arV1 3987°°™" Un, ' verei, y LibSry wffi^SfflS^^teJ^SKpna. ele(ne „, o.,n,an? 1924 °31 273 737 CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031273737 AN EXAMINATION FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS ENGLISH SENTENCE AN EXAMINATION OF THE FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF AN ENGLISH SENTENCE TOGETHER WITH A NEW SYSTEM OF ANALYTIC MARKS REV. W. G. WRIGHTSON, M.A Cantab. MACMILLAN AND CO. 1882 The Right of Translation and Reproduction is Reserved. A CORNELL^ UNIVERSITY! LIBRARY // LONDON : R. Clay, Suns, and Taylok, BREAD STRBBT HILL. PREFACE. The following work is a contribution towards the study of English grammar on such principles as may make our mother- tongue the best possible foundation for the study of kindred types of speech. It is a work on that Analysis of a Sentence which, by laying bare the elements of spoken thought, affords the only solid foundation for comparative grammar. As a gradual growth, the structure of a language must always be examined on historic principles. Hence I have been obliged to refer to some of the earlier forms of speech, and in particular to that Old English which was spoken by our Anglo-Saxon ancestors. The prominence accorded to O.E. might be justified on the ground that it affords the earliest specimens of the language which has developed into the English of to-day. There is, however, another reason. The O.E. in use from a.d. 450 to a.d. iioo is inflectional to so considerable an extent, that it prepares the mind of a mere English scholar to apprehend the nature of the so-called classical languages. With regard to the treatment of my subject, I must make a few remarks. vi PREFACE. The Introduction is given with much hesitation. Perhaps it would not have been given at all, if it had not obviated the necessity of adding certain disconnected appendices. It is an attempt to sketch in bold rough outline the growth of our Aryan speech : but in any such attempt one is frequently obliged to ignore, not only many minor points, hut also the important distinction between positive facts and scientific hypotheses. To those who desire a fuller and much more exact sketch than is contained in this work, I recommend Peile's admirable Primer of Philology. Under the head of the Primary Sentence, I have considered both the Cognate and the Indirect objects. The former of these terms receives a new width of application ; but what has been said will be found to harmonize with the views, if not with the terminology, contained in Jell's Grtck Grammar, , §§ S44 - S8s. The latter term is used in accommodation to the standard English Grammar of Dr. Morell, who seems to apply it to all essential adverbials. When however we notice that such " Indirect Objects " need not consist of indirectly affected ofy'afs at all, we may be disposed to think that it would have been well to restrict the term to what is here described as the Remoter Object, and to leave all the rest of the so-called Indirect Objects to form a class distinguished as " Essential Adverbials." The new classification of Analytic Elements, which forms the most characteristic feature of this work, has necessitated not only some modification in the meaning of old terms, but PREFACE. also the introduction of some new ones. I have however endeavoured so to tabulate the elements of a sentence on p. 41, &c, that most of the new terminology will be found to associate itself readily with the remarkably uniform character of the phenomena I have pointed out, — see, for example, the three groups of triplets on p. 79. The only part of this work which comes within the range of children, is that in which the system of Analytic Marks is explained. Although it is a system which ceases to be practically available in the analysis of very involved sentences, yet it is otherwise capable of meeting all the requirements of learners. The most involved specimens of speech are only unnecessary aggregations of those elements which are best examined and understood when presented in briefer sentences. This system of marks will be found even more useful in dealing with the synthetic languages of antiquity than with modem English : and I have many pages of Greek and Latin authors where, during the process of translation, an interlinear analy s has been made without trouble and with permanent advantage. The great prominence I have, given to the uncertainties and transitions of grammatical construction will doubtless prove irritating to those who wish to find everything fixed by rule. But, however irritating, it is a lesson of the utmost importance to the student that he should realize the plastic nature of human speech. Language does not grow in accordance with the rules of grammarians, but the rules of grammarians are framed in accordance with what happens to be the viii PREFACE. most established form of linguistic growth. Hence their rules have no necessary connection with tiro principles on which a living speech is developed, but are simply a register of the constructions in use for the lime being amongst the most cultivated sections of a community. The unwelcome discovery of the uncertainty, which for example attends the nature of many Objects, is invaluable, for thereby the student is prepared for, and very often enabled to track out, those delicate transitions of thought which have caused a wide divergence of construction between his own and the classic languages, or between the English of one period and of another. My the Etymologist and Lexicographer a converse process may some- times be followed with advantage ; for, if the constructions associated with a verb depend to a great extent upon what are or have been its more delicate shades of meaning, surely those shades of meaning must sometimes be indicated by the con- structions, — see, for an example, p. 55, note. To those students who desire to devote more attention to English, I recommend the following works ; — By Morris, {Specimens of Early Kngllsh (A.n. njo — a.d. 1300). Historical Outlines of English Accidence. l)y Morris and SUeat. Specimens of Knglish (A.n. 1398 — A.B. 1393), By Sweet. Anglo-Saxon Primer, Anglo-Saxon Reader. By Bosvvorth. Smaller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. PREFACE. ix By Peile. Primer of Philology. By Rev. W. Skeat, Professor of Anglo-Saxon at Cambridge. Specimens of English Literature (a.d. 1394 — a.d. 1579). Piers Plowman [Prologue and Passus I. — VII.]. Concise Etymological Dictionary. Questions for Examination with Introduction on the Study of English. Among the various books to which I am indebted for in- formation several are included in the above list ; but besides these I have made great use of the following Grammars, viz., that on Sanskrit by Monier Williams ; those on Greek by Jelf, Donaldson, and Farrar ; that by Kennedy known as Tlie Public School Latin Grammar; that on Anglo-Saxon by Vernon; those on English by Morell, Morris, and Bain. It only remains for me to express my very great obligation to Professor Skeat of Cambridge for his revision of the whole of the Old English, and my warm thanks to the Rev. Wentworth Webster, M.A., for his assistance in the revision of all the remaining portions of this work. W. G. WRIGHTSON. Beckenham, Kent, October, 1882. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. SECT. PAGE 1. Definition of a sentence and its logical divisions . .... I 2. Logical terms . . . i 3. Subject and logical predicate .... .2 4. Copula . . . 3 5. Subject, Copula, and Predicate combined . . .... 3 6. Logic and Grammar . . 4 7. Roots . . . 5 8. ,, Predicative . ... 5 9. ,, Demonstrative 5 10. Combination of predicative and demonstrative Roots .... 6 11. Suffixes, — inflectional and formative 7 12. Separable compounds 7 13. Nouns 10 14. Adjectives . . ... ... 14 15. Adverbs . 15 16. Prepositions . . IS 17. Conjunctions . ... 16 18. Verbs . ... 17 19. „ tenses ... . . . . . 18 20. ,, moods .... . . . . .22 21. ,, classification . . ... 27 x xi CONTENTS. ,s M1CT. rAU * jj. Verbs, the copula ......... ^ J v v Metamorphosis of purls of speech .....•>■ i >•> > '9 24. Verbal-adjectives, i.t. participles 3 11 .35. Verli:\l-nouns, i.t. infinitives, grands, and supines M a6. Syntax and Analysis • .1° EXAMINATION OF TllK FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF AN ENC1.1SU SENTENCE. lllSNKUAl. RlCMAKKS. if. Crainmatical description of ft sentence 2>S. Aimlvsis 99. Subject aud grammatical Predicate . jo. Classification of Functional Elements 31. Words .............. ri 33. Clauses 34. Direct and Oblique construction 35. Classification of sentences . . . 3<>- 37- 3«. 39- 40. ■!•• -|3- 43. 4.1. ■IS- 46, T1IK 1'UIMARY SENTKNC1 Description of Clio prinmry seulcnee Subject of any cluss of sentence Predicate of the prinmry sentence Complements ..,,..,,..,,,, Cognate Object , , ,, as a noun clause ,, ,, ,, ,, almost udvorbla ,, ,, alter Eaditivc verbs ,, ,, after verbs of Naming . , ■ , ,, ,, consisting of a noun or pronoun ,, , , consisting of nn "Adverbial accusative ,W 3" ■l» ■I ■> 43 •13 •l-l •17 4') 40 SO 5' 5-1 57 58 59 do Oi (11 CONTENTS. xiii SECT. PA3E 47. Cognate Object', replaced by an Indirect object 62 48. >> ,, replaced by a Direct object 62 49. Direct Object 63 S°- >> )> omitted or replaced by a Cognate or Indirect object 64 Si. >> ,1 with Cognate object, «'. ,> „ ,, Perception 66 56. „ „ „ „ Giving, Receiving, &c. &c . . . 67 57. The Infinitive in primary sentences 67 58. „ as subject 68 59. „ as complement 6S 60. ,, as cognate object 68 61. ,, as direct object . 6g 62. ,, as indirect object 68 63. ,, as copula verb 69 64. ,, after auxiliary verbs 70 6$. Interrogatives 71 66. Adjectives followed by cognate and indirect objects 75 67. Co-ordination in primary sentence 75 68. Hark system applied to primary sentences 76 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. -69. Description of the simple sentence 79 70. Apposites 79 71. Epithetic apposites 80 72. Subordinating „ 81 73. Co-ordinating apposites 81 74. Attributes 82 xiv CONTENTS. SISCT. VAOB 75. Epithetic attributes 8j 76. Subordinating 84 77- Co-ordinating ,, ,,,,,..,.,.,....... 85 78. Ai/twiinl attributes 87 79. Epithetic adverbial-attributes 87 80. Subordinating .. ............... 87 81. Co-ordinating ., 88 82. Adverbinls S8 83. ,, words and case-stems 95 84. ,. prepositional phrases ufi S5. ,, inlinilivcs too 86. ., nominative absolute 103 87. Adjectivals qualified by adverbials , . 103 88. ,, ,, ., adverbs . 104 '89. ,, ,. ,. advci'bial-caso stems ........ 104 90. ., ., „ adverbial phrases . , IOJ 0,1. ,, ,, ,, adverbial Infinitives ,,,.,,,. 105 92. Adverbial** modified by ndvcrbinls Wj 93. Co-ordination in simple sentences , , , . , 108 94. Mark system applied to simple sentences , 108 TI1K COMPLEX SKNTKNl'K. 95. Description of the complex sentence ........... 1 12 96. The Substantival Clause 112 97- >• 1. 11 as an oblique assertion 112 98. ,, ,, ., ., ,, petition ...... 113 99. .. n .. ,. ., question 113 100. ,, ,, ,, contracted 1 14 lot. The Adjectival Clause , , . 114 102. ,, ,. ,, its relatives HJ 103. ,, ,, .. its antecedents l Ir) 104. ,, ,, ., with a complex relative ,• , 130 CONTENTS. xv SECT. I> AGE 105. The Adjectival Clause as Epithetic attributive clause . . . . 124 106. ,, „ „ Subordinate „ , 126 107. „ ., „ Co-ordinate ,, , 127 10S. The Adverbi.il Clause 129 109. ,, ,, ,, adverbial correlatives ........ 133 110. ,. .. ,. of Place 133 111. .. .. .. ,, Time 134 Hi. .. ., .. „ Cause 134 113. ., ., .. .. Manner 140 114. ., ,, ,. ,, ambiguous character 143 115. ., ,, ,, contracted 144 1 16. Co-ordination in complex sentences . 146 117. Mark system applied to complex sentences .... 147 THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 118. Description of the compound sentence ... . 149 119. Co-ordinate conjunctions 149 12a Co-ordinate Cumulative Clauses IS' 121. ,, Adversative „ IS 1 122. „ Illative , »S3 123. Mark system applied to compound sentences . 154 124. .. „ extended 15° 125. Defective Constructions t5^ ON TtlE APPROXIMATE PRONUNCIATION of THE OLD ENGLISH ALPHABET. As it i»//i\«»Mf in tAt jWAwiMg /»gw. VOWK1.S. The approximate sounds of the O.V.. vowels mx-, with two exceptions, included in Mr, Pitman's well known phonetic series, and may he readily mastered., The long vowels in O.K. are usually marked with an accent, but this is often omitted. The sllort e, when Until, is always so tar sounded as to add a syllable to the word. r/h>n<-ti\: ('./•'. nw/j. Kty tt'iW, ('. A". f\\\\l»lftf ah . ... a . . |>a, hwa. , |wre, uk 1 . ee . . . . 1 . eel . . • • 1 > i 1 1 , uilu. aw . o , . . » O , no . . do. do . . . u . moon . . • • |«u, tire, bus. a . . . . iV, It . man , . . 1'ivt, long. e . . . e men . . , , web. t . , . i .it . , |>is. o . . . . o . not . . ■ . Ininue, « ... — . . — - . . , . — 63 . . . . u . good • . . • burg. The O.IC y the (Ionium ii ii (.,. in. .. ,. y = = the French u in leu. The O.K c >• .. cw 8 h h M >) f <» »l r M It I 1 CONSONANTS. was pronounced as c In dit. qu „ i/mto. S >• A'o. h ., Ae, when initial. ch ,, loi'A | Scotch] when moilial or linal. f ,, <;/; when nuxlial or until 1 , ng ., Ii«cer. '" m ray, »■*. with a strong trill, th „ Ming, usually an initial letter, th „ Mis, usually a medial or limit letter. INTRODUCTION. 1. A Sentence or Proposition is the expression of a complete Thought in words. Logic teaches us that, no matter what may be its grammatical form, every proposition consists of three parts. The two parts, which most commonly term- inate the proposition at either end, are for this reason called the Terms : and the part, which couples the terms, is for this reason called the Copula. 2. Terms are the names or descriptions of tilings ; /.<•. they are Xouns with or without limiting words, as the case may be. They may be classified and illustrated as follows : — Unique, i.e. the special name or description, e^. the Earth, Queen Victoria, the land of Palestine, God, my father. f Unique, i.e. the special name or description of an aggregate, e.g. Mankind. Concrete ( Collective' General, i.e. a common name or description ot an aggregate, e.g. Nation, herds, flock of sheep, families. Genera], i.e. a common name or description, e.g. Tiling, man, women, animals, line of battle ships, swift things, things in the sky. Abstract, i.e. the name or description of any Quality, State, or Action, conceived of as abstracted from all connection with the person, thing, actual state or deed, without which such quality, &c., could not exist, e.g. goodness, vice, virtue, humility, existence, to exist. B INTRODUCTION. |« ,t Ob». — A true Abstract nonn can neither have a plural nor receive the article 'a.' When it appears to do so, it has ill reality become a licncral noun with a new shade of meaning. Thus in 'tine vice Is more expen ive than ten virlucs,' the noun ' vice ' ■-= manifestation or species of vice, tuul ' virtue ' - manifestation or species of virtue. 3. The Terms of a proposition arc distinguished as the Subject and Predicate. The Subject is the name or description of that of which we are chiefly thinking and speaking. The Predicate [logical | is the name or description of that which coincides with [^ 22 Obs. | or includes the subject, — just as a half-crown will coincide with another laid upon it, while it will include within its circumference a sixpenny or shilling piece. A Coincidence occurs, when the predicate consists of an Abstract or Unique noun, or of a General noun so limited as to become a Unique term, c^g. ' Virtue is n/au/iness ' ; 'God is the Creator' ; ' The king is my fattier' ; ' Kavnilloc was the man who murdered Henry the Fourth of France.' An Inclusion occurs, when the predicate consists of a General term, e.g ' Dogs are . swift,' and ' Stars are in the sky' 4. The Copula is the link, which unites the subject to the logical predicate, and which asserts that the subject coincides with, or is included in the predicate [§ 3]. Until joined by the copula two terms present us with two ideas, but not one thought. Thus if I say ' Dogs, quadrupeds,' you have the two ideas, 773. of ' dogs ' and ' quadrupeds ' ; but you have no idea what I am thinking about them. When however I say, 'Dogs are quadrupeds,' you at once catch a thought, which may be either true or false, and concerning which a discussion may be carried on. 5. A subject, copula, and logical predicate, exist in every proposition whether they appear in actual speech or not. But although these logical elements have always existed in every sentence, it was not until language had been growing through an immense period of time that the means existed for b 2 .(. INTRODUCTION. IS the separate expression of subject, copula, and predicate. Not until certain verbs, meaning 'breathe,' 'dwell,' 'grow.' 'stand,' &c, had attained to an almost withered old age |§ 22] did an Aryan copula exist. And it was not until this copula existed, that what had previously been nothing more than a <*>- ordi tinting apposite [§ 73] was found to represent the logical predicate, or at all events its Noun, — and that what had previously been nothing more than a co-ordinating attribute [§ 77] was found to represent the attribute of the said expressed or unexpressed Noun [§ j, Obs. a]. 6. In sentences where subject, copula, and predicate, are separately expressed there is a correspondence between the grammatical and the logical divisions. The existence of this comparatively late, and still limited, form of sentence must not however be allowed to mislead the student into an idea that there is any regular correspondence between logic and grammar. The laws of Thought are widely dillerenl from the principles which have governed the development of Speech. The science of Logic approximates to that of Mathematics, .while the science of Language is analogous to that of living organisms. There is indeed one most important analogy between the growth of Language and that of (lie Animal or Vegetable kingdoms; for just as the Naturalist discovers that the phenomena of a gradual evolution do not preclude the continued presence of earlier types of organization, so does the modern Grammarian find traces, analogies, and con structions, belonging to all the ages, which alford as it were living specimens from each successive era of linguistic growth. And thus it conies to be no mere matter of curiosity, but rather one of necessity, that in this introductory chapter we should lake a cursory glance at the successive stages in the development of our own Aryan family of speech, a family which not only includes the ancient Sanskrit-speaking Aryas, .the Greeks, the Romans, the Goths, and the Anglo-Saxons; § 9] INTRODUCTION. 5 but also the modern Hindoos, Persians, French, Spaniards, Germans, and English, besides many more. Remarks on some of the Leading Phenomena in the Growth of our Aryan Form of Speech. 7. The ultimate linguistic elements, into which science has succeeded in reducing speech, consist of significant syllables called Roots. , If we lay aside a few imitative sounds, these may be divided into two classes, viz. Predicative and Demon- strative or Pointing roots. 8. Predicative Roots are single syllables, originally asso- ciated with a variety of actions, such as striking, rubbing, pushing, ploughing, measuring, &c. It is probable that by means of arrangement, accent, and intonation, these predicative roots may have risen to the dignity of words, but, if so, we have no trace of such a stage in the Aryan family of speech, and have for actual illustrations to turn to Chinese, where a predicative root may appear as noun, verb, adjective, or adverb. 9. Demonstrative or Pointing Roots 1 are single syllables expressive of position in relation to the speaker. We may describe them as pointing words, inasmuch as they must at first have always been coupled with the act of pointing. These pointing roots or words were three in number, but most naturally lent themselves to the expression of several analogous triplets. Thus they came to serve for Here, near here, there. This [here], this [near here], that [there]. I v. me, thou v. thee, he v. him. One, two, three. Obs. — In Book ii. Chap. i. of the A r m> Cratylus, Dr. Donaldson shows that Pronouns in general were originally all Demonstrative. Hence They are alsj called ' Pronominal roots' and ' Pronominal elements.' 6 INTRODUCTION'. U 10 il\cy must all have their first bouimiiuj-s in the al>ov* pointing- roots. Their vitiations depend ou the usuyes of syntax rather than on their original significance. 10. The Combination of Predicative and Pointing Roots was the lust great stop in word formation, tor the tuiMniug of a sentence was thus saved from depending e\ clusively on accent, intonation, arrangement, and the exercise of the hearer's imagination. Thus if a predicative root ex- pressive of 'shining' were combined with the three pointing roots, «.iy./ in ///<■ .vrv/.v ( '/' •/,' 'thou' an J '/if,' the three persons of a finite Verb would be formed having the force o( 1 shine, or am shining. Thou shinest, or art shining. , lie shines, or is shining. Again, if the same predicative root were combined with the three pointing roots, mtJ in the sense <>/' ' This lure' 'this near here' and '■that their' certain forms of a primitive Noun' would arise, equivalent to This here shines, or is shining, This near here shines, or is shining, That there shines, or is shining ; and two of these forms 3 would [when the difference between subject and object was realised | become available for the expression of the nominative and accusative cases. 1 ' What wo now cull a Noun was originally ft kind of ■«nt«no«, consisting of t lie loot ami some so-called SUltix w Inch pointed In Noim-thlli;; of whieh that root wns predicated. '- Mux Midler's Itikbtit iMuits for 1878, p. 191. a Donaldson [Creel- Gr. $ 15a! says that the Nominative termination Is derived from its second pointing root, while the Accusative Is derived from the third. 5 12] INTRODUCTION. 7 If, however, the formation of the verb and noun had been quite as simple as this, there would still have been nothing to distinguish some of the cases of the noun from some of the persons of the verb. But, as it appears that all verbs were at first reflexive [i.e. in the middle voice], we may conjecture that the persons of the verb were in part distinguished from the cases of the noun by the doubling of the appropriate pro- nominal root. The difference between the noun and verb was however still more clearly indicated by the gradual introduction of the formative suffixes described in the next section. 11. Suffixes are of two kinds, viz. inflectional and formative. Inflectional Suffixes are the terminations which mark the cases, &c of nouns, and the persons, &c. of verbs ; and they must have had their first beginnings, as before described [§ 10], in the addition of pointing to predicative roots. Formative Suffixes are the worn down remains of words, which, though their meaning may be hopelessly lost, still retain the power of marking the part of speech to which a word primarily belongs. When added to a Predicative root they formed what is known as the Stem of a noun, verb, &c, and were followed by the inflectional suffix. There are verbs remaining which have never had a verbal formative-suffix inserted between the root and the personal inflection ; because, when the corresponding noun had been marked by its noun- suffix, there was no need to add any further mark to the verb. Since the almost entire loss of our Old English inflectional suffixes, our verbs and nouns consist for the most part of variously constructed stems. 12. Almost all Aryan words are compounds, but only a small portion of these can be broken up into separately significant parts without the aid of science. These Separable Com- pounds, if we lay aside a miscellaneous crowd of chance agglutinations, consist for the most part of an inflected noun. S INTRODUCTION. [% i* verbal noun, adjective, participle, or verb, preceded ' by one or more uninflecttd words. But of all these combinations the scope of this present work only requires us to notice a single class, viz. that in which the uninflected word consists of the stem of a noun or verbal-noun. Such stems are not only prefixed to nouns, verbal-nouns, adjectives, participles, and verbs, but also to other noun stems to such an extent, that in Sanskrit a compound word will sometimes contain as many as a dozen isolated stems, and in English three or even four may form a compound not altogether beyond our comprehension, as for example A church-going-bell-sound = A sound of a bell for going to church. A beef-steak-pie-man = A man for pies of steak of beef. In all such compounds the prefixed stems stand to the follow- ing word or stem in the relation of one or other of the oblique cases ; and, except in the accusative relation, may always be replaced by an equivalent adjectival or adverbial phrase standing after instead of before the superior word. When the compounds contain only one noun-stem [as is generally now the case], they are capable of receiving a convenient set of names based on the consideration of the peculiar case- function discharged by the prefixed stem. This terminalogy appears in brackets in the following series of examples, where compound nouns, adjectives, participles, and verbs, are grouped apart. 1 In Aryan speech the determinant precedes the thing determined ; we say for instance, river-horse, not horse-river ; sea-captain, not captain-sen : in Semitic speech on the other hand, the thing detei mined precedes the determinant, e.g. Samuel = 'asked-God,' but the corresponding Aryan word by which Josephus renders it means 'God-asked.' See Fnrrar's Families of Speech, Chap. iii. Compare Public School Latin Gr. §6o. § 12] INTRODUCTION. 9 Compound Nouns : — A sheep-shearing [a genitive compound] = a shearing of sheep. A walking-stick [a dative compound} = a stick for walking. A brew-house [a dative compound] = a house for brewing. Garden-fruit [an ablative compound] = fruit from gardens. An hotel-waiter [a locative compound] = a waiter at an hotel. A steam-plough [an instrumental compound] = a plough by steam. A horse-soldier [a sociative compound] = a soldier with a horse. Compound Adjectives : — Trust-worthy [gen. comp.] = worthy of trust. Man-like [dat. comp.] = like to a man. Fool-hardy [loc. comp.] = hardy in folly. Compound Participles : — Heart-rending [ace. comp.] = rending the heart. Law-abiding [loc. comp.] = abiding in the law. Moth-eaten [instr. comp.] = eaten by moths. Compound Verbs : — He back-bites [loc. comp.] = he bites at the back. He white-washes [instr. comp.] = he washes with white. So far as our analysis is concerned we must treat all such compounds as single words, — nouns, adjectives, participles, or verbs, according as the final word is one or other of these parts of speech. Obs. 1. — The fact that almost all modern English nouns are merely stems, obliges us to turn to languages like Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, for Aryan compounds serving to prove that the prefixed words do properly appear, as stems. We are helped, however to realize that our prefixed io INTRODUCTION. [§ 13 nouns are really stems, when we notice that the plural inflection is not added, even when a plural is meant. Thus in the compound 'star- encircled' we do not say ' rtawencirclcd ' although we mean 'encircled with stars.' Ob». a.— In Sanskrit the stems generally remain unchanged j hut in Greek and Latin the final vowel is frequently altered or a connecting vowel is introduced. See Monier Williams's Sanskrit Gr. § 734, and Abbott and Mansfield's Primer of Greek Gr. § 178, 13. A Noun or Substantive is the name of anything, whether actually possessed of, or only regarded as if possessed of, independent existence. The origin of this part of speech has already been touched upon [§ 10] but its growth in Aryan speech must now be briefly sketched. We have seen that man in possessing Roots possessed sounds, at first significant of his own actions, but which were inevitably soon applied to the same actions when performed, or supposed to be per- formed, by other animate or inanimate objects. When we firmly grasp the principle that 'all ancient nouns expressed activities ' [Miiller], we have no difficulty in understanding how the naming of objects was at first achieved. It was done by predicating of them some human action, which they were ob- served or were supposed to be performing. Thus the most primitive nouns may always be expanded into sentences, of which the suffixed Pointing Root forms the subject and the prefixed Predicative Root forms the predicate. For example, amongst the earliest names for river, plough, and moon, we have nouns which mean, ' This runs or is running,' 'This divides or is dividing,' ' That measures or is measuring.' The addition of a noun formative suffix [§ n] was the next step in advance. This was most probably soon followed by the habitual appro- priation of one of the Demonstrative Roots to the indication of the Subject of an action and of another to the indication of the Object ; thus forming the Nominative and Accusative cases, and originating what is commonly called the Declension of the §13] INTRODUCTION. it Noun. The Vocative, which is not properly a case, would of course be represented by the uninflected stem. When once the habit of indicating the relation of nouns to verbs by inflectional suffixes was started, there was no theoretic reason why the new crop of cases should not become as numerous as the prepositions,- which have recently replaced them. The Aryan case system is however seen at possibly its maximum point of development in Sanskrit, although there are non-Aryan languages [e.g. the Basque and Finnish] with a still greater number of cases. The most characteristic functions of the Aryan so-called cases may be approximately arrived at by a comparison of various Aryan languages. They may with tolerable accuracy be taken to be as follows ; — ■ The Nominative case marks the subject of a verb. The Accusative case marks the cognate [§ 40] and direct object [§ 49] of a verb, and has also acquired a distinctly adverbial force, expressive of the course, progress, direction, and duration of an action. Hence we may speak of both a substantival and of an adverbial accusative [see § 46]. The Vocative [not a case] is a stem used interjectionally. The Genitive case marks one noun or pronoun as occu- pying some adjectival relation to another noun. As its many uses include that of expressing reference [§ 82], we shall occasionally allow ourselves to speak of an adverbial, as distinguished from the adjectival, genitive. The Dative case marks the end of an action. Hence it comes to indicate the remoter object affected by or even interested 1 in an act ; and also the purpose, motive, or final cause which actuates the mind of the actor. The Ablative case marks the starting-point or origin of 1 When the dative is used to mark the person interested in an act it is called the Ethical dative, e.g. ' Es lief mir ein hund iiber den weg ' = There ran me a dog across the way. ' With trial-fire touch me his finger-end.' Shakspere. See § 83, Obs. 2. INTRODUCTION. 13 some action. Hence it serves to tell the initial [i.e. the first] cause of an act. ■ The Locative case marks the place or sphere of an action. The Instrumental case marks the instrumental means by which something is done. These so-called cases discharge the functions of no less than four separate parts of speech, viz. the noun, adjective, adverb, and interjection, and may be tabulated as follows : — Case. Function. Nom. . . Substantival. Ace. . . »j Voc. . . Interjectional. Gen. . . Adjectival . Ace. [adv.] Adverbial . Gen. [adv.] ,, Dat. . . » Abl. . . » Loc. . . »» Inslr. . » It is n iany aces sin Serve to tell of. Subject of verb. Object of verb. Person addressed. Material, possessor, &c. of something. ' of. Prepositional et/uivalciit. Course, duration, &c. of net Reference l of an act , alung, during, &c. of «• about, concerning. End or purpose of an act ' to, for. Beginning or first cause of an act. . Place or sphere of an act Means for an act . . from. at, in, on. by, with. It is many ages since the irremediable decay of the old Aryan declensions commenced in the confusion of the cases. 1 The adverbial idea of Reference may be conveyed by a true adjective [c.,?v A popish scare = a scare concerning t/ie fit)/*]. Hence when the adverbial genitive is attached to a noun wc shall treat it as an adjectival. § r 3] INTRODUCTION. 13 Both the sounds and senses of the terminations often ran into one another ; and when the meaning of a verb had changed, while the case conventionally associated with it remained, a still further cause of confusion arose. It is easy to illustrate the progress of the collapse of the case system by a comparison of three leading Aryan languages. Taking Sanskrit as the standard form, we see how the cases which it still possesses have run together in the Latin and the Greek— Latin. Nom. Voc. Ace. Gen. Abl. Dat. . Sanskrit, Greek. Voc. . . . . Voc. Ace. Ace. Gen. ) (Abl. J • • • • Gen. I Instr. ) I Loc. [ . . Dat. Dat. ) If instead of Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit, we make the comparison between our Old and Modern English, we have only a further illustration of the collapse of the case system. Modern English Old English. Modern English Pronouns. Nouns. Nominative . Nom.i . ■ . Voc. ( Ace. \ ■ ■ _ Objective . . . ] Dat. ( Instr. J Possessive . . . . Gen Possessive. Thus, except so far as the Possessive case answers for the Genitive, modern English has lost every case of the noun, although still possessing three cases among the pronouns. AVith the exception of the Possessive case, and the mark of the plural, our nouns are merely the Stems of words, which were i 4 INTRODUCTION. [8 H once declined. Thus the noun ' end ' was declined in O. K. as follows : — Singular. riiiral. Norn, end -e, end -ns. Ace. end -c, end -as. Con. end -es, end -a. lint, end -e end -nm. Instr. end -i, end -inn. From what has been said in this section, as well as from what is to follow in the immediately ensuing sections, the student will observe that although adjectives, adverbs, propo- sitions, and conjunctions, arc known to have been formed in many various ways, yet all these parts of speech may bo safely regarded as having in the first place originated in the declension of nouns and pronouns. Obs. — Although it is quite incorrect to speak of cases in respect of nur modern uninflected nouns, yet we may allow ourselves to describe some of their substantival, adjectival, or adverbial (unctions by n reference to the functions of the old Aryan cases as given above. Thus we shall often speak of a modern noun as discharging a 'nominative fund inn,' a 'dative function,' a 'locative function,' &c. &c. Such terminology forms however no essential portion of this book, nnd need not he adopted by the student, who has in the Table of Adverbials given in § 82 ample suggestions for an alternative description of at all events the adverbial case-functions. 14. An Adjective expresses an w/z-abslracted quality; which quality, when abstracted [i.e. when spoken of as if possessing an independent existence], becomes ■ an abstract noun [§ 2]. Thus the adjectives 'high' and 'good,' when abstracted, turn into the abstract nouns 'height ' and 'good- ness'; but there is frequently no difference of form between the adjective and its corresponding abstract noun, e.g. our word ' evil ' which represents both the Greek adjective Trnvrjpdi and the abstract noun irovqpla. It is beyond the scope of this work to say much about the peculiarities of form belonging to adjectives, but there can be no doubt that many adjectives § '6] INTRODUCTION. 15 have originated in the genitive case of nouns. ' Such a genitive, after undergoing more or less modification, formed a new stem, which became attracted by mere juxta-position into a variety of inflections belonging to the nouns with which it was in attribution. Thus, for example, our possessive-adjectives are derived from the genitive of the personal pronouns, e.g. ' Mine ' is the modern mode of spelling the old genitive of ' Ic ' = I. Indeed, when we notice how an adjective can always be replaced by a genitive case, by a genitive prepositional-phrase, or by a genitive-compound [§ 12], we see that 'adjectives though highly convenient are not indispensable to a language ' [Farrar]. 15. An Adverb expresses the place, time, cause, or manner, of an act, or of anything else besides an act concerning which one or more of such secondary predications can in the nature of things be made. With the exception of one use of the demonstrative roots [§ 9] the earliest adverbs were nothing more than the adverbial cases of older nouns and pronouns, — just as our adverb ' whil-om ' is an old dative [locative] case of the noun ' while ' = time, and our pronominal adverb ' how ' is an old instrumental case of the interrogative pronoun ' what.' 16. A" Preposition was originally nothing but an adverb of place, which was extended by analogy or metaphor to relations of time, cause, and manner. Prepositions, as such, did not belong to the earlier stages of linguistic growth ; but came into being as the cases began to lose their import, and as people tried to clear up the meaning by placing a suitable adverb before [and sometimes after] the noun or pronoun. Called in at first merely to assist the failing cases, the prepositions have at length so nearly replaced them, that we may speak of prepo- sitions as Case-equivalents. When we go back to Greek and Latin, we find the case-system still so far in use, that an 1 See New Cratylus, § 298. 16 INTRODUCTION. [8 '7 unaided adverbial case sometimes discharges i(s more .ancient function, although in general requiring the aid of a preposition. In the still earlier Sanskrit, where the case-system is in fuller life, there are but three prepositions used with nouns. Hence wc see that it is an inaccurate, though a well-established and useful expression, when wc speak of prepositions 'governing a ruse.' In reality the case is the principal, and the preposition the subordinate word standing in a sort of apposition to the noun. 17. Conjunctions serve most characteristically to unite clauses so as to show their relation to one another. The conjunctions are classified as co-ordinate or sub-ordina1c, according as the clauses which they connect are co-ordinate or sub-ordinate, i.e. adverbial [§§ 119, 108]. Without conjunctions language would consist of little more than a number of short propositions, whose relation to one another could only be supplied by common sense. This was the condition of our Aryan speech at first ; and even yet, we are not much distressed by the occasional omission of a conjunction, as in the familiar passages : — 'Serve the Lord with gladness.' [and] 'Come before his presence with singing.' 'The Lord reigncth.' [therefore] 'Let the earth rejoice.' [Because] ' Thou takest away their breath. They die.' Conjunctions have been derived from a variety of sources ; but, just like the original adverbs and prepositions, the earliest conjunctions were undoubtedly the cases of nouns and pronouns — generally of the latter. Thus the co-ordinate conjunction ' and' is represented by 'que' in Latin, and ' Kid' in Greek, of which 'que' is certainly, and ' koI' is probably, a form of the relative ; and our own subordinate conjunctions ' where ' and 'when' are old adverbial cases of the interrogative pronoun ' what' § 1 8] INTRODUCTION. 17 • 18. The Verb [finite *] is by far the most important word in a sentence. Without it no thought can be fully expressed, and it is sometimes adequate to the expression of an entire thought, as Amo = I am loving, — Go = go thou. Indeed, the finite Verb is the only part of speech which is capable of alone forming the Grammatical Predicate, which grammatical predicate includes both the logical predicate and copula [§§ 3, 4]. As the Verb and Noun are the two great parts of speech, it is very important to notice wherein the difference between them really lies. That it does not lie in the formative suffix [§ 11] is clear when we notice that a noun stem may appear in a verb, as in ' I housed the furniture,' and that a verb stem must appear in a verbal noun, as in ' Writing is useful.' But it does lie in the addition of an inflectional suffix having the force of a personal pronoun. Where this mark of personal agency has been worn off, there is, apart from use, nothing in the mere form of the word to distinguish it from a noun. Thus, as standing by itself, ' love ' may be either a noun or a verb ; but ' loveth ' [where the ' -th ' represents the old personal suffix] is unmistakably a verb. There is little doubt that the oldest verbs were ' self affect- ing,' so that the earliest personal endings probably consisted of a doubling of the appropriate pronominal root. We have no such ' Middle Voice ' verbs remaining in English, but they are partially represented by the Reflexive verbs which abound in many modern languages. With these verbs, while there is both subject and object, there is no difference between that which forms the subject and that which forms the object. Hence it is not difficult to see how the Middle Voice may have branched 1 The Verb infinite is not properly a verb. It consists of verbal Nouns [called Infinitives, Gerunds, or Supines] and verbal Adjectives [called Par- ticiples]. We however often find it convenient to speak of such nouns and adjectives as 'Verbals.' C 1 8 INTRODUCTION. [8 19 out [with some modifications of form] into the Active Voice on the one hand and into the Passive Voice on the other. Thus the Reflexives ' I remember me,' and ' I employ myself,' open out into the Active ' I remember,' and the Passive ' I am employed.' In Latin the ancient Middle Voice [e.g. 'remi- niscor' = I remember me; 'utor' = I employ myself], which is now represented by the so-called Deponent verbs, has lent its form to the Passive, even while its meaning may have become exclusively Active, e.g. 'praedor' «= I plunder. See also § 2i. We have noticed the decay of the old Aryan declension and the replacement of most of the cases by periphrastic forms, consisting mainly of prepositional phrases : and we must now observe that a similar change has taken place with the Conju- gation, where single words have been to an enormous extent replaced by periphrastic combinations, consisting chiefly of pronouns, auxiliaries, and participles. The reduction of eight old Aryan cases of nouns to one in Modern English was great ; but such a reduction is felt to be insignificant in comparison with what must have taken place in the Conjugation, when we notice that, while ' the English verb has five forms [i.e. love, lovest, loves, loved, loving] ; the Greek verb has about twelve hundred ' [Farrar], The O.E. has twelve forms, against the modern five [i.e. lufige, lufast, lufaS, lufiaS; lufode, lufodest, lufodon, lufa ; lufod ; lufigenrle], exclusive of the infinitive with its dative inflection. The etymological origin of the forms, which have with more or less exactness become appropriated to the expression of Tense and Mood, lies beyond the range of our introductory sketch. It is however of great importance that in the following sections a clear view should be given of their grammatical nature and general scope. 19. The Tenses are forms of the Verb which enable us to indicate the State of an action in either a hypothetical or cate- § 19] INTRODUCTION. 19 gorical sentence, and the Time of an action in a categorical sentence. Thus it is only in the Indicative that tenses truly indicate time. a. The most natural conception we can form of the State of an action is that it is Entire [i.e. Simple], Completed [i.e. Perfect], Progressing [i.e. Imperfect], or Undertaken [i.e. Inceptive], as You ate Simple. You had eaten Perfect. You were eating . . . . . Imperfect. You were about to eat . . . Inceptive. But as any of these may belong to the past, the present, or the future, we have twelve forms, viz. Simple past, Simple present, Simple future, Perfect past, Perfect present, Perfect future, Imperfect past, Imperfect present, Imperfect future, Inceptive past, Inceptive present, Inceptive future. /?. The simplest conception we can have of the Time of an entire action is that it is in the Past, the Present, or the Future, and so the forms which do no more than indicate this much are called Simple or Absolute tenses. But an action often calls for a much more definite location in time than is afforded by the mere indication of its being in the past, present, or future. Such a farther indication is obtained by mentioning some other action, having some temporal relation to the first act. In fact, to use an engineering illustration, we construe a Time Scale, of which the alternate intervals represent the unoccupied time following on some completed act, — the occu- pied time covered by some progressing act, — or again the unoccupied time preceding some impending act ; and then we definitely locate the Simple act by noting where it cuts across the scale. c 2 20 INTRODUCTION. IS >!) Thus, if the act be located daring the lime which commences with the completion of another action, we have a Simple tense associated with a Perfect tense, as I wrote [Simple], after you had gone [Perfect]. Again, if it be located during the time at which another net ion is progressing, we have a Simple tense associated with an I in perfect tense, as I wrote [Simple], while you were sleeping [ I mperfect]. Again, if it be located during the lime which /'recedes tin- commencement of another action, we have a Simple tense asso- ciated with an Inceptive tense, as I wrote [Simple] when you .were about to leave [Inceptive]. It is from this use of the Perfect, Imperfect, and Inceptive forms, that they acquire their name of Relative lenses : and it is obvious that, in regard to any act cutting across the time scale, they are relatively past, present, or future. The relative tenses are, through the presence of an obvious ellipsis, very often found to stand alone, e.g. 'He was suffering [at the time of which I speak]'; 'I have [even as I speak] written my letter.' Again, two relative tenses may as it were run parallel to one another, e.g. ' I was working, while you were sleeping.' The obvious meaning of a speaker often infuses what is really a foreign meaning into a tense. Thus we sometimes find a Perfect assuming the complexion of a Severed Imperfect, e.g. 'I have written [ = have been writing] for six hours, and cannot go on much longer.' The following table serves, not only to illustrate, but also to form the best possible memorial arrangement of the above tenses. §19] INTRODUCTION. w 5 D H W L.G Ph Ah c/3 O -^ en Pn £ a CL) S3 CO a cL> -g CL) le Future. smite, be smitten. o M fa a w p-i a 04 a" eg '1 en CL) > "s Hi u >> e Imperfect. be smiting, be being smitt <4 > H Ph [4 O Z t— t I shall be going to sm I shall be going to be s sag =5 "rt u « « C4 5 .a ,a 1-1 l-H Ph 1— ( l-H H .a J3 g en co ft, 11 l-H ■ ^ *-J «0 . c^ ■^ <-i •Vi <-> "** <-> ^ ^3 ■« J3 >o (3 *° _*3 X ft, ^ ft, ^ ft, «tj 0, mple Present. smite. im smitten. H O H fa Pd H Ph H Z B to IS a 1 i— : > a" CU "I (A ci ' J3 sent Imperfect. am smiting am being smitten. > H Ph H a l-H H H en W OS Ph m going to smite. am going to be smitten. in '- | m P-l h- 1 l-H " hH >-H Ph l-H ^ «■» «-5 ■** ^ «-) •k! ^i -tii *-a ^ JS Vi J3 Cj N - V* Q ^ ft, ^ *. X ft, ^ ft; H* e" W a" CL) CO ■ O cu fa -a > 'a cu ^ 1— 1 l-H l-H l-H l-H 1-1 1-1 l-H - &5 *3 cs ■w ^3 ^ J3 "° -« ^ ^ X ft, ^ ft. ^ ^ •aTawig •xoaaaa,! •xoaaxaaMi ■aAiXctaoNi XSVJ •XNasax,! •aanxQj 'axmosav AT3AIXVT3}] 22 INTRODUCTION. [§ *> For the sake of tabular completeness the following relative tense peculiar to the English ' has been omitted : — Past severed-Imperfect. Act. I had been smiting. Pass. I had been being smitten. Present SEVER ED-lMPERFECT. Act. I have been smiting. Pass. I have been being smitten. Future severe;;- j: m perfect Act. I shall have been smiting. Pass. I shall have been being smitten, The student must not overlook the fact that, with the exception of the Simple Present and Simple Past, every English tense is periphrastic. It is however by means of these periphrastic analytic combinations that we have been able to fill up every portion of the above table of standard tenses ; and it is indeed vain to search for any Aryan language which pre- sents us with a separate synthetic form for each tense. Thus in Latin 'scripsi' = 'I wrote' and 'I have written'; — in Greek ypw^na = ' I shall write ' and ' I shall be writing ' ; — in Old English ' Ic write ' = ' I write,' ' I am writing,' and ' I shall write ' ; — and again in O.E. ' Ic writ ' = ' I wrote,' ' I have written,' and 'I had written,' although the two last are generally formed as in modern English. 20. The Moods serve to indicate the ground on which a statement rests. If a statement is presented as in accordance with an objective fact, it is said to be Categorical : if it is presented as merely in accordance with the subjective view of the speaker, it is said to be Hypothetical. Two great moods answer to this distinction: — the Indicative, which deals with 1 We are able to represent a Simple act not only an cutting across, >.nt also as cutting off so much of a progressing act ; e.g. ' I had been walking for an hour, when she joined me.' Hence the suggestion of the name ' Severed-Imperfect.' § 20] INTRODUCTION. 23 facts, is the categorical mood, and the Conjunctive, which deals with conceptions, is the hypothetical mood. There is another mood expressive of commands, but the Imperative is borrowed or formed from the indicative, when obedience is assumed as a fact ; and from the conjunctive when obedience is recognised as more or less uncertain. 1 The Conjunctive is however the only mood which calls for special notice in a work like this, and to it we now devote our attention. It is obvious that, as a hypothetical statement deals with other matters than that of objective facts, all such statements must rest on some subjective foundation of possibility, power, choice, constraint, duty, or necessity. With a greater or less degree of consistency some at least of these ideas have ever been associated with the conjunctive, and in analytic conjugations they were certain to determine the choice of the auxiliaries. Thus in modern English we have auxiliaries and quasi-auxiliaries answering very closely to the above ideas, as we see in the following direct and oblique [§34] assertions. Possibility f I may g«. [ I said that I might go. Power ( I can go. / I said that I could go. Choice J I Twill go. \ I said that I would go. Constraint 1 I shall go. ( I said that I should go. ( I ought to go. Duty 1 1 said that I ought to go. Necessity ( I must go. j I said that I must go. 1 Dr. Donaldson [New Cratylus, Book iv. Ch. 3] says, " It may be doubted if the Imperative is really entitled to the rank of a distinct mood." 24 INTRODUCTION. IS 20 It is often desirable to impart to a statement a much more intensely hypothetical character than arises from the bare ex- pression of present certainty, determination, &c, ivc. : and this is attained by using a past tense instead of a present. The immensely different complexion imparted to a hypo thetical statement by this use of a past \i.e. historic] tense, as if it were a present, has caused many grammarians to divide the Conjunctive into two moods, which we shall designate as the Subjunctive and Potential. In modern Knglish these are increasingly represented by the present and past tenses of auxiliaries, and decreasingly by the present and past tenses of an older conjunctive. Hut except ill their possession of both an historic and primary form, the so-called tenses of the con- junctive have [at all events in the direct construction] no con- nection with the time of the predicated action. They merely call attention to an act or state, as simple, as completed, as pro gressing, or as inceptive : and in this respect they arc identical with the tenses of the Infinitive [§25] and of the Participle [§ 24]. The following table of the Conjunctive Mood should be studied in connection with § 112, Obs. 2 and 3. Obs. 1. — The earlier, and whiil wo may call (he O.K. type of the Con- junctive tenses, is distinguished by the entire absence of any difference in form between the three persons; nnd is described by Morcll as I In; " Conditional mood," inasmuch as its special uses arc now almost confined to conditional clauses. The later type of the Conjunctive is distinguished by the presence of auxiliaries which are themselves in the indicalive mood ; and is described by Morcll as the '* 1'otential mood." The two considera- tions, which have induced a divergence from so high an authority as Dr. Morell, are (1) our plan of conforming when admissible to the principles contained in the most recent standard Greek and Latin grammars; and (2) , the obvious fact that, except in certain protases, the older type of the Conjunctive has been replaced, or is almost always re- placeable, by the newer periphrases, e.g. 'lie were [■ . would be] foolish, if he were to do so' ; 'I will punish thee, whosoever thou be | • mavest be].' §20] INTRODUCTION. 25 1 S e jD -° 3 ^ -° s -° .r- s" PS > < Subjuncti shall, will,] shall, will,] Subjunctive Imper. be smiting. may, can, [shall, will,] be being smitten, may, can, [shall, will,] Subjunctive Incep be about to smite, may, can, [shall, will,] be about to be smitten, may, can, [shall, will, smitten. 2 3 p< Simple smite, may, can, [ be smitten, may, can, [ Subjunc have smitte may, can, [ have been s may can, [s ^ ^ - ^ Q ^ (3 "° -S ^ .33 ^ ft. \ ft; M; ft, ^ ft, a a ho c 5 a to 3 te. smitte e smitt ive be ; smitin be bei about about •3. <^ a *> i ^ ID v .3 •° -3 & ,Q s 2 0- H hH Simple Potential. te. 1 lit, could, would, should e smitten. ht, could, would, should, Potential Perfect. had smitten. 1 might, could, would, should, had been smitten. 1 might, could, would, should smitten. Potential Imperfect. ere smiting. ight, could, would, should, ere being smitten. ight, could, would, shoul smitten. Potential Inceptive. ere about to smite. ight, could, would, should, smite. ere about to be smitten. ight, could, would, should, be smitten. O bjOfc 00 ran £ a * a ■s s £ a ~ - 4> ^ <0 „ X "X ~ X "X • X 'X - in - a - * § S3 10 rf 5 ^ *t ^ ft; ^ ft, X ft, •aiawig *_ •xoaasaj 'xoaaaadMi •aAixaaoNi 26 INTRODUCTION. [8 20 Ob«. fl.— The fact that what is as yet only conceived in the mind, is in general a something which can only lie realised in the future, causes no close n connection to arise between the Conjunctive mood and the Future tense, that parts of the former have sometimes been derived from the latter, and the latter from the former. But though a predication in the conjunctive mood may refer to a future fact, yet there is no necessary implication of futurity in this mood, simply as a mood. Thus * I may be willing ' remains unchanged, whether the adverbials ' at the present moment ' or * ten days hence ' be added ; and there is no difference in the tense, whether I say ' He might go just now 'or 'He might go next week. ' Obs. 3. — The adoption of a set of past tenses in the formation of the potential mood has given rise to a well known ambiguity. Thus in such a sentence as 'lie said that they might go, 1 we have an oblique assertion ' they might go ' after a past tense ' said.' But it is impossible, at all events in absence of a protasis, to tell whether this oblique assertion represents the direct assertion ' They may go ' [Subjunctive], or ' They might go ' [Poten- tial], Hence there is in many Aryan languages a close connection between the Potential [or Optative] mood and the oblique assertion after an historic tense. Oba. 4. — There is no true Future Indicative tense in English, but, since O.E. times, some of the Conjunctive auxiliaries have been adopted to serve for a Future, as follows : ]n the Direct assertion. I shall go, — thou wilt go, — he will go, Sic. In the Oblique assertion after a present tense. I say that I shall go, — thou wilt go, — he will go. Thou sayest that thou shalt go, — I will go, — he will go. He says that he 1 shall go, — i . .. f, — he will go. In the Oblique assertion after a past tense. I said that I should go, — that thou wouldst go, — that he would go. Thou saidst that thou shouldst go, — that I would go,— that he would go. He said that he ■ should go,- [ l^^L go I '~ that he would ^ 1 The 'he 'refers to 'himself.' If it referred to any other person or thing it would be followed by ' will ' or ' would.' * There is no difficulty as to the auxiliaries in these Oblique clauses. If the word be 'shall' in the direct clause, it is 'shall 'or 'should 'in the oblique. If it be 'will' in the direct, then it is 'will' or 'would' in the oblique. § 21] INTRODUCTION. 27 The ambiguity referred to in the previous observation exists here also in the oblique future after a past tense. The old conjunctive force still to some extent clings about this modern future indicative, as we see in the Scotch ' What o'clock will it be ? = What o'clock may it be ; and as we see in the A.V. ' No man can spoil his goods, except he will first bind the strong man,' where 'will bind' represents the subjunctive simple of the Greek, the O.E., Wycliffe, and Tyndale, of the same passage. But if the above 'shall' and 'will,' become 'will' and 'shall'; and the 'should' and ' would ' become 'would' and 'should'; we cease to have an indicative Future and have once more a Conjunctive. Thus the change in the R. A.V. in Heb. iii. 7 and 15, of 'will' and 'shall,' arose from the Revisers noticing that the word rendered 'will hear' in the A.V. was in reality a tense of the Greek conjunctive. 21. The Classification of Verbs according to their meaning in a sentence is to some extent reflected in the various conjugational Voices, but by no means completely so. This classification by meaning rests primarily on the consideration. Whether the subject of the verb is Active or Quiescent ; and secondarily, Whether the said subject affects or is affected by anything or nothing. Such a classification may be tabulated and illustrated as follows : — VERB. 1 I i J Active. Active and Quiescent. Quiescent. l i I 1 1 Active Active Middle. Passive. Neuter Transitive. Intransitive. Self-affecting. [Intransitive.] [Intransitive.] Affecting. Unaffecting. Affected. Unaffected. Ex. :— Ex. :— Ex. :— Ex. :— Ex. :— I strike him. I walk. I bethink me. I am struck. I exist. So great however are the fluctuations of meaning, not only in the course of ages, but in the course of our own conversation, that the same verb often slides out of one class into another. Thus for example ' I breathe ' is capable of meaning ' I exist,' and may therefore slide from the active intransitive class into the neuter class. Again, if by ' I breathe ' I mean ' I inspire air,' the verb ' breathe ' slides from the active intransitive into the 28 INTRODUCTION. TS « active transitive class. Lastly, when we render the French 'Jc me promene' by 'I walk,' we see how readily a middle voice passes into an active. Indeed some tenses tend to impart a transitive, and others an intransitive complexion to the same verb ; for though we say ' I wrote a letter, before you came,' we feel no need of an object in ' I was writing, before you came.' These illustrations are sufficient to prevent the student from attaching too much importance to any classification which depends on the ever-changing meaning of words. obn. — Although the Middle Voice always refers to 'self,' the student must not imagine thai the ' self is always in the relation of a direct object. Thus xapturiavAfaiuu = I prepare for myself. ]3ut in ICnglish we have no Middle Voice save that which is represented by the so-called Reflexive verbs, where ' self ' is invariably in the relation of a direct object. See § 49, Obs. I. 22. The Copula, although it existed before the separation of the great Aryan race, may nevertheless be looked at as in a sense the highest point in the growth of speech; inasmuch as the formation of the Copula marks the point where, for the first time, language andj thought, grammar and logic met [§ S\ There is more than one part of speech out of which the logical copula might grow, but in Aryan speech it is a verb, or rather several verbs, which generally predicated Existence, but have now ceased necessarily to predicate anything at all. It is not difficult to follow the process of this formation. The idea of the existence of the Subject of our thought is usually so much a matter of course, that without some special emphasis we scarcely note the fact : — Thus if I said, 'This horse exists swift,' the unemphatic predication of the horse's existence would drop nut of sight in comparison with the more important additional predication of its swiftness. So long as the first predication, viz. that of existence, was conveyed to the mind, the word ' swift ' would be nothing § 23] INTRODUCTION. 29 but a co-ordinating attribute [§ 77] suggesting an additional predicate ; but, as soon as the needless predication of existence dropped out of sight, the only predicate remaining would be ' swift,' and the disregarded verb of existence would gradually sink to the level of a mere link. Such was the formation of our copula ; and such were the steps by which the logical predicate or its attribute came to be expressed. A super-sensuous idea like that of Existence could of course only be expressed by associating it with some sensuous idea. Now, inasmuch as such ideas as ' growing,' ' breathing,' ' dwell- ing,' ' standing,' call special attention to the life or existence of the something which grows, breathes, dwells, or stands, these verbs very readily lent themselves to the expression of existence ; and, along with some others, have all come to be used as copulas. Thus in English ' be ' is from a predicative root bhu-, expressive of growing, 'am' ,, as-, „ breathing, 'was' „ was-, „ dwelling. Obs. — When we notice how frequently there is a coincidence between the subject and logical predicate (see § 3), we Fee it was possible that our copula might have grown out of a pronoun having the force of ' the same.' Such was indeed the case in old Egyptian, where 'Bachtan the-same thy city' = Bachtan is thy city. See Renoufs Egyptian Grammar, p. 15. 23. The Metamorphosis of one part of speech into another is a common phenomenon in the growth of our lan- guage ; for though ' all the parts of speech are but the modification of two, viz. the noun and the verb ' \_Primer of Philology, p. 121], yet all these parts, or special parts of these parts, are liable to be used for, or modified to suit, other than their original purposes. For example, nouns expressive of a material are constantly used for adjectives, as ' The table is mahogany.' Most nouns may be turned into verbs, as ' Who will bell the cat ? ' Verbs 33 INTRODUCTION. W 24 may become nouns, as ' What a. go /' Participles may become conjunctions, as 'I will consent supposing you really wish.' The adjectival and adverbial cases of nouns and pronouns are [as we have already seen] continually turning into adjectives and adverbs. The cases of nouns and pronouns, and even the persons of verbs, are liable to be used as stems, and to receive a secondary set of inflections belonging possibly to an altogether different part of speech; thus the O.E. genitive of Ic f — I"] was mm [= of mc], this was turned into the adjective mfn [mine] and received inflections, e.g. 'mfn-es faeder (gen.)' ■>■ of my father. There are many illustrations of metamorphosis still more curious than these ; but the only two of which we need to take special notice here are the Verbal-adjectives and Verbal-nouns, — which are of course chiefly derived from verbs. 24. Verbal-adjectives or Participles, though possessing many verbal qualities, are in reality attributive words, inasmuch as they discharge all the functions of adjectives. As adjectives, they may be either epithetic [e.g. running water], subordinating ' [e.g. we met him walking], co-ordinating [e.g. entering the room, he sat down], or complementary [e.g. he was writing]. Again, so long as the declension of nouns continued, the participles, like other adjectives, received the case inflections, which served to indicate the noun with which they were in attri- bution; thus the Gothic for 'He saw Simon and Andrew . . . easting a net" = Casahw Seimonu jah Andraian . . . wair- pandans [ace. plu.] nati. Lastly, the participles, like other 1 The subordinating [i.e. adverbial] participle has in some language* acquired certain idiomatic uses not clearly attributive. Thus the fact thnt the cause of a perception in also its object, has allowed the causal participle in Greek to become an object [i.e. a substantival] after a verb of percep- tion, e.g. otStt Ovqrfo (He? I know that I am mortal [lit. I ltnow being mortal]. There are several other idiomatic ukch, but Ibcy all appear to have grown out of subordinating attributes telling of the time, cause, or manner of an action. § 24] INTRODUCTION. 31 adjectives, have sometimes come to be used absolutely, as a noun or verbal-noun [e.g. being vanquished is humiliating]. With the exception of mood and person, the participles possess all the qualities of verbs. Hence they are modified by adverbs, — are completed by the same objects and complements as their corresponding verbs, — and have both voices and tenses. In voice the participles are Active, Passive, or Middle, accord- ing to the state of the person or thing with which they are in attribution : and in tense they are Simple, Perfect, Imperfect, or Inceptive, according as the action or state of the action is represented as entire from beginning to end, as completed, as progressing, or as impending. Properly speaking, the tenses of the participles do not tell us of the time of an action, but only of its state. That the temporal idea [which often seems to belong to them] is only infused from the finite verb with which they are associated, is best seen, when we notice how the most commonly used participles are only past, pre- sent, or future according to the tense of the main verb. It is thus in — ■ ' I saw him falling,' where the state of falling is in the past. ' I see him falling,' „ ,, „ „ „ present. ' I shall see him falling,' ,, „ „ „ future. ' She saw him fallen,' where the state of fallenness is in the past. ' She sees him fallen,' where the state of fallenness is in the present. ' She will see him fallen,' where the state of fallenness is in the future. From this we see that a complete system of participles would exist, if for each voice there were four distinct forms, viz. a Simple, a Perfect, an Imperfect, and an Inceptive, serving to express the state, but not the time, of an action. In Greek and Latin there are near approaches to such a system ; but 32 INTRODUCTION. 24 in our Teutonic speech we have only two non-periphrastic participles, viz. an active Imperfect [e.g. falling, sinking, loving], and a 'Perfect [e.g. fallen, sunk, loved |. Of these, the former is sometimes [see Obs.] used with the force of an active Simple 1 ; and the latter constantly used as either active or passive Perfect, as passive Simple, and possibly even as a passive Imperfect. Thus : ' Wc heard her singing' |acl. Imperfect |. '■Entering [act. Simple;] the room, she sat down.' 'She saw him fallen' [act. Perfect |. 'They had the dinner cooked' |pass. Perfect]. ' I saw the casket sunk [pass. Simple] before I left.' ' This is a much admired [? pass. Imperfect] picture.' In the following table of modem English participles both the periphrastic and non-periphrastic forms are included. Simple I'ICKIi'UCT iMI'KRKItCT lNCKITlVK Act. Art. J'tlss Art. 1'il.is A,t. J W.v.r. sometimes 1 lio Ad. Imperfect form, sometimes the I'crlVd (a) form. fallen (a). having v. Iieiiii; fallen (j3). loved (a). having been lovefl (&). falling, being loved. (being) aboul lo full, (belli/;) about In be loved. 1 It sometimes appears lo be also used as a puss. Iinpf., but such is not really (he case; for Ihouirh 'The house was />rr/i,irii/j,'' = The house wan Iieiiii; Jirepand, yet the word ' prcpariii;;* is not a participle at all, but a §24] INTRODUCTION. 33 As to the origin of participles, — i.e. the origin of the stems of these once inflected adjectives, — we might guess that they were the oblique cases of nouns or verbal-nouns, and that guess would be supported when we noticed that 'A ship in sail' = a ship sailing, and 'an object of dread' = a dreaded object. But a minute examination of the Aryan participles serves to show that the stem of at all events the Imperfect participle is most commonly of the same form as the third person plural of the present indicative^ as may be seen in Greek, Latin, and Gothic. — Pres. Ind. 3 Per. Plu. Stem of Participle. Greek . . Latin . . Gothic . . tiIittojt-i 1 = they are striking . Amant = they are loving Haband = they are having . tvwtovt- = striking, amant- = loving, haband- = having. Our modern English termination '-ing' has replaced the O.E. '-ende,' which last, if formed on the above principle, points us back to some prehistoric time, when our ancestors had a 3rd pers. plu. in '-end' v. '-and,' instead of the O.E. ' -a<5 ' common to all the pers. plur. The English terminations ' -en ' [of strong verbs] and ' -ed ' [of weak verbs] are of adjectival origin. Obs. — The act. Imperfect Participle can only have the force of an active Simple when it serves as a co-ordinating attribute, e.g. ' Entering the room, gerund governed by an elliptical preposition, as we see in the A.V., 'While the ark was a [= in v. on] preparing,' and ' Forty and six years was this; temple in building.' 1 Modified into TiiuroiKri in classic Greek. 34 INTRODUCTION. [8 25 she sat clown ' rr She entered the room and «at down. 1 lencc It i« only when they arc co-ordinating attribulen that wo can render the Greek Simple f/.ir. aorislicl participles by our imperfect participle. Otherwise we ulumltl render them either by a clause containing a simple teiiHc, -by a prepiwi- tion with a gerund or noun,— or by a simple infinitive. For more on Ibis, see an able article by l'rofossor EvanH in the Jixfxnitor for March, 1882. When in Luke \. 18, Ulphllas rendered the Greek noi'Mlc par- ticiple by the Teutonic [Gothic] imperfect participle, he made our l,onl speak of seeing Satan 'fulling' iiiHlcnd of 'fall' [wimplo itilin, | from heaven. 25. Verbal-nouns, i.e. Infinitives, Gerunds, and Supines, although possessing many of the qualities of verbs, arc in reality abstract twiuis, inasmuch as (hey discharge the functions of nouns. As nouns, they present us with a variety of declensions, all more or less incomplete. Thus the l.ntin Supines in '-urn ' and '-11' represent the arc. and Inc. cases of the most ancient known form of the Aryan verbal-noun. 1 Again, the Latin Gerund has the ace, gen., and dat., cases. Again, Hie classical Infinitives were probably all modifications of dat. and loc. cases. In Knglish we have only two verbal-nouns, viz. the Infinitive and what [but sec Obs.] we shall here term our ( icniwl. Tin's so-called Gerund originates in an O.K. noun ending in '-ung' [e.g. sco htinlung — the hunting], which ending has now been modified into '-ing.' But, as such a form is indistinguish- able from our modern imperfect participle used absolutely, we shall, for convenience sake, include under the head of Gerund all verbals in '-ing' which may chance to be discharging the functions of nouns, as may be seen either from their being preceded by a preposition [N.B.— not subordinate conjunction] or from being capable of replacement by an infinitive, lly the aid of prepositions our gerund may be made to discharge every possible case function ; but the infinitive very rarely discharges more than four. The case function of the infinitive 1 The Latin Supine in ' -urn ' in identical with the so-called Infinitive In Sanskrit, §2 5 ] INTRODUCTION. 35 is most readily discovered by noticing its equivalent gerund, as illustrated in the following table : — — Gerund. Infinitive. Nom . of v. about hunting . to v. for hunting . . in v. on [ = a-] hunting by v. with hunting . . &c = to x hunt. = to hunt. = [for] to hunt. = to hunt. Gen. . Dat. . Loc. . Jnstr. Verbal-nouns, though in varying degrees, all possess certain verbal qualities. Thus the abstract nature of verbal-nouns, by making them expressive of a conception rather than of a fact, causes them to approximate so closely to the conjunctive mood, that clauses with a conjunctive are frequently replaced by an infinitive, e.g. ' I hope that I may go' = I hope to go. Again, verbal-nouns are usually completed with the same objects or complements as the corresponding verb. Again, infinitives are modified by adverbials. And lastly, infinitives, and even gerunds [if we include among them participles used absolutely], have tenses. The nature of the tenses of verbal- nouns is identical with that of verbal-adjectives described in § 24, where the student will see that such tenses tell nothing of the Time, but only of the State, of an action, 1 'To * is the usual mark of the infinitive in modern English, but it is only a Preposition when the infinitive is discharging a dative function. In O.E. it never appears before an infinitive which has not the dative inflection, e.g. to bindan-ne = for to bind. D 2 ;?<• INTRODUCTION. [§a6 and that any time-colouring which they seem to possess is only reflected upon them from the main verb with which they are associated. The tenses of our verbal-nouns are as follows : — SlMl'I.B Perfect Imperfect Inukitive Art. Pass. Art. fits'. Art, J\tss. Art. Puss. (il(UUNI). railing being. loved having rtillen .... having been loved . falling . , being loved being about to Tail . , being about to be loved iNFINITIVK. = to I. ill. = tii be loved. to have fallen. «■ tn luive been loved. to be falling. = tn be being Invnl. in be nbimt In fall, {to be about to bn loved. It is impossible for us to trace out the origin of the Aryan verbal-nouns, although in passing we may observe that the Latin gerunds obviously originated in the neuter of the participle in '-ndtis' used absolutely. Ob». — The student must not forget thai Anglo-Saxon grammarians have given the namo of Gerund to Iho Inflected |>>. Dative] Infinitive. Hence it is a intention whether we do well to give (lie mme name In our modern English Bub»tantivals in ' -tag.' As here used, the word (ienind -• either a verbal-noun in ' -ing,' or a participle in ' -big ' u«ed uliHolulely. Those who prefer to do «o can UHe the longer doHcrlption, rather than the conveniently short word here adopted. § 26] INTRODUCTION. 37 26. Syntax is the systematic account of the construction of single and connected sentences ; or rather, it is the imperfect result of an attempt to classify linguistic usages, which usages, having commenced with a wild luxuriance, that knew no limit save that of intelligibility, gradually settled down into more or less precise forms. Every language has its own peculiar con- structions, which do not admit of being literally translated. Hence the syntax, which is common to the Aryan family of speech, is narrow in comparison with the syntax of any one member of that family. Of this common Syntax little can be said except that all the Aryan languages have possessed what is called the Agreement of the Noun with its verb, apposite, and attribute, — the use of cases, — and at least some modal indication of the distinction between the categorical and hypothetical proposition. Many years ago an eminent professor of Geology told his pupils that they would learn more of the crust of the earth by the thorough examination of a single district than by casual observations in a dozen counties. And on just the same principle we may say that more can be learned of Syntax by a systematic effort at mastering the constructions of our own magnificent language than by any other means within the reach of most of us. The foundation for all sound syntactical know- ledge is found in the scientific analysis of a sentence. Such an analysis is as unlike parsing, as the separation of an animal according to the functional divisions of its body by an anatomist, is unlike the chopping of it into pieces by the butcher or the cook. And it is by means of such an Analysis that we arrive at those Functional elements of a spoken Thought which it is our purpose to examine in the following pages. EXAMINATION OF THE FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF AN ENGLISH SENTENCE. GENERAL REMARKS. 27. A Sentence is the categorical or hypothetical! ex- pression of a complete Thought in words. It may appear in the form of an Assertion, Petition, or Question, and any one of these three may be affirmative or negative : but inasmuch as both petitions and questions may for analytic purposes be cast into the form of an assertion, we shall generally refer to sentences as assertions or statements. 28. Every sentence contains elements which discharge distinctly different grammatical functions in respect of the Thought. The separation or classification of these grammatical elements constitutes the Analysis of a Sentence. 29. " A complete Thought implies a notion of doing or being, in connection with a notion of something which does or is " [Dalgleish]. These two separate notions form the two great grammatical divisions of every sentence. That which asserts 1 For the meaning of these terms, see § 20. 40 GENERAL REMARKS. IS 3° the ' doing or being,' is the grammatical Predicate ; and that which names the thing which 'does or is,' is the Subject, as "The heart which trusts [Subject] for ever sings [Predicate]." Otm. — Although llic division of a sentence into subject and predicate In nil analysis, it is generally necessary to have analysis carried to a iniicli greater length, as may lie seen in the ensuing pages. ■ 30. The Classification of the functional elements is based on the two great divisions of a sentence, viz. the subject and the predicate, thus Whatever can stand alone as the subject of a. sentence is a Substantival ; and Whatever can stand alone as the predicate of a sentence is a Verb. But verbs and substantivals arc not the only possible elements, for they may require limitation or definition, thus Whatever can limit a substantival,- --otherwise than in respect of place, time, cause, or manner, — is an Adjectival. Whatever can limit a verb is an Adverbial. And whatever can attach or link together words, phrases, or clauses, is a Connective. Hence we have Verbs, Connectives, Substantivals, Adjeclivals, and Adverbials. But although the most characteristic functions of all of these have just been given, yet the three last discharge such a variety of functions, that it is necessary to adopt a more or less satisfactory system of terminology by which (o distinguish them. This system appears in the subjoined table, and will be explained hereafter in the course of this work. § 3°] GENERAL REMARKS. 41 Table of Functional Elements. a. Verbs. /?. Connectives. 7. Substantivals appear as : — Subject or Object of Verbs [Characteristic function]. Epithetic Apposites. Subordinating „ . . . . . ) Co-ordinating „ \ Double function. Complementary „ ) 8. Adjectivals appear as : — Epithetic Attributes [Characteristic function]. Subordinating ,, . • • ) Co-ordinating ,, .... > Double function. Complementary „ . ! c. Adverbials appear as : — Adverbials to verb, adjective, or adverb . [Characteristic function]. Epithetic Adverbial-attributes. Subordinating „ ) Co-ordinating ,, . . . . > Double function. Complementary „ ) The words, phrases, and clauses, of which these functional elements most commonly consist may be tabulated as fol- lows : — a. Verbs : — The three persons of any tense. /}. Connectives: — ■ „ . f Co-ordinate. Conjunctions i „ , .. 2 I Subordinate. Relatives . f Relative Pronouns. I Relative Adverbs. 42 GENERAL REMARKS. H 3' y. Substantival* : — Noun. Any adjectival, adverbial, &c, used absolutely, i.e. as a Noun. Pronoun. Verbal-Nouns, i.e. an Infinitive or Gerund. Verbal-Noun Phrase, i.e. an Infin. or Ger. with belongings. S oblique assertion. „ petition. „ question. Quotation. 8. Adjectival* ; — Adjective. Noun used as adjective, e.g. Noun of Material, f demonstrative adj. Ad ) ectIve "P rolloun i possessive „ l Cardinal, e.g. an, one, two. Numeral Adjectives \ Ordinal, e.g. first, other, second. ( Indefinite, e.g. all, many, few. Adjectival Case, usually Possessive. Verbal-Adjective, i.e. a Participle. Participial Phrase, i.e. participle with belongings. Adjectival Prepositional-Phrase = adjectival cabe. Adjectival Clause, i.e. a Relative Clause. c. Adverbials: — Adverb. . , , . , _ f now represented by the mere Stem in nouns. Adverbial Case i * «!.■,,• » • I „ „ „ "objective case in pronouns, ( prepositional. Adverbial Phrase < infinitival. ( " Nominative absolute " construction. Adverbial Clause. 31. A Word, i.e. ' a part of speech,' must in our analysis be understood to include all sorts of compounds. Thus frying-pan, coffee-mill, make-shift, day's-man, general-odd-job- man, are taken as single nouns; — snow-white, nevcr-to-bc- forgotten, are taken as single adjectives ; — and now-a-days, in § 33] ' GENERAL REMARKS. 43 order, all-of-a-heap, through-and-through, are taken as single adverbs. 32. A Phrase may be generally described as a combination of words, which, while conveying an Idea rest short of conveying a Thought; e.g. 'before the house,' 'after writing to you,' ' singing songs,' ' spring having come.' Hence a phrase never contains a finite verb. Obs. — In such sentences as ' He spoke of what you had dotie for him' ' I can give you no information concerning who were there,' we seem to have a contradiction of the statement that a phrase never contains a finite verb ; but in analyzing the above sentences we take 'what ' and 'who' as complex relatives [§ 104] equivalent to 'that which' and 'those who.' Hence the prepositions 'of and 'concerning' do not govern the clauses, but only the latent antecedents of the clauses. Again, in such sentences as ' I did it, after that you departed,' ' He stood in her presence, before that she knew of his arrival,' the words ' after ' and ' before ' are not prepositions, but sub- ordinate conjunctions [§ 108] introducing adverbial clauses on a principle explained in § 108, Obs. 2, 5. For more on this see § 104, Obs. 2. 33. A Clause may be regarded as a little sentence within a big one ; so that it invariably contains a finite verb. Clauses may be tabulated as follows : — i Co-ordinate main clauses. f Substantival i.e. Noun Clauses. Dependent ] Adjectival, i.e. Relative ( Adverbial, i.e. Subordinate ,, but it must be remembered that one dependent clause may be co-ordinate with another. When there is no ellipsis, a Co- ordinate clause is marked by a co-ordinate conjunction. When there is no ellipsis, a Dependent clause is usually marked by the demonstrative ' that,' if it be a noun clause, by a relative pronoun or adverb, if it be a relative clause, by a subordinate conjunction, if it be a subordinate clause. Obs. — Whenever a Sentence includes two or more little sentences, it is convenient to describe not only the dependent, but also the main sentences, as ' Clauses.' By so doing we leave the word ' Sentence ' to express that 44 GENERAL REMARKS. IS 34 complete thought which is properly terminated by a full stop. Thus we shall speak of the complete Sentence 'Thomas went away, hill John remained,' as consisting of two co-ordinntc main clauses: and of the complete sentence ' 1 did it, because you asked me,' as consisting of a main and a subordinate clause. 34. The Direct and Oblique construction. We have already seen [§ 27] that the Thought expressed by a sentence invariably consists of an assertion, petition, or question. The Thought is usually independent, and expressed as coming lUrectly from the thinker. When this is the case, we have thai form of construction which is termed Direct. The Thought is however sometimes dependent, inasmuch as it may form the subject, object, or complement, of a verb, or the apposite of a noun or pronoun. When thus used it may be either quoted or described. If Quoted, the direct construction remains, and the sentence so quoted may be included within inverted commas. But if Described, that, which formed the main clause in the direct construction, becomes a mere noun clause, — with perchance adjectival and adverbial clauses de- pending upon it. When a thought is thus " described," we have that form of construction which is termed Oblique. The direct and oblique constructions are essentially different, although they may be accidentally similar, — especially when the tense of the direct clause happens to be of the same nature [i.e. primary or historic] as the tense of the verb on which the oblique clause depends. This essential difference and acci- dental resemblance of person and tense are best illustrated in the following table, where the three direct assertions ' I am going,' 'Thou art going,' 'He is going,' are cast into every possible oblique form, according to the altered stand-point of the speaker. §34] GENERAL REMARKS. 45 ti .5 hb ho ho "o bo 6o c bb .9 ho .3 ,5 'o 'o c 'o w bo 60 ho o o o '-4J rf d Ri rt rt d Xj ^ XJ xj ^ -c *" J ■'""' ■ — — 5 bo hi) bo 60 _c c bo .5 D bo *o 3 '8 ■ 'o ho bo .9 *• 60 % ho u ci 3 'o 60 "o 60 1/3 60 g 'S M TT. o XI 3 O XI s M 1 3 o XI is & g i— i ^2 t— 1 t-H rf rt ri nS rt d Xj rC XJ ■g XI ' t " J ""■* 60 « bo C bO G "3 ho a ho 'o bo 60 ho .5 'o C5 bj] c 4-> "3 bo s 'o b0 'o 60 'o 60 in in rt s 3 tn c3 f—l 3 £ I— I h-l o rG CD XI O XI ,G -*-> d * J ■" *■* *j -w Z « !S1 O el fr arc constructions which call for explanation, as almost every one regards them as peculiar forms of ' I think ' and ' I thought,' — which is not the case. ' I think ' is from the O.E. ]>encan = to think; whereas 'Methinks' is from the O.E. Impersonnl verb )>yncan = to seem, to appear, which was constructed with a dnlive pronoun. Hence 'Methinks' = in O.E. 'Me ]>yncC' = in r.nlin ' Mlhi videtur ' = in Modern English ' — appears to me ' ; and ' Motlumglit ' = 'Me J>uhte' = 'Mihi visum est' = ' — appeared to me.' Thus in such sentences as 'Methought I returned to the great hull,' (Addison) and 'Me thinke I coulde gesse what myghte be sayed,' (Up. Latimer) we shall take 'Me' as an Indirect object, discharging a dative function j and the Oblique clauses ' I returned, &c. ' and ' I coulde gesse, &e. ' as the Subjects of the two sentences. Ob». 3. — When used exclusively as a substantival, the Infinitive is not a prepositional phrase j inasmuch as the ' to ' is nothing more than a mark, save when the infinitive discharges an adverbial function. The Prkdicatk or a Primary Sentknce. 38. A grammatical Predicate is that which asserts what the subject of a sentence does or is. The only word, which §39] THE PRIMARY SENTENCE. 51 can without assistance form a predicate, is a finite Verb : and no grammatical predicate can be formed without a finite verb. Hence the most elementary type of predicate is one consisting of a verb with nothing added, as The boy runs. Ships sail. Birds fly. There are however many verbs [and also their Verbal-nouns and Verbal-adjectives], which, in some or all of their various shades of meaning, imply too little or too much to be capable of fully expressing a thought [i.e. of forming a primary predicate] without some addition. When verbs are deficient in meaning, they require Complements ; when they suggest or imply more than they themselves express, they require Objects of various kinds. There are however so many and such delicate varia- tions of meaning in many verbs, that it is often difficult or even impossible to determine with certainty the particular classes of objects which are logically appropriate to the said verbs. This degree of uncertainty, as to classification, is nevertheless shared by grammar with every other natural science. The many instances of uncertainty, which appear from § 40 to § 56, should serve, not only to illustrate the fact that grammar is an inexact science, but should also prepare the student to understand how it is that other languages have produced constructions differing from his own. 39. Complements are generally used after such verbs as 'Be,' 'Am,' 'Was,' 'Become,' 'Stand,' 'Continue, 'Remain,' &a, — which verbs, having formerly predicated the existence of the subject, can now be used without predicating anything at all. When these verbs make no predication, they require to be complemented by substantivals, adjectivals, or adverbials, whose original nature appears as soon as we restore to the verb its original meaning. Thus, the substantivals are found to have originated in co-ordinating apposites [§ 73] ; the 52 THE PRIMARY SKNTENCR. [§ 39 adjectivals in co-ordinating attributes [§ 77]; and the ad- verbials in what were simply adverbials limiting the asserted Existence, — usually in respect of place. For example, as originally used, He is a king = He exists, and is a king. He is good = He exists, and is good. He is here = He exists here. But as now generally used, these verbs are mere links or Copulas uniting the Subject to the Complement. And the copula and complement with its belongings, taken together, form the grammatical 1 predicate. For more on this, see § 22. We have thus three great classes of complements, viz. 1. Substantivals as Complementary apposites. 2. Adjectivals ,, „ attributes. 3. Adverbials „ „ adverbials. The following is an almost exhaustive series of illustrations, arranged in connection with the lists of substantivals, adjectivals, and adverbials contained in § 30. Subject. Copula. Comp'emcnt. Thou art the man. _ Noun. These are the aged. She is the darker. lie is the best. This is the one. He is the second, They are the many. That is lie. Pronoun. To hear is to obey. Infinitive. Seeing is believing. Gerund. The story ii that the monks have fieri. \ The command was that we should go, [ Noun Clauses. The question is how we are to manage it, ) The song was " We won't go home till morning." Quotation. c a a. "5. a o u 1 1 I ) Adjectivals used as Substantivals. 1 The logical predicate answers to it substantival complement and its belongings without the copula. See 8 5. §39] THE PRIMARY SENTENCE. 53 a 1 Participles. Participial phrase. Adj. prep, phrase. r Adverbs. is there, is all-of-a-heap. was for the cannon. is from France, is with father, was by him. are at home, is for riding. is a-hunting. is a-sinking. was to go. am to stay, are to be burnt, is to be painted, are to oppose them, is to call the dog. was as I told you. was after you left, is where you left it. Obs. 1. — The above sequence of the subj. cop. and comp. is by no means fixed, e.g. — Art (cop.) thou (subj.) the nun (comp.)? Mine (comp.) is (cop.) the book (subj.) How (comp.) is (cop.) that (subj.)? Is (cop.) there (comp.) a cow (subj.)? There (comp.) is (cop.) a cow (subj.) Obs. 2. — The most curious of all the adverbial complements is the Prepositional phrases. I Prepositional phrases made ( with prep. c. gerund; , Infinitival phrases made with prep. c. infinitive. Adverbial clauses. 54 T1IK VR1MARY SENTENCE tS 4" local nilvcrb ' There. ' United with Hie cupula it is equivalent to n. pre- dilation of Kxistcncc, and especially of a definite local Insistence. Thus, 'There is a slrnuue talc that the numUs, \e.' 'A slnuiRe lale exists, viz. that the mouUs, &c.' ' There is a cow in the licld ' <■ > 'A cow exists in the field.' Ob*. 3.— Although it is of importance for the stiulent lo observe that many of our tenses |g io| consist of n copula and complement, yet he will do well in his analysis to treat such periphrastic combinations as if they formed a single word. Ob». 4. — The lnlinitive and llermid of the copula verb, i,t. to bo and being, may appear as subject, copula, or complement ; but "I is well to leave the consideration of this to the sections devoted to the full con- sideration of these verbal nouns; see §§ 57 — 64. 40. Ily the Cognate Object of a Verb ' grammarians generally mean an object consisting of the noun contained in the verb : but in our analysis we shall extend lite term so as to give it a syntactical as well as nn etymological value. Every verb contains a noun, inasmuch its we can always name the act or slate which is predicated by a verb. This "noun of the verb 1 ' can always be expressed by a verbal-noun, and not infrequently by what is merely a noun. Thus the Contained noun in (iiTHIIt/. hiUnilivf, Nvhii. Exists is existing, or to exist, or an existence. Sleeps is sleeping, or to sleep, or it sleep. Walks is walking, or to walk, or a walk. Lives is living, or to live, or a life. Weighs is weighing, or to weigh, or a weight. Measures is measuring, or to measure, or a measure. Plays is playing, or to play, or a play. Sings is singing, or to sing, or a song. Gives is giving, or to give, or a gill- Asserts is asserting, or to assert, Of an assertion. Petitions is petitioning. or to petition, or 11 petition. Questions is questioning, or lo question, or a question. 1 The adjective ' worth ' ia completed by a cognate object, 1100 j) 6(1. § 4° THE PRIMARY SENTENCE. 55 But a contained noun, like any other noun, may have an apposite. Thus the apposite of a sleep may be the sleep of death. a life „ a life of toil. a weight „ a ton. a gift „ a book. an assertion,, that he is gone. a petition „ that she will come. a question „ how you are. Such apposites, like all other apposites, have the effect of limiting the noun's range of application. Hence if they be added to the verb, in which the noun is still embedded, they have the immediate effect of limiting the verb's range of application. And the substantival, which would stand in appo- sition to the contained noun if it were extracted from the verb, is called the Cognate Object in this book, although the name is also applied in a stricter sense to an object consisting of the contained noun itself, e.g. ' I have fought the fight.' A cognate object may occur after any kind of verb — active passive or neuter — transitive or intransitive, e.g. He struck the horse [direct object] a blow [cognate object]. He taught a the boy [dir. obj'.~\ music [cog. obj.\ He sang a ballad [cog. obj.\ He ran a race [cog. obj\ He slept the-sleep-of-the-just [cog. obj'.\ The cognate object of an active verb is frequently used as the subject of the passive verb. Such a construction is quite grammatical, but very illogical, as a single example will show. 1 ' To teach ' = to cause to learn, to instruct, and is properly followed by a direct object; but, if it means 'to give information,' then it will be completed by an indirect (dot.) object, e.g. 'Music was taught to Aim.'' The direct is, however, the standard construction, and is to be seen in O.E., where the verb ' lseran ' = to teach, takes the ace. of the person taught. 56 TI-IK PRIMARY SENTENCE. |5S •]<-> Thus, when we say 'Music was taught,' we speak good grammar and are understood; but we have nevertheless said what is logically absurd, inasmuch as it was not the Music which was instructed, but certain unnamed Pupils, who alone could form the logical subject of the passive verb. The same illogical character may be detected, although le3S readily, in such sen- tences as, ' The race was run ' ; ' A song was sung ' ; ' A sermon was preached' ; 'A story was related'; 'That he still lived was asserted ' ; ' That he should go was commanded ' ; ' I low they marched was enquired ' ; inasmuch as none of these grammatically passive subjects are really being acted upon, but rather are themselves the action, for The race is the same thing as the running. The song „ „ „ singing. The sermon „ „ „ preaching. The story ,, „ „ relation. That he still lived „ „ „ assertion. That he should go „ „ „ command. How they marched „ „ „ inquiry. Ob». — The test i|ucstion, which best serves to distinguish the CognatiS object from all oilier objects, is, Does it loll in what the contained noun consists? 'thus, in ' He sang a hymn,' ' I to played a walla,' 'tie ran a race,' 'lie learned grammar,' 'He taught musk! 'Jlo constructed a box,' ' lie does lave,' ' He said that you were here,' ' He begged that ymt would go,' ' lie asked how you were,' the words and clause* placed in italics are all cognate objecls, for we can 'say — The flinging consisted In a liyinn. 'the playing ,, a wallz. The running „ a race, The learning ,, grammar. The teaching „ music. The construction ,, a box. The doing ,, loving. The saying ,, that you were here. The begging ,, that you would go. The asking „ l W w you were. §41] THE PRIMARY SENTENCE. 57' 41, Verbs involving the categorical or hypothetical As- sertion of a fact, feeling, or opinion, are commonly followed by a Cognate object, consisting of an oblique assertion. 1 There is an assertion of fact in such verbs as say = assert, deny, grant, write, acknowledge, confess, promise, vow, cW. ; an assertion of perception in such verbs as perceive, feel, see, hear, observe, discern, &>c. ; and of opinion in such verbs as suppose, expect, anticipate, reckon, deem, think, judge, doubt, believe, fear, dread, will, wish, desire, need, hope, remember, understand, learn, know, determine, resolve, 6r°c. After such verbs the cognate objective clause tells us in what consists the assertion, denial, writing, promise, perception, observation, supposition, thought, belief, wish, knowledge, determination, &c. &c. Verbs involving a Petition are commonly followed by a Cognate object, consisting of an oblique petition. The verbs, say = command, exhort, entreat, ask = beg, petition, request, beseech, cW. have such an oblique clause, serving to tell us in what consists the command, petition, request, &c. Verbs involving a Question are commonly followed by a Cognate object, consisting of an oblique question. The verbs, ask = inqui?-e, question, &c. have such an oblique clause, serving to tell us in what consists the enquiry, question, &c. Obs. 1. — When the subject of any one of these oblique clauses has been anticipated in the subject, object, or indirect object, of the verb on which the clause depends, the finite verb of the said clause is sometimes turned into an infinitive, e.g. ' I hope that I may go' = I hope to go. ' He begged of you that you would go ' — He begged of you to go. ' She asked whom she should send' — She asked whom to send. Obs. 2. — The oblique assertion and petition are occasionally represented by the standard classical construction known as the "Ace. e. Infill." [i.e. accusative with infinitive]. This construction most probably originated in the contraction of a clause [see Obs. 1] whose subject had been antici- pated by the object [ace] of the main verb, e.g. ' I knew him that he was bold' = I knew him to be bold; but it is not possible idiomatically to restore every ace. •.. infin. to this supposed original form, e.g. we cannot 1 They include many Factitive verbs, see § 43. 58 THE PRIMARY SENTENCE. [§43 very well replace 'I wish tin- ship to go,' by 'I wish the ship that ll should go.' In Hie ace, c. inliii, construction the "ace."' represents what would be llic subject of the fully expressed clause j hence, if we encounter 1111 nee. gwcriieU by the infinitive, wc have no true instance of an nee. c. infin, construction, c.^. in 'lie uslted whom to sc/tt/,' t ho word 'whom' is an ace. and the ■ tu send 1 is an infin., I ml they do mil form nn 'ace, 0. infin.,' because 'whom' is governed by 'to send,' As however the object cf an active verb becomes the subject of a passive, wc see (hat by turning an active infinitive into a passive infinitive we may produce a genuine ace. c. infin., # v f. 'His lord commanded to sell him' ■> Uis lord com manded Aim to be sold = that he should be sold. Ob». 3. -Except when the infinitive is in the passive voice, an nee. e. inlin. seems almost an impossibility after a verb of petition. The reason for this lies in the evident fact that the persons, tu whom petitions are addressed or from whom something is asked, are In reality nothing more than indirect objects, discharging the functions of a dative or ablalive, and therefore not of an accusative. But though we must never treat Ihem as otherwise than indirect objects in our analysis of modem English, yet we must not overlook the fact that, in spite of the logical absurdity, O.K. was not always consistent as to the essentially indirect regimen of the persons addressed in a petition IS 54]. Thus in the two following examples the same verb ' I li't ' lie commanded, is firstly followed by a dative, and secondly by an accusative case ; — ' lie! |ium sin-lilwuin \dat. | wtcstiuns fedan,' (Civduuui) = lie commanded to the pairs to produce fruits ; ' lie het ))A menegu \aa;J bivt hi, So.,' A.S.V. lie commanded the multi- tude that they, &c. Hut that, in spile of such anomalies, wc aro now justified in analyzing in accordance with logical considerations is borne out by many such passiges as, ' lie bead him |nV.J, |nel hi hit nnnum men nc stedon,' A.S.V. = 'lie comaundide to hem [I.e. to them], that the! scliulden seyc to no man.' — Wycliffe, Mark vii. 36. Ob». 4. — If 1 describe the purport of my petition, I thereby declare my purpose in making the petition. Hut while the purport constitutes a cog. nate object, the purpose constitutes an adverbial [final | clause, Hence it is not surprising Hint the construction of tin ob/ii/ue petition is frn/iuntly borrowed from the adverbial clause expressive of final cause or purpose. Thus in Latin both are constructed with " ut c. Subj. ; " and even in O, K. and modern English the "that" which introduces the uhliipie petition is almost replaceable by an "In order that." [See § 112, Obs. i.J 42. There are verbs which, although involving no assertion or petition, are nevertheless made [somewhat illogically] to receive a Cognate object, consisting of a noun clause. Such § 43] THE PRIMARY SENTENCE. 59 are verbs expressive of Emotion, e.g. rejoice, sorrow, fear, wonder, am surprised, am astonished, am blamed, am concerned, &*c. We are constrained to classify the clauses following these verbs as cognate objects for two reasons. First, they are not direct objects because they remain when the verb is in the passive voice, e.g. 'I am surprised that you are here.' Secondly, they are not indirect objects, because they often discharge the functions of a nominative, e.g. 'That you are here surprises me.' But though we reckon these objects as cognate, they approach very near to adverbial clauses, as is seen in the following observation. Obs. — The cognate object following on a verb of Emotion approxi- mates closely to an adverbial of Initial Cause. This arises from tbe fact that the nature of an emotion, though not logically identical with its cause, is yet sufficiently revealed by the mention of the cause, e.g. 'I rej uice that he is safe' = ' I rejoice because he is safe.' 43. Verbs expressive of Production or Effect are called Factitives [facere = to make] because they contain the idea of Making, by deed, e.g. create, produce, make, form, invent, write, paint, effect, cause, 1 &*c. ri miht hatan hara [nom.] ' = The immoderately timid thou mayest call Hare. 45. Many other verbs are, at least in some of their shades of meaning, completed by a cognate object consisting of a Noun or Pronoun. Such is the case with verbs of Giving, e.g. give, grant, contribute, pay, iyiflict, &c. ; with verbs of Gaining, e.g. gain, acquire, purchase, &c. ; verbs of Possessing, e.g. possess, hold, contain, &c. ; verbs of Measuring, e.g. measure, weigh, &c. ; and with various other groups. All these may be completed by a cognate object telling in what the gift, gain, possession, measurement, or weight, consists. But by a very slight change in meaning many of these verbs become transitive, and are completed by a direct object, as is seen in the following examples : — ■ I paid a shilling [cog.]. I paid the servant [dir.]. He holds the estate [cog.]. He holds the reins [dir.]. You measure six feet [cog.]. You measure the field [dir.]. That machineweighs a ton [c^.J.That machine weighs sugar [^V. J. I painted the picture [cog.]. I painted the door [dir.] green. We made the garden [cog.]. We made the garden [dir.] gay. Hequestions if weare right [cog.]. He questions the prisoner [dir.]. 46. The Cognate object slides into an adverbial or an Indirect object after verbs expressive of a Duration Course, Progress, or Direction, e.g. endure, continue, live, walk run, sail, go, &°c. That the completion of such verbs may be regarded as cognate objects is clear, inasmuch as such objects tell us in what the duration, course, progress, or direction consists r but that they are also of an' adverbial nature is equally evident, inasmuch as they tell us of the Time or Place of an action. Hence we shall find it best to speak of them 62 THE PRIMARY SENTENCE'. [§ 47 either as Indirect objects or as Adverbials [discharging an Adverbial Accusative function], according as we feel them to be essential or accidental additions to a verb. The student will experience no difficulty in distinguishing this kind of accusative from others, inasmuch as it always admits of the addition of such prepositions as ' during,' ' through,' ' along,' 'towards,' &c. Thus ' He remained [during] a year.' ' He lived [through] a century.' ' He walked [along] the deck.' ' He paced [along] the street.' ' He ran [along] the course.' ' He sailed [along] the sea.' ' He will go [towards] home.' O.E. 'Hig pry dagas [ace] mid me wunodon.' A.S.V. = They continued three days with me. ' He gazed the sky.' Milton-. 47. A Cognate object is often replaced by an Indirect object [§ 52], as might be inferred from what has been said in § 41, Obs. 4, and § 42, Obs. Thus verbs of petition are sometimes completed by either a cognate or an indirect object, e.g. ' I begged that he would give me a shilling [cog.].' ' I begged to the end that I might get a . shilling [ind.].' ' I begged for a shilling [ind.].' Thus, again, some verbs of desire, &c, when completed by a clause, will have a cognate object; and, when by a phrase, an indirect object ; e.g. ' I wish that 1 may be satisfied [cog.] ' ; ' I wish for satisfaction [ind.].' Thus, again, a factitive verb may have its cognate object replaced by an indirect object telling of effect, likeness, or substitution, e.g. ' He made the table round [cog.].' He made the table so that it was round [ind.].' ' We counted him to be a fool [cog^]' We counted him as if he were a fool [ind.].' ' We counted him for a fool [ind.].' 48. A Cognate object is often replaced by a direct object. This is especially common after verbs of Perception, e.g. ferceive, see, hear, feel, Grc. An uncertainty as to the § 49] THE PRIMARY SENTENCE. 63 nature of an object must always exist when that object serves simultaneously to indicate in what the act consists, and on what the act is exercised. But a close consideration of the question seems to lead to the conclusion that while the noun- clause which follows a verb of perception is cognate [see § 41], the noun or pronoun which follows it is usually direct. In other words, that while the clause tells in what the perception consists, the noun or pronoun usually tell on what the per- ceptive faculty is exercising itself. Hence in ' He perceived that you were mistaken ' and ' He perceived a storm ' we shall take the former object as cognate and the latter as direct. Such functional transitions are almost certain indications of a changed shade of meaning in a verb. [See also § 50.] 49. The Direct Object is that on which an action operates, exercises, or expends itself. Hence it can only occur after such active verbs [and their verbal nouns and participles] as imply the exercise of an active energy on some- thing. Such verbs are called Transitives, whereas all others [whether active, passive, or neuters] are called Intran- sitives. But both the direct object of a transitive and the iogical subject of a passive verb represent that on which the action operates ; hence we can always turn a sentence from an active to a passive form, by using the direct object of the former as the subject of the latter, thus He broke the lock = The lock was broken by him. He killed the lion = The lion was killed by him. He struck the boy = The boy was struck by him. He worshipped God — God was worshipped by him. Obs. 1. — With Reflexive verbs [see Self-affecting verbs, § 21] the direct object is identical with the subject, inasmuch as the subject is represented as affecting itself, e.g. ' I bethink me. ' 'The young lions. ..lay them down in their dens.' — A.V. C+ THE PRIMARY STCNTUNfK. IS 50 01>». 2 — The student will generally have little diflionHy in distinguishing a direct from a enjjonte object, if ho uses the following test oucKlims!— On what is the action exercised ? In what docs the notion consist ? The former (jives the direct, the latter the c^inte object, it may also In- observed that a direct object never occurs nficr a passive or neuter verb, never occurs after u complement, unless the complement be n transitive verbal-noun or verbal adjective, and never has a preposition governing it. 50. Direct objects are often omitted or replaced by cognate or by indirect objects, when the same verb has both transitive and intransitive shades of meaning |See §§ 45, 47, 48]. It is in fact perfectly impossible to make two lists of verbs, mul to say, This one consists of Iransitives, ami Thai one consists of intransitives. All depends upon the shade of meaning. Tints it is impossible to say whether the verb 'ride' is transitive or intransitive, and we can say with perfect propriety ' Me rides the horse [trans.}.' ' He is out tiding [intnrns,].' Again, who can classify the verb 'believe,' when we sec it completed in three different ways, as, 'lie believes the Creed [cog. o/ij.y 'lie believes Cod [dir. obj.].' ' He believes in you [ind. obj.].' The difficulty of classification increases as we go back to earlier times and find such constructions, as, 'Blessed are they that hunger and thirst righteousness' Wyctiffe. 'lie templed the boy [gen. in O.E.].' ' I le kept the hook [gen. in O.K.\: 'He needed lielp [gen. in C..A'.].' ' Me served God [dot. in O.J'l.],' ' He pleased the king [dot. in O.JH.].' 61. A direct object and a cognate object sometimes occur after the same verb. This phenomenon is known in classical grammars as the "Double Accusative." In modern English this double object is found for instance after the verbs strike and teneh, as Me struck the horse [dir.] a blow \eog.]. Me taught the boy [dir.] geography [cog.]. § 53l THE PRIMARY SENTENCE. 65 When the direct object becomes the subject of the passive verb, the cognate object remains to the perplexity of those who have failed to draw a distinction between a cognate and a direct object. Thus we say 'The horse was struck a blow \ co &-\ ' i ' The boy was taught geography [cog^]' 52. Indirect Objects [as we understand them in this book ' ] consist of any Adverbials, — words, phrases, or clauses, — which may be essential to the full expression of the verbal notion, e.g. 'I heard the thunder [cog. or dir.] roll, rolling, arolling, when it was rolling [ind.].' ' She gave a loaf [cog.] to him [ind.].' ' He had begged for food [ind.] from her [ind.].' 'They escaped from the sword [ind.].' 'We escaped from drowning [indl]' 'He kept us [dir.] from falling [ind!].' ' The accident deprived him [dir.] of sight [ind.].'' They accused him [dir.] of ambition [ind.].' ' The city was reduced to ashes [ind.].' ' I dealt with the grocer [ind.].' ' He arose from sleep [ind.]' Obs. — A few predicative adjectives, such as like, unlike, likely, unlikely, are followed by adverbials essential to their meaning, and to such adverbials we allow the name of Indirect objects. See § 66. 53. Indirect objects often consist of a mere noun or pronoun ; so that, at first sight, it is difficult to recognise them as adverbials. Such nouns and pronouns however dis- charge the functions of, and actually represent, adverbial cases ; although the old case endings have generally been rubbed off during the lapse of many centuries. A noun or pronoun discharging the adverbial function of an indirect object almost always admits of the addition of a preposition before it. Thus 1 And also in Morell's Grammar. The term 'Indirect' is sometimes limited to the Dative completion of a. verb, expressive of the Remoter Object affected by such acts, as, giving, telling, &c. We however think it best to make a familiar term cover a large class of phenomena, which require to be labelled in some sort of way. F 66 TI IK PRIMARY SENTKNCE. IS S4 ' Ho gave [f<>] her a loaf.' ' He asked [for] bread from her.' 'He escaped [/row] the sword,' 'He departed [from] this life.' Ob«.— The student must not expect that these prepositions afford im invariable clue by which to discover the O.E. ensc. The shades of meaning contained in the verb have frequently changed to so ureal on extent, that the case or preposition, which was once appropriate, 1ms now become completely Inapplicable. Thus, while we now say ' I wonder at-you,' in O.K. the sentence would be '1 wonder of-you.' And even more recently we find, ' 1 am independent on-you' becoming ' I am Independent of-you.' 54, Verbs of petition [e.g. petition, beg, command, &c.'| often have indirect objects telling to whom the petition is made or from whom the thing is sought. Usage, or the reminiscence of some former shade of meaning, occasionally precludes the addition of a preposition to some of these indirect objects, or has even left them in O.E. to be sometimes expressed by an accusative [§ 41, Obs. 3] ; but in absence of any adverbial case inflections in modern Knglish, we shall, on a mere logical ground, do well always to classify the person, to whom the petition is made or from whom the thing is sought, as an indirect object, — discharging a dative or ablative function. Thus, 'I commanded him [— to him] logo.' '1 beg of you [ = from you] that they may come.' Ob«.— When the person indicated by thin Indirect object happens to lie the same person as forms the subject oftlic connate noun clause, the cognate noun clause is usually contracted into an infinitive with Its belongings, as, ' I beg of-you that you will come homo' . 55. We often speak of perceiving Something to be in a state of action. Hence verbs of Perception, e.g. perceive, detect, see, feel, hear, &c., are often followed by an adverbial, serving to indicate the sphere of action in which the said Something is for the time being as it were located, e.g. ' I saw the house fall [=> a-falling]: 'The house was seen to fall [a-falling, or, as it fell].' § 57] THE PRIMARY SENTENCE. 67 These adverbials are by some grammarians all classed as Indirect objects : but we shall not class them so, unless the}' , are essential to the meaning of the verb. Looked at in this light, the only verbs of perception, which clearly imply that their subject or object is in a certain sphere, are the verbs of hearing, — for it is of course impossible to hear anything, unless it is in a sphere of action, viz. of noise-making. Hence verbs of hearing are completed by an Indirect object,^. ' I heard him \dir.~\ sing [ind.].' ' She was heard a-sobbing [ind.].' 'We heard the lion [dir.] when it roared [ind.].' Obs. — The sequence of an accusative and infinitive in such sentences as, 'I saw the ship sink,' 'I heard the thunder roll,' is sometimes taken as an illustration of the classical ace. u. infin. construction [§ 41, Obs. 2] ; but we cannot so regard it, inasmuch as we do not consider ' I saw the ship sink [i. e. as it sank] ' to be exactly the same thing as ' I saw that the ship sank. ' 56. Verbs of giving, e.g. give, bestow, impart, send, &£; of receiving, e.g. receive, obtain, acquire, g^c. ; of association, e.g. associate, company, Sr*c.; are usually followed by an Indirect object of the person to whom something is given, from whom something is received, or with whom something is performed, as ' I gave the book [cog.] to him [indirect].' ' I received the letter [cog.] from her [ind.].' 'I associate with gentlemen [ind.].' Obs. — There are many other verbs, unmentioned here, which are fol- lowed by indirect objects. In fact any adverbial which supplies a latent implication of place, time, cause, or manner, in the meaning of the verb, is an Indirect object. Thus the verb ' give ' implies a [dative] recipient ; the verb ' receive ' implies an [ablative] source ; the verb ' associate ' implies v. companion; the verb 'depart' implies an [ablative] starting- point ; and so on. 57. The Infinitive [see §§ 25, 85] is a verbal-noun capable of discharging a limited number of case functions. What these case functions may be, is best discovered by replacing the infinitive by a gerund in accordance with the following table : — f 2 68 THE TRIMARY SKNTENCK. |8 5S Infinitive. Ctrnnd. Nom. . . to shout .... shouting. Ace. . . [to] shout .... shouting. Dat. . . [for] to shout . . . to or for shouting. Loc. . . shout a-shouting. Thus if ' to shout ' can [without an ellipsis] be replaced by 'shouting' it must be either discharging a nominative or accusative function j if it be replaced by ' to or for shouting,' it may be taken as discharging a dative function; and if replaced by a-shouting, it may be taken as discharging a locative function. Cb». — The student may generally distinguish the Nom. and Acr. Gerund from a participle, by seeing If he enn rejilace it by an infmilive. 58. The Infinitive serves as the Subject of a sentence, or it would not be a substantival. It is then discharging the function of a nominative, as ' To hear is to obfy.' 59. The Infinitive serves as the Complement of the copula verb, as ' To hear is to obey ' 60. The Infinitive serves as a Cognate Object after many verbs. It is then discharging the function of an accusative, as 'She was taught to dance' ' lie does love.' ' Let him go.' 'His lord commanded to sell him' - in O.K. 'Hine hdt his hlaTord gesyllan.' 61. The Infinitive sometimes serves as a Direct Object, as ' She liked to ride.' ' We commenced to study.' ' Then begin ye to say ' — in O.K. ' bonne ongynne ge cwetVun.' 62. The Infinitive often serves as an Indirect Object. It is then almost always discharging the functions of a dative or of n locative case [but see § 85]. When discharging a dative function, it has often replaced a cognate object, and tells the purpose instead of the purport of § 63] THE PRIMARY SENTENCE. 69 an act [§ 47], as 'And Pharisees ... preiden hym for toshewe...' Wycliffe = And the Pharisees . . . prayed him to shew. ' When he hadde commandid the companye for to sitte ' Wycliffe = When he had commanded the company to sit.' j When discharging a locative function, it usually tells the sphere of action within which, and by means of which, some object is perceived, as 'I heard him shout.' 'We heard him say' = in O.E. 'We gelryrdon hine secgan.' 63. We have in the above sections seen the infinitives of various verbs used as the subjects, complements, cognate objects, direct objects, and indirect objects, of some finite verb ; and we now observe that the infinitive of the copula verb forms no exception to other infinitives, and may therefore be used in just the same way. The one peculiarity of this verb arises from that loss of meaning, which obliges it to be completed by a complement. Thus in ' To be healthy is to be happy.' ' He commanded them to be quiet.' ' She began to be funny.' 'He was perceived to be ill,' the infinitive 'to be' would be the real subject, complement, cognate, direct, or indirect object, if it were not for its loss of meaning. As it is, we must take the infinitive along with its complement, as discharging those various functions. Thus, 'To be healthy [subject] is [copula] to be happy' [complement]. And in the same way we must avoid separating the 'to be' from those participial complements, by the union of which we express the different tenses of the infinitive [§ 25]. Obs. — There is no connection between the case function of the infinitive and the case function of the complement. The case of the former depends upon the governing verb, the case of the latter depends upon that of the noun or pronoun with which it is in apposition or attribution. Although our case system has almost disappeared, yet it is well to allow ourselves to speak of 'agreement,' just as if the marks of that agreement still re- mained. The agreement of the complement of the infinitive is with that noun or pronoun, which serves to indicate what would be the 70 THE TRIMARY SENTENCE. subject of the copula, if that copula were put iuli Thus, in [s»4 n finite tense. I try 1 hope They ordered him They asked of him They wrote to him They longed for him \ to be an artist, successful, i|iiiclt, attentive, obedient, a soldier, 'artist' and 'successful' agree with 'I'j and 'quick,' 'attentive,' 'obedient,' 'a soldier,' agree witli him \ according ns the ' I ' or ' him ' indicates the subject of the copula when it becomes Unite, as / try that / may be an artist. / hope that / may be successful. They longed for him that he might bo a soldier, &c. &c. The student may nlso at once discover the person or thing with which the complement agrees by asking, a Who or When c|ui!8tlon, thus - Who or What \ / mi artist. ? Ans. I, »» it successful ? ., I, M it , " < quick ? ,, He. M IP attentive? „ He. >» M obedient? „ Me. II J s a soldier? ., Me. 64. The Infinitive is regularly used after the Auxiliary verbs in the formation of many of our periphrastic tenses. Thus 'love' is an infinitive, although without the 'to,' in '1 may, can, shall, or will love' These auxiliary verbs had at some time such a clear and definite meaning, ' that it would have been tolerably easy to determine the case function discharged by the infinitive ; but these verbs, after passing through various shades of meaning, have at last become little more than con- 1 Thus we can get back to very early times, when 'may' -a to be great »r powerful, 'can' = to know, 'shall' -: to owo, 'will' -. to ehoose. With these senses 'may' would probably bo followed l.y a locative infinitive, and the rest most probably by an accusative infinitive. §65] THE PRIMARY SENTENCE. 71 ventional symbols, so that it would be worse than useless to attempt to analyze these periphrastic tenses of our moods. 65. The Interrogatives consist of certain pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs. For the sake of convenience we will consider all these under the primary sentence, — although the interrogative adjective, and nonessential interrogative adverb, fall strictly speaking within the range of the simple sentence. The interrogatives may appear in either a direct or oblique question. The Direct Question is fully illustrated towards the close of this section and also in § 34. The Oblique Question is properly considered under the head of the primary sentence, as it may constitute either the subject, object, or complement of a main verb. It is, how- ever, an unnecessary construction inasmuch as its place may be taken by a quotation of the direct question. The oblique is a much more recent construction than the direct question, and most probably arose out of a special use of the complex relative clause, with which it is so closely allied in English that they are often indistinguishable (see § 104, Obs. 1). It is easy to see how the following O.E. complex relative clauses would become oblique questions whenever they happened to be used after verbs of inquiry : — ' Ne rsedde ge hwset Dauid dyde ? ' = Have ye not read what [ = that which] David did ? ' We mi ge-hyraS hw«r lis hearm-stafas wralSe on-w<5con ' (Cffidmon) = We now hear where [ = the place where] to us evil sorrows up-sprang. 'WarniaS hii ge gehyran' = Beware how [= the way that] ye hear. The various case functions discharged by the interrogatives, — whether in union or not with other words, — may be tabulated as follows : — 72 THE PRIMARY SENTENCE. t»65 •iinoN v o] pappu usi[M S9Aj)03fpv ajo 'o»oq/tt '(jba9-)ibi[* '(j3A9-)qaji|M 1 I -p -p t.i f « o 85 § Ph I If 1 ~0 ill"*! is ft it "S S ifi I -, a Id S3 ;.a ¥ f ! it ■a is l 1 "8 s If J3 V tT If 1 1* 1 o ^ -2. g if sf ■a ? 1 H i l •a •p 1 I 5 as I 4 4 §65] THE PRIMARY SENTENCE. 73 Those interrogatives which end in '-ever' are termed Com- pound Interrogatives, while the rest, if needing any distinctive name, may be called Simple Interrogatives. The simple interrogatives all correlate with demonstratives ; and the compound interrogatives all correlate with some non- demonstrative word or phrase. These correlations may be tabulated as follows : — Simple Interrogatives. Interr. Pronouns. Demon. Pronouns. Who v. Which correlates with He, She, It, They. Whom v. Which n Him, Her, It, Them. Whose J» n His, Hers, Its, Theirs. What »» n This, That, These, Those. Whether >» it Either of these two alternatives. Interr. Adjectives. Demon. Adjectives. What— Which— } ■■ tt This — , That — , These — , Those- Interr. Adverbs. Demon. Adverbs. Whence tt tt Thence. Where >t tt There. Whither 11 it Thither. When >> tt Then. Why n n Therefore. How >» a Thus. Compound Interrogatives. Interr. Pronouns. - Whoever v. Whichever correlates with Any one or more. Whatever n ,, Any thing or things. Interr. Adjectives. Whatever— v. Whichever — it » Any—. Interr. Adverbs. Wheie-ever j» ,, to v. at any place. When-ever >i ,, at any time. Why-ever it ,, for any cause v. reason. How-ever it ,, by v. in any manner v. way. The interrogatives discharge exactly the same function in an interrogative sentence that their correlatives do in an assertion. 74 THE PRIMARY SENTENCE. [§ (>$ Hence, as it is always easier to analyse an assertion than a question, the student will do well to practise turning questions into equivalent assertions. When the question is asked by means of an interrogative, he may always do so by replacing the interrogative by its correlative and possibly by some trans- position of words. Thus so far as analysis is concerned, Who was present ? = He was present Which played the best? ■= She played the best. Whom did they find ? ■■-= They did find him. Whose is this coat ? = This coat is his. What do you want? = You do want that. Whether will he go or stay? = Either he will go or stay. What man called last night? =. That man called last night. Which hat fits you ? = This hat fits you. Where was the cow? = The cow was there. Whence descends the smoke ? The smoke descends thence Whoever can that be ? = That can be any one. Whichever would you choose ? = You would choose any one. Whichever road shall we take ? = We shall take any road. Wherever has he gone ? = He has gone to any place. Ot>». I. — The Interrogative pronoun 'Whether' originally meant ' Which of these two persons or things,' as in " God Cupid or the keeper, I know not whether [= which of the two persons] brought you thither," [Morris' Cr. § 148], But an now used ' Whether ' generally means ' Which of these two alternatives ' ; and is followed by a pair of alternative sentences or clauses, standing in apposition to it, as ' Whether [= which of the two alternatives, viz.] will you go or stay?' ' lie asked whether [=r which of the two alternatives, viz.] you would go or stay.' When used thus it is perhaps best for us to take the word in our analysis as simply a mark of alternative inquiry. 'Whether' is sometimes used as a subordinate con- junction, see 8 112, 8, For the nalc, will be found to take an indirect object, as 'They are like [to] children' [ind.] = in O.E. 'Hi sind ge-h'ce cildum ' [dat. case] ; 'lam ready to go ' [ind.] = in O.E. ' Ic eom gearn to farenne ' [dat. infin.] ; ' He is guilty of death ' [ind.] = in O.E. 'He is deaSes [gen. case] scyldig.' 67. Co-ordination in the Primary Sentence : — With the exception of the main finite verb, any word, phrase, or clause, belonging to the primary sentence may have one or ' more co-ordinate terms, whose co-ordinate relations are almost always indicated by co-ordinate conjunctions (§ 119). When there is more than one main finite verb we have a Compound Sentence (§ 118). Words, phrases, and clauses are said to co-ordinate with other words, phrases, or clauses, when, taken separately or 7<5 THE PRIMARY SENTENCE. [8 68 together, they bear the same relation to some other term in the sentence. In the following primary sentences the co-ordinate terms are indicated, ' Cats and dogs were fighting ' ; ' I saw George or Robert 1 ; 'Smoke was here, there, and everywhere' ; 'They are neither brave nor good " ; ' He is slow but clever ' ; ' She is said to be amiable and lovely ' ; ' He is either drunk or in a rage' ; ' Whether you are right or wrong is not the question ' ; ' That you should be amused and that she should be angry surprises them.' 68. In analysing sentences it is necessary to have some concise method of indicating results. The best possible plan is that of tabular Description. It is to be found in Dr. Morell's well-known and invaluable Grammar and Analysis, and may with a slight modification of the terminology be adopted by those who use this work. A System of Analytic Marks appears however to be a desideratum, — a system which, by a few dashes of the pen, may enable the student adequately to indicate the functional elements. It is probable that, in dealing with long and involved sentences, any scheme of marks would become so intricate as to be practically valueless ; but in the analysis of ordinary sentences the following marks will be found useful, especially in teaching those whose minds should not be burthened with technicalities. The .successive expansions of this system will be found in §§ 94, 117, 123, 124. Functional Element. Marie. Main Subject _ ^ - ^ 11< ,, VerD wwvwwxA „ Complement iwwwwvw „ Object [cognate or direct] . . --.—«___ „ Indirect Object -w.^ § 6S] THE PRIMARY SENTENCE. 77 Quotations are placed within double inverted commas. Ellipses are supplied outside single inverted commas, or within brackets. Connections are indicated by hyphens, dashes, or sometimes by prolongations of the Mark, according as the Student finds convenient. N.B. — In applying these marks the Student will do well not only to treat all the periphrastic forms given in §§ 19, 20 as single verbs, but also to allow the verb ' do ' to sink into the infinitive which completes it. The numbers placed below the analytic marks call attention to the section where the particular element is explained. Victor taught John music. mmmmmmmm JXTVJ>JV- — m ^ hi mm » 37 38 49 Si That is worth pounds. 39 66 They are like children. 39 66 x/xjx/vrv/^ I gave food to him. 49 52 There are clouds. 39 Who was there? 65 Whose is this? 65 7 g THE PRIMARY SENTENCE. [§ 68 Go [thou] home, or ' Go ' thou ' home.' 4 6 To hear is to obey. 58 59 We heard him shout. 55 That the old man would go if he could is certain. 37 34 Jack and Jill went up the hill. 67 He asked "Who is there?" Ml AJVW . "i — ■ •■ ^ ™ m " 34.41 §7°] THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 79 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 69. The Simple Sentence [§ 35] differs from the primary sentence by reason of its additions being accidental, i.e., not essential to the meaning of the predicate : and it differs from the complex and compound sentences by reason of its accidental additions never consisting of a subordinate or co-ordinate clause. All additions to the primary sentence serve two great purposes, viz. (1) to restrict directly or indirectly the range of some noun, verb, adjective, or adverb ; (2) to introduce the germ of some independent or co-ordinate idea. In the simple sentence these additions may be tabulated as follows : — „ , l Substantivals as Epithetic apposites, § 71. noTAfmiteTby f f^f " " ^vl' 1"k ♦ . I Adverbials „ ,, adverbial-attributes, § 79. Verbs & verbals in- ( Substantivals „ Subordinating apposites, § 72. directly limited by] Adjectivals „ „ attributes, § 76. ' Adverbials „ ,, adverbial-attributes, §80. „ , [ Substantivals „ Co-ordinating apposites, § 73. Sentences aug- \ ... ,. , " 5 f/\. . '* ' , , S Adjectivals „ ,, attributes, § 77. ' ( Adverbials ,, „ adverbial-attributes,§8l. Idject'vet In? adverbs } direCtl y limited b ? Ad verbials, §§ 82-92. Obs. 1. — Of the Verbal-Nouns, the gerund may be limited either as a verb or a noun ; but the Infinitive only as a verb. Obs. 2. — The Complementary apposites, attributes, and adverbials are considered under the Primary Sentence [§§ 39, 59]. 70. Apposites are substantivals inserted as it were over against another substantival, — the two being in the same regimen. Apposites are of various kinds according to the 80 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. [§ 71 functions they discharge in a sentence. They may be tabulated as follows : — Epithetic apposites, § 71. Subordinating „ § 72. Co-ordinating „ § 73. Complementary „ § 39. The last of these has been already considered under the Primary Sentence, and in § 22 is seen to be originally identical with the co-ordinating apposite. 71. Epithetic Apposites are apposites which directly restrict or define the noun or pronoun to which they belong. The restrictive use prevails after general terms [§ 103]; and the defining use after abstract terms [§ 103] formed from verbs, and after pronouns, — especially the Notional pronoun 'It.' The restrictive use is seen in such a sentence as ' Jack, the sailor, went before us.' For while the word ' Jack ' calls our attention to a considerable number of persons, the addition of 'the sailor' as an apposite, serves to narrow the number to possibly a single member of our acquaintance. The same is seen in such sentences as 'William, the conqueror, landed at Pevensey ; ' ' She fell in love with Bob, the policeman.' The defining power of the apposite is seen in such com- plex and simple sentences as I have a hope thai all is well. There is a report that the French have landed. The question was asked whether all were here. The petition to serve was rejected. It is pleasant to sing. It is nice being admired. It is wise to be good. It is pleasant to be praised by all. It is sad to be in a rage. They welcomed him, the long lost heir. ' Which, my covenant, they brake.' A. V. § 73l THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 8 I Obs. — The most curious sort of epithetic apposite arises out of what grammarians describe as ' the redundant object.' This is a construction in which the subject of a dependent noun-clause is anticipated by a needless noun or pronoun, standing as the cognate or direct object of the verb. Thus in — 'I see your father's countenance that it is not toward me.' — Gen. xxxi. 5. 'I know thee who thou art.' — Luke iv. 34. ' Conceal me what I am.' — Shak. ' Didst thou not mark the king, what words he spake ? ' — Shak. ' Consider the lilies of the field how .they grow.' — Matt. vi. 28. 'Your father's countenance,' 'thee,' 'me,' 'the king,' 'the lilies of the field,' are as objects redundant, for the sense is the same if we say — ' I see that your father's countenance is not toward me.' ' I know who thou art.' ' Conceal what I am.' ' Didst thou not mark what words the king spake ? ' ' Consider how the lilies of the field grow.' In analysing it is best to take such noun-clauses as epithetic apposites, serving to define the so-called redundant object. 72. Subordinating Apposites are apposites which limit some verb or verbal connected with the noun or pronoun with which they are in apposition. They are in fact the germs of subordinate [i.e. adverbial] clauses. . Thus " Socrates lived a philosopher and died a hero" (Morell) = Socrates lived as a philosopher lives, and died as a hero dies. Yes, he looked a king = Yes, he looked, as a king looks. She pardoned him, the traitor ! = She pardoned him, though he was a traitor. 73. Co-ordinating Apposites are apposites which limit nothing, but which amount to an independent predication with regard to the noun or pronoun to which they stand in appo- sition. They are in fact the germs of co-ordinate clauses. Thus They gave it to my mother, sole guardian of my youth = They gave it to my mother, and my mother was the sole guardian of my youth. 82 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. [§ 74 He worshipped God, the Creator of the Universe ^ He worshipped God, and God is the Creator of the Universe. Socrates, an eminently renowned philosopher, died by poison 1 = Socrates, died by poison, and he was an eminently renowned philosopher. ' And I, the last [= and I am the last], go forth companion- less.' — Tennyson. Oba. — A co-ordinating apposite may on rare occasions stand in apposition to an entire sentence. In what case O.K. might have placed nuch an apposite it ii impossible to gay ; but in (Jreek it was put in the accusative as we see in — oii/tt bmh iripyov, \vypiv &\tOpov = You will be flung from a tower, a terrible death. 74, Attributes are adjectivals added to some noun or pronoun, and which are, or arc taken to be, in agreement with the said noun or pronoun. Attributes are of various kinds according to the functions they discharge in a sentence. They may be tabulated as follows : — Epithetic attributes, § 75. Subordinating „ § 76. Co-ordinating „ § 77. Complementary „ § 39. The last of these has been already considered in the Primary Sentence, and in § 22 is seen to have originally been a co- ordinating attribute. 75. Epithetic Attributes are attributes which limit or define the substantival to which they belong. Those which limit are those adjectivals classifying persons and things according to their quality and quantity. Those which define' are those demonstrative adjectives which, as it were, do no more than point out special persons or things. The adjectivals, 1 Socrates, philosophic in primis nobilis, veneno interiit. — Pub. S. Cr. P- 354- 175] THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 83 by which epithetic attributes may be expressed, are various. Thus in Good men. ^ Beautiful playing. The better boy. The best scholar. The 1 man. This house. These trees. " we have Adjectives. • we have Demonstrative Adjectives. A running stream. Whipped cream. A swollen river. One horse. The other [= second] book. The second dish. An 2 apple. Many people. Tom's coat. The lion's paw. A day's work. A pound's weight. The paw of the lion. The weight of a pound. A cup of gold. Man [= male] servant. He [ = male] goat. She [= female] wolf. we have Verbal Adjectives, i.e. Participles. we have Numeral Adjectives. we have Adjectival Genitive cases. we have Adjectival Prepositional phrases. we have Nouns 3 and Pronouns used as Adjectives. Obs. — The comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives generally express both quantity and quality, inasmuch as when rightly used the comparative certainly implies the existence of at least two persons or things and the superlative of at least three. 1 'The' is a weak form of 'That.' If the student does not choose to let it coalesce with the nouu he must treat it as an epithetic attribute. 2 'A' or 'An' is a. weak form of 'One.' If the student does not choose to let it coalesce with the noun, he must treat it as an epithetic attribute. 3 Such Genitive Compounds as ' a sheep shearing,' ' a grape gathering, ' &c. &c, must be taken as Compound Nouns. See § 12. G 2 84 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. [§ 7 Latin, and O.E. sentences, where the subordinating attributes are seen to be in various cases — touto \cyuv [nom.~\, tSaupve = As he said these things, he wept. Iviirfrriaav t£s aitrivis Ipypovs [ace] = They burned the tents, as they were deserted. Servilius Ahala Sp. Maelium, regnum appetentem [ace.] interemit. = Servilius Ahala slew Sp. Maelus, because he aimed at royal power. Ne leofaif se man be hlafe [dot.'] anum \_dat.~\ — Man shall not live by bread, when it is alone. Obs. 3. — In O.E. the regular termination for forming adverbs from adjectives was -e. This -e has gradually disappeared, so that we sometimes meet with Adverbs under the form of Adjectives, as 'He spake plain,' Mk. vii. 35 = in O.E. rHe riht-e spraec. The student will experience little perplexity on this point if he remembers that an attribute of the unexpressed ' contained-noun ' [§ 40] can only apptar as an adverb : thus in ' He spoke right,' 'He slept sound,' and 'He studied long,' the words 'right,' ' sound,' ' long,' are all adverbs, because they indicate attributes of the unexpressed contained nouns, which refer to * right speaking,' ' a sound sleep,' ' a long study ; ' and in such a sentence as ' They kept him long,' we at once see that ' long' cannot be an adjective, for '.Jhey were not long,' * He was not long,' but ' The keeping was long.' See also § 82, Obs. 2. 77. Co-ordinating Attributes are attributes which neither limit nor define anything, but which amount to an independent predication with regard to the noun or pronoun with which they are in attribution. They are in fact the germs of co-ordinate clauses, and may always be expanded into such. Thus The messenger came running [ = and he was running]. Cicero came first [= and he was first] into the assembly. 1 They came wearing [= and they wore] long dresses. You alone [= but you were alone] assisted us. 2 The immortal^ and he is the immortal] Hannibal passed this way. He came in with his hands dirty [ = and they were dirty]. ' I have made ready [= and it is ready] my dinner.' — R.A.V. 1 Cicero primus in senatum veniL 2 Tu solus adjuvisti nos. 86 THE SIMPLE SENTENU 1 :. Ill ,1 ' He has made die round [■»< and it is round | world so sure, &c.'— A.V. ' And here had fall'n a great part of a tower, whole \ •» and it was whole], like [«= and it was like| a crag, \'C.' — Tennyson. 'And I, the last, go forth compunionless [- and 1 am com- panionless].' — Tennyson. 'Then rode Geraint, a little spleenful yet [«< and he was still a little spleenful], across the bridge, Kir,.'— Tennyson. 'Hither came at noon mournful (Knone, ituvidering forlorn [ = and she was wandering forlorn], !kc.' — Tennyson. ' Behind him the desert sand-waste stretched lifeless ( and it was without life], interminable [— and it was interminable], reflecting [~ and it was reflecting] its lurid glare on the horizon.' — Kingsley. Ob». 1, — When an adjectival is ott|mlile of expressing several different shades of meaning it is sometimes i/nite hn possible to ileeitte whether it is best to take, it as an epithetie, subordinating, co-ordinating, or comple- mentary attribute, -nr even whether it is mil an adverb nuililnled into an adjectival form [§ 76, Obs. 2], Thus in ' The C'cis/M ( 'rag of 1'rauliciifeln,' ' Castled ' '« an epillictic attribute, if there are several crags there without castles ; bui, if there is only one such crag, then ' castled ' is a co-ordinating attribute. Again in ' We saw the moon reflected in tho lake,' 'reflected' is asulxmlinuling attribute if it tells us where we saw the moon ; but otherwise it is a co-ordinating attribute. Again in 'The church stood gleaming,' 'gleaming' is a complementary attribute, if 'stood' is to be taken as u. copula |§ 22]; but otherwise it is 11 co-ordinating attribute. Again in ' The church stood gleaming white.' ' The voice of Enid, Yniol's daughter, rang clear through tho open casement.' — Tennyson. 'White' and 'clear' are mutilated adverbs, if they tell Ihc sort of 'gleam' or 'ring'; but otherwise they urc co-ordinating nl tributes equivalent to ' and tho church was white,' ' and tho voice was clear.' Under such circumstances tho student must analyze according to what appears to him the most probable shade of meaning. §80] THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 87 78. Adverbial-attributes differ from ordinary attributes in telling, not of the quality or quantity of a noun, but of its place, time, cause, or manner. They are to be taken as if they were in agreement with the noun to which they belong. The various functions they discharge in a sentence may be tabulated as follows : — Epithetic Adverbial-attributes, § 79. Subordinating „ § 80. Co-ordinating „ § 81. Obs. — A refusal to recognise a class of adverbial-attributes would occasion great practical inconvenience ; but it is nevertheless probable that all such are 7tierely tlu ordinary adverbials belonging to some unexpressed but latent participle, e.g. A picture in Sepia = a picture painted in Sepia. A book under tlu table — a book lying under the table. The then king = the king reigning then. 79. Epithetic Adverbial-attributes are adverbial-attri- butes used to restrict the range of the noun to which they belong. As there is no need to repeat what has been said in the last section, it is only necessary now to add, that an epithetic adverbial-attribute may always be embodied in an epithetic attributive clause [§ 105] thus The then king was William the fourth = The king, who was then reigning, was &c. We often under-rate everyday events = We often under-rate the events, which occur every day. ' Thine often infirmities ' — A.V. = Thine infirmities, that often come upon thee. ' And many a serpent of fell kind, with wings before and sting behind' = serpent. . . that had wings before and sting behind. — ' Hudibras.' 80. Subordinating Adverbial-attributes are adverbial- attributes that restrict the range of some verb or verbal con- nected with the noun or pronoun to which they belong. Such 88 THE SIMrLE SENTENCE. [§ 81 adverbial-attributes are the germs of suborttinate c/ai/ses, but c:m best be embodied in a subordinating attributive clause [§ 1 06] thus He was melted at the sight of his wife /'// tears ... of his wife who [ - because she] was in tears. ObB, — If [for reasons suggested in § IOJ Obs,] we tiike adverbial- attributes attaching to an indefinite substantival as rpithollc nUlicr limn subordinating, examples of subordinating aclvorbiiil-attrlbutes become extremely scarce. Tbcy are nevertheless to bo occasionally found In standard authors. 81. Co-ordinating Adverbial-attributes are adverbial- attributes that suggest some co-ordinate prediction with regard to the noun or pronoun they belong to. Such adverbial-attri- butes are the germs of co-ordinate clauses, but can best he embodied in a co-ordinating Attributive clause [§ 107] thus lie attained peace with honour ^ lie attained pence, which [— and it] was combined with honour. lie discoursed of the sun tn heaven =*■ He discoursed of the sun, which [*- and il] is in heaven. 'I saw young Harry with his beaver on' (Shale.) -•• I saw young Harry, who [ - and he] stood with his beaver on. '1 quickly found . . . that she regarded me as a very odd kind of fellow with an unfortunate aspect' (Addison) "... fellow, who [= and he] was linked with an unfortunate aspect. 82. Adverbials directly ' limit or define verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, — and also verbal-nouns a and verbal-adjectives. The limitations and definitions are numerous, but may all be classed under the four heads of Place, Time, Cause, and 1 Subordinating Appusitcs, Attributes and Adverbial-attribute* [jjjj 72, 76, 80] do so indirectly, i.e. through the nouns nmt pronouns to which they belong. • The Infinitive is always limited by an adverbial ; but the (ierund mny be limited either by an adjectival or an adverbial. §82] THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 89 Place Time Manner, — answering to the interrogative adverbs ' whence ? ' ' where ? ' ' whither ? ' for Place ; ' when ? ' for Time ; ' why ? ' for Cause ; ' how ? ' for Manner. Most of the adverbials limit or define verbs [verbal-nouns and verbal-adjectives], but some few only limit or define other adverbs and comparative adjectives. The latter do not properly fall under consideration' at this point of our work, but for the sake of convenience are included in the following table, where the non-adverbial parts of the illustrations are printed in italics. CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBIALS, WITH ILLUSTRATIONS. Ablation : — hence, thence, whence, away ; walked from London ; shrank from walking ; departed this life ; I came whence he came. Location : — here, there, where, herein, therein, by, near, together, apart, above, below, outside, yonder ; at home, on the table, in town, under ground, by the door, in love, gone a-hunting ; it stood where he lived. Destination : — hither, thither, whither, hitherward, thitherward, whitherward, forewards, backwards, upwards, downwards, homewards ; towards the hill ; I mill go whither you wish. Course : ; — along the street ; he walked the deck, he sailed the sea, he ran his course. Ablation : — henceforth, thenceforth, thenceforward. Location : — now, then, to-day, yesterday, to-morrow, lately, formerly, once, before, formerly, hereafter, instantly, presently, forthwith, soon, already, now-a-days, no more ; in a year, at any time ; / was out when you called. Duration : — ever, never, still, always, continuously, for ever, heretofore, hereafter ; He lived a year ; / read while you were walking ; / will wait till Tuesday. Repetition : — again, again and again, once and again, once more, once, twice, thrice, fourtimes, fivetimes, often, seldom, rarely, frequently, daily, annually ; by turns ; /answered whenever you spoke. 9" Till'', SIMPLK SKNTENCK. is. Cause Manner . ( J Initial Cause :— hence, thence, whence, thereupon, therefrom, r. Ground wherefore ; He died of hunger, J/e siiQ'trtd from Hsilimo ; Spring having conn- the Jlorvtrs bloom; I sang because you requested uie. Kiiinl Cause : — tonga/ for you, ,iY/vrv utter success, plotted omitust' t/. lAirpose Hie King, ,v // if you were present. Concession : — notwithstanding, nevertheless, however ; lit would ill it though you wore absent. (Quality : — well, liadly, highly, lowly, gladly, sadly, ignorant ly, knowingly. Humility : — much, little, very, singly, doubly, trebly, fourl'oldly, half, slightly, scarcely, partly, greatly, exceedingly, solely, merely, only, far. Degree: — so, as, the, too, almost, well nigh, nearly, hardly, enough, sulliciently, quite, equally, exactly i worried to death ; more, most, less, least, -cr (com- parative sull'tx), -est (super, sullix). Similarity \—llr did not do so well as I hoped, lit appeared ns lull as I expected. The more ha strove ills more they resisted. Dissimilarity : — lit run badly in comparison with Jack ; 11 is mart than 1 expected. // is las than you said, lit is a taller man than you. Effect :--// was niai/t so high that it fell. Agency : — 1 did it through you. Inslrumenlalily : — cut with a knife, burnt by fire, borne of four. Association : — / worked with him. Dissociation : — I jinislitd it without her. Substitution : — / gave a shilling for this, lit died for us, We walked instead of riding. Opposition '.— They fought ngainst (Hvsar. Cumulation \~Theu you have done that also, likewise, too. Hypothesis :— possibly, perchance, Imply,' perhaps, perad- venture, probably, maybe, mayhap. Negation : — not, not. a whit, not a bit, not at all, not in thr least, in no wise, in no respect, by no means, on no account. | Kor Ves and Wo, hoc Obs. 3], Reference : — concerning you. k &c., Sc. § 82] THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 91 As is seen in the above table, the adverbial functions are discharged by various classes of adverbials, i.e. by prepositional phrases, the comparative suffix, nouns used with the force of old adverbial cases, the nominative absolute, the infinitive, and adverbial clauses ; but the student will observe that any special function can seldom be discharged by more than a very few of these classes of adverbials. Thus, for example, if I say ' Revolutionary principles spread with great rapidity in France,' and if I want to add some information as to the temporal starting-point of this rapid movement, I can do so either by the use of an adverb or adverbial prepositional phrase, e.g. ' Thenceforth revolutionary principles spread, &c.,' 'From 1780 revolutionary principles spread, &c.,' but the same sort of temporal idea can be expressed neither by a comparative suffix, case function, nominative absolute, infinitive, nor clause. Again, if I say ' He died,' and if I want to tell the Initial Cause of his death, I may do so either by an adverb, adverbial prepositional phrase, nominative absolute, or subordinate clause, e.g. ' He died therefrom.' ' He died from starvation.' 'The food having been exhausted, he died.' ' He died, because there was no food.' But the same sort of causal idea can be expressed neither by a suffix, case function, nor infinitive. The classes of adverbials most commonly used to discharge any special function are indicated in the following table, either by the insertion of some illustration, or by the reference to some section where an illustration is to be found. 92 THE SIMPLE SKNTKNCK. [8 8a 3 u o o o w m m d ca )- om «m w» N n N N BOO 000 UN COT 'Si in »n 00 00 W9 009 I I I I b w a I J a I 6 •a a ■3 | I •§. I. B a * J3 .S 1 I .r §5 82] THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 93 c^i co ci un an an I I I I ! I s o c 60 4) _& -a S o gP 0> O F l-> id ja ja C s -s J3 S •s S? S "S s a s s 2 .2, S .2 ^ .a -is 3 c t« a \ ""'I the prnctlcnl equivalence of many ideas, the saint adverbial often stives /or two very different film/ions [as, 'vvilli a dog,' which nmy cxpreSH cither Instrumentality or Association!, or even allows the, siiine adverbial simul- taneously to discharge two or more different functions |as, ' seriously,' which mny nt the same moment express cither (Quality or Pcgree : mill ns, ' I mil hnppy, when I see yon' where tlie lulverlilol Clause simultaneously expresses eillier temporal Location, Initial Cause, or Condition, for 'when ' .1 dee you,' mny .- 'because 1 see you,' and 'if I sea yon. '|. oi>». a, The advcrbials of Quality and Oiinntily rrproicnt t lit- ml jccl ivals of quality and quantity Motiving to the noun contained in tht verb. Thus in Ml surprises me greatly,' there '« 'surprise' contained in the verb, and il is a 'great surprise." Again in 'I In caw doiilily,' the 'sight ' was 'double,' ]''or more on this point see 8 7(> Obs. 2, Ol)». 3. ' Yes,' 'yen,' and ' No,' ' nny,' ftro often classed ns adverhlnll hut we shall not regard them as sueh, innsniueli as tliey never limit verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Hill, ilKlsiiuteh an tlicy represent entire senleuees, we shall class them an Interjections, 11 Some four centuries a|(o according to Sir T. More" the mnsl accurate use of these words was ns follows : — Yen '1 agree In Hint affirmative preposition.' Ves ' ,, ,, negative ,, Nny "- ' 1 deny Ihnl: ulliriuativo proposition.' No = ' ,, ,, negative ,, 'Yea' and 'Nay' have recently dropped out of use : anil 'Yen' nne forS = Go thee forth. He him ham-weard ferde = He fared him homewards. ' Get thee gone.' — Shak. ' This skull has lain you in the ground these three years.' — Shak. ' Look how this river comes me cranking in.' — Shak, 96 THE SIMPLE SENTENCK. [S 84 Ob». 3.— Whenever nouns or pronouns admit of the addition of a preposition we may be sure that they are discharging an adverbial function j but in general such nouns and pronouns will be found to appear as Indirect Objects, see § 53. 84. Adverbials continued. Prepositional Phrases not only discharge the functions of all the old adverbial cases which we know of, but also of all imaginable oblique cases ; hence we may speak of them as ' Case Equivalents' 1 ,aying aside the case equivalent of the adjectival Genitive case, all others are the equivalents of actual and possible adverbial cases, thus He walked along the deck - Accusative [adverbial] case. He lived through a century *•> „ „ „ He spoke of you - Genitive [adverbial] case. He thought of the prize •.■< ,, „ „ He sent a book to her -■< Dative case. He strove for victory — „ ,, He sailed from London «• Ablative case. He came out of gaol — „ „ He lives at home «■ Locative case. He swims in the sea — „ „ He went by steam Instrumental case. He was eaten of worms -■ „ „ He studied with me - Sociativc case. He was sent along with her ^ „ „ He did it without me - Carative case. and so on, for any cases that ever have, or ever could have, existed. In the following table simple and compound prepositions are classified according to their most common uses ; and are, when necessary, illustrated by being placed in suggestive phrases, where the non-prepositional words are added in italics. 8 4 ] THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 97 CLASSIFICATION OF PREPOSITIONS Place , USED IN THE FORMATION OF ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 1 Ablation : — from, out of. 'at, in, within, inside. before, in front of, face to face with, opposite to, in the presence of. behind, after. beside, by, by the side of, alongside of. Location. . J under > underneath, beneath. on, over, above, upon. round, around, about, outside, without, beyond, besides. near, nigh, next. far-from. amid, among, in the midst of, betwixt, between. Destination : — towards, to, iato, unto, up to. , Course : — along, through, over, by.. Time , Cause Location. ^Ablation : — from this lime. at Michaelmas, in the Autumn, within a year. before long. after writing a letter. on that day, above six weeks, over a century. about a month. near a year, next week. far from the date. between Monday and Thursday. Duration : — through, during, pending, since, until. (■Initial Cause : — died from disappointment, died of grief, because \ of, owing to. ^Final Cause : — strove for victory, longed to succeed. 1 The only preposition which does not always fall within this list is ' Of.' The reason for this arises from the fact that the idea of material or possession is not adverbial but adjectival. The 'Of of Reference [= about, con- cerning] however occurs in the above table, because the idea of reference is adverbial. 98 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. [S84 Manner 'Similarity : — according to the directions, after the pattern. I )i similarity : — small in comparison with thf other. Agency : — done through your means. In'trumentality : — done by you, destroyedhy fire, cut witli a knife, eaten of worms. Association : — went with Mm, walked along with her. Dissociation : — studied without assistance, there was none except ; him, save, but. Substitution : — £ro for this, suffered on account of you. Opposition \— fought against Casar, notwithstanding your advice, in opposition to you. Cumulation : — many more besides that, in addition to. Reference : — the history of Rome, news about your brother, touch- ing, concerning, regarding, in reference to. &c, &c. Ob». 1 .—The following is a table of Old English prepositions. There is considerable variation in the spelling of these prepositions, and also in their meanings according as they are followed by a genitive, accusative, dative, or instrumental case. (Ablation :— fram = from ; of ^ from, out of, off; be v. set = from. 'set = at, in ; t<5 = to, at ; in -■ in ; innan v. hin- nan v. wiC-innan v. on-innan - within, inside, fore v. be-foran v. iel-foran v. ti'i-foran = before ; ongdan = opposite to. be-hindan i. be-a:ftan = behind, abaft ; wiS- aeflnn = behind, afier; be v. bi v. h\% - by, near, under - under; under-nyfcan = underneath, on = in, on, upon ; uppon = upon : ofer = over, above, upon ; bufan v. on -u fan = above, ymbe v. ymb-utan v. on-bulnn = round, about ; I'llan v. biitan v. wiS-utan = outside, without ; ofer --= over, beyond ; be-geondan = beyond. n< near, next ; ge-hende = near ; feorr = far from, on = among ; t(5-midden v. on-middan = amid ; ge-mang v. on-ge-mang = among j bctwux = betwixt ; betw^nan = between. |t6-wearden v. to-gurh = through. Instrumentality : — fram = by ; of = by ; mid = with. Association : — mid v. wi8 v. be v. set = with ; be v, besides ; to-eacan = besides. Dissociation : — biitan = without, except, but ; ymb-utan = except. Substitution : — for = for ; wi5 = instead of. Opposition : — ongean v. to-geanes v. wrX v. set = against. Cumulation : — ofer = besides. Reference : — of v. be v. ymbe = of, about, touching, con- cerning. Obs. 2. — As a true participle cannot be governed by a preposition, the presence of a 'governing' preposition before a verbal in ' -ing ' may be taken as proving it to be Gerund [§ 25], for example I thought of going home. He aspires to-winning the prize. That misfortune sprang from lying. He went ^-hunting. We saw the ship ^-sinking. 'While the ark was ^.-preparing' — R.A.V. In O.E. the original of our modern gerund had so little of the character of a verbal-norm, that it never governed an accusative. We see the trans- ition from its older to its more modern use in the following passage from Shakspere where a gerund is followed after the O.E; manner by a genitive [case-equivalent], then after the Modern English mode by a direct object, and lastly by an adverbial prepositional phrase, — 'Thou art so fat-witted, with drinking of old sack, and unbuttoning thee after supper, and sleeping upon benches after noon, that thou hast forgotten.' 1 This 'a' represents the O.E. preposition ' on,' which often meant ' in '; so that ' We saw the ship a sinking ' — We saw the ship in the act of sink- ing. A gerund with this preposition is discharging a temporal Locative function. H 2 ioo TIIK SIMPLK SKNTKNCR. \§ 85 Oh«. 3,— Iii prepositional phrases containing a relative or iiitrrroRtitlvo we often find the preposition placed at the end of (lie clause, and the rela- tive or interrogative, which it governs, at the commencement of the clause or possibly altogether omitted, as in This is the person whom [- from whom] yon took itfmm. ' These needy persons do not know what[- that of which] to talk if.' — Addison. 'No nuthir, that [=of whom] I know of, has written professedly upon it.' — Addison. 'There is another set of men that \ - to which] I must lay claim to.' — Addison. I did not know the man [whom] you spoko of. Ob». 4.— When a preposition [having of course its older adverbial character] is prefixed or stillixcd to mi active verb or verbal, the said verb or verbal is invariably transitive, as The stream over-flowed its banks. The dog over-took the hoy. The man built-up a fortune. The cat ale-np the cake. The child gulped-down the close. The surveyor marked-out the ground. Even in absence of the hyphen the student need not mistake the adjoining words, ' up a fortune,' ' up the cake,' ' down the dose,' ■ out the ground,' for adverbial prepositional phrnsea, inasmuch as they tell neither the place, time, cause, or manner of the verba ' built,' 'ale,' ' gulped,' or ' marked ' 1 when however they do tell of sueh things, the prepositions are in reality case equivalents, and ought therefore to bo coupled with the noun or pronoun. Ob». A. — When the noun or pronoun, governed by a proposition In an active sentence, is made the mibjcct in ft passive one, the preposition and verb are in general found to coalesce ; and by so doing form a compound verb of fuller meaning. Thus Hie active sentences, 'The clog walked with-me,' ' We journeyed from-London,' 'I traded wlth-hiin,' may appear in the passive an ' I was walkcd-with by the dog,' ' London was journeyed- from by us,' ' lie was traded-with by me.' The preposition is however sometimes dropped; especially when its continuance would involve an absurdity. Thus we do not resolve the active sentence ' She gavo to-me n loaf,' into the passive ' I was givm-to a loaf by her' ; but into ' I was given a loaf by her.' 85. Advcrbials continued. The Infinitive form of the verbal-noun frequently discharges the adverbial Junctions belonging § 8s] THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. loi to a dative or a locative case, — the former telling of the end or purpose of an act, the latter of the sphere or state of an action. On rare occasions we meet with infinitives discharging an adverbial genitive or ablative function, as in ' My readers too have the satisfaction to find '[ = of finding] that there is no rank, &c.' — Addison. ' What doth hinder me to be baptized [= from being baptized]? ' — A.V. Except as discharging dative or locative functions, the adverbial infinitive is however so rarely used, that we may almost dismiss it from observation. In O.E. there was a special form of the Infinitive for the dative, and in Latin there was a special form of the Verbal-noun for the locative [viz. the Supine in -u]. In modern English we have no such convenient inflectional forms, but the nature of the adverbial function discharged by an infinitive can often be decided by turning it into a prepositional phrase. If the preposition be 'for' the infinitive is discharging a dative function; if the preposition be 'a' [= in or on] the infinitive is dischanging a locative function. Thus I strive to succeed = for to succeed v. for success. I saw him sink = a-sinking v. in the act of sinking. I seemed to fly = in the act of flying. Some of these prepositional phrases, although somewhat antiquated, are still occasionally met with, e.g. 'They came together^/- to consider of this matter.' — A.V. 'Peter saith unto them, I go a-fishing.' — A.V. There are however so many sentences in which, through the slightest change in the meaning of the verb, either a dative or locative force is appropriate, that, in our analysis, it is best to content ourselves with the recognition of an ' Adverbial Infinitive ' as such, without attempting any further refinements. Even to do this is sometimes difficult, as may be seen in § 47, where an infinitive follows a verb which admits of either a 102 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. [§ 86 [substantival] cognate object or an [adverbial] indirect object, i.e. of an infinitive telling either of the purport or purpose of an act. Thus in ' They prayed him to show, &c.' Tyndale took the ' to show &c.' as telling the purport of the prayer ; but Wycliffe took it as telling the purpose of the prayer, for in their versions we have ' Desyringe that he wold shewe, frc' — Tyndale. ' And preiden hym for to shewe, frc' — Wycliffe. Ob«. 1. — The adverbial infinitive may of course consist of the infinitive of a copula verb, as I strive to be good. I sent him to be punished. The case agreement of the complements does not affect the case function discharged by the copulas so completed. Thus in the above examples ' good ' is nominative, and ' punished ' is objective [ace] ; but both ' to be good ' and ' to be punished ' are adverbial infinitival clauses discharging the same functions. 86. Adverbials continued. The so-called ' Nominative Absolute ' construction is an adverbial phrase expressive ot Time and Cause. It consists of a noun or pronoun in the nominative and a participle [with its belongings] in agreement with it. The whole phrase is spoken of as absolute [from Latin absolvere = to release] because it is not joined by any bond of case agreement, with any member of the sentence. Thus in Wessons being ended, the children ran out. ' Then rode Geraint into the castle court, his charger tramp- ling many a prickly star.' — Tennyson. 1 There on a day, he [i.e. Arthur] sitting high in hall, before him came a forester of Dean.' — Tennyson. Spring having come, the flowers bloom. ' I pray you of your courtesy, he being as he is, to let mc be' — Tennyson. § 87] THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 103 We at once perceive that ' Lessons being ended ' = when lessons were ended. ' His charger trampling, &c.' = while his charger trampled, &c. ' He sitting high, &c.' = while he was sitting high, &c. ' Spring having come ' = because spring has come. ' He being as he is ' = because he is as he is.' The use of the Nominative in this construction affords an instance of the establishment of what was originally a piece of bad grammar. In O.E., as in all other Aryan languages ' the case of the noun used in the absolute construction was invari- ably an adverbial case : but, after this noun had lost its adver- bial inflection, people came so completely to overlook its adverbial character, that they gradually allowed even the nominative of the personal pronoun to appear in this con- struction. Obs. 1. — The student must take care to observe that it is nDt the participle which marks the absolute phrase, but the independent noun or pronoun with which the participle agrees. A participle, without such an independent noun or pronoun, often appears to tell of Time or Cause ; but when it does so it is merely a subordinating attribute ; see § 76. Obs. 2. — The temporal or causal force is sometimes so slight, that the Nominative Absolute clause approaches very near to a co-ordinate clause, as in ' We put to sea, Aristarcius... being with us,' R.A.V., which seems almost to = ' we put to sea and Aristarckut was with us.' But however slight the adverbial force may be, it is probable that it is always there, so that we shall class the Absolute construction only amongst the adverbials. 87. Adjectivals are restricted or defined in their range by adverbials of various kinds, as will be seen in the following sections. Amongst adjectivals the participles are the only ones whose meaning renders them capable of receiving every kind of 1 The adverbial cases used iu the absolute construction vary much. The general use is as follows : in Sanskrit, the locative ; in Latin, the ablative ; in Greek, the genitive (abl.) ; in Lithuanian, Gothic, and O.E. the dative. 104 THE SIMri.E SENTKNCK. [8 89 adverbial restriction. This capacity springs from their verbal i/hiracttr, and calls for no special notice here. 88. Adjectives of quality mo constantly qualified by adverbs of Degree and Quantity. Thus (a) we have the Degree of a quality expressed in 'so good,' 'as good,' 'too good,' 'good enough,' 'the, better,' 'more swift,' 'most swift,' [- 'swifts/-,' ' swift-atf '] i and (/3) we have the Quantity of a quality expressed in 'very good,' 'doubly glad,' 'then rode Gemini, a littie spleenful yet.' — Tennyson. Ob». 1. — Adjectives of quality sometimes upjionr In bo qualified by adverbs of quality, as in ' He was ttrril>ty\wi,' ' I urn iiitaisriy «lud .' llul such adverbs of quality, when used thus with adjective*, have the force of adverbs of quantity. Tims in the abovu sentences, 'terribly' vury, Ami ' intensely ' exceedingly. Obi. 8.— The adverbs 'mure 'and ' most ' are frequently represented by the adverbial suffixes -er and -est. Thus 'more lair' ■« ' falr-er'; ami ' most fair ' = ' fair-est.' 89. Nouns possessing an adverbial force are some- times used with adjectives of quantity. These nouns are the stems [with or without the mark of the plural number | of what were once adverbial cases, and which, in spite of the loss of what in O.K.. was a genitive or instrumental termination, have preserved their traditional force through the influence of con- stant use. The following are examples of some of these adverbial case-stems with the O.K. forms : — 7V6' = I am ready to go with thee. 'Hit is sceamu td tellaiw, ac hit nc Jjiihtc him n:in sceainu td &6nne' ■■-. 'It is shameful to tell, but it appeared to him no shame to do.' — A. S. Chronicle. 1K11111 of which tlio Miiptno in ' — u' iH the luciitivo, 11111I (if which KiuiHliril han even preserved some Inicoh of ft dalivo. See Muuiur Willlanm'H Sanskrit Cr. % 867. § 92] THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 107 Obs. — The Notional pronoun ' It ' often refers to the adverbial infinitive attached to an adjective. Hence we may have the curious phenomenon of an infinitive simultaneously discharging a nominative and an adverbial function, e.g. ' It is better for thee to go into life with one eye, than, &c.' = To go into life with one eye is better for thee, than, &c. = O.E. Betere j>e is mid anum eage on life to ga.nne [dat. infin.]. The student should however treat such an infinitive as a nominative in his analysis, inasmuch as it is either the subject of the sentence or the apposite of the subject ' It.' 92. Adverbials are restricted, defined, or modified, by other adverbiah of various kinds. Thus in Very greatly admired, Much more worthy, Certainly not, we have the adverbs ' greatly,' ' more,' and ' not,' modified by the other adverbs 'very,' 'much,' and 'certainly.' Again in Greatly above the mark, Much before the time, Far beyond the rest, we have adverbial prepositional phrases modified by the adverbs 'greatly,' 'much,' and 'far.' Again in Too proud for begging, Too honest for lying, we have an adverb of degree, 'too,' restricted by adverbial prepositional phrases. Again in Too honest to lie, Too good to be left, we have an adverb of degree, ' too,' restricted in its range by adverbial infinitives. And lastly we have the demonstrative adverbs regularly de- fined by adverbial Clauses as is to be seen in § 109. 108 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. [§ 94 Ob». 1. — Adverbial Infinitives are modified by adverbials, not by reason of their adverbial functions, but by reason of their verbal character. Ob». a. — The adverbial cases, or adverbial case-stems, of non-verbal nouns are restricted or defined as nouns, and not as adverbials, 93. Co-ordination in the Simple Sentence. With the exception of the main finite verb, any word, phrase, or clause, belonging to the simple sentence, may have one or more co-ordinate terms, whose co-ordinate relations are usually indi- cated by co-ordinate conjunctions (§ 119). As The great and glorious city is destroyed. We bought a fast and steady boat. He was seen in a deep and dangerous bog. She floated gracefully and easily on the waves. The monsters lay in the water and on the land. 'The fault will then not be mine, but Fate's.'—YAngsley. ■' Whether lie were more wise or stout, &*e.' — Hitdibras. ' His tawny beard was th' equal grace, both of his wisdom and his fate.' — Hudibms. 94. Having now completed our survey .of the Simple sen- tence, we proceed to enlarge our system of Analytic Marks so as to include the elements which have been added to those contained in the. Primary sentence. Single Functions. Functional Element. Mark. Main Subject .... __ m— mmmmmm ^ m Additions to Main Verb mmvivwwm. Additions to §94] THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 109 Functio.na.1 Element. Mark. Main Object [cog. or dir.] __.«„_______ Additions to ,, . . . Main Indirect Object . .-%««-=».#, ^-.a^-^. Additions to }) v Double Functions. a. Subordinating apposites, attributes, and adverbial-attributes. Of Main Subject „ „ Object [cog. or dir.J . „ „ Indirect Object . . c?*53^*'" s O i =>^> „ „ Other Noun [mark above the word] .... -^^^•—^^•-v^^ j8. Co-ordinating apposites, attributes, and adverbial attributes. Of Main Subject „ „ Object [cog. or dir.] . „ „ Indirect Object . . . /^^XX/^.^OOCnX: „ „ Other Noun [mark above the word] .... Jv*\/v\j\r>j>j>jvAw. no THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. [§94 y. Complements, having originated in 0, arc distinguished by a simple inversion of the /8 marks, thus Of Main finite copula, agreeing with Subject Of Infinitive copula agreeing with subj. x/vrv/v/w/vrv ryfv/x/vrv/\. v/vr\.r\ 'X x/v/v/vr»JV/v>\/\» ,, obj. . . ^s^>jNJ^>j>.i> : r\£/v£J>. N.B. — It is seldom advisable to use the last three marks unless some such expansion of the mark system be in use as that described in § 124. 8. Quotations placed within double inverted commas. Ellipses supplied outside single inverted commas, or within brackets. Connections indicated by hyphens, dashes, or prolongations of the Mark, according as the Student finds convenient. Note : — The periphrastic tenses and moods are all treated as if single verbs, and the verb ' do ' may be allowed to sink into its following infinitive. The numerals placed below a mark arc meant to call attention to the section which explains. William the Conqueror was despotic. 71 was despotic. I have a hope that all is well. ■— rvw,-- «• — — - — - 71 It is pleasant to be praised by all. —i wyyvw ' 71 § 94 ] THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. He shot it flying. 76 I the last go-forth companionless. 73 77 I have-made ready my dinner. —x/xrv/x/v/vrvi jvjxNSvj ™ — " ™ 77 He attained peace withjionour. 8l The campaign lasted three years. 45 We saw the ship sink. SS She tried to be good. 85 Lessons being ended, the boys ran-out. 86 It would be better-for-you to stay. 91, 71 The great and glorious city lay beforethe foe. 93 He was dressed in black and white. "■— jsjx/vtwxjv 93 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. [§ 97 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 95. The Complex Sentence only differs from the simple sentence in having one or more of its non-essential elements represented by dependent clauses, of which, there are three kinds, viz. the Substantival or Noun clause § 96-ipo. the Adjectival or Relative clause § 101-107. the Adverbial or Subordinate clause § 108-115. 96. The Substantival ot Noun clause is best con- sidered here, although we have seen that it may occur in a primary sentence as subject or object of a verb. Where-ever this sort of clause is used, it occupies the position and dis- charges the functions of a substantival or noun ; hence its name. The noun clause, although by no means invariably depending on a verb of assertion, petition, or inquiry, is invari- ably constructed as if it did so. It therefore appears under three forms, sufficiently illustrated in § 34, viz. the Oblique Assertion § 97. „ „ Petition § 98. „ „ Question § 99. 97. An Oblique Assertion [§ 34] is usually marked, and can always be marked, by the demonstrative ' that,' e.g. ' That you are here is well known.' ' He knows [that] you are here.' 'Me thinke [that] I coulde gesse, &c.' [see § 37, Obs. 2], Obs. 1. — The clause, which is introduced by "but (that),' is not Substantival but Adverbial. Whether the 'but ' be taken as a preposition or conjunction, we have in such a construction a protasis, e.g. ' I have no §99] THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 113 hope but that he will succeed ' = I have no hope, if it be not that he will succeed. ' I question not but several English readers will be much startled.' — Addison = I question not, if it be not that several English readers, &c.' See also § 112, 7. The demonstrative 'that' is sometimes preceded by a meaningless ' how.' See § 104, Obs. 3. Obs. 2.— Although it is convenient to take the ' that ' of the noun clause as a mere Mark, it is not really so. It is in reality a demonstrative pronoun discharging a nominative or objective function, and the noun clause is in reality standing in apposition to it. The appositional character of the noun clause is proved by our power of bracketing out that which in reality constitutes the noun clause, e.g. ' That [you are mistaken] is certain.' 'They said that [he would go].' 'The story is that [the enemy is fled].' The value of being aware of this appositional character lies in the fact that such knowledge enables the student at once to distinguish the ' that ' of a noun clause from the 'that ' of an adverbial clause [§113, Obs. 5],— for the adverbial clause cannot be bracketed out from its ' that.' 98. An Oblique Petition [§ 34] is usually marked by the same ' that,' as serves for the oblique assertion. Obs. — It is usually impossible to distinguish an oblique petition from an oblique hypothetical assertion, except by noticing whether the verb or noun on which the clause depends is a verb or noun of petition or not. Thus in ' He begged that she might go,' and ' He said [= asserted] that she might go,' the clause • — that she might go' is only recognized in the former case as an oblique petition by reason of its dependence on the verb of petition, ' begged ' ; and in the latter case as an oblique hypothetical assertion 'by reason of its dependence on the verb of assertion, ' said.' 1 99. An Oblique Question [§ 34], if we except ' whether,' invariably contains the same Interrogative which appears or might appear in the corresponding direct question. Obs. 1. — It is often impossible to distinguish an oblique question from an adjectival clause introduced by a complex-relative [§ 104], except by noticing whether there is some special .indication of the presence of an Inquiry or not. Thus in 'He asked how you did it,' and ' He saw hdvt you did it,' the clause ' — how you did it ' is in the former case at once seen to be an oblique question, by reason of its dependence on the verb of 1 The verb ' to say ' is sometimes a verb of petition. When so used, to say = to command, e.g. I said [= commanded] that you were to go. I H4 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. [§ 100 inquiry, ' asks ' ; but in the latter case we take it as a complex relative- clause in which the complex-relative ' how ' = the way how v. the way in which. For more on this see § 104, Obs. 1. Obe. 2. — Many direct questions have no interrogative particles, e.g. ' Is it wet ? ' In casting such questions into an oblique form, we must assume that the direct form presents us with two alternative questions, e.g. ' Is it wet, or is it not wet ? ' and these alternatives must be marked by, or rather be placed in apposition to, the alternative interrogative ' whether,' e.g. ' Whether is it wet, or not? ' There is then no difficulty in passing it into the oblique form, as in ' I ask whether it is wet.' For more on ' Whether,' see § 65, Obs. I. The subordinate conjunction ' If is frequently used in oblique questions as an interrogative pronoun equivalent to ' whether,' e.g. ' 1 only asked if [= whether] it was wet.' If however what would be an indicative mood in the direct ' whether '-clause, is seen to be a subjunctive in the ' if '-clause, the conditional character of the latter clause is established. Thus in Tenny- son's line 'She'll not tell me if she love me,' the use of the subjunctive ' love ' instead of the indicative Moves' proves that the 'if clause is a protasis, and not the oblique rendering of ' Does she love me ? ' Both 'whether' and 'if,' thus used, are in analysis best taken merely as marks of alternative questions. 100. A Contraction of the Noun clause often takes place, when the subject of the said clause has been anticipated by the subject, direct object, or indirect object of the governing verb, as I hope that I shall succeed = I hope to succeed. I noticed him that he was mad = I noticed him to be mad. I begged of them that they would come = I begged of them to come. I inquired how I should do it = I inquired how to do it. When this contraction follows a direct object we have the phenomenon of the well-known classical construction, known as the "Ace. c. Infin." But for more on this see § 41, Obs. 1 and 2. 101. The Adjectival, Attributive, or Relative clause is the grammatical equivalent of an adjective in all respects § ioi] THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 115 save that of forming a complement. Hence its functions may be tabulated in accordance with those of the adjective in § 74, and appear as Epithetic attributive clauses, § 105. Subordinating „ „ § 106. Co-ordinating „ „ § 107. This clause is called a Relative clause, because it relates to some antecedently described person or thing, which for this reason is called the Antecedent. The relative clause contains a pronoun, pronominal adjective, or pronominal adverb, which serves to attach it to the antecedent. Such words are for this reason distinguished as relative pronouns, relative adjectives, and relative adverbs ; although it is often convenient to speak of them all simply as 'relatives.' The Relative is a word discharging some definite function within the relative clause and in this it differs from a conjunction, which discharges nc function in the co-ordinate or subordinate clause which it introduces. Thus while the relative may be compared to the hooked end of something which is to be attached ; a conjunction may be compared to a loose link serving to connect two com- plete and independent bodies, thus Relative Hook. Conjunctive Link. 3 S ~ >' '> -^s» Before discussing the three classes of relative clause, it is necessary to devote two sections to the separate consideration of the Relative and the Antecedent. 102. The Relatives in Old English were, speaking broadly, 1 2 n6 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. IS ioa identical with, or derived from, the demonstratives, just as if that that or who v. which. thence = thence „ whence. there = there „ where. thither = thither „ whither. then = then „ when. the the „ why. thus = thus „ how. but of all these only ' that ' retains its position as a relative. In Old English the demonstrative pronoun ' that ' (prat) was regularly declined, and a glance at that declension (see § 108, Obs. 3) is enough to show that several of the demonstrative adverbs are really old oblique cases of the said demonstrative. Thus our adverb 'there* answers to the feminine, dative, singular, ptere j and ' then ' answers to the masculine, accusa- tive, singular, pone. When in O.K. this declined demonstrative was used as a relative, such a relative exhibited not only the gender and number of its antecedent, but also the case appropriate to the verb contained in the relative clause. Such a construction was however infrequent, and as a general rule the relative was represented by pc [a weakened and un- infected form of pa, the stem of poet"), as we see in ' pa ping pe pses Caseres 'synd ' = the things that be Cresar's. ' Ic. com Josep edwer br<5Sor pe ge sealdon ' «■ 1 am Joseph your brother whom ye sold. In modern English, with the exception of ' whether,' the whole of the interrogatives tabulated in § 65 are to be found as relatives, — although ' what ' is so rarely thus used that it is best to exclude it from the number. Lastly we sometimes find ' as ' and ' but ' used as relatives discharging a nom. or ace. function. The various case functions discharged by the relatives may be tabulated as follows : — § IC§ I02] THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 7T 7 «3 ■ J3A3ipniAl Tpyqa. (aqj) ,C o a ■a ' .9 t3 d "S 3 0) V V O U (U £ £ £ £ ^ *-^ --^ > 8 ? § T •P o ■9 -9 if .a ^5 £ & 3 & ? J3 ^— , — ' £ II II II M II. <">. ^^ 1 - * m. ■ 1 ' 3h > > I* 3 ^ ■a* ¥ 3 0) 2 O ■3 -;3 o 8 ^ & ? £ o a" o o .a 6* o lH S J3 P 1 J5 o .a 5= J5 > e 4J o o -1 -1 a ss !3 Z o .a o -a 1 O o IS o , — , z ■a o "£* .-— * to a, <2 & ■s O > o 2 *» s H ■si J-J *J Ci rt rt rt rt d CJ rt .a .0 ja .a ■a 1 I 1 | I 1 1 a 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ja w tn 1 1 1 1 1 1 ri cd Vj e was used. This is the case, when it is used as if discharging an adverbial function without the aid of a preposition, as in ' I do not know the way that [= in which] you did it.' When thus used we shall speak of it as the Undeclined Relative. This is however an abnormal construction, and as a rule the preposition appears at the end of the clause, e.g. ' I do not know the process that you did it by.' For standard examples, see § 105. §103] THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 119 Obs. 1. — Relatives are to be taken as in the same gender and number as their antecedents, inasmuch as they are either pronouns representing the antecedents, or adjectives added to the repeated antecedent. They are not however necessarily in the same case as the antecedent ; inasmuch as, while the antecedent is discharging one case function to the verb of the main clause, the relative is discharging what is possibly an altogether different case function to the verb of the dependent clause, e.g. ' I saw a man [.[any person(-s ) . . . . whose the one that the that f whence the place \ where ' whither the time when the cause v. reason >why the manner v. way how any person who any one that any thing that any that any that any place where any time when any cause v. reason .... why any manner v. way how 122 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. [I 104 Comdex Relative. Anhcedtnt. telatiw. Compound Pronouns : who-so(-ever) = every person that whlch-so-ever = every one that what-so(-ever) ■• every thing that Compound Adjectives : which-so-ever — = every "'fit whnt-so-evcr = every that Composed Adverbs : where-so-ever every place where -■: at which when-so-ever — every time when = at wliicll how-so-ever every manner v. wny .... how .. in which whither-so-cver - to every place whither = to which N.B. — The antecedent may be a noun in the nominative, or be governed by either a verb or an expressed preposition. 'We speak that [= the things that] we do know.' — A.V. ' He is that [= the person that] he is.'— Shak. ' Who [ = the person who] was the thane lives yet.' — Shak. ' — till Geraint waving an angry hand as who [ ■> a person who] should say, &c.' — Tennyson. ' — w ith a propriety that none can feel but who [ «= a person who] can lift, &c.' — Cowper. ' Oh, I would I had him here, the which [ = the person which] did it indite.' — Nicholas Udall. 'I would recommend, what [=> the things which] I have here said, to the directors.' — Addison. 'These needy persons do not know what to talk of [= the things of which to talk]. — Addison. 'Nor was the Legion destitute of what [—of the thing which]... would be styled a train of artillery.'- -Gibbon. ' At the outset of his reign he stood alone, and what work [ = that work which] was to be done was done by the king himself.'— Green. 'Saul, at what time [= at the time at which] he was sent against Amaleck was refused of God.' — Bp. Latimer. ' Let no man know where [= the place where] ye be.' — A.V. § 104] THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 123 'And he sought how [= the way how] he might... betray him.'— A.V. ' — the seed should spring and grow up, he knoweth not how ' [ = the way how it should spring and grow up]. — A.V. ' I do not know whatever [= anything that] we can do.' ' I will do whatsoever [ = every thing that] thou sayest unto me.'— A.V. ' To whomsoever [ = of every person to whom] much is given, of him shall much be required : and to whom [ = of the person to whom] they commit much, of him will they ask the more.' — R.A.V. 'The fader roos [i.e. the father rose], and for they shuld here what that [Obs. 3] he did,... he went, &c.' — Thomas Occleve. Obs. 1. — It is often impossible for us to distinguish an Oblique Question from a Complex Relative clause, when the former admits of being replaced by the latter. This difficulty would not exist if exclusively relative [instead of interrogative] forms, were used as complex relatives ; or if [as in Latin] a particular mood was used in the construction of the oblique question. Of English clauses containing an ambiguous interrogative-form, those only must of necessity be treated as oblique questions, which are associated with some verb or noun of inquiry, or which are as it were the echo of another speaker's inquiry. Of course the interrogative form is not ambiguous when it does not admit of resolution into a. relative and antecedent : hence the pronoun ' whether ' is always interrogative. Any distinction between our oblique questions and complex-relative clauses is however somewhat arbitrary, and not always clearly applicable. Obs. 2. — A preposition placed before a complex relative sometimes governs only the contained antecedent, e.g. ' He told me of who [= of the people who] were there ' ; sometimes only the contained relative, e.g. ' He does not know of what [= the things of which] you spoke ; ' sometimes both the antecedent and relative separately, e.g. ' He gave it to what [= to that object to which] you desired him to give it.' Some standard examples of these usages are given in the above section. Obs. 3. — How that [=: how] is a construction of the same nature as that which so much prevailed in Mediaeval English, viz. the insertion of a meaningless 'that,' not only after Complex Relatives [e.g. 'who that,' 'what that,' 'whence that,' 'where that,' 'how that,'], but also after ordinary relatives [e.g. 'which that'], after subordinate conjunctions I2 4 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. [§ l<>5 [e.g. -when that,' 'whilst that,' 'till that,' 'lest that,' 'if that/ > though that,']— and possibly after oblique intcrrogatives {e.g. ' whose that ']. This led to the still greater absurdity of sometimes prefixing ' how ' to an oblique assertion. Thus we have ' How that ' [= that] in, ' Affermyng this, how that it is a labour spent in vain to Vna.'—The Nut Brown Maid, A.D. 1500. 105. Epithetic Attributive-clauses are relative clauses which limit or define their antecedent. This antecedent is of the 2nd class mentioned in § 103, i.e. a definite or indefinite antecedent consisting of a General or General-collective term, or of a pronoun representing them. That the antecedent of an epithetic attributive-clause cannot be of the 1st class is clear, inasmuch as that which is essentially singular does not admit of farther grammatical limitation or definition. The relative pronoun most suitable to the epithetic attributive-clause is ' That,' although any of the relatives may be employed. Perhaps the best possible example of successive limitations, effected by epithetic attributive-clauses, is furnished by the well-known lines :— ' This is the Maiden all forlorn, that milked the cow with the crumpled horn, that tossed the dog, that worried the cat, that killed the rat, that ate the malt, that lay in the house that Jack built.' There are doubtless many ' forlorn Maidens ' in the world ; but an epithetic attributive- clause limits our attention to a class of such maidens as may have milked cows with 'crumpled horns.' The limitation is carried still farther by removing from consideration all such specimens of horned-cattle as have not 'tossed a dog.' Again the dogs are restricted to those that have worried cats, — the cats to those that have killed rats, — the rats to those that have eaten malt, — and the malt to that which lay in a house built by an individual of the name of ' Jack.' And thus it comes to pass that, by successive limitations, we succeed in identifying the 'forlorn Maiden' beyond all ordinary possibility of mistake. The following examples of epithetic attributive-clauses have § 105] THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 125 their antecedents arranged according as they are definite or indefinite : a. With Definite Antecedents. ' There is another set of men that I must likewise lay claim to.' — Addison. 'The moment that [—at which] T awake... I find, &c.' — Kingsley. ' The gravity of my behaviour. . .at the time that [ = at which] /sucked, seemed to favour my mother's dream.' — Addison. ' I was born to a small hereditary estate which. . .was bounded by the same hedges and ditches in William the Conqueror's time that [= by which] it is at present? — Addison. ' It is something which is all of a piece? — Trench. ' They never perceived the gross inconsistency of which they were guilty.' — Macaulay. ' Delicacy of hearing and taste of harmony has (sic) been formed upon those sounds which every country abounds with.' — Addison. 'He fond a narow passage, which that [§ 104, Obs. 3] he took.' — John Lydgate. ' They had fled from the post where God had placed them.' — Kingsley. •'We see times of change and progress alternating with other times when life and thought have settled into permanent forms.' — Froude. 'I come not against thee this day, but against the house wherewith I have war.' — A. V. /?. With Indefinite Antecedents. ' No man can rise suitably to his merit, who is not something of a courtier.' — Steele. 'An old maid, that is troubled with the vapours, produces infinite disturbances.' — Addison. 'There is scarce a thinking man but [= who... not] lives 120 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. [§ 106 under a secret impatience of the hurry and fatigue he suffers.'— Steele. * No author that J know of has written professedly upon it.' — Addison. ' Like a lion, which has been made so tame that men may lead him about by a thread, I am dragged up and down.' — Macaulay. ' There is no place of general resort wherein 1 do not often make my abearance.' — Addison. ' Ho [--• any man] that hath ears to hear, let him hear.' — A.V. ' Whoever [ - any person who] wishes to be well acquainted with the morbid anatomy of governments, whoever [ — any person who] wishes to know how gnat states may be made feeble and wretched, should study the history of Spain.' — Macaulay. 'Whatsoever [■=» every thing that] is tight, I will give.' — A.V. Oba. — Although the clause following an indefinite antecedent is most properly classed tis on Epithetic, whenever it limits the miteiedent ; yet we must not overlook the fact that it approaches very near to a Subordinate Attributive-clause, inasmuch as it can always be replaced by a conditional or concessive protasis, e.g. 'No man can rise suitably to bis merit, mho [= if he] is not something of a eonrtiir.' The power of substituting n protasis for a relative clause is in fact one of the tests by which to prove the indefinite nature of a restricted antecedent (see § 103, Obs.), 106. Subordinate Attributive-clauses are relative clauses, which, while they neither limit nor define their antecedent, serve indirectly to modify some verb or verbal. They are in fact adverbials under an adjectival form ; and in them the Relative = Subord. conj. + personal pron. or demonstrative. The antecedent of this kind of clause may be of either the 1st or 2nd class mentioned in § 103, and either definite or indefinite. The relative pronoun least suitable to it is ' That,' although any of the relatives may be and are employed by standard authors. § io7] THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 127 With 1 st class antecedents. ' The French have therefore refined too much upon Horace's rule, who [ = inasmuch as he] never designed to banish all kinds of death from the stage.' — Addison. 'Pepin... made... a solemn reference to the pope as to the deposition of Childeric III., under whose [= although... under his] nominal authority he himself reigned.' — Hallam. 'When I, that [= because I] knew him fierce and turbulent, refused her to him.' — Tennyson. With 2nd class antecedents. u.. Definite. 'She ..was... almost frightened out of her wits by the great house dog that [= because it] howled in the stable,... when she lay ill with the tooth ache.' — Addison. ' In utter abasement I confessed myself lower than the brutes, who [= inasmuch as they] had a law and obeyed it.' — Kingsley. /3. Indefinite. ' And the barge with oar and sail moved from the brink, like some full-breasted swan that [= when she] ruffles her pure cold plume and takes the flood!- — -Tennyson. Obs. — Epithetic attributive clauses can be replaced by adverbial clauses [viz. by protases], when the antecedent is Indefinite; but they are rightly classed as Epithetics because they limit their antecedents. See § 105, Obs. 107. Co-ordinating Attributive-clauses are relative clauses, which, while they neither limit nor define their ante- cedent, serve to introduce a co-ordinate thought. They are in fact the considerably developed germs of co-ordinate clauses under an adjectival form; and in them the Relative = Co-ord. conj. + personal pron. or demonstrative. The antecedent of this kind of clause may be of either the 1st or 2nd class mentioned in § 103, and either definite or uS Till': COMVUEX SKNTENCE. [« 107 indefinite. The relative pronoun least suitable to it is ' That,' although it is sometimes used oven by good authors. With 1st class antecedents. a. Unique. 'So fared it with Geraint, who [ - and he] thought and said, litre by Gods grace is the one t'«i,Y for me' — Tennyson. 'The Sun-god, whom [- and him] he loved, took him to himself.' — Kingsley. •Seeing it is one God, which [=• and he, R.A.V.] shall justify, **<-.'— A.V. /?. Abstract. ' He likes to-play which [- and it] indeed most boys do [lihe], ' 1 despatched my dinner..., when [ -1 and then) to my utter confusion the lady... desired me, &*c.'- -Addison. ' A rough census was taken at the time of the Armada, when I " and then] the population was found to be something under Jive millions' — Fronde. With 2nd class antecedents. 11. Definite. ' I have passed my latter years in this city, where | and there v. in it] I am frequently seen.' — Addison. 'The emperors of Constantinople were not too proud to confer upon Clovis the titles of consul and patrician, which [ — and those titles] he was too prudent to refuse.' — llallam. $. Indefinite. ' There is a cooling breeze, which [ - and it] crisps the broad clear river." — Byron. ' Himself beheld three spirits mad with joy come dashing down on a tall wayside flower, that [ « and it] shook beneath them.'— Tennyson. §io8] THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 129 ' I have acted in all the parts of my life as a looker-on, which [= and this] is the character I intend to preserve' — Addison. ' It was the Phoenicians who [= and they] invented writing.'' 'Frances was left for a moment in a parlour, where [= and there] she sank down on a chair? — Macaulay. 108. Adverbial or Subordinate clauses are clauses discharging some of the adverbial functions described in § 82. These functions are chiefly indicated by the subordinate con- junctions which link [see end of § 101] these clauses to the verb, adjective, or adverb, they serve to limit or define. Hence the following table of the subordinate conjunctions serves also to classify the adverbial clauses. Cause Time . < SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. C Ablation : — whence. Place . < Location : — where, where-ever, where-so-ever. t Destination : — whither, whithersoever. Location : — when, as, now that, so soon as, as soon as, since, or = before, before [that], ere [that], or ever [that], after [that]. Duration : — while, whilst, the while that, so long as, as long as, since, ever since, till, until. Repetition : — when, whenever, whensoever, as often as, &c. Initial Cause : — because, as, inasmuch as, for as much as, whereas, since, that, for [that], in that, seeing [that], con- sidering [that], lest [after the verb 'fear '] = because c. Conj. mood. Final Cause : — that, in order [that], to the end [that], in case [that], lest — in order that. ..not. Condition : — if, an(d), unless, except, without, save [that], but [that], suppose [that], grant [that], supposing [that], granting [that], allowing [that], provided [that], whether.. .or, so. Concession: — though, although, albeit, if.. .not, if = though, notwithstanding [that], supposing [that], granting [that], allowing [that],, whether.. .or. K <>' THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. [8108 'Similarity :— as, jast as, as well as, according as, like [as], even as, as if, as though, in proportion as, how, the, (so) Manner. c ...as, (as),.. as. Dissimilarity : — than. Effect :— (so) ..that, so that, that. Ob». 1. The stiulcnt, who ilosircs to obtain a thoiMtigh knowledge of English, will do well to notice the Old English equivalents of these sub- ordinate conjunctions. The most common are as follows : — Place Time Ablation : — |>nuou : whence. Location : — l»a.-v ■= where. Destination: — |svr = whither j swA hwoxter swi soever. whithei- [vocation :- Duration :- Cause . { bonne when ; rer (xlm be - before, ■bemlen = whilst, bA [hwfle |>e] ~. whilst j mid bam |>e ;-■■ whilst; mid ]?f )>e = whilst ; swA fort 681$« - until ; 6iS |wt ~ until ; sie whensoever. Initial Cause : — for |>Am |>e = because ; for Jry' be = because ; by 1 = because ; |>iet =» because. Final Cause : — to bdn Jwt ; in order that ; to |«lm b«et ~ in oilier that ; biet that ; by - hvs |)e — lest. Condition :— gif ;\ gyf = if; baton = unless, same, except; ueinne unless. Concession ; — )>cah \k though, although. ' Similarity :- swA .- as; swylce = as if, as though ; swA...sw4 so. ..as; swA...swA a as ; be = in proportion Manner Dissimilarity :- bonne " than. Effect: — swA..,|>a.'t - so,.. that; swA Jjoet that. so that ; beet = Ob». a. — The origin and rationale of most of our Adverbial clauses, may be discovered with tolerable certainty. Thus — 0. those clauses which are connected by the subordinate conjunctions 'whence,' 'where,' 'where-ever,' 'whither,' 'whithersoever,' 'when,' ■ wheri-ever,' 'while,' 'whilst,' 'how,' ' whether,' 'as,' have clearly originated in Relative clauses with a iupjtttsstd atittttiient forming part of an adverbial clause, see § 10a, Obs, a, 8, |3. those which are connected by the subordinate conjunctions 'while' = during the time, because <- by that cause, originated in Relative clauses § 108] THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 131 with a suppressed relative and an expressed antecedent. Thus in O.E. we have GaS [Walk], ]>a hwile [during the while] ]>e [during which] ge [ye] le6ht [light] habbon [have]. And the full construction of ' Because ' may be illustrated by, ' I will go because you have asked ' = I will go for [or by] that cause, for [or by] which you have asked. y. those which are connected by the subordinate conjunctions ' in order that,' 'so that,' 'so.. .as,' 'as... as,' 'the.. .the,' 'lest,' originated in Relative clauses, containing in a more or less obscure form both the relative and antecedent, Thus ' I did it in order [antecedent] that [uninfected relative] you might come ' — I did it in that order in which you might come. ' She so [demonstrative antecedent] sang that [uninfected relative] all were delighted' = She sang by that degree by which all were delighted. ' He was not so [demon, antecedent] pleased as [relative] I was ' = He was not pleased by that amount by which I was pleased. ' The [relative] more people there are, the [demonstr. antecedent] merrier we shall be ' = We shall be merrier by that amount, by which there are more people. ' I called lest [O.E. J>y lffis \€] you should lose your way' = lit. I called by that [degree] less, by which you should lose your way. But such attempts at restoring long lost idioms often result in what is almost unintelligible and is certainly no longer English. 8. those which are connected by the subordinate conjunctions ' before [that],' 'ere [that],' 'after [that],' 'for [that],' 'without [that],' 'but [that],' originated in Relative clauses whose now lost antecedents were governed by a preposition, and whose once uninfected relative []>e] may possibly be represented by the 'that? This is seen in the O.E. ' Ic geseah J>e,...aer J>am [timan] j>e Philippus \i clypode ' = I saw thee, ...ere that [time] that [= at which] Philip called thee. = I saw thee, ...ere [that time] that Philip called thee. — I saw thee, ...ere [that time that] Philip called thee. e. those which are connected by the subordinate conjunctions ' suppose [that],' 'grant [that],' 'except [that]' were in all probability originally Noun clauses standing in the objective relation after Imperatives. Hence such protases must once have been co-ordinate main clauses in the imperative mood. ' £ those which are connected by the subordinate conjunctions ' seeing [that],' 'considering [that],' 'supposing [that],' 'notwithstanding [that],' ' provided [that],' &c, were originally Noun clauses standing in the objective relation after Participles. 17. those which are introduced by the subordinate conjunction 'than,' formed originally the Main clause ; while that, which is now the main K 2 132 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. [§108 clause, was formerly an adverbial clause of Time. This is explained in § 113, Obs. 4. 8. those which are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions 'as if,' ' as though,' are the conditional protases of a suppressed apodosis, consisting of an adverbial clause of Similarity. This apodosis is indicated within brackets in the following sentence. ' He did it, as [he would have done it] if your eye had been upon him.' Oba. 3. In the O.E. equivalents of our subordinate conjunctions [see Obs. 1] the O.E. demonstrative pronoun appears in various cases, genders, and numbers, according to its own function and the gender or number of the expressed or understood noUn to which it refers. Thus ba = while [i.e. during that time, or during which lime] is in (he accusative, because the adverbial accusative expresses Duration [§46] j and it is in the feminine, because the understood noun ' while ' = time, is feminine. The following is the O.E. declension of the Demonstrative ' That.' Norn. Singular. Plural. Aim/. Mas. Fern. Neut. Mas. Fern. bd se se6 l>a:t M ha Ace. bone H ba:t I'd I'd J>a Gin. Jjecs bsfcre J)tes bara bara )>dra Dat. J>Eem v. J>am bitre bam v. Jam b&rn v. ham btem v. bdra bffem ■/'. |';i mi Inst. pf Jjtfcrc i>f In O.E., the Demonstrative was used for the Relative [§ 102], as in ' forSdm )>ii mfnum worclum ne getyfiSest, bd [relative] beo* on hyra timan gefyllede' = because thou didst not believe my words, which [relative] should be fulfilled in their time. But as a general rule the demonstrative when used as a relative was represented by be [g 102], which served for any case, gender, or number ; just as we have seen our own relative ' That ' occasionally used ; sec examples in § 105. § no] THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 133 109. Adverbial Clauses continued. Every subordinate con- junction, derived from or formed out of a Relative, admits of, and sometimes requires, Correlation with its corresponding Demonstrative [§ 102, Obs. 2, 8], — if such a demonstrative exists in the language. Thus an adverbial clause intro- duced by whence correlates with the demonstrative adverb thence, where „ „ „ „ there, whither „ „ „ „ thither, when „ „ „ „ then, how „ „ „ „ thus, the [by] „ „ „ „ the [by], as „ „ „ „ so v. as. With the exception of ' the ' and ' so ' v. ' as,' these demon- strative Adverbs seldom appear : but when they do appear, the adverbial clause is in reality defining such adverbs, rather than limiting a verb, as ' Then, when the farmer passed into the field, he spied her.' — Tennyson. 110. Adverbial clauses of Place are illustrated by the following quotations. a. Ablation : — ' Let me alone... before I go whence I shall not return.' — A.V. /?. Location : — ' Where Claribel low lieth, the breezes pause and die.' — Tennyson. y. Destination :— ' Thou shalt let her go whither she will.' — A.V. ' I will follow thee whithersoever thou goest.' — A.V. = in O.E. Ic fylige \6 swd hwaeder swi pii faerst. Obs. — ' Where ' is frequently used in the sense of ' whither,' as in ' You can go where you wish.' 134 THE COMr-LEX SENTENCE. [§ m 111. Adverbial clauses of Time are illustrated by the following quotations. o. Location : — ' When he is come, he will tell us all things.' — A.V. = in O.E. ]>onne he cymS, he cyB lis ealle ping. ' Whan that [§ 104, Obs. 3] she saugh his mortal woundes, she hadde routh [i.e. pity].' — John Lydgatc. 'I dispatched my dinner as soon as /could.' — Addison. ' I threw away my rattle be/ore I was two months old. '— Addison. * After that I have spoken, mock on.' — A.V. ' He was slain or he could come at him.' — Lord Berners. ' And the lions... brake all their bonus in pieces, or ever they came at the bottom of the den.' — A.V. 'Come down, ere my child die.' — A.V. = in O.E. Far, :vr mfn sunu swelte. /3. Duration : — 'Why are we weighed upon with heaviness,... while all things else have rest.' — Tennyson. 'As we pattse at this last resting place, let us look.' — Dean Stanley. 'Sometimes she had beckoned him to her side as she sat in some retired arbour.' — Kingsley. ' I would not make use of my coral until they had taken away the bells from it.' — Addison, y. Repetition : — ' He can smile when [ = whenever] one speaks to him.'— Steele. 112. Adverbial clauses of Cause are illustrated in the following sentences. a. Initial Cause. ' The hireling fleeth, because he is an hireling.'— A.V. = in O.E. Se hyra flyhC, forrJrim fe he biS ahyrod. §H2] THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 135 ' It is for the good of the audience when he is at a play, for the actors have an ambition to please him.' — Steele. ' And, for-that wine is dear, we will be furnished with our own.' — Cowper. ' But fear not, for-that I am soft.' — Byron. ' As few of his thoughts are drawn from business, they are most of them fit for conversation.' — Steele. ' Dost not thou fear God, seeing thou art in the same con- demnation ? ' — A.V. = in O.E. Ne J>ii God ne ondrsetst, Jaet J)ii eart on ffere ylcan genySerunge ? 'I... reverence him.../« that he seemed to me, &v.' — Ben Jonson. ' Since I have neither time nor inclination to commwiicate the fulness of my heart in speech, I am resolved to do it in writing.' — Addison. ' Thou thinkest him a hero, that [= because] he shed blood by oceans. ' — Byron. p. Final Cause. ' He must labour his life long under the imputation of being utterly unrighteous, in order that his disinterestedness may be thoroughly tested? — Kingsley. 'They cast out their young children, to the end that they might not live? — A.V. 'These things I say that ye might be saved.' 1 — A.V. = in O.E. Jids Jring ic secge, Jwet ge syn hale. 'Sin no more, lest a worse thing come unto thee? — A.V. = in O.E. Ne synga Jrti, py-laes-pe pe sumum Jringum wyrs getfde. ' And God fulfils himself in many ways, lest one good custom should corrupt the world? — Tennyson. 'And gret dout, lest that [§ 104, Obs. 3] he were dede.' — John Lydgate. y. Condition. ' If Punch grows extravagant, I shall reprimand him.' — Addison. i .10 THE COMPLICX SKNTKNCK. [| lu ' If thou let this man go, thou art not Cresar's friend,'— A. V. = in O.E. Gif Jul hine forkfctst, ne eart Jul Jws Cascrcs frednd. ' If that [§ 104, Obs. 3] you conquer, I live to joy in your great triumph.' — Byron. ' I wyll let [= hinder] that hontyng yf that I may.' — Chevy Chase. 'I am resolved to observe an exact neutrality... .unless I shall be forced to declare myself.' — Addison. 'Fool, catch me an thou canst.' — Kurd. ' And you love me, let's do't.'- Shakspeie. ' And so [?= if only] there lived some colour in your cheek, there is not one among my gentlewomen were fit to wear your slipper for a glove.' — Tennyson. ' Except ye see signs and wonders, ye will not believe.' — A.V. = in O.E. Biiton ge tdena and fdre-bericna gesedn, ne gelyfe ge. 'Yet what is Death, so it be but glorious 1 "l'is a sunset.' — Byron. 'They never changed their chains but [ without] [they changed them] for their armour.'- -Hyron. ' She has no existence but [ - without] [she has it] when she is looked upon.' — Addison. ' So I were out of prison and kept sheep, I should be as merry as the day is long. ' — Shakspere. 8. Concession. ' I am afraid they would he able to rout our whole fraternity, though we, were accompanied with our guard.' -Addison. ' Yff [i.e. If] I shulde dye with the, yet wyll I not denye the.' — Tyndale. ' Ye say, The Lord saith it, albeit I have not spoken.'— A.V. ' And ignorance, whether [\\. be] unavoidable or voluntary.,, will, just as much and just as little, excuse, &c.'- lip. Butler. ' Though that [§ 104, Obs. 3] /...,/ barons' doughter bee, yet haue you proued how I you loued.'— Nut Brown Maid. § 112J THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 137 Obs. 1. — The clause expressive of Final Cause [i.e. of a Purpose] lends itself most naturally to the expression of the Oblique Petition. We see this in Latin, where the Final clause, constructed with *ut c. Subj.,' has come to be the standard form of the oblique petition. The same pheno- menon is observable in O.E. where ' J>set c. subj.' serves in the same double capacity, so that ' CweS Jiset ]>as stanas to hlafe gewuriSon ' _ ■ C that these stones become bread [oblique petition], or • ■ \ in order that these stones may become bread [final clause]. And in Modern English, when only ' that ' is used, the clause may be either an adverbial final clause or a substantival oblique petition, although it is best to take it as being the latter. Such a transition is analogous to that of the Infinitive after verbs of Petition, &c. described in § 47. The rationale of this double use is found in the consideration that there is no practical difference between the Purpose and the Purport of a petition, — for the purpose, which I have in giving a command, is revealed in the command itself. Obs, 2,— Every fully expressed Hypothetical sentence must contain at least two clauses, of which one called the Protasis [irprfrwru], tells the condition or concession, and the other' called the Apodosis [diroSoiris], tells the consequence or its reverse. An Apodosis, when fully expressed, may consist of a main clause or of any kind 1 df dependent clause ; but a Pro- tasis, when fully expressed, invariably consists of a Conditional or Conces- sive clause, marked as such either by an appropriate subordinate conjunc- tion, or by an inversion which supersedes the use of the conjunction, as , , , , I if you had asked me. I would have done it, \ , , , , ' ( had you asked me. ,,, , . rtho' you had hated me for it. I would have done it, | ^ you hated me for ^ Although the Conditional and Concessive protases are identical in form, they are opposite in force, as we may prove by turning the main and sub- ordinate clauses into two co-ordinate clauses, thus, 'If you ask for it, you shall have it.' = Ask for it, and you shall have it. 1 Even the protasis of a superior clause, as in ' The fact mentioned may bear a meaning far more favourable to the state of the country, although, if such a phenomenon were to occur at the present time, it could admit of but one interpretation.' — Froude; where the 'if '-clause is a conditional pro- tasis of which the apodosis is an ' although '-clause, i.e. the concessive protasis to the main clause. 138 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. [8 m ' Though you dislike it, you must do it.' = You dislike it, tut you must do it. Hence the difference between n conditional And n concessive clause answers to the difference between 'and ' and 'but.' Again, that a condi- tional protasis has an exactly opposite force to a concessive protasis is clear, when we observe that an apodosis, which is affirmative after a condltionnl protasis, becomes negative after a concessive protasis ; and via vtrsd, as in I If I am not weak, I can fight [consequence]. ( Though I am not weak, I can not fight [reverse of consequence]. !If I am weak, I can not run [consequence]. Though I am weak, I can run [reverse of consequence]. Ob». 3. — The Readability of the thought contained in the apodosis varies in many degrees. In spite of a widespread disregard of such niceties of speech even among standard authors, these may be expressed with considerable delicacy by a proper use of moods and tenses. Thus we can indicate 1. The Certain realization of the apodosis : a. on condition of a fact, <•.,<,'. ' Thou art happy, if she is absent.' & '» s P ite <-4 r - ' » .. „ tho' ' 2. The Possible realization of the apodosis : a. on condition of a possibility, e.g. ' Thou art happy, if she be absent.' 8. in spite „ „ „ e.g. ' „ „ „ tho' „ „ „ ' 3. The Supposed realisation of the apodosis : u. on condition of a supposition, e^, 'Thou wouldst be happy, if she were absent.' j3, in spite of a supposition, e.g. ' Thou wouldst be happy, though she were absent.' 4. The Impossible realization of the apodosis : a. on condition of what is not a fact, e.g. 'Thou hadst been happy, if she had been absent.' $. in spite of what is not a fact, eg. ' Thou hadst been happy, though she had been absent.' The following examples are in illustration of the above four classes ; the names of the moods and lenses being in accordance with the terminology adopted in §§ 19 and 20. § 112] THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 139 1st Class with Indie, or Imperative in Apodosis ; and Indie, in Protasis: 'If ye are loyal, ye are injured men.' — Byron. ' If I take in gold, I pay in iron.' — Kingsley. ' Though he was a Son, yet learned [He] obedience.' — R.A. V. 'Gif J>ii hine forlsetst [Ind.], ne eart [Ind.] \>u J>ses Caseres fre6nd.' — Jno. xix. 12. 2nd Class with Indie. Imper. or Subj. in Apodosis; and Subj. in Protasis : ' If she have not contrived to wheedle her master..., it is her own fault.' — Kingsley. ' If that be true, I shall see my boy again.' — Shak. ' If need be, wilt thou wear them ? ' — Byron. ' A man can receive nothing, except it have been given him.' — R.A.V. ' If thou be the Son of God, command, &c.' = in O.E. Gyf ])ii Godes Sunu sy 1 [-SiK^*.], CweS [Imper.] &c. 3rd Class with Imper. or Potential simp, or impf. in Apodosis ; and Potential simp, or impf. in Protasis : ' If thou shouldesi never see my face again, pray for my soul.' — Tennyson. ' It [i.e. the produce of two acres of hemp] were all too little, were it so much more, to hang the thieves that be in England.' — Bp. Latimer, from Froude. ' If I were mad, I should forget my son.' — Shak. * If such a phenomenon were to occur at the present time, it could admit of but one interpretation.' — Froude. ' What good should, follow this, if this were done.' 1 — Tennyson. ' Were I to give my own notions of it, I would deliver them after Plato's manner. ' — Addison. ' If lusty love should go in quest of beauty, where should 'he find it fairer than in Blanch ? ' — Shak. O. E. ' Biiton J>4 dagas gescyrte wa»ron [Pot. simp.], naere [Pot. simp.] nan mann hal geworden.' — Matt. xxiv. 22. 4th Class, with Potential pf. in Apodosis and Protasis: 1 ' His fall would have been glorious, had he so fallen in the service of his country.' — Addison. ' If thou hadst been here, my brother had not died.' — A.V. 1 In O.E. we have the Potential simple [usu. called the Subj. past] or the Indicative simple past ; so that this class was not clearly distinguished from Class 3, e.g. ' Hit waere [Pot. simp.] t6 hnedlic, gif he ]>a on cildcradole acweald MO THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. [§113 113. Adverbial clauses of Manner are illustrated by the following quotations in which the most probable ellipses, even when obsolete, are supplied within brackets. a. Similarity. (1) Attaching to the Verb.' ' False humour differs from the true, as a monkey does [differ] from a man' — Addison. ' I covered my transgressions, as Adam [covered them].' — A. V. ' Thou shalt love thy neighbour, as [thou lovest] thyself? — A. V. => in O.E. Lufa bfnne nchstan, swd be* sylfne. 1 She regarded me as [she would regard] a very odd kind of fellow.' — Addison. 'As [we would turn them] if the natural calamities of life ■were not sufficient for it, we turn the most indifferent circum- stances into misfortunes.' — Addison. ' We speak sometimes with disdain of moral essays, as [wc might speak if they were] dull and dry and lifeless.' — Dean Stanley. 'He understood the speech of birds, as-tvell-as they themsehes do words' — Hudibras. (2) Attaching to an Adverb. 'I am not so vain as [I should be if I were] to think it presaged any dignity.' — Addison. ' We suffer as much [misery] from trifling accidents, as [we suffer misery] from real evils'— Addison. 'This is but just as reasonable as [it would be reasonable] if a man should call for more light, when he has a mind to go to sleep.' — Steele. ' The more abundantly I love you, the less I be loved.'— A. V. wurde [Pot. simp.] ' = It would have been too premature, if he had been killed in the cradle. ' Gif ic nine weorc ne worhte [Ind. simple pas(\ on him, J>e nan 6fcer ne worhte, nrefdon [Ind. simple past] hi nine synne.'— John xv, 24. § H3] THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 141 ' The more he charged them, so much the more a great deal they published it.' — A.V. = in O.E. Swa he him swlSor bebead, swd. hi swiSor bodedon = lit as he more-strongly them com- manded, so they more-strongly published (3) Attaching to an Adjective. ' He walked through briars and brambles with the same ease, as [he walked] through the open air.' — Addison. /J. Dissimilarity. (1) Attaching to an Adverb. ' A screech-owl at midnight has alarmed a family more than a band of robbers [has alarmed them].' — Addison. ' Music that gentlier on the spirit lies than tir'd eye-lids [lie] upon tir'd eyes' — Tennyson. ' It is very difficult to define humour otherwise ' than [it is easy to define it], as Cowley has done wit, by negatives' — Addison. ' Men loved darkness rather ' than [they loved] light.' — A.V. (2) Attaching to an Adjective. ' Yqu are a better man than I take you for [a good man].' — Kingsley. ' He got more kicks than [he got] half-pe?ice.' ' Thou hast discovered thyself to an other ' than [thou hast discovered thyself to] me.' — A.V. ' The servant is not greater than his lord [is great].' — A.V. = in O.E. Nys se beowa furSra bonne se hlaTord. y. Effect. (1) Attaching to the verb by a combined 'so that,' or ' that,' = so that. 1 The original meaning of such words as "other,' 'rather,' &c., has so completely faded from our minds that it is sometimes impossible to supply the ellipses intelligibly. 'Other' once meant 'second,' and maybe re- garded as a comparative of ' one.' ' Rather ' is the comparative of the old word ' rathe ' which meant • early ' or ' soon.' i 4 2 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. [§ 113 'All Israel shouted with a great shout, so that the earth rdng again.' — A.V. 'And he teareth hym, that he fometh agayne.'— Tyndale. 'Thorgh the body proudely he hym smette, that he fille ded.' — John Lydgate. (2) Attaching to the isolated adverb ' so.' 'The family is under so regular an economy,... that it looks like a little commonwealth.' — Addison. (3) Attaching to the adjective ' such.' ' He taught the king to charm the queen in such-wise, that no man could see her more.' — Tennyson. ' His thoughts are., frequently lost in such a cloud of words, that it is hard to see the beauty of them.' — Addison. Obs, 1. — Clauses of Manner all serve to measure some expressed or latent adverb of degree [§ 82]. This adverb frequently exists in the form of the worn down prefix or suffix of some other adverb or adjective, e.g. su-ia. [O.E. swilc, from swa-lk], mo-«, tax-ther ; but when it appears thus, the analyst can only take cognizance of the word to which it has become inseparably joined. When however it appears as a distinct word, he must either allow the clause to attach to it ; or allow it to form part of a com- pound subordinate conjunction, as in ' We were concealed, so that he did not see us.' Obs. 3. — Clauses of Effect fall under the head of Manner, as much as Clauses which tell us the measure of intensity by a comparison of Similarity or Dissimilarity. This becomes clear, when we observe that a clause of Effect measures the intensity of an action by telling us what the action has achieved or can achieve. Obs. 3, — A clause introduced by 'As' is not adverbial but relative, when the ' as ' can be replaced by a relative pronoun discharging a nomi- native or accusative function. See § 102. Obs. 4. — 'Than' was originally the demonstrative adverb 'Then'; and the two forms of the word were used indiscriminately until recent times, e.g. ' Than the king commanded Sir Lucan .' — Sir T. Malory. ' Also of their masters [thou], hast no less regard then of the flocks.'— Spencer. From this we see that our comparisons of dissimilarity originated in the temporal sequence of two acts, which differed from one another in but one § "4] THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 14.3 degree* — the one act as it were following immediately upon the other. The track of such a linguist development is easily retraced thus, — I admired the profile more than the full-face. - I admired the profile more than I admired the full-face. = I admired the profile more, then I admired the full face much. = When I admired [or had admired] the profile more, then I admired the full face much. From this illustration we see that what is now the dependent adverbial clause of comparison was once the main clause, and that what is now the main clause was once a dependent clause of time. Ob«. 3. — 'That,' used as a subordinate conjunction, has three values, which may be tabulated as follows, — 1 so that, J I effect of an action. That = 1 in order that, > when it tells the < purpose of an action. ' because, ) ' ground ,, „ „ And the clauses introduced by it must be classified according to these values. A writer or speaker is, or ought to be, able at once to tell the value of each * that' he uses ; but a reader or hearer is sometimes unable to do so, as in the following passages, — ' And there was a day assigned betwixt King Arthur and Sir Mordred tket f? ' in order that,' or ' so that '] they should meet upon a down beside Salisbury... whereof King Arthur was passing glad that [? ' because ' or ' in order that'] he might be avenged upon Sir Mordred.' — Sir T. Malory. ' I intend to lay aside a whole week for this undertaking, that [? 'in order that,' or 'so that'] the scheme of my thoughts may not be broken.' — Addison. 114. Uncertainty as to the Classification of Adver- bial clauses arises chiefly from two causes, viz. either from the same eonjututwn or die same thought serving different pur- poses. In the former case, we have such ambiguous clauses as have been illustrated in § 1 13, Obs. 5. In the latter case, we have the very common phenomenon of clauses of Place or Time serving to express ideas of Cause or Manner, as in ' I reverence him...*)? that he seemed to me, &*;' (Ben Jonson) where the local sphere, in which reverence was exerted, supplies the reason for that reverence. ' But will they come, when you do colli ' (Shakspere) where the temporal clause supplies either the condition or 144 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. [§ uj initial cause of their coming; so that the 'when' «= if, or because. ' All farewells should be sudden when for ever.' (Byron) where the temporal clause supplies also the condition, under which a farewell should be sudden. In all cases of ambiguity, or plurality of use, the analyst must go by what appears to him to be the most likely, or most prominent, meaning. Obs. — Some of the above examples are sufficient to show that the Protasis of a hypothetical sentence may lie concealed in either a temporal or local adverbial clause, just as we have already seen it sometimes lurking in the adjectival clause, § 105 Obs. The presence of this veiled Protasis is often so strongly realized that the mood used in the temporal or local clause answers to the mood appropriate [§112 Obs. 3] to a regularly expressed protasis. 115. The Contraction of Adverbial clauses is gener- ally found to arise, either from an ellipsis, or from the substi- tution of some of the briefer adverbial equivalents tabulated in § 82. a. When the contraction arises from an Ellipsis, the analyst may often with advantage supply the missing words. The in- sertion should either stand in a bracket, as in § 113 ; or outside the inverted commas, as in the following : — 'We can scarcely call it aught ' if it be 'beyond a vision.' — Byron. ' She has no existence but ' ' she exists ' when she is looked upon.' — Addison. ' The thief cometh not, but ' he comes ' for to steal.' — A. V. ' It is enough for the disciple that he be as his master ' is. — A.V. 'He is never overbearing, though' he is 'accustomed to command men.' — Steele. 1 ' but ' = except, unless. § us] THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 145 ' Te who hate such inconsistence,' if ye desire ' to be easy, keep your distance.' — Swift. /?. When the contraction arises from the substitution of some briefer adverbial form, the sentence ceases to belong to the Complex class, and becomes a Simple sentence [unless made otherwise by the presence of some other than the contracted clause]. The following are a few examples of this form of contraction : — (1) by the substitution of the Dative Infinitive for a Final Clause. ' I cam not that I deem the world, but that I make the world saf (Wycliffe) = 'I came not to judge the world, but to save the world' (A.V.) = in O.E. Ne c6m ic middan-eard to demanne, ac Jjaet ic gehsele middan-eard. This adverbial Infinitive used frequently to be preceded by the double preposition ' for to,' as in 'She goth to the grave, for to wepe there' (Wycliffe) = She goeth unto the grave, to weep there. — A.V. and it is now frequently attached to the adverbial phrase ' in order,' as in ' It is not worth while to perplex the reader with inquiries into the abstract nature of evidence in order to determine a question.' — Bishop Butler. (2) by the substitution of a participle, &c, used as the subordinating-attribute [§ 76] of the noun or pronoun which would have formed the subject of the adverbial clause, as in We shot it flying = We shot it, when it was flying. ' A little fire is quickly trodden out ; which, being suffered [= if it be suffered], rivers cannot quench.' — Shak. This subordinating-attribute is often preceded by the sub- ordinate conjunction appropriate to the uncontracted clause : but this conjunction is almost always capable of omission, i 4 6 THE COMri.KX SENTENCK. t§ n6 without injury to the sense, though with some loss of per- spicuity, t*.^ r . '[After] having-been thus particular upon myself, I shall... give an account of those gentlemen.' — Addison. ' He was very shy of using it, [as] being loath to wear it out.' — HudibriH. We shot it [when] flying. (3) by the substitution of a prepositional phrase, usually consisting of a preposition and gerund [§ 25], as in I always walk before [prep.] dining [gerund] = I always walk before [sub. conj.] / dine [clause]. v Without [prep.] being impostd-upon [gerund] by words, we may judge impartially of the thought' (Addison) «■ Unless ice are imposed-upon by words, we may judge, &c. ' Upon [prep.] his being made [gerund] pope, the statue of l'asquin was one night dressed in a very dirty shirt' (Addison) = When he [i.e. Sex/us] was made pope, the statue of l'as- quin, &c. ' For all thy realms, I would not so blaspheme our country's creed ' (Byron) = If thou wert to give me all thy realms, 1 would not, &c. (4) by the substitution of a single adverb, as in 'My heart was touched,... had it been human else V (Southey) = My heart was touched.... Would it have been human, // it had been otherwise t 116. Co-ordination in the Complex Sentence. With the exception of the main finite verb, any word, phrase, or clause belonging to the Complex sentence may have one or more co-ordinate terms, whose co-ordinate relations are usually indicated by co-ordinate conjunctions [§ 119]. § ii7] THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 147 117. In applying our Analytic Marks to Complex Sen- tences we must treat the dependent and subordinate Clauses as if they were single words, — nouns, adjectives, or adverbs, — as follows : It is certain that you are mistaken. 7i. 97 They sent a request that you would go. 71, 98 The letters, that you asked for, are here. i°5 I know who [ = the man who] did it. ■* jvrw. — — ••» 104 You saw where [= the place where] it was. 104 They reached Paris where they separated. 107 My father who is blind stumbled. I07 The beggar stood where you saw him. no If you would succeed,' you ' study hard. It2 L 2 i 4 8 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. [§ 117 We were concealed so that he did not see us. "3 ' The thief cometh not but ' he comes ' for to steal.' 112, IIS He wrote so-that he got the prize. — WW. ^v» 9». "3 The fruit is better-than we expected. — ^— Vt VlXJXiXJ*. 113 § H9] THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 149 THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 118. Any sentence which contains two or more primary sentences [clauses] is called a Compound Sentence. This is the same thing as saying that a Compound Sentence is one which has two or more main finite verbs. There may be an ellipsis of the finite copula, when both the subject and complement are expressed, — as in the following sentence of Macaulay's, where the ellipsis is supplied in brackets, 'Nothing can be more contemptible than the regular military resistance which Spain offers to an invader; nothing [can be] more formidable than, &c.' But otherwise the ellipsis of a main finite verb will generally be found to result in the formation of a simple or complex sentence. Thus, by the ellipsis of the second main verb in ' Dick walked home and Jane walked home,' a compound sentence becomes a simple sentence with two co-ordinate subjects, viz. ' Dick and Jane walked home.' Obs. — As a general rule, the number of main finite verbs tells us the number of co-ordinate clauses in a compound sentence. 119. There is always some relation subsisting between co-ordinates, and this relation is usually expressed by a co-ordinate conjunction. These relations, and the conjunctions which express them, may be tabulated as follows : — CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. Cumulative and, also, eke, likewise, withal, nor = and not, as well as, further, furthermore, more-over, well, first, then, again, secondly, thirdly, lastly ; now ; both — and, not only — but, partly — partly, half— half, now — now. 150 THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. I otherwise, else. ( not — but, or. ( or, nor, while, whereas ; [§H9 Exclusive Adversative ( Arrestive , Illative . Alternative ] either— or, neither— nor, whether— or ; ( on the one hand — on the other hand. (but, but then ; but still, but yet j still, and still, yet, and yet, only, nevertheless, however ; for all that, at the same time. ' Sequential: — then, so then, so, thereupon, whereupon. ( therefore, wherefore ; Consequential j thence, hence, whence ; ( consequently, accordingly. Resultant : — thus, so, so that, and so. Oba. 1, Many of these conjunctions are merely adverbials, put to a special use. Thus for example, now, yet, still, well, consequently, are ordi- nary adverbs ; then, thence, so, are demonstrative adverbs ; whence, how- ever, are relative adverbs ; on the one hand, on the other hand, at the same time, there-upon [= upon that], where-upon [= upon which], there-fore [= for that], where-fore [ = for which], are, or once were, adverbial prepo- sitional phrases. It is only as they are put to cumulative, adversative, or illative [i.e. inferential] uses, that they become co-ordinate conjunctions. Oba. 8. Combinations of the above conjunctions are very common, and some such appear in the above table. When the combination consists of conjunctions of the same class [e.g. 'and moreover,' 'but yet,'] we have possibly nothing but a greater emphasis or intensity given to the expression. But, when the combination consists of conjunctions of different classes [e.g. 'and so,' 'and therefore,' 'and still,' 'but then'], we have two shades of thought, and we can only classify such a compound according as the general meaning of the passage shows the one or other conjunction to predominate. Oba. 3. The following is a table of the most common of the Old English co-ordinate conjunctions. / and = and ; eac = eke, also ; ealswd = also j gelfce - ) likewise ; ) ofcfce furfcum = also, moreover. Eferest = first, pa = then, ongean = again. ( Exclusive :— elles = else; 6Serl(cor = otherwise. ( 688e = or. Alternative I 6S15e — 6S8e = either — or. ( naUor ne — ne = neither — nor. , Arrestive :— ac = but, nevertheless ; git = yet, still. Cumulative Adversative § i2i] THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 151 'for-Jjim a. for~\>f = therefore. ]>onne = then ; witodlice = therefore, wherefore, so then, Illative . . ( thereupon. eornostlice = therefore, wherefore, accordingly, then, and [ so. 120. Co-ordinate Cumulative clauses are illustrated in the following sentences : — 'The sleek Chaldee smiled a/spurred.' — Kingsley. ' Let spades be trumps ! she said, and trumps they were.' — Pope. ' John Gilpin was a citizen of credit and renown, a train-band captain eke was he of famous London town.' — Cowper. ' Hear and believe ! thy own importance know, tier bound [= and bound not] thy narrow views to things below.' — Pope. ' Now Israel loved Joseph, more than all his children.' — A.V. '■Lastly, it will appear that blasphemy and profaneness...are absolutely without excuse.' — Bishop Butler. ' He hoped withal that money would be given him of Paul.' — R.A.V. '■First, It is the province of Reason to judge, Sac... Secondly, Reason is able to judge, &c.' — Bishop Butler. 121. Co-ordinate Adversative clauses are illustrated in the following sentences : — a. Exclusive. ' 'Twas well the lictors might not pierce to where the maiden lay, else surely had they been all twelve torn limb from limb that day.' — Macaulay. (S, Alternative. 'Win this fight or die.' — Macaulay. 'Morally, it was in his eyes just and therefore probable, 152 THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. [§ iai while, as for testimony, men were content with very little in those days.' — Kingsley. ' Either there was no course of Nature... or, if there were, we are not acquainted, &c.'— Bishop Butler. ' The licentious multitude neither loved the rigid Maximus, nor did they sufficiently dread the mild and humane Balbinus.' — Gibbon. 7. Arrestive. 'Oft she rejects, but [she] never once offends.' — Pope. 'The splendour of Verona may be traced in its remains ; yet Verona was less celebrated than Aquilcia.' — Gibbon. 'In dreams like these he went, and still of every dream Oneiza formed a part.' — Southey. ' Large tears found their way... to his eye. His features were, nevertheless, calm and composed.' — Scott. 'However, it is certain that doubting implies a degree of evidence.' — Bishop Butler. 'But still it may be objected, &c.' — Bishop Butler. ' And yet so fiery [that] he would bound, &c.' — Hudibras. ' While still the more he kicked and spurred, the less the sullen jade has stirred.' — Jludibras. Obs. The Alternative Adversative Conjunctions necessarily impart a hypothetical character even to categorical clauses. This necessity arises from the obvious truth that, if only one of two alternatives is to hold good, then the exclusion of the one becomes the Condition of the other ; and if neither of the two alternatives is to hold good, then the exclusion of the one becomes u. powerless Concession towards the realization of the other, Thus, ' He either said that the army was defeated, or he said that it was retreat- ing.' = Unless [condition] he said that the army was defeated, he said that it was retreating. ' He neither said that you were rich, nor did he say that you were poor.' = Though [concession] he did not say that you were rich, he did not say that you were poor.' § 122] THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 153 The fact of this interchangeability has induced some Grammarians [see Donaldson's Greek Gr. § 384] to form a special class of hypothetical sen- tences called ' Disjunctive [i.e. Alternative] Hy potheticals. ' We however think it best to treat Alternative clauses just as we treat other co-ordinates; and by so doing we restrict the term Hypothetical to an Apodosis with a Protasis expressed or understood [see § 112 obs. 2]. 122. Co-ordinate Illative conjunctions are illustrated in the following sentences : — a. Sequential. ' Know then, unnumber'd spirits round thee fly, the light militia of the lower sky.' — Pope. ' If David then call him Lord, how is he His son ? ' — A .V. ' Her father promised, whereupon she grew so cheerful that, &c.' — Tennyson. /?. Consequential. ' Ye are idle, therefore ye say, Let us go.' — A.V. ' It is a confirmation of natural religion, and-therefore men- tioned in the former part of this treatise.' — Bishop Butler. ' As we wax hot in faction, in battle we wax cold : wherefore men fight not as they fought in the brave days of old.' — Macaulay. 'Hence we may clearly see, where lies the distinction.' — Bishop Butler. O.E. ' Ic lsedde wif ham ; for-bam ic ne maeg cuman,' = I have led home a wife, therefore I may not come. y. Resultant. 'And after a few years... they would agree to live more or less according to the laws of God and common humanity ; and so one more Christian state would be formed.' — Kingsley. 'Now this, as it is a confirmation of natural religion,... so likewise it has a tendency to. remove any prejudice.' — Bp. Butler. ' And thus we see that the only question, &c.' — Bp. Butler. 154 TILE COMPOUND SENTENCE. [§ 1*3 ' 'Go ye therefore into the high-ways... So those servants went out, &c.'— A.V. ' He is my defence, so that I shall not fall.'— Prayer Book. Ob». 1, The three classes of Illative Clausen ore easily distinguished from one another, when the following differences are clearly perceptible, - which is not always the case. The Sequential clause stales something, which In some undefined way follows-on, grows-out of, or is connected with, some- thing else just said. The Consequential clause slates the legitimate out- come, or logical conclusion, of what is contained in one or more previous statements. The Kesullanl clause stales the accidental outcome, or non- logical conclusion, of what has just been told. Ob», a. The Consequential Co-ordinate clause is the exact opposite of the Subordinate clause expressing an Initial cause [8 108]. Hence when one of these clauses is used, it is seldom necessary to use the oilier; and we may say with indifference 'It snows, therefore we cannot travel' ; or ' lifetime it snows, we cannot travel,' In the first example we have two co-ordinate clauses, of which the latter tells the consequences in the second example we have a subordinate and a main clause, of which the former tells the came, oi>m. 3, The Resultant Co-ordinate clause is usually identical in form, and nearly allied in use to the subordinate clause of Kffeel [8 108]. The difference however is easily explained ; fir, while the co-ordinate resultant clause tells the result of some fact ; (lie subordinate clause of effect mea- sures the intensity of some verb, adjective, or adverb, by telling us of some effect ; — in other words the co-ordinate clause expressive of result attaches to some entire clause or sentence, while the subordinate clause expressive of effect attaches to a single word. Both these clauses are frequently expressed by 'so that.' If the 'so that' can he replaced by 'and so,' the student may be sure that he has a co-ordinate clause ; but if he is able to separate the ' so ' from the ' that ' and make the ' that-clausc ' measure the intensity of the 'so,' then he has a subordinate clause [see 8 1 13 obs. 1], 123. Having now completed our survey of the Compound sentence, we must apply to it our analytic marks. Inasmuch as a compound sentence is merely the union of two or more primary, simple, or complex sentences, by means of co-ordinate conjunctions expressed or understood, there is really no addition to be made to our marks, unless it be that of a small § 123] THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. i55 'c.c.' placed under the ^-ordinate conjunction introducing a clause, thus Robert was riding and his brother was swimming. "^^ ■* X/XiX/X/X/X/X*** Bi^MMiM JXTXTXfXfX/XIX/X/X/V c.c. It never rains here but [it] always pours. C.C. You were successful therefore I rejoice greatly. ■mh (x.txjxj xjxixr^.fxixj ^- «^ rx/vrxrx. -^^^^v*< 'The young prince and his profligate favourites revelled in ■^■mi^bwm — ^ — ^^^^— MH^aaHM WXTXSX/XSX. "*^_. all the license of sovereign power ; but his hands were -yet unstained with blood ; and he had even displayed a generosity- am xrx/Xv^"^^- 'xrxvx/x/x/x*— — fa«»«i™«« C.C. of-sentiment, which might perhaps have ripened into solid virtue. ' — Gibbon. 'And on her lover's arm she leant, — ■vxrxjx/x And round her waist she felt it fold, C.C. And far across the hills they went C.C. In that new world-which-is-the-old ; 156 THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. [S 124 Across the hills, and far away Beyond their utmost purple rim, And deep into the dying day The happy princess follow'd him.' — Tennyson. 124. An extension of the Mark system is a practical necessity in all long and involved sentences, inasmuch as an analysis, carried out solely in reference to primary sentences, rests far short of the requirements of the student. If the following very simple directions be carried out, there are few sentences which can escape from a ready application of our marks. 1st. Mark out the whole sentence, as previously described, in relation to the primary sentence or sentences. 2nd. Place each dependent clause in brackets ; and, if there are clauses within clauses, let the successive inclusions be indicated by brackets of different form, as in algebra. 3rd. Treat successively each set of clauses, as if they formed independent sentences ; and apply the marks separately to each. 4th. Place underneath each subordinate conjunction an . . . . s.c. co-ord. conj., introducing a co-ordinate clause, a c.c. ' that,' introducing a noun clause, an asterisk # 5th. There may still remain amongst the phrases various double-functioned [§ 94] apposites, attributes, and adverbial attributes. These must be hyphened to their noun, and then marked above the word, thus when subordinate .... -~v_^-ws^-^~ „ co-ordinate or complementary . Mviv/\/>jxrw^x 6th. Farther connections between compounds, different § 124] THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 157 words, phrases, or clauses, may be made by hyphens or dashes, according to the requirements of the sentence or the convenience of the analyst. The following is a sentence constructed so as to illustrate the application of these directions. First Stage. The train having left the platform, my father with his 77 face strangely agitated accosted the policeman [to whom you gave the shilling yesterday] and begged {that he would i°5 c.c. T tell him [who the officer (that sprang so lightly into the -— — - - - — last carriage) might be]} [as there was something very ______________ ^^ - " * 112 suspicious ih his appearance]. Second Stage. a. To whom you gave the shilling yesterday. |8. He would tell him [who the officer (that sprang so __■ v^^jxrvvw *•/// _■ _ _■■___ _ _*_ _ __ _ __«_ 99 lightly into the last carriage) might be]. y. There was something very-suspicious in his appearance. XfXJVTNJWV. ________ — — — i 5 8 DEFECTIVE CONSTRUCTIONS. 18 125 Third Stage. a. Who the offircr-(that sprang so lightly into the last carriage) might be. Fourth Stage. a. That sprang so-lightly into the last carriage. "10^ 38 92 §4 Defective Constructions. 125. There are many sentences which almost or altogether defy analysis. Setting aside mere cases of ellipsis, the great majority of these perplexing constructions fall under the head of Anacolutha, i.e. instances of logical non-sequence. Such grammatical dislocations between different members of the same sentence arise from various causes, as u. From strong emotion, eg. ' Bertrand is — what I dare not name I ' — Scott. Also in Luke xix. 42, where, to use the fine expression of Winer, 'sorrow has suppressed the apodosis.' /3. From a sudden change of construction during the progress of the sentence, e.g. ' And now, lest he put forth his hand, .... therefore the Lord God sent him forth.' — A.V. 'And he charged him to tell no man; but go thy way.' — R.A.V. § 125] DEFECTIVE CONSTRUCTIONS. 159 ' And it was told him by certain which said, Thy mother and thy brethren stand without.' — A.V. ' How that they ferd, — let it passe and go.' — Occleve. y. From carelessness in arrangement, punctuation, or grammar : — ' And they sat down, and did eat and drink both of them ' (A.V.) = And they both of them sat down and did eat and drink. ' But to return to our ancient poems in picture. [ = ,] I would humbly propose, &c.' — Addison. ' The sun upon the calmest sea appears not half so bright as thee [= thou].' — Prior. ' Yet he seems mightier far than them [ = they]. — Byron. ' Before I missed it, there were [ = was] a cluster of people who had found it.' — Addison. ' He continues to wear a coat and doublet of the same cut that were [= was] in fashion at the time of his repulse.' — Steele. 'But now my lingering feet revenge denies [= deny].' — Chatterton. ' The wrinkled grass its silver joys unfold [ = unfolds]. '— Chatterton. 'Let each esteem other better than themselves [= himself].' —A.V. ' She lifts the coffer-lids that close his eyes, where, lo, two lamps, burnt out, in darkness lies [= lie].' — Shakspere. INDEX. The numbers refer to pages. ' a ' article, 83, 120 preposition, 32, 99 Ablative, 11 -13, 103 Abstract terms and antecedents, 1, 2, 120. Active voice, 18 Accusative case, 11-14, 64, 95 Ace. c. infin., 57, 58, 67 Adjectives, 14, 75, 83, 104-106, 117 Adjectivals, 40-42, 52, 53, 103, 104 Adjectival clauses, 43, 1 14-129 Adversative clauses, 151 Adverbs, 15, 85, 92, 107, 117 Adverbials, 40-42, 52, 53, 88-107 Adverbial, accusative, II, 12, 62, 95 attributes, 87, 88 clauses, 43, 129-146 infinitive, 101, 107, 145 Anacolutha, 158 Analysis, 37, 39 Antecedent;, 115, 119-121 Apodosis, 137-139 Apposites, 79-82, 113 Aryan speech, 4, 5, 37 'as,' ir8, 130, 142 Assertions, direct, 39, 43, 46, 47 oblique, 43, 46, 47, 57. 112 Attraction of the relative, 119 Attributes, 82-86 Attributive clauses, 1 14-129 Auxiliaries, 23, 70 B 'but,' preposition, 98, 112 relative, 118 sub 'id. conj., 112, 129-131, 144 co-ord. conj., 150, 152 Cases, 11-14 Case equivalents, 15, 96, 100 functions, 14, 65, 67, 92 stems, 95, 104, 108 Categorical sentences, 19, 22, 46 'cause,' 59 Clauses, 43, 92 Cognate objects, 54-64, 68, 75 Collective terms and antecedents, 1, 120 Complements, 51-54, 68-70, 102 Complex relatives, 120-123 sentences, 47, 1 1 2- 148 Compounds, 7-l°> 100 Compound interrogatives, 73 sentences, 48, 75, 149-158 Conjunctions, 16, 129-133, 149-151 Conjunctive mood, 23-27 Connectives, 40, 41 Contractions, 114, 144 Co-ordinate apposites, 79, 81 attributes, 79, 85, 127 adverbial-attributes, 79, 88 clauses, 43, 151-154 conjunctions, 149-151 Co-ordinating attributive-clauses, 127, 129 Co-ordination, 75, 108, 146, 149 Copula, finite, 1, 3, 28, 29 gerund, 54 infinitive, 54, 69, 70, 102 Correlation, 73, 133 Cumulative clauses, 151 D. Dative, nouns and pronouns, 1 1-14 infinitive, 36, 68, 69, 101, 105, H5 M ]62 INDEX. Dative, absolute, 103 Declension, 10-14 Defective constructions, 158 Definite antecedents, 120 Degrees of comparison, 83, 104 Demonstratives, 73, 83, 116, 132 Dependent clauses, 43 Deponent verbs, 18 Direct construction, 44~47> ' '4 Direct object, 62-64, 68 trouble accusative, 64 E. Epithetic apposites, 79, 80 attributes, 79, 82, 83, 124. adverbial-attributes, 79, 87 attributive clauses, 124-126 Ethical dative, n, 95 F. Factitive verbs, 59, 60 Formation of words, 6 Functional elements, 40-42 Future tense, 26 G. General terms and antecedents, 1, 120. Genitive, 11- 14, 83, 103 Gerunds, 34-36, 54, 68, 79, 99 11. ' hear,' 67 'how,' 119, 123 'how that,' 123 Hypothetical sentences, 18, 22, 46 1. 'if,' 114, 136 Illative clauses, 153, 154 Illogical constructions, 56, 58, no Indefinite antecedents, 120 Indicative mood, 19, 22 Indirect objects, 61-66, 68, 75, 96 Infinitive, 34-36, 50, 67-71, 79, 92, 100-102, 105, 107. Instrumental, 12-14 Interrogatives, 71 -75 Intransitive verbs, 27, 63, 64, 'it,' 107 I,. 'like,' 75 Locative, 12, 13, 68, 101, 103, 105 Logic, 4 M. Mark system, 76- 78, 108-III, 147, us, 154-158 Main clauses, 43 Metamorphosis, 29 ' methinks,' 50 Middle voice, 17, 27, 28 Moods, 22 27, 138, 139 N. Negative predicates, 2 Neuter verbs, 27 'No,' 94 Nominative, n, 12, 60, 61, 107 absolute, 92, 102 Nouns, 6, 7, 10-14, 83, 104 Noun clauses, 112-114 Numerals, 83 O. Objects in general, 51 Oblique construction, 44 47, 57> 5^> It2 114 1 other,' 141 I'. Participles, 30-34, 83, 145 Passive voice, 18, 100 Petitions, direct, 39, 43, 46, 47 oblique, 43, 46, 47, 57,58, U3. 137 Phrases, 43 Possessive, 13 Potential mood, 24, 25 I 'rcdicate, grammatical, 40, 511 logical, 2, 3 Prepositions, 15, 97-100, 123 Prepositional phrases, 66, 83, 92, 96-IOO, 105, 107 Primary sentences, 47, 49-78 1 Pronouns, 5, 71-74, 83, 115- 119, 132 Protasis, 126, 137-139 'k . INDEX. 163 Q- Quiescent verbs, 27 "Questions, direct, 39, 43, 46, 47, 71-75 oblique, 43, 46, 47, 57, 71-75, 113, 114, 123 Quotations, 44, 46, 60, no R. 'rather,' 141 Redundant object, 81 Reflexive verbs, 17, 27, 28, 63 Relatives, 115-119. Relative clauses, 1 14-129 Remoter object, II, 65 Roots, 5, 10 'teach,' 55, 64 Tenses, 18-22, 138,- 139 Terms, 1, 2 'than,' 142 ' that,' demonstrative, 112, 113, 120, 132 relative, 118, 121, 122, 124, 132 conjunction, 129-132, 143 'the,' article, 83, 120 adverb;, 130-133 'there,' 54 Transitive verbs, 27, 63, 64 U. Uncertainties, 27, 5 r > 64, 66, 86, 94, 101, 105, 106, 143 Undeclined relative, 118 Unique terms and antecedents, 1. 120 Self-affecting verbs, 27, 28, 63 Sentences, 1, 39, 47 Separable compounds, 7-10 Simple sentences, 47, 79 _I > I Stems, 7, 13, 30, 65, 95, 104 Subject, 2, 40, 49, 50, 68 Subjunctive mood, 24-26 Subordinating apposites, 79, 81 attributes, 79, 84, 126 adverbial-attributes, 79, 87 Subordinate clauses, 129, 146 attributive clauses, 126, 127 conjunctions, 129-133, 145 Substantivals, 40-42, 49, 52, 53 Substantival clauses, 43, 1 1 2- 1 14 Suffixes, 7, 92, 104, 142 Supines, 34, 101, 105 Syntax, 36 Verbs, 6, 7, 17-29, 40 Verbals, 17 Vocative, n Voices, 27 W. 'when,' 119 'whence,' 119 'where,' 119 'whether,' 74, 113. 114, 123 'whither,' 119, 133 'why,' 119 Words, 42, 95 'worth,' 54, 75. 104 Y. 'Yes,' 94 THE END. a MACMILLAN'S EDUCATIONAL CATALOGUE. EURIPIDES. IIKCl'BA. Edited by Rev. John Bono, M. A., mid A. S. WAtrin.it, M.A. ' [AW/, GREEK TESTAMENT. Selections. Ktlitol by Rev. (!. V, Maci.kar, M.A,, D.D., Warden of Si. Augustine's Coltogc, Canterbury, [In //'i/toW/iw. HERODOTUS. Selection* from Book* VII. and VIII. THE EXPEDITION OF XERXES. Edited by A. II. Cookb, B.A., Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. [Rftiify, HOMER'S ILIAD. Book XVIII. THE ARMS OF ACHIL- LES. Edited by S. K. Jamks, M.A., Scholar of Trinity Col. lege, Cambridge, and Assistant-Master at Eton. [Rfmfy. HOMER'S ILIAD. Book I. Edited, with Motes and Vocabulary, by Rev. John Bond, M.A., and A. S. WAU'uut, M.A. [In fir/iir,t/i,w. HOMER'S ODYSSEY. Book I' With Notos'nnd Vocabulary. by the same Editors. [In frrfamtion. HORACE. THE FIRST BOOK OF THE ODES. Edited l.y T. •'.tS/S. Hook I. With Notes and Vooabulaiy. By A. S. Walihilu, M.A. [AWi>, MACMILLAN'S CLASSICAL SERIES FOR COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS. Ken p. Svo, Being select portions of Greek and Latin authors, edited with Introductions and Notes at the end, by eminent scholars. The series is designed to supply first-rate text- books for the higher forms of Schools, having in view also the needs of Candidates for public examinations at the Universities and elsewhere. The following volumes are ready i — JESCHYLUS-FERSJH. Edited by A. O. Prick vun. M.A., Fellow and Tutor of New College, Oxford. With Map. 31. M. CATULLUS— SELECT POEMS. Edited by F. P. SlMI'SON, B.A., late Scholar of Bnlliol College, Oxford. New and revised Edition, p. CICERO -THE 8EOOND PHILIPPIC ORATION. From the German of Karl Iiahn. Edited, with Corrections and Additions, by John E. B. Mayor, Professor of Latin in the University of Cambridge, and Fellow of St. John's College. New edition, revised. $s. THE CATILINE ORATIONS. From the German of Karl Halm. Edited, with Additions, by A. S. Wilkins, M.A., Professor of Latin at the Owens College, Manchester. New edition. 31. 6d. THE ACADBMIOA. Edited by Jambs Rbid, M.A., Fellow of Cains College, Cambridge, 41. 6J. PRO LEGE MANILIA. Edited after IIalm by Prof. A. S Wilkins, M.A. 3.?. 6rf. PRO ROSOIO amerino. Edited after Halm. By E. II. Donkin, M.A., late Scholar of Lincoln College, Oxford. Assistant-Master at Uppingham, 4s. 6./. DEMOSTHENES —THE ORATION ON THE GROWN. Edited by B. Drake, M.A., late Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Sixth and revised edition. 4s. 61I. MACMILLAlfS CLASSICAL SERIES. 5 DEMOSTHENES— ADVERSUS LEPTINEM. Edifed by Rev. J. R." King, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. 4?. 6d. EURIPIDES— HIPPOLYTUS. Edited by J. P. MAHAFFY, M.A., Fellow and Professor of Ancient History in Trinity College, Dublin, and J. B. Bury, Scholar of Trinity College, Dublin. 3*. 6d. HOMER'S ILIAD— THE STORY OF ACHILLES. Edited by the late J. H. Pratt, M.A., and Walter Leaf, M.A., Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge. 6s. HOMER'S ODYSSEY— THE NARRATIVE OF ODYS- SEUS, Books IX.— xil. Edited by John E. B. Mayor, M.A. Part I. p. JUVENAL— SELECT SATIRES. Edited by JOHN E. B. Mayor, Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge, and Professor of Latin. Satires X. and XI. 3*. 6d. Satires XIL— XVI. 4s. 6d. LIVY— HANNIBAL'S FIRST CAMPAIGN IN ITALY, Books XXI. and XXII. Edited by the Rev. W. W. Capes, Reader in Ancient History at Oxford With 3 Maps. 5-r. Books II. and III. Edited by Rev. H. M. Stephenson, M.A., Head-Master of St. Peter's School, York. 5*. LYSIAS— SELECT ORATIONS. Edited by E. S. SHUCK- burgh, M.A., Assistant-Master at Eton College. 6s. MARTIAL— SELECT EPIGRAMS. Edited by Rev. H. M. Stephenson, M.A., Head-Master of St. Peter's School, York. 6s. OVID— fasti. Edited by G. H. Hallam, M.A., Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and Assistant-Master at Harrow. With Maps $s. HEROIDUM EPISTUL2E XIII. Edited by E. S. Shuckburgh, M.A. 4s. 6d. PLAUTUS— MILES GI.ORIOSUS. Edited by R. Y. TYRRELL, M.A-, Fellow and Professor of Greek in Trinity College, Dublin. S'- PLINY'S LETTERS— Book III. Edited by Profestor JOHN E. B. Mayor. With Life of Pliny, by G. H. Rendall, M.A. Fcap. 8vo. 5j. MACMILLAN'S EDUCATIONAL CATALOGUE. PLUTARCH — LIFE OF TH EM I STOK LBS. Edited by Rev. 11. A. Homhn, M.A., LL.1V, Uei\il Muster of Ipswich School ; some time Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- bridge; Editor of "Aristophanes" &c. 5*. PROPBRTIUS -SELECT POEMS. Edited by J. P. POST- gate, M.A., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, . 8ALLUST— OATILINE and JUQURTIIA. Edited by C. Mkrivale, B.D. New edition, carefully revised and en- larged. 4*. &/. Or separately ax. 64. each. taoitus— AcmicoLA and OBRMANIA. Edited by A. J. Church, M.A., and W. J. Hrohriub, M.A. Translators of Tacitus. New edition. 3*. 6rf. Or separately as. each. THE ANNALS, Book VI. By the same Editors, at. M. TERENCE— HAUTON TIMORUMBNOS. Edited by E. S. Shucxbukoh, M.A., Assistant-Master at Eton College, 31. With Translation, 4*. 6rf. PHORMIO. Edited by Rev. John Bond, M.A., and A. S. Wali-olb, B.A. 4J. dt. THUOYDIDBS — THE SICILIAN EXPEDITION, Booka VI. and vii. Edited by the Rev. Pkrcival Frost, M.A., Late Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge. New edition, revised and enlarged, with Map. $t. VIRGIL— jenbid, II. and III. The Narrative of /Eneas. Edited by K. W. Howson, M.A., Fellow of King's College, Cambridge, and Assistant-Master nt Harrow, 3s. XBNOPHON— HELLBNICA, Booka I. and II. Edited by II. Hailstonk, It. A., late Scholar of Peterhouse, Cambridge, With Map. 4j. 6V, OYROPJBDI a, Booka VII. and VIII. Edited by ALPRItn Goodwin, M.A., Professor of Cireelc in University College, London. 5x. MEMORABILIA BOORATIS. Edited by A, R. Cl.UliR, ll.A. Ilalliol C'(vlk-,;e, Oxford, fix. THE ANABASIS Uooka f. to IV. Edited with Notes by Professors \V, W. (ioonwiN and J. \V. WiiiTB. Adapted to Goodwin's Greek Grammar. With a Map, I'cnp. 8vo. $s MACMILLAN'S CLASSICAL SERIES. i The following are in preparation : — JESCHINES-IN CTESIPHONTEM. Edited by Rev. T. Gwatkin, M. A., late Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge. [In the press. CICERO— PRO P. SESTIO. Edited by Rev. H., A. HciLDEN, M.A., LL.D., Head-Master of Ipswich School,, late Fellow and Assistant Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge, Editor of Aristophanes, &c. DEMOSTHENES— FIRST PHILIPPIC. Edited by Rev. T. Gwatkin, M.A., late Fellow of St. John's College! Cambridge. EURIPIBES— SELECT PLAYS, by various Editors. alcestis. Edited by J. E. C. Welldon, B.A., Fellow and Lecturer of King's College, Cambridge. BACCHAE. Edited by E. S. Shuckburgh, M.A., Assistant- Master at Eton College. , MEDEA. Edited by A. W. Verraix, M.A., Fellow and Lecturer of Trinity College, Cambridge.. IPHIGENEIA IN TAURIS. Edited by E, B. ENGLAND^ M.A., Lecturer at the Owen's College, Manchester. HERODOTUS— THE INVASION OF GREECE EY XERXES Books VII. and VIII. Edited by THOMAS Case, M.A., formerly Fellow of Brasenose College, Oxford. HOMER'S ODYSSEY— Books XXI.— XXIV. t Edited by S. G. Hamilton, B.A'i, Fellow of Hertford College, Oxford. [In the press. HORACE— THE ODES. Edited by T. E. Page, M. A.. Master at Charterhouse and late Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge. THE satires. Edited by Arthur Palmer, M.A., Fellow and Professor of Latin in Trinity College, Dublin. [In the press. THE EPISTLES AND ARS POETICA. Edited by Pro- fessor A. S. Wilkins, M.A. LIVY— Books XXIII. and XXIV. Edited by Rev. W. W. Cafes, M.A. LUCRETIUS— Books I. to III. Edited by J. H. Warburton Lee, B.A., late Scholar of Corpus Chrhti College^ Oxford, and Assistant-Master at RosSall. 8 MACMILLAN'S EDUCATIONAL CATALOGUE. plato— mbno. Kdlied by E. S. Thompson, M.A., Fellow of Clulst's College, Cambridge. APOLOOY AND OHITO. Edited by 1''. J. II. JltNKINSON, M.A., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge THE REPUBLIC. BooliB I.— V. KilltOtl by T. II. Warren, M.A., Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. ■OPHOOLBB— ANTIQONH. Edited by Rev. John Bond, M.A., and A. S. Wam-OLU, M.A. TAOITUS-THB HISTORY. Boolt» I. and II, Edited by C, E. Graves, M.A. THUOYDIDBB— Boob* I. and II. Edited by 1 1. Broadbent, M.A., Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford, Mid Assistant- Master at Eton College. Booitn in. iv. and v. Edited by C. E. Graves, M.A., Clauloal Leeturor, and lata Fellow of St, John'* College, Cambridge. (To be published separately.) [AwA J I ', in t/te fnst. TIBULLUB. SELECTIONS. Edited by J. P. ToSTOATit, M.A., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Othtr voltwus wil/fillm, CLASSICAL, mtanithVU—TlTB EUMENIDES. The Grook Text, with Introduction, English Notes, and Verie Tramlatlon. By Bernard Drake, M.A., late Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. 8vo. 5*. THE ORBSTEIAN TRILOGY. Edited, with Introduction and Notes, by A. 0. Prickard, M.A., Follow and Tutor of New College, Oxford. 8vo. [/« ftr/xmi/ion. ANTONINUS, MAIIOUS AURBLIUS— HOOK'/]'. OF TIIH MF.1UTA TIONS. 'J'lie Text Revised with Translation and Notes. By Hastinon Crossi.ky, M.A,, Professor i>r Crook in Queen's College, Belfast. 8vo. 6s. ARATUB-r/M' .VAVA'.y AND WEATHER-FORECASTS OF ARATVS. Translated with Notos.by 10. PoSTit, M.A,, Oriel College, Oxford. Crown 8vo. 31. tut. CLASSICAL. 9 ARISTOTLE— AN INTRODUCTION TO ARISTOTLES' RHETORIC. With Analysis, Note?, and Appendices. By E. M. Cope, Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge, 8vo. 14 1. ARISTOTLE ON FALLACIES; OR, THE SOPHISTIC I ELENCHI. With Translation and Notes by E. Poste, M. A. Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford. 8vo. 8s. 6d. THE METAPHYSICS. BOOK I. Translated by a Cam- bridge Graduate. 8vo. 5-r. [Booh II. in preparation. THE POLITICS. Edited, after Susemihl, by R. D. Hicks, M.A., Fellow of Trinity College, Camb. 8vo. [In the press. THE POLITICS. Translated by J. E. C. Welldon, MA., Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Cr. 8vo. [In the press. ARISTOPHANES— THE BIRDS. Translated into English Verse, with Introduction, Notes, and Appendices, by B. H. Kennedy, D.D., Regius Professor of Greek in the University of Cambridge. Crown 8vo. 6s. Help-Notes to the same, for the use of Students, is. 6d. ARNOLD— ,4 HANDBOOK OF LATIN EPIGRAPHY— By W. T. Arnold, B.A. [In preparation. THE ROMAN SYSTEM OF PROVINCIAL AD- MINISTRATION TO THE ACCESSION OF CON- STANTINE THE GREAT. Crown 8vo. 6s. '* Ought to prove a valuable handbook to the Student of Roman His- tory." — Guardian. BABSIUS. (RUTHERFORD.) Scriptores Fabularutn Graeci. I. BABRIUS. A Revised Text, with Introductions, Critical Notes, and a Commentary. By W. G. RutiierporD, M.A., Balliol College, Oxford, Assistant-Master in St. Paul's School. 8vo. [In the press. BELCHER— SHORT EXERCISES IN LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION AND EXAMINATION PAPERS IN LATIN GRAMMAR, to which is prefixed a Chapter on Analysis of Sentences. By the Rev. H. Belcher, M.A., Assistant Master In King's College School, London. New Edition. l8mo. is. 6d. KEY 70 THE ABOVE (for Teachers only), zs. 6d. SHORT EXERCISES IN LATIN PROSE COMPOSI- TION. PART II., On the Syntax of Sentences, with an Appendix including, EXERCISES IN LATIN IDIOMS, &c. i8mo. 2s. io MACMILLAN'S EDUCATIONAL CATALOGUE. niAOKtB-GAEEX- AND ENGLISH DIALOGUES fOK USE IN SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. By John Stuart Biackib, Professor of Greek in the University of Edinburgh. New Edition. Fcap. 8vo. *r. &/. CICERO— THE ACADEAHCA. The Text revised and explained byjAMKS Rbid, M.A., Fellow of Cftlus College, Cambridge. New Edition. With Translation. 8vo. [Int/itprtn. TJIH ACADHMiCS, Translated by Jambs S. KtilD, M.A. 8vo. 5*. &'• SELECT LETTERS.— After tlio Edition of Aliibrt Watson, M.A. Translated by G. E. Jbans, M.A., Fellow of Hertford College, Oxford, and Assistant-Master at llalley' bury. 8vo. iw. (tit. CLASSICAL writers. Edited by J. R. Green, M.A. Fcap. 8vo. it. 6rf. each, A Series of small volumes upon some of the principal classical writers, whose works form subjects of study In our Schools, EURIPIDES. By Professor J. P. MAHAFirY. [Rtaify, L1VY. By Rev. W. W. Capics, M.A. [/Wi>. SOPHOCLES. By I'rof. T.mvis CAMt-liBLL. [A'.Wr. VIRGIL. By Professor 1 1. Nisttleship. [AWr, DUAIOSTJITNRS. DyS. II. Butciiuk, M.A. [Ready. TACITUS. By A.J Church, M.A,, & W. J. DuoDitiiin, M.A. [AVri./i', CICERO. By Professor A. K. Wii.KINS. 1 ,..,..„,,.„. HERODOTUS. ByjAMKS B..v,% M.A. j '" ^** wft "»- ELLIS— PRACTICAL HINTS ON THE QUANTITATIVR PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN, for the use of Classic.. 1 Teachers and Linguists. By A. J. Ellis, B.A., F.B.S. Extra fcap, 8vo. p. &/. ENGLAND - A'.V A' RCISIiS ON LATIN SYNTAX AN/> IIUOM, ARRANUKP WITH RRPKRKNCK TO RO/iY'S SCHOOL LATIN CRAM MAR. By K, It. Kn<;i.ani>, M.A., As, isliuU Lecturer nt the Owens C(>llc|;e, Manchester. Crown 8vo, -is. 61. Key, for Teachers only, 2S. (ill. nuttlPlDnS-MEDEA. Edited, wilb Intiodnctlon and Notes, by A. W. Vkruaii,, M.A., Fellow ami Lecturer of Trinity College, (.'iimlirldge, Svo, Js. 6,/. CLASSICAL. ii GEDDES— THE PROBLEM OF THE HOMERIC POEMS. By W. D. Geddes, Professor of Greek in the University of Aberdeen. 8vo. 141. GLADSTONE— Works by the Rt. Hon. W. E. GLADSTONE, M.P. JUVENTVS MUNDI; or, Gods and Men of the Heroic Age. Second Edition. Crown 8vo. ioj. 6d. THE TIME AND PLACE OF HOMER. Crown 8vo. 6s. 6d. A PRIMER OF HOMER. i8mo. is. GOODWIN — Works by W. W. Goodwin, Professor of Greek in Harvard University, U.S.A. SYNTAX OF THE MOODS AND TENSES OF THE GREEK VERB. New Edition, revised. Crown 8vo. 6s. 6d. A GREEK GRAMMAR. New Edition, revised. Crown 8vo. 6s. " It is the best Greek Grammar of its size in the English language."— A thetuewn. A GREEK GRAMMAR FOR SCHOOLS. Crown 8vo. . 3*. 6d. GOODWIN-/ TEXT-BOOK OF GREEK PHILOSOPHY, based on Ritter and Preller's "Historia Philospphiae Graecae et Romanae." By Alfred Goodwin, M.A. Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford, and Professor of Greek in University College, London. 8vo. [In preparation. an-EETSrwoo-D—THE ELEMENTS OF GREEK GRAM- MAR, including Accidence, Irregular Verbs, and Principles of Derivation and Composition ; adapted to the System of Crude Forms. By J. G. Greenwood, Principal of Owens College, Manchester. New Edition. Crown 8vo. is. 6d. HERODOTUS, Books 1.— 111.— THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST. Edited, with Notes and Introductions, by A. H. Sayce, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Queen's College, Oxford, and Deputy-Professor of Comparative Philology. 8vo. [In the press. I a MACMILLAN'S EDUCATIONAL CATALOGUE. Hodgson -MYTHOLOGY FOR LATIN VERSIFICA- TION, A brief Sketch of the Fables of the Ancients, prepared to be rendered into Livtln Verse for Schools. By F. Hodgson, B.D., late Provost of Eton. New Edition, revised by F. C. Hodgson, M.A. i&no. jr. homer— THE ODYSSEY. Done into English by S. II. Butcher, M.A., Fellow of University College, Oxford, and Andrew Lang, M.A., Jate Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, Second Edition, revised and corrected, with new Introduction, additional Notes and Illustrations. Crown 8vo. lot. 6d. 7 HE ILIAD. Edited, with Introduction and Notes, by Walter Leaf, M.A., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and the late J. II. Pratt, M.A. Svo. [In prtpaxition. THE ILIAD. Translated into English Prose. By Andrew Lano, M.A., Walter Leaf, M.A., and Ernest Myers, M.A. Crown Svo. [In the Press. Homeric dictionary. For Use In Schools and Colleges. Translated from the German of Dr. G. Autenrieth, with Additions and Corrections by R. P. Keep, Ph.D. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 6s. HORACE— THE WORKS OF HORACE, rendered into English Prose, with Introductions, Running Analysis, and Notes, by J. Lonsdale, M.A., and S. Lee, M.A. Globe 8vo. 3s. 6d. THE ODES OF HORACE IN A METRICAL PARA- PHRASE. By R. M. Hovenden. Extra fcap. 8vo. 4J. HORACE'S LIFE AND CHARACTER. An Epitome of his Satires and Epistles. By R. M. Hovenden. Extra fcap.' Svo. 41. 6» fnvflarotinH. THEOCRITUS, BION and MOSCHUS. Rendered into English Prose with Introductory Essay by Andrew Lang, M.A. Crown Svo. Cm. THEOPHHASTU8— THE CHARACTERS OP THEO- PHRASTUS, An English Translation from a Revised Text With Introduction and Notes. By R. C Jebb, M.A., Pro- fessor of Greek in the University of Glasgow. Extra fcap. 8vo. 6s. M, THRINO— Works by the Rev. E. Thrino, M.A., Head- Master of Uppingham School. A LATIN GRADUAL. A First Latin Construing Book for Beginners. New Edition, enlarged, with Coloured Sentence Maps. Fcap. 8vo. 2s. 6,1. A MANUAL OF MOOD CONSTRUCTIONS. Fcap. 8vo. is. 6ti. A CONSTRUING BOOK. Fcnp. 8vo. is. 6d. CLASSICAL. t 9 VIRGIL— THE WORKS OF VTR'GIL RENDERED INTO ENGLISH PROSE, with Notes, Introductions; Running Analysis, and an Index, by James Lonsdale, M.A., and Samuel Lee, M.A. New Edition. Globe 8vo. y. 6d. WHITE— FIRST LESSONS IN GREEK. Adapted to Good- win's Greek Grammar, and designed as an introduction, to the Anabasis of Xenophon. By John Williams White, Ph. D., Assistant-Prof, of Greek in Harvard University. Crown 8vo. 4s. 6d. WILKINS— A PRIMER OF ROMAN ANTIQUITIE& By A. S. Wilkins, M.A., Professor of Latin in the Owens College, Manchester. With Illustrations. l8mo. is. WRIGHT— Works by J. Wright, M.A., late Head Master of Sutton Coldfield School. HELLENIC A; OR, A HISTORY OF GREECE IN GREEK", as related by Diodorus and Thucydides ; being a First Greek Reading Book, with explanatory Notes; Critical and Historical. New Edition with a Vocabulary. Fcap. 8vo. 3s. td. A HELP TO LATIN GRAMMAR; or, The Form and Use of Words in Latin, with Progressive Exercises. Crown 8vo. \s. 6d. THE SEVEN KINGS OF ROME. An Easy Narrative, abridged from the First Book of Livy by the omission of Difficult Passages; being a First Latin Reading Book, with Grammatical Notes and Vocabulary. New and revised Edition. Fcap. 8vo. y. 6d. FIRST LATIN STEPS; OS, AN INTRODUCTION BY A SERIES OF EXAMPLES TO THE STUDY OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE. Crown 8vo. y. ATTIC PRIMER. Arranged for the Use of Beginners. Extra fcap. 8vo. 2s. 6d. A COMPLETE LATIN COURSE, comprising Rules with Examples, Exercises, both Latin and English, on each Rule and Vocabularies. Crown 8vo'. 2s. 6d. b 2 ao MACMILLAN'S EDUCATIONAL CATALOGUE. MATHEMATICS. AIRY — Works by Sir G. B. Airy, K.C.D., Astronomer Royal : — ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON PARTIAL DIF- FERENTIAL EQUATIONS. Designed for the Use of Students in the Universities. With Diagrams. Second Edition, Crown 8vo. 5j. 6V. ON THE ALGEBRAICAL AND NUMERICAL THEORY OF ERRORS OF OBSERVATIONS AND THE COMBINATION OF OBSERVATIONS. Second Edition, revised. Crown Svo. . 2s. LOOK— ELEMENTAR Y 7RIGONOMETR Y. By Rev. J. P.. Lock, M.A., Fellow of Caius College, Cambridge ; Assistant- Master at Eton. Globe 8vo. 41. 6onu; I'nsitiniiM liy An«lcn— Cli'trts nnil C 'hni'l HmwinjI Instruments find t lli'tn vlnu - -Itivsii l ( inn»- Triiuiy.tlliitinii-- l,rvi-1liny - 1'idrs mid Tidfll Ohscrvntioim Soundings Clir ipti-ri— Mi'i.iliitn Distnnro'i— Mothod of I'lnttliiK n Survey— Mtscelli.nirniis.l'iMS, isivi - Index. TAIT— AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON HEAT. By Professor 1'ait, K.R.S.E. Illustrated. \Inth«prm. TYLOR— ANTHROPOLOGY, An Introduction to the Study of Man and Civilisation. Hy L. II. Tviou, D.C.L., F.li.S, With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, Js, Cxi. Other volumes of these Manuals will follow. SCIENTIFIC TEXT-BOOKS. BALFOUR—^ TREATISE ON COMPARATIVE EMERY. OLOGY. lly V. M. IIALi.-otiu, M.A., K.K.N., Fellow and Lecturer of Trinity College, Cumbridne. Willi Illustrations. In 2 vols. 8vo. Vol. J. iSr. Vol.Il.au. BALL (R. b.. KM.)— EXPERIMENTAL MECHANICS. A Course of Lectures delivered at the Royal College of Science for Ireland. By R. S. Bali., A.M., Professor of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics in the Royal College of Science for Ireland. Cheaper Issue. Royal 8vo. to;. 61V. SCIENCE. i 9 SCIENTIFIC TEST-BOOKS Continued— BRUNTON — A TREATISE ON MATERIA MEDICA. By T. Lauder Brunton, M.D., F.R.S. 8vo. .■ [In preparation. BRUNTON. TABLES OF MATERIA MEDICA: A Com- panion to the Materia Medica Museum. By T. Lauder Brunton, M.D., F.R.S. 8vo. ior. 6d. CLAUSITJS— MECHANICAL THEORY OF HEAT, gy R. Clausius. Translated by Walter R. Browne, M.A., rate Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Crown 8vo. ios. 6d. COTTRRILI.— A TREATISE ON APPLIED MECHAN- ICS. By James Cotterill, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mechanics at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich. With Illustrations. 8vo. [In the press. DANIRLI^-^ TREATISE ON PHYSICS FOR MEDICAL STUDENTS. By Alfred Daniell. With Illustrations. 8vo. [In preparation. FOSTER— .4 TEXT-BOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY. By Michael Foster, M.D., F.R.S. With Illustrations. Third Edition, revised. 8vo. 2is. GAMGEE — A TEXT-BOOK OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY OF THE ANIMAL BODY.. Including an account of the chemical changes occurring in' Disease. By A. Gamgee, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in the Victoria University the Owens College, Manchester. '2 Vols. 8vo. With Illustrations. Vol. I. l8s.-, , » [Vol f II. in the press. GEGENBAUR— ELEMENTS OF COMPARATIVE ANA- TOMY. By Professor Carl Gegenbaur. A Translation by F. Jeffrey Bell, B.A. Revised with Preface by Professor E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S. With numerous Illustrations. 8vo. 2 1 s. GEIKIE— TEXTBOOK OF GEOLOGY, .By Archibald GE1KIE, F.R.S., Director-General of the Geological Survey. With numerous Illustrations. 8vo. [fast ready. 40 MAi'MU.l.AN'S KDlKATlONAh CATAI.OtUiK, SCIENTIFIC TEXT-BOOKS Cfl/itililltJ. GRAY STRUCTURAL ROTA NY, OR ORGANOGRAPHY ON TJIH RAS/S Oh- MORI'IIOlAKiY, To which are added the principles of Taxonomy ond l'hytojjraphy, and a (iliKMirv of liotanical Terms. My Professor ASA tiuAY, 1,1.,, J i. ' 8v.i. hw. 6V. HAMILTON- .•/ TF.XT-HOON (>/•' PATHOLOGY, l!y 1). T. HAMILTON. Svo. [/« /'V/,,/ V r/(,'«. MtlLLXm- /'//A' FRRTII U/ATION OF 1 PLANTS FY fNSRCTS. By IIkkmann MUi.i.kk. Tnvi.slnleil liy \V. D'Akcy Tiiomi'son, villi 1'ivficc by C'iiaki.ks Dauwin, With llliKtrnli » s, Svo. [In firf.nalioH, NBWOOMU roPULAH ASTRONOMY, lly S. Newcomd, 1,1,. I)., Professor U.S. Naval Observatory. Willi na Illus • trillions and 5 Main of the Stms. 8vo. i8j, "llis. unlike nnylliiai olso of It* klml, and will bo or mora una la cir- culating n knowleiln of astronomy ihnn nlna-tantha of tha bouki whloh have appoint on tha Rubjoct of late yeui',. " — Saturday Rtvitw, REUbEAUX — 77/A. KINEMATICS OF MACHINERY, Outline* of a Theory of Machines. I)y Trofossor V. RituutAUX. Translated and Edited by Professor A. H. W. Kknnbdy, C 1 Willi 4,10 Illustrations, Medium Kvo »i.i, ROSOOE Rurt BOIIORL.EMMBR — INORGAN/C CHEMIS- TRY. A Complete Treatlso on Inorganic Chemistry. Hy Profesor 11. V.. Kixcoit, F.K.S., and Professor C. SciIOR. I.KMMBR, K.R.S, Willi numerous Illustrations, Medium 8vo. Vol. 1.- The Non-Metallic Klemenls. ai,f. Vol.11, 1'ivit 1,— Metals, i8j. Vol, II. Part 11.— Melds. iK.t. Vol. 111.— ORGAN/C C1IFMISTRY. Part. \.~THE CHEMISTRY OF Tim HYDROCA RFONS ■ and Ihclr Derivative'* or OKOANJC C1I1CM1KTUV, With muneroim Illustrations Medium 8vo. 2K, [ I'm/ II, in the prtss BOIiOKLEMMEn A MANUAL OFT/IF C//FM/STRY OF THE CARBON COMPOUNDS, OR ORGANIC CHS' MISTRY, By C. Schoui.kmmrb, K.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Victoria University, the Owen* College, Manchester, With Illustrations. 8vo. 14*. SMITH— A DICTIONARY OF ECONOM/C /'/.ANTS. Their 1 1 i story, I'roducls, nni Uses, lly John Smith, A.L.S. Svo, I4,f. SCIENCE. SCIENTIFIC TEXT-BOOKS Cotitinuid— THORPE AND RtiCKER— A TREA TISE ON CHEMICAL PHYSICS. By Professor Thorpe, F.R.S., and Professor Rucker, of the Yorkshire College of Science. Illustrated. 8vo. [In preparation. ZIEGITER— MACALISTBE— TEXT BOOK OF PATHO- LOGICAL ANATOMY. By Ernst Ziegler of Zurich. Translated and Edited by Donald MacAlister, M.A., D.Sc., Fellow of St. John's College, Cambid^e. 8vo. [In preparation. NATURE SERIES THE SPECTROSCOPE AND ITS APPLICATIONS. By J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S. With Coloured Plate and numerous Illustrations. Second Edition. Crown Svo. 31. 6d. THE ORIGIN AND METAMORPHOSES OP INSECTS. By Sir John Lubbock, M.P., F.R.S., D.C.L. With nume- rous Illustrations. Second Edition. Crown 8vo. y. 6d. THE TRANSIT OF VENUS. By G. Forbes, M.A., Pro- fessor of Natural Philosophy in the Andersonian University, Glasgow. Illustrated. Crown Svo. 3s. 6d. THE COMMON FROG. By St. George Mivart, F.R.S. Lecturer in Comparative Anatomy at St. Mary's Hospital With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo 3*. 6d. POLARISA TION OF LIGHT. By W. Spottiswoode, P.R.S., With many Illustrations. Second Edition. Crown 8vo. 3*. dd. ON BRITISH WILD FLOWERS CONSIDERED IN RE- LA TION TO INSECTS. By Sir John Lubbock, M.P., F.R.S. With numerous Illustrations. Second Edition. Crown 8vo 41. 6d. THE SCIENCE OF WEIGHING AND MEASURING, AND THE STANDARDS OF MEASURE AND WEIGHT. By H. W. Chisholm, Warden of the Standards. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 4s. (td. HOW TO DRAW A STRAIGHT LINE: a Lecture on Link- ages. By A. B. Kemie With Illustrations. Crown Svo. is. 6J. LIGHT: a Series of Simple, Entertaining, and Inexpensive Expe- riments in the Phenomena of Light, for the Use of Students of every age. By A. M. Mayer and C. Barnard. Crown 8vo, with numerous Illustrations, zs. ti. MACMlLLAN'b KDUCATIONAL CATALOGUE. NATURE SERIES Catti'mot— SOUND ; a. Scries of Simple, Entertaining, and Inexpensive Ex- periments in the Phenomena of Sound, ror the use of Students of every age. By A. M. Maybr, Professor of Physics in the Stevens Institute of Technology, &c. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 3*. 61/. SEEING AND THINKING. By Professor W. K. Cukkoro. F.R.S. With Diagrams. Crown Svo, $s. b,l. DEGENERATION. Ity Prof. V.. RAY Lankkstkr, F.K.S. With Illustrations. Crown Svo. as. 6tt. FAS ff ION IX PEEORMITV. as Illustrated in the Customs of Huvlmrons and Civilised Uaees, By 1'i'of. Klowkr, With Illustrations, frown Svo. 2.w (>,t. Tin-: sc/extieic /■:)■ tm:xcvs of organic iaolu- T10X. Ity G. J. Romanics, M.A., LL.D., I''. U.S., Zoologi- cal Secretary to the Linnean Society. Crown Svo. as. On'. ON THE COI.O/'R OF El OWKRS. By Git ANT Au.UN. With Illustrations, Crown Svo, \fn thtAms. CHARLES DARWIN. A Scries of Papers reprinted from Nature. Crown Svo. [In tht //c.t.f. Other win nits to follow. EASY LESSONS IN SCIENCE. Edited by Prof. W. K. Barrett. ICxtm lca|>. Svo. HEAT. By Miss C. A. MARTlNitAU. Ulnstmted. a.r. 6V. LIGHT. My Mrs. AWDRY. Illustrated. 2,r. (>./. ELECTRICITY. By Prof. W. F. Harriett. [Ih preparation. SCIENCE LECTURES AT SOUTH KENSINGTON. VOL. I. Containing Lectures by Capt. AnNEY, Prof. Storks, Prof, Kennkdy, F, G. Bramwmx, Prof. G. Kurhks, II. C Sorby, J. T. Hottomi.ey, S. II. Vinks, and Prof. Carry Foster. Crown 8vo, fo. VOL. 11. Containing Lectures by W. Spottiswoouk, P.K.S., Prof. Formes, Prof. PlOOT, Prof. Harriot, Dr. BURDON- Sanderson, Dr. Lauder Hrunton, F.R.S., Prof. Roscoe, and others. Crown 8vo. 6s. MANCHESTER SCIENCE LECTURES FOR THE PEOPLE. Eighth Series, 1876-7. Crown 8vo. Illustrated. 6rf. each. WHAT THE EARTH IS COMPOSED OF. By Professor Roscoa, F.R.S. THE SUCCESSION OF LIFE ON THE EARTH. By Professor Williamson, F.R.S. WHY THE EARTH'S CHEMISTRY IS AS IT IS. By J. N. LncxYRR, F.R.S. Also complete in One Volume. Crown 8vo, cloth, a*. SCIENCE 4 g ALEXANDER— ELEMENTAR Y APPLIED MECHANICS; being the simple and more practical Cases of Stress and Strain wrought out individually from first principles by means of Elementary Mathematics. By T. Alexander, C.E., Professor of Civil Engineering in the Imperial College of Engineering, Tokei, Japan. Crown 8vo. 4s. 6d. BETTANY.— FIRST LESSONS IN PRACTICAL BOTANY. By G. T. Bettany, M.A., F.L.S., Lecturer in Botany at Guy's Hospital Medical School. i8mo. is. BLANFOED-7KS RUDIMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEO- GRAPHY FOR THE USE OF INDIAN SCHOOLS ; witn a Glossary of Technical Terms employed. ByH. F. Blanford, F.R.S. New Edition, with Illustrations. Globe 8vo. zs. 6d- EVERETT— UNITS AND PHYSICAL CONSTANTS. By J. D. Everett, F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy, Queen's College, Belfast. Extra fcap. 8vo. 41. 6d. GEIKIE.— OUTLINES OF FIELD GEOLOGY. By Prof. Geikie, F.R.S. With Illustrations. Extra fcap. 8vo. 3*. 6d. msmBXTER-BLOWPIPE ANALYSIS. By J. Landauer. Authorised English Edition by J. Taylor and W. E. Kay, of Owens College, Manchester. Extra fcap. 8vo. 4s. 6d. LUPTON. ELEMENTARY CHEMICAL ARITHMETIC. With 1,100 Problems. By Sydney^Lupton, M.A., Assistant Master in Harrow School. Globe 8vo. 5s. MUIR— PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY FOR MEDICAL STC* DENTS. Specially arranged for the first M.B. Course. By M. M. Pattison Muir, F.R.S.E. Fcap. 8vo. is. 6d. M'KENDRICK— OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY IN ITS RELATIONS TO MAN. By J. G. M'Kendrick, M.D., F.R.S.E. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo. lis. 6d. MIALL— STUDIES IN COMPARA TZVE ANA TOMY. . No. I.— The Skull of the Crocodile : a Manual for Students. By L. C. Miaxl, Professor of Biology in the Yorkshire College and Curator of the Leeds Museum. 8vo. 2s. 6d. No. IL— Anatomy of the Indian Elephant. By L. C. Miall and F. Greenwood. With Illustrations. 8vo. $s. SHANN— AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON HEAT, IN RELATION TO STEAM AND THE STEAM-ENGINE. By G. Shann, M.A. With Illustrations. Crown 8 vo. 4s. 6d. 44 MACMlbLAN'S EDUCATIONAL CATALOGUE. TANNER— FIRST FRIXCIPI ES OF AGRICULTURE. By II. Tanner, l'.C.S., l'rolessor of Agricultural Science, University College, Aliens! with, &c. iSmo. is. THE PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE; a Series of Kc.vtins-lUvhs for u-e in I'leiucntary School*. IVcptu-ed by l'mfe-sor TANNl'.R. Kxtra foil p. Svo. 1. The Alphabet of the l'riitciple.i uf Agriculture. 6rf, II. Further stop, in the lYinciplo-i of Agriculture, is. F.L EMEN7S OF A GR1CL 7. T( 'RA I. SCIENCE. Fcap. Svo. 3«, ti,/. WRIGHT- METALS AND THEIR CHIEF INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. By C. Au>kr Wright, I1.Sc, &c. Lecturer on Chemistry in St, Mary's Hospital Medical School. Extra fcap. 8vo. 3.?. 6./, WRIOHT (LEWIS) LIGHT. ■ A COURSE OF EXPERI- MENTAL OPTICS, C/IIE ELY WITH THE I .-INTERN l'.y l.icwis Wright. With nearly 20J Vlny,invings and Coloured I'ktes, Crown Svo. 7s. Gil. HISTORY. ARNOLD -THE ROMAN SYSTF.M OE PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION TO TIIF ACCESSION OF CON- STANT! NF THE CHEAT. Ty W. T. ARNOLD, B.A. Crown Svo. 6s. "Ouoht to prove a valuable handbook t>> the student of Roman history. —Guakman. BEESLY— STORIES FROM THE HISTORY OF ROME. By Mrs. Hkesly. Fcap. 8vo. 21. 6d. " The attempt appears to us in every way successful. The itorlej are Interesting in themselves, and are tola with perfect simplicity and good teelinc." — Daily Nkws. BROOK— FRENCH HLSTORVFOR ENGLISH CHILDREN. lly Sarah Hkimk, With Coloured Maps, Crown Svo. 6s. FREEMAN (EDWARD A..)— OLD-ENGLISH HISTORY. By Edward A. Freeman, D.C.L., LL.P., lute Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. With Five Coloured Maps. New Edition. Extra fcap. 8vo. half-bound. 6s. GREEN-yf SHORT IIIS70RY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE. By John Richard Green, M.A., LLP. With Coloured Maps, Genealogical Tallies, and Chronological Annals. Crown 8vo. %s. 6 ll. GEOGRAPHY. By Gboror Grovb, D.C.L. With Maps. i8mo. is. " A model of what such a work should be .... we know of no short treatise better suited to Infuse life and spirit Into the dull lists of proper names of which our ordinary class books so often almost exclusively ennsist."— TlMBS. HISTORY. 47 HISTORY PRIMERS Continued— ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. By Professor Wilkins. Illus- trated. iSmo. is. " A little book that throws a blare of light on Roman History, and is, moreover, intensely interesting. "School Board Chronicle. FRANCE. By Charlotte M. Yonge. i8md. is. " May be_ considered a wonderfully successful piece of work Its general merit as a vigorous and clear sketch, giving in a small space, a vivid idea of the history of France, remains undeniable." — Saturday Review. In preparation : — ENGLAND. By J. R. Green, M.A , LL.D. LETHBRIDGB-^ SHORT MANUAL OF THE HISTOR Y OF INDIA. With an Account of India as it is. The Soil, Climate, and Producti9ns ; the People, their Races ; Religions, Public Works, and Industries ; the Civil Services, and System of Administration. By Roper Lethbridge, M.A., C.I.E., late Scholar of Exeter College, Oxford, formerly Principal of Kishnaghur College, Bengal, Fellow and sometime Examiner of the Calcutta University. With Maps. Crown 8vo. 5-f. BlCHELET-i SUMMARY OF MODERN HISTORY. Translated from the French of M. Michelet, and continued to the Present Time, by M. C. M. Simpson. Globe 8vo. 4*. 6d. OTTO— SCANDINAVIAN HISTORY. By E. C. Otte. With Maps. Globe 8vo. 6s. PAULI— PICTURES OF OLD ENGLAND. By Dr. R. Pauli. Translated with the sanction of the Author by E. C. Otte. Cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. RAMSAY— .4 SCHOOL HISTORY OF ROME. By G. G. Ramsay, M.A., Professor of Humanity in the University of Glasgow. With Maps. Crown 8vo. [In preparation. TACT— ANAL YSIS OF ENGLISH HISTOR Y, based on Green's •• Short History of the English People." By C. W. A. Tait, M.A., Assistant-Master, Clifton College. Crown 8vo. 3.1. 6d. V7HEELEH-i SHORT HISTORY OF INDIA AND OF THE FRONTIER STATES OF AFGHANISTAN, NEPAUL, AND BURMA. By J. Talboys Wheeler. With Maps. Crown 8vo. I2J. " It is the best book of the kind we have ever seen, and we recmomend it to a place in every school library." — Educational Times. 48 MACMll.LANS EDUCATIONAL t ATAUHIUK. VONQB (OHARLOTTB M.)— A PARALLEL HISTORY OF FRANCE AND ENGLAND i consisting of Outlines and Dates. By Charlottk M. Yonor, Author of " The Heir of Redclyfle," &c„ &c Oblong jto. jj. W. CAMEOS FROM ENGLISH I/ISTOR Y. — FROM ROLLO TO EDWARD II. By the Author of "The Heir of Redclyfle.' - Extra fcap. 8vo. New Edition. %s. A SECOND SERrES OF CAMEOS FROM SNGUSU HISTOR r— THE WARS IN FRANCE. New Edition. Kxtra fcap. 8vo. $s. A THIRD SERIES OF CAMEOS FROM ENGLISH HISTOR K-THE WARS OF THE ROSES. New Edition. Extra fcap. 8vo. $s. A FOURTH SERIES— REFORMATION TIM ES. Extra Fcap. 8vo. is. EUROPEAN HISTOR y. Narrated In a Series or Historical Selections from the Hcst Authorities. Edited ind arranged by E. M. Skwki.l and C. M. Yonuk. First Seilcs, 1003—1154. Third Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s, Second Series, 1088— iaa8. New Edition. Crown Svo. 6s. DIVINITY. *,* For other Works by these Authors, see TimoLOQiCAL Catalog uk. ABBOTT (RBV. B. A.)— BIBLE LESSONS. By the Rev. E. A. Abbott, D.D., Head Master of the City of London School. New Edition. Crown 8vo. 41. 6tl. " Wiao, suggoilivo, and rally profound Initiation into rallgtoui thought, " -Guardian. ARNOLD—.-/ BIBLE-READING FOR SCHOOLS— TUK GREAT PROPHECY OF ISRAEL'S RESTORATION (Isaiah, Chapters xl. — lxvi.). Arranged and Edited for Young Learners. By Mattiikw Arnold, D.C.L, formerly Professor of Poetry in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Oriel. New Edition. i8mo. cloth, it, ISAIAH XL,— LXVI. With the Shorter Prophecies allied to it Arranged and Edited, with Notes, by Matthew Arnold. Crown 8vo. is. OHBHTWAItt— A CHURCH HISTORY OF THE FIRST SIX CENTURIES. By the Ven. Archdeacon Ciiirt- mam. Crown 8vo. [In thefrtss. DIVINITY. 49 CURTEIS— MANUAL OF THE THIRTY-NINE AR- TICLES. By G. H. CURTEIS, M.A., Principal of the Lichfield Theological College. [In preparation. GASKOIN— THE CHILDREN'S TREASURY OF BIBLE STORIES. By Mrs. Herman Gaskoin. Edited with Preface by the Rev, G. F. Maclear, D.D. Part I.— OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY. i8mo is. Part II.— NEW TESTAMENT. i8mo. is. Part III.— THE APOSTLES : ST. JAMES THE GREAT, ST. PAUL, AND ST. JOHN THE DIVINE. i8mo. is. GOLDEN TREASURY PSALTER— Students' Edition. Being an Edition of "The Psalms Chronologically Arranged, by Four Friends," with briefer Notes. i8mo. 3*. 6V. GREEK TESTAMENT. Edited, with Introduction and Appen- dices, by Canon Wkstcott and Dr. F. J. A. Hort. Two Vols. Crown 8vo. 10s. 6d. each. Vol. I. The Text. Vol. II. Introduction and Appendix. HARDWICK — Works by Archdeacon Hardwick. A HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. Middle Age. From Gregory the Great to the Excommuni- cation of Luther. Edited by William Stuebs, M.A., Regius Professor of Modern History in the University of Oxford. With Four Maps. Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo. 10s. td. A HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH DURING THE REFORMA TION. Fourth Edition. Edited by Pro- fessor Stubbs. Crown 8vo. lor. (id. KING— CHURCH HISTORY OF IRELAND. By the Rev. Robert King. New Edition. 2 vols. Crown 8vo. [In preparation. MACLEAR— Works by the Rev. G. F. Maclear, D.D., Warden of St. Augustine's College, Canterbury. A CLASS-BOOK OF OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY. New Edition, with Four Maps. l8mo. +t. 6d. A CLASS-BOOK OF NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY. including the Connection of the Old and New Testament, With Four Maps. New Edition. i8mo. 5s. 6d. d 50 MACMILLAN'S EDUCATIONAL CATALOGUE. MAOLEAR C'tt/t,!.;.',/— A SHIUIXG ROOK OF OLD TBSTAMRNT HTST0RY t for National and Elementary Schools. With Map. iSmo. cloth. New Edition. A SlllllJNG BOOK OF NRW TRSTAMSNT HISTORY, for National and Elementary School*. With Map. iSmo. cloth. New Kdilton. These works have been oarerully abridged from the author'* larger manuals, CI-ASS-ROOK OF THR CATRCHISM OF THR CHURCH Of- VAGI. AND. New Ed. l8mo. oloth. u, U A FIRST CMSS./IP0A OF THR CATRCHISM OF THR CHURCH OF RNGl^ND, with Scripture Proofs, for Junior Classes and School*. New Edition. i8mo. 6>/. A MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION FOR CONFIRMA- TION AND FIRST COMMUNION. WITH TRAYRRS AND DEVOTIONS. 3amo. cloth extra, ml edge*, as. MAURIOB -TlfS LORD'S PRAYRR, THR CRRRD, AND THR COAfMANDMRNTS. Manual for Parent* and School- maatora. To which i» added the Order of the Scriptures, By the Rev. F. Oknisdn M ah kick, M.A. l8mo. oloth, limp. is. PROOTBR- A HISTORV OF THR POOR OF COMMON I'RA YRR, with a Rationale of It* Office*. Dy Francis Procter, M.A. Fourteenth Edition, revlied and enlarged. Crown 8va 10s. 6rf. PROOTBR AND HAOLMn-^^ RLRMRNTARY INTRO- DUCTION TO THR ROOK OF COMMON rRA YRR< Re-arrangcd and supplemented by an Explanation of the Morning and Evening TVayci and the I .it any. By the Rev. F. Proctbr and the Rev. Dr. Maoucar. New and Enlarged Edition, containing the Communion Service and the Confirmation and Baptiamal Office*. (8mo. as. itl, PIALM1 OF DAVID OHHONOLOaiOALLY ARRANDBD. By Four rrtends. An Amended Version, with lliitorleal Introduction and Explanatory Note*, Second and Cheaper Edition, with Addition* and Correction* Cr. 8vo. is, M. DIVINITY. 51 RAVISAV—THE CATECHISER'S MANUAL; or, the Church Catechism Illustrated and Explained, for the Use of Clergy- men, Schoolmasters, and Teachers. By the Rev. Arthur Ramsay, M.A. New Edition. i8mo. u. 6d. SIMPSON— AN EPITOME OF THE HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. By William Simpson, M.A. New Edition. Fcap. 8vo. y. 6d. TRENCH— By R. C. TRENCH, D.D., Archbishop of Dublin. LECTURES ON MEDIEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. Being the substance of Lectures delivered at Queen's College, London. Second Edition, revised. 8vo. izs. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. Ninth Edition, revised. 8vo. izs. WESTCOTT — Works by Brooke Foss Westcott, D.D., Canon of Peterborough. A GENERAL SURVEY OF THE HISTORY OF THE CANON OF THE NEW TESTAMENT DURING THE FIRST FOUR CENTURIES. Fifth Edition. With Preface on "Supernatural Religion." Crown 8vo. los. 6d. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF THE FOUR GOSPELS. Fifth Edition. Crown 8vo. 10s. 6d. THE BIBLE IN THE CHURCH. A Popular Account of the Collection and Reception of the Holy Scriptures in the Christian Churches. New Edition. i8mo. cloth. is . 6d. WESTCOTT— HORT— THE NEW TESTAMENT IN THE ORIGINAL GREEK. The Text Revised by B. F. Westcott, D.D., Regius Professor of Divinity, Canon of Peterborough, and F. J. A. Hort, D.D., Hulsean Professor of Divinity; Fellow of Emmanuel College, Cambridge : late Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge. 2 vols. Crown 8vo. iar. 6d. each. Vol. I. Text. Vol. II. Introduction and Appendix. WILSON— THE BIBLE STUDENT'S GUIDE to the more Correct Understanding of the English Translation of the Old Testament, by reference to the original Hebrew. By William Wilson, D.D., Canon of Winchester, late Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford. Second Edition, carefully revised. . 8vo, 2s, 6rf. aRANTi'iiowiwrE-^CUTTlNC-OUrANDDRESSMAA'ING. From the l''rench of Mcllle. E. Grand'hommb. With Dia- grams, i8ino. is, ORBBN-/* Sf/ORT GEOGRAPHY OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. liy John Kichaud Grbun and Amcb Stoppord Griucn. With Maps. Fcap. 8vo. 3.r. 6rf. The Times nays :--" The method of the work, no far ns ronl instruction h concerned, is nr.urly nil ilint could he desired. . . , ltd grout merit, in addition In ii h Hcientilic arrangement nnd the attractive style su familiar to the reiuli-rn of Grrnn's Short Mfatofy Is tlmt the facte are no preHntod an to comnrl tlie dutiful itudont In think for himself. . , . The work may bo rend wiih ploiiHiiro nnd profit by nnynno ; wc trust thui It will gradually And its way into the higher form* of our schools. With thin toxt-hook at his guide, itn Intelligent toucher might make geography whai It really Is— one of the most interesting and widely-Instructive studios." BAhUB-LONGXR ENGLISH POEMS, with Notes, Philo- logical and Explanatory, and an Introduction on the Teaching of English. Chiefly for Use in Schools. Edited by J. W, Halies, M.A, Professor of English Literature at King's College, London. New Edition. Extra fcap. 8vo, 4*. 6d. HOLB— A GENEALOGICAL STEMMA OF THE KINGS OF ENG LAN'S) AND FRANCE. By the Rev. C. HOLB. On Sheet, is. MODERN LANGUAGES, ART, ETC. 55 JOHNSON'S LIVES OF THE POETS. The Six Chief Live (Milton, Dryden, Swift, Addison, Pope, Gray), with Macaulay's "Life of Johnson." Edited with Preface by Matthew Arnold. Crown 8vo. &r. LITERATURE PRIMERS — Edited by JOHN RICHARD Green. Author of " A Short History of the English People." ENGLISH GRAMMAR. By the Rev. R. Morris, LL.D., sometime President of the Philological Society. iSmo. cloth, is. ENGLISH GRAMMAR EXERCISES. By R. Morris, LL.D., and H. C. Bowen, M.A. i8mo. is. THE CHILDREN'S TREASURY OF LYRICAL POETRY. Selected and arranged with Notes by Francis Turner Palgrave. In Two Parts. i8mo. is. each. ENGLISH LITERATURE. By Stopford Brookb, M.A. New Edition. i8mo. u. PHILOLOGY. By J. Peile, M.A. i8mo. is. GREER - LITERATURE. By Professor Jebb, M.A. i8mo. I*. SHAESPERE. By Professor Do wden. i8mo. is. HOMER. By the Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone, M.P; l8mo. is. ENGLISH COMPOSITION. By Professor Nichol. i8mo. is. EXERCISES ON MORRIS'S PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. By John Wetherell, of the Middle School, Liverpool College. iSino. is. In preparation : — LA TIN LIT ERA TURE. By Professor Seeley. HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. By J. A. H. Murray, LL.D. SPECIMENS OF THE ENGLISH LA A' GU AGE. To Illustrate the above. By the tame Author. MAOSIILLAN'S COPY-BOOKS- Published in two sizes, viz. : — 1. Large Post 4to. Price qd. each. 2. Post Oblong. Price 2a. each. I. INITIATORY EXERCISES &* SHORT LETTERS. *2. WORDS CONSISTINGOF SHORT LETTERS. 56 MaCMILLAN'S EDUCATIONAL CATALOGUE. *3. LONG LETTERS. With words containing Long Letters — Figures *4. WORDS C0N7AINING LONG LETTERS. 4«. PRACTISING AND REVISING COPY-BOOK. For Nos. I to 4. •5. CAPITALS AND SHORT HALF- TEXT. Words beginning with a Capital. *6. HALF-TEXT WORDS, beginning with a Capital- Figures. *7. SMALL-HAND AND HALF-TEXT. With Capitals and Figures. *8. SMALL-HAND AND HALF-TEXT. With Capitals mid Figures. 8a. PRACTISING AND REVISING COPY-BOOK. For Nos. 5 to 8. •9. SMALL-HAND SINGLE HEADLINES— Figures. 10. SMALL-HAND SINGLE HEADLINES— Figures. •n. SMALL-HAND DOUBLE HEADLINES— Figures. 12. COMMERCIAL AND ARITHMETICAL EX- AMPLES, e>. . . is. od. Book VI. for Standard VI. (430 pp.), crown 8vo. 2s. od. " They are far above any others that have appeared both in form and substance. " — Guardian. Agriculture, Tiic Alphabet of the Principles of j being a First Lesson Book on Agriculture for Schools. By Prof. Henry Tanner. Extra fcap. 8vo. 6d. Second Book. Extra fenp. 8vo. is. HISTORICAL READERS ADAPTED TO THE NEW GODE. Readings from English History. Selected and Edited by John Richard Green, M.A., LL.D., Honorary Fellow of Jesus College, Oxford. Three Parts. Globe 8vo. is. 6V. each. I. Ilcngist to Cressy. II. Cressy to Cromwell. III. Cromwell to lialaklava. Macmlllan's Copy-Books. 12 sorts in Two sizes. I. Large post 4to. 41/. each ; II. Post oblong. 2,/. each. MACMILLAN AND CO., LONDON. Lomion: A'. Clay, Sons, and J'tiyivr, t'rinters.