the 
 color and size and also the number and sizes 
 
 77 
 
78 HOW TO MAKE SOLDER 
 
 of tHe spots that appear, but the only reliable 
 test is to make a joint and note the ^se with 
 which it can be worked. For making joints on 
 lead pipes copper-bit solder made in thin strips 
 is generally used. This is the kind used also 
 for soldering zinc. Some plumbers prefer sol- 
 der finer, others coarser than the usual average 
 which is given above. 
 
 The usual method of making solder is as fol- 
 lows: An iron pot is suspended over a coke fire, 
 to which enough broken coke is added to bank 
 up all round the pot. Sheet-lead cuttings and 
 scraps of clean "pipe are pufinto the pot until it 
 is rather more than half full. Preference is 
 given to pig-lead over sheet, and to new cuttings 
 over pipe, because the lead rolled into sheets is 
 genei'ally purer than that used for pipe. Some 
 pipe is made of old metals which contain lead, 
 tin, antimony, arsenic, and zinc, it is inadvis- 
 able to put such material in the solder-pot.' The 
 effect would be to raise the melting point of 
 the solder, and in applying it to the joint to be 
 soldered it would in all probability partially 
 melt the lead. Moreover, the metals named do 
 not alloy perfectly, but partake more of the 
 nature of a mixture which partially separates 
 when making a joint, some metals, especially 
 zinc, show as small bright lumps on the surface. 
 Joints made with such solder, which usually is 
 called poisoned metal, are difficult to form, and 
 
HOW TO MAKE SOLDER 79 
 
 they usually leak when in water pipes. The ap- 
 pearance of such joints is a dirty grey, instead 
 of bright and clean as when pure solder is used. 
 From this it is clear that in making solder great 
 care must be taken to exclude zinc from the pot. 
 Zinc, lead, and tin do not alloy well, lead will 
 unite with only 1.6 per cent of zinc, and above 
 that proportion the metals are only mixed when 
 melted, and on cooling partially separate. 
 
 Sufficient lead having been melted in the pot, 
 about % pound of lump sulphur, broken into 
 pieces about the size of hickory nuts, is added, 
 and the whole well stirred with a ladle, the sul- 
 phur unites with zinc and other impurities. The 
 resultant sulphides are skimmed off in the form 
 of a cake, more sulphur being added so long as 
 sulphides continue to form. The bowl of the 
 ladle, in the intervals of stirring, should be laid 
 on the fire, to bum off any adherent sulphur. 
 When sulphide ceases to be formed, a handful 
 of resin is thrown into the pot, and the lead 
 stirred. When the resin has burned, the lead is 
 again skimmed, and a piece of tallow about the 
 size of a hen's egg is put into the pot, the lead 
 being again stirred and skimmed. In stirring 
 the lead it is lifted up and poured back by the 
 ladleful, a larger amount of lead being thus 
 exposed to the action of the cleaning material. 
 
 Best block tin is now added in the required 
 proportion, and after the molten mass has been 
 
80 HOW TO MAKE SOLDER 
 
 well stirred a little of the mixture should be run 
 on to a stone to test its fineness. If it appears 
 too coarse more tin is added, if too fine, more 
 sheet-lead. Finally, a little resin and tallow 
 having been added, the solder is skimmed and is 
 then ready for use or for pouring into moulds. 
 When plumber's solder is heated in an open 
 pot, the surface exposed to the air combines with 
 oxygen, and on heating to redness, the combina- 
 tion takes place more readily. The tin melts 
 at a lower temperature than lead, and so its 
 specific gravity is lighter, floats when melted, 
 and so the solder becomes poorer when too 
 highly heated, owing to the tin's oxidation. If 
 the dross is melted with a flux, or with pow- 
 dered charcoal, which will combine with the 
 oxygen, the solder will again become fit for use, 
 but it is sometimes necessary to add a little 
 more tin. 
 
 Burning the solder must be carefully avoided. 
 A pot of solder after it has been red-hot has 
 always a quantity of dross or dirt collected on 
 the top. This is principally oxide of tin and 
 oxide of lead, the tin and lead having united 
 with the oxygen in the atmosphere to form ox- 
 ides of these metals. Lpad' being roughly 50 
 per cent heavier than tin, the tendency is for 
 the tin in the molten mixture to form the upper 
 layer of thp solder— the part most exposed to 
 the action of the atmosphere. When the solder 
 
HOW TO MAKE SOLDER. 81 
 
 becomes red-hot, there is therefore more tin 
 burned than lead. Hence the solder becomes too 
 coarse, and moxe tin must be added. Zine is 
 the greatest trouble to the solder pot. Grreat 
 care has to be taken to exclude it, or to get it 
 out. It may get into the solder from a piece of 
 zinc, having been put into the pot by mistake 
 for lead, but more commonly brass, which is an 
 alloy of copper and zinc, is the source of the 
 zinc that poisons the pot, into which brass filings 
 find their way whilst brass is being prepared 
 for tinning. If the filing is done at the same 
 bench as the wiping, splashes of metal may fall 
 on the filings, which will adhere, and thus get 
 into the pot. Solder that is poisoned by arsenic 
 or antimony is beyond the plumber's skill to 
 clean, but zinc can be extracted by stirring in 
 powdered sulphur when the solder is in a semi- 
 molten condition, and then melting the whole, 
 when the combined sulphur and zinc will rise 
 to the surface, and can be taken off in the form 
 of a cake, the solder being left in good condition 
 for use. 
 
SOLDERING FLUXES. 
 
 The flux ordinarily used for plumber's wiping 
 solder is tallow, generally ,in the form of a 
 candle. No other fluxes answer this purpose so 
 well, as they all spoil the wiping cloths, but dif- 
 ferent kinds of fluxes are required for different 
 kinds of work. For a wiped joint, a tallow 
 candle is rubbed over the parts. This is often 
 used in making popper-bit joints, though for this 
 latter purpose many plumbers prefer to use 
 black rosin. Muriatic acid is employed as a flux 
 for use when soldering, the acid — which is a 
 powerful poison— being used for zinc or galvan- 
 ized iron, and the killed acid for other metals, 
 such as brass, tinplate, copper, wrought-iron, 
 etc. 
 
 After tinning brass with fine solder, the cop- 
 per-bit should be wiped quite clean, as the cop- 
 per, uniting with some of the zinc in the brass, 
 may affect the wiping solder. Some plumbers 
 tin brass by holding it over the metal pot and 
 pouring the solder on to it. This is bad prac- 
 tice, as the surplus solder, and any zinc with 
 which it may have combined, fall into the pot. 
 In cleaning solder, the sulphur must be used 
 
 82 
 
SOLDERING FLUXES 83 
 
 with more care than when cleaning lead, or the 
 tin will be burnt out as well as the zinc. 
 
 The method ordinarily adopted by plumbers 
 for tinning iron is to file it bright and then coat 
 the part with killed acid or chloride of zinc, or 
 muriatic acid in which zinc has been dissolved, 
 and then dip it into molten plumber's solder. 
 Sometimes sal-ammoniac is used for the flux, or 
 a mixture of sal-ammoniac and chloride of zinc. 
 When wrought-iron pipes have been thus tinned, 
 and then soldered joints made, they have been 
 found to come apart after a few years, the pipe 
 ends, when pulled from the solder, being found 
 to be rusty. Although more diflBcult to accom- 
 plish, iron pipe ends filed and covered with resin, 
 and then plunged into molten solder, from the 
 surface of which all dross has been skimmed, 
 and afterwards soldered together, have been 
 known to last a considerable time. When tin- 
 ning the pipes or making the joints, the solder 
 must not be overheated, or failure will result. 
 
PREPARING WIPED JOINTS. 
 
 One objection that is often raised to wiped 
 joints is that they are too expensive, and re- 
 quire a large quantity of solder. Another is that 
 they take up too much time, and when they are 
 made they are said to be ugly, and have been 
 described as a "ball of solder round a pipe." 
 It seems very unfortunate that plumbers' work 
 should be judged by its worst specimens, but, 
 probably, this course of action is justified by 
 the principle that the strength of the chain is 
 limited to its, weakest link. There is no doubt 
 that if joints are carefully prepared and prop- 
 erly wiped the above objections would be 
 groundless, and that for good substantial work 
 there is no other kind of joint that is more 
 suitable for the purpose. 
 
 In the process of making wiped joints no part 
 is no important as the preparation. A joint 
 may be wiped as nicely and as regularly as pos- 
 sible, but if the ends are not properly prepared 
 and fitted, it will very often happen that the 
 joint will leak by sweating, as it is called, the 
 solder is generally supposed to be the cause, 
 but more often it is , the fault of the imperfect 
 preparation of the ends of the pipe. We will 
 
 84 
 
PREPARINQ WIPED JOINTS 85 
 
 suppose, for instance, an upright joint on an 
 inch service pipe. Fig. 40 is a sketch showing 
 the' way a joint of this kind is usually prepared. 
 Very often one end barely enters the other, no 
 care is taken to see that the ends fit properly 
 together, and any space that may be left be- 
 tween the two ends is closed up with a hammer. 
 As to shaving inside the socket end, this is 
 thought quite unnecessary, if not a fault, for 
 some think if the socket end is shaved inside, 
 it will induce the solder to run through and* 
 partly fill up the pipe. There is no doubt it 
 would do so if the ends do not fit; but that is 
 just the thing that is most important, not only 
 as regards the solder getting inside the pipe, but 
 on it depends, to a very large extent, the sound- 
 ness of the joint. 
 
 The general idea is that if the two ends of a 
 pipe are shaved and placed together, and a piece 
 of solder stuck round them, that is all that is 
 reqiiired to make a joint. If the solder is not so 
 fine as it ought to be, it is the cause of most of 
 the leaky joints, and very often the joints are 
 found broken right across the center, more es- 
 pecially in the case of joint on hot- water, service, 
 and waste pipes. It has been remarked 
 that the solder is generally blamed for all the 
 failures. It is either too coarse or too cold, or 
 else it must have got a piece of zinc in it. Other- 
 wise, if the joint is made to brasswork, it is that 
 
86 PREPAEING WIPED JOINTS 
 
 which has poisoned the solder. In short, every- 
 thing gets blamed except the right cause. 
 
 It must not be supposed that joint-wiping can 
 be taught by books. This can only be accom- 
 plished in the workshop 6r on a plumbing job. 
 But as practice is very often greatly assisted by 
 precept, probably a few hints on the matter of 
 joint-wiping will be helpful to many who have 
 not the opportunities to gain a very large or 
 varied experience. In preparing a joint similar 
 ' to the one mentioned, after the two ends are 
 carefully straightened, the spigot, or what is 
 generally called the male end, should be first 
 rasped square, and then tapered with a fine rasp 
 quite half an inch back from the end. A fine 
 rasp is mentioned because the rasps that are 
 used by many plumbers are far too coarse to" 
 properly rasp the ends of pipes. Generally the 
 very coarse rasps are used, it is difficult to say 
 why, except it is that they are cheaper than the 
 fine rasps, but if the advantages of a fine rasp 
 be taken into account, the extra cost would not 
 be considered. 
 
 When preparing the ends of the pipe, great 
 care should be taken to avoid the raspings get- 
 ting into the pipes, these cause no end of time 
 and trouble when they get into valves and other 
 fittings, after the pipes are filled with water; 
 
 As a- rule, it is the back stroke of the rasp 
 that throws the raspings inside the pipe, espe-- 
 
f*IlEPARlNG WIPED JOINTS B1 
 
 cially when the pipe is being rasped horizontally, 
 or with the end of the pipe pointing upwards. 
 If possible, when the ends are being rasped, they 
 should either be pointing in a downward direc- 
 tion, or .else the rasp should not be allowed to 
 touch the pipe in its backward stroke. Some 
 plumbers place a wad or stopper in the end of 
 a pipe when it is being rasped; this is a very 
 good precaution to take, providing it is not for- 
 gotten and left in the pipe. After the spigot 
 end has been rasped, it should be soiled about 
 six inches long, but no farther towards the end 
 than an inch from the rasped edge. Sometimes 
 the soiling is taken right up to the end, but this 
 is not a good plan, because, if it is foiled over 
 the rasped edge, the shave-hook does not always 
 take the soil out of the rasp marks, a point 
 which is most important; and as it is quite un- 
 necessary to soil farther than the line of shaving, 
 the soil at the end is quite superfluous. Many 
 plumbers soil the ends before they rasp them 
 with the same object in view, but this is not a 
 good plan, because very often in rasping the 
 ends, the end of the rasp is likely to scratch the 
 soiling, making it necessary to touch up the soil- 
 ing again. 
 
 If the soil is good it is an advantage to rub it, 
 after it is dry, with a piece of carpet or a hard 
 brush, a dry felt will do. This makes the sur- 
 face of the soil smooth and more durable, and 
 
88 PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 
 
 not so likely to flake off when the joint is wiped. 
 The best soil is made from vegetable black and 
 diluted glue with a little sugar, and finely 
 ground chalk added. The proportion of the in- 
 gredients depends to a large extent on their 
 quality. Lamp black and size are generally used, 
 but if the black is not very good it is very diffi- 
 cult to make soil fit for use, it will rub or peel 
 off and become a nuisance. Good soil, and a 
 properly made soil pot and tool, are indispensa- 
 ble to a plumber who wishes to turn out a. good 
 quality of work. Any makeshift does for a 
 soil pot with a great many plumbers. Some 
 use an old milk-can or a saucepan. It is much 
 better to have a good copper pot, with a handle. 
 Most plumbers should be able to make a soil 
 pot with a piece of sheet copper, otherwise a 
 coppersmith would make one for a small sum. 
 Before soiling the end of the pipe, it is always a 
 good plan to chalk it well. This will counteract 
 the effects of the grease that is nearly always 
 found on the surface of new lead pipes. If the 
 pipe is very greasy, it is still better to scour 
 it well with a piece of card-wire before it is 
 chalked and soiled. The scouring is not always 
 necessary, but it is always best to carry a piece 
 of card-wire in case of need. 
 
 When the end of the pipe has been properly 
 s^oiled, it should be shaved the length required, 
 tl' vt is, about half an inch longer than half the 
 
PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 89 
 
 length of the joint, thus allowing half an inch 
 for socketing into the other end. Grease, or 
 "touch," as it is called hy plumbers, should 
 immediately be rubbed over the shaved part to 
 prevent oxidation. The socket end of the pipe 
 should now be rasped square and opened with a 
 long .tapered tumpin— a short stumpy tumpin 
 is not a proper -tool for this purpose, although 
 , many of this kind are used. After rasping the 
 edge of the pipe, the rasped part should be par- 
 allel with the side of the pipe, as shown at Fig. 
 39. It is not at all necessary for the edge of 
 the socket end to project, nor to reduce the bore 
 of the pipe in the joint; but if the ends are pre- 
 pared, as shown at Figs. 40 and 41, it would 
 be necessary to open the socket end an extra- 
 ordinary width to get the same depth of socket, 
 and then a much larger quantity of solder would 
 be required to cover the edge, which would make 
 the shape of the joint look ugly, and not make 
 such a reliable joint either. 
 
 When the socket end is -properly fitted, it 
 should be soiled and shaved half the length of 
 the intended joint. The inside of the socket 
 should also be shaved about half an inch down 
 and touched. 
 
 If the solder is used at a proper heat and 
 splashed on quickly, so as to well sweat the sol- 
 der in between the two surfaces where the ends 
 are socketed, the joint is made, so far as the 
 
90 
 
 PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 
 
 soundness is concerned, independent of tlie wip- 
 ing or the form and shape of the solder when 
 it is finished. In fact, if a joint is prepared in 
 a proper manner, it would be sound in most in- 
 stances if the solder was wiped bare to the 
 edge of the socket end. Of course, it would not 
 
 
 i. 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 39. 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
 Fig. 41 . 
 
 be advisable to do this, but still, a joint should 
 and could be quite independent of the very large 
 quantity of solder that is frequently used. But 
 when a large amount of solder is seen on a joint, 
 it can generally be taken for granted that the 
 plumber that made it, when he prepared the 
 
PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 91 
 
 ends, took great pains to close up the edge of 
 the socket end to the spigo,t end so that it fitted 
 tight, so tight was this edge, that it prevented 
 the slightest particle of solder getting in be- 
 tween. The consequence very often is, that if 
 the plumber is not quick at wiping the joint, and 
 keeps the solder moving until it is nearly cold, 
 or at least cold enough to' set, the whole of the 
 solder on the joint will be in a state of porous- 
 ness, or, in other words, instead of the solder 
 cooling into a compact mass, the contin- 
 ual moving of it by the act of wiping 
 causes thje particles, as they become crystal- 
 lized by cooling, to be disturbed and partially 
 disintegrated. The result is, that under a mod- 
 erate pressure the water will percolate through 
 the joint and cause what is generally termed 
 "sweating." Very often it is rather more than 
 sweating, it can more correctly be compared to 
 water running through a sieve. Under some con- 
 ditions it is not a very easy matter to prevent 
 this sweating, especially if the solder is very 
 coarse, or is poisoned by zinc or other delete- 
 rious matters. The great advantage of leaving 
 the socket end open is, that if the solder is used 
 at a good heat, as it always should be when it 
 is splashed on, it runs into the socket at such a 
 heat that, when it cools, it sets much firmer than 
 that part of the solder which has been disturbed 
 by the forming of the joint. 
 
JOINT-WIPING. 
 
 Joint-wiping forms an important brancli in the 
 art of plumbing. It is a part of tlie work which 
 requires more care, skill and practice than any 
 of the other branches, and on it depends the 
 success or failure of some of the most particu- 
 lar jobs in sanitary plumbing. Many serious 
 cases of disease have been traced to bad joint- 
 wiping. It is not expected that a joint can un- 
 der all conditions, be as perfectly symmetrical 
 and well proportioned as if it had been turned 
 in a lathe. The best workmen have to leave 
 joints that they would be ashamed of, as far as 
 the appearance is concerned, if they were made 
 on the bench or in some convenient place. There 
 are too many who seem to think that sound work 
 is good work, and therefore never try to make 
 their work look as creditable as it should. The 
 different styles of joint-wiping are so numerous, 
 that one could- go to any length describing the 
 many eccentricities and peculiarities that are 
 ■displayed in this particular branch of the trade. 
 Of course every one has his own peculiar ideas 
 in most matters, and no person does a thing ex- 
 actly like another. 
 
 After a helper has been at the trade for a 
 92 
 
JOINT-WIPING 93 
 
 • 
 
 short time, his one great ambition is to wipe a 
 joint. He seems to think that if he can only 
 manage to get a small portion of solder to ad- 
 here to a piece of pipe, and then so manipulate 
 it as to induce it to take the form of an egg or 
 a turnip, as the ease may be, he has done some- 
 thing to be proud of, and soon begins to think 
 he ought to be a full-blown plumber. Another 
 question with regard to joints is the proper 
 lengths to make them. Some like long joints, 
 others prefer short ones. The advocates of long 
 joints say that short joints are ugly, and are not 
 proportionate. They are often compared to tur- 
 nips, and other things not quite so regular in 
 shape. Those who are in favor of short joints 
 say the long ones are not so sound, that they 
 will not stand a great pressure, and are liable 
 to sweat. It is ridiculous to make joints of 
 enormous lengths, when a joint made more in 
 proportion to the diameter of the pipe would not 
 only be much stronger, but would look far neat- 
 er, and generally require less solder. Then therie 
 is the questibn of wiping-cloths. A great many 
 plumbers like a very thick cloth for wiping 
 joints, but, on the other hand, as many more 
 say they cannot wipe joints with thick cloths. 
 Many plumbers who ' are used to thick cloths 
 and can wipe joints as easily as possible, are 
 quite beaten if they try to use thin cloths. The 
 differejice in the thickness of cloths is very great 
 
94 JOINT-WIPING 
 
 in some cases. Very thin clotiis are not suitable 
 for making joints a nice shape. When a plumb- 
 er gets used to a reasonably thick cloth he can 
 make joints far better and easier than if he used 
 thin ones. Generally, plumbers who use thin 
 cloths malie joints very short and lumpy, and 
 bare at the ends, so that the shaving is shown 
 about an eighth to three-eights from the ends. 
 But when thicker cloths are used it is much 
 easier to make joint* more like the proper shape. 
 This is very important in all joint-wiping, be- 
 cause wherever the shaving is left bare, the pipe 
 is weak^'r here than any other part, whereas, 
 if a joint is properly made, this part of it should 
 be the strongest. In a large number of in- 
 stances, when a pipe is subject to much expan- 
 sion and contraction, it will break at this weal? 
 point very soon after it is fixed. It would be 
 difiScult .to say generally what should be a proper 
 thickness for cloths, excepting that they should 
 be in proportion to the width and length. Cloths 
 for large joints should be much thicker than 
 those used far small ones, because the larger the 
 cloth is, the more difficult it is to keep it in the 
 shape required for' -wiping the joint. If a cloth 
 used for making a four-inch joint were made of 
 only about six thicknesses of moleskin, it 
 would be no more, or at least but little more, use 
 than one generally used for three-quarter or one- 
 inch joints, because when a small amount of sol- 
 
JOINT-WIPING 95 
 
 der falls on it, the cloth would bend down and 
 let the solder fall, so that the solder would not 
 remain in the cloth ecscept that caught in the 
 middle, where the hand is under it. Conse- 
 quently, there is much difficulty in getting up 
 the great heat necessary to make a large joint. 
 Then supposing it were possible to get up the 
 heat sufficient to wipe the joint, it is useless to 
 try to make the point as regular as would be the 
 case if moderately thick cloth were used. The 
 reason is, that when the cloth is hot it gives too 
 much to the pressure of each finger, and there- 
 fore presses unequally on the surface of the 
 joint, making it either bare at the edges and 
 showing the tinning, or causing the body of the 
 joint to be irregular and bad in shape, more es- 
 pecially at the bottom where it is nearly bare. 
 
 A cloth should be just thick enough to prevent 
 the impression of the fingers having any in- 
 fluence on the body of the joint, but at the same 
 time it should be thin enohgh to allow it to be 
 bent the shape required without any great exer- 
 tion. A cloth cannot be employed like a mould 
 used by a plasterer to mould a cornice, if it 
 could,, it would not be so difficult, and require 
 so much practice to make a joint as it does. Al- 
 though there can be no doubt that suitable tools 
 are indispensable to the workman, yet it must 
 be remembered, by plumbers especially, that the 
 cloth, however well made both in size and shape, 
 
96 JOINT-WIPING 
 
 will not make a joint without it is manipulated 
 by an intelligent and experienced hand. 
 
 Wiping Horizontal Joints. In the making of 
 wiped joints one of the greatest mistakes that is 
 generally made is that of using too thin cloths. 
 It is very difficult, if not altogether impossible, 
 to make a good shaped joint with a thin cloth. 
 The joints shown at A and B in Fig. 42 are 
 
 Pig. 
 
 the kind of joint generally made with a thin 
 cloth. By thin cloths are meant about five 
 thicknesses of moleskin qv ticking. Ticking, 
 
JOINT-WIPING 9? 
 
 however, is not nearly so suitable for ^the pur- 
 pose as moleskin. Another objection to the use 
 of thin cloths is their liability to get hot too 
 quickly. Before the joint is finished it is al- 
 most impossible to hold the cloth on account of 
 the intense heat. A cloth suitable to make a 
 good wiped joint should consist of about eight 
 thicknesses of moleskin. The width of a goo<i 
 cloth should be about an inch longer than the 
 joint, and the length about the same or perhaps 
 a little longer. 
 
 - It will not be found a good plan to fold lip the 
 cloth out of one piece of material, as when the 
 folds are at the sides, it is difficult to make the 
 cloth bend as is required when in use. The bet- 
 ter plan is to cut the cloth into pieces, of twice 
 the length and exactly the same width as the 
 cloth is required to be when finished. These 
 should be folded once and then sewn together at 
 the edge as shown in Pig. 43. To those who 
 are in the habit of using thin cloths it will no 
 doubt be found rather awkward at first to use 
 thick ones', but a little practice will show that 
 they are much more convenient to use and will 
 turn out a better shaped joint as shown at C in 
 Fig. 42. Thin cloths after they are hot get 
 out of shape and give too much, with the result 
 that the edges of the joint are often wiped bare. 
 Another and very important advantage of thick 
 cloths is that the joints may be made much 
 
98 
 
 JOINT- WIPING 
 
 lighter, as it does not necessarily follow that be- 
 cause a large amount of sojder is used on a joint 
 it is any more sound or stronger than a lighter 
 one. 
 
 When the solder on the joint is at such a heat 
 as to make it difficult to keep it on the pipe, it 
 should be patted round with the cloth, and the 
 
 Fig. ■ 4Si . 
 
 suT^lus solder on the edges wiped off. The 
 cloth should now be taken in the right hand, as 
 shown in Fig. 44, and the wiping commenced 
 at the back of the joint. While drawing the cloth 
 upwards, the forefinger should he used to clean 
 the edge nearest to it, after which the little 
 finger should be used to clean the other edge. 
 As soon as the edges are clean, the body of the 
 
JOINT-WIPING 
 
 99 
 
 joint can be formed with the middle of the cloth. 
 Then take the cloth in the left hand, and push- 
 ing the surplus solder downwards, clean the out- 
 aide edges of the joint with the fore and little 
 fingers. Now take thp cloth in the middle of 
 the right hand, pressing equally with each finger 
 so that the cloth touches the whole length of 
 the joint, wipe round as far as is convenient 
 with the right hand, then cliange quickly to the 
 
 Fig. 44 . 
 
 left hand and continue the wiping under the 
 joint to the other side. It may be sometimes 
 necessary to wipe the joint round this way two 
 or even three times before it is smooth and 
 cleftn, but it is much the better way to avoid 
 wiping the surface more than is necessary. The 
 sooner a joint is left alone after it is formed, 
 the better it will b^, both for looks and reliabil- 
 ity. 
 Wiping Upright Joints. When wiping an up- 
 
100 JOINT-WIPING 
 
 right joint as shown in Fig. 45, it is better to 
 proceed by stages than to try to wipe the joint 
 all at once. The first stage is to pour on the 
 metal and tin the joint, that is, causp a film of 
 solder to alloy with th^ surface of the pipe. 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 
 When the above described operation has been 
 performed, the iron should be made hot, and 
 the joint should be splashed by means of the 
 splash-stick, until the pipe is hot enough and 
 
JOINT-WIPING 101 
 
 suffifcient solder is on it to allow of the wiping 
 cloth to be used. Great care should be used in 
 melting the solder, if allowed to get red-hot the 
 solder deteriorates. The soldering-iron should 
 be heated to the right temperature and the bit 
 filed clean and bright. The solder should first 
 be splashed on the shaved portion of the pipe 
 and then on about two inches of the soiled part 
 at^ each end of the pipe. The cloth should al- 
 ways be held under the place where the solder 
 is being splashed on, to catch the surplus solder. 
 As the solder runs down the sides of the pipe 
 and is caught in the cloth, it is pressed up 
 against the pipe to keep up the heat and also 
 to tin the pipe. 
 
 As soon as the pipe has been well tinned, the 
 solder should be formed into the shape of a 
 joint. Begin at the top of the joint, and with 
 the hot iron in one hand and the cloth in the 
 other, rub the iron over the solder on the joint 
 and wipe round with the cloth quickly and 
 lightly, working downwards until the joint is 
 finished. When the joint has partially cooled, 
 it may be cleansed and brightened by rubbing it 
 over with tallow and wiping off with a- clean 
 soft rag. 
 
 Wiping Branch Joints. Fig. 46 shows a badly 
 shaped joint that is often made by the use 
 of a thin cloth, while Fig. 46a shows a joint 
 that may be much more readily made hj the 
 
102 
 
 JOlNT-WlPlNa 
 
 use of a thick cloth. When everything is ready 
 and the solder is at a suitable heat, it should be 
 splashed on very carefully while at the same 
 time the pipe should be warmed for a few inches 
 
 . / 
 
 Pig. 46 
 
 each side of the joint with the solder. When 
 the solder on the joint is at such a heat as to 
 make it' difficult to keep it on the pipe with con- 
 tinually drawing it up, take a small clean iron 
 
JOINT-WIPING 
 
 103 
 
 at a dull red heat, and start wiping at one end 
 of the joint. Carefully form the sides of' the 
 joint and wipe the solder as hot as possible by 
 the continual application of the iron before each 
 
 Fig. 4ea 
 
 part of the joint is wiped. Finish the joint at 
 the same end as it was started by drawing the 
 wipe-off to the outside edge of the joint. 
 
104 JOINT-WIPING 
 
 A lead pipe can be wiped to a g'ast iron pipe 
 with a fair amount of ease, but the joint will not 
 stand satisfactorily. The best way is to file clean 
 the end of the cast-iron pipe and then coat it 
 with pure tin," using sal-ammoniac as a flux. The 
 pipe is then washed to remove the sal-ammoniac, 
 and afterwards re-tinned, using resin and grease 
 as a flux. A plumber's joint, 3^^ inches long for 
 4-inch pipes, is then wiped in the usual way. 
 Great pains will have to be taken to make a good, 
 sound, strong joint between the two metals. Nev- 
 ertheless, in the course of time, it may be only a 
 few years, the cast iron will come* out of the 
 solder. The first sign of decay -will be a red ring 
 of iron rust showing at the end of the joint. This 
 rust will swell a little and cause the end of the 
 soldering to curl slightly outwards. Eventually 
 the rust will creep between the solder and' the 
 irdn and destroy the adhesion of the one to the 
 other. Only those metals that alloy together can 
 be satisfactorily joined by soft soldering, and the 
 solder should contain as great a proportion as 
 possible of the metals that are to be united. Tlie 
 joint would, if out of doors, be subjected to tem- 
 peratures ranging over 90° Fahrenheit, under 
 such conditions the solder would expand .001251 
 inch, and the iron would expand .000549 inch, or 
 less than half as much as the solder. The joint 
 would therefore eventually become p ,'t)ose ring 
 <m the iron pipe, but not on the lead pipe, as the 
 
JOINT-WIPING 105 
 
 expansion of lead and solder do not differ ma- 
 terially. 
 
 Numerous experiments have been tried for 
 overcoming the difficulty of wiping joints on or- 
 dinary tin-lined pipes, but the only method which 
 has been found to approach success has been to 
 insert a long nipple of tinned sheet iron, this 
 method, however, has not been wholly successful 
 with the ordinary make of tinned pipe. How- 
 ever, on a new kind of tin-lined pipe, wiped joints 
 can be made very easily, without the tin lining 
 melting. 
 
 It would often be a convenience if copper pipes 
 could be united satisfactorily by wiping, but 
 plumbers' wiped joints are of no use with cop- 
 per tube, for the expansion and contraction will 
 not permit them to remain sound, as many hot- 
 water engineers know to their cost, brazed joints 
 would be satisfactory, though troublesome to 
 make. If copper pipe is thick enough to be 
 threaded, have the fittings threaded also, and 
 screw them together the same as with iron pipe, 
 except that with long runs there must be expan- 
 sion joints or other provision made for expan- 
 sion. Even when a wiped joint on copper pipes 
 is strongly made by sweating on a sleeve and 
 then wiping a joint over the whole, it is doubt- 
 ful if it would be permanent. It is very prob- 
 able that electrolysis would set in, if the pipe i-§ 
 in damp ground. However, should circumstances 
 
106 , JOINT-WIPING 
 
 suggest that a wiped joint miglit answer, the 
 work is done as described below. 
 
 Wiped joints on copper pipes are longer than 
 wiped joints on lead pipes. Copper pipes 2 inches 
 or more in diameter have joints from 3% to 4 
 inches long, 4r^inch pipes have joints about 5 
 inches long, but it must ' be remembered that 
 whilst reasonable length and thickness of joint 
 are necessary to enable the copper pipe to with- 
 stand pressure and strain, the maximum time of 
 service does not depend on the length or thick- 
 ness of the joint as in lead pipe work. That 
 which determines practically the life of the joint , 
 is the extent of pipe which is carefully tinned 
 before making' the wiped joint. If the interiors 
 of the two pipe ends are tinned, say, for 6 to 8 
 inches, if the joint is cut open, in. a few years' 
 time, it is found that the tinning has diminished 
 to 2 or 3 inches, a corroding action having taken 
 pluce at the end of the tinning, for this reason 
 it is advisable (hat the tinning be fairly thick, 
 so as to retard the separation and ultimate fail- 
 ure of the joint. In tinning copper, first thor- 
 oughly clean it with dilute sulphuric acid or 
 scour with saud and water, and then rinse it 
 with chloride of zinc, known as killed spirits. 
 Melt some pure tin, throw in sal-ammoniac as a 
 flux, and dip the copper in the tin, or pour or rub 
 the latter over the copper. In pipes forming a 
 portion of a distillery plant it is especially im- 
 
JOINT-WIMNG 10? 
 
 portant that untinned spots are not left on the 
 interiors of the pipe ends, as at such spots the 
 destruction of the tinning commences at once. 
 The pipe is strengthened by putting one pipe 
 within- the other, and the corrosion of the tinning 
 is arrested when it reaches the lap. If sufficient 
 lap is given, the pipe may be handled before the 
 joint is wiped — a great convenience. The pipe 
 ends are placed together, when practicable, over 
 the iron pot containing the molten solder, which 
 is then poured continuously over the joint until 
 a heat is got up. This practice is not possible 
 with lead or brass pipes, because in the one case 
 the lead would melt, and in the other the molten 
 zinc would leave the brass and ruin the solder. 
 When the pipes cannot be, moved, a shovel is 
 placed beneath the joint and the solder poured 
 on rapidly. When a thorough heat has been ob- 
 tained, the joint can be wiped, with the aid of a 
 cloth and of the mushy solder from the shovel, in 
 much the same way as a joint on a lead pipe is 
 wiped. 
 
AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING OR LEAD 
 BURNING. 
 
 The art of lead burning has for many yeai's 
 been kept quite distinct from plumbing gener- 
 ally, it is nevertheless a branch of the trade, and 
 one in which large numbers of plumbers are be- 
 coming very proficient. There is not required a 
 large amount of skill or ingenuity in the execu- 
 tion of lead burning, because, as a matter of 
 fact, when it is compared with first-class plumb- 
 ing, it is not nearly so difficult to acquire. In 
 most cases where lead burning was considered 
 necessary, such for instance as lining large 
 tanks in chemical factories especially for the 
 manufacture of sulphuric acid, the lead was 
 simply used in large sheets fixed with tacks to 
 wooden framework and the edges burned to- 
 gether. Of late years, however, this method of 
 burning the edges of lead together has been 
 adopted for numerous other purposes, such as 
 the lining of sinks for chemical laboratories, and 
 lining cisterns in cases where the water attacks 
 the solder. 
 
 The modem term for lead burning is "auto- 
 genous soldering." The word "autogenous" is 
 rather an ugly one, and somewhat difficult to 
 
 108 
 
AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING 109 
 
 define, it pertains to the word "autogeneal," 
 which means " self -begotten or generating it- 
 self," neither of which is very appropriate to 
 the process of lead burning. In fact the latter 
 term is not strictly applicable, because the lead 
 is not burnt, it is only fused. The most suitable 
 tei-m would be "fusing process." Instead of 
 saying "the seams are burned," it would be 
 better to say "the seams are fused," as this 
 would correctly describe the action that takes 
 place. 
 
 The simplest kind of lead burning is that 
 known as flat seams, and which as a rule is the 
 only kind that plumbers are likely to make use 
 of. Professional lead burners o*f course are re- 
 quired to bum seams in many different ways, 
 even horizontal seams ovei"head are sometimes 
 necessary. "WTien the seams of sinks and cisterns 
 have to be burned, the joints should always be 
 arranged about 6 inches from the angles. Be- 
 cause if the seams are arranged in the angles 
 the flame of the blow-pipe is likely to catch the 
 surface of the lead at the side and bum them 
 through before the seam is formed. It is best 
 also to butt the edges of the -lead and not to 
 lap them. Then when each edge has been shav- 
 ed about a quarter of an inch wide, take a strip 
 of shaved lead about half an inch wide and di- 
 rect the flame on the end until a drop is melted 
 and falls on the seam, at the same time the flame 
 
110 AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING 
 
 should be directed towards tlie part of the seam 
 to be burned, for the purpose of heating it. 
 Then cause the flame to play upon the small 
 drop of lead until that and the lead upon which 
 it rests are fused, then draw up the flame quick- 
 ly. This operation, owing to the intense heat 
 of the airo-hydrogen flame, occupies much less 
 time than it takes to describe it. So that the 
 operator has to be quick in manipulating the 
 blast if he wishes to avoid burning the lead over 
 a much larger space than is desirable. It must 
 not be supposed that a flowing seam like that 
 produced by a copper-bit and fine solder can be 
 formed by the burning process, this, under the 
 circumstances, is not possible. Each wave has 
 to be formed separately by a distinct applica- 
 tion of the flame. The regularity of these waves 
 will depcjid partly upon the skill of the opera- 
 tor, partly upon the quality of the blast and on 
 the purity of the lead upon which it is being used. 
 But like most other mechanical operations pro- 
 ficiency Jias to be attained by practice and ex- 
 perience. When it is found necessary to bum 
 seams on the vertical side of a cistern, the lap is 
 generally arranged in a slanting direction for 
 the purpose of forming a ledge for the drops of 
 molten lead to rest upon until they are fused 
 into the seam, which is formed of a series of 
 droj)S, instead of waves. A similar appearance 
 
AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING 111 
 
 is obtained when seams are burned on an up- 
 right side of a cistern in a horizontal line. 
 
 Another very convenient way to produce a 
 good flame for lead burning is to use compressed 
 oxygen and coal gas. The oxygen can be obtain- 
 , ed in steel bottles, this, being discharged under 
 great pressure, is used for the blast instead of 
 air, a bellows is therefore unnecessary. 
 
 When it is stated that a small sized blow-pipe 
 of this kind with a supply of oxygen at the rate 
 of 7 cubic feet per hour, and a gas supply 
 through a quarter-inch pipe, will fuse a quarter- 
 inch wrought-iron rod easily, the intense heat 
 of the flame can be somewhat realized. Probably 
 the oxygen method of burning would be rather 
 costly where only small jobs of lead burning are 
 occasionally required, but where there is a con- 
 siderable amount to do the compressed oxygen 
 would be far more preferable to the cumber- 
 some and often troublesome hydrogen machine. 
 
 There is yet another method which has been: 
 adopted to a very large extent for lead burning, 
 namely the nse of a red-hot hatchet copper-bit. 
 
 The seam is placed, in the case of a pipe, on 
 an iron mandrel, or if a flat seam, on an iron 
 plate, and the hot copper-bit is drawn through, 
 slowly fusing the lead together as it goes. A 
 core or bed of sand will also answer the pur- 
 pose. 
 
 It is, of course, a rough and ready way of 
 
112 AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING 
 
 doing the vork, and it involves a large amount 
 of time and labor in cleaning off the seams. But 
 it is nevertheless effectual, and, where more skil- 
 ful means are not at hand, At often serves the 
 purpose in a rough way. It would not, however, 
 do for general application, in fact, in numerous 
 instances where lead burning is required, it 
 would not be at all practicable. 
 
 In conclusion, it may be well to point out that 
 the idea of substituting .the burning system for 
 soldering generally in plumbers' work is not at 
 all likely to be an accomplished fact. It is all 
 very well for special purposes, but the art of 
 soldering in the modem style is too well estab- 
 lished to be ever superseded by the compara- 
 tively inartistic methods of lead fusing. Not 
 only is lead burning not so attractive or so sub- 
 stantial in appearance as soldering, but it is not 
 nearly so well adapted to general plumbers' 
 work, and there does not at present seem any 
 probability of it ever becoming a successful com- 
 petitor. 
 
DRAINAGE FITTINGS. 
 
 Soil and Waste Pipe Fittings. One-quarter 
 and one-sixth, and one-eighth and one-sixteenth 
 
 Pig. 47. 
 
 Pig. 48. 
 
 cast iron soil pipe bends or elbows are shown 
 in Figs. 47 and 48 respectively, and long one- 
 quarter and one-eighth, bend in Figs. 49 and 50. 
 
 113 
 
114 
 
 DRAINAGE FITTINGS 
 
 Quarter bends with heel and side outlets are 
 shown in Figs. 51 and 52. 
 
 A long quarter turn or sanitary bend is shown 
 in Fig. 53. 
 
 I'igures 54, 55 and 56 show a T-branch soil 
 pipe with left-iiand inlet, a sanitary T-branch 
 
 Fig. 49. 
 
 Fig. 50. 
 
 with right-hand inlet and a Y-branch with right- 
 hanH inlet, respectively. 
 
 A plain T-branch, a sanitary T-branch, a Y- 
 branch and a half Y-branch are shown in Figs. 
 57, 58, 59 and 60. 
 
DRAINAGE FITTINGS 
 
 115 
 
 Pig. 51. 
 
 Fls- 52. 
 
 Fig. 63. 
 
 Fie- S4. 
 
1116 
 
 DRAINAGE FITTINGS 
 
 fig. 65. 
 
 rig. 66. 
 
 Fig. 57. 
 
 Fig. 68. 
 
DRAINAGE FITTINGS 
 
 117 
 
 A plain T-branch, a sanitary T-branch, a cross 
 and a sanitary cross all tapped for iron pipe are 
 shown in Figs. 61 and 62. 
 
 FlE- B9. 
 
 Fig. 60. 
 
 lie. 61. 
 
118 
 
 DRAINAGE FITTINGS 
 
 A plain cross, a sanitary cross, a double T- 
 branch and double half Y-branch. are shown in 
 Figs. 63, 64, 65 and 66, 
 
 FlC. 62. 
 
 Pig. 64. 
 
DRAINAGE FITTINGS 
 
 lid 
 
 A ventilating cap and a Y-saddle hub are il- 
 lustrated in Fig. 67, and half Y-saddle hub and 
 a T-saddle hub in Fiar. 6S. 
 
 Fig. 65. 
 
 Fig. 66. 
 
 A ventilating branch tapped for iron pipe, an 
 inverted Y-branch and a plain ventilating branch 
 pipe are shown in Figs, 69, 70 and 71. 
 
120 
 
 DRAINAGE FITTINGS 
 
 rig. 67. 
 
 Fig. 68. 
 
 Fig. 69. 
 
 Fig. 70. 
 
DRAINAGE FITTINGS 
 
 121 
 
 A T-branch, a sanitary T-branch and a Y- 
 branch witH trap-screw are shown in Figs. 72, 
 73 and 74. 
 
 Fig. 71. 
 
 Fie. 72. 
 
 Fie- 73. 
 
 Fie. 74. 
 
122 
 
 DRAINAGE FITTINGS 
 
 Traps. A running trap with, hand-hole and 
 cover, and one with two hub-vents are illus- 
 trated in Figs. 75 and 76. 
 
 Pig. 75. 
 
 Fig. 76. 
 
DRAINAGE FITTINGS 
 
 123 
 
 A full S-trap, a three-quarter S-trap and a 
 
 half S-trap, are illustrated in Figs. 77, 78 and 79. 
 
 An S-trap, a three-quarter S-trap and a half 
 
 Pig. 77. 
 
 Fig. 78. 
 
 Fig. 78. 
 
1Z% 
 
 JJJKAIJNAWJK ±i'iTTiJNljlS 
 
 S-trap, all with hand-hole and cover, are shown 
 in Figs. 80, 81 and 82. 
 
 Fig. 80. 
 
 me. 81. 
 
DRAINAGE FITTINGS 
 
 125 
 
 A full S-tra,p, a three-quarter S-trap and a half 
 S-trap all with top vent are shown in Figs. 83, 
 84 and 85. 
 
 Fig. 82. 
 
 Fig. 83. 
 
126 
 
 -DRAINAGE FITTINGS 
 
 A plain mnning trap and a running traj.t with 
 hub-vent are illustrated in Figs. 86 and 87. 
 Lead Traps. Traps with full S, three-quarter 
 
 Fig. 84. 
 
 Fig. 85- 
 
DRAINAGE FITTINGS 
 
 127 
 
 S, half S or P and ninning bends axe shown 
 in Fig. 88, both plain and vented. 
 
 Fig. 86. 
 
 Fig. 87. 
 
128 
 
 DRAINAGE FITTINGS 
 
 CO 
 
 a 
 
 u 
 
 H 
 
 0) 
 
DRAINAGE FITTINGS 
 
 129 
 
 I 
 
 s 
 
 I 
 
 
130 
 
 DEAINAGE FITTINGS 
 
 Extra long plain and vented S-traps are also 
 sho-wji in Fig. 89. 
 
 rig 82. 
 
 Fig. 93. 
 
DRAINAGE FITTINGS 
 
 131 
 
 Hopper Traps. A high pattern S-trap for lead 
 pipe connections is shown in Fig. 90, and a high 
 pattern three-quarter and half S-trap for iron 
 pipe connections in Figs. 91 and 92. 
 
 Fig. 94. 
 
 Fig. 95. 
 
 Fig. 96. 
 
132 
 
 DRAINAGE FITTINGS 
 
 A plain three-quarter S high pattern hopper 
 trap, a three-quarter S high pattern hopper trap 
 with hub-vent and three-quarter S high pattern 
 
 Pig. 97. 
 
 Fig. 98. 
 
 hopper trap with hand hole and cover, are 
 shown in Figs. 93, 94 and 95. 
 A high pattern plain S-trap, a high pattern S- 
 
DRAINAGE FITTINGS 
 
 133 
 
 trap with hub-vent and a high pattern S-trap 
 with hand hole and cov,er, all for lead pipe con- 
 nections, are shown in Figs. 96, 97 and 98. 
 
 The same style of S-traps only for iron pipe 
 connections are shown in Figs. 99, 100 and 101. 
 
 Fig. 99. 
 
 FiS- 100. 
 
m 
 
 DRAINAGE FITTINGS 
 
 Fig. 101. 
 
 Fig. 102. 
 
DRAINAGE FITTINGS 
 
 135 
 
 A half S-tra]> plain, a half S-trap. with hub- 
 vent and a half S-trap with hand hole and cover 
 are shown in Figs. 102, 103 and 104. 
 
 Sewer gas and back water traps are shown in 
 Fig. 105. They have hand holes and covers and 
 
 Fig. 103. 
 
 Pig. 104. 
 
136 
 
 DRAINAGE FITTINGS 
 
 swing check valves to prevent any back flow of 
 water. 
 
 Fig. 100. 
 
DllAiNAG^E FITTINGS 
 
 13? 
 
 Brass trap caps with straight and bent coup- 
 lings are shown in Figs. 106 and 107. 
 
 Cleanouts. Cleanouts with hand-hole and 
 swivel cover, with hand-hole and bolted cover 
 
 Pig. 107. 
 
 Fig. 108. 
 
138 
 
 DHAlNAaU FlTTlNOS 
 
 and with, brass trap-screw are shown in Figs. 
 108, 109' and 110. 
 
 Pig. 109. 
 
 Fig. 110. 
 
DRAINAGE iPlTTlNaS 
 
 139 
 
 Cesspools. A hydrant cesspool for use with 
 cellar or outdoor hydrants is shown in Fig. 111. 
 A stable cesspool with bell-trap and grating is 
 
 Fig. 112. 
 
140 
 
 DRAINAGE FITTINGS 
 
 illustrated in Fig. 112, while Fig. 113 shows a 
 slop sink with bell-trap and strainer. A cellar- 
 cesspool with bell-trap and grating of rectangu- 
 lar shape is shown in Fig. 114, while one of cir- 
 cular shape is illustrated in Fig. 115. 
 
 Fig. 115. 
 
SANITARY PLUMBING. 
 
 The Bathroom. There are good reasons why 
 a bathroom should be finished in the best man- 
 ner in preference to any other room in the house. 
 As a rule, the bathroom is more used than any 
 other room in the house except the kitchen. It 
 requires the best material to stand such con- 
 stant use, and it is always economy to have the 
 best material for purposes where hard usage or 
 work is to be performed. Without a good fin- 
 ish, with the proper materials for this purpose, 
 the bathroom cannot be kept in a sanitary con- 
 dition. From the sanitarj^ condition of the bath- 
 room the sanitary condition of the entire house 
 may be judged. Any person who pays atten- 
 tion to the sanitary condition of a house, can 
 also tell the nature of the people who occupy it. 
 Where the bathroom is neglected, scarcely any 
 other part of the house will be in a proper sani- 
 tarj'- condition. 
 
 A bathroom should be well lighted with win- 
 dows, so that the sunlight may come in. It 
 should be heated to a much higher temperature 
 than any other room in the house, and should be 
 thoroughly ventilated. The walls, doors, and 
 casings should be of such material that they will 
 
 141 
 
142 SANITAEY PLUMBING 
 
 be proof against water and steam. The floors 
 should never be covered with carpet, as it is a 
 very unsanitary thing in any bathroom. Hard 
 wood makes a good floor for a bathroom. 
 
 The bathroom of the modem house is often 
 the most expensive room in the house, as today 
 people who have both taste and means are spend- 
 ing large sums of money in securing the most 
 sanitary fixtures for the bathroom and the high- 
 est degree of art in everything pertaining to 
 the bathroom. Fig. 116 shows a bathroom in 
 which all the fixtures are open work, a roll- 
 rimmed porcelain lined bathtub with carved 
 brass feet, and also screen shower attachment, 
 a sitz bath of, the same material, and finish as 
 the bathtub, a syphon closet with low down flush 
 tank, a washbowl with nickel-plated , legs and 
 brackets as supports, also nickel-plated supply 
 and waste fixtures. 
 
 Bathtubs. In Fig. 117 is shown a porcelain 
 roll rim bathtub. This is a sanitary article in 
 every manner, as it requires no woodwork about 
 it, and as this bathtub is made entirely of one 
 piece, there is no chance for dirt to lodge in any 
 part of it. This bathtub will last a life-time; 
 once properly set there will be no further ex- 
 pense for repairs. The porcelain bathtub is 
 not without some fault or disadvantage; it is 
 very heavy to handle. It is no easy matter to 
 carry a bathtub of this kind up one or two 
 

 yp > . > 
 
SANITARY PLUMBING 
 
 143 
 
1J4 SANITARY PLUMBING 
 
 flights of stairs and land it safely to where it is 
 to be set. It requires the greatest care in hand- 
 ling. In using the porcelain bathtub it has an- 
 other bad point in being very cold tp the touch 
 until it has become entirely warm, from the hot 
 water. 
 
 "What is styled a comer porcelain bathtub is 
 illustrated, in Fig. 118, the back and end of the 
 tub are to be built into the wall, and the base sets 
 into the floor. It is fitted with nickel-plated 
 combination bell supply and waste fittings, which 
 are connected directly to the bathtub itself. 
 
 Tliree styles of porcelain enameled bathtubs 
 are shown in Figs. 119, 120 and 121, the supply 
 and waste are connected directly to the bathtubs 
 shown in Figs. 119 and 120, while the bathtub 
 shown in Fig. 121 has only the waste and over- 
 flow connections on the tub. 
 
 A solid porcelain roll rim sitz bath is illus- 
 trated in Fig. 122. It is fitted with nickel-plated 
 combination bell supply and waste fittings. 
 
 A porcelain enameled footbath js shown in 
 Fig. 123, it is also fitted with nickel-plated com- 
 bination bell supply and waste fittings. 
 
 Fig. 124 illustrates a combination spray and 
 shower bath with rubber curtain and porcelain 
 enameled roll rim receptor. 
 
 The proper sanitary plumbing connections for 
 a bathtub are shown in Fig. 125. The cast iron 
 soil pipe is 4 inches in diameter, the main air 
 
SANITARY PLUMBING 
 
 145 
 
 /^^ . y 
 
 
 
 
UfF 
 
 SANITAEY PLUMBING 
 
 Si 
 
SANITARY PLUMBING 
 
 147 
 
 H 
 
 Lm uLS 
 
SANITAEY PLUMBING 
 
 Ul 
 
SANITARY PLUMBING 
 
 149 
 
 pipe 2 inches, and the air-vent pipe on the con- 
 nection leading from the trap 1% inches; the 
 waste and overflow from the tub are also 1% 
 inches in diameter. 
 
 Water Closets. The washout closet is, per- 
 haps, the best sanitary water closet, and they 
 
 . , Fig. 122. 
 
 are made by nearly all manufacturers of sani- 
 tary fixtures. This closet is made with the bowl 
 and trap combined in one single piece. The 
 washout closet would be almost perfect if it 
 were set up and connected as intended to be, 
 and with a good local vent connected. The local 
 
150 
 
 SANITAEY PLUilBING 
 
 vent is the best possible thing that could be 
 attached to a water closet, but, like all other 
 arrangements, it must be made in such a way so 
 that it will operate at all times and during every 
 condition of the atmosphere. The local vent is 
 
 Fig. 123. 
 
 ccainected to the bowl of the closet for the 
 purpose of taking away the air from the bowl 
 of the closet in the room where it may be lo- 
 cated, so that no foul odors while being used 
 will pass from the closet to the room. 
 
SAKITARY PLUMBING 
 
 151 
 
 Fig. 12^ 
 
152 SANITARY PLUMBING 
 
 fr^""'"^ 
 
 tDC 
 
SANITARY PLUMBING 153 
 
 To make the local vent work satisfactorily at 
 all times it -will be necessary to arrange the pipes 
 so that there would , always be a suction in the 
 pipe drawing from the point which is connected 
 with the water closet bowl. This pipe can never 
 be connected with the main ventilating shaft of 
 the soil pipe, but must escape from the house 
 by some other channel. In order to cause this 
 local current of air to pass up and out of the 
 house from the water closet bowl, it will be 
 necessary to provide some artificial heat for this 
 P'Urpqse. And where • it is possible to connect 
 to a chimney flue that is always warm when the 
 house is occupied, the desired result may be had 
 without any additional expense. 
 
 The washout closet is far from being an ideal 
 sanitary fixture. It is an improvement over the 
 hopper style of closet, yet its principle is not 
 correct because it does not wash out. The ob-- 
 jection to the washout closet is, that its bowl 
 becomes filthy in a short time, and without hav- 
 ing attached to it a local vent the bad odors 
 from the bowl becom6 unbearable. In the bowl 
 of the washout closet there is too much dry sur- 
 face, and the soil clings to it and cannot be 
 washed off with the flow of water as it falls from 
 the tank. The aj)pearance of the inside of this 
 closet is also very bad, especially the style of 
 washout with the back outlet as shown in Fig. 
 126. 
 
154 SANITARY PLUMBING 
 
 Fig. 127 shows a washout closet with front 
 outlet. 
 
 A short oval flushing rim hopper water closet, 
 with trap and air vent on the top of syphon is 
 shown in Fig. 128. 
 
 Two, styles of seat operated water closets are 
 shown in Figs. 129 and 130, one with long hop- 
 
 Fig. 126. 
 
 per without trap and the other with short hop- 
 per and trap. The seat is normally kept open 
 by the weight shown to the right, when de- 
 pressed by the act of a person sitting upon the 
 closet, the small arm or lever attached to the 
 
SANITARY PLUMBING 
 
 155 
 
 Fig. 128. 
 
156 SANITAEY PLUMBING 
 
 seat comes into contaxjt with the plunger valve, 
 causing the water to flow as long as the seat is 
 down. 
 A syphon jet water closet with low down tank 
 
 Fig. 129. 
 
 is shown in Fig. 131. It is necessary with this 
 style of tank to increase the diameter of the 
 flush pipe in order to induce syphonage in the 
 closet. With this increased opening a large quan- 
 
SANITARY PLUMBING 
 
 157 
 
 tity of water is thrown into the closet, which is 
 sufficient to make the syphon operate. 
 
 A prison water closet with short hopper aad 
 trap to wall connection is shown in Fig. 132. A 
 
 Pig. 130. 
 
 self-closing faucet is connected to the flushing 
 
 nm. 
 
 A syphon jet closet set up complefte with hard- 
 
158 
 
 SANITAEY PLUMBING 
 
 Pig. 131. 
 
SANITARY PLUMBING 
 
 159 
 
 wood, copper-lined syphon tank and concealed 
 water supply pipe is shown in Fig. 133. 
 
 Water closet seats with legs and. with or 
 without lid are shown in Figs. 134 and 135. 
 
 The proper sanitary plumbing connections for 
 a washout water closet are shown in Fig. 136. 
 
 Fig. 132. 
 
 The cast iron soil pipe and the lead elbow 
 which connects the trap of the closet with the 
 soil pipe are both 4 inches inside diameter while 
 the air-vent from the lead elbow and the main 
 
160 
 
 SANITARY PLUMBING 
 
 Fig. 133. 
 
SANITARY PLUMBING 
 
 161 
 
 Fig. 135. 
 
162 
 
 SANITAKT PLUMBING 
 
 air pipe are 2 inches inside diameter. Tlie air- 
 vent pipe is of lead and the main air pipe of 
 cast' iron. 
 Urinals. A flat back porcelain urinal is illus- 
 
 rig. laa. 
 
SANITARY PLUMBING 
 
 163 
 
 trated in Fig. 137, and comer pdrcelain urinals 
 in Figs. 138 and 139. These are adapted for use 
 in hotels and office buildings. 
 
 fig. IM. 
 
164 SANITAEY PLUMBING 
 
 Individual stall uriaals are shown in Figs. 140 
 and 141. The one shown in Fig. 140 hasi a plain 
 stall with floor trough and spray pipe, while the 
 one shown in Fig. 141 has urinal bowls or hop- 
 pers attached^ to the back wall. A complete 
 toilet room containing closets, urinals and wash- 
 bowls is shown in Fig. 142. This represents the 
 interior of a toilet room in a hotel or office build- 
 ing. 
 
 Fig. 139. 
 
 Washbowls. A job which requires experience 
 and gaod judgment is the setting of porcelain 
 washbowls to marble slabs. Although it may 
 look like an easy job, no one can do this wor^: 
 well unless having had considerable experience. 
 In setting washbowls to marble slabs there are 
 some things to be considered, and to accomplish 
 these things in a satisfactory manner there must 
 
SANITARY PLUMBING 
 
 165 
 
 be some calculations made. To have a wash- 
 bowl properly fitted to a marble slab it is neces- 
 sary to grind the flange of the bowl so that it 
 
 Fig, 140. 
 
 will lay level on the slab. This has to be done 
 by rubbing the upper surface of the flange of the^ 
 
166 
 
 SANITARY PLUMBING 
 
 bowl on the marble,, using sand and water on 
 the marble, until the top edge of the bowl is 
 perfectly flat and level. This grinding action 
 
 Fig. 141. 
 
 also takes off the glazed surface and allows the 
 plaster-of-Paris to take hold of the procelain 
 
SANITARY PLUMBING 
 
 167 
 
 
 
168 
 
 SANITARY PLUMBING 
 
 and make a perfect joint. The bowl must be set 
 perfectly even all around with the hole in the 
 slab. The less plaster used in setting bowls the 
 better. It is a poor job that has to be filled up 
 with a large ajnount of plaster. To get the posi- 
 tion of the holes for the .bowl clamps, it will be 
 necessary to mark on the back of the slab the 
 exact position of the edge of the bowl, then 
 
 space off the distance and drill the slab for at 
 least four clamps. In drilling the slab for the 
 clamp holes the polished surface of the slab must 
 rest on the floor, and in order not to scratch or 
 injure it the slab should have under it a bed of 
 some soft and clean material. The clamps should 
 be well calked into the slab with melted lead, 
 and made so that they will not shake nor pull 
 out. 
 Independent bowls for attaching to marble 
 
SANITARY PLUMBING 169 
 
 slabs are shown in Figs. 143 and 144. They are 
 provided with brass plugs and coupling and 
 rubber stopper for the waste. 
 
 A roll-edge washbowl with removable strainer 
 at the overflow, nickel-plated plug and coupling 
 and rubber stopper, and bronzed brackets is 
 shown in Fig. 145. 
 
 A half-circle roll edge washbowl with high 
 
 Fig. 144. 
 
 back and apron, cast in one piece, is shown in 
 Fig. 146. 
 
 Fig. 147 shows a roll-edge oval washbowl with 
 overflow with removable strainer, bronzed brack- 
 ets, nickel-plated plug and coupling and rubber 
 stopper. 
 
 A roll-edge comer washbowl with oval bowl, 
 removable nickel-plated strainer, nickel-plated 
 plug and coupling and rubber stopper is shown 
 in Fig. 148. 
 
17'> 
 
 SANITARY PLUMBING 
 
 Fig. 145. 
 
 Vie. 146. 
 
SANITARY PLUMBING 
 
 171 
 
 FlR. 148. 
 
172 
 
 SANITARY PLUMBING 
 
 A roll-edge slab and bowl with ideal waste is 
 shown in Fig. 149. It has a round bowl and 
 high back. 
 
 A vertical cross section of the above bowl 
 showing the ideal waste is given in Fig. 150. 
 
 The proper sanitary plumbing connections 
 
 Pig. 149. 
 
 for a washbowl are shown in Fig. 151. The 
 cast iron soil pipe is 4 inches in diameter. The 
 waste pipe from the bowl and the air-vent pipe 
 from the top of the syphon are 1^/^ inches and 
 the niain air pipe 2 inches in diameter. 
 Drinking Fountains. A solid porcelain double 
 
SANITARY PLUMBING 
 
 173 
 
 roll edge drinkiag fountain with back and bowl 
 in one piece is shown in Fig. 152. It has a self- 
 closing faucet and nickel-plated drip-cup with 
 strainer. A one-piece solid porcelain drinking 
 fountain with roll-edge bowl is shown in Fig. 
 
 Pig. 150. 
 
 153. It has a self-closing faucet and nickel- 
 plated half S-trap. 
 
 A marble drinking fountain is shown in Fig. 
 
 154, which has a counter sunk slab and high 
 back, nickel-plated Fuller pantry cock, drip-cock 
 with shield, nickel-plated supply pipe, and trap 
 with vent and waste to wall. 
 
374 SANITARY PLUMBING 
 
 Fig. 151. 
 
SANITARY PLUMBING 
 
 175 
 
 Drinking fountains of the type shown in Fig- 
 ures 152 and 153 are now prohibited bjrlaw in the 
 public places of many cities; bubbling fountains 
 being required instead. 
 
 Sinks. The enameled iron sink is a great ad- 
 /ancement in sanitary improvements. ' When 
 
 ' Fig. 152. 
 
 made properly and used for light work it is all 
 that could be desired, because it is coated with 
 a material which wears well, and is also proof 
 against the action of gases or acids. It has a 
 smooth finish and is easily kept clean, but it is 
 not suitable for heavy or rough work. In the 
 
176 
 
 SANITARY PLUMBING 
 
 larger sinks this enameled coating cracks off 
 easily when heavy ntens.ils are placed in it, 
 which -causes the sink to bend, and the enamel, 
 
 ^ 
 ^ 
 
 Fig. 153. 
 
 having very little elasticity, must naturally 
 crack. It sometimes cracks hy the uneven or 
 Sudden expansion and contraction of the iron. 
 
WATER SERVICE 177 
 
 The first step in the process of installing the 
 water service system in a building is, to procure 
 from the proper authorities a permit for the in- 
 troduction or use of water in the building. 
 
 The tapping of the street main is done by work- 
 men in the employ of the water department of the 
 city, or town. A cock, called a corporation coct 
 is screwed into the main, and to this cock a section 
 of lead pipe, the length of which is governed by 
 local rulings, is connected by means of a wiped 
 joint. Lead pipe should in all cases be used for 
 making this connection, for the reason that, owing 
 to its pliability, there is much less danger of break- 
 age caused by the settling of the main, or of the 
 service pipe, than there would be were the, con- 
 nection made with wrought iron pipe which would 
 be rigid. 
 
 The size of the service leading to the building 
 will depend, of course, upon the amount of water 
 that will be required ; and if two or more distinct 
 and separate buildings are to be supplied by means 
 of branch, or sub-service pipes supplied by a 
 single tap in the street main, each branch should 
 be independently arranged with a stop cock and 
 box on the curb line. 
 
 These stop cocks are for the purpose of shutting 
 off the water when required, and each service pipe 
 must be equipped with one, located within the side- 
 walk at, or near the curb line of the same. 
 
 The service pipe leading from the street main 
 into the building must be laid below the frost line. 
 
178 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 Stop Cock in Building. Each service pipe 
 must also be' provided with a stop-cock inside the 
 building, placed beyond damage by frost, and so 
 situated that the water can be conveniently shut 
 off, and drained from the pipes, in order to pre- 
 vent freezing in cold weather. 
 
 Service Pipes in Building. The main riser, 
 from which branch pipes are carried to the various 
 fixtures, should start in the basement at or near 
 the shutoff cock ; tee outlets being inserted at the 
 proper locations under the ceilings of each room 
 for connecting the branches to the fixtures on the 
 floor above. These branches can also be con- 
 nected, leaving their nipples extending through 
 the floors at the proper locations for connection 
 with the fixtures they are to serve. These nip- 
 ples should then be capped over to prevent dirt 
 or other foreign matter from getting into the pipe , 
 before a permanent connection is made to the fix- 
 tures. The caps should be screwed on tightly and 
 left there until the piping system has been thor- 
 oughly, tested. 
 
 Testing. After the risers, and branch pipes 
 of the water service have been Installed, and all 
 openings either capped over, or plugged, the sys- 
 tem should be thoroughly tested before any con- 
 nections to fixtures are made. If the testing is 
 done at the proper time, that is before the floors 
 are laid, or plastering done, the leaks, if there are 
 any can be much more easily discovered, and re- 
 paired than they could be if covered by floors or 
 plastering. In fact the majority of large cities 
 
METHOD OF TESTING 179 
 
 and towns at the present day require by law that 
 all plumbing in a new building shall remain ex- 
 posed until after the job has .been tested and 
 passed upon by the inspector. 
 
 Methods of Testing. The entire plumbing 
 system when rbughed in must be tested by the 
 plumber in the presence of the inspector of plumb- 
 ing if there be such an official, or if there is no 
 local inspector, the plumber should test the work 
 nevertheless for his own satisfaction. 
 
 Water Test. This test should always be ap- 
 plied to new work before the connections are made 
 to the fixtures. The water test is to be applied to 
 all the soil, waste and vent pipes, as well as to the 
 water service pipes. In the case of the soil, waste 
 and vent pipes, all openings except those above 
 the roof are to be closed by soldering them shut 
 on lead pipe, and by plugs, or caps on iron or steel 
 pipe. The entire system of piping is then filled 
 with water, the filling to be done slowly, and when, 
 filled, every joint should be carefully examined for 
 leaks, and if any are found they should be repaired 
 at once. A leak in a caulked joint may often be 
 stopped by additional caulking, but if a split pipe, 
 or fitting is found, it will be necessary to replace it. 
 
 On some jobs the plasterers may be in a hurry 
 to get along with their work, and in such cases' the 
 soil stacks can be tested in sections, byleaving out 
 a length of pipe on each floor, and afterward in- 
 serting the same for the final test, care being taken 
 to always leave the length of pipe out at some 
 ' point where it will be easily accessible tq insert. 
 
180 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 Air Pressure Test. The air pressure test is 
 applied by means of a force pump and a mercury 
 column equal to ten inches of ihercury. All open- 
 ings in the system are to be closed with the excep- 
 tion of the one to which the force pump is con- 
 nected. 
 
 The pump is then operated until the pressure 
 of air in the system is sufficient to raise the mer- 
 cury column to^a height of ten inches. The pump 
 is then stopped, and if the column of mercury re- 
 mains permanently at that height the test is com- 
 plete, but if the mercury column should gradually 
 fall, it is an indication of a leak, and this should 
 be investigated at once. 
 
 Smoke Test. After the completion of the 
 work, and when the fixtures are installed the 
 smoke test can be applied, and this is done by clos- 
 ing all openings, including those above the roof. 
 
 A device in which a heavy smoke may be gen- 
 erated by the burning of oily waste, or rags, is 
 then connected to the system which is soon filled 
 with the smoke, and if there are any leaks, they 
 may easily be detected by the smoke which will 
 escape through them. 
 
 Peppermint Test. This test may be applied" 
 in place of the smoke test, if preferred, at the time 
 the job is completed. It is usually applied in test- 
 ing alterations, or repair work; in fact it is the 
 only test permitted in some localities, after exten- 
 sions, or repairs of old systems. ' The pepper- 
 mint test is made by using about five fluid ounces 
 of oil of peppermint for each line of pipe up to 
 
METHOD OF TESTING 181 
 
 five .stories and basement in height, and for each 
 additional five stories or fraction thereof one ad- 
 ditional ounce is to be used. All openings except 
 those above the roof are to be closed. The oil of 
 peppermint is then poured into the roof opening, 
 and immediately after this pour in about one-ha;lf 
 gallon of hot water for each ounce of peppermint 
 oil, after which close the roof opening tightly with 
 a plug. The mixture of oil of peppermint and 
 water will then flow to every portion of the sys- 
 tem of piping, and if there are any leaks the fumes 
 of the peppermint will penetrate through them, 
 and they can be detected by the odor of the pep- 
 permint present. 
 
 Testing the Water Service. After the water 
 piping system has been installed, water pressure 
 from the street main -can be easily applied to the 
 entire system of water piping, or it may be tested 
 in sections if necessary while being installed, and 
 the leaks if there are any will soon make them- 
 selves manifest. 
 
 Too much care cannot be exercised in the matter 
 of testing all parts of an installation of plumbing 
 in a building, for the reason that the health, and 
 lives of the occupants of the building are in a 
 great jneasure dependent upon the character of 
 the work, and the quality of the materials used. 
 
 Wrought Iron Pipe. Table 7 gives the dimen- 
 sions, thickness of metal, threads per inch, and 
 other valuable details relative to wrought iron, or 
 steel pipe in sizes running from one-eighth inch, 
 tip to fifteen inches inside diameter. 
 
182 
 
 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 Dimensions op Weought-Iron Pipe. 
 
 Nominal 
 
 Inside 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 Actual 
 
 Outside 
 
 Diameter 
 
 in Inches. 
 
 Actual 
 
 Inside 
 
 Diameter 
 
 in Inches. 
 
 Thickness 
 of Metal 
 in Inches. 
 
 Threads 
 per Inch. 
 
 Length of 
 
 Pull 
 
 Thread 
 
 in Inches. 
 
 % 
 
 .405 
 
 .270 
 
 .068 
 
 27 
 
 .19 
 
 X 
 
 .540 
 
 .364 
 
 .085 
 
 18 
 
 .29 
 
 % 
 
 .675 
 
 .493 
 
 .091 
 
 18 
 
 .30 
 
 X 
 
 .840 
 
 .622 
 
 .109 
 
 14 
 
 .39 
 
 % 
 
 1.050 
 
 .824 
 
 .113 
 
 14 
 
 .40 
 
 1 
 
 1.315 
 
 1.048 
 
 .134 
 
 llX 
 
 .51 
 
 IX 
 
 1.660 
 
 1.380 
 
 .140 
 
 IIX 
 
 .54 
 
 IX 
 
 1.900 
 
 1.610 
 
 .145 
 
 llX 
 
 .55 
 
 2 
 
 2.375 
 
 2.067 
 
 .154 
 
 IIX 
 
 .58 
 
 2X 
 
 2.875 
 
 2.468 
 
 .204 
 
 8 
 
 .89 
 
 3 
 
 3.500 
 
 3.067 
 
 .217 
 
 8 
 
 .95 
 
 3X 
 
 4.000 
 
 3.548 
 
 .226 
 
 8 
 
 1.00 
 
 4 
 
 4.500 
 
 4.026 
 
 .237 
 
 8 
 
 1.05 
 
 4X 
 
 5.000 
 
 4.508 
 
 .246 
 
 8 
 
 1.10 
 
 5 
 
 5.563 
 
 5.045 
 
 .259 
 
 8 
 
 1.16 
 
 6 
 
 6.625 
 
 6.065 
 
 .280 
 
 8 
 
 1.26 
 
 7 
 
 7.625 
 
 7.023 
 
 .301 
 
 8 
 
 1.36 
 
 8 
 
 8.625 
 
 7.981 
 
 .322 
 
 8 
 
 1.46 
 
 9 
 
 9.625 
 
 S.937 
 
 .344 
 
 8 
 
 1.57 
 
 10 
 
 10.750 
 
 10.018 
 
 .366 
 
 8 
 
 1.68 
 
 11 
 
 11.75 
 
 11.000 
 
 .375 
 
 8 
 
 1.78 
 
 12 
 
 12.75 
 
 12.000 
 
 .375 
 
 8 
 
 1.88 
 
 13 
 
 14. 
 
 13.25 
 
 .375 
 
 8 
 
 2.09 
 
 14 
 
 15. 
 
 14.25 
 
 .375 
 
 8 
 
 2.10 
 
 15 
 
 16. 
 
 15.25 
 
 .375 
 
 8 
 
 2.20 
 
 TABLE 7 
 
 Taper of the thread is % inch to one foot. 
 
 Pipe from % inch to 1 inch inclusive is butt welded and 
 tested to 300 pounds per square inch. 
 
 Pipe 1/i inch and larger is lap welded and tested to 500 
 pounds per square inch. 
 
WROUGHT IRON PIPE 
 
 183 
 
 Table of Quantitity of Water Delivered bt Service 
 
 Pipes op Various Sizes Under Various Pressures. 
 
 Proportion of Head of Water (H) to Length of Pipe (L). 
 
 Gallons Per Minute. 
 
 1 
 
 OS 
 
 ^■3 
 
 1-4 
 
 i4 
 
 i4 
 
 1-5 
 
 yA 
 
 i4 
 
 i4 
 
 (4 
 
 %s 
 
 S 
 
 05 • 
 
 00 
 
 j> 
 
 CO 
 
 lO 
 
 ■* 
 
 CO 
 
 eS Q, 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 II 
 
 11 . 
 
 II 
 
 Sffi 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 W 
 
 w 
 
 M 
 
 W 
 
 w 
 
 X 
 
 19.8 
 
 18.7 
 
 17.7 
 
 16.5 
 
 15.3 
 
 14.0 
 
 12.5 
 
 10.8 
 
 % 
 
 34.5 
 
 32.7 
 
 30.1 
 
 28.9 
 
 26.5 
 
 24.4 
 
 21.5 
 
 18.9 
 
 % 
 
 54.4 
 
 51.7 
 
 48.7 
 
 45.6 
 
 42.2 
 
 38.5 
 
 34.4 
 
 29.8 
 
 1 
 
 111.8 
 
 106.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 93.5 
 
 86.6 
 
 79.0 
 
 70.7 
 
 61.2 
 
 i>i 
 
 195.2 
 
 185.2 
 
 174.6 
 
 163.3 
 
 151.2 
 
 138.0 
 
 123.4 
 
 106.9 
 
 IX 
 
 308.0 
 
 292.1 
 
 275.4 
 
 257.6 
 
 238.5 
 
 217.7 
 
 194.8 
 
 168.7 
 
 2 
 
 632.2 
 
 599.7 
 
 566.4 
 
 538.9 
 
 488.1 
 
 447.0 
 
 899.8 
 
 346.3 
 
 2X 
 
 1104.0 
 
 1048.0 
 
 987.8 
 
 924.0 
 
 855.4 
 
 780.9 
 
 698.5 
 
 604.9 
 
 8 
 
 1745.0 
 
 1651.0 
 
 1560.0 
 
 1460.0 
 
 1351.0 
 
 1234.01103.0 
 
 955.5 
 
 4 
 
 3581.0 
 
 3397.0 
 
 3203.0 
 
 2996.0 
 
 2774.0 
 
 2532.0 2265.0 
 
 1962.0 
 
 5 
 
 6247.0 
 
 5928.0 
 
 5588.0 5227.0 
 
 4839.0 
 
 4417.03951.0 
 
 3406.0 
 
 6 
 
 9855.0 9349.0 8814.0;8245.0|7633.0;6968.0 6233.0 
 
 5391.0 
 
 
 >A 
 
 i4 
 
 .4 
 
 tJp, 
 
 i-j 
 
 h4 
 
 i4 
 
 h4 
 
 i-i 
 
 In 
 
 <M 
 
 T-l 
 
 tH 
 
 i-i 
 
 iH 
 
 =k 
 
 --tx 
 
 -.f* 
 
 Is 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 SS 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 W 
 
 W 
 
 W 
 
 X 
 
 8.8 
 
 8.3 
 
 7.7 
 
 7.0 
 
 6.3 
 
 5.4 
 
 4.4 
 
 3.1 
 
 % 
 
 15.4 
 
 14.4 
 
 13.4 
 
 12.2 
 
 10.9 
 
 9.5 
 
 7.7 
 
 5.5 
 
 % 
 
 24.3 
 
 22.8 
 
 21.1 
 
 19.3 
 
 17.2 
 
 14.9 
 
 12.2 
 
 8.6 
 
 1 . 
 
 50.0 
 
 46.8 
 
 43.2 
 
 39.5 
 
 35.3 
 
 30.6 
 
 25.0 
 
 17.7 
 
 IX 
 
 87.3 
 
 81.6 
 
 75.6 
 
 69.0 
 
 61.7 
 
 53.5 
 
 43.7 
 
 30.9 
 
 IX 
 
 137.7 
 
 128.8 
 
 119.3 
 
 108.9 
 
 97.4 
 
 84.3 
 
 68.7 
 
 48.7 
 
 2 
 
 282.7 
 
 264.4 
 
 248.8 
 
 223.5 
 
 199.9 
 
 173.1 
 
 141.4 
 
 100.0 
 
 2X 
 
 493.9 
 
 482.0 
 
 427.7 
 
 390.4 
 
 349.2 
 
 302.4 
 
 246.9 
 
 174.6 
 
 3 
 
 780.2 
 
 728.8 
 
 674.8 
 
 615-9 
 
 555.5 
 
 477.1 
 
 390.1 
 
 275.8 
 
 4 
 
 1602.0 
 
 1496.0 
 
 1385.0 
 
 1264.0 
 
 1133.0 
 
 979.3 
 
 800.8 
 
 566.2 
 
 5 
 
 275'l.0 
 
 2613.0 
 
 2420.0 
 
 2209.0 
 
 1976.0 
 
 1711.0 
 
 1394.0 
 
 987.7 
 
 6 
 
 4407.0 
 
 4122.0 
 
 3817.0 
 
 3484.0 
 
 3116.0 
 
 2693.0 
 
 2204.0 1558.0 | 
 
 TABLE 8 
 
iU 
 
 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 Table Showing Pressure of Water at Duterent 
 
 
 
 FiTiRVATIONS, 
 
 
 
 Feet Head. 
 
 Equals 
 Pressure 
 
 per 
 Square 
 Inch. 
 
 Feet Head. 
 
 Equals 
 
 Pressure 
 
 per 
 
 Square 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Feet Head. 
 
 Equals 
 Pressure 
 
 per 
 
 Square 
 
 Inch. 
 
 1 
 
 .43 
 
 130 
 
 56.31 
 
 255 
 
 110.46 
 
 5 
 
 2.16 
 
 135 
 
 58.48 
 
 260 
 
 112.62 
 
 10 
 
 4.33 
 
 140 
 
 60.64 
 
 265 
 
 114.79 
 
 15 
 
 6.49 
 
 145 
 
 62.81 
 
 270 
 
 116.96 
 
 20 
 
 8.66 
 
 150 
 
 64.97 
 
 275 
 
 119.12 
 
 25 
 
 10.82 
 
 155 
 
 67.14 
 
 280 
 
 121.29 
 
 30 
 
 12.99 
 
 160 
 
 69.31 
 
 285 
 
 123.45 
 
 35 
 
 15.16 
 
 165 
 
 71.47 
 
 290 
 
 125.62 
 
 40 
 
 17.32 
 
 170 
 
 73.64 
 
 295 
 
 127.78 
 
 45 
 
 19.49 
 
 175 
 
 75.80 
 
 309 
 
 129.95 
 
 50 
 
 21.65 
 
 180 
 
 77.97 
 
 310 
 
 134.28 
 
 55 
 
 23.82 
 
 185 
 
 80.14 
 
 320 
 
 138.62 
 
 60 
 
 25.99 
 
 190 
 
 82.30 
 
 330 
 
 142.95 
 
 65 
 
 28.15 
 
 195 
 
 84.47 
 
 340 
 
 147.28 
 
 70 
 
 30.32 
 
 200 
 
 86.63 
 
 350 
 
 151.61 
 
 75 
 
 32.48 
 
 205 
 
 88.80 
 
 360 
 
 155.94 
 
 80 
 
 34.65 
 
 210 
 
 90.96 
 
 370 
 
 160.27 
 
 85 
 
 36.82 
 
 215 
 
 93.14 
 
 380 
 
 164.61 
 
 90 
 
 38.98 
 
 220 
 
 95.30 
 
 390 
 
 168.94 
 
 95 
 
 41.15 
 
 225 
 
 97.49 
 
 400 
 
 173.27 
 
 100 
 
 43.31 
 
 230 
 
 99.63 
 
 500 
 
 216.58 
 
 105 
 
 45.48 
 
 235 
 
 101.79 
 
 600 
 
 259.90 
 
 110 
 
 47.64 
 
 240 
 
 103.96 
 
 700 
 
 303.22 
 
 115 
 
 49.81 
 
 245 
 
 106.13 
 
 800 
 
 346.54 
 
 120 
 
 51.98 
 
 250 
 
 108,29 
 
 900 
 
 .389.86 
 
 125 
 
 54.15 
 
 
 • 
 
 1000 
 
 433.18 1 
 
 
 
 TA 
 
 BL.E 9 
 
 
 
WROUGHT IRON PIPE 
 
 185 
 
 
 Weight op Copper Pipes Per Foot. 
 
 
 Thiclcness of Metal in Parts of an Inch. 
 
 Bore in 
 Inches. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tV 
 
 -X 
 
 A 
 
 X 
 
 tV 
 
 % 
 
 
 pounds. 
 
 pounds. 
 
 pounds. 
 
 pounds. 
 
 pounds. 
 
 pounds. 
 
 X 
 
 0.426 
 
 0.946 
 
 1.561 
 
 2.270 
 
 3.075 
 
 3.973 
 
 % 
 
 0.520 
 
 1.185 
 
 1.845 
 
 2.649 
 
 3.547 
 
 4.540 
 
 y4. 
 
 0.615 
 
 1.324 
 
 2.129 
 
 3.027 
 
 4.020 
 
 5.108 
 
 % 
 
 0.709 
 
 1.514 
 
 2.412 
 
 3.425 
 
 4.493 
 
 5.676 
 
 1 
 
 0.804 
 
 1.703 
 
 2.696 
 
 3.784 
 
 4.966 
 
 6.243 
 
 iK 
 
 0.993 
 
 2.081 
 
 3.263 
 
 4.540 
 
 5.712 
 
 7.378 
 
 1% 
 
 1.182 
 
 2.459 
 
 3.831 
 
 5.297 
 
 6.857 
 
 8.514 
 
 1% 
 
 1.372 
 
 2.838 
 
 4.388 
 
 6.055 
 
 7.805 
 
 9.646 
 
 2 
 
 1.560 
 
 3.217 
 
 4.967 
 
 6.808 
 
 8.748 
 
 10.783 
 
 2X. 
 
 1.750 
 
 3.591 
 
 5.531 
 
 7.566 
 
 9.694 
 
 11.918 
 
 2% 
 
 1.940 
 
 3.975 
 
 6.103 
 
 8.327 
 
 10.643 
 
 13.066 
 
 2% 
 
 2.128 
 
 4.352 
 
 6.668 
 
 9.081 
 
 11.590 
 
 14.190 
 
 3 
 
 2.316 
 
 4.729 
 
 7.238 
 
 9.737 
 
 12.534 
 
 15.325 
 
 Weight of Brass Pipes Prr Foot. | 
 
 
 Thicliness in Parts of an Inch. 
 
 Bore in 
 Inches. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 tV 
 
 % 
 
 A 
 
 X 
 
 % 
 
 TJ 
 
 % 
 
 tV 
 
 
 pounds 
 
 pounds 
 
 pounds. 
 
 pounds. 
 
 pounds pounds' 
 
 pounds. 
 
 K 
 
 0.22 
 
 0.53 
 
 0.94 
 
 1.43 
 
 2.01 
 
 2.68 
 
 3.44 
 
 X 
 
 0.40 
 
 0.89 
 
 1.47 
 
 2.15 
 
 2.91 
 
 3.75 
 
 4.70 
 
 % 
 
 0.58 
 
 1.25 
 
 2.01 
 
 2.86 
 
 3.80 
 
 4.83 
 
 5.95 
 
 1 
 
 0.76 
 
 1.61 
 
 2.55 
 
 3.58 
 
 4.70 
 
 5.92 
 
 7.25 
 
 IM 
 
 0.94 
 
 1.96 
 
 3.09 
 
 4.31 
 
 5.64 
 
 6.98 
 
 9.46 
 
 IK 
 
 1.12 
 
 2.34 
 
 3.67 
 
 5.01 
 
 6.49 
 
 8.05 
 
 9.71 
 
 1% 
 
 1.33 
 
 2.66 
 
 4.14 
 
 5.70 
 
 7.36 
 
 9.11 
 
 10.94 
 
 2 
 
 1.48 
 
 3.04 
 
 4.69 
 
 6.44 
 
 8.27 
 
 10.20 
 
 12.21 
 
 2X 
 
 1.65 
 
 3.40 
 
 5.23 
 
 7.16 
 
 3.17 
 
 11.27 
 
 13.46 
 
 2X 
 
 1.83 
 
 3.75 
 
 5.77 
 
 7.87 
 
 10.06 
 
 12.35 
 
 14.72 
 
 2%. 
 
 2.01 
 
 4.11 
 
 6.31 
 
 8.59 
 
 10.96 
 
 13.42 
 
 15.97 
 
 8 
 
 2.19 
 
 4.47 
 
 6.84 
 
 9.31 
 
 11.85 
 
 14.69 
 
 17.42 
 
 TABLE 10 
 
HOT WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 Cylinder System. In the cylinder system thp 
 principal difference from tke tank system lies i\ 
 the fact that the cylinder or reservoir of hot watet 
 lies beneath the draw-off pipes and not above 
 them, as with the tank system. This being thf^ 
 case it is - impossible to empty the reservoir un- 
 knowingly or accidentally, should the cold water 
 supply be shut off. 
 
 Eeferring to Fig. 155, the flow-pipe proceeds 
 from the extreme top of the waterback, and does 
 not project through inside th© waterback in the 
 least degree. If it cannot be taken from the top, 
 it must Tse connected, to the side or back of the 
 waterback as close to the top as it can be got, but 
 the top connection should always be used if in any 
 way possible. From the -waterback the flow-pipe 
 proceeds to the boiler and terminates five-eighths 
 of the way up from the bottom. The pipe can 
 enter the side of the boiler at the correct point, 
 or it can come through lower down and be ex- 
 tended up inside with a bend and short piece of 
 pipe together without making two holes. 
 ' the return pipe leaves the side of the boiler as 
 dose to the bottom as possible, or it can come 
 
 from the bottom if desired. It then proceeds to 
 
 186 
 
HOT WATER SUPPLY 
 
 187 
 
 the waterback and enters either through the top 
 or the side, terminating half-way down with a 
 saddle boiler. Both of these pipes, the flow and 
 the return, must have a rise from the waterback 
 to the boiler of not less than 1 inch in 10 feet. 
 
 P«r^ 
 
 T^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 7 
 
 Fig. 155. 
 
 From the top of the boiler is carried the ex- 
 pansion pipe. This also should rise 1 inch in 10 
 feet from the boiler to its highest point- The 
 
188 HOT WATER SUPPLY 
 
 highest point caii be above the cold-water cistern 
 or through the roof. 
 
 The cold water supply to the system is a pipe 
 direct from a cistern, as shown. This pipe must 
 not he branched for any other purpose. 
 
 It is of the highest importance that the cold 
 water supply pipe should be of full size, and not 
 choked or reduced in bore anywhere. The out- 
 flow at the hot water faucet is exactly in ratio 
 with the down-flow of water through this pipe, 
 less friction, therefore everything possible must 
 be done to give the water full and free passage 
 and lessen the friction. This is done by having 
 the pipe of good size, using bends and not elbows, 
 or lead pipe, and seeing that the stop-cock, if there 
 be one, has a straight full way through it. The 
 stop-cock should be put near the boiler, so that 
 the man who cleans the waterback, or effects re- 
 pairs, does not have to traverse the house to shut 
 the water off and afterwards to turn it on. A tee 
 should be put on the cold water supply connec- 
 tion, inside the boiler to spread the inflowing cold 
 water over the bottom of the boiler. If this is not 
 done the inflowing cold water will bore its way 
 up through the hot water above, unless the pres- 
 sure be quite low. 
 
 An emptying cock should be put somewhere be- 
 neath the boiler, but this cock must be provided 
 with a loose key, so that only an authorised per- 
 son can withdraw the water from the boiler. 
 
HOT WATER SUPPLY 189 
 
 The draw-off pipes are all taken from the 
 expansion pipe as shown. This pipe should there- 
 fore be carried up by the best route to touch at 
 the points where the faucets are, otherwise long 
 single branches must be run. The eixpansion pipe, 
 being a single tube, has no active or useful circu- 
 lation in it. 
 
 It must never be forgotten that, on opening a 
 faucet, on a secondary circulation, water will pro- 
 ceed from both directions to reach that faucet. 
 The circulatory movements all cease, and quite a 
 new action takes place. Water will come up from 
 the top of the boiler and this will be hot. There 
 will also be water coming up the secondary re- 
 turn, and the temperature of this will depend on 
 whence it comes. If connected as shown in Fig. 
 156 then whatever water comes to the faucets will 
 be hot, all there is of it, and when the temperature 
 of the issuing water falls it may be known that 
 the hottest has all been withdrawn. There have 
 been several points at which the secondary re- 
 turn has been connected with bad results, notably 
 at the bottom of the boiler, into the primary re- 
 turn (between the boiler and waterback), into the 
 boiler, and even into the cold supply pipe just be- 
 neath the boiler. These are wrong, and only 
 one position is correct, as shown in Fig. 156. The 
 point is from 3 inches to 6 inches from the top of 
 the boiler according to its size. The latter would 
 
190 
 
 HOT WATER SUPPLY 
 
 be for a 100-gallon boiler. A 50-gallon size would 
 have the connection 4 inches from the top. 
 
 Tank System. The usual arrangement of this 
 system of water heating apparatus is illustrated 
 
 Pf. 15?. 
 
HOT WATER SUPPLY 
 
 191 
 
 in Fig. 157. The flow pipe should proceed from 
 the extreme top or highest point of the water- 
 back, preferably from the top plate, and not pro- 
 ject through to the inside of the waterback in 
 the least degree. If it is impossible to connect 
 
 I'lg- 157 
 
 the flow pipe in the top plate of the waterback 
 it should be located in the side or back, but as 
 close. to the top as possible. From the waterback 
 'the flow pipe should proceed to the \avik and t^r- 
 
192 HOT WATER SUPPLY 
 
 minate in it about three-fourths of the way up, 
 that is one-quarter of the height of the tank from 
 the top. It may pass through the bottom and 
 reach up inside as a stand pipe as shown in Fig. 
 157, or it may enter the side at the required 
 height. 
 
 The return pipe should leave the bottom of the 
 tank, being connected directly in the bottom or 
 in -^the side of the tank near the bottom. It should 
 never be more than an inch from the bottom. 
 P>om the tank the return pipe should proceed 
 directly to the waterback, and if entering the 
 boiler through the top, should extend down- 
 wards, three^fotirths the height of the waterback. 
 
 The draw-off pipes are taken from the flow pipe 
 as shown. It therefore follows that the flow pipe 
 should be carried in a direction which will bring 
 it as near to all the faucets as possible. Instead 
 of this, the most common practice appears to be 
 to carry the circulating pipes by the most direct 
 route from the waterback to the tank, and to con- 
 sider the running of the branch pipes afterwards. 
 There is no objection to the return pipe taking 
 the shortest route, but the flow should be diverted 
 to pass the work as near as possible. Failing this, 
 there would have to,be long single-pipe branches, 
 and the fault of these is that so much cold water 
 has to be drawn before the hot issues. This is not 
 80 much a fault at a bath, at which some cold 
 water will probably be needed. At a lavatory 
 
HOT WATER SUPPLY 
 
 193 
 
 basin, however, the fault is very pronounced, the 
 faucets being small and slow-running, and at no 
 point is the quick arrival of warm water appre- 
 ciatedmore than at this one. 
 
 
 Fig. IBS. 
 
 Cylinder-Tank System. This is simply a com- 
 bination of the two systems previously described. 
 
194 
 
 HOT WATER SUPPLY 
 
 The tank system and the cylinder system both 
 have good features which are retained in the cyl- 
 inder-tank system, and also certain bad features 
 which are eliminated in the combination system 
 
 ?J 
 
 •^ 
 
 Fig. 1S9. 
 
 which may be here described briefly, the tank sys- 
 tem ensures a good flow of water from the high 
 faucets, while the cylinder system commonly has 
 
HOT WATER SUPPLY 195 
 
 a very unsatisfactory issue of water from any fau- 
 cets that are near the top of the house. On the 
 other hand, the cylinder system is safest where 
 the cold water supply is at all uncertain, as the 
 cylinder— the reservoir of the apparatus— cannot 
 be emptied. The object of the cylinder-tank sys- 
 tem is therefore to ensure a good oiitflow at all 
 taps by having a store of hot water .above them, 
 and to have a store of water whicli cannot be 
 exhausted unknowingly if the cold water supply 
 fails. 
 
 Fig. 158 illustrates this system of apparatus in 
 outline, and the parts need no' general description 
 more than that given already. As to the sizes of 
 the tank and cylinder, the best practice for gen-- 
 eral requirements is to make them of equal capa- 
 city, and the two together should be no larger 
 than one would be if alone. Thus, if a 50-gallon 
 boiler would be the suitable size for a job erected 
 on the ordinary cylinder system, then with the 
 combined apjmratus the boiler should be 25 gal- 
 lons and the tank 25. In the cylinder-tank sys- 
 tem illustrated in Fig. 158, the cold water supply 
 is delivered into the tank directly from the cis- 
 tern, while in the system shown in Fig. 159, the 
 cold water supply is carried down to the cylinder. 
 
196 
 
 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 Weight and Thickness of Sheet Lead. 
 
 . Weight ia Lbs. 
 per Sup. Foot. 
 
 Thickness in 
 Inches. 
 
 Weight in Lbs. 
 per Sup. Foot. 
 
 Thickness in 
 Inches. 
 
 1 
 
 0.017 
 
 7 
 
 0.118 
 
 2 
 
 0.034 
 
 8 
 
 0.135 
 
 3 
 
 0,051 
 
 9 
 
 0.152 
 
 4 
 
 0.068 
 
 10 
 
 0.169 
 
 5 
 
 0.085 
 
 11 
 
 0.186 
 
 6 
 
 0.101 
 
 12 
 
 0.203 
 
 TABLE 11 
 
HOT WATER PLUMBING. 
 
 As the drawings shown in the article on Hot 
 Water Supply are merely diagramatic outlines of 
 the different systems and are only intended to il- 
 lustrate the principle of the circulation, which is 
 involved in the heating of water for domestic use, 
 further description and additional drawings are 
 here given to illustrate the two systems of water 
 heating in common use, viz. : the pressure-cylinder 
 system and the gravity-supply tank and cylinder 
 system. 
 
 In Fig. 160 is shown one of the simplest ar- 
 rangements of the pressure-cylinder system for 
 the successful heating of water for household use. 
 The boiler, water-back and pipe connections are 
 all plainly shown. Tn the boiler is a pipe extend- 
 ing down from the top and connected with the 
 cold water supply, which it discharges in the 
 boiler a short distance from the bottom. The dis- 
 tance down in the boiler which this pipe should 
 extend depends upon the height that the pipe 
 from the upper part of the water-back enters the 
 boiler. The cold water supply should always en- 
 ter the boiler at a considerable distance below 
 the point of entrance of the pipe conveying the 
 hot water from the water-back to the boiler. 
 
 197 
 
198 
 
 HOT WATER PLUMBING 
 
 The greater the distance that the hot and cold 
 water pipes are apart in the boiler, the b^'tter will 
 be the circulation and the less time it will take 
 to heat a given amonnt of water7 
 
 I 
 
 J 
 
 Pig. 160 
 
 The piping in the arrangement shown in Fig. 
 160 is designed to deliver hot water on the floor 
 above that on which the boiler is located. If hot 
 
HOT WATER PLUMBING 
 
 199 
 
 Pig. 161 
 
200 HOT WATER PLUMBING 
 
 water is desired on the same floor a connection 
 can be made in the pipe leading from the top of 
 the boiler to the faucet on the floor above. 
 
 Fig. 161 shows an arrangement of fixtures and 
 piping to supply hot water on three floors by the 
 pressure-cylinder system. Hot water is supplied to 
 the kitchen sink on the ground floor, to a bath 
 tub and wash bowl on the second floor and to a 
 wash bowl on the third floor. The cold water 
 supply pipe to the boiler is shown and the cold 
 water connection to the kitchen sink, while the 
 cold water pipes to the bath tub and wash bowls 
 on the upper floors are omitted for the sake of 
 simplicity. 
 
 Fig. 162 shows one of the simplest forms of the 
 gravity-supply tank and cylinder systems, in 
 which the boiler, water-back and hot water con- 
 nections are all on the same floor. The cold water 
 pipe goes to the floor above or to the attic as the 
 case may be to the supply tank, where the supply 
 of water is regulated by a ball float -cock. An 
 expansion pipe as shown should be provided in 
 the hot water pipe leading from the boiler and ar- 
 ranged to discharge into the supply tank. In Fig. 
 163 a gravity-supply tank and cylinder system is 
 shown, which is arranged to deliver hot water to 
 the kitchen sink and also to a bath tub and wash 
 bowl on the floor above. The cold water pipe is 
 shown running up to the supply tank and also to 
 the kitchen sink. For the sake of clearness and 
 
HOT WATER PLUMBING 
 
 201 
 
 to avoid confusion the cold water pipes leading 
 to the wash bowl and bath tub are omitted. 
 
 It must be remembered that the kitchen boiler 
 is not a heater, it is simply a reservoir to keep a 
 
 ^ 
 
 r 
 
 
 7^^ 
 
 /*— ^ 
 
 ttt 
 
 Fig. 162 
 
 supply of hot water on hand so that it may be 
 drawn when required. By this arrangement hot 
 water may be had long after the fire has been ex- 
 
 / 
 
202 
 
 KOT Water pluivibing 
 
 tinguished in the stove, as it stores itself by the 
 law of gravitation at the upper part of the boiler, 
 and is forced out by cold water entering below 
 and remaining there without mingling with oi 
 
 Fig. 163 
 
HOT WATER PLUMBING 203 
 
 cooling the hot water in the upper part of the 
 boiler. It should he understood that the natural 
 course of hot water, when confined in a boiler and 
 depending for its motion on the difference be- 
 tween its temperature and the temperature of oth- 
 er water in the same boiler, is in a perpendicular 
 or vertical direction. And consequently when 
 the heating apparatus or pipes which have to 
 convey the hot water from the water back to a 
 boiler in which the hot water is to be stored in 
 any position other than in a vertical position, 
 friction is added which retards the flow of hot 
 water just in proportion to the degree of angle 
 from the vertical of the hot water pipes. 
 
 A noise in the pipes and water-back, and also 
 a rumbling noise in the boiler indicates that 
 there is something wrong, aiid which requires 
 attention. These noises are produced by differ- 
 ent causes, sometimes on account of the way the 
 upper pipe from the water-back in the stove is 
 connected to the boiler. 
 
 This pipe should always have some elevation 
 from the water-back to where it enters the boiler. 
 The more elevation the better the water will cir- 
 culate. But the slightest rise in this pipe will 
 make a satisfactory job. It should be a continu- 
 ous rise if possible, the entire length from the 
 water-back to the boiler. 
 
 Another cause of this noise comes from the 
 water-back being filled, or nearly so, with scal^ 
 
204 HOT -WATES fLUMBINa 
 
 which, partly stops the water from circulating. 
 Nearly all the troubles of this kind come from 
 a bad circulation of water between the stove 
 and boiler. If the trouble is allowed to continue 
 very long without doing anything to improve it, 
 it will grow worse, and perhaps stop up entirely. 
 With the connections between the water-back in 
 the stove and the boiler stopped up, what is to 
 be expected? With a good fire in the stove un- 
 der these* conditions, an explosion of the water- 
 back, which may blow the stove to pieces and, 
 perhaps, kill some of the occupants of the house. 
 
 There are two conditions of things that will 
 cause the water-back in a stove to explode. First, 
 to have water in the water-back with its outlets 
 or pipe connections stopped up, then have a fire 
 started in the stove. The fire will generate steam 
 in the water-back, and, having no outlet through 
 which the steam might escape, an explosion must 
 take place. The second way through which the 
 water-back could explode is to have no water 
 in the kitchen boiler, with a good fire m the 
 stove and the water-back red-hot, then allow the 
 water to be turned on suddenly into the boiler 
 and water-back. Under these conditions steam 
 would be generated faster than it could escape 
 through the small pipe connections, and would 
 naturally result in an explosion. 
 
 The different ways of connecting a water-back 
 on any water heating device to an ordinary 
 
HOT WATER PLUMBING 
 
 205 
 
 kitchen boiler, are governed, to some extent, by 
 the conditions in each individual 'case. 
 
 Hot water ^ 
 Outlet. 
 
 Fig. 164 
 
 In connecting a gas-heated water device, the 
 connections should be made as shown in Fig. 
 
206 
 
 HOT WATER PLUMBING 
 
 164, which is known as a top connection, the 
 particular reason being that it is possible, with 
 a connection of this kind, to heat small quanti- 
 
 Vlg. 165 
 
HOT WATER, PLUMBING 
 
 207 
 
 ties of water and to heat it quickly, and water 
 can be drawn within five minutes after lighting 
 the gas the great advantage being the economy of 
 fuel and time. A gas-he:ated water device should 
 always be connected to a flue. 
 
 Fig. 1S6 
 
 When connecting a kitchen boiler io a water- 
 •Ijack in a range, the connection should be m^e 
 as shown in Fig. 165. As the range fire will 
 
208 
 
 HOT WATER PLUMBING 
 
 probably be kept burning all day, the question of 
 fuel economy is not to be considered — the ad- 
 vantage of a connection of this kind is that it 
 gives a large body of water from which to draw 
 at all times. 
 
 Pig. 16T 
 
 Connections to vertical and horizontal boilers, 
 when connected to independent water heaters 
 are shown in Figs. 166 and, 167. :.- 
 
 Another device recently put on. the market and 
 
HOT WATER PLUMBING 
 
 209 
 
 
 Flj. IW 
 
210 HOT WATER PLUAIBINa 
 
 shown in Fig. 168, is a combination reservoir and 
 heater. This, heater is unique in construction of 
 water compartments inasmuch as all surfaces 
 are exposed . very advantageously -to the flame. 
 The central water compartment being directly 
 over the flame and the pipe which carries hot 
 wgter to the top of the tank enables it to supply 
 hot water within a very short time. The gas 
 supply is regulated by a thermostat, which auto- 
 matically decreases the flow of gas when water 
 is heated and automatically increases the flow of 
 gas as soon as the hot water is drawn from the 
 tank. Two clusters of blue flame gas burners, 
 which are indeftendent of each other, and can be 
 used separately or both at the same time, fur- 
 nish the heating medium. The^ advantage of 
 this boiler, outside of the economy of fuel con- 
 sumption, is that it requires little space for the 
 installation and a great saving in the piping. 
 Again the automatic gas regulating feature pre- 
 vents the boiler from becoming over-heated and 
 from its subsequent dangers, as the temperature 
 of water is maintained at about 170 degrees Fah- 
 renheit. 
 
 In the sectional cut a steam coil is shown 
 whereby the water can be heated with steam, in 
 case it is installed, where steam is avai labia 
 
 Plumber's Tools. The illustrations given in 
 Figs. 169, 170 and 171, show a set of plumber's 
 tools. The name of the tool is given with each. 
 
HOT WATER PLUMBING 211 
 
 Blow Pipe 
 
 Pot Hook 
 
 0— ^ 
 
 Copper Hatchet Bolt 
 
 Copper Pointed Bolt- 
 
 « 
 
 Torch 
 
 Wiping Cloths 
 
 Soil Cup. 
 
 Tack Mould 
 
 
 Tack Moiilit 
 
 Tool Bacrs 
 
 Fig. Itt 
 
212 HOT WATER PLUMBING 
 
 Hammer 
 
 Cold Chisel 
 
 Gouge 
 
 Compass Saw 
 
 Calking Chisel 
 
 Rasp 
 
 File 
 
 Basin Wrench 
 
 j=s==Jl 
 
 Offset Callcing; Chisel 
 
 Yarning Chisel 
 
 FIS- lift 
 
HOT WATEK PLUMBING 
 
 213 
 
 illustration, making further information unneces- 
 sary. 
 A larger number of tools tlian those shown 
 
 Bossing Stick 
 
 Chippiog Knives 
 
 Dresser 
 
 Share Hook- 
 
 Side Edge 
 
 Tap Borer 
 
 Turn IPin 
 
 A 
 
 Washer Cutter 
 
 Drift Plug 
 
 Grease Box 
 
 Bending Pin 
 
 Pig.^ 171 
 
 will sometimes be necessary for special work, 
 or work that has to be done under difficulties. 
 
 Figs. 172 and 173 show two styles of plumber's 
 blow-torches, and Figs. 174 and 175, two solder 
 
214 
 
 HOT WATER PLUMBING 
 
 pots. The air pressure is generated by means 
 of rubber bulb in the solder pot shown in Fig. 
 174, and by means of a small hand pump in the 
 one shown in Fig. 175. 
 
 Fig. 172 
 
 A rubber force cup for cleaaing bathtubs, 
 washbowls and sinks is shown ia Fig. 176. 
 
HOT WATER PLUMBlNa 
 
 215 
 
 Fig. 173 
 
 Pig. 174 
 
 Pig. 176 
 
 Pig. 17« 
 
216 
 
 hOt Water PLUMBlNa 
 
 A thawing steamer for thawing pipes that 
 have been frozen during a cold spell is illus- 
 trated in Fig. 177. 
 
 Fig. 177 
 
HOT 'water plumbing 217 
 
 Traps. A trap is a vessel which contains 
 water, its purpose is to prevent the passage of 
 sewer gas and other foul odors from the sewer 
 into the , house, or to prevent the entrance 
 through the house fixtures of gas and noxious 
 odors that may be formed between the main 
 trap and the house fixtures. The water seal of 
 a trap should not be less than li/^ to 2 inches. 
 
 The seal of a trap may be broken in different 
 ways, viz: by syphonage, evaporation, back pres- 
 surage and momentum or the action of the waste 
 itself as it may pass off with considerable force. 
 
 A good trap should have a go(3d seal, it 
 should be non-syphonable, self -cleaning and have 
 as few corners or places where dirt or refuse may 
 collect as possible. 
 
 The S-trap and the drum or cylinder trap are 
 two forms mo St used. 
 
 The back pressure or gas from the sewer will 
 saturate the water in a trap with sewer gas, 
 therefore all traps should be back-vented from 
 the sewer side of the syphon and at the highest 
 point of the same. 
 
 Traps should always be counter-vented, prin- 
 cipally to prevent syphonage, to ventilate the 
 plumbing system and to relieve back pressure. 
 
 Counter-venting. A counter-vent is a pipe by 
 means of which a trap is supplied with air, to 
 prevent the partial or total syphonage of the trap 
 and also ventilate the plumbing system of the 
 house. 
 
218 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 Counter-vents from fixture traps should always 
 be carried into the main air-pipe and higher than 
 the top of the fixture or else directly through the 
 roof. 
 
 The counter-vent from a water closet should 
 always be vented from the highest point of the 
 syphon and never from a lower point where the 
 flushing action of the closet would throw waste 
 inatter into the entrance of the counter-vent or 
 at any point where the waste would be liable to 
 settle in the vent-pipe. 
 
 Caulking Joints. A ring of oakum is first 
 --forced into the joint, and then set with a caulking 
 tool until hard. After the oakum is firmly caulked, 
 an asbestos rope is placed around the top of the 
 joint, leaving a small opening at the top for pour- 
 ing the melted lead. The melted lead is then 
 poured, and after cooling, firmly set down with 
 the caulking tool, care being taken to thoroughly 
 caulk the inner and outer edges of the lead circle. 
 The lead in a 4-inch soil pipe should be about 1 
 inch deep. 
 
PROPERTIES OF WATER. 
 
 A tasteless, transparent, iaodorous, liquid, 
 alnaost incompressible, its absolute diminution be- 
 ing about one twenty-thousandth of its bulk, pos- 
 sesses the liquid form only, at temperatures be- 
 tween thirty-two degrees and two hundred and 
 twelve Fahrenheit. Chemically considered, it is 
 a compound substance of hydrogen and oxygen, 
 two volumes of hydrogen to one volume of oxy- 
 gen. Water is the most powerful and universal 
 solvent known. 
 
 The gallon is the unit of measure for- water. 
 The unit of water pressure is the pound per 
 square inch, one gallon of water measures .134 
 cubic feet and contains 231 cubic inches and 
 weighs about eight and one-third pounds, or sixty- 
 two and one-third pounds per cubic foot. 
 
 The above is figured at sixty-two degrees 
 Fahrenheit, which is taken as a standard temper- 
 ature. 
 
 The weight of a column of water of one inch 
 area and twelve inches high, at sixty-two degrees 
 Fahrenheit is .433 pounds, on 
 
 .433x144^62:35 pounds per cubic foot. 
 
 The pressure of stUI water, in pounds, per 
 square inch, against the side of any pipe or ves- 
 - 219 
 
220 PROPEETIES OF WATER 
 
 ^sel, of any shape whatever, is equal in all direc- 
 tions, downwards, upwards or sideways. To find 
 the pressure in pounds, per square inch, of a col- 
 umn of water, multiply the height of the column 
 in feet, hy .433, approximately one foot of eleva- 
 tion, is equal to one half-pound pressure per 
 square inch. 
 
 The head is the vertical distance between the 
 level surface of still water and the height in the 
 pipe, unless caused by pressure such as by a 
 pump, etc. Water pressure is measured in 
 pounds per square inch, above atmospheric press- 
 ure, by means of a pressure gauge. To ascertain 
 the height water will rise, at any given pressure, 
 divide the gauge pressure by .433; the result is 
 the height in feet. 
 
 Example: The pressure gauge on a supply 
 pipe in a basement shows 25 pounds pressure. 
 To what height will water rise in the piping 
 throughout the building? 
 
 Answer: 25^.433=571/2 feet. 
 
 While water wiU rise to this height, sufficient 
 head should be provided to furnish a surplus head 
 of about ten feet above the highest point of de- 
 livery, to insure a respectable velocity of dis- 
 charge. 
 
 It is frequently desired to know what number 
 of pipes of a given size is equal in carrying ca- 
 pacity to one pipe of a larger size. At the same 
 
PKOPERTIES OF WATER 221 
 
 velocity of flow, the volume delivered by two 
 pipes of a different size is proportionate to the 
 square of their diameters, thus: A four-inch pipe 
 will deliver the same volume as four two-inch 
 pipes. 
 
 Example: 
 
 2 inchesX2 inches= 4 square inches. 
 
 4 inches X 4 inches^=16 square inches. 
 
 16 inches-T-4 inches^= 4 2-inch pipes. 
 
 With the same head, however, the velocity be^• 
 ing less in a two-inch pipe, the volume (Jelivered 
 varies about as the square root of the fifth power. 
 Thus one four-inch pipe is actually equal to 5.7 
 two-inch pipes. 
 
 Eixample: With the same head, how many 
 two-inch pipesi will it take to equal one four-inch 
 pipe? 
 
 Solution : 
 2' = 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 = 32 and the /32 = 5.7 nearly. 
 
 In other words, the decrease in loss by friction 
 in the four-inch pipe, in (3omparison with the two- 
 inch pipes, is equal to 1.7 two-inch pipes over the 
 actual square of their respective areas. 
 
 Water boils or takes the form of vapor or .steam 
 at 212 degrees Fahrenheit, at a mean pressure of 
 the sea level, or 14.696 pounds per square inch. 
 Water freezes, or assumes a solid form, that of 
 ice, at 32 degrees Fahrenheit, at the ordinary at- 
 
222 PEOPERTIES OF WATER 
 
 mospheric, pressure, and ice melts at the same 
 temperature. The point of maximum density is 
 reached at 39.2 Fahrenheit, that is, water at that 
 temperature occupies its smallest possible volume. 
 If cooled further, it expands until it solidifies, and 
 if heated, it expands. 
 
 Hardness of water is indicated by the easy man- 
 ner with which it will form a lather with soap, 
 the degree of hardness being based on the pres- 
 ence and amount of lime and magnesia. The more 
 lime and magnesia in a saniple of water, the more 
 soap a given volume of water will decompose. 
 The standard soap measurement is the quantity 
 required to precipitate or neutralize one grain 
 of carbonate of lime. It is commonly recommended 
 that one gallon of pure, distilled water takes one 
 soap measure to produce a lather, and, therefore, 
 one is deducted from the total amount of soap 
 measurements found to be necessary to produce a 
 lather in a gallon of water, and in reporting the 
 number of soap measurements or degrees of hard- 
 ness of the water sample. 
 
 The impurities which occur in waters are of two 
 kinds, mechanical and physical, dirt, leaves, in- 
 sects, etc., are mechanical and can be removed 
 by filtration. It is said that these impurities are 
 held in suspension. 
 
 Solutions of minerals, poisons and the like are 
 physical and are designated as those held in solu- 
 tion. 
 
PKOPERTIES OF WATER 223 
 
 Freshening water to render it palatable is ac- 
 compli shed by aeration, that is, by exposing water 
 to the action of the air, by passing air through it 
 or raising it to an elevation built for that purpose, 
 protected from dust and other impurities of the 
 air, if the water is to be used for drinking pur- ^ 
 poses, and allowing it to run down an incline, 
 which is slatted or barred, so as to break it up 
 into small particles, and allow it to become sat- 
 urated with air. 
 
 This process, however, is of no practical use 
 for actual purification. 
 
USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 One heaped bushel of anthracite coal weighs 
 from 75 to 80 lbs. 
 
 One heaped bushel of bituminous coal weighs 
 from 70 to 75 lbs. 
 
 One bushel of coke weighs 32 lbs. 
 
 Water, gas and steam pipes are measured on 
 the inside. 
 
 One cubic inch of water evaporated at atmos- 
 pheric pressure makes 1 cubic foot of steam. 
 
 A heat unit known as a British Thermal Unit 
 raises the temperature of 1 pound of water 1 de- 
 gree Fahrenheit. 
 
 For low pressure heating purposes, from 3 to 8 
 pounds of coal per hour is considered economical 
 consumption, for each square foot of grate sur- 
 face in a boiler, dependent upon conditions. 
 
 A horse power is estimated equal to 75 to 100 
 square feet of direct radiation. A horse power is 
 also estimated as 15 square feet of heating surface 
 in a standard tubular boiler. 
 
 Water boils in a vacuum at 98 degrees Fahren- 
 heit. 
 
 A cubic foot of water weighs 62^/^ pounds, it 
 contains 1,728 cubic inches or 7% gallons. Water 
 expands in boiling about one-twentieth of its bulk. 
 
 224 
 
USEFUL INFORMATION 225 
 
 In turning into steam water expands 1,700 its 
 bulk, approximately 1 cubic inch of water will 
 produce 1 cubic foot of steam. 
 
 One pound of air contaius 13.82 cubic feet. 
 
 It requires 1^/2 British Thermal Units to raise 
 one cubic foot of air from zero to 70 degrees Fah- 
 renheit. 
 
 At atmospheric pressure 966 heat imits are re- 
 quired to evaporate one pound of water into 
 steam. 
 
 A pound of anthracite coal contains 14,500 heat 
 uits. 
 
 One horsepower is equivalent to 42.75 heat units 
 per minute. 
 
 One horsepower is required to raise 33,000 
 pounds one foot high in one minute. 
 
 To produce onje horsepower requires the evapo- 
 ration of 2.66 pounds of water. 
 
 One ton of anthracite coal contains about 40 
 cubic feet. 
 
 One bushel of anthracite coal weighs about 86 
 pounds. 
 
 Heated air and water rise because their parti- 
 cles are more expanded, and therefore lighter than 
 the colder particles. 
 
 A vacuum is a portion of space from which the 
 air has been entirely exhausted. 
 
 Evaporation is the slow passage of a liquid into 
 the form of vapor. 
 
 Increase of temperature, increased exposure of 
 
226 USEFUL INFOEMATION 
 
 surface, and the passage o± air currents over the 
 surface, cause increased evaporation. 
 
 Condensation is the passage of a vapor into the 
 liquid statd, and is the reverse of evaporation. 
 
 Pressure exerted upon a liquid is transmitted 
 undiminished in all directions, and acts with the 
 same force on all surfaces, and at right angles to 
 those surfaces. 
 
 The pressure at each level of a liquid is propor- 
 tional to its depth. 
 
 With different liquids and the same depth, pres- 
 sure is proportional to the density of the liquid. 
 
 The pressure is the same at all points on any- 
 given level of a liquid. 
 
 The pressure of the upper layers of a hody of 
 liquid on the lower layers causes the latter to ex- 
 ert an equal reactive upward force. This force is 
 called buoyancy. 
 
 Friction does not depend in the least on the 
 pressure of the liquid upon the surface over which 
 it is flowing. 
 
 Friction is proportional to the area of the sur- 
 face. 
 
 At a low velocity friction increases with the ve- 
 locity of the liquid. 
 
 Friction increases with the roughness of th,i 
 surface. 
 
 Friction increases with the density of the liquid. 
 
 Friction is greater comparatively, ill small 
 pipes, for a greater proportion of the water comes 
 
USEFUL INFORMATION 227 
 
 m contact "with, the sides of the pipe than in the 
 case of the large pipe. For this reason mains on 
 heating apparatus should be generous in size. 
 
 Air is extremely compressible, while water is 
 almost incompressible. 
 
 Water is composed of two parts of hydrogen," 
 and one part of oxygen. 
 
 "Water will absorb gases, and to the greatest ex- 
 tent when the pressure of the gas upon the water 
 is greatest, and when the temperature is the low- 
 est, for the elastic force of gas is then less. 
 
 Air is composed of about one^fifth oxygen and 
 four-fifths nitrogen, with a small amount of car- 
 bonic acid gas. 
 
 To reduce Centigrade temperatures to Faliren- 
 heit, multiply the Centigrade degrees by 9, divide 
 the result by 5, and add 32. 
 
 To reduce Fahrenheit temperature to Centi- 
 grade, subtract 32 from the Falirenheit degrees, 
 multiply by 5 and divide by 9. 
 
 To find the area of a required pipe, when the 
 volume and velocity of the water are given, mul- 
 tiply the number of cubic feet of water by 144 and 
 divide this amount by the velocity in feet per 
 minute. 
 
 Water boils in an open vessel (atmospheric 
 pressure at sea leyel) at^ 212 degrees Fahrenheit. 
 
 Water expands in heating from 39 to 212 de- 
 grees Fahrenheit, about 4 per cent. 
 
228 USEFUL INFORMATION 
 
 Water expands a,bout one-tenth its bulk by 
 freezing solid. 
 
 Rule for finding the size of a pipe, necessary 
 to fill a number of 'smaller pipes. Suppose it is 
 desired to fill from one pipe, a 2, 2y2- and 4- 
 inch pipe. Draw a right angle, one arm 2 inches 
 in length, the other 2V2 inc^hes in length. Prom 
 the extreme ends of the two arms draw a line. 
 The length of this line in inches will give the 
 size of pipe necessary to fill the two smaller 
 pipes— about 3^/4 inches. From one end of this 
 last line, draw another line at right angles to it, 
 4 inches in length. Now, from the end of the 
 2-inch line to the end of the last line draw an- 
 other line. Its length will represent the size of 
 pipe necessary to fill a 2-, 2^2- aud 4-inch pipe. 
 This may be continued as long as desired. 
 
 Discharge of water. The amount of water dis- 
 charged through a given orifice during a given 
 length of time and under different heads, is as 
 the square roots of the corresponding heights of 
 the water in the reservoir above the surface of 
 the orifige. 
 
 "Water is at its greatest density and occupies the 
 leagt space at 39 degrees Fahrenheit. 
 
 Water is the best known absorbent of heat, con- 
 sequently a good vehicle for conv.eying and trans- 
 mitting heat; 
 
 A U. S. gallon of water contains 231 culic inches 
 and weighs 8 1/3 poimdeu 
 
USEt^UL INt^OHMATlON 229 
 
 A. colunm of water 27.67 inches high has a pres- 
 sure of 1 pound to thes square inch at the bottom. 
 
 Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its 
 capacity four times. 
 
 A hot water boiler will consume from 3 to 8 
 pounds of coal per hour per square foot of grate, 
 the difference depending upon conditions of draft, 
 fuel, system and management. 
 
 A cubic foot of anthracite coal averages 50 
 pounds. A cubic foot of bituminous coal weighs 
 40 pounds. 
 
 Weights. 
 
 One cubic inch of water 
 
 weighs . 036 pounds 
 
 One U. S. gallon weighs. . . 8.33 " 
 
 One Imperial gallon " ... 10.00 " 
 
 One U. S. gallon equals. .. .231.00 cubic inches 
 
 One Imperial gallon " ...277.274 " 
 
 One cubic foot of water 
 
 equals 7.48 TJ. ?. gallons 
 
 Liquid Measure. 
 
 4 Gills make 1 Pint 4 Quarts make 1 Gallon 
 
 2 Pints make 1 Quart 31% Gals, make 1 Barrel 
 
 To find the area of a rectangle, multiply the 
 length by the breadth. 
 
 To find the area of triangle, multiply the base 
 by one-half the perpendicular height. 
 
230 USEFUL INFORMATION 
 
 To find the drcumference of a circle, multiply 
 the diameter by 3.1416. 
 
 To find the area of a circle, multiply the diam- 
 eter by itself, and the result by .7854. 
 
 To find the* diameter of a circle of a given area, 
 divide the area by .7854, and find the square root 
 of the, result. 
 
 To find the diameter of a circle which shall have 
 the same area as a given square, multiply one side 
 of the square by 1.128. 
 
 To find the number of gallons in a cylindrical 
 tank, multiply the diameter in inches by itself, 
 this by the height in inches, and the result by .34. 
 To find the number of gallons in a rectangular 
 tank, multiply together the length, breadth and 
 height in feet, and this result by 7.4. If the di- 
 mensions are in inches, multiply the product by 
 .004329. To find the pressure in pounds per 
 square inch, of a column of water, multiply the 
 height of the column in feet by .434, 
 
 To find the head which will produce a given 
 velocity of water through a pipe of a given di- 
 ameter and length: Multiply the square of the 
 velocity, expressed in feet per second, by thie 
 length of pipe multiplied by the quotient ob- 
 tained by dividing 13.9 by the diameter of the 
 pipe in inches, and divide the result obtained by 
 2,500. The final amount will give the head in 
 feet. 
 ■ Example.— The horizontal length of pipe is 
 
USEFUL INFORMATION 231 
 
 1,200 feet, and the diameter is 4 inches. What 
 head must be secured to produce a flow of 3 
 feet per second? 
 
 3X3=9; 13.9^-4=3.475. 
 9X1,200X3.475=37,530. 
 37,530-^2,500=15 ft. 
 
 To find the velocity of water flowing through 
 a horizontal straight pipe of given length and 
 diameter, the head of water above the center of 
 the pipe being known: Multiply the head in 
 feet by 2,500, and divide the result by the length ' 
 of pipe in feet multiplied by 13.9, divided by 
 the inner diameter of the pipe in inches. The 
 square root of the quotient gives the velocity 
 in feet per second. 
 
 To find the head in feet, the pressure being 
 known, multiply the pressure per square inch by 
 2.31. 
 
 To find the contents of a barrel. To twice the 
 square of the largest diameter, add the square of 
 the smallest diameter and multiply this by the 
 height, and the result by 2,618. This will give 
 the cubic inches in the barrel, and this divided 
 by 231 will give the number of gallons. 
 
 To find the head in feet, the pressure being 
 known, multiply the pressure per square inch by 
 2.31. 
 
 To find the lateral pressure of water upon the 
 side of a tank, multiply in inches, the area of the 
 
232 USEFUL INFORMATION 
 
 submerged side, by the pressure due to one-half 
 the depth. 
 
 Example— Suppose a taok to be 12 feet long and 
 12 feet deep. Find the pressure on the side of the 
 tank. * 
 
 144 X 144=20,736 square inches area of side. 
 
 12 X .43^5.16, pressure at bottom of tank. Pres- 
 sure at the top of tank is 0. Average pressure 
 will then be 2.6. Therefore 20,736 x 2.6=53,914 
 pounds pressure on side of tank. 
 
 To find the number of gallons in a foot of pipe 
 of any given diameter, multiply the square of di- 
 ameter of the pipe in inches, by .0408. 
 
 To find the diameter of pipe to discharge a giv- 
 en volume of water per minute in cubic feet, mul- 
 tiply the square of the quantity in cubic feet per 
 minute by 96. This will give the diameter in 
 inches. 
 
 To find the weight of any length of lead pipe, 
 when the diameter and thickness of the lead are 
 known: Multiply the square of the outer diam- 
 eter in inches, by the weight of 12 cylindrical 
 inches,, then multiply the square of the inner 
 diameter in inches by the same amount, sub- 
 tracting the product of the latter from that of 
 the former. The remainder multiplied by the 
 length gives the desired result. 
 
 Example. Find the weight of 1,200 feet of 
 lead pipe, the outer diameter being % inch, and 
 the inner diameter 9-16 inoh. 
 
USEFUL INPOHMATION 233" 
 
 The weight of 12 cylindrical inches, 1 fcK)t 
 long, 1 inch in diameter, is 3.8697 lbs. 
 
 % X y8=^49-64=.765625. 
 
 9-16x9-16=81-256=.316406. 
 
 .765625- .316406=.449219 X 3.8697 X 1,200=2,086 
 lbs. 
 
 Cleaning Rusted Iron. Place the articles to be 
 cleaned in a saturated solution of chloride of tin 
 and allow them to stand for a half day or more. 
 
 When removed, wash the articles in water, then 
 in ammonia. Dry quickly, rubbing them hard. 
 
 Removing Boiler Scale. Kerosene oil will ac- 
 complish this purpose, often better than specially 
 prepared compounds. 
 
 Cleaning Brass. Mix in a stone jar one part of 
 nitric acid, one-half part of sulphuric acid. Dip 
 the brass work into this mixture, wash it off with 
 water, and dry with sawdust. If greasy, dip the 
 work into a strong mixture of potash, soda, and 
 water, to remove the grease, and wash it off with 
 water. 
 
 Removing Grease Stains from Marble. Mix 1% 
 parts of soft soap, 3 parts of Fuller's earth and 
 1% pairts of potash, with boiling water. Cover the 
 grease spots with this mixture, and allow it to 
 stand a few hours. 
 
 Strong Cement. Melt over a slow fire, equal 
 parts of rubber and pitch. When wishing to ap- 
 pl"v: the cement, melt and spread it on a strip of 
 strong cotton clorfi. 
 
234 USEFUL INFORMATION 
 
 Cementing Iron and Stone. Mix 10 parts of fine 
 iron filings, 30 parts of plaster of Paris, and one- 
 half parts of sal ammoniac, with weak vinegar. 
 Work this mixture into a paste, and apply quick- 
 
 ly. 
 
 Cement for Steam Boilers. Four parts of red 
 or white lead mixed in oil, and 3 parts of iron bor- 
 ings, make a good soft cement for this purpose. 
 
 Cement for Leaky Boilers. Mix 1 part of pow- 
 dered litharge, 1 part of fine sand, and one-half 
 part of slacked lime with linseed oil, and apply 
 quickly as possible. 
 
 To keep plaster of Paris from setting too 
 quickly. Sift the plaster into the water, allow- 
 ing it to soak up the water without stirring, 
 which would admit the air, and cause the plaster 
 to set very quickly. If it is desired to keep the 
 plaster soft for a much longer period, as is nec- 
 essary for some kinds of work, add to every 
 quart of water one-half teaspoonful of common 
 cooking soda. This will ^ain all the time that is 
 needed. 
 
 To keep paste from spoiling. Add a few drops 
 of oil of clove. 
 
 To make a cement that will hold when all 
 others fail. Melt over a slow fire equal parts of 
 rubber and pitch. When wishing to use it, 
 melt and spread it on a strip of strong cotton 
 cloth. 
 
 Bath for cleaning sheet copper that is to be 
 
USEFUL INFORMATION. 235 
 
 tinned. Pour into water sulphuric acid, until 
 the temperature rises to about blood heat, when 
 it will be about right for pickling purposes. 
 
 Making Tight Steam Joints. With white lead 
 ground in oil mix as much manganese as possible, 
 with a small amount of litharge. Dust the board 
 with red lead, and knead this mass by hand into a 
 small roll, which is then laid on the plate, oiled 
 with linseed oil. It can then be screwed into 
 place. 
 
 Substitute for Fire Clay. Mix common earth 
 with weak salt water. 
 
 Rust Joint Cement. Mix 5 pounds of iron fil- 
 ings, 1 ounce of sal ammoniac, and 1 ounce of sul- 
 phur, and thin the mixture with water. 
 
 To tin sheet copper after it has been well 
 cleaned. Take it from the bath. If there are 
 any spots which the acid has failed to remove, 
 scour with salt and sand. Then over a light 
 charcoal fire heat it, touching it with tin or sol- 
 der, and wipe from one end of the sheet to the 
 other with a handful of flax, only going so fast 
 as it is thoroughly tinned. If the tinning shows 
 a yellowish color, it shows there is too much 
 heat, which is the greatest danger, as tinning' 
 should be done with as little heat as is neces- 
 sary to make the metal flow. When this is dene, 
 rinse off in clean water and dry in sawdust. 
 
 To give copper a red appearance as seen on 
 bath boilers. After the copper has been cleaned, 
 
236 USEFUL INFORMATION 
 
 rub on red chalk and hammer it in with a plan- 
 ishing hammer. 
 
 To tin soldering copper with sal-ammoniac. 
 It will be found' very handy; to have a stick of 
 sal-ammoniac in the kit for tinning purposes. 
 After filing the heated copper bright, touch the 
 copper with the sal-ammoniac and afterward 
 with a stick of solder. The solder will at once 
 flow over the entire surface. In this there is but 
 one danger, the too great heating of the copper, 
 in which case the burned sal-ammoniac will form 
 a hard crust over the surface. Tin with as little 
 heat as possible. Sal-ammoniac will be found of 
 great value in keeping the soldering copper in 
 shape by frequently rubbing the tinned point 
 with it. 
 
 To Keep Soldering Coppers in Order While 
 Soldering with Acid. In a pint of water dis- 
 solve a piece of sal-ammoniac about the size of 
 a walnut. Whenever the copper is taken from 
 the fire, dip the point into the liquid, and the 
 zinc taken from the acid will run to the point of 
 the copper and can then be shaken off, leaving 
 the copper bright. 
 
 TESTS FOR PURE WATER. 
 
 Color. Fill a long clean bottle of colorless 
 glass with the water. Look through it at some 
 blank object. It should look colorless and free 
 
USEFUL INFORMATION 237 
 
 trom suspended matter. A muddy or turbid 
 appearance indicates soluble organic matter or 
 solid matter in suspension. 
 
 Odor. Fill tbe bottle half full, cork it and 
 leave it in a warm place for a few hours. If, 
 when uncorked, it has a smell the least repul- 
 sive, it should be rejected for domestic use. 
 
 Taste. If water at any time, even after heat- 
 ing, has a repulsive or disagreeable taste, it 
 should be rejected. A simple, semi-chemical 
 test is to fill a clean pint bottle three-fourths full 
 of water, add a half teaspoonful of clean granu- 
 lated or crushed ioaf sugar, stop the bottle with 
 glass or a clean cork, and let it stand in the 
 light, in a moderately warm room, for forty- 
 eight hours. If the water becomes cloudy, or 
 milky, it is unfit for domestic use. 
 
238 
 
 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 •Diameters, Ciecumperences, 
 
 Areas, Squares, . 1 
 
 
 
 AND 
 
 Cubes. 
 
 
 
 Diameter 
 in Inches. 
 
 Circum- 
 ference in 
 Inches. 
 
 Area in 
 Square 
 Indies. 
 
 Area in 
 Square 
 Feet. 
 
 Square, 
 in Inches. 
 
 Cube, 
 In Inches. 
 
 x 
 
 .3927 
 
 .0122 
 
 
 .0156 
 
 .00195 
 
 H 
 
 .7854 
 
 .0490 
 
 
 .0625 
 
 .01563 
 
 % 
 
 1.1781 
 
 .1104 
 
 
 .14P6 
 
 .05273 
 
 X 
 
 1.5708 
 
 1963 
 
 ......... 
 
 .25 
 
 .125 
 
 % 
 
 1.9635 
 
 .3068 
 
 
 
 .3906 
 
 .24414 
 
 % 
 
 2.3562 
 
 .4417 
 
 ......... 
 
 .5625 
 
 .42138 
 
 X 
 
 2.7489 
 
 .6013 
 
 
 
 .7656 
 
 .66992 
 
 1 
 
 3.1416 
 
 .7854 
 
 
 
 1. 
 
 1. 
 
 IX 
 
 3.5343 
 
 • .9940 
 
 .6069 
 
 1.2656 
 
 1.42383 
 
 IX 
 
 3.9270 
 
 1.2271 
 
 .0084 
 
 1.5625 
 
 1.95313 
 
 1% 
 
 4.3197 
 
 1.4848 
 
 .0102 
 
 1.8906 
 
 2.59961 
 
 IX 
 
 4.7124 
 
 1.7671 
 
 .0122 
 
 2.25 
 
 3.375 
 
 IX 
 
 5.1051 
 
 2.0739 
 
 .0143 
 
 2.6406 
 
 4.291 
 
 IX 
 
 5.4978 
 
 2.4052 
 
 .0166 
 
 3.0265 
 
 5.3593 
 
 IX 
 
 5.8905 
 
 2.7611 
 
 .0191 
 
 3.5156 
 
 6.5918 
 
 2 
 
 6.2832 
 
 3.1416 
 
 .0225 
 
 4. 
 
 8. 
 
 2X 
 
 6.6759 
 
 3.5465 
 
 .0245 
 
 4.5156 
 
 9.5957 
 
 2X 
 
 7.06S6 
 
 3.9760 
 
 .0275 
 
 5.0625 
 
 11.3906 
 
 2X 
 
 7.4613 
 
 4.4302 
 
 .030^7 
 
 5.6406 
 
 13.3965 
 
 2X 
 
 7.8540 
 
 4.9087 
 
 .0340 
 
 6.25 
 
 15.625 
 
 2X 
 
 8.2467 
 
 5.4119 
 
 .0375 
 
 6.8906 
 
 18.0879 
 
 2% 
 
 8.6394 
 
 5.9395 
 
 .0411 
 
 7.5625 
 
 20.7969 
 
 2X 
 
 9.0321 
 
 6.4918 
 
 .0450 
 
 8.2656 
 
 23.7637 
 
 3 
 
 9.4248 
 
 7.0686 
 
 .0490 
 
 9. 
 
 27. 
 
 3X 
 
 9.8175 
 
 7.6699 
 
 .0531 
 
 9.7656 
 
 30.5176 
 
 m 
 
 10.210 
 
 8.2957 
 
 .0575 
 
 10.5625 
 
 34.3281 
 
 z% 
 
 10.602 
 
 8.9462 
 
 .0620 
 
 11.3906 
 
 38.4434 
 
 sX 
 
 10.995 
 
 9.6211 
 
 .0668 
 
 12.25 
 
 42.875 
 
 sx 
 
 11.388 
 
 10.320 
 
 .0730 
 
 13.1406 
 
 47.634 
 
 SX 
 
 11.781 
 
 11.044 
 
 .0767 
 
 14.0625 
 
 52.734 
 
 SX 
 
 12.173 
 
 11.793 
 
 .0818 
 
 15.0156 
 
 58.185 
 
 4 
 
 12.566 
 
 12.566 
 
 .0879 
 
 16. 
 
 64. 
 
 TABLiiH IS 
 
USEFUL INFOEMATION 
 
 239 
 
 Diameters, Cibcumfekences, Areas, Squares. 
 AND Cubes. 
 
 Diameter 
 in Inches. 
 
 iVs 
 
 4% 
 
 4X 
 
 4% 
 
 4% 
 
 4^ 
 
 6 
 
 dVs 
 
 5X 
 
 5% 
 
 5X 
 
 5% 
 
 5% 
 
 5% 
 
 6. 
 
 6J< 
 
 6>i 
 
 6% 
 
 6% 
 
 6% 
 
 6% 
 
 7 
 
 7% 
 
 7K 
 
 7% 
 
 7X 
 
 7% 
 
 7% 
 
 7% 
 
 8 
 
 Circum- 
 ference in 
 Inches. 
 
 12.959 
 13.351 
 13.744 
 14.137 
 14.529 
 14.922 
 15.315 
 15.708 
 16.100 
 16.493 
 16.886 
 17.278 
 17.671 
 18.064 
 18.457 
 18.849 
 19.242 
 19.635 
 20.027 
 20.420 
 20.813 
 21.205 
 21.598 
 21.991 
 22.383 
 22.776 
 23.169 
 23.562 
 23.954 
 24.347 
 24.740 
 25.132- 
 
 Area in 
 Square 
 Inches. 
 
 13.364 
 14.186 
 15.033 
 15.904 
 16.800 
 17.720 
 18.665 
 19.635 
 20.629 
 21.647 
 22.690 
 23.758 
 24.850 
 25.967 
 27.108 
 28.274 
 29.464 
 30.679 
 31.919 
 33.183 
 34,471 
 35.784 
 37.122 
 38.484 
 39.871 
 41.282 
 42.718 
 44.178 
 45.663 
 47.173 
 48.707 
 50.265 
 
 Area in 
 
 Square 
 
 Feet. 
 
 .0935 
 .0993 
 .1052 
 .1113 
 .1176 
 .1240 
 .1306 
 .1374 
 .1444 
 .1515 
 .1588 
 .1663 
 .1739 
 .1817 
 .1897 
 .1979 
 .2062 
 .2147 
 .2234 
 .2322 
 .2412 
 .2504 
 .2598 
 .2693 
 .2791 
 .2889 
 .2990 
 .3092 
 .3196 
 .3299 
 .3409 
 .351« 
 
 Square. 
 In Inches. 
 
 17.0156 
 
 18.0625 
 
 19.1406 
 
 20.25 
 
 21.3906 
 
 22.5625 
 
 23.7656 
 
 25. 
 
 26.2656 
 
 27.5625 
 
 28.8906 
 
 30.25 
 
 31.6406 
 
 33.0625 
 
 34.5186 
 
 36. 
 
 37.5156 
 
 39.0625 
 
 40.6406 
 
 42.25 
 
 43.8906 
 
 45.5625 
 
 47.2656 
 
 49.' 
 
 50.7656 
 
 52.5625 
 
 54.3906 
 
 56.25 
 
 58.1406 
 
 60.0625 
 
 62.0156 
 
 64. 
 
 Cube, 
 in Inches. 
 
 70.1895 
 
 76.7656 
 
 83.7402 
 
 91.125 
 
 98.9316 
 
 107.1719 
 
 115.8574 
 
 125. 
 
 134.6113 
 144.7031 
 155.2871 
 166.375 
 177.9785 
 190.1094 
 202.7793 
 216. 
 
 229.7832 
 244.1406 
 259.084 
 274.625 
 290.7754 
 307.5469 
 324.9512 
 343. 
 
 36l!7051 
 381.0781 
 401.1309 
 421.879 
 443.3223 
 465.4844 
 488.3730 
 612. 
 
 TABLE 12 — Continued 
 
240 
 
 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 Diameters, Circumferences, Areas, Squares, 
 AND Cubes. 
 
 Diameter 
 in Inches. 
 
 Circum- 
 ference in 
 Inches. 
 
 Area in 
 Square 
 Inches. 
 
 Area in 
 Square 
 Feet. 
 
 Square, 
 in Inches. 
 
 Cube, 
 in Inches. 
 
 8X 
 
 25.515 
 
 51.848 
 
 .3629 
 
 66.0156 
 
 636.3770 
 
 8H 
 
 25.918 
 
 53.456 
 
 .3741 
 
 68.0625 
 
 561.5156 
 
 8X 
 
 26.310 
 
 55.088 
 
 .3856 
 
 70.1406 
 
 587.4277 
 
 SX 
 
 26.703 
 
 56,745 
 
 .3972 
 
 72.25 
 
 614.125 
 
 iK 
 
 27.096 
 
 58.426 
 
 .4089 
 
 74.3906 
 
 641.6191 
 
 8% 
 
 27.489 
 
 60.132 
 
 .4209 
 
 76.5625 
 
 669.9219 
 
 8% 
 
 27.881 
 
 61.862 
 
 .4330 
 
 78.7656 
 
 699.0449 
 
 9 
 
 28.274 
 
 63.617 
 
 .4453 
 
 81. 
 
 729. 
 
 9X 
 
 28.667 
 
 65.396 
 
 .4577 
 
 83.2656 
 
 759.7988 
 
 9K 
 
 29.059 
 
 67.200 
 
 .4704 
 
 85.5625 
 
 791.4531 
 
 9% 
 
 29.452 
 
 69.029 
 
 .4832 
 
 87.8906 
 
 823.9746 
 
 9X 
 
 29.845 
 
 70.882 
 
 .4961 
 
 90.25 
 
 857.375 
 
 9% 
 
 30.237 
 
 72.759 
 
 . .5093 
 
 92.6406 
 
 891.666 
 
 9% 
 
 30.630 
 
 74.662 
 
 .5226 
 
 95.0625 
 
 926.8594 
 
 9% 
 
 31.023 
 
 76.588. 
 
 .5361 
 
 97.5156 
 
 962.0968 
 
 10 
 
 31.416 
 
 ,78.540 
 
 .5497 
 
 100. 
 
 1000. 
 
 10% 
 
 31.808 
 
 80.515 
 
 .5636 
 
 102.5156 
 
 1037.9707 
 
 10% 
 
 32.201 
 
 82.516 
 
 .5776- 
 
 105.0625 
 
 1076.8906 
 
 10% 
 
 32.694 
 
 84.540 
 
 .5917 
 
 107.6406 
 
 1116.7715 
 
 10% 
 
 32.986 
 
 86.590 
 
 .6061 
 
 110.25 
 
 1157.625 
 
 10% 
 
 ,33.379 
 
 88.664' 
 
 ;6206 
 
 112.8906 
 
 1199.4629 
 
 10% 
 
 ,33.772 
 
 90.762 
 
 .6353 
 
 115.56^5 
 
 1242.2969 
 
 10% 
 
 34.164 
 
 92.885 
 
 .6499 
 
 118.2656 
 
 1286.1387 
 
 11 
 
 34.557 
 
 95.033 
 
 .6652 
 
 121. 
 
 133J. 
 
 11% 
 
 34.950 
 
 97.205 
 
 .6804 
 
 123.7656 
 
 1376.8926 
 
 11% 
 
 35.343- 
 
 99.402, 
 
 .6958 
 
 126.5625 
 
 1423.8281 
 
 11% 
 
 35.735 
 
 101.623 
 
 .7143 
 
 129.3906 
 
 1471.8184 
 
 11% 
 
 36.128 
 
 103.869 
 
 .7270 
 
 132.25 
 
 1520.875 
 
 11% 
 
 36.521 
 
 106.139 
 
 .7429 
 
 135.1406 
 
 1571.0098 
 
 11% 
 
 36.913 
 
 108.434 
 
 .7590 
 
 138.062'5 
 
 1622.234 
 
 11% 
 
 37.306 
 
 110.753 
 
 .7752 
 
 141.0155 
 
 1674.5605 
 
 12 
 
 37.699 
 
 113.097 
 
 .7916 
 
 144. 
 
 1728. 
 
 TA£L£i 12 — CoQtmuea 
 
CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 
 
 The following extracts from the 1914 Plumbing 
 Code of the City of Chicago, will, it is believed, 
 •be of material assistance to the student. Of course 
 the rules and regulations controlling plumbing 
 work in various cities differ more or less, accord- 
 ing to conditions, but the bulk of the rules herein 
 given will serve as a reliable guide to the plumber 
 in his work, regardless of the locality in which 
 the work is to be performed, and it is for this pur- 
 pose that they are here inserted. 
 
 PLUMBING. 
 
 Permit for use of water.] All applications for 
 permits for the introduction or use of water sup- 
 plied by the city shall be made in writing upon 
 printed forms furnished by the. department of pub- 
 lic works, the blanks to be specifically and prop- 
 erly filled in and signed by the owner or duly au- 
 thorized agent of the owner, and no work what- 
 ever ■shall be done in the street, or outside a build- 
 ing, by any plumber or other person for the pur- 
 pose of making any connection to or with any city 
 water main or pipe until after the issuance of such 
 permit. This restriction shall not prevent any 
 person from rendering assistance in case of acci- 
 dent to water pipes occurring at night, or at any 
 time requiring immediate, action. In case of any 
 
 341 
 
242 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 sucli accident prompt report thereof shall be made 
 to the department of public works by the person 
 rendering such assistance. ' ' 
 
 Tapping street main.] No person except the 
 tappers empjoyed by the department of public 
 works shall be permitted under any circumstances 
 to tap any street main or insert stop-cocks or fer-- 
 rules therein. AH service cocks -or ferrules must 
 be inserted at or near the top of the street main, 
 and not in any case nearer than six inches from 
 the bell of the pipe. The size of the cock to be in- 
 serted shall be that specified in the permit. 
 
 Lead pipe— kind permitted— weight required.'] 
 No lead pipe shall be used in any work done under 
 the authority of a license or permit issued by the 
 city, except such as is known to the trade as 
 "strong," and every lead pipe so used must weigh 
 as follows: 
 
 Half-Inch internal diameter 1% pounds per lineal foot. 
 
 Five-eighths inch internal-diameter. . .2% 
 Thrae-f ourths inch " " ... 3 
 
 One inch " " ... 4 
 
 One and one-fourth In. Internal diam. .4% 
 One and one-half in. " " . . 6 
 
 One and three-fourths in. " " . . 6 % 
 
 Two Inches " " . . 8 
 
 No pipe shall be used for the purpose of street 
 service of a different material or size from that 
 herein specified, except by special permit, issued 
 by the commissioner of public works. 
 
 Service pipe— joints.] All service pipes lead- 
 ing from street mains to the building line shall as 
 far as practicable be laid in the ground to a depth 
 of not less than five feet, and every such pipe 
 shall be laid in such manner and be of such sur- 
 
CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 243 
 
 plus length as to prevent breakage or rupture by 
 settlement, and all joints in such pipes shall be of 
 the kind termed ' ' plumber or wiped joints. ' ' The 
 connections of pipe by the so-called "cup- joint" 
 is prohibited. 
 
 Stop-cocks.] Every service pipe shall be pro- 
 vided with a stop-cock for each consumer, easily 
 accessible, placed beyond damage by frost and so 
 situated that the water can be conveniently shut 
 off and drained from the pipes. 
 
 Stop-cock— location— shutoff box.] Such stop- 
 cocks, unless otherwise specially permitted, shall 
 be connected to service pipes within the sidewalk 
 at or near the curb line of the same, and be in- 
 closed in and protected by a cast-iron box with a 
 cover having the letter "W" of suitable size cast' 
 thereon; such iron box shall be of form and dimen- 
 sions satisfactory to the commissioner of public 
 works and shall extend from service pipe to sur- 
 face of sidewalk, and be of proper size to admit a 
 stop key for operating the stop-cock. 
 
 Single tap for several buildings— independent 
 cocks required.] Whenever two or mbr6 distinct 
 buildings or premises are to be supplied by means 
 of branch or sub-service pipes supplied by a single 
 tap in the street main, each branch shall be inde- 
 pendently arranged with stop-cock and box on 
 the curb line in the manner above described. All 
 cocks used at the sidewalks by plumbers shall be 
 of the kind known as "round water way." 
 
 Opening of streets— permit— deposit.] Before 
 filling any trench the service cock in the street 
 
244 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 main shall be covered with a suitable cast-iron box 
 furnished by the city; the earth shall be well 
 rammed under the main to a level with the top 
 thereof; from thence the trench shall be filled in 
 layers of not more than twelve inches in depth, 
 and each layer thoroughly rammed or puddled to 
 prevent settlement. This work together with the 
 replacing of sidewalks, ballast and paving shall be 
 done in all cases by the city. A sufficient sum of 
 money shall be deposited with the city before the 
 issuance of the permit for opening the street, to 
 cover this expense. 
 
 No permit shall be granted for the opening of 
 any paved street for the tapping of mains or lay- 
 ing of service pipes, when the ground is frozen to 
 a depth of twelve inches or more, except when in 
 the opinion of the commissioner of .public works 
 there is a sufficient emergency to justify it. 
 
 High pressure steam boiler— supply tank re- 
 quired.] All persons are prohibited from connect- 
 ing pipes whereby high pressure steam boilers 
 may be supplied with water direct from city water 
 mains. All such boilers shall be provided with a 
 tank or other receptacle of sufficient capacity to 
 hold at least six hours' supply of water, which 
 may be used in case of a pipe district being shut 
 off for the repair of water mains or for the making 
 of connections or extensions. In such cases the 
 city will not be responsible for a lack of water for 
 steam boilers, or for any purpose. 
 
 New plumbing— repairs— pipes and traps to be 
 exposed till after tests.] In all buildings here- 
 
CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 245 
 
 after erected in the city, both public and private, 
 and in ail buildings already built or erected where- 
 in any plumbing is installed or wherein any sewer- 
 connected pipe shall be repaired or changed, ex- 
 cept for minor repairs, on the sewer side of the 
 trap, the drain, soil, rainwater, when rainwater 
 pipes are within building, waste pipes, or any 
 other pipe or pipes connected directly or indirect- 
 ly to any drain, soil or waste pipe, and all traps, 
 shall be placed within buildings and exposed to 
 view for ready inspection and test, and shall re- 
 main so exposed until approved by the commis- 
 sioner of health. In no case shall a trap be inac- 
 cessible at any time. 
 
 Metal connections — requirements — tests — 
 tile sewers above ground prohibited.] All soil or 
 waste pipes shall be connected to the tile sewer, 
 if a tile sewer is laid within the building, and if 
 the connection is made above the ground or floor, 
 by a suitable metal connection, which shall make 
 an air-tight and water-tight joint, without the use 
 of cement, mortar, putty or other like material, 
 and which can and shall be tested with water when 
 in place, such metal connections shall be in view 
 at the time of final inspection. 
 
 The entire fitting or piece which is used to con- 
 nect the iron soil or waste pipe to the tile sewer 
 shall be regarded as the metal connection. Metal 
 connections which can be removed from the sewer 
 and soil or waste pipes, after once in place with- 
 out removing a portion of the iron soil or waste 
 pipe, are prohibited. No such metal connection 
 
246 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 shall be used which has not been submitted to and 
 tested and approved by the chief sanitary inspec- 
 tor and the commissioner of health. No tile sewer 
 shall be used above the ground or cement floor or 
 where a cement joint is exposed to the air. One 
 of each such approved types of metal connections 
 shall be kept in the sanitary bureau of the depart- 
 ment of health. 
 
 Connections outside buildings and under 
 ground.] Outside of the building and under 
 ground the connection between the soil or waste 
 pipe and the vitrified tile sewer shall be thorough- 
 ly made with live Portland cement mortar, made 
 with one part cement and two parts clean, sharp 
 sand. 
 
 An arched or other proper opening shall be pro- 
 vided in the wall for the house drain to prevent 
 damage by settlement. The opening around the 
 house drain may be filled with pure refined as- 
 phaltum. 
 
 Drains connected with sewers— sizes— connec- 
 tions must be made by plumber.] It shall be the 
 duty of every person or corporation connecting or 
 causing to be connected any drain, soil pipe or 
 passage with any sewer from any building, struc- 
 ture or premises, to cause such drain, soil pipe, 
 passage or connection to be at all times adequate 
 for its purpose and of such size and dimensions 
 as to convey and allow freely to pass, whatever 
 may properly enter the same. 
 
 Air connections between metal pipes and be- 
 tween metal pipe and tile sewers shall be made by 
 
CHICAGO PLUMJ^ING CODE 24? 
 
 a licensed plumber and in such manner as the 
 commissioner of health shall direct. 
 
 Separate drainage for every building— excep- 
 tion.] Every building shall be separately and in- 
 dependently connected with a public or private 
 sewer, when there is any such sewer in the street 
 adjoining such building. 
 
 The entire plumbing and drainage system of 
 every building shall be entirely separate and in- 
 dependent from that of any other building, ex- 
 cept where there are two buildings on one lot, one 
 in the rear of the other. If there is no sewer in 
 the alley to which the rear building can connect, 
 the sewer of the first building may be extended to 
 serve such rear building. 
 
 Drainage of kitchen slops, etc.— water supply.] 
 All connections with sewers or drains used for 
 the purpose of carrying off animal refuse from 
 water-closets or otherwise, and slop of kitchens, 
 shall have fixtures for a sufficiency of water to be 
 so applied as to properly carry off such matters. 
 
 Soil pipe— size— increaser.] Every water closet 
 located within any building shall waste into a pipe 
 not less than four inches in. diameter. Such pipe 
 shall be increased below the roof line as herein- 
 after provided anjd shall be carried through and 
 above the roof. 
 
 Definition of terms.] In this article the term 
 "main soil pipe" is applied to any pipe receiving 
 the discharge of one or more water closets, with 
 or without other fixtures, and extending through 
 the roof. 
 
fi48 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 The term "branch soil pipe" is applied to any 
 pipe receiving the discharge from one or more 
 water closets and with or without other fixtures 
 and leading towards and connecting with the main 
 soil pipe, but not necessarily extending through 
 the roof. 
 
 The term "waste pipe" is applied to any pipe 
 receiving the discharge from any fixture or fix- 
 tures other than water closets. 
 
 The term "house drain" is applied to the pipe 
 within any building which receives the total dis- 
 charge from any fixture or sets of fixtures, and 
 may or may not include rain water, and which 
 conducts or carries the same to the house sewer. 
 The house drain, when rain water is allowed to 
 discharge into it, shall be hot less than six inches 
 internal diameter. 
 
 The term "house sewer" is applied to the tile 
 sewer, which shall be not less than six inches in- 
 ternal diameter, and which begins outside of the 
 wall of a building and connects the house drain 
 with the public sewer in the street. 
 
 The term "main vent" is applied to the ver- 
 tical line of air pipe running through two or more 
 floors to which the vent or revent pipes from the 
 various floors are connected. 
 
 The term "vent pipe" is applied to any pipe 
 provided to ventilate a system of piping, and to 
 which the revents are connected. 
 
 The term "revent pipe" is applied to any pipe 
 used to prevent trap siphonage and back pressure. 
 
CHICAGO PLtJMBlNa CODE 
 
 249 
 
 The term "soil vent" or "waste vent" is ap- 
 plied to that part of the main soil pipe or waste 
 pipe which is above the highest installed fixture 
 waste connection and extends through the roof. 
 
 When sizes of pipes are specified the internal 
 diameters of the pipes are meant. 
 
 Iron pipes— quality— weights.] All soil, waste 
 and vent pipes, except as hereinafter specified for 
 lead branches and brass pipes, shall be either ex- 
 tra heavy cast-iron pipe coated with tar or as- 
 phaltum, or standard galvanized wrought iron 
 pipe; provided, that wrought iron pipe coated 
 with tar or asphaltum may be used for soil and 
 waste pipes, but not for soil or waste veuft nor 
 for vent or revent pipes. All pipes shall be sound 
 and free from holes, cracks, or defects of any 
 kind. 
 
 The following weights per lineal foot will be 
 accepted as complying with this chapter as to 
 weight of extra heavy cast-iron pipe: 
 
 Diameter 
 
 2 inches 5I/2 pounds per lineal foot 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 
 10 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 17 
 20 
 27 
 
 45 
 54 
 
 Extra heavy cast-iron pipe shall have the mak- 
 
250 
 
 PBACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 er's name and the weight per foot clearly east 
 upon each section thereof. 
 
 The following weights per lineal foot are re- 
 qLuired for standard wrought iron pipe, galvan- 
 ized, or tar-coated pipe: 
 Diameter 
 
 1^ inches 2.68 pounds per lineal foot. 
 
 2 
 
 2.1/2 
 
 3 
 
 31/2 
 4. 
 
 41/2 
 5. 
 6 
 7. 
 8 
 9 
 10 
 
 -3.61 
 
 
 
 
 
 5.74 
 
 
 
 
 
 7.54 
 
 
 
 
 
 9.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 10.66 
 
 
 
 
 
 12.49 
 
 
 
 
 
 14.50 
 
 
 
 
 
 18.76 
 
 
 
 
 
 23.27 
 
 
 
 
 
 28.18 
 
 
 
 
 
 33.70 
 
 
 
 
 
 40.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fittings— quality— cleanout fittings.] All fit- 
 tings used for soil or waste pipe, except as herein- 
 after specified, shall be either extra heavy tar or 
 asphaltum-cbated fittings or extra heavy galvan- 
 ized, cast or malleable iron, recessed and threaded 
 drainage fittings. The burr formed by cutting 
 the wrought iron pipe shall be carefully reamed 
 out. Proper sized cleanout fittings shall be in- 
 stalled at each ninety degree interseqtion of soil 
 or waste pipe. 
 
 Cleanouts— tapping pipes.] On soil or waste 
 pipes four inches or more in diameter heavy brass 
 cleanouts, not less than four inches in diameter, 
 
CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 251 
 
 shall be used. Where iron drain, soil, waste or 
 vent pipes are drilled and tapped, brass plugs or 
 brass soldering nipples shall be used. 
 
 Pipe joints to be filled.] All joints on cast-iron 
 soil, waste or drain pipes and rain water leaders 
 shall be so filled with picked oakum and molten 
 lead and hand calked as to make them air and 
 water-tight. The quantity of lead used shall be 
 twelve ounces of fine soft lead for each inch in 
 the diameter of the pipe. 
 
 Vertical lines of pipes— floor rests.] Vertical 
 lines of soil, waste or other pipes, and rain water 
 pipes when within buildings, shall be provided 
 with floor rests at intervals of every second floor. 
 
 Pipe supports— pipe hooks prohibited.] The foot 
 of every vertical soil, rain or waste pipe shall be 
 adequately supported by brick, stone or concrete 
 piers properly constructed by the use of cement 
 mortar or cement concrete, or shall be otherwise 
 equally well supported. Pipes under the basement 
 floor or in the ground shall be properly laid, grad- 
 ed, and supported. Pipes above the floor shall 
 either be adequately supported or suspended. 
 
 The use of pipe hooks for supporting pipes is 
 prohibited. At the foot of each soil or waste pipe 
 shall be placed a cleanout fitting, which shall be 
 accessible at all times. 
 
 Prohibited fittings.] No double hub or straight 
 crosses shall be used on horizontal or vertical 
 lines. The use of bands, saddles and sleeves is 
 prohibited. 
 
 Buildings subject to vibrations— -calked joints 
 
252 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 proiiibited.] Pipes with, calked joints shall not be 
 installed in buildings subject to vibrations from 
 operating machinery or subject to other causes 
 likely to loosen such calked joints. 
 
 Lead pipe— quality— not to extend within par- 
 titions.] Lead pipe of a quality equal to "extra 
 light" shall be used for water-closet bends and as 
 branches for vent, revent and waste pipe connec- 
 tions. 
 
 Lead pipe used for vent or revent connections 
 shall not extend into or be used within partitions. 
 
 Lead pipe connections— wiped joints— brass 
 pipes.] All connections between lead and metal 
 pipes shall be made by heavy brass solder nip- 
 ples, or heavy brass or combination ferrules which 
 have been approved by the department of health. 
 All solder connections shall be regulation wiped 
 joints. If brass pipe is used it shall be drawn 
 tubing of No. 18 B. and S. gauge. 
 
 Straight tees prohibited.] Straight tees for soil 
 or waste pipes shall not be used. 
 
 Chimney ventilation of soil or waste pipes pro- 
 hibited.] No brick, sheet metal, earthenware or 
 chimney flue shall be used for a sewer ventilator 
 or to ventilate any trap, soil, waste or other sew- 
 er-connected pipe or opening. 
 
 Iron pipe— where used.] Every soil, revent, 
 vent and waste pipe shall be of iron, except as is 
 specified herein for lead or brass pipe. 
 
 Vertical pipes through roof— increased how.] 
 The vertical soil, waste or vent pipes (where the 
 vent or continuous waste pipe is not reconnected 
 
CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 253 
 
 to a soil, waste or vent pipe below the roof) shall 
 extend through and above the roof at .least eight 
 inches and have a diameter of at least one inch 
 greater than that of the pipe proper; but in no 
 case shall it be less than four inches in diameter 
 through and above the roof. 
 
 The increasers shall extend at least one foot be- 
 low the roof. No cap or cowl shall be affixed to 
 the top of any such pipe or pipes. 
 
 Pipes above main building— nuisance.] Soil, 
 waste and vent pipes shall be carried above the 
 roof of the main building when otherwise they 
 would open within fifteen feet of the windows or 
 doors of such or adjoining buildings, and shall 
 be not less than six feet from any ventilator or 
 chimney opening of such or adjoining building 
 or buildings; nor shall they be located so as to 
 be a nuisance to the occupants of any building. 
 
 Soil and waste pipes to be extended— when.] 
 Except in office buildings and factories, branches 
 of soil or waste pipes of twenty feet or more in 
 length shall be extended full size, increased and 
 carried through and above the roof. Branches of 
 waste pipes less than twenty feet in length shall 
 be either carried full size and increased and car- 
 ried through and above roof or returned full size 
 to the main vent pipe. 
 
 Sizes of vent pipes.] Vent pipes into which the 
 revent pipe of rows of fixtures are connected shall 
 not be less than one and one-half inches in diam- 
 eter for not to exceed three plumbing- fixtures 
 other than sink, urinal or water closets. For a 
 
254 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 greater number of such fixtures the vent pipe 
 shall be at least two inches in diameter; 
 
 Where the vents from water closets and other 
 plumbing fixtures are connected into the same 
 vent pipe, the size of the vent pipe shall be at 
 least two inches in diameter from the main vent 
 pipe to the point of connection to the vent of the 
 other fixtures not requiring a two-inch revent. 
 
 Ejectors— sizes of vent pipes.] The soil or 
 waste pipe leading to an ejector or other appli- 
 ance for raising sewage or other waste matter to 
 the street sewer, shall, where a water closet or 
 closets are installed, be ventilated by a vent pipe 
 not less than four inches in diameter. Where fix- 
 tures other than water closets are installed the 
 waste pipe shall be ventilated by a vent pipe of 
 the same diameter as the waste pipe. Soil vents, 
 vents and revents for ejectors shall be installed 
 according to the provisions of this chapter gov- 
 erning soilj waste, vent and revent pipes. 
 
 Horizontal waste pipes prohibited— amount of 
 pitch.] Horizontal soil or waste pipes are pro- 
 hibited. In all possible cases the pitch shall be 
 one-fourth of an inch to the foot, making the 
 grade in the direction of the outflow. 
 
 Drainage and vent fittings— prohibited vents.] 
 Where rows of fixtures are placed in line where 
 galvanized wrought iron pipe is used for vents or 
 revents, galvanized iron, malleable or cast-iron 
 fitt'ngs or cast iron drainage fittings shall be used. 
 
 All vent fittings shall be either galvanized, 
 tarred or asphaltum coated. 
 
CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 255 
 
 Horizontal vent pipes unless practical shall not 
 be used. Lines of soil, waste,, or vent pipes shall 
 be run in a thoroughly workmanlike manner. 
 Trapped or sagged, or drops in, vents or revents 
 are prohibited. No vent pipe from the house side 
 of any trap shall connect to any sewer, vent pipe 
 or soil or waste pipe. 
 
 Oantinuous vents— ventilation of traps— crown 
 venting prohibited.] Trap revents shall be con- 
 tinuous where possible. Where the vent or revent 
 pipes are continuous and traps are ventilated 
 through the waste fitting, the center of the out- 
 let of such fitting shall not be set below the water 
 seal of the trap; and the trap shall not be more 
 than three feet from the waste fitting. 
 
 No crown ventihg shall be permitted. 
 
 Size of soil and waste pipes.] The least diam- 
 eter of soil pipe permitted is four inches. A ver- 
 tical waste pipe into which a kitchen sink or 
 sinks discharge shall be two inches in diameter, 
 and at least three inches in diameter if receiving 
 the waste of five or more" floors, and shall have 
 not less than one and one-half inch branches. 
 
 Trap prohibited— where.] There shall be no 
 traps at the foot of soil or waste pipes, nor shall 
 there be any trap upon the house drain or house 
 sewer. 
 
 This section shall not prohibit the use of traps 
 at the foot' of rain water leaders or upon drains 
 or sewers used exclusively for conducting rain 
 water to a public sewer. 
 
 Trap revents— concealed partitions.] Every 
 
256 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 water-closet, urinal, sink, basin, bath, -and every 
 laundry tub or set of laundry tubs, or any other 
 plumbing fixtures shall be effectively and sepa- 
 rately trapped and revented, except as hereinafter 
 provided for anti-siphon traps. 
 
 All traps shall be protected from siphonage by 
 special vent or revent pipes, except where anti- 
 siphon traps are permitted. Such revented trap 
 shall not depend upon any concealed partition for 
 its water seal. 
 
 Connected wastes.] A connected waste pipe re- 
 ceiving the discharge of not more than two bas- 
 ins, set in line, may waste into a single trap, which 
 shall not be more than two feet from the waste 
 outlet of one of the fixtures. 
 
 Floor washes— prohibited traps— back water 
 valve.] When floor washes are connected it shall 
 be by means of a deep seal trap. Bell traps and 
 east-iron S. and P. traps having covers over hand 
 holes on the sewer side of the trap, held in place 
 by lugs or bolts, are prohibited. Where a floor 
 drain is placed in a basement, it shall be protect- 
 ed from back sewage by means of some suitable 
 and approved back water valve or stop. Covered 
 floor gutters are prohibited. 
 
 Bath tub drum trap— revent.] Each bath tub 
 shall be provided with a drum trap. Traps on 
 bath tubs shall be placed in such a manner that 
 the cleanout will be in plain view and above the 
 floor. The drum trap shall be revented through 
 either a "TY," a "Y," or a drainage fitting. 
 
 Traps— placing of— water seal.] Traps shall 
 
CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 257 
 
 be placed as near to the fixtures as possible, and 
 in no case shall a trap be inore than two feet from 
 the waste outlet of its fixture. 
 
 All traps shall have at least a one and one-half 
 inch water seal and they shall be set true with 
 respect to their water level. 
 
 Waste pipe connection with closet bend, *etc., 
 prohibited— exception.] In no case shall a waste 
 pipe from any fixture be connected with any wa- 
 ter-closet trap, lead bend, vent or revent connec- 
 tion for same,- except that a waste connection may 
 be made to a lead bend in old or repaired work. 
 
 Water-closet revent— size.] Water-closets when 
 placed within buildings shall have two-inch re- 
 vents for each water-closet trap, except as here- 
 inafter provided. 
 
 Sizes of vent pipes— revents.] The main vent 
 pipe for traps of water-closets in buildings four 
 stories or under shall be at least two inches in 
 diameter and have two-inch revents, except that 
 revents for the traps of other plumbing fixtures 
 may be the same diameter as waste traps. In 
 buildings more than four stories high and not 
 more than six stories high, the main vent pipes 
 for water-closets with or without other plumbing 
 fixtures shall be at least two and one-half inches 
 in diameter. In buildings more than six stories 
 high and not to exceed eighteen stories, the main 
 vent pipes for water-closets with or without other 
 plumbing fixtures shall, be at least three inches 
 in diameter. In buildings more than eighteen 
 stories high the main vent pipe for water-closets 
 
258 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 with or without other fixtures shall be -at least 
 four inches in diameter. The main vent pipe for 
 other fixtures than water-closets in buildings four 
 stories and under shall be at least two inches in 
 diameter. In buildings more than four stories 
 high and not more than eight stories high the 
 main vent pipes shall be at least two and one-half 
 inches in diameter. In buildings more than eight 
 stories high the main vent pipe shall be at least 
 three inches in diameter, except that the diameter 
 of the vent pipe may be reduced to two and one- 
 half inches for the six lower stories; provided, 
 that where the waste pipe for fixtures other than 
 water-closets exceeds three inches in diameter the 
 main vent pipe shall be at least three inches in 
 diameter. .The size of revent to traps of plumbing 
 fixtures other than water-closets shall be at least 
 the same size as waste to traps. 
 
 Vents— size of for twelve fixtures.] Where 
 more than twelve closets are installed on any floor 
 the vent pipe for the same shall be at least three 
 inches in diameter with two-inch revents for traps. 
 
 For purposes of reventing, any four fixtures 
 other than water-closets (where 'the same are 
 placed on one floor) shall be taken as equal to 
 one water-closet. This is to apply where water- 
 closets are revented through the same vent pipe. 
 
 Vents in residences.] Vent pipes for water- 
 closets in residences shall be two inches in diam- 
 eter with same size branches, and for other fix- 
 tures not less than one and one-half inches in 
 diameter with branches the same size as waste and 
 
CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 259 
 
 trap; except that the vent pipe for a kitchen sink 
 shall be two inches in diameter. 
 
 Sizes of waste pipes in buildings over four 
 stories in height.] Where fixtures other than wa- 
 ter-closets are installed in a building more than 
 four stories and basement or cellar high, having 
 no soil pipe from ground in building to and 
 through roof, and where the total number of fix- 
 tures wasting into one pipe exceeds six, the same 
 shall waste into at least a two and one-half inch 
 pipe, which shall be carried through the roof; ex- 
 cept that where a battery of urinals and no water- 
 closets are installed in any building (where a 
 three-inch waste pipe is required) the same shall 
 be carried at least three inches in diameter from 
 the ground in the building up and through the 
 roof. 
 
 Sizes of waste pipes in buildings four stories 
 in height and under.] In buildings of four stories 
 and under, where no water-closet is installed and 
 where no sewer-connected soil pipe is carried from 
 ground in building to roof, the fixtures if six or 
 more in number shall waste into a pipe at least 
 two and one-half inches in diameter, which shall 
 be carried through the roof. 
 
 Where a smaller number of fixtures is installed 
 the main waste pipe shall be two inches in diam- 
 eter and carried through the roof, except that 
 where a battery of urinals having a three-inch 
 waste pipe is installed the waste pipe shall be 
 carried at least three inches in diameter from the 
 ground in the building up and through the roof. 
 
260 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 Vents reconnected— connections prohibited with 
 floors below.] All vents shall be either run sep- 
 arately through the roof or be reconnected to an 
 increaser twelve inches below the roof, or they 
 may be reconnected to- the soil vent or main vent 
 pipe not less than three feet above the highest 
 floor on which fixtures are placed; provided, that 
 no fixture or fixtures shall be placed on any floor 
 or floors above and connected to the soil, waste, 
 vent or revent pipes from the fixtures on floors 
 below; nor shall any fitting or fittings for future 
 connections be placed in any soil or waste pipe 
 above the point of revent connection. Where fix- 
 tures are afterwards installed on other floors the 
 vent and revent pipes of "the fixtures already in- 
 stalled shall be rearranged to conform, to the pro- 
 visions of this chapter. Reconnections will not be 
 permitted where said vent pipes run through more 
 than five floors. 
 
 Length of horizontal vents.] Except in office 
 buildings and in factories, the vent pipes from 
 any fixture or fixtures reconneiste'd as hereinbefore 
 provided, shall not span a horizontal distance to 
 exceed twenty feet in length. In office buildings 
 and factories this distance shall not exceed forty' 
 feet. 
 
 Vent pipe increased.] Where g, vent pipe is 
 carried independently through the roof it shall be 
 increased as provided for in preceding sections. 
 
 Prohibited use for revents, etc.] No trap, re- 
 vent or vent shall be used as a waste or soil pipe. 
 
 Revents for adjoining fixtures.] Where bath 
 
CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE - 261 
 
 rooms are located on opposite sides oT a wall and 
 directly opposite each, other and on the same floor 
 in any building and have a common soil or waste 
 pipe in the same separating wall, the revents from 
 fixtures in either or both of such bath rooms may 
 connect into the same pipe. 
 
 Where two plumbing fixtures, other than water 
 closets, waste into a double "Y" or double "TY" 
 fitting, a single proper revent connected at or 
 near the junction of the two waste lines forming 
 a part of the fitting will be permitted. 
 
 Safe wastes.] All lead or other safes where 
 necessary under fixtures shall be drained by a 
 special pipe', the same to discharge into an open 
 water supplied sink or into a deep seal trap, and 
 in no case shall the safe be connected with any 
 waste, soil or drain pipe or sewer. The ends of 
 safe waste pipes shall be covered by flap valves. 
 
 Overflow pipes— how connected.] Overflow pipes 
 from fixtures shall be in each case connected on 
 the inlet side of the trap. 
 
 Refrigerator wastes— sizes— traps.] The waste 
 pipe from a refrigerator or ice box shall not be 
 directly connected with any soil, rain or waste 
 pipe or with the drain or sewer, or discharge upon 
 the ground. It shall discharge into an open water 
 supplied sink or over a deep sealed trap and shall 
 be as short as possible and disconnected from the 
 refrigerator or ice box by at least four inches ; and 
 where refrigerators or ice boxes are placed in 
 buildings and upon two or more floors, the waste 
 and vent pipe thereof shall be continuous and shall 
 
262 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 run through the roof and in no case shall it open 
 within six feet of an open soil or vent pipe. 
 
 The size of a waste pipe for refrigerators for 
 two floors or less shall be at least one and one- 
 half inches, and two inches for three floors and 
 over and under five floors, and two and one-half 
 inches for five floors and over. Each refrigera- 
 tor or ice box shall be provided with a suitable 
 trap with an accessible trap screw or cleanout. 
 Such trap shall be placed in the one and' one-half 
 inch waste pipe and shall be near the refrigerator 
 or ice box. Such traps need not be separately 
 revented. 
 
 House boilers— sediment pipes.] The sediment 
 pipe from house boilers shall not be connected 
 into the sewer side of any trap nor directly con- 
 nected into any soil or waste pipe or drain. 
 
 Water-closets— flush tanks— purity of water.] 
 All water-closets and urinals within any building 
 shall be supplied from special tanks or approved 
 automatically flushing valves having flush pipes 
 at least one and one-quarter inches in diameter. 
 The water from such tanks or cisterns shall not 
 be used for any other purpose. The purity of 
 such water and of water used in all other plumb- 
 ing fixtures shall be equal to the purity of the 
 water supplied through the Chicago waterworks 
 system. 
 
 Automatic flush tanks for urinals.] Flush tanks 
 for urinals shall be arranged for intermittent and 
 automatic discharges. All urinals shall be flushed 
 
CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 263 
 
 at regular intervals not to exceed seven minutes 
 each. 
 
 Cisterns for water-closets— siphon discharge- 
 house tanks.] Where cisterns are used for water- 
 closets they shall each have a siphon discharge. 
 The valves of such cisterns shall be fitted and ad- 
 justed so as to prevent a waste of water. When 
 the city pressure is not sufficient to supply such 
 cisterns or plumbing fixtures with water, ade- 
 quate pumps or house tanks shall bp provided. 
 
 Water-closets within buildings— flushing rim 
 bowls.] All water-closets within buildings shall 
 have flushing rim bowls. ' 
 
 Water-closets within buildings— flushing dis- 
 charge.] Water-closets and urinals within build- 
 ings shall not be supplied from any water supply 
 pipes direct. 
 
 All water-closets within buildings shall be fitted 
 with either siphon discharge flush or pressure 
 tanks or approved automatically flushing valves 
 not directly connected to the city water supply 
 pipes. 
 
 All individual water-closets within |)uildings 
 at each flush shall receive not less than four gal- 
 lons of water into the closet bowl at each dis- 
 charge, which shall be discharged in such time 
 and with such force as shall thoroughly clean the 
 closet bowl at each flush. 
 
 Long hopper closets— regulations.] Long hop- 
 per closets shall not be installed within any build- 
 ing hereafter constructed. Long hopper closets 
 may be installed in a cellar or unfinished basement 
 
264 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 of old or existing buildings only. A water-closet 
 in a-basement or in a yard may be flushed with 
 a hopper cock or stop and waste cock buried to a 
 depth of at least three feet below the ground. A 
 long hopper closet of the last named construction 
 shall be located at least eight feet distant from 
 any dwelling. 
 
 A flushing rim water-closet may be placed ad- 
 jacent to the outside wall of an existing building 
 when the occupied floor of the building is not 
 more than two feet above the ground level, in 
 which case such closets shall be flushed by suit- 
 able flushing cistern, the flushing pipe from which 
 shall be brought nearly to the level of the closet 
 seat on the inside of the building. 
 
 Outside water-closets— where prohibited— regu- 
 lations.] A water-closet shall not be installed on 
 a porch or other like place. Outside water-clos- 
 ets may be installed for buildings heretofore erect- 
 ed only. 
 
 Water-closets when placed in the yard of any 
 building heretofore erected shall be separately 
 trapped and placed not less than eight feet from 
 any dwelling or other place of abode and so ar- 
 ranged as to be conveniently and adequately 
 flushed, and their water supply pipes and traps 
 shall be protected from freezing. The compart- 
 ments for such water-closeta shall be adequately 
 lighted and ventilated. 
 
 Water-closets under sidewalks, etc.] Where 
 water-closets or other plumbing fixtures are placed 
 under a sidewalk, street, alley or other like place. 
 
CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 265 
 
 adjoining and opening into the basement of any 
 building, each and every fixture so placed shall 
 be ventilated in the same manner as is provided 
 for other plumbing fixtures in this chapter, and 
 the water-closet compartments shall be adequate- 
 ly lighted and ventilated. 
 
 Places of employment— separate water-closets 
 for men and women— number.] In all places of 
 employment where men and women are employed, 
 separate and sufficient water-closets shall be pro- 
 vided for males and females. Water-closets for 
 men shall be plainly marked "Men's Toilet" and 
 water-closets for women shall be plainly marked 
 "Women's Toilet." 
 
 In all places of employment, one water-closet 
 shall be provided for every twenty-five males or 
 less number, and one water-closet shall be pro- 
 vided for every twenty females or less number. 
 Such water-closet facilities shall be furnished upon 
 at least every second floor. Where there are em- 
 ployes in any basement, such basement shall be 
 considered as one floor. 
 
 Water-closets in hotels and lodging houses.] In 
 
 lodging houses and hotels hereafter erected or al- 
 tered there shall be provided one water-closet for 
 every twenty-five males or less number and one 
 water-closet for every twenty females or less num- 
 ber. The number of water-closets required shall 
 be determined from the number of lodging quar- 
 ters provided. There shall be at least one closet 
 on each floor. The general water-closet accom- 
 
266 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 modations of a lodging house shall not be- placed 
 in the basement. 
 
 Separate closets in buildings used for both busi- 
 ness and residence purposes.] In all buildings 
 used jointly for residence and business purposes, 
 separate and sufficient water-closets shall be pro- 
 vided for the use of families and for the use of 
 employes and patrons of the place. 
 
 Toilet paper.] No paper other than what is 
 commonly known as toilet paper shall be placed 
 in any water-closet or allowed to enter any soil 
 pipe. 
 
 House tanks— zinc and lead linings prohibited 
 —overflow pipes.] Tanks in which water to be 
 used for drinking' or other domestic purposes is 
 stored shall not be lined with zinc or lead. 
 
 The overflow pipes from such tanks shall dis- 
 charge upon the roof or be trapped and discharged 
 into an open sink. Such overflow pipes shall not 
 be connected into any soil waste pipe or other 
 sewer connected pipe; nor shall the drain or sedi- 
 ment pipe be connected into any soil, waste or 
 other pipe directly connected with a sewer. 
 
 Rain water leaders— prohibited uses— when to 
 be trapped— construction.] Eain water pipes or 
 leaders shall not be used as soil, waste or vent 
 pipes; nor shall any soil, waste or vent pipe be 
 used for a rain water pipe or leader. Where a 
 .rain water leader opens near any window, door or 
 vent shaft, or is so located as to render it likely 
 to become a nuisance, if not trapped, it shall be 
 
CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 26T 
 
 properly trapped far enougli below the surface to 
 prevent its becoming a nuisance or freezing. 
 
 Inside rain water leaders shall be made of ex- 
 tra heavy cast iron or tar or asphaltum coated 
 wrought iron pipe or galvanized wrought iron 
 pipe, with roof connections, made gas and water 
 tight by means of heavy lead or copper drawn 
 tubing, wiped or soldered to a brass ferrule, calked 
 or screwed into the pipe. Outside rain water 
 leaders may be of sheet metal, but they shall con- 
 nect with the house drain by means of a five-foot 
 length of cast iron pipe extending vertically at 
 least four feet above the grade level. 
 
 Steam pipes— condensers— vents.] No steam, 
 exhaust, blowoff, drip or return pipe from any 
 steam trap shall connect with the sewer or with 
 any house drain, soil, or waste pipe or rain water 
 pipe. The water or steam of condensation from 
 such pipes, before it shall enter any sewer or 
 drain, shall be discharged into a suitable cast iron 
 catch basin or condenser', from which a special 
 vent pipe not less than two inches in diameter 
 shall extend through the roof. 
 
 Blowoff pipes— how made— discharge.] Blow- 
 off pipes from boiler or heating plants shall be 
 either of extra heavy cast iron pipe or galvanized 
 wrought iron pipe. 'No such blowoff or hot water 
 pipe shall discharge directly or indirectly into 
 any vitrified earthenware tile sewer within any 
 building. 
 
 Temperature of water entering sewer.] No 
 •water of a higher temperature than one hundred 
 
268 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 and twenty degrees Fahrenheit shall be permitted 
 to enter any house sewer direct. 
 
 Area drains to be trapped— when.] When the 
 area drains are connected to the house sewer or 
 drain, they shall be effectively trapped. Such 
 traps shall be protected from frost. 
 
 Cellar drainer— ground water.] Cellars and 
 basements shall be kept free from ground or sur- 
 face water, and where the same are too low to 
 be drained into the sewer, the water therefrom 
 shall be lifted by a cellar drainer or other device, 
 approved by the chief sanitary inspector, and dis- 
 charged into the sewer. 
 
 Floor washes in basements— building plans 
 must indicate locations of backwater valves.] 
 Floor washes for basements shall be provided 
 with a deep seal trap, having a heavy strainer, 
 and a backwater gate valve, or stop, accessible 
 for cleaning. 
 
 No backwater valve shall be used which has not 
 been approved by the chief sanitary inspector. 
 
 All building plans, where basement floor washes 
 are connected, shall indicate where and what 
 backwater valve or device is to be used. 
 
 Sumps— tight cover.] Sumps or rodding basins 
 for sub-soil drains shall be provided with tight 
 cast iron covers. 
 
 Wood sinks and tubs prohibited.] The instal- 
 lation of stationary wooden sinks and wooden 
 laundry tubs is prohibited inside of any building 
 used for human habitation. Such sinks and tubs 
 shall be of no'n-absorbent material. 
 
CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 269 
 
 Catch basins prohibited within buildings— ex- 
 ceptions.] No catch basin or gravel basin shall 
 be allowed within any building, except as pro- 
 vided for in the following sections. 
 
 Catch basin to intercept kitchen wastes— diam- 
 eter.] Kitchen or other greasy wastes shall be 
 intercepted by a catch basin or grease trap and 
 thence conducted to the house sewer. 
 
 The vitrified tile sewer through which kitchen 
 wastes are conducted shall be at least six inches 
 in internal diameter. 
 
 Catch basins for kitchen wastes— construction 
 — covers.] Catch basins for receiving such wastes 
 shall be constructed either of brick, concrete or 
 cast iron. If of brick or concrete, they shall be 
 at least thirty inches in internal diameter at the 
 base and may taper to not less than twenty-two 
 inches internal diameter at the top. 
 
 Each catch basin shall be covered at the grade 
 level with a stone, iron or cement concrete cover, 
 having an opening of sixteen inches diameter, 
 and fitted with an eighteen inch iron lid of a 
 weight not less than eighteen pounds. No stone 
 cover shall be less than three inches in thickness. 
 No wooden catch basin cover shall be hereafter 
 installed. If a wooden catch basin cover becomes 
 rotten or defective so as to require repair or re- 
 placement, it shall be removed and replaced with 
 a stone, iron or cement cover placed at the grade 
 level. 
 
 Every concrete cover hereafter installed shall, 
 if not reinforced as hereinafter provided, be made 
 
270 PRACTICAIi PLUMBING 
 
 at least three and one-half inches thick from a 
 Portland cement concrete mixture consisting of 
 one part cement, two parts limestone screening 
 free from clay, and three parts number three 
 crushed limestone such as will pass through a 
 three-quarter inch sieve. The use of clean tor- 
 pedo sand entirely free from dirt shall be con- 
 sidered the equivalent of the two parts of lime- 
 stone screening in this mixture. 
 
 Every reinforced concrete cover shall be not 
 less than three inches in thickness, made of the 
 mixture above described, and shall be reinforced 
 with two hoops of not less than gauge number 
 ten wire, having the respective diameters of 
 twenty and twenty-eight inches, and provided 
 with at least eight cross connections of the same 
 wire between the inner and outer hoops. 
 
 All covers shall be manufactured under shel- 
 ter, protected from the sun, wind and frost, and 
 shall not be removed from such shelter for at 
 least two weeks after manufacture. 
 
 The walls of such catch basins, if of brick, shall 
 be eight inches thick and laid in Portland cement 
 mortar and plastered outside and inside with a 
 half -inch coat of Portland cement mortar in pro- 
 portion of one part of Portland cement and two 
 parts of clean, sharp sand. The bottom shall be 
 at least eight inches thick and of either brick 
 laid in cement mortar or of 'Portland cement con- 
 crete. The brick used shall be hard burned sewer 
 brick. 
 
 Where Portland cement concrete is used, the 
 
CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 271 
 
 walls shall be at least five inches thick, and the 
 concrete shall be made of one part of live Portland 
 cement, three parts of clean, sharp sand, and four 
 parts of crushed stone free from dust and of sizes 
 between one-fourth inch and one and one-half 
 inches in largest diameter; and, in addition, the 
 catch basins shall be plastered inside and out, 
 as specified above for brick construction. Catch 
 basins shall be made water tight. No re-tempered 
 cement shall be used. 
 
 The bottom of catch basins shall be at least 
 two feet below the invert of the outlet to the 
 sewer. 
 
 The outlet shall be trapped to a depth of six 
 inches below the invert of the outlet to the sewer 
 to prevent the escape of grease, by a hood or trap 
 of brick and cement mortar, or a hood of concrete 
 or cast iron. 
 
 The invert of the inlet to the. catch basin for 
 kitchen wastes shall be not less than two and one- 
 half feet above the finished bottom of the catch 
 basin. 
 
 Catch basin dispensed with— grease trap.] 
 Where the building covers the entire lot, the catch 
 basin for kitchen wastes may be dispensed with; 
 provided, that a suitable sized grease t^-ap of ap- 
 proved construction is installed and provided with 
 a water jacket through which shall circulate the 
 water that is drawn for the general kitchen use. 
 Such grease traps shall at all times be accessible 
 for cleaning. 
 
272 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 Rain conductor connection— defective catch ba- 
 sins.] Eain water leaders may- connect to catch, 
 basins. Such leaders shall connect to a catch 
 basin when they conduct water from a gravel 
 roof. 
 
 Defective and leaking catch basins shall be re- 
 built according to the above specifications. 
 
 Number of urinals in factories.] In all places 
 of employment, one urinal shall be provided for 
 every seventy-five males or less number. 
 
 Urinals— construction— prohibited use.] The 
 sides, back and base of every urinal stall placed 
 within any building shall be of non-absorbent ma- 
 terial. Urinal stalls ' having troughs set in the 
 floors are prohibited. The top of the urinal base 
 shall be set one and one-half inches above the 
 finished floor level. Urinal troughs and sectional 
 urinals, unless lipped and provided with suitable 
 automatic flush tanks or approved intermittent 
 and automatic flushing valves, are prohibited. No 
 sectional urinals shall be placed within a building 
 or compartment which is Subject to vibrations. 
 
 Urinal flush— prohibited materials— separate 
 trap and waste pipe.] Every urinal stall shall 
 have an individual lipped sanitary bowl. 
 
 The use of cast iron, galvanized iron, sheet metal 
 or steel urinal bowls and troughs is prohibited. 
 Each urinal bowl shall be separately and inde- 
 pendently trapped and shall have a waste pipe 
 of at least two inches in diameter. 
 
 Automatic flushing of urinals— frequency.] 
 Each and every urinal trough and urinal bOwl 
 
CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 273 
 
 shall be intermittently and automatically flushed 
 with at least one gallon water flush for each urinal 
 bowl or two foot length of urinal trough and at 
 intervals not to exceed seven minutes each during 
 its period of use. 
 
 The flushing of all such urinal fixtures shall be 
 by means of either approved intermittently and 
 automatically operated flush tanks or by inter- 
 mittently and automatically operated flushing 
 valves protected against a vacuum by a ground 
 seat check valve. 
 
 Urinal wastes— screens.] The waste pipe of a 
 "battery" of not exceeding four urinals shall not 
 be less than two inches in diameter. For batteries 
 exceeding this number the waste pipe shall be at 
 least three inches in diameter. 
 
 No wire or metal screen shall be placed in any 
 urinal bowl, unless every part of such screen is 
 thoroughly washed at each water flush. 
 
 Revent omitted— when.] Where a single water- 
 closet or other plumbing fixture is located in a 
 building or on the top floor of any building, and 
 there is an adequate soil or waste pipe of undi- 
 minished size from ground (in building) to roof, 
 the revent pipe may be dispensed with ; provided, 
 that for water-closets a non-siphoning trap, tested 
 and approved by the chief sanitary inspector, or 
 a closet of approved construction, is used for such 
 work; and provided, further, that the trap of 
 such fixture is located not more than five feet 
 from such soil or W9,ste pipe, 
 
274 PEACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 Revent omitted, when.] Where a toilet or bath 
 room having not more than one closet and three 
 other fixtures therein is located on one floor only 
 or the top floor of any building, and such closet 
 is set not more than five feet from the vertical 
 soil pipe, the rqvent for the closet may be omitted; 
 provided, that a closet of an approved construc- 
 tion is installed. 
 
 Vent pipes reconnected— exception,] Vent pipes 
 shall be reconnected to main soil and waste pipes 
 or drain by a "Y" branch below the lowest fix- 
 ture, and in such manner as to prevent accumula- 
 tion of rust. This shall not apply where there is 
 a battery of fixtures on one floor only and no 
 other fixtures on floors above or below. 
 
 Open Plumbing.] All plumbing fixtures shall 
 be installed as open plumbing. 
 
 Prohibited closets— removal.] Pan, plunger, 
 offset, washout-range closets and washout latrines 
 shall not be allowed in any building; nor shall 
 hopper closets be installed in any building here- 
 after erected. Such closets, when found to be a 
 nuisance, shall be removed, or when the same are 
 removed for repairs they shall not be again in- 
 stalled. In alteration work, pan and plunger 
 closets shall be removed. 
 
 Range closets of types approved by the com- 
 missioner of health and the chief sanitary in- 
 spector may be installed in factories and work- 
 shops only, and such cloSets shall be installed in 
 separate compartments as hereinbefore provided 
 for vater-closet compartments, 
 
CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 275 
 
 Reventing washout closets.] Where individual 
 washout -closets are installed they shall be re- 
 vented above the floor line. Rubber connections 
 or connections of like material shall not be used 
 on any sewer connected pipe. 
 
 Prohibited fixtures not reinstalled.] No fixture 
 shall be installed and no fixture shall be recon- 
 nected or reinstalled where it does not meet the 
 requirements of this chapter. 
 
 Earthenware trap connections— how made.] All 
 earthenware and closet traps shall be connected to 
 waste or soil pipes by inserting heavy brass floor 
 or wall flanges, not less than one-fourth of an 
 inch in thickness where lead bends are used, and 
 shall be soldered to the same and bolted to the 
 trap flange, 
 
 ' Where brass or iron bends are used, brass or 
 iron flanges not less than one-fourth of an inch 
 in thickness may be used, and shall be screwed 
 or calked to the same and bolted to the trap flange, 
 and all such joints shall be made tight without the 
 use of putty, cement, plaster, rubber or leather 
 washers. The use of putty, cement, plaster, rub- 
 ber, or leather washers is hereby prohibited in 
 making all connections between traps of plumbing 
 fixtures and soil or waste pipes. 
 
 No flange, iron bend or gasket connection shall 
 be used until it has been approved under test by 
 the chief sanitary inspector. One of each of the 
 abbve type of gaskets, flanges and iron bends shall 
 be kept on exhibition in the sanitary bureau of the 
 department of health. 
 
276 PRACTIOAL PLUMBING 
 
 Slip joints— ground joints.] Slip joints shall 
 not be permitted on the sewer side of any trap, 
 unless the metal connection is required between 
 the soil or waste 'pipe and tile sewers. Unions 
 on wrought iron, soil, waste and vent pipes shall 
 be made by means of metallic brass-seated ground 
 unions, or flange unions with sheet lead ' gaskets, 
 and made without other gaskets or packing. 
 
 Bam drainage— traps— catch basins.] Moor 
 washouts, urinal gutters and wash racks in bams 
 or stables shall be provided with deep seal traps, 
 having heavy strainfers. Such traps shall have 
 a depth of seal of at least three inches and shall 
 be located at the floor line. An adequate water 
 supply shall be provided for flushing such gutters. 
 
 All liquid wastes from bams or stables shall 
 be intercepted before entering the sewer by a 
 catch basin placed outside of the building, which 
 shall be either the catch basin which is constructed 
 according to the specifications for such catch ba- 
 sins or a cast iron catch basin provided with 
 bolted air-tight iron cover. Bam drains and 
 wastes shall be ventilated by sufficient and proper 
 vents through the roof. 
 
 Special permits— when issued.] Special permits 
 will be issued by the chief sanitary inspector only. 
 
 Where special permits are issued, the location^ 
 shall be inspected before the work is started, and 
 duplicate plans in ink, in the name of the owner, 
 agent or architect, shall be submitted and ap- 
 proved and placed on file. These plans shall show 
 the proposed work, in plan and elevation. Such 
 
CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 277 
 
 plans shall be drawn on paper or cloth and drawn 
 to a quarter inch to the foot scale. 
 
 The installation of any sewer connected fixture 
 or of any sewer connected pipe or pipes other than 
 those hereinbefore mentioned, or under any other 
 conditions than those hereinbefore set forth, shall 
 be as directed by the chief sanitary inspector, and 
 the same shall be covered by special permits is- 
 sued by him. 
 
 Plumber's notiflcation — inspection — when.] 
 When the plumbing in any building is ready for 
 inspection, the plumber in charge of the work 
 shall immediately notify the commissioner of 
 health in writing of such fact at least twenty-four 
 hours in advance of inspection. Inspections will 
 not be made the same day that notifications are 
 received. 
 
 Inspection of repairs.] The following repairs 
 and extensions to any part of the plumbing and 
 drainage system in any building shall also be re- 
 ported for inspection, viz.: where there is any 
 change in any sewer connected pipe, and where 
 such change is on the sewer side of the trap, ex- 
 cept in the case of minor repairs. 
 
 Inspection — test.] The entire plumbing system, 
 when roughed in, in any building, shall be tested 
 by the plumber in the presence of the plumbing 
 inspector and as directed by him, under either a 
 water pressure or air pressure. 
 
 The water pressure test for plumbing shall be 
 applied by closing the lower end of the vertical 
 pipes and filling the pipes to the highest opening 
 
278 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 above the joof with water. The air pressure test 
 for plumbing shall be applied with a force pump 
 and mercury column equal to ten inches of mer- 
 cury. The use of spring gauges is prohibited. 
 Special provision shall be made to include all 
 joints and connections to the finished line or face 
 of floors or side walls, so that all vents or revents, 
 including lead work, may be tested with the main 
 stacks. All pipes shall remain uncovered in every 
 part until they have successfully passed the test. 
 After the completion of the work, and when fix- 
 tures are installed, either a smoke test under a 
 pressure of one inch water column shall be made 
 of the system, including all vent and revent pipes, 
 in the presence of the plumbing inspector and as 
 directed by him, or a peppermint test made by 
 using five fluid ounces of oil of peppermint for 
 each line up to five stories and basement in height, 
 and for each additional five stories or fraction 
 thereof one additional ounce of peppermint shall 
 be provided for each line. 
 
 All defective pipes and fittings or fixtures shall 
 be removed and all defective work shall be made 
 good so as to conform to the provisions of this 
 chapter. 
 
 The tile drainage system inside any building 
 shall be tested by the drainage layer or sewer 
 builder, in the presence of the house drain in- 
 ,spector, by closing up the end of the drains two 
 feet outside the building and filling the pipes 
 inside the building with water to a height of at 
 
CHICAGO PLIJMBING CODE 27d 
 
 least two feet above the highest point of the tile 
 drainage system. 
 
 Water-closet and urinal compartment— ventila- 
 tion.] Water-closets and urinals shall not be in- 
 stalled in an unventilated room or compartment. 
 In every case the room or compa^rtment shall be 
 open to the outer air or be ventilated by means of 
 an air duct or shaft or be mechanically ventilated. 
 
 Where a urinal, bath or water-closet compart- 
 ment is mechanically ventilated, the air shall be 
 changed at least four times per hour by exhaust- 
 ing the air from the compartment. 
 
 In the case of an extension or alteration of any 
 existing plumbing system, the same, if new stacks 
 are run, shall be tested when roughed in and when 
 completed, as hereinbefore provided. 
 
 Peppermint test for alterations.] In other al- 
 teration work, a peppermint test, and only this 
 test, shall be applied by using five fluid ounces of 
 oil of peppermint for each line up to five stories 
 and basement in height, and for each additional 
 five stories or fraction thereof one additional ounce 
 of peppermint shall be provided for each line. 
 
 Old work remodeled.] In remodeling work, 
 the existing system of soil, waste and ventilating 
 pipes shall be changed to make them reasonably 
 conform to the provisions of this chapter. _ 
 
 Light and ventilation.] All urinal, bath or 
 water-closet compartments, hereafter constructed 
 in any building, shall be lighted and ventilated 
 as hereinafter provided for in this chapter. Every 
 water-closet or urinal compartment' or bath room 
 
280 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 in eyery now existing building, and every com- 
 partment in buildings hereafter erected, where 
 the compartment is more than one story under 
 ground, shall be separately ventilated by a win- 
 dow opening to the external air or by proper and 
 adequate ventilating pipes, shafts or ducts run- 
 ning through the roof or to the external air, and 
 providing for at least four changes of air for the 
 entire compartment each hour. Ali such compart- 
 ments shall be adequately lighted by either nat- 
 ural or artificial light. 
 
 Toilet compartments— separate.] The urinal, 
 bath or water-closet compartments shall be sep- 
 arate compartments and shall be entirely sepa- 
 rated from any other room, workshop, office or 
 hall by a tight partition extending from floor to 
 ceiling, and every door of every such compart- 
 ment shall be. provided with a door check to keep 
 such door closed. 
 
 No window or other opening shall be made to 
 open from any such compartment for the purpose 
 of ventilation, into any adjoining room, office, 
 workshop, factory, hallway or compartment of any 
 kind. 
 
 . Window area in toilet compartments.] In every 
 building hereafter constructed^ every such com- 
 partment, where there is not more than one story 
 under ground, shall have a window not' less than 
 one foot wide and of an area of at least four 
 square feet for a floor area of forty-five square 
 feet or less, opening directly into the outer air, 
 
CHICAGO PLtJMBING CODE 281 
 
 or special light and air shaft, into which no other 
 rooms or compartments, other than toilet com- 
 partments, are ventilated. For upwards of forty- 
 five square feet of floor area there shall he a win- 
 dow area of at least one-tenth pf the floor area. 
 The windows in all cases are to he arranged so 
 as to admit of their heing opened at least one- 
 half their height. The urinal, bath or water-closet 
 compartments on the top floor of any building may 
 be lighted and ventilated by means of a skylight 
 and ventilator. The area of the skylight shall 
 conform to the above specified areas for windows. 
 
 Fixtures to be kept in sanitary condition.] All 
 
 such fixtures in such compartments as are referred 
 to in the previous section shall be kept in a thor- 
 oughly clean and sanitary condition. 
 
 Ventilation into court.] Nothing herein con- 
 tained shall be construed as preventing the venti- 
 lation of the above mentioned compartments into 
 an outer, inner or lot line court. 
 
 Plans— plan and elevation, etc.] Building plans 
 in duplicate shall be filed with the bureau of sani- 
 tary inspection before the original plans are ap- 
 proved. Such duplicates shall be on paper or 
 cloth and drawn to a standard scale, showing how 
 all rooms and compartments of the building are 
 to be lighted and ventilated. They shall also show 
 in plans and in at least one elevation all drains, 
 soil, waste, vent and revent pipes within the build- 
 ing and the location of all plumbing fixtures with- 
 in the building, the location of the catch basin 
 
282 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 (in case one is necessary) outside of the building, 
 and its connection to the drainage and sewerage 
 system. 
 
 Fee before plans are approved.] Before plans 
 are approved, the following fees for inspection 
 shall be paid to the city collector: 
 
 When the building contains from one to six 
 plumbing fixtures, the sum of fifty cents shall be 
 paid for the inspection of each fixture, and for 
 each and every additional fixture thereafter in- 
 stalled, or for which waste or vent fittings are in- 
 stalled, the. Sum of twenty-five cents shall be the 
 fee for inspection. 
 
 Certificate of inspection.] When the plumbing 
 in a building is completed, the plumber or his rep- 
 resentative shall secure for the owner of such 
 building, from the commissioner of health, a cer- 
 tificate of inspection, signed by the chief sanitary 
 inspector and approved by the commissioner of 
 health, certifying that the plumbing work has been 
 properly inspected and tested as required by the 
 provisions of this chapter. 
 
 Penalty .J Any person or corporation who shall 
 violate any of the prpvisions of this chapter shall 
 be fined not more than two hundred dollars nor 
 less than twenty-five dollars for each offense; and 
 a separate and distinct offense shall be regarded as 
 having been committed each day on which such 
 violation shall be allowed or suffered to continue 
 after the first offense. 
 
CHICAGO PLUMBINO CODE 283 
 
 GAS WATER HEATERS, 
 
 Permit required to install or connect gas water 
 heaters in bath room or lavatory.] No person, 
 firm or corporation shall install or connect any hot 
 water heater in a bath room or lavatory for heat- 
 ing water in the same by the use of natural or 
 artificial gas as fuel, within the city of Chicago, 
 without first having obtained a permit as herein- 
 after provided. 
 
 Application— permit— fee.] Any person, firm or 
 corporation desiring to install or connect any 
 water heater in a bath room or lavatory for heat- 
 ing water for use in such bath room or lavatory 
 by the use of natural or artificial gas as fuel, shall 
 file with the commissioner of health of the city of 
 Chicago an application upon forms furnished by 
 the department of health, containing the name of 
 the applicant, the street number of the building 
 in which the said heater is to be used (and if the 
 building is an apartment building, the location 
 of the apartment), the floor plan of the room, 
 showing the proposed position of the heater, the 
 location of the plumbing fixtures, the door and 
 window openings, showing their dimensions, and 
 the course of the gas duct or ventilating pipe to 
 the outer air or to a chimney connection. 
 
 If such application is approved by the commis- 
 sioner of health, it shall be the duty of the city 
 clerk to issue a permit to the applicant upon the 
 payment by him of a fee of fifty cents for every 
 such heater desired to be installed or connected. 
 
 Structural requirements.] No person, firm oi 
 
284 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 corporation shall install or connect any such heater 
 unless it be provided with a metallic hood to which 
 therashall be connected a suitable ventilating pipe 
 not less than two inches in diameter, which said 
 pipe shall expend to a chimney flue or to the open 
 air in such a way as to carry off all escaping gases 
 or fumes from such heater. In case such venti- 
 lating pipe shall extend to the open air, it shall 
 be provided with a cap or cowl so as to prevent 
 a back draft. Every such heater shall be pro- 
 vided with a convenient and adequate means of 
 access to the burners and heating surfaces, for 
 the purpose of lighting and cleaning same. No 
 such heater shall be set closer to the floor than 
 twenty inches, measuring from the top of the 
 burner. The use of a pilot light on such heater 
 is hereby prohibited; provided, that nothing here- 
 in contained shall prevent the use of a pilot light 
 on a large water heater automatically controlled 
 by a thermostat and located elsewhere than in a 
 bathroom or lavatory. 
 
 Duty of owner or person in possession of heater.] 
 
 It shall be the duty of the owner or person in pos- 
 session or control of any premises where gas water 
 heaters have heretofore been installed in bath 
 rooms or lavatories to make such heaters comply 
 with the requirements of this article, and it shall 
 be unlawful for any person to use any such heater 
 until it shall have been made to conform to the 
 provisions of this article. 
 Penalty.] Any person, firm. or corporation vio- 
 
CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 285 
 
 lating, failing or refusing to comply with any of 
 the sections of this article shall be fined not less 
 than twenty-five nor more than two hundred dol- 
 lars for each offense. 
 
ELECTRICAL THAWING APPARATUS 
 
 The use of the electric current for thawing 
 frozen water pipes has been practically demon- 
 strated during the last few years to be a reliable 
 and economical means of alleviating one of the 
 discomforts incidental to a rigorous winter. This 
 method has placed within the reach of property 
 owners a safe and inexpensive means of thawing 
 frozen pipes, "and thus quickly and cheaply re- 
 lieving themselves of the discomfort and incon- 
 venience caused by one or more frozen water pipes 
 in the building. The old method of thawing frozen 
 pipes by means of a torch is at once, slow and 
 dangerous, very often resulting in setting fire to 
 the building, whereas, with an electric ■ thawing 
 outfit the work may be done in much less time and 
 without necessitating the removal or destruction 
 of any portion of the woodwork or plastering. 
 
 Should the frozen pipe happen to be under- 
 ground, it may be thawed with an electric outfit, 
 without going to the trouble and expense of ex- 
 cavating the entire length of the pipe, as with the 
 old method. All that is necessary is to connect 
 the terminals of the electric circuit to the pipe 
 at two points far enough apart to include the 
 frozen portion of the pipe within the circuit. This 
 means digging down to the pipe at only two places 
 
 286 
 
ELECTRICAL THAWING APPAEATUS 287 
 
 and these excavations need be only large enough 
 to permit a man to connect the wires to the pipe. 
 In order that the student may get an idea of the 
 construction and operation of this valuable ad- 
 junct to the modern plumber's equipment of tools, 
 a description and illustrations are herein given of 
 two styles of standard thawing outfits, as manu- 
 factured by the Westinghouse Electric and Mfg. 
 Co., of Pittsburgh, Pa. Fig. 177 shows the one 
 for heavy service, comprising a specially designed 
 
 Fig. 177 
 Heavy Service Outfit 
 
 Cholie Coil 
 Alternating Current 
 
 choke coil, which is to be connected in series with 
 the primary of a 2,100 volt, 60 cycle, 125 cycle or 
 133 cycle transformer, as the case may be. The 
 choke coil is mounted in a cast iron casing, which 
 is provided with suitable carrying lugs. It i§ 
 
288 PEACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 portable, as it weighs but 200 pounds, although 
 it may be, and often -is mounted upon a wagon 
 or sled. The leads are connected to the choke 
 coil through the handles of two contact plugs 
 which fit the' five plug sockets arranged to allow 
 current adjustment. 
 
 The secondary voltage can be decreased to ap- 
 proximately 95 per cent, 87 per cent, 75 per cent, 
 65 per cent and 50,per cent of the normal voltage 
 by the insertion of the contact plugs in the proper 
 sockets. The leaxls and handles of these plugs are 
 insulated with a high test material guaranteed to 
 resist successfully much greater potentials than it 
 will ever be called upon to stand in actual service. 
 
 It is impossible to injure the transformer, or 
 choke coil by making a wrong connection. 
 
 Fig. 178 shows the light service outfit. This de- 
 vice is intended for thawing house piping that 
 may become frozen. It is enclosed in a cast iron 
 case, consisting of top and bottom castings firmly 
 bolted together. 
 
 Three plug sockets which are mounted in the top 
 casting, are provided for obtaining the variation 
 in secondary voltage of the transformer. The 
 cables and handles of these plug contacts are also 
 carefully insulated in order to avoid any possible 
 injury to the operator. The low tension terminals 
 are of sufficient size to receive cables of 60,000 
 circular mils. This equipment is intended to be 
 used on nominal 2,l00 volt, 60, 125 or 133 cycle 
 
ELECTRICAL THAWING APPARATUS 289 
 
 circuits. The secondary voltage can be adjusted 
 for either 55 or 35 volts by means of the above 
 
 Fig. lis 
 Light Service Outfit 
 Alternating Current 
 
 mentioned plug contacts which are connected to 
 taps on the winding of the primary. 
 
 A current of 100 amperes can be maintained for 
 one-half hour without undue heating. 
 
 The insulation is specially prepared to with- 
 stand severe weather conditions. 
 
290 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 No oil is used with this transformer, the lam- 
 inations of the coils being exposed directly to the 
 air. This device can be carried by one man, as 
 it weighs but 100 pounds complete. Two substan- 
 tial clamps for securing good contact with the 
 pipe are included with the outfit. 
 
 Operation.— The outfit is brought as near to 
 the frozen pipe as conditions will permit. 
 
 The high tension leads are then connected to 
 the main line feeders. The' low tension leads are 
 attached to opposite ends ef the section of pipe 
 to be thawed. For service piping in buildings, 
 one lead may be connected to a faucet, and the 
 other to a convenient hydrant. When street mains 
 are to be thawed, two hydrants are often used as 
 connections, or, when this is impracticable, exca- 
 vations are made which allow the leads to be con- 
 nected directly with the pipe. The capacity of the 
 transformer used with the heavy service outfit 
 (Fig. 177) is from 15 to 25 K. W., adapted to 
 a nominal 2,100 volt, 60, 125 or 133 cycle A. C. 
 circuit. The transformer used with the light 
 service outfit (Fig. 178) has a capacity of 5 K. W. 
 adapted to the same kind of current as the larger 
 equipment. 
 
AUTOMATIC SEWAGE EJECTOR 
 
 Modern architecture is not satisfied witli ex- 
 tending the building to a height of several hun- 
 dred feet in the air above street level, but installs 
 sub-basements at a depth which renders it neces- 
 sary to use some other means than the force of 
 gravitation for removing the sewage and drain- 
 age from the building. 
 
 One of the most efficient devices for accom- 
 plishing this work is the automatic ejector, of 
 which there are several types. 
 
 The apparatus herein described and illustrated 
 is known as the Shone System of Sewage and 
 Drainage for buildings, and is in successful" 
 operation in many of the largest buildings' in the 
 United States. 
 
 The following data regarding this system ia 
 furnished by the Shone Company of Chicago : 
 
 The principles governing the operation of the 
 Shone System are the same in all cases, the deep' 
 basements of city buildings and the long distances 
 to which sewage has often to be conveyed from 
 buildings in the country merely presenting vario-- 
 ties of the same problem. 
 
 In general, the system may be described as 
 follows : 
 
 An air and water tight vessel, known as an 
 "Ejector," is placed in a chamber provided for 
 it, in such a position that all the sewage and 
 
 291 
 
292 PEACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 drainage of the building can flow to it by gravi- 
 tation. 
 
 The sewers connect directly to the ejector, and 
 as the latter can be placed at any depth required, 
 there is no difficulty in obtaining sufficient fall to 
 enable them to be made perfectly self -cleansing. 
 
 The ejector is furnished with an iron sewage 
 discharge pipe, leading to the point of delivery or 
 outfall, and it is also connected with a supply of 
 compressed air which is constantly maintained. 
 
 As soon as an ejector is filled, the compressed 
 air is automatically admitted and the sewage is 
 forced out through the discharge pipe, whereupon 
 the compressed air is cut off and fresh sewage 
 again commences to fill the ejector. 
 
 The operation of emptying the ejector usually 
 takes less than half a minute. The time it takes 
 to fill depends upon its size and upon the amount 
 of sewage coming down the sewers at any given 
 moment. 
 
 In this manner the sewage is handled auto- 
 matically and is ejected from the building as fast 
 as it is produced, without coming in contact in 
 any way with the air of the building. 
 
 When an ejector is in operation, it is perfectly 
 inoffensive, and it is impossible to tell of what 
 the liquid it is handling may be composed. It can 
 and should be kept as clean as any other piece 
 of machinery, and it is preferably located where 
 it will be in plain- view. 
 
 The Shone Pneumatic Ejector. Fig. 179 shows 
 a sectional view of an. ejector of the type usually 
 
AUTOMATIC SEWAOE EJECTOR 
 
 293 
 
 employed in buildings. It consists essentially of a 
 closed vessel furnished with sewage inlet and dis- 
 charge connections, of a diameter suitable to the 
 
 Am EXHAUST 
 
 AIR PRESSURE 
 
 fie. 179 
 Shone Pneumatic Ejector 
 
 size of the ejector and the amount of sewage to 
 be pumped. The main sewer of the building is 
 connected directly to the inlet pipe A, and the dis- 
 charge pipe B is continued to wherever it is de- 
 sired to deliver the sewage. In each of these 
 connections is placed a check valve which permits 
 
294 PRACTICAL PLUMBINa 
 
 a flow in one direction only, that in the inlet pipe 
 opening toward the ejector and that in the dis- 
 charge pipe away from it. 
 
 On the cover of the ejector is placed the auto- 
 matic valve E, to which is connected the air pres- 
 sure pipe from a receiver which is kept constantly 
 charged, and the air exhaust pipe leading to the 
 outside of the building. This valve controls the 
 admission of air to, and exhaust from the ejector. 
 
 Inside the ejector are hung two cast-iron bells, 
 C and D, linked to each other by an iron rod, in 
 reverse positions, as shown. The bronze rod to 
 which the bell D is attached passes through a stuf- 
 fing box and connects by means of links to a lever 
 with a counterweight. The rising or falling of 
 these bells operates the automatic valve E through 
 a rock shaft connecting it with the center of mo- 
 tion of the lever, the counterweight being so 
 adjusted as to balance their weight, except when 
 the system is thrown out of equilibrium by the 
 filling or emptying of the ejector as hereafter 
 described. 
 
 As shown in Fig. 179 the bells are in their low- 
 est position (the extent of their movement being 
 limited to about li/^ inches), the compressed air 
 is cut off from the ejector, and the interior of the 
 ejector is open to the atmosphere through the 
 automatic valve, and air exhaust pipe. 
 
 The sewage, "therefore, can flow through the in- 
 let pipe A into the ejector, which it gradually fills 
 until it reaches the bell D and commences to rise 
 around it. When the latter is sufficiently sub- 
 
AUTOMATIC SEWAGE EJECTOR 295 
 
 merged for its buoyancy to overcome tlie friction 
 of the parts, it raises both itself and the lower 
 bell, to which it is attached, into their upper posi- 
 tions. The consequent movement of the lever 
 throws over the automatic valve, thereby closing 
 the connection between the inside of the ejector, 
 and the atmosphere, and admitting the com- 
 pressed air. The check valve in the inlet pipe 
 falls upon its seat as soon as the ejector is filled, 
 thus preventing any return in that direction, and 
 the compressed air, acting upon the surface of 
 the sewage in the ejector, immediately commences 
 to drive it downwards, and out through the dis- 
 charge pipe B. The sewage passes out of the 
 ejector until its level falls to such a point that 
 the lower bell C is sufficiently exposed for its 
 weight to throw the system out of equilibrium in 
 the opposite direction. 
 
 The bells consequently fall, which again re- 
 verses the automatic valve and returns it to its 
 original position. The result of this action is, 
 first, to cut off the supply of compressed air, 
 whereupon the outflow of sewage ceases, and the 
 check valve in the discharge pipe drops to its 
 seat, and, secondly, to allow the compressed air 
 within the ejector to escape to the atmosphere. 
 
 The sewage which has been ejected cannot re- 
 turn past the discharge valve, fresh sewage com- 
 mences to flow into the ejector once more, and 
 so the action goes on as often as the ejector is 
 filled. The positions of the bells are so adjusted 
 that the compressed air is not admitted until the 
 
296 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 ejector is full, and is not allowed to exhaust 
 until the ejector is emptied down to the discharge 
 level; thus the ejector discharges a specific quan- 
 tity edch time it operates. 
 
 The principal objects which have been kept in 
 view in the design of this machine are the capacity 
 for handling rough, unscreened sewage, com- 
 bined with certainty of action, simplicity, and 
 durability. Although ejectors may be and fre- 
 quently have been operated uninterruptedly for 
 years with no attention whatever, such treatment 
 is not to be recommended. Where continuous 
 service night and day is required, as is usually 
 the case, if there is only one ejector, it is difficult 
 to give it the ordinary care that any machine 
 should have, or to effect the repairs that niust 
 sooner or later become necessary, and which are 
 likely to be needed all the sooner if it is not kept 
 continuously in good condition. For this reason, 
 as well as to supply reserve capacity in cases of 
 emergency ( such as the bursting of a water main, 
 or flooding by fire engines), ejectors are general- 
 ly installed in duplicate. 
 
 Ejectors are built in various sizes, from a 
 capacity of fifty gallons per minute each up to 
 as large as desired. 
 
 Air Compressing Apparatus. The air for the 
 operation of the ejector is furnished by a com- 
 pressor, which delivers it to an air receiver, the 
 compressor being in all cases arranged to start 
 and stop automatically as the pressure falls or 
 
AUTOMATIC SEWAGE EJECTOR 2>? 
 
 rises in the receiver in accordance with the de- 
 mands being made by the ejector. The compres- 
 sor is so proportioned as to be capable of supply- 
 ing air at a suitable pressure and in sufficient 
 volume to operate, the ejector at its maximum 
 capacity. 
 
 Compressors can be driven by steam, electricity 
 or any form of power, the only essential being 
 that the power shall be available at all times. 
 
 When steam is employed, a direct acting com- 
 pressor is the most suitable for small plants. For 
 the larger sizes, or where several ejectors are 
 operated by one compressing plant, a duplex 
 crank and fly-wheel compressor is generally used. 
 The latter is much more economical in the con- 
 sumption of steam, but the amount of power re- 
 quired to operate eje(ftors is usually so insignifi- 
 cant as to render the question of theoretical 
 economy in the compressor altogether subsidiary 
 to simplicity and ease of manipulaition. 
 
 Where electricity is the motive power, a hori- 
 zontal crank and fly-wheel compressor, driven by 
 a slow speed compound-wound motor, is generally 
 employed. 
 
 Fig. 180 shows such an arrangement, together 
 with the automatic switchboard. As being more 
 "commonly employed than the single outfits, the 
 whole apparatus is shown in duplicate, for as it 
 also is generally required to be in constant opera- 
 tion night and day, there are the same advantages 
 in a duplicate installation as have been already 
 
298 
 
 PRACTICAL PLUMBINa 
 
AUTOMATIC SEWAGE EJECTOR 299 
 
 explained in the case of the ejectors themselves. 
 
 Each side of the switchboard controls its own 
 motor, starting and stopping it automatically 
 within any given limits of pressure, but there 
 is a cross connection by means of which either 
 side can be made to control both motors. 
 
 When the air pressure falls, an electrical con- 
 nection is made through an adjustable contact 
 point, which closes a magnetic switch.^ This com- 
 pletes the main circuit, and, through the inter; 
 mention of an automatic starter which gradually 
 cuts out resistance, starts the motor slowly with- 
 out shock or undue strain. When the pressure 
 has risen to the required amount, a connection 
 is made with another adjustable contact point, 
 which opens the magnetic switch and stops the 
 motor. 
 
 Should a chance failure of current occur while 
 the motor is running, the magnetic switch im- 
 mediately opens, the automatic starter falls to 
 its original position, and on the restoration of the 
 current the motor is re-started slowly as in the 
 first place. 
 
 The compressed air required in most buildings 
 for some one or more of the many other purposes 
 for which it is now employed, can be obtained 
 from the compressing plant that operates the 
 ejectors, provided the pressure required is about 
 the same. For ordinary purposes, such as those 
 of jewelers or other light manufacturers, or for 
 blowing the dust out of electrical machinery, etc.^ 
 
300 PRACTICAL PLUMBlNa 
 
 it is only necessary to allow for th.e additional 
 quantity required. Special apparatus, however, 
 has generally to be provided for filtering, wash- 
 ing and drying the air used by doctors and 
 dentists. 
 
 When the pressure required is naaterially great- 
 er than that needed to operate the ejectors 
 (which seldoni exceeds twenty-five pounds per 
 square inch) , it is not generally advisable to com- 
 bine the two services, although one side of a 
 duplicate plant is occasionally arranged so that 
 it can produce a high pressure in a separate 
 receiver, which is cross connected so- that if need 
 be, it can be changed over to run the ejectors. 
 
 As far as the action of the compressing ma- 
 chinery and ejectors is concerned, it is the same 
 in all cases, but the details of location and ar- 
 rangement vary somewhat in accordance with the 
 different conditions existing in different classes 
 of buildings. 
 
 Buildings in Cities. In buildings in cities the 
 ejectors are usually located in some central posi- 
 tion, and the compressing apparatus in the engine 
 or machinery room. It is preferable to have the 
 latter placed where it can be seen by the engineers 
 in charge as they go about their duties, "as the 
 normal action of the conipressing machinery is a 
 sure index of the like action on the part of the 
 ejectors themselves. 
 
 Installation. Fig. 181 shows a pair of ejectors 
 in position, with their connecting pipes. The 
 
AUTOMATIC SEWAGE EJECTOR 301 
 
 discharge pipe from the ejectors can be led up 
 to and along the basement ceiling and down to 
 the street sewer, but it is preferable to lay it 
 under the basement floor to the curb wall, and 
 from there up into the street sewer. It should 
 be run independently of all others, as in case of 
 any obstruction in it, or the street ^ewer, the 
 ejectors would be liable to force the sewage back 
 up any pipes that might be connected to it. The 
 air pressure, and air exhaust pipes have merely 
 to be run in the most convenient manner, and 
 require no special comment. The air exhaust 
 pipe, however, which is for the purpose of pro- 
 viding a means whereby the exhaust air can 
 escape to the outside of the building, needs seldom 
 to be run the whole way independently, as it can 
 generally be connected to the flue leading from 
 the boilers to the chimney, or it may be con- 
 nected to some vapor pipe, or ventilating duct. 
 Wherever it is possible to spare the room, ejector 
 chambers should be left open, or at least partial- 
 ly so, and surrounded by a coping and railing. 
 
 If necessary, however, the chamber can be 
 entirely covered; merely an entrance being left 
 which can be closed with an ordinary manhole 
 cover. Ejector chambers are usually circular in 
 form, and may be built in a variety of ways, 
 but they are generally constructed either of brick 
 laid in cement or of tank steel. 
 
 The latter form is used where the ground is 
 bad, or where there is much water to contend with 
 during construction, as unless conditions are 
 
302 
 
 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 favorable, great care is required in the construc- 
 tion of brick chambers in order to make them 
 water tight. A leaky chamber is a serious in- 
 convenience, since the presence of water in it is 
 
 FlET, 181 
 Pair of Bjebtbrs in Position 
 
 not only unsightly, but prevents ready access to 
 the machines, and is a hindrance to keeping them 
 in good condition. 
 
AUTOMATIC SEWAGE EJECTOR 303 
 
 A steel chamber is usually designed in the form 
 of a cylinder with a convex bottom. 
 
 There should be a ring of angle iron around 
 the top in order to stiffen it, and a suitable casting 
 should be riveted to the side in order that a water 
 tight joint may be made arouiid the inlet pipe 
 where it passes through to the ejectors. The steel 
 shell is usually built complete, and then lowered 
 in one piece onto a bed of concrete, after which 
 it is groutfed around outside with fine concrete, 
 and a level floor inside of the same material. 
 
 In applying this system to a group of build- 
 ings the whole of the sewage and drainage of each 
 building is collected into one sewer, and the 
 ejectors are located at some central point to which 
 each of these sewers can be brought with a good 
 fall. It is preferable that the air compressing 
 plant be located' in the main engine or' machinery 
 room, where it can be cared for by the engineer 
 in charge, and where it will at once give notice 
 if everything is not operating properly. The air 
 pressure pipe to the ejectors may be either cast 
 or wrought iron. 
 
DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE. 
 
 The disposal of sewerage in districts where 
 there are no public sewers at hand is often a mat- 
 ter of difficulty. Formerly, it was believed that 
 if a running, body of water, river or creek, was 
 at hand, into which the sewerage could be emp- 
 tied, the question of adequate sewer systems was 
 solved. Frequent epidemics of diphtheria and 
 scarlet fever, have called forth careful investiga- 
 tion, which has proven that the pollution of 
 streams contiguous to domestic water Supplies 
 with sewerage, is one of the greatest dangers to 
 health. This subject is being more closely stud- 
 ied everj' year, which is probably due to the' wide 
 publicity given it in discussions and reports of 
 health departments. It is the purpose to. con- 
 sider some of the best sanitary systems and ap- 
 pliances applicable to the convenience and health 
 of country districts. A system which is adaptable 
 for one place will not prove an adequate or ef- 
 fectual system for another. It lies with the plumb- 
 er or builder to study the conditions as they exist, 
 and to exercise a little common sense. 
 
 The old out-door closet, with its revolting 
 stench and inconvenience, is rapidly disappearing. 
 Private and public water service have made it 
 
 304 
 
DISPOSAIj of sewage 305 
 
 possible to install a modern bath, room, even in 
 the country, but the sewer disposal in most cases, 
 is a puzzling proposition. 
 
 The primitive" method of installing a leaching 
 cesspool, which is a hole dug in the ground deep 
 enough to allow five or six feet of space below the 
 inlet end of the house drain pipe, and five or six 
 feet wide, walled up with loose stones, the bottom 
 left loose and filled with about a foot of small 
 stones and the top walled over with a tight arch, 
 and the earth, filled in to the grade level thereby 
 depending on the liquid to ooze away through the 
 porous strata, has a great many disadvantages. 
 In the first place, in communities where the neigh- 
 bors depend on wells for their water supply, it is 
 very dangerous, as it invariably pollutes the sub- 
 soil in the neighborhood and contaminates the 
 well water supply. On a farm where plenty of 
 ground is available, if located at a good distance 
 from the dwelling, and at a lower level in the op- 
 posite direction from the well, it may be used 
 without causing any harm. In case such a cess- 
 pool is used, Ihe arch should be built up to an 
 opening, twenty inches in diameter, and run to 
 the surface and closed with an inspection cover 
 hermetically sealed by a ru'bber gasket. 
 
 The system of sub-surface irrigation for sewer- 
 age disposal has been very w^U thought of by our 
 best sanitary engineers. It consists of two abso- 
 lutely tight cesspools or concrete receptables, a$ 
 
306 
 
 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE ' 307 
 
 shown in Fig. 182, built circular in shape, arched 
 over, and with extended manholes to the surface, 
 with tight inspection covers, also' provided with 
 an air-vest opening for the escape of gases, one 
 tank to receive the drain from the house and to 
 retain the solids and grease. The other for the 
 liquid sewerage, connected together with an over- 
 flow pipe in such a manner that the first basin is 
 drained into the second, without disturbing the 
 grease and scum in the top of the first one^ with a 
 baffle plate, as shown, to prevent an underflow 
 current from cariying the solids through to the 
 second basin. 
 
 In the drawing an inspection basin is shown 
 with the syphon for emptying the liquid outside 
 of the second basin. The advantage of this is 
 that in case of the syphon failing to work prop- 
 erly, it is accessible without disturbing the other 
 two tanks. Another very frequent construction, 
 which, of course, avoids the expense of the inspec- 
 tion basin, is to place the syphon in the second 
 tank and protect it with a wire screen. The ad- 
 vantage of having the inspection basin, of course, 
 is obvious, and hardly needs to be further com- 
 mented upon here. The opening from the syplion 
 is run with a four or six-inch vitrified salt glazed 
 sewer pipe with tightly cemented joints, to a point 
 down grade, where it is connected with four by 
 two inch Y branches to a series of two or three- 
 inch porous drain tile, which should be laid in a 
 
308 PEACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 trench about ten inches deep, never deeper, on 
 boards, with a very small fall about three or four 
 inches per hundred feet, tiles to be laid with 
 open joints, ^nd joints to be covered with a half 
 ring of vitrified clay or cup, to protect the same 
 from filling up when buried. The liquid tank can 
 be emptied in several ways, either with a sluice 
 valve or a gate valve, both of which necessitates 
 personal attention. The advantage of using the. 
 syphon is that it is automatic. . 
 
 There are a great many different kinds of sy- 
 phons on the market, and it is sometimes a matter 
 of personal opinion as to which is the best. The 
 liquid tank should not be emptied more often 
 than once every twenty-four hours, which allows 
 plenty of time for the ground to thoroughly drain, 
 and to breathe in more oxygen, and then in a vol- 
 ume sufficiently large enough to fill all the drain 
 pipes at once, to insure an even distribution. This 
 system is, of couree, preferably adapted to a 
 porous or gravel soil. In places where clay, soil 
 conditions exist, the soil should be drained at 
 least four feet below the level with porous drain. 
 
COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 The procuring of a water supply in the country 
 depends largely upon the surrounding conditions. 
 Of course, when the source of the water supply 
 is at a higher level than the house, a gravity sys- 
 tem is the least complicated, and very often the 
 cheapest. When the house is located at a reason- 
 able height above the water supply, which could 
 be made to supply an eight or ten-foot head, the 
 hydraulic ram could be used. Earns will work, 
 and work successfully, where the spring or brook 
 is only thrge feet higher than the ram head, as 
 the height or head increases the more powerfully 
 the ram operates, and its ability to force water to 
 a greater elevation and distance correspondingly 
 strengthens. The best wearing results will be se- 
 cured where the head or fall does not exceed ten 
 feet ; the head on the discharge pipe may be from 
 five to ten times the head on the drive pipe. As a 
 specific example: It might be said a fall of ten feet 
 from brook or spring to the ram is sufficient to 
 raise water to any point, say 150 feet above the 
 machine, while the same amount of fall would also 
 raise water to a point considerably higher, though 
 the quantity of water discharged will be propor- 
 tionately diminished as the height and distance 
 
 increase. 
 
 309 
 
310 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 Rule for Estimating Delivery of Water. Multi- 
 ply the number of gallons supplied to the ram. 
 pfer minute by three, and this product by the 
 number of feet in head or fall of drive pipe, and 
 divide by four times the number of feet to be 
 raised. The result is the number of gallons raised 
 per minute. Example: With a supply of ten gal- 
 lons per minute delivered to a ram under a head 
 or fall of ten feet, how much water can be raised 
 to an elevation of 100 feet? 
 
 10 X 3 X 10 
 
 =.75 gallons per minute. 
 
 100X4 
 
 To obtain a water supply which will deliver 
 water at any faucet in a house, yard or bam, it is 
 necessary not only to pump the water, but to 
 have some means of storing it under pressure. 
 The elevated tank delivers it by gravity pressure, 
 and, when used, should be placed at least eight 
 to ten feet above the highest point from which 
 the water is to be drawn, to insure a respectable 
 velocity of discharge. 
 
 Compressed Air System. The principle of do- 
 liverihg water and other liquids by pressure of 
 compressed air is very old, but it was not until 
 recently that this principle was employed to fur- 
 nish domestic water supply. 
 
 One of the greatest advantages of the com- 
 
COUNTRY WATER SUPPLf 311 
 
 pressed air system is that it does away with the 
 elevated tank, and there are a great many defects 
 in the elevated tank system. If placed in the at- 
 tic, it is not high enough to afford a sufficient 
 pressure to be any protection against fife. An- 
 other objection is the weight of the tank, when 
 filled with water, is very liable to crack the plas- 
 tering and to leak. Another serious defect of the 
 elevated tank, when placed in an attic or on a 
 tower is the exposure to weather, in the winter 
 it freezes and in the summer it becomes warm. 
 
 In the compressed air system the tank is placed 
 either in the ground below the frost line or in the 
 basement, and the water is pumped into the bot- 
 tom of the tank with a force pump, which may be 
 operated by hand, windmill, gas engine or hot- 
 air engine. Another opening in the bottom de- 
 livers water to the faucet in the house, yard or 
 bam. As the water is pumped into the bottom 
 of the tank the air above it, not having an outlet, 
 is compressed. This pressure is increased and 
 maintained by an automatic air valve. It does 
 away with the elevated tank, and delivers water 
 at an even temperature all year around. The 
 tank and pipes leading to and from it are protect- 
 ed from the weather. A pressure of fifty pounds 
 is easily obtained, which equals the pressure from 
 an elevated tank one hundred and ten feet high. 
 This affords first-class fire protection and enables 
 the country residents to have all the sanitary con- 
 
312 PEACTlCAL PLtJMBlNG 
 
 veniences of a city home. A double system of 
 this kind can also be installed, one for furnishing 
 veil or drinking water to the fixtures, and an- 
 other one supplying soft water from the cistern. 
 
 In Fig. 183 a steel storage tank is shown buried 
 in the ground below the frost line, water is 
 pumped into it by hand or windmill. This pump 
 forces both air and water into' the tank at the 
 same tiilie. A connection run to the surface near 
 the house to a yard hydrant with hose connec- 
 tion furnishes water for sprinkling and fire pro- 
 tection, another branch supplies water to the 
 barn, under pressure. 
 
 In Fig. 184 a steel storage tank is shown placed 
 in' the basement and supplied with a hand pump. 
 These two illustrations will serve to give some 
 idea of the extent to which a system of this kind 
 can be put to use. The tank is practically inde- 
 structible, and, unlike the elevated tank, requires 
 no expense after it has been put in. "When the 
 tank is one-half full of water, the air which origi- 
 ilally filled the entire tank will be compressed 
 into the upper half of it and will exert a pressure 
 of fifteen pounds to the square inch, and if a 
 straight supply pipe was run from the bottom of 
 the tank, this air pressure would force the water 
 to a height of thirty-three feet. For ordinary 
 elevation the best results are obtained by main- 
 taining in the tank excess 'air pressure of ten 
 pounds^ that is, enough air to give ten pounds 
 
COUNTRY WATBil SUPPLY 
 
 313 
 
PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 aenifst sansssud 
 
COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY 315 
 
 pressure when the tank contains no water. Thus 
 equipped) a tank will deliver twice as much water 
 as otherwise. 
 
 Most of the country towns at the present day 
 are supjolied with efficient water systems, and it is 
 a very easy matter to install a hydraulic system 
 which supplies hot and cold soft water to every 
 fixture in the house automatically and all of the 
 time. One of the principal objects desired in the 
 hydraulic system is to utilize the waste water 
 from the hydraulic pump so that there will be 
 no loss, which is quite an'item when the water 
 is paid for at so much per thousand feet. 
 
 The system shown in Fig. 185 is a very simple 
 and inexpensive one. The city water supply is 
 run direct to the hydraulic pump, and the city 
 water passing through it is piped direct to the 
 fixtures at which cold hard water is desired. In 
 the drawing this pipe supplies the closet tank and 
 one faucet over the lavatory for drinking purposes 
 in the bathroom, also one faucet over the sink 
 .and two connections to laundry tub, which is very 
 convenient, as the cold water can be utilized for 
 rinsing purposes, thereby saving a great deal of 
 the soft water. The operation of the same is, that 
 when any of these five faucets are opened, it per- 
 mits the city water to pass through the pump and 
 at the same time operate the pump, which pumps 
 soft water from the cistern to the tank in the 
 attic from which a pipe is run down to the base- 
 
316 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 ment with branches taken off at the different 
 floors to supply cold soft water, hence, to the hot 
 water heater tank, from there on to the heater, 
 back to the tank and around to the different fix- 
 tures supplying hot soft water. The return pipe 
 prevents a dead end which necessitates wasting 
 the soft water before the hot water begins to flow. 
 
 A method is shown whereby it is possible when 
 the cistern is emptied to fill either the city water 
 supply only with city water, or the entire system 
 without its passing through the pump by the msu- 
 nipulation of three globe valves, designated as A, 
 B and C. When the pump is pumping cistern 
 water to the attic tank, valve B and C are closed, 
 and valve A is opened. When the cistern is emp- 
 tied, and it is desired to fill only the cold city 
 water pipe with water, leave valve C closed, close 
 valve A and open valve B, which permits the 
 water to flow into the cold water pipe without 
 passing through the pump. If it is desired to fill 
 the entire system with city water, all that is neces- 
 sary is to open valve C, which permits the water 
 to flow up to the attic tank and down through 
 the balance of the system. When this is done, 
 valve D on the overflow pipe should be closed af- 
 ter the water begins to overflow, and not before, 
 as the system would become air-bound. 
 
 An overflow pipe is shown leading from the at- 
 tic tank to the cistern within the house,. If it is 
 possible to run this overflow pipe out onto the 
 
COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY 317 
 
 roof so ttat- the overflow will return to the cistern 
 through the eavestrough and downspout pipe to 
 the cistern, it is best to' do so, as the cistern water 
 then has a chance to become aerated. The pipe to 
 supply the sill cock or yard hydrant, for sprink- 
 ling purposes should be taken off at a point before 
 the supply to pump, to prevent the unnecessary 
 work of the pump when sprinking. In case of a 
 basement closet being installed, a connection can 
 be taken from the cii;y water supply pipe run to 
 the laundry tub, three-quarter-inch galvanized 
 iron pipe is sufficiently large enough for all of 
 the main supply pipes with one-half-inch branches 
 to the different fixtures. These hydraulic rams 
 are manufactured so as to work, and work suc- 
 cessfully, at as low a pressure as ten pounds per 
 square inch. 
 

 318 
 
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 323 
 
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 325 
 
INDEX 
 
 % 
 
 A 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Air composition of 227 
 
 Air compressibility of 227 
 
 Air vent pipe for house drain 12- 13 
 
 Autogenous soldering— lead burning 108-112 
 
 Burning verticai seams 110-111 
 
 Compressed oxygen and coal gas Ill 
 
 Definition of term 108-109 
 
 Explanation of process 109-111 
 
 Most simple form of 109 
 
 Skill required in - 108 
 
 Use of red hot copper bit 111-112 
 
 Where used , 108 
 
 Automatic sewage ejector 291-303 
 
 Action of device 299-300 
 
 Air compressing apparatus 296-299 
 
 Construction of 293-296 
 
 For use in city buildings 300 
 
 Installation 300-303 
 
 Principles of operation 291-292 
 
 Shone pneumatic ejector 292-300 
 
 Sources of power for operating 297 
 
 Switch board and motor 297-299 
 
 Automatic syphon 308 
 
 B 
 
 Basement drains 18- 24 
 
 Backwater valve — function of 19- 20 
 
 Combination strainer and back water seal. 23 
 
 Deep water-seal for 22 
 
 Extra heavy for barns . , 20- 21 
 
 Installation— method of 18-19-20 
 
 326 
 
INDEX 33'^ 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Trap — necessity for 19 
 
 Types of basement drains 20-21-22 
 
 Branched joints— wiping of 101-103 
 
 Badly shaped joint 102 
 
 Joint made by using a thick cloth 101-103 
 
 Proper methods of miaking 102-103 
 
 Brass pipes — weight of per lineal foot 185 
 
 C 
 
 Cesspools 139-140 
 
 Circular 140 
 
 Hydrant 139 
 
 Rectangular — for cellar 140 
 
 Stable, use .~. 139-140 
 
 Slop sink — with bell trap and strainer. . . .139-140 
 
 Chicago Plumbing Code '. 241-285 
 
 Area drains — when to trap 268 
 
 Barn drainage 276-277 
 
 Bath tub— drum trap 256- 
 
 Blow off pipes 267 
 
 Catch basins — where prohibited 269 
 
 Catch basins — for kitchen wastes 269-271 
 
 Catch basins — when to dispense with .... 271 
 
 Cellar drains 268 
 
 Chimney ventilation^ 252 
 
 Connections outside of buildings ......... 246 
 
 Connected wastes 256 
 
 CleanoUts — tapping pipes : 250-251 
 
 Definition of terms 247-248-249 
 
 Drainage, and vent fittings 254-255 
 
 Drains connected with sewers 246-247 
 
 Earthenware trap connections '. 275 
 
 fejectors 254 
 
 Fee — when to be paid 282 
 
 Fittings — quality — cleanout fittings 250 
 
 Fittings — prohibited 251 
 
328 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 PAGE 
 Chicago Plumbing Code — 
 
 Floor washes in basement 268 
 
 Gas water heaters — permit to install 283 
 
 Gas water heaters — structural requirements 284 
 
 High pressure boiler — supply tank 244 
 
 House boilers — sediment pipes 262 
 
 House tanks — linings prohibited 266 
 
 Inspection certificate 282 
 
 Inspection test 277-278-279 
 
 Iron pipe — where used. 252 
 
 Iron pipe — quality — weights 249-250 
 
 Lead pipe — kind permitted 242 
 
 Lead pipe — not to extend within partitions 252 
 
 Lead pipe — ^wiped joints^brass pipe 252 
 
 Long hoppei- closets 263-264 
 
 Metal connections — requirements 245-246 
 
 New plumbing — repairs 244-245 
 
 Old work remodeled 279 
 
 Open plumbing 274 
 
 Overflow pipes — connections of 261 
 
 Peppermint test for alterations 279 
 
 Permit for use of water 241-242 
 
 Pipe supports — hooks prohibited 251 
 
 Pipe joints to be filled 251 
 
 Pipes above main building 253 
 
 Plans — plan and elevation 281-282 
 
 Plumber's notification — inspection 277 
 
 ' Prohibited closets 274 
 
 Rain water leaders — where prohibited .... 266 
 
 Rain water leaders — when to trap 266-267 
 
 Rain water leaders — connections 272 
 
 Refrigerator wastes — sizes — traps 261-262 
 
 Revent— omitted— when 273-274 
 
 Reyented washout closets 275 
 
 Service pipe — joints 242-243 
 
 Single tap for several buildings 243 
 
INDEX 339 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chicago Plumbing Code — 
 
 Slip joints — ground joints 276 
 
 Soil and waste pipes — when to extend. . . . 253 
 
 Soil and waste pipes — ^izes of 247-255 
 
 Special permits 276-277 
 
 Stop cocks 243 
 
 Steam pipes — condensers — vents 267 
 
 Straight tees — where prohibited 252 
 
 Tapping street main 242 
 
 Temperature of water entering sewer. . . .267-268 
 
 Trap — where prohibited 255 
 
 Traps — placing of— water seal 256-257 
 
 Trap revents — concealed partitions 255-256 
 
 Urinals — automatic flushing- of 272-273 
 
 Urinals — automatic flush tanks for 262-263 
 
 Urinals — construction ^ . . . . 272 
 
 Urinals — flush prohibited materials 272 
 
 Urinals — wastes — screens 273 
 
 Vent pipes — sizes of 253-254 
 
 Vent pipes — revents 257-258 
 
 Vent pipes — in residences 258-259 
 
 Vent pipes — lengths of horizontal 260 
 
 Vent pipes — reconnected 260 
 
 Vent pipes — reconnected — exceptions .... 274 
 
 Ventilation — water closet 279 
 
 Vertical lines of pipe — floor rests 251 
 
 Vertical pipes through roof 252-253 
 
 Waste pipes in four story buildings ' 259 
 
 Waste pipes — horizontal prohibited 254 
 
 Water closets — revent 257 
 
 Water closets — flush tanks 262 
 
 Window area in toilet compartments. .. .280-281 
 
 Water closets under sidewalks 264-266 
 
 Wood sinks and tubs — where prohibited. . 268 
 
 Cleanouts — with brass trap screw 137-138 
 
 Cleanouts — with hand hole and cover. .. .137-138 
 
 Condensation — what it is 226 
 
330 PRA.CTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Country water supply 309-317 
 
 Compressed air system 310-315 
 
 Delivery of water — estimating 310 
 
 Hydraulic ram — operation of 309-310 
 
 Pumping apparatus 312-314 
 
 Steel storage tank — underground 312-313 
 
 Steel storage tank — in basement 313-314 
 
 Storage tank system 310-314 
 
 D 
 
 Delivery of water — rule for estimating 310 
 
 Diameters, areas, and circumferences of 
 
 circles 238-239-240 
 
 Disposal of sewage 304-308 
 
 Automatic syphon 308 
 
 Concrete basins — system of 308 
 
 Epidemics — causes of 304 
 
 Leaching cesspool 305 
 
 Out door water closet 304-305 
 
 Pollution of drinking water supply 305. 
 
 Sub-surface irrigation 305-30&-308 
 
 Systems adapted to localities , .'. . 304 
 
 Drain pipes — capacities of 27 
 
 Drain and trap for hospital operating rooms. . 22- 24 
 
 Drainage fittings 113-140 
 
 Cross tapped for iron pipe 117-118 
 
 Double Y 118-119 
 
 Double half Y-branch 118-119 
 
 Half Y ..-. 118-119 
 
 Half Y-saddle hub 119-120 
 
 Inverted Y-branch 119-120 
 
 Plain cross 118-119 
 
 Plain T-branch— sanitary T-branch 117-118 
 
 Quarter bends, with heel and side outlets . 114-115 
 Sanitary cross 118-119 
 
INDEX 3J i 
 
 PAGE 
 Drainage fittings — 
 
 Sanitary cross tapped for iron pipe 117118 
 
 Sanitary bend — long quarter 114115 
 
 Soil and waste pipe fittings 113-121 
 
 Soil pipe bends— 1/16 to J4 113-114-115 
 
 T-branch soil pipe 114-115-116 
 
 T-saddle hub 119-120 
 
 T-branch, Y-branch— trap screw 121 
 
 Ventilating branch pipe — plain 119-121 
 
 Ventilating cap— Y-saddle hub 119-120 
 
 Y-branch— half Y-branch 114-117 
 
 Drainage pipe — size of 10- 12 
 
 Drainage pipe — method of laying 10- 12 
 
 Drainage system — correct installation 12 
 
 Drinking fountains — solid porcelain 172-175 
 
 Drinking fountains — marble .173-174 
 
 E 
 
 Electrical thawing device 286-290 
 
 Advantages in use of 286 
 
 Capacity of 290 
 
 Current required to operate 289 
 
 Weight of 290 
 
 Westinghouse heavy service outfit. , 287-288 
 
 Westinghouse light service outfit 289-290 
 
 Evaporation — explanation of process 225 
 
 Equation of pipes 220-221 
 
 F 
 
 Fire clay — substitute for 235 
 
 Fire engine house — plumbing for 37-40 
 
 Fresh air inlets 37 -38 
 
 Fresh air inlets for soil pipe ' 13 
 
 Friction of liquids in pipes 226-227 
 
332 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 H 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Hopper traps 130-137 
 
 Half S-trap, high pattern for iron pipe . . 130-131 
 
 Half S-trap, plain with hub vent 134-135 
 
 Half S-trap, with hand hole and cover. . . .134-135 
 
 S-trap — high pattern for lead pipe 130-131 
 
 S-trap— plain for lead pipe 131-132-133 
 
 S-trap — high pattern hand hole and cover.. 131-132 
 
 S-trap — high pattern, hub and vent 131-132 
 
 S-trap — high pattern, for iron pipe 133-134 
 
 Three-quarter S-trap — high pattern — hub 
 
 vent ". 130-131 
 
 Trap caps — brass 136-137 
 
 Horizontal joints — wiping of 96 
 
 Horizontal joints — three examples of 96 
 
 Plorse power-^definition of 225 
 
 Horse power — pounds water required to pro- 
 duce ' 225 
 
 Hot water plumbing 197-218 
 
 Combination reservoir and heater 209-210 
 
 Explosion of water back — cause of 204 
 
 Gas heated device — connections for. .205-206-207 
 
 Gravity supply tank system 200-201 
 
 Hot water — natural course of flow 203 
 
 Kitchen boiler— function of 201-202' 
 
 Kitchen boiler — connections of 207-208. 
 
 Noise in pipes — causes of 203-204 
 
 Simple system — hot water supply 197-198 
 
 System for supplying three floors 199-200 
 
 Vertical; or horizontal boilers — connections 208 
 
 Hot water supply ; 186-196 
 
 Cold water supply pipe — requirements of. . 188 
 
 Cylinder system — advantages of 186 
 
 Draw off pipes — connections for 189 
 
 Draw ofif pipes— path of 192-193 
 
 Emptying cock — location of 188 
 
INDEX 333 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Expansion pipe — function of 189 
 
 Expansion pipe — path of 187 
 
 Flow pipe— path of 186-187 
 
 Flow pipe — path of in tank system 191-192 
 
 Return pipe— path of 186-187 
 
 Return pipe — path of in tank system 192 
 
 becondary return — location of 189-190 
 
 Sizes of tank and cylinder 195 
 
 Water circulation in system 189 
 
 House drain — function of 8 
 
 House sewer — connection of to main sewer. . . 14 
 
 House sewer — pitch of, toward main sewer. . . 14- 15 
 
 House sewer — size of — how determined 15 
 
 Hydraulic ram — operation of 309-310 
 
 ' J 
 
 Joint wiping 92-107 
 
 How to use the cloth 98- 99 
 
 Importance of skill in 92- 93 
 
 Length of joint • 93 
 
 Thin cloth— objections to 97-98 
 
 Wiping cloth — manipulation of 95- 96 
 
 Wiping cloth — making of 97-98 
 
 Wiping cloth — material for 94- 95 
 
 L 
 
 Lead — fusing temperature of 68 
 
 Lead — specific gravity of 65 
 
 Lead traps— full S— half S— P 126-127-128 
 
 Liquid measure — table of 229 
 
 M 
 
 Manhole for house drainage system 10 
 
 Measurement of wrought iron pipe." 224 
 
 Modern stable — plumbing for 41- 43 
 
334 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 P 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Pipe — area of — how to find 227 
 
 Pipe — copper — weight of per lineal foot 185 
 
 Pipe^to find number of gallons in one foot 
 
 length ..■> 232 
 
 Pipe^o find weight of lead pipe when diam- 
 eter and thickness are known 232- 
 
 Pipe supports 37 
 
 Plan of piping for basement 25- 26 
 
 Plaster of paris — to prevent setting too quickly 234 
 
 Plumber's solder— how to make 77-78-79 
 
 Plumber's solder — burning — danger of 80-81 
 
 Plumber's solder — zinc poisoned 81 
 
 Plumber's tools 210-212-216 
 
 Plumbing — recent improvements in 7- 8 
 
 Pressure — action of upon a liquid 226 
 
 R 
 
 Rain leaders 16 
 
 Roof connections 34-35-36 
 
 Roughing in 25- 52 
 
 Meaning of 25 
 
 Plumbing for two story residence 43- 52 
 
 Plumbing for modern stable 41- 42 
 
 Refrigerators — waste and vent pipes 43 
 
 Rubber force cup for cleaning bath tub. 215 
 
 Running trap for house drain 12 
 
 Rust jomt — cement for 235 
 
 S 
 
 Sanitary plumbing 141-176 
 
 Bathroom — construction 141-142 
 
 Bathtub — corner porcelain type 144-145 
 
 Bathtub — porcelain enameled .144-147-148 
 
 Bathtub — porcelain roll rim 142-144 
 
INDEX 335 
 
 PAGE 
 Bathtub — sitz; with nickel plated fittings . 144-149 
 Bathtub — showing proper connections. . .144-152 
 
 Bathtubs— types of 142-149 
 
 Footbath — enameled porcelain 144-150 
 
 Spray, and shower baths — rubber curtain. .144-151 
 
 Sewer — requirements of 8 
 
 Sewer pipe — materials — methods of laying 8 
 
 Sewage disposal — basic principles of 15 
 
 Service pipes — table of capacities 183 
 
 Sheet copper — how to clean 234-235 
 
 Sheet lead — table, weights and thickness .... 196 
 
 Sinks — construction and installation 175-176 
 
 Soil pipe 27- 37 
 
 Cutting of 27 
 
 Joints — materials required for 30 
 
 Making joints in 29- 30 
 
 Running long line of '. 30- 33 
 
 Under basement floor 37 
 
 Solder — for plumber's work 62- 76 
 
 Alloy that expands in cooling 74 
 
 Composition of plumber's solder. ....... 62- 63 
 
 Contraction in cooling 73- 74 
 
 Effect of heat on solids 71-72 
 
 Expansion of solder when thelting 73 
 
 Flowing of 68- 69 
 
 Fhixes for 69 
 
 How to judge good solder 63- 64 
 
 Indications of impure solder 64- 65 
 
 Result of mixing tin and lead 72- 73 
 
 Rule governing hardness of , 71 
 
 Soldering fluids 69 
 
 Sulphur as a flux ~. 66- 67 
 
 Zinc — detrimental to solder. 65- 66 
 
 Zinc — how to extriact from solder 66 
 
 Soldering copper — care of 236 
 
 Soldering fluxes 82- 83 
 
336 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Steam tight joint — how to make. ., 235 
 
 Store, or office building — plan for plumbing of . ^37- 39 
 
 T 
 
 Table — decimal parts of an inch 75 
 
 Table — fall per foot for sewers and soil pipes. 16 
 
 Table — melting points of various alloys 75 
 
 Table — to find weight of metals in pounds .... 76 
 
 Table— weight of one square foot of various 
 
 metals ; 76 
 
 Tanks — rule for finding capacities in gallons. . 230 
 
 Thawing device — electrical ■ 286-290 
 
 Three story tenement — plumbing for 30- 32 
 
 Tin — specific gravity of 65 
 
 Tinning iron — method of 83 
 
 Traps 53-61-122-218 
 
 Back venting — proper method of 57- 53 
 
 Bower trap 61 
 
 Counter vent 217 
 
 Caulking joints in 218 
 
 Cudell trap 60- 61 
 
 Drum trap 59 
 
 Full S-trap .^ 123 
 
 Full S-trap— with top vent .- 125-126 
 
 Function of trap in sewer pipe 53 
 
 Half S-trap •. 123 
 
 Half S-trap, with hand hole and cover. . .123-125 
 
 Half S-trap, with top vent . .125-126 
 
 How a trap may be syphoned 56- 57 
 
 Kinds of traps for sewage. 217 
 
 Loss of seal in a trap 54- 56 
 
 Non-syphon traps 57- 60 
 
 P-trap 54- 55 
 
 Purpose of traps 217 
 
 Running trap — hub vent 126-127 
 
 Running trap — hand hole and cover 122 
 
INDEX 337 
 
 PAGE 
 
 S-trap — advantages of 54 
 
 S-trap, with hand hole and cover 123-124-125 
 
 S-traps — extra long — plain and vented. . .129-130 
 
 Self scouring trap 60-61 
 
 Syphon trap 53 
 
 Three-quarter S-trap 54-55-123 
 
 Three-quarter S-trap, with hand hole .... 123-125 
 
 Three-quarter S-trap, with top vent 125-126 
 
 Trap for house drainage system 10- 11 
 
 Two-hub vent-traps 122 
 
 U 
 
 Upright joints — wiping of 99-101 
 
 Urinals 162-167 
 
 Complete toilet room — hotel, or office. .. .164-167 
 
 Corner porcelain urinal 163-164 
 
 Flat-back porcelain style 162-163 
 
 Individual stall urinals 164-165-166 
 
 Useful information 224-240 
 
 Air — volume of, in one pound 225 
 
 Anthracite coal — cu. ft. in one ton of 225 
 
 Anthracite coal — wt., of one bushel 225 
 
 Area of pipe — how to find 227 
 
 Barrel — to find contents of 231 
 
 Boiler horse power > 224 
 
 Boiler scale — how to remove 233 
 
 Circle — to find circumference of 230 
 
 Circle — to find area of 230 
 
 Circle — to find diameter from given area. 230 
 Circle^— to find diameter of, to equal area 
 
 of a given square 230 
 
 Cement— how to make 233-234 
 
 Cement — for iron and stone 234 
 
 Cement — for leaky steam boilers 234 
 
 Cleaning rusted^ iron 233 
 
 Cleaning rusted brass, , 233 
 
338 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 PAGE 
 Useful information — 
 
 Cleaning marble 233 
 
 Coal required per sq. ft. of grate — lbs 224 
 
 Copper pipes — weight of, per lineal foot. . 185 
 Deliver}^ of water-^rule for calciilating. . 310 
 Diameters, circumferences, areas of circles.238-240 
 
 Evaporation of water 224 
 
 Equalizing pipes 228 
 
 Heat unit— definition of 224 
 
 Heat units required per horse power. . . . 225 
 
 Heat units in 1 lb. anthracite coal 225 
 
 Rectangle^to find- area of 229 
 
 Thermometers — comparison of 227 
 
 Triangle — to find area of 229 
 
 Water — expansion of, in freezing 228 
 
 Water — discharge of through given orifice 
 
 at different pressures 228 
 
 Water — height of column for 1 lb. pressure 
 
 per sq. in 229 
 
 Water — number of gallons in 1 cu. ft 229 
 
 Water — pressure upon side of tank 231-232 
 
 Water — point of greatest density 228 
 
 Water — ^to find head in feet ; pressure being 
 
 known 231 
 
 Water — to find pressure in lbs. per sq. in. . . 230 
 Water — to find required head for given ve- 
 locity 230-231 
 
 Water — velocity of flow through pipe .... 231 
 Water volume and weight of 1 gallon .... 228-229 
 
 ■ Water — weight of one cubic inch 229 
 
 Wrought iron pipes — measurement of.,.. 224 
 
 V 
 
 Vacuum — meaning of , 225 
 
 Ven"t-opening — location of for house drain. ... 10 
 
 Vent-pipes — location of ...,,....,,,..,.,,.. gj- ?9 
 
INDEX 339 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Vertical section for two story building 25- 28 ■ 
 
 Vitrified sewer pipe 8-10 
 
 Connection with iron pipe 8- 9 
 
 Method of installation 9 
 
 Trap and vent opening 9-10 
 
 W 
 
 Washbowls 164-172 
 
 Connections for 172-174 
 
 Drilling slab for clamp holes 168 
 
 Half circle, roll edge— high back 169-170 
 
 Independent bowls 168-169 
 
 Making joint between bowl and slab 165-168 
 
 Roir edge bowl — removable strainer 169-170 
 
 Roll. edge oval bowl, with overflow 169-171 
 
 Roll edge slab and bowl — ideal waste. . . .172-173 
 Setting of bowls to marble slabs 164-168 
 
 Water 219-227 
 
 Boiling point of 221-227 
 
 Characteristics of 219 
 
 Composition of 219 
 
 Expansion of when heated 225-227 
 
 Expansion of when changed to steam. . . . 225 
 
 Freezing temperature 221-222 
 
 Hardness of water 222 
 
 Head — meaning of explained 220 
 
 Impurities, poisons, etc., in water 222 
 
 Maximum density — point of 222 
 
 Pressure of, in pounds per sq. in 219-220 
 
 Pressure of, at different elevations 184 
 
 Purifying by aeration 223 
 
 Tests of for purity 236-237 
 
 Unit of measurement for 219 
 
 Weight of— per cubic foot 219-224 
 
 Water closets 149-162 
 
 Flushing rim — hopper style., .154-155 
 
340 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Prison water closet 157-159 
 
 Seat-operated types 154-156-157 
 
 Syphon jet low down tank 156-158 
 
 Washout closet, with front outlet 154-155 
 
 Washout closet, connections for 159-162 
 
 Water pipes and fixtures 27^ 28 
 
 Water service 177-240 
 
 Corporation cock 177 
 
 First step in installation of 177 
 
 Size of service leading to building 177 
 
 Service pipes in building 178 
 
 Stop cocks in building 178 
 
 Stop cocks — where required 177-178 
 
 Tapping street main 177 
 
 Testing the water service 179-181 
 
 Testing — with air pressure 180 
 
 Testing — with peppermint test 180-181 
 
 Testing — with smoke test 180 
 
 Testing — with hydraulic pressure 179 
 
 Wiped joints — preparation of ?4-91-104-105 
 
 Importance of care in 84 
 
 Joints for tin-lined 4)ipes 105 
 
 Joints for copper pipes 105-106 
 
 Method of tinning copper 106-107 
 
 Method of strengthening copper pipe .... 107 
 Preparing pipe ends— three methods of. . 90 
 
 Preparing pipe ends — care required in ... . 91 
 
 Rasping — instructions for 87- 88 
 
 Skill required in 86 
 
 Soil — best method of making 88 
 
 Soil — proper ingredients for 88 
 
 Soil pot and tool 88 
 
 Soiling a pipe — correct method of 88- 89 
 
 Solder — proper heat for 89 
 
 Tools required for 86 
 
 Wrought iron pipe — table of 181-182 
 
HOT WATER HEATING 
 STEAM AND GAS FITTING 
 
RELATIVE ADVANTAGES OF STEAM AND 
 HOT WATER HEATING. 
 
 The first cost of a steam heating system is from 
 20 to 30 per cent less than that of a hot water 
 system. This is due to the smaller sizes of pipes 
 and radiators used on steam work. The cost of 
 operation is however in favor of the hot water 
 system. 
 
 When steam radiators are shut off they cool 
 much more rapidly than hot water radiators. 
 This proves to be an advantage in favor of the 
 hot water system. 
 
 A steam plant requires much more attention 
 and skill on the part of the operator than the hot 
 water system. With regard to freezing, the pref- 
 erence is in favor of steam, and in large buildings 
 this is often a matter of great importance. A 
 hot water system may be run during mild weath- 
 er with much less heat than a siteam' sys^tem 
 which must always be brought to a temperature 
 of 212 degrees Fahrenheit before any heat is felt. 
 
 HEATING SYSTEMS. 
 
 A steam or water heating system involves in 
 its construction the following: 
 A steam boiler or water heater. 
 
 .; 7 
 
S HEAT iNG SYSTEMS 
 
 Pipe and pipe fittings. 
 
 Valves. 
 
 Eadiators. 
 
 Air valves. 
 
 It also requires an expansion tank (water heat- 
 ing) for its successful operation. 
 
 A good, chimney. 
 
 Good fuel. 
 
 Good management. 
 
 For heating a house or a small flat building the 
 round sectional steam boilers or water heaters are 
 unquestionably the best up to 1,500 square feet of 
 radiation. 
 
 For capacities above this limitation, rectangu- 
 lar sectional steam boilers or water hea]ters are 
 used. 
 
 Ventilation. Ventilation is a most iihportant 
 matter in connection with heating. All living 
 rooms should be venlilated, and the greater the 
 number of occupants the room contains, the great^ 
 er should be the amount of ventilation required. 
 
 In the ordinary house, ventilation is obtained 
 from the fresh air entering the rooms through the 
 windows and doors, for the ordinary occupants of 
 the rooms. 
 
 Under ordinary conditions, an adult requires 
 about 1,000 cubic feet of air per hour. 
 
 The principal cause of the vitiation of the air 
 in a room is the respiration of the occupants. 
 Moisture and gases arising from the occupants of 
 
HEATING SYSTEMS 9 
 
 the room also tend to make the air foul. Lighting 
 and heating are other causes. 
 
 The air in a room is to some extent changed by 
 diffusion, but preferably by the entrance through 
 registers provided for the purpose, of fresh air 
 that has been warmed, and by the outward pas;- 
 sage through flues, of the foul air. 
 
 The foul air should leave a room near the floor. 
 An open fireplace furnishes an excellent means of 
 ventilating a room. 
 
 The foul air is heavier than the purer air, and 
 therefore settles to the bottom of the room. By 
 drawing the colder and therefore heavier air, 
 which is at the bottom, the. warmer air at the up- 
 per part of the room settles to fill this space, thus 
 creating a circulation, and making the heating 
 more effective. 
 
 Heat. In what is known as the molecular the- 
 ory, all bodies are made up of rapidly vibrating 
 particles, the hottest bodies being those whose 
 particles move or vibrate with the greatest rapid- 
 ity, and through the greatest distancess. The con- 
 clusion is therefore reached that heat is not a 
 substance, but a form of motion, and that this 
 condition may be transferred from one body to 
 another. This theory explains in a simple man- 
 ner the various actions of heat. 
 
 Upon being heated, the particles of a body tend 
 to repel each other, and as a result of the action of 
 the heat the body expands, and this expansion if 
 
10 HEATING SYSTEMS 
 
 carried far enough, finally produces a change in 
 the state of the body, the point at which such 
 change takes place varying with each different 
 substance. As an example of this change a cake 
 of ice when subjected to heat, melts and becomesi 
 water, and this water when subjected to further 
 heat again changes its state and becomes steam. 
 
 Heat may be transferred from one body to an- 
 other in three ways, by conduction, by convection 
 and by radiation. 
 
 By conduction is meant the direct contact of 
 one body with another. A heated bar of iron will 
 transmit heat to another bar when in contact with 
 it. 
 
 Heat is also transferred from one body to an- 
 other by convection, by means' of water or other 
 fluids, which convey it from one point to another. , 
 
 Heat is transferred from one body to another by 
 radiation through such a medium as currents of 
 air. 
 
STEAM HEATING. 
 
 The low pressure ^avity and the high pressure 
 steam systems are the ones in general use. 
 
 The chief feature of the low pressure gravity 
 system of steam heating is that all condensation 
 turns to the boiler by gravity. 
 
 A pressure of steam below 10 pounds above the 
 atmospheric pressure is low pressure steam. 
 
 The low pressure steam system is chiefly used 
 in house heatiag, because it is safer than high 
 pressure steam, and as it works at a lower pres- 
 sure is more economical to use, and requires less 
 attention. 
 
 Not less than a 1% inch pipe should be 
 used for a steam main, and this diameter should 
 not be run for a greater length than 25 feet. 
 
 Regardless of the amount of work to be done, 
 no steam riser less than 1 inch in diameter should 
 b«, used. 
 
 If too small the pipes will sometimes cause the 
 radiators to fill with water. 
 
 The steam main should be run as high as pos- 
 sible above the boiler. A distance of 18 inches or 
 more should be allowed if conditions will permit 
 of it. 
 
 Branches should always be taken from the top 
 
 11 
 
12 STEAM HEATING 
 
 of the steam supply mains or at an. angle of 45 
 degrees, but never from the side. 
 
 Branches should not be taken from the side of 
 the main, as water hammering and the forcing of 
 condensed water from the main into the radiators 
 may be result. 
 
 Branches should be run full size from the main 
 to the risers and connected with the latter by a 
 reducing elbow. 
 
 The horizontal branch should be one size larger 
 than the riser, if more than 6 or 8 feet in length, 
 as the circulation is not so strong on a horizontal 
 as on a vertical line of pipe. 
 
 A steam main should have a pitch of at least 1 
 inch for every 10 feet of length. 
 
 Branches should have a pitch of at least 1 inch 
 for each 5 feet. 
 
 Carelessness in the alignment of steam pipes is 
 liable to form jKKjkets or traps which will impede 
 the circulation and cause hammering, due to the 
 condensed water remaining in the pockets. 
 
 When necessary to make a direct rise in order 
 to get over an obstruction or to^ increase the head 
 room, the pocket" formed should be dripped by a 
 small pipe into the return. 
 
STEAM BOILERS. 
 
 Experience has shown that steam boilers made 
 of cast iron are the most reliable and most effi- 
 cient for heating purposes. No other metals which 
 can be used for this purpose deteriorate so little 
 from corrosion as cast iron under like conditions. 
 A cast iron steam boiler cannot explode. Being 
 built up in sections they are easy to set up and 
 involve the least amount of trouble and expense. 
 In operation they are simplicity itself and their 
 management is easily understood. 
 
 The capacity of a steam boiler should be at least 
 25 per cent in excess of the total duty required 
 by the radiation and pipe system for direct radia- 
 tion. When indirect radiation is used add 50 per 
 cent to the above. 
 
 In locating a steam boiler, be sure and ascertain 
 by careful measurements that will stand low 
 enough so that the water line will be 18 inches 
 or more below the lowest point of the steam 
 mains. 
 
 The boiler should be placed on a solid founda- 
 tion and as close as possible to the flues. 
 
 The proper size of coal to use in a given size of 
 steam boiler is a very important factor to its suc- 
 cessful operation. As a rule the best results have 
 "been obtained by the use of range or stove coal ia 
 
 13 
 
n 
 
 STEAM BOILERS 
 
 round boilers or heaters. For rectangular steam 
 boilers good results have been obtained by the use 
 of stove coal for the smaller sizes and egg coal for 
 the larger ones. If bitmuinous or soft coal be 
 
 used instead of anthracite or hard coal, a boiler 
 at least one size larger should be installed. 
 
 Round Steam Boilers. The boiler shown in Fig. 
 I is entirely of cast i^^on construction, so arranged 
 
STEAM BOILEES 15 
 
 as to amply provide for expansion and contrac- 
 tion. The only joints or connections are formed of 
 heavy cast iron, threaded nipples, making a per- 
 fect joint, with no possibility of leaks from any 
 cause whatsoever and absolute freedom from all 
 necessity of packing of any kind. The general 
 construction of both steam boilers is as foUowsi: 
 The circular base, or ashpit, which also forms 
 the support for the grate, is substantially made of 
 oast iron and gives a safe depth for accumulation 
 of ashes. Resting on this is the firepot section, 
 shown in Fig. 2. This section, being one com- 
 plete casting in itself, and tested under heavy 
 pressure before leaving the shop, is abso- 
 lutely , free from mechanical imperfections. In 
 the center of the top of this section is a large 
 opening, threaded to receive a nipple, which con- 
 nects it with a closed section, shown in the right 
 hand upper view. Fig. 2. This first, or interme- 
 diate section, is of less diameter than the top of 
 the firepot section. On top of this closed, or in- 
 termediate section and attached to it in the same 
 maimer, as described for the connection of the 
 firepot, there is an open section shown in the right 
 hand upper view. Fig. 2, which is of the same 
 diameter as the top of the firepot and entirely fills 
 the jacket casings hereinafter described. On top 
 of this is placed another closed section, and on 
 top of this again comes the top section, which is 
 either th^ steam "dome, forming the steaqn boiler, 
 
16 
 
 STEAM BOILERS 
 
 or the upper ■water section, forming tlie water 
 heater, all connected together in the majoner de- 
 
STEAM BOILERS 17 
 
 scribed, witli screw nipples, the top section, or 
 dome, having the necessary tappings for the sup- 
 ply outlets for steam, or the flow outlets for water. 
 Casings. Extending from the outer edge of the 
 top of the firepot section to the top of the upper 
 section, or dome, there are cast iron casings, close- 
 ly fitted joints. These casings are made in seg- 
 ments and are interchangeable and easily applied, 
 with no possibility of rusting, wearing out or 
 breaking. They form in themselves a perfect 
 chamber for the retention of products of combus- 
 tion, compelling these to follow such channels as 
 will give best results. 
 
 Firepot. The firepot is circular in form, entire- 
 ly surrounded by water, is made in one perfect 
 casting, and free from any possible chance of 
 leakages. The inner surface of the firepot has 
 projecting into it all around the sides a multipli- 
 city of iron points, just long enough to prevent 
 the water contact from chilling the fire and mak- 
 ing it possible to secure perfect combustion and a 
 uniform fire around the edges asi well as in the 
 center. The firepots are of sufficient depth to in- 
 sure a deep, slow fire, forming the best and most 
 economical heat-producing proposition for low 
 pressure heating. " 
 
 Grate. The grate is of the triangular form and 
 is at all times easily operated, and in its opera- 
 tion it pulverizes all clinkers before depositing 
 in ash pit. 
 
18 
 
 STEAM BOILERS 
 
 On all tlie larger size boilers the grates are fit- 
 ted witli a heavy bearing bar in the center, thus 
 prolonging the life of the grate bars, as it pre- 
 vents their wai'jjing. 
 
 Simplicity of the Grates. The construction of 
 the grate is exceedingly simple, and admits of any 
 one bar of the whole grate being changed without 
 the assistance of skilled labor. 
 
 Fig 3 
 
 Fig. 3 shows a vertical cross-section of a steam 
 boiler. 
 
STEAM BOILERS 19 
 
 Rectangular Sectional Boilers. The vertical 
 sectional type of steam boiler lias been on tlie mar- 
 ket and in all forms for a number of years. Tliere 
 are no new ideas that can be safely exploited in 
 this line. The demand is for a simple, practical, 
 easily handled device that will absolutely endure 
 the work appropriated for it. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 The boiler shown in Fig. 4 is strong, of good ap- 
 pearance, thoroughly accessible for cleaning, and, 
 so far as can be determined from exterior appear- 
 ances, a most satisfactory heater. The good, opin- 
 
20 
 
 STEAM BOILERS 
 
 ion already formed of the teater is further 
 strengthened, by reference to views of the inter- 
 mediate and rear sections shown in Figs. 5 and 6. 
 ^y re'fe?ence to these cuts it will be seen that 
 kverf possible advantage is taken of the fii-e sur- 
 f^epy, it being the belief that, unless great good is 
 
 accomplished in direct contact with the fire, there 
 will be but little assistance obtained from the 
 flues. 
 
 Firepots. Firepots of the type of heaters are 
 deep— to give a compact body of fire, and, besides, 
 are covered with numbers of iron projections to 
 prevent chilling contact of the fire with the ex- 
 
STEAM BOILERS 
 
 21 
 
 posed water surface and yet secure such, perfect 
 combustion as will quickly impart to the water 
 the heat from the fuel and permit of maintaining 
 at all times a clear, even fire in every portion of 
 the firepot. 
 
 iriiiiii 
 
 III nil I 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 Boiler capacity. T[he capacity of the boiler 
 should be at least 20 per cent in excess of the total 
 duty imposed upon it by the radiation and pipe 
 system. 
 
 Example: Let 600 square feet equal the total 
 radiation, plus 25 per cent for the surface of the 
 mains, plus 20 per cent excess boiler "capaxaty^ 
 which, is 900 square feet, the capacity of the boiler 
 
22 
 
 STEAM BOILERS 
 
 required. Tihe same result may be arrived at by 
 adding 50 per cent to the radiation. 
 When direct-indirect radiation is used, an ad- 
 
 Flg. 7. 
 
 ditional 33 1/3 per cent must be allowed, and when 
 indirect radiation is used, add 50 per cent. 
 Example : 
 
 Total direct radiation=450 sq. ft. 
 One direct-indirect radiator= 60 * 
 One indirect radiatori=190 * 
 
 ' 600 ' 
 25 per cent for surface of mainsi=112.5 ' 
 33 1/3 per cent on direct-indirect= 20 ' 
 60 per cent on indirect radiator== 45 ' 
 
 777.5 ' 
 20 per cent excess capacity=155.5 ' 
 
 Boiler capacity=933 
 
STEAM BOILERS 2S 
 
 Safety Valves. "WTiile not an absolute necessi- 
 ty, some form of low-pressure safety valve is gen- 
 erally used on the steam boiler of a low-pressure 
 heating plant. Forms of low-pressure safety 
 
 Pig. 8. 
 
 valves are shown in Figs. 7 and 8, the one shown 
 in Fig. 7 is spring controlled and capable of ad- 
 justment for different pressures, while that shown 
 in Fig. 8 has a ball weight instead of a spring 
 
STEAM BOILEES 
 
 Tig. 0. 
 
STEAM BOILERS 
 
 2i 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
26 STEAM BOILERS 
 
 and is consequently non-adjustable except by 
 changing the weight. 
 
 Water Column. Every steam boiler should be 
 equipped with a water column with water gauge 
 and try-cocks as shown in Fig. 9. A combina- 
 tion water column is shown in Fig. 10, with steam 
 gaug-e on the top of the column. 
 
 Damper Regulator. While an automatic dam- 
 per regulator is not as essential to a water heater 
 as to a steam boiler, it is a very useful device, and 
 when used prevents overheating and occasions 
 great economy in fuel. An automatic regulator 
 for a steam boiler is shown in Fig. 11. Check draft 
 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 dampers, which are controlled by automatic regu- 
 lators, are shown in Fig. 12. 
 
 The damper regulator consists of a hollow bowl 
 formed by two castings bolted together, with a 
 rubber diaphragm between them, the lower cast- 
 ing being connected to the steam space of the 
 boiler by means of a sihort nipple. Through an 
 opening in the top of the upper casting a plunger 
 works, and across, this plunger and connected to 
 an upright lip on the edge of the diaphragm cast- 
 
STEAM BOILERS 
 
 27 
 
 ing is a bar, from the ends of which chains con- 
 nect to the draft door and check damper door of 
 the boiler. 
 
 As the steam pressure rises, the pressure 
 agiainst the under side of the rubber diaphragm 
 is transmitted to the plunger which is raised, 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 thereby operating the rod or lever, and the chains 
 connecting with the draft and check .damper 
 doors. The sliding weight usually on the rod 
 may be set so that the leverage may be smaller or 
 greater, according tO' the pressure of steam car- 
 ried on the apparatus^ before the operation of 
 
28 
 
 STEAM BOILERS 
 
 the doors will take place. By means of the dam- 
 per regulator the rise and fall of temperature in 
 the boiler maLy so regulate the draft that an even 
 temperature may be obtained. 
 
 The chains should be so set that the draft door 
 and check draft will each be closed when the regu- 
 lator lever is level, and there is no steam in the 
 boiler. 
 
 Pressure Gauges. The hollow spring in the 
 gauge, shown in Fig. 13, is so shaped-and arraiTged 
 
 Fig. IS. 
 
 and the mechanism is such that the vertical as 
 well as the horizontal movement of its free ends 
 is fully utilized. It thereby permits the use of 
 springs 100 per cent stronger than can be used in 
 any other gauge, so' preventing their settling un- 
 der any pressure which may be indicated upon 
 its dial. 
 The gauge shown in Fig. 14 may be used for 
 
STEAM BOILERS 29 
 
 indicating either pressure or vaciram, as the case 
 may be. It is graduated for pressure in pounds 
 per square inch, and for vacuum in inches of mer- 
 cury in column or pounds per square inch, as 
 may be desired. 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 Smoke Pipes. Steam boiler smoke pipes range 
 in size from about 8 inches in the smaller sizes 
 to 10 or 12 inches in the larger ones. They are 
 generally made of galvanized iron. The pipe 
 should be carried to the chimney as directly as 
 possible, avoiding bends, which increase the re- 
 sistance and diminish the draft. Whien the draft 
 is kno-spi to be good the smoke pipe may pur- 
 posely be made longer to allow the gases to part 
 with more of their heat before reaching the chim- 
 
30 STEAM BOILERS 
 
 ney. "Where a smoke pipe passes through a parti- 
 tion it should be protected by a double perforated 
 metal collar at least 6 inches greater in diameter 
 than the pipe. 
 
 The top of the smoke pipe should not be placed 
 within 8 inches of exposed beams nor less than 6 
 inches under beams protected by asbestos or plas- 
 ter. The connection between the smoke pipes and 
 the chimney frequently becomes loose, allowing 
 cold air to be drawn in, thus diminishing the 
 draft. A collar to make the connection tight 
 should be riveted to the pipe about 5 inches from 
 the end, to prevent its being pushed too far into 
 the flue. 
 
 Chimney Flues. Flues, if built of brick, should 
 have walls -8 inches in thickness, unless terra cotta 
 linings are used, when only 4 inches of brick work 
 is required. Except in small houses, where an 
 8x8 flue may be used, the nominal size of the 
 smoke flue should be at least 8x12, to allow a 
 margin for possible contractions at offsets, or for 
 a thick coating of mortar. A clean out door should 
 be placed at the bottom. A square flue cannot be 
 reckoned at its full area, as the comers are of lit- 
 tle value. An 8x8 flue is practically very Kttle 
 more effective than one of circular form 8 inches 
 in diameter. To avoid down drafts the top of 
 the chimney should be carried above the highest 
 point of the roof, imless provided with a suitable 
 top or hood. 
 
STEAM BOILERS 
 
 31 
 
 Dimensions of Chimney Flues for Given Amounts of Direct 
 Steam Radiation 
 
 Square Feet of 
 
 Diameter of 
 
 Square or 
 
 Steam Radiation 
 
 Eound Flue 
 
 Rectangular Flue 
 
 250 
 
 8 
 
 nches 
 
 8 
 
 n. X 8 in. 
 
 300 
 
 8 
 
 nches 
 
 8 
 
 n. X 8 in. 
 
 400 
 
 8 
 
 nches 
 
 8 
 
 n. X 8 in. 
 
 600 
 
 10 
 
 nches 
 
 8 
 
 in. X 13 in. 
 
 600 
 
 10 
 
 nches 
 
 8 
 
 n. X 13 in. 
 
 700 
 
 10 
 
 nches 
 
 8 
 
 n. X 12 in. 
 
 800 
 
 12 
 
 nches 
 
 12 
 
 n. X 13 in. 
 
 900 
 
 12 
 
 nches 
 
 12 
 
 n. X 12 in. 
 
 1000 
 
 12 
 
 nches 
 
 13 in. X 12 in. 
 
 1300 
 
 12 
 
 nches 
 
 12 in. X 13 in. 
 
 1400 
 
 14 
 
 nclies 
 
 12 in. X 16 in. 
 
 1600 
 
 14 1 
 
 nch«j 
 
 12 in. X 16 in. 
 
 1800 
 
 14 I 
 
 nches 
 
 12 in. X 16 in. 
 
 2000 
 
 14 1 
 
 nches 
 
 13 in. X 16 in. 
 
 2200 
 
 16 I 
 
 nches 
 
 16 in. X 16 in. 
 
 3000 
 
 16 I 
 
 nches 
 
 16 in. X 16 in. 
 
 8500 
 
 18 1 
 
 nches 
 
 16 in. X 20 in. 
 
 5000 
 
 18 inch'SS 
 
 16 ir. X 20 in. 
 
 Fuel Combustion. Combustion is one form of 
 chemical action, accompanied by the generation 
 of heat. When such action takes place slowly the 
 heat produced is almost imperceptible, but when 
 it takes place rapidly, as in the burning of wood, 
 coal, etc., the heat becomes intense. In the btu'u- 
 ing of ordinary fuel, the carbon and hydrogen of 
 the coal combine with the oxygen of the air and 
 produce combustion, without which no material 
 results may be obtained from the fuel. 
 
 Combustion depends upon the presence of oxy- 
 gen, without which it cannot take place. 
 
32 STEAM BOILERS 
 
 Combustion is estimated by the number of 
 pounds of fuel consumed per hour by one square 
 foot of grate surface. 
 
 One square foot of grate will consume about 5 
 pounds of bard coal per hour, or about 10 pounds 
 of soft coal, under a natural draft. 
 
 For 7% to 10 pounds of coal consumed, one 
 cubic foot of water will be evaporated. 
 
 A fire of a depth of 12 inches will do more ef- 
 ficient work than one of less depth. 
 
 The use of too large coal is attended with large 
 air spaces between the pieces, and this large 
 amount of air is too great for the gases escaping 
 from the combustion of the coal, allowing the 
 gases to escape into the chimney flue unbumed. 
 
 The use of too small coal is not advisable, as it 
 packs down so compactly as to prevent the admis- 
 sion of the proper amount of air through the grate 
 to produce good combustion. 
 
Pipe Systems. The three systems of heating 
 described: The direct, indirect and direct-indi- 
 rect radiation, are governed by the same rules in 
 the matter of piping and steam supply, requiring 
 only special rules for proportioning the amount 
 of heating surface and for the arrangement of air 
 supply. There are the one-pipe and two-pipe sys- 
 tems, with several forms and combinations of each, 
 and for the steam supply there are high and low- 
 pressure systems, exhaust systems, gravity sys- 
 tems and vacuum systems. 
 
 The essentials of a heating system are : A source 
 of steam supply, a system of piping to conduct the 
 steam from the source of supply to the radiators, 
 a series of radiators or radiating surfaces, a sys- 
 tem of return pipes through which the condensed 
 water from the radiators may be removed. 
 
 It may be more briefly stated that the prime re- 
 quisites for a steam heating system are: The 
 source of steam supply, the radiating surface and 
 a system of pipes connecting them. Should, how- 
 ever, the supply and return pipes be embodied in 
 the same system, it is just as important to arrange 
 to dispose of the condensed water as it is to supply 
 steam to the radiators. 
 
 One-pipe System. The simplest form of steam 
 "heating system is known as the one-pipe gravity 
 return system. The steam is generated in the 
 
 33 
 
84 
 
 STEAM BOILERS 
 
 'boiler, flows through the pipes to the radiators, 
 the condensed water as it is formed in the radia- 
 tors draining out along the bottom of the pipes 
 and back to the boiler by gravity, to be re-evapor- 
 
 Fig.. 15. 
 
 ated into steam. This system may be used only in 
 a very small plant, and one in which the pipes 
 should be made of large size and given a very de- 
 cided pitch tow^d the boiler. 
 
 One-pipe System With Separate Return. In 
 the system shown in Fig. 15 the main in the base- 
 
STEAM BOILERS 35 
 
 ment is pitched so as tO' drain away from the 
 boiler, and at its end a return pipe is connected 
 and led back to the boiler, entering it below the 
 water-line. In this manner the flow of the steam 
 and the water of condensation is in the same di- 
 rection in the mains, and upon the sudden conden- 
 sation of steam, as occurs when turning steam into 
 ^. cold radiator, the water falls down the risers 
 against the current of steam, while in the main it 
 is forced along in the same direction as the steam. 
 If the mains are extensive they may be drained 
 at different points. This system is extensively 
 used for residences and buildings of only a few 
 stories in height, and it has also been used in larger 
 installations. In such a plant the risers as well 
 as the mains must be of ample size, and the latter 
 must have sufficient pitch and be thoroughly 
 drained. 
 
 One-pipe Overhead System. This is the only 
 system of single-pipe connection which is exten- 
 sively used in high buildings, such as the modem 
 office building, and is shown in Fig. 16. In this 
 system the steam is conducted through a large 
 main supply pipe to the attic of the building, or 
 to the ceiling of the top floor, and from this the 
 mains extend around the building to supply the 
 risers. The risers are connected with the retuim 
 mains in the basement. In this system the flow of 
 steam and condensed water is everywhere in the 
 same direction except in the connections to the 
 
36 
 
 STEAM BOILERS 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 radiators, and the risers should be so arranged 
 that these connections may be comparatively 
 
STEAM BOILERS 37 
 
 short. This system has the very decided advan- 
 tage over the ordinary one^pipe system that the 
 condensed water which falls down the risers from 
 the radiators does not, when it reaches the hori- 
 zontal pipe at the bottom come into contact with 
 the main current of steam, as the horizontal pipe 
 is only a drain in which there isi practically no 
 steam and which is intended solely for the pur- 
 pose of draijiing of the condensed water. 
 
 Two-pipe System. The two-pipe system is il- 
 lustrated in Fig. 17 is much the same in all cases, 
 but special adaptations of it are sometimes made 
 to meet special conditions. There is a two-pipe 
 overhead system in which steam mains are in the 
 attic as well as m the onet-pipei overhead, but there 
 a separate set of return risers are provided which 
 connect with the return in the basement. This 
 system has been very little used. 
 
 The One-pipe Circuit Steam Heating System. 
 In this system the steam pipe is run from the 
 boiler vertically .to the ceiling' of the basement, 
 from which point it pitches downward throughout 
 its course around the cellar or basement, to a 
 point at or near the rear of the boiler, where an 
 automatic air vent is placed, and drop made with 
 a pipe into the return opening of the boiler. 
 
 The one-pipe circuit system is used in buildings 
 which are square or rectangular in shape. 
 
 When the building is of such shape that a one- 
 pipe circuit will not do the work to, advantage, 
 
36 
 
 STEAM BOILERS 
 
 that is to say, in long buildings, where the boiler 
 is set at or abou^ the middle of the buUding, it is 
 then desirable to run a loop in either direction. 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 The Overhead Steam Heating System. In this 
 system the feed pipe is carried vertically to the 
 
Sl-BAM BOILERS 3$ 
 
 ceiling of the top floor, or into tlie attic, and from 
 this point branches are carried down to the differ- 
 ent radiators. 
 
 This system is used in office buildings, school 
 houses, factories, and often in residences, when a 
 main can be carried up into an attic. Frequently, 
 owing to the absence of a basement under the 
 building, it is necessary to use the overhead sys- 
 tem to heat the radiators. 
 
 The return pipes should enter the top of the 
 ^ flow end of the radiator, and return out of the bot- 
 tom of the return end. 
 
 Some radiators on the one^pipe system may be 
 connected as single pipe. Radiators on the over- 
 head system may also be connected as on a one- 
 pipe circuit system. Where this is done, the con- 
 densed water from the radiator returns into the 
 drop or feed pipe. 
 
 Heating Surface. To estimate the amoimt of 
 heating surface required to heat a room with steam 
 to a teanperature of 70 degrees Fahrenheit in zero 
 weather with a steam pressure of from 2 to 3 
 pounds and ordinary conditions of exposure, the 
 following rule is given, which is for direct radia- 
 tion, and based upon the glass surface, exposed 
 wall surface and cubic space: 
 
 1 square foot of radiation to 3 square feet of 
 glass. 
 
 1 square foot of radiation to 10 square feet of 
 wall exposed. 
 
40 STEAM BOILERS ■ 
 
 1 square foot of radiation to 150 cubic feet of 
 fopace. 
 
 For each degree of temperature above or below 
 zero, deduct from or add to 1^/^ per cent of the 
 radiation given by the above rule. 
 
 Example: Required the number of square feet 
 of direct radiation for a room 10x10x10 feet, hav- 
 ing two exposed sides and two windows 2^x6 
 feet. 
 
 Answer: 
 
 3=10 sq. ft. 
 10=20 " " 
 
 Glass suTface= 30 sq. ft. 
 Exposed walls^ 200 " " - 
 
 Cubic space=l,000 cu. ''^150^ 6.6/' " 
 Total direct radiation=36.6 sq. ft. 
 
 Example: Required the number of square feet 
 of direct radiation for the same room, with one ex- 
 posed side and one window 2V2x6 feet : 
 
 Answer: 
 
 Glass surface= 15 sq. ft.- 
 
 Exposed wallss= 100 " " -^ 10=10 
 
 Cubic spacei=l,000 cu. 
 
 3= 5 sq. ft. 
 
 -150= 6.6 
 
 Total direct radiation^21.6 sq. ft. 
 
 When indirect radiation is used, 50 per cent 
 ehould be added to the above figures. 
 
 Reducing Size of Steam Mains. The proper 
 reductions in the size of pipe depend on the char- 
 acter of the work to which the pipe is put. 
 
 It is customary; to rduce the size of mains by 
 
Steam boil:eiis 
 
 41 
 
 using reducing fittings tapped eccentric, or by- 
 using a reducing coupling tapped eccentric, the 
 idea being to have a continuous fall of pipe with- 
 out the formation of traps or obstructions for hold- 
 ing water at the points where reductions are made. 
 It is customary to reduce the size of pipes for 
 risers or radiator connections by using a reducing 
 ell on the branch under the floor. 
 
 Eccentric fittings are so tapped as to bring the 
 bottoms of the openings of different sizes at the 
 same level on the fitting. When these fittings are 
 used they allow a continuous fall of pipe without 
 forming pockets for holding water at the points 
 where reduction in size is made. This is of mar 
 terial benefit to a heating system. 
 
 Steam Mains. The proper size of steam mains 
 for one and two-pipe systems are given in the ac- 
 companying tables: 
 
 Proper Size of Steam Mains: 
 
 ONE PIPE SYSTEM 
 
 Pipe Size in 
 Inches 
 
 2 
 
 2'A 
 
 3 3A 
 
 i 
 
 , iH 
 
 s 
 
 6 
 
 Sq. feet of 
 Radiation 
 
 200 
 
 to 
 
 350 
 
 350 
 to- 
 500 
 
 500 750 
 to to 
 750 1000 
 
 1000 
 
 to 
 
 1-500 
 
 1500 
 
 to 
 
 1800 
 
 1800 
 
 to 
 
 2200 
 
 2200 
 
 to 
 3000 
 
 TWO PIPE SYSTEM | 
 
 Pipe Size in 
 Inehes 
 
 2 
 
 2'A 
 
 ^ 
 
 S'A 
 
 4 
 
 4M 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 Sq. feet of 
 Radiation 
 
 500 
 
 750 
 
 1000 
 
 1500 
 
 2000.; 
 
 ,2500 
 
 8000 
 
 4000 
 
RADIATION. 
 
 Direct Radiation. This consists of a heating 
 surface in the form of a radiator or coil, which is 
 placed directly in the room to be heated. 
 
 Indirect Radiation. Eadiators in the room to 
 be heated on the first or second floor are located 
 in the cellar or basement, usually directly under 
 the rooms to be heated. There is placed in the 
 floor of the room to be heated, or in the side wall 
 above. the baseboard, a register and connection is 
 made between this register and the radiator in 
 the basement by means of tin or sheet iron pipe, 
 for conveying the heated air into the room. 
 
 The indirect radiator is placed in a chamber 
 into which fresh air is conveyed from outside, and 
 to which the hot air flue to the register is con- 
 nected. 
 
 The distance from the top of the radiator to 
 the ceiling of "the casing should be from 10 to 12 
 inches and from the bottom of the radiator to the 
 bottom of the casing from 6 to 8 inches. The di- 
 mensions of the cold air inlet should be l^/^ square 
 inches for each square foot of indirect radiation. 
 The warm air outlet should be 2 square inches for 
 each square foot of indirect radiation, which would 
 be for a radiator containing 100 square feet of 
 
 42 
 
RADIATION 43 
 
 radiation, 200 square inches of cross sectional area, 
 or a duct 10x20 inches. The dimensions of the 
 warm air register should be 50 per cent larger 
 than those of the warm "air duct, which allows for 
 the contracted area caused by the register face. A 
 warm air duet having 200 square inches of cross 
 sectional area should have a register approxi- 
 mating 300 square inches. 
 
 Direct-Indirect Radiation. This system serves 
 a double purpose, that of Direct Radiation and 
 Ventilation, and is also placed in the room to be > 
 heated under windows, or close to the exposed 
 walls. 
 
 The lower front part of the radiator is encased, 
 having an opening at the bottom or back of the 
 base for the introduction of cold air by means of a 
 duct through the outside wall of the building. 
 
 On account of the cooling effect of the outside 
 air passage between the coils of the radiator, in- 
 creased heating surface to the amount of 33 1/3 
 per cent must be added toi make it equivalent to 
 direct radiation. ^ 
 
 This system, of- radiation is seldom used in the 
 heating of houses, being more necessary where 
 ventilation is required in the heating of public 
 buildings and schools. 
 
 Instead of placing all of the radiators at one 
 point, it is well to divide it into two or more radi- 
 ators, according to the size of the room. As heat- 
 ing with steam or hot water is accomplished by the 
 
44 , RADIATION 
 
 turning or circulation of the air in the room, it is 
 well to divide and place the radiation at the most 
 exposed points, in order to better heat the room. 
 
 In small houses a. radiator placed in the lower 
 hall, if suflBciently large, will heat the hall above, 
 but in large buildings, where the hall space is 
 large, the upper halls should have radiators placed 
 in them. 
 
 A properly installed steam heating plant should 
 be noiseless in operation and heat the rooms to 70 
 degrees in zero weathor on from 2 to 3 pounds 
 steam pressure, and show a circulation of steam 
 throughout the system on a pressure of 1 pound, as 
 indicated by the steam gauge. 
 
 A noiseless circulation in all radiators on a 
 pound of steam or less indicates that the pipe sys- 
 tem is of proper size and properly pitdied, thereby 
 avoiding low places, causing water pockets or 
 traps. The proper heating of the rooms in which 
 the radiation is placed on from 1 to 3 pounds steam 
 pressure indicates that the heating surface or 
 radiation is sufficient. 
 
 Radiators. Heating surfaces are divided into 
 three classes: Direct radiation. Indirect radia- 
 tion and Direct-indirect radiation. , 
 
 Direct radiation covers all radiators placed 
 within a room or building to warm the air, and 
 are not connected with a system of ventilation. 
 
 The best place within a room to place a single 
 radiator, is where the air is CQoled, before or under 
 
RADIATION 45 
 
 the windows, or on the oaitside walls. When the 
 xadiator is. of vertical tube, or a short coil, which 
 can occupy only the space under one window, and 
 when, as often occurs, there are three windows, 
 the riser should be so placed as to bring the line 
 of radiators in front of, and under the windows 
 where they will do the most good. When a small 
 extra cost is not considered, to use two radiators 
 and place one in front of each of the extreme win- 
 dows. 
 
 When the room is large and has many windows, 
 the heating surface, when composed of radiators^ 
 should be divided into as many units as possible. 
 
 Indirect radiation embraces all heating surfaces 
 placed outside the rooms to be heated, and can 
 only be used in connection with some system of 
 ventilation. 
 
 All the heating surface is placed in a chamber, 
 and the warmed air distributed through air ducts. 
 
 Figs. 18, 19 and 20 show two, three and four 
 column forms of direct radiators, and Fig. 21 a 
 two-piece hall or window direct radiator. 
 
 The indirect radiator is usually boxed, either in 
 wood lined with tin, or in galvanized iron. Thfe 
 former is best when the basement is to be kept 
 cool, as there is a greater loss by radiation through 
 metal cases, otherwise the sheet metal is the best, 
 as it will not crack. 
 
 Indirect radiators are usually hung from the 
 ceiling in the basement under the rooms they are 
 
46 
 
 EADIATION 
 
 intended to heat. A cold air duct is carried from 
 an opening in tlie outside wall to the stack box. 
 
 Pig. 18. 
 
 This duct must be provided with a damper, and its 
 inlet covered on the face of the outside of the wall 
 with a wire screen of small mesh. 
 
RADIATION 
 
 V 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
ih 
 
 RADIATION 
 
 Tlie box inclosing tlie radiator slio-wn in Figs. 
 22 and 23 is made of wood lined witli bright tin 
 about half-way down. The sides of the box should 
 
 almost touch the hubs of the radiator on both ends, 
 so that the cold air coming in through the duct 
 will surely find its way up between the sections of 
 the radiator, and not around the ends of it. 
 
EADIATION 
 
 49 
 
 8'lS. 21. 
 
 Fic n. 
 
50 
 
 RADIATION 
 
 rig. 23. 
 
RADIATION 
 
 51 
 
 The radiator is shown connected for a two-pipe 
 steam system. 
 
 ,The cold air duct is provided with a ^lide, so 
 that the air may be shut off when it is not wanted^ 
 or when the radiator is turned off. The radiator 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 should be so hung in the box that the space above 
 it is about one-third more than the space below; 
 this'provides for the expansion of the air after it 
 has been warmed by contact with the radiator. 
 
 Brackets for supporting the hall or window 
 types of direct radiator are shown in Fig. 24. 
 
52 
 
 RADIATION 
 
 A direct-indirect form of radiator is illustrated 
 in Fig. 25, in which the air is taken from the out- 
 side of the room to be heated and passes up be^ 
 tween the sections of the radiator as shown, the 
 front of the radiator being encased- 
 
 Vlg. 25. 
 
RADIATION 
 
 53 
 
 r 
 
 rwo Column Radiator foe Steam 
 
 OR Hot 
 
 
 
 Water 
 
 Heating. 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 Sec- 
 tions. 
 
 Length 
 
 in 
 Inches. 
 
 SQUARE FEET OF HEATING SURFACE. 
 
 45 
 Inches 
 High. 
 
 38 
 Inches 
 High. 
 
 82 
 Inches 
 High. 
 
 26 
 Inches 
 High. 
 
 23 
 Inches 
 High. 
 
 20 
 Inches 
 High. 
 
 2^ 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 61 
 
 55- 
 
 AX 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 7X 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 135 
 
 10! 
 
 9X 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 12X 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 16f 
 
 13,1 
 
 11% 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 17X 
 
 35 
 
 28 
 
 23J 
 
 181 
 
 16X 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 32 
 
 261 
 
 215 
 
 18X 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 22X 
 
 45 
 
 86 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 21 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 25 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 33^ 
 
 261 
 
 23X 
 
 20 
 
 H 
 
 27X 
 
 55 
 
 44 
 
 361 
 
 29^ 
 
 25X 
 
 22- 
 
 12 
 
 30 
 
 60 
 
 48 
 
 40 
 
 32 
 
 28 
 
 24 
 
 13 
 
 32X 
 
 65 
 
 52 
 
 43^ 
 
 341 
 
 30X 
 
 26 
 
 14 
 
 55 
 
 70 
 
 56 
 
 461 
 
 sn 
 
 32X 
 
 28 
 
 15 
 
 37X 
 
 75 
 
 60 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 16 
 
 40 
 
 80 
 
 64 
 
 53^ 
 
 42f 
 
 37X 
 
 32 
 
 17 
 
 42X 
 
 85 
 
 68 
 
 561 
 
 45^ 
 
 39X 
 
 34 
 
 18 
 
 45 
 
 90 
 
 72 
 
 60 
 
 48 
 
 42 
 
 36 
 
 19 
 
 47X 
 
 95 
 
 76 
 
 63i 
 
 501 
 
 44X 
 
 38 
 
 20 
 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 80 
 
 661 
 
 53i 
 
 46X 
 
 40 
 
u 
 
 RADIATION 
 
 Theee-Coltjmn Radiator for Steam or Hot 
 Water HEATiira. 
 
 Number of 
 Sections. 
 
 • 
 
 Length in 
 Inches. 
 
 S9UARE FEET OP HEATING SURFACE. 
 
 39 
 Inches 
 High. 
 
 33 
 
 Inches. 
 High. 
 
 27 
 Inches 
 High. 
 
 21 
 Inches 
 High. 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 10 1-2 
 
 8 1-2 
 
 61-2 
 
 3 
 
 7 1-2 
 
 18 
 
 15 3-4 
 
 12 3-4 
 
 9 3-4 
 
 ' 4 
 
 10 
 
 24 
 
 21 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 12 1-2 
 
 30 
 
 26 1-4 
 
 21 1-4 
 
 16 1-4 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 36 
 
 311-2 
 
 25 1-2 
 
 19 1-2 
 
 7 
 
 17 l-2_ 
 
 42 
 
 36 3-4 
 
 29 3-8 
 
 22 3-4 
 
 8 
 
 ■20 
 
 48 
 
 42 
 
 34 
 
 26 
 
 9 
 
 22 1-2 
 
 54 
 
 47 1-4 
 
 38 1-4 
 
 29 1-4 
 
 10 
 
 25 
 
 60 
 
 52 1-2 
 
 42 1-2 
 
 32 1-2 
 
 11 
 
 27 1-2 
 
 66 
 
 57 3-4 
 
 46 3-4 
 
 35 3-4 
 
 12 
 
 30 
 
 72 
 
 63 
 
 51 
 
 39 
 
 13 
 
 32 1-2 
 
 78 
 
 68 1-4 
 
 55 1-4 
 
 42 1-4 
 
 14 
 
 35 
 
 84 
 
 73 1-2 
 
 59 1-2 
 
 45 1-2 
 
 15 
 
 37 1-2 
 
 90 
 
 78 3-4 
 
 63 3-4 
 
 48 3-4 
 
 16 
 
 40 
 
 96 
 
 84 
 
 68 
 
 52 
 
 17 
 
 42 1-2 
 
 102 
 
 89 1-4 
 
 72 1-4 
 
 55 1-4 
 
 18 
 
 45 
 
 108 
 
 94 1-2 
 
 76 1-2 
 
 58 1-2 
 
 19 
 
 471-2 
 
 114 
 
 99 3-4 
 
 80 3-4 
 
 613-4 
 
 20 
 
 50 
 
 120 
 
 105 
 
 85 
 
 65 
 
RADIATION 
 
 65 
 
 • Four-Column Eadiatoe for Steam 
 
 OR Hot 
 
 
 
 
 Water Heating. 
 
 
 
 Number 
 
 ol 
 Sections. 
 
 Length 
 
 in 
 Inches. 
 
 SQUARE FEET OF HEATING SURFACE. 1 
 
 42 1-2 
 Inches 
 High. 
 
 38 1-2 
 Inches 
 High. 
 
 32 1-2 
 Inches 
 High. 
 
 26 1-2 
 Inches 
 High. 
 
 20 1-2 
 Inches 
 High. 
 
 2 
 
 8 1-2 
 
 19 1-3 
 
 16 
 
 ' 13 1-3 
 
 10 2-3 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 12 1-2 
 
 29 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 16 1-2 
 
 38 2-3 
 
 32 
 
 26 2-3 
 
 21 1-3 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 20 3-4 
 
 48 1-3 
 
 40 
 
 33 1-3 
 
 26 2-3 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 24 3-4 
 
 58 
 
 48 
 
 40 
 
 32 , 
 
 24 
 
 7 
 
 28 3-4 
 
 G7 3-3 
 
 56 
 
 46 2-3 
 
 37 1-3 
 
 28 
 
 8 
 
 32 3-4 
 
 77 1-3 
 
 64 
 
 53 1-3 
 
 42 2-3 
 
 32 
 
 9 
 
 87 
 
 87 
 
 72 
 
 60 
 
 48 
 
 36 
 
 10 
 
 41 
 
 96 2-3 
 
 80 
 
 66 2-3 
 
 53 1-3 
 
 40 
 
 11 
 
 45 
 
 106 1-3 
 
 88 
 
 73 1-3 
 
 58 2-3 
 
 44 
 
 12 
 
 49 
 
 116 
 
 96 
 
 80 
 
 64 
 
 48 
 
 13 . 
 
 53 . 
 
 125 2-3 
 
 104 
 
 86 2-3 
 
 69 1-3 
 
 52 
 
 14 
 
 57 1-2 
 
 135 1-3 
 
 112 
 
 93 1-3 
 
 74 2-3 
 
 56 
 
 15 
 
 611-2 
 
 145 
 
 120 
 
 100 
 
 80 
 
 60 
 
 16^ 
 
 65 1-2 
 
 154 2-3 
 
 128 
 
 106 2-3 
 
 85 1-3 
 
 64 
 
 17 
 
 69 1-2 
 
 164 1-3 
 
 136 
 
 113 1-3 
 
 90 2-3 
 
 68 
 
 18 
 
 73 3-4 
 
 172 
 
 144 
 
 120 
 
 96 
 
 72 
 
 19 
 
 77 3-4 
 
 183 2-3 
 
 152 
 
 126 2-3 
 
 101 1-3 
 
 76 
 
 20 
 
 82 
 
 193 1-3 
 
 160 
 
 133 1-3 
 
 106 2-3 
 
 80 
 
56 
 
 RADIATION 
 
 Radiator Comiections. Methods of connecting 
 radiators used in steam heating plants are shown 
 in Figs, 26 and 27. 
 
 A A A A A A A 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 They should be made in such a manner as to 
 allow for expansion and contraction ia the branch 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 supply to the radiator. This provision is shown 
 in the illustrations of radiator connections shown 
 in Figs. 26 and 27. 
 
RADIATION 
 
 57 
 
 When the. overhead system is used, the radiators 
 may be fed at the top of one end, and the return 
 taken out of the bottom of the same or opposite 
 end. 
 
 The circulation of water in either case is posi- 
 tive. 
 
 All radiator connections should be of sufficient 
 area tO' give the best results. 
 
 Pipe Tap for Radiator Connections 
 
 ONE PIPE SYSTEM ^ 
 
 Square Feet of Radiation 
 
 Size of Pipe Tap in Inches 
 
 20 
 
 25 to 50 
 50 to 75 
 75 to 100 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 TWO PIPE SYSTEM— TWO TAPPINGS 
 
 20 
 
 25 to 60 
 50 to 75 
 75 to 150 
 
 Ix^ 
 IXxl 
 l^xlX 
 
 Air Valves. Automatic air valves have almost 
 entirely superseded the use of hand operated air 
 cocks. They are made with a composition disc, 
 which is arranged to close the valve as soon as the 
 hot steam comes in contact with it. They are pro- 
 
58 
 
 RADIATION 
 
 vided with a screw attachment by which, the valve 
 opening can be adjusted' after the valves are in 
 place. The only disadvantage of the automatic air 
 valve is that when steam is turned on, the entire 
 radiator becomes heated. By means of the plain 
 air cock the^ amount of the radiator heated can be 
 regulatedy especially when connected on a one^pipe 
 system. The automatic air valve' takes the circu- 
 lation in the radiator entirely out of the hands of 
 persons who are not acquainted with their prin- 
 ciples, and in the case of indirect radiators is an 
 absolute necess^ity. 
 
 Fig. 28. 
 
 Fig. 28 shows three forms of automatic air 
 valves, and Figs. 29 and 30 four styles of hand 
 operated air cocks. 
 
 Valves. Straightaway valves, commonly called 
 quiek-opening radiator valves, are best adapted 
 to this work. Only one valve is used on a hot 
 water radiator which is located in the supply pipe, 
 as close to th& radiator as possible. One valve is 
 
RADIATION 
 
 59 
 
 used on a one-pipe steam system, and two on the 
 two-pipe system. Valves should be used which. 
 have removable discs, such as the Jenkins disc 
 valve. On one-pipe work the radiator valve should 
 be placed on the flow pipe, and on two'-pipework 
 on both flow and return pipes. To shut off a steam 
 radiator the valve on the return should be closed 
 
 «B 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 first, the supply valv^ last, and in all cases both 
 valves should be entirely closed or entirely open. 
 To turn on a steam radiator the supply valve 
 should be opened first, then the valve on the re- 
 turn. The valves should be connected to close 
 against the steam pressure, in order that the stuff- 
 ing boxes may be packed or repacked while the 
 
60 
 
 RADIATION 
 
 heating system is in operation. Gate valves sliotild 
 be used in the mains and risers for the reason that 
 they have a full opening and do not impede the 
 circulation. 
 
 Radiator Valves. The most commonly used 
 form of radiator valve is the angle valve, with or 
 without union connection, and with composition 
 
 Pig. 30. 
 
 disc, wood wheel, rough body and nickel trim- 
 mings, as shown in Figs. 31 and 32. 
 
 Gate valves as shown in Fig. 33 are sometimes 
 used when the radiator connections require them, 
 especially on a down or overhead system of piping. 
 
 Angle valves with lock and shield as illustrated 
 in Fig. 34 are much used in public buildings. 
 
RADIATION 
 
 61 
 
 Globe valves if used in a steam heating system 
 restrict tlie flow of both steam and condensed 
 water. Their use should be avoided if possible. 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 Figs. 35 and 36 show vertical cross-section and 
 outside views of a globe valve. 
 
 Swing check valves should only be used on the 
 main section of a two-pipe system, clc^e to the 
 boiler, or when the return is imderground, to pre- 
 
62 EADIATION 
 
 vent the boiler from bftang emptied from a leak or 
 break in the return pipe. 
 
 An outside view and a vertical cross-section of 
 a swing-check valve are shown in Fig. 37. 
 
 Comer raHiator valves are generally, used when 
 
 Flgf. 32. 
 
 the radiator connections are above the floor line. 
 Eight and left-hand comer valves are shown in 
 Fig. 38. 
 
 A brass plug-cock with square or flat head, as 
 sh?>wn in Fig. 39, for blowing off the boiler, should 
 always be installed either in the return pipe near 
 
RADIATION 
 
 63 
 
 the boiler or in the boiler itself. It should not be 
 directly connected with a pipe to the sewer, the 
 and of the pipe should be in plain sight, so that 
 
 Pig. 33. 
 
 any leakage due to not closing the cock properly 
 may be noticed. 
 
 Unsteady Water Line in Boiler. This trouble 
 often results from grease in the boiler, the grease 
 usually being present by reason of its use in the 
 
64 
 
 EADIATION 
 
 construction of tlie piping and manufacture of the 
 boiler and radiators. The grease rests on the sur- 
 
 Flg. 34. 
 
 face of the water in the boiler, forming a scum, and 
 when this occnrs, the bubbles of air formed by the 
 boiling water cannot "reach the surface of the water 
 
RADIATION 65 
 
 and burst off intoi steam. This causes a disturb- 
 ance in the boiler, the bubbles seeking for an out- 
 let naturally finding it in the connection to the 
 water column, or gathering in such force under a 
 
 Fig. 35. 
 
 portion of the scum, that they break together, and 
 with such force as to force water into the steam 
 main, often causing a vacuum wh^ch will empty 
 the water glass and water "column connections en- 
 tirely. 
 
66 
 
 RADIATION 
 
 Blow the boiler off under pressure. This will 
 usually remove most of the grease, if the unsteady 
 line is due to grease. It may be necessary to repeat 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 this operation several, times, at intervals of a few 
 days, before the boiler is entirely clean. If the 
 cause be due to the construction of the boiler, it 
 may be necessary to use an equalizing pipe, that 
 is, to make a direct connection from an opening in 
 
RADIATION 
 
 67 
 
 the top of the boiler to a return opening in the bot- 
 tom of the boiler. 
 
 , Starting a Steam Heating Plant. After all the 
 connections are made, pack the radiator valves and 
 attach the air valves. Fill the boiler to the water 
 line and start the fire, allowing the entire system 
 to fill with steam by opening all the valves. When 
 the steam has blown freely out of all air valves, 
 
 Pig. 37. 
 
 close the same, and if they are automatic adjust 
 and regulate them, which may have to be repeated 
 a number of times before they are in good \^orking 
 order. Carry the pressure of steam high enough 
 so that the safety valve will blow off from 5 to 10 
 pounds. Inspect every portion of the system care- 
 fully, and if any leaks are found note the same and 
 when th^ steam is down make the necessary re- 
 
68 
 
 KADIATION 
 
 pairs. After the system is found tight, keep the 
 boiler under fire several days, and then blow it off 
 according to the following directions: 
 Close the main steam and return valves, or alL 
 
 Fig. 38. 
 
 radiator valves. Make a good fire and get up a 
 pressure of at least ten pounds. Open the blow-off 
 valve, being careful that just enough fire is car- 
 ried to maintain a pressure until the last gallon of 
 water is blown out. Allow the fire to go out. Open 
 
RADIATION 
 
 69 
 
 the fire and flue doors, and in about half an hour, 
 close the blow-off valve, and refill boiler slowly to 
 the" water line, then open all radiator and main 
 valves; and start the fire. 
 
 The boiler should be blown off within a week 
 after it is installed and in operation. 
 
 ww% 
 
 Pig. 39. 
 
 Steam Heating Plant. Figs. 40, 41 and 42 show 
 the plans for a three-story; and basement apartment 
 building equipped with a one-pipe return system. 
 The boiler, steam mains, piping to radiators and 
 radiators are all plainly shown. 
 
70 
 
 RADIATION 
 
 Fig. 40. Basement. 
 
RADlATlO>f 
 
 n 
 
 FlK.41. FiiBtStoiT. 
 
ii 
 
 RADIATION 
 
 i^ -^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 Hg, 42. SscoDd and Tliird Stoi>. 
 
RADIATION 
 
 73 
 
 Tempeeatube of Steam at Varying Pressuees, 
 
 IN Deqeees Fahrenheit. 
 
 Gauge Pressure. 
 
 Absolute 
 ' Pressure. 
 
 Temperature in 
 Degs. Fahrenheit. 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 212 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 228 
 
 10 
 
 25 
 
 240 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 250 
 
 20 
 
 35 
 
 259 
 
 25 
 
 40 
 
 267 
 
 30 
 
 45 
 
 274 
 
 35 
 
 '50 
 
 281 
 
 40 
 
 55 
 
 287 
 
 45 
 
 60' 
 
 292 
 
 50 
 
 65 
 
 298 
 
 55 
 
 70 
 
 302 
 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 307 
 
 68 
 
 80 
 
 312 
 
 70 
 
 85 
 
 316 
 
 75 
 
 90 
 
 320 
 
 80 
 
 95 
 
 324 
 
 85 
 
 100 
 
 327 
 
 90 
 
 105 
 
 331 
 
 95 
 
 110 
 
 334 
 
 100 
 
 115 
 
 338 
 
 110 
 
 125 
 
 344 
 
 120 
 
 135 
 
 350 
 
 130 
 
 145 
 
 355 
 
 140 
 
 155 
 
 361 
 
 150 
 
 165 
 
 366 
 
74 RADIATION 
 
 Estimating. Make a careful survey of the loca- 
 tion, construction and exposure of the huilding to 
 be heated, and take accurate measurements of the 
 size of the glass surface and exposed walls of the 
 rooms in which the radiators are to be placed. 
 
 Having ascertained the total amount of radia- 
 tion, select a boiler having a rated capacity of 50 
 per cent in excess of the total radiation, which for 
 the average system will allow for the duty imposed 
 by the mains and provide a margin of 20 per cent. 
 
 Make a plan of the basement to scale, locate the 
 bo0er, and lay out the pipe system, putting down 
 the size of the mains and the branches. 
 
 From the plan obtain the number of lineal feet 
 of each size of pipe, including the risers, also the 
 number and size of all fittings. 
 
 Allow one air valve for each radiator, and one 
 for the end of the steam main. 
 
 The number and size of the floor and ceiling 
 plates may be counted from the number and "size 
 of risers that will pass through the floors and the 
 ceilings. ' ' 
 
 The length of pipe covering may be obtained 
 from the size and number of lineal feet of pipe in 
 the mains. 
 
SPECIFICATION AND CONTRACT FOU A 
 STEAM HEATIN& PLANT. 
 
 We hereby agree to furnish and install in your 
 
 house, street, a Steam Heating 
 
 Plant, under the conditions, and for the price here- 
 inafter named, and in accordance with the follow- 
 ing specifications: 
 
 Boilers. Furnish and set up in basement one 
 
 No. steam boiler, having a rated capacity of 
 
 square feet, and provide same with a set of 
 
 fire and cleaning tools. 
 
 Foundation. The Oiwner is to provide a suitable 
 brick or concrete foundation for the boiler. 
 
 Smoke Pipe. Connect the smoke collar of the 
 boiler to the chimney flue by a ... .-inch galvan- 
 ized iron smoke pipe, provided with a choke 
 damper. 
 
 Chimney. The owner is to provide a chimney 
 flue of sufficient size and height to secure a proper 
 draught. 
 
 Fittings. The steam main, risers and branches 
 to the radiators to be of ample areas and properly 
 graded and supported in basement by neat, strong 
 hangers, secured to ceiling joists. All fittings to 
 be of best grade cast iron, and reducing fittings to 
 be used, not bushings. 
 
 75 
 
76 RADIATION 
 
 F. & C. Plates. Where risers and radiator con- 
 nections pass througli floors and ceilings, protect 
 the openings with neat bronzed or nickel-plated 
 floor and ceiling plates. 
 
 Valves. Each radiator is to be furnished with 
 a nickel-plated wood-wheel Disc Radiator Valve. 
 
 Air Vents. Each radiator to be provided with 
 an automatic air valve. 
 
HOT WATER HEATING. 
 
 The open taut, and the closed tank or pressure 
 systems are in general use. 
 
 The open tank system is preferable to the closed 
 tank system, as it may be more easily and safely 
 operated. 
 
 In the open tank system a vent pipe is carried 
 from the expansion tank through the roof or side 
 of the building open to the atmosphere. The 
 closed tank system is not vented, and is therefore 
 under pressure and requires a safety valve. 
 
 In the closed tank system the water may be 
 heated to a temperature above 212 degrees, the 
 boiling point of the open tank system. . 
 
 A safety valve should be placed on the expansion 
 tank, with a pipe running from the open side of the 
 valve to a sink or drain, in order that when suffi- 
 cient pressure is raised to operate the valve, any 
 overflow of water may be carried off without in- 
 jury to the building. 
 
 Ten pounds is the proper pressure at which the 
 safety valve should work on the closed tank sys- 
 tem. I 
 
 The piping for the closed tank or high pressure 
 system may be somewhat smaller than for the open 
 tank or low. pressure system, but the piping should 
 
 77 
 
78 HOT WATER HEATING 
 
 be run and the connections taken off in the same 
 manner for eacli system. 
 
 The mains should be pitched 1 inch for each 10 
 feet of length. 
 
 The mains in a hot water system should not be 
 reduced too rapidly as branches are taken off, as 
 the greater amount of friction in the smaller sizes 
 of pipe will cause trouble. 
 
 Radiators may be heated by hot water on the 
 same level as the, boiler, or below it. 
 
 Under these conditions the cii"culation results 
 from the weight of water above the low radiators. 
 This depends on the ta'^t that a column of water 
 2.32 feet in height will produce about 1 pound of 
 pressure. 
 
 Tliis may be done by carrying the flow pipe up 
 so as to get a. pressure from the wc'orht of water 
 above, to produce circulation. 
 
 A hot water system should be filled from the 
 lowest point if possible, for the reason that the 
 water will drive the air out of the system as it 
 rises. 
 
 The air vents should all be opened to allow the 
 air to escape, being closed as each radiator is com- 
 pletely filled with water. 
 
 Round Water Heaters. The heater shown 
 in Fig; 43 is entirely of cast iron construc- 
 tion, so arranged as to amply provide 
 for expansion and contraction. The only 
 joints or connections are formed of heavy 
 
HOT WATER HEATING 
 
 79 
 
 cast iron threaded nipples, making a per- 
 fect joint, with no possibility of leaks from any 
 cause whatsoever and absolute freedom from all 
 
 Fig. 43. 
 
 necessity of packing of any kind. The general 
 construction of water heaters is as follows: 
 
 The circular base, or ashpit, which also fomis 
 the support for the grate, is substantially made of 
 
80 
 
 HOT "WATER HEATING 
 
 Fig. 44. 
 
HOT WATER HEATING 81 
 
 cast iron and gives a safe depth for accumulation 
 of ashes. " Eesting on this is the firepot section, 
 shown in Fig. 44. This section, being one com- 
 plete casting in itself, and tested under heavy 
 pressure before leaving the shop, is abso- 
 lutely free from mechanical imperfections. In 
 the center of the top of this section is a large 
 opening, threaded to receive a nipple, which con- 
 nects it with a closed section, shown in the right 
 hand upper view. Fig. 44. This first, or interme- 
 diate section, is of less diameter than the top of 
 the firepot section. On top of this closed, or in- 
 termediate section and attached to it in the same 
 manner, as described for the connection of the 
 firepot, there is an open section shown in the right 
 hand upper -view. Fig. 44, which is of the same 
 diqmeter as the top of the firepot and entirely fills 
 the jacket casings hereinafter described. On top 
 of this is placed another closed section, and on 
 top of this again comes the top section, which is 
 eitheB the steam dome, forming the steam boiler, 
 or the upper water section, forming the water 
 heater, all connected together in the nianner de- 
 scribed, with screw nipples, the top section, or 
 dome, having the necessary tappings for the sup- 
 ply outlets for steam, or the flow outlets for 
 water. 
 
 Casings. Extending from the outer edge of the 
 top of the firepot section to the top of the upper 
 section, or dome, there are cast iron casings, close- 
 
82 HOT WATER HEATING 
 
 ly fitted joints. These casings are made in seg- 
 ments and are interchangeable and easily applied, 
 with no possibility of rusting, wearing out or 
 breaking. They form in , themselves a, perfect 
 chamber for the retention of products of combus- 
 tion, compelling these to follow such channels as 
 will give best results. 
 
 , Firepot. The firepot is circular in form, entire- 
 ly surrounded by water, is made in one perfect 
 casting, and frse from, any possible chance of 
 leakages. The inner surface of the firepot has 
 projecting' into it all around the sides a multipli- 
 city of iron points, just long enough to prevent 
 the water contract from chilling the fire and mak- 
 ing it possible to secure perfect combustion and a 
 uniform fire around the edges as well as in the 
 center. The firepots are of sufficient depth to in- 
 sure a deep, slow fire, forming the best and most 
 economical heat-producing proposition for low 
 pressure heating. 
 
 Grate. The grate is of the triangular form and 
 is at all times easily operated, and in its opera- 
 tion it pulverizes all clinkers before depositing 
 in ash pit. 
 
 On all the larger size boilers the grates are fit- 
 ted with a heavy bearing bar in the center, thus 
 prolonging the life of the grate bars, as it pre- 
 vents their waiting. 
 
 Simplicity of the Grates. The construction of 
 the grate is exceedingly simple, and admits of 
 
HOT WATER HEATING 
 
 83 
 
 any one bar of the whole grate being changed 
 without the assistance of skilled labor. 
 
 Fig. 45 shows vertical cross-section of a steam 
 boiler. 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 
 Rectangular Sectional Heaters. The vertical 
 sectional type of steam heaters has been on the 
 market and in all forms for a number of years. 
 There are no new ideas that can be' safely exploit- 
 
84 
 
 HOT WATER HEATING 
 
 ed in this line. The demand is for a simple, prac- 
 tical, easily handled device that will absolutely 
 endure the work appropriated for it. 
 The heater shown in Fig. 46 is strong, of good 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 
 appearance, thoroughly accessible for cleaning, 
 and, so far as can be determined from exterior ap- 
 pearances, a most satisfactory heater. The good 
 opinion already formed of the heater is further 
 
HOT WATER HEATING 
 
 85 
 
 strengthened by reference to views of the inter- 
 mediate and rear sections shown in Fig. 47 and 
 48. By reference to these cuts it will'be seen that 
 every possible advantage is taken of the fire sur- 
 face, it being the belief that, unless great good is 
 
 Pig. 47. 
 
 accomplished in direct contact with the fire, there 
 will be but little assistance obtained from the 
 flues. 
 
 Firepots. Firepots of this type of heaters are 
 deep, to give a compact body of fire, and, besides, 
 
86 
 
 HOT WATEB HEATING 
 
 are covered with numbers of iron projections to 
 prevent chilling contact of the fire with the ex- 
 posed water surface and yet secure such perfect 
 combustion as will quickly impart to the water 
 the heat froln the fuel and permit of maintaining 
 at all times a clear, even fire in every portion of 
 the firepot. 
 
 fae>i!>tt.in>-«B^.V,..,j.,iai,a^;^. 
 
 ^-1% 'II m ' m^^ 
 
 uriiii 
 
 
 ^?l 
 
 
 Fig. 48. 
 
 Heater Capacity. The capacity of the heater 
 should be at least 20 per cent in excess of the total 
 duty imposed upon it by the radiation and pipe 
 system. 
 
HOT WATER HEATINp 87 
 
 Example: Let 600 square feet equal the" total 
 radiation, plus 25 per cent for the surface of the 
 mains, plus 20 per cent excess heater capacity, 
 which is 900 square feet, the capacity of the boiler 
 required. The same result may be arrived at by 
 adding 50 per cent to the radiation. 
 
 When direct-indirect radiation is used, an ad- 
 ditional 33 1/3 per cent must be allowed, and 
 when indirect radiation is used, add 50 per cent. 
 
 Example: 
 
 Total direct radiation=450 sq. ft. 
 
 One direct-indirect radiator^= 60 " 
 
 One indirect radiatoi^=190 " 
 
 600 " 
 25 per cent for surface of main&=112.5 " 
 33 1/3 per cent on direct-indirect= 20 ' ' 
 50 per cent on indirect radiatori= 45 " 
 
 777.5 " 
 20 per cent excess capacity=155.5 ' ' 
 
 Heater capacity 933 " 
 
 Thermometers. A thermometer should be at- 
 tached to every water heater as it not only regis- 
 ters the temperature of the water but it indicates 
 to the attendant the required temperature of the 
 water to be maintained for different conditions of 
 the weather. It should be located in the top of the 
 
8S 
 
 HOT WATER HEATING 
 
 heater or in the side near the top so that the closed 
 brass chambers comes in direct contact with the 
 
 Fig. 49. 
 
 water circulation. Thermometers for use with 
 water heaters are shown in Fig. 49. 
 
 Pipe Systems. The quadruple main hot water 
 heating system shown in Fig. 50 when properly 
 
HOT WATER HEATING 
 
 8d 
 
 installed will give very satisfactory results, and 
 on account of the small size of the mains that are 
 required it comes well within the range of the tool 
 equipment of a heating contractor. 
 
 Pig. 50. 
 
 The double main system, as shown in Fig. 51, 
 consists of flow mains starting from points on top 
 of the boiler and running horizontally with a pitch 
 of 1 inch or more in each 10 feet from the boiler. 
 
90 
 
 HOT WATER HEATINd 
 
 - Fig. 51 
 
 This is a system that is very much used and con- 
 sidered by many the best practice to follow. 
 The single pipe overhead or down-feed system 
 
HOT WATER HEATING 
 
 91 
 
 Fig. 52. 
 
9^ HOT WATEH HEATING^ 
 
 is mucli used in large office buildings. As illus- 
 trated in Fig. 52 a single feed or supply pipe runs 
 from the top of the heater to a point some dis- 
 tance above the highest radiator. At this point the 
 down-feed pipe& branch out to the different sets 
 of radiators. The expansion tank is connected to 
 the system by a separate pipe at a point near the 
 heater as shown. A vent pipe is also placed at the 
 top of vertical supply pipe. The expansion tank 
 should always be above the highest line of pipe. 
 
 Heating Surface. To estimate the amount of 
 heating surface required to heat a room with hot 
 water to a temperature of 70 degrees in zero 
 weather, with the water at- a temperature of 180 
 degrees at the heater and under ordinary condi- 
 tions of exposure, the following rule is given, 
 which is for direct radiation, and based upon the 
 glass surface exposed wall surface and cubic space. 
 
 1 square foot of radiation to 1 square foot of 
 glass. 
 
 1 square foot of radiation to 10 square feet of 
 wall exposed. 
 
 1 square foot radiation to 150 cubic feet of 
 spaced. 
 For each degree of temperature above or below 
 zero, deduct from or add to, 1% per cent of the 
 radiation given by this rule. 
 
 Hot Water Mains. The proper size of mains for 
 hot water heating are given in the accompanying 
 table: 
 
HOT WATER HEATING 
 
 93 
 
 Proper Size of Hot Water Maitas. 
 
 Size of Main in Inches. 
 
 Sq. It. Direct Radiation. 
 
 ^% 
 
 175 
 
 2 
 
 300 
 
 2K 
 
 400 
 
 3 
 
 650 
 
 ^y. 
 
 900 
 
 4 
 
 1300 
 
 4K 
 
 1500 
 
 5 
 
 2000 
 
 6 
 
 2700 
 
 7 
 
 4000 
 
 8 
 
 5500 
 
 Radiator Connections. All radiator connections 
 should be of sufficient size to give the best results. 
 
 Tapping of Direct Hot Water Radiators. 
 
 40 
 
 40 to 72 
 
 72 to 100 
 
 100 to 150 
 
 1 X 1 
 
 IXxlX 
 l>^xl>^ 
 3 X 2 
 
 Tapping of Direct Hot Water[Radiators. 
 Two Pipe — Two Tappings. 
 
 20 
 
 20 to 40 
 40 to 80 
 80 to 130 
 
 1 X j( 
 IKxlX 
 
 Example: -Required the number of square feet 
 of direct radiation for a room 10x10x10 feet, hav- 
 ing two exposed sides and two windows 2%x6 
 feet. 
 
94 HOT WATER HEATING 
 
 Answer: 
 
 Glass surface= 30 sq. ft.-^ 1= 30 sq. feet 
 Exposed walls= 200 sq. ft.-^10= 20 " - 
 Cubic space-=l,000 cu. ft.^lO= _6^ ' ' 
 Total direct radiation=56.6 " 
 Example: Required the number of square feet 
 of direct radiation for tbe same room, with one 
 exposed side and one window 2^x6 feet. 
 
 Answer: 
 
 Glassi surface^ ' 15 sq. ft.-^- 1^ 15 sq. feet 
 
 Exposed walls= 100 sq. ft.^ 10= 6.6 " 
 
 Cubic space=l,000 cu. ft.^150^ 6.6 ' ' 
 
 Total direct radiation=31.6 " 
 
 When indirect radiation in used 75 per cent 
 should be added to the above figures. 
 
RADIATION. 
 
 Direct Radiation. This consists of a heating 
 surface in the form of a radiator or coil, which is 
 placed directly in the room to be heated. 
 
 Indirect Radiation. Eadiators in the room to 
 be heated on the first or second floor are located 
 in the cellar or basement, usually directly under 
 the rooms to be heated. There is placed in the 
 floor of the room to be heated, or in the side wall 
 above the baseboard, a register and connection is 
 made between this register and the radiator in 
 the basement by means of tin or sheet iron pipe, 
 for conveying the heated air into the room. 
 
 The indirect radiator is placed in a chamber 
 into which fresh air is conveyed from outside, and 
 to which the hot air flue to the register is con- 
 nected. 
 
 The distance from the top of the radiator to 
 the ceiling of the casing should be from 10 to 12 
 inches and from the bottom of the radiator to the 
 bottom of the casing from 6 to 8 inches. The di- 
 mensions of the cold air inlet should be l^/^ square 
 inches for each square foot of indirect radiation. 
 The warm air outlet should be 2 square inches for 
 each square foot of indirect radiation, which would 
 be for a radiator containing 100 square feet of 
 
 95 
 
96 RADIATION 
 
 radiation, 200 square inches of cross sectional area, 
 or a duct 10x20 inches. The dimensions of the 
 warm air register should be 50 per cent larger 
 than those of the warm air duct, which allows for 
 the contracted area caused by the register face. A 
 warm air duct having 200 square inches of cross 
 sectional area should have a register approxi- 
 mating 300 square inches. 
 
 Direct-Indirect Radiation. This system serves 
 a double purpose, that of Direct Eadiation and 
 Ventilation, and is also placed in the room to be 
 heated under windows, or close to the exposed 
 walls. 
 
 The lower front part of the radiator is encased, 
 having an opening at the bottom or back of the 
 base for the introduction of cold air by means of a 
 duct through the outside wall of the building. 
 
 On account of the cooling effect of the outside 
 air passage between the coils of the radiator, in- 
 creased heating surface to the amount of 33 1/3 
 per cent must be added toi make it equivalent to 
 direct radiation. 
 
 This system, of radiation is seldom used in the 
 heating of houses, being more necessary where 
 ventilation is required in the heating of public 
 buildings and schools. 
 
 Instead of placing all of the radiators at one 
 point, it is well to divide it into two or more radi- 
 ators, according to the size of the room. As heat- 
 ing with steam or hot water is accomplished by the 
 
EADIATION 97 
 
 turning or circulation of the air in the room, it is 
 well to divide and place the radiation at the most 
 exposed points, in order to better heat the room. 
 
 In small houses a radiator placed in the lower 
 hall, if sufficiently large, will heat the hall above, 
 but in large buildings, where the hall space is 
 large, the upper halls should have radiators placed 
 in them. 
 
 Radiators. Heating surfaces are divided into 
 three classes: Direct radiation, Indirect radia- 
 tion and Direct-indirect radiation. 
 
 Direct radiation covers all radiators placed 
 within a room or building to warm the air, and 
 are not connected with a system of ventilation. 
 
 The best place within a room to place a single 
 radiator, is where the air is cooled, before or under 
 the windows, or on the outside walls. When the 
 radiator is of vertical tube, or a short coU, which 
 can occupy only the space under one window, and 
 when, as often occurs, there are three windows, 
 the riser should be so placed as to bring the line 
 of radiators in front of, and under the windows 
 where they will do the most good. When a small 
 extra cost is not considered, to use two radiators 
 and place one in front of each of the extreme win- 
 dows. 
 
 When the room is large and has many windows, 
 the heating surface, when composed of radiators, 
 should be divided into as many units as possible. 
 
 Indirect radiation embraces all heating surfaces 
 
93 
 
 RADIATION 
 
 placed outside the rooms to be heated, and can 
 only be nsed in connection with some system of 
 ventilation. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 All the heating surface is placed in a chamber, 
 
 and the warmed air distributed through air ducts. 
 
 Figs. 53, 54 and 55 show two, three and foirr 
 
RADIATION 
 
 19 
 
 Pig. 54. 
 
100 
 
 RADIATION 
 
 column forms of direct radiators, and Fig. 56 a 
 two-piece liall or window dixect radiator. 
 
 The indirect radiator is usually boxed, either in 
 wood lined with tin, or in galvanized iron. The 
 
 Fig. 65 
 
 former is best when the basement is to be kept 
 cool, as there is a greater loss by radiation through 
 metal cases, othei-wise the sheet metal is the best, 
 as it will not crack. 
 
 Indirect radiators are usually hung from the 
 
RAIDIATION 
 
 101 
 
 ceiling in tlie basement under the rooms they are 
 intended to heat. A cold air duct is carried from 
 
 ■r5.T'f 
 
 Fig. 56. 
 
 an opening in the outside wall to the stack box. 
 This duct must be provided with a dajnper, and its 
 
 me. 57. 
 
 inlet covered on the face of the outside of the wall 
 with a wire screen of small mesh. 
 
102 
 
 RADIATION 
 
 Fig. 68. 
 
fiADlAflON 
 
 103 
 
 The box inclosing the radiator shown in Figs. 
 57 and 58 is made of wood lined with bright tin 
 about half-way down. The sides of the box should 
 almost touch the hubs of the radiator on both ends, 
 
 so that the cold air coming in through the duct 
 will surely find its way up between the sections of 
 the radiator, and not around the ends of it. 
 
 The radiator is shown connected for a two-pipe 
 hot water system. 
 
 The cold air duct is provided with a slide, so 
 that the air may be shut off when it is not wanted, 
 
104 
 
 RADIATION 
 
 or when the radiator is turned off. The radiator 
 should be so hung in the box that the space above, 
 it is about one-third more than the space below; 
 this provides for the expansion of the air after it 
 has been warmed by contact with the radiator. 
 
 Brackets for supporting the hall or window 
 types of direct radiator are shown in Fig, 59. 
 
 A direct-indirect form of radiator is illustrated 
 in Fig. 60, in which the air is taken from the out- 
 side of the room to be heated and passes up be- 
 tween the sections of the radiator as shown, the 
 front of the radiator being encased. 
 
RADIATION 
 
 105 
 
 Two Column Radiator fob Steam 
 
 OR Hot 
 
 
 
 Water Heating. 
 
 
 No. of 
 Sec- 
 tions. 
 
 Length 
 
 in 
 Inches. 
 
 SQUARE FEET OF HEATING SURFACE. 
 
 45 
 Inches 
 High. 
 
 38 
 Inches 
 High. 
 
 32 
 Inches 
 High. 
 
 26 
 Inches 
 High. 
 
 23 
 Inches 
 High. 
 
 20 
 Inches 
 High. 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 6f 
 
 5i 
 
 4% 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 7X 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 . 8 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 13J 
 
 101 
 
 9% 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 12X 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 161 
 
 13^ 
 
 11% 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 SO 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 17X 
 
 35 
 
 28 
 
 23J 
 
 181 
 
 16X 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 32 
 
 26| 
 
 215 
 
 18% 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 22X 
 
 45 
 
 36 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 21 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 25 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 33^ 
 
 26f 
 
 23K 
 
 20 
 
 11 
 
 27X 
 
 55 
 
 44 
 
 361 
 
 29i 
 
 25% 
 
 22 
 
 12 
 
 30 
 
 60 
 
 48 
 
 40 
 
 32 
 
 28 
 
 24 
 
 13 
 
 32X 
 
 65 
 
 52 
 
 43^ 
 
 34| 
 
 30>3' 
 
 26 
 
 14 
 
 35 
 
 70 
 
 56 
 
 46 1 
 
 87i 
 
 32% 
 
 28 
 
 15 
 
 37X" 
 
 75 
 
 60 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 16 
 
 40 
 
 80 
 
 64 
 
 53i 
 
 42 1 
 
 37% 
 
 32 
 
 17 
 
 42X 
 
 85 
 
 68 
 
 56| 
 
 45J 
 
 39% 
 
 34 
 
 18 
 
 45 
 
 90 
 
 72 
 
 60 
 
 48 
 
 42 
 
 .36 
 
 19 
 
 47X 
 
 95 
 
 76 
 
 63^ 
 
 50| 
 
 44% 
 
 38 
 
 20 
 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 80 
 
 661 
 
 53i 
 
 46% 
 
 40 
 
106 
 
 RADIATION 
 
 Three-Column Radiator for Steam or Hot 
 Water Heating. 
 
 Number of 
 Sections. 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 Length in 
 Inches. 
 
 5 
 
 7 1-2 
 10 
 
 12 1-2 
 15 
 
 17 1-2 
 20 
 
 22 1-2 
 25 
 
 27 1-2 
 30 
 
 32 1-2 
 35 
 
 37 1-2 
 40 
 
 42 1-2 
 45 
 
 47 1-2 
 50 
 
 SQUARE FEET OP HEATING SURFACE. 
 
 Inches 
 High. 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 36 
 
 42 
 
 48 
 
 54 
 
 60 
 
 66 
 
 -72 
 
 78 
 
 84 
 
 90 
 
 96 
 
 102 
 
 108 
 
 114 
 
 120 
 
 Inches. 
 High. 
 
 10 1-2 
 15 3-4 
 21 
 
 26 1-4 
 311-2 
 36 3-4 
 42 
 
 47 1-4 
 52 1-2 
 57 3-4 
 63 
 
 68 1-4 
 73 1-2 
 78 3-4 
 84 
 
 89 1-4 
 94 1-2 
 99 3-4 
 105 
 
 27 
 Inches 
 High. 
 
 8 1-2 
 12 3-4 
 17 
 
 211-4 
 25 1-2 
 29 3-8 
 34 
 
 38 1-4 
 42 1-2 
 46 3-4 
 51 
 
 55 1-4 
 59 1-2 
 63 3-4 
 68 
 
 72 1-4 
 76 1-2 
 80 3-4 
 85 
 
 21 
 Inches 
 High. 
 
 6 1-2 
 9 3-4 
 13 
 
 16 1-4 
 19 1-2 
 22 3-4 
 26 
 
 29 1-4 
 32 1-2 
 35 3-4 
 39 
 
 42 1-4 
 45 1-2 
 48 3-4 
 52 
 
 55 1-4 
 58 1-2 
 613-4 
 65 
 
RADIATION 
 
 107 
 
 Four-Column K^xDiatoe for Steam or Hot | 
 
 
 
 Water Heating. 
 
 
 
 Number 
 
 Length 
 
 SQUARE FEET OF HEATING SURFACE. 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of 
 Sections. 
 
 in 
 Inches. 
 
 42 1-2 
 Inches 
 High. 
 
 38 1-2 
 Inches 
 High. 
 
 32 1-2 
 Inches 
 High. 
 
 26 1-2 
 Inches 
 High. 
 
 20 1-2 
 Inches 
 High. 
 
 2 
 
 8 1-2 
 
 19 1-3 
 
 16 
 
 13 1-3 
 
 10 2-3 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 12 1-2 
 
 29 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 16 1-2 
 
 38 2-3 
 
 32 
 
 26 2-3 
 
 21 1-3 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 20 3-4 
 
 48 1-3 
 
 40 
 
 33 1-3 
 
 26 2-3 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 24 3-4 
 
 .58 
 
 48 
 
 40 
 
 32 
 
 24 
 
 7 
 
 28 3-4 
 
 67 3-3 
 
 56 
 
 46 2-3 
 
 37 1-3 
 
 28 
 
 8 
 
 32 3-4 
 
 77 1-3 
 
 64 
 
 53 1-3 
 
 42 2-3 
 
 32 
 
 9 
 
 37 
 
 87 
 
 72 
 
 60 
 
 48 
 
 36 
 
 10 
 
 41 
 
 96 2-3 
 
 80 
 
 66 2-3 
 
 53 1-3 
 
 40 
 
 11 
 
 45 
 
 106 1-3 
 
 88 
 
 73 1-3 
 
 58 2-3 
 
 44 
 
 12 
 
 49 
 
 116 
 
 96 
 
 80 
 
 64 
 
 48 
 
 13 
 
 53 
 
 125 2-3 
 
 104 
 
 86 2-3 
 
 69 1-3 
 
 52 
 
 14 
 
 57 1-2 
 
 135 1-3 
 
 - 112 
 
 93 1-3 
 
 74 2-3 
 
 56 
 
 15 
 
 611-2 
 
 145 
 
 120 
 
 100 
 
 80 
 
 60 
 
 16 
 
 65 1-2 
 
 154 2-3 
 
 128 
 
 106 2-3 
 
 85 1-3 
 
 64 
 
 17 
 
 69 1-2 
 
 164 1-3 
 
 136 
 
 113 1-3 
 
 90 2-3 
 
 68 
 
 18 
 
 73 3-4 
 
 172 
 
 144 
 
 120 
 
 96 
 
 72 
 
 19 
 
 77 3-4 
 
 183 2-3 
 
 152 
 
 126 2-3 
 
 101 1-3 
 
 76 
 
 . 20 
 
 82 
 
 193 1-8 
 
 160 
 
 133 1-3 
 
 106 2-3 
 
 80 
 
108 
 
 RADIATION 
 
 Radiator Connections. Methods of connecting 
 radiators used in water heating plants are shown 
 in Fig. 61. 
 
 Pig. 61. 
 
 Radiator Valves. For use with hot water heat- 
 ing systems, angle radiator valves that have a full 
 openiag for a half turn of the wheel are usually- 
 employed. They have wood wheel, union connec- 
 tion and nickel-plated trimmings. This style of 
 valve is illustrated in Figs. 62 and 63. 
 
 Angle valves with or without union connection, 
 with wood wheel and nickel-plated trimmings, of 
 the disk seat type are also used. They are shown 
 in Figs. 64 and 65. 
 
 Gate valves as shown in Figs. 66 and 67 are used 
 with down feed or overhead systems or when the 
 radiator connections are made above the floor. 
 
EADIATION 
 
 109 
 
 Globe valves as shown in Fig. 68 should not, if 
 possible, to do withoiit, be'used in hot water heat- 
 ing systems, as their use interferes with the free 
 circulation of the water. 
 
 Fig. 62. 
 
 A comer yalve for use when the radiatoi- con- 
 nections are above the floor is shown in Fig. 69; 
 they are made both right and left-hand and with, 
 union connection. 
 
110 
 
 RADIATION 
 
 A square or flat plug-cock should be always 
 placed in the return pipe close to the boiler or in 
 the boiler itself, as close to the bottom as possible. 
 
 Fig. 63. 
 
 It should not have any direct connection to the 
 sewer, but the discharge end of the pipe should be 
 in plain sight so that any leakage due to negli- 
 
RADIATION 
 
 111 
 
 gence in closing the cook may be quickly seen. 
 Fig. 70 shows both square and flat-head plug- 
 cocks. 
 The union-elbow shown in Fig. 71 is used to 
 
 Fig. 64. 
 
 make the return connection from the radiation to 
 the main. Check valves such as shown in Fig. 72 
 are sometimes used in the return main of a hO't 
 s.vater heating system. 
 
112 RADIATION 
 
 Check Valve. It is well understood that the 
 common check valve is a very poor article when it 
 is put to constant work, as it soon becomes pound- 
 
 ed out of the seat, thereby leaking. It also wears 
 oblong in consequence of the back pressure com- 
 ing against the side of the feather, which back 
 pressure prevents the valve from closing promptly, 
 
RADIATION 
 
 113 
 
 thereby permitting considerable water to return 
 to tlie pump. 
 The common valves are very much choked by 
 
 Fig. 66. 
 
 the guides, so that not more than two-thirds of 
 their area is serviceable. 
 
 The cup pattern valve shown in Pig. 72 has a 
 
114 
 
 RADIATION 
 
 much larger seat, a larger area, and is so con- 
 structed that the back pressure comes on the top 
 of valve, thus preventing the side wear of the seat, 
 and insuring prompt closing. 
 
 
 
 Fig. 67. 
 
 Expansion Tank. The purpose of an expansion 
 tank is to provide for the increased bulk of the 
 water in a hot water heating system, as water ex.- 
 
RADIATION 
 
 115 
 
 pands about one-twentieth of its bulk from 40 to 
 212 degrees Fahrenheit or to the boiling point of 
 water. The expansion tank should always be 
 
 placed at the highest point of the system and near 
 the ceiling at least 3 or 4 feet above the highest 
 radiator or even higher if possible. 
 
116 
 
 RADIATION 
 
 Tlie expansion tank should not require more 
 than one or two gallons per month to replenish 
 the loss by evaporation. The overflow or vapor 
 
 1-M^-^ 
 
 Pig. 69. 
 
 pipe should be carried to the nearest drain. The 
 expansion tank should never be placed in an ex- 
 tremely cold place or an unheated room if possible. 
 A stop-cock or globe-valve should never be placed 
 in the pipe leading to the expansion tank. 
 
Radiation 
 
 11? 
 
 The expansion tank should be located in a warm 
 room, to prevent freezing. 
 
 r 
 
 '4j 
 
 Fig. 70. 
 
 The overflow from the expansion tank should 
 be carried through the roof, and on the end of the 
 
 Pig. 71. 
 
 pipe a return bend should be placed, in order that 
 
 the water may not run down the side of the pipe. 
 
 The expansion tank should hold from 1-20 to 
 
118 RADIATION 
 
 1-30 of the amount of water contained in the entire 
 eystem. 
 
 For the reason that when at the hoiling point, 
 the water in the system will occiipy a considerably 
 larger space than wh&n cold. 
 
 At its boiling point, water fills a space about 5 
 
 Fig. 72. 
 
 per cent, greater in volume than at its densest 
 point, when cold. When cold, the water must fill 
 the entire system. Therefore provision must be 
 made to take care of this extra volume when the 
 water is at the boiling point. 
 
 The expansion tank is provided for this purpose 
 on all hot water heating systems. 
 
RADIATION 1]^ 
 
 When a wooden lead-lined tank is used and tlis 
 water supply can be obtained from the city water 
 main, a float device replenishes' the water automa- 
 tically. 
 
 Fig. 73. 
 
 If there be no water pressure available the tank 
 must be filled by hand through a funnel. 
 
 A galvanized steel expansion tank is shown in 
 Fig. 73. The overflow pipe, vent and water sup- 
 ply openings are all clearly shown. 
 
12U 
 
 RAmATION 
 
 Pig. 74. 
 
 A water gauge for use on an expansion tank is 
 illustrated in Fig. 74. 
 
HOT WATER HEATING! 
 
 121 
 
 
 
 Capacity of Expansion Tanks. 
 
 
 No 
 
 Diam, in 
 
 Capacity 
 
 Sq. n. of 
 
 No. 
 
 Diam. in 
 
 Capacity 
 
 Sg. Ft. of 
 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Eadiation. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Radiation. 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 250 
 
 5 
 
 31 
 
 32' 
 
 1,300 
 
 1 
 
 m 
 
 10 
 
 300 
 
 6 
 
 32 
 
 42 
 
 2,000 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 500 
 
 7 
 
 37 
 
 66 
 
 3,000 
 
 3 
 
 23 
 
 20 
 
 700 
 
 8 
 
 39 
 
 82 
 
 5,000 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 950 
 
 9 
 
 40 
 
 100 
 
 6,000 
 
 Altitude Gauge. The gauge shown in Fig. 75 
 denotes the height of a column of water in a reser- 
 
 Flg. 75. 
 
 voir or tank used in connection with heating or 
 wherever it is desired. 
 The adjustable hand indicates the number of 
 
122 HOT WATER HEATING 
 
 feet in lieiglit at which the water should be con- 
 stant in the reservoir, and is so set by the user 
 when the gage is put up. 
 
 The hand operated by the gauge tube spring, 
 which the pressure of the column of water actu- 
 ates, shows in graduations on the dial marked in 
 feet the actual height of water in the tank or re- 
 servior and consequently the fluctuations in the 
 height of water due to its use, and thus enables 
 the user instantly to know whether the water 
 column is of the required and proper height to 
 be maintained. It is of great service and useful- 
 ness in this respect. 
 
 The gauge has two dials, the red one being 
 moveable only by hand, the black one being con- 
 nected with the mechanism of the gauge. When 
 the system is first filled to the required height, the 
 spring dial of the gauge shows the height in feet 
 of the water in the system. The face of the gauge 
 is then taken off, and the red dial moved to a point 
 directly under the spring dial, and pointing to the 
 same number on the gauga As the water in the 
 system evaporates by use, the spring dial drops 
 away from the red dial, indicating less water in 
 the system. 
 
 By the use of an altitude gauge at the boiler, the 
 necessity of watching the expansion tank to know 
 the amount of water in it, is avoided, as the gauge 
 at the boiler registers the height of water in feet 
 in the system. 
 
HOT WATER HEATING 
 
 123 
 
 Approximate Radiating Surface To Cubic 
 Capacities of Space to be Heated. 
 
 One Square Foot 
 
 of Radiating 
 Surface will Heat. 
 
 CUBIC PEET OP AIR. 1 
 
 In Dwellings, 
 
 School-Rooms 
 
 and OfBoes. 
 
 In HaUs, Lofts, 
 Stores and 
 Pactories. 
 
 In Churches and 
 Large Audi- 
 toriums. 
 
 With direct 
 hot-water radi- 
 ating surface. 
 
 With indirect 
 hot-water radi- 
 ation. 
 
 With direct 
 hot-water radi- 
 ating surface. 
 
 With indirect 
 hot-water radi- 
 ation. 
 
 30 to 50 
 15 to 35 
 50 to 80 
 40 to 50 
 
 60 to 80 
 20 to 45 
 70 to 100 • 
 55 to 75 
 
 90 to 150 
 60 to 100 
 160 to 250 
 100 to 150 
 
 Starting a hot water heating plant. The expan- 
 sion tank should always be placed in position at 
 the same time as the radiators. 
 
 After the system is erected and all connections 
 made, each radiator valve should be packed. The 
 air valves should be attached to the radiators, and 
 should be shut off, preparatory to filling the sys- 
 tem with water. 
 
 When either or both a hot-water thermometer 
 or altitude gauge are to be used they should be at- 
 tached at this time, provision being made for con- 
 necting them when erecting the mains. 
 
m HOf WATEH HEATING 
 
 Fill the system with water slowly until the 
 heater and mains are full. If any leaks are discov- 
 
 Fig. 76.— Basement. 
 
 ered, but not serious, continue to. fill the system 
 with water until the water can be drawn freely 
 from the air valves on the first floor radiators. 
 
HOT WATER HEATINa 
 
 125 
 
 Open all the radiator valves and start a slow 
 fire, and when the system is tight, raise the tem- 
 
 oo 
 
 — • 
 
 o^ 
 
 Fig. 77.— First Floor. 
 
 perature of the water^ to the boiling point, or 212 
 degrees Fahrenheit which should be easily done if 
 all conditions are right. 
 
126 HOT WATER HEATING 
 
 AJfter a day's test the fire should be let out, and 
 the entire system drained, and all leaks that have 
 
 Pig. 78— Second Floor. 
 
 been discovered repaired, when the system should 
 be refilled with fresh water. 
 Hot water heating plaat. The following illus- 
 
HOT WATER HEATING 127 
 
 tratians shown in Figs. 76, 77 and 78 are the plans 
 for a nine room house, heated by a, double-main 
 hot water system. The boiler, water, mains, pip- 
 ing to radiators, and the radiators are all plainly 
 shown. 
 
 SPECIFICATIONS AND CONTRACT FOR A 
 HOT WATER HEATING PLANT. 
 
 We hereby agree to furnish and install in your 
 residence, Street, a Eot Water Heat- 
 ing Plant under the conditions, and for the price 
 hereinafter nanied, and in accordance with the 
 following specifications: 
 
 Boiler— To provide and set up in basement one 
 No. Hot Water Boiler, having a rated capa- 
 city of square feet, and furnished with a 
 
 set of fire and cleaning tools. 
 
 Foundation— The owner is to provide a suitable 
 foundation for the boiler of brick or concrete. 
 
 Smoke Pipe— The smoke collar of the boiler to 
 be connected to the chimney flue by a . . inch gal- 
 vanized iron smoke pipe, closely fitted and provid- 
 ed with a choke damper. 
 
 Chimney— The owner shall provide a chinmey 
 flue of proper size and height to secure sufficient 
 draft. 
 
 Fittings— The mains, risers and branches to be 
 of ample area, properly graded. The mains to be 
 
128 HOT WATER HEATING 
 
 supported in the basement by neat, strong hangers, 
 secured to ceiling joists. All fittings to be of best 
 grade cast iron to be used. 
 
 ' Floor and Ceiling Plates— Where risers and 
 radiator connections pass through floors and ceil- 
 ings, place bronzed or nickel-plated floor and ceil- 
 ing plates. 
 
 Valves— Each radiator to be furnished with a 
 nickel-plated wood-wheel, quick opening radiator 
 valve. 
 
 Union Ells— The return end of each radiator to 
 be provided with a nickel-plated elbow, with union 
 coupling. 
 
 Air Vents — Each radiator to be furnished with 
 a nickel-plated air valve, with key or wood-wheel. 
 
 Water Supply — The owner is to provide a con- 
 nection in the water service pipe, near the boiler, 
 for the water supply. 
 
 Expansion Tank— Provide and place in proper 
 position a heavy galvanized iron expansion tank, 
 complete with water gauge. 
 
 Altitude Gauge— Furnish and attach in proper 
 position on boiler one 5-inch Altitude Gauge with 
 stop cock. 
 
Estimating. Make a careful survey of the loca- 
 tion, construction and exposure of the building to 
 be heated, and take accurate measurements of the 
 size of the glass surface and exposed walls of the 
 rooms in which the radiators are to be placed. 
 
 Having ascertained the total amount of radia- 
 tion, select a heater having a rated capacity of 50 
 per cent in excess of the total radiation, which for 
 the average system will allow for the duty imposed 
 by the mains and provide a margin of 20 per cent. 
 
 Make a plan of the basement to scale, locate the 
 heater, and lay out the pipe system, putting down 
 the size of the mains and the branches. 
 
 From the plan obtain the number of lineal feet 
 of each size of pipe, including the risers, also the 
 number and size of all fittings. 
 
 Allow one air valve for each radiator. 
 
 The number and size of the floor and ceiling 
 plates may be counted from the number and size 
 of risers that will pass through the floors and the 
 ceilings. 
 
 The length of pipe covering may be obtained 
 from the size and number of lineal feet of pipe in 
 the mains. 
 
 Smoke Pipes. Steam boiler smoke pipes range 
 in size from about 8 inches in the smaller sizes 
 to 10 or 12 inches in the larger ones. They are 
 
 129 
 
130 HOT WATER HEATING 
 
 generally made of galvanized iron. Tlhe pipe 
 should be carried to the chimney as directly as 
 possible, avoiding bends, which increase the re- 
 sistance and diminish the draft. When the draft 
 is known to be good the smoke pipe may pur- 
 posely be made longer to allow the gases to part 
 with more of their heat before reaching the chim- 
 ney. Where a smoke pipe passes through a parti- 
 tion it should be protected by a double perforated 
 metal collar at least 6 inches greater in diameter 
 than the pipe. 
 
 The top of the smoke pipe should not be placed 
 within 8 inches of exposed beams nor less than 6 
 inches under beams protected by asbestos or plas- 
 ter. The connection between the smoke pipes and 
 the chimney frequently becomes loose, allowing 
 cold air to be drawn in, thus diminishing the 
 draft. A collar to make the connection tight 
 .should be riveted to the pipe about 5 inches from 
 the end, to prevent its being pushed too far into 
 the flue. 
 
 Chimney Flues. Flues, if built of brick, should 
 have walls 8 inches in thickness, unless terra cotta 
 linings are used, when only 4 inches of brick work 
 is required. Except in small houses, where an 
 8x8 flue may be used, the nominal size of the 
 smoke flue should be at least 8x12, to allow a 
 margin for possible contractions at offsets, or for 
 a thick coating of mortar. A clean out door should 
 be placed at the bottom. A square flue cannot be 
 
HOT WATER HEATING 
 
 131 
 
 reckoned at its full area, as the comers are of lit- 
 tle value. An 8x8 flue is practically very little 
 more effective than one of circular form 8 inches 
 in diameter. To avoid down drafts the top of 
 the chimney should be carried ahove the highest 
 
 Dimensions of Chimney Flues for Given Amounts of Direct 
 Radiation 
 
 Square Feet of 
 
 Diameter of 
 
 Square or 
 
 Steam Radiation 
 
 Round Flue 
 
 Rectangular Flue 
 
 250 
 
 8 inches 
 
 8 in. X 8 in. 
 
 300 
 
 8 inches 
 
 8 in. X 8 in. 
 
 400 
 
 8. inches 
 
 8 in. X 8 in. 
 
 500 
 
 10' inches 
 
 8 in. X 12 in. 
 
 600 
 
 10 inches 
 
 8 in. X 12 in. 
 
 700 
 
 10 inches 
 
 8 in. X 12 in. 
 
 800 
 
 12 inches 
 
 12 in. X 12 in. 
 
 900 
 
 12 inches 
 
 12 in. X 12 in. 
 
 1000 
 
 12 inches 
 
 12 in. X 12 in. 
 
 1200 
 
 12 inches 
 
 12 in. X 12 in. 
 
 1400 
 
 14 inches 
 
 12 in. X 16 in. 
 
 1600 
 
 14 inches 
 
 12 in. X 16 in. 
 
 1800 
 
 14 inches 
 
 12 in. X 16 in. 
 
 3000 
 
 14 inches 
 
 12 in. X 16 in. 
 
 2200 
 
 16 inches 
 
 16 in. X 16 in. 
 
 8000 
 
 16 inches 
 
 16 in. X 16 in. 
 
 8500 
 
 18 inches 
 
 16 in. X 20 in. 
 
 5000 
 
 18 inches 
 
 16 in. X 20 in. 
 
 point of the roof, unless provided with a suitable 
 top OT hood. 
 
 Fuel Combustion. Combustion is one form of 
 chemical -action, accompanied by the generation 
 of heat. When such action takes place slowly the 
 heat produced is almost imperceptible, but when 
 it takes place rapidly, as in the burning of wood, 
 
132 HOT WATER HEATING 
 
 coal, etc., the heat becomes intense. In the burn- 
 ing of ordinary fuel, the carbon and hydrogen of 
 the coal combine with the oxygen of the air and 
 produce combustion, without which no material 
 results may be obtained from the filel. 
 
 Combustion depends upon the presence of oxy- 
 gen, without which it cannot take place. 
 
 Combustion is estimated by the number of 
 poimds of fuel consumed per hour by one square 
 foot of grate surface. 
 
 One square foot of grate will consume about 5 
 pounds of hard coal per hour, or about 10 pounds 
 •of soft coal, under a natural draft. 
 
 For 7^4 to 10 pounds of coal consumed, one 
 cubic foot of water will be evaporated. . 
 
 A fire of a depth of 12 inches will do more ef- 
 ficient work than one of less depth. 
 
 The use of too large coal is attended with large 
 air spaces between the pieces, and this large 
 amount of air is too great for the gases escaping 
 from the combustion of the coal, allowing the 
 gases to escape into the chimney flue unbumed. 
 
 The use of too small coal is not advisable, as it 
 packs down so compactly as to prevent the admis- 
 sion of the proper amount of air through the gp:ate 
 to produce good combustion. 
 
FURNACE HEATING. 
 
 Furnace Heating. Since 1 square foot of glass 
 "will transmit about 85 heat units per hour when 
 the difference between the. inside and outside tern-- 
 perature is 70 degrees, to ascertain the total loss of 
 heat by transmission multiply the exposed glass 
 surface by 85. 
 
 If the air enters through the register at 140 de- 
 grees, under zero conditions, it, is plain that one- 
 half the heat supplied is carried away by the air 
 escaping at 70 degrees the other half being lost 
 through the walls and windows. Therefore, twice 
 the amount of heat lost by transmission must be 
 supplied by the furnace. 
 
 As 8000 heat units are utilized per pound of 
 ( oal burned in a well proportioned house heating 
 iurnace, with a maximum coal consumption of 5 
 ))ounds per square foot of grate surface per hour 
 iliere are consequently 8000x5=40,000 heat units 
 \)er hour per square foot of grate surface trans- 
 j iiitted to the air passing through the furnace. Di- 
 viding the total loss of heat per hour (that is the 
 lotal exposure in terms of the exposed glass sur- 
 i ace) by 40,000 will give the required grate surface 
 in square feet, from which the diameter of the fire 
 jiot in inches may' be readily determined. 
 
 133 
 
134 FtflRNACE HEATING 
 
 That is: Total Exposure X 170 
 
 40,00Q 
 
 Total Exposure . , , t 
 
 — ^^ = required grate surface. 
 
 Furnaces. In the furnace shown in the illustra- 
 tion at Fig. 79 the combustion drum from top to 
 bottom consists of one sheet of steel, its seams be- 
 ing riveted until gas-tight so that where the sheet 
 is lapped it is practically welded. The same gas- 
 tight workmanship is maintained in the extra rad- 
 iating drum and in the furnace throughout. Gas 
 cannot get through the heating surface at any 
 point. The material used is of the best quality low- 
 carbcn, steel plate, a metal that is uniform in tex- 
 ture and composition, and anti-corrosive, ductile, 
 and possessed of a tensile strength of 60,000 
 pounds to the square inch. In a cold state it may 
 be worked almost as copper plate may be, it may 
 be flanged, double-seamed, twisted, drawn out, 
 doubled up, and welded and the process may be 
 continually repeated. A piece one-fourth of an 
 inch thick may be drawn as thin as a piece of -writ- 
 ing paper without cracking or checking. Con- 
 taining less than (5ne-fourth of one per cent, of 
 carbon, mild in quality and homogenous in struc- 
 ture, it is absoloitely impermeable tO' gases, and 
 having a uniform expansive quality throughout 
 its entire mass, it has neither fibre to tear nor sand 
 to drop, as is the case in cast metals. 
 
 It may be said of the ordinary furnace that fuel 
 
PURNACE HEATING 
 
 135 
 
 is put in at the door and heat let out at the smoke 
 hole— let out either as soot and gases that have not 
 
 Pig. 79. 
 
 been ignited, or as heat that must be wasted 
 through the flue, because efforts to retain it would 
 
i36 FUilNACE fiEATfN(3^ 
 
 cause a choking of the smoke-passage. In other 
 words, it has a practically direct draft because of 
 its imperfect system of fuel combustion. 
 
 This is really a double furnace. Combustion 
 takes place in the first, or fire drum, vhich in it- 
 self possesses a very great radiating surface. 
 From this, before reaching the smoke outlet, the 
 products of combustion have to enter and travel a 
 long distance through the second drum. This 
 drum, by actual measurement, contains more heat- 
 ing surface than some of the heaters upon the mar- 
 ket contain altogether. This supplementarj'^ drum 
 is made in two forms — crescent shape and round, 
 the latter with an open center. The course of the 
 products of combustion being such that heat is 
 brought directly against every part 0f the inside 
 of the surface, while the air passes against every 
 part of the outside, so that there is not only long 
 retention of the heat inside, but an effective use 
 of it by contact with the air from the outside. A 
 question always arising in the mind that whether 
 or not, with such a long and indirect passage way, 
 there will not be choking or clogging. There will 
 not be. Herein is where the effective combustion 
 is demonstrated. With a good smoke flue and with 
 ordinary good care, this drum will not require 
 cleaning of tener than once a year. More than this, 
 the heating surface will remain practically free 
 from soot-coating, so that it is, always effective for 
 iBervice. 
 
fUHNACE HEATING 
 
 I3t 
 
 Fig. 80 is a partial sectional elevation of the fur- 
 nace previously described, whUe Fig 81 shows 
 
 Fig. 80. 
 
 the same furnace with a water heating device 
 which forms a portion of the fire pot as shown. 
 
138 PURNACE HEATING 
 
 The water-back itself is sliown in Fig. 82. An en- 
 cased type of furnace with additional drum also 
 
 Fig. 81. 
 
 Built in with the furnace proper is shown in Fig. 
 83. A water tank for furnishing, ho^water is also 
 
FURNACE HEATING 
 
 139 
 
 provided as shown in the illustration. Check 
 draft dampers for controlling the temperature of 
 the furnace are shown in Fig. 84. 
 
 General instructions. To ohtain proper results 
 and to convey all the warm air that a furnace may 
 produce, to the rooms to be heated, the following 
 rules should be observed: 
 
 Pig. 82. 
 
 Put in a furnace of sufficient capacity. 
 
 See that the chimney is of proper size and has- 
 good draught. 
 
 If possible set the furnace under the center of 
 the house, so as to equalize the length of the hot 
 air pipes. 
 
140 
 
 FURNACl! SEATING 
 
 Hot air pipes should be of the proper size, with 
 a good elevation from the furnace to the register, 
 avoiding long runs and abrupt turns. 
 
 Fig. 83, 
 
 The cold air pipe, if taken from the living room, 
 should be at least 85 per cent of the combined 
 area of all the hot air pipes. 
 
 All holes or openings in the foundation must be 
 closed to prevent the hot air from being chilled. 
 
PUENACE HEATING 
 
 141 
 
 Good workmansliip and practical application of 
 the same always insures good results. 
 Proper Size of the Furnace. Some furnaces are 
 
 Fig. 84. 
 
 rated far above the amount of their actual heating 
 capacities. Combining this with the fact that some 
 dealers expect to sell a consumer only one fumao©, 
 
142 FURNACE HEATING 
 
 and therefore consider only the iBrst profit and pay 
 httle^attention to results, has led to the general de- 
 mand of the prospective buyer to ask for a fur- 
 nace of one or two sizes larger thaa the one figured 
 on. 
 
 The table of capacities of furnaces are based on 
 scientific figures and years of actual test and ex- 
 perience. Under reasonable conditions a fiimace 
 selected according to this rating will heat the 
 building to the proper temperature. 
 
 Proper Size of the Chimney. The chimney 
 should start from the floor of the cellar so as to 
 allow -for a clean out underneath the smoke pipe. 
 It should continue in a straight line to at least 2 
 feet above the highest point of the roof, if neces- 
 sary to offset, care should be taken not to contract 
 the size, a 10 inch round or an 8 by 12 inch square 
 is a good flue for almost any size of furnace. For 
 a small furnace a straight chimney, with an 8 by 
 8 inch flue will answer the purpose. 
 
 A chimney 4 inches wide will seldom give sat- 
 isfaction. As a great deal depends on a good chim- 
 ney, this very important feature should never be 
 overlooked. 
 
 Location of the Furnace. There may be condi- 
 tions that make it impractical to set the furnace 
 under the center of the house, but the best results 
 are always obtained when it is possible to do so. 
 If it be necessary to set the furnace toward one 
 end of building, it is best tg favor the north 
 
FURNACE HEATING 143 
 
 and west. Drainage conditions often govern the 
 depth of cellar. If possible it should be at least 7 
 feet under the joists. 
 
 Hot Air Pipes. There is no rule that would ap- 
 ply to the size of the pipe for certain rooms. The 
 location of the furnace, the length of the pipes and 
 the exposure of the rooms, also their use must be 
 taken into consideration. Ordinarily 8 and 9 inch 
 pipes are large enough for all second and third 
 floor rooms. For first floor rooms, a reception hall 
 with open stairway tO' second floor, a 12 inch pipe 
 is the best adapted, but 10 inch may answer the 
 purpose in most cases. For parlor, dining and sit- 
 ting rooms of about 12 by 16 feet or 14 by 15 feet 
 , a 10 inch pipe will give good results, 8 and 9 inch 
 should be used for bed rooms. If possible, avoid 
 any bends or turns except an elbow at the furnace 
 and another where it enters the register box or 
 boot. A damper should be put in every hot air 
 pipe close to surface. 
 
 All hot air pipes in the cellar should be covered 
 with asbestos. This insures better heating, pre- 
 serves the pipes and makes them absolutely safe. 
 
 Partition Pipes. Use of double pipes is advo- 
 cated as the flow of air through them is better 
 than if single pipes are used. The reason for this 
 is that with the patented double pipes, the inside 
 pipe has a straight, smooth surface, it does not 
 buckle or warp, thereby reducing its size, but al- 
 ways retains an even and unobstructed passage 
 
144 FURNACE HEATING 
 
 from the boot at the bottom to the register head 
 or top. 
 
 The O'utside pipe prevents the inner one from be- 
 coming chilled, and also prevents any danger of 
 setting fire to the woodwork by becoming over- 
 heated. 
 
 Cold Air. This is a very important feature, as 
 an insufficient supply of cold air to the furnace 
 means a lack of "warm air in the house. There are 
 different opinions as to the proper place to take 
 cold air 'from, whether from the outside, from the 
 living rooms, or from the cellar. -If taken from the 
 outside, the expansion of air is greater than if 
 taken from the house. A smaller pipe can be used, 
 and therefore costs less to install. The outside air 
 being often very cold, it requires heavy firing to 
 heat it to the required temperature. "With good 
 firing satisfactory results can be obtained, but 
 with a low fire cold air may be admitted into the 
 house without being properly warmed. 
 
 By taking air from the living rooms, the house 
 can be heated at a minimum cost of fuel, the ex- 
 pense of installation is slightly higher, as it re- 
 quires a larger pipe, also register faces and other 
 fittings to connect the furnace. By using this meth- 
 od, either one or more pipes can be used. The 
 area of this pipe or pipes should never be less than 
 85 per cent of the combined area of all the hot 
 air pipes. 
 
 The best general results are obtained in this 
 
FURNACE HEATING 
 
 145 
 
 ■way, for there is always a circulation, the air is 
 taken out of the rooms, passed over the heated 
 surface of the furnace, and warmed to the proper 
 temperature. 
 
 There is only one item in favor of using cellar 
 air, this is the expense of installation, as it costs 
 very little to make the connection— in all other re- 
 spects it is not advisa.ble to use it. 
 
 Openings in Foundation. Great care should be 
 exercised to see that all openings in the basement 
 or foundation walls are properly closed during the 
 cold season, as a current of cold air against any 
 hot air pipes, acts as a damper to the proper flow 
 of air through them. 
 
 Good Workmanship. Much depends upon a 
 furnace being properly installed; it is often said 
 that" a poor futnace properly installed will give 
 better satisfaction than a good furnace poorly put 
 in, 
 
 Dimensions and Heating Capacities or Furnaces. 
 
 No. 
 
 Height, 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Height 
 of Ba- 
 
 jidator. 
 
 Height 
 of Cast- 
 ing. 
 
 Diam. 
 of Cast- 
 ing. 
 
 Weight 
 
 Heating Capacity. 
 
 
 Ft, In. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 
 Cubic Feet. 
 
 24 
 
 4—6 
 
 2-0 
 
 2—0 
 
 4—11 
 
 4 2 
 
 1200 
 
 9000 to 80000 
 
 28 
 
 4—10 
 
 2—4 
 
 2—4 
 
 5—2 
 
 4—4 
 
 1250 
 
 12000 to 25000 
 
 30 
 
 5—0 
 
 2—6 
 
 2—6 
 
 5—7 
 
 4—8 
 
 1450 
 
 20000 to 35000 
 
 33 
 
 5—0 
 
 2—9 
 
 2—9 
 
 ,5—? 
 
 5—0 
 
 1750 
 
 30000 to 50000 
 
 36 
 
 6—2 
 
 3—0 
 
 3—0 
 
 5—8 
 
 .5—8 
 
 1950 
 
 60000 to 80000 
 
146 
 
 I^URNACE HEATII^G 
 
 The Loss of Heat by Transmission with A Dipfeebnce 
 
 or 70 Degrees Fahrenheit Between 
 
 THE 
 
 Indoor 
 
 AND THE Outside Temperature. 
 
 
 The loss in heat nnits per square foot per 
 
 hour by trans- | 
 
 missioE for: 
 
 
 
 8-inch brick wall. 
 
 
 32 
 
 12-inch brick wall. 
 
 
 22 
 
 16-inch brick wall. 
 
 
 18 
 
 20-inch brick wall. 
 
 
 16 
 
 24-inch brick wall. 
 
 
 14 
 
 Single window. 
 
 
 85 
 
 Ceiling (unheated attic). 
 
 
 5 
 
 Floor (unheated basement). 
 
 
 4 
 
 Wind Velocity. 
 
 Wind. 
 
 Feet per Minute. 
 
 Miles jper Hour. 
 
 Scarcely appreciable 
 
 Very feeble 
 
 Feeble 
 
 Brisk 
 
 Very brisk 
 
 High 
 
 Very high 
 
 Violent 
 
 Hurricarne 
 
 90 
 
 180 
 
 360 
 
 1080 
 
 1800 
 
 2700 
 
 3600 
 
 4200 to 5400 
 
 6000 
 
 1.02 
 2.04 
 4.1 
 
 12.3 
 
 20.4 
 
 30.7 
 
 40.1 
 47.8 to 61.4 
 
 68.1 
 
 The United States Weather Bureau defines a gale as a wind 
 blowing 40 miles per hour. 
 
FURNACE HEATING 
 
 147 
 
 Table Showing the Proper Size op Furnace Pipes 
 
 TO Heat Kooms of Various Dimensions When 
 
 Two Sides Are Exposed. 
 
 Temperature at Register 140 degrees, Boom 70 degrees,, 
 Outside degrees. Rooms 8 to 17 Feet in Width Assumed 
 to be 9 Feet High. Rooms 18 to 20 Feet in Width Assumed 
 to be 10 Feet High. For Other Heights, Temperatures or 
 Exposures Make a Suitable Allowance. When First- Floor 
 Pipes are longer than 15 feet use one size larger than 
 that stated. 
 
 
 Length of Room. | 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 116 
 
 a - 
 
 O 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 8 8 
 9 9 
 8 8 
 
 9 '9 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 8, 8 
 9 |lO 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 8 8 
 10 10 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 10 
 
 8 8 
 10 10 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 10 
 
 8 
 10 
 
 8 9 ' 
 10 19 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 10 
 
 9 9 
 10 10 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9, 9 
 10 11 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "M 
 
 One 12-inch pipe 
 One 13-inch pipe 
 One 14-inch pipe 
 One 15-inch pipe 
 One 16-inch pipe 
 One 17-inch pipe 
 
 = two 9-inch pipes. 
 = two 10-inch pipes. 
 = two 11-inch pipes. 
 = two 12-inch pipea. 
 = two 12-inch pipes. 
 = two 13-inch pipes. 
 
148 
 
 FURNACE HEATING 
 
 In the space opposite the numbers indicating tne length 
 and width of room, the lower number shows the size pipe for 
 the first floor, the upper number the size pipe for second floor. 
 
 For third floor use one size smaller than for second floor. 
 
 For rooms jwith three exposures increase pipe given in table 
 in proportion to exposure. 
 
 For halls use pipe of ample size to allow for loss of heat to 
 second floor. 
 
 The Approximate Velocity 
 
 OF Air in Flues of 1 
 
 Various Heights. | 
 
 Outside temperature 32 degrees 
 
 Fahrenheit. Allowance 
 
 for friction 50 per cent, in flue on€ 
 
 square foot in area. 
 
 Height 
 
 Excess of temperature of air in 
 
 the flue over that out doors 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of flue 
 in Feet. 
 
 10° 
 
 20° 
 
 30° 40° 
 
 50° 
 
 60° 
 
 70° 
 
 80° 
 
 90° 
 
 100° 
 
 120° 
 
 140° 1 
 
 Telocity of air in feet per minute. | 
 
 5 
 
 77 
 
 111 
 
 136 
 
 159 
 
 179 
 
 199 
 
 216 
 
 234 
 
 25,0 
 
 266 
 
 296 
 
 325 
 
 10. 
 
 109 
 
 156 192 
 
 226 
 
 254 
 
 281 
 
 306 
 
 330 
 
 354 
 
 376 
 
 418 
 
 460 
 
 15 
 
 133 
 
 192 236 
 
 275 
 
 312 
 
 344 
 
 376 
 
 405 
 
 432 
 
 461 
 
 513 
 
 565 
 
 20 
 
 154 
 
 221273 
 
 319 
 
 ?59 
 
 398 
 
 434 
 
 467 
 
 500 
 
 532 
 
 592 
 
 650 
 
 25 
 
 173 
 
 248 305 
 
 357 
 
 402 
 
 445 
 
 485 
 
 522 
 
 560 
 
 595 
 
 660 
 
 728 
 
 30 
 
 189 
 
 27l|334 
 
 390 
 
 440 
 
 487 
 
 530 
 
 572 
 
 612 
 
 652 
 
 725 
 
 798 
 
 35 
 
 204 
 
 293 360 
 
 423 
 
 475 
 
 527 
 
 574 
 
 620 
 
 662 
 
 705 
 
 783 
 
 862 
 
 40 
 
 218 
 
 311 386 
 
 452 
 
 508 
 
 562 
 
 612 
 
 662 
 
 707 
 
 753 
 
 836 
 
 920 
 
 45 
 
 231 
 
 332 408 
 
 478 
 
 538 
 
 597 
 
 650 
 
 700 
 
 750 
 
 800 
 
 867 
 
 977 
 
 50 
 
 244 
 
 350 4^2 
 
 503 
 
 568 
 
 630 
 
 685 
 
 740 
 
 790 
 
 843 
 
 935 
 
 1030 
 
 60 
 
 267 3831473 
 
 552 
 
 622 
 
 690 
 
 750 
 
 810 
 
 865 
 
 923 
 
 1023 
 
 1125 
 
 70 
 
 289413510 
 
 596 
 
 671 
 
 746 
 
 810 
 
 875 
 
 935 
 
 995 
 
 1105 
 
 1215 
 
 80 
 
 308i443,545 
 
 638 
 
 717 
 
 795 
 
 867 
 
 9.^5 
 
 1000 
 
 1065 
 
 1182 
 
 1300 '. 
 
 90 
 
 327 
 
 470 578 
 
 678 
 
 762 
 
 845 
 
 920 
 
 990 
 
 1060 
 
 1130 
 
 1252 
 
 1S30 
 
 100 
 
 345 
 
 495^610 
 
 713 
 
 802 
 
 890 
 
 970 
 
 1045 
 
 1118 
 
 1190 
 
 1323 
 
 1455 
 
 '^je volume of air in cubic feet per minute dis- 
 charged by a flue equals the velocity in feet per 
 ainute multiplied by the area in square feet. 
 
FURNACE HEATING 
 
 14d 
 
 Knowing any two of these teims, the third may be 
 readily found. 
 
 voiume volume 
 
 Velocity = Area = 
 
 area. velocity. 
 
 Example.— Find the area of a flue 20 feet high 
 that will discharge 3,000 cubic feet per minute, 
 when the excess of temperature in the flue over 
 that out doors is 40 degrees. 
 
 Opposite 20 in left hand column and under 40 
 on upper line is the number 319, representing the 
 velocity in feet per minute. The volume 3,000-^-319 
 = 9.4 square feet, the required area. In estimating 
 the ©fl'ective height of a warm air flue from a fur- 
 nace, consider the flue to begin 2 feet above the 
 grate. 
 
 The Capacity of Furnaces to Maintain an Insidb 
 
 Temperatube of 70 Degrees with an OuTsrnB 
 
 Temperature op Degrees. 
 
 Temperature of entering air, 140 degrees. Kate Ot com 
 
 bustion, 5 pounds ■'Sal per square foot ot grate sui'face 
 
 per hour. 
 
 Average diameter of 
 lie pot in inches. 
 
 18 
 
 CorreBpondin? arer 
 in square leet 
 
 Total expoBDie In aqaaie 
 
 leet to which furnace 
 
 Jj adapted. 
 
 1,110 
 
 1.77 
 
 20 
 
 2.18 
 
 1,370 
 
 22 
 
 2.64 
 
 1,655 
 
 24 
 
 3.14 
 
 1,970 
 
 26 
 
 3.69 
 
 2,310 
 
 28 
 
 4 27 
 
 2,680 
 
 30 
 
 4 61 
 
 3,080 
 
 38 1:69. 
 
 3,500 
 
STEAM AND GAS FITTING. 
 
 The Expansion of Wrought-Iron Steam and 
 Water Pipes. To calculate the amount of expan- 
 sion in the length of pipes, with different tempera- 
 tures, take a pipe 100 feet long, containing cold 
 water, or without either steam or water, and being 
 at a temperature of about 32 degrees Fahrenheit. 
 After heating the water in the pipe to 215 degrees, 
 or 1 pound pressure of steam, the pipe will be 
 found to be 100 feet IVz inches in length, with a 
 rise in tenaperature from 32 degrees to 265 degrees, 
 or 25 pomids pressure of steam, there will be an in- 
 crease in length of 1 8/10 inches. From 32 degrees 
 to 297 degrees, or 50 pounds steam pressure, ,the 
 increase would be 2 1/10 inches. And again, arise 
 in temperature from 32 degrees to 338 degrees, or 
 100 pounds pressure of steam, will give an increase 
 in length of 2i/^ inches. 
 
 Wrought Iron Pipe. Wrought iron pipe is now 
 almost exclusively used in heating plants. It is 
 made at a number of factories, and being of stan- 
 dard sizes, pipe bought from different factories 
 will be found to fit the same size of fittings. 
 
 It is manufactured from wrought iron of the 
 proper gauge, which is rolled into the shape of the 
 pipe and raised to a welding heat, after which the 
 
 150 
 
STfiAM AM) GAS f'itf ING 
 
 1^1 
 
 edges are welded by being drawn tbrougb a die. 
 The small sizes of pipe up to 1% inches are butt 
 welded and 1% inches and larger sizes are lap 
 welded. 
 
 Fig. 85. 
 
 Fittings. Pipe fittings can be bought from the 
 regular supply houses. 
 
 Fig. 86. 
 
 Fittings are mostly of cast and malleable iron, 
 except straight couplings, which are usually of 
 wrought iron. Elbows, tees and other fittings, 
 
152 ^ STEAM AND GAS FITTING 
 
 which can be procured of cast irO'ii, are the best to 
 use, owing to the fact that being of a harder metal 
 than the pipe, and less elastic, they will not yield 
 
 Fig. 87. 
 
 sufficiently to cause leakage when connections are 
 made. All fittings should be closely examined for 
 flaws before screwing on to the pipe. 
 
 Fig. 88. 
 
 Standard cast iron fittings for use in installing 
 steam and hot water heating plants^ are shown in 
 Figs. 85, 86, 87 and 88. 
 
 Pipe Bends. The radius of any bend should not 
 
STEAM AND GAS FITTING 
 
 15$ 
 
 be less than 5 diameters of the pipe and a larger 
 radius is much preferable. The length X of 
 
 QUARTER BENDS 
 
 U BENDS 
 
 ff— X- 
 
 OFFSET BENDS 
 
 Fig. 89. 
 
 straight pipe shown' in Fig. 89 at each end of 
 bend should be not less than as follows: 
 
 2%-inoh Pipe X=4 inches, 
 
 3 -inch Pipe X=4 inches, 
 3%-inch Pipe X=5 inches, 
 
 4 -inch Pipe X:=5 inches, 
 4%-inch Pipe X=6 inches, 
 i -inch Pipe X==6 inches. 
 
t54 
 
 gf EAM AND GAS FlT^TlNQ 
 
 6 -inch Pipe X=7 inches, 
 
 7-inch Pipe X=8 inches, 
 
 8 -inch Pipe X=9 inches, 
 . 10-ineh Pipe X=12 inches, 
 12-inch Pipe X=14 inches, 
 14-inch Pipe X=16 inches, 
 15-inch Pipe X=16 inches, 
 16-inch Pipe X^=20 inches, 
 18-inch Pipe X==22 inches. 
 
 Pipe Machines. The illustrations in Fig. 90 
 show two portable pipe-threading machines which 
 are compact, moderate in cost, and eflScient. For 
 
 Fig. 90. 
 
 the larger sizes of pipe, covering a range of from 
 2% to 4 inches they will be found time-saving and 
 convenient devices. 
 
 Tools. The tools shown in Figs. 91 and 92 will 
 be found sufficient to meet the ordinary require- 
 ments for installing a steam or hot-water heating 
 
STEAM AND GAS FITTING 
 
 155 
 
 Fie. 81. 
 
166 STEAM AKD GAS FITTING 
 
 Fig. 82. 
 
STEAM AND GAS PITTING 
 
 157 
 
 plant of ordinary size. The mains of larger size 
 tlian 2 inches may be ordered cut to measurement. 
 The contractor should provide himself with two 
 pipe vises as shown in Fig. 93, having a range 
 of capacity from 2% up to 4 inches inclusive. Such 
 machines can be purchased at a very moderate 
 cost. 
 
 Fie. 93. 
 
 Gas Fitting. While electricity is making won- 
 derful progress and particularly for lighting, still 
 gas holds its own for domestic purposes. Illumin- 
 ating gas is not entirely perfect, but when it is 
 properly made, carefully delivered to the building 
 and there properly handled, the results are so sat- 
 isfactory that some time will elapse before any- 
 thing else will take its place. The average house 
 
158 STEAM AND GAS PITTING 
 
 is fitted for the use of gas, and the field of discov- 
 ery in the use of gas for domestic purposes ap- 
 pears to be as great as that of electricity. 
 
 Gas Supply Pipe. The gas supply pipe should 
 be connected to the main in the best possible man- 
 ner. The pipe should be wrought iron, with fit- 
 tings, if any, of malleable or wrought iron. Cast- 
 iron fittings should not be used as they crack eas- 
 ily. The service pipQ should be laid with an in- 
 cline to the main in the street, as the earth which 
 surrounds the pipe being cold' causes some of the 
 gas to condense and become liquid. With a fall in 
 the supply pipe, to the street the condensation can 
 therefore flow back into the main pipe. 
 
 With the supply pipe laid in this way there will 
 be no flickering of the gas or. any unsteady pres- 
 sure. 
 
 The gas supply pipe from the street main should 
 never be less than one-inch pipe. The meter con- 
 nection pipes should always be of one size larger 
 than the meter couplings. All drops should be not 
 less than %-inch pipe. 
 
 Street Supply Pipe. It is necessary to have the 
 house supply pipe rest on a solid foundation. It 
 often happens that in excavating the trench for 
 the supply pipe it is dug too deep, or it may be 
 dug level, and as the pipe must be pitched back to 
 the main, it will have to be blocked up7 Do not 
 block up a supply pipe on fiUed-in earth. Start 
 the blocking from the bottom of the trench or from 
 
STEAM AND GAS FITTING 159 
 
 the lowest excavated part. There is no special 
 amount of pitch required for such pipes as the 
 more pitch they have the less liability they will 
 have to form a water trap. After the pipe is all 
 laid, properly graded and blocked, test the pipe, 
 for the purpose of ascertaining if there are any 
 leaks, before the pipe is covered up. Tlie pipe be- 
 ing found perfectly gas tight, the trench can now 
 be filled up. It is a good plan to remain on the 
 ground and su^rintend the work of properly fill- 
 ing the ditch as the average laborer who is en- 
 gaged to do the filling of such ditches has not suf- 
 ficient knowledge of the work to handle the pipe 
 with the necessary care. It is not an unusual thing 
 to find the gas supply pipe leaking badly, after 
 being covered over, by allowing heavy stones to 
 fall into the ditch by carelessness on the part of 
 the laborers. 
 
 Frost in Pipes. The flow of gas is retarded by 
 frost even where the supply pipe has sufficient 
 pitch, if it be in too cold a place and not properly 
 protected from the cold. This occurs generally in 
 the main supply pipe where it passes under the 
 sidewalk, and as a large amount of gas passes 
 through the supply pipe, a large amount of mois- 
 ture comes with the gas. It is this moisture which 
 freezes to the sides of the pipe, like heavy frost on 
 a window, but much coarser, and looks very much 
 like coarse salt. It will keep on accumulating, 
 gradually filling up the pipe toward the center 
 
160 STEAM AND GAS FITTING 
 
 from all sides, until the pipe is entirely filled and 
 the flow of gas arrested. 
 
 To remedy this difficulty the pipe should 
 be covered with some felt or other material, 
 dry sawdust may be also used and placed in a box 
 around the pipe. By striking the pipe a sharp blow 
 with a hammer the frost will fall from the sides of 
 the pipe and lie at the bottom of the pipe. This 
 does not clear the pipe entirely, but will allow the 
 gas to flow through the upper part of the pipe. 
 This frost cannot be blown back into the main and 
 to clear the frost out entirely alcohol must be 
 poured into the pipe at the meter connection, a 
 half pint or more, which will melt the frost and 
 carry the water which is formed into the main. 
 
 Fittings. Gas fittings- should be of malleable 
 iron in preference to cast iron as th«y are lighter 
 and neater in appearance, besides being much 
 stronger. Standard fittings for use in gas lighting 
 work are shown in Figs. 94, 95 and 96. Union el- 
 bows and tee^ are shown in Fig. 97 and gas service 
 cocks in Fig. 98. 
 
 Connecting a Meter. The gas pipes in the build- 
 ing, as well as the supply pipe from the street, 
 should be tested before the meter is connected, to 
 avoid the possibility of damaging the meter by 
 any sudden pressure. The supply pipes shoul^J 
 also be blown out so that the liability of dirt being 
 carried into the meter by the gas will be obviated. 
 
 After connecting the meter care should be taken 
 
STEAM AND GAS FITTING 
 
 161 
 
 to tum on the gas slowly until the pressure has 
 had a chance to equalize on the distributing side. 
 This prevents a sudden strain on the meter. A 
 meter should not be set in a place warmer than 100 
 or colder than 40 degrees Fahrenheit, as the oU in 
 
 # 
 
 
 
 Fig. 94. 
 
 che meter diaphragms is very susceptible to heat 
 or cold. 
 
 Reading a Meter. One complete revolution of a 
 hand registers the number of cubic feet marked 
 above the dial. 
 
162 ST1<:AM and gas FITTING 
 
 STREET ELBOWS 
 
 ELBOWS 
 
 DROP ELBOWS 
 
 DROP TEES 
 
 WALL PLATES CHANDELIER HOOKS 
 
 FOUR-WAY TEES CROSS OVERS 
 
 ^^ 
 
 REDUCING 
 COUPLINGS 
 
 EXTENSION PIECES 
 
 Fig. 99. 
 
STEAM AND GAS FITTING 
 
 163 
 
 STEAM AND GAS FUTINGS 
 
 ELBOWS 
 
 CAST IRON 
 
 STRAIGHT 
 
 REDUCING ELBOWS 
 CAST IRON 
 
 4S» ELBOWS 
 
 CAST IRON 
 
 ECCENTRIC 
 TEES 
 
 CAST IRON 
 
 REDUCING TEES 
 
 CAST IRON 
 Pig. M. 
 
164 
 
 STEAM AND GAS FITTING 
 
 WITH FEMALE UNION 
 
 WITH MALE UNION 
 
 WITH FEMALE UNION 
 
 Fig. 97. 
 
 WITH MALE UNION 
 
 Put down the figures on eaoli dial, that the hand 
 has just passed, and add two ciphers. The num- 
 
 Plg. 98. 
 
 ber obtained will be the amount of gas in cubic 
 feet that the meter has measure. From this'ajhount 
 
STEAM AND GAS FITTING 
 
 165 
 
 subtract the last reading of the meter and the re- 
 sult is the amount of gas consumed in the inter- 
 vening period. 
 
 A type of meter and one of the most used is 
 shown in Fig. 99, and the dial plate of a gas 
 meter in Fig. 100. -. 
 
 Fig. 99. 
 
 Blow-torch. In working around gas fixtures 
 that are in place, tiie gas fitter should be very care- 
 ful about the walls and ceilings and not blacken 
 them with the blc^w-torch in case he has. to heat a 
 joint for the pur^se of' connecting. Proper tools 
 should be at hand to do this work with, and in 
 
166 
 
 STEAM AND GAS FITTING 
 
 place of using gasoline or some other kind o£ oil 
 in the torch, the best kind of alcohol should be 
 
 HOW TO READ 
 
 A GAS METER. 
 
 <."5JS2i% .^^SS2^♦<, ^-p^. 
 
 used, so that there will be no smoke from it to 
 dirty the walls 0(r ceiling. Fig. 101 shows a gas 
 
 Fig. 101. 
 
 fitter's blow-torch, made in the best possible man- 
 ner and adapted for many purposes- 
 
STEAM AND GAS FITTING 
 
 16? 
 
 Mantle Lamp. The mantle lamps of which 
 there are a great many different varieties, resem- 
 
 FlR. 102. 
 
 ble somewhat the old-fashioned round or Argand 
 type of burner, but the manner in which the light 
 is produced is entirely different in the mantle 
 
168 STEAM AND GAS FITTING 
 
 lamp. Tlie light produced by this lamp does not 
 come from the flame itself, as in the case of an or- 
 dinary gas burner, but from the mantle, and is due 
 to the intense heat to which it is subject by the ac- 
 tion of the Bunsen flame within the lower end of 
 the mantle.. Fig. 102 shows one form of a mantle 
 lamp. - 
 
 In transferring a mantle from its box to the 
 burner, take the two ends of the string in one 
 hand and lift the mantle out of the paper tube. 
 By holding the top part of the burner in the other 
 hand and below the mantle, thie latter fcan safely 
 be lowered into position. Before fixing- the chim- 
 ney examine the mantle, as a faulty one will be 
 exchanged by the ^dealer if returned before being 
 lit. A mantle is made up of a regular series of 
 loops, each row connected to the one above, and if 
 at any point a loop does not join the row above, 
 the "mantle should be returned as faulty, as it is 
 almost certain to develop a break as soon as used. 
 Other faults, such as broken collars, broken sus- 
 pending loops, fractured sides, and torn bottoms, 
 are noticeable at a glance - 
 
 When lighting incandescent burners, the light 
 should be applied from underneath the chimney, 
 but above the screen which prevents lighting 
 back. Some prefer to light from the top of the 
 chimney, in which case the gas should be turned 
 oa sufficient time before the light is applied to 
 allow the gas to expel all the air in the chimney, 
 
STEAM AND GAS PITTING 169 
 
 so that little or no explosion shall take place, and 
 the mantle may be free from consequent damage. 
 
 The breakage of mantles when in position may 
 be avoided by attention to a few rules. Fix in- 
 candescent burners only on good sound and clear 
 gas fittings. Where there is much vibration, use 
 one of the anti-vibration frames now on the mar- 
 ket, these frames are specially suitable for hang- 
 ing lights, such as the arc lamps, etc. All pend- 
 ants for the incandescent light should be supplied 
 with loose joints, and they should never be 
 screwed stiff, or the mantle will break if it gets 
 the slightest knock. In draughty places, such as 
 lobbies, passages, and corridors, a mica chimney 
 is desirable, so as to avoid breakage of the chim- 
 ney, and to preserve the mantle. 
 
 If a newly fixed burner gives an unsatisfactory 
 light, either there may be an insufficient, gas sup- 
 ply, or the mantle may be much too wide, perhaps 
 both conditions exist. In the first case the mantle 
 will be well lit all xound the bottom, with the light 
 getting worse towards the top. If two of the four 
 air-holes in the Bunsen tube are covered by the 
 fingers, the light will at once improve. Therefore, 
 either reduce the amount of air admitted, or in- 
 crease the quantity of gas supplied. To reduce 
 the amount of air, unscrew the Bunsen tube and 
 fix inside it a piece of card or tin to cover two 
 opposite ^holes. To increase the gas supply, re- 
 move the burner from the fittings," and unsfirew 
 
170 STEAM AKD GAS FITTING 
 
 the Bunsen tube, when the gas regulator nipple 
 will be seen to consist of a brass tube having a 
 metal top with small holes, which should be very 
 slightly enlarged. Very handy for this purpose 
 is a hat-pin, ground to a long taper and passed up 
 from the under side. When a mantle is too wide, 
 one side only is incandescent, the other side hang- 
 ing away from the gas ring. This fault is, of 
 course, easily seen before the burner is used, if, 
 however, the mantle has been lit, the light can be 
 improved by slightly lowering the mantle and, as 
 this is tapered, presenting a smaller surface to 
 the flame. Take off the mantle, lifting it by a wire 
 under the suspending loop. Then place t^e wire 
 across a glass tumbler with the mantle suspended 
 inside. Take out the support, nick it with a file 
 about % inch from the plain end, and break it off, 
 then replace the mantle. 
 
 It is noticed that the brilliant light given by a 
 new burner does not last, the light after a fort- 
 night probably commencing to decrease. If.kept in 
 use, the mantle top becomes coated with soot and 
 a smoky flame issues. The burners go wrong in 
 a much shorter time if used in a room in which a 
 fire is constantly burning. The cause of this is 
 simply dust, which is drawn in at the air-holes 
 and carried up the Bimsen tube. It cannot pass 
 away owing to the screen, to which it adheres, 
 thus preventing the gas .getting away quickly 
 enough to draw in the proper amount of air. To 
 
STEAM AND GAS FITTING 171 
 
 remedy this, take off the mantle and, with a small 
 brash (aa old nail- or tooth-brush), remove the 
 dirt, blowing through the screen afterwards. 
 Then replace the mantle, clean and replace the 
 chimney, unscrew the Bunsen tube, and brush the 
 nipple clean. Blow the dust from the tube and 
 then refix the top. If the mantle is covered with 
 soot, leave the gas half on until the soot is re- 
 moved. To keep the burners at their best, this 
 process should be done at least monthly. If the 
 burners are in a dusty place they will require 
 more frequent cleaning. 
 
 Failure of the bye-pass in a,ro lamps is a com- 
 mon fault, even in new burners. The bye-pass 
 light may go out after the gas is turned on. In a 
 new burner this is often caused by one of the two 
 set-screws on the side of the burner being inserted 
 too far; in this case, after unscrewing a complete 
 turn, the burner will most likely wo|"k. It is 
 sometimes necessary to take out both screws and 
 to remove the grease adhering inside the end of 
 the hole. 
 
 Gas Proving Pump. Considerable time will be 
 saved by having a good force pump with which the 
 supply pipe in the street and the house pipes may 
 be tested. A gas proving pump is shown in Fig. 
 103. 
 
 Cleaning Gas Fixtures. If the gas fixtures can- 
 not be kept covered in summer time, they can be 
 kept clean by going over them every two or three 
 
172 
 
 STEAM AND GAS FITTING 
 
 days with a soft, damp cloth, which must not he 
 pressed hard against the fixture, as there will be 
 danger of rubhiag off the thin coat of lacquer. All 
 that is to be taken off is the fly-specks, for if they 
 are allowed to remain for more than two oi" three 
 
 Pig. 103. 
 
 days they will eat in through the lacquer and also 
 through the plating and then the more the fixtures 
 are cleaned the worse they will look. No powder 
 or polish of any kind should be used for the pur- 
 pose of cleaning gas fixtures, as it will at once de- 
 stroy tls^e only protection a gas fixture has, that is 
 
STEAM AND GAS FITTING 
 
 173 
 
 the coat of lacquer. After using a damp cloth to 
 c^ean the fixture, dry each part at once with a 
 soft, dry cloth, as it will injure the coat of lacquer 
 to allow water to dry on the fixture. Even the 
 moisture from the hand will sometimes leave a 
 stain that can never be cleaned off. 
 
 Flow of Natural Gas Through A One-Inch | 
 
 ■ 
 
 Circular Opening. 
 
 
 Pressure, 
 
 Cubic Feet 
 
 Inches 
 
 Cubic Feet 
 
 Pressure, 
 Pounds per 
 
 Cubic Feet 
 
 Water. 
 
 per Hour. 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 per Hour. 
 
 Square 
 Inch. 
 
 per Hour. 
 
 2 
 
 2,041 
 
 1 
 
 5,168 
 
 5 
 
 17,186 
 
 ^ 4 
 
 2,897 
 
 2 
 
 7,632 
 
 6 
 
 18,989 
 
 6 
 
 3,542 
 
 3 
 
 9,305 
 
 8 
 
 21,778 
 
 * 8 
 
 4,116 
 
 4 
 
 10,552 
 
 10 
 
 23,388 
 
 10 
 
 4,563 
 
 5 
 
 12,019 - 
 
 12 
 
 25,479 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 6 
 
 13,220 
 
 15 
 
 27,876 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 14,182 
 
 20 
 
 33,027 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 15,316 
 
 25 
 
 38,002 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 16,025 
 
 30 
 
 42,762 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 16,970 
 
 35 
 40 
 50 
 60 
 
 48,074 
 52,761 
 62,352 
 71,125 
 
 Height of Column of Liquid to Produce One Pound 
 
 Pressure per Square Inch at 62 Degrees 
 
 Temperature. 
 
 Water 
 
 Macliinsry oil 
 Mercury 
 
 27.71 
 
 30.80 
 
 2.04 
 
GAS BURNERS. 
 
 While much has been written upon the princi- 
 ple involved in obtaining a light from gas, very 
 little is generally known as to what -is required 
 and what is the best means to adopt to secure the 
 greatest amount of light at the least cost, and 
 with the least vitiation of the atmosphere of the 
 room where the light is required. Many and vari- 
 ous improvements have been brought forward 
 for the accomplishment of these objects, some 
 require only a very slight alteration to the exist- 
 ing fittings and yet give very excellent results, 
 while others secure a very high illuminating 
 effect and at the same time not only remove the 
 vitiated air which has been used to support the 
 combustion of the flame, but at the same time 
 carry off the air rendered useless for supporting 
 life by the inspiration and absorption of the oxy- 
 gen. 
 
 The principle which is involved in the burning 
 of gas may with advantage be here mentioned. 
 Coal gas contains many very different substances, 
 about one-half of it is hydrogen, one-third marsh 
 gas, and perhaps one-tenth is carbon monoxide. 
 
 The three gases mentioned in the statement are 
 of no value as regards the light they will give by 
 
 174 
 
GAS BURNERS 175 
 
 themselves, but they are capable of giving a great 
 heat when ignited, and this, heat is utilised for the 
 purpose of rendering white hot the small quantity 
 of hydro-carbons in the gas, and it is this incan- 
 descence of the very finely divided carbon parti- 
 cles which mates the flame luminous. 
 
 When a gas burner is lighted, the rush of gas 
 from the orifice of the burner causes a current of 
 air to pass upon each side of the flame, and thus 
 supply the oxygen necessary to support combus- 
 tion, the portion of the flame nearest to the burner 
 is almost non-luminous, and is, in fact, unignited 
 gas enclosed in a thin envelope of bright red 
 flame. That this is really unconsumed gas can be 
 showDj by placing the lower end of a glass tube 
 into this portion of the flame and applying a light 
 at the upper end, when the gas issuing from it is 
 seen to bum with an ordinary flame. The reason 
 that this portion of the gas is not luminous is that 
 the quantity of oxygen which is able to get to the 
 flame at this point is only sufficient to cause the 
 outer portion to be in a state of incandescence. 
 That there is solid carbon in the flame may be 
 seen by inserting a piece of cold metal or porcelain 
 in, the white portion of the flame, which, by re- 
 ducing the temperature of the carbon, becomes 
 coated with soot upon the under side. The same 
 effect takes place when the cold air is allowed to 
 blow upon the surface of the flame, the excess of 
 oxygen presented to the flame causing a cooling of 
 
176 GAS BURNEES 
 
 the heating gases and a consequent loss of light, 
 as the particles of carhon are not then sufficiently 
 heated to be made white hot and to give off light, 
 and they then allow the carbon to pass off in the 
 form of soot and to blacken the ceilings and paint 
 of the rooms. This is more likely to occur with 
 high quality gas, which contains more particles of 
 hydro-carbons, and if there be an insufficient sup- 
 ply of oxygen to the flame a larger proportion of 
 soot willbe allowed to escape and settle upon the 
 ceilings, etc. Another source of blackening of the 
 ceilings is the nearness of the burners and the ab- 
 sence of a guard over them to deflect and spread 
 the products of combustion over a large space. 
 The real explanation of this effect is that aqueous 
 vapour formed by the burning gas is condensed 
 on the ceiling, and dust particles which are float- 
 ing m the air are thereby caused to adhere to the 
 ceilings. With high quality gases small burners 
 should be used, so that the gas may be more 
 thoroughly consumed. 
 
 It appears that the first burners were simply 
 pieces of pipe with one end stopped up. In the 
 centre of the end was drilled a small hole, and the 
 light given off, principallj owing to the shape of 
 the flame, was very small. Then was invented the 
 bat wing burner, which has a slot cut in the dome- 
 shaped top, and this gave a flame somewhat of 
 the shape of a bat's wiag, hence the name. Then 
 came the union jet, which is an arrangement very 
 
GAS BURNERS 177 
 
 generally in domestic use at tlie present day. It 
 consists of a piece of brass tube plugged with a 
 piece of steatite or porcelain with two holes in it 
 drilled at such an angle that the two streams of 
 gas issuing from them meet, and cause the flame of 
 gas to spread and form a flame of horseshoe shape. 
 One of the special points to be noticed in these 
 burners is that the holes in them should be of 
 comparatively large size, and-^the pressure of the 
 gas when delivered from the burner reduced to the 
 lowest point at which a firm flame can be main- 
 tained. This can be done best by means of what is 
 known as a governor, which is in effect a self-act- 
 ing valve which allows only just soi much gas to 
 pass as may be required. 
 
 Passing on to the more modem styles of burn- 
 ers, of which there are many patterns, such as the 
 regenerative burners, it is found that all these em- 
 body the same principle, which is to use the heat 
 generated by the flame to heat the gas supply and 
 the air supply so that the cooling effect of the air, 
 which causes the blue portion of an ordinary flat 
 flame, is considerably reduced, and the particles 
 of carbon are rendered more rapidly incandescent, 
 and, being heated to a greater temperature, attain 
 greater luminosity and are kept for a longer 
 period at this white heat. 
 
 The earliest airangement of such a burner was 
 invented in 1854, and consisted of an argaud burn- 
 er with two chimneys, one outside of the other, 
 
178 GAS BURNERS 
 
 the air supply to the flame having to pass down 
 between the two glasses, and so to become heated 
 before it was led to the bottom of the burner. This 
 answered veiy well, but the breakage of the chim- 
 ney glasses was a considerable expense, and de- 
 barred many from adopting the system. This 
 trouble is quite overcome in the modem regenera- 
 tive burners, as the chimneys are made of metal 
 and the burner is inverted, so that the flame is 
 spread outwards instead of, as in the argand 
 burner, upwards. The regenerative burner gives a 
 light having four times the illuminating power of 
 the flat-flame burner. 
 
 With the incandescent burners, quite a modem 
 invention, the principle of admitting air to mix 
 with the gas before lighting is employed as in the 
 Bunsen heating burner, and this, while taking 
 away the luminosity of the flame, causes it to give 
 off a much greater amount of heat, this heat being 
 utilised to render a mantle of rare earths incandes- 
 cent or white hot. These mantles are made conical 
 in shape, and when made white hot emit a most 
 pleasing white light; which is about five or six 
 times more intense than that given off by the ordi- 
 nary flat flame burner. 
 
 With a properly arranged ventilating regenera- 
 tive burner, consuming 20 cubic feet of gas per 
 hour, and properly fitted, not only can all its own 
 product of combustion be removed, but also the air 
 vitiated by breathing can be removed at the rate of 
 
GAS BURNEES 179 
 
 more than 5,000 cubic feet per hour from the up- 
 per part of thei room. 
 
 The comparative quantity of air vitiated by dif- 
 ferent illuminants giving the same amount of light 
 is shown by the following table:— 
 
 Gas burnt in union jets 1 
 
 Lamp burning sperm oil 1.6 
 
 Lamp burning kerosene oil 2.25 
 
 Tallow candles 4.35 
 
 From this table it will be seen that kerosene 
 lamps use up more than twice the amount of the 
 oxygen of the air that gas does, while tallow cau- 
 dles use more than four times the amount. 
 
 For a light of 32 candle-power, tallow candles 
 would vitiate as much air as would be required 
 by about 36 adult persons, kerosene oil lamps as 
 much asi fifteen adults, while gas varied from an 
 amount of air required for nine and a half adults 
 when a batwing burner was used, to eight and a 
 half when an argand burner was used. In these 
 experiments not only was the quantity of oxygen 
 consumed taken into consideration, but carbon 
 dioxide and the water vapour were all taken ac- 
 count of. 
 
 Special attention must be directed to the neces- 
 sity of having burners suitable to, the quality of 
 gas which is being used. It may be taken as a 
 fairly general rule that the higher the illuminat- 
 ing power of the gas the smaller the burner should 
 
1«0 GAS BURNERS 
 
 be, Witli unsuitable burners, not only blacken- 
 ing of the ceilings, b;at a far lower state of effi- 
 ciency as regards the illuminating power of the 
 light obtained from a given quantity of gas will 
 result. 
 
 The effect of using bad burners is primarily 
 that the light capable of being developed from the 
 consumption of a definite quantity of gas is not 
 obtained, consequently more gas is burnt than 
 necessity requires, in other words, gas is wasted, 
 and with imperfect combustion, deleterious prod- 
 ucts are given off, vitiating- the atmosphere and 
 endangering health. 
 
 That the burners which are most economical in 
 gas consumption are the most expensive at first 
 cost is certainly the case to some extent, but the 
 amount of the saving effected by their use quickly 
 repays the first cost, and thereafter the money 
 saved goes directly into the pocket of the user of 
 the burner. The incandescent burner is the most 
 economical burner that is at present known, and 
 where gas is at a high price it is a very distinct 
 advantage, as the quantity of gas required for a 
 given amount of light is only about one-fifth of 
 that used with the ordinary burner. Then comes 
 the argand burner, which is superior to the union 
 jet or flat-flame burner, but in all these an ar- 
 rangement known as a governor is generally to 
 be found, by which is regulated the quantity of 
 gas that can find its way to the point of igniticHi, 
 
GAS BUHNERS 181 
 
 and, if only just sufficiont is allowed to pass so 
 that none is wasted, gas is economised. These 
 flrovemors are also made for use with the ordinary 
 flat-flame burner. 
 
 As has been said, the principal gas burners now 
 in use are the flat-flame, argand, and incandes- 
 cent. Flat-flame burners embrace the union jet, 
 or fishtail, and the batwing. In the union jet or 
 fishtail the gas issues through two apertures in 
 a steatite plate inserted in the top of a cylindrical 
 brass tube, threaded at its lower end for the pur- 
 pose of attaching to a gas-fixture. The holes in 
 the steatite tip through which thei gas issues are 
 inclined towards each other at an angle, so that 
 the gas issues in two streams which unite into one 
 flat flame at right angl-es to a plane passing 
 through the two holes. One of the reasons of the 
 adoption of steatite for the tip of the gas burner 
 was the fact that it required a very high heat to 
 harm it. Steatite is a natural stone found in vari- 
 ous parts of the world, principally in Germany. 
 Chemically it is a double silicate of magnesium, 
 and a substitute for the natural substance may be 
 obtained by mixing silicate of magnesium and sil- 
 icate of potash. Natural steatite is of a very fine 
 grain, and softer than ivory, it admits of being 
 worked to a very fine polish,' but after it has been 
 burned in a kiln it becomes harder than the hard- 
 est steel, and will resist a very high temperature, 
 about 2,000° Fahrenheit. In forming the steatite 
 
182 GAS BURNERS 
 
 into burner tips, the material is finely powdered, 
 moistened with water, and kneaded into a plastic 
 condition, after which it is moulded to the requi- 
 site shape and finally burnt to harden it. The 
 diameter of the orifices in the steatite tips, 
 through which the gas issues, differs in size, the 
 aim being in each ease to produce a flame of a 
 thickness suited to-the quality of the gas the 
 burner is intended to consume. 
 
 The batwing burner resembles the fishtail or 
 union in its general features, but differs in the 
 manner in which the gas issues from it. In this 
 form of burner the hollow tip is made dome- 
 shaped and has a narrow slit cut across it and ex- 
 tending some little distance down. The slit 
 varies in width to suit different qualities of gas. 
 The batwing burner requires less pressure than 
 the union jet, with" the result that the gas issues 
 with less force, so' that the flame produced in 
 burners of this class is not so stiff as that obtained 
 with a union burner. Consequently it is neces- 
 sary to employ globes with burners of this d&- 
 scription in order to protect them from draught, 
 which would cause them to flicker and smoke. 
 
GAS STOVES AND FIRES. 
 
 An examination of the principles of gas stoves, 
 and a consideration of the advantages and disad- 
 vantages of these heating appliances, may appro- 
 priately precede any description of gas stoves 
 themselves. A point often ignored in the heating 
 of rooms is that a room will not feel warm until 
 its walls reach the same temperature as the air 
 which it contains. Until this occurs, the room 
 will feel draughty, owing to the fact that the walls 
 are depriving the air of the heat given out by the 
 stove. 
 
 It is necessary to examine the conditions of the 
 room or building to be heated before making any 
 calculation as to the amount of gas required to 
 heat it. Architects calculate the cubical contents 
 of the room, and gauge from this the size and 
 character of the heating appliances required. A 
 better plan is to calculate the area of the wall sur- 
 face, and, in ordinary dwelling-houses, allow that 
 one-half a heat unit is absorbed by each square 
 foot per hour for each degree Fahrenheit rise 
 after the necessary warming up is complete. 
 
 The number of heat units generated jjier cubic 
 foot of gas of sixteen candle-power, theoretically 
 is 670 to 680, therefore, to raise the temperature 
 
 183 
 
184 GAS STOVES AND PlRES 
 
 in a room which, has been once warmed, it is 
 necessary to allow a consumption of 1 cubic foot 
 for every 1,300 square feet of wall surface. For 
 the preliminary heating, however, considerably 
 more than this is required, and as there should be 
 8 change of air in the room about every twenty 
 minutes, practically three-fourths of the heat pro- 
 duced by the stoves passes away by ventilation, 
 and consequently about four times the above-men- 
 tioned quantity of heat is required to raise the 
 temperature of a room from the commencement, 
 when it is at about the same temperature as the 
 external air. 
 
 It was at one time recommended to fix a row of 
 Bunsen burners in front of or underneath an ordi- 
 nary coal fire-grate, filled either with black fuel, 
 made of fireclay, or with small coke. It gave a 
 very cheerful appearance, but it was fo>und that 
 the quantity of coke used, together with the con- 
 sumption of gas, rendered the plan uneconomical. 
 Many persons set a high value upon the cheerful 
 appearance of this arrangement, and are willing 
 to pay for it, and makers have brought forward 
 improvements by which a saving of gas is effected. 
 Still, gas fires in ordinary coal grates can only be 
 recommended in preference to gas stoves when 
 economy is not essential. 
 
 Stoves in which air passes over heated surfaces 
 are more economical than ordinary gas stoves, 
 but, on the other hand, they are more liable to 
 
GAS STOVES AND FIHES ISS 
 
 cause unpleasant odours through the heating of 
 the dust particles. With these stoves, as also with 
 hot-air and hot-water pipes, as distinct from 
 grates, the heated air has a great tendency to rise 
 to the top of the room, leaving the feet cold while 
 the head is too warm. The same effect is noticed 
 where enclosed stoves are set forward some dis- 
 tance into the room, but these stoves are very eco- 
 nomical, and where fuel is dear this is a para- 
 mount consideration. One pound of coal burnt in 
 an ordinary grate requires, for its proper com- 
 bustion, 300 cubic feet of ^r having a tempera- 
 ture of 620° Fahrenheit, and 1 volume of gas ior 
 complete combustion requires 5i/^ volumes of air. 
 In atmospheric or Bunsen burners the average 
 mixture of gas and air is 1 volume of gas to 2.3 
 volumes of air, consequently, a further supply of 
 air around the flame is necessary to cause com- 
 plete combustion, and aji analysis of the gases, 
 taken from the centre of the glowing fuel, shows 
 that often 10 per cent of carbon monoxide exists, 
 and, should down-draughts occur, this must find 
 its way unnoticed — for it has neither smell nor 
 color — into the room, hence the necessity for en- 
 suring a good draught from the stove. Curiously 
 enough, however, the analyses of gases in the flue 
 during the burning of the gas stove do not show a 
 trace of this deadly gas. An average of some 
 twenty-four stoves tested in this way showed the 
 presence of 12 per cent of oxygen, 84 per cent of 
 
186 GAS STOVES AND FIRES 
 
 nitrogen, and 4 per cent of carbonic acid, thus 
 proving that all the carbon monoxide had been 
 converted into carbonic acid before leaving the 
 stove when burning in the proper manner. This 
 shows conclusively that flues are a necessity with 
 gas stoves in which Bunsen burners are in use, 
 although they need not be so large as the usual 
 coal-grate flue, but where flues are not possible, 
 only such stoves as employ ordinary lighting 
 burners and utilise the heat radiated from a pol- 
 ished surface should be fixed. 
 
 Where a smoky chimney exists, a gas stove will 
 not cure it, imless the fault is due to a contraction 
 of the flue, by which the flow of the draught is 
 impeded. In that case a much smaller flue for 
 carrying off the products of combustion being suf- 
 ficient with a gas stove as compared with a coal 
 fire, the trouble will probably disappear, but it 
 would be well to ascertain the prigin of the fault 
 before recommending the adoption of a gas stove 
 as a remedy. 
 
GAS-FITTING IN WORKSHOPS. 
 
 In fitting workshops with gas, it is important 
 that strong materials be employed and it is desir- 
 able to use iron pipes throughout. Where a row 
 of benches is fixed upon each side of a workshop, 
 it is usual to run a pipe along just below the ceil- 
 ing, with tees between each window, from these a 
 small pipe is carried down to either a single or 
 double swing iron bracket. Some firms who make 
 gas-fittings, supply iron brackets, but^they can be 
 made up quickly from the fittings and short pieces 
 of iron pipes. Brass swivels wear considerably 
 better than those that are made of iron, and do 
 not corrode and stick in the working parts. 
 
 When the lights are to be located down the mid- 
 dle of a workshop where lathes or other machine 
 tools are used, the only brass parts are the cocks 
 and burner elbows, the ordinary iron tee being very 
 suitable for the centre of the pendant. Where 
 more than one floor is to be lighted, fix on the 
 supply pipe a governor for regulating the quan- 
 tity of gas delivered, otherwise the pressure due 
 to the height of the upper floors will cause a low- 
 ering of the light in the ground floor ot basement. 
 It is also an advantage to have each floor separate- 
 
 187 
 
188 GAS-FITTINO IN WORKSHOPS 
 
 ly supplied from the main, so that each floor may 
 be shut oflf entirely without interfering with the 
 others, and if a separate meter be supplied for 
 each floor, the quantity of gas consumed in pro- 
 portion to the work done after dark may be check- 
 ed, and any escape noted. Where a pipe falls, a 
 pipe syphon or syphon-box should be fixed, as the 
 temperature is subject to extreme changes and the 
 quantity of condensation is much greater than in 
 private houses. 
 
 When the pipes are run through the floor and 
 up the legs of the lathes or other machinery, it is 
 usual to bend the pipe to the exact curves taken 
 by the machine, and to fix the pipe in its place by 
 means of bands of iron bent to the curve of the 
 pipe, and fixed to the machine by two small set 
 screws. These bands may also be found useful 
 in fitting up houses where the nature of the wall 
 or floor will not permit the use of the ordinary 
 pipe-hook. 
 
 It is often found necessary to fit up in a work- 
 shop over each machine a bracket arranged so as 
 to move in any direction to suit the convenience 
 of the workman. One way of making these fit- 
 tings is to make the elbows of the brackets of two' 
 double swing swivels— one upright and one on its 
 side. Another way is to have two lines of pipes 
 from the support,"and to connect both at each end 
 to double swivels, while between the upper and 
 lower pipe, and laid at an angle, is a thin bar, 
 
GAS-FITTING IN "WORKSHOPS 189 
 
 "whieh. is fixed on to the upper pipe, and can be 
 clamped to the lower one when the exact position 
 required has been obtained. This form of bracket 
 is useful in drawing offices, where -the burner and 
 shade commonly in use cause the other pattern of 
 bracket to gradually fall downwards on to the 
 table, whereas the second arrangement always 
 keeps parallel, and, if tightly clamped, cannot 
 change its position without breaking the thin 
 metal bar, which should be made sufficiently 
 strong to withstand the strain due to the weight 
 of the heaviest burner chimney and shade likely 
 to be placed upon it. 
 
 In making brackets and pendants it is conveni- 
 ent to know a quick and efficient way to bend iron 
 pipes. The exact shape required having been 
 drawn full size upon paper the latter is tacked or 
 posted on to a rough board. Strong cut nails are 
 then driven in it to follow the desired curve, the 
 nails being half the outside diameter of the pipe 
 from the drawn line, so that the centre of the pipe, 
 when bent, may lie directly over the drawn line. 
 The iron pipe is heated in a forge fire or in a fur- 
 nace, the latter heats the pipe equally over the 
 length required. The end is inserted between the 
 lines of nails, and, with the aid of a pair of pliers, 
 is quickly made to follow the curves indicated by 
 the nails, ^ails are not necessary on the outer 
 aide of the curves, except at the starting point, 
 where a firm grip of the pipe must be insured. 
 
190 GAS-FITTING IN WORKSHOPS 
 
 "Where many pipes are to be bent to tHe same 
 shape, the board is replaced by a square plate, 
 with holes all over it, cast or wrought-iron curves 
 replacing the nails. The saving in time and the 
 accuracy of the bending soon repay the additional 
 outlay. In bending iron pipe, proceed gradually, 
 and make only small curves at a time, or the pipe 
 will collapse. 
 
 For shop brackets, metal backs are found suit- 
 able. These metal backs are supplied with the 
 fittings, and are drilled and countersunk ready 
 for erection, space being left for the pipe to screw 
 into the top of the swivel joint. A metal back 
 makes a strong job, and answers every purpose 
 where very neat finish is not necessary. 
 
 In all workshops ventilation is a prime requisite, 
 and must be provided for, more especially where 
 the rooms are low and a considerable number of 
 workmen and gas lights are employed. Gas is an 
 excellent draught inductor, an ordinary batwing 
 or union jet burner consuming 1 cubic foot of gas 
 per hour, when placed in a six-inch ventilating 
 tube 12 feet long, will cause 2,460 cubic feet of air 
 per hour to pass up the tube, and this induced 
 draught can be easily adapted for the removal of 
 the heated and vitiated air from the upper por- 
 tion of the room. Each person present will give 
 off per hour abdut 17.7 cubic feet of air, of which 
 from .6 to .8 of a cubic foot will be carbonic acid 
 (COg), the amount of COj evolved from the com- 
 
GAS-PITTING IN WORKSHOPS 191 
 
 bustion of coal gas is equal practically to one-half 
 the quantity of gas burnt, and an ordinary gas 
 burner may be considered as being equivalent to 
 at least three adults in its effect upon the atmos- 
 phere. The air space required in a workshop is 
 250 cubic feet for each person during the day and 
 400 feet at night. Again, 500 cubic feet of fresh 
 air per person should be delivered into a room 
 during each hour, and therefore the same quantity 
 of vitiated air must be drawn away by some 
 means, no method, is more suitable or so effective 
 as the one above proposed, in which a lighted 
 gas burner is enclosed by a ventilating shaft. A 
 well-constructed ceiling burner has an excellent 
 effect upon "the ventilation of a room, workshop, 
 or hall, when a properly arranged vertical shaft, 
 usually of sheet iron, is carried up through the 
 roof, and will at the same time assist greatly in 
 the general illumination of the shop. 
 
USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 One heaped bushel of anthracite coal weighs 
 from 75 to 80 lbs. 
 
 One heaped bushel of bituminous coal weighs 
 from 70 to 75 lbs. 
 
 One bushel of coke weighs 32 lbs. 
 
 Water, gas and steam pipes are measured on 
 the inside. 
 
 One cubic inch of water evaporated at atmos- 
 pheric pressure makes 1 cubic foot of steam. 
 
 A heat unit known as a British Thermal Unit 
 raises the temperature of 1 pound of water 1 de- 
 gree Fahrenheit. 
 
 For low pressure heating purposes, from 3 to 8 
 pounds of coal per hour is considered economical 
 consumption, for each square foot of grate sur- 
 face in a boiler, dependent upon conditions. 
 
 A horse power is estimated equal to 75 to 100 
 square feet of direct radiation. A horse power is 
 also estimated as 15 square feet of heating surface 
 in a standard tubular boiler. 
 
 Water boils in a vacuum at 98 degrees Fahren- 
 heit. 
 
 A cubic foot of water weighs 621/2 pounds, it 
 contains 1,728 cubic inches or 7% gallons. Water 
 
 192 
 
USEFUL INFORMATION 193 
 
 expands in boiling about one-twentieth of its bulk. 
 
 In turning into steam water expands 1,700 its 
 bulk, approximately 1 cubic inch of water will 
 produce 1 cubic foot of steam. 
 
 One pound of air contains 13.82 cubic feet. 
 
 It requires 1% British Thermal Units to raise 
 one cubic foot of air from zero to 70 degrees Fah- 
 renheit. 
 
 At atmospheric pressure 966 heat imits are re- 
 quired to evaporate one pound of water into 
 steam. 
 
 A pound of anthracite coal contains 14,500 heat 
 uits. 
 
 One horsepower is equivalent to 42.75 heat units 
 per minute. 
 
 One horsepower is required to raise 33,000 
 pounds one foot high in one minute. 
 
 To produce one horsepower requires the evapo- 
 ration of 2.66 pounds of water. 
 
 One ton of anthracite coal contains about 40 
 cubic feet. 
 
 One bushel of anthracite coal weighs about 86 
 pounds. 
 
 Heated air and water rise because their parti- 
 cles are more expanded, and therefore lighter than 
 the colder particles. 
 
 A vacuum is a portion of space from which the 
 air has been entirely exhausted. 
 
 Evaporation is the slow passage of a liquid into 
 the form of vapor. 
 
194 USEFUL INFOKMATION 
 
 Increase of temperature, increased exposure of 
 surface, and the passage of air currents over the 
 surface, cause increased evaporation. 
 
 Condensation is the passage of a vapor into the 
 liquid state, and is the reverse of evaporation. 
 
 Pressure exerted upon a liquid is transmitted 
 undiminished in all directions, and acts with the 
 same force on all surfaces, and at right angles to 
 those surfaces. 
 
 The pressure at each level of a liquid is propor- 
 tional to its depth. 
 
 With different liquids and the same depth, pres- 
 sure is proportional to the density of the liquid. 
 
 The pressure is the same at all points on any 
 given level of a liquid. 
 
 The pressure of the upper layers of a body of 
 liquid on the lower layers causes the latter to ex- 
 ert an equal reactive upward force. This force is 
 called buoyancy. 
 
 Friction does not depend in the least on the 
 pressure of the liquid upon the surface over which 
 it is flowing. 
 
 Friction is proportional to the area of the sur- 
 face. 
 
 At a low velocity friction increases with the ve- 
 locity of the liquid. 
 
 Friction increases with the roughness of the 
 
 surface. 
 
 Friction increases with the density of the liquid. 
 Friction is greater comparatively, in small 
 
USEFUL INFORMATION 195 
 
 pipes, for a greater proportion of the water comes 
 in contact with the sides of the pipe than in the 
 case of the large pipe. For this reason mains on 
 heating apparatus should he generous in size. 
 
 Air is extremely compressihle, while water is 
 almost incompressible. 
 
 Water is composed of two parts of hydrogen, 
 and one part of oxygen. 
 
 Water will absorb gases, and to the greatest ex- 
 tent when the pressure of the gas upon the water 
 is greatest, and when the temperature is the low- 
 est, for the elastic force of gas is then less. 
 
 Air is composed of about one-fifth oxygen and 
 four-fifths nitrogen, with a small amount of car- 
 boniq acid gas. 
 
 To reduce Centigrade temperatures to Fahren- 
 heit, multiply the Centigrade degrees by 9, divide 
 the result by 5, and add 32. 
 
 To reduce Fahrenheit temperature to Centi- 
 grade, subtract 32 from the Fahrenheit degrees, 
 multiply by 5 and divide by 9. 
 
 To find the area of a required pipe, when the 
 volume and velocity of the water are given, mul- 
 tiply the number of cubic feet of water by 144 and 
 divide this amount by the velocity in feet per 
 minute. 
 
 Water boils in an open vessel (atmospheric 
 pressure at sea level) at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. 
 
 Water expands in heating from 39 to 212 de- 
 grees Fahrenheit, about 4 per cent. 
 
196 
 
 USEFUL INFORMATION 
 
 "Water expands about one-tentli its bulk by^ 
 freezing solid. 
 
 Water is at its greatest density and occupies the 
 least space at 39 degrees Fahrenheit. 
 
 Water is 'the best known absorbent of heat, con- 
 sequently a good vehicle for conveying and trans- 
 mitting heat. 
 
 A U. S. gallon of water contains 231 cubic inches 
 and weighs 8 1/3 pounds. 
 
 A column of water 27.67 inches high has a pres- 
 sure of 1 pound to the square incli at the bottom. 
 
 Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its 
 capacity four times. 
 
 A hot water boiler will consume from 3 to 8 
 pounds of coal per hour per square foot of grate, 
 the difference depending upon conditions of draft, 
 fuel, system and m.anagement. 
 
 A cubic foot of anthracite coal averages 50 
 pounds. A cubic foot of bituminous coal weighs 
 40 pounds. 
 
 Pressure of 
 
 Water for each Foot in Height. | 
 
 Feet in 
 Height. 
 
 Founds per 
 Sq. In. 
 
 Feet in 
 Height. 
 
 Pounds per 
 Sq. In. 
 
 Feet in 
 Height. 
 
 Pounds per 
 Sq. In. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 .43 
 
 .86 
 
 2.16 
 
 4.33 
 
 15 
 20 
 25 
 40 
 
 6.49 
 
 8.66 
 
 10.82 
 
 17.32 
 
 50 
 70 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 21.65 
 30.32 
 34.65 
 43.31 
 
USEFUL INFQBMATION 
 
 197 
 
 Boiling Points or Various Fluids. 
 
 Substance. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Water in Vacuum 98 
 
 Water, Atmosph'c Pres. 212 
 Alcohol 173 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 240 
 
 Substance. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Refined Petroleum 316 
 
 Turpentine 315 
 
 Sulphur 570 
 
 Linseed (Dil 597 
 
 Weights. 
 
 One cubic incli of water 
 
 weighs, 0.036 pounds 
 
 OneU.S. gallon weighs... 8.33 " 
 One Imperial gallon " ...10.00 " 
 One U. S. gallon equals. . . .231.00 cubic inches 
 One Imperial gallon " ...277.274 " 
 One cubic foot of water 
 
 equals 7.48 U. S. gallons 
 
 Liquid Measure. 
 4 Gills make 1 Pint 4 Quarts make 1 Gallon 
 
 2 Pints make 1 Quart 3iy2 Gals, make 1 Barrel 
 
 Size of Pipe in Inches. 
 
 Sq. .Ft. in one Lineal Ft. 
 
 Gallons of Water in 100 
 Feet in Length. 
 
 % 
 
 .27 
 
 2.77 
 
 1 
 
 .34 
 
 4.50 
 
 IM 
 
 .43 
 
 7.75 
 
 IX 
 
 .50 
 
 10.59 
 
 2 
 
 .62 
 
 17.43 
 
 2X 
 
 .75 
 
 24.80 
 
 3 
 
 .92 
 
 38.38 
 
 8X 
 
 1.05 
 
 51.36 
 
 4 
 
 1.17 
 
 66.13 
 
198 USEFUL INFORMATION 
 
 To find the area of a rectangle, multiply the 
 length by the breadth. 
 
 To find the area of triangle, multiply the base 
 by one-half the perpendicular height. 
 
 To find' the circumference of a circle, multiply 
 the diameter by 3.1416. 
 
 To find the area of a circle, multiply the diam- 
 eter by itself, and the result by .7854. 
 
 To find the diameter of a circle of a given area, 
 divide the area by .7854, and find the square root 
 of the result. 
 
 To find the diameter of a circle which shall have 
 the same area as a given square, multiply one side 
 of the square by 1.128. 
 
 To find the number of gallons in a cylindrical 
 tank, multiply the diameter in inches by itself, 
 this by the height in inches, and the result by .34. 
 To find the number of gallons in a rectangular 
 tank, multiply together the length, breadth and 
 height in feet, and this result by 7.4. If the di- 
 mensions are in inches, multiply the product by 
 .004329. To find the pressure in pounds per 
 square inch, of a cojumn of water, multiply the 
 height of the column in feet by .434. 
 
 To find the head in feet; the pressure bemg 
 known, multiply the pressure per square inch by 
 2.31. 
 
 To find the lateral pressure of water upon the 
 side of a tank, multiply in inches, the area of the 
 
USEFUL INFOEMATION 19d 
 
 submerged side, by the pressure due to one-balf 
 the depth. 
 
 Example— Suppose a tank to be 12 feet long and 
 12 feet deep. Find the pressure on the side of the 
 tank. 
 
 144 X 144=20,736 square inches area of side. 
 
 12 X .43:^5.16, pressure at bottom of tank. Pres- 
 sure at the top of tank is 0. Average pressure 
 will then be 2.6.- Therefore 20,736 x 2.6=53,914 
 pounds pressure on side of tank. 
 
 To find the number of gallons in a foot of pipe 
 of any given diameter, multiply the square of di- 
 ameter of the pipe in inches, by .0408. 
 
 To find the diameter of pipe to discharge a giv- 
 en volume of water per minute in cubic feet, mul- 
 tiply the square of the quantity in cubic feet per 
 minute by 96. This will give the. diameter in 
 inches. 
 
 Cleaning Eusted Iron. Place the articles to be 
 cleaned in a saturated solution of chloride of tin 
 and allow them to stand for a half day or more. 
 
 When removed, wash the articles in water, then 
 in ammonia. Dry quickly, rubbing them hard. 
 
 Eemoving Boiler Scale. Kerosene oil will ac- 
 complish this purpose, often better than specially 
 prepared compounds. 
 
 Cleaning Brass. Mix in a stone jar one part of 
 nitric acid, one-half part of sulphuric acid. Dip 
 the brass work into this mixture, wash it off with 
 water, and dry with sawdust. If greasy, dip the 
 
200 USEFUL INFORMATION 
 
 work into a strong mixture of potash, soda, and 
 water, to remove the grease, and wash it off with 
 water. 
 
 Removing Grease Stains from Marble. Mix 1% 
 parts of soft soap, 3 parts of Fuller's earth and 
 1% parts of potash, with boiling water. Cover the 
 grease spots with this mixture, and allow it to 
 stand a few hours. 
 
 Strong' Cement. Melt over a slow fire, equal 
 parts of rubber and pitch. When wishing to ap- 
 ply the cement, melt and spread it on a strip of 
 strong cotton cloth. , 
 
 Cementing Iron and Stone. Mix 10 parts of fine 
 iron filings, 30 parts of plaster of Paris, and one- 
 half parts of sal ammoniac, with weak vinegar. 
 Work this mixture into a paste, and apply quick- 
 
 ly. . 
 
 Cement for Steam Boilers. Four parts of red 
 or white lead mixed in oil, and 3 parts of iron bor- 
 ings, make a good soft cement for this purpose. 
 
 Cement for Leaky Boilers. Mix 1 part of pow- 
 dered litharge, 1 part of fine sand, and one-half 
 part of slacked lime with linseed oil, and apply 
 quickly as possible. ^ 
 
 Making Tight Steam. Joints. With white lead 
 ground in oil mix as much manganese as possible, 
 with a small amount of litharge. Dust the board 
 with red lead, and knead this mass by hand into a 
 small roll, which is then laid on the plate, oiled 
 
USEFUL INFORMATION 201 
 
 with, linseed oil.- It can then be screwed into 
 place. 
 
 Substitute for Fire Clay. Mix common earth 
 with weak salt water. 
 
 Eust Joint Cement. Mix 5 pounds of iron fil- 
 ings, 1 ounce of sal ammoniac, and 1 ounce of sul^ 
 phur, and thin the mixture with water. 
 
 Bamoving Eust from Steel. Mix one-half ounce 
 of cyannide of potassium, % ounce of castile soap, 
 1 ounce of whiting, adding enough water to form a 
 paste, and apply to the steel. Einse it off with a 
 solution formed of one-half ounce of cyannide of 
 potassium and 2 ounces of water. 
 
 COMPARATIVE VALUE OF COAL, OIL, AND 
 
 GAS. 
 
 In good practice, with boilers of proper con- 
 struction ajid proportioned to the work— 
 
 One pound of coal will evaporate 10 pounds of 
 water at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. 
 
 One pound of oil will evaporate 16 pounds of 
 water at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. 
 
 One pound of natural gas will evaporate 20 
 pounds of water at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. 
 
 One pound of coal equals 11.225 cubic feet of 
 natural gas. 
 
 Two thousand pounds of coal (1 ton) equals 22,- 
 450 cubic feet of natural gas. 
 
202 USEFUL INFORMATION 
 
 One pound of oil equals 18.00 cubic feet of 
 natural gas. 
 
 One barrel of oil (42 gallons) equals 5,310.00 
 cubic feet of natural gas. 
 
 1.125 cifbic feet of natural gas will evaporate 1 
 pound of water. 
 
 1.00 cubic feet of natural gas equals 860 Heat 
 Units. 
 
 1,000 cubic feet of natural gas equals 860,000 
 Heat Units. 
 
 One ton of coal will equal 19,307,000 Heat Units. 
 
 One barrel of oil will equal 4,566.600 Heat Units. 
 
 In ordinary practice, about twice as much of the 
 above fuels are required to evaporate the above 
 amounts. 
 
USEFUL KINKS. 
 
 Paint for Iron. Dissolve % pound of asphalt- 
 um and % pound of pounded resin in 2 pounds 
 of tar oil. Mix hot in an iron kettle, but do 
 not allow it to come in contact with the fire. It 
 may be used as soon as cold, and is good both 
 for outdoor wood and ironv/ork. 
 
 Recipe for Heat-Proof Paint. A good cylinder 
 and exhaust pipe paint is made as follows: 
 
 Two pounds of black oxide of manganese, 3 
 pounds of graphite and 9 pounds of Fuller's 
 earth, thoroughly mixed. Add a compound of 
 10 parts of sodium silicate, 1 part of glucose 
 and 4 parts of water, until the consistency is such 
 that it can be applied with a brush. 
 
 Rust Joint Composition. This is a cement 
 made of sal-ammoniac 1 pound, sulphur % pound, 
 cast-iron turnings 100 pounds. The whole 
 should be thoroughly mixed and moistened with 
 a little water. If the joint is required to set 
 very quick, add % pound more sal-ammoniac. 
 Care should be taken not to use too much sal- 
 ammoniac, or the mixture will become rotten. 
 
 Removing Rust from Iron. Iron may be 
 quickly and easily cleaned by dipping in or 
 
 203 
 
204 USEFUL KINKS 
 
 washing with nitric acid one part, muriatic acid 
 one part and water twelve parts. After using 
 wash with clean water. 
 
 Making Pipe Joints. Never screw pipe to- 
 gether for either steam, water or gas without 
 putting white or red lead on the joints. 
 
 Many times in taking pipe apart the joints 
 are stuck so hard that it is impossible to un- 
 screw the pipe; heat the coupling (not the pipe) 
 by holding a hot iron on it, or hammer the 
 coupling with a light hammer, either one will 
 expand the coupling and break the joint so it 
 can be easily unscrewed. 
 
 Annealing Cast Iron. To anneal cast iron, 
 heat it in a slow charcoal fire to a dull red heat; 
 then cover it over about two inches with fine 
 charcoal, then cover all with ashes. Let it lay 
 until cold. Hard cast iron can be softened 
 enough in this waj to be filed or drilled. This 
 process will be exceedingly useful to iron found- 
 ers, as by this means there will be a great saving 
 of expense in making new patterns. 
 
 To make a casting of precisely the same size 
 of a broken casting without the original patterns : 
 Put the pieces of broken casting together and 
 mould them, and cast from this mooild. Then 
 anneal it as above described; it will expand to 
 the original size of the pattern, and there re- 
 main in that expanded state. 
 
 Preventing Iron or Steel from Rusting. The 
 
USEFUL KINKS 205 
 
 best treatment for polisfied iron or steel, which 
 has a habit of growing gray and lustreless, is 
 to wash it very clean with a stiff brush and am- 
 monia soapsuds, rinse well and dry by heat if 
 possible, then oil plentifully with sweet oil and 
 dust thickly with powdered quick lime. Let the 
 lime stay on two days, then brush it off with a 
 clean stiff brush. Polish with a softer brush, 
 and rub with cloths until the lustre- comes out. 
 By leaving the lime on, iron and steel may be 
 kept from rust almost indefinitely. 
 
 Loosening Rusted Screws. One of the simplest 
 and readiest ways of loosening a rusted screw is 
 to apply heat to the head of the screw. A small 
 bar or rod of iron, flat at the end, if reddened 
 in the fire and applied for two or three minutes 
 to the head of a rusty screw, will, as soon as it 
 heats the screw, render its withdrawal as easy 
 with the screwdriver as if it were only a recently 
 inserted screw. This is not particularly novel, 
 but it is worth knowing. 
 
 Tinning Cast Iron. To successfully coat east- 
 ings with tin they must be absolutely clean and 
 free from sand and oxide. They are usually 
 freed from imbedded sand in a rattler or tumb- 
 ling box, which also tends to close the surface 
 grain and give the article a smooth metallic 
 face. The articles should be then placed in a 
 hot pickle of one part of sulphuric acid to four 
 parts of water, in which they are allowed to 
 
206 USEFUL KINKS 
 
 remain from one to two hours, or until the re- 
 cesses are free from scale and sand. Spots may 
 be removed by a scraper or wire brush. The 
 castings are then washed in hot water and kept 
 in clean hot water until ready to dip. For a 
 flux, dip in a mixture composed of four parts 
 of a saturated solution of sal-ammoniac in water 
 and one part of hydrochloric acid, hot. Then dry 
 the casting's and dip them in the tin pot. The 
 tin should be hot enough to quickly bring the 
 castings to its own temperature when perfectly 
 fluid, but not hot enough to quickly oxidize the 
 surface of the tin. A sprinkling of pulverized 
 sal-ammoniac may be made on the surface of the 
 tin, or a little tallow or palm oil may be used 
 to clear the surface and make the tinned work 
 come out clear. As soon as the tin on the cast- 
 ings has chilled or set, they should be washed 
 in hot sal soda water and dried in sawdust. 
 
 Removing Scale from Iron Castings. Immerse 
 the parts in a mixture composed of one part of 
 oil of vitriol to three parts of water. In six to 
 ten hours remove the castings, and wash them 
 thoroughly with clean water. A weaker solution 
 can be used by allowing a longer time for the 
 action of the solution. 
 
 Oleaning Brass Castings. If greasy, the cast- 
 ings should be cleaned by boiling in lye or 
 potash. The first pickle is composed of nitric 
 acid one quart, water six to eight quarts. After 
 
USEFUL KINKS 207 
 
 pickling in this mixture the castings should be 
 washed in clear "warm or hot water, and the fol- 
 lowing pickle be then used: Sulphuric acid one 
 quart, nitric acid two quarts, muriatic acid, a 
 few drops. The first pickle will remove the dis- 
 colorations due to iron, if present. The muriatic 
 acid of the second pickle will darken the color of 
 the castings to an extent depending on the 
 amount used. 
 
 Timung Surfaces. Articles of brass or copper 
 boiled in a solution of cyanide of potassium 
 mixed with turnings or scraps of tin in a few 
 moments become covered with a firmly attached 
 layer of fine tin. 
 
 A similar effect is produced by boiling the 
 articles with tin turnings or scraps and caustic 
 alkali, or cream of tartar. In either way, arti- 
 cles made of copper or brass may be easily and 
 perfectly tinned. 
 
 Protecting Bright Work from Rust. Use a 
 mixture of one pound of lard, one ounce of gum 
 camphor, melted together, with a little lamp- 
 black. A mixture of lard oil and kerosene hi 
 equal parts. A mixture of tallow and white lead, 
 or of tallow and lime. 
 
 How to Braze. Clean the article thoroughly, 
 and better to polish with sand paper. Fasten 
 the parts to be- brazed firmly together, so they 
 "will not part when heated in the fire. Place over 
 a slow fire of charcoal or well coked coal. Place 
 
208 USEFUL KINKS 
 
 on the parts to be brazed a small quantity of 
 pulverized boras; as soon as this is done boiling 
 and Las flowed to all parts, tten put on the 
 spelter; when the spelter melts it will generally 
 run in globules or shot. Jar the piece by gently 
 striking with a small piece of wire; this will 
 cause the spelter to flow to all parts. 
 
 Lead Explosions. Many mechanics have had 
 their patience sorely tried when pouring lead 
 around a damp or wet joint, to have it explode, 
 blow out or scatter from the effects of 'steam 
 generated by the heat of the lead. The whole 
 trouble may be avoided by putting a piece of 
 resin, the size of a man's thumb, into the ladle 
 and allowing it to melt before pouring; 
 
 Sharpening Files. To sharpen dull and worn 
 out files, lay them in dilute Sulphuric Acid, one 
 part acid to two parts of water over night, then 
 rinse well in clear water, put the acid in an 
 earthenware vessel. 
 
 Soldering Aluminum. When soldering alum- 
 inum, it should be borne in mind that upon ex- 
 posure to the air a slight film of oxide forms 
 oyer the surface of the aluminum, and after- 
 wards protects tlie metal. The oxide is the same 
 color as the metal, so that it cannot easily be 
 distinguished. The idea in soldering is to get 
 underneath this oxide while the surface is cover- 
 ed with the molten solder. Clean off all dirt and 
 grease from the surfaxje of the metal with a little 
 
USEFUL KINKS 209 
 
 benzine, apply the solder witli a copper bit, and 
 when the molten solder is covering the surface 
 of the metal, scratch through the solder with a 
 steel wire scratch-brush. By this means the 
 oxide on the surface of the metal is broken up 
 underneath the solder, which containing its own 
 flux, takes up the oxide and enables the surface 
 of the aluminum to be tinned properly. 
 
 Small surfaces of aluminum can be spidered 
 by the use of zinc and Venetian turpentine. 
 Place the solder upon the metal together with 
 the turpentine and heat very gently with a 
 blowpipe until the solder is entirely melted. The 
 trouble with this, as with other solders, is that' 
 it will not flow gently on the metal. Therefore 
 large surfaces cannot be easily soldered. 
 
 Another method is to clean' the alimiinum 
 surfaces by scraping, and then cover with a 
 layer of paraifine wax as a flux. Then coat the 
 surfaces by fusion, with a layer of an alloy of 
 zinc, tin and lead, preferably in the following 
 proportions; Zinc five parts, tin two parts, lead 
 one part. 
 
 The metallic surfaces thus prepared can be 
 soldered together either by means of zinc or 
 cadmium, or alloys of aluminum with these 
 metals. In fact, any good soldering preparation 
 will answer the purpose. 
 
 A good solder for low-grade work is the fol- 
 lowing: Tin 95 parts, bismuth five parts. 
 
210 USEFUL KINKS 
 
 A good flux in all cases is either stearin, 
 vaseline, paraffine, copaiva balsam, or benzine. 
 
 In the operation of soldering, small tools made 
 of aluminum are used, which facilitate at the 
 same time the fusion of the solder and its ad- 
 hesion to the previously prepared surfaces. Tools 
 made of copper or brass must be strictly avoided 
 as they would form colored alloys with the 
 aluminum and the solder. 
 
 Aluminum Solder. This consists of 28 pounds 
 of block tin, three and one-half pounds of lead, 
 seven pounds of spelter, and 14 pounds of phos- 
 phor-tin. The phosphor-tin should contain 10 
 per cent of phosphorus. Clean off all the dirt 
 and grease from the surface of the metal "with 
 benzine, apply the solder with a copper bit, and 
 when the molten solder covers the metal, scratch 
 through the solder with a wire scratch brush. 
 
 Sweating Aluminum to Other Metals. First 
 coat the aluminum surface to be soldered with a 
 layer of zinc. On top of the zinc is melted a 
 layer of an alloy of one part aluminum to two 
 and one-half parts of zinc. The surfaces are 
 placed together and heated until the alloy be- 
 tween them is liquefied. 
 
 Soldering Fluid. Take of scrap zinc or pure 
 spelter about Vi pound, and immerse in a half- 
 pint of muriatic acid. If the scraps completely 
 dissolve add more until the acid ceases to bubble 
 and a small piece of metal remains. Let this 
 
JJSEFUL KINKS 211 
 
 stand for a day and then carefully pour off the 
 clear liquid, or filter it through a cone of blot 
 ting paper. Add a teaspoonful of sal-ammoniac, 
 and wJien thoroughly dissolved, the solution is 
 ready for use. Depending on the materiais to 
 be soldered, the quantity of sal-ammoniac can 
 be reduced. Its presence makes soldering very 
 easy, but, unless the parts are well heated so as 
 to evaporate the salt, the joints may rust. 
 
 Etching on Iron or Steel. Take one-half ounce 
 of nitric acid and one ounce of muriatic acid. 
 Mix, shake well together, and it isi ready for use. 
 Cover the place you wish^ to mark with melted 
 beeswax, when cold write the inscription plainly 
 an the wax clear to the metal with a sharp in- 
 strument, then apply the mixed acids with a 
 feather, carefully filling each letter. Let it re- 
 main from one to ten minutes, iiccording to the 
 appearance desired. Then throw on water, which 
 stops the etching process and removes the wax. 
 
 Soldering Solution. An excellent method of 
 preparing resin for soldering bright tin is given 
 as follows: Take one and one-half pounds of olive 
 oil and one and one-half pounds of tallow and 12 
 ounces of pulverized resin. Mix these ingredients 
 and let them boil up. When this mixture has be- 
 come cool, add one and three-eighths pints oi 
 water saturated with pulverized sal ammoniac, 
 stirring constantly. 
 
 Softening Cast Iron. To soften iron for drill- 
 
212 USEFUL KINKS 
 
 ing, heat to a cherry-red, having it lie level in the 
 fire. Then with tongs, put on a piece of brim- 
 stone, a little less in. size than the hole is to be. 
 This softens the iron entirely through. Let it 
 lie in the fire until cooled, when it is ready to drill. 
 Suggestions how to Solder, Clean the parts 
 thoroughly from all rust, grease or scale, then wet 
 with prepared acid. Hold the soldering copper 
 on each part until the article is well tinned and 
 the solder has flowed to all parts. 
 
 Watch-Makers' Oil that Will Never Corrode or 
 Thicken. Take a bottle about half full of good 
 olive oil and put in thin strips of sheet lead, ex- 
 pose it to the sun for a month, then pour off the 
 clear oil. The above is a very cheap way of mak- 
 ing a first-class oil for any light machinery. 
 
 Varnish for Copper. To protect copper from 
 oxidation a varnish may be employed which is 
 composed of carbon disulphide 1 part, benzine: 1 
 part, turpentine oil 1 part, methyl alchol 2 parts 
 and hard copal 1 part. It is well to apply several 
 coats of it to the copper. 
 
 Glue for Iron. Put an equal amount by weight 
 of finely powdered rosin in glue and it will ad- 
 here firmly to iron or other metal surfaces. 
 
 Soldering or Tinning Acid. Muriatic Acid 1 
 
 pound, put into it all the zinc it will dissolve and 
 
 1 ounce of Sal Ammoniac, add as much clear 
 
 water as acid, it is then ready for use. 
 
 Plaster of Paris. Common plaster tliat farmers 
 
tJSEPUL KINKS 213 
 
 use to put on land and plaster of paris are the 
 same thing, except plaster of pans is common 
 plaster calcined. Many times it is difficult to get 
 calcined plaster, and -when it is procured it is 
 badly adulterated with lime and unfit for many 
 uses. Ta calcine plaster, or in other words, to 
 make common plaster so it will harden, you have 
 but to take the plaster and put it iu an iron kettle 
 and place it over a slow fire, put no water in it. 
 In a few moments it will begin to boil and will 
 continue to do so until every particle of moisture 
 is evaporated out of it. When it has stopped 
 boiling take it off, and when cold it is ready for 
 use. Plaster treated in this way will harden much 
 quicker and harder than any which can be 
 bought ready prepared. 
 
 Hardening Small Articles. To harden small 
 tools or articles that are apt to warp in hard- 
 ening, heat very carefully, and insert in a raw 
 potato, then draw the temper as usual. 
 
 Bluing Brass. Dissolve one ounce of antimony 
 chloride in twenty ounces of water and add three 
 ounces of pure hydrochloric acid. Place the 
 warmed brass article into this solution until it 
 has turned blue. Then wash it and dry in saw- 
 dust. 
 
 Drilling' Glass. Take an old three-cornered file, 
 one that is worn out will do, break it off and 
 sharpen to a point like a drill and place in a car- 
 penter's brace. Have the glass fastened on a 
 
214 USEFUL KINKS 
 
 good solid table so there will be no danger of its 
 breaking. Wet the glass at the point where the 
 hole is to made with the following solution: 
 
 Ammonia 6^ drachms 
 
 Ether 3V^ drachms 
 
 Turpentine 1 oimce 
 
 Keep the drill wet with the above solution and 
 bore the hole part- way from each side of the 
 glass. 
 
 Another solution is to dissolve a piece of gum 
 camphor the size of a walnut in one ounce of tttr- 
 pentine. 
 
 Another method is to use a steel drill hardened, 
 but not drawn. Saturate spirits of turpentine 
 with camphor and wet the drill. The drill should 
 be ground with ai long point and plenty of clear- 
 ance. Run the drill fast aud with a light feed. 
 In this manner glass can be drilled with small 
 holes, up to 3-16 inch in diameter nearly as rapid- 
 ly as cast steel. 
 
 Cement for Pipe Joints. Mix 10 parts iron 
 filings and 3 parts chloridel of lime to a paste by 
 means of water. Apply to the joint and clamp 
 up. It will be solid in 12 hours. 
 
 Removing Stains. To remove Ink Stains, wash 
 with pure fresh water, and apply oxalic acid. If 
 this changes the stain to a red color, apply am- 
 monia. To remove Iron Rust from White Fabrics, 
 saturate the spots with lemon juice and salt and 
 expose to the sun. 
 
USEFUL KmKS 2l5 
 
 Weight of Castings. If you have a pattern 
 made of soft pine, put together without nails, an 
 iron casting made from it will weigh sixteen 
 pounds to every pound of the pattern. If the 
 casting is of brass, it will weigh eighteen pounds 
 to every pound of the pattern. 
 
 Ordering Taps and Dies. In ordering Taps and 
 Dies, be sure and give the kind, exact size and 
 thread wanted. Always remember you are writ- 
 ing to a person who knows nothing of what is 
 wanted, therefore make the order plain and ex- 
 plicit. Never order a special Tap or Die if it can 
 be avoided, as such will cost at least double that 
 of regular sizes and threads. 
 
 Tapping Nuts. Always use good Lard Oil in 
 cutting threads with a die or tapping out nuts. 
 Poor cheap oil will soon ruin both die and tap. 
 
 Grindstones. Grindstones to grind tools should 
 be run at a speed of about 800 feet per minute at 
 its periphery, a 30-inch stone should be run about 
 100 revolutions per minute. AVhen used to grind 
 carpenters' tools a speed of 600 feet at its peri- 
 phery, a 30-inch stone should therefore be run at 
 75 revolutions per minute. 
 
 White Metal for Bearings. White metal for 
 bearings consists of 48 pounds of tin, 4 pounds 
 of copper, and 1 pound of antimony. The copper 
 and tin are melted first, and then the antimony 
 is added. 
 
 Marine Glue. One part of pure India rubber 
 
216 USEFUL KINKS 
 
 dissolved in naphtha. When melted add two 
 parts of shellac. Melt untU mixed. 
 
 To Soften Cast Iron. Heat the whole piece to 
 a bright glow and gradually cool under a cover- 
 dng of fine coal dust. Small objects should be 
 packed in quantities, in a crucible in a furnace 
 or open fire, under materials which when heated 
 to a glow give out carbon to the iron. They 
 should be heated gradually, and kept at a bright 
 heat for an hour and allowed to cool slowly. The 
 substances recommended to be added are cast- 
 iron turnings, sodium carbonate or raw sugar. 
 If only raw sugar is used, the quantity should not 
 be too small. By this process it is said that cast 
 liron may be made so soft that it can almost be 
 cut with a pocket-knife. 
 
 To Harden Files. To harden files dip the file 
 in redhot lead, handle up. This gives a uniform 
 heat and prevents warping. Run the file endwise 
 back and forth in a pan of salt water. , Set the 
 file in a vise and straighten it while still warm. 
 
 Leather Belts. A leather belt is more econo- 
 mical in the end than a rubber one. When) buy- 
 ing a leather belt it should be tested by doubling 
 it up with the hair side out. If it should crack, 
 reject it as it cannot realize the whole amount of 
 power it should transmit. If it shows a spongy 
 appearance it should be condemned at once, for 
 it must be pliable as well as firm. The grain or 
 hair side should be free from wrinkles and the 
 
USEFUL K1NK8 217 
 
 belt should be of uniform thickness throughout 
 its length. It should be tested for quality by im- 
 mersing a small strip in strong vinegar. If the 
 feather has been properly tannefd and is of good 
 quality^ it will remain in vinegar for weeks with- 
 out alteration, excepting it will grow darker in 
 color. If the leather has not been properly tanned 
 the fiber will swell and the leather will become 
 softened, turning it into a jelly-like mass. 
 
 To Cement Rubber to Leather. Koughen both 
 surfaces with a sharp piece of glass, apply on both 
 a diluted solution of gutta percha in carbon bi- 
 sulphide, and let the solution soak into the mate- 
 rial. Then_press upon each surface a skin of gutta 
 percha about one-hundredth of an inch in thick- 
 ness, between a pair of rolls. Unite the two/ sur- 
 faces in a press that should be warm but not hot. 
 In case a press cannot be used, dissolve 30 parts 
 of rubber in 140 parts of carbon bisulphide, the 
 vessel being placed on a water bath of a tempera- 
 ture of 86 degrees Fahrenheit. Melt ten parts of 
 rubber with fifteen parts of rosia and add 35 
 parts of oil of turpentine. When the rubber has 
 been completely dissolved, the two liquids may 
 be mixed. The resulting cement must be kept 
 well corked. 
 
 Drilling Holes in Glass. Holes of any size de- 
 sired may be drilled in glass by the following 
 method: Get a small 3-eO'mered file and grind 
 the points from one comer and the bias from 
 
218 USEFUL KINKS 
 
 the other and set the file in a brace, such as is 
 used in boring wood. Lay the glass in which 
 the holes are to be bored on a smooth surface 
 .covered with a blanket and begia to bore a hole. 
 When a slight impression is made on the 
 glass, place a disk of putty around it and fill 
 with turpentine to prevent too great heating by 
 friction. Continue boring the hole, which will 
 be as smooth as one drilled in wood with an 
 auger. Do not press too hard on the brace while 
 drilling. 
 
 To Polish Brass. Smooth the brass with a fine 
 file and run it with smooth fine grain stone, or 
 with charcoal and water. When quite smooth 
 and free from scratches, polish with pumice stone 
 and oil, spirits of turpentine, or alcohol. 
 
 How to Make a Soft Alloy. A soft alloy which 
 will adhere tenaciously to metal, glass or porce- 
 lain, and can also be used as a solder for articles 
 which cannot bear a high degree of heat, is made 
 as follows: 
 
 Obtain copper-dust by precipitating copper 
 from the sulphate^ by means of metallic zinc. 
 Place from 20 to 36 parts of the copper-dust, ac- 
 cording to the hardness desired, in a porcelain- 
 lined mortar, and mix well with some sulphuric 
 acid of a specific gravity of 1.85. Add to this paste 
 70 parts of merctiry, stirring constantly, and when 
 thoroughly mixed, rinse the amalgam in warm 
 water to remove the acid. Let cool from 10 to 
 
USEFUL KINKS 2l9 
 
 12 honrs, after which, time it will be hard enough 
 to scratch tin. 
 
 When ready to use it, heat to 707 degrees Fah- 
 renheit and knead in an iron mortar till plastic. 
 it can then be spread on any surface, and when 
 it has cooled and hardened will adhere most ten- 
 aciously. 
 
MEDICAL AID. 
 
 Things to Do in Case of Sprains or Dislocations. 
 
 The most important thing is to secure rest until 
 ithe arrival t>f the surgeon. If the sprain is in the 
 ankle or foot, place a folded towel around the 
 part and cover with a bandage. Apply moist 
 heat. The foot should be immersed in a bucket 
 of hot water and more hot water added from time 
 to time, so that it can be kept as hot as can be 
 borne for fifteen or twenty minutes, after which 
 a firm bandage should be aplied, by a surgeon, if 
 possible, and the foot elevated. 
 
 In sprains of the wrist, a. straight piece of wood 
 should be used as a splint, cover with cotton or 
 wool to make it soft, and lightly bandage, and 
 carry the arm in aj sling. In all cases of sprains 
 the results may be serious, £ind a surgeon should 
 be obtained as soon as possible. After the acute 
 symptoms of pain and swelling have subsided, it 
 is still necessary that the joint should have com- 
 plete rest by the use of a splint and bandage and 
 such applications as the surgeon may direct. 
 
 Simple dislocation of the fingers can be put in 
 place by strong pulling, aided by a little pressure 
 on the part of the bones nearest the joint. 
 
 The best that can be done in most cases is to 
 220 
 
MEDICAL AID 221 
 
 put the part in the position easiest to the sufferer, 
 and to apply cold wet cloths, while awaiting the 
 arrival of a surgeon. 
 
 To Remove Foreign Substances from the Eye. 
 Take hold of the upper lid and turn it up so that 
 thie inside of the upper lid may be seen. Have the 
 patient make several movements with the eye, 
 first up, then do'wn, to the right side and to the 
 left Then take a tooth-pick with a little piece 
 of absorbent cotton wound around the end and 
 moistened in coldl water, and swab it out. , The 
 foreign substance will adhere to the swab and 
 the object will be removed from the eye without 
 any trouble. 
 
 In Case of Outs. The chief points to be attend- 
 ed to are: Arrest the bleeding. Remove from the 
 wound all foreign substances as soon as possible. 
 Bring the woimded parts opposite to each other 
 and keep them so. This is best done by means of 
 strips of surgeon's plaster, first applied to one 
 side of the wound and then secured to the other. 
 These strips should not be too broad, and space 
 must be left between the strips to allow any mat- 
 ter to escape. Wounds too extensive to be held 
 together by plaster must be stitched by a surgeon, 
 who should always be sent for in severe cases. 
 
 Broken Limbs. To get at a broken limb or rib, 
 the clothing must be removed, and it is essential 
 that this should be done without injury to the 
 patient. The simplest plan is to rip up the seams 
 
222 MEDICAL AID 
 
 of such garments as are in the way. Shoes must 
 always be cut| off. It is not imperatively necess- 
 ary to do anything to a broken limb before the 
 arrival of a doctor, except to keep it perfectly at 
 rest. 
 
 Wounds. If a wound be discovered in a part 
 covered by the clothing, cut the clothing at the 
 seams. Remove only sufficient clothing to un- 
 cover and inspect the wound. 
 
 All wounds should be covered and dressed as 
 quicl^ly as possible. If a severe bleeding should 
 occur, see that this is stopped, if possible, before 
 the wound is dressed. 
 
 Treatment of Bums. In treating bums of a 
 serious nature, the first- thing to be done after the 
 fire is extinguished should be to remove the cloth- 
 ing. The greatest care must be exercised, a§ any- 
 thing like pulling will bring the skin away. If 
 the clothing is not thoroughly wet, be sure to 
 saturate it with water or oil before attempting to 
 remove it. 
 
 If portions of the clothing will not drop off, 
 allow them to remain. Then make a thick solu- 
 tion of common baking soda and water, and dip 
 soft cloths in it and lay them over the injured 
 parts, and bandage them lightly to keep them 
 in position. Have the solution near by, and the 
 instant any part of a doth shows signs of dry- 
 ness, squeeze some of the solution on that part. 
 Do not remove the cloth, as total exclusion of the 
 
MEDICAL AID 223 
 
 air is necessary, and little, if any^ pain, will be 
 felt as long as the cloths are kept saturated. This 
 may be kept up for several days, after whicb soft 
 cloths dipped in oil may be applied, and' covered 
 with cotton batting. If the feet are cold, apply 
 heat and give hot water to drink, and if the bums 
 are very serious send for a doctor as soon as pos- 
 sible. The presence of pain is a good sign, show- 
 ing that vitality is present. 
 
 Bleeding. In case ,6f bleeding, the person may 
 become weak and faipt, unless the blood is flow- 
 ing actively. This is not a serious sign, and the 
 quiet condition of the faint often assists nature in 
 stopping the bleeding, by allowing the blood to 
 clot and so block up any wound in a blood vessel. 
 
 Unless the faint is prolonged or the patient is 
 posing much blood,- it is better not to relieve the 
 faint cdndition. When in this state excitement 
 should be avoided, and external warmth should 
 be applied, the person covered with blankets, and 
 bottles of hot water or hot bricks applied to the 
 feet and arm-pits. 
 
 Watch carefully if unconscious. 
 
 If vomiting occurs, turn the patient's body on 
 one side, with the head low, so that the matters 
 vomited may not go into the lungs. 
 
 Bleeding is of three kinds: From the arteries 
 which lead from the heart. That which comes 
 from the veins which take the bloodi baxjk to the 
 heart. That from the small veins which oairry 
 
224 MEDICAL AID 
 
 the blood to the surface of the body. In the first, 
 the blood is bright scarlet and escapes as though 
 it were being pumped, in the second, the blood 
 is dark red and flows away in an uninterrupted 
 stream. In the third, the blood oo^es out. In 
 some wounds Tall three kinds of bleeding occur at 
 the same time. 
 
 Carrying an Injured Person. In case of an in- 
 jury where walking is impossible, and lying down 
 is not absolutely necessary, the injured person 
 may be seated in a chair, and carried, or he may 
 sit upon a board, the ends of which are carried 
 by two men, around whose necks they should 
 place his arms so as to steady himself. 
 
 Where an injured person can walk he will get 
 much help by putting his arms over the shoulders 
 and round thei necks of two others. 
 
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230 
 
 TABLES 
 
 Table Giving Velocity op Flow of Water , 
 
 In Feet pel^Minute, Through Pipes of Various Sizes, for 
 
 
 
 Varying Quantities of Flow. 
 
 1 
 
 Qallona 
 per Minute 
 
 3-4 
 inch. 
 
 1 Inch. 
 
 1 1-4 
 inch. 
 
 1 1-2 
 inch. 
 
 2 inch. 
 
 2 1-2 
 inch. 
 
 3 inch. 
 
 4 inch. 
 
 5 
 
 218 
 
 122^ 
 
 78} 
 
 54} 
 
 30} 
 
 19} 
 
 13>$ 
 
 7% 
 
 10 
 
 436 
 
 245 
 
 157 
 
 109 
 
 61 
 
 38 
 
 27 
 
 15}i 
 
 15 
 
 653 
 
 867^ 
 
 2351 
 
 163} 
 
 91} 
 
 58} 
 
 40X 
 
 23 
 
 20 
 
 872 
 
 490 
 
 314 
 
 218 
 
 122 
 
 78 
 
 54 
 
 30% 
 
 25 
 
 1090 
 
 612J 
 
 392} 
 
 272} 
 
 152} 
 
 97} 
 
 67X 
 
 38% 
 
 80 
 
 
 735 
 
 451 
 
 327 
 
 183 
 
 117 
 
 81 
 
 46 
 
 85 
 
 
 857i 
 
 549} 
 
 381} 
 
 213} 
 
 136} 
 
 94X 
 
 53% 
 
 40 
 
 
 980 
 
 628 
 
 436 
 
 244 
 
 156 
 
 108 
 
 61% 
 
 45 
 
 
 1102i 
 
 706} 
 
 490} 
 
 274} 
 
 175} 
 
 121X 
 
 69 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 785 
 
 545 
 
 305 
 
 195 
 
 135 
 
 76% 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 1177} 
 
 817} 
 
 457} 
 
 292} 
 
 202X 
 
 115 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 ] 
 
 L090 
 
 610 
 
 380 
 
 270 
 
 153% 
 
 125 
 
 
 
 
 
 762} 
 
 487} 
 
 337X 
 
 191% 
 
 150 
 
 
 
 
 
 915 
 
 585 
 
 405 
 
 230 
 
 175 
 
 
 
 
 
 1067} 
 
 682} 
 
 472X 
 
 268% 
 
 200 
 
 
 
 
 1220 1 780 1 
 
 540 
 
 306% 
 
 
 T 
 
 ABLE GlTINO Loss IN PRESSURE 
 
 
 Due to 
 
 Frict 
 
 ion, in Pounds, per Square Inc 
 
 h, for Pipe 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 100 Feet Long. 
 
 
 OaUons 
 Discharged 
 per Minute. 
 
 S-4 
 inch. 
 
 linch. 
 
 11-4 
 inch. 
 
 1 1-2 
 Inch. 
 
 2 inch 
 
 2 1-2 
 inch. 
 
 3 inch. 
 
 4 inch. 
 
 6 
 
 3.3 
 
 0.84 
 
 0.3] 
 
 L 0.12 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 18.0 
 
 3.16 
 
 l.Ot 
 
 . 0.47 
 
 O.IS 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 28.7 
 
 6.98 
 
 2.3S 
 
 ! 0.97 
 
 0.2/ 
 
 ' 0.06 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 50.4 
 
 12.3 
 
 4.07 
 
 ' 1.66 
 
 0.4S 
 
 ! 0.13 
 
 0.03 
 
 
 25 
 
 78.0 
 
 19.0 
 
 6.4C 
 
 > 2.62 
 
 0.67 
 
 ' 0.21 
 
 0.10 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 27.5 
 
 9.1S 
 
 3.75 
 
 0.9] 
 
 0.30 
 
 0.12 
 
 0.03 
 
 85 
 
 
 37.0 
 
 12.4 
 
 5.05 
 
 1.26 
 
 0.42 
 
 0.14 
 
 0.05 
 
 40 
 
 
 48.0 
 
 16.1 
 
 6.52 
 
 1.6C 
 
 > 0.51 
 
 0.17 
 
 0.06 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 20.2 
 
 8.15 
 
 2.0] 
 
 0.62 
 
 0.27 
 
 0.07' 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 24.9 
 
 10.0 
 
 2.44 
 
 0.81 
 
 0.35 
 
 0.09 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 56.1 
 
 22.4 
 
 5.3S 
 
 1.80 
 
 0.74 
 
 0.21 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 39.0 
 
 9.4C 
 
 3.20 
 
 1.31 
 
 0.33 
 
 125 
 
 
 
 
 
 14.9 
 
 4.89 
 
 1.99 
 
 0.51 
 
 150 
 
 
 
 
 
 21.2 
 
 7.0 
 
 2.88 
 
 0.69 
 
 175 
 
 
 
 
 
 28.1 
 
 9.46 
 
 3.85 
 
 0.95 
 
 200 
 
 
 1 
 
 37.5 
 
 12.47 
 
 5.02 
 
 1.22 
 
Tables 
 
 ^31 
 
 
 Tensile Strength 
 
 OF Bolts. 
 
 Diameter 
 
 of Bolt 
 
 in Inches. 
 
 Area at 
 Bottom 
 
 of 
 Thread. 
 
 At 7,000 lbs. 
 
 per square 
 
 inch. 
 
 At 10,000 
 
 lbs. per 
 
 square 
 
 inch. 
 
 At 12,000 
 
 lbs. per 
 
 square 
 
 inch. 
 
 At 15,000 
 
 lbs. per 
 
 square 
 
 inch. 
 
 At 20,000 
 
 lbs. per 
 
 square 
 
 inch. 
 
 X 
 
 .125 
 
 875 
 
 1,250 
 
 1,500 
 
 1,875 
 
 2,500 
 
 % 
 
 .196 
 
 1,372 
 
 1,960 
 
 2,350 
 
 2,940 
 
 3,920 
 
 % 
 
 .3 
 
 2,100 
 
 3,000 
 
 3,600 
 
 4,500 
 
 6,000 
 
 % 
 
 .42 
 
 2,940 
 
 4,200 
 
 5,040 
 
 6,300 
 
 8,400 
 
 1 
 
 .55 
 
 3,850 
 
 5,500 
 
 6,600 
 
 8,250 
 
 11,000. 
 
 1% 
 
 .69 
 
 4,830 
 
 6,900 
 
 8,280 '10,350 
 
 13,800 
 
 l>i 
 
 .78 
 
 5,460 
 
 7,800 
 
 9,300 
 
 11,700 
 
 15,600 
 
 1% 
 
 1.06 
 
 7,420 
 
 10,600 
 
 12,720 
 
 15,900 
 
 21,200 
 
 IX 
 
 1.28 
 
 8,960 
 
 12,800 
 
 15,360 
 
 19,200 
 
 25,600 
 
 1% 
 
 1.53 
 
 10,710 
 
 15,300 
 
 18,360 
 
 22,950 
 
 30,600 
 
 1% 
 
 1.76 
 
 12,320 
 
 17,600 
 
 21,120 
 
 26,400 
 
 35,200 
 
 IX 
 
 2.03 
 
 14,210 
 
 20,300 
 
 24,360 
 
 30,450 
 
 40,600 
 
 2 
 
 2.3 
 
 16,100 
 
 23,000 
 
 27,600 
 
 34,500 
 
 46,000 
 
 2X 
 
 3.12 
 
 21,840 
 
 31,200 
 
 37,440 
 
 46,800 
 
 62,400 
 
 2X 
 
 8.7 
 
 25,900 
 
 37,000 
 
 44,400 
 
 55,500 
 
 74,000 
 
 The breaking strength of good American bolt iron is usually 
 taken at 50,000 pounds per square inch, with an elongation of 
 15 per cent before breaking. It should not set under a strain 
 of less than 25,000 pounds. The proof strain is 20,000 pounds 
 per square inch, and beyond this amount iron should never 
 be strained in practice. 
 
232 
 
 TABLES 
 
 Table op the Properties op Saturated Steam. 1 
 
 Gauge 
 pres- 
 sure in 
 lbs. per 
 aq.in. 
 
 Temper- 
 ature in 
 degrees 
 
 Total 
 beat 
 units 
 from 
 water at 
 320 P. 
 
 Heat 
 
 nnitsin 
 
 liquid 
 
 from 32° 
 
 P. 
 
 Heat oJ 
 vaporiza- 
 tion io 
 beat 
 units. 
 
 Density 
 
 of weighl 
 
 of leu. ft. 
 
 in lbs. 
 
 Volume 
 of 1 lb. in 
 cubic feet 
 
 Weight 
 
 of 1 cu. 
 
 ft. of 
 
 water. 
 
 
 
 212.00 
 
 1146.6 
 
 180.8 
 
 965.8 ' 0.03760 
 
 26.60 
 
 59.76 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 59.64 
 
 10 
 
 239.36 
 
 1154.9 
 
 208.4 
 
 946.5 
 
 0.06128 
 
 16.33 
 
 59.04 
 
 ao 
 
 258.68 
 
 1160,8 
 
 227.9 
 
 982.9 
 
 0.08439 
 
 11.85 
 
 58.50 
 
 30 
 
 273.87 
 
 1165.5 
 
 243.2 
 
 922.3 
 
 0.1070 
 
 9.347 
 
 58.07 
 
 40 
 
 286.54 
 
 1169.3 
 
 255.9 
 
 913.4 
 
 0.1293 
 
 7.736 
 
 57.69 
 
 60 
 
 297.46 
 
 1172.6 
 
 266.9 
 
 905.7 
 
 0.1513 
 
 6.612 
 
 57.63 
 
 55 
 
 302.42 
 
 1174.2 
 
 271.9 
 
 903.3 
 
 0.1631 
 
 6.169 
 
 57.22 
 
 60 
 
 307.10 
 
 1175.6 
 
 276.6 
 
 899.0 
 
 0.1729 
 
 5.784 
 
 57.08 
 
 65 
 
 311.54 
 
 1176.9 
 
 281.1 
 
 895.8 
 
 0.1837 
 
 5.443 
 
 56.95 
 
 70 
 
 315 77 
 
 1178.2 
 
 385.6 
 
 893.7 
 
 0.1945 
 
 5.143 
 
 56.82 
 
 75 
 
 319.80 
 
 1179.5 
 
 289.8 
 
 889.8 
 
 0.3053 
 
 4878 
 
 56.69 
 
 80 
 
 323.66 
 
 1180.6 
 
 293.8 
 
 886.9 
 
 0.3159 
 
 4633 
 
 56.59 
 
 85 
 
 327.36 
 
 1181.8 
 
 297.7 
 
 8843 
 
 0.3265 
 
 4415 
 
 56.47 
 
 90 
 
 330.92 
 
 1182.8 
 
 301.5 
 
 881.5 
 
 0.3371 
 
 4318 
 
 56.36 
 
 95 
 
 334.35 
 
 1183.9 
 
 305.0 
 
 879.0 
 
 0.3477 
 
 4037 
 
 56.35 
 
 100 
 
 337.66 
 
 1184.9 
 
 308.5 
 
 876.5 
 
 0.2583 
 
 3.872 
 
 56.18 
 
 105 
 
 340.86 
 
 1185.9 
 
 311.8 
 
 8741 
 
 0.2689 
 
 3.720 
 
 56.07 
 
 110 
 
 343.95 
 
 1186.8 
 
 315.0 
 
 871.8 
 
 0.3794 
 
 8.580 
 
 55.97 
 
 115 
 
 346.94 
 
 1187.7 
 
 318.2 
 
 869.6 
 
 0.2898 
 
 8.452 
 
 55.87 
 
 120 
 
 349.85 
 
 1188.6 
 
 331.3 
 
 867.4 
 
 0.8003 
 
 3.330 
 
 55.77 
 
 135 
 
 352.68 
 
 1189.5 
 
 324.2 
 
 865.3 
 
 0.3107 
 
 3.219 
 
 55.69 
 
 ISO 
 
 355.43 
 
 1190.3 
 
 327.0 
 
 863.3 
 
 0.3313 
 
 3.113 
 
 55.58 
 
 135 
 
 358.10 
 
 1191.1 
 
 329.8 
 
 861.3 
 
 0.3315 
 
 3.017 
 
 55.52 
 
 140 
 
 360.70 
 
 1191.9 
 
 332.5 
 
 859.4 
 
 0.3420 
 
 2.924 
 
 55.44 
 
 145 
 
 363.25 
 
 1192.8 
 
 885.3 
 
 857.5 
 
 0.3534 
 
 2.838 
 
 55.36 
 
 150 
 
 365.73 
 
 1193.5 
 
 337.8 
 
 855.7 
 
 0.3639 
 
 2.756 
 
 55.29 
 
 155 
 
 368.62 
 
 11943 
 
 340.3 
 
 853.9 
 
 0.3781 
 
 3.681 
 
 55.23 
 
 160 
 
 370.51 
 
 1195.0 
 
 342.8 
 
 852.1 
 
 0.S!835 
 
 2.608 
 
 65.15 
 
 165 
 
 372.83 
 
 1195.7 
 
 345.2 
 
 850.4 
 
 0.3939 
 
 2.589 
 
 55.07 
 
 170 
 
 375.09 
 
 1196.3 
 
 847 6 
 
 848.7 
 
 0.4043 
 
 2.474 
 
 54.99 
 
 175 
 
 377.31 
 
 1197.0 
 
 349.9 
 
 847.1 
 
 0.4147 
 
 3.412 
 
 5493 
 
 180 
 
 379.48 
 
 1197.7 
 
 353.3 
 
 845.4 
 
 0.4351 
 
 2.353 
 
 54.86 
 
 185 
 
 381.60 
 
 1198.3 
 
 3544 
 
 843.9 
 
 0.4353 
 
 2.297 
 
 5479 
 
 190 
 
 383.70 
 
 1199.0 
 
 356.6 
 
 842.3 
 
 0.4455 
 
 2.344 
 
 5478 
 
 195 
 
 385.75 
 
 1199.6 
 
 358.8 
 
 840.8 
 
 0.4559 
 
 3.198 
 
 5466 
 
 200 
 
 387.76 
 
 1200.2 
 
 360.9 
 
 839.2 
 
 0.4663 
 
 3.145 
 
 5460 
 
 226 
 
 397.36 
 
 1203.1 
 
 370.9 
 
 832.3 
 
 0.5179 
 
 1.930 
 
 5437 
 
 250 
 
 406.07 
 
 1205.8 
 
 380.1 
 
 825.7 
 
 0.5699 
 
 -1.755 
 
 54.03 
 
 275 
 
 414.22 
 
 1208.3 
 
 388.5 
 
 819.8 . 
 
 0.621 
 
 1.609 
 
 53.77 
 
 800 
 
 421.83 
 
 1210.6 
 
 396.5 
 
 8141 
 
 0.674 
 
 1.483 
 
 53.54 
 
TABLES 
 
 233 
 
 Chimneys. 
 
 
 i 
 
 HEIGHTS IN FEET. 1 
 
 Area 
 
 
 1 
 
 Square 
 Feet. 
 
 
 75 
 
 ^80 
 
 85 
 
 90 
 
 95 100 110 
 
 130 
 
 130 
 
 140 
 
 150 
 
 175 
 
 200 
 
 1 
 
 
 S 
 
 COMMERCIAL HORSE-POWER. 1 
 
 3.14 
 
 34 
 
 75 
 
 78 
 
 81 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3.69 
 
 26 
 
 90 
 
 93 
 
 95 
 
 98 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4.28 
 
 28 
 
 
 106 
 
 110 
 
 114 
 
 117 
 
 120 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4.91 
 
 30 
 
 
 132 
 
 127 
 
 130 
 
 133 
 
 137 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5.59 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 144 
 
 149 
 
 153 
 
 156 
 
 164 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6.31 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 163 
 
 168 
 
 171 
 
 176 
 
 185 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7.07 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 
 188 
 
 193 
 
 198 
 
 208 
 
 315 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8.73 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 337 
 
 344 
 
 357 
 
 367 
 
 379 
 
 
 
 
 
 10.56 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 
 
 387 
 
 396 
 
 310 
 
 332 
 
 337 
 
 
 
 
 
 13.57 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 
 
 353 
 
 370 
 
 384 
 
 400 
 
 413 
 
 
 
 
 15.90 
 
 54 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 445 
 
 468 
 
 484 
 
 507 
 
 526 
 
 
 
 
 19.63 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 577 
 
 600 
 
 627 
 
 650 
 
 673 
 
 
 
 23.76 
 
 66 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 697 
 
 725 
 
 758 
 
 784 
 
 815 
 
 
 
 28.37 
 
 72 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 863 
 
 902 
 
 931 
 
 969 
 
 1044 
 
 
 38.48 
 
 84 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1173 
 
 1229 
 
 1370 
 
 1319 
 
 1422 
 
 
 '50.27 
 
 96 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1584 
 
 1660 
 
 1735 
 
 1859 
 
 1983 
 
 63.63 
 
 108 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2058 
 
 3102 
 
 3181 
 
 2353 
 
 2511 
 
 78.54 
 
 130 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3596 
 
 2693 
 
 3904 
 
 3100 
 
 Reduction op Chimney Draft by Long Flubs. 
 
 Total Length of 
 Pluee, in feet. 
 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 200 
 
 400 
 
 600 
 
 800 
 
 1000 
 
 2000 
 35 
 
 Chimney Draft, in 
 per cent. 
 
 100 
 
 93 
 
 79 
 
 66 
 
 58 
 
 52 
 
 48 
 
234 
 
 TABLES 
 
 Ahba or Circles. | 
 
 Diam, 
 
 Area. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Area. 
 
 }i 
 
 0.0123 
 
 10 
 
 78.54 
 
 30 
 
 70b.»B 
 
 65 
 
 3318.3 
 
 5 
 
 0.0491 
 
 lOX 
 
 86.59 
 
 31 
 
 754.76 
 
 66 
 
 3421.2 
 
 
 0.1104 
 0.1963 
 
 11 
 
 I 95.03. 
 
 33 
 
 804.24 
 
 67 
 
 3525.6 
 
 yi 
 
 IIX 
 
 103.86 
 
 33 
 
 855.30 
 
 68 
 
 3631.6 
 
 H 
 
 0.8068 
 
 13 
 
 113.09 
 
 34 
 
 907.92 
 
 69 
 
 3739.3 
 
 M 
 
 0.4418 
 
 12 Ji 
 
 123.71 
 
 35 
 
 962.11 
 
 70 
 
 3848.4 
 
 H 
 
 0.6013 
 
 13 
 
 133.73 
 
 36 
 
 1017.8 
 
 71 
 
 3959.2 
 
 1 
 
 0.7854 
 
 13>^ 
 
 14S.13 
 
 37 
 
 1075.2 
 
 72 
 
 4071.5 
 
 - ^% 
 
 0.9940 
 
 14 
 
 153.93 
 
 38 
 
 1134.1 
 
 73 
 
 4185.4 
 
 IX 
 
 1.337 
 
 14>^ 
 
 165.13 
 
 39 
 
 1194.5 
 
 74 
 
 4300.8 
 
 1^ 
 
 1.484 
 
 15 
 
 176.71 
 
 40 
 
 1256.6 
 
 75 
 
 4417.8 
 
 4i 
 
 1.767 
 
 15>^ 
 
 188.69 
 
 41 
 
 1320.3 
 
 76 
 
 4536 4 
 
 IH 
 
 2.073 
 
 16 
 
 201.06 
 
 42 
 
 1385.4 
 
 77 
 
 4656.6 
 
 tH 
 
 2.405 
 
 16|^ 
 
 213.82 
 
 43 
 
 1453.2 
 
 78 
 
 4778.3 
 
 IH 
 
 3.761 
 
 17 
 
 326.98 
 
 44 
 
 1520.5 
 
 79 
 
 4901.6 
 
 2 
 
 3.141 
 
 17;^ 
 
 340.53 
 
 45 
 
 1590.4 
 
 80 
 
 5026.5 
 
 ax 
 
 3.976 
 
 18 
 
 254.46 
 
 46 
 
 1661.9 
 
 81 
 
 5153.0 
 
 2^ 
 
 4.908 
 
 XB% 
 
 268.80 
 
 47 
 
 1734.9 
 
 82 
 
 5281.0 
 
 m 
 
 5.939 
 
 19 
 
 383.52 
 
 48 
 
 1809.5 
 
 . 83 
 
 5410.6 
 
 3 
 
 7.068 
 
 19>^ 
 
 298.64 
 
 49 
 
 1885.7 
 
 84 
 
 5541.7 
 
 8X 
 
 8.295 
 
 20 
 
 314.16 
 
 50 
 
 1963.5 
 
 85 
 
 5674.5 
 
 3K 
 
 9.621 
 
 20^ 
 
 330.06 
 
 51 
 
 2042.8 
 
 86 
 
 5808.8 
 
 3^ 
 
 11.044 
 
 31 
 
 346.36 
 
 52 
 
 2133.7 
 
 87 
 
 5944.6 
 
 4 
 
 12.566 
 
 21^ 
 
 363.05 
 
 §3 
 
 2206.1 
 
 88 
 
 6082.1 
 
 4^ 
 
 15.904 
 
 33 
 
 380.13 
 
 54 
 
 2290.2 
 
 89 
 
 6221.1 
 
 5- 
 
 19.635 
 
 33J^ 
 
 397.60 
 
 55 
 
 3375.8 
 
 90 
 
 6361.7 
 
 5X 
 
 23.758 
 
 23 
 
 415.47 
 
 56 
 
 3463.0 
 
 91 
 
 6503.9 
 
 6 
 
 28.274 
 
 23K 
 
 433.73 
 
 57 
 
 3551.7 
 
 92 
 
 6647.6 
 
 6K 
 
 33.183 
 
 24 
 
 452.39 
 
 58 
 
 3643.0 
 
 93 
 
 6792.9 
 
 7 
 
 38.484 
 
 ^Vz 
 
 471.43 
 
 59 
 
 3733.9 
 
 94 
 
 6939.8 
 
 7^ 
 
 44.178 
 
 25 
 
 490.87 
 
 00 
 
 2827.4 
 
 95 
 
 7088.2 
 
 8 
 
 50.365 
 
 26 
 
 530.93 
 
 - 61 
 
 2933.4 
 
 96 
 
 7238.2 
 
 8K 
 
 56.745 27 
 
 573.55 
 
 62 
 
 3019.0 
 
 97 
 
 7389.8 
 
 9 
 
 63.617 38 
 
 615.75 
 
 63 
 
 3117.2 
 
 98 
 
 7542.9 
 
 9>^ 
 
 70.882 29 
 
 660.53 
 
 64 
 
 .3216.9 
 
 99 
 
 7697.7 
 
 To compute the area of a diameter greater than any in the 
 above table: 
 
 KULB. — Divide the dimension by 2, 3, 4, etc., if practicable, 
 until it is reduced to a quotient to be found in the tatle, 
 then multiply the tabular area of the quotient by the square 
 of the factor. The product will be the area required. 
 
 Example. — What is area of diameter of 150? 150 -:- 5 = 30. 
 Tabular area of 30 = 706.86 which X 25 = 17,671.5 area required. 
 
TABLES 
 
 23f> 
 
 
 
 Circumference op 
 
 Circles. 
 
 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Circiim. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Cireum. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Circum. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Circum. 
 
 'A 
 
 .3927 
 
 10 
 
 81.41 
 
 30 
 
 9424 
 
 65 
 
 304.3 
 
 % 
 
 .7854 
 
 lOK 
 
 33.98 
 
 31 
 
 97.38 
 
 66 
 
 207.8 
 
 H 
 
 1.178 
 
 11 
 
 34.55 
 
 82 
 
 100.5 
 
 67 
 
 210.4 
 
 'A 
 
 1.570 
 
 n% 
 
 36.13 
 
 33 
 
 103.6 
 
 68 
 
 318.6 
 
 H 
 
 1.968 
 
 13 
 
 37.69 
 
 34 
 
 106.8 
 
 69 
 
 316.7 
 
 M 
 
 2.356 
 
 12 J^ 
 
 89.27 
 
 35 
 
 109.9 
 
 70 
 
 219.9 
 
 H 
 
 2.748 
 
 13 
 
 40.84 
 
 86 
 
 113.0 
 
 71 
 
 233.0 
 
 1 
 
 3.141 
 
 13K 
 
 42.41 
 
 37 
 
 116.2 
 
 72 
 
 326.1 
 
 ^'A 
 
 3.534 
 
 14 
 
 43.98 
 
 38 
 
 119.3 
 
 73 
 
 229.3 
 
 IX 
 
 3.927 
 
 14^ 
 
 45.55 
 
 39 
 
 122.5 
 
 74 
 
 382.4 
 
 m 
 
 4.319 
 
 45^^ 
 
 47.12 
 
 40 
 
 125.6 
 
 75 
 
 235.6 
 
 iS 
 
 4.712 
 
 15ji 
 
 48.69 
 
 41 
 
 128.8 
 
 76 
 
 238.7 
 
 m 
 
 5.105 
 
 16 
 
 50.26 
 
 42 
 
 131.9 
 
 77 
 
 241.9 
 
 i5 
 
 5.497 
 
 18^ 
 
 51.83 
 
 43 
 
 185.0 
 
 78 
 
 245.0 
 
 1^ 
 
 5.890 
 
 17 
 
 53.40 
 
 44 
 
 138.3 
 
 79 
 
 248.1 
 
 .2 
 
 6.283 
 
 17;^ 
 
 64.97 
 
 45 
 
 141.3 
 
 80 
 
 251.8 
 
 2X 
 
 7.068 
 
 18 
 
 56.54 
 
 46 
 
 144.5 
 
 81 
 
 2544 
 
 2^ 
 
 7.854 
 
 18>i 
 
 58.11 
 
 47 
 
 147.6 
 
 82 
 
 257.6 
 
 2|< 
 
 8.639 
 
 19 
 
 59.69 
 
 48 
 
 150.7 
 
 83 
 
 260.7 
 
 3 
 
 9.424 
 
 19^ 
 
 61.26 
 
 49 
 
 153.9 
 
 84 
 
 263.8 
 
 3X 
 
 10.21 
 
 20 
 
 63.83 
 
 50 
 
 157.0 
 
 85 
 
 267.0 
 
 3^ 
 
 10.99 
 
 20^ 
 
 64.40 
 
 61 
 
 160.2 
 
 86 
 
 370.1 
 
 3^ 
 
 11.78 
 
 21 
 
 65.97 
 
 52 
 
 163.3 
 
 87 
 
 273.3 
 
 4 
 
 12.56 
 
 21;^ 
 
 67.54 
 
 53 
 
 166.5 
 
 88 
 
 376.4 
 
 4^ 
 
 1413 
 
 22 
 
 69.11 
 
 54 
 
 169.6 
 
 89 
 
 279.3 
 
 5 
 
 15.70 
 
 22 J^ 
 
 70.68 
 
 55 
 
 172.7 
 
 90 
 
 282.7 
 
 5;^ 
 
 17.27 
 
 33 
 
 73.25 
 
 56 
 
 175.9 
 
 91 
 
 285.8 
 
 6 
 
 18.84 
 
 ^Vz 
 
 73.83 
 
 57 
 
 179.0 
 
 92 
 
 389.0 
 
 ^}4 
 
 20.42 
 
 34 , 
 
 75.39 
 
 58 
 
 182.2 
 
 93 
 
 292.1 
 
 7 
 
 21.99 
 
 24K 
 
 7«.96 
 
 69 
 
 185.3 
 
 94 
 
 295.8 
 
 7>^ 
 
 23.56 
 
 35 
 
 78.54 
 
 60 
 
 188.4 
 
 95 
 
 298.4 
 
 8 
 
 25.13 
 
 26 
 
 81.68 
 
 61 
 
 191.6 
 
 96 
 
 801.5 
 
 8X 
 
 26.70 
 
 27 
 
 84.83 
 
 63 
 
 194.7 
 
 97 
 
 3047 
 
 9^ 
 
 38.27 
 
 38 
 
 87.96 
 
 63 
 
 197.9 
 
 98 
 
 307.8 
 
 P^_ 
 
 39.84 
 
 29 
 
 91.10 
 
 64 
 
 201.0 
 
 99 
 
 311.0 
 
 To compute the cirdumference of a diameter greater than 
 any in the ahove table: 
 
 KULE. — Divide the dimension by 2, 3, 4, etc., if practicabk, 
 until it is reduced to a diameter to be found in table. Take 
 the tabular circumference of this diameter, multiply it by 2, 
 3, 4, etc., according as it was divided, and the product will be 
 the circumference required. 
 
 Example. — What is the circumference of a diameter of 125? 
 125 -*- 5 = 25. Tabular circumference of 25 = 78.54, 78.54 X 
 5 = 392.7, circumference required. 
 
236 
 
 TABLES 
 
 Peopeemes of Metals. 
 
 
 
 Melting Point. 
 
 Degrees 
 Fahrenheit. 
 
 Weight 
 
 in Lbs. 
 
 per Cubic 
 
 Foot. 
 
 Weight 
 
 in Lbs. 
 
 per Cubic 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Tensile 
 Strength In 
 Pounds per 
 Square Inch. 
 
 Aluminunl 
 
 1140 
 
 166.5 
 
 .0963 
 
 15000-30000 
 
 Antimony 
 
 810-1000 
 
 421.6 
 
 .2439 
 
 1050 
 
 Brass (average) 
 
 1500-1700 
 
 523.2 
 
 .3027 
 
 30000-45000 
 
 Copper 
 
 1930 
 
 552. 
 
 .3195- 
 
 30000-40000 
 
 Gold (pure) 
 
 2100 
 
 1200.9 
 
 .6949 
 
 20380 
 
 Iron, cast 
 
 1900-2200 
 
 450. 
 
 .2604 
 
 20000-35000 
 
 Iron, wrought 
 
 2700-2830 
 
 480. 
 
 .2779 
 
 35000-60000 
 
 Lead 
 
 618 
 
 709.7 
 
 .4106 
 
 1000-3000 
 
 Mercury 
 
 39 
 
 846.8 
 
 .4900 
 
 
 Nickel 
 
 2800 
 
 548.7 
 
 .3175 
 
 
 Silver (pure) 
 
 1800 
 
 655.1 
 
 .3791 
 
 40000 
 
 Steel 
 
 2370-2685 
 
 489.6 
 
 .2834 
 
 50000-120000 
 
 Tin 
 
 475 
 
 458.3 
 
 .2652 
 
 5000 
 
 Zinc 
 
 780 
 
 436.5 
 
 .2526 
 
 3500 
 
 Note. — ^The wide variations in the tensile strength are due 
 to the different forms and qualities of the metal tested. In 
 the case of lead, the lowest strength is for lead cast in a mould, 
 the highest for wire drawn after numerous workings of the 
 metal. With steel it varies with the percentage of carbon 
 used, which is varied according to the grade of steel required. 
 Mercury becomes solid at 39 degrees Tjelow zero. 
 
TABLES 
 
 237 
 
 
 Decimal Parts of an 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 1-64 
 
 .01563 
 
 11-32 
 
 .34375 
 
 43-64 
 
 .67188 
 
 1-32 
 
 .03125 
 
 23-64 
 
 .35938 
 
 11-16 
 
 .6875 
 
 3-64 
 
 .04688 
 
 3-8 
 
 .375 
 
 
 
 1-16 
 
 .0625 
 
 
 
 45-64 
 
 .70313 
 
 
 
 25-64 
 
 .39063 
 
 23-32 
 
 .71875 
 
 5-64 
 
 .07813 
 
 13-32 
 
 .40625 
 
 47-64 
 
 .73438 
 
 3-32 
 
 .09375 
 
 27-64 
 
 .42188 
 
 3-4 
 
 .75 
 
 7-64 
 
 .10938 
 
 7-16 
 
 .4375 
 
 
 
 1-8 
 
 .125 
 
 
 
 49-64 
 
 .76563 
 
 
 
 29-64 
 
 .45313 
 
 25-32 
 
 .78125 
 
 9-64 
 
 .14063 
 
 15-32 
 
 .46875 
 
 51-64 
 
 .79688 
 
 5-32 
 
 .15625 
 
 31-64 
 
 .48438 
 
 13-16 
 
 .8125 
 
 11-64 
 
 .17188 
 
 1-2 
 
 .5 
 
 
 
 3-16. 
 
 .1875 
 
 
 
 53-64 
 
 .82813 
 
 
 
 33-64 
 
 .51563 
 
 27-32 
 
 .84375 
 
 13-64 
 
 .20313 
 
 17-32 
 
 .53125 
 
 55-64 
 
 .85938 
 
 7-32 
 
 .21875 
 
 35-64 
 
 .54688 
 
 7-8 
 
 .875 
 
 . 15-64 
 
 .23438 
 
 9-16 
 
 .5625 
 
 
 
 1-4 
 
 .25 
 
 
 
 57-64 
 
 .89063 
 
 
 
 37-64 
 
 .57813 
 
 29-32 
 
 .90625 
 
 17-64 
 
 .26563 
 
 19-32 
 
 .59375 
 
 59-64 
 
 .92188 
 
 9-32 
 
 .28125 
 
 39-64 
 
 .60938 
 
 15-16 
 
 .9375 
 
 19-64 
 
 .29688 
 
 5-8 
 
 .625 
 
 
 
 5-16 
 
 .3125 
 
 
 
 61-64 
 
 .95313 
 
 
 
 41-64 
 
 .64063 
 
 31-32 
 
 .96875 
 
 21-64 
 
 .32813 
 
 21-32 
 
 .65625 
 
 63-64 
 
 .97438 
 
 Melting Points of Alloys of Tin 
 
 , Lead, 
 
 and Bismuth. | 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Lead. Bismuth. 
 
 1 
 
 Melting 
 Point in' 
 Degrees 
 Fahren-, 
 heit. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Bismuth. 
 
 Melting 
 Point in 
 Degrees 
 Fahren- 
 heit, 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 199 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 372 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 201 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 
 381 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 212 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 385 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 246 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 392 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 286 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 466 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 334 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 552 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 
 367 
 
 
 
 
 
238 
 
 TABLES 
 
 Melting, Boiling and Freezing Points in 
 
 Degrees 
 
 Fahrenheit op Vajbious Substances. 
 
 Substance. 
 
 Melts at 
 Degrees 
 
 Substance. 
 
 Melts at 
 Degrees 
 
 Platinum 
 
 3080 
 
 Antimony 
 
 810 
 
 Wrought-Iron 
 
 2830 
 
 Zinc 
 
 780 
 
 Nickel 
 
 2800 
 
 Lead 
 
 618 
 
 Steel 
 
 2600 
 
 Bismuth 
 
 476 
 
 Cast-Iron 
 
 2200 
 
 Tin 
 
 475 
 
 Gold (pure) 
 
 2100 
 
 Cadmium 
 
 442 
 
 Copper 
 
 1930 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 226 
 
 Gun Metal 
 
 1960 
 
 Bees-Wax 
 
 151 
 
 Brass 
 
 1900 
 
 Spermaceti 
 
 142 
 
 Silver (pure) 
 
 1800 
 
 Tallow 
 
 -72 
 
 Aluminum 
 
 1140 
 
 Mercury 
 
 39 
 
 Substance. 
 
 Boils at 
 Degrees 
 
 Substance. 
 
 Freezes at 
 Degreed 
 
 Mercury 
 
 660 
 
 Olive Oil 
 
 36 
 
 Linseed Oil 
 
 600 
 
 Fresh Water 
 
 32 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 
 
 590 
 
 Vinegar 
 
 28 
 
 Oil of Turpentine 
 
 560 
 
 Sea Water 
 
 27X 
 
 Nitric Acid 
 
 242 
 
 Turpentine 
 
 14 
 
 Sea Water 
 
 213 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 
 
 1 
 
 Fresh Water 
 
 212 
 
 
 
VACUUM SYSTEM OF STEAM HEATING. 
 
 The application of vacuum to steam heating 
 ordinarily invglves the employment of a vacuum 
 pump located at, or as near as possible to the 
 lowest point in the return pipe system in which 
 a partial vacuum is to be maintained in order to 
 assist in^ steam circulation. With such a system 
 properly designed, which means with the return 
 lines graded so tha,t the condensation flows natur- 
 ally back to the vacuum pump, and with efficient 
 apparatus installed at the proper points, the 
 pump can be of relatively small size as it has little 
 to do beside partially exhausting the air from the 
 piping and radiators so as to establish a lower 
 pressure on the return side of the system. This 
 removal of air once accomplished, the pump has 
 only to handle the condensation and entrained 
 air; the steam condensing in the radiation pro- 
 duces the necessary vacuum, to induce a further 
 supply of steam to the heating units. It is only 
 when the physical conditions of the building to be 
 heated make it necessary to have drainage points 
 below the level of the suction inlet of the pump 
 that it is required to "lift" the condensation or 
 return water, but, since the steam used to actuate 
 
 239 
 
240 VACUUM SYSTEM 
 
 the pump is afterwards used for heating, with its 
 value impaired only a few per cent, the pump be- 
 comes a very efficient power unit. 
 
 Introduction a.nd Advantages. — The introduc- 
 tion of a vacuum system of steam iieating into a 
 building involves either the installation of a com- 
 plete plant including the vacuum pump in the 
 building, or, on the other hand the steam required 
 for heating may be obtained from a nearby central 
 heating station conducted on the vacuum system 
 whicTi is done in a large number of instances. The 
 principal advantages to be derived from the in- 
 stallation of the vacuum system are : 
 
 (1) The circulation of steam through the pipes, 
 radiators and heating coils is quick, positive and 
 uniform. 
 
 (2) There is no "water hammer" in the piping 
 of a properly installed vacuum heating system. 
 This is due to the continuous relief of air and the 
 positive removal of the products of condensation, 
 
 (3) The absence of air valves on the radiators. 
 
 (4) The ability during_mild weather, when the 
 demands for heating are slight, to distribute a 
 relatively small volume throughout the system as 
 needed, with a pressure at, or even slightly below 
 that of the atmosphere. 
 
 (5) In mills and factories operated by power 
 from non-condensing steam engines or steam tur- 
 bines, exhaust steam can be used for heating, due 
 to the partial elijnination of back pressure. Thi§ 
 
VACUUM SYSTEM 241 
 
 either saves directly in fuel consumption or en- 
 ables the engine to do more work at the same ex- 
 penditure of fuel. Back pressure upon compound 
 engines and turbines adds to their steam consump- 
 tion approximately 2.5 to 3 per cent per pound of 
 back pressure, while with simple reciprocating en- 
 gines the increased steam consumption due to back 
 pressure is 1.5 to 2.5 per cent under favorable con- 
 ditions and often much more, depending upon 
 conditions. 
 
 Heating Medium. — The first subject for consid- 
 eration in designing a vacuum system of heating 
 is the character of the heating medium, whether 
 exhaust or live steam, or a combination of both. 
 
 If exhaust steam from engines or auxiliaries is 
 to be utilized, as it should "be whenever possible, 
 proper provision must l)e made to remove the en- 
 trained oil and cylinder condensate. For this pur- 
 pose various methods are employed including the 
 loop~ seal. A snccessful device is shown in Fig- 
 ure 104. The apparatus -consists of an 611 sep- 
 aratoi* connected into the supply pipe, and drained 
 into a grease trap placed about six feet below the 
 separator. 
 
 Pressure-Reducing Valve. — ^A pressure-reduc- 
 ing valve is essential to secure the success of the 
 system. Such a valve is designed to automatically 
 admit live steam at reduced pressure into the sup- 
 ply mains at tiines when the amount of exhaust 
 steam is insufficient: This valve should be espec- 
 
242 
 
 VACUUM SYSTEM 
 
 ially adapted to vacuum system service, which 
 means that the diaphragm should be of ample area 
 to secure sensitive operation. In the case of 
 boiler pressures above 125 pounds it is the best 
 
 Fig. 104. — Typical method of draining Webster Oil Separator tluougb a 
 Webster Grease Trap. 
 
 practice to "step down" the pressure through two 
 reducing valves rather than to make a full reduc- 
 tion with a single valve. By this method more 
 accurate regulation is secured. 
 
 Radiation. — ^Before the supply and return pip- 
 ing can be propetly sized and arranged, the 
 amount of heat loss should be carefully calculated 
 for the various rooms and compartments. For 
 
VACUUM SYSTEM 
 
 243 
 
 this purpose the rules and tables given elsewhere 
 in this book will be found entirely reliable and sat- 
 isfactory and apply to any heating system. The 
 rate of condensation varies not only with the type 
 of radiation, but with its location and use. 
 
 Ordinary cast-iron loop radiators such as are 
 shown on pages 46 to 50 are most frequently used, 
 except in factories, large ware rooms, etc:, where 
 
 Fig. 105. — Radiator Connections — steam type with bottom connected 
 supply valve. Hot water type with top connected Webster Modulation 
 Valve. 
 
 cast-iron wall radiators or ordinary pipe coils may 
 be better adapted. When the riser connections 
 are above the floor line the radiators should be 
 placed so as to secure proper grading of supply 
 and return run-outs from radiators to risers. This 
 may be accomplished as shown in Figure 105. 
 
 Ra^iiator Tappings. — The tables here presented 
 are furnished by Warren Webster & Co. and apply 
 to vacuum system only. 
 
244 
 
 VACUUM SYSTEM 
 
 The Webster modulation valve referred to in 
 the table of radiator tappings and also shown at 
 the top in Figure 105, is a device especially- 
 adapted to vacuum heating systems, and will be 
 described and illustrated later on. 
 
 Its function is to regulate the supply of steam as 
 needed. 
 
 Cast Ikon Eadiatob Tappings. 
 Table of Sizes. 
 
 Square feet of direct 
 
 
 Supply tap- 
 
 
 radiating surface 
 
 
 ping with 
 
 
 condensing normally 
 
 Normal Maxi- 
 
 Webster 
 
 
 not to exceed % lb. 
 
 mum pounds 
 
 Modulation 
 
 Pipe size of 
 
 per square foot per 
 
 of condensa- 
 
 valve at- 
 
 return 
 
 hour. 
 
 tion per hour. 
 
 tached. 
 
 tapping. 
 
 1 to 25 
 
 7 
 
 % in. 
 
 % in. 
 
 26 to- 50 
 
 13 
 
 % in. 
 
 % in. 
 
 51 to 100 
 
 25 
 
 %. in. 
 
 ^ in. 
 
 101 to 175 
 
 44 
 
 % in. -to 1 in. 
 
 % in. 
 
 176 and over 
 
 75 
 
 1 in. 
 
 % ui. 
 
 Pipe Coil .Tappings., 
 Table of Sizes. 
 
 Square feet, of direct 
 
 
 
 
 radiating surface 
 
 
 
 
 condensing normally 
 
 Normal maxi- 
 
 
 
 not to exceed % lb. 
 
 mum pounds 
 
 Pipe size of 
 
 Pipe size of 
 
 per square foot per 
 
 of condensa- 
 
 supply 
 
 return 
 
 hour. 
 
 tion per hour. 
 
 tapping. 
 
 tapping. 
 
 "42 
 
 13 
 
 % 'in. 
 
 % in. 
 
 84 
 
 25 
 
 1 in. 
 
 % in. 
 
 146 
 
 44 
 
 - 1% in. 
 
 % in. 
 
 250 
 
 75 
 
 ,l%.in. 
 
 % in. 
 
 528- 
 
 158 ;. 
 
 - 2 , in. ■ 
 
 % in. 
 
 ■ -924; 
 
 . 277- 
 
 21/2 in: 
 
 1 in. 
 
VACUUM SYSTEM 
 
 When the radiators are located so that a higher 
 condensation rate will be secured, the sizes of the 
 tappingg should be based upon the condensation 
 rate and not upon the size of the radiator. 
 
 Direct-indirect radiators will condense at least 
 33 per cent more than direct radiators. The con- 
 densation rate of wall radiators is approxunately 
 0.3 lb. per- square foot of radiating surface. 
 
 Fig. 106. — When the "harp" coil 
 has but a few pipes, a simple sup- 
 ply connection, as shown, should 
 be made. 
 
 Flg.^ 107. — Proper method of 
 making supply connections to 
 "harp" coU ot large size to insure 
 supply-of steam to each pipe in the 
 coil. 
 
 Ruu-Outs. — ^When horizontal supply run-outs 
 above floor level from risers to radiators are more 
 than four feet in length, they should be at least 
 one size larger than the radiator supply trappings 
 given in the tables. In buildings where it is neces- 
 sary to lay supply run-outs for some distance, 
 practically level under finished floors, these run- 
 outs must be of such size that the velocity of steam 
 
246 
 
 VACUUM SYSTEM 
 
 in the direction opposite to the flow of condensa- 
 tion will not prevent the latter from flowing back 
 to the main. It is good practice to make the re- 
 turn run-outs from radiators to risers not smaller 
 than %-indh, even when the radiator return tap- 
 ping is %-inch, as the larger pipe is not so liable 
 to become distorted, sagged or clogged. 
 
 Pipe Coil Connections. — ^Figures 106 and 107 
 show proper methods of making supply connec- 
 tions to harp coils. Figure 108 shows the supply- 
 connection to a manifold coil. 
 
 Fig. 108. — Supply connections to manifold coll. 
 
 Arrangement of Supply Piping. — There are two 
 general methods in use, the up-feed and down- 
 feed systems. The most common arrangement is 
 the up-feed system of risers, locating the supply 
 mains in the basement. 
 
 Where conditions require that the main be run 
 centrally with lateral branches of considerable 
 
VACtnJM SYSTEM 
 
 247 
 
 length it is customary to drip these branches at 
 the base of each riser. The removal of condensa- 
 tion at these points is accomplished either 
 through, individual traps discharging into the 
 vacuum return line as shown in Figures 109 and 
 
 Supply, 
 Riser 
 
 V Supply 
 Main 
 
 
 Dirt 
 Pbcket 
 
 ft 
 
 a ^SVLPHON 
 
 t 
 
 Vacuum 
 Return 
 kMaIn 
 
 TRAP 
 
 Fig. 109. — ^Method of dripping supply risers through Webster Sylphon 
 Trap loto vacuum return line. 
 
 109*, or by combining these drips into a separate 
 drip line from which the condensation is dis- 
 charged into the vacuum return line through a 
 heavy duty water line trap as shown in Fig- 
 ure 110. 
 
248 
 
 VACUUM SYSTEM 
 
 Down-Peed System. — ^It is frequently better en- 
 gineering practice to use the down-feed system, 
 especially in high buildings when the main exhaust 
 pipe leads to the roof. This pipe may be used as 
 the main supply riser, and' in such case the back 
 pressure valve is located at or near the top of the 
 main riser, below which a branch is taken off to 
 feed a system of distributing mains to supply the 
 down-feed risers as shown in Figure 111. 
 
 DIRrSTRAlNERl_ 
 
 DRIP TRAP 
 
 Fig. 109a. — Webster Dirt Strainer and Trap.' 
 
 These risers may be dripped through individual 
 traps, or the drips may be combined into a sepa- 
 rate drip line and discharged through a heavy duty 
 trap into the vacuum return line. 
 
 Vacuum Return Lines. — The location and ar- 
 rangement of return piping is the same whether 
 
VACUUM SYSTEM 
 
 249 
 
 the up-feed or down-feed system of supply is used. 
 There should always be a slight downward pitch 
 in the direction of the flow of condensation. 
 
 The size of vacuum return piping is affected by 
 the amount of vapor to be handled. 
 
 In gravity heating systems the returns are 
 filled with steam, while in vacuum systems with 
 efficient traps they are not so filled. 
 
 Assuming the supply piping to be correctly pro- 
 portioned, a safely approximate rule is to make 
 
 Main 
 ■Up-feed . 
 
 WP'y i 
 
 Riser ') 
 
 s 
 
 DIRT : HEAVY DUTY 
 strainer: /TRAP 
 
 Fig. 110. — Dripping the Main Dp-Feed Supply Riser. 
 
 the diameter of the horizontal return line not less 
 than one-half the diameter of th-e corresponding 
 supply line for supply lines of 4-inch and under, 
 while for larger supplies the proportion may be 
 reduced until with a 12-inch supply line for ex- 
 ample, a 4-inch return (1/3 supply) would be 
 ample. In no case should a horizontal return pipe 
 less than %-inch in size be used for more than 
 
250 
 
 VACUUM SYSTEM 
 
 one radiator. "Lifts" in return lines should be 
 avoided when it is possible to arrange for gra,vity 
 flow to the vacuum pump. When a lift of 6 feet or 
 over cannot be avoided it should be divided into 
 "steps" rather than make the total lift in one 
 rise. 
 
 Pi, la, ici, o.. 
 
 au bi-, te-, au 
 
 ^ 
 
 Fig. lll.-r-The Down-Feed System of Piping. 
 
 Exhausting Apparatus. — The highest authori- 
 ties recommend the installation of two vacuum 
 pumps, each of ample capacity for the entire 
 plant, so that either pump may be cleaned and 
 repaired while the other is in operation. 
 
 Modulation Valve. — Mention has already been 
 made of this valve, a sectional view of which is 
 
VACUUM SYSTEM 
 
 251 
 
 Fig. 112. — Webster Type N Modulation Valve, sectional view. 
 
 Fig. llS.^Webster Water-Seal Trap. 
 
252 VACUUM SYSTEM 
 
 shown in Fig. 112. Its proper location in the steam 
 supply leading to a radiator is shown in Fig. 105. 
 In Figure 114 is shown a sectional view of the 
 Webster sylphon trap which operates on the well- 
 known thermostatic principle, using a sylphon 
 bellows constructed of seamless brass folds the 
 contraction or expansion of which serves to open 
 or close the valve shown at the bottom. 
 
 Fig. 114.— Webster gylplioii Trap. 
 
INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Air valves 57 
 
 Altitude gauge 121 
 
 Boiler capacity 21 
 
 Blow torch ^ 165 
 
 Casings 17-81 
 
 Check valves 112 
 
 Chimney flues 30-130 
 
 Cleaning gas fixtures - 171 
 
 Cold air 144 
 
 Connecting a meter 160 
 
 Damper regulator 26 
 
 Direct-indirect radiation 43-96 
 
 Direct radiation 42-95 
 
 Double main system 89 
 
 Estimating 74-129 
 
 Expansion tank 114 
 
 Expansion of wrought iron, steam and water pipes 150 
 
 Pire pot 17-82 
 
 Fire pots • 20-85 
 
 Fittings 1 ;151-160 
 
 Frost in pipes 159 
 
 Fuel combustion .31-131 
 
 Furnaces 134 
 
 Furnace heating 133 
 
 Gas burners 174 
 
 Gas fitting 157 
 
 Gas fitting in work shops 187 
 
 Gas proving pump 171 
 
 Gas stoves and flues 183 , 
 
 Gas supply pipe 158 
 
 General instructions 139 
 
 Good workmanship 145 
 
 Grate 17-82 
 
 Grates, simplicity of 18-82 
 
 253 
 
254 INDEX 
 
 FACE 
 
 Heat \ 9 
 
 Heater capacity 86 
 
 Heating surface 39-92 
 
 Heating systems 7 
 
 Hot air pipes 143 
 
 Hot water heating 77 
 
 Hot water heating plant 126 
 
 Hot water mains ; 92 
 
 Indirect radiation 42-95 
 
 Location of the furnace 142 
 
 Mantel lamps 167 
 
 Medical aid 220 
 
 One pipe system 33 
 
 One pipe system with separate return 34 
 
 One pipe circuit steam heating system 37 
 
 One pipe overhead system 35 
 
 Openings in foundation 145 
 
 Overhead steam heating system 38 
 
 Partition 143 
 
 Pipe bends w 152 
 
 Pipe machines -. . . 154 
 
 Pipe systems 33-88 
 
 Pressure gauges 28 
 
 Proper size of chimney 142 
 
 Proper size of furnace 141 
 
 Quadruple main water heating system 89 
 
 Badiation 42-95 
 
 Badiators 44-97 
 
 Badiator connections .'. 56-93-108. 
 
 Badiator valves 58-108 
 
 Beading a meter 161 
 
 Bectangular sectional boilers 19 
 
 Bectangular sectional heaters 83 
 
 Belative advantages of steam and hot water heating 7 
 
 Bound steam boilers 14 
 
 Bound water heaters 78 
 
 Safety valves - 23 
 
 Simplicity of the grates 18-82 
 
 Single pipe overhead system 90 
 
 Smoke pipes 29-129 
 
 Specifications and contract for a hot water heating plant 127 
 
INDEX 255 
 
 FAGI! 
 
 Specifieations and contract for a steam heating plant 75 
 
 Starting a hot water heating plant 123 
 
 Starting a steam heating plant -. 66 
 
 Steam boilers .' 13 
 
 Steam heating 11 
 
 Steam heating plant 69 
 
 Steam mains 41 
 
 Steam and gas fitting 150 
 
 Street supply main 158 
 
 Tables 225-238 
 
 Thermometers 87 
 
 Tools 154 
 
 Two-pipe system 37 
 
 Unsteady water line in boiler i 63 
 
 Useful information 192 
 
 Useful kinks 203 
 
 * Vacuum system of steam heating 239 
 
 Ventilation 8 
 
 Water_column 26 
 
 Water gauge 120 
 
 Webster system 242 
 
 Wrought iron pipe . . '. 150 
 
 INDEX TO TABLES 
 
 Approximate radiating surface to cubic capacities to be heated 123 
 
 Approximate velocity of air in flues of various heights 148 
 
 Areas of chimneys 233 
 
 Areas of circles 234 
 
 Boiling points of variqui fluids 197 
 
 Capacity of expansion tanks 121 
 
 Capacity of furnaces to maintain an inside temperature of 70 
 
 degrees with an outside temperature of degrees 149 
 
 Circumferences of circles 235 
 
 Decimal parts of an inch 237 
 
 Dimensions of chimney flues for given amounts of direct steam 
 
 radiation 31-131 
 
 Dimensions and heating capacities of furnaces 145 
 
 Lap welded Bteel> or ohaicoal ii'on boiler tubes 225 
 
256 INDEX TO TABLES 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Loss of heat by transmission with a difference of 70 degrees 
 
 Fahr. between the indoor and outdoor temperatures 146 
 
 Loss in pressure due to friction in pipes 230 
 
 Melting, boiling and freezing points of various substances. . . 238 
 Melting points of alloys of tin, lead and bismuth 237 
 
 Pipe tap for, one- and two-pipe steam radiator connections. . . 57 
 
 Pipe tapping for hot water radiators 93 
 
 Pressure of water for each foot in height 196 
 
 Proper sizes of furnace pipes to heat rooms of various dimen- 
 sions 147 
 
 Pf oper sizes of hot water mains 93 
 
 Proper sizes of one- and two-pipe steam mains 41 
 
 Properties of metals 236 
 
 Properties of saturated steam 232 
 
 Beduction of chimney draft by long flues 233 
 
 Square feet of heating surface in: 
 
 Four-column steam radiators 55 
 
 Three-column steam radiators 54 
 
 Two-column steam radiators 53 
 
 Square feet of heating surface in: , 
 
 Four-column water radiators 107 
 
 Three-colimin water radiators 106 
 
 Two-column water radiators 105 
 
 Square feet of surface in one lineal foot of pipe of various 
 
 dimensions 197 
 
 Temperature of steam at varying pressures in- degrees Fahr.. . 73 
 Tensile strength of bolts ., 231 
 
 Velocity, of flow of water ........... i.^ 230 
 
 Wind velocities' 146 
 
 Wrought iron and steel steam, gas and water pipfr — dimen- 
 sions of 226-227 
 
 Wrought iron and steel extra strong pipe — dimensions of ... . 228 
 .Wrought iron and steel double extra strong pipe — dimen- 
 sions of 229