no«;?W*^*W**<ari>3tf,*TrstS«w;tv~. ■' 
 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924101458762 
 
Albert K. Mann Library 
 
 Cornell University 
 
 Gift from the Library of 
 Doc AND Katy Abraham, 
 
 The Green Thumb, 
 
 Naples, N.Y. 
 
0^^ 
 
 

THE 
 
 FAKMEE8' AND MECHANICS' 
 
 MAJSTTJAL. 
 
 WITH MANY VALUABLE TABLES FOE MACHINISTS, JIAirnrAOT0EBES, MEB- 
 
 CHANTS, BUILDERS, ENGINEERS, MASONS, PAINTERS, PLUMBERS, 
 
 GARDENERS, ACCOUNTANTS, ETC., 
 
 BY W. S. COURTNEY. 
 
 BXTISBD AND BHLABGED 
 
 BY GEOEGE E. WAKli^G, Jb., 
 
 AITTHOIt or " ELETtfENTS OF AGBIOULTURE," " DEAINING- FOB PROFIT AND FOR HEALTH," 
 
 " BABTH CLOSETS '. HO"W TO MAKE AND HOW TO USE THEM," AND FORMERLY 
 
 AGEIOUMJUBAL ENGINEER OF THE OBNTBAL PARK, NEW YORE. 
 
 TWO HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 SOLD ONLY BY STJBSCEIPTION. 
 
 NEW TOBK: 
 
 E. B. TEE AT &'C0., 654 BEOADWAY; 
 
 TREAT & LILLET, CHICAGO; B. HANNAFOED & CO., CINOINlsrATI; A. H. HUB 
 
 BAUD, PHILA.; A. L. TALCOTT & CO., PITTSBUEG; G. P. HAWKES & 
 
 CO., BOSTON; H. H. BANCBOPT & CO., SAN ERANOISCO; J. H. 
 
 EnnHMBL, NEW OBLEANS; J. C. DEEBT, ArGTTSTA, GA. 
 
S 
 50\ 
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, In the year 1868, by 
 
 E. B. TREAT & Co., 
 
 In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern 
 
 District of New Tort 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 There are few persons, no matter what their calling or 
 their education, who do not occasionally find themselves at 
 a loss for information of the commonest kind, on any of the 
 subjects pertaining to the practical arts of daily life — knowl- 
 edge which was, perhaps, familiar to them in their school- 
 boy days, but which has been forgotten or become obscured 
 through the lapse of years. For example, how few persons 
 can tell, without consulting books, the cubic inches contained 
 in a bushel, the square yards in an acre, or how to measure 
 the contents of a corn crib, or gauge a cistern. Nor is the 
 inability to do so any reflection upon either their native 
 capacity or their education. It is simply impossible to carry 
 all these things in the memory so as to apply them when 
 occasion requires. Hence the necessity for " Hand-Books," 
 " Mechanics' Assistants," " Pocket Companions^" &c. 
 
 Besides the labor involved in the almost daily necessity of 
 calculating arithmetical, mensural, and other results, and the 
 constant liability to error to which even the competent 
 scholar is subject, the time required in the process, in this 
 age, when time has emphatically acquired a money value, is 
 no inconsiderable desideratum. Hence the necessity for 
 "Eeady Eeckoners," "Pocket Accountants," " Calculators' 
 Assistants," &c. 
 
YIU PEEFACE. 
 
 In. presenting this volume, a chief aim of the author was 
 so to combine the Manual with the Eeckoner, as to furnish 
 the inquirer, in brief, with all the necessary rules and data 
 and the elementary facts and axioms relating to almost every 
 branch of industrial science, and particularly that of agri- 
 culture, and, at the same time, whenever it was possible, to 
 compute and tabulate the results for him in the same con- 
 nection. Hence he will find in the ensuing pages the axio- 
 matical or elementary propositions, the data, the standards, 
 the units, &c., of almost every useful and practical art with 
 which the farmer may have to deal, clearly stated, together 
 with their simplest rules, illustrated by examples and solu- 
 tions, and, wherever it was practicable, the arithmetical re- 
 sults calculated and "tabularized. 
 
 Those who consult this book must remember that it is 
 not a work of reoipes, prescriptions, or of direetions and 
 Old/vice as to the best mode of conducting any or all the 
 various operations pertaining to agriculture, &c. But they 
 will bear in mind that the subjects of which this book treats 
 are, for the most part, facts mid Jlgures— assured analyses 
 and demonstrations — about which there can be no dispute. 
 The design was to produce a work of substantial and endur- 
 ing value, and of universal application and use — something 
 in the sphere of agriculture corresponding to Haswell in 
 Engineering, or Fairbaim in Mechanics. How far the 
 author's labors have tended to that end remains to be tested 
 by experience. He is sanguine of their ultimate fruition. 
 
 So vast is the domain of agriculture, that there are few 
 of the mechanic arts of which the farmer does not require 
 some information, and which he is often compelled to seek 
 through many books and journals. . He is, in a certain sense, 
 encyclopediac in his science and use. Hence many subjects 
 
PEEFACE. ^^ 
 
 upon which he may require elementary knowledge and the 
 assistance of computations may have escaped the vigilance 
 of the author. 
 
 When a friend first suggested to the author the design of 
 such a work, the latter had no adequate conception of the 
 labor involved in such an undertaking. Although many of 
 the tables were supplied or compiled from other authors, yet 
 the labor involved in those he himself calculated and ar- 
 ranged was prodigious. Besides, the composition or type- 
 setting of the matter was of the most tedious, dilficult,^ and 
 expensive kind, so that the volume of matter included within 
 the covers would seem to bear no just proportion to the price 
 the publisher is obliged to charge for it. Books much 
 larger, and of many more pages of the ordinary composition, 
 can be afforded at a much less cost. Withal, however, the 
 author commends it to the favorable regard of those to 
 whom it is addressed. 
 
TO THE PEAOTIOAL READEE. 
 
 Having been long engaged in the various occupations 
 into which a life of combined farming and engineering is 
 quite sure to lead any man of a practical turn of mind, I 
 look back with regret on the days wasted in making long 
 calculations to decide some simple question of sizeL or form, 
 or quantity. Many a long day have I hunted through 
 alcoves full of practical hand-books at the Astor Library, 
 — scouring now the field of Agriculture, now of Mechanics, 
 and now of Hydraulics, — often disappointed in my search, 
 and compelled to go home and work far into the night, 
 pursuing, through the long lanes of square and cube roots, 
 the phantom of some every-day question of the discharge 
 of water through pipes, the strength of material, or the 
 resistance in ploughing. 
 
 I have always found less assistance than I had a right to 
 expect from works written with the professed object of 
 teUing me what I wanted to know. After hunting them 
 through, I have generally come to the conclusion that they 
 contain almost everything except what I am looking for. 
 
Xll TO THE PRACTICAL EBADER. 
 
 Certainly all tliat I have hitherto seen have been sadly in- 
 complete. 
 
 Finally, I quite accidentally became acquainted with Mr. 
 Courtney's Manual, and I found it much more nearly what 
 it professes to be than any book that I had hitherto seen, 
 for, although he very modestly complains of its incomplete- 
 ness, it is undoubtedly much more thorough and accurate 
 than are most works of its class. 
 
 The idea occurred to me, that by bringing my experience 
 in the use of such books to bear upon the completion and 
 amendment of Mr. Courtney's woi'k, I might render a good 
 service to the thousands who have almost daily occasion to 
 consult a book of this character; — and in some degree 
 make up for the loss that the community sustained in his 
 death, although I cannot hope to bring to the task either 
 the patience or the experience that constituted his great 
 merit aa a compiler. 
 
 It would be presumption to claim that, even in its en- 
 larged and corrected condition, this book is complete, and 
 all that could be desired, for there aremore subjects of quite 
 general interest to farmers and mechanics than could be 
 properly catalogued in a book of this size. All that is 
 claimed is, that so far as it goes it is correct ; and that it 
 goes as far, and in as many directions, as is compatible 
 with its size and purpose. ' 
 
 The importance of having such a book as this always at 
 one's elbow is very much greater than would at first sight be 
 supposed by one who has not-known the convenience of it. 
 
TO THE PBACTICAL EEADEE. Xlll 
 
 How often, in farming, do we wish that we could know, 
 on the spot, how to estimate the weight of hay in various 
 conditions in the mow ; the weight of cattle by measure- 
 ment ; the capacity of a grain bin ; the weight of a piece of 
 timber, or of a load of manure ; the distance apart to which 
 to set trees or plants in order to get a certain number 
 within a certain space ; the size of an irregular field. How 
 often in mechanics do we need to know the strength and 
 measurement of masonry; the contents of cisterns and 
 small vessels ; the area of circles ; the quality of cements ; ■ 
 the power value of fuel ; the weight of bar iron, or of lead 
 pipe ; the fusing heat of metals ; the strength of materials ; 
 or the board measure of scantling. 
 
 And,' worst of all, how sadly we accustom ourselves to get 
 along without knowing these things! How much we' lose 
 by guessing instead of Tcnowing ! 
 
 The .object of this book is to put it within the power of 
 every practical man to hnow these details ; — to leave less to 
 guessing, and to enable him to guide his daily operations by 
 the light of positive knowledge. If it accomplishes this 
 purpose, neither; Mr. Courtney nor I will have worked in 
 vain. 
 
 In addition to the many tables and statements of valu- 
 able facts with which the book abounds, I have thought it 
 advisSble to review very carefully all of its " agricultural " 
 matter, and to add what I could, in the space allowed to 
 me, that might be of interest to those farmers who care to 
 look a little beyond the mere question of dollars and cents 
 
XIV TO THE PEACTIOAL EEADEE. 
 
 in farming, and of value to those who believe (as, happily, 
 a yearly increasing number do believe) that the road to 
 surer and greater profit lies through the door that Science 
 and Common Sense — the guardian angels of Agriculture — 
 hold open to them. 
 
 It has not been possible to do much in this direction, for 
 the subject is a very extended one, but I think that many 
 a young farmer, if he will consider well the principles that 
 are laid down under the headings of " Plants," " Soils," and 
 " Manures," will at least feel a desire to learn more of the 
 simple truths which lie at the foundation of his practice. 
 
 I am sure, also, that it is not too much to say, that a 
 careful study of the directions and the reasons for Tile- 
 Draining will' richly repay any occupier of cold, wet land 
 for the purchase of the book. 
 
 This is a subject which, in this country at least, is still in 
 the very early infancy of its progress. Not one acre in ten 
 thousand of the land that it would pay well to drain in the 
 best manner, has yet felt the benefit of the operation ; and 
 not one farmer in a thousand has the faintest conception of 
 the fact, — a fact that ample experience, here and in Europe, 
 has fully demonstrated, — that he can no more afford to 
 farm an undrained heavy soil, than a carpenter can afford 
 to work with a dull tool. 
 
 I have introduced another novelty into the work, under 
 the head of " The Dry Earth System." This is a bantling 
 that has raised its head within a very few years, and is only 
 now coming to be recognized at its full value j but it is 
 
TO THE PEAOTICAL KEADEE. XV 
 
 ushered before our attention with all the force that con- 
 sideration of decency, health, and economy can lend ; and 
 the most thoughtful attention is asked for its claims. It is 
 really the coming Reform, and promises more for civiliza- 
 tion, and for national prosperity, than any improvement that 
 has yet been brought to the notice of the public. 
 
 To sum up, then : this book. is offered as containing more 
 that has been proven by long use to be of value ; more that 
 it is most necessary for every farmer and mechanic to know ; 
 and more ofpromising novelty, than any other that has ever 
 been presented to the farmers and mechanics of America. 
 
 It is complete in every particular in which it is possible 
 for such a book to be complete, and, in addition to this, it 
 is sufficiently suggestive in many other respects to induce 
 its readers to read more, to think more, to experiment more, 
 and to become more intelligent and more successful in the 
 management of their business, as well as really happier and 
 wiser men. 
 
 If it should be thought that I claim too much for a single 
 Pland-Book, which is mainly filled with dry details con- 
 cerning the measurement of boards, and the spacing of trees 
 in an orchard, I trust that I shall at least not be condemned 
 as an enthusiast until the reader has taken the trouble to 
 examine carefully what I have to say, and to consider well 
 to what better things the helping hand of Nature may lead 
 him if he has the wisdom to heed its beckonings. 
 
 « Geo. E. Waking, Je. 
 
 Ogdbn Farm, Newport, R. I., September, 1868. 
 
TSSTIMOJSriALS FOB THE FAKMEK3' AND MECHANICS' MANUAL. 
 From the New York Tribune. 
 
 A new edition of " The Farmers' and Mechanics' Manuai," by W. S. Courtney, de- 
 ceased, revised and enlarged by George E. Waring, Jr., introduces several improTements 
 oa the original work, forming a valuable book of general reference on practical affairs. 
 It comprises a variety of tables and rules, and a thousand other points which perpetu- 
 ally occur in the experience of industrial life, and which are often decided by guess 
 rather than by knowledge. The agricultural portions of the volume have been thor- 
 oughly revised by Mr. Waring, who has also enriched it with a variety of original matter, 
 especially in relation to his favorite topics of " Tile-Draining," " The Dry Earth System," 
 and others. In its present form, the work challenges the attention of every tiller of 
 the soil and every lover of improvement. It is a sound, honest, instructive publication, 
 doing all which it professes to do, and more, full of information suited not only to put 
 money into the purse of the farmers and mechanics who consult its pages, but to 
 increase their stock of valuable intelligence, and add to their resources for a happy 
 and useful life. 
 
 From the New York Evening Post. 
 
 Farmers' and Mechanics' Manuai.. — The work, as its title implies, is designed not 
 less for the w^ts of the mechanic than the husbandman, but for both it would not be 
 easy to exaggerate its usefulness. The entire matter of measurement, in its connection 
 with weight, bulk, liquid contents, distance and superficial area, is exhausted in the 
 Bimple tables and diagrams which constitute a large part of the text, and by means of 
 these the mechanic or farmer may in a moment resolve a problem which might other- 
 wise occupy a day. 
 
 Besides the tabular information which the book contains, there are hints upon the 
 subjects of drainage, manures, stock-raising, rotation of crops, gardening for market, 
 and steam cultivation, which the agriculturist will thankfully receive. In one 
 respect the book is entitled to very high commendation — the accuracy of its typo- 
 graphy. Crowded as it is with figures, but seven errata have been discovered in its 
 five hundred pages. Messrs. Courtney and Waring have performed a most laborious 
 and meritorious public service in its preparation. The moderate price at which it is 
 offered to the public, three dollars a copy, must insure it an extended circulation. 
 From the Sural New Yorker. 
 
 This is a valuable and will be found a useful book to almost all classes of business 
 men. Facts and figures of practical utility relating to all sorts of industry, the results 
 of patient, elaborate calculation, are here crystallized into a condensed form ready for 
 use, and so far as we have had opportunity to examine, the rules and tables are correct. 
 We recommend it cordially to our readers. 
 
 From the New York Day-Book, 
 
 It would not answer for us to give a table of the contents of this very excellent and 
 practical book, as an alphabetical arrangement of the same shows no less than eight 
 hundred different items of information of value to the mechanic,, manufacturer, mer- 
 chant, builder, engineer, mason, painter, plumber, farmer, gardener, accountant, etc. 
 The book is fairly crammed with solid and useful knowledge suited to these trades and 
 professions ; and it would seem as if the compilers themselves must have had years of 
 service in each of these branches to arrive at so complete an understanding of what 
 each branch ought to know. It is one of the most complete books of the day, and every 
 member of the- above professions should own a copy. 
 
 From the Hartford Oourant, Conn. 
 
 A Valttabie Book for All. — One of the most useful and valuable books for farmers, 
 meehanics and working men which we have seen, is ".The Farmers' and Mechanics' 
 Manual." It is the useful and comprehensive " Manual " of W, S. Courtney, now de- 
 ceased, and revised and enlarged by George B. Waring, Jr. It contains a great amount 
 of information and statistics, arranged conveniently for reference, concerning matters 
 that every farmer, mechanic and business man must inform himself about almost every 
 day. It is an invaluable hand-book and book of reference. 
 From San Francisco Bulletin, Cah 
 
 We have been favored with a look at a work entitled " The Farmers' and Mechanics' 
 Manual." which we are sure is destined to achieve a marked success ; and do not 
 hesitate to add our unqualified commendation of the aim and execution of the work. 
 From W. S. Clark, Esq., President of the Massachusetts Agricultural College. 
 
 Please accept thanks for a copy of a very useful book, styled " The Farmers' and 
 Mechanics' Manual." It is full of valuable information, and Mr. Waring's name is 
 a sufficient guarantee of its correctness. I shall advise my students to act as agents 
 for its sale. 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 icHex^vineg. paoh 
 
 1. Harvest Time Frontispiece 
 
 2. Illttstratino Seasons, Lonmtude, iteo 19-22 
 
 2. " CiROULAR Measure 23, 24 
 
 2. '• Measure of Time 25-30 
 
 1. " Pendulums 31 
 
 1. " Weather St 
 
 2. " Windmills 35, 36 
 
 14. " Measurement of Land 43-46 
 
 1. " Government Land Measure 60 
 
 3. " Measurement OF Hat 51-56 
 
 2. " " " Corn in the Crib 57-59 
 
 1. " " " Grain in Granaries 60 
 
 X. " " " Timber 61 
 
 1. " . " " Wood 62 
 
 1. " " " Round Timber 64 
 
 2. " Gauging of Casks 79, 80 
 
 3. " Capaoitt of Wagon Beds 82, 83 
 
 2. " False Balances. 84, 85 
 
 3. " Cisterns 86-92 
 
 1. " Htdraulios 97 
 
 3. " Hydraulic Eam. 102-109 
 
 1. " " Press 110 
 
 2. " Fuel. 115-124 
 
 1. " Fences 125 
 
 I. " Hedges. 133 
 
 1. " Horse Power. 137 
 
 1. " Ploughing. 141 
 
 2. " Freighting Vessels 142-144 
 
 25. " United States Monet. 145-148 
 
 16. " English Monet 149-151 
 
nrSEATIHOS. 
 
 12. Illusteat 
 
 5. " 
 6. 
 
 5. 
 
 6. " 
 1. 
 
 1. " 
 
 4. 
 
 2. 
 
 1. " 
 1. 
 
 1. 
 
 ,4. 
 
 2. 
 
 2. " 
 1. " 
 1. 
 
 1. 
 
 1. " 
 
 1. 
 
 1. 
 
 1. " 
 24. " 
 
 1. " 
 21. « 
 
 1. ' 
 
 3. 
 
 1. 
 
 1. ' 
 
 211 
 
 LIST OF n.T.USTEATIOirS. 
 
 rAM 
 152-154 
 
 156, 157 
 
 158, 159 
 
 160, 161 
 
 162-164 
 
 165 
 
 167 
 170, 171 
 
 177 
 
 183 
 
 196 
 
 197 
 201-205 
 209-211 
 212-215 
 
 250 
 
 273 
 
 276 
 
 282 
 
 286 
 
 288 , 
 
 290 
 292-295 
 
 327 
 363-372 
 
 400 
 414r-423 
 
 428 
 
 ue 
 
 Tjjot " 
 
 
 TiTOTTTtl IMeASTTRE 
 
 Dry " 
 
 SonAEK " 
 
 Long " 
 
 CUBIO " 
 
 Metkio System of Weights and Measures 
 
 Corn and Pork. 
 
 Lirs AND Increase of Animals 
 
 The Age of Animals 
 
 " Computed Weight of Cattle 
 
 " Food of Animals 
 
 Lightning Hods 
 
 Weight of Square and Rolled Iron . . . . 
 
 , Masonry 
 
 MIeohanioal Powers — Inclined Plane 
 
 " " Wedge 
 
 " " SOREW 
 
 " " Pulley ' 
 
 Mathematical Definitions 
 
 Manures 
 
 Tile Draining 
 
 Butter and Cheese 
 
 Steaming Pood foe Stock 
 
 q-aedbning for market 
 
 Steam Plouohikg 
 
 
 1 
 
COMMERCIAL ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 ©., 
 
 At. 
 
 Pr't, 
 
 Freight. 
 
 olc 
 
 Account. 
 
 Inat., 
 
 This month. 
 
 I, 
 
 Gents. 
 
 Int., 
 
 Interest. 
 
 * 
 
 Number. 
 
 Mdse., 
 
 Merchandise. 
 
 Am't, 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Mo., 
 
 Month. 
 
 Ass'd., 
 
 Assorted. 
 
 Net, 
 
 Without discount 
 
 Bal., 
 
 Balance. 
 
 No., 
 
 Number. 
 
 Bbl., 
 
 Barrel. 
 
 ' Pay't., , 
 
 Payment. 
 
 Blk., 
 
 Black. 
 
 Pk'gs., 
 
 Packages, 
 
 Cons't., 
 
 Consignment. 
 
 Per or pr., 
 
 By. 
 
 Dft., 
 
 Draft. 
 
 Prem., 
 
 Premium. 
 
 Diso't., 
 
 Discount. 
 
 Prox., 
 
 Next month. 
 
 E. B., 
 
 Errors excepted. 
 
 Ps., 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 Exps., 
 
 Expenses. 
 
 Sunds., 
 
 Sundries. 
 
 Fol., 
 
 Folio. 
 
 Dlt, 
 
 Last montk. 
 
 Fwi, 
 
 Forwarded, 
 
 
 
EXPLANATION OP ARITHMETICAL CHARACTERS 
 USED IN THIS BOOK. 
 
 = Equal; as 12 inches = 1 foot, or 4X5^20. 
 
 + Plus orputre; signifies addition, as 3+5+7=15. 
 
 — Minus or less ; signifies subtraction, as 12—4=8. 
 
 X Multiplied by ; signifies multiplication, as 8X7=66. 
 
 -4- Divided iy ; signifies division, as. 56-!-8=7. 
 
 : :: : Proportion, ; as 2 : 4:: 8 : 16 ; that is, as 2 is to 4 so is 8 to 16. 
 
 V Prefixed to a number denotes that the square root ot that number is 
 required, as, i'36=6. 
 
 • V Prefixed to a number denotes that the eu5« root of that number is re- 
 quired, as, » 1/27=3. 
 
 ' Added to » number signifies that the number is to be squared, as 4* 
 means that 4 is to be multiplied by 4. 
 
 ' Added to a number signifies that the number is to be cubed, as 4* 
 means 4 x 4 x 4:=64. 
 
 . Decimal pomt, when prefixed to a number signified that that number 
 has an unit (1) for its denominator, as . 1 is i^, . 2 is -^j .12 is •^, . 125 is 
 
 ° Signifies degrees : ' minutes, and ' seconds. 
 
SEASONS, LONGITUDE, &a 
 
 Spring. 
 
 Smnmer. 
 
 Autuniii. 
 
 Winter. 
 
 To re&uce longitude to time. 
 
 The English count their degrees of longitudie' east and 
 west from Greenwich, which, owing to our early depend- 
 ence upon the mother country for books and science, became 
 extensively adopted in this country, and still prevails to a 
 considerable extent, especially in our nautical charts, and 
 
20 SEASONS, LONGITUDE, ETC. 
 
 works on' navigation. But by an act of Congress, passed 
 some thirty years ago, the meridian of "Washington was 
 established as the point of departure, and accordingly 
 our maps, charts, &c., have since been adapted to that 
 meridian. 
 
 The sun passes over a degree of longitude in 4 minutes 
 — the 360° in 24 hours. Thus, when we travel west, or 
 on a line with the sun, our watch is four minutes /izs^ for 
 every 60 geographical miles we travel. If we travel east, 
 or on a, line with the sun, it is four lainutes slow for every 
 degree we travel. Hence, when it is noon at Greenwich, 
 that is, when the sun is on the meridian there, if we multi- 
 ply 74°, the longitude of New York west from Greenwich, 
 by 4, and subtract the result from 12 o'clock M., it will give 
 the corresponding time at New York. Thus, 74° x 4=296 
 minutes, which, divided by 60, gives 4 hours and 56 minutes 
 for the sun to travel from Greenwich to New York. 
 Subtracting this from 12 o'clock (the Greenwich time) 
 gives 7 o'clock and 4 minutes A.M. as the corresponding 
 time at New York. So also by reverse, when it is noon 
 at New York, it is 4. houi's and 56 minutes past noon 
 at Greenwich. Hence results the following 
 
 EuLE. — Multiply the number of degrees, minutes, and 
 seconds west or east of the given meridian by 4, reduce 
 the product to hours, &c., and for west longitude subtract 
 
SEASONS, LONGITUDE, ETC. 21 
 
 from 12 hours, and for east longitude add to 12 hours (i. e., 
 so many hours past 12), and the result -will be the corre- 
 sponding time. 
 
 Example. — Required the time at longitude 50° 31' west, 
 corresponding to noon at Greenwich ? 
 
 Solution.— 50° 31'x4r=3 hours 22 min. 4 sec— 12=8 
 h. 37 min. 56 sec. A.M. Ans. 
 
 Note. — Time is both appwrent and mean. The sun is 
 on the meridian at 12 o'clock on four days only in the 
 year. It is sometimes as much as 16J minutes before or 
 after 12 when its shadow strikes the noon mark on the sun- 
 dial. This is occasioned by the irregular motion of the 
 earth on its axis and the inclination of its poles. This is 
 called appa/rent time. Mean tifne is determined by the 
 equation of these irregularities for every day in the year, 
 and is noted in all good almanacs. The latter is the true 
 or correct time. The foregoing rule is applicable to 
 either. 
 
 "When you buy an almanac, buy one that expresses on 
 each calendar page the Tnean time when the sun reaches 
 the meridian, or the shadow the noon-mark on the dial, 
 and set your time-pieoe fast or slow as indicated in the 
 almanac. 
 
 To ascertain the length of the day and night. 
 At any time in the year, add 12 hours to t^e time of the 
 sun's Betting and from the sum subtract the time of rising 
 
22 
 
 SEASONS, LONGITUDE, ETC. 
 
 for the length of the day. Subtract the time of setting 
 from 12 hours, and to the remainder add the time of rising 
 the next morning for the length of the night. This rule is 
 true of either apparent or mean time. 
 
OIECULAR OR ANGULAR MEASURE. 
 
 This Measure is used to measure angles or the arcs of 
 circles. It is used in astronomy, geography, navigation, 
 and surveying, and for calculating differences of time. 
 
 60 seconds (") make 
 60 minutes " 
 
 30 degrees " 
 
 90 degrees " 
 
 Table. 
 
 1 minute, marked 
 
 1 degree, , " ' 
 
 1 sign, 
 1 quadrant, 
 ■ight angle, 
 1 ( circumference 
 
 jlqu 
 1 1 ria 
 
 or circle 
 
 sig. 
 quad, 
 r. a. 
 
 cir. 
 
 ■^-?-^ 
 
 4 quadrants or 
 12 signs " 
 
 Notes. — 1. The greatest dis- 
 tance across a circle is called 
 its diameter. The distance 
 around it is called its circum- '^i 
 ference. Any part of the cir- H 
 cumference is called an arc. XS\ 
 
 2. If any circumference, 
 whether large or small, be di- 
 vided into 360 equal arcs, each arc is called a degree. The 
 
24: CmCULAE OE AlfGULAE MEASTJEE. 
 
 degree is divided into 60 minutes, and tlie minute into 60 
 seconds. The length of a degree, minute, or second, de- 
 pends on the size of the circle. If the size of the circle is 
 increased or decreased, the length of the degree, minute, 
 or second is also increased or decreased. 
 
 3. The greatest circumference of the earth's surface is 
 about 24,930 miles ; 1° of that circumference is one 360th 
 of 24,930 miles, which is 69J miles. 
 
 4. A geographical or nautical mile is equal to 1' of the 
 earth's greatest circumference, which is found to be a little 
 more than one statute mile and 49 rods. 
 
 5. Latitude is measured north or south from the equator 
 on any meridian, and is expressed in degrees, minutes, and 
 seconds; thus,-43° 17' 31" north lat. denotes a position 
 43° IT 31" north from the equator. 
 
 6. The linear extent of a degree of longitude depends 
 upon the latitude, and diminishes as the latitude increases ; 
 thus, at latitude 10° its extent is 359640 feet ; at lat, 40° 
 it is 280106 feet ; and at lat, 80° it is only 63612 feet. 
 
MEASURE OF TIME. 
 Time is the measure of duration. 
 
 60 seconds (sec.) 
 60 minutes 
 24 hours 
 
 7 days > 
 
 4 weeks 2 days, or j 
 30 days ! 
 
 Table. 
 make 1 minute, 
 " 1 hour, 
 " 1 day, 
 " 1 week, 
 
 " 1 month, 
 
 marked min. 
 " h. 
 " da. 
 « wk. 
 
 " mo. 
 
26 
 
 MEASUEB OF TIME. 
 
 
 
 365 days, 
 
 or ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 52 weeks 1 day 
 
 . make 1 year, 
 
 marked yr. 
 
 12 calendar months _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 years 
 
 li 
 
 1 century, 
 
 
 " C. 
 
 The calendar year is divided t 
 
 IS follows : 
 
 
 
 Season. 
 
 Months. No. of days. 
 
 
 Abbreviations. 
 
 Winter 
 
 1. January 
 . 2. February 
 
 31 
 
 28 or 29 
 
 / 
 
 Jan. 
 Feb. 
 
 
 3. March 
 
 31 
 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Spring 
 
 4. April 
 
 5. May 
 
 30 
 31 
 
 
 Apr. 
 
 
 ^ 6. June 
 
 30 
 
 
 Jun. 
 
 Summer 
 
 7. July 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 
 8. August 
 
 31 
 
 
 Aug. 
 
 
 9. September 
 
 30 
 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Autumn - 
 
 10. October 
 
 31 
 
 
 Oct. 
 
 
 11. November 
 
 30 
 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Winter 
 
 12. December 
 
 31 
 
 . 
 
 Dec. 
 
 365 or 366 
 
 NOTES.- 
 
 -1. The exact length 
 
 of the solai 
 
 year is 365 days 
 
 5 h. 48 ir 
 
 lin. 49 see. ; but, for 
 
 convenience, i( 
 
 . is reckoned 
 
 11 min. 1 
 
 1 sec. more than this, or 365 
 
 da. 
 
 6 h. = 365J 
 
 days. Th 
 
 is J day in four years 
 
 makes 1 
 
 day, 
 
 which every 
 
 fourth ye 
 
 ar (called Bissextile 
 
 or leap year) 
 
 is added to 
 
 the shorte 
 
 st month, giving it 29 days. 
 
 The 
 
 numbers de- 
 
 1 
 
MEASURE OF TIME. 27 
 
 noting leap years are exactly divisible by 4 ; as, 1856, 1860, 
 1864 ; except years whose number can be divided without a 
 remainder by 100, but not by 400. 
 
 2. Owing to an error in the Julian calendar, it was de- 
 creed by the British Government that the day following 
 the second day of September, 1752, should be called the 
 fourteenth day of September, or that 11 days should be 
 stricken from the calendar. 
 
 3. Time, previous to this decree, is called Old Style (O. S.), 
 and since, Wew Style (N. S.). Russia still reckons time by 
 the Old Style, hence their dates are 12 days behind ours. 
 
 4. In most business transactions 30 days are called a 
 month, and 52 weeks a year. 
 
 5. The centuries are numbered from the commencement 
 of the Christian era ; the months from the commencement 
 of the year; the days from the commencement of the 
 month ; and the hours from the commencement of the day 
 (12 o'clock, midnight), and from mid-day or noon. a.m. 
 denotes time before noon, m., at noon, and p.m.,, after noon. 
 Thus, 9 o'clock a.m.. May 23, 1860, is the end of the ninth 
 hour of the 23d day of the fifth month of the 60th year of 
 the 19th century. 
 
 6. A decade is a period of 10 years. 
 
 7. The l/anar Cycle, or Golden Number, is a period of 
 19 years, after which the changes of the moon return on the 
 same days of the month. 
 
28 MEASUEE OF TIME. 
 
 8. The Sola/r Cycle is a period of 28 years, when the 
 days of the week again return to the same days of the 
 month. 
 
 To find the golden number or lunar cycle. 
 
 EuLE.— Add I'to the given year ; divide the sum by 19, 
 and the remainder is the golden number. 
 
 Example. — "What is the golden number for 1857? 
 
 Solution.— 1857+1 -f- 19 =97, rem. 15. Ans. 
 
 Note.— If remain, it will be 19. Hence, in 1861, the 
 changes of the moon occur oh the same days of the month 
 they did in 1842, 1823, 1804, &c. 
 
 Table showing the number of da/ys from cmy day in one 
 month to the same day in any other. 
 
 January. . . . 
 February . . . 
 
 Marcli 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 September. . 
 October . . . . 
 November. . 
 December . . 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 <1 
 
 i 
 
 6 
 1 
 
 
 
 CO ^ 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 365 
 
 31 
 
 69 
 
 90 
 
 120 
 
 151 
 
 181 
 
 212 
 
 243 
 
 273 
 
 304 
 
 834 
 
 365 
 
 28 
 
 59 
 
 89 
 
 120 
 
 150 
 
 181 
 
 212 
 
 242 
 
 i!73 
 
 306 
 
 337 
 
 365 
 
 31. 
 
 61 
 
 92 
 
 122 
 
 153 
 
 184 
 
 214 
 
 245 
 
 275 
 
 306 
 
 334 
 
 365 
 
 30 
 
 61 
 
 91 
 
 122 
 
 153 
 
 183 
 
 214 
 
 245 
 
 276 
 
 304 
 
 335 
 
 365 
 
 31 
 
 61 
 
 92 
 
 123 
 
 153 
 
 184 
 
 214 
 
 245 
 
 273 
 
 304 
 
 334 
 
 365 
 
 30 
 
 61 
 
 92 
 
 122 
 
 153 
 
 184 
 
 215 
 
 243 
 
 274 
 
 304 
 
 335 
 
 365 
 
 31 
 
 62 
 
 92 
 
 123 
 
 153 
 
 184 
 
 212 
 
 243 
 
 273 
 
 304 
 
 334 
 
 365 
 
 31 
 
 61 
 
 92 
 
 122 
 
 153 
 
 181 
 
 212 
 
 242 
 
 273 
 
 304 
 
 334 
 
 365 
 
 30 
 
 61 
 
 92 
 
 123 
 
 151 
 
 282 
 
 211 
 
 243 
 
 273 
 
 304 
 
 335 
 
 365 
 
 31 
 
 61 
 
 92 
 
 120 
 
 151 
 
 181 
 
 212 
 
 242 
 
 273 
 
 304 
 
 334 
 
 365 
 
 31 
 
 62 
 
 90 
 
 121 
 
 151 
 
 182 
 
 212 
 
 24.3 
 
 274 
 
 304 
 
 335 
 
 834 
 
 303 
 
 276 
 
 244 
 
 214 
 
 183 
 
 163 
 
 122 
 
 91 
 
 61 
 
 30 
 
 ExPLANATioiT. — Find, in the left-hand column, the month 
 from any day of which you wish to compute the number 
 of days to the same day in any other month, and follow 
 the line along until under the latter, and you have the 
 
MEASUEE OF TIME. 
 
 29 
 
 required number of days. Thus, from the 12th of April 
 to the 12th of October, is 183 days ; from the Yth of March 
 to the Yth of June, 92 days. 
 
 Table f(yr finding the number of days heimeen two dates — 
 new method. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct 
 
 Not. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 1 
 
 32 
 
 60 
 
 91 
 
 121 
 
 152 
 
 182 
 
 213 
 
 244 
 
 274 
 
 305 
 
 335 
 
 2 
 
 33 
 
 61 
 
 92 
 
 122 
 
 153 
 
 183 
 
 214 
 
 246 
 
 275 
 
 306 
 
 336 
 
 3 
 
 34 
 
 62 
 
 93 
 
 123 
 
 154 
 
 184 
 
 215 
 
 246 
 
 276 
 
 307 
 
 337 
 
 4 
 
 35 
 
 63 
 
 94 
 
 124 
 
 155 
 
 185 
 
 216 
 
 247 
 
 277 
 
 308 
 
 338 
 
 5 
 
 36 
 
 64 
 
 95 
 
 125 
 
 156 
 
 186 
 
 217 
 
 248 
 
 278 
 
 309 
 
 339 
 
 6 
 
 37 
 
 65 
 
 96 
 
 126 
 
 157 
 
 187 
 
 218 
 
 249 
 
 279 
 
 310 
 
 340 
 
 7 
 
 38 
 
 66 
 
 97 
 
 127 
 
 158 
 
 188 
 
 219 
 
 250 
 
 280 
 
 311 
 
 341 
 
 8 
 
 39 
 
 67 
 
 98 
 
 128 
 
 159 
 
 189 
 
 220 
 
 251 
 
 281 
 
 312 
 
 342 
 
 9 
 
 40 
 
 68 
 
 99 
 
 129 
 
 160 
 
 190 
 
 221 
 
 252 
 
 282 
 
 313 
 
 343 
 
 10 
 
 41 
 
 69 
 
 100 
 
 130 
 
 161 
 
 191 
 
 222 
 
 253 
 
 283 
 
 314 
 
 344 
 
 11 
 
 42 
 
 70 
 
 101 
 
 131 
 
 162 
 
 192 
 
 223 
 
 254 
 
 284 
 
 315 
 
 345 
 
 12 
 
 43 
 
 71 
 
 102 
 
 132 
 
 163 
 
 193 
 
 224 
 
 255 
 
 285 
 
 316 
 
 346 
 
 13 
 
 44 
 
 72 
 
 103 
 
 133 
 
 164 
 
 194 
 
 225 
 
 256 
 
 286 
 
 317 
 
 847 
 
 14 
 
 45 
 
 73 
 
 104 
 
 134 
 
 165 
 
 195 
 
 226 
 
 257 
 
 287 
 
 318 
 
 348 
 
 15 
 
 46 
 
 74 
 
 105 
 
 135 
 
 166 
 
 196 
 
 227 
 
 258 
 
 288 
 
 319 
 
 349 
 
 16 
 
 47 
 
 75 
 
 106 
 
 136 
 
 167 
 
 197 
 
 228 
 
 259 
 
 289 
 
 320 
 
 350 
 
 17 
 
 48 
 
 76 
 
 107 
 
 1?,7 
 
 168 
 
 198 
 
 229 
 
 260 
 
 290 
 
 321 
 
 351 
 
 18 
 
 49 
 
 77 
 
 108 
 
 138 
 
 169 
 
 199 
 
 230 
 
 261 
 
 291 
 
 322 
 
 362 
 
 19 
 
 50 
 
 78 
 
 109 
 
 139 
 
 170 
 
 200 
 
 231 
 
 262 
 
 292 
 
 323 
 
 353 
 
 20 
 
 61, 
 
 79 
 
 110 
 
 140 
 
 171 
 
 201 
 
 232 
 
 263 
 
 293 
 
 324 
 
 354 
 
 21 
 
 52 
 
 80 
 
 111 
 
 141 
 
 172 
 
 202 
 
 233 
 
 264 
 
 294 
 
 325 
 
 355 
 
 22 
 
 53 
 
 81 
 
 112 
 
 142 
 
 173 
 
 203 
 
 234 
 
 265 
 
 295 
 
 326 
 
 356 
 
 23 
 
 54 
 
 82 
 
 113 
 
 143 
 
 174 
 
 204 
 
 235 
 
 266 
 
 296 
 
 327 
 
 357 
 
 24 
 
 65 
 
 83 
 
 114 
 
 144 
 
 175 
 
 205 
 
 236 
 
 267 
 
 297 
 
 328 
 
 358 
 
 25 
 
 56 
 
 84 
 
 115 
 
 145 
 
 176 
 
 206 
 
 237 
 
 268 
 
 298 
 
 329 
 
 359 
 
 26 
 
 57 
 
 85 
 
 116 
 
 146 
 
 177 
 
 207 
 
 2S8 
 
 269 
 
 299 
 
 330 
 
 360 
 
 27 
 
 68 
 
 86 
 
 117 
 
 147 
 
 178 
 
 208 
 
 239 
 
 270 
 
 300 
 
 331 
 
 361 
 
 28 
 
 59 
 
 87 
 
 118 
 
 148 
 
 179 
 
 209 
 
 240 
 
 271 
 
 301 
 
 332 
 
 362 
 
 29 
 
 
 88 
 
 119 
 
 149 
 
 180 
 
 210 
 
 241 
 
 272 
 
 302 
 
 333 
 
 363 
 
 30 
 
 
 89 
 
 120 
 
 150 
 
 181 
 
 211 
 
 242 
 
 273 
 
 303 
 
 334 
 
 364 
 
 31 
 
 
 90 
 
 
 151 
 
 
 212 
 
 243 
 
 
 304 
 
 
 365 
 
 Note. — To find from the above table the number of days 
 between two dates, we give the following — 
 
30 MEASUEE OF TIME. 
 
 Rule. — I. When the dates are in the same year, subtract 
 the number of days of the earlier date from the number 
 of days of the later date; the result will be the number 
 of days required. 
 
 II. When the dates are in consecutive years, subtract the 
 number of days of the earlier date from 365, and add to 
 the remainder the number of days of the later date; the 
 result will be the number of days required. 
 
 When the year is a leap year, add one day to the result. 
 
PENDULUMS. 
 
 2 o » 
 
 The vibrations of penduliims are as the square roots of 
 their lengths. The length of one that will vibrate seconds 
 in New York, at the level of the sea, is 39.1013 inches. 
 
 To find the length of a pendvMm, for amy given number 
 of vibrations per minute. 
 
 EtTLE. — As the number of vibrations given is to the 
 square root of 39.1013 inches, so is 60 to the square root 
 of the length of the pendulum required. 
 
 Example. — ^What is the length of a pendulum that will 
 make 50 vibrations per minute ? 
 
32 
 
 PENDtTLTUVtS. 
 
 Solution — 50 : 6.25 (the sq. root of 39.1013):: 60 : 7.5, 
 then 7.5"=56.25 inches. Ans. 
 
 To find the nwmher of vibrations per minute, the length 
 of the pendulum ieing given. 
 
 EuLE. — As the square root of the length of the pendu- 
 lum is to 60, so is the square root of 39.1013 to the number 
 of vibrations required. 
 
 Example.— How many vibrations will a pendulum 64 
 inches long make in a minute ? 
 
 Solution. — 8 (square root of 64) : 60 : : 6.25 (sq. root of 
 39.1013) : 46.875 vibrations. Ans. 
 
 Table showing the, pla/nets, compa^atme size, <&g., in the 
 sola/r system. 
 
 . NAMES. 
 
 Mean 
 Diame- 
 ter. 
 
 Mean dis- 
 
 .tanqe from 
 
 the Siin. 
 
 BeTolu- 
 
 tionar'd 
 the Sun. 
 
 Revolu- 
 tion on 
 
 axis. 
 
 i-f 
 
 Size — the 
 t^rth being 
 
 IP 
 
 ^11 
 
 The Sow 
 
 Mercury 
 
 TeDU8..»^aa.... 
 
 Miles. 
 883,216 
 8,224 
 7,687 
 7,912 
 2,180 
 4,189 
 89,170 
 79,042 
 86,112 
 41,600 
 
 Miles. 
 
 S6,8l'4'00O 
 
 68,787,000 
 
 95,103,000 
 
 96,103,000 
 
 144,908,000 
 
 494,797,000 
 
 907,162,000 
 
 1,824,290,000 
 
 2,854,000,000 
 
 yrs. days 
 
 '.'.'. 88 
 
 ... .224 
 
 V ■■■ 
 1 ... 
 
 1 S2I 
 
 11 216 
 
 29 167 
 
 84 6 
 
 164 226 
 
 d. h. m. 
 
 26 9 69 
 10 6 
 
 .. 23 21 
 . . 23 66 
 
 27 7 43 
 1 37 
 
 .. 9 66 
 .. 10 29 
 1 13 S3 
 
 Miles. 
 
 l's27 
 1,338 
 1,138 
 38 
 921 
 496 
 368 
 269 
 208 
 
 1,412,921.100 
 
 0.063 
 
 0.009 
 
 1.000 
 
 0.020 
 
 0.126 
 
 1,456.000 
 
 771.000 
 
 80.000 
 
 143.000 
 
 0.252 
 1.120 
 0.923 
 1.000 
 0.615 
 0.948 
 0.238 
 0.138 
 0.242 
 .0.140 
 
 infln. 
 6.680 
 
 1.9H 
 
 The Earth 
 
 TheMom 
 
 Mars 
 
 1.000 
 1.000 
 0.431 
 
 Jupiter 
 
 0.037 
 
 Saturn.. ,.,„ 
 
 Uranus... 
 
 Neptune 
 
 0.011 
 
 0.003 
 O.OOl 
 
THE WEATHEE. 
 
 The following table, and the accompanying remarks, 
 originally formed by Dr. Herschel, and approved with 
 some alterations by the experienced Dr. Adam Clarke, are 
 the result of many years' close observation ; the whole 
 being on a due consideration of the attraction of the sun 
 and moon, in their several positions respecting the earth, 
 and will, by inspection, show the observer what kind of 
 weather will most prdbMy follow the entrance of the moon 
 into any of its quarters — so probably, indeed, that it has 
 seldom been found to fail. 
 
 Table, for teUmg the weather through all the limations of 
 each year forever. 
 
 TIUB OF CHANGS. 
 
 IN snuusB. 
 
 
 a* 
 as 
 
 2 o 
 
 o a 
 
 A 
 
 Between midnight and twol 
 in the morning, J 
 
 — 2 and 4, morning, 4 
 
 4 and 6 '• 
 
 - — 6 and 8 " 
 
 8 and 10 '■ 
 
 10 and 14 " 
 
 At 12 o'clock at noon, and \ 
 
 2, P. M. ; 
 
 Between 2 and 4, P. M. 
 
 4 and «, " 
 
 6 and 8, " -I 
 
 8 and 10, « 
 
 10 and midnight, 
 
 Fai^. 
 
 Cold, with frequent! 
 Bhowera. J 
 
 Rain. 
 
 Wind and rain. 
 
 Changeable. j 
 
 Freq.aent showerB. 
 
 Verj rainy. 
 
 Changeable. 
 
 Fair. 
 
 Fair, it wind N. W. 
 
 Rainy, if S. or S, 
 
 Do. 
 
 Fair. 
 
 w. I 
 
 .W.J 
 
 Hard frost, unless the wind be 
 S. or W. 
 
 Snow and Btormy. 
 
 Rain. 
 
 Stormy. 
 
 Cold rain, if wind be W, ; snow 
 
 if E. 
 Cold and high wind. 
 
 Snow or rain. 
 
 Fair and mild. 
 
 Fair. 
 
 Fair and frosty, if wind N. or 
 
 Rain or snow, if S. or S. 'W. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Fair and frosty. 
 
 Observations. — 1. The nearer the time of the moon's 
 
 2* 
 
34 
 
 THE WEATHEE. 
 
 change, first quarter, full, or last quarter are to midnight, 
 the fau-er will the weather be during the seven days fol- 
 lowing. 
 
 2. The space for this calculation occupies from ten at 
 night till two next morning. 
 
 3. The nearer to mid-day or Tioon, the phases of the 
 moon happen, the more foul or wet weather may be ex- 
 pected ^uring the next seven days. 
 
 4. The space of this calculation occupies from ten in the 
 forenoon to two in the afternoon. These observations 
 refer principally to the summer, though they affect spring 
 and autumn nearly in the same ratio. 
 
WIND. 
 
 The force of the wind increases directly as the square 
 of the velocity. Thus, a wind blowing 10 miles an hour 
 exerts a pressui-e four times as great as at 5 miles an hour, 
 and 25 times as great as at 2 miles an hour. 
 
 To jmd the force of wind acting directly against a sur- 
 face. 
 
 Rule. — ^Multiply the surface in square feet by the lbs. 
 pressure per square foot as given in the following table. 
 
 Example. — What is the pressure of a wind of a velocity 
 of 20 miles per hour against a barn door 10 feet by 6 ? 
 
 Solution. — 10x6=60 sq. ft., surface, x2 lbs., pressure 
 per square foot, =120 lbs. Ans. 
 
36 
 
 WINDMILLS. 
 
 Table, showing the force and mlocity of wind. 
 
 Milea per hour. 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 i 
 5 
 6 
 8 
 10 
 15 
 20 
 25 
 30 
 35 
 iO 
 45 
 50 
 60 
 80 
 100 
 
 Feet per 
 minute. 
 
 88 
 176 
 264 
 S52 
 440 
 528 
 704 
 880 
 1320 
 1760 
 2200 
 2640 
 3080 
 3520 
 3960 
 4400 
 5280 
 7040 
 8800 
 
 LbB preaBure 
 on 1 sq. foot. 
 
 .005 
 .020) 
 .045 1 
 .080 
 .125 
 .180 
 .320 
 .5001 
 1.125 ■ 
 2.000 
 3.125 
 4.500 
 6.125 
 8.000 
 10.125 
 12.600 
 18.000 
 32.000 
 50.000 
 
 Description. 
 
 Barely observable. 
 Just perceptible. 
 Light breeze. 
 
 Gentle, pleasant win& 
 
 Brisk blow. 
 Very brisk. 
 High wind. 
 
 Very high. 
 
 Storm. 
 
 Great storm. ' 
 
 Hurricane, [ing off buildings, &0. 
 Tornado, uprooting trees, sweep- 
 
 The mechanical force of wind is well illustrated in the 
 old-fashioned windmills' which were used for the purpose of 
 
 ■WindmiU. 
 
 raising water and grinding grain, where facilities for steam 
 or water-power were wanting. 
 
AVERAGE TEMPERATUEE AND FALL OF RAIN. 
 
 Table, showing the a/oerage temperature of the four Sea- 
 sons at points on the Paeific and Atlantic coasts, amd 
 the interior of this continent. 
 
 PAOino Coast. 
 
 Monterey, 
 
 San Francisco 
 
 ABtoria 
 
 Inteeior. 
 
 St. Louis Arsenal 
 
 Chicago, 
 
 Fort Kipley 
 
 Atlantic Coabt. 
 
 Fort Monroe, near Norfolk, 
 
 Fort Columbus. N. Y. Harbor, 
 Fort Sullivan. Eastport, 
 
 TEMPESATUBE. 
 
 Latitude. Spring, Summer Autumn Winter. Year. 
 
 36036' 
 37048' 
 46011' 
 
 38=40' 
 41052' 
 46° 19' 
 
 370 
 
 40042' 
 
 44015' 
 
 530-99 
 540.41 
 
 51016 
 
 54015 
 44090 
 390 33 
 
 .560-87 
 48074 
 400-15 
 
 580-64 
 570-33 
 610-68 
 
 760-19 
 670-33 
 64094 
 
 7e°-57 
 720-10 
 600-50 
 
 570-29 
 560 83 
 530 -76 
 
 55'o-44 
 480-85 
 420-91 
 
 610-68 
 540 5.'i 
 470-52 
 
 510 22 
 500-86 
 42=;43 
 
 320-27 
 25c -90 
 lOO-Ol 
 
 400-45 
 3 10 -38 
 230 90 
 
 550-29 
 
 540-88 
 520-23 
 
 540-51 
 460-75 
 390-30 
 
 580-89 
 510-69 
 430 02 
 
 From this table it will be perceived tbat Astoi-ia, on the 
 Pacific coast, and Fort Ripley in the interior, are in about 
 the same latitude. Astoria, though 650 miles north of 
 Monterey, is only 3 degrees colder. Fort Ripley is fifteen 
 degrees colder than St. Louis, although it is only about 
 500 miles further north. 
 
 San Francisco, St. Louis, and Fort Monroe, are in about 
 the same latitude. The difference between the mean sum- 
 mer and winter temperature of San Francisco is less than 
 seven degrees; of St. Louis, nearly forty four degrees; 
 and of Fort Monroe, thirty-six degrees. Eastport is two 
 degrees south of Astoria, but is nine degrees colder. 
 
38 AVERAGE TEMPEEATUEE AND FALL OF EAm. 
 
 The United States may be divided with reference to the 
 fall of rain into three regions, namely : the region of peri- 
 odical rains, the region of frequent rains, and the region 
 of scanty rains. 
 
 The region of periodical rains comprises the western 
 division of the Pacific slope. 
 
 In that portion of this division south of the 40th parallel 
 of latitude, scarcely any rain falls in summer, and very 
 little in autumn. The quantity in winter somewhat ex- 
 ceeds that which falls during the spring. 
 
 A much greater quantity of rain falls upon that part of 
 the division north of lat. 40° than south of it ; but, as in 
 the southern division, the largest amount belongs to the 
 winter and spring. 
 
 The region of frequent rains extends from the Atlantic 
 coast westward to about the 100th meridian of longitude. 
 This region, considered as a whole, is exceedingly well 
 watered, the rain being quite equally distributed through 
 the different seasons. 
 
 From an examination of the table, it will appear that 
 along the Atlantic slope, as far south as "Washington, very 
 nearly the same annual quantity of rain falls ; and that it 
 is very equally distributed throughout the year. In the 
 Gulf States, and along the Atlantic slope south of "Wash- 
 ington, the annual amount of rain is much greater than in 
 the other sections, and the summer rains are much more ; 
 abundant than those of the winter. In the interior the 
 
AVERAGE TEMPEEATXJEE AUD FALL OF EAIIC, 39 
 
 annual quantity is less, and generally much less rain falls 
 in winter than in the other seasons. 
 
 The region of scanty rains embraces the country between 
 about the 100th meridian of longitude and the Cascade 
 and Sierra Nevada Mountains. It includes the northern 
 and southern divisions of the Pacific slope, the inland basin 
 of Utah, the table-lands of the Texas slope, and the sterile 
 region east of the Kocky Mountains. 
 
 Among the mountains of this region a considerable 
 quantity of rain falls, and violent showers are experienced 
 in all seasons of the year.' Some of the mountain valleys 
 are also well watered. Thus the annual fall of rain at 
 Santa Fe, situated on a plateau enclosed by mountains, is 
 19.83 inches ; and the fall at Fort Massachusetts, which is 
 situated in a valley 100 miles further north, is 20.54'inches. 
 
 The annual fall of rain in the desert region, through 
 which the great Colorado flows, is estimated at three inches ; 
 that of the inland basin of Utah, at five inches; of the 
 Great Plain south of the Columbia River, ten inches ; of 
 the Llano Estacado, ten inches ; and of the sterile region 
 east of the Kocky Mountains, from fifteeij to twenty 
 inches. In all these sections scarcely any rain falls in 
 summer. 
 
 The greatest amount of rain reported in the "Army 
 Meteorological Eegister," for any given year, was the fall, 
 in 1846, at Baton Eouge, of 116.6 inches; the least, a fall, 
 in 1853, at Fort Yuma, California, of 1.78 inches. 
 
40 
 
 AVERAGE TEMPEKATURE AND FALL OF RAIN. 
 
 [This valuable Table is compiled from the " Army Meteorological Regis- 
 ter," and presents the results of all the records, in the Army Medical Bu- 
 reau, for 33 years, from 1822 to the close of 1864 ] 
 
 Table, shewing the latitude and longitvde, the e'tevation above the level of 
 the sea, the mean annual temperature, and the average annual fail of rain 
 at various places in the United States. 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 'III 
 
 Ji. 
 
 fill 
 
 II 
 
 ¥ 
 
 Nahe oj Place op Observation 
 
 1 
 
 III 
 
 '^1-3 
 
 
 
 
 Fort Kent, Maine , 
 
 47015' 
 
 68036' 
 
 575 
 
 37° -04 
 
 38-46 
 
 Fort Fairfie'd Maine ....••■••■•.. 
 
 46 46 
 
 67 49 
 
 415 
 
 38-11 
 
 
 Hancock Barracks, Maine 
 
 48 07 
 
 67 49 
 
 620 
 
 40-61 
 
 36-97 
 
 Fort Sullivan. Eastport, Maine .... 
 
 •44 54 
 
 66 68 
 
 70 
 
 43-02 
 
 39-39 
 
 Fort Preble, Portland, Maine 
 
 43 S9 
 
 70 20 
 
 20 
 
 45-22 
 
 45 -2S 
 
 Fort Constitution, Portsmouth, N .H 
 
 43 04 
 
 70 49 
 
 40 
 
 45-81 
 
 35-57 
 
 Fort Independence, Bost. Har ,Mass 
 
 42 20 
 
 71 
 
 60 
 
 48-92 
 
 35-30 
 
 
 41 21 
 
 71 09 
 
 
 47-34 
 
 42-07 
 
 Fort Adams, Ebode Island 
 
 41 29 
 
 71 20 
 
 40 
 
 49-70 
 
 52-46" 
 
 Fort Wolcott, Newport Harbor, E. I. 
 
 41 30 
 
 71 20 
 
 20 
 
 60-72 
 
 
 Fort Trumbull, New London, Conn. 
 
 41 21 
 
 72 06 
 
 23 
 
 49-62 
 
 45-69 
 
 Fort Columbus, N, Y, Harbor . 
 
 40 42 
 
 74 01 
 
 23 
 
 51-69 
 
 42-23 
 
 Fort Hamilton, N. Y. Harbor 
 
 40 37 
 
 74 02 
 
 25 
 
 61-54 
 
 43-65 
 
 West Point, New York _.......,.. 
 
 41 23 
 
 74 
 
 167 
 
 50-73 
 
 54-15 
 
 Watervliet Arsenal, New York .... 
 
 42 43 
 
 73 43 
 
 50? 
 
 48-07 
 
 34-55 
 
 Plattaburg Barracks. New York . . , 
 
 44 41 
 
 73 25 
 
 186 
 
 44. 
 
 33-39 
 
 Sackett's Harbor, New York ...... 
 
 43 67 
 
 76 15 
 
 262 
 
 46-38 
 
 39-78 
 
 Fort Ontario, New York 
 
 43 20 
 
 76 40 
 
 250 
 
 46-44 
 
 30-88 
 
 Fort Niagara, New York. 
 
 43 18 
 
 79 08 
 
 250 
 
 47.91 
 
 31-77 
 
 Buffalo Barracks New York. ^ . ... 
 
 42 63 
 
 78 68 
 
 660 
 
 46.25 
 
 38-80 
 
 Alleghany Arsenal, Pittsburg, Pa. , 
 
 40 32 
 
 80 02 
 
 704 
 
 60.86 
 
 34-96 
 
 Carlisle Barracks Carlisle, Pa .... . 
 
 40 12 
 
 77 14 
 
 500 
 
 31-10 
 
 34 01 
 
 Fort Mifflin, Pa 
 
 39 53 
 
 75 13 
 
 20 
 
 53-85 
 
 45-27 
 
 Fort Delaware, Del 
 
 39 35 
 
 75 34 
 
 10 
 
 56-06 
 
 
 FortMoHenry, Md oo.... 
 
 39 17 
 
 '71 35 
 
 36 
 
 54-36 
 
 42- 
 
 Fort Severn, Md ... 
 
 38 68 
 
 76 27 
 
 20 
 
 55-42 
 
 48-61 
 
 Washington City, D. 
 
 88 63 
 
 77 02 
 
 50 90 
 
 66-14 
 
 41-20 
 
 Fort Washington. Md. 
 
 38 43 
 
 77 06 
 
 60 
 
 67-87 
 
 45-02 
 
 Bellona ArsKnal, Kichmoud, Va. . . . 
 
 37 20 
 
 77 25 
 
 120 
 
 59-27 
 
 
 Fort Monrne Va 
 
 37 
 
 76 18 
 
 g 
 
 58-89 
 
 50 89 
 
 Fort Macon, N C 
 
 34 41 
 34 
 
 76 40 
 78 05 
 
 20 
 20 
 
 62-23 
 65-68 
 
 
 Fort Johnston. N C... ....... 
 
 46.01 
 
 Augusta Arsenal Ga 
 
 33 28 
 
 81 53 
 
 600? 
 
 64- 01 
 
 23- 
 
 Fort Moultrie. Charleston, S C... 
 
 32 45 
 
 79 51 
 
 25 
 
 66-58 
 
 44-92 
 
 Oglethorpe Barracks Ga 
 
 32 05 
 
 81 07 
 
 40 
 
 67-44 
 
 63-33 
 
 Fort Marion, St Augustine, Fla 
 
 29 38 
 
 81 35 
 
 25 
 
 69-61 
 
 31-80 
 
 Fort Shannon. Pi'atka, East Fla. . . 
 
 29 34 
 
 81 48 
 
 25 
 
 69-64 
 
 48-68 
 
 New Smyrna, East Fla 
 
 28 54 
 
 81 02 
 
 20 
 
 69-17 
 
 
AVERAGE TEMPEEATUEE AND FALL OF EAIK. 
 
 Tdhle continued. 
 
 41 
 
 Name of Place of Obbbsvation 
 
 Fort Pierce, East Fla „.,„ 
 
 Fort Dallas, East Fla , . , . 
 
 Key West, Fla .,. 
 
 Fort Myers, South Fla '. . 
 
 Fort Brooke, Tampa Bay, Fla. . , 
 Fort Meade, Fla.. .......,.„, 
 
 Fort Micanopy, Fla , 
 
 Fort King, Fla,.„, ,„, 
 
 Cedar Keys, Fla. ............ 
 
 Fort Fanning, Fla 
 
 Fort Barrancas, Pensacola, Fla. 
 
 Fort Morgan, Ala „ . . 
 
 Mt. Yemon Arsenal, Ala. 
 
 Fort Pike, La ...>„... 
 
 Fort Wood, La ........... o ... o 
 
 New Orleans, La.... 
 
 Baton Bouge, La.............. 
 
 Fort Jessnp, La 
 
 Fort Towson, Ind. Ter 
 
 Fort Washita, Indian Ter 
 
 Fort Smith, Arkansas 
 
 Fort Gibson, Ind. Ter. , 
 
 Fort Scott, Mo ... . 
 
 Jefferson Barracks, Mo 
 
 St. Louis Arsenal, Mo. 
 
 Newport Barracks, Newport, Ky 
 
 Detroit, Mich ., • • < 
 
 FortGratiot, Mich......... 
 
 Fort Mackinac, Mich 
 
 Fort Dearborn. Chicago, 111. . . . 
 
 -Fort Brady, Mich 
 
 Fort Wilkias, Mich 
 
 Fort Howard, Wis. 
 
 Fort Winnebago. Wis. ........ 
 
 Fort Crawford, Wis 
 
 Fort Armstrong, 111 ... . . . . ^ 
 
 Fort Atkinson, Iowa. 
 
 Fort Des Moines, Iowa 
 
 Fort Eipley, Minnesota. ....... 
 
 Fort Snelling. Minn 
 
 Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. .... 
 
 Council Blufis. Nebraska 
 
 Fort Kearney, Nebraska 
 
 Fort Laramie. Nebraska 
 
 FortArbuckle Ind Ter 
 
 Fort Belknap, Texas 
 
 1 
 
 Longitude 
 West from 
 
 Elevation 
 above the lev- 
 el of the aaa, 
 In feet. 
 
 ■3 a 
 
 II 
 
 p ^ 
 
 27030' 
 
 80O2U' 
 
 30 
 
 730-20 
 
 62-98 
 
 25 55 
 
 80 50 
 
 20 
 
 74 75 
 
 
 24 32 
 
 8i 48 
 
 10 
 
 76-51 
 
 47-65 
 
 26 38 
 
 82 02 
 
 60 
 
 76-04 
 
 62-26 
 
 28 
 
 82 28 
 
 20 
 
 71-92 
 
 66-47 
 
 28 01 
 
 82 
 
 80 
 
 71-48 
 
 40-22 
 
 29 30 
 
 82 28 
 
 60? 
 
 70 09 
 
 
 29 10 
 
 82 10 
 
 50 
 
 70- 
 
 
 29 07 
 
 83 03 
 
 35 
 
 69-60 
 
 48 50 
 
 29 35 
 
 83 
 
 50 
 
 70-20 
 
 
 30 18 
 
 87 27 
 
 20 
 
 68-74 
 
 65-98 
 
 30 14 
 
 88 
 
 20 
 
 66-88 
 
 
 31 12 
 
 88 02 
 
 200? 
 
 65-84 
 
 63 5C 
 
 30 10 
 
 89 38 
 
 10 
 
 69-86 
 
 71-92 
 
 80 08 
 
 89 61 
 
 20 
 
 69-25 
 
 60 63 
 
 29 57 
 
 90 
 
 10 
 
 69-86 
 
 60 90 
 
 30 26 
 
 91 78 
 
 41 
 
 68-14 
 
 62 10 
 
 31 33 
 
 93 32 
 
 80? 
 
 66-34 
 
 45-85 
 
 34 
 
 95 33 
 
 300? 
 
 61-69 
 
 51-08 
 
 24 14 
 
 96 38 
 
 645 
 
 62-21 
 
 41-66 
 
 35 23 
 
 94 29 
 
 460 
 
 60-02 
 
 42 10 
 
 84 47 
 
 95 10 
 
 560 
 
 60-81 
 
 36-46 
 
 37 45 
 
 94 35 
 
 1000? 
 
 64-60 
 
 42-12 
 
 38 28 
 
 90 15 
 
 472 
 
 65-46 
 
 37-83 
 
 38 40 
 
 90 05 
 
 450 
 
 54-51 
 
 41-95 
 
 39 05 
 
 84 29 
 
 500 
 
 65-26 
 
 
 42 20 
 
 82 68 
 
 580 
 
 47-25 
 
 30-07 
 
 42 65 
 
 82 23 
 
 698 
 
 46-29 
 
 32-62 
 
 45 51 
 
 84 32 
 
 728 
 
 40-65 
 
 23-87 
 
 41 52 
 
 87 35 
 
 591 
 
 46-75 
 
 
 46 30 
 
 84 43 
 
 600 
 
 40-37 
 
 31-35 
 
 47 30 
 
 88 
 
 620 
 
 41- 
 
 
 44 30 
 
 88 06 
 
 620 
 
 44-49 
 
 34-65 
 
 43 31 
 
 89 28 
 
 770? 
 
 44-80 
 
 27-49 
 
 43 05 
 
 91 
 
 642 
 
 47-63 
 
 31-40 
 
 41 30 
 
 90 40 
 
 628 
 
 60-31 
 
 
 43 
 
 92 
 
 700? 
 
 45-50 
 
 39-74 
 
 41 32 
 
 93 38 
 
 780 
 
 49-74 
 
 26-56 
 
 46 19 
 
 94 19 
 
 1130 
 
 39-30 
 
 29-48 
 
 44 53 
 
 93 10 
 
 820 
 
 44-64 
 
 25-4.3 
 
 39 21 
 
 94 44 
 
 896 
 
 62-78 
 
 30-29 
 
 41 30 
 
 95 48 
 
 1250 
 
 49-28 
 
 
 40 38 
 
 98 57 
 
 2360 
 
 47-67 
 
 27.98 
 
 42 12 
 
 104 47 
 
 4519 
 
 50 06 
 
 19-98 
 
 34 27 
 
 97 09 
 
 1000? 
 
 60-83 
 
 30-57 
 
 33 08 
 
 98 48 
 
 1600? 
 
 68-99 
 
 22- 
 
42 
 
 AVERAGE TEMPEEATTIEE AND FALL OF EAIN. 
 
 Table conti/mied. 
 
 Nasu; o* Place of Obseevahon. 
 
 Fort Worth, Texas 
 
 Fhantom Hill, Texas .......... 
 
 Fort Chadbourne, Tejcas. . * 
 
 Fort Graham, Texas 
 
 Fort Gates, Texas 
 
 Fort Croghan, Texas. 
 
 San Antonio. Texas.. 
 
 Fort Merrill, Texas. ............ 
 
 Fort Ewell, Texas 
 
 Corpus Chrieti. Texas . . . . o 
 
 Fort Brown, Texas 
 
 Einggold Barracks, Texas. ...... 
 
 Fort Mcintosh, Texas 
 
 Fort Duncan, Eagle Pass, Texas. 
 
 Fort Inge, Texas 
 
 Fort Lincoln. Texas. ........... 
 
 Fort Clark, Texas 
 
 Fort Fillmore, New Mexico. .... 
 
 Fort Webster, New Mexico 
 
 Fort Conrad, New Mexico 
 
 Albuquerque, New Mexico 
 
 CeboUeta and Laguna, New Mexico 
 
 Santa F^, New Mexico. 
 
 Las Vegas, New Mexico. 
 
 Fort Union, New Mexico ., 
 
 Fort Massachusetts, New Mexico . . 
 
 Fort Defiance. New Mexico 
 
 Fort Yuma, California 
 
 San Diego, California 
 
 Posts Del Chino and Jurupa, Cal'a 
 
 Monterey. California 
 
 Fort Miller, California. 
 
 San Francisco. California 
 
 Benicia Barracks, California 
 
 Sacramento, California 
 
 Fort Reading, California 
 
 Fort Humboldt, California 
 
 Fort Jones. California 
 
 Fort Orford, California 
 
 Fort Vancouver. Oregon 
 
 Fort Dalles, Oregon 
 
 Fort Steilacoom, Washington Ter. 
 
 Astoria. Oregon 
 
 Great Salt Lake, Utah 
 
 32O40' 
 32 30 
 31 38 
 31 56 
 
 31 26 
 30 40 
 29 25 
 28 17 
 28 05 
 27 47 
 
 25 64 
 
 26 23 
 
 27 31 
 
 28 42 
 
 29 09 
 29 22 
 29 17 
 
 32 13 
 82 48 
 
 33 34 
 85 06 
 35 03 
 35 41 
 35 35 
 
 35 64 
 87 32 
 
 36 44 
 32 43 
 32 42 
 34 
 
 36 36 
 37 
 
 37 48 
 
 38 03 
 38 33 
 40 30 
 
 40 46 
 
 41 36 
 
 42 44 
 
 46 40 
 45 36 
 
 47 10 
 40 11 
 40 46 
 
 u) d 
 
 ^|5 
 
 97025' 
 
 99 45 
 
 100 40 
 
 97 26 
 
 97 49 
 
 98 31 
 98 26 
 98 
 
 98 57 
 97 27 
 97 26 
 
 99 02 
 99 21 
 
 100 30 
 99 07 
 99 33 
 
 100 25 
 
 106 42 
 
 108 04 
 
 107 09 
 
 106 38 
 
 107 14 
 106 02 
 105 16 
 
 104 57 
 
 105 23 
 
 109 16 
 114 36 
 117 14 
 117 25 
 
 121 52 
 
 119 40 
 
 122 26 
 122 08 
 
 121 20 
 
 122 06 
 124 09 
 122 52 
 124 29 
 122 SO 
 
 120 55 
 
 122 25 
 
 123 48 
 112 06 
 
 g.-«, , 
 
 (4 0) 
 
 1100? 
 2300? 
 2120 
 900? 
 1000? 
 1000? 
 600 
 150? 
 200 
 20 
 60 
 200? 
 400 
 800 
 845 
 900? 
 1000? 
 3937 
 6350 
 4576 
 5032 
 6000 
 6846 
 6418 
 6670 
 8365 
 7200? 
 120 
 150 
 1000? 
 140 
 402 
 150 
 64 
 50 
 674 
 50 
 2570 
 60 
 50 
 350 
 300? 
 60 
 4351 
 
 "3 4J 
 
 at S 
 
 63° 54 
 
 ■«l'=.a 
 
 — w 
 
 E'sa 
 
 -4 2 
 
 40-86 
 17-22 
 31-88 
 40-68 
 
 36-56 
 33-77 
 
 80 
 38 
 20 
 18 
 22 
 27 
 20 
 21 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 12 
 19 
 19 
 19 
 20 
 16 
 
 3 
 10 
 13 
 12 
 24 
 23 
 16 
 21 
 29 
 16 
 16 
 68 
 45 
 14.82 
 51 76 
 
 82 
 
 65 
 
 95 
 
 66 
 
 20 
 
 99 
 
 58 
 
 80" 
 
 28 
 
 79 
 
 76 
 
 42 
 
 05 
 
 83 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 54 
 
 64 
 
 24 
 
 43 
 
 77 
 
 20 
 
 61 
 
 59 
 
 62 
 
 32 
 
 02 
 
 77 
 
 77 
 
 62 
 
 50 
 
 52 23 
 58-24 
 
MEASUEEMENT OF LAND. 
 
 Every farmer should know the contents, in acres, of 
 each of his fields, meadows, and lots, to ascertain which he 
 should have a rod measure, a light stiff pole, just 16J feet 
 long, with division marks on it of a yard each, making 
 6| yards. Provided with this measure, and proceeding 
 according to the following rules, he can ascertain the 
 area in acres of each of his fields, lots, &c. 
 
4:4: MEASUEEMENT OF LAJSTD. 
 
 Where the field is a square, a jparalldogram, a rhombus, 
 or a rhqmioid. 
 
 Bhombaa, 
 
 Square. Parallelogram. 
 
 EuLE.^Multiply the length in rods by the breadth in 
 rods, and divide the product by 160, and the quotient will 
 be the number of acres. 
 
 Example. — "What is the area in acres of a field of 30 
 rods long by 28 rods wide. 
 
 Solution. — 30x28=84r0-=-160=5 acres and 40 rods, or 
 5J acres. Ans. 
 
 Where the field is triangular. 
 
 EuLE. — Multiply the base or longest side, in rods, by 
 the perpendicular height {i.e., the greg^est width), in rods, 
 and divide: half the product by 160, an^ the quotient will 
 be the ntiniber of acres. 
 
 Example. — What is the area in acres of a triangular 
 field, the base of which is 60 rods long, and its perpendi- 
 cular height 28 rods ? 
 
 Solution.— 60 x28=1680-i-2=840-r-160=5 acres and 40 
 rods, or 5J acres. Ans. 
 
JCEASUBEMEMT OF LAUD. 
 
 When the field is a trapezi/um, or a trapesoid. 
 
 45 
 
 / 
 
 Trapezium. Trapezoid. 
 
 KuLE. — Divide it diagonally by a line running from 
 one extreme corner to the other, -w^icli will cut the field 
 into two triangles ; then proceed with each as in the fore- 
 going rule, and add the areas of the two triangles together. 
 The product will be the number of acres. 
 
 Where thefiM is an irregula/r polygon. 
 
 Rule. — Draw diagonals to divide the field into tri- 
 angles : find the area of each separately, and the sum of 
 the whole will be the number of acres. 
 
 iq'oTE. There are very few ftelds or lots which cannot 
 
 be measured by cutting them into triangles, and proceed- 
 ing by the above rule. In fact, all straight-sided 'fields 
 can be so measured. 
 
46 
 
 MEASUEEMENT OF LAND. 
 
 'Where the field is long, and the sides crooked cmd 
 irregular. 
 
 EuLE. — Take the breadth in rods in a number of places, 
 at equal distances apart ; add them, and divide the sum by 
 the number of breadths for the mean average or breadth ; 
 then multiply that by the length in rods and divide the 
 product by 160, and the quotient will be the number of 
 acres. 
 
 Example. — ^What is the area in acres of a long irregular- 
 sided field, the length of vehich is 80 rods, and its breadths 
 at 10 rods apart are as follows, viz. : 8, 10, 11, 9, 8, 7, 9, 
 10 rods ? 
 
 Solution. — 8 + 10 + 11 + 9 + 8 + 7 + 9 + 10 = 72 4- 8 = 9 
 rods mean breadth; then 9x80=720-^160=4: acres and 
 80 rods, or A^ acres. Ans. 
 
 Where the fidd is long, and the sides and ends crooked 
 and irregular. 
 
MEASUEEMENT OF LAND. 47 
 
 EiTLE. — Find the mean breadth in rods by the foregoing 
 rule, and proceed in like manner to find the meap length 
 in rods; then multiply the mean length by the mean 
 breadth, and divide the product by 160, and the quotient 
 will be the number of acres. 
 
 Example. — "What is the area in acres of a field of irre- 
 gular sides and ends, the various breadths of which are as 
 follows, viz. : 9, 6, 7, 8, 10 and 8 rods, and the lengths as 
 follows, viz. : 50, 40, 30 and 40 rods ? 
 
 Solution. — 9 + 6 + 7+8 + 10 + 8 =48^6 = 8 rods mean 
 
 breadth. 
 50 + 40 + 30 + 40 = 160 -^ 4 = 40 rods mean 
 
 length. 
 Then 40 x 8=320-4-160 = 2 acres. Am. 
 
 Where the field is a circle. 
 
 Rule. — Take the diameter in rods, and find the area of 
 the circle in the table of circles on page 298, and divide it 
 by 160, and the quotient will be the number of acres. 
 
 Example. — "What is the area in acres of a circular field 
 22 rods in diameter ? 
 
 Solution. — 380, area of circle, -i-160=2 acres and 80 
 rods, or 2^ acres. Ans. 
 
 An acre of land is contained in a plot, 
 
 3 by 534 rods 7 by 22f rods 10 by 16 rods 
 
 4 by 40 " 8 by 20 " 11 by 14^^ " 
 
 5 by 32 " 9 by 17^ " 12 by 13^ " 
 
 6 by 26f " 
 
 12 rods 10 feet and 8|- inches square make an acre. 
 
48 
 
 MEASUEEMENT OF iAND. 
 
 It is often desirable, for experimental and other pur- 
 poses, for a farmer to lay off small portions of his ground. 
 To enable him to do so, we have compiled the following : 
 Table, showing the square feet and the feet square of the 
 fractions of an acre. 
 
 Fractions of 
 an acre. 
 
 Square feet. 
 
 Feet square. 
 
 Fractions of 
 an acre. 
 
 Square feet 
 
 Feet square. 
 
 i 
 
 2722^ 
 5445 
 10890 
 14520 
 
 m 
 
 104 J 
 120 J 
 
 i 
 1 
 2 
 
 21780 
 43560 
 87120 
 
 147J 
 208 ■ 
 296 
 
 Table, showing the number of hills or plants on an acre 
 of land, for any distance apart, from 10 inches to 6 
 feet — the lateral and longitudinal distances ieing unequal. 
 
 
 10 in. 
 
 12 in. 15 in. 
 
 18 in. 
 
 20 in. 
 
 2ft. 
 
 2ift. 
 
 3 ft. 
 
 31ft. 
 
 4 ft. 
 
 4ift. 
 
 5 ft. 
 
 Sift. 
 
 6 ft. 
 
 10 in. 
 
 6272B 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 32 " 
 
 .S2272 
 
 43660' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 " 
 
 41817 
 
 34848 27878 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18 " 
 
 R4R4« 
 
 29040 23232 
 
 1936(1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SO " 
 
 RiaftS 
 
 26136 20908 
 
 17424 
 
 15681 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 feet 
 
 261.% 
 
 21780 17424 
 
 14620 
 
 13068 
 
 10890 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2i " 
 
 20908 
 
 17424;13939 
 
 11616 
 
 1(1454 
 
 8712 
 
 6969 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K " 
 
 17424 
 
 14620 11616 
 
 9680 
 
 871 2 
 
 7260 
 
 6808 
 
 4840 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3i " 
 
 14035 
 
 12446 9953 
 
 8297 
 
 7467 
 
 6223 
 
 4976 
 
 4148 
 
 3565 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 " 
 
 13068 
 
 10890 8713 
 
 7260 
 
 6534 
 
 5445 
 
 4;m 
 
 3630 
 
 8111 
 
 2722 
 
 
 
 
 
 4i " 
 
 11616 
 
 9680 7744 
 
 6453 
 
 5H(1« 
 
 4840 
 
 3872 
 
 3226 
 
 276V 
 
 2420 
 
 2161 
 
 
 
 
 5 " 
 
 1fl4ii4 
 
 87121 6969 
 
 5K08 
 
 .5227 
 
 4356 
 
 3484 
 
 2904 
 
 2489 
 
 2178 
 
 1936 
 
 1742 
 
 
 
 5i " 
 
 9504 
 
 7920: 6.336 
 
 528(1 
 
 4752 
 
 396U 
 
 3168 
 
 2640 
 
 2263 
 
 1980 
 
 1760 
 
 1684 
 
 1440 
 
 
 6 " 
 
 8712 
 
 7260, 6808 
 
 4840 
 
 4356 
 
 3630 
 
 2904 
 
 2420 
 
 2074 
 
 1865 
 
 1613 
 
 1462 
 
 1320 
 
 1210 
 
 Explanation. — Find the distance between your plants 
 or hills the 'Widest way in the left hand column, then trace 
 the line in which it stands to the right, until it intersects 
 the column heaSed by the number that expresses the dis- 
 tance of the narrow way, where you will find the number 
 sought. 
 
MEASHKEMENT OF LAKD. 
 
 49 
 
 Example. — The rows of corn in a corn-field are 5^ feet 
 apart, and the plants 20 inches apart, in drill or hill ; re- 
 quired, the number of hills or plants in an acre ? 
 
 Solution. — Find 5^ feet (the distance of the rows apart), 
 in the left hand column, then trace the line along unto the 
 column headed by 20 inches (the distance of the plants or 
 hills apart), and you have 4752. Ans. 
 
 Table, showing the number of plam,ts, hills, or trees con- 
 tained in an acre at equal distances apart, from 3 inches 
 up to 66 feet. 
 
 Distance apart. Ko. of plants. 
 
 3 inches by 3 inches 696,960 
 
 4 " by 4 •' 392,040 
 
 6 " by 6 " 174,240 
 
 9 " by 9 " 77,440 
 
 1 foot by 1 foot 43,560 
 
 U feet by IJ feet 19,360 
 
 2 " by Ifoot 21,780 
 
 2 " by 2 feet 10,890 
 
 2* " by2J " . 6,960 
 
 3 " by Ifoot 14,520 
 
 3 " by 2 feet 7,260 
 
 3 " by 3 '• 4,840 
 
 3J •' by 3J " 3,555 
 
 4 •• by Ifoot 10,890 
 
 4 " by 2 feet 6,445 
 
 4 " by 3 " 3,630 
 
 4 " by 4 « 2,722 
 
 4i " bjr4i " 2,151 
 
 6 " by Ifoot 8,712 
 
 5 " by 2 feet 4,356 
 
 5 " by3 '■ 2,904 
 
 5 " by 4 " 2,178 
 
 5 " by5 " 1,742 
 
 6i " by5i " 1,417 
 
 Distance apart Ko, of plants. 
 
 6 feet by 6 feet 1,210 
 
 6^ " by6i " 1,031 
 
 7 " by 7 " 881 
 
 8 " by8 " 680 
 
 9 " by9 " 637 
 
 10 " by 10 " 435 
 
 11 " by 11 " 360 
 
 12 " by 12 " 302 
 
 13 " by 13 " 257 
 
 14 " by 14 " 222 
 
 15 " by 15 " 193 
 
 16 " by 16 " 170 
 
 16J •■ by 16J" 160 
 
 17 •• by 17 " 150 
 
 18 " byl8 " 134 
 
 19 " by 19 " 120 
 
 20 " by 20 " 108 
 
 25 " by25-" 69 
 
 30 " by 30 " 48 
 
 33 " by33." , 40 
 
 40 " by 40 " 27 
 
 60 " by 50 " 17 
 
 60 " by 60 " 12 
 
 66 " by66 " .• lo 
 
GOYEENMENT LAND MEASUEE/ 
 
 A townsiiip is. 6 miles square, and contains 36 sections, 
 or 23,040 acres. 
 
 A section is 1 mile square, and contains 640 acres. 
 
 A quarter-section is lialf a mile square, and contains 160 
 acres. , 
 
 A half quarter-section is half a mile long, almost uni- 
 versally north and south, and one-fourth of a mile wide, 
 and contains 80 acres. 
 
 A quarter quarter-section is ode-fourth of a mile square, 
 and contains 40 acres. It is the smallest sized tract, 
 except fractions, sold by the government. 
 
MEASUEEMENT OF HAT. 
 
 
 There is no accurate mode of measuring hay but by 
 weighing it. This, on account of its bulk and character, 
 is very difficult, unless it is baled or otherwise compacted. 
 This difficulty has led farmers to estimate the weight by 
 the bulk or cubic contents, a mode which, from the nature 
 of the commodity, is only approximately correct. Some 
 kinds of hay are light, while others are heavy, their equal 
 bulks varying in weight. But for all ordinary farming 
 purposes of estimating the amount of hay in meadows, 
 mows, and stacks, the following rules will be found sufficient. 
 
62 MEASmEEMENT OF HAT. 
 
 As tiearly as can be ascertained, 25 cubic yards of aver- 
 age meadow hay, in windrows, make a ton. 
 
 When well settled in mows or stacks, 15 or 18 cnbic 
 yards make a ton. 
 
 When taken out of mows or old stacks, and loaded on 
 wagons, 20 or 25 cubic yards make a ton. 
 
 Twenty or twenty-five cubic yards of clover, when dry, 
 make a ton. 
 
 To find the mwmher of tons of meadow Jiay raked into 
 wmd/rows. 
 
 EuLE. — Multiply the length of the windrow in yards by 
 the width in yards, and that product by the height in yards, 
 and divide by 25 ; the quotient will be the number of tons 
 in the windrow. 
 
 ExAMPLE.-^How many tons of hay in a windrow 40 yards 
 long by 2 wide and 2 high ? 
 
 SoLUTioiir.— 40 X 2 X 2= 160-^25 =6f . Ans. 
 
 To find the nvmiber of ton$ of hay in a mow. 
 
 Etile. — ^Multiply the length in yards by the height in 
 yards, and that by the width in yards, and divide the pro- 
 duct by 15 ; the quotient wiU be the, mmaber of tons. 
 
 Example. — How many tons of well-settled hay in a mow 
 10 yards long by 6 wide and 8 high ? 
 
 Solution.— 10 x 6 x 8=480^-15=32 tons. Ans. 
 
MEASUKEMENT OF HAT. ' 53 
 
 To find the number 'of tons of liay in old stacks. 
 
 KuLE. — Find the area in square yards of the' base in the 
 table of the areas of circles on page 298, or by the rule 
 given on page 296; then multiply the area of the base by 
 half the altitude of the stack in yards, and di\dde the pro- 
 duct by 15 ; the quotient will be the number of tons. 
 
 Example. — How many tons of hay in a circular stack, 
 whose diameter at the base is 8 yards, and height 9 yards ? 
 
 SoLTjTioN. — 50.265, area of base in sq. yards, x 4J, half 
 the altitude, =226.192-T-15=i5.079 tons. Ans. ■ 
 
 To jmd the number of tons m long square stacks. 
 
 EuLE. — Multiply the length in yards by the width in 
 yards, and that by half the altitude in yards, and divide the 
 product by 15 ; the quotient will be the number of tons. 
 
 Example. — ^IIow many tons of hay in a square stack 10 
 yards long, 5 wide, and 9 high ? 
 
 Solution. — 10 x 5 x 4^=225-^-15=15 tons. Ans. 
 
 "^^ 
 
54' 
 
 MEASUEEMENT OF HAT. 
 
 To find the number of tons of hay when taken out of 
 mows or old stacks. 
 
 Rule. — Multiply the length of the load in yards by the 
 width in yards, and that by the height in yards, and divide 
 the product by 20 ; the quotient will be the number of tons. 
 
 Example. — How many tons of hay taken from an old 
 stack, in a load 6 yards long by 3 wide and 3 high ? 
 
 Solution. — 6 x 3 x 3=64:-j-20=2/g- tons. Ans. 
 
 These estimates are for medium sized mows or stacks. 
 If the hay is piled to a great height, as it often is where 
 horse hay-forks are used, the row will be much heavier 
 per cubic yard. 
 
 Table, showing the ^rioe per cwt. of hmj, at gmen prices 
 
 'per ton. 
 
 1 
 
 •6 ' 
 
 -d 
 
 •a 
 
 ■ "d 
 
 •d 
 
 T3 
 
 ■d 
 
 •d 
 
 -ri 
 
 n3 
 
 "S 
 
 i. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TS 
 
 'C 
 
 Ch 
 
 
 
 "2 
 
 "O 
 
 ■o 
 
 "O 
 
 TS 
 
 ■o 
 
 -O 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 % ' 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 § 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 § 
 
 § 
 
 
 g 
 
 ^' 
 
 3 
 
 £ 
 
 A. 
 
 r^ 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 els. 
 
 cts 
 
 (M 
 
 CO 
 
 %cta 
 
 iO 
 
 w 
 
 l- 
 
 00 
 
 a> 
 
 rH 
 
 ^ 
 
 s 
 
 $ et> 
 
 $ eis 
 
 $ Oi 
 
 $ri» 
 
 $ Cts 
 
 $ eta 
 
 $(!I'JI 
 
 $ dn 
 
 $ cts 
 
 4 
 
 Ill] 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 80 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.20 
 
 1.40 
 
 1.60 
 
 1.80 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.20 
 
 .'i 
 
 Vi 
 
 25 
 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.25 
 
 1.60 
 
 1.75 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.25 
 
 2.. 50 
 
 2.75 
 
 e 
 
 lo 
 
 80 
 
 60 
 
 90 
 
 1.20 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.80 
 
 2.10 
 
 2.40 
 
 2.70 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.30 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 35 
 
 70 
 
 1.06 
 
 1.40 
 
 1.75 
 
 2.10 
 
 2.45 
 
 2.80 
 
 R.IS 
 
 3.50 
 
 3.85 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 80 
 
 1.20 
 
 1.60 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.40 
 
 2.80 
 
 8.20 
 
 S.60 
 
 4.00 
 
 4.40 
 
 H 
 
 22 
 
 45 
 
 90 
 
 1.35 
 
 1.80 
 
 2.25 
 
 2.70 
 
 3.15 
 
 8.60 
 
 4.05 
 
 4.50 
 
 4.95 
 
 l:i 
 
 26 
 
 60 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.50 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.50 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.50 
 
 4.00 
 
 4.50 
 
 5.00 
 
 5.50 
 
 U 
 
 27 
 
 55 
 
 1.10 
 
 1.65 
 
 2.20 
 
 2.76 
 
 3.30 
 
 3.85 
 
 4.40 
 
 4 9.5 
 
 6.50 
 
 6.00- 
 
 lli 
 
 80 
 
 60 
 
 1.20 
 
 1.80 
 
 2.40 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.60 
 
 4.20 
 
 4.80 
 
 5.40 
 
 6.00 
 
 6:61) 
 
 i;i 
 
 '82 
 
 65 
 
 1 30 
 
 1.95 
 
 2.60 
 
 3.25 
 
 8.90 
 
 4.55 
 
 5.20 
 
 5.85 
 
 6,50 
 
 7.15 
 
 ]4 
 
 OJ 
 
 70 
 
 1.40 
 
 2.10 
 
 2.80 
 
 3.60 
 
 4.20 
 
 4.90 
 
 5.60 
 
 6.. to 
 
 7,(10 
 
 7.70 
 
 16 
 
 ;-<7 
 
 75 
 
 1.50 
 
 2.25 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.75 
 
 4.50 
 
 5.25 
 
 6.00 
 
 6.75 
 
 7.50 
 
 8.25 
 
MEASUEEMENT OF HAT. 
 
 55 
 
 Toihle coniMiV/ed. 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 •s 
 
 ■S 
 
 Ti 
 
 i. 
 
 % 
 
 "S 
 
 •2 
 
 a 
 
 "2 
 
 -s 
 
 
 •3 
 
 
 
 ■3 
 
 
 ■3 
 
 B. 
 
 ^ 
 
 A 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 g 
 
 g 
 
 g 
 
 g 
 
 H 
 
 § 
 
 .ja 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 Ph 
 
 IM 
 
 M 
 
 •« 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 y^ 
 
 r-l 
 
 r* 
 
 iH 
 
 rH 
 
 
 $ 
 
 $e(s 
 
 $ C«» 
 
 %cU 
 
 $ Oi 
 
 %CU 
 
 $ as 
 
 $ c(s 
 
 $ cis 
 
 $cts 
 
 4 
 
 2.40 
 
 2.60 
 
 2.80 
 
 3.00 
 
 8.20 
 
 8.40 
 
 3.60 
 
 3.80 
 
 4.00 
 
 5 
 
 8.00 
 
 3.25 
 
 3.50 
 
 3.75 
 
 4.00 
 
 4.25 
 
 4.50 
 
 4.75 
 
 5.0O 
 
 6 
 
 3.60 
 
 3 90 
 
 4.20 
 
 4.50 
 
 4.80 
 
 6.10 
 
 5.40 
 
 5.70 
 
 6.O0 
 
 7 
 
 4.20 
 
 4.55 
 
 4,90 
 
 6.25 
 
 5.60 
 
 6.95 
 
 6.30 
 
 6.65 
 
 7.00 
 
 8 
 
 4.80 
 
 5.20 
 
 5.60 
 
 6.00 
 
 6.40 
 
 6.80 
 
 7.20 
 
 7.60 
 
 8.00 
 
 y 
 
 5.40 
 
 5.85 
 
 6.30 
 
 6.75 
 
 7.20 
 
 7.65 
 
 8.10 
 
 8.55 
 
 9.00 
 
 10 
 
 6.00 
 
 6.50 
 
 7.00 
 
 7.50 
 
 8.00 
 
 8.60 
 
 9.00 
 
 9.50 
 
 10.00 
 
 11 
 
 6.60 
 
 7.15 
 
 7.70 
 
 8.25 
 
 8.80 
 
 9.35 
 
 9.90 
 
 10.45 
 
 ii.oo 
 
 12 
 
 7.20 
 
 7.80 
 
 8.40 
 
 9.00 
 
 9.60 
 
 10.20 
 
 10.80 
 
 11.40 
 
 12.00 
 
 13 
 
 7. SO 
 
 8.45 
 
 9.10 
 
 9.75 
 
 10.40 
 
 11.05 
 
 11.70 
 
 12.35 
 
 13.00 
 
 14 
 
 8.40 
 
 9.10 
 
 9.80 
 
 10.50 
 
 11.20 
 
 11.90 
 
 12.60 
 
 13.30 
 
 14.00 
 
 15 
 
 9.00 
 
 9.75 
 
 10.. 10 
 
 11.25 
 
 12.00 
 
 12.75 
 
 13.50 
 
 14.25 
 
 15.00 
 
 An easy mode of asoertammg the 'oalue of a gwen number 
 ofV}8. of hay, at a given price per ton of 2000 Ihs. 
 
 Rule. — Multiply the number of pounds of hay (coal, 
 or anything else which is bought and sold by the ton) by 
 one half the price per ton, pointing off three figures from 
 the right hand ; the remaining figures will be the price of 
 the hay (or any article by the ton). 
 
 Example. — "What will be the cost of 658 lbs. of hay, at 
 $7.50 per ton ? 
 
 Solution. — $7.50 divided by 2 equals $3,75, by which 
 
 multiply the number of pounds, thus : 
 
 658 
 $3.75 
 
 3290 
 4606 
 1974 
 
 l.46|750. Ans. 
 
56 
 
 MEASUEBMENT OF HAY. 
 
 NoTE.^The principle in this rule is the same as in 
 interest — dividing the price by two gives us the price of 
 half a ton, or 1000 lbs. ; and pointing oflF three figures to 
 the right is dividing by 1000. 
 
 A truss of hay, new, is 60 lbs. ; old, 56 lbs. ; straw, 40 lbs. 
 
 A load of hay is 36 trusses. 
 
 A hale of hay is 300 lbs. 
 
TO MEASURE OOEN ON THE COB IN CEIBS. 
 
 When the crib is eqwilatefral. 
 
 EA,E.^Multiply the length in inches by the breadth in 
 inches, and that again by the height in inches, and divide 
 the product by 2748 (the number of cubic inches in a 
 heaped bushel), and the quotient will be the number of 
 heaped bushels of ears. Take two-thirds of the quotient 
 for the number of bushels of shelled corn. 
 
 Example. — Required the number of bushels of shelled 
 
 corn contained in a crib of ears, 15 feet long by 5 feet 
 
 wide and 10 feet high ? 
 
 SoLunoN. 
 
 3* 
 
 180 in., length, X 60 in., width, x 120 in., 
 
68 COEN OT CEIBS. 
 
 height,=1296000H-2748=471.6 heaped bushels, | of which 
 is 314.6 bushels shelled. Ans. 
 
 KoTE. — The above rule assumes that three heaping half 
 bushels of ears make one struck bushel of shelled corn. 
 This proportion has been adopted upon the authority of 
 the major part of our best agricultural journals. Never- 
 theless, some journals claim that two heaping bushels of 
 ears to one of shelled com is a more correct proportion, 
 and it is the custom in many parts of the country to buy 
 and sell at that rate. Of course, much will depend upon 
 the kind of corn, the shape of the ear, the size of the cob, 
 &c. Some samples are to be found, three heaping half 
 bushels of which wiU even overrun one bushel shelled; 
 while others again are to be found, two bushels of which 
 will fall short of one bushel shelled. Every farmer must 
 judge for himself, from the sample on hand, whether to 
 allow . one and a half or two bushels ears to one of shelled 
 corn. In either case, it is only an approximate measurement, 
 but sufficient for all ordinary purposes of estimation. The 
 only true way of measuring all such products is by weight. 
 
 When the crib is fia/red at the sides. 
 
 'RxTLE. — ^Multiply half the Sum of the top and bottom 
 widths in inches by the petpendicular height in inches, 
 and that again by the length in inches, and divide the pro- 
 duct by 2748, and the quotient 'will be the number of 
 heaped bushels of ears. Take two-thirds of the quotient 
 for the number of bushels of shelled corn. 
 
COBN m CBIBB. 59 
 
 Example. — Required, the number of bushels of shelled 
 corn contained in a crib of ears 4 feet wide at the bottom, 
 8 feet at thfe top, 10 feet in perpendicular height, and 15 
 feet long ? 
 
 SoLTmoN. — i8 incbes, bottom width, +96 inches, top 
 width,=:lM-4-2=72xl20 inches piSrpendicular height, x 
 180 inches length,=1655200^2748=565.9 bus. ears, f of 
 which is 877.28 bus. shelled com. Ans. 
 
 NoTB.— A barrel of corn is 6 bushels shelled. By this 
 latter measure crops are estimated, and corn bought and 
 sold throughout most of the Southern and Western States. 
 At New Orleans a barrel of com is a flour-barrel fall of 
 ears. In some parts of the West, it is common to 6ount 
 100 ears to the bushel. 
 
MEASUREMENT OF GRAIN IN GRANARIES. 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 'i._.^' 
 
 
 To ^^ the nmnher ofbushels of gram, m a grcma/ry. 
 
 EiTLE. — ^Multiply the length in inches by the breadth in 
 inches, and that again by the depth in inches, and divide 
 the product by 2150 (the rnimber of cubic inches in a 
 bushel), and for heaped bushels by 2748, and the quotient 
 will be the answer. 
 
 Example. — Given a granary 9 feet long by 4 wide and 6 
 deep. How many bushels will it contain ? 
 
 Solution. — 108 iiiches length, x4:8 inches width, x72 
 in, depth,=373248-5-2150=173.65 bus. Ans. 
 
MEASUEEMENT OF TIMBER. 
 
 m 
 
 The unit of board measure is a superficial foot 1 inch thick. 
 
 Besides inch-boards, plank and scantling are usually 
 bought and sold by board measure. 
 
 Bound, sawed, or hewn timber is bought and sold by 
 the cubic foot. 
 
 Pine and spruce spars, from 10 to 4|- inches in diameter 
 inclusive, are measured by taking the diameter, clear of 
 'bark, at one-third of their length from the large end. 
 
 Spars are usually purchased by the inch diameter ; all 
 under 4 inches are considered pvles. 
 
62 BOARD MEASUEE. 
 
 Spruce spars of 7 inches and less, should have 5 feet in 
 length for every inch in diameter. 
 
 WOOD MEASUEE. 
 
 To ascertaiti, the contents or rmmber of cords m a given 
 pile of wood. 
 
 Rule. — Multiply the length by the width, and that pro- 
 duct by the height, which will give you the number of 
 cubic feet. Divide that product by 128, and the quotient 
 will be the number of cords. 
 
 A pile of wood 4 feet wide, and 4 feet high, and 8 feet 
 
 long, contains 1 cord; and a cord foot is 1 foot in length of 
 
 such a pile, thus : 
 
 „« SmONC 
 
 BOARD MEASURE. 
 
 To ascertam, the contents (powrd measure) of hoards, 
 scantUng, andplcmk. 
 
 Rule. — ^Multiply the breadth in inches by the thickness 
 in inches, and that by the length in feet, and divide the 
 product by 12, and the quotient will be the contents. 
 

 
 BO Ann MEASUEE. 
 
 Ina 
 
 g Table, showvng the contents of inch^hoa/rds from 3 to 30 m. Jy^oacZ, (md frmn 4 ^(? 24 /^^^ Irnig. 
 
 
 iiiiiSiiiKkSiillEliiiiSigiS 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 
 mmummmiiimmii 
 
 CT 
 
 
 iliiiliiiiliissisiiiiiiiisii 
 
 p 
 
 
 i'iilllliiiilbiiisgikiiiibSi 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 o o o o o o o o b b b b b b b b b b b b b o b b b b b b 
 
 i» 
 
 
 £ Ei Ei p S S S p^ S S 5 1^ M M M P p W CD OT <! m p> p. (^ M M M 
 
 o o o o o o o o o o o o b b b b b b b b b b b b o o b b 
 
 CO 
 
 
 o o o o o H- o o o o b - b b b b b ^ b b b b b -- b b b b 
 
 p 
 
 
 -J 0> W .J^ W to M ..- p 45 CO ^ pv p. If^ M » w t- p <0 00 :J »> jU W to 
 
 ::: 
 
 
 otooo-jmom>.wt«»-o»oo-iaioipM»(o — otooo-Jtnoi*.e» 
 b o e> b o o b b o o o b b b b b b o b b b b b b b b b b 
 oooooooooo oo oooooooooooooooo 
 
 to 
 
 
 MC0C0t>5tOb0t0tOtO^9tO(O>-'^H^»J^H^l-'^ — 
 
 bO — c>CDQO-a03i*».<WUt^05C'GC-JOaCTi;*.CO^O<OQO*50iCT*kC» 
 
 o b b b o b b 'h^ U b b b b b b b b b b ^ U b b b b b b b 
 
 w 
 
 
 bi-'bbbbb^bbbbb^'obbobt-'bbbbbwbb 
 ooooo:i(>.Mooor3<»*.icooc«mrf^i^oooomifct=ooooro 
 
 ? 
 
 
 b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b 
 cnoiotoo-. cootorotcotDoawoasos.wotomwotoosccoto 
 
 ? 
 
 
 ppOj-jpjfcWMOeOOOO:OT*.tfi^ppo;-Ip5rf^OSMppQOpOTrfi. 
 
 b b b b b b b b b b b o b b b b b o b b b b b b b b b b 
 
 OCX)*.OG0*»O00*.OC0*.O004^OCXI*.OaJ.l^O00*.O00i(>.O 
 
 A 
 
 
 |s|||||i||i!||i|||g||£S£|b§s 
 
 -I 
 
 
 lllliiliiliiiliiiiiiliiiiiig 
 
 00 
 
 
 ©►-'bbbbbbwbobbU.bbboop^booo^bb 
 Oi^rf».«o^3-JtoClOO-co^oi^-'rf».o^^-JOC;lOcoClo>-'Ol^lf».eo 
 
 CD 
 
 
 ui>p..rfkrfi.tt^,fc.rf:.oi oco cccco^sbototi) ■^^^'^'^cncjj^'^oooa 
 
 t3 
 
 p 
 
 
 iillliliiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 
 
 tc 
 
 
 iiili?liliisilliiiiililsiiii 
 
 to 
 to 
 
 
 iliillllllliiiiilKiiiliisgi 
 
 
 
 O 00 » 1^ M p fc C-. J» fO O CO p rP- o p CO p *^ 1^. p 00 OJ *> fS p 00 p 
 
 bbcabbbbbbbooooooosooogoooooo 
 ooooooo oooooooooo 0.0 ooooooooo 
 
 b9 
 
 
 I 
 
64 
 
 ROtTND TTMBEK. 
 
 ExPLANATToif. — First find the width in inches in the left 
 hand column, and the length in feet at the heads of the 
 other columns ; then trace the two until they meet, and the 
 figures so found will express the contents in feet and inches. 
 
 BOUND TIMBER. 
 
 
 r«^\'.' • «»i*^ fit 
 
 Round timber when squared is estimated to lose one- 
 fifih I hence a ton of round timber is said to contain only 
 40 cubic feet. 
 
 Sawed lumber, as joists, plank, and scantlings," are now 
 generally bought and sold by ioard measure. The dimen- 
 sions of a foot of board measure is 1 foot long, 1 ft. wide, 
 and 1 inch thick. 
 
SQT7ABE TIMBEB. 65 
 
 , To measure round tvmher. 
 
 EuLE. — Take the girth in inches at both the large and 
 small ends, add them, and divide their sum by two for the 
 mean girth ; then multiply the length in feet by the square 
 of one-foTirth of the mean girth in inches, divide the product 
 by 144, and the quotient wi|l be the contents in cubic 
 feet. 
 
 Example. — What are the cubic contents of a round log 
 12 feet long, 54 inches girth at the large end, and 34 at 
 the small end ? 
 
 SoLUTioN.-^54+34=88-i-2=44 inches, mean girth. 
 
 Then 12 length x 121 inches (the square of \ mean 
 girth) =1452^144=10,^ cubic feet. Am. 
 
 SQUAEE TIMBER. 
 
 To measure squa/re Umiier. 
 
 Ktoe. — ^Multiply the breadth in inches by the depth in 
 inches, and that by the length in feet, and divide the pro- 
 duct by 144, and the quotient will be the contents in cubic 
 feet. 
 
 Example. — ^WTiat is the cubic contents of a square log 
 12 feet long by 20 inches broad and 18 deep ? 
 ^ Solution. — 20x18 = 360x12 = 4320 -H 144 = 30 cubic 
 
 feet. Ans. 
 
66 
 
 PLANK MEASDEE. 
 
 PLANK MEASURE. 
 
 Table, showmg the contents {boafd meami/ne) cf plcmks of 
 various 
 
 61 ^qz 
 8X-fqz 
 T\Mz 
 91 ^qz 
 ei^qY 
 nMz 
 sTJfqz 
 zx^qz 
 IPqlT 
 
 9Z-iqlT 
 
 sPqfT 
 tPqlT 
 iPqlT 
 zz^qfi 
 xz^qff 
 oPqff 
 ei^qfi 
 sPqE" 
 iPqff 
 9i^qli 
 sPqfT 
 nMT 
 8x-^q|t 
 KT^qfi 
 xx^qlx 
 
 Ol^qll 
 Suoi 
 
 ft»>~Q0000005mOiClOOrHr-lT-IIMeqtMS5«CCCOTfl ■^,-* »0 W3 lO «0 CD 
 
 C<IW500t-H"*t^®COCOa>c^*OOOT-H-^Ir«OCO<DOftC^»OQOi-H-^t-OeOCO 
 t"t^t"OOOOOOOSOSOSPsOOOi-Hi— II— ^C^IN^N(^JCOCOCflTi4■^^^£3^0^5 
 
 aOT-i'44«ist«94«ooOi-ieoco05c^>oooococoa^04*Qt~OcQ«cojc4'^t- 
 'T*<l>.oa(NU3t-0««QOi-IMW05»H-*t-gsiN*Olr*OCOtOQOrHeOCOCTS 
 
 eoo«oi>ir*b"QOooooQ003a&0)OsoooOr-<T-4i-ica(Mc^G>4eoneoeo 
 
 rHiHT-HrHi-ti— iTHrHfHrHrHT-lrHi-HFH 
 
 'ON»0t-O'Mt0t^OC^»0t-Of>l>ot^O5il»01>'O04i0l:»O<M«3t-O 
 eoeOC050t-lr-t-t-Q0000000050SO>OSOOOOrHrHT— (i-H(McqiMeqco 
 
 COQO^-lM»OQOOC^lO^-OSC^■^SDai^^«<0000«lr^t*OC^Tt^t-.05«-^ 
 iaia«SC0e£CCit-r-l:~t^t«0000C00Q9a93O03OOOO>-li-l*-lrHi-lc4 
 
 T-t ^H ■H tH t— t v-l 
 
 OOOI^a'*eOOOOIMM<«>OOOIM"*COOOOiM'«i<':DOOOC<l'*«CQOOc*3-H< 
 
 T(iia>o«j'0«o<o«=«==D5ot-i:-t-t-t-Qoooa)ooooo5comoso50oo 
 
 , I.H f ~< *-l 
 
 ■^0DC^'-OO'*a3<M«DO-*i^Q0(MCJ3O'*00 (MCCO-*00O-*Q0<MtD(!^-<t< 
 
 r-l.«5 0se<ICOO-*00rH«5OSC2<Og;^C0(Ml0a) C0t-r-l-*Q0Cqs£lOrtt^ 
 
 rt4t~T-|-^00)-tu300<?Q>OOd04eiDaaoOaoOCOl>>0'^t*i-l'^QO*-Htnaor<> 
 
 OOOOQOOiOlOSOOO — '^•-t'N'?^'>*COCOCO-*'i^-.#IOiOU3co2SJ^^ 
 
 "r^ O«t-OC0C0OSMCO0a<MO05Cqi0Q0(Mtoa0rH"*00i-<-^)1t-O-^t* 
 t«OOOOQOa303A03000rH^Hi-H(M(Mc^neOCO-^-^-^U^iQtOt5cscO 
 
 "Ti<£-OC0tO^(M»0Q0»-t^t-O-^t*OC0CDas(Nir500rH-*t^OC0coa» 
 t*t»COQOCOCOOias03000*-(r-(rH(NiMN(M«mc«>-^'^-<J»»OiO»0»0 
 
 om^mN>gj5-ocntoOTcjjocort.*t-o<N'noo-H-*i-o m to os n 
 t»fr-t»t-a)oooooscsososoooi-*^^^HiNCfl'N(MeoeoW'*'*'^'*»a 
 
 ^T*V^«5»O»O»O«3«Oee<O»COt-fr-l--t-C-COQ0C00000COOSOSO5OSOi 
 
 3^!2£22ri'53'S'®*os^«iOwooo'MM»ot*o>ON'*eD9o«fH 
 "^■^■^■^^io«aio«5io»acoco?ow<or-i>.i>t»b-t*ooQOcocoooQoo> 
 
 ^J55f?£:2SSSr^*3^:5!"^*oi^coosQ»-<NeO'^io«st-ooosO'^« 
 
FLANK MEASUKK. 
 
 6T 
 
 ToMe continued. 
 
 6l'»Ht6 w^^Dcoir-t-r-t^coooooooasOJOsmoooo^^i-tr-icsicM^^NCQ 
 
 17 /C.ity I T-"!-— JJ t* '"^ i-" "'^ '>■■■' *■"* ;^» l-^ r^ !•- r«j I"- 17^ »^ rt ac 5C C» >?») CO M to « 00 crt 
 
 
 I 00 Mi>-i— P^o^iOOi-^aOWt^MWi— 1«0 _ "ep W-. -i; uU -isi 1-, ri ^ o »n =; rj" 
 
 -^— -^ — >-^— "- — — — . -.ri^Hi-^p^.1 — ,-Hf-i.-..- <<M oqcq<Mg^(Mg 
 
 I tjiJC. >*>-■— 'OJS'o-'J'jC^I-- — lOS^^OOMh-i—iiOC ^00 « r- ■-" « c 
 
 l< j*^ <^K k^ . .^ ^vk 'M^ .- . k^ ^ *»> r#S -^A T-l '^. vM .'y~] ^k 1 I .#^ «>^ n^ b- . .«> ^ 
 
 ySAqtg 
 
 tS'^qtg 
 
 ^Mh 
 
 Z2^q|2 
 
 ovo :- — ^^'mcn: 
 
 qO m CD s ■^ ao M I'- T-H »o o^ CO 1^ ^^ tf: s -^ 
 
 Tjl»a*ij:S«5:=l-I>.OOQOCOSiOSOOrH'— 
 
 — T-t-^-^1— <—< — — — — — •-! — >i!M MW 
 
 I2A'll2 I « • 
 
 OZ^'Xh I 
 
 < -^ ^ ,^1 ^— ^-^ — -M-^*^-^ — — -.^^^^^ — cq cQ 
 
 Sl-f'lfg i 
 
 > r- O -t' )C — -c c 
 
 I ifS OS " 
 
 tfi^q^z 
 
 
 ii^<\iz 
 
 
 9i^q!2 
 
 
 sx^qfg 
 
 ^st-t-t-wooooooosmasosooo— '-^ — — '■M•^^^MWCo«co■*'*■<J■ 
 
 ^i^qfz 
 
 
 si^q{2 
 
 
 21Mt2 
 
 OtOOWWiXilSt^lr-t-t-t^^COOOOOOSasClOiOJOOOOrH.— — ^ 
 
 ii-fqfg 
 
 '<i'*otour5»050'^<o«wt'i'-t^t*t~ooooco»coa>csoaOTOioooc 
 
 Ol^qf?: 
 
 Tt<^--#o«niO*CoeDtc^\:::otcr-l--.t-i—'^oooocOTroGt7ssjOia:oi 
 
 o7 ^n P7 j >i I- -^ "^ — ' Oi — >n 31 -r OS .-c CO .-^ 1-- ivj I- — . 
 
 illqiTi^ 
 
 — . — - «; O o 
 a: 05 iz> z: — ^ 
 
 04 94 ff^ CM 
 
 
 C: CO 00 CC 
 '^^ CO CO -t 
 (M C^ >l W 
 
 I o-^--'Mc^coMQO^Tfi«::uD(0«t^''-XQOXi3ios: 
 
 5 O tC Oi ■* 
 < -M "M CH CC 
 1 (N<M iM CI 
 
 92 ^qz I 
 
 3 « I- — »r; 
 
 . _: 1— < I— t (M iM 
 
 sz^qz §o 
 
 -I— l-^-^r^i-tr— ■'HCJ 
 
 2; 22 ''"^ 
 
 ^z -f q z I 
 
 1 «0 O ^ 00 
 ft A O O C 
 1 »— M (M C^ 
 
 8ZMS 
 
 zz M z I 
 
 iz^qs 
 
 Tp ( ^ — ■T dO — . o Ji^ M .r. 
 
 
 02 Mz 
 
 O ''^ I-- O -■'J f- o ?o 1^ o 
 
 QOCO»OSCiOSOOOr- 
 
 .-ct-oroi-oio.-oc^i--0!«i>.ortt";::>« 
 
 _j -H -M >! iTQ CO -C CO -f" •* ■* O lO •O CO '-O «3 t • t- 
 
 
 c^iMC<i>»i^o4rtrtn«wsocoMcoco'^'*'^-*'*-^'*'<i<"^?i'ir5»Ou3| 
 

 ! 
 1 
 
 0-8 PLANK MEASURE. 
 
 Table continued. 
 
 !.6-*1S m ^ ^ m --^ ~ i~- IP- X a> '^. = -""r^ « co co -* ^ >o o » i - i~ oo oo =-. j. 
 
 
 oS^'lS 
 
 .■>i JO M CS T O "O -> --S >>* i-^ GO /- -:r OS O O CD — CO '-M 1- -r, -C "^ ^. O S OS 
 
 coN-^-'j'O — o^-b^ooa;<RCsoo^-^c^McocoTtl'*il^u~•^?Ol^oox 
 
 LoA^iy 
 
 _ 1— " .^ . . t— U'^ . - . . ^ ;■'! Uy "^ wi ■^" wi -^ _ •-. _ ■ . — _ r— . 1 - . ■ i- Jt, T 
 
 OSAqt; 
 
 i3 .r. c? »c — -o -:■ o — o — "111 ■=> O ■:■ o — O -::? o c ITS o -o O .Jt! c ic r. 
 
 „ ^ _ — — — r-l -« — 1 ^ — ' — ' — — . -VI -M M ^1 (M -■ - ^ fM -M -SI •. Ti 
 
 Ql Aqg 
 
 Til =r. :o CO ro CO iM l- r-l CD — CO O ^ ■- O 03 '^ -i -rr UO -''J -«- .-■ i !•- C^ !■- - — 
 
 Sl^'lK 
 
 QOcMI— — o=:■l^OaTt^OiCOl•^'^*CD^OO'fOi«QO'M^-— iDOiCOlf 
 O-H — iN>ICOrt:f5-^'T«OiO'OCDr-l-^CO-C05CSOO«^(N^i>l« 
 
 ^—i-r-i — — ' — — «—<-<.-' — •- — —'^ — — i-Hi-H— 'IfMrMMT-lfMriirJ 
 
 il '"IK 
 
 17-1 CO => ■--: =s :-T i- -.-^ ^ O ^ en CO !•- .-^ IS ^ TT JC 03 1* — lO :=; ^ XO .>! I-- — 
 
 jii^qs 
 
 cjooo-^^c^ic^t:^coc0'<5''*'*>ooc3«o-oi>-t-oocococ5ro .. =- = 
 
 '-'I^IS 
 
 oaoacioooi— ••— ic^c»i(rQ=o;'3r3<f"T»CiOOiCu;.cor-i-CO'^xcr. C3 
 
 1 1 Aq s 
 
 COCOC5CSOOOO'^'-*'-H!M<^(M»3«'^"^'VOO>nic;cO - i> t^ t^* CO 
 
 ci^qs 
 
 t-QOQOcociOioiOOOi-f'-'^cvJCJirasoySM'^'^'^-Ti-t.'^o'^sDcc 
 
 61^'i'j 
 
 . . ^^ jO «-l -T I- O ^^ ^ 0> ■>' >0 » — ■ '^ 1^ O Cf? '^ Ct -M O CO '- ^ C- o CO --C, 
 
 t-t-t-OOCOOO=30SCSOSOOO^^"-iNfflCt(NMCQM'ftl-^-Tir5»f:iO' 
 
 «-^M^3 
 
 O "O >■ I— cc OS ic — 1-- iM CO -^ O — !T-i r- r; crs o '-< io G^ /; -r o » '"-■^ JO «■ 
 
 ■t}<-*W3ii3«J — h-00 X/C^CnO'-'i-CMS^rOCQrti.r OCOCCI-^QO JCOlOiO 
 
 --( ~- -- — . rH — . — --^ --^ ^^ — -^l -^l C-l M -S) (H ■>• CM CM 'M 'M 'M -M -M CI TM OJ M 
 
 i.-^^\.t6 
 
 rO"*T*<»rto;ccor---ooo c^-cs o -"^ — cn|(N vi so -rr -tf tri in -.c t- t^ ao ^ a^'- 
 
 -- i-H — T-( — i-H .-H rH -^ — .-t — CM . O-TM CH -M -.-^ -M CM - i CM CI (M "M -M ^1 (N 
 
 Uu'<q^2 
 
 
 'joAqfs 
 
 »0OOT-icDT-«ar-ii-'-Mi--->tr^c0C0C0X^c:-*a:'*O-rrOOO:^O 
 •>i^3?0-^-<^i0O»!0Wt^Q0 00OCsOOi-H — CMCMr^-^-^UI^i-^C-l- 
 ^j ^__, _j _, ,_, ^_, ,_j ^ ,_ ^_, _, _^ _ ,_, ,_, ^ ^ ^, -M ^1 -.-I ^1 •>! 1^1 -vr S^l -1 ■''VI 
 
 K.M^2 
 
 O "O O <.1 ;; O O C5 O iC O '.H O O O lO O 'C O O O O O '-'"- O ■-. ^' ■-.. o 
 •MCMC0«'*'*iQ«f^-j;DI^r-00»CSCsOO— t-l>|■MCOW'*^.r^^_ 
 _^ — ,_l ,-i T-H — — — T-H — r-< -— < T— I !-( .— < — i -?^ -M -M Sfl *vT <M -Kj ijq C-] ■>! -M -1 ^1 
 
 8>Ui 
 
 — •CMGMCMC0^^-ri0t0c0-or--h-C0000i3sOO'^ — "vi'>3M?^-^T"<^ 
 
 c-S'^qh 
 
 OiOc:t'^^:0'-'Mr-.— f;£OoO'*^W30TMr-cvi-r:,-iij0O'cai-*'y; 
 
 L2-^'l^5 
 
 to --. T OD M 1— 1-i ^ o -^ ^ ^ 1^ csi :o — to 51 -* -O CM !•- — -^ O »n i^ ^ »- 
 
 — Wrt-*^^— — -J-i-.-ir-t-'-^-^-'t-l — r-(-<T- -M ~^' 'M » CM CM'M 
 
 OJ^q^s 
 
 O^ o-Mw— .Lr; =scOh-CM^O'*'»---i 30*^ vT. cs?^i^^i :=:=-* a:cviy: 
 
 OOO— '^'MCMClWCO^-^OOOCO-Or-t-^I^CO^OSOiOOOrHT^ 
 
 Gt^q?s 
 
 .-: ~. -.T !■- ^ O ,~. CO 1 - ri .o =r. ^ 1- O -^ CO (N :s O -^ ^ .;* _ O ^ a. -■ CD 
 csOOOi— ( — I— <-MC^«C0C0'^'^'r3i0OC^:ci— t--t-XX03;c;00 
 
 8i-^q?s 
 
 O -h 1- — .rs n -M -O O ■* r .rt 05 -M = O ^ I-- — "2 crs 7-J X. O ^t;^ -T "2 
 
 Li-^\to 
 
 COCOCSOSSSOO--— •"-HCvI'MCvirOMCOTtl'T^^tO'-'^^^-Wi^l^CCCO 
 
 ;)i-^h 
 
 OJoi--0*Ob-oroi~-orOr-0^«-OcOb- O'CO-i-- O ^^'t- o JO r- O M 
 oocooosrscsoorro — 1-1— 'CMCMcvicortro-«f-*-!p«c»-0«f5y3«iot2^ 
 
 yiAtih 
 
 lOuL.' r-- — — i-^OM--0=:jC0-.iaS'^)O'X>f-'-:t<t^ O^ i^ O ?C -^ n CM 
 
 t*l>C0XC0SiG50SOOOOi-t'-'i— <'MCv|'MMCO?OTj'T^rt*iOO»O^W 
 
 t'l'^qh 
 
 iT-l^t-t^QOXCOOSSsasClOOO — rH-HCJ'MC2O10OrOrt-+-*||*JH^»O 
 
 Ki-iqh 
 
 *0 ■/- O CO -j3 3-. 1- -c crs rM .-> 1-- o TO ID yj rH •* :d O: cm .c l- O m m oo —; 
 
 e»cot^i>.i^i-QOcoa)coososcsoooO'--^t^ — cMCMTj?2^2522 
 
 303.4 J 
 
 
 
I'JL.AJVK MEASURE. 
 
 69 
 
 Table continued. 
 
 91 ^q ^ I 
 
 > *c »-* so — »^ e<i 
 ; lo 1-- I"- 00 CO o; 
 
 t- « 00 M : 
 
 ■ CM '-,-4 
 
 lO =■ «o •-< w 
 ;0 -^ "^ »0 »0 
 .-J ^^ C^ X (M 
 
 ■-t t- IT* 00 
 CO « b- I-- 
 
 SM CM IM CM 
 
 yi ALi^ ; r::i 
 
 ^TO'<r^" lOif: ;-; -CI— i-»Jtt 
 
 I liM >! ;'j r? "n" ^" 
 
 Oii-^4lfii ft 
 
 — Q4 n^ -^ I 
 
 TM G<l TM ^M C 
 
 ) X 7. O t-H 
 t >l .'J go J? 
 
 w M ■* »r: r 
 
 . *r. -^jt ^-^ ri CS 
 . 00 C: O — >t 
 a JQ M rfl -J* -ep 
 
 Ol I- w 
 >l M ^ _. 
 
 ^ TP -^J" -^ 
 
 B.^^^s; I S 
 
 — S A 1-- I 
 
 '.■M >l ' TM ■ 
 
 < 71 p- 
 
 ) — I- 
 
 - I'-. jO 5s w ' 
 
 SJ'fqh I S 
 
 
 • ^^ Oi U^ 'S -^ 
 
 iS't'l^a I 
 
 5 ai o ^ M 
 
 . ™ ^,l Ki ->j 
 
 00 - 
 >1 TM 
 
 -^ rt ■<r O » w I- 
 
 co — = 00 ;! 
 . . -^ cq ?i ?-. ■< 
 
 .M ?*i >* so :c CO « ys ■ 
 
 "i>ro « •- I 
 
 M r3 so so : 
 
 soocoM — ost**o: 
 
 OS OS r. — c 
 
 ■>J T^ W CO : 
 
 > (M - ri I'- -^ ■■ 
 
 : I- CO 00 03 ^ F 
 ? yj ^ CO -o -» - 
 
 I .o — . 
 ; CO CO : 
 
 ;. O ^ ;i ■ , 
 
 '< sa S 00 
 ; ze r. r^ 
 
 — ■* fffl 05 
 
 00 OS o c 
 
 w M "T- -r 
 
 )U^H 
 
 3 S5 3S 3 « 
 ■ _ ^ >■ <^4 
 
 ,■•* c: I'- lO « — 00 lO w 
 
 — 00 * w ' 
 OO — 1--Q0XO5 -f 
 
 ^^ >! O-l -^-M C-l >' TM 00 : 
 
 ■r CO — 
 
 > ys CO 
 
 OS <D Tt» 
 ■fl' •/! ^ 
 
 » ro « 
 
 r>l OS r- -t" 
 C» t— 00 05 
 
 ro CO x CO 
 
 ysAqJi; 
 
 I :c CO - 
 _. _ - M :c - 
 
 — —4 ,^ — » ->J C^ .Vj ?J C 
 
 ) >* O I* _ 
 
 . X O! OS — • 
 
 I -^ — >* <: 
 
 t o; I-- ■* CM ; 
 
 ) -J r- CO OS « 
 
 ) M CO 
 
 •ra CM o 
 rt TP o 
 CO CO y: 
 
 » *0 1^ Oi 
 
 m 50 I - t- 
 
 CO CO M CO 
 
 n^^H I 
 
 r-1 M -- )-l — I iM (M ;: 
 
 • OS ;o .-o . 
 5 -.w «: t> 00 
 
 l<^iMff-IC<4G^CMCM<M 
 
 I ^1— t^^CvtCCCO-^tO-M-w^I 
 
 X OS 3 o — 
 
 X o c 
 CO CO : 
 
 = w c: 1^ T^ 
 
 S -^ »C in CO 
 S WCOM CO 
 
 BS^^h* , 
 
 - 00 ir: — :jo ic ^H -jd »c 
 
 tg'^qfK 
 
 iOy;-xr^»QOososo---^ 
 
 00 u^ 
 M 7«l CM CM CM CM 
 
 sT'O lO -^ r- -^"c 
 
 ■M 00 lO 
 
 es ^ f. 
 
 CM ei CM 
 
 -M 00 I 
 CO 00 s 
 CM C4 C 
 
 I OS -C CM 
 
 > O -^ CM 
 3 « CO CO 
 
 OS to TM 00 
 CM CO -^ •*■ 
 CO CO CO CO 
 
 o t* W 
 
 'TJ ca ?a "^' ift •O 5D 
 CM CM M CM CM CM CM 
 
 OS w 
 :o t- 
 
 CM CM 
 
 ro o: 
 00 00 
 CM C^ 
 
 iC C<) 00 
 
 OS O S5 
 CM CO CO 
 
 ^ _t I* -rt- 
 — C^ CM CO 
 
 CO M CO 00 
 
 » O 30 IM 00 
 i CO CO W CO 
 
 iS'^qJs i '■;; 
 
 3-, o — 
 
 ' r: '^ CM 00 -r ^ I'- ?^ : 
 J OS OS S O — ' CM -M -" • 
 
 t^ CO 
 CM CM 
 
 OS O - 
 CO r- : 
 
 OK^q^s 
 
 • COO^iO — I'-CMX'^O'JCMr^cCOsi 
 )-^:Dr^0000CSOS ~— — 'CMCICOCO" 
 '—•*-•—<— — — ^CMCMCMCMCMCMTviC 
 
 — I— X 
 
 X -t- O 
 t- 1^ 00 
 CM fffl CM 
 
 ■^ M ^ CO 
 00 ot OS :=; 
 CMC^MCO 
 
 6[^'if8 I ??^:S 
 
 I y5CO^iOio*^a3r-t*ao'Xrs 
 
 CO 00 -^ = »o '-* 
 
 — o -- 
 
 CM "M 
 
 X 7^1 I- 
 
 -M n CM 
 
 CO X - 
 CO CO - 
 CM CM 1 
 
 3 ,— . ^. -M CO 
 : h- I- 00 OC 
 
 J CM >l C^ CM 
 
 w 7«i 00 CO 
 lO CO CO 1^ 
 CM CM ra CM 
 
 si^qfs i 
 
 J r- r- CO X 01 3: 
 
 
 (M l^CM 
 
 -* -* tO 
 -M CM CM 
 
 CO 00 M 00 
 ■^ ^ ift »C 
 CM ffM ■>] CM 
 
 M jCm So I OS ^ Oi ^ r. -f -. -f 31 -f o; -rp 00 ! 
 
 Ll^-'irb -- -M -M CO ys -* Tt< o o '-o -^ I- r- c 
 
 J X CO 00 
 J -M CO to 
 I CM CM CM 
 
 00 CO X (M 
 ■M CO CO-^ 
 CM CM CM CM 
 
 a I ^n So I x t* — ■-» — ' .c O "^ o: -^ OS CO X « r- '•-1 --o ^ 
 .'l**-Hrb [ — J^C^I(M«-0-:p-rf-*iOinCD-^r^l— OOXOS 
 
 OS O C 
 — < Cfl c 
 
 s ■^ OS •* 
 
 4 .4 »• r-j 
 
 J CM CM CM 
 
 •-■lAq?b* 
 
 Tvi CO CO -"^ -^ -f ■'; >o ' 
 
 . ,Tt) CM I- ^- : 
 
 ; ^> OS ffO r— 
 
 4 — I .— . -M CM 
 1 ?Q >^ CM '>! 
 
 ofi^qg 
 
 I 00 c 
 
 ) r^ »0 "^i = I 
 
 . , _ -o w S; 1^ 
 
 . »>- 00 ff. =: O 
 
 inCMCMCMCMCMCMT^CIC-lffJCOCO 
 
 - — -M CO ■* -^ lO "^ !>• » 
 
 .-H N C 
 
 CO « c 
 
 . KO CM _ 
 
 ; -* i'^ ;o 
 : CO CO S3 
 
 CO h- 00 OS 
 :C CO CO « 
 
 GS^Llij 
 
 -00 00 5: o 
 . ^ri ,M ^ 1^ 
 
 £ 1;; 
 
 CM » 
 
 in >i ~ «o -■■ — 
 
 /, .0 re c; t- 
 . . . . , _; CD t- 00 OS OS 
 IWCMCMCMCMOMCMCMCM 
 
 M CO 
 
 OS ;s : 
 rHCqc 
 
 CO CO c 
 
 82 ^'U: 
 
 I cc r- ou uu OS 
 
 CO ^ I 
 
 3 ifl ■ 
 
 I OS uc CO O tr ■" 
 
 ) la CO b- X 00 c 
 
 1 CM CM CM CM CM C 
 
 * X lO 
 
 r O — 
 > CO 
 
 CM OS -A 
 CM Cv» CO 
 
 CO CO CO 
 
 CO 3 b-Tj< 
 
 ■^ irt irt CO 
 
 M CO CO CO 
 
 iS'^^E 
 
 I ?D 'r b- 00 X OS O 
 
 I — — ,-. p- f-i rH CM 
 
 OS ••& 
 
 o — 
 
 CM CM 
 
 3 CO 
 _ _ _ . , tC to 
 CM CM CM M C<J CM 
 
 CM CM CO Tt< t 
 
 CO O I- 
 •^ t^ t^ 
 CM (M CM 
 
 CO = I 
 
 cO'os : 
 
 CM (N C 
 
 ■ O «" •* 
 
 S — ^ ^1 
 
 5 50 CO M 
 
 — r- -rf ^ 
 CO CO -t lO 
 CO CO CO CO 
 
 X ^O — 00 
 -- 'M CO CO 
 
 CO ?o co.« 
 
 os^qK 
 
 ■ — I— "* c: I 
 
 I ifs --r: -^ r^ X X OS 
 
 I ^. ,^ rH 1-^ '^ ^K I— I 
 
 — X 
 
 CM CM <N CM M CM C 
 
 xoss — ^-cMrMco- 
 
 • CO = CO 
 < lO « CO 
 I CM :*t CM 
 
 CMCq 
 
 CO ^4 
 X CJ 
 CM CM 
 
 OS «0 iM 
 0:0 — 
 CM SO CO 
 
 9Z ^'1 S I 
 
 O ;0 CM OS i-O ^^ I— ■* — ^ "^^ ^ "^ "^ ' 
 in.->:ocot--X x:rsSO--^H'MCOi 
 
 . -* O, "^ 
 S -^ »0 ift 
 3 (N CM CM 
 
 'M OS II 
 
 •o C0 r 
 
 CM« C 
 
 ■< W Tf* o 
 
 3 X OS = 
 
 4 CM (M CO 
 
 CO CM OS m 
 
 — .iW — (M 
 CO CO CO CO 
 
 ^^i'l£ i 5 
 
 _ ,, a--ob-xooosc:sOi— ii-< 
 
 _i— I— -.— I,— ( — »-i— N*—!— ICMCMCM 
 
 1^1 00 
 CM -M 
 (N CM 
 
 ^ * CO 
 COrJ* ■* 
 CM CM CM 
 
 CM 00 - 
 <OU3 5 
 
 ea CM c 
 
 S CO -M 00 - 
 .|:*QOXC 
 
 » CM CM CM S 
 
 "iiUOI I — .if^--it^anssOi-<'MC-Ttm3COh-ODOS'r-i-<{MCO^iOCOr^X 
 
 T <^^cMCM■^i-vlCMWcococococococococo"*T^■*Th■<!*»Ti^T^'<!*^T}1 
 
 ^f-JtMco^iOcor^xos ^--,- 
 
70 LOGS EEDUCED TO INCH-BOAED MEASUEE. 
 
 Taile continued. 
 
 
 3 "^ OS en ^ 
 
 Feet 
 lonpr. 
 
 l^^^3^ob^^^^obo^olo^o^^^o^o^st<obo^ot--*l-'^— i-'i— '«— t^-i— »i--i'--'(— iH-ii 
 
 w&^Wl^^^o^al^ol^^^:Ot^s^a^a^aK»^ollOMh^lo>-•l-•NJ^-*>-^l-•l-J^-*l-^^-• i 
 
 co'-co09Ca^9^^|^^^£)^£K)^o^st:OlOl^9^o^^t>9b^^9l-'b^»-•t-•^-■M->^-l|-l i 
 i^afcO'-^oOOOo-M-aocsCtrfkrfi.wfcOi-ai— Ooe»O0D--l-JcaC;»Cn I a t»~ i n 
 
 *^ l,*j — -^ *__- a*4 t#_ r'— ^.f' ^^ --v — > ^^ ^.^ ^ ^^ '^-^ '^ **■ ^*^ ^rw ^*- ^^ i^- "-T ' — ^^« 
 
 C5ow-'icc;-^oco-aow--iow-^oco--iow-^ocjo--iow*<o i 
 
 p? /^ ^ti "-■ ^ tJJ ~* '^— J w^j ~-< ^-j u^ — < .^i WW — « ■»■ vj -^ ^^.' WW -^ ^j ao ~-* »■_) ^tt "H ^ I . f ~ 
 
 CS til i;« rf*. t-3 lO |s3 — O O C3 CC 30 --I Ci en Cfl *". tC 03 t-O ^- t-i o CO GO 00---.T CS I J 1,_ ni 
 
 ^fr■^MJCJO^<o^aOlG0 "^ ., *fa- *-< O en Q ^ .. ^^ en oo ^^ >fa. ■>-i o to o. eo k"^ cji rw r * "y ^ i 
 
 |«.4 a.K *.A ^.A #■« «.■ »!■ ill* «■« i*A *|V ffrft k.4 i.*t k.l\ k*i kvt kVI k.«t k.*k h.«% W*\ k«t k.«l k^ 1 t L-J I I k A 1 
 
 O3t>SCOC0&9&dUC0WeOC>3UhSKSb9hai>3hSh9bSK9bOIOtON3l-i>-*i-<i-< 
 
 C3 CO CO CO w to w CO « w w w « ho ho rss ^^ bo M to tc iv3 lo M b« M «-» H-* I-" 1 
 
 «D — 00-Joc:itn'*-CocqtO~OcDeooo--lcicsc;i*k.toOOi^i— CO5C00 i i. l,« a*i 
 
 O^wg^000tl^0t-J " f-s t^-i •■::'— t^ m 00 *-' _ CO ^ Go O t>a '^ -J Q bJ 4*- I * "j ^v 
 
 »^t^»ft.C;3&3WCOCi9CO&3C>9WUCOUrOhAtSbOMt>SbOt>Oh9MbSt^rO*-4 I 
 
 I— o<-ieoco-i=»csi/'rf^wi*6fco^05ooooo— »c*. enrfktf>»toi-o — ooo I jI v^ 9a 
 
 gaOOCi^a■f>■J;OOOl'5^^^g:^ CO O tJi>^CiaoOt04>-OarroisaA.etQOOt^ i ttU.Y^t 
 
 rfk.ita.|fh,(b.k^eoCe»C;0O3UD9eO&S&9O9COt^b9bab9»s9h9fr0rs9bdtCl>9fcO I 
 
 toro.— Oo«ioo— ic:oit!i*..coro ~oo«oCD-^ocncnrfh.cot>y(-*oo 
 rf*.c7T->^icot>Dcocn*^y,;si>actfCn--Tooo'— ■coo^*J030i>scoo»'<ioool 
 
 rr* ^^ — >^ fv 1mm' irt^ ^^^ ^^* ^^ J ■ ■— ^ fc^* ^^^^ ^« — ^t \JJ *^^ VM ^* — -^ \^j i^p/ 1.^ ^v ^^a -^1 \^j ^^ 1 ^ 
 
 hF)i.>^>b..)l^tf^llh.cc&:eAucou&l:&seoo^&^&9tOl>^^otvs^9balo^sbOb9^a| 
 
 ExpLAiTATioif. — Find the length in feet in the left hand 
 column, and the width and thickness in inches at the heada 
 of the other columns, and trace the two until they meet, 
 and the figures so found will express the contents in feet, 
 board measure. For a less length than any provided in 
 the table, take the ^, ^, ^, &c., of the lengths given. Thus 
 for 6 feet take i of 24, &c. 
 
 LOGS EEDUCED TO INCH-BOARD MEASURE. 
 
 Table, showing the numler of feet (board measure) of 
 
 mGhr-l)&ard& contained in roxind saw logs of various 
 
 dimensions 
 

 LOGS EEDUOED TO INCH-BOAKD MEA8UEB. 71 
 
 
 C-l 
 
 n 
 
 •^ 
 
 o 
 
 «_> 
 
 t^ 
 
 CJd 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 ,_ 
 
 C^J 
 
 CQ 
 
 J^ IQ 1 
 
 CO t* 
 
 00 . c» II 
 
 -» 
 
 u 
 
 -H 
 
 t-i 
 
 IH 
 
 rH 
 
 •"l 
 
 
 
 i~i 
 
 e^ 
 
 ■^t 
 
 N 
 
 M 
 
 CH w 1 
 
 C4 
 
 c^ 
 
 CM 
 
 N ( 
 
 g 
 
 9 
 
 i 
 
 E 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 s 
 
 i 
 
 e 
 
 g 
 
 s 
 
 6 
 
 •'. a 
 
 g 
 
 1 
 
 g 
 
 E 
 
 a 
 
 ^ 
 
 1-5 
 
 .5 
 
 2 
 ft 
 
 C 
 
 5 
 
 J 
 
 
 a 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 5 
 
 
 1 
 
 .i 
 
 p 
 
 J 
 
 .3 
 P 
 
 s 
 
 10 
 
 43 
 
 CI 
 
 7 
 
 I 89 
 
 99 
 
 116 
 
 IH 
 
 .-■ 150 
 
 T75 
 
 191 
 
 20! 
 
 )235 
 
 252 
 
 287 
 
 313 
 
 34£ 
 
 J63 
 
 381 
 
 11 
 
 64 
 
 67 
 
 7 
 
 } 98 
 
 109 
 
 127 
 
 14 
 
 7 165 
 
 192 
 
 209 
 
 23( 
 
 )269 
 
 278 
 
 315 
 
 344 
 
 377 
 
 iOO 
 
 4!9 
 
 12 
 
 59 
 
 73 
 
 8 
 
 i 107 
 
 119 
 
 139 
 
 IG 
 
 180 
 
 210 
 
 22s 
 
 25] 
 
 1283 
 
 303 
 
 344 
 
 376 
 
 411 
 
 lie 
 
 457 
 
 13 
 
 G4 
 
 79 
 
 9. 
 
 5 116 
 
 129 
 
 15. 
 
 17 
 
 6 195 
 
 2^7 
 
 24,7 
 
 27 
 
 !30t 
 
 328 
 
 373 
 
 408 
 
 44: 
 
 173 
 
 495 
 
 14 
 
 G9 
 
 85 
 
 10 
 
 J 125 
 
 139 
 
 IGi 
 
 18 
 
 ; iiO 
 
 245 
 
 26G 
 
 29 
 
 i330 
 
 35:; 
 
 401 
 
 439 
 
 47S 
 
 509 
 
 533 
 
 Ij 
 
 74 
 
 91 
 
 lo- 
 
 r 134 
 
 149 
 
 173 
 
 20 
 
 1 225 
 
 262 
 
 285 
 
 31. 
 
 3 353 
 
 379 
 
 430 
 
 419 
 
 514 
 
 .545 
 
 571 
 
 IG 
 
 79 
 
 97 
 
 ll' 
 
 U4^ 
 
 169 
 
 185 
 
 21 
 
 3 241. 
 
 280 
 
 304 
 
 33 
 
 1377 
 
 404 
 
 459 
 
 500 
 
 548 
 
 .J82 
 
 609 
 
 17 
 
 81 
 
 03 
 
 12' 
 
 ! 151 
 
 1G8 
 
 196 
 
 22 
 
 7 255 
 
 297 
 
 32:; 
 
 35. 
 
 > 4U( 
 
 129 
 
 478 
 
 531 
 
 JK 
 
 G18 
 
 647 
 
 18 
 
 88 
 
 IU9 
 
 12 
 
 J 160 
 
 178 
 
 208 
 
 24 
 
 b 27l 
 
 31C 
 
 341 
 
 37 
 
 .424 
 
 404 
 
 SIC 
 
 562 
 
 Gl( 
 
 654 
 
 685 
 
 , 13 
 
 aa 
 
 IIG 
 
 13 
 
 ;16U 
 
 188 
 
 219 
 
 25 
 
 3 285 
 
 :J3; 
 
 3G1 
 
 39" 
 
 ■ 447 
 
 480 
 
 545 
 
 594 
 
 65( 
 
 692 
 
 723 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 122 
 
 14 
 
 )l7f 
 
 198 
 
 232 
 
 26 
 
 7 300 
 
 350 
 
 380 
 
 11 
 
 B47{ 
 
 •.(5 
 
 573 
 
 625 
 
 684 
 
 728 
 
 761 
 
 21 
 
 103 
 
 128 
 
 151 
 
 i 187 
 
 208 
 
 243 
 
 28 
 
 315 
 
 368 
 
 39^ 
 
 43 
 
 )49; 
 
 >3() 
 
 602 
 
 65C 
 
 71!' 
 
 764 
 
 800 
 
 22 
 
 10i> 
 
 134 
 
 15" 
 
 r 190 
 
 318 
 
 255 
 
 29 
 
 3 i30 
 
 385 
 
 418 
 
 46 
 
 )5H 
 
 555 
 
 631 
 
 fif8 
 
 753 
 
 600 
 
 838 
 
 23 
 
 113 
 
 140 
 
 16' 
 
 1205 
 
 228 
 
 266 
 
 30 
 
 7 ;h"> 
 
 403 
 
 437 
 
 48 
 
 1645 
 
 571 
 
 669 
 
 719 
 
 787 
 
 837 
 
 876 
 
 21 
 
 Vf 
 
 146 
 
 17 
 
 !214 
 
 238 
 
 278 
 
 32 
 
 360 
 
 420 
 
 451- 
 
 50 
 
 I 5 (if 
 
 60(i 
 
 688 
 
 75(1 
 
 821 
 
 ^73 
 
 914 
 
 25 
 
 123 
 
 152 
 
 17 
 
 3 223 
 
 248 
 
 289 
 
 33 
 
 3 37S 
 
 438 
 
 475 
 
 '12 
 
 2 58' 
 
 )fi31 
 
 717 
 
 781 
 
 856 
 
 nio 
 
 n52 
 
 
 ^*j 
 
 ,— « 
 
 c> 
 
 C-3 
 
 -* 
 
 o 
 
 CJ3 
 
 1— 
 
 •JU 
 
 Ci 
 
 
 
 *-H 
 
 CI 
 
 CO 
 
 ■8 
 
 CO 
 
 rt 
 
 CO 
 
 05 
 
 so 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CQ 
 
 •* 
 
 ■^ 
 
 ■* 
 
 "* 
 
 ^ 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 n 
 
 c 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 4 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 s 
 
 « 
 
 s 
 
 (3 
 
 3 
 
 s 
 
 a 
 
 n 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 p 
 
 p 
 
 10 
 
 411 
 
 444 
 
 4G0 
 
 490 
 
 500 
 
 647 
 
 577 
 
 644 
 
 669 
 
 70 
 
 755 
 
 795 
 
 840 
 
 872 
 
 11 
 
 451 
 
 448 
 
 606 
 
 639 
 
 550 
 
 602 
 
 634 
 
 7(18 
 
 734 
 
 770 
 
 82f 
 
 874 
 
 924 
 
 959 
 
 12 
 
 49? 
 
 632 
 
 652 
 
 5.sg 
 
 6!)0 
 
 657 
 
 692 
 
 772 
 
 601 
 
 840 
 
 90£ 
 
 964 
 
 1007 
 
 1046 
 
 13 
 
 634 
 
 670 
 
 698 
 
 637 
 
 650 
 
 712 
 
 750 
 
 836 
 
 868 
 
 91(1 
 
 97ii 
 
 1033 
 
 1091 
 
 1135 
 
 14 
 
 57f 
 
 622 
 
 644 
 
 686 
 
 700 
 
 766 
 
 807 
 
 901 
 
 934 
 
 980 
 
 105S 
 
 1113 
 
 U7o 
 
 1222 
 
 15 
 
 61 ( 
 
 666 
 
 690 
 
 736 
 
 750 
 
 821 
 
 865 
 
 965 1 
 
 001 
 
 1050 
 
 112s 
 
 1192 
 
 1259 
 
 1309 
 
 16 
 
 65/ 
 
 710 
 
 733 
 
 784 
 
 800 
 
 876 
 
 923 
 
 1029 1 
 
 068 
 
 1120 
 
 1204 
 
 1272 
 
 ISi:^ 
 
 1396 
 
 17 
 
 69f 
 
 755 
 
 783 
 
 833 
 
 850 
 
 931 
 
 9S0 
 
 10941 
 
 134 
 
 1190 
 
 127S 
 
 1351 
 
 1427 
 
 1485 
 
 18 
 
 73E 
 
 799 
 
 828 
 
 882 
 
 900 
 
 985 
 
 1038 
 
 1161*1 
 
 201 
 
 1260 
 
 1354 
 
 1431 
 
 1611 
 
 1571 
 
 19 
 
 78 
 
 843 
 
 871 
 
 931 
 
 950 
 
 1040 
 
 1096 
 
 1222 1 
 
 268 
 
 1330 
 
 143(1 
 
 151(1 
 
 1696 
 
 1668 
 
 20 
 
 821 
 
 888 
 
 920 
 
 980 
 
 1000 
 
 1095 
 
 1152 
 
 1287 1 
 
 336 
 
 UUO 
 
 1505 
 
 1590 
 
 1679 
 
 1745 
 
 21 
 
 sm 
 
 932 
 
 968 
 
 ifl-^g 
 
 1050 
 
 1150 
 
 1210 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 904 
 
 97« 
 
 1013 
 
 III76 
 
 1100 
 
 1204 
 
 1268 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 94= 
 
 1021 
 
 1058 
 
 1127 
 
 115(1 
 
 1259 
 
 1322. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 24 98f 
 
 25 1027 
 
 1065 
 
 1104 
 
 1176 
 
 1200 
 
 1314 
 
 1380 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1109 
 
 1160 
 
 1225 
 
 1250 
 
 1369 
 
 1438 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Explanation. — Find the length of the log in feet in the 
 
 left hand column, and its mean diameter in inches (found 
 
 by adding the two end diameters, and dividing their sum 
 
 by two) at the heads of the other columns, and trace them 
 
 
72 
 
 SCANTLING MEASUJJE. 
 
 iintil tliej^eet, and the figures so found will express the num- 
 ber of feet board measure of inch-boards the log will furnish. 
 
 SCANTLING MEASURE. 
 
 Table, showing ilie contents (board measure) of scantling of 
 
 various dimensions. 
 
 i»f>&:bOt-^CCOOD--4C3Cntt^03tOh- 
 
 oo rfi» CO f^ (xi)^ ootf*. 00 »^ 00 rf*. ' a* #* ' oojp^' oorf*.* borf*. 
 
 C3 cs cj ci o o o o o CI C5 cs o'o'oa 
 
 rf*- QO jKOO (^03 Jl^co' tf..C»' 
 
 ^SQOOO^^OOCnt^t^CobObCI-^O 
 
 Oi (^ M L* .— 3 o O 00 ^ cs 01 en -s» « i^ ^- O O CO 00 ** cs en Ot 4^ CC b* H* o 
 
 £l:K^h^^oK^^9b9to^oK^^a>-t*-tv-•l-•>-•l_lH•.^H')— < 
 
 p to QC_-J 03 on -^ t; to ^ O » 00 -»1 cs Cl *. W l» r- o o OO -T cs Ot *. M M l-i 
 
 _Ui W 1,* _— p p 00 C. W *. CO LO — p 00 -J OS «■ H^ to — O «> 00 M 0-1 *. M to 1-1 
 gOOC5rf>.t5 — 0OC5rf..Nl ~OOCsi^.M w'ooCs'rf^U' '>-<i»CS«-tO 
 
 )fh.o:C>303CCC003&9K; r>0tv0K3|.5l>0tOb0l— <H-< 
 
 O00->IS5»w:^twwO00CStn,-t*.-O00--I 
 
 ooif^ 00*. 00*. Qoit^ co>t^'ao'>^ 
 
 pl^CCL-OOCOOOCSCii^a-tOh 
 
 00 *. 00 lf>. 00 if^ ° or °t 
 
 yi It to o o -^ ~. «. c; — ::i oo -J ci .(- i^ ►- ^ Co :r. tn ij Li o -.o -1 cs *. w ii 
 
 CS cs cs cs cs 
 
 cscscscscscscsocscs 
 
 C 00 -. C> .^ |- _ 00 cs __. J« r- w 00 _-. U. _ii — O OO CJ wT M — O 00 cs CT 03 1- 
 
 )^oo n^oo *.oo W<x>' Woo' "i^oo" i;>.oo' '^-oo' I^oo' '«>.oc 
 
 00 
 
 o" 
 
SCANTLING MEASUKE. 
 
 73 
 
 Table continued. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 t>s (^ n GO — • til rf>* ci Co ^ be rf^ cs 00 (-' m rf*. ci oo — bs >*>- ci od — 
 o o o o o 
 
 H-OWC»-^S;if«*-fcOi-*CCOQO'^lCiUirf».WM^OtOCO<IOCn*i.WfcCt-» 
 
 
 W W t* t* t-* ^ J H- — — ^ CO CO 00 X*4-^ CS CS «» en *'' rf». W W ro bS t-» r- 
 l-r-OO fc 
 
 to CO W W CC W W ba t3 IC M bD to tC hS »-• I-. 1-1 i-i i-i H- h-* h-* 
 
 **- 
 
 CiCO COACC'cOCaW COOtCO COC3C0 COOCO COCiCO OA&3 
 
 tfk.jwfl^wtctccowwwrcroiitN3ioi>»ro^i-ii--i--p-*t-«i-* 
 
 -4 
 
 Of^t—Cfti-'Cs -^i—ooijacocc — rf»»i-'tn cs^--iwoowcorf*^»t^os 
 
 C7«J».*i.fci^tfw>^itkC0WWWWWI>3*Ot>Ots3fcOtOt-»l-i|--l->t-t(-< 
 
 
 rf^ 00 rf'-OO tf^CO rfi'QO rf^.00 »(*.00 tf^OO rf».QO t^ 00 f^ 00 
 
 CnCnCnC.-^J^tU.rfwt^.tUCisCObSUCOCOhororororoi-ii-'i-ii-ii-i 
 
 c:5rf».taococ:5t.iw>— co--4rc;»tc^oooo>f-fcooaocrstttCH-OMC?iwt-' 
 
 CO 
 
 cocnoaooco>-i_ tsscocnoootoi— > tiocodcaooco-— • bococnococo-' 
 
 — I-' r- , »— 
 
 AC%C;iCnCnC7*Cnttk.>(^»(k.ifk.uCOUW&9tOt<OtOtOrOt-iM^>-t>->l-^ 
 
 Lwc>oo04-t^o**ii;»w^co--ioiw»-*co-ic;ii>i0ooes*..t«ooooit^to 
 
 o 
 
 osttirf!*wtci-» ^ — cooo-icscr'^w fc*i-» ►- — to oo ~^ eft en »;». w to ^ 
 
 OOOTrf».^co^-<i>aoo3;jtw^co054^l>5»--jo>boOoocsi»:^<ocit*».to 
 
 
 r— o o 1— P- 
 
 tJ. l>30-^sJ«l>»0'^yit>SO^WMO'-lCnbO=:-qtni-o0^y^l>SOMWtO 
 
 
 ooraosaAoaoonciocaoc: 
 
 i-iN-i— o<ooooo-MCiC;*i;trf^cci>»»3t-'Ocotooo-^ocsc?i>f«»tcWfcot-»o 
 
 •5" 
 
 no CCCi '.O CflACO 03ACO CCCa^O COOCO COOCO CCACO 
 
 O<000MCsU»rf*'Wts:*i--OO00^CSW4-WI>»^OC000MeJ0ti*«.C0e0l-» 
 
 1^ 
 
 

 
 
 74 SCAMTLING MEAS0EB. 
 
 Table continued. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 ;1 
 
 ! > 
 
 '■ 1 
 i '^ 
 
 ; 
 
 
 
 OS 
 
 
 osw' «oosw woiw <ocftos wasco omw cocsw ossw 
 
 * 
 
 'oi'os'cj'bi'as « OS CI OS ci oa o oi ci a 
 
 09 
 
 ca ■ 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 AO ctsoeo cocao ctfcio cocao cocao cocao cocao 
 
 
 OSCnCrtCnO»C7t4^*.rf>.rf».»^COCOtOCjOCObDlNafc*t*fcO>-'l-"-'l-i)-i 
 
 OQo'oarf'-fcooODca4»'L-*ocooahf».fcaoooca>f>.fcaooocirf>.MOQooarf»^bo 
 
 w ■ 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 c^osoacac?lOlCn^:?t^^rf».4»^^|!«.^to.coCJOCOCc^s^o^cl^^^^l-'^-'l-*l-• 
 
 -^CnOiOOOCarf^i— <;D^Uii"COQ00aw-^O^+-t>iiSQ0w-»C0^(OCakM* 
 
 05w' o'esw' cDcsco ocatts ooiw cDsaco ocsco ocsco 
 
 ft 
 
 CO 
 o ^ 
 
 
 ^wT^CFa-ncacacnoicn&i>c>.rf^^»;k.eo»coD3tots9fcoi>9K-ti~*i->i-i 
 
 »C*3--JCnL*O-M0'b0O^i'<L>iii3-^«ti.>4O^C7tL^O^tnt«O~4Cnfc0 
 
 CO, 
 
 l-J ' 
 
 o 
 
 
 caoscacacsOicsoaoa cacacacsoos 
 
 
 QO^.j^^saca O5O5O»Oltt^rf^^^^Urf^Cl^CrtCCC0Mb^^^l-•^-•^-«l- 
 too--irf»-<— cocacoo-^cnt«osa'4>- — oow>cco-4.r.t>socaco — QoUihs 
 
 CO 
 
 1-" ' 
 
 
 
 
 ooooooo*j~-i*»rscscsoaC7»CfiOta^i^.*^cowc»coMtoMi-»i-»>-* 
 
 O-M»f-^00CJil^SOC5WO-J*>-'-00^baO0aC0S-J(|^l-»00»iU>OCaCC 
 
 CO 
 
 1— ' 
 
 
 
 
 Ooo-^o>rf^c>si>socDGocac;i»f^t>:)i-'OQO-^catfh.coMOOoooao«ri^t<S)-' 
 
 
 
 
 
 CJ»rf».ak.tU*.t*».ifc.C»C0O3WCOC0h0fc0baMtOK5>-'l-»t-"-'l-»^ 
 OOOSsCncCl-*OtXlCa-tC*5>-*OQOClU>COl-'OODCl»iWI-*OOOOiO<C«l-* 
 
 tf>> CO »|i» X )^ CO rf^OO l^CO M^ 00 tf>- OS tf^CO if^QO >f^ 00 
 
 cm ' 
 
 
 gaO*'cncnenoi^tt^»^»^»pk.cococaco09toroh9»s9iN9<-'i->H^i-tt-' 
 oooosrf»'t>aooocarf^t<.03ocsrt*.fc*ootios»f-fc«ooo oa.rfk. ti. o oo m rfh. to 
 
 Oa 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 L 
 
 - ■■■ -J 
 
SCANTLING MEASUEE. 
 
 75 
 
 Table continued. 
 
 
 
 Feet 
 Long. 
 
 
 
 1 -> 
 
 
 OOrf^ OOrf*- COrf*' 00 rf». OOrffc. 00 tf'' 03ff* OOK^ C»>^ OOri^ 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 t*^CO t^ 00 t^QO tf>.00 t^OO rf^OO hWOO tf-OO HJ..00 #-00 
 
 
 
 •< 
 
 
 
 
 OCDO'-CQOOOOO^T^-JOCSOlCnCTiCnrt^tUrfk.tOCOCttMfcOIOI-'^-'l-' 
 
 h-' 
 
 o 
 
 
 00 rf>» oorfw ootf^ 00 tf^ oo»t^ ooif*. 001^ Cfn^ cfitt-^ corf*. 
 
 
 p-i O O O «500000CD-^^ffSOSOsOfenO»rfi.rfk.rt»>03WfcObOfcOh-l-->-' 
 
 1(^ 
 
 
 
 
 fO — ^OOO<0W0C0000*^-^m0SO0»Cn*.rf*.k)!i.We»bDt0ts5l-'i-* 
 OOatOQO'i-Oacf'OOift-OC-'bOOO^^OCatsSODrft'OOSl.-COOif^OCnbOOOrfk. 
 
 I*' 
 
 tN3 
 
 
 
 
 CCC:<000::»«^L^O^CnW^CO-4CnC.Oi->W-^Ui|>SOQOa3»Kt^OOOOt;>.bO 
 
 
 
 KJ O ►-O 
 
 
 
 
 
 CSCSCVCaOaOlOSCiO301©09OaO40S 
 
 
 «oooo-a-^-?Mc:csOsotc?»ot*w*'»^.t^woswh3bObONSi-«i-*i-» 
 
 *J*-l-'00CJ«t*O-^*-r-000t|>aCCi0SWO-^U»fc050C»CCO'^4>.J-'00W»l>5 
 
 -1 
 
 
 OH-' Oi— c — 
 
 
 o«o«ocDoooeooM-J*^ooiescncnot>^.t|^»ucococotcNSba — u-l-l 
 — Cftwo-. W0!?swooaw^owocrso30_^. wooscooc. womco 
 
 OC*rfi.'bolf^'corfi>i OOrf^ OOr^k' OD»W OOtfk. OOlfk. OO^KOOt^ 
 
 00 
 
 
 •— ooocoescoooQo-4-4-^eaO»C3ViC»»^aw»Fk.cocoetfhstsi->t-i|-> 
 
 M00y»i 4'03O=?it^C0Crth--4WO0SbB00Cn^'MWO0S10Q0CJ»^M00 
 
 
 
 
1 , . , 
 
 76 SCANTLING MEASUKE, 
 
 Table continued. 
 
 
 
 
 63 ^^^^oto^^3fccbSl^^fcO^BtO'— '►"'•"'i-^*"'^^^^'"'^^^^ 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 en 
 
 o 
 
 ' t-oocRiii.fca ^Qoo>rf».to t-tQobsrf^-bo i-bocj*.fcO i-bocs^-tc 
 
 o o o o o 
 
 
 CI 
 
 
 0•^-00^^-^--^^^*•0-^Ol^OC;CO•^asto:OU^L•OOOi."r-00^^^— *Jri4.0"^OS 
 
 CJ 
 
 C3oao>C3C3C30C3Ci ooncacaoa 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 ^ o — o 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 t^ 00 t^CO rf».00 rf^CO f^OO tf^OO tf^OO tf^OO tl^CO tf-^OO 
 
 
 
 Qita oow CO C3 w <:o a w o Oi m o a w cs a w co s: m 
 
 
 00 
 00 
 
 O*f*O>f>.00W00fc«^ti'C5r-0iO*'-=5rf^O^G0C000L>&-li^S;.— OSOCn 
 
 CO 1^ CO >fi>- CO t^ 00 >^ GO »P>> 00^ 00 rf^ ,0011^ 00 rf^ 00 r^ 
 
 or)-icics:^'ii»rf»'CowMtat"'00cowoo-«*^escsCjtif>.rfh.cowto.-'M 
 0'^OD>^c:0'r-ooL'>;/Ca:=;rf^ooi>9caot4»>ooL'OC30»f>'X>Lwoawrf^oot>9a» 
 
 00 
 
 cr 
 
 
 c>y3oo'»-iCT>csV'4^»tkCciN:'r6^=o«ocao*»osoc;»>f»>*.cot>oMi-. 
 
 00 
 
 tf^OO l^CO rfi'^^OO t^OO tf^OO )^00 l^CO ri^CD 1^.00 »F^00 
 
 
 c 
 
 1 
 
 C3 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 

 SCANTLING MEASUKK. , 77 
 
 
 Table continued. 
 
 
 
 ii'eut 
 Long. 
 
 !) by 10 
 7.6 
 
 9 by 11 
 8.3 
 
 10 by 10 
 
 10 by 11 
 
 10 by 12 
 
 U by 11 
 in.l 
 
 11 by 12 
 
 
 1 
 
 8.4 
 
 9.2 
 
 10. 
 
 11. 
 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 16 6 
 
 16.8 
 
 18.4 
 
 20.. 
 
 20.2 
 
 22. 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 22. G 
 
 24.9 
 
 25. 
 
 27.6 
 
 30. 
 
 30.3 
 
 33. 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 30. 
 
 33. 
 
 33.4 
 
 36.8 
 
 40. 
 
 40.4 
 
 41. 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 37.6 
 
 41.3 
 
 41.8 
 
 45.10 
 
 50. 
 
 50.5 
 
 55. 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 45. 
 
 49.6 
 
 50. 
 
 55. 
 
 60. 
 
 60.6 
 
 66. 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 52.6 
 
 57.9 
 
 68.4 
 
 64.2 
 
 70. 
 
 70.7 
 
 77. 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 CO. 
 
 66. 
 
 66.8 
 
 73.4 
 
 80. 
 
 80.8 
 
 88. 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 67.6 
 
 74.3 
 
 75. 
 
 82.6 
 
 90. 
 
 90.9 
 
 99. 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 75. 
 
 82.6 
 
 83.4 
 
 91.8 
 
 100. 
 
 100.10 
 
 110. 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 82.6 
 
 90.9 
 
 91.8 
 
 100.10 
 
 110. 
 
 110.11 
 
 121. 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 90. 
 
 99. 
 
 100. 
 
 1!0. 
 
 120. 
 
 121. 
 
 132. 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 97.6 
 
 107.3 
 
 108.4 
 
 119.2 
 
 130. 
 
 131.1 
 
 143. 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 105. 
 
 116.6 
 
 116.8 
 
 128.4 
 
 140. 
 
 141.2 
 
 154. 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 112.6 
 
 123.9 
 
 125. 
 
 137.6 
 
 150. 
 
 1.51.3 
 
 165. 
 
 
 
 1« 
 
 1-20. 
 
 132. 
 
 133.4 
 
 146.8 
 
 160. 
 
 161.4 
 
 176. 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 127.6 
 
 140.8 
 
 141.8 
 
 1.55.10 
 
 170. 
 
 171.5 
 
 187. 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 135. 
 
 148.6 
 
 150. 
 
 165. 
 
 180. 
 
 181. G 
 
 198. 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 142.6 
 
 156.9 
 
 158.4 
 
 174.2 
 
 190. 
 
 191.7 
 
 2"9. 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 150. 
 
 165. 
 
 1(16.8 
 
 183.4 
 
 200. 
 
 201.8 
 
 220. 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 157.6 
 
 173.3 
 
 175. 
 
 192.6 
 
 210. 
 
 211. 9 
 
 231. 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 165. 
 
 181.6 
 
 183.4 
 
 201.8 
 
 220. 
 
 221.10 
 
 242. 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 172.6 
 
 189.9 
 
 191.8 
 
 210.10 
 
 230. 
 
 231.11 
 
 253. 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 180. 
 
 198. 
 
 200. 
 
 220. 
 
 240. 
 
 212. 
 
 2B4. 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 187.6 
 
 206.3 
 
 208.4 
 
 229.2 
 
 250. 
 
 252.1 
 
 275. ' 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 195. 
 
 214.6 
 
 216.8 
 
 238.4 
 
 260. 
 
 2fi2 2 
 
 2^6. 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 20?. 6 
 
 222.9 
 
 225. 
 
 2->7.6 
 
 270. 
 
 272.3 
 
 297. 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 210. 
 
 231. 
 
 233.4 
 
 2i6.8 
 
 2S0. 
 
 282.4 
 
 308. 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 217.6 
 
 239.3 
 
 241.8 
 
 265.10 
 
 290. 
 
 292.5 
 
 319. 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 225. 
 
 -.47.6 
 
 2S0. 
 
 275. 
 
 300. 
 
 302.6 1 3aO. 
 
 
 Explanation. — Find the length in feet in the left hanc 
 
 I 
 
 column, and the dimensions of the sides in inches at the 
 
 head of the other cohimn, and underneath the latter and 
 
 opposite the length will be found the contents in feet and 
 
 inches board measui'e. 
 
 
CASK-GAUGmG. 
 
 ■M J 
 
 
 Casks are usually comprised under the following figures, 
 
 VIZ. 
 
 1. The middle frustum of a spheroid. 
 
 2. The middle frustum of a parabolic spindle. 
 
 3. The two equal frustums of a paraboloid. 
 
 4. The two equal frustums of a cone. 
 
 Their contents can be computed by the rules for ascer- 
 taining the contents of these figures. 
 
 But in almost all ordinary casks the Mlge or swell from 
 
CASK-GAUGING. 79 
 
 the Imng to the head (not from head to head) is so small, 
 that they are, with scarcely an appreciable difference in the 
 results, usually regarded as the two equal frustums of a 
 cone, and are very accurately gauged by three dimensions, 
 as follows : 
 
 To find the contents of a cash-hy three dimensions. 
 
 EuLE. — ^Add the bung and head diameters in inches, and 
 divide them by 2 for the mean diameter ; find the area of 
 the mean diameter in the table of the areas of circles on 
 page 298 and multiply it by the length of the cask in 
 inches ; then divide the product by 231 (the cubic inches 
 in a gallon), and the quotient will be the number of gal- 
 lons the cask contains. 
 
 Example. — "What are the contents in gallons of a cask, 
 the bung diameter of which is 22 inches, the head diameter 
 20 inches, and the length 32 inches ? 
 
 Solution. — 224-20=42-^2=21, mean diameter: then 
 346.36, area of mean diameter, x 32=11083.52-231 = 
 47.98 gallons. Ans. 
 
 When the cask is much bilged or rounded from the bung 
 to the head, a more accurate way is to gauge by four 
 dimensions, as follows : 
 
 Tofimd the contents of a casJe Jyyfour dimensions. 
 
 EuLE. — Add the head and bung diameters in inches, and 
 the diameter taken in inches in the middle between the 
 bung and head, and divide their sum by 3 for the mean 
 diameter ; find the area of the mean diameter in the table 
 
80 CASK-GAUGING. 
 
 of the areas of circles on page 298 and multiply it by the 
 length of the cask in inches and divide the product by 231 
 (the cubic inclies in a gallon), and the quotient will be the 
 contents of the cask in gallons. 
 
 Example. — "What are the contents in gallons of a cask, 
 the bung diameter of which is 24 inches, the middle dia- 
 meter 20 inches, the head diameter 16 inches, and its length 
 40 inclies ? 
 
 Solution-— 24 -f 20 -I- 16 = 60 -r- 3=20, mean diameter:- 
 then 314.16, area of mean diameter, x40 inches, length = 
 12566.40-1-231=54.4 galls. Ans. 
 
CAPACITY OF BOXES. 
 
 A box 24 inches by 16 inches square, and 28 inches 
 deep, win contain a barrel (5 bushels). 
 
 A box 24: inches square and 14 inches deep, will contain 
 half a barrel. 
 
 A box 26 inches by 15.2 inches square, and 8 inches 
 deep, will contain one bushel. 
 
 A box 12 inclies by 11.2 inches square, and 3 inches deep, 
 will contain half a bushel. 
 
 A box 8 inches by 8.4 inches square, and 8 inches deep, 
 will contain one peck. 
 
 A box 8 inches by 8 inches square, and 4.2 inches deep, 
 will contain one gallon. 
 
 A box 7 inches by 4 inches square, and 4.8 inches deep, 
 will contain half a gallon. 
 
 A box 4 inches by 4 inches square, and 4.1 inches deep, 
 will contain one quart. 
 
 4* 
 
CAPACITY OF WAGON-BEDS. 
 
 Wagon-Beds. 
 
 In most of the Eastern and many of the Western 
 cities all market-men and traders, who make use of their 
 wagon-beds as measures, are required to have them gauged 
 and their capacity stariiped on them by, an officer appointed 
 for that purpose. The wagon-makers in the country should 
 stamp the contents in bushels on each bed they make before 
 it leaves the shop. Should it be neglected, the following 
 rule will enable every farmer to measure the contents in 
 bushels of his wagon-bed for himself: 
 
 To find the contents of wagon-ieds. 
 
 KuLE. — If the opposite sides are parallel, multiply the 
 length inside in inches, by the breadth inside in inches, 
 and that again by the depth inside in inches, and divide 
 
CAPACITY OF WAGON-BEDS. 83 
 
 the product by 2150.42 (the number of cubic inches in a 
 bushel), and the quotient will be the capacity in bushels. 
 
 Example. — ^What is the capacity of a wagon-bed 10 feet 
 long, 4 feet wide, and 15 inches deep ? 
 
 SoLUTioiT. — 120 inches, length, x 48 inches, width, x 15 
 inches, depth, =86400-^-2150.42=40 bushels. Ans. 
 
 BuLE 2. — Should the head and tail boards, or either of 
 them, be set in> bevelling, add the top and bottom lengths 
 together and divide by 2 for the mean length, and proceed 
 by the foregoing rule. Should the sides be sloping, add 
 the top and bottom widths, and divide by 2 for the mean 
 width, and proceed by the foregoing rule. 
 
 Should the contents be required in cubic feet, divide the 
 product by 1728 (the number of cubic inches in a cubic 
 foot), instead of 2154.42, and the quotient will be the con- 
 tents in cubic feet. 
 
PALSE BALANCES. 
 
 To detect false halcmces, scales, (&o. 
 
 Rule. — After weighing the article transpose the weight 
 and the article weighed, and if the latter is too light the 
 weight will preponderate; if too heavy the article will 
 preponderate. 
 
 To find the true weight. 
 
 Rule. — After transposing them as above, find the addi- 
 tional weight that will produce an equilibrium : weigh it 
 with the article by the same balances: multiply the two 
 false weights thus found, together, and the square root of 
 the product will be the true weight. 
 
 Example. — An article weighs T lbs. by a false balance : 
 transposed it is found too light, and requires an additional 
 weight to produce a coimterpoise : this additional weight 
 is found by the same balances to have a false weight of 9^ 
 lbs. "What is the true weight of the article ? 
 
FALSE BALANCES, 
 
 85 
 
 SoLtmoN. — 9| X 1=64:, the square root of which is 8 lbs., 
 the weight. Ans. 
 
 Example 2.— An article weighs 7 lbs. : transposed it is 
 found too hea/vy, weighing only h\ lbs. by the same scales. 
 What is the true weight ? 
 
 Solution.— 7 x 5-^=36, the square root of which is 6 lbs., 
 the true weight. Ans. 
 
 Note. — In the 1st example the additional weight is 
 added to the article to produce the equilibrium: in the 
 second example the deficiency is taken from the weight to 
 produce the counterpoise. 
 
CISTEENS. 
 
 To jmd the number of gallons in square or oblong sgvm-e 
 cisterns. 
 
 KuLE. — Multiply the length in inches by the width in 
 inches, and that by the depth in inches, and divide the pro- 
 duct by 231. The quotient will be the number of gall(»ns. 
 
 Example. — Given, a cistern 6 feet long by 3 feet wide 
 and 4 feet deep ; how many gallons will it contain ? 
 
 Solution.— 72 inches, length, x36 inches, width, 'x4:8 
 inches, depth,=124416-T- 231 =538.59 galls. Ans. 
 
 To find tlie number of gallons in triangula/r cisterns. 
 
 EuLE.— Multiply the base a' I in inches, by the perpen- 
 dicular height c din inches, and half that sum by the depth 
 in inches, and divide the product by 231. The quotient 
 will be the number of gallons. " 
 
 Example. — Given, a triangular cistern 8 feet at the base 
 or longest side, 7 feet in perpendicular height, 4 feet deep. 
 How many gallons will it contain ? 
 
CISTERNS. 
 
 87 
 
 Solution.— 96 inclies, base, x 84, perpendicular height 
 in inches,-r2=4032x48, depth in inches,=112896H-231 
 =488.72 galls. Ans. 
 
 To find the number of gallons m circular cisterns. 
 
 EuLE. — Find the area of the circle in square inches, in 
 the table of the " Areas of Circles," on page 298, or by the 
 rule given on page 296. Then multiply the area by the 
 depth in inches, and divide the product by 231. The quo- 
 tient will be the number of gallons. 
 
 Example. — Given, a cistern 8 feet in diameter by 5 feet 
 deep. How many gallons will it contain ? 
 
 SoiiUTlON. — Area, the diameter being 96 inclies 7238.3 
 Multiplied by 60 in. , the depth, gives 43439. 20 
 Dividedby331,oubicin.inagall., " 1880. gaU. Ans. 
 Table, showing the contents of circular cisterns from 1 
 
 foot to 25 feet in diameter, for each 10 inches in depth. 
 
 DIAMETER. 
 1 ' 
 
 n 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 H 
 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 
 GALLONS. 
 
 DIAMETER. 
 
 GALLONS. 
 
 4.896 
 
 n 
 
 271.072 
 
 11.015 
 
 8 
 
 313.340 
 
 19.583 ■ 
 
 ^ 
 
 353.735 
 
 30.545 • 
 
 9 
 
 396.573 
 
 44.064 
 
 H 
 
 441.861 
 
 59.980 
 
 10 
 
 -489.600 
 
 78.333 
 
 11 
 
 592.400 
 
 99.116 
 
 12 
 
 705. 
 
 122.400 
 
 13 
 
 827.450 
 
 148.546 
 
 14 
 
 959.613 
 
 176.253 
 
 15 
 
 1101.610 
 
 206.855 
 
 20 
 
 1958.421 
 
 239.906 
 
 25 
 
 3059.934 
 
CISTERNS. 
 
 To find the number of gallons in Imb-shaped cisterns. 
 
 EuLB.— Find tlie cubes of the top and bottom diameters 
 in inches, by means of the table on page 303, divide the 
 difference between those cubes by the difference of the 
 diameters in inches, and multiply this quotient by .7854, 
 and again by i of the depth in inches, and divide the pro- 
 duct by 231. The quotient will be the number of gallons. 
 
 Example.'— Given, a tub-shaped cistern of a top diameter 
 
 of 10 feet, a bottom diameter of 8 feet, and 6 feet deep. 
 
 How many gallons wiU it contain? 
 
 Solution —Cube of 120 inches, the top diameter, 1738000 
 
 " 96 " " bottom " 884736 
 
 DifEerenoe between cubes of diameters, 843364 
 
 Divided by 34, difference of diameters, gives . 35136 
 
 MultipUed by .7854, gives 27595.8144 
 
 " again by S4,J the depth in inches, gives 663399.5456 
 
 Divided by 231, cubic inches in a gallon, gives 2867.09 
 galls. Ana. 
 
 Ettle 2. — Add the top and bottom diameters in inches 
 and divide by 2 for the mean diameter. Find the area in 
 square inches of the mean diameter by means of the table 
 on page 298 or by the rule given on page 296. Multiply 
 the area by the depth in inches, and divide the product by 
 231, and the quotient will be the number of gallons. 
 
 Example. — ^What are the contents in gallons of a cistern 
 8 feet diameter at the top, 6 feet at the bottom, and 4 feet 
 deep? 
 
CISTERNS. 89 
 
 Solution. — 96 inches + 72 inches = 168-j-2=84 inches, 
 mean diameter ; o^hen 5541.77, area of mean diameter, x 48 
 inches, depth,=266004.96-^ 231=1151.53 gallons. Ans. 
 
 x^oTE. — The- quantity of water which falls upon most 
 farm buildings is sufficient to afford an ample supply for 
 the domestic animals of the farm, when other supplies fail, 
 were cisterns large enough to hold it provided. The aver- 
 age amount of rain that falls in the latitude of the Northern 
 States during the year, is about 3 feet per year, or 3 inches 
 per month. Every inch in depth that falls upon a roof 
 yields 2 barrels for each ten feet square, and 72 barrels a 
 year are yielded by 3 feet of rain. A bam 30 W 40 feet 
 supplies annually from its roof 864 barrels, which is more 
 than 2 barrels per day, the year round. 
 
 The size of cisterns should vary according to their in- 
 tended use. If they are to furnish a daily supply of water, 
 they need not be so large as for saving supplies against 
 summer and droughts. 
 
 The size of the cistern in daili/ use need not exceed that 
 of a body of water on the whole roof of the building, 7 
 inches deep, or two months' greatest fall of rain. Cisterns 
 intended to save the water to draw from in time of drought, 
 should be about three times as large. 
 
 To ascertcdn the size of cisterns adapted to roofs, cfcc. 
 
 KuLE. — ^Multiply the length of the roof in inches by the 
 breadth in inches, and that by the depth of the fall of rain 
 required to be saved, and divide the product by 231, and 
 
90 OISTEENS. 
 
 the quotient will be the number of gallons. Divide the 
 number of gallons by 31^, and it will giip the number of 
 barrels. 
 
 Example. — "What must be the capacity of a cistern to 
 contain the water running from a roof 40 feet long by 30 
 wide, for 2 months : estimated fall of rain Y inches ? 
 
 Solution. — i80 inches, length, x 360 inches, width, x 7 
 inches, depth of rain, =1909600^231=8266f galls. Ans. 
 
 Note. — To ascertain the necessary dimensions of a cis- 
 tern large enough to contain 826 6|- gallons, consult the 
 foregoing table. It will there be found that a cistern 13 
 feet in diameter contains 827 gallons for "each 10 inches in 
 depth. To give the cistern 10 times that depth, or 100 
 inches (8-^ feet) will make it contain 8270 gallons. Hence 
 a cistern 13 feet in diameter, and 8^ feet deep, will be large 
 enough. 
 
 To further aid the inquirer in ascertaining the requisite 
 diameters of cisterns for the above purposes, we subjoin 
 an additional 
 
 Table, showhig the contents of circular cisterns in iarrds 
 for each foot in depth. 
 
 5 feet 4.66 
 
 6 " 6.74 
 
 7 " 9.13 
 
 8 " 11.93 
 
 9 " 15.10 
 
 10 " •. 18.65 
 
OISTEENS. 
 
 91 
 
 The above cut represents the sectional view of a filtered 
 cistern, with a brick wall partition in the middle and the 
 box of charcoal and sand at the bottom, with alternate layers 
 of each. The pipe at the left leads from the roof, and the 
 one at the right connects with the pump. "With this style 
 of cistern properly constructed, no one need be in want of 
 pure wholesome water. 
 
 To construct a filtering cistern to furnish pure water 
 for domestic use. 
 
 Rule. — Divide the cistern into two equal compartments 
 by a wall of brick or stone, open at the bottom to the 
 height of about six inches, and water-tight thence to the 
 top. Let one compartment be for receiving the water, 
 and the other for containing it when filtered and ready for 
 use. Put alternate layers, 6 inches deep, of gravel, sand, 
 
92 
 
 CISTEKNS. 
 
 and pounded charcoal at the bottom of the former, and 
 Band and gravel at the bottom of the latter. The former 
 will receive the water from the pipe, and it will rise filtered 
 in the latter. 
 
 Anothek .Mode. — ^Divide the cistern as above by a 
 double open wall of stone or brick, with an interspace of 
 about six inches between the walls. Fill the interspace 
 with sand and pounded charcoal. Let one compartment 
 receive the water, and it will pass through the filter into 
 the other ready for use. 
 
HYDEAULIOS. 
 
 The science of hydraulics treats of the motion of non- 
 elastic fluids ; hydrodynamics, of the force of that motion ; 
 and hydrostatics, of the pressure, weight, and equilibrium. 
 
 THE FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OP HYDRAULICS, &c. 
 
 1. Descending water is governed by the same laws as 
 falling bodies. 
 
 2. Water will fall 1 foot in ^ of a second, 4 feet in ^ a 
 second, and 9 feet in f of a second, and so on in the same 
 ratio. 
 
 3. The velocity of a fluid propelled through an oriflce 
 by a head of water in a cistern or reservoir, is the same 
 that a body would acquire by falling perpendicularly 
 through a space equal to that between the top of the head 
 and the centre of the opening, less the friction which, in 
 pipes, drains, amd sluices, increases as the squa/re of the 
 velocity. 
 
 4. The mean velocity of water propelled through an 
 opening by a head of 1 foot is 5f feet per second. 
 
 : 5. Fluids press equally in all directions. 
 
 6. The pressure of a fluid on the bottom of a vessel is as 
 
94 HYDKAULICS. 
 
 the base and perpendicular height, whatever may be the 
 figure of the vessel. 
 
 7. The pressure of a fluid on any kind of surface, hori- 
 zontal, vertical, or oblique, is equal to the weight of the 
 column of the fluid, the base of which is equal to the area 
 of the surface pressed, and the height of which is equal to 
 the distance from the surface of the fluid to its centre of 
 gravity, on the surface pressed. 
 
 8. The side of a vessel filled with water sustains a 
 pressure equal to the area of the side ftiultiplied by half 
 the depth, whether the i sides be vertical, oblique, or hori- 
 zontal. 
 
 9. If the vessel be tub-shaped, or in the form of an in- 
 verted frustum of a cone or pyramid, the bottom sustains 
 a pressure equal to the area of the bottom and the depth 
 of the fluid. 
 
 10. The quantity of water that will flow out of a per- 
 pendicular slit or aperture from the surface of the head to 
 its base, is but two-thirds of what would flow out of a slit 
 of the same dimensions were it horizontal -at the level of 
 the base. 
 
 11. A circular pipe of the same area as a square, tria/n- 
 gular, or irregular one, will discharge more water in a given 
 time. 
 
 12. The greater the length of the discharging pipe, the 
 less the discharge, unless the pipe be perpendicular. 
 
HYDEAULICS. 95 
 
 13. A pipe that is inclined will discharge more water in 
 a given time than a horizontal pipe of the same dimen- 
 sions. 
 
 14. The friction of a fluid is greater in small than in 
 large pipes, when equal quantities are discharged. 
 
 16. In perpendicular pipes, the discharge being governed 
 by the law of gravitation, the greater the length of the 
 pipe, the greater the discharge. 
 
 16. When a prismatic vessel empties itself through an 
 aperture, twice the quantity would be discharged in the 
 same time if it were kept full. 
 
 17. . In a stream, sluice, or ditch, the velocity is the 
 greatest at the surface and in the middle of the current. 
 
 18. The time occupied by a given quantity of water 
 passing through pipes or sewers of equal apertures and 
 lengths, and with equal falls, is in the following propor- 
 tions, viz. : In a straight line, as 90 ; in a regular curve, as 
 100 ; and in passing a right angle, as 140. 
 
 To jmd the velocity of a stream issuing from a head 
 of water. 
 
 Ktjle. — Multiply the height of the head in feet by 64.33, 
 and the square root of the product will be the velocity in 
 feet per second. 
 
 Example. — ^What is the velocity of a stream projected 
 through an opening by a head of 12 feet ? 
 
96 HTDEAULICS. 
 
 ■ Solution. — 12x64.33=771.96, the square root of which 
 is 27.780 feet per second. Ans. 
 
 To find the hsad, the velocity leing given. 
 
 Rule. — Square the velocity and divide it by 64.33, and 
 the quotient will be the head in feet. 
 
 Example. — ^What is the head of water that projects a 
 stream 27.780 feet per second ? 
 
 Solution.— 27.780'=771.96-7-64.33=12 feet. Ans. 
 
 ISToTE.— In the above results no allowance is made for 
 friction, which should be made in order to ascertain the 
 practical results. The friction of water passing out of 
 orifices, and not through pipes, sluices, or sewers, is, how- 
 ever, very small. 
 
 To find the quantity of water that will issue from an 
 opening, the dimensions of the opening a/nd the head hevng 
 given. 
 
 EuLE. — Find the velocity of the jet or stream by the 
 foregoing rule, and multiply it by the area of the orifice 
 in feet, and the product will be the number of cubic feet 
 per second the orifice will discharge. 
 
 Example. — ^How much water will an orifice of an area 
 of 2 square feet discharge per second under a head of 12 
 feet? 
 
 Solution. — 12x64.38=771.96, the square root of which 
 is 27.780 feet velocity; then, 27.780x2 feet, area,=55^ 
 cubic feet per second. Ans. 
 
HYDEAULI08. 
 
 97 
 
 To Jmd the velocity of currents in d/rains, ditches, 
 sluices, hroohs, or rivers. 
 
 KuLE. — Find the velocity of the surface of the current 
 in the middle of the stream by taking the number of inches 
 a floating body passes over it in one second. 
 
 This, for all ordinary practical purposes, will be suffi- 
 cient. But to find the mecm or average velocity, take the 
 square root of the velocity so found, double it, and deduct 
 it from the velocity at the top, and add one to the remainder, 
 and the result vrill be the velocity at the bottom. Add the 
 top and bottom velocities, and divide them by two for the 
 mean velocity. 
 
 Example. — ^What is the mean velocity of a cun-ent, the 
 velocity of which at the surface, in the middle of the 
 stream, is 36 inches per second ? 
 
 Solution.— |/36=6 x 2=12-36 = 24 + 1=25, velocity 
 
 5 
 
98 HTDEAULIOS. 
 
 at bottom; then, 36 + 25 = 61 -f- 2 =30.5 inches per second, 
 mean velocity. Ans. 
 
 To find the volume of water discharged hy drains, sluices, 
 IrooTcs, dhc, of gimen dimensions, in a gi/ven time. 
 
 Rule. — Multiply the velocity of the current per second 
 in feet, by the area of the transverse section of the drain 
 or sluice, in feet, and the product will be the quantity dis- 
 charged per second, in cubic feet. 
 
 Example. — What volume of water will a drain 2 feet 
 wide and 3 feet deep discharge in one hour, the mean velo- 
 city of the current being 30 inches per second? 
 
 Solution.— 2x3=6 sq. ft., area of section x 2^ ft., velo- 
 city,=15 cubic feet discharged per second; then, 15 x 
 3600 seconds (one hour)=54,000 cubic feet per hour. 
 Ans. 
 
 ]^0TE. — The standard gallon contains 231 cubic inches, 
 and a cubic foot contains 1728 cubic inches. Accordingly, 
 a cubic foot of water contains 7.4-T6 standard gallons. 
 Hence, if we multiply the number of cubic feet by 7.476, 
 it will give the number of gallons. For instance, the drain 
 in the above example discharges 54,000 cubic feet per 
 hour, which, multiplied by 7.476, gives 403,704 gallons 
 discharged per hour. 
 
 To find the velocity of water rvmmAng through pipes. 
 EuLE. — Multiply the height of the head in feet by 2500; 
 divide this product by a divisor obtained as follows : Di- 
 
HYDKAULIOS, 99 
 
 vide 13.88 by the diameter of the pipe in inches, and mul- 
 tiply the quotient by the length of the pipe in feet, and 
 the result will be the divisor aforesaid. Divide the first 
 product by this sum, and the square root of the quotient 
 will be the velocity in feet per second of the current in the 
 pipe. 
 
 Example. — What is the velocity of water in a pipe 5 
 inches diameter and 100 feet long, and under a head of 2 
 feet? 
 
 Solution.— 13.88-4-5=2.776x100=277.6 and 2500x2 
 =5000; then, 50004-277.6=18, the sq. root of which is 
 4.24 feet. Ans. 
 
 To jmd the quamiity of water dischwrged through pipes. 
 
 EuLE. — Multiply the velocity of the current per second 
 in feet by the area of the transverse section of the pipe in 
 feet, and the product will be the quantity discharged in 
 cubic feet per second. , 
 
 Example.' — What quantity of water will a pipe 6 inches 
 diameter and 100 feet long discharge per hour under a 
 head of 2 feet? 
 
 Solution. — By the preceding rule, find the velocity of 
 the current in the pipe, thus: 2500x2 feet, head, =5000, 
 13.88-r6 inches, the diameter of the pipe, = 2.313 x 100 
 feet, length of the pipe, = 231.3, divisor; 5000-4-231.3= 
 24.34, the square root of which is 4.80 feet, velocity per 
 second. Then, 4.80 x .1963 square feet, area of pipe,= 
 
100 HYDRAULICS. 
 
 .942 cubic feet discharged pei second. .942 x 3600 seconds 
 (one bour)=3391 cubic ft. discharged per hour. Aris. 
 
 To find the pressure of a fluid on the bottom of a vessel, 
 cistern, or reservoir 
 
 KuLE. — Multiply the area of the base in square feet by 
 the height of the fluid in feet, and their product by the 
 weight of a cubic foot of the fluid. 
 
 Example. — ^What is the pressure on the bottom of a 
 cistern 10 feet in diameter and 8 feet deep, filled with 
 water ? 
 
 Solution.— 78.54, area of bottom, x 8=628.32 x 62J lbs., 
 the weight of a cubic foot of water,=39.370 lbs. Ans. , * 
 
 To find the pressure on the side of a vessel. 
 
 EuLE. — ^Multiply the area of the side in feet by half its 
 depth in feet, and that by the lbs. per cubic foot of the 
 fluid. 
 
 Example. — "What is the pressure upon the sloping side 
 of a pond 10 feet square by 8 feet deep ? 
 
 Solution.— 10'= 100x4, half the depth,=400 x 62^ lbs., 
 the weight of a cubic foot of water, =25000 lbs. Ans. 
 
 Note. — It is proper to remark that all of these rules, 
 while they are theoretically correct, do not pretend to em- 
 brace a variety of circumstances which affect the flow of 
 water through apertures, and which should be taken into 
 consideration in all cases. These circumstances cannot be 
 
HYDEAULICS. 101 
 
 measured by rules, and the just estimate of their influence 
 must depend on experience. 
 
 1. Water will flow more rapidly from an aperture in a 
 ^vessel if a funnel-shaped tun or a rapidly widening trough 
 
 be attached to it on the outside. This prevents, so to 
 speak, the intercrossing of the currents as they flow over 
 the sides of the aperture ; instead of obstructing itself, by 
 reason of its tendency to cross the centre of the opening, 
 the water follows the sides of the funnel or trough, and 
 allows the full area of the opening to discharge fi-eely. 
 
 2. The ease with which a given quantity of water can 
 be made to pass through a pipe depends (other things 
 being equal) upon the proportion between the area of the 
 opening and st circumference — the latter being a source 
 of friction. (See NoS. 14 and 11 above.) 
 
 3. The ease of the flow depends on the perfect uni- 
 formity of the channel. A lump or any other inequal- 
 ity in the sid^ of a pipe will disturb the current and cause 
 the water to obstruct itself. Perfect /b/'?» is more import- 
 ant than a smooth surface. 
 
 4. The same principle operates in the case of deflections 
 from a straight line. If the water is turned out of its 
 course the evenness of the flow is disturbed, and it becomes 
 mtjre diflicult (see No. 18 above). The influence of a 
 "regular curve" is in proportion to its radius; more 
 water will flow through a pipe which turns in a large circle 
 than in one which turns more abruptly. 
 
l'©2 
 
 This cut is intended to illustrate the use of the 
 Hydraulic Earn ; repi'esenting one operated by 
 the water, from a spring near which it is located, 
 and forcing the water through suitable leading and 
 discharge pipe, to a considerable elevation (either 
 perpendicular or upon an inclined plane) to a trough, 
 which may be placed in any convenient locality for 
 watering farm stock of every description, — afibrding 
 a constant supply of fresh water the year round. It 
 may also be used to supply a cistern or a water-tank 
 in the house. 
 
-^ THE HYDEAULIC KAM. • 
 
 The hydraulic ram is a machine for forcing a portion 
 of a brook or stream to any required elevation and distance, 
 when the requisite head or pressure can be obtained. 
 
 "Wherever a large spring or a limited but constant stream 
 is at hand, by which a fall of four or five feet may be pro- 
 duced, by building a dam or otherwise, a portion of the 
 water of such spring or stream may be raised to a perpen- 
 dicular height of more than 100 feet by its own power, 
 through the agency of the water-ram. Thus, a stream in 
 a deep valley, or a rivulet or brook situated some distance 
 below a point where it is desired to have a cistern or re- 
 servoir, may be made to raise a part of its water by one 
 of these machines. From such a cistern or reservoir the 
 water may afterwards be conveyed to any part of the pre- 
 mises below it, and applied for the purpose of irrigation, 
 watering of stock, manufactories, or domestic or ornamental 
 
 use. 
 
 The power of "the ram, and the height to which it will 
 raise the water, as also the quantity raised, are in propor- 
 tion to the volume of the stream and the head or fall ob- 
 tained. 
 
 The ram is applicable where no more than 18 inches fall 
 
 can be obtained. 
 
104 THE HYDEAULIO EAM. 
 
 The distance which the water has to be conveyed, and 
 the consequent length of pipe, have also a bearing upon 
 the quantity raised and its elevation, as the larger the pipe 
 through which the water has to be forced, the greater the 
 friction to be overcome, and the more the power consumed 
 in the operation. 
 
 The ram can be applied to convey water a distance of 
 from 100 to 200 rods, and to elevations of from 100 to 200 
 feet. 
 
 A fall of 10 feet from the spring or brook to the ram is 
 sufficient to force the water to any elevation not over 150 
 feet above the ram, and in distance not over 150 rods 
 from it. 
 
 Although the same fall will raise water to a much 
 greater elevation, and force it to a greater distance, yet the 
 quantity will diminish as the height and distance &ie in- 
 creased. 
 
 When a sufficient quantity of water is raised by an ade- 
 quate fall the fall should not be increased, as by so doing 
 the strain upon the ram is unnecessarily increased, and its 
 durability lessened. 
 
 The proportion which the height to which the water is 
 raised, and the quantity raised, bear to the fall and to the 
 volume of the spring or stream, is about live times the 
 height of the fall, and \ of the volume of the stream forced 
 a distance of 50 rods — allowing for the friction in both the 
 supply and discharging pipes. 
 
THE HYDRAULIC EAM. 105 
 
 Thus, if the ram be placed under a fall of 5 feet, for 
 everj' 7 gallons drawn from the spring, 1 gallon may be 
 raised 25 feet, or ^ a gallon 50 feet, and forced a distance 
 of 50 rods. If the fall be 10 feet, it will raise one gallon 
 60 feet, or ^ a gallon 100 feet, for every 7 gallons dis- 
 charged by the stream. If the fall be 10 feet, and the vol- 
 ume of the stream he dovMed, it will raise 1 gallon 100 
 feet, and so on in the same ratio. 
 
 The pipe leading from the spring or head of the fall to 
 the ram is called the supply pipe. 
 
 The pipe leading from the ram to the reservoir or cistern 
 is called the discharging pipe. 
 
 The shorter and straighter the supply pipe, the better. 
 Hence, imless the supply pipe is laid to the head of a 
 spring, it is better to dam the stream at the head of its 
 greatest fall, and after inserting the supply pipe at the base 
 of the dam, let it follow the depression of the bed of the 
 stream to the ram at the lowest point. 
 
 The shorter and straighter the discharging pipe the bet- 
 ter ; there is less friction to be orvercome. 
 
 Should it be necessary to curve either pipe, let the radius 
 of the curve be as large as possible. 
 
 To asoertadn the quantity of water and the height ito 
 which it may he elevated hy a given fall and volume of 
 water — discharging pipe not over 50 rods. 
 
 Rule. — Find, by means of a common level, the fall of 
 
 your spring or stream ; then find the quantity of water it 
 
 5* 
 
106 THE HTDRArLIO BAH. 
 
 discharges per minute or hour, by means of the rule given 
 for that purpose on page 98 ; then multiply the height of 
 the fall by 5, for the elevation, and divide the number of 
 gallons discharged by the stream by 7, for the quantity 
 of water raised. 
 
 Example. — Given, a spring with a fall of 8 feet, dis- 
 charging 28 gallons per "minute. How high and how 
 much water will it raise per minute by means of a ram — 
 discharging pipe not exceeding 50 rods ? 
 
 Solution. — 8x5=40 feet elevation. 28-^7=4: gals, per 
 minute. Ans. 
 
 Note. — In the same ratio, it will raise 2 gallons 80 feet 
 per minute, or 1 gallon 160 feet per minute, and so on. 
 
 The following working results of water rams now in 
 actual use, will enable the inquirer to ascertain the elevat- 
 ing capacity of springs, with various falls and volume of 
 water. The rams used are " Kumsey & Co.'s Premium 
 Hydraulic Rams," Seneca Falls, N. Y. 
 
 1. — Fall from surface of water in spring to ram 4 feet. 
 
 Length of supply pipe, inside diameter 1 inch 60 " 
 
 Volume of water discharged by spring in 10 minutes 25 gallons. 
 
 Length of discharging pipe, inner diameter f inch, curved in 
 
 three places to a semicircle ISO feet. 
 
 Elevation of discharging pipe from ram to cistern 19 ." 
 
 Discharged every ten minutes SJgallons. 
 
 2. — Fall from surface of water in spring to ram 10 feet. 
 
 Length of supply pipe, inside diameter IJ inches 40 " 
 
 Volume of water discharged by spring per minute 20 gallons. 
 
 Length of discharging pipe, \ inch inside diameter. 50 rods. 
 
 Elevation of discharging pipe from ram to cistern 85 feet. 
 
 Discharged per minute - 2} gallons. 
 
THE HTDRAULIO BAM. 107 
 
 3 — ^Fall from Biirface of water in spring to ram SJ feet. 
 
 Length of supply pipe, inside diameter 1 ^ inches 30 '* 
 
 Volume of water discharged by spring ' not given. 
 
 L:!ngth of discharging pipe inside diameter J inch 30 ruds. 
 
 E'evation of discharging pipe from ram to cistern 33 feet. 
 
 Discliarged a constant stream ^ inch diameter. 
 
 4. — Fall from surface of water in spring 12 feet. 
 
 Length of supply pipe, inside diameter 1^ inches 32 " 
 
 Volume of water discharged by spring. not given. 
 
 Leagth of discharging pipe, inside diameter J inch 14 rods. 
 
 Elevation of discharging pipe from ram to cistern at barn 35 feet. 
 
 Discharged a constant stream J inch diameter, at barn, afford- 
 ing more than a supply for 6^ head of cattle. 
 
 5. — Fall from surface of water in spring to ram 9 feet. 
 
 liength of supply pipe, inside diameter one inch 60 'J 
 
 Volume of water discharged by spring. -. not given. 
 
 Length of discharging pipe, inside diameter i inch 100 feet. 
 
 Elevation of discharging pipe from ram to cistern 35 " 
 
 Discharges a constant stream. J inch diameter, into a cistern 
 at house and after supplying water for the domestic use of 
 a large family, passes off to the cattle yard 20 rods further, 
 affording an abundant supply for a large herd of cattle. 
 
 6. — Fall from surface of water in spring to ram 8 feet. 
 
 Length of supply pipe, inside diameter 1 i inches not given. 
 
 Volume of water discharged by spring " 
 
 Length of discharging pipe, J inch inside diameter 70 rods. 
 
 Elevation of discharging pipe from ram to cistern 80 feet. 
 
 Delivers a good supply of running water at house and bam, 
 sufficient for all necessary purposes. 
 
 7. — Fall of water from surface of spring to ram 10 feet. 
 
 Length of supply pipe, inside diameter 1 J inches not given. 
 
 Volume of water discharged by spring " 
 
 Length of discharging pipe. ^ inch inside diameter. . ; 76 rods. 
 
 Elevation of discharging pipe from ram to cistern 110 feet. 
 
 Delivers a constant stream of J inch diameter. 
 
 8.— Fall from surface of spring to ram 6} feet. 
 
 Length of supply pipe, inside diameter 1 J inches 60 rods. 
 
 Elevation of discharging pipe from ram to cistern 60 feet. 
 
 Discharges sufficient water In barn yard to supply 30 head of cattle. 
 
 9.— Fall from surface of spring to ram_. 9 feet. 
 
 Size of supply pipe, inside diameter 2 inches, length not given. 
 
 Length of discharging pipe, inside diameter | Inch 150 rods. 
 
 Elevation of discharging pipe from ram to cistern 130 feet. 
 
 Delivers an abundant supply of water for house, barn, barn-yard and hog- pen. 
 
108 THE HYDEAULIC EAM. 
 
 10. — Fall from surface of dam to ram 1 feet. 
 
 Length and size of supply pipe not given. 
 
 Volume of water discharged by stream " 
 
 Length of discharging pipe, (size not given). 126 ^ rods. 
 
 Elevation of discharging pipe from ram to cistern 75 feet 
 
 Discharges '26 barrels of veater in 2i hours. 
 
 11. — Fall from spring to ram 11 feet. 
 
 Size of supply pipe, 2 inches calibre ; length 42 " 
 
 Length of discharging pipe, i inch calibre 75 rods. 
 
 Elevation of discharging pipe from ram to cistern 98 feet. 
 
 Discharges over 30 barrels of water per day. 
 
 Note. — The size, strength, and weight of the supply and 
 discharging pipes must be in proportion to the head or 
 pressure on them. They are proportioned and adjusted to 
 the capacity of the ram by the manufacturer, and are gen- 
 erally sold with the machine. 
 
 When a very large supply of water is required for manu- 
 facturing or other purposes, and a stream of sufficient vol- 
 ume and fall is obtained, it is better to set two or three 
 rams of a smaller size, all playing into one discharging 
 pipe, than to set one large ram. If one ram becomes dis- 
 abled, the others supply the demand. 
 
 Should the fall and volume of one stream or spring not 
 supply enough water, and. at the required elevation, and 
 there be other springs near by, set a ram in each, all meet- 
 ing in one discharging pipe. Their combined power will 
 increase the elevation and the quantity raised. 
 
 The pipes can be so laid, and tJie rai^ so set, as to pro- 
 tect them from the frost during the winter. 
 
 The fall of one spring or stream may be used to raise the 
 water of another and better sprihg or stream, whose own 
 fall is not suiScient. 
 
THE HTDEAULIC EAM. 109 
 
 Mr. H. L. Emery, of Albany, in a communication to the 
 Cmmiry Gentleman, says : " The result of a water ram is 
 calculated upon the principle that a pound of force will 
 raise a pound of water an equal height, and a less quantity 
 to a greater height, which height is limited only by the 
 strength of the pipes themselves. 
 
 " To enable any one to select the size ram it is necessary 
 to compute the elevation to be overcome, and the greatest 
 amount of fall which can be conveniently obtained, and 
 divide the first by the last, and the quotient will be the 
 proportion of the water (passing through the drive-pipe) 
 which will be raised ; first, however, deducting for waste 
 of power and friction say \ of the amount ; thus, with ten 
 feet fall and one hundred feet elevation, one-tenth of the 
 water would be raised, if there were no friction or loss ; 
 but deducting, say one-quarter for loss, and 7^ gallons for 
 each 100 gallons would be raised, all the balance of the 
 water being required or wasted to accomplish this result." 
 
THE HTDKAULIC PEESS. 
 
 The Hydraulic or Hydrostatic Press is a machine by 
 whicli a small force may be made to exert a great pressure. 
 Its construction may be understood by the above cut. Two 
 metallic cylinders, A and B, of different sizes, are joined 
 together by a tube K. In the small cylinder there is a 
 piston f which can be moved up and down by the handle 
 
THE HYDEAULIC PEBSS. Ill 
 
 M. In the large cylinder there is also a piston P, having at 
 its upper end a large iron plate, which moves freely up and 
 down in a strong frame-work Q. Between the iron plate 
 and the top of this framework the body to be pressed is 
 placed. Now, when the small piston is raised, the cylinder 
 A is filled with water drawn from the reservoir H, below, 
 and when it is pushed down this water is forced into the 
 large cylinder through the pipe K. There is a valve in this 
 tube which prevents the water from returning, so that each 
 stroke of the small piston pushes an additional quantity of 
 water into the large cylinder. By this means the large 
 piston is pushed up against the body to be pressed. To cal- 
 culate the pressure exerted by the large j^iston we must 
 remember that' the force acting upon the piston in A, will 
 be exerted upon every equal amount of surface in B. To 
 illustrate this : suppose the area of the large piston to be 10 
 times the area of the small one ; then one pound at A will 
 produce a pressure of ten pounds at P. The handle M in- 
 creases the advantage still more, according to the principle 
 of the lever to be explained in a future chapter. By in- 
 creasing the size of the large cylinder, and diminishing the 
 size of the small one, the pressure exerted by a given power 
 M'ill be increased proportionately. The weight of a man's 
 hand might thus be made to lift a ship with all its cargo. 
 The only limit to the increase of power would be the strength 
 of the material of which the machine is made. 
 
WEIGHT OF LEAD PIPE. 
 
 TAitE, showing the weight of lead pipe per yard, from J 
 to 4J- indies diameter. 
 
 Weight in 
 lbs. az. 
 
 \ inch medium 
 
 '• " strongr; 
 
 i " lighL 
 
 " " medium 
 
 " " strong 
 
 " " extra strong , , 
 
 I " light 
 
 " " medium 
 
 " " strong 
 
 " " extra strong. 
 f " " light... 
 
 " " light 
 
 " " medium 
 
 " " strong 
 
 " " extra strong. 
 1 " •• light.. 
 " " light 
 
 medium 
 
 strong 
 
 extra light, . . 
 
 light... 
 
 medium 
 
 strong 
 
 extra strong 
 
 <t It 
 ti It 
 
 . 6 i 
 . 8 
 
 . 9 12 
 
 .10 8 
 
 . 6 14 
 
 . 8 5 
 
 .10 5 
 
 .12 4 
 
 . 8 5 
 
 . 9 12 
 .11 
 
 .12 8 
 
 .14 10 
 
 Weight In 
 lbs. oz. 
 
 IJ inch extra light 
 
 " " light 
 
 " " medium 
 
 " " strong.. 
 
 IJ " medium". 
 
 " " strong 
 
 2 " light 
 
 " " medium 
 
 " " strong 
 
 2i •' light 
 
 " " medium 
 
 " " strong 
 
 3 '• light 
 
 " " medium 
 
 " " strong 
 
 ?J " medium 
 
 " " strong 
 
 " " extra strong. .. . 
 
 4 " waste, light. ... 
 " " " medium., 
 
 " strong . . . 
 " light , . . . 
 " medium . 
 " strong . . 
 
 4i 
 
 9 
 
 13 
 
 15 8 
 
 19 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 le 12 
 
 20 
 
 23 
 
 .25 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 44 
 
 45 
 
 S4 
 
 70 
 
 li 14 
 
 21 
 
 2S 
 
 17 4 
 
 24 
 
 29 , 
 
 Very light pipe. 
 
 i inch, 
 f " • 
 4 " . 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 H " 
 
 2 " 
 2i " 
 
 f inch. 
 
 1 " . 
 li " . 
 
 3 lbs. 6 oz. 
 
 5 " 10 " 
 
 6 " 14 " 
 
 Note. — Should the pipe be sold by the pound, multiply 
 the price per lb. by the weight per yard in the above table, 
 and it will give the price per yard. 
 
FUEL. 
 
 The following table,, abridged from Browne's Sylva 
 Americana, will be found valuable to housekeepers in aid- 
 ing them to form an estimate of the comparative value of 
 fire woods in a seasoned state, or when burnt to charcoal. 
 Table, shovnng the Oomparatwe Values of Fire Woods. 
 
 'wooDa. 
 
 Shellbark Hickory, 
 
 Common Waluut, 
 
 White Oak 
 
 Thick Shellbark Hickory, . 
 
 White Ash, 
 
 Scrub Oak 
 
 Witch Hazel 
 
 Apple Tree, .' 
 
 Red Oak 
 
 B ack Gum 
 
 Black Walnut, 
 
 White Bee(ch, 
 
 Bliick Birch, 
 
 Yellow Oak, 
 
 Sugar Maple, 
 
 Bassafras 
 
 White Elm, 
 
 H.)lly 
 
 Wild Cherry, 
 
 Yellow Pine, 
 
 Sycamore, or Button wood 
 
 Chestnut, ; 
 
 Spanish Oalc, 
 
 Poplar, 
 
 Butternut, 
 
 White Birch, 
 
 Jersey Pine 
 
 Pitch Pine ,.. 
 
 White Pine 
 
 Iiombardy Poplar, 
 
 ■3. 
 
 
 ■3 
 
 
 11 
 
 ;'3 
 
 il 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 |5 
 
 li 
 g-a 
 
 
 11 
 
 lit 
 
 III 
 
 
 <§■ 
 
 £ 
 
 w 
 
 ». 
 
 ** 
 
 J . 
 
 > 
 
 1.000 
 
 4469 
 
 .625 
 
 82.89 
 
 1172 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 .919 
 
 4;41 
 
 .637 
 
 33.52 
 
 1070 
 
 32 
 
 95 
 
 .855 
 
 3821 
 
 .401 
 
 21.10 
 
 8ifi 
 
 89 
 
 »1 
 
 .829 
 
 3705 
 
 .509 
 
 26.78 
 
 848 
 
 32 
 
 81 
 
 .722 
 
 3450 
 
 .547 
 
 28.78 
 
 88S 
 
 31 . 
 
 77 
 
 .747 
 
 3339 
 
 .392 
 
 20.63 
 
 774 
 
 38 
 
 73 
 
 .78t 
 
 35U5 
 
 .868 
 
 19.36 
 
 750 
 
 39 
 
 72 
 
 .697 
 
 3115 
 
 .445 
 
 2. .41 
 
 779 
 
 33 
 
 70 
 
 .7^8 
 
 3255 
 
 .400 
 
 21.05 
 
 G30 
 
 3i) 
 
 69 
 
 .703 
 
 3142 
 
 .400 
 
 21.05 
 
 696 
 
 83 
 
 67 
 
 .081 
 
 3044 
 
 .418 
 
 22.00 
 
 G"? 
 
 31 
 
 65 
 
 .724 
 
 32»3 
 
 .518 
 
 27.26 
 
 635 
 
 21 
 
 66 
 
 .697 
 
 ,3115 
 
 .428 
 
 22.52 
 
 604 
 
 27 
 
 63 
 
 .053 
 
 2919 
 
 .295 
 
 15.52 
 
 631 
 
 41 
 
 60 
 
 .044 
 
 1878 
 
 .431 
 
 22.68 
 
 617 
 
 27 
 
 60 
 
 .618 
 
 2762 
 
 .427 
 
 22.47 
 
 024 
 
 28 
 
 59 
 
 .58!) 
 
 2592 
 
 .3J7 
 
 18.79 
 
 6U 
 
 34 
 
 68 
 
 .802 
 
 2()9l 
 
 .374 
 
 19.68 
 
 613 
 
 31 
 
 67 
 
 .597 
 
 2668 
 
 .411 
 
 21.63 
 
 679 
 
 •a 
 
 56 
 
 .551 
 
 2<6i 
 
 .333 
 
 17.52 
 
 6^'5 
 
 :3 
 
 54 
 
 .535 
 
 2391 
 
 .371 
 
 19.68 
 
 564 
 
 29 
 
 52 
 
 .522 
 
 2333 
 
 .379 
 
 19.9* 
 
 690 
 
 30 
 
 52 
 
 .548 
 
 2449 
 
 .362 
 
 19.05 
 
 562 
 
 30 
 
 52 
 
 .563 
 
 2,J16 
 
 .383 
 
 20.16 
 
 649 
 
 27 
 
 52 
 
 .567 
 
 2534 
 
 .237 
 
 J2 47 
 
 527 
 
 42 
 
 61 
 
 .530 
 
 2369 
 
 .364 
 
 19.15 
 
 450 
 
 21 
 
 48 
 
 .478 
 
 2137 
 
 .385 
 
 20.26 
 
 632 
 
 26 
 
 48 
 
 .426 
 
 11)04 
 
 .298 
 
 15.68 
 
 610 
 
 33 
 
 43 
 
 .418 
 
 ;868 
 
 .293 
 
 15.42 
 
 45,-. 
 
 3) 
 
 42 
 
 .397 
 
 1774 
 
 .245 
 
 12.89 
 
 444 
 
 34 
 
 40 
 
114 FUEL. 
 
 Note. — It will be remarked that shellbark hickory is 
 made the standard in the al5ove table, not only of the fuel 
 but also of the specific gravity, the value and specific 
 gravity of the other woods being determined by the pro- 
 portion they severally bear to this standard.' The table 
 has a further use, namely, to determine the price that 
 should be paid per cord for other woods, taking the price 
 paid for shellbark hickory as the standard. For instance, 
 should shellbark be selling for $6.00 per cord, white oak 
 is worth $4.86 ; for, as 100, the value of shellbark, : $6.00, 
 its price,":: 81, the value of white oak, : $4.86, its price; 
 and other kinds in the same proportion. 
 
 A cord of wood is 128 cubic feet ; the sticks or billets 
 are cut 4 feet long and piled 4 feet high and 4 feet wide ; 
 8 feet in length making a cord. 
 
 The wood-cutter has a measure of two feet marked on his 
 axe handle with which he measures the length of each stick, 
 making due allowance for the carf, or the bevel of the cut. 
 All fuel should, however, be sold by weight. 
 
 When the weights of diflerent woods are equal, that 
 which contains the most hydrogen will, during combustion, 
 give out the greatest amount of heat. Hence, pine is pre- 
 ferable to oak, and bituminous to anthracite coal. , "When 
 wood is used as fuel it should be thoroughly dried, as in 
 its green and ordinary state it contains 25 per cent, of 
 water ; the heat to evaporate which is necessarily lost. To 
 kiln-dry it adds 12 per cent, to its value over seasoned wood. 
 
FUEL. 
 
 115 
 
 Cbal Mining in Fennsylvania. 
 
 Table, sJiowing the weights per cvhic foot of tlie different 
 Tcinds of Coal. 
 
 Designation. Weight in lbs. 
 
 Anthracite, 50 to 5.5 
 
 Bituminous 46 to 55 
 
 Cumberland, _53 
 
 Virginia, (Bitum.) "49 
 
 Designation. Weight in lbs. 
 
 Western, (bitum.) 47 
 
 English, " 50 
 
 Charcoal, (hard wood) 18 J 
 
 do. (soft or pine wood) .. . 18 
 
 Note. — Soft coals are usually purchased at tlie rate of 
 28 bushels of 5 pecks eaicli, to a ton of 43.56 cubic feet. 
 Anthracite, 20 bushels to the ton 
 
 To prepare charcoal. 
 
 Charcoal is prepared by cltearing off the top soil from a 
 circular space of the required dimensions, and piling bil- 
 
116 F0EL. 
 
 lets of wood in it into a pyramidal heap, with several 
 spiracles or flues formed through the pile. Chips and 
 brushwood are put into those below, and the whole is so 
 constructed as to kindle through in a very short time. It 
 must then be covered "all over with clay or earth beaten 
 close, leaving openings at all the spiracles or flues. The 
 pile is then ignited, and carefully watched and kept from 
 bursting into a flame, by instantly closing the flues should 
 such happen. "Whenever the white watery smoke issuing 
 from the flues is observed to be succeeded by a thin, blue, 
 and transparent smoke, the holes must be immediately 
 stopped ; this being the indication that all the watery vapor 
 is gone, and the burning of the true coaly matter com- 
 mencing. Thus a strong red heat is raised throughout the 
 whole mass, and all the volatile mattei'S ai-e dissipated by 
 it, and nothing now remains but the charcoal. Tlie holes 
 being all stopped in succession'as this change of tlie smoke 
 is observed, the fire goes out for want of air. The pile is 
 now allowed to cool, which requires many days, for char- 
 coal being a very bad conductor of heat, the pile long 
 remains red hot in the centre, and if opened in this state 
 would instantly burn with great fury. Even when it is 
 opened, the heat retained by some of the larger pieces 
 often ignites it, to guard against which water should be 
 provided to instantly extinguish it when observed. 
 
 PROPERTIES OF CHARCOAL. 
 
 Although charcoal is so combustible, it is, in some re- 
 
FUEL. 117 
 
 Bpects, a very unchangeable substance, resisting the action 
 of a great variety of other substances upon it. Hence posts 
 are often charred before being put into the ground. Grain 
 has been found in the excavations at Herculaneum, which 
 was charred at the time of the destruction of that city, 
 eighteen hundred years ago, and yet the shape is perfectly 
 preserved, so that you can distinguish between the different 
 kinds of grain. While charcoal is itself so unchangeable, 
 it preserves other substances from change. Hence meat 
 and vegetables are packed in charcoal for long voyages, 
 and the water is kept in casks which are charred on the 
 inside. Tainted meat can be made sweet by being covered 
 with it. Foul and stagnant water can be deprived of its 
 bad taste by being filtered through it. Charcoal is a great 
 decolorizer. Ale and porter filtered through it are deprived 
 of their color, and sugar-refiners decolorize their brown 
 syrups by means of charcoal, and thus make white sugar. 
 Animal charcoal, or bone-black, is the best for such pur- 
 poses, although only one-tenth of it is really charcoal, the 
 other nine-tenths being the mineral portion of the bone. 
 
 Charcoal will absorb, of some gases, from eighty to ninety 
 times its own bulk. As every point of its surface is a 
 point of attraction, it is supposed to account for the enor- 
 mous accumulation of gases in the spa^-es of the charcoal. 
 But this accounts for it only in part. There must be some 
 peculiar power in the charcoal to change, in some way, 
 the condition of a gas of which it absorbs ninety times its 
 own bulk. — Hooker. 
 
118 FUEL. 
 
 Notes. — The best quality of charcoal is made from oak, 
 maple, beech, and chestnut. 
 
 "Wood will furnish, when properly charred, about 20 per 
 cent, of coal. 
 
 A bushel of coal from hard wood weighs 30 lbs. 
 
 A bushel of coal from pine weighs 29 lbs. 
 Table, showing the number of parts of charcoal afforded 
 ly 100 parts of different kinds of wood. 
 
 Woods. Parts charcoal. Color. 
 
 Lignum Yitse aflforded 26.8 Grayish. 
 
 Mahogany " 25.4 Brown. 
 
 Laburnum " 24.5 Velvet black. 
 
 Chestnut " 23.2 Glossy black. 
 
 Oak " 22.6 Black. 
 
 Black beech " , • 21.4 Fine black. 
 
 Holly " 19-9 I>"11 l^lack. 
 
 Sycamore " 19-7 ^ine black. 
 
 "Vy-alnut " 20.6 Dull black. 
 
 Beech " 19-9 I^uH l^l^ck. 
 
 [Maple " 19.9 Dull black. 
 
 Norway Pine " 19.2 Shining black. 
 
 Elm " 19.2 Fine black. 
 
 Sallow " 18-4 Velvet black. 
 
 ^gti « 17.9 Shining black. 
 
 Birch " I'i^-* Velvet^black. 
 
 Scottish Pine " 16.4 Brownish. 
 
 COKfe 
 
 Sixty bushels oi Newcastle lump coal, will mai^e 92 
 bushels of coke. 
 
 Sixty bushels of Newcastle slack, or fine coal, will make 
 
 85 bushels of coke. 
 
FCTEL. 
 
 119 
 
 Sixty bushels Pictou or Virginia Coal, will made 75 bushels 
 coke of an inferior quality compared with the above. 
 
 A bushel of the best coke weighs 32 lbs. 
 
 Tlie production of coke by weight is about |- that of coal. 
 
 Coal furnishes 60 to YO per cent, of coke by weight. 
 
 1 lb. of coke will evaporate in a common locomotive boiler 
 7-^ lbs. of water at 212° into steam. 
 
 Table, showing the weights, evaporatiAie powers per weight, 
 hulk and chm'acter of Fuel. 
 
 SESICNAXION. 
 
 Biluminous. 
 Camberland max., . , . . . 
 
 " min , •. 
 
 Biossbiirgh, 
 
 Midlothian screened, . . . 
 
 " average 
 
 Newcastle, 
 
 I'ictou 
 
 Pittsburgh, 
 
 Sydney, 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 Clover Hi'l 
 
 Cannelton, la., 
 
 Scotch, 
 
 Anthracite. 
 
 Peach M juntaln 
 
 Forest Improv ment,... 
 Beaver U eadows, No. 5, . 
 
 Lackawanna 
 
 Beaver Meadows, No. 3, . 
 
 Lehigh , 
 
 Coke. 
 
 Natural Virginia, 
 
 Midlothian, 
 
 Cumberland 
 
 Wood. 
 Dry Pine ■wood, 
 
 i.3;3 
 
 1.3G7 
 l,3.'4 
 1.2S3 
 1.294 
 1.257 
 1.318 
 1.252 
 1.338 
 1.2C2 
 1.285 
 1.273 
 1.519 
 
 1.4fi4 
 1.477 
 I .554 
 1.421 
 
 i.cn 
 
 1.590 
 1.323 
 
 62.92 
 84.29 
 -53.05 
 45.72 
 54.04 
 50.82 
 49.25 
 46.81 
 47.44 
 47.88 
 45.49 
 47. C5 
 61.09 
 
 53.79 
 53. GC 
 56.19 
 48.89 
 54.93 
 55.32 
 
 45. C4 
 32.70 
 31.57 
 
 20.01 
 
 
 10.7 
 9.44 
 9.72 
 8.94 
 8.29 
 8.66 
 8.41 
 8.20 
 7.09 
 7.84 
 7.C7 
 7.34 
 6.95 
 
 '0.11 
 0.C6 
 9.88 
 9.79 
 9.21 
 8.93 
 
 8.47 
 8. 63 
 8.90 
 
 4. 69 
 
 So- a 
 
 ^S1 
 
 573.3 
 
 532.3 
 
 522.6 
 
 438.4 
 
 461.6 
 
 453.9 
 
 478.7 
 
 384. 1 
 
 386.1 
 
 411.2 
 
 339.3 
 
 360. 
 
 369.1 
 
 531.3 
 
 677.3 
 
 672.9 
 
 493. 
 
 526.5 
 
 615.4 
 
 407.9 
 282.6 
 284. 
 
 98.6 
 
 
 OS 
 
 
 2.13 
 4.53 
 3.40 
 3.33 
 8.82 
 3.14 
 6.13 
 .94 
 2.25 
 1.86 
 3.86 
 1.64 
 5.63 
 
 3.03 
 .81 
 .69 
 1.24 
 1.01 
 1.08 
 
 5.31 
 10.51 
 3.55 
 
 b.3 
 
 42.3 
 
 41.2 
 
 42.2 
 
 49. 
 
 41.4 
 
 44 
 
 45. 
 
 47.8 
 
 47.2 
 
 46.7 
 
 49.2 
 
 47. 
 
 48.8 
 
 41.6 
 41.7 
 39.8 
 45.8 
 40.7 
 40.5 
 
 48.3 
 68.5 
 70.9 
 
 106.6 
 
 Prof. W R. Johnson. 
 
120 FUEL. 
 
 N. B. — The above are the extreme effects ; for practical 
 use let a deduction of ^ be made from the above. 
 
 Comkustible matter of fuel. 
 
 The quantity of combustible matter of fuel, if the weight 
 and other circumstances be equal, may be learnt from the 
 ashes, or residuum, left after the combustion. For example, 
 good Newcastle coal contains a greater portion of combus- 
 tible matter than Nova Scotia coal, and leaves behind a 
 smaller amount of earthy and incombustible substance. 
 The heating power, and consequent value, of different, kinds 
 of fuel, is affected by this circumstance, though by no means 
 dependent on it. The fitness of fuel for various purposes 
 is furthermore affected by the facility with which it gives 
 off a part of its combustible matter in the form of vapor or 
 gas, which, being burnt in that state, produces flame. For 
 example, the bituminous coals abound in volatile matter, 
 which, when ignited, supports a powerful blaze. On the 
 other hand, the Lehigh and Rhode Island coals are destitute 
 of bitumen, and yield but little flame. It is from similar 
 causes that dry pine wood produces a powerful blaze, while 
 its charcoal yields comparatively little. A blaze is of great 
 service, where heat is required to be applied to an extensive 
 surface, as in reverberating furnaces, ovens, glass-houses, &c. 
 But when an equable, condensed, or lasting fire is wanted, 
 the more solid fuels, which bl?ize less, are to be preferred,. 
 
FUEL. 
 
 121 
 
 Table, showing the heating power of different combustibles. 
 
 Lbs. of water heated 1" 
 Designation, by 1 lb. of substance. 
 
 Alcohol 11,000 
 
 Oiive OU. 14,500 
 
 Beeswax '. 14,000 
 
 Tallow 15,000 
 
 Oak, seasoned. 4,600 
 
 " kiln-dried 5,960 
 
 Pine, seaspned 6,466 
 
 Tibs, of water heated 1** 
 Designation. by 1 lb. of substance. 
 
 Coal, Newcastle 9,230 
 
 " "Welsh 11,840 
 
 " Anthracite 9, 560 
 
 " Cannel 9,000 
 
 Coke 9,110 
 
 Peat 3,250 
 
 Table, showing the effects of heat wpon certavn bodies. 
 
 Designation. Pahrenheit. 
 
 Gold melts 1983° 
 
 surer " 1850' 
 
 Copper '' 2160' 
 
 Brass " 190(i° 
 
 Iron, red hot in daylight lOTt" 
 
 twUight 884° 
 
 Common fire 190° 
 
 Zinc melts 740° 
 
 Qiiicksilver boils 630° 
 
 Linseed Oil " 600° 
 
 Lead melts 694° 
 
 Bismuth melts 476° 
 
 Tin and Bismuth, equal parts, 
 
 melts 283° 
 
 Designation. Fahrenheit. 
 
 Tin melts 421° 
 
 Water boUs 212° 
 
 Alcohol " 175° 
 
 Ether 93° 
 
 Heat of human blood 98° 
 
 "Water freezes 32° 
 
 Strong wine freezes 20° 
 
 Brandy " 7° 
 
 Mercury " —39° 
 
 Greatest cold ever produced*. . — 220° 
 
 Snow and salt, equal parts 0° 
 
 Acetous fermentation begins. . . 78° 
 
 " " ends 88° 
 
 Phosphorus burns 68° 
 
 Table, showing the relative value of the following fuels by 
 
 weight. 
 
 Designation. Value. 
 
 Seasoned oak 125 
 
 Oak, kiln-dried 140 
 
 Hickory 137 
 
 "White pine 137 
 
 "Tellow pine 145 
 
 Good Coke 285 
 
 Designation. Value. 
 
 Charcoal. 2S5 
 
 Peat 115 
 
 "Welsh coal 312 
 
 Newcastle " 309 
 
 Authracito " 250 
 
 * The lowest temperature hitherto attained, — 220°, is produced by evaporat- 
 ing in vacuo a mixture of solid (condensed) protoxide of nitrogen, carbonic 
 acid, and bisulphide of carbon. 
 
 6 
 
122 FUEL. 
 
 Table, shmoing the number of gallons of water which may 
 he lifted to various heights ly. the consumption of 112 lbs. 
 of coal, the pumping apparatus hemg good, and adapted 
 to the power of the steam engine. 
 
 Height. Gallons. 
 
 1 loot 1,600,000 
 
 ■2 " 800,000 
 
 3 " ..., 533,«33 
 
 4 " 400,0110 
 
 6 " 320,(100 
 
 6 " 266,6ti6 
 
 7 " 228,571 
 
 8 " 200,000 
 
 Height (Jallons. 
 
 9 feet 177,777 
 
 10 " 160,000 
 
 11 " 145,454 
 
 12 " 133,333 
 
 13 •• 123,076 5 
 
 14 " 114,444 
 
 15 " 106,666 
 
 16 " 100,000 
 
 Notes. — The evaporative power of 1 lb. of hituminous 
 coal applied to a steam boiler, is from 6 to 9 lbs. fresh water 
 in the boiler, under a pressure of 30 lbs. to the square inch,, 
 evaporated into steam. Cumberland coal being the strong- 
 est, and Scotch coal the weakest. 
 
 The evaporative power of anthracite coal, aided by a blast, 
 is from TJ to 9J lbs. of fresh water evaporated into steam 
 for 1 lb. of coal. 
 
 In practical evaporating power 2^ to 2f lbs. of wood is 
 equivalent to 1 lb. of bituminous or anthracite coal. 
 
 One cord of the ordinary seasoned fire-wood is equal in 
 evaporating power to 12 bushels (960 lbs.) of Pittsburgh coal. 
 
 One ton of Cnmberland coal is equal in evaporating power 
 to 1^ tons of anthracite coal, and equal to 2.12 cords of dry 
 pine wood. 
 
 One ton of anthracite coal is equal to If cords of dry pine 
 wood. 
 
 Each cubic foot of water evaporated in a boiler at the 
 
FUEL. 
 
 123 
 
 pressure of the atmosphere, will heat 2,000 cubic feet of in- 
 closed air to an average temperature of 75°. 
 
 Each square foot of surface steam-pipe will warm 200 
 cubic feet of space. 
 
 One pound of anthracite coal in a cupola furnace will 
 melt 5 to 10 lbs. of cast iron. ^ 
 
 80 bushels of bituminous coal in an air furnace will melt 
 10 tons of east iron. 
 
 Small or fine coal produces about f the efiect of large 
 coal of the same kind. 
 
 Table, showing the price of parts of a cord of wood, at cer- 
 tain rates per cord. 
 
 FEK1 
 
 .b1.:o 
 
 $1.75 
 
 $2.00 
 
 S:;.25 
 
 S2.50 
 
 $2.75 
 
 $3.0J 
 
 $3.25 
 
 1 
 
 01 
 
 01 
 
 01 
 
 02 
 
 02 
 
 02 
 
 C2 
 
 02 
 
 2 
 
 02 
 
 02 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 
 04 
 
 04 
 
 05 
 
 05 
 
 3 
 
 03 
 
 04 
 
 04 
 
 05 
 
 06 
 
 06 
 
 07 
 
 07 
 
 4 
 
 05 
 
 06 
 
 06 
 
 C7 
 
 03 
 
 09 
 
 09 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 n 06 
 
 07 
 
 08 
 
 09 
 
 10 
 
 U 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 fi7 
 
 03 
 
 09 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 08 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 19 
 
 22 
 
 25 
 
 n 
 
 31 
 
 ?5 
 
 37 
 
 40 
 
 24 
 
 28 
 
 33 
 
 37 
 
 42 
 
 4T 
 
 62 
 
 56. 
 
 61 
 
 32 
 
 38 
 
 44 
 
 50 
 
 56 
 
 G3 
 
 69 
 
 75 
 
 81 
 
 40 
 
 47 
 
 55 
 
 63 
 
 70 
 
 78 
 
 86 
 
 94 
 
 1 03 
 
 4« 
 
 56 
 
 C6 
 
 75 
 
 84 
 
 94 
 
 1 03 
 
 1 12 
 
 1 22 
 
 66 
 
 Gl 
 
 77 
 
 88 
 
 98 
 
 1 09 
 
 1 20 
 
 1 31 
 
 1 42 
 
 C4 
 
 75 
 
 83 
 
 1 00 
 
 1 13 
 
 1 25 
 
 1 38 
 
 1 50 
 
 1 62 
 
 72 
 
 U 84 
 
 98 
 
 1 13 
 
 1 27 
 
 1 41 
 
 1 55 
 
 1 69 
 
 1 83 
 
 80 
 
 94 
 
 1 09 
 
 1 25 
 
 1 41 
 
 1 56 
 
 1 72 
 
 1 f8 
 
 2 03 
 
 81 
 
 98 
 
 1 15 
 
 1 31 
 
 1 48 
 
 1 64 
 
 1 81 
 
 1 97 
 
 2 13 
 
 88 
 
 1 03 
 
 1 20 
 
 1 38 
 
 1 55 
 
 172 
 
 1 89 
 
 2 06 
 
 2 23 
 
 92 
 
 1 03 
 
 1 26 
 
 1 44 
 
 . 1 02 
 
 1 80 
 
 1 98 
 
 2 15 
 
 2 33 
 
 96 
 
 1 13 
 
 1 31 
 
 1 50 
 
 • 1 f9 
 
 1 88 
 
 2 06 
 
 2 25 
 
 2 41 
 
 104 
 
 1 22 
 
 1 42 
 
 1 63 
 
 1 83 
 
 2 03 
 
 2 23 
 
 2 44 
 
 2 64 
 
 112 
 
 I 31 
 
 1 53 
 
 1 75 
 
 1 97 
 
 2 19 
 
 2 41 
 
 2 63 
 
 2 84 
 
 120 
 
 1 41 
 
 1 61 
 
 1 88 
 
 2 11 
 
 2 34 
 
 2 58 
 
 2 81 
 
 3 0.5 
 
 128 
 
 1 50 
 
 1 75 
 
 2 00 
 
 2 25 
 
 2 50 
 
 2 75 
 
 3 00 
 
 3 25 
 
124 " FUEL. 
 
 ' Explanation. — Find the number of feet in the left-hand 
 column of the table ; then the price at the top of the page, 
 and trace the line and column until they meet, and you will 
 find the amount in dollars and cents. 
 
 Example. — If a load of wood contains 98 feet, at two dol- 
 lars and a half per cord — first find the amount of 96 feet, 
 which is $1.88 ; and then add the value of 2 feet (4 cents), 
 making $1.92. So of all similar examples. 
 
 Should the price per cord exceed the amount in the pre- 
 ceding table, the price of the parts may be found by adding 
 or doubling, as per example, for $3.50 double $1.75 ; for 
 $3.75 add $2.00 and $1.75 ; for $4.00 double $2.00 ; for 
 $5.00 double $2.50, &c. i 
 
FENCES. 
 
 , In the newer portions of the country, where land is cheap 
 and timber abundant, the old-fashioned zig-zag, or " Vir- 
 ginia worm/ence,'" still prevails. It does not cost one-thii-d 
 the amount required for good post or board fence. Some 
 are constructed altogether of rails, without any bracing or 
 support at the corners, and are, of course, easily thrown down 
 by cattle and the wind. They are, hqwever, usually braced 
 in one of the following modes : 
 
 1. By stakes and riders— either single or double riders. 
 
126 FENCES. 
 
 2. By upright stakes, opposite eaeli other, and placed in 
 the oUuse corners, driven into the ground, and tied at the 
 top by a wire or withe. 
 
 3. By upright stakes placed in the acute corners, driven 
 into the ground, and tied at the top as above described. 
 
 4. By wedging one end of a rail into the acute corner, 
 and letting the other end rest on the ground. 
 
 5. By placing the riders, or long poles, in a straight line 
 on the top and at the centre of the fence, and then placing 
 upright stakes in each inner corner, between the rider and 
 the fence, the lower end resting on the ground and the other 
 wedged tightly between the top and the rider. 
 
 The rails for this species of fence are cut diiferent lengths 
 in different sections of the country, and, indeed, in the same 
 section. Much depends upon the nature of the timber, and 
 much also on the kind of ground on which the fence is to be 
 laid. Some are cut 12 feet, some 14, and some even 16^ 
 feet or 1 rod in length. The usual lengths, however, are 12 
 and 14 feet. 
 
 The rails are laid at different angles ; some deflecting 6 
 feet, some 7, and some 8 feet from a right line. The more 
 they deflect, or in other words, the crookeder they are laid, 
 the firmer the fence will be ; but more rails will be required 
 and more space occupied. The deflection for a 12 foot rail 
 is usually 6 feet ; for a 14 foot rail, 7 feet ; and for a rod 
 rail, 8 feet. A foot is generally allowed at each end for the 
 lap. 
 
FENCES. 
 
 127 
 
 Some fences are built 5 rails high, some 6, and some 7 — 
 the rider making an additional rail high. The height, as 
 well as the spaces between the rails, are mostly regulated by 
 statute in the different States. The majority of these stat- 
 utes require the fence to be not less than 5 feet high, with 
 interspaces between the rails of not more than 4 inches, to 
 a height of 4 feet. 
 
 The number of rails, stakes, and riders required to build a 
 certain amount of fence has hitherto been pretty much guess- 
 work ; and often the farmer, before he can finish his fence, 
 has to quit it, and go and split more rails, or gear up and 
 haul a few more loads. It is hoped that the following tables 
 will obviate that necessity, by enabling him to tell within a 
 few rails how many will be required to build a given amount 
 of fence. 
 
 Table, showing the number of rails, stakes, and riders re- 
 quired for each 10 rods of fence. 
 
 or raU. 
 
 DeOec 
 tlon from 
 light line 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Length 
 of panel 
 
 Feet 
 
 ^■" umber t 
 
 tjf puQeiS Number of rails for each 10 rodi. 
 
 Number 
 of BtakeB. 
 
 Number of 
 l-iderl, 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Keet ,f.r«il»hiBh. 
 
 (>rHlm liiKn. 
 
 7 rails hljiu. 
 
 
 Vi 
 U 
 161 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 8 
 lU 
 12 
 
 2ll| 
 l4 
 
 i:ij 
 
 i..a 
 
 S3 
 (19 
 
 1^3 
 99 
 B4 
 
 14i 
 
 116 
 
 95 
 
 a 
 
 31 
 
 28 
 
 a 
 
 17 
 
 Note. — Should the number of rods exceed 10, the requisite 
 number of rails, stakes, and riders can be found by multiply- 
 ing. For instance, should the length of fence be 100 rods, 
 multiply the above number by 10; should it be 75 rods, 
 multiply the above number by 7^ ; for 77 rods, multiply by 
 ^r^, and so forth. 
 
128 
 
 FENCES. 
 
 Post and rail fence. 
 
 Post and rail is a more costly fence, but much better, and 
 in the end more economical. There is not such a waste of 
 either timber or land. 
 
 The rails are also cut of different lengths ; some 10, some 
 12, some 14, and some 16|- feet, or 1 rod. Formerly, about 
 6 inches at each end were allowed for the lap, but more re- 
 cently a foot has been allowed, as the longer the lap the 
 stronger and firmer the fence. They are from 5 to 8 rails 
 high ; posts set in the ground from 2 to 3 feet. 
 
 Table, showing the number of rails and posts required 
 for each 10 rods of post a/nd rail ferine. 
 
 Lengih of 
 rail— leet. 
 
 Lencth rf 
 pouel— feet 
 
 Number of 
 pauels. 
 
 Number of 
 posts. 
 
 a\ liaijjcr Gf ralla forjiach 1 j rods. 
 
 j rails high 
 
 6 rails high. 
 
 7 rails high 
 
 H rails high. 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 20| 
 
 21 
 
 1(3 
 
 123 
 
 144 
 
 1C5 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 16i 
 
 17 
 
 83 
 
 90 
 
 116 
 
 133 
 
 It 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 11 
 
 U 
 
 C9 
 
 84 
 
 95 
 
 109 
 
 IdJ 
 
 ^■n 
 
 13 
 
 n 
 
 GD 
 
 fl 
 
 83 
 
 I^OTE. — Should the length exceed 10 rods, the additional 
 number of posts and rails may be found by multiplying, as 
 directed in the note to the preceding table. 
 
 Post and hoard fence. 
 
 Where timber is plenty and saw-mills abound, or where 
 lumber is cheap, post and board fence is economical. 
 
 The boards are usually sawed 16 feet long, and the posts 
 set 8 feet apart, 3 feet in the ground. 
 
 The fence is usually 5 boards high; the bottom, or first. 
 board 10 inches wide ; the second 8, the third 6, Etnd the 
 
FENCES. 129 
 
 fourth and fifth 6 inches wide. They may be wider or nar- 
 rower, as cost, taste, or use may dictate. 
 
 The first, third, and fiftli boards are joined on one post, 
 and the second and fourth joined on the next post. 
 
 To find the numher of feet of hoards required for each 
 rod of post and hoard fence. 
 
 KuLE. — Add the different widths of the boards, in inches, 
 together, and divide the sum by 12 for the width in feel ; 
 then multiply the width by 16^, and the product will be the 
 number of feet, board measure, required for each rod of 
 fence. 
 
 Example. — Required, the number of feet, board measure, 
 for each rod of fence, 5 boards high, the various widths of 
 '' the boards being 10, 8, Y, 6 and 5 inches ? 
 
 Solution. — 10+ 8 + 7 + 6 + 5 = 36-=-12=:3 ft. X 16^=49^ 
 feet. Ans. 
 
 To fund the numher of posts required for a given length 
 of post and hoard fence. 
 
 KuLE. — Reduce the number of rods to feet by multiplying 
 by 16|^, and divide the product by the number of feet the 
 posts are set apart ; the quotient will be the number of posts 
 required. 
 
 Example. — Required, the number of po?ts for a post and 
 board fence 160 rods long; posts set 8 feet apart? 
 
 Solution.— 160 x 16^=2640-8=330. Ans. 
 
 6* 
 
HEDGE PLANTS. 
 
 The following, for the cultivation of hedges, is the con- 
 densed experience of the most successful and practical hedge- 
 grovters in the United States, and especially in the West. 
 
 Directions for Settinff.— During the summer or fall 
 thoroughly manure, plough as deep as possible a strip 
 from five to eight feet M-ide, leave a dead furrow in 
 the line where the hedge is to be set. In the following 
 spring back furrow to the hedge-line, then harrow down 
 smooth. Stake the ground, and by means of a line make a 
 plain mark, then with a spade placed at right angles across 
 the mark, push the blade- in the soil to its full length at an 
 angle of about forty-five degrees. Let an assistant place the 
 plants under the back of the spade on the line of the mark, 
 about one inch below the depth they stood in the nursery, 
 and about eight inches apart. Pack the ground firmly 
 around the plants, and mulch the ground to keep moist. 
 Cultivate until the first of August. Before frost in the fall, 
 back furrow and cover with coarse njianure or straw, and in 
 the spring uncover and cultivate as before. Eeplace all 
 missing or feeble plants with strong ones. 
 
 Trimming. — The hedge should not be trimmed until 
 three years old, when one-half or two-thirds should be cut 
 
nEDGE PLANTS. 131 
 
 nearly off close to the ground and laid down at an angle of 
 tliirtj' degrees from the ground. Trhn once a year in July, 
 and do not allow the hedge to exceed twenty inches broad. 
 The fourth year in the spring, before the buds start, take oft" 
 about one-half the last year's growth. Leave the lower 
 branches a little longer than the top, and aim to give the 
 hedge some regular uniform shape. The hedge should be 
 allowed to gain from eight to twelve inches annually, iintil 
 it has readied the desired height. 
 
 To Preserve Plants during tJie Winter. — Cut a trench 
 in a dry ])iece of ground at an angle of forty-five degrees, 
 place tlie bundles in the trench, and cover with dirt from a 
 new trench from six to eight inches in front, and so continue 
 until all are trenched. Cover the plants two inches deep, 
 firmly packing the ground around them. After the ground 
 is frozen two inches deep, cover the whole with straw froin 
 twelve to eighteen inches; after which cover the whole bed 
 with dirt about a foot thick. Encircle with a ditch so that 
 no water can reach the plants. Plants can also be kept in a 
 cellar, well covered in sand, but be careful not to expose to 
 the Sim or dry wind, in setting in the spring. 
 
 Setting Evergreens. — Cultivate and set as before, but the 
 ground should not be manured vidthin six months of settino' 
 tlifc plants. Chip-dirt or rotten leaves are preferable for a 
 mulcli. 
 
 Hedge Plants. — Osage Orange. — The Osage Orange 
 stands at the head of the list of hedge plants. It is much 
 
132 HEDGE PLAUTS. 
 
 planted where fencing timber is scarce, in the latitude of 
 the Middle and Southern States. It is hardy and grows 
 vigorously, and its thorns are absolute proof against the de- 
 predations of domestic animals, and even boys retreat from 
 contact with them. It makes a beautiful hedge when prop- 
 erly pruned, but when neglected it gets beyond all control. 
 In the Northern and Eastern States, it is liable to be killed 
 by the frost. 
 
 Honey Locust. — This thorny, vigorous, and hardy plant 
 has no superior as a farm hedge. It requires two annual 
 prunings, in Jun^ and September, to keep it within control. 
 It flourishes as far north as Canada, and for the Middle and 
 Southern States it yields only to the Osage Orange. It is 
 easily propagated by setting the plants about six inches apart. 
 Some prefer sowing the seed on the line of the proposed 
 hedge. 
 
 BucJcthom. — This plant is a najtive of America, and 
 would be one of the best hedge plants did it not lack a sup- 
 ply of thorns. 
 
 Privit. — This thornless shrub is easily propagated from 
 cuttings, and thickens well when set in a hedge. Its foliage 
 is rich, and in the spring it is decorated with an abundance 
 of beautiful small white flowers. It cannot be successfully 
 cultivated north of the latitude of Philadelphia. 
 
 ' Hawthorn. — The hawthorn, so common in England, does 
 not thrive so well in our climate. 
 
HEDGE PLANTS. 136 
 
 Evergreen Hedges. — Norway Spruce. — A hedge of this 
 beautiful tree should be set about four or five inches apart, 
 and the plants not over four feet high. The side branches 
 should be pruned, and the leaders cut out. Afterwards it 
 should be trimmed the same ,as other hedges. The soil 
 should be kept rich to insure a vigorous growth. 
 
 Arbor Vitoe. — In consequence of the cheapness of the 
 common Arbor Yit£E, for an ornamental hedge, it has super- 
 seded all others. Though inferior to the Siberian species, 
 yet it will be a long time before it will yield its place to it. 
 Being hardy and sure to flourish under ordinary treatment, 
 it is a valuable he(5ge plant. ^ 
 
 Hemlock. — The hemlock, when properly pruned, makes a 
 thick and beautiful hedge. With a foliage ever of the richest 
 green, and adapted to all the northern latitudes, as a hedge 
 plant it has no superior if an equal. Although hardy, it is 
 somewhat difficult to transplant. Select a rainy day when 
 the groimd is wet, being careful not to expose the roots to 
 the light or air. As soon as planted mulch with coarse 
 manure or chip-dirt. 
 
" WIRE FENCES. 
 
 Wire fences have this advantage over hedges and other 
 . fepces : they take up but little space, with no exhaustion of 
 the soil, 'are Hot blown about by the wind; are durable^ 
 economical, and make a good protection against cattle, 
 sheep, and other animals. For enclosing lawns and gar- 
 den?, many of the designs oflFered in market are very desir- 
 able and ornamental. For a farm fence, such as any farmer 
 can put up, annealed wire of the size No. 6 or 8* is pre- 
 ferable ; for the pi'otection of cattle five wires are sufficient ; 
 for sheep and lambs, seven should be used. 
 
 In building the fence a post six inches square or larger 
 should be set at each end, and securely braced, from which 
 to stretch the wire; the intervening posts should be set 
 from eight to ten feet apart. Through these holes should 
 be bored with a J-inch brace-bit, and at appropriate dis- 
 tances apart, according to the protection required. Instead 
 of putting the wires through the posts, they are often' fas- 
 tened by means of staples made of the same material. In 
 putting up the wires they should be stretched aS tightly as 
 possible, care being taken in splicing that they be well 
 secured, which can be best done by means of narrow black- 
 smith's tongs. 
 
 Suitable wire can be bought for 8 or 10 cents per pound, 
 
 making a fence of six wires .cost about 40 cents per rod; 
 
 this does not include posts and labor of setting. 
 
 * The size of wire is graded from No. 1, and upwards. No. 9 is the com- 
 mon telegraphiwire. 
 
. HUMAN STEENGTH. 
 
 The force of a single man, unaided by machinery, and 
 M^orking to the, best advantage, is equivalent .to the raising 
 of YO lbs. 1 foot per second for ten hours in a day. 
 
 The maximum power of a strong man, exerted for 2^ min- 
 utes, is equivalent to 18,000 lbs. raised one foot in a minute. 
 
 A man of ordinary strength exerts a force of 30 lbs. for 
 10 hours in a day with a velocity of 2^ feet in a second, 
 which is about equal to 4500 lbs. raised 1 foot in a minute. 
 
 The average weight of men is 150 lbs. each. 
 
 A man travels, without a load, on level ground, for 8^ 
 hours a day, at the rate of 3^ miles an hour, or 31^ miles 
 per day. He can carry 111 lbs. 11 miles in a day. 
 
 A porter going short distances, and returning unloaded, 
 carries 135 lbs. 7 miles in a day. He can carry, in a wheel- 
 barrow, 150 lbs. 10 miles a day. 
 
 An average strong man will, for a short period, exert a 
 force with a — 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Drawing knife equal to 100 
 
 An auger, both hands. .. " 100 
 A screw-drivel', 1 hand. . " 84 
 
 A bench-vice handle " 72 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Pincers, compression equal to 60 
 
 A hand-plane " 50 
 
 A hand-saw " 36 
 
 A thumb- vice " 45 
 
 A chisel, vertical pressure " 12 j A brace-bit, revolving " 16 
 
 A windlass " 60' 
 
HOESE POWEE. 
 
 Before the invention and improvement of the steam-en- 
 gine, the force of horses was very extensively used as a 
 motive power ; and although its application to machinery is 
 now mncli less frequent, it is still resorted to, especially in 
 places where fuel is expensive. For ordinary farm labor, it 
 will probably never be superseded. The following are some 
 of the more important facts relating to the horse and horse- 
 power : — 
 
 The ordinary work of a horse is taken at 22,500 lbs. raised 
 1 foot in a minute, for 8 hours a day. 
 
 The strength of a horse is equivalent to that of 5 men. 
 
 A draught-horse can draw 1600 lbs. 23 miles a day on a 
 level road, weight of carriage included. 
 
 In a horse-mill, he moves at the rate of 3 feet per second 
 on a track 25 feet diameter, and with the machine exerts the 
 power of 4^ horses. 
 
 He occupies inf.a stall a front of 4^ feet and a depth of 10 
 feet. 
 
 The average weight of horses is 1000 lbs. each. 
 , A horse travels 400 yards, a^ a walk, in 4^ minutes; 400 
 yards, at a trot, in 2 minutes; and 400 yards, at a galhp, 
 in 1 minute. 
 
 A horse will carry 250 lbs. 25 miles a day of 8 hours. 
 
HOESE POWEE. 139 
 
 A horse will live 25 days without solid food, merely drink- 
 ing water. He will live 17 days without either eating or 
 drinking. He will live only 5 days when eating solid food, 
 M'ithout drinking. 
 
 He attains his full growth in 5 years, and will live 25. 
 His average life is 16 years. 
 
 Horse-power as applied to the measurement of steam-en- 
 gines and waterfalls was first applied hy James Watt, the 
 inventor of the steam-engine. From a series of experiments 
 he ascertained that the average strength of a horse was suf- 
 ficient to raise 33,000 lbs. one foot per minute,* and this 
 unit has been adopted in this country and in England as a 
 general measure of power. 
 
 , A waterfall is thus said to have a horse-power for every 
 33,000 lbs. of water passing a given point per minute for 
 each foot of the fall. To compute the power of a water- 
 fall is given the following 
 
 Rule. — Divide the continued product of the width, the 
 depth, the velocity of the water per minute, the height of 
 the fall, and the weight of a cubic foot of water (62| lbs.) 
 by 33,000. 
 
 Example. — The flume of a mill is 10 feet wide, the water 
 is 3 feet deep, the velocity is 100 feet per minute, and the 
 fall 11 feet. "What is the horse-power of the fall ? 
 
 Operation.— (10 x 3 x 100 x 11 x 62^) -=- 33,000 = 62^ 
 horse-power. 
 
 • This is done hj means of compound pulleys. 
 
140 
 
 HOKSE I'OVVEK. 
 
 The power of a steam-engine is estimated by the following 
 
 EuLE. — Divide the continued product of the area of the 
 piston in inches, the mean pressure per square inch in 
 pounds, the length of the stroke in feet, and the number of 
 strokes per minute by 33^000. 
 
 Example. — The area of the piston of a steam-engine is 40 
 inches, the pressure is 60 lbs. per square inch, the length of 
 the stroke is 3 feet, and it makes 30 strokes per minute. 
 What is the horse-power ? 
 
 Opeeation.— (40 X 60 X 3 X 30)-^33,000=:6J horse-power 
 (nearly). 
 
 Water-wheels lose from 10 to 50 percent, of the power, and 
 the actual power of the steam-engine is less than that indi- 
 cated by the horse-power, owing to a loss by friction, the 
 amount of which depends upon the arrangement of the en- 
 gine and the perfection of the workmanship. 
 
 Table, showing the labor one horse is able to perform at 
 different rates of speed on canals^ railroads, and turnpikes. 
 Drawing force, 83^ lbs. 
 
 
 
 Useful ett'ect for 1 (lay in tons, drawn 1 mile. 
 
 Bpoeil per hoar. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Duration of day's 
 work— hiiursi 
 
 On canal— tons 
 
 On a nillroaiJ-tonB. 
 
 On a turnpllce-tons. 
 
 f 
 
 \\\ 
 
 520 
 
 115 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 243 
 
 92 
 
 12 
 
 f 
 
 6 
 
 154 
 
 82 
 
 10 
 
 *\ 
 
 102 
 
 72 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 2-\ 
 
 52 
 
 57 
 
 7.3 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 89 
 
 48 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 if 
 
 19 
 
 41 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 12.8 
 
 36 
 
 4.5 
 
 9 
 
 \ 
 
 9. • 
 
 32 
 
 4. 
 
 ]n 
 
 * 
 
 f..5 
 
 28.8 
 
 3.G 
 
HOESE POWER. 
 
 141 
 
 >' b 
 
 
 f . 1^^.' , 
 
 
 Table, showing how much one team (md pUmgh'will ;per- 
 form in a day, in acres and tenths. 
 
 Width of 
 
 
 width or 
 
 
 width of 
 
 
 WlJih of 
 
 
 
 AereH and 
 
 fur ovv in 
 
 Acres and 
 
 furrow IQ 
 
 Acres nnd 
 
 furrow in 
 
 Acres Aud 
 
 iuchea. 
 
 tenths. 
 
 iDches. 
 
 tenths. 
 
 feet 
 
 teuths. 
 
 fael. 
 
 leuth*,. 
 
 5 , 
 
 1.0 
 
 12 
 
 2.4 
 
 2 
 
 4 8 
 
 flt 
 
 ' 13.2 
 
 6 
 
 1.2 
 
 14 
 
 2.8 
 
 n 
 
 6.0 
 
 6 
 
 14.4 
 
 Y 
 
 1.4 
 
 16 
 
 3.2 
 
 3>*»' 
 
 7.2 
 
 Gi 
 
 13.6 
 
 8 
 
 i.e 
 
 18 
 
 3-1 
 
 3i 
 
 g 4 
 
 7 
 
 16.8 
 
 9 
 
 1.8 
 
 21 
 
 4rr' 
 
 4 
 
 9.6 
 
 n 
 
 18.0 
 
 10 
 
 . 2.0 
 
 22 
 
 4.4 
 
 4i 
 
 in. 8 
 
 8 
 
 19.2 
 
 11 
 
 2.2 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 1?. 
 
 
 
 Note.— The above table is constructed on the. presump- 
 tion that the team moves at the rate of about 3 feet per 
 second, or 2 miles per hour, for 10 hours per day. Horses 
 and mules in good condition will do tins 
 
FREIGPITS— QUANTITY OF GOODS WHICH 
 COMPOSE A TON IN SHIPPING. 
 
 
 Wharf Scene in New York. 
 
 i^Vom By-laws of the Nevj York Chamber of Commerce. 
 
 Resolved, That wlien vessels are fi-eighted by the ton, and 
 no special agreement is made between the, owner of the 
 vessel and freighter of the goods, respecting the proportion 
 of tonnage which each particular article shall he computed 
 at, the following regulation shall be the standard of compu- 
 tation : — 
 
FEEIGHTS. ^ 143 
 
 That the articles, the bulk of which shall compose a ton, 
 to equal a ton of heavy materials, shall be in weight as fol- 
 lows : 1568 lbs. of coffee in casks, 1830 lbs. in bags ; 1120 
 lbs. of cocoa in casks, 1307 lbs. in bags. 
 
 952 lbs. pimento in casks, 1110 in bags. 
 
 Eight barrels of flour, 196 lbs. each. 
 
 Six barrels of beef, pork, tallow, pickled fish, pitch, tar, 
 and turpentine. 
 
 Twenty hundred pounds of pig and bar iron, potashes, 
 sugar, logwood, fustic, Nicaragua wood, and all heavy dye- 
 woods, rice, honey, copper ore, and all other heavy goods. 
 
 Sixteen hundred pounds of coffee, cocoa, arid dried cod- 
 fish, in bulk, and twelve hundred pounds of dried codfish in 
 casks of any size. 
 
 Six hundred pounds of ship bread in casks, seven hundred 
 in bags, and eight hundred in bulk. 
 
 Two hundred gallons (wine-measure), reckoning the full 
 contents of the casks, oil, wine, brandy, or any kind of 
 liquors. 
 
 Twenty-two bushels of grain, peas, or beans, in casks. 
 
 Thirty-six bushels of grain in bulk. 
 
 Thirty-six bushels of European salt. 
 
 Thirty-one bushels of salt from the "West Indies. 
 
 Twenty-nine bushels of sea-coal. 
 
 Forty feet (cu!)ic measure) of mahogany, square timber, 
 
 f 
 
144 FEEIGHTS. 
 
 oak plank, pine, and other boards, beavers, furs, peltry, bees 
 wax, cotton, wool, and bale goods of all kinds. 
 
 One hogshead of tobacco, and ten hundred pounds of dry 
 hides. 
 
 Eight hundred pounds of China raw silk, ten hundred 
 pounds of net bohea, and 800 green tea. 
 
UNITED STATES OR FEDERAL MONET. 
 
 stamping Coin at the United States Mint. 
 
 Money is value, or the representative of value, used for 
 the purposes of exchange. In different countries, at dif- 
 ferent times, various articles have been used for money, 
 such as oxen, pieces of leather stamped, shells, wampum, 
 iron, nails, &c. Gold and silver, at present, are used 
 almost exclusively for money.. They are called precious 
 metals. 
 
 Paper money is a substitute for coin. 
 
 Uncoined gold and silver is called huUion. 
 
 Coin is a piece of metal of known weight used for money, 
 the value of which is stamped on it. 
 
146 
 
 UNITED STATES OK FEDERAL MONET. 
 
 Currency is the money of circulation. 
 
 Tokens are coins whose intrinsic value is below that 
 assigned them by law. Such coins are said to be coins in 
 iillion. 
 
 United States or Federal money is a decimal cmTency. 
 
 Table. 
 10 mills (m.) 1 cent ct. 
 10 cents « 1 dime d. 100 mills. 
 10 dimes 1 dollar $ 1000 " 100 cents. 
 10 dollars 1 eagle E. 10000 " 1000 cents 100 dimes. 
 
 Coins.— The gold coins are the double-eagle, eagle, half- 
 eagle, qwtrter-eagle, three-dollar piece, and dolla/r. 
 
 Notes. — ^1. The fifty-dollar piece is not a legal coin. The 
 
UNITED STATES OE FEDEEAL MONEY. 147 
 
 copper half-cent is no longer coined. The mill is not a 
 
 coin. 
 
 2. Qold coins contain 9 parts of gold and 1 part of an 
 alloy of silver and copper. 
 
 3. The silver coins are the dollar, half-dollar, quarter- 
 dollar', dime, half -dime, and three-cent piece. 
 
 4. Silver coins contain 9 parts silver and 1 part cop- 
 per, except the three-cent piece, which is 3 parts silver 
 and 1 part copper. 
 
 5. The nickel coins are the cent, the new three-cent, and 
 new fioe-cent pieces. 
 
148 
 
 iCTNITED STATES OE FEDERAL MONEY. 
 
 6. The nickel cent contains 88 parts copper and 12 parts 
 nickel. 
 
 7. The copper coins are tke cent and two-cent pieces. 
 
 8. The two-cent and cent pieces are made of nickel and 
 copper. 
 
 I TJie terra foliar is supposed to be derived from the 
 German " thaler," pronounced ta-ler. 
 
 The term dime means ten, cent a hundred, and mill a 
 thousand. 
 
 The origin of the dollar-mark is uncertain'; some think it 
 the combination of U. S., others that it is an imitation of 
 the dollars and scroll on the " pillar-dollar." 
 
 1 eagle (gold) weighs 258 troy grains. 
 1 dollar (silver) " 412.5 " 
 1 6ent (copper) " 168 " 
 23.2 grains of pure gold=$1.00. 
 
 Gold coin of the United States, prior to 1834, like that 
 of England,=88.8 cents per dwt. By act of Congress of 
 1834, its value was made 94.8 cents per dwt. The old 
 United States Eagle, coined previous to 1834, is worth 
 $10,66-8. 
 
ENGLISH MONET. 
 
 English or Sterling Money is the currency of Great 
 
 Britain. 
 
 Table. 
 
 4 farthings (far. or qr.) make 1 penny, marked d. 
 
 12 pence " 1 shilling, " s. 
 
 20 shillings " 1 pound or sovereign, £, sov. 
 
 21 shilhngs " 1 guinea, marked guin. 
 
 - Coins. — The gold coins are the sovereign (£1), and the 
 Mlf-sovereign (10s.). 
 
 The silver coins are the crown (58.), the half-crown 
 (2s. 6d.), the /o7m (2s.), the shilling (12d.), sixpermy^pieGe 
 (6d.), and th^eepemiy-piece (3d.). 
 
150 
 
 ENGLISH MONET. 
 
 The bronze coins are thepemny, half -penny, an^ farthing. 
 Farthings are generally written as fractions of a penny, 
 thus: 1 far.=^d. ; 2 far.=f or i; 3 far.=|. 
 
 Canadian currency is decimal, and the denominations are 
 the same as Federal money. 
 
 The franc is the unit of the French decimal currency, 
 
ENGLISH MONET. 
 
 151 
 
 and is worth $0,186. The denominations are frames and 
 centHmes. 
 
 Notes. — 1. The symbol £ stands for the Latin word libra, 
 a pound ; s. for solidus, a shilling ; d, for denarius, a penny ; 
 qr. for quadrans, a quarter. ' 
 
 2. The term sterling is supposed to be derived from 
 Easterling, a name formerly given to the early German 
 traders. 
 
 3. The term farthing is derived from " four things," de- 
 noting the divisions on the old English penny. 
 
AVOIEDUPOIS WEIGHT. 
 
 _■ ^ v^ '"^r:. _1':>^ I . 
 
 ■^ -r — '^u ' 
 
 Avoirdupois weight is used for all ordinary purposes. 
 
 16 drams (dr.) 
 16 oz. 
 25 1b. 
 4 qr. 
 20 cwt. 
 100 lb. 
 
 Table. 
 
 1 ounce, 
 
 1 pound, 
 
 1 quarter, 
 
 1 hundredweight, 
 
 1 ton, 
 
 1 cental. 
 
 marked oz. 
 " lb. 
 " qr. 
 " cwt. 
 
 " c. 
 
AVQIEDUPOIS WEIGHT. 153 
 
 T. cwfc qr. lb. lb. oz. dr. gr.* 
 
 1=20=80=2000 1=16=256=7000 
 
 1= 4= 100 1= 16=437^ 
 
 1= 25 l=27ji 
 
 Notes. — 1. The gross ton of 2240 lbs. was formerly in 
 common use, b^^t is now seldom used except at the United 
 States Custom House and at the Pennsylvania coal mines. 
 
 2. Butter is usually packed for market in pails or firkins, 
 which hold from 50 to 100 pounds. 
 
 3. The term amoird/wpois is derived from the French 
 " avoir du poids," meaning goods of weight. Omt. is formed 
 
 ■from c, centum, wt., weight. 
 
 4. Most of the States have adopted the following 
 
 Table of Miscellaiteotjs Weights. 
 196 lbs. make 1 barrel of flour. 
 
 200 
 
 a 
 
 280 
 
 a 
 
 32 
 
 i( 
 
 48 
 
 11 
 
 66 
 
 (C 
 
 60 
 
 u 
 
 60 
 
 a 
 
 14 
 
 (C 
 
 46 
 
 IC 
 
 60 
 
 u 
 
 56 
 
 ic 
 
 44 
 
 i( 
 
 a 
 
 
 a 
 
 beef, pork, or i 
 
 a 
 
 
 a 
 
 salt at N. Y. i 
 
 ii 
 
 1 bushel of oats. . 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 barley. 
 
 <( 
 
 
 
 corn or rye. 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 wheat. 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 beans. 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 blue-grass-seed 
 
 le 
 
 
 
 castor-beans. 
 
 i( 
 
 
 
 clover-seed. 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 flax-seed. 
 
 i( 
 
 
 
 hemp-seed. 
 
 * Note. — The exact weight of an avoirdupois dram is 27 Ji troy grains. 
 
 7* 
 
154 
 
 ATOIEDUPOIS WEIGHT. 
 
 60 lbs. 
 
 make 1 bushel of 
 
 peas. 
 
 60 " 
 
 
 potatoes. 
 
 45 " 
 
 
 timothy-seed. 
 
 57 " 
 
 
 onions. 
 
 28 " 
 
 
 apples or peaches (dried). 
 
 50 " 
 
 
 salt. 
 
 A sack of wool is 22 stone, that is, 14 lbs. to the stone, 
 308 lbs. 
 
 A pack of wool is 17 stone 2 lbs. =240 lbs. — a pack load 
 for a horse. 
 
 A truss of hay is, new, 60 lbs. ; old, 50 lbs. ; straw, 40 
 lbs. A load of hay is 36 trusses. A hale of hay is 300 lbs. 
 
 A firkin of Imtter was formerly 56 lbs. 
 
 A hale of cottofi is 400 lbs., but it is put up in different 
 States varying from 280 to 720 lbs. Sea Island cotton is 
 put up in sacks of 300 lbs. 
 
AV0IBDUP0I8 WEIGHT. 
 
 155 
 
 AvoiBDUPOis Weight Illubteated. 
 
 1 firkin. 
 
 I barrel. 
 
 1 barrel. 
 
 1 barrel. 
 
 IbusheL 
 
 1 bushel. 
 
 IbusheL 
 
 1 bushel. 
 
TEOY WEIGHT. 
 
 
 — T - 
 
 i 1 
 1 
 
 J-. 
 
 
 V «f r :. Y 
 
 Troy weight is used in weighing gold, silver, and jewels, 
 and in philosophical experiifients. 
 
 Table. 
 24 grains (gr.) make 1 pennyweight, marked pwt. 
 
 20 pwt. " 1 ounce, 
 
 12 oz. " 1 pound, " 
 
 3^ grains " 1 carat (diamond wt.) " 
 
 Scale of Comparison. 
 
 lb; OZ. dwt. gr. 
 
 1 = 12 = 240 = 6760 
 
 1 = 20 = 480 
 
 1 = 24 
 
 Ik. = 3^ 
 
 oz. 
 lb. 
 k. 
 
TEOY WEIGHT. ' 157 
 
 24 grs. 480 grs. 5760 grs. 
 
 Notes. — 1. A carat is a weight of about 3.2 grains, 
 and is used by jewellers to weigh diamonds. The term 
 ca/rat is also used to denote the fineness of gold. "When gold 
 contains 18 parts pure gold and 6 parts alloy, which is usu- 
 ally silver and copper, it is said to be 18 carats fine. Gold 
 14 carats fine contains 14 parts pure gold and 10 parts 
 alloy, &c. 
 
 2. The term Trm/ is derived from Troyes, where the 
 weight was first introduced into Europe, about the 12th 
 century. ' 
 
 3. The term pemvyweight is derived from the weight of 
 the old silver penny. The term gram is derived from the 
 custom of using the grains of wheat, 24 of which were taken 
 to determine the weight of a pennyweight. 
 
 4. The symbol os. is derived from the Spanish word onza, 
 an ounce ; lb. is from the Latin libra, a pound. 
 
 5. The standard unit of weight is the troy pound. It 
 equals the weight of 22.79 -f-cu. in. of distilled water at the 
 temperature of 39° 83' F., the barometer being at 30 in. 
 
APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT. 
 
 
 
 \* r 
 
 
 Apothecaries' weight is used in preparing prescriptions, 
 but drugs and medicines are bought and sold by avoirdupois 
 weight. 
 
 Table. 
 20 grains (gr.) 1 scruple, 
 3 scruples 1 drachm, 
 
 8 drachms 1 ounce, 
 
 12 ounces 1 pound, 
 
 marked sc. or 3. 
 
 " dr. or 3 . 
 
 " oz. or I . 
 
 " lb. or ft. 
 
apothbcaeies' fluid measuee. 159 
 
 Scale of Compabison. 
 
 a I 3 3 gr. 
 
 1=12=96=288=5760 
 
 1= 8= 24= 480 
 
 1= 3= ^0 
 
 1= 20 
 
 ^i^i.sc I'ki w__ 
 
 APOTHECARIES' FLUID MEASURE. 
 
 Apothecaries' fluid measure is used for measuring liquids 
 in preparing medical prescriptions. 
 
 Table. 
 
 60 minims (ni) 1 fluid drachm, marked f 3 . 
 
 8 fluid drachms 1 fluid ounce, " f | . 
 
 16 fluid ounces 1 pint, " O. 
 
 8 pints 1 gallon (wine meas.) " Cong. 
 
 Note. — 1. The pound, ounce, and grain are the same as 
 in troy weight, the ounce being differently subdivided. 
 
 2. The symbols are supposed to be derived from the in- 
 scriptions upon the ancient monuments of Egypt. 
 
 3. One minim equals one drop. 
 
LIQUII? 
 
 OK WmE MEASURE. 
 
 li 
 1 
 
 ^Hf'« 
 
 I 
 
 f .- I • ' 
 
 1 
 
 t 
 
 
 .1* 
 
 
 ^=^ 
 
 »-* 
 
 ife^ 
 
 -=- 
 
 1 ; 
 1 
 
 Liquid measure is 
 
 , of course, used in 
 
 measuring liquids. 
 
 
 Table. 
 
 
 
 4 giUs (gi.) 
 
 
 1 pint, 
 
 marked pt. 
 
 2 pints 
 
 
 1 quart, 
 
 li 
 
 ,qt. 
 
 4 quarts 
 
 
 1 gallon, 
 
 u 
 
 gal. i 1 
 
 31^ gallons 
 
 
 1 barrel, 
 
 a 
 
 bbl. ' 1 
 
 2 barrels or 63 gallone 
 
 1 hogshead, " 
 
 hhd. l' 
 
liquid ok wine measfee. 
 Scale of Compaeisok. 
 Wme Measwre. Dry Measure. 
 
 gal. qt, pt. gi. ciu in. 
 
 1=4=8=32=231 
 
 1=2= 8=57f 
 1= 4=28f 
 
 161 
 
 bu. pk. qt. 
 
 pt. 
 
 1=4=32=64=21501 nearly. 
 1= 8=16= 537J " 
 1= 2= 67^ " 
 
 Note. — 1. The denominations barrel and hogshead are 
 used in estimating the capacity of cisterns, reservoirs, vats, &c. 
 
 2. The barrel, hogshead, tierce, pipe, butt and tun, are the 
 names of casks, which are usually gauged, having the num- 
 ber of gallons they hold marked on them. 
 
 3. Ale or beer measure, formerly used in measuring 
 beer, ale, and milk, is now seldom used. 
 
 4. 1 gallon of pure water weighs nearly 8^ lb. avoirdupois, 
 hence a pint weighs about a pound. 
 
 5. The standard unit of wine measure is the gallon, which 
 contains 231 cubic inches. 
 
 The Imperial, or British gallon, contains 277.274 cubic 
 inches. 
 
Dry measure. 
 
 
 Dry measure is used in measuring vegetables and a,rticlea. 
 
 not fluid. 
 
 2 pints (pt.) 
 8 quarts 
 4 pecks 
 36 bushels 
 
 1 quart, 
 1 peck, 
 1 bushel, 
 1 chaldron, 
 
 qt. 
 pk. 
 bu. 
 cald. 
 
 Notes. — The standard bushel is the "Winchester, which 
 contains 2150.42 cubic inches, or 77.627 lbs. avoirdupois of 
 distilled water at its maximum density. 
 
 Its dimensions are 18J inches diameter inside- 19^ inches 
 
DKT MEASITEE. 
 
 163 
 
 outside, and 8 inches deep, and when heaped to a cone 6 
 inches high, contains 2748 cubic inches. 
 
 The Imperial or British bushel contains 2218 cubic 
 inches, so that 32 of their bushels are equal to 38 of ours. 
 
 Eea/pvng Measwre. — Potatoes, turnips and esculent roots, 
 apples and other fruits, meal and bran, com ou the ear, 
 and in some States, oats, are sold by the heaping bushel 
 measiu'e. 
 
 Table of Oompaeison of the Meastjees of Capacitt. ^ 
 
 1 gallon or 4 qt. wine measure contains 231 cubic inches, 
 
 ^pk.orlqt. dry measure " 268f " 
 
 1 gallon or 4 qt. beer measure " 282 " 
 
 1. bushel dry measure 
 
 2150^ 
 
 In England the following weights and measures are 
 sometimes used : 
 
 WEIGHT. 
 8 pounds rzl stone, butchers' meat' 
 7 pounds =1 clove. 
 2 cloves =1 stone common articles. 
 2 stone =1 tod of wool. 
 6 J tods = 1 wey ' " 
 2 weysz^l sack " 
 12 sacks =1 last " 
 240 pounds^l pack " 
 
 CLOTH MEASXIEE. 
 
 2J'inoli6S=:l nail. 
 4 nails =1 quarter. 
 
 4 quarters =1 yard. 
 
 3 quarters =1 Flemish ell. 
 
 5 quarters=:l English elL 
 
 6 quarters =1 French eU. 
 4-iV quarters=l Scotch ell. 
 
 DRY MEASITEE. 
 
 2 quarts =1 pottle. 
 
 2 bushels =1 strike. 
 
 2 strikes =1 coom. 
 
 2 cooms=l quarter. 
 5 quarters =1 load. 
 
 3 bu3hels=l sack. 
 
 36 bushels = I chaldron. 
 
 WINE MEASUEE. 
 
 18 U. S. gal =1 runlet. 
 25 Bug. gal. or (j y 
 42 TJ. S. gal. J 
 
 2 tierces =1 puncheon. 
 52i Bug. gal. or ( _ 
 63 U. S. gal. S ~ 
 
 2 hogsheads =1 pipe. 
 
 2 pipes =1 tun. 
 
 7i Bug. gal.=:l firkin of beer. 
 
 4 firkins =1 barrel " 
 
164 
 
 DEY MBASUKE. 
 
 \ 
 
 Table of the Compaeison of "Weights, &o. 
 
 1 tr. S. pound Troy=5760 grs. Troy. 
 1 Bng. pound Troy=5760 " " 
 1 pound Apoth, =5760 " 
 1 U. S. pound Av. =7000 " " 
 1 Eng. pound Av. =7000 " 
 144 pounds Av. =175 lb. " 
 1 French gramme =15.433 grs. Troy. 
 1 U. S. yard =36 inches. 
 
 1 English yard=86 inches. 
 1 French metre=39.368 + inches. 
 1 U. S. bushel =2160.42 + cu. in. 
 1 Eng. " =2218.19+ " 
 1 tr. S. gallon =231. " 
 
 1 Bug. " =277.26+ " 
 1 French litre =61.533+ " 
 1 French are =119.664 sq. yds. 
 
SQUAEE MEASURE. 
 
 -' t- 
 
 — V=? 
 
 '4 
 
 * '/. re — 
 
 1^ 1^ 
 
 Square measure is used in calculating areas or surfaces, 
 as of land, lumber, painting, paving, &c. 
 
 Table. 
 
 144 square inches (sq. in.) make 1 square foot, 
 9 square feet " 1 square yard, 
 
 SOJ square yards " 1 square rod, 
 
 40 square rods " 1 rood, or qr. acre, 
 
 4 roods " 1 acre, 
 
 640 acres " 1 sq. mile or section, 
 
 marked sq. 
 
 a 
 
 
 (( 
 
 sq. 
 
 yd. 
 
 
 u 
 
 sq 
 
 rd. 
 
 P. 
 
 " 
 
 E. 
 
 
 
 l( 
 
 A. 
 
 
 
 1< 
 
 sq. 
 
 m., 
 
 sec. 
 
t166 square measure. 
 
 Scale of Compaeison. 
 
 A. R. P. sq. yds. sq. ft. sq. in. 
 
 1=4=160=4840 =43560 =6272640. 
 
 j 1= 40 = 1210 =10890 =1568160. 
 
 {{ 1= 30}= 272}= 39204. 
 
 : 1=9= 1296. 
 
 I 1 =z 144. 
 
 1 • 
 
 I Note. — -Artificers usually estimate their work — 1. In 
 
 ;j glazing and stone-cutting, by the square foot. 2. In pain t- 
 
 ^iing, plastering, paper-hanging, &c., by the square yard. 
 
 3. In flooring, roofing, slating, &c., by the 100 square feet. 
 
 ,4. In bricklaying, by the thousand bricks, by the square 
 
 yard, and 100 feet. p 
 
 The painting of mouldings, cornices, &c., is estimated by 
 
 measuring the entire.surface. 
 
 When bricklaying is estimated by square measure, the 
 
 work is understood to be 12 incites thick. 
 
 Surveyor's square measure is used in finding the area of 
 
 land. 
 
 Table. 
 
 625 square lints (sq. 1.) 
 
 
 make 1 sq. rod, 
 
 market 
 
 sq. rd. 
 
 16 sq. rods 
 
 
 " 1 sq. chain, 
 
 It 
 
 sq. oh. 
 
 I'l sq. chains 
 
 
 " 1 acre, 
 
 
 A 
 
 640 acre.'! 
 
 
 " I sq. mile, 
 
 (1 
 
 sq. mi. 
 
 36 sq. miles (six miles 
 
 square) 
 
 " 1 township, 
 
 •• 
 
 Tp. 
 
LONG MEASURE. 
 
 Long measure is 
 
 used for distances, 
 
 &c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Table. 
 
 
 
 12 lines or 
 
 3 barley 
 
 -corns 
 
 1 inch, 
 
 
 
 12 inches 
 
 
 
 1 foot. 
 
 
 marked ft. 
 
 3 ft 
 
 
 
 1 yard, 
 
 
 " yd. 
 
 5^ yd. 
 
 
 
 Irod, 
 
 
 " rd. 
 
 40 rd. 
 
 
 
 1 furlong, 
 
 " fur. 
 
 8 fur. 
 
 
 
 1 mile. 
 
 
 " mi. 
 
 Scale of Compaeison. 
 
 mL fur. rod. yd. ft In. 
 
 1 = 8=320=:1760 =5280 =63360 
 
 1= 40= 220 = 660 = 7920 
 
 1= 5^= 16^= 198 
 
 1 = 3 = 36 
 
 1 = 12 
 
SURVEYORS' MEASURE. 
 
 Giinter's chain is used by land surveyors. It is 4 rods or 
 66 feet long^ and contains 100 links. 
 
 Table. 
 
 25 links (li.) 
 
 1 rod, 
 
 rd. 
 
 4 rods 
 
 1 chain, 
 
 ch. 
 
 80 cliains 
 
 1 mile, 
 
 mi 
 
 Table of MisoELLANEons Linear Measuek. 
 
 3 inches 1 paliii. 
 
 4 inches 1 hand. |S>V?h6uw"/^^*°''°'*'°'''°"'' 
 9 inches 1 spian. : 
 
 3 feet 1 pace or-step. 
 
 3.28 feet 1 metre. 
 
 ^ fiset 1: fathom. ). •. ^ ■.. . 
 
 r^r>^ n ,1 4 .1 > Used la measuring deptha at Boa. 
 
 880 lathoms 1 mile. ) 
 
 3 geographical miles 1 league, 
 fin <i « ( 
 
 " ) 1 rlpoTPP JOriatltude 
 
 69}- statute " ) uegiee. j 01 longKudeoa the equator. 
 
 ,' ■ , ;■ 1 
 
 Note. — A hair's breadth is the 48th part of an inch. 
 
 A ship's cable is a chain, usually ,?ibont 120 fathoms 
 or 720 feet long, hence the term " cable length " in nautical 
 language denotes about that distance. 
 
 NoTKs. — 1. A knot is a nautical or geographical mile. 
 Thus, the phrase, " thirteen knq>ts an hour," means thirteen 
 geographical miles an hour. 
 
CX.OTS HSASUBE. 
 
 169 
 
 2. 1 English mile equals 6280 feet, and 1 nautical, or 
 geographical milcy equals 6086 feet. 
 
 3. The geographic mile equals about 1.15 English miles ; 
 the German short mile, about 3.9 English miles ; the Grer- 
 man long mile, about 5.75 English miles ; the Prussian mile 
 about 4.7 English miles ; the Spanish common league, about 
 4.2 miles ; and the Spanish judicial league about 2.6 miles. 
 
 4. Measures of length were at first derived from the dif- 
 ferent parts of the body, as the fingei\ lumd, the span, or 
 the length of the thumb and middle finger extended ; cvbit, 
 or the length of the forearm ; and the/a^Aom, or the length 
 of the two arms extended. 
 
 CLOTH MEASUEE. 
 
 Cloth measure is used by merchants in the sale of cloth, 
 ribbons, laces, &c. 
 
 Table. 
 
 2 sixteenths (16th) 1 eighth, marked 8th, \ yd. 
 
 2 eighths 1 quarter, " qr., J yd. 
 
 2 quarters 1 half, " hlf., \ yd. 
 
 4 quarters or 2 halves 1 yard, " yd. 
 
 Note. — The old system of measuring cloth is not now 
 
 used. By it each yard is divided into 4 quarters, and each 
 
 quarter into 4 nails, a nail being 2^ inches. 3 quarters make 
 
 a Flemish ell, 5 quarters an English ell, and 6 quarters a 
 
 French ell. , , 
 
 8 
 
CUBIC MEASUEE. 
 
 Table. 
 
 1'728 cubic inches (cu. in.) 
 27 cubic feet 
 
 40 cubic ft. of round timber or ) 
 50 cubic feet of hewn timber J 
 16 cubic feet 
 8 cord feet or ) 
 128 cubic feet f 
 
 24| cubic feet 
 
 1 cubic foot, 
 1 cubic yard, 
 
 1 ton or load, 
 
 I cord, foot, 
 
 1 cord of wood, 
 
 [ perch or 1 
 
 1 < stone, or >• 
 
 ( masonry. ) 
 
 marked en. ft. 
 cu. yd. 
 
 T. 
 
 cd. ft. 
 
 Cd. 
 
 Pch. 
 
 Cubic measure is used in estimating the contents of solids ; 
 as wood, stone, capacity of cisterns, &c. 
 
CUBIC MEASUEE. 
 
 171 
 
 Cu^.i- foot. 
 
 Cubic yard. 
 
 To Jmid the cuhic contents of any solid iody. 
 
 Rule. — Multiply the length by the breadth, and that pro- 
 duet by the thickness. 
 
 Notes. — 1. A load of earth contains a cubic yard, and 
 weighs about 3250 lbs. 
 
 2. Railway and transportation companies estimate light 
 freight by tlie number of cubic feet it occupies ; but heavy 
 freight is estimated by weight. 
 
 3. A pile of wood 4 feet wide, 4 feet high, and 8 feet long, 
 contains 1 cord / and a cord foot is 1 foot in length of such 
 a pile. 
 
 4. A perch of stone or masonry is 16|- feet long, 1^^ feet 
 wide, and 1 foot high, and contains 24f cubic feet. 
 
 5. A brick is usually 8 inches long, 4 inches wide, and 2 
 inches thick ; hence 27 bricks make a cubic foot. 
 
 6. Joiners, painters, and masons make no allowance for 
 windows, doors, &c. Masons make no allowance tor the 
 comers of the walls of houses or of cellars. The size of a 
 
172 CUBIC MEASUEE. 
 
 cellar is estimated by the measurement of the outside of the 
 wall. 
 
 Toil weight and ton measure.— K ton of hay, or any 
 other, coarse bulky article usually sold by .that measure, is 
 20 gross hundreds, that is 2240 lbs. But in many places it 
 has become the custom to count only 2000 lbs. for a ton. 
 In freighting ships, 42 cubic feet are allowed to a ton ; ,in 
 the measurement of timber, 40 solid feet if round, and 50 
 if square make a ton. 
 
THE METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND 
 MEASURES* 
 
 The metric'System of weights and measures had its origin 
 in France during the Revolntion in the year 1790. The fol- 
 lowing year a commission of scientific men was appointed 
 by tlie government to select an appropriate unit, and as the 
 result of their investigations the ten-millionth part of the 
 earth's quadrant was chosen and called a J/eiT-e. To deter- 
 mine the unit of weight a cube of pure water at its greatest 
 density, each edge of which is one-hvmdredth of a metre, was 
 taken and called a Gramme (anglicized gram). The mul- 
 tiples and subdivisions were made to correspond to the deci- 
 mal scale, hence its gi'eat simplicity'. 
 
 Tliis system was declared obligatory in France after Nov. 
 2, 1801 ; but no penalty was attached to non-conformity 
 until after- Jan. 1, 1841. The system has since been adopted 
 wholly or in part by Spain, Belgium, Portugal, Holland, 
 Great Britain, Greece, Italy, Norway, Sweden, Mexico, 
 Guatemala, Venezuela, Ecuador, U. S. of Columbia, Brazil, 
 Chili, San Salvador, and the Argentine Republic. In 1866 
 
 * The following article on the Metric System of Weights and Measures was 
 prepared for this work by S. A. Felter. A.M.. author of a well-known series 
 of mathematical text-booka. 
 
174 METKIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 Congress authorized the metric system in the United States 
 by passing the following bill : — 
 
 AU ACT TO AUTHOEIZE THE USE OF THE METRIC SYSTEM OF 
 ' WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 Be it enacted hy the Senate and House of Representutiwes 
 of the United States of America in Congress asserhhled, 
 That from and after the passage of this act, it shall be law- 
 ful throughout the United States of America to employ the 
 weights and measures of the metric system ; and no contract 
 or dealing, or pleading in any court, shall be deemed invalid 
 or liable to objection, because the weights or measures ex- 
 pressed or referred to therein are weights or measures of the 
 metric system. • 
 
 Sec. 2. — And he it further enacted^ That the tables in the 
 scliedule hereto annexed, shall be recognized in the construc- 
 tion of contracts, and in all legal proceedings, as establish- 
 ing, in terms of the weights and measures now in use in the 
 United States, the equivalents of the weights and measures 
 expressed therein in terms of the metric system ; and said 
 tables may be lawfully used for computing, determining, and 
 expressing, in customary weights and measures, the weights 
 and measures of the metric system. 
 
 The utility of the metric systefn commends itself, even 
 at a glance, and hence it becomes important tliat all should 
 become acquainted with it. It will doubtless soon come in- 
 to general use to the exclusion of all other systems of weight 
 and measure. The following is a brief and condensed' view 
 
 ? 
 
METKIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASUEES. 175 
 
 of the system, so clear and simple that a child can under- 
 stand it :— 
 
 The Met/rio System of weights and measures is formed 
 upon the decima,! scale, and has for its base an invariable 
 •unit derived from nature, and called a Metee ; and upon 
 this unit all the imits of weight and measure are based. 
 
 The Metre is the tenrmillionth part of the distance fi-om 
 the equator to the pole; and is the principal unit of linear 
 measure. 
 
 The Are is a square whose side is ten metres. It is the 
 principal unit of superficial measure. 
 
 The Stere is a cube whose edge is a metre. It is the prin- 
 cipal unit of solid or cubic measui-e. 
 
 The Litre is a cube whose edge is the tenth of a metre. 
 It is the principal unit of all measures of capacity. 
 
 Tlte Gram is tlie weighty of a cube of pure water at its 
 greatjest density, whose edge is the hundredth part of a 
 metre. A litre of water weighs 1,000 grams, ' It is the prin- 
 cipal unit of weight. i 
 
 The names of the derivative denominations are formed 
 by joining a Latia or (Greek prefix to the principal units. 
 There are seven of these prefixes, derived as follows : 
 
 {MiLLi, from Millesimus, a thousandth. 
 Centi, from Centesimus, a hundredth. 
 Deci, from Decimus, a tenth. 
 
176 
 
 METEIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MBASUEES. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Deca, ten. 
 
 Hecto, from Ilecaion, one hundred. 
 
 Kilo, from Cliilioi, one thousand. 
 
 Myeia, from Myrioi, ten tlwusomd. 
 
 The formation of the tables can be seen at a glance by 
 
 the following: — 
 
 Milli 
 Centi 
 Deci 
 
 Deca 
 Hecto 
 Kilo 
 Myria 
 
 - Metee. 
 
 Aee.* \ Steee, 
 
 - LiTEE. 
 
 Geam. 
 
 Names., 
 
 ■rnONUKCIATIOS. 
 
 Ab». 
 
 mm. 
 
 Names. 
 
 Pbonunciation. , 
 
 Abb. 
 
 Millimelre 
 
 Mill'-e-mee'-ter 
 
 Hectostero 
 
 Heo'-to-steer 
 
 hs. 
 
 Centimetre 
 
 Seut'-e-meo'-ter 
 
 cm. 
 
 Kilos tero 
 
 Kill'-o-steer 
 
 Ics. 
 
 Decimetre 
 
 Dcs-e-mee'-ter 
 Moe'-ter 
 
 dm. 
 
 m. 
 
 Myriastere 
 
 Mir'-e-a-steer 
 
 Miir-e-li'-te^ 
 
 mya. 
 
 Metre 
 
 Millilltre 
 
 ml. 
 
 Decametre 
 
 Dek'-a-mee'-ter 
 
 dhm 
 
 Centilitre 
 
 Sent' -e-Ii' -ter 
 
 d. . 
 
 Hectometre 
 
 Hec'-to mee'-ter 
 
 Hm. 
 
 Decilitre 
 
 Des'-e-ll'-ter 
 
 dl. 
 
 Kilometre 
 
 Kill'-o-mee -ter 
 
 km. 
 
 Litre 
 
 Li'-ter 
 
 I. 
 
 Myriametre 
 
 Mir'-e-a-mee'-ter 
 
 mym. 
 
 Decalitre 
 
 Dek'-a-li'4er 
 
 dkl. ' 
 
 MiUiare 
 
 Mill'e-are 
 
 ma. 
 
 Hectolitre 
 
 Hec'-to-li'-ter 
 
 hi. 
 
 Centiare . 
 
 Sent'e-are 
 
 ca. 
 
 Kilolitre 
 
 Kill'-o-li'-ter 
 
 kt. 
 
 Deciare 
 
 Des'-e-are 
 Are 
 
 da..,. 
 a. 
 
 Myrialitro 
 
 Mir'-e-a-Ii'-ter ■ 
 Mill'-e-gram 
 
 myl.-. 
 
 Are 
 
 Milligram 
 
 mg. 
 
 Deoare 
 
 Dek'4ro 
 
 dka. 
 
 C 'entigram 
 
 Sent'-e-gram 
 
 C3- 
 
 Hectare 
 
 Hec'-tare 
 
 ha. 
 
 Decigram 
 
 Des'-e-gram 
 
 dq. 
 
 Kilaro 
 
 KiU'are 
 
 ka. 
 
 Cham 
 
 Gram 
 
 Q- 
 
 Myriaro 
 
 Mir -e-iire 
 
 mya. 
 
 Decagram 
 
 Dek'-a-gram 
 
 dkg. 
 
 Mlllistcre 
 
 Mill'-e-steer 
 
 ms. 
 
 Hectogram 
 
 Heo -to-gram 
 
 hg. 
 
 Centistere 
 
 Sont'-e-steer 
 
 cs. 
 
 Kilogram 
 
 Kill'-o-gram 
 
 kg. 
 
 Deciptero 
 
 Des'-e-steer 
 
 ds. 
 
 Myriagram 
 
 Mir'-e-a'gram' 
 
 myg. 
 
 Sere 
 
 Steer 
 
 s. 
 
 Quintal 
 
 Quin'-tal 
 
 ^; 
 
 Decastere 
 
 Dek'-a-steer 
 
 dks. 
 
 Tonneau 
 
 Tun '-no 
 
 T. 
 
 * The a in deca and myria, and the o in hecto and ftito, are dropped when 
 prefixed to Are. 
 
1 
 
 
 METEIO SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASUEES. 177 
 
 LINEAR MEASURE. 
 
 lUustratioiu 
 
 Metric Measjire. 
 
 o 
 
 , : 
 
 "ri 
 
 JNOTE. — Jtjy the accompany- 
 ing illustration it will be seen 
 that one-tenth of a metre, or 
 ten centimetres, equals about 
 3ff in., or a trifle short of 4 in. 
 This measure, as well as the 
 other measures and weights, 
 is -written as whole numbers 
 and decimals. The decimal 
 g point is placed at the right of 
 S the unit; thus, 4.167 m. may 
 ". be ;written 416.7 em. To make 
 a metric rule, cut a piece of 
 wood, paper, or tape,. 39| in. 
 long. Divide it into ten equal 
 parts, and each part into ten 
 other equal parts ; each of these 
 parts is 1 centimetre. Divide 
 each centimetre into ten equal 
 parts, and each part is a mil- 
 limetre. 
 
 nickel five cent piece of 1866 is 2 
 it is 5 grams. 
 
 unit generally used for measure- 
 
 8* 
 
 a 
 
 : 
 
 00 
 
 1 !^ 
 
 V> 
 
 Ui ; 
 
 ,^ E 
 
 n = 
 
 0] = 
 
 ■"^ E 
 
 ; Oe'i 
 
 The diameter of the 
 itimetres, and its weigl 
 The Centimetre is the 
 
178 
 
 METEIG SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEIA.SUKES. 
 
 ments less than a metre. For its length in common measure 
 see illustration. 
 
 The Metre is the imit commonly used bj' artisans. It 
 equals 3 ft. 3f in. (nearly). 
 
 The Kilometre is the unit commonly used by suiyeyors 
 
 in measuring distances. 
 
 Its length is 198 rd. 13 ft. 10 in. 
 
 Table.* 
 
 10 millimetres 
 10 centimetres 
 10 decimetres 
 111 metres 
 10 decametres 
 10 hectometres 
 IrO kilometres 
 
 1 centimetre. 
 1 decimetre. 
 1 Metre. 
 1 decametre. 
 1 liectometre. 
 1 liiilometre. 
 1 myriametre. 
 
 Contracted. 
 10 millimetres = 1 centimetre. 
 100 centimetres = 1 metre. 
 loo meVres = 1 kilometre. 
 
 SQUARE MEASURE. 
 
 Tlie square Metre is the unit commonly used by artisans 
 in specifying surfaces of small extent. It contains about 10 
 sq. ft. 110 sq. in. 
 
 The Are is the unit commonly used to express quantities 
 less than the hectare. 100 ares make one hectare. 
 
 The Hectare is the unit commonly used by surveyors 
 
 * NOTE.— The unit of each table is divided into ten equal parts, designated 
 by prefixing deci (tenth) ; as, decigram. The tenths are divided into ten other 
 equal parts, designated by prefixing cenii (hundredth) ; as, cenWgram. The 
 Imndredtlis are subdivided in the same manner, and are designated by prefix- 
 ing milli (thousandth); as, mffligram. The contracted table is the most con- 
 venient for common use. ■ . 
 
METEIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 179 
 
 in estimating the contents of land. It contains 2.471 
 acres. 
 
 Table. 
 
 Contracted, 
 100 sq. millimetres =1 sq. centimetre. 
 100 sq. oentimetres=l sq. decimetre. 
 1 00 sq. decimetres =: 1 sq. metre. 
 ] 00 sq. metres = 1 are. 
 
 
 
 Fun. 
 
 10 milliares 
 
 = 
 
 1 centiare. 
 
 10 centiares 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 declare. 
 
 10 declares 
 
 r= 
 
 1 Are. 
 
 10 ares 
 
 ^' 
 
 1 decare. 
 
 10 decarps 
 
 = 
 
 1 hectare. 
 
 1 hectares 
 
 r= 
 
 1 kilare. 
 
 10 kllares 
 
 = 
 
 1 myriare. 
 
 100 ares 
 
 = 1 hectare. 
 
 CUBIC OR SOLID MEASURE. 
 
 T/ie cubic Metre or Stere is tile unit commonly used by 
 ■engineers in estimating the solid contents of embankments, 
 cellai's, walls, &c. It equals 1.308 cu. yards. 
 
 Table. 
 
 Fua. 
 
 10 millisteres 
 10 centisteres 
 10 decisteres 
 10 Bteres 
 10 decasteres 
 10 hectosteres 
 10 kilosteres 
 
 1 oentistere. 
 1 decistere. 
 1 Stere. 
 1 decastere. 
 1 hectostero. 
 1 kilostere. 
 1 myriastere. 
 
 Contracted. 
 1000 eu. centimetres = 1 litre. 
 1000 litres = 1 stere. 
 
 1000 steres = 1 kilostere. 
 
 DRY AND LIQUID MEASURE. 
 
 The unit commonly used in the measurement of grain, 
 roots, and liquids by the barrel is the hectolitre. It equals 
 26.417 gal. wine measure, or 2.839 bu. dry measure. 
 
 The unit commonly used by grocers is the litre. It equals 
 

 180 METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASUEES. 
 
 1.056 qt. wine measure, or .908 qt. dry measure, or a trifle 
 
 more than a wine quart. 
 
 Table. 
 
 mil. 
 10 millilitres = 1 centilitre. 
 10 centilitres =: 1 decilitre. 
 10 decilitres = 1 Litre. 
 10 litres = 1 decalitre. 
 10 decalitres . =: 1 hectolitre. 
 10 hectolitres = 1 kilolitre, 
 lu kilolitres = 1 myrialitre. 
 
 Contracted. - 
 100 centilitres = 1 litre. 
 100 litres = 1 hectolitre. 
 1000 Utres — 1 kUoUtre. 
 
 WEIGHT. 
 
 The unit commonly used in philosophical experiments. 
 
 by jewellers and di'uggists is the gram. Its weight is 16.432 
 
 [ gr: troy. 
 
 Tlic unit commonly used by grocers is the Icilogram, com- 
 
 monly contracted kih. It is the weight of a litre of pure 
 
 water, and equals 2.2046 lbs., or about 2-J- lbs. avoirdupois. 
 
 The unit commonly used in weighing heavy bodies, as 
 
 coal, iron, marble, R. E. freight, «fec., is the tonneau. It 
 
 is the weight of a cubic metre of pure water, and equals 
 
 2204.6 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 
 Table. 
 
 Full. • • 
 10 milligrams = 1 centigram. 
 Ill centigrams = 1 decigram. 
 10 decigrams = 1 Gram. 
 10 grama = 1 decagram. 
 10 decagrams = 1 hectogram. 
 ] hectograms = 1 kilogram. 
 1 kilograms = 1 myriagram. 
 10 myriagrams =: 1 quintoi. 
 ' 10 quintals = 1 tonueau. 
 
 Contracted. 
 100 centigrams = 1 gram. 
 lOOn grams = 1 kilogram. 
 1000 kilograms =" 1 tosneau. 
 
 
METEIO SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASUBES. 181 
 
 MEASUKEMENT OF ANGLES. 
 
 In the oentesvmal or French method the right angle is 
 divided into 100 equal parts called grades, the grade into 
 100 equal parts called minutes, the minute into 100 equal 
 parts called seconds. 
 
 Table. 
 
 100 seconds (') = 1 minute (') 
 
 100 minutes = 1 grade (gr.) 
 
 100 grades = 1 right angle (r. a.) 
 
 Note. — Since the signs for both the common and centesi- 
 mal methods are the same, to prevent confusion when min- 
 utes and seconds are expressed in the centesimal method, 
 annex the abbreviation cen. ; thus, 3' 46" cen. 
 
 CUERENCY. 
 Scale. Table. 
 
 10 millimes = 1 centime. 
 10 centimes = 1 decime. ' 
 jt; ^ g '^ 10 deoimes = 1 Frcmc. 
 
 : a..s a 
 
 • aj S"a 
 0. 
 
 LINEAR MEASURE. 
 
 Table* of equvoalents. 
 
 1 in. = 1h\ mm. (nearly). 
 1 ft. = 306 mm. (nearly). 
 1 yd. = 914 mm. 
 1 rd. = 5029 mm. 
 
 1 mi. = 1609.35 m. 
 1 cm. = .3937=1 in. (nearly). 
 1 m. = 39.37 in.=1.093 yd. 
 1 km. = .62137 mi. = 198 rd., 13 ft., 
 10 in. 
 
 * Authorized by Act of Congress, July 27, 1866. 
 
182 
 
 SPECiFio GEAvrrr. 
 Squaee Measure. — TcMe. 
 
 1 sq. In. i= 6.5 sq. cm. 
 1 sq. ft. = 9..S sq. dm. 
 1 sq. yd. = .835 sq. m. 
 1 acre = 40.47 a. 
 
 1 sq. cm. 
 
 1 sq. m. 
 
 1 are. 
 Iha. 
 
 = 1 
 
 .155 sq. in. 
 
 ' 1550 sq. in. 
 
 , 10.76 sq. ft. 
 119.6 sq. yd. 
 2.411 acres. 
 
 Ctjbio Measttke. — TaMe. 
 
 1 cu. 
 1 ou. 
 
 ft. 
 
 1 cu. yd. 
 1 cord 
 1 fluid oz. 
 Igal. 
 1 bus. , 
 
 - -j.o 
 
 = le.SST cu. centm. 
 
 28.34 litres. 
 
 .0283 stores. 
 .76531 stores. 
 3.6281 steres. 
 .02958 litres. 
 3.786 litres. 
 85.24 litres. 
 
 -, lit™ - i l-OSSI qt. liq. meas. 
 
 J. litre - -^ gpg q^. ^ jjjg^g 
 
 1 liecto- j 2.837 bu. dry meas. 
 
 litre = { 26.417 gal. liq. meas. 
 
 Ikiloli- ~1 f 35.316 ou. ft. 
 
 tre 1.308 ou. yd. 
 
 1 cu. me- ?■ = ■{ 264.17 gal. liq. 
 
 tre I meas. 
 
 1 store J (.2759 cord. 
 
 1 oz. troy 
 1 lb. troy 
 1 lb. apoth. 
 1 oz. avoir. 
 1 lb. avoir. 
 
 Weight. — Table. 
 
 = 31.1 grams. 
 1= 373.2 " 
 
 = 28.35 
 453.6 
 
 1 ton avoir. 
 
 1 gram. 
 
 1 kilogram 
 1 toimeau 
 
 : 907.2 kilos. 
 _ ( 15.432 gr. troy. 
 ~ ( .5643 dr. avoir. 
 = 2.2046 lb. avoir. 
 = 2204.6 lb. avoir. 
 
 AiiTGiTJLAE Meastjee. — Tohle. 
 
 1 r. a. =s 100 grades. 
 1° = 1^ grades. , 
 
 1' = 1.85 minutes ('oen.). 
 1' = 3.08 seconds ("cen.). 
 
 1 cir. 
 1 _ 
 1' cen. 
 1" cen. 
 
 = 400 grades. 
 = 9 deg. 
 = 5.4'. 
 = 3.24". 
 
 SPECIFIC GEAYITT. 
 
 ■When a cubic foot of a substance is compared with the 
 same bulk of water, and weighs a certain number of times as 
 much, that number is called its speoific gramiiy. 
 
 When any substance weighs less than water, it will float 
 
sPEoiFio GEAvrrr. 
 
 183 
 
 on it, and when it weigts less than air, it will rise in it ; 
 thus, iron will float in melted lead, gas wiU rise in the air, 
 and wood will float on water. 
 
 The we%ht of a cubic foot of water being 1000 ounces 
 avoirdupois, it has been adopted as the standard of specific 
 gravities. Hence the specific gravity of a body or substance 
 is the proportion its weight bears to this standard. 
 
 To find the specifk gramity of a hody. 
 
 EuLE. — Weigh it first in air and then in water, and take 
 the difference of these weights ; then as the difference is to 
 the weight in air, so is 1000 to the specific gravity of the 
 body. 
 
 Example. — "What is the specific gravity of a stone weigh- 
 ing 20 lbs., but in water only 15 lbs. ? 
 
 Solution.— 20— 15=5 difference; then 5 : 20:: 1000 : 
 4000. Ans. 
 
 When the 'body is lighter than water. 
 
184 SPECIFIC GEAVITT. 
 
 KiTLE. — Attach to it a piece of metal sufficient to sink it 
 in the waiter ; weigh the piece added and the body separately, 
 both in and out of the water, and find how much each loses 
 in water by subtracting its weiglit in water from its weight 
 in air, and subtract the less of these differences from the 
 greater ; then as the remainder is to the weight of the 
 light body in air, so is 1000 to the specific gravity of the 
 body. 
 
 Example. — Kequired the specific gravity of a piece of 
 wood which weighs 20 lbs. in air ; attached to it is a piece 
 of metal, which weighs 30 lbs. in air and 25 lbs. in water, 
 and the two pieces together weighing in water 10 lbs. ? 
 
 Solution.— 20 + 30— 10=40 
 30-25= 5 
 
 35 : 20:: 1000: 571.44. Ans. 
 
 To reduce the s^edfio gravity of a lody to its weight in 
 lis. per cuMc foot. 
 
 EtTLE. — Divide the specific gravity by 16, and the quotient 
 is the weight of a cubic foot in lbs. 
 
 Example. — ^Eequired the weight of a cubic foot of a sub- 
 stance the specific gravity of which is 4.800 ? 
 
 SoLimoN.— 4.800-4-16=300 lbs. Ans.. 
 
SPECIFIC GBAVITT. 
 
 185 
 
 Table, showmg the speoifio gravities of ^various mibstances. 
 
 DBSiaHATlON. 
 
 Sp. GraTily. 
 
 Antimony, . . . 
 
 6.712 
 
 Arsenic 
 
 5.763 
 
 Bismutb, 
 
 9.828 
 
 
 7.820 
 8.700 
 
 Bronze 
 
 Copper, 
 
 8.788 
 
 Copper wire,. . 
 
 8.878, 
 
 Gold, pure, . . . 
 
 19.258 
 
 " 22 carat. 
 
 17.486 
 
 " 20 carat 
 
 15.709 
 
 Iron, cast, 
 
 7.207 
 
 " bars 
 
 7.778 
 
 Lead, 
 
 11.352 
 
 Mercury,. 
 
 13.598 
 
 Platinum, .... 
 
 22.069 
 
 Silver, 
 
 10.477 
 
 Steel......... 
 
 7.833 
 
 Tin,. 
 
 7.291 
 6.861 
 2.730 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Alabaster, 
 
 Amber, 
 
 1.078 
 
 Asbestos, 
 
 3.073 
 
 Borax 
 
 1.714 
 
 Brick 
 
 1.900 
 
 Chalk 
 
 2.784 
 
 Charcoal 
 
 .441 
 
 Clay, 
 
 1.930 
 
 Coral 
 
 Coal, bit,... 
 
 " anthr.,. 
 
 Diamond, . . . 
 
 Earth, loose,. 
 
 Emery 
 
 Flint, 
 
 Grlass 
 
 Granite, 
 
 Grindstone,. . 
 
 Gypsum 
 
 Hone, white. 
 
 Ivory, 
 
 Limestone, . . 
 Litaie, quick, . 
 Manganese .. 
 Marble, par.,. 
 
 DRY WOOD. 
 
 Apple 
 
 Adder, 
 
 Ash 
 
 Beech, 
 
 Bo.x, 
 
 Campeachy, . 
 
 Cherry, , 
 
 Cocoa 
 
 2.700 
 1.270 
 1.656 
 8.521 
 1.500 
 4.000 
 2.590 
 2.930 
 ^.626 
 2.143 
 2.168 
 2.876 
 1.822 
 3.180 
 .804 
 7.000 
 2.838 
 
 .793 
 .800 
 .845 
 .862 
 
 1.231 
 .918 
 .715 
 
 1.040 
 
 Cork, 
 
 .240 
 
 Cypress, 
 
 .644 
 
 Ebony,.. 
 
 1.331 
 
 EHder 
 
 .695 
 
 Elm 
 
 .671 
 
 Fir, yellow, . . 
 
 .657 
 
 " white 
 
 .669 
 
 Lignum vitse,.. 
 
 1.333 
 
 Live oak 
 
 1.120 
 
 Logwood 
 
 .919 
 
 Mahogany, . . . 
 
 1.063 
 
 Maple,. ..■ 
 
 .750 
 
 Mulberry, .... 
 
 .897 
 
 Orange, 
 
 .705 
 
 Pine, yellow,. . 
 
 .660 
 
 " white, . . 
 
 .554 
 
 Pear, 
 
 .661 
 
 Plum 
 
 .785 
 
 Quince 
 
 .705 
 
 Sassafras 
 
 .482 
 
 Walnut 
 
 .671 
 
 Willow, 
 
 .585 
 
 Yew, 
 
 .798 
 
 Hickory 
 
 .838 
 
 Poplar, 
 
 .383 
 
 " while,.. 
 
 .529 
 
 When the specific gr amity of a substance is gi/oen, to find 
 the weight of a cubic foot. 
 
 Rule. — Multiply the weight of a cubic foot of pure wa- 
 ter (62^ lbs.) by the specific .gravity of the given substasce. 
 
 I wish to find the number of cubic inches in a piece of 
 cast iron, that will displace 25 ounces of water, What will 
 it weigh ? 
 
 Opeeation.— 1. 25 oz.x 1728=43200. 
 
 2. 43200-=-1000=43 cu. in. (nearly). Ans. 
 
 3. 25 oz.x 4501^1000=11 lb. (nearly). 
 
 Ans. 
 
166 
 
 SPECIFIC GEAVITT. 
 
 Note. — To find the number of cubic inches in any irregu- 
 lar body, weigh a vessel containing sufficient rain water to 
 coTer the solid, then immerse the solid in the water by 
 means of a string or wire held in the hand, being careful 
 not to touch the vessel. "While the solid is immersed, 
 weigh the water and vessel again ; the difference will be 
 the weight of the water displaced by the solid. 
 
 'Rule. — I. Multiply the weight of the water in ounces by 
 1728, and divide by 1000, the result will be the contents in 
 cubic inches. 
 
 II. To find the weight, multiply the weight of the water 
 displaced in ounces by the weight of a cubic foot of the 
 substance, and divide the product by 1000, and the result 
 will be the weight in pounds. 
 
 I have a pattern of a lock that will displace 20 ounces 
 of water ; how much will 1000 copies of cast iron weigh ? 
 How much will they cost me at 9 cents per pound ? 
 
 Operation.— 20 x 450^^-1000=9.01 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 9.01 X 1000 X 6.09=$810.90. . Ans. 
 
 I have a lead pattern of a wheel that displaces 15 ounces 
 of water ; what will 500 copies in brass cost me at 40 cents 
 per pound ? 
 
 Operation.— 15 x 504| 4- 1000=7.571 lb. 
 
 7.571 X 500 X $.40=11514.20. Ans. 
 
tELocnr, 18T 
 
 Table, showing the weight of a cfuMc foot of different 
 substances. 
 
 Avoir. 
 
 1 cubic foot of Brass .weighs 504f lb. 
 
 " " Brick " 125 " 
 
 " " Copper " 555 " 
 
 « « Clay " 135 « 
 
 « " Coal (anthracite) " 54 " 
 
 " " Coal (bituminous) " 50 « 
 
 " " Granite " 165 " 
 
 « " Iron (wrought) " 486f « 
 
 " " Iron (cast) " 450J « 
 
 « '« Lead " 708| " 
 
 « « Marble " 171 " 
 
 " " Soil (common) " 124 " 
 
 « " Sand " 95 « 
 
 « " TaUow " 59 " 
 
 " " , Water (pure) " 62J « 
 
 « " Water (sea) " 64^ " 
 
 « " Wood (oak) " 55 « 
 
 " " Wood (yellow pine) " 42 " 
 
 « « Wood (white pine) " 30 " 
 
 " « Charcoal (hard wood).... " 18J" 
 
 « " Charcoal (^ine wood) .... " 18 « 
 
 « « Cork " 15 " 
 
 VELOCITY.* 
 
 The average velocities of different objects are found in 
 
 the following , 
 
 • Parker's Philosophy. 
 
188 solid mattee ast) wateb in abtioles of diet. 
 
 Table. 
 
 Per hour. Per aec. 
 
 A man walks 3 miles, or 4 feet. 
 
 A horse trots 7 " or 10 " 
 
 Ahorserans 20 " or 29" 
 
 Steamboat runs 18 " or 26'-' 
 
 Sailing vessel runs 10 " or 14 " 
 
 Slow rivers flow 3 " or 4 " 
 
 Eapid rivers flow 7 " or 10 " 
 
 A moderate wind blows 7 " or 10 " 
 
 A storm moves 36 " or 52 " 
 
 A hurricane moves 80 " or 117 " 
 
 , A rifle ball " 1000 " or 1466 " 
 
 Sound " 743 " or 1142 " 
 
 Light " 192000 miles per sec. 
 
 Electricity " 288000 " " " 
 
 SOLID MATTER AND WATER IN ARTICLES OF DIET. 
 
 Table, showing the jproportion of solid matter cmd water in 
 100 jpa/rts each of thefoUowmg a/rticles of diet. 
 
 Deaignatloa. 
 
 Solid 
 matWr. 
 
 . Wftter. 
 
 DeBlg&atlon. ' 
 
 Solid 
 matter. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Wheat 
 
 87 
 
 87 
 
 86 
 
 86 
 
 86 
 
 86 
 
 74 , 
 
 61 
 
 29 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 U 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 26 
 
 49 
 
 71 
 
 73 
 
 74 
 
 74 
 
 75 ' 
 
 75 
 
 Pork 
 
 24 
 21 
 20 
 19 
 18 
 16 
 13 
 13 
 13 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 7 ' 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 76 - 
 
 Peas 
 
 Codfish - 
 
 79 
 
 Eice 
 
 Blood 
 
 80 
 
 Beans. 
 
 Trout. 
 
 81 
 
 Eye 
 
 A.pple8.. . ,' 
 
 82 
 
 Com.^.. 
 
 
 84 
 
 Oatmeal 
 
 
 87 
 
 Wheat bread 
 
 Beets 
 
 87 
 
 Mutton 
 
 Milk 
 
 87 
 
 Chicken *..... 
 
 Oysters 
 
 87 
 
 Lean Beef 
 
 
 92 
 
 Eggs 
 
 TurniDB 
 
 93 
 
 Veal 
 
 Water Melon 
 
 Cucumber 
 
 95 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 97 
 
WEIGHTS OF GHAIN, SEEDS, &0. 
 
 189 
 
 WEIGHTS OF GRAIN, SEEDS, &o. 
 
 Table, showing the weight of grain, seeds, c&G.,per lushel, 
 as established ly the Legislatures of the foTUmim^ States. 
 The letter m indicates sold ly measv/re. 
 
 Wheat, Iba 
 
 Eye 
 
 Corn, 
 
 Oats 
 
 Barley, 
 
 Buckwheat, . . , . 
 Clover eeed, . . . . 
 Timothy seed,. 
 
 Flax seed, 
 
 Hemp seed, . . . . 
 Blue-grass seed. 
 Apples, dried*.. 
 Peaches, dried, . 
 Coarse salt,.... 
 
 Fine salt, 
 
 Potatoes, , 
 
 Peas, 
 
 Beans, 
 
 Castor Beans, . . 
 
 Onions, 
 
 Corn Meal, 
 
 Mineral Coal, . . 
 
 56 
 
 60 
 
 Ul 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 To reduce cubic feet to busliels, struck meaaure, divide 
 the cubic feet by 56 and multiply by 45. 
 
190 
 
 NUTBmVE VALUE OF CERTAIN CEOPS. 
 
 PEOPORTION" OF ALCOHOL IN LIQUOES. 
 
 Table, shoeing the proportion of alcohol in 100 pwrts, each, 
 
 of the followmg Uguors. 
 
 Designation. Farts in lOO. 
 
 Scotch Whiskey 54. B2 
 
 Irish Whiskey 53.9 
 
 Bum 53.68 
 
 Brandy 53.39 
 
 Gin 51.6 
 
 Port 22.9 
 
 Madeira 22.27 
 
 Currant 20.55 
 
 Teneriffe 19. T9 
 
 DeBlgnatlon. Farts la lOQ. 
 
 Sherry 19.17 
 
 Claret.... 15.1 
 
 Champagne 13.8 
 
 Goosebeny. 11.84 
 
 Elder. 8.79 
 
 Ale 6.87 
 
 Porter. 4.2 
 
 Cider 9. 8 to 6.3 
 
 Prof. Brande. 
 
 NUTEITIYE YALTJE OF CEETAIN CEOPS. 
 If we suppose an acre to yield the followmg quantities of 
 the usually cultivated crops, the weight of dry starch and 
 gum, of gluten, albumen, casein, &c., of oil or fat, and of 
 saline matter, reaped in , each crop, will be represented 
 nearly by the following numbers : — 
 
 DISIONATION. 
 
 'm 
 
 lbs. 
 
 1^ 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 Oil. 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 Wheat 
 
 25 
 35 
 60 
 26 
 25 
 30 
 12 tons 
 30 " 
 
 IJ " 
 
 1* " 
 
 2 " 
 
 20 " 
 
 1500 
 
 1800 
 
 2100 
 
 1600 
 
 1600 
 
 1800 
 
 27000 
 
 67000 
 
 3000 
 
 3400 
 
 4500 
 
 45000 
 
 225 
 
 270 
 
 420 
 
 130 
 
 160 
 
 100 
 
 1080 
 
 1340 
 
 1600 
 
 1020 
 
 1120 
 
 430 
 
 825 
 1080 
 lri60 
 
 800 
 
 640 
 1260 
 4800 
 6000 
 
 900 
 1360 
 1800 
 2300 
 
 180 
 230 
 300 
 380 
 420 
 220 
 540 
 
 1000 
 
 40 
 
 240 
 
 420 
 
 1300 
 
 45 
 
 60 
 
 100 
 
 i4 
 
 40 
 
 130 
 
 . 45 
 
 200 
 
 80 
 
 120 
 
 200 
 
 130 
 
 30 
 
 Barley ■ 
 
 50 
 
 Oats 
 
 75 
 
 Peas 
 
 48 
 
 Beans 
 
 50 
 
 Indian Com, 
 
 SO 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 240 
 
 Turnips 
 
 450 
 
 Wheat Straw 
 
 160 
 
 Meadow Hay 
 
 220 
 
 Clover Hay 
 
 400 
 
 Cabbage 
 
 600 
 
 Johnston. 
 
QUANITTT OF SEED EEQBIKED. 
 
 191 
 
 NoTi;. — From the above table it appears that the acre 
 which, by cropping with wheat, would yield a given weight 
 of starch, sugar, and gum, would, when cropped with bar- 
 ley or oats, yield one-fowrth more of thes^e substances — ^with 
 potatoes, about fc/wr times as much, and with turnips eight 
 times the same quantity. In other words, the piece of ground 
 which, when sown with wheat, will maintain one man, 
 would support one and a quarter if sown with barley or 
 oats, four with potatoes, and eight with turnips — m sofa/r 
 , as the nu1m,tvve power of these (Tops depends on the sta/rdh, 
 sugar, amd gum they Gontam. 
 
 PEECEISTTAGE OF OIL IN" SEEDS, GEAIN, &c. 
 Oil per cent, in different seeds, gtam,, c&g. 
 
 on per cent. 
 
 Linseed 11 to 22 say 17 
 
 Hempseed 14," 25 " 19 
 
 Rapeseed. ■ 40 " 10 " 55 
 
 White mustard 36 " 38 " 31 
 
 Sweet almond 40" 54 " 47 
 
 Bitter almond 28" 46 " 37 
 
 Turnip seed 40 " 60 " 45 
 
 Wheat flour 2 " 4 " 3 
 
 Barley 2 " 3 " 2^ 
 
 Oil per cent. 
 
 Oats 5 to 8 say 6^ 
 
 Indian com 5 " 9 " 7 
 
 Wheat bran 3 " 5 " 4 
 
 Potatoes, turnips, 
 
 and cabbage. IJ 
 
 Wheat-straw. 2 " 3^ " 3 
 
 Oat-straw 4 
 
 jfeadow hay 2 " 6 " 3| 
 
 Clover hay 3 " 5 " 5 
 
 QUAI^TITIES OF SEED EEQUIKED TO THE 
 ACEE, &o. ' 
 
 Table, showing the quantity of garden seeds regui/recu to 
 plant a given space. 
 
 Designation. Space and quantity of seeds. 
 
 1 oz. produces 1000 plants, and requires a bed 12 ft. sq. 
 
 1000 plant a bed 4 feet wide 225 feet long. 
 
 1 quart plants from 100 to 150 feet of row. 
 
 1 " " 250 or 350 feet of row. 
 
 1 " " lOOhUla. 
 
 1 " " 300 hills, or 250 feet oif rowi 
 
 Roots . . 
 
 Eng. Dwarf Beans 
 
 French " 
 
 Beans, pole, large 
 
 " " small 
 
192 
 
 QUAimTY OF SEED EEQUIEED. 
 
 Designation, 
 
 Beets 
 
 Broccoli and Eale 
 
 Cabbage 
 
 Cauliflower. . . . 
 
 Carrot 
 
 Celery 
 
 Cucumber 
 
 Cress 
 
 Egg Plant 
 
 Endive 
 
 Leek 
 
 Lettuce 
 
 Melon 
 
 Nasturtium. . . . 
 
 Onion 
 
 Okra 
 
 Parsley 
 
 Parsnip 
 
 Peppers 
 
 Pumpkin 
 
 Badish 
 
 Salsify 
 
 Spinage 
 
 Squash 
 
 Tomato 
 
 Turnip 
 
 Water Melon. 
 
 Space and quantity of seeds. 
 10 lbs. to the acre ; 1 oz. plants 150 feet of row. 
 i oz. plants 2,500 plants, and requires 40 sq. ft. of ground. 
 Early sorts same as brocoli, and require 60 sq. ft. ground. 
 The same as cabbage. 
 1 oz. to 15U of row. 
 
 1 oz. gives 7000 plants, and requires 8 sq. feet of ground. 
 I oa. for 160 hills. 
 1 oz. BOWS a bed 16 feet square. 
 1 oz. gives 2000 plants. 
 
 1 oz. gives 3000 plants, and requires 80 feet of ground. 
 I oz. gives 2000 plants, and requires 60 feet of ground. 
 1 oz. " 7000 " and requires seed bed of 120 feet. 
 1 oz. for 120 hills. 
 I oz. BOWS 25 feet of row. 
 loz. " 200 " " 
 
 I oz. " 200 " " 
 
 loz. " 200 '■ " 
 
 loz. " 250 " '< 
 
 1 oz. gives 2500 plants. 
 1 quart sows 120 feet of row. 
 I oz. to 50 hUls. 
 1 oz. to 100 feet. 
 1 oz. to 160 feet of row. 
 1 oz. to 200 feet of row. 
 1 oz. to 75 hills. 
 
 I oz. gives 2500 plants, requiring seed bed of 80 feet. 
 1 oz. to 2000 feet. 
 1. oz. to 60 hills. 
 
 Table, showing the quantity of 
 
 Designation. Quantity of 
 
 ■Wheat ljto.2 
 
 Barley IJ to 2J 
 
 Oats 2 to 4 
 
 Eye 1 to2 
 
 Buckwheat f to 1 J 
 
 Millet 1 tolj 
 
 Corn i to 1 
 
 Beans 1 to 2 
 
 Peas 2§to3} 
 
 Hemp.. 1 to ij 
 
 Flax }to2 
 
 Eice..., 2 to2J 
 
 ■eed. 
 bush: 
 
 seed required to the acre. 
 
 Designation. Quantity of aeed. 
 
 Broom Corn. 1 to IJ bush. 
 
 Potatoes 6 to 10 " 
 
 Timothy 12 to 24 quarts 
 
 Mustard 8 to 20 " 
 
 Herd Grass 12 to 16 " 
 
 Flat Turnip 2 to 8 lbs. 
 
 Bed Clover 10 to 16 " 
 
 White Clover., 3 to 4 " 
 
 BlueGraes..-. 10 to 15 " 
 
 Orchard Grass 20 to 30 " 
 
 Carrots 4to 5 " 
 
 6to 8 " 
 
 Table, sTumvng the quantity per acre when planted in rows or drills. 
 
 Broom Com 1 to 1^ bush. 
 
 Beans 1^ to 2 " 
 
 Peas l| to 2 " 
 
 Onions. 4 to 5 Iba 
 
 Carrots. . . ., 2 to 2 J " 
 
 Parsnips 4 to 6 " 
 
 Beets.. 4 to 6 " 
 
PEOPOETIONS OF WEIGHT TO BULK. 
 
 193 
 
 DEPTH OF SOWING WHEAT. 
 Wheat may be sowed too shallow as well as too deep. 
 The depth must vary with the soil. A thinner covering is 
 required in a close, thick, heavy soil, than in one light, 
 gravelly, and sandy. Experiments made with wheat ,give 
 the following results : — 
 
 Seeds sown to the depth of i inch, 
 
 ti it (( u 1 a 
 
 Appeared above 
 gronnd in 
 
 11 days. 
 
 12 " 
 18 " 
 
 20 " 
 
 21 " 
 
 22 " 
 
 23 " 
 
 No. of plants 
 that came up, 
 
 I 
 all. 
 
 PEOPOETIONS OF WEIGHT TO BULK. 
 
 Table, showing the weight per cubio foot of va/rious sub- 
 stances, CMid the nvmher of cubio feet required to make a 
 ton of each.; 
 
 Maierial. 
 
 METALS. 
 
 Cast Iron , 
 
 Wrought Iron , 
 
 Steel 
 
 Copper, cast , 
 
 Copper, ■wrought. , , 
 
 Lead ........ 
 
 Silver 
 
 Tin 
 
 Gold 
 
 Zinc . ' 
 
 Platinum.... 
 Mercury, ... 
 "White Lead . 
 
 STONE, ETC. 
 
 Granite 
 
 Limestone 
 
 Marble 
 
 Paving Stone 
 
 Sand Stone 
 
 Brick , 
 
 Chalk 
 
 Clay 
 
 Lbs. per 
 cubic fl 
 
 Cub. feet I 
 per ton. I 
 
 Material 
 
 4S4 
 
 4.93 
 
 ■(RS 
 
 4.68 
 
 4!M) 
 
 4.6 
 
 M» 
 
 4.08 
 
 557 
 
 4.02 
 
 524 
 
 4.03 
 
 7(IH 
 
 3.16 
 
 1)54 
 
 
 45B 
 
 4.9 
 
 ISdS 
 
 
 4R9 
 
 5. 
 
 1218 
 
 
 »4« 
 
 2.64 
 
 198 
 
 11. 
 
 165 
 
 13.S 
 
 IBi 
 
 IS .5 
 
 171 
 
 18.1 
 
 151 
 
 14.8 
 
 13(1 
 
 17. 
 
 120 
 
 18.7 
 
 174 
 
 12.8 
 
 125 
 
 18. 
 
 STOKE, ETC. 
 
 Glass 
 
 Sand 
 
 Slate 
 
 WOOD. 
 
 Ash 
 
 Beach 
 
 Cedar 
 
 Elm 
 
 Mahogany, Spanish.... 
 
 Oak, English 
 
 White Oak, American.. 
 
 Live Oak 
 
 Pine, Pitch ,. 
 
 " Yellow 
 
 " White 
 
 Poplar , 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS, 
 
 Water, fresh 
 
 " salt ..,.. 
 
 Air* 
 
 Steamt 
 
 Cork , 
 
 Olive oil 
 
 Tallow , 
 
 Lbs. per Cub. feet 
 cubic Tl. per ton. 
 
 180 
 
 95 
 167 
 
 48 
 46 
 .35 
 44 
 57 
 53 
 45 
 70 
 
 34 
 46 
 
 62.5 
 
 64.6 
 
 .07529 
 
 15. 
 57. 
 59. 
 
 12.44 
 23.66 
 13.4 
 
 46. 
 48.7 
 ■ 64. 
 61. 
 39.3 
 43. 
 49. 
 33. 
 51.6 
 69. 
 
 35.8 
 34.1 8 
 
 149.8 
 39.8 
 
 * At the level of the sea. 
 
 t Not under pressure. 
 
COEN— POEK.. 
 
 According to the Patent Office Eeports, and the results 
 of numerous experiments, 1 bushel of corn weighing 56 lbs. 
 will produce 10^ lbs. of pork. Throwing off ^ to come at 
 the net weight, gives 8-| lbs. of pork as the product of 1 
 bushel of corn, or 1 lb. of pork as the product of 6f lbs. of 
 corn. Sf lbs. of cooked corn-meal makes 1 lb. of pork. 
 Assuming that it requires 6f lbs. of com to make 1 lb. of 
 pork (exclusive of the labor of feeding and taking care of 
 hogs), the relation which the price of corn bears to that 
 of pork is exhibited in the following 
 
 Table, showing the price of pork per lb. at different prices 
 per hushelfor corn. 
 
 Com per bush. 
 
 Pork per potmd. 
 
 Com per bush^ 
 
 Pork per pound. 
 
 Cents. 
 
 Cents. 
 
 Cents. 
 
 12i .... 
 
 1.50 
 
 38 
 
 4.52 
 
 15 
 
 1.78- 
 
 40 
 
 4.16 
 
 11 
 
 2. 
 
 42 
 
 5. 
 
 2« 
 
 2.38 . . 
 
 45 ... 
 
 5.35 
 
 22 
 
 2.62 
 
 60 
 
 6.95 
 
 25 
 
 2.96 
 
 65 
 
 6.64 - 
 
 80 
 
 8.S7 
 
 60 
 
 1.14- 
 
 33 
 
 3.92 
 
 65 
 
 1.14 
 
 35 
 
 4. 
 
 10 
 
 8,51 
 
 By reversing the above table we have the price of corn 
 per bushel at different prices per lb. for pork. The use of 
 the above table is obvious. For example, should corn be 
 
OOHN — ^POEK. 195 
 
 selKng for 60 cents per bushel and pork for only 5 cents per 
 lb., it would be most profitable to sell the corn ; but should 
 corn be selling for 40 cents per bushel and pork for 6 cents 
 per lb., it would be most profitable to reduce the corn to 
 pork, and sell the latter. 
 
 To find the price ofjporkper lb., taking the price of corn 
 per hushel as the dainmi. 
 
 EuLE. — Divide the price of a bushel of corn by 8.40 (the 
 number of lbs. of pork produced by a bushel of com), and the 
 quotient wUl be the answer. 
 
 Example. — When corn is 20 cents per bushel, what should 
 be the price of pork per lb. ? 
 
 SoLUTioiT.— 20.00 cents, --8.40 lbs., =2.38 cents. < Ans. 
 
 To fimd the price of com per Imshel, taking the price of 
 pork per lb. as the dabwm. 
 
 EnLE.— Multiply the price of a lb, of pork by 8.40 (the 
 number of lbs. of pork produced by a bushel of corn), and 
 the product will be the answer. 
 
 Example. — "What should be the price of corn per bushel 
 when pork is selling at 4|- cents per lb. 
 
 SoLimoiT. — 4.50 cents, x 8.40 lbs.,=37.8 cents. Ans. 
 
 Note. — The foregoing table and rules must not be taken 
 as immaHdhly correct. It requires but little reflection to 
 satisfy the farmer that the proportions and results exhibited 
 by them must be influenced by many conditions and causes 
 such as the sample of corn used, the constitution and breed 
 

 196 COEN POEK. 
 
 as well as the age of the animal, its condition, powers of di- 
 
 gestion, habits, health, &c. The very nature of the subject 
 
 precludes the possibility of exactly defining the results and 
 
 proportions. At best we can only have some general, a/oer- 
 
 age results and rules. The foregoing is deemed a safe gen- 
 
 eral average. 
 
 » 
 
 
 
 
 fl^ 
 
 ^N 
 
 f 
 
 i^SJi 
 
 
 i- 
 
 g^p,^^»=^. 
 
 T 
 
 * 
 
 
LIFE AND INCREASE OF ANIMALS. 
 
 To Iceep hens in winter. 
 Provide — 
 
 1. A comfortable roost; 
 
 2. Plenty of sand, gravel and ashes, dry, to play in ; 
 
 3. A box of lime ; 
 
 4. Boiled meat, chopped fine, every two or three days ; 
 
198 
 
 LIFE AND INCEEASE OF ANIMALS. 
 
 5. Corn and oats, which will be best if boiled tender ; 
 
 6. All the crumbs and potato parings ; 
 
 7. Water, neither cold nor blood-warm. 
 
 This treatment has proved quite successful in a great 
 many cases whei'e the formula has been strictly adhered to, 
 and hens which without it gave no eggs, with it immediately 
 laid one each, on an average, every two days. 
 
 Table, slwwing tJie period of reproduction a/nd gestation of 
 domestic animals. 
 
 
 Proper age 
 for reproduo- 
 
 Period ofthe 
 
 No. of Fe- 
 males for one 
 
 PERIOD OF GBSTATIOM AMD INCUBATION 
 
 DESIGNATION. 
 
 p>-oducUoa In 
 
 -hottest pe- 
 
 Mean peri- 
 
 Loni^est pe- 
 
 
 tlon. , 
 
 years. 
 
 Male. 
 
 riod, days. 
 
 od, days. 
 
 riod, days. 
 
 Mare, 
 
 4 years. 
 
 10 to 12 
 
 
 322 
 
 347 
 
 419 
 
 Stallion 
 
 6 •' 
 
 12 to 1.5 
 
 20 to 30 
 
 
 
 
 Cow 
 
 3 " 
 
 10 to 14 
 
 
 240 
 
 283 
 
 321 
 
 Bail 
 
 3 " 
 2 " 
 2 " 
 
 8 to 10 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 30 to 40 
 40 to 50 
 
 146 
 
 154 
 
 
 Ewe, 
 
 161 
 
 Kam, 
 
 
 Sow, 
 
 1 " 
 
 6 
 
 
 1G9 
 
 115 
 
 143 
 
 
 1 " 
 
 2 " 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 6 to 10 
 
 160 
 
 156 
 
 
 She Goat, 
 
 163 
 
 He Goat 
 
 2 " 
 
 5 
 
 20 to 40 
 
 
 
 
 She Ass, 
 
 4 " 
 
 10 to 12 
 
 
 365 
 
 380 
 
 391 
 
 He Aps 
 
 5 " 
 
 12 to 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 She Buffalo, . . 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 281 
 
 808 
 
 335 
 
 Bitch, 
 
 2 « 
 
 8 to 9 
 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 63 
 
 Di>g 
 
 2 « 
 1 " 
 
 8 10 9 
 Sto 6 
 
 
 48 
 
 SO 
 
 
 She Cat, 
 
 56 
 
 Be Cat 
 
 1 " 
 
 9 to 10 
 
 Sto 6 
 
 
 
 
 Doe Kabbit,. 
 
 6 months 
 
 5 to 6 
 
 
 20 
 
 28 
 
 33 
 
 Buck Babbit,. 
 
 6 " 
 
 5 to 6 
 
 '80 
 
 
 
 
 (.iock, 
 
 6 " 
 
 5 to 6 
 
 12 to 15 
 
 
 
 
 Hen 
 
 
 3 to 6 
 
 
 19 
 24 
 
 21 
 26 
 
 24 
 
 Turkey 
 
 • 30 
 
 Duck 
 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 32 
 
 Goose 
 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 
 33 
 
 Pigeon, 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 Pea Hen 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 28 
 
 SO 
 
 Guinea Hen . 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 23 
 
 25 
 
 Swan, 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 42 
 
 45 
 
LIFE AND INCREASE OF ANIMALS. 
 
 199 
 
 Growth and life of animals. 
 
 Man grows for 20 years, and lives 
 
 The Camel 
 
 The Horse " 
 
 The Ox " 
 
 'J he Lioa " 
 
 The Uog " 
 
 The ( at " 
 
 The Hare " 
 The Guinea pig 
 
 8 
 
 5 " 
 
 4 " 
 
 4 " 
 
 2 " 
 
 90 or 100 yeaiB. 
 40 
 25 
 
 l.i to 20 " 
 
 20 " 
 
 12 to U " 
 
 9 or 10 " 
 
 8 ". 
 
 7 months, and lives 6 or 7 " 
 A Table showing at one view when Forty Weeks {the period 
 of ^gestation in a cow) will expire, frmn any day through- 
 out the year. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Oct 
 
 feb 
 
 Kov 
 
 March Uei; 
 
 April 
 
 Juu 
 
 May. 
 
 Feb 
 
 June. 
 
 March. 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 6 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 7 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 (> 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 lU 
 
 3 8 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 4 9 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 U 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 5 1(1 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 l:i 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 6 11 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 U 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 7 12 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 IS 
 
 8 13 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 IB 
 
 9 14 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 10 15 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 U 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 11 Ki 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 \l 17 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 13 18 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 
 14 19 
 
 14 
 
 111 
 
 14 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
 15 
 
 2i 
 
 15 20 
 
 15 
 
 2(1 
 
 15 
 
 1!) 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
 16 
 
 23 
 
 1(1 
 
 23 
 
 16 21 
 
 16 
 
 21 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 23 
 
 17 
 
 24 
 
 17 
 
 21 
 
 17 22 
 
 17 
 
 22 
 
 17 
 
 21 
 
 17 
 
 24 
 
 18 
 
 2> 
 
 18 
 
 25 
 
 18 28 
 
 18 
 
 2;j 
 
 18 
 
 22 
 
 18 
 
 25 
 
 19 
 
 26 
 
 19 
 
 «r> 
 
 19 24 
 
 19 
 
 24 
 
 19 
 
 23 
 
 19 
 
 26 
 
 20 
 
 27 
 
 20 
 
 27 
 
 2i> 25 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 27 
 
 21 
 
 28 
 
 21 
 
 28 
 
 21 2(i 
 
 21 
 
 23 
 
 21 
 
 25 
 
 21 
 
 28 
 
 2J 
 
 2<J 
 
 22 
 
 29 
 
 2J 27 
 
 22 
 
 27 
 
 22 
 
 26 
 
 22 
 
 29 
 
 23 
 
 3!) 
 
 23 
 
 30 
 
 23 28 
 
 23 
 
 28 
 
 23 
 
 27 
 
 23 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 31 
 
 
 Dec 
 
 2t 29 
 
 24 
 
 29 
 
 24 
 
 28 
 
 24 
 
 31 
 
 « 
 
 Nov 
 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 25 SH 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 March | 
 
 , ^• Anril. 
 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 25 
 
 2 
 
 26 31 
 
 26 
 
 31 
 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 2") 
 
 ' 1 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 3 
 
 Jan 
 
 
 Feb 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 27 
 
 3 
 
 27 
 
 4 
 
 27 1 
 
 27 
 
 1 
 
 27 
 
 3 
 
 27 
 
 3 
 
 28 
 
 4 
 
 28 
 
 e 
 
 28 2 
 
 28 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 4 
 
 28 
 
 4 
 
 29 
 
 5 
 
 29 
 
 6 
 
 29 3 
 
 n 
 
 3 
 
 29 
 
 6 
 
 29 
 
 5 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 30 4 
 
 30 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 31 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 31 5 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 7 
 
 31 
 
 7 
 
200 
 
 LIFE AND mCBEASE OF AITQIALS. 
 
 ' Tdhle continued. 
 
 July. April 
 
 Aug. 
 
 May. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 June. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 July, 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Aug 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Sept 
 
 <"• 
 
 7 
 
 I 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 X 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 » 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 U 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 IK 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 1« 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 U 
 
 17 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 1« 
 
 U 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 19 
 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 13 
 
 2i 
 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 13 
 
 19 
 
 14 
 
 20 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 
 14 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 21 
 
 ]5 
 
 22 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
 15 
 
 21 
 
 16 
 
 2i 
 
 16 
 
 23 
 
 16 
 
 23 
 
 16 
 
 23 
 
 16 
 
 23 
 
 16 
 
 22 
 
 17 
 
 23 
 
 17 
 
 24 
 
 17 
 
 24 
 
 17 
 
 24 
 
 17 
 
 24 
 
 17 
 
 23 
 
 18 
 
 24 
 
 18 
 
 25 
 
 18 
 
 25 
 
 18 
 
 25 
 
 18 
 
 25 
 
 18 
 
 24 
 
 19 
 
 25 
 
 19 
 
 26 
 
 19 
 
 26 
 
 19 
 
 2ii 
 
 19 
 
 26 
 
 19 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 2P 
 
 20 
 
 27 
 
 20 
 
 27 
 
 20 
 
 27 
 
 20 
 
 27 
 
 20 
 
 26 
 
 21 
 
 27 
 
 21 
 
 28 
 
 21 
 
 28 
 
 21 
 
 28 
 
 21 
 
 28 
 
 21 
 
 27 
 
 22 
 
 28 
 
 22 
 
 29 
 
 22 
 
 29 
 
 22 
 
 29 
 
 22 
 
 29 
 
 22 
 
 28 
 
 23 
 
 £9 
 
 23 
 
 80 
 
 23 
 
 30 
 
 23 
 
 30 
 
 23 
 
 30 
 
 23 
 
 29 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 31 
 
 
 July. 
 
 24 
 
 31 
 
 24 
 
 31 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 
 May. 
 
 
 June 
 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 
 Aug. 
 
 
 Sept. 
 
 
 Oct. 
 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 25 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 -28 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 3 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 27 
 
 8 
 
 27 
 
 3 
 
 27 
 
 4 
 
 27 
 
 3 
 
 27 
 
 3 
 
 27 
 
 3 
 
 28 
 
 4 
 
 28 
 
 4 
 
 28 
 
 5 
 
 28 
 
 4 
 
 28 
 
 4 
 
 28 
 
 4 
 
 29 
 
 5 
 
 29 
 
 5 
 
 29 
 
 6 
 
 29 
 
 S 
 
 29 
 
 5 
 
 29 
 
 5 
 
 80 
 
 (i 
 
 30 
 
 C 
 
 30 
 
 7 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 31 
 
 1 
 
 31 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 7 
 
AGE OF ANIMALS. 
 
 To find the age of a horse. 
 
 The colt is born with 12 grinders. When 4 front teeth 
 have made their appearance the colt is 12 days old, and 
 ■when the next 4 appear it is four weeks old. When the 
 corner teetli appear it is eight months old, and when the 
 latter have attained the height of the front teeth it is » year 
 old. The two year old colt has the kernel (the dark sub- 
 stance in the middle of the tooth's crown) ground or worn 
 out of all the front teeth. In the third year the middle 
 front teeth are being shifted, and when three years old these 
 are substituted for the horse teeth. In the fourth year the 
 next 4 are shifted, and in the fifth year the corner teeth are 
 shifted. In the sixth year the kernel is worn out of the middle 
 front teeth, and the bridle teeth have now attained their full 
 growth. At seven years a hook has been formed on the 
 corner teeth of the upper jaw : the kernel of the teeth next 
 at the middle is worn out, and the bridle teeth begin to wear* 
 off. At eight years of age the kernel is worn out of all the 
 lower front teeth, and begins to decrease in the middle up- 
 per fronts. In the ninth year the kernel has wholly disap- 
 peared from the upper middle front teeth, the hook on the 
 
 corner teeth has increased in size, and the bridle teeth loose 
 
 9* 
 
202 
 
 AGE OF ANIMALS. 
 
 their point. In the tfenth year the kernel has worn out of 
 the teeth next to the middle fronts of the upper j^w, and 
 in the eleventh year the kernel has entirely disappeared from 
 the corner teeth of the same jaw. At twelve years the crowns 
 of all tlie front teeth in the lower jaw have become triangular, 
 and the bridle teeth are much worn down. As the horse 
 advances in age the gums shrink away from the teeth, which 
 appear long and narrow, and the kernels become changed 
 into darkish points. Gray hairs increase in the forehead 
 and the chin becomes angular.. 
 
 A modification of the foregoing, much more scientific or 
 systematic, and probably quite as reliable, is the classifica- 
 tion of Pessina, a distinguished veterinary surgeon of Ger- 
 many. 
 
 Its principles may b^ distinctly understood by reference 
 to the acpompaning cuts. A, B, C, and D. 
 
 A, represents the corner tooth of a young horse ; the oth- 
 
 er nippers vary very little from this one in their construc- 
 tion and form. 
 
 The top of the tooth is long from side to side, and the ex- 
 treme lower end is long from front to rear. The manner in 
 
AGE OF AOTMAXS. 
 
 203 
 
 which the shape changes as we go farther down the tooth is 
 represented in figure B, where cross sections at different 
 sections are shown. 
 
 The horse's tooth is worn away by use, and its upper sur- 
 face assumes the form of these different sections consecu- 
 tively, according to the extent to which it has been woi-n off. - 
 Of course, this only forms a general rule by which to judge 
 of the age of a horse. Cribbiters, horses feeding chiefly on 
 very old dry hay, and oats mixed with grit, and horses which 
 are continually gnawing their mangers, will have their teeth 
 worn away faster than will those which are fed on grass and 
 moistened, cut, and grotind feed, and which keep their teeth 
 to themselves when they are not eating. 
 
 Pessina's table of indications of age is correct for the 
 average of horses, and in all cases is sufficiently so for gen- 
 eral purposes. 
 
 We quote the following from Herbert's hints to horse- 
 keepers : — 
 
 " At jwe years the corners are 'up even with the other 
 teeth ; the mark is entirely worn out from the middle nip- 
 pers, and partly worn from the next pair (fig. C). 
 
204 AGE OF AMIMALS.. 
 
 _^asm,J^^li^ 
 
 .^■' 
 
 Fio. 0. 
 
 "At six years the mark is almost gone from the second 
 pair, and the outer edge of the corner teeth is worn down. 
 
 " At seven years the mark is entirely gone from the second 
 pair, and the edges of the corner teeth are worn somewhat 
 flat. 
 
 " At eight years the teeth of the lower jaw are worn en- 
 tirely flat, the mark having disappeared from all of them. 
 The form of the surface of the tooth has hecomo oval, and 
 the central enamel is long from side to side, and is near to 
 the front of the tocith. 
 
 " At nine years the midijle nippers are ronnded on the 
 inner side, the oval of the second pair and of the corner 
 teeth becomes broader, the central enamel is nearer to the 
 inner side, and the marks have disappeared from the teeth 
 of tlie upper jaw. 
 
 " At ten years the second pair are rounded on the inner 
 side, and the central enamel is very near to the inner side. 
 
AGE OF ANIMALS. 205 
 
 "At eleven years the corner teetli are rounded, and the 
 central enamel becomes very narrow. 
 
 " At twelve years the nippers are all rounded, and the cen- 
 tral enamel has' entirely disappeared - from the lower jaw ; 
 but it may still be seen in the upper jaw. 
 
 "At thirteen years the middle nippers commence to as- 
 sume a triangular form in the lower jaw, and the central 
 enamel has entirely disappeared from the corner teeth of the 
 upper jaw. 
 
 " At fourteen years the middle nippers have become tri- 
 gular, and the second pair are assuming that form ; the cen- 
 tral enamel has diminished in the middle nippers of the up- 
 per jaw. 
 
 " At fifteen years the second pair have become tria,ngular 
 . (fig. D) ; the central enamel is still visible in the upper jaw. 
 
 Flo. D. 
 
 "At sixteen years all of the teeth in the lower jaw have 
 become triangular, and the central enamel is entirely re- 
 moved from the second pair in the upper jaw. 
 
 " At seventeen years the sides of the triangle of the mid- 
 dle nippers are all of the same length ; the central enamel 
 has entirely disappeiared from the upper teeth. 
 
206 AGE OF ANIMALS. 
 
 "At eighteen years the sides of the triangle of the middle 
 nippers are longer at the sides of the teeth than in front. 
 
 " At nineteen years the middle nippers become flattened 
 from side to side and long from front to rear. 
 
 " At twenty years the second pair assume the same form. 
 
 "At twenty-one years all of the teeth of the lower jaw 
 have become flattened from side to side ; the greatest diam- 
 ter having become exactly the reverse of what it was in 
 youth." 
 
 TO FIND THE AGE OF CATTLE. 
 
 In the cow the horn is often regarded as affording, by the 
 number of its rings, a criteripn of the animal's age. , The 
 horn of a heifer remains smooth or unprotuberant till the 
 expiration of the second year of its life. A circle of thicker 
 matter, or sort of horny button then begins to be formed, 
 whicli is completed in another year ; the next year this circle 
 or button moves from the head, or is impelled by the eylin- 
 dric growth of the horn, and another circle or button begins 
 to be formed, which after another twelve-month is also im- 
 pelled outward, and so on year after year of the whole life 
 of the animal, so that by counting the number of rings on 
 the cow's horns, and adding 2 to their number, its age is 
 arrived at. 
 
 The rings on the iulVs horns do not begin to appear until 
 he is five years old, so that to arrive at his age we must add 
 5 to the number of rings. The horn of the ox is so very 
 
AGE OF ANIMALS. 207 
 
 strongly modified by his peculiar condition, as to be totally 
 unlike that of the bull, the rings scarcely appearing at all. 
 
 The above rule would enable one to tell the age of the ani- 
 mal with unerring certainty, were the growth of the horns 
 in each animal uniform and the rings distinct, which is not 
 always tlie case ; the rings often being confused and indis- 
 tinct, and the growth of the horns varying in difierent ani- 
 mals. Besides, knavish cattle dealers often rasp off several 
 of the rings of old and unsalable cows, and so smooth the 
 rest of tlie horns as to make them look in keeping with 
 their pretensions. 
 
 A safer rule is afforded by the teeth. At birth the two cen- 
 tre teeth (front) protrude through the gum ; at the end of 
 the second week the second pair appear ; at the end of the 
 third week the third pair, and at the end of the fourth week 
 the fourth and last pair. The wearing of these teeth now 
 constitutes the only guide for the next three months, at the 
 expiration of which time all tliese (which are called the 
 " milli teeth ") begin to diminish in size and shrink away 
 from each other, which process continues until the animal is 
 two years old, when the new teeth begin to push out the 
 slender remnants of the old and shrunken ones. At the end 
 of the second year the first two permanent teeth appear in 
 front ; at three years the second pair are well up : at four 
 the third pair, and at five years the fourth and last pair, 
 have appeared, and the central pair are beginning to become 
 worn down : at six years the last pair are full sized : at seven 
 
208 AGE OF ANIMALS. 
 
 years the dark line with bony boundery appears in all the 
 teeth, and a broad circular mark appears within the central 
 pair : at eight years this mark appeai-s in all the teeth : at 
 nine years a process of absorption and shrinkage, similar to 
 that which reduced the first teetli, begins to take place in 
 the central pair; at ten it begins with the second pair; at 
 eleven with the third pair, at twelve with the fourth pair. 
 The age of the animal, after this period is attained, is deter- 
 mined by the degree of shrinkage and wearing away of all 
 the teeth in the order of their appearance, until the fifteenth 
 year, when scarcely any teeth remain. 
 
 To ascertain the age of sheep. 
 
 The age of sheep may be known by the front teeth, which 
 are 8 in number, and appear the first year all of a size. In 
 the second year the two middle ones fall out and are supplant- 
 ed by two large ones. During the third year a small tooth 
 appears on each side. In the fourth year the large teeth are 
 six in number. In the fifth year all the front teeth are 
 large, and in the sixth year the whole begin to get worn. 
 
 To tell the age of goats. 
 
 The age of goats is ascertained by their teeth in the same 
 manner that of the sheep is, and by the annular rings on 
 theij;. horns. 
 
COMPUTE WEIGHT OF CATTLE. 
 
 For cattle of a girth of from 5 to 7 feet, allow 23 lbs. to the 
 superficial foot. 
 
 For cattle of a girth of from 7 to 9 feet, allow 31 lbs. to the 
 superficial foot. 
 
 For small cattle and calves of a girth of from 3 to 6 feet, 
 allow 16 lbs. to the superficial foot. 
 
 For pigs, sheep, and all cattle measuring less than 3 feet 
 girth, allow 11 lbs. to the superficial foot. 
 
 KuLE. — Ascertain the girth in inches back of the should- 
 ers, and the length in inches from the square of the buttock to 
 a point even with the point of the shoulder-blade. Multiply 
 the girth by the length, and divide the product by 144 for 
 the superficial feet, and then multiply the superficial feet by 
 
210 COMPUTE WEIGHT OF CATTLE. 
 
 the number of lbs. allowed as above for cattle of different 
 girths, and the product will be the number of lbs. of beef, 
 veal, or pork in the four quarters of the animal. To find 
 the number of stone divide the number of lbs. by li. 
 
 Example. — ^What is the computed weight of beef in a 
 steer, whose girth is 6 feet 4 inches, and length 5 feet 3 
 inches ? 
 
 Solution. — 76 inches, girth, x 63 inches, length, =4788 - 
 144=331^ square feet, x 23=764f lbs., or 54|. stone. Ans. 
 
 Note. — When the animal is but half fattened a deduction 
 of 14 lbs. in every 280, or one stone in every 20 must be 
 made; and if very fat, one stone for every 20 must be 
 added. 
 
 Where great numbers of cattle are annually bought and 
 sold under circumstances that forbid ascertaining their 
 weight with positive accuracy, the compute weight may be 
 thus taken with approximate exactness — at least with as 
 mucli^ accuracy as is necessary in the aggregate valuation of 
 stock. JSTo rules or tables can, however, be at all times im- 
 plicitly relied on, as there are many circumstances connected 
 with the build of the animal, the mode of fattening, its con- 
 dition, breed, &c., that will influence the measurement, and 
 consequently the weight. A person skilled in taking the 
 compute weight of stock soon learns, however, to make 
 allowances for all these circumstances. 
 
COMPUTE WEIGHT OF CATTLE. 
 
 211 
 
 The following table is compiled from two English works 
 on the subject : — 
 
 Girth. 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 6 . 
 
 R 
 
 n 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 . 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 . 
 
 Length. Benton's Table, 
 
 ft. in. stone, lb. 
 
 6 21 21 00 
 
 24 24 00 
 
 9 27 1 37 00 
 
 34 4 34 07 
 
 6 38 8 38 11 
 
 43 1 43 
 
 6 45 9 45 
 
 9 48 48 
 
 6 64 6 64 
 
 TO 5 70 03 
 
 99 8 99 12 
 
 107 5 107 06 
 
 3 
 4 
 3 
 4 
 4 
 6 
 4 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 
 6 6 
 
 7 
 
 Caiy's Table, 
 atone, lb. 
 
 00 
 
 07 
 00 
 07 
 
r 
 
 FOOD OF ANIMALS, 
 
 
 
 Table, showing the Gomparatme difference letioeen good hay 
 and tlie svhstamces mentioned l)elow, as food for stock — 
 Veing the results of experirrients. 
 
 10 lbs. 
 
 of hay are equal to 
 
 10 lbs. of hay are equal to 
 
 8 to 10 lbs. 
 
 clover hay. 
 
 SO to 35 lbs. mangold wurtzeL 
 
 45 to 60 
 
 11 
 
 green clover. 
 
 45 to 60 
 
 " turnips. 
 
 40 to 60 
 
 (( 
 
 wheat straw. 
 
 20 to 30 
 
 " cabbage. 
 
 20 to 40 
 
 II 
 
 barley straw. 
 
 3 to 5 
 
 " peas and beans. 
 
 20 to 40 
 
 II 
 
 oat straw. 
 
 5 to 6 
 
 " wheat. 
 
 10 to 16 
 
 11 
 
 pea straw. 
 
 6 to 6 
 
 " barley. 
 
 20 to 25 
 
 II 
 
 potatoes. 
 
 4to t 
 
 •' oats. 
 
 25 to SO 
 
 " 
 
 carrots (red). 
 
 6 to 7 
 
 " Indian corn. 
 
 40 to 45 
 
 " 
 
 " twhite). 
 
 2 to 4 
 
 " oil cake. 
 
FOOD OF ANIMALS. 213 
 
 Note. — In tlie use of the above table ranch of course 
 will depend upon the quality of the sample, the age and 
 constitution of, the animal, and the form in which the food 
 is administered. Much also depends upon a change of food, 
 and a due admixture of the different kinds. 
 
 Table, showing the comparative difference between good hay 
 and the articles mentioned below, as food for stock — he;in,g 
 tfie mean of experiment and theory. 
 
 
 100 lbs. of hay are equal to 
 
 
 100 Iba of hay are equal to 
 
 m lbs. 
 
 green Indian corn. 
 
 54 
 
 lbs. rye. 
 
 442 '■ 
 
 ryo straw. 
 
 48 
 
 " wheat. 
 
 860 '• 
 
 wheat •' 
 
 59 
 
 " oats. 
 
 164 " 
 
 oats " 
 
 45 
 
 " peas and beans mixed. 
 
 180 " 
 
 barley '• 
 
 G4 
 
 " buckwheat. 
 
 153 " 
 
 pea 
 
 57 
 
 ■•- Indian corn. 
 
 200 " 
 
 buckwheat straw. 
 
 6S 
 
 '■ acorns. 
 
 201 " 
 
 raw potatoes. 
 
 105 
 
 '• wheat bran. . . 
 
 173 " 
 
 boiled " 
 
 109 
 
 " rye 
 
 339 " 
 
 mangold wurtzeL 
 
 1117 
 
 " wheat, pea, and oat chaff. 
 
 604 " 
 
 turnips. 
 
 179 
 
 " ryo and barley, mixed. 
 
 300 " 
 
 carrots. 
 
 
 
 Note. — It must be borne in mind that the nutritive effects 
 of food upon the animal are .varied by numberless causes, 
 such as the animal's power of digestion and appropriation, 
 its condition, shelter, air, water, exercise, &c. But all else 
 being equal, the nutritive qualities of the articles mentioned 
 are in the above proportions. 
 
 The results of numerous experiments, reported by indivi- 
 duals and Agricultural Associations, show, that each 100 
 lbs. of live weight of the animal requires of hay or its 
 equivalent, per day, as follows : — ^ 
 
 Working horses... < 3.08 lbs. 
 
 " oieu 2.40 " 
 
214: FOOD OF ANIMALS. 
 
 Fatting oxen 6.00 Iba 
 
 whenfat 4.00 " 
 
 Milch cows from 2.25 to 2.40 " 
 
 Dry " 2.42 " 
 
 Young growing cattle 3.08 " 
 
 Steers 2.84 '■ 
 
 Pigs 3.^0 " 
 
 Sheep 3.00 " 
 
 Elephant* 3. 1 2 " 
 
 III the OX, the daily loss of muscle or tissue requires that 
 he slionld consume 20 to 2J: ounces of gluten or albumen, 
 Avhich will be supplied by any of the following weights of 
 vegetable food : — 
 
 Meadow hay 20 lbs 
 
 Clover hay Hi " 
 
 Oat straw". 1 1 " 
 
 Tea straw 12 '■ 
 
 Potatoes 60 " 
 
 Carrots 70 " 
 
 Turnips ] 20 lbs. 
 
 Cabbage 70 " 
 
 VV heat or other white grain. 1 1 " 
 
 Beans or peas 6 " 
 
 Oilcake 4 " 
 
 Or instead of any one of these, a mixture of several may 
 be given with the best results. But if the due proportion 
 of nitrogenous food be not given, the ox will lose his mus- 
 cular strength and will generally fail. So with growing and 
 fattening stock of every description ; the proportion of each 
 of the kinds of food required by the animal must, in prac- 
 tice, be adjusted to the purpose for which it is fed. 
 
 It is not strictly correct that this or that kind of vegetaTsle 
 is more fitted to sustain animal life simply because of the 
 large proportion of nitrogen or gluten it contains ; it is 
 wisely provided, however, that, along with this nitrogen, all 
 
 * Mr. Bamum'a elephant, weighing 4700 lbs., was found to consume 100 
 lbs. of hay and 1 bushel of oats per day. 
 
FOOD OF ANIMALS. 215 
 
 plants contain a certain proportion of starch or sugar, and 
 of saline or earthy matter — all of which are I'equired in a 
 mixture which will most easily sustain an animal in a healthy 
 condition ; so that the proportion of nitrogen in a substance 
 may bo considered as a rough practical index of the propor- 
 tion of the more important saline and earthy ingredients 
 also. 
 
 Table, showing the effects produced hy an equal quantity 
 of t/ie following substances, as food for sheep. 
 
 Increased weight of Produced Produced 
 living animal in Wool, Tallow. 
 
 Lbs. Designation. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 
 
 1000 potatoes, raw with salt 40i 64 12i 
 
 " " '• without salt 44 6i llj 
 
 " mangel-wurtzel, raw ..... SSJ 6^ 6^ 
 
 " wheat 155 14 59} 
 
 " oats 146 10 42i 
 
 " barley. 136 11} 60 
 
 " peas 1.34 ]4i 41 
 
 " rye, with salt 133 14 35 
 
 '• " without salt 90 12 43 
 
 " corn meal, wet 129 13.J 17 J 
 
 " buckwheat 120 10 83 
 
 Note. — The above are the results of numerous experi- 
 ments by De Kaumer. 
 

 DECEEASE AND EXPECTATION" OF LIFE. 
 
 Table, showing the decrement and expectation of human life. 
 
 i 1 
 
 •• 
 
 o.- 
 
 
 .i 
 
 
 %««- 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 o ««■ 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 c u S 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 m 
 
 s, 
 
 ■ -SI . 
 Atblrtli. 
 
 ^i 
 
 s4 
 
 12(14 
 
 
 o 
 u 
 
 L 
 
 s 
 
 38 
 
 i 
 
 
 h 
 
 H 
 
 |3| 
 
 4S93 
 
 28.1: 
 
 34 
 
 1772 
 
 30.24 
 
 68 
 
 772 
 
 37 
 
 12.43 
 
 1 
 
 3029 
 
 i74 
 
 ti 
 
 S5 
 
 1737 
 
 35 
 
 23.22 
 
 C9 
 
 735 
 
 37 
 
 
 2 
 
 3356 
 
 188 
 
 ti 
 
 36 
 
 1702 
 
 35 
 
 U 
 
 70 
 
 698 
 
 37 
 
 10.0) 
 
 8 
 
 SU7 
 
 i;i2 
 
 11 
 
 S7 
 
 1007 
 
 35 
 
 " 
 
 71 
 
 001 
 
 37 
 
 *i, 
 
 i 
 
 3035 
 
 84 
 
 n 
 
 38 
 
 1632 
 
 35 
 
 
 72 
 
 024 
 
 37 
 
 tt 
 
 5 
 
 2951 
 
 58 
 
 40.8: 
 
 39 
 
 1597 
 
 S5 
 
 it 
 
 73 
 
 6S7 
 
 37 
 
 tt 
 
 6 
 
 2893 
 
 fiS 
 
 ;; 
 
 4) 
 
 1562 
 
 35 
 
 26.04 
 
 74 
 
 549 
 
 37 
 
 tt 
 
 7 
 
 2838 
 
 47 
 
 
 41 
 
 1527 
 
 35 
 
 4l 
 
 75 
 
 511 
 
 37 
 
 7.83 
 
 8 
 
 2791 
 
 . 40 
 
 11 
 
 42 
 
 1492 
 
 3> 
 
 tl 
 
 76 
 
 474 
 
 37 
 
 K 
 
 9 
 
 2751 
 
 36 
 
 •' 
 
 43 
 
 1457 
 
 35, 
 
 tt 
 
 77 
 
 437 
 
 37 
 
 l( 
 
 10 
 
 2715 
 
 28 
 
 39.2.-^ 
 
 44 
 
 1423 
 
 31 
 
 if 
 
 78 
 
 400 
 
 37 
 
 II 
 
 11 
 
 2i;87 
 
 27 
 
 (« 
 
 45 
 
 1396 
 
 27 
 
 23.92 
 
 79 
 
 31,3 
 
 37 
 
 it 
 
 12 
 
 2060 
 
 27 
 
 it 
 
 46 
 
 1369 
 
 27 
 
 II 
 
 SO 
 
 326 
 
 35 
 
 5.85 
 
 13 
 
 2 63 J 
 
 27 
 
 It 
 
 47 
 
 1342 
 
 27 
 
 If 
 
 81 
 
 2J1 
 
 34 
 
 it 
 
 14 
 
 260U 
 
 27 
 
 II 
 
 48 
 
 1315 
 
 27 
 
 II 
 
 82 
 
 257 
 
 34 
 
 tt 
 
 15 
 
 2579 
 
 42 
 
 30. If 
 
 49 
 
 1810 
 
 27 
 
 II 
 
 83 
 
 22 5 
 
 34 
 
 " 
 
 16 
 
 2537 
 
 43 
 
 t* 
 
 5Q 
 
 1288 
 
 27 
 
 21. IC 
 
 81 
 
 1-9 
 
 34 
 
 tt 
 
 17 
 
 2494 
 
 43 
 
 II 
 
 61 
 
 1261 
 
 27 
 
 41 
 
 85 
 
 155 
 
 21 
 
 4.57 
 
 18 
 
 245 L 
 
 43 
 
 tt 
 
 52 
 
 l2.U 
 
 27 
 
 11 
 
 S-6 
 
 l;i4 
 
 21 
 
 (( 
 
 19 
 
 24U8 
 
 43 
 
 tl 
 
 53 
 
 1207 
 
 i7 
 
 l( 
 
 87 
 
 113 
 
 21 
 
 11 
 
 20 
 
 2365 
 
 43 
 
 34.21 
 
 64 
 
 1180 
 
 27 
 
 11 
 
 83 
 
 92 
 
 20 
 
 II 
 
 21 
 
 2322 
 
 42 
 
 tt 
 
 65 
 
 1153 
 
 27 
 
 18.26 
 
 89 
 
 72 
 
 20 
 
 II 
 
 22 
 
 2280 
 
 42 
 
 1( 
 
 66 
 
 112<i 
 
 27 
 
 *i 
 
 90 
 
 t2 
 
 8 
 
 3.73 
 
 23 
 
 2238 
 
 42 
 
 II 
 
 57 
 
 1099 
 
 27 
 
 tt 
 
 91 
 
 44 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 24 
 
 2l»6 
 
 42 
 
 11 
 
 68 
 
 1072 
 
 27 
 
 tt 
 
 92 
 
 37 
 
 7 
 
 i( 
 
 25 
 
 2154 
 
 40 
 
 32.32 
 
 69 
 
 1045 
 
 27 
 
 H 
 
 93 
 
 30 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 26 
 
 2114 
 
 38 
 
 " , 
 
 60 
 
 1018 
 
 27 
 
 15.43 
 
 91 
 
 23 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 27 
 
 2076 
 
 38 
 
 (1 
 
 61 
 
 991 
 
 27 
 
 1. 
 
 95 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 1.62 
 
 28 
 
 i038 
 
 38 
 
 11 
 
 (.2 
 
 964 
 
 27 
 
 II 
 
 96 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 29 
 
 2000 
 
 3« 
 
 11 
 
 C3 
 
 937 
 
 27 
 
 tl 
 
 97 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 II 
 
 1 30 
 
 1962 
 
 38 
 
 30.24 
 
 61 
 
 910 
 
 27 
 
 tt 
 
 98 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 If 
 
 31 
 
 1924 
 
 38 
 
 •1 
 
 (15 
 
 .883 
 
 37 
 
 12.43 
 
 99 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 II 
 
 32 
 
 ,1886 
 
 38 
 
 11 
 
 66 
 
 846 
 
 37 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 1S48 
 
 S3 
 
 •• 
 
 67 
 
 809 
 
 37 
 
 tl 
 
 
 
 
 
 The above table, originally compiled by Dr. Wiggleworth, 
 
 of New England, after many years of careful observation 
 
 and statistical research, exhibits the average yearly decrease 
 
 
HUMAH LIFE. 
 
 217 
 
 of life oat of a given number born, and the expectation of 
 reaching a certain age deduced from that decrease as the 
 datum. Among the many similar tables that have been 
 constructed, it is perhaps the m.ost accurate. It received 
 the cautious scrutiny and revision of the Supreme Court of 
 Massachusetts, and was adopted by it {see Easterhrook vs. 
 Ilopffood, 10 Mass. Reports, 313) as the rule in estimating 
 the value of life estates. 
 
 Explanation. — Opposite the age of the individual, under 
 the column headed " Expectation of Life, &c.," will be found 
 the additional number of years he may reasonably expect to 
 live. Thus a man 40 years of age may reasonably expect 
 to live 26.04 years longer. 
 
 For the purpose of comparison with observations in Eu- 
 rope, St. Maur's Table is subjoined, taken from observa- 
 tions in Paris and the country around it. 
 
 St. Maur's Table. 
 
 Of 24,000 born 
 17,540 attain to 
 15,162 
 
 14,177 
 13,477 
 12.968 
 12,562 
 12,255 
 12,015 
 11,861 
 11,405 
 10,909 
 10,259 
 
 « 
 
 « 
 
 u 
 (( 
 « 
 
 2 years. 
 
 3 " 
 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 " 10 
 "15 
 "20 
 "25 
 
 (( 
 « 
 (( 
 « 
 
 9,544 attain to 30 years. 
 
 8,770 " '• -- ■ 
 
 7,729 
 
 7,008 
 
 6,197 
 
 6,375 
 
 4,564 
 
 3,450 
 
 2,544 
 
 1,507 
 
 807 
 
 291 
 
 (I 
 
 (( 
 
 <( 
 (( 
 (I 
 « 
 
 "35 
 "40 
 "45 
 "50 
 "55 
 "60 
 "65 
 "70 
 "75 
 "80 
 "85 
 
 « 
 
 (( 
 
 a 
 
 (( 
 (( 
 
 10 
 
218 
 
 COMPOUND INTEREST. 
 
 103 attain to 90 years. 23 attain to 96 years. 
 
 71 " " 91 " 18 " " 97 " 
 
 63 " " 92 " 16 " " 98 '• 
 
 47 " " 93 " 8 " " 99 " 
 
 40 " " 94 " 6 or 7 " " 100 " 
 33 " " 95 " 
 
 Explanation. — To ascertain by the above table what 
 probability there is that a man of a given age will attain 
 to any other age, make the number opposite the latter age 
 the numerator and the number opposite the former age the 
 denominator, and the fraction will express the probability 
 sought for. 
 
 Example. — What probability is there that a man of 30 
 will attain the age of 70 years ? 
 
 Solution. — Opposite 70 find 2,544= 318 
 
 " 30 " 9,544=1193 Ans. That is 
 to say, he has 318 chances out of 1193 of living to YO. 
 
 COMPOUND INTEREST. 
 
 Table, showing the annount of $1 for any nuniber of years 
 
 from 1 to 24, at 5 and 6 per cent., compound interest. 
 
 Teori. 
 
 5 per cent 
 
 C per cent 
 
 Teire. 
 
 5 per cent. 
 
 C per cent. 
 
 1 
 
 1.05 
 
 1.06 
 
 13 
 
 1. 88564 
 
 2.13292 
 
 2 
 
 1.1025 
 
 I.123G 
 
 14 
 
 1.9-9<I3 
 
 2.26U90 
 
 3 
 
 1.15763 
 
 1.19101 
 
 1.5 
 
 1 .07892 
 
 2.39655 
 
 4 
 
 1.21560 
 
 1.2fi247 
 
 16 
 
 1 18287 
 
 2.54035 
 
 5 
 
 1.27628 
 
 1.33822 
 
 17 
 
 1.29201 
 
 2.69277 
 
 6 
 
 1.34009 
 
 1.41851 
 
 18 
 
 1.4i6fil 
 
 2.85433 
 
 7 
 
 1.40710 
 
 l..<>0863 
 
 19 
 
 1.52695 
 
 3.0 '559 
 
 8 
 
 1 .47745 
 
 1.5U3K4 
 
 20 
 
 1 .6'329 
 
 3.20713 
 
 9 
 
 1.56132 
 
 1.68947 
 
 21 
 
 1.78.'i9S 
 
 8.3995G 
 
 10 
 
 1.B2889 
 
 1.79084 
 
 22 
 
 1.92526 
 
 3.60353 
 
 11 
 
 1.710^3 
 
 1.89ti29 
 
 23 
 
 1.07152 
 
 3.81974 
 
 12 
 
 1.79S86 
 
 2.01219 
 
 24 
 
 1.22609 
 
 4.04893 
 
ANNUITIES. 
 
 219 
 
 Explanation. — Opposite the number of years in the 
 column under the rate per cent., will be found the amount 
 of .$1, with the compound interest included for the time 
 given. Should the amount of any given sum with the 
 compound interest at a given rate per cent, for a given time 
 be required, multiply the amount found in tlie column im- 
 der tlie given rate per cent., and opposite the given time, 
 by the sum at interest so given, and the product will be the 
 answer. 
 
 Example. — What will be the amount of $150 at compound 
 interest at the rate of 5 per cent, for 10 years ? 
 
 Solution.— 1.62889 x 150=$244.33.35. Ans. 
 
 ANNUITIES. 
 Table, allowing tlie present worth of $1 annuity at 5 and 6 
 per cent, compound interest for any number of years 
 from 1 to 34. 
 
 Ye>r. 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 16 
 17 
 
 ii per cttul. 
 
 6 per ceut. 
 
 Yeari. 
 
 tj per ceut. 
 
 C per ceaL 
 
 0.9.5238 
 
 0.94339 
 
 18' 
 
 11.68958 
 
 10 82760 
 
 1.8-941 
 
 1.83:^39 
 
 19 
 
 12.08532 
 
 ll.l5f-ll 
 
 2.72S25 
 
 2.ti7;.lil 
 
 20 
 
 12.46221 
 
 ll.4699i 
 
 3.54 '95 
 
 3.40)10 
 
 21 
 
 12.X2115 
 
 11.76407 
 
 4.3 948 
 
 4.21236 
 
 22 
 
 13.1(i300 
 
 12.04158 
 
 5.075e9 
 
 4.9I7.S2 
 
 23 
 
 13.48807 
 
 12.30338 
 
 5.7N,37 
 
 6..58.'38 
 
 24 
 
 13.79864 
 
 12.6.i(i35 
 
 6.46821 
 
 6.211979 
 
 25 
 
 14 09H94 
 
 12.7833.5 
 
 7.107N2 
 
 G. 80169 
 
 26 
 
 14.37518 
 
 13.003IG 
 
 7.72173 
 
 7.36. 08 
 
 27 
 
 14.64303 
 
 13.21053 
 
 8.30K41 
 
 7.88087 
 
 28 
 
 11.89813 
 
 13.40(il6 
 
 8.>--632r, 
 
 8.38381 
 
 29 
 
 15.14107 
 
 13. 59.(72 
 
 9.393.57 
 
 8.85.68 
 
 30 
 
 15 . 37245 
 
 13.76483 
 
 9.89S(i4 
 
 9.29493 
 
 31 
 
 1.5.a9.'81 
 
 13.929118 
 
 10.379KI! 
 
 9.71225 
 
 32 
 
 16.80268 
 
 14.(l83:)8 
 
 10.83777 
 
 10.10589 
 
 33 
 
 16.00255 
 
 14.2:917 
 
 11.27407 
 
 10.47726 
 
 31 
 
 16. 19294 
 
 14.36613 
 
 For explanation and example see Compound Interest above. 
 
220 
 
 INTEREST TABLE. 
 
 ^ 
 
 s 
 
 C4 
 
 e ^ 
 
 ^ bo 
 
 
 CO CO 
 
 CO Jr- 
 q q 
 
 O i-H 
 
 CO :o 
 
 CO o 
 
 l-< i-H 
 
 C IN 
 (N (M 
 
 .-OM 
 (N !•- 
 
 XT' 1-1 
 
 CD t-. 
 <?* CO- 
 
 CO CO 
 
 so a» 
 
 CO 00 
 
 eo CO 
 
 t- 00 
 eo ir- 
 eC J>- 
 
 1 
 
 
 CO Oi 
 CO CO 
 
 q q 
 
 q q 
 
 CO J:^ 
 
 q q 
 
 CO J:^ 
 
 Oj OS 
 
 q q 
 
 w f 
 
 1-, O 
 
 l-H CO 
 
 CO eo 
 CO ifi) 
 
 
 CO Ci 
 
 I-H l-H 
 
 CO c» 
 CO CO 
 
 CO CO 
 
 & 
 
 lOt- 
 
 c: iQ 
 
 CO CO 
 
 q q 
 
 q q 
 
 
 L-QO 
 
 q q 
 
 O 1-* 
 
 
 ss 
 
 JO r- 
 
 CO lO 
 
 IS 
 
 c o 
 
 CO CO 
 
 % 
 
 co so 
 
 o 3 
 
 94 CO 
 
 ■q q 
 
 c; i> 
 
 CO c^ 
 iO so 
 q q 
 
 CO t- 
 
 q q 
 
 00 GS 
 
 q q 
 
 CO OS 
 
 8 2 
 
 II 
 
 r-i 1-1 
 
 CO to 
 CO ta 
 
 r-«-i-4 
 
 5S 
 
 1- 
 
 C5 ^ 
 
 ■-« I-l 
 q q 
 
 CO ir- 
 cq M 
 
 q q 
 
 »a r-< 
 
 CO -^ 
 
 q q 
 
 q q 
 
 CO 00 
 
 o so 
 q q 
 
 t- 00 
 
 q q 
 
 IN ift 
 
 oq 
 
 CO OS 
 
 S2 
 
 US IN 
 O IN 
 
 1?- tf3 
 
 r- CO 
 
 cc c* 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 c q 
 
 IL CO 
 
 q q 
 
 CO CO 
 
 q q 
 
 is 
 
 c; CO 
 
 q q 
 
 
 t-QO 
 
 q q 
 
 c .-o 
 
 00 Ol 
 
 q q 
 
 C If 
 OS O 
 q rH 
 
 
 C CO 
 
 % 
 
 ii 
 
 c q 
 
 IN M 
 
 q ;3 
 
 to Ci 
 CO CO 
 
 c q 
 
 <?1 3i 
 
 q q 
 
 q q 
 
 00 00 
 
 la to 
 q q 
 
 I>L.0O 
 
 8S 
 
 £8 
 
 CO 1^ 
 
 00 OS 
 
 q q 
 
 II 
 
 9 
 
 t- CO 
 
 q q 
 
 CO CO 
 
 o q 
 
 w CO 
 (M 5-1 
 
 q q 
 
 1^ .-. 
 
 C-i CO 
 
 c q 
 
 CO CO 
 
 q q 
 
 oo 
 
 o.q 
 
 CO IN 
 
 §8 
 
 q q 
 
 i::* 00 
 
 SC t- 
 
 q q 
 
 CO so 
 
 CO ta 
 
 
 So 
 
 q q 
 
 O J:* 
 
 q q 
 
 .. . CO 
 
 q q 
 
 in ci 
 <N in 
 
 q q 
 
 CO CO 
 
 c q 
 
 o=. 
 
 q q 
 
 qo 
 
 C 00 
 
 qq 
 
 85: 
 
 r— t-H 
 
 1 
 
 CO '^ 
 
 5 2 
 
 So 
 
 O <N 
 
 q q 
 
 CO --0 
 
 c q 
 
 1- OS 
 
 I-H i-t 
 
 q q 
 
 C CO 
 CI (N 
 
 q q 
 
 eo t^ 
 
 <N IN 
 
 <N CO 
 
 q q 
 
 o o 
 
 CO Ol 
 
 eo CO 
 q q 
 
 t^ 00 
 
 CO t- 
 
 q q 
 
 e 
 
 OJ -M 
 
 
 o O 
 
 r- GO 
 
 CO :z? 
 
 So 
 
 
 (N ^ 
 C C 
 
 CO 1© 
 
 S o 
 
 i>01 
 
 c o 
 
 CO o» 
 CO CO 
 
 c o 
 
 e» 
 
 — 2 
 
 CO CO 
 
 
 88 
 
 r- oa 
 
 c o 
 c o 
 
 Oi C. 
 
 C fN 
 
 c c 
 
 IN -ct* 
 
 ec CO 
 c S 
 
 c c 
 
 CO » 
 
 q q 
 
 X 
 
 
 Kl CO 
 
 o o 
 
 
 
 88 
 
 00 CI 
 
 88 
 
 OS •- 
 c ^ 
 c c 
 
 ^ IN 
 
 C O 
 
 c c 
 
 CO 5D 
 
 q q 
 
 CJ CO 
 
 c q 
 
 t« 
 
 g§ 
 
 5i 
 
 CO tH 
 
 o o 
 
 iCS »0 
 
 to Ir- 
 O O 
 O O 
 
 si 
 
 00 c 
 
 C r-" 
 
 c c 
 
 8 = 
 
 C O 
 
 c 2 
 
 
 ,co r* 
 
 q q 
 
 » 
 
 §5 
 
 
 CO ?3 
 
 o o 
 
 o o 
 
 Si 
 
 o o 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 00 03 
 
 05 C 
 
 c c 
 
 C CI 
 
 q q 
 
 q q 
 
 us 
 
 o o 
 
 gs 
 
 3-1 CO 
 
 8 8 
 
 CO -+ 
 o o 
 o o 
 
 ^2 
 
 in -as 
 
 C 3 
 
 II 
 
 Jr- 00 
 
 11 
 
 00 o 
 
 t- o> 
 
 c q 
 
 ^ 
 
 §i 
 
 88 
 
 88 
 
 CO CO 
 
 o o 
 
 CO -t 
 
 c o 
 c o 
 
 O O 
 O O 
 
 88 
 
 »o so 
 
 so t- 
 
 i> 00 
 
 c o 
 
 CO so 
 
 c o 
 
 89 
 
 5 o 
 o o 
 
 o o 
 o o 
 
 O O 
 
 88 
 
 M CO 
 
 88 
 
 CO CO 
 
 8E 
 
 11 
 
 O O 
 
 o o 
 
 tt in 
 
 88 
 
 c o 
 
 c; 5^ 
 o o 
 
 8» 
 
 
 fi i-H 
 
 8 8 
 
 88 
 
 
 (M CM 
 
 o o 
 o o 
 
 o o 
 
 
 MCO 
 
 CO w 
 
 88 
 
 CO Tt* 
 
 i:- 00 
 
 88 
 
 o o 
 o o 
 
 o o 
 
 83 
 
 o o 
 
 ss 
 
 11 
 
 i§ 
 
 o o 
 
 o o 
 
 ^ CI 
 
 o o 
 
 o o 
 
 l-H N 
 
 o o 
 oq 
 
 11 
 
 o o 
 q q 
 
 « 
 
 PN 
 
 ^ 
 
 M 
 
 ^ 
 
 IS 
 
 "5" 
 
 »• 
 
 Q(D 
 
 C 
 
 
 9 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^11 ., , 
 
 
 
 
 INTEEEST TABLE. 
 
 
 
 
 221 
 
 
 C ^ CO iC iD ^ 
 
 !--■-• >— w-l 1-1 rH 
 
 C CO 
 C CO 
 
 g4 (n 
 
 CO ivi 
 CO C4 
 CO i.~- 
 
 O «-H O C 
 
 c4 CO CO so 
 
 ;... OS 
 CO U3 
 
 CO OT 
 
 CD 1- 
 
 C eo 
 C M 
 O r^ 
 
 I-H f-H 
 
 CO IO 
 
 CO la 
 CO wo 
 
 i- -^ 
 CO o. 
 
 CO O* 
 
 fs i. 
 5 g •= 1 
 
 ,§??& 
 
 lllli 
 
 c g £=> 
 St" =-a-2 
 
 ll it 
 
 !Siil 
 
 liiil 
 am 
 
 1 - 1-4 
 
 I.I !ii 
 
 
 CM t- 00 CO -M 
 C CO SO L-- CO L— 
 
 c so 
 
 
 CO CO w - 
 cs O '—to 
 CO i-j »o 1-^ 
 
 S5 
 
 CO UD 
 CO CO 
 CO CO 
 
 c -o 
 
 O CO 
 C 00 
 
 la* lO 
 
 CO t— 
 
 CC 51 
 00 5J 
 COi> 
 
 00 OS 
 
 
 « ^ o o »o i.-- 
 
 C lO 
 
 IO CI 
 C CM 
 
 O ^ 1— *o 
 O'O IO i- 
 (74 "«J« C3 a.5 
 
 CO 
 iOl.-. 
 
 C- w 
 
 c c 
 c »o 
 
 CO* CO 
 
 S3 
 
 lO iM 
 
 ^ IO 
 
 o c 
 
 cc*i> 
 
 c c 
 ir^cc' 
 
 
 C 4:- CO « l> CO 
 
 •^ ^ lO o o i> 
 
 ^ CO 
 
 C CO 
 CO OS 
 
 CO OS 
 
 .-3 
 
 i- tH c c 
 
 © -* c c 
 
 <^ C-4 C-l "^ 
 
 CO CO 
 CO to 
 CO lO 
 
 CO ^ 
 CO r-; 
 
 ci CO 
 
 C 1^ 
 
 C CO 
 
 O CO 
 
 CC CM 
 »0 CO 
 
 1- QC 
 CO t- 
 
 CD i,-- 
 
 CC t^ 
 
 
 C CO 1- •* cc .-• 
 
 JO :? -^ TP CO » 
 CO riH -«d; lo »o o 
 
 O -f 
 J> CO 
 
 J.-- CO 
 t-i IO 
 
 CO cs 
 
 CO cs i_ 1-5 
 CO .0 »o -1 
 cs _3 O M 
 
 1- r-t 
 
 CO CO 
 
 I-H CO 
 
 CO C-l 
 CO -M 
 CO I- 
 M 'Tl 
 
 C CO 
 C 00 
 iO o 
 co' -t 
 
 CC -f 
 
 eo ^ 
 
 1^' .o 
 
 CC »o 
 CO c 
 X 00 
 IO CC 
 
 
 C C O 1- 'C CO 
 
 c »o o -o o oo 
 
 CO CO rj- -«^ lO lO 
 
 o o 
 c o 
 
 C A- 
 
 c ^ 
 
 J> 00 
 
 C CO O o 
 
 CO o OS q 
 
 C CO 
 C 1-1 
 
 w CO 
 C CO 
 C CO 
 
 ci oi 
 
 c c 
 c o 
 c »o 
 
 CO CO 
 
 C 1- 
 C CO 
 C eo 
 
 C CC 
 C CC 
 C 00 
 
 
 C S-1 CO CS J.- o 
 » CS « CO .-- M 
 CI CN CO CO -rji ^ 
 
 C CO 
 C CO 
 
 »o lO 
 
 CO — * 
 00 00 
 
 IO !0 
 
 1' CO c w 
 O i.— J> 00 
 
 CO Oi 
 CO 1- 
 CO OS 
 
 I-H I-H 
 
 c J.-- 
 
 O I-H 
 
 IO OS 
 5i5i 
 
 CO a 
 
 CO CO 
 
 CO CO 
 CO CO 
 
 S5 
 
 I-H CC 
 
 
 C CO i> •-< CO OS 
 
 c: CO -^ i-H CO 00 
 C4 :n cq CO CO CO 
 
 C i:» 
 
 c o 
 
 
 CO Ol c o 
 CO Tl o c 
 JO O O Jr^ 
 
 i> CO 
 
 CD ,- 
 
 CO i:- 
 
 CO o 
 CO IO 
 CO iO 
 
 C ?3 
 O CO 
 
 C CO 
 
 •ri 51* 
 
 O i-< 
 
 CO f-i 
 
 Tl CO 
 
 CO c 
 »0 CC 
 CO CC 
 » CC 
 
 
 O lO C CO O 51 
 w i> C CO irs O 
 r-i f-1 CI (N <M 3-1 
 
 o c 
 o o 
 
 CO CO 
 
 C 00 
 
 lO c 
 so -^ 
 
 C i-- c to 
 O CO »0 TI 
 
 C CO 
 C CO 
 
 IO la 
 
 c i-- 
 
 c o 
 c ^ 
 
 c o 
 c w 
 
 lO t- 
 
 C CO 
 C CO 
 C CO 
 
 c ^ 
 
 »o c 
 
 
 ^ „ .-H i-i 171 ''i ci ci 
 
 
 a. I-' =0 IX) i- -* 
 
 C rH CO iO O OS 
 
 vL; CO 
 
 §?5 
 
 CO (TI 
 (M N 
 
 i- .-< C ■: 
 O I-I <~ lO 
 CI CO CO M 
 
 CO OS 
 CO CO 
 CO CO 
 
 CO i- 
 
 C CO 
 
 CC CO 
 CC IO 
 
 CO ta 
 
 1:- Tj. 
 
 CO -t 
 
 eo Oi 
 
 
 C 00 J> CO «C r- 
 
 W lO so Jr- 00 ~. 
 
 CO C C =0 
 
 IH 
 
 I-H 1-H 
 
 CO CO C IO 
 CO lO »o t* 
 
 S3 
 
 I-H *-l 
 
 CC Ci 
 CO CO 
 CO C-D 
 
 m IO 
 
 eoi> 
 
 eo t- 
 
 CC 51 
 
 
 Tf lo «5 t- r^ GO 
 
 5§ 
 
 C t-t 
 
 O CM 
 
 w4 r-i 
 
 — C iO 1-^ 
 (M -^ CO IO 
 
 c »o 
 
 IO t- 
 
 c c 
 
 C lO 
 
 CC CO 
 
 C IO 
 »0 51 
 -* iO 
 
 8g 
 
 eoi:- 
 
 J>GO 
 
 
 o !■- CO -ri t- 00 
 
 "^2 ut O "5 r;; 
 
 O CO 
 CO OS 
 
 O c 
 
 CO OS 
 OS C' 
 
 l- -T^ C C 
 C M CM -^ 
 
 CC CO 
 CO IO 
 
 C-1 CO. 
 
 c t- 
 
 C CO 
 
 CO 51 
 CO CM 
 
 lO CD 
 
 I>.X 
 eoi- 
 eo t- 
 
 
 CO •* ^ S S ^ 
 
 o -^ 
 
 J> 00 
 
 o c 
 
 CM o 
 
 CO 0-. iO M 
 
 cs O C CI 
 
 C rH ^ I-H 
 
 rH CO 
 
 CO 51 
 CO i- 
 51 51 
 
 T. CO 
 
 IO c 
 
 CO Ti< 
 
 CO -^ 
 ^ lO 
 
 CO CC 
 IO CC 
 
 
 c: 1ft C [- =: CO 
 
 CO « -t rf iC >0 
 
 c r c c CO 
 
 o o 
 o o 
 
 O -M 
 
 3: CO r o 
 
 CO OS o; c 
 c c c ^ 
 
 C !•- 
 
 C I-H 
 
 51 51 
 
 c ^ 
 
 CO CO 
 
 
 85 
 
 
 lo a: CO 3; -M oi 
 
 ei -M CO CO Tt< r}H 
 
 c c: c c o c 
 
 C CO 
 lO IO 
 
 00 O) 
 
 o c 
 
 t^ CO lO t^ 
 O 1- 'J:- CO 
 
 c c c c 
 
 CC i- 
 
 00 a 
 c o 
 
 
 C -^1 
 
 IO OS 
 CM 51 
 
 CC CR 
 CC 00 
 CO CO 
 
 Jr- CC 
 
 
 CM i> ^ r: CT) 
 
 (M CM S>I CO CO OT 
 
 C: C C C^ C D 
 
 33 
 
 I3 
 
 CO -M C ~ 
 
 IO <0 CO 1^ 
 
 oo O c 
 
 r- CO 
 
 CO CO 
 CO »o 
 
 51 51 
 
 CO I-H 
 
 51 CO 
 
 CC o; 
 
 CO 00 
 
 CO CC. 
 
 
 JO I- C TO O Oi 
 
 .- I-H « C-I CI T) 
 
 C c c c o c 
 
 c rM~co co-b-^- 
 C C C C CO 
 
 C lO 
 CO w 
 
 "~c~co" 
 -o o 
 
 §3 
 
 C t- IO 'M 
 
 
 IS 
 
 lO i"- 
 
 51 51 
 
 C 51 
 
 IO c 
 51 51 
 
 
 CO J> 
 CI 'M 
 
 O o 
 
 f- « C IO 
 
 d CO CO eo 
 
 C o o c 
 
 CO !?S 
 
 CO CO 
 
 r-- 00 
 
 C 1~- 
 
 CO CO 
 CO o 
 
 CD C: 
 
 
 iO CO ir- 00 00 C 
 C ■C CO C i-H 
 
 C C C C CO 
 
 C CI 
 
 o o 
 
 CO CD iO t- 
 
 c c c c 
 
 t- OS 
 
 c"o 
 
 CC C5 
 
 eo CO 
 
 o o 
 
 C 00 
 »0 IO 
 
 c o 
 
 1 - 00 
 
 CC r- 
 
 c o 
 
 CC r- 
 
 2 9^ 
 
 
 CS « lA 
 
 T 
 
 
 (ID e 
 
 
 T 
 
 ^ 
 
 § 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
TABLE OP SIMPLE INTEREST, AT SEVEN PER CENT., g 
 
 For each Day to a Month, from $1 to $100. ** 
 
 
 
 INTEEEST. 
 
 id 
 
 111 
 
 §11 
 
 •— *^ M 
 
 II § 
 111 
 
 •;-=^ 
 
 c £2 
 
 5 o o 
 
 III , 
 
 S 61.^ 
 
 •< i "■« 
 
 - C— bog 
 
 "III 
 
 
 H 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 X 
 so 
 
 •< 
 
 A 
 
 r-1 
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 1 »H — 0»COCC'^Tp»f3«-'-. 
 
 g 
 
 1 ^^ssiiMOV COr|«0«3:0'7^l--C«Ji»f:C!0 7'tX 
 
 1 ^— .>*(MWr-*»o»c 
 
 D 
 
 1 l-Hr^(NC<lMW'*'*o»^^^'^'a>«Cs-*■o^o 
 1 -- — ■>! iM x :o ■* ic »;; 
 
 GO 
 
 1 n-i-iMCMCOrtTh-^OO — W— h-'>>CCCOX-^ 
 
 r- 
 ^ 
 
 
 .M 
 
 1 r-*— 'MlSICOCO'^f'^.r. 
 
 M 
 
 1 oi-H.^c^sMwcO'<^'<j»io = '*r:-*cs'*x?ccc 
 
 1 — ,-i^>i(M«CO'*'^ 
 
 -* 
 vi 
 
 1 Sf-t^vMe^cort-^-^tocs-^xcox-Mh- — CO 
 
 M 
 
 1 O^i-t3^5^C0?Q'«i''n''*«'CiM»iMiC— «rt=:"<J< 
 
 1 ■ — r-i iM TM ■?:«■«(« -"T 
 
 ^1 
 
 1 — i-ii-«(M>iMcocQ^'^x?f:i>--^ir:os'^X7-i 
 
 1 — ^■MiM(M?tMT*' 
 
 "^ 
 
 1 O ^ — (N ri W « CO « '-* X M -J = -^ V -M yi r 
 
 'l 
 
 1 O r-i « J^ --■■1 M ?: W -r; -<J1 X "M o s: w r* -- t^i X 
 1 r-< — — ' ca eg « CO -"^^ 
 
 71 
 
 1 O i-l,rH —■ (M S>* K « CO V C- rH . ■'5 CO M -rt 3:' « -X^ 
 
 » 
 
 
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 1 o■-'^r-':^:^^o4cocoto^- rcO-^ = «tce:co 
 1 ^•^«ri'^)<Nc<|lM^t 
 
 X 
 
 1 O^i-i — .r^;NT^>.COCO*-©OS(M'OX"-"nQO.O 
 
 ■0 
 
 
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 n 
 
 O 3 ^- .— . 1— 1 — i'j 1?^ X iM O I'- 'i= ^J "^ ^- ~ "J^ O 
 
 >j 
 
 00»-^^ — lMCv4?«i^»;^t-srs M-f'^X— cc 
 
 ^ 
 
 OOi— ii-H^H*^,— i>iCMr>4^WX— '^3"Ch-CS — 
 
 3 
 
 SOi-<— .^.-^^NMN-^OXO ■^M.ni-Ol 
 
 51 
 
 30 — ^^"^ ..vic'jco.rst^Osc'M-^'-er^ 
 
 « 
 
 OOS^'-'i-*-^'-'— C^^O^QOOS— "^l-^iO' 
 
 - 1 
 
 OOO-^ — ^'^'^-^^rt'^u^l^OO c^ — ^co 
 
 - 1 
 
 oooo — ^1-*-^ — '-'C^^«»r:esr'-QOO* c;^ 
 
 fi 1 
 
 oooo =;-^-^-H^-^o4co-^<o;st-xo50 
 
 * 1 
 
 03 JCsSC^i-t»-.-H<MC<IC0'*O»CS=t-X 
 
 ■o 1 
 
 O C:=OwOOO— " — C^SsirtCO-S-^iOCO 
 
 M 1 
 
 ^S O — 00»Si.i-H — 1— i(MCqC^JCS^rQiti 
 
 -" 1 
 
 OCOOOCOOOOO-^— «^^-^NNN 
 
 tunom 
 
 H 
 
 i-HNWijIOtOl^XOSOOOOSOOOOO 
 
 
 
 
mXEEEST. 
 
 223 
 
 E7^ 
 
 o 
 M 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 CQ 
 
 Iz; 
 
 M 
 
 •c. 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 I— I 
 
 o 
 
 Eh 
 
 H 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 M 
 H 
 
 M 
 
 ■< 
 
 S 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 j» 
 
 
 
 
 'm 
 
 
 .^ 
 
 ^ ^^ ,-, ^^ ^^ ,,. zfi .o -v ■v i-. .■- I— --J ^ : .- r; rr; 
 — — VM i'^* CO CO .-c •**" 
 
 M 
 
 
 >J 
 
 
 
 ^ iM ffJ M CO J. 
 
 
 — — — N(M5>4«« 
 
 — 
 
 - — _ _ C^ *q M .ft W « l^ r- '«' J-- --• ■^ JO — •- 
 
 ^ 
 
 — m ^ ri .^. .-. -^4 .>:;.',... t^ o « t* O K t* « CO 
 -^ — _ v^ >» 7M eo :f; 
 
 Ji 
 
 
 » 
 
 ,— — — -SI C4 -M 5C 
 
 I^ 
 
 ^ -ri _ 94 (M 94 e>J 
 
 •C 
 
 Oi-«^ — f-.CMi?iMe^c0»O00— :*»'^cs — ■*!- 
 
 :3 
 
 1 OOr-<^,-i.-^iM9^Cst94tOXO«iCr*0'Mir: 
 » ^ . ^ /M (N <M 
 
 — 
 
 1 00^^-(-<'-ieM?4C^P4int^Oii74^'-C9i-^9t 
 ^ ^ — — C<l T' 
 
 « 
 
 — ,_( —J — ^ -M 
 
 >4 
 
 , i^O^^^ — — CM^lNTttX^^J^^^C 
 
 ;2 
 
 1 ooO'-i«<-<r-i^c^M'v»t*oi — rt-n^oc 
 
 o 
 
 1 ocow — ,-i^^i-ic<ieoiCt-x— "^■'M«c^- 
 
 rs 
 
 ] C— OS — — ^ — -^XC0"*««COS = 'MM'« 
 
 » 
 
 1 ooso^^r-i — — — cc-«r*r:t-«o» — ^« 
 
 r- 
 
 1 ocoooi-H^^-— — c^ m 4£: ;i t-» qo 3i — ^ 
 
 •s 
 
 1 OOOOSr-r-i^— — 9i|91-^»OCCI--00CSO 
 
 lO 
 
 j ooooco — — -^^ «««'*«« »t-t-oo 
 
 •* 
 
 1 OS oosos^^^— — (Nco-v»o«;«t« 
 
 w 
 
 1 s SCO — sooo — — — c<i?:Mco'V»eic 
 
 M 
 
 1 OCOSOOSOSOf-t— "fi^C^C^MsOrt 
 
 -* 
 
 I ooooocooeo'o-^-^ — fh^^nc.^ 
 
 tunoa 
 
 nV 
 
 1 
 
 c = 2 
 
 V 
 
 o a 
 
 *- "z ^ 
 
 5 = 3 
 
 I §1 
 
 i i'l 
 
 S =^ 
 
 S : d 
 
 •a i >-• 
 
 = 3 
 «— 2 
 
 a) 
 4=- 3 
 
 4> jj » 
 '"' ^ *^ 
 oC O 
 
 a ? 2 
 
 C 5 » 
 B 2 3 
 
 1.2 u 
 a > 2 
 
 P - 3> 
 
 K S = -. 
 ■? 3 -O 
 
 S^ tag 
 « 3 =-a 
 pa J) -a a 
 
, _ _, 
 
 TABf.Fl OF WAGES AT 13.00 to $25.00 PER MONTH OF 26 WORKING DAY'S, {§ 
 
 to 
 
 O 
 
 p 
 e 
 
 
 TABLE OF "WAGES. 
 
 ; 
 
 
 * ,-,' ^ (m" M « Tji <j o "^' h-' I- OO ai Si o — — ' >j ■«' « -^ ■-: lO '-c f- 
 
 
 2 
 
 « 04 X ■* - - .-o s: o — ^* -^ s ■-£ >» X -^ w — .-: a o ■- r- ?7 - 
 
 O 
 «& 
 
 oo«.'rmr-«xcO'*'M5tfr-in'Mex»ceo--|Xco'^^':Kt--iO'?io 
 * ^' ^' >i -m' CO -^ -v «■- «o » ^ r-* X ci 3; =i — o — N rj ?; M — tf: 
 
 
 5 o ic ^ I^ .'i r- M -T CO Si -q- 3 «o = -^ - - Sn i- co /. w cs ^ = 
 
 ■^_ojcqxco-*-«fO«awt-'t-xcdc: oio 3 ^1;^ 1^ ?;? ^ ^ 
 
 «■ 
 
 o^oooeeo30oeoseo^«'ooo,00'r^^o 
 
 r-i— (MC<l««'*'*«::iO:=i£l^l-XXCS3i r=---*'MG<l« 
 
 - 
 m 
 
 
 <» 
 
 i^jJ o6 >i tL rH .c Si « X T4 -J5 = ic ci « I-. — y= = ■* «_ cc »-. — o c 
 
 o 
 «» 
 
 OT*-^tCCl?t;S3-TXrM'jC«t'.-«»CCaKS30'*XCM-JS 
 
 ■^^r4oiNKMcO'^-*tf:»c«^x-^'i-^r-.xcocooieso 
 
 
 EC «; o « t^ = T 1 -T X — tf: X — >.. X .•.^: oi i^i -^ o: ?? ■-£ O 
 
 «— ' ^ — *>i -vi (>i -1^' fc M -I- -*~-r If; If: >/^ '-C — ^ ^- r^ i*" X X Oi 
 
 t 
 
 — Nl^^-:-^if^•c•£t^xxci■=^-'(^^n^:-;^eui^^^xQoos 
 
 00 cc © <N '-T X — T t- O ?^ ^ O .r; yS J. 74^ >. -^ -* c- C K -= - 
 ' • * r-I rn' ^' M 3S <N M M « ■*' -^ -* -*' »c: •« « '^' ea «> t-" r- t- X 
 
 ^ 
 
 (N'T, XOrt — X.-Tpy3CS>i»«('.C«»OXt-H«»0>--|'*l"-S 
 
 to 
 
 r-«Sjr:;u5X>iTrt*^'*i^-«:=0>i'CX^-Jr^---+p*r' 
 ' ^ -4 — — N* N >* C^* CO rO M M N ■'iJ ■*' -* -^ « »n »0 U3 -i 
 
 
 oic. i-r^--e.^-*Tj*rt!M«^osjcoxr^»T2j-;-^rtc2-H-'0 
 
 ^^ — w--(M-<J(M(MCQCCCOCOWCO'<**"«*"*'*"«*'»C 
 
 
 t.'5--!CMh-Mr^^Xr**0S-fOi0^^i-<»^«0r"=020'*CS;JO 
 
 — -'^^^r-">lM'MMN«C^«««eOM«-* 
 
 
 r^ 3^ M ■* « t: X S: O -- -V rt ^ «S I-- JC CS O --^ so ■* *0 W t- X O 
 
 ' 1—" — w —'—--'--' »-J -^ i?i '>? IN ei (N o* N N « 
 
 Siva 
 
 i-»i-<r-i»-«i-ir-*i-^rH^Hr-t«WC4MM(NW 
 
 
 1 J 
 
» 
 
 / / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /. ' ^- ' 
 
 
 ..+, / 
 
 
 / J ,1 / 
 
 TABLE OF WAGES. 225 
 
 
 Table continued. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 $18. 
 
 $19. 
 .73 
 
 $20. 
 
 $21. 
 
 $22. 
 .84 
 
 $23 
 .88 
 
 $24. 
 .92 
 
 S?j. 
 .96 
 
 
 1 
 
 .09 
 
 .77 
 
 .81 
 
 
 2 
 
 1.H8 
 
 1.46 
 
 1.51 
 
 1.62 
 
 1.70 
 
 1.77 
 
 1.84 
 
 1.92 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 2.18 
 
 2.19 
 
 2.31 
 
 2.42 
 
 2.. 54 
 
 2.6'> 
 
 2.74 
 
 2.88 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 2.77 
 
 2.92 
 
 3.08 
 
 3.23 
 
 3.88 
 
 :.61 
 
 3.70 
 
 3.85 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 3. '16 
 
 3.65 
 
 3.^5 
 
 4.C4 
 
 4.24 
 
 4.42 
 
 4.62 
 
 4.81 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 4.1.5 
 
 4.38 
 
 4.62 
 
 4.85 
 
 5. OH 
 
 5.31 
 
 6.. 54 
 
 6,77 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 4.8-> 
 
 5.1i 
 
 6.38 
 
 5.65 
 
 5.92 
 
 6.19 
 
 6 46 
 
 6.73 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 5., 54 
 
 5.8J 
 
 6.16 
 
 6.46 
 
 6.76 
 
 7.08 
 
 7.38 
 
 7.69 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 6 2a 
 
 6.58 
 
 fi.9i 
 
 7.27 
 
 7.62 
 
 7.9i 
 
 8.3) 
 
 8.6) 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 6.92 
 
 7.31 
 
 7.69 
 
 8.08 
 
 ■ 8.46 
 
 8.f5 
 
 9.24 
 
 9.63 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 7.6i 
 
 8.01 
 
 8.46 
 
 8.88 
 
 9.3) 
 
 9.7:! 
 
 lO.KJ 
 
 10.. ■■8 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 8.31 
 
 8.77 
 
 9.23 
 
 9.69 
 
 10.16 
 
 10.62 
 
 11.08 
 
 11.64 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 9.00 
 
 9.50 
 
 10.00 
 
 10.50 
 
 11.00 
 
 11.. M) 
 
 l.'.OU 
 
 12.50 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 9.()9 
 
 10.23 
 
 10.77 
 
 11.31 
 
 11.84 
 
 12 . 38 
 
 12. 9i 
 
 13.46 
 
 
 
 1.5 
 
 io.:-8 
 
 10.96 
 
 11.54 
 
 12.12 
 
 12.70 
 
 13.27 
 
 13.84 
 
 14.42 
 
 
 
 )6 
 
 11.08 
 
 U 69 
 
 12.31 
 
 12.92 
 
 13.54 
 
 14.15 
 
 11.74 
 
 15.38 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 11.77 
 
 12.42 
 
 13.(18 
 
 13.73 
 
 14.38 
 
 15. I^ 
 
 15.70 
 
 16.35 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 12.46 
 
 13.15 
 
 13.83 
 
 J4..54 
 
 15.24 
 
 15.92 
 
 l(i.62 
 
 17.31 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 l:i. 1.5 
 
 13. f8 
 
 14 (2 
 
 15.35 
 
 16.08 
 
 16.81 
 
 17.51 
 
 18.27 
 
 
 
 2il 
 
 13.85 
 
 14.62 
 
 1>.38 
 
 16.15 
 
 16.92 
 
 17.69 
 
 18.46 
 
 19.23 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 U.5t 
 
 15.35 
 
 in. 16 
 
 16.96 
 
 17.76 
 
 18.68 
 
 19.38 
 
 20.19 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 15.23 
 
 16.08 
 
 16.92 
 
 17.77 
 
 18. 6i 
 
 19.46 
 
 20.30 
 
 21.15 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 15.92 
 
 16.81 
 
 17.69 
 
 18.. 58 
 
 19.43 
 
 20.35 
 
 21.24 
 
 2i 11 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 16.62 
 
 17. 5t 
 
 18.46 
 
 19.38 
 
 2(1.30 
 
 il.23 
 
 22.16 
 
 2i.08 
 
 
 
 2.5 
 
 17.31 
 
 18.27 
 
 19.23 
 
 20.19 
 
 21.16 
 
 22 12 
 
 23.08 
 
 2t.04 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 18.00 
 
 19.00 
 
 20.00 
 
 21.0) 
 
 22.00 
 
 23 00 
 
 24.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 
 
 Explanation. — The column on the left hand of the tabh 
 
 } 
 
 shows the number of days : and the rate per month is seen 
 
 at the top of the page. 
 
 Example. — To find the amount of 19 days' work, at $11 
 
 per month : find 19 in the column of days ; then move to tlie 
 
 right, on the same line, till you come under $11 (rate per 
 
 month), and you find $8.04 — the answer. 
 
 In all cases, the amount will' be found directly under the 
 
 price per month, and at the right of the given time. , • ' 
 
 In this table, the wages are cast at 26 working days per 
 
 10* 
 
 
 r^ 
 
226 TABLE OF AVAGES. 
 
 month. For a fraction of a day, take an equal part of the 
 amount for one da^', and for rates less than $3 per month, 
 half what is shown for twice the amount. 
 
 Should it be desired to ascertain the wages per day for any 
 given sum per month above $25, it can be done by adding to 
 or doubling the above, amounts. Thus for $30 per month, 
 take 20 and 10 in the above table and add them ; for $37 
 per month, take 20 and 10 and 7, and add them ; for $50, 
 take 25 and double it; for $75 per month, take 25 and 
 triple it, &c. 
 
KEEPING ACCOUNTS. 
 
 Blank account books, designed for keeping simple ledger 
 accounts, are generally of two kinds, viz. : Those in -which the 
 Dr. and Cr. sides of the account are on the same page, and 
 those in which they are on opposite pages. We give below 
 samples of each, with the mode of keeping the account. 
 
 race 72 WILLIAM WILSON. Br. Cr. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 12 
 
 211 
 ^5 
 
 7 
 
 Id 
 2.1 
 
 5 
 
 ■A 
 10 
 M. 
 
 7 
 
 To IS bus. pota'oeg. at flO cts 
 
 $D no 
 
 8 OU 
 80 00 
 
 9 00 
 20 00 
 
 7 SO 
 
 $ 
 
 
 ■ * I ton hay. at $8 
 
 
 i( 
 
 By cash on account . . .' 
 
 10 00 
 
 Feb. 
 
 To 1 yoko steers Bold you this day 
 
 
 t ( 
 
 By 1!000 feet pine b'jaids, at $10. m 
 
 20 00 
 
 If 
 
 To 3.) bus. oats, at Wi cts 
 
 
 Mar. 
 
 " 40 •* corn, at .50 cts 
 
 
 April 
 
 By 1 piir boots for S m 
 
 4 00 
 
 «< 
 
 ' 60 lbs sugar at 8 cts 
 
 . 4 00 
 
 May 
 
 " 10 ' coifee at 1.5 cts 
 
 1 50 
 
 Juno 
 
 To 3 cords wood at S2 50 
 
 
 
 liy c.H.-h on account 
 
 50 00 
 
 July 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 By balance of Lccount charged below 
 
 To balance of account 
 
 44 00 
 
 
 \:vA f.o 
 
 l.ilJ in) 
 
 July 
 
 44 OH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Papro 72. 
 
 Wll. WILSON. 
 
 D'. 
 
 18HI. 
 Jan. 
 
 12 
 
 Feb. 
 It 
 
 Mar. 
 Juno 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 To 18 bus. poatoes 
 
 at 50 cts 
 
 T.i I ton liay at %H 
 To I yoke steers sold 
 
 you this day . . . 
 To 30 bus oats, at 
 
 3 » cts 
 
 To 4') bus. corn, at 
 
 5Jcts 
 
 To H cords wood, at 
 
 $2 50 
 
 July 1 To balance of act. 
 
 $0 on 
 
 8 UU 
 80 0( 
 
 oc 
 
 20 00 
 
 7 .50 
 
 3-t U 
 4F00 
 
 WM WILPOX. 
 
 Page 73. 
 Cr. 
 
 I8UL 
 Jnn 2."> 
 Feby 15 
 
 April 3 
 
 10 
 
 May 12 
 
 June 2-0 
 July 1 
 
 By cash on .iccou-nt 
 By ^2000 feet pine 
 
 boi^rds. at Slo M 
 By 1 pair boots for 
 
 Sam 
 
 By 00 lbs. sugar, at 
 
 Sets 
 
 By 10 lbs. coffee, at 
 
 15 cts 
 
 By e sh on account. 
 By balance of acct 
 
 charged 
 
 $10 00 
 
 20 00 
 
 4 00 
 
 4 00 
 
 1 .50 
 .COOO 
 
 _44 00 
 V6i~) 
 
228 KEEPING ACCOUNTS. 
 
 Form of a Bill of the foregoing. 
 WILLIAM WILSON, Dr. 
 
 1861. In Account with THOMAS BUISTN", Cr. 
 
 January 12, To 18 bus. potatoes, at 50 cts $9 00 
 
 " 20, " 1 ton liay, at $8 8 00 
 
 February 7, " 1 yoke steers 80 00 
 
 " 20, " 30 bus. oats, at 30 cts 9 00 
 
 March 5, " 40 bus. corn, at 50 cts 20 00 
 
 June 7, " 3 cords wood, at $2 50 7 50 
 
 1861 Cr. $133 50 
 
 January 25, By cash on account $10 00 
 
 Feb'y 15, " 2000 ft. lumber, at $10 M 20 00 
 
 April 3, " 1 pair boots for Sam 4 00 
 
 " 10, " 50 lbs. sugar, at 8 cts.... 4 00 
 
 May 12, " 10 lbs. coffee, at, 15 cts . . 150 
 
 June 20, " cash on account 50 00 89 50 
 
 July 1, To balance $44 00 
 
 Note. — Since the whole science of book-keeping rests 
 upon charges and credits, if you, once for all, get what is a 
 charge and what is a credit clearly fixed in your mind, and 
 fully imderstand when you ought to charge and when you 
 ought to credit, you will have little difficulty in keeping 
 your accounts straight, simple, and satisfactory. 
 
 When you let your neighbor, or he with whom you deal, 
 have anything from you, it is a charge against him, and you 
 must charge him with it on the debit side of the account; 
 but whenever you receive anything from him, it is a credit, 
 and you must credit him with it on the credit side of the 
 
KEEPING ACCOUNTS. 
 
 229 
 
 account. Thus you "charge" for what you give, and 
 " credit " for what you receive. He with whom you deal 
 does likewise — charging you with what he gives you, and 
 crediting you with what he receives from you. Hence liis 
 charges against you will correspond with your credits to 
 him, and his credits to you will correspond with your charges 
 against him. 
 
 In like manner, should it be desired to keep an account 
 with a certain field, or meadow, or cow, the name is entered 
 at the top of the page and in the iiirtiex, just as an .in- 
 dividual's, and what you give to it, the labor it costs you, 
 &c., you charge to it, and what it yields you you credit to it. 
 In this way a farmer can keep an account with each of his 
 fields or altogether, with each of his cows or with the herd, 
 with each of his pigs or altogether, with each of his sheep or 
 with the whole flock, &c. 
 
 The word " To " prefixed to an entry indicates a charge ox 
 debit ; the word " By " indicates a credit. 
 
 Each entry should be made on the day the transaction 
 took place. 
 
 The account should be cast and balanced at least, once 
 every six months, and if not settled the balance brought 
 down, as above, when the account may be continued. 
 
 BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. 
 
 Book-keeping by douUe entry is that form of keeping 
 accounts in which two entries are made in the Ledger for 
 
230 KEEPING ACCOUNTS. 
 
 every one in the Day-Book ; one a charge, or debit, and the 
 other a credit. Thus you not only charge the party who 
 receives from ypu, but you credit that department of 
 your business from which, whatever it is, is received. 
 You keep an account witli as many different departments of 
 your business as you deem necessary. A farmer might 
 keep an account with his lierd, with wheat, rye, corn, grass, 
 hay, and other crops, or different iields, separately or toge- 
 ther, imdcr the head of " Farm." Where the time required 
 can 'be spared, we think it desirable to keep accounts by 
 double entry with every department of a business, down to a 
 very minute detail, because where books are kept \>y this 
 system, you can turn to any account and ascertain at a 
 glance its condition ; that is, how nnich money you have 
 spent on it, and how much it has returned yon, and what 
 balance is for or against it. The books necessavy to be used 
 in keeping accounts by this system ai"e two, the Day-Book 
 and Ledger. A third, called a Journal, is sometimes used 
 intermediary between the Day-Book and Ledger ; but we 
 consider it much more trouble than benefit, and therefore 
 think best entirely to dispense with it. 
 
 The Day-Book is ruled with two dollar and cent columns 
 on the right hand side, and one column 6n the left hand 
 side, in which the page of the Ledger is entered when the 
 account is transferred to the Ledger. 
 
 The Ledger is generally ruled, as in the example given 
 below ; the name of the account is written across the top of 
 
KEEPING ACCOUNTS. 
 
 231 
 
 the page, and if the transactions will probably be numerous 
 other pages following may be resijrved to continue the ac- 
 count upon when the first page is full. , 
 
 It is customary with a person keeping books by this me- 
 thod to have an account with " Casli," with his family, and 
 if he takes and gives notes, with " Bills Eeceivable," and 
 " Bills Payable." We will give below a sample of transac- 
 tions entered in the Day-Book and carried to the Ledger. If 
 I sold, Octobeulst, to John Brown, twenty bushels of apples, 
 at 75 cents .per bushel, and was to deliver them to him for 
 '$1, and on October 5th, bought of him five barrels of flour, 
 for family use, at $4 per barrel, which he was to deliver 
 gratis, my entries in the Day-Book would be as follows, sup- 
 posing I kept accounts with the departments mentioned : — 
 
 f 
 
 Ckntekvillb, Oct. 1st, 1861. 
 
 JOHN nfiOVVN, JDt. 
 
 Sold him 20 bus. apples, at 75 cts per bus. $15 00 
 
 Cartage 1 DO 
 
 Cr. 
 
 ORCHARD 
 
 , TEAMING 
 
 Oct. 5 : 
 
 FAMILY EXPENSE. JJr 
 Bought of John Brown 5 bbls flour, at $4 per bbl 
 Cr. 
 
 JOHN BROWN 
 
 IG 
 
 20 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 1500 
 100 
 
 20 00 
 
 Vr. 
 
 Tlie Ledger accounts of the above wpuld be as follows : — 
 
 Page 5. 
 Cr. 
 
 JOHN BROWN. 
 
 IStii 
 Octobei 1 
 
 l»6l 
 IC 00 Oct. 
 
 ] 20 00 
 
232 
 
 KEEPING ACCOUNTS. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 TEAMING. 
 
 Page 7. 
 Ct. 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 — : 
 
 
 
 l8til 
 
 1 
 
 ' — 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 Oct 6 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 00 
 
 Page 6. 
 
 Vr. OECHARD. Cr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1861. 
 Oct. 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 \h 
 
 00 
 
 Page 10. 
 
 Dr. FAjaiLY EXPENSK. Or. 
 
 1^B1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oct. 
 
 5 
 
 
 1 
 
 2( 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 In the Day-Bookj in the right hand dollar and cent' col- 
 umn, the credits are entered ; in the left hand, the- debits, 
 as shown. 
 
 In the Ledger, the half of the page to the left of the centre 
 is devoted to debits ; to the right, to credits. The column 
 to the left of the dollar and cent column in the Ledger is 
 where the page of the Day-Book from which the entry is 
 taken is noted. 
 
 The form which we have given above is, perhaps, the 
 simplest in which books can be kept by double entry, conse- 
 quently the best. No diflBculty will be experienced in this 
 system of keeping books, after one has already fixed in his 
 mind what is a charge or debit, and what is a credit, as ex- 
 plained above. Some remarks may not, however, be unne- 
 
KEEPING ACCOUNTS. 233 
 
 cessary in this connection, to show what to credit and what 
 to charge, under certain circumstances. If j-ou give a man 
 a note for the balance of his account, you debit his account 
 and credit Bills Payable. When you pay the note, you 
 debit Bills Payable and credit Cash. If you receive a note 
 for balance of accoimt, you credit the man's account and 
 debit Bills Keceivable. "When the note is paid, you credit 
 Bills Beceivable and debit Cash. In the first entry in the 
 above example, it may be well to say, you do not give credit 
 to the man who drives the wagon, or to the wagon for its use. 
 These are legitimate charges against Teaming. At the 
 proper time you credit the man his wages, and charge or 
 debit Teaming for it (or that portion of his time in which 
 he has been engaged teaming), &c. 
 
 Some businesses require an Interest account to be kept ; 
 of course, from our previous remarks, any one who finds it 
 necessary will see the proper way to keep it. 
 
 It is necessary, in connection with the Day-Book and 
 Ledger, to keep a Cash-Book and Bill-Books, where a person 
 does a credit business. The Cash-Book, to keep a record of 
 the receipts and disbursements of cash, which should be 
 balanced every night (if any cash has been spent or receiv- 
 ed during the day), and the money counted ; the balance on 
 hand and the balance shown by the book should correspond ; 
 if they do not, something has been omitted. If you have 
 on hand riiore than the balance calls for, you have received 
 money which has not been entered on the debit side of the 
 
234 ' ■ KEEPING ACCOUNTS. 
 
 account. If you have too little, you have spent money for 
 which the account has not been credited. 
 
 The Bill-Books are to keep a record of notes .received and 
 notes paid out. The Bills Payable book records the follow- 
 ing facts : The date of the note, the time it is to run, the 
 date of falling due, to whom it was given, in whose favor it 
 was made, and the amount it was made for. The Bills 
 Receivable book records: Who made the note, in whose 
 favor it was made, how long it has to run, when it is due, 
 and the amount it is for. When. notes are paid or received, 
 these facts should, of course, be properly noted in the Day- 
 Book. 
 
 When accounts are first opened it is best to take an in- 
 ventory of property of all kinds on hand, charging each 
 department with which you intend to keep an account with 
 that portion which it requires, and crediting an account for 
 the same which shall represent all your " Stock in Trade." 
 This account is usually called " Stock." Then, at the time 
 you wish to close up your accounts to ascertain your profits 
 and losses, you take another inventory, and give your de- 
 partmental accounts credit for what property they have on 
 hand, charging the general stock account for the same ; the 
 balance of this account {i. e., the difference between the 
 footing of the debit and credit columns) then shows how 
 much more or less property you have on hand than when 
 you commenced business. If the credit side exceeds the 
 debit, of course you have more property ; and if the debit 
 
KEEPING ACCOITNTS. 235 
 
 exceeds the credit, of course you have less than when you 
 began. Then the balance of each departmental account (all 
 proper charges having been entered, and its share of prop- 
 
 ^erty on hand credited) will show how much it has made or 
 lost. These balances are then usually carried to a general 
 
 ' account, called " Profit and Loss ; " those having a credit 
 balance are charged that amount, and Profit and Loss is 
 credited ; and those having a debit balance are credited that 
 amount, and Profit and Loss is charged for it. This being 
 done with the Departmental accounts and the General Stock 
 accounts, with the Cash accounts, and the Bills Payable and 
 Bills Keceivable accounts, and Profit and Loss having been 
 also charged for bad debts — and the parties owing them 
 having been credited therefor — the balance of that aeciount 
 shows the Profit and Loss of the business. Some parties do 
 not credit the accounts of persons who owe bad debts, and 
 charge Profit and Loss ; but, after making up the Profit and 
 Loss account, draw it oft' on a sheet of paper, and !iccount 
 for them there. Others open an account called " Suspense," 
 to which they credit the amount of the several bad debts 
 (specifying them in the Day-Book), and charge Profit and 
 Loss. This method prevents the accounts of bad debtora \ 
 appearing clos,ed on your Ledger. After you have made up 
 your books as directed, it is best to make a balance sheet, 
 which will show at a glance what departments have made 
 money, what lost, w^ho owes you, and who you owe. After 
 this, the several departments should be charged back again 
 
236 
 
 KEEPING ACCOUNTS. 
 
 with the property with which they are to commence the 
 next year's business, and the stock account credited therefor, 
 and you are ready to begin again. 
 
 Trial balances of the Ledger should be made, say monthly. 
 To' make a trial balance, you foot up all the columns of 
 fiwures in j'our Ledger, draw ofl" the debits on one side of a 
 sheet and add them together, and the credits on the other 
 side of the sheet and add them together. If the footings of 
 the debit and credit columns thus obtained are the same, 
 or, in other words, balance, your Ledger balances and is all 
 right ; but if they do not balance but differ, your Ledger is 
 iu' eiTor, and you must go over it and find where the 
 mistake is. i 
 
 Of course there must be no entry made in your Ledger, 
 unless it is also made in your Day-Book. The wording of 
 the Day-Book must be as simple as possible and express all 
 the facts. 
 
 Some book-keepers, when they enter from the Day-Book 
 into the Ledger, write in the Ledger between the date col- 
 ixmn and the column of the Day-Book page the name of 
 the account in the Ledger which receives the corresponding 
 entry or entries ; thus, in the entry above given they would 
 write thus :^ 
 
 Dr. 
 
 JOHN BROWN. 
 
 Page 5. 
 Cr. 
 
 1861 
 Oct. 
 
 To Orchard, , 
 '■ Teaming, . 
 
 15,00 
 I'oOi 
 
 1861. 
 Oct. 
 
 5 By Family Expenses 
 
 20 00 
 
KEEPING ACCOUNTS. 237 
 
 This we think of no advantage, and it increases' the 
 labor and trouble. "When you render a bill from the account, 
 you must necessarily turn to the Day-Book to ascertain the 
 particulars, and the mere page of the Day-Book is sufficient 
 for this purpose. The less accounts are complicated the 
 easier they are kept, and the less liable are mistakes to be 
 made. 
 
 No erasures, scratching out, or interlineations should be 
 suffered. If a wrong entry be made, or an entry made 
 wrongly, let it be explained by a counter entry on the other 
 side of the account, or overscored in such a manner that 
 the mistake can be seen. All erasures, blotting out, scratch- 
 ing, &c., tend to throw suspicion upon the honesty of the 
 account. 
 
 Books of "Original Entries" are only an aid of the 
 memory, and he who keeps them should be able to swear 
 that the entries were made on the day they purport to have 
 been. He may not be able to recollect the various entries, 
 but if it was liis invariable custom to make them on the day 
 of the transaction, they stand in place of his memory — they 
 arc not, however, evidence of the delivery of the goods. 
 
 Form of a Heceipt in full. 
 
 New Toek, July 1st, 1861. 
 
 Eeceived of Thomas Brown the sum of forty-four dollars, 
 in full of all accounts up to this date. 
 $44 00. "William "Wilson. 
 
238 KEEPING ACCOUNTS. 
 
 Form of a Check. 
 $150 00. New Yoke, July 1st, 1861. 
 
 Please pay "William "Wilson, or order, one hundred and 
 fifty dollars, and charge to the account of 
 
 Thomas Andekson. 
 
 To the Southold Savings Bank. 
 
 Form of a Due-Bill. 
 
 New Yoek, July 1st, 1861. 
 
 Dae "William "Wilson, or order, on settlement this day, 
 one hundred and fifty dollars. 
 $150 00. Thomas Anderson. 
 
 Form of a Promissory Note. 
 
 New Yoek, July 1st, 1861. 
 
 Four months after date I promise to pay "William AVilson, 
 or order, one hundred and fifty dollars ; value received. 
 $150 00. " Thomas Andekson. 
 
 Another form. 
 
 New Yoek, July 1st, 1861. 
 
 On the 1st day of April next, I promise to pay "William "Wil- 
 son, or order, one hundred and fifty dollars ; value received. 
 $150 00. Thomas Anderson. 
 
 Form of a Promissory Note with Surety. 
 
 New Yoek, July 1st, 1861. 
 
 Sixty days after date, we, or either of us, promise to pay 
 "William "Wilson, or order, one hundred and fifty dollars | 
 value received. Thomas Anderson, (Principal.) 
 
 $150 00. John Jones, (Surety.) 
 
KEEPING ACCOUNTS. 239 
 
 Form of a Draft or BUI of Exchange. 
 $150 00. Buffalo, July 1st, 1861, 
 
 Ten days after sight, pay William Wilson, or order, one 
 hundred and fifty dollars, value received, and charge the 
 same to account of 
 
 Yours, &c., Thomas Andeeson. 
 
 To William Allen, New York. 
 
 Notes. — A due-bill bears interest from its date ; a prom- 
 issory note not until after it is due, unless so expressed on 
 its face. 
 
 Negotiability. — The words, " or order," " or bearer," are 
 necessary to make a check, a due-bill, a promissory note, a 
 bill of exchange, &c., negotiable; that is, to enable the 
 holder of it to trade and pass it to another. 
 
 When the words " or bearer" are introduced, the instru- 
 ment may then pass from hand to hand, like a bank-bill, 
 without endorsement ; but when tlie words " or order " are 
 used, the instrument must be endorsed by the original holder 
 of it. 
 
 Endorsement. — ^Endorsing a note is writing your name 
 across the back of it. Endorsements are of two kinds, an 
 endorsement in blank or general endorsement, and a special 
 endorsement. 
 
 An endorsement in hlanh is the original holder's simply 
 writing his name across the back of it. The succeeding 
 holders of it may or may not, also, endorse it. If each or 
 
24:0 KEEPING ACCOUNTS. 
 
 any of them do, they also become severally bound for Its 
 paj'ment. 
 
 A special endorsement is made by writing across the back of 
 it, before endorsing it, the words, " Pay to the order of [name 
 of party to whom it is passed]," which limits the payment 
 of it to that party, or his orders, and so forth. 
 
 Acceptance. — When a draft or bill of exchange is made 
 upon a third party (as in the above form), the latter is not 
 in any way bound by it until he accepts it, which he does 
 when it is presented to him for acceptance, by writing across 
 tlie face of it the word " accepted,^'' with the date, and sign- 
 ing Iiis name thereunder. He i% then a party to the bill, and 
 bound for its payment at maturity. 
 
 Protest. — ^Protest is the notice required by law to be 
 given to the endorsers of promissory notes, and the makers 
 and endorsers of bills of exchange, of their dishonor, that 
 is, of their non-acceptance or non-payment. 
 
 If the drawee, or person to whom a bill of exchange is 
 directed, I'efuses to accept it on presentation, notice must be 
 immediately given to the maker of it. 
 
 If he accepts it, and afterwards fails to pay it at maturity, 
 notice must immediately be given to the maker. 
 
 If the maker of a promissory note fails to pay it at ma- 
 turity, notice must immediately be giveii to all the en- 
 dorsers. 
 
 A check is a draft at sight, and if not paid, must be 
 protested. 
 
KEEPING ACCOUNTS. 2il 
 
 it is a general rule that all guarantors of commercial pa- 
 per must be immediately notified of its- dishonor. 
 
 It is, of course, j}ot necessary to protest a due-bill, or a 
 promissory note, which is still held by the person to whom 
 it was originally given. 
 
 "When a note is made payable " on demand," it is neces- 
 sary to make a demand before it will bear interest or can be 
 sued for. 
 
U. S. BONDS. 
 
 Interest is calculated on TJ. S. bonds and on the public 
 debt at 365 days to tlie yea-', and is due semi-annually. In 
 England interest is calculated in the same way, and the 
 legal rate is 5 per cent. 
 
 By Five-Twenties is meant the 6 per cent, gold-bearing 
 bonds of the United States, which are to mature in 20 years, 
 but wliich the Government, by giving due notice, can pay 
 in gold any time after five years from the date of issue. 
 
 Tlie old five-twenties were the first issued. Tliey bear 
 date May 1, 18G2, and are redeemable after May 1, 1867, 
 and payable May 1, 1882. The new " five-tWenties " were 
 issued Nov. 1, 1864, July 1, 1865, and Nov. 1, 1865. 
 
 By Ten-Forties is meant the 5 per cent, gold-bearing bonds 
 which are to mature in 40 years, but which may be paid by 
 the Government at any time after 10 years. 
 
 By Seven-Tliirties is meant a currency loan, which ma- 
 tures in 3 years, at whicli time they may be changed for the 
 fioe-tioenty 1 per cent, bonds, bearing interest in gold. The 
 name is derived from the rate of interest, it being 7.3 per 
 cent. The "First series" bear date Aug. 15,1864. The 
 " Second series " bear date June 15, 1865, and are converti- 
 ble June 15, 1868. The " Third series " bear date July 5, 
 1865. Oh this issue the Government reserves the right to 
 
RELATIVE VALUE OF GOLD AND CDEEENCT. 
 
 243 
 
 pay the interest at 6 per cent, in gold, instead of 7.30 per 
 cent, in currency. 
 
 By Six per cents, of '81 is meant the 6 per cent, gold- 
 bearing bonds which cannot be redeemed by Government, 
 except by purchase, until after maturity. 
 
 KELATIVE VALUE OF GOLD AND CUEEENCY. 
 
 To ascertain the value in gold of a " greenback " dollar 
 or National currency, at the different quotations of gold : 
 
 EuLE. — Divide $1 by the quoted value of $1 in gold; 
 the result will be the value of a dollar in currency. 
 
 Example. — When gold is 33 per cent, premium what 
 is tlie value of $1 in currency ? $1.00-7-$1.33=.7522. 
 
 Note. — In the following table the decimals are carried 
 to mills and tenths of a mill. 
 
 Table, showing the greenback value of $1 at the different 
 
 quotations of gold. Wlien gold is at 
 
 .01 pr. ct. prem. a greenback 
 
 dollar is worth. .99 
 .02 9803 
 
 .03 9708 
 
 .04 9615 
 
 .05 9523 
 
 .00 9433 
 
 .07 9355 
 
 .08 9259 
 
 .09 9174 
 
 .10 909 
 
 .11 9009 
 
 .12 pr. ct. prem. a greenback 
 dollar is worth . . .8929 
 
 .13 885 
 
 .14 8771 
 
 .15 8695 
 
 .16 862 
 
 .17 8564 
 
 .18 8474 
 
 .19 8403 
 
 .20 8333 
 
 .21 8264 
 
 .22 8279 
 

 244 ENGLISH BONDS AND CONSOLS. 
 
 .23 pr. ct. prem. a greenback 
 
 .37 pr. ct. prem. a greenback 
 
 dollar is worth. .813 
 
 dollar is worth. . .7308 
 
 .24 8064 
 
 .38 7246 
 
 .25 80 
 
 .39 7194 
 
 .26 7928 
 
 .40 7142 
 
 .27 7874 
 
 .41 7092 
 
 .28 .7812 
 
 .42.... 7042 
 
 .29 7751 
 
 .43 : 6993 
 
 .30 7692 
 
 .44 6944 
 
 .31 7633 
 
 .45 6896 
 
 .32 7575 
 
 .46 6849 
 
 .33 7522 
 
 .47 2162 
 
 .34 7462 
 
 .48 6758 
 
 .35 7409 
 
 .49 6716 
 
 .36 7353 
 
 .50 6666 
 
 
 'Stock Exchange during the war was 285, July lltli, 1864. 
 
 A dollar currency was then worth 35 cents. Gold in Eich- 
 
 mond, Va., reached 4400, Feb. 4th, 1865. A dollar in Con- 
 
 
 EKGLISH BONDS AND CONSOLS. 
 
 Exchequer Bills are English bonds, similar to those of the 
 
 U. S. The rates of interest vary from 5 to 3 per cent., and 
 
 
 quired to refund the principal. 
 
 Consols are several English securities consolidated by act 
 
 
 The Stock Exchange is an association for the purpose of 
 
 buying and selling stocks. 
 
 
STOCK QUOTATIONS, 245 
 
 A Broker is a person who executes o^ers for those who 
 are not members of the exchange. 
 
 A Jobber deals in stock on his own account. A " stag," 
 or " outsider," is a broker who is not a member of the ex- 
 change. 
 
 A Bull is one who buys stock to be delivered to him at a 
 future time, with the intention of selling it, in the mean- 
 time, at a higher price before he is obliged to receive it. 
 
 A Bear is one who sells stock that he does not own, to be 
 delivered at a future date, hoping in the meantime to buy 
 it at a less price. A "lame duck " is one who is unable to 
 fullil his contracts, and hence is expelled from the exchange. 
 
 " Selling Short " is applied to sales of stock which the 
 seller does not own, deliverable at a future time, generally 
 not exceeding 60 days. The hears usually "sell short." 
 The buyer pays interest for over 3 days. 
 
 " Seller's Option" gives the seller the privilege of deliv- 
 ering the stock at any time before the time specified for de- 
 livery. 
 
 " Buyer's Option " gives the purchaser the privilege of 
 claiming the delivery of the stock at any time before the 
 time specified for delivery. 
 
 STOCK QUOTATIONS. 
 
 Frcm y. T. Herald. 
 Sales, 
 12000 Am. G "U&H $13000 gold at 43X per cent premimn. 
 
 12000 U. S. 6's. 'SI cou 112K -I '^.^cm ^V^iSfJ "^^ T"™ '"'"''' °"*°^ 
 
 I mg 1881, at Vt% per cent, premium. 
 10000 U. S. B-20 Keg. '63 104;f V. S. 6-20 Beg^atered Bonds isued in 1862. 
 
2i& SIICCESS IN BUSINESS. 
 
 40000 Tr'y. N. ,7-30 2d b 107 -i 'f"^™'? notes at 7.3 per cent, interest, seo- 
 
 ' "■ ( ond series. 
 
 ( 100 Shares of New York Central EB. 7 per 
 
 100 N. Y. Cen. Ts, '65-'76 120 i cent, bonds issued in 1865, and maturing in 
 
 ( 1876. 
 
 500 Hud. E. TTs 1st M 101 Hudson E. 7 per cent, first mortgage bonds. 
 
 200 " ■" 2d M S F 104 .! Hudson E. 7 per cent, second mortgage sint- 
 
 1 ing fund. 
 , 1001!. EE. 2.d'6 513^ J Erie EE. sold at 2 days' credit at 51% cents 
 
 100 " ib 5 w n Bl i ^™ ^^- *" ^' delivered before 6 days with- 
 
 " ( out notice. 
 
 1000 C. and Am. .6's, '89 108J<f ] '^^j'S^a " ""** Amboy 6 per cent, maturing in 
 
 100 Mich. CO's, b. 15 and int 107V •! ^■i'l^ '^™'-. ^^- ^^^"^ *° ^ deUvered before 
 
 ^ ^^ ( 15 days with mterest. 
 
 100 tr. S. Tr. 7-30 int. F. it A lllV.) ^' ^' treasury notes 7.3 per cent, interest 
 
 ^ ( paid in February and August. 
 
 1000 Eric pref. s., w. n 88 Erie Preferred Stock without notice. 
 
 100 Perai. 6'8, iiit oft . . .. 104 .| ^^nsylvapia 6 per cent, stock, the last inter- 
 
 -^ est of wliich has been paid. 
 
 500 E KE b u 23 J Erie EE. stock, "Buyer's Option," when to 
 
 " 1 cetll for the stock. 
 
 300 " B. o... . 31 i Erie EE. stock, "Seller's Option," when to de- 
 
 1 liver the stoclc 
 
 SUCCESS m BUSINESS. 
 
 S-HOET Okedits. 
 
 Short credit has much to do iwith the amount of profits 
 in business. The difference between long and short credits 
 will be seen by the following table, showing the amount of 
 ' in ten years. 
 
 Am't at Am't at Ani't at Am't at 
 
 3 pr. et 5 pr.et 8 pr. ct. 10 pr. ct. 
 
 If turned over every 3 months, $326.20 $703,99 $2172.45 $4525.92 
 
 " " 6 » 180.61 265.32 466.09 672.75 
 
 " " 8 " 155.79 20^7.89 3W.21 417.72 
 
 " " 12 " 134.39 162.88 215.89 ' 259.37 
 
 " " 2 years, 115.92 127.62 146.93 161.05 
 
 " " 5 " 106.09 110.25 116.64 121.00 
 
 Small Profits. 
 
 By the above table it will be seen that quick sales and 
 
SUCCESS m BUSINESS. 247 
 
 small profits are more desirable than large profits and long 
 credits. It must be considered, however, before reducing 
 profits, whether the sales can be increased so as to compen- 
 sate for the reduction of profits. 
 
 Economy in Expense. 
 Many a young man in business fails to succeed, owmg 
 to a want of economy in expense. All exj?ense must he de- 
 ducted from the profits. " Fortunes are spent by trifles." 
 " A penny saved is worth two earned." 
 
 2 cents per day in ten years will amount to $100.85 at 1 p. c. compound int. 
 
 5 " " 
 
 25 
 
 60 " " 
 
 100 " " 
 
 Marking Goods. 
 It is customary among merchants to use a private mark 
 to denote the cost and selling price of goods. Any word or 
 phrase containing ten diflferent letters is selected, and used 
 to represent figures, as " "White sugar," " Misfortune," &c., 
 thus : ^ ^ 
 
 white sugar 
 
 12345 6 7890 
 
 An extra letter called a " repeater " is gemeraliy used to 
 prevent the repetition of a figure, as x, y, or z, '&c. ; thus 
 388 would be represented by igz, using s as a repeater, in- 
 stead of igg. The object is to prevent a clue being given to 
 
 " 252.14 
 
 1260.71 
 
 2521.42 
 
 5042.84 
 
 " 10085.68 
 
248 SUCCESS IN BTJSINESS. 
 
 the key-word. Any mark or character may be used to rep- 
 resent a figure instead of a letter. Fractions may be -writ- 
 ten thus, 4:1Sf=tui . ; or by an arbitrary mark, thus, o 
 
 may represent f, then 473f=;^io. Sometimes the cost 
 
 mark is written below a line, and the selling price above ; 
 
 thus, 
 
 4.62 tsh sell, pr, 
 
 3.24 iht cost. 
 
THE OTIS PATENT LIGHTNING ROD 
 
 M. WELLS, Electrician, 112 Broadway, N. T. 
 
LIGHTNING-EODS. 
 
 The humid gases, generated by the heating and sweating 
 of the hay, which immediately follows its accumulation 
 in closely-packed masses, offers a strong attraction to elec- 
 tricity, just at the time when it is most abundant. It is an 
 object of peculiar importance to the farmer to guard his 
 buildings, at such times, with properly constructed light- 
 ning-rods ; and they are a cheap mode of insurance against 
 fire from this cause, as the expense is trifling and the security 
 great. 
 
 As an example of the more elaborate style of rods, we 
 show in the accompanying cut the manner in which Otis' 
 Patent Lightning-Rods have been applied to the New York 
 State Arsenal. 
 
 To construct a Kghtning^od. 
 
 Take round or square soft iron f of an inch in diameter, 
 in pieces of convenient length ; connect the pieces by split- 
 ting one end and flattening and inserting the other, and 
 fasten with a rivet or screw, so that the rod preserves its 
 uniform thickness throughout. Or, «he pieces may be con- 
 nected in a more perfect mariner, although not often so con- 
 venient, by having a male screw cut on one end of the pieces 
 and a female screw on the other, and simply screwing them 
 together as the rod is raised; care being taken that the 
 
252 LIGHTNING-EODS. 
 
 pieces are brought in contact at the outer edge, so as to 
 form a united surface. If a square rod is used, notch the . 
 corners with a single downVard stroke of a cold chisel, at in- 
 tervals of two or three inches. No part of the rod should 
 be painted, as its efficiency would be greatly impaired. Let 
 the upper extremity consist of one finely drawn point of 
 copper or silver, or well gilded iron, to prevent rusting. 
 Let the lower part of the rod, at the surface of the ground, 
 terminate in two or three flattened divergent branches, lead- 
 ing several feet outwardly from the building, and buried at 
 a depth which reaches perpetual moisture, in a bed of char- 
 coal. Attach the rod to the building by clasps protruding 
 three or four inches and containing glass rings or funnels 
 for the rod to pass through. The rod must not touch the 
 building nor the iron clasps, but only the glass ; because, the 
 latter being a non-conductor of electricity, in the event of 
 the rods being struck by lightning, the charge is conducted 
 harmlessly to the ground, having no point of contact with a 
 conductor by which it might be led into the building. Upon 
 reaching the top of the building the rod should be conducted 
 to the centre of the ridge, and the end should then be raised 
 to a height equal to one-half of the distance to the end of 
 the ridge. If the roof^s irregular in height, of course judg- 
 ment must be used in fis,ing the point where the end of the 
 rod rises above the roof, bearing in mind this important 
 consideration — that the rod protects objects at twice the 
 distance of its height above any point in a line perpendicu- 
 lar to its upper termination. 
 
LIGHTNING-EODS. 253 
 
 The conducting power of bodies, is in the ratio of their 
 surfaces. Hence a bundle of wires, ribbons, or tubes of 
 metal, are more efficient than an equal quantity of solid, 
 •round, or square rods. 
 
 The conductors of electricity in the order of their power 
 are, copper, silver, gold, iron, tin, lead, zinc, platinum, char- 
 coal, black lead, strong acids, soot and lampblack-, metallic 
 ores, metallic oxides, dilute acids, saline solutions, animal 
 fluids, sea-water, fresh water, ice, living vegetables, living , 
 animals, flame, smoke, vapor and humid gases, salts, rarified 
 air, dry earth and massive minerals. 
 
 The non-conductors in their order are, shellac, amber, 
 resins, sulphur, wax, asphaltum, glass, all vitrified bodies, 
 raw silk, bleached silk, dyed silk, wool, hair, feathers, dry 
 paper, parchment and leather, baked wood and dry vegeta- 
 bles. 
 
 The question of the utility of lightning-rods is not clearly 
 decided ; and certainly very grave doubts exist as to the use- 
 fulness of the various complicated patent devices which are 
 hawked about the country, under the sanction of splendid 
 testimonials. 
 
 Dr. Franklin's theory was, — and he claimed to have proved 
 it by having drawn the electricity harmlessly from a cloud 
 over his kite-string, — that the value of the lightning-rod 
 consists, not in its ability to receive shocks, but in the fact 
 that it taps the surcharged clouds and conveys the electricity 
 quietly to the earth. 
 
254: LIGHTNING-EODS. 
 
 Based upon this theory, there has recently been advanced 
 an idea that seems sensible. It is to substitute a piece of 
 galvailized telegraph wire for the kite-string, a pointed rod 
 of iron at the top of the building for the kite, and another 
 rod driven into the ground for the key in Dr. Franklin's 
 hand. 
 
 The iron at the top should project five or six feet above 
 the roof, and if the ridge-pole is more than twenty feet 
 long, there should be two or more of these, all to be con- 
 nected with each other and with the rod in the ground by 
 simple wire. 
 
 This plan has the great meiit of being cheap and within 
 the reach of all — and, so far as anything is actually known 
 of the subject, is ae good as the more elaborate and expen- 
 sive pnes. 
 
PEESSURE OF EAETH AGAINST WALLS. 
 
 To find the pressure of the difiFerent kinds of earths, filling, 
 &c., against walls, it is necessary first to ascertain the line or 
 angle of rupture, or natural slope, the earth would assume 
 but for the resistance of the wall. This natural slope differs 
 with the different kinds of earths. Assuming that the earth 
 is level with the top of the wall, the line of rupture for the 
 different kinds of earths, filling, &c., will be as follows : — 
 
 A bank of vegetable earth will rupture on the surface at a 
 distance from the top of the wall of three-fifths the height 
 of the wall. 
 
 A bank of samd will rupture at two-thirds the height of 
 the wall. 
 
 A bank of unhewn stone, at one-seventh the height of the 
 wall. 
 
 A bank of rvbMe at two-fifths the height of the wall. 
 
 A bank of brick, with a bank of vegetable earth behind 
 it, will rupture at a distance of about one-sixth the height 
 of the wall. 
 
 A bank of clay, well rammed, will rupture at a distance 
 of three-sixteenths the height of the wall. 
 
 The strongest horizontal stress against the wall is at half 
 the angle which the natural slope makes with it ; hence : 
 
256 PKESSUEE OP EAETH AGAINST WALLS. 
 
 The greatest pressure for a bank of vegetcMe ea/rih will be 
 at three-tentbs the height of the wall from the bottom. 
 
 For a bank of sand, at one-third the height of the wall. 
 
 For a bank of rullle, at one-fifth the height of the wall. 
 
 For a bank of unJiewn stone, at one-fourteenth the height 
 of the wall. 
 
 For a bank of Irick, at one-twelfth the height of the wall. 
 
 For a bank of clay, at three-thirty-seconds the height of 
 the wall. 
 
 "Walls should therefore be built proportionably strong to 
 these heights to sustain the different pressures. If the bank 
 is liable to be saturated with water the wall should be 
 doubled in strength. 
 
FEACTIONS— DECIMALS. 
 
 A fraction is one or more, parts of a unit, and is ex- 
 pressed by fractional characters, thus, |^, J, f ; or by deci- 
 mals, thus, .5, .25, .15. 
 
 When expressed by fractional characters, the upper figure 
 is called the mimeraior, because it numbers or gives value 
 to the fraction, by showing how many parts of the whole 
 number into which the unit is divided is taken ; and the 
 lower figure is called the denominator, because it names the 
 number of parts into which the unit is, divided. Thus, | 
 means that the unit is divided into 8 parts, and that 3 
 out of the 8 are taken, &c. 
 
 When expressed by a decimal, the decimal number shows 
 that so many parts of the unit are taken, the unit itself 
 being impliedly divided into as many parts as will corres- 
 pond with the decimal number, and still retain its ratio to 
 it. Thus, .5 means -^t^, .25 means -^^ .125 means \W, &c. 
 
 To reduce fractions to decimals. 
 
 Divide the numerator by the denominator, adding cyphers 
 as required. \ 
 
 Example. — What are the decimals of \, |, and 7? 
 Solution.— 10^2=.5, 300-t-4=.Y6, Y000-t-8=,876. Ans. 
 To add decimals. 
 Add as in common addition, setting the whole numbers 
 
258 rUAOTIONS— DECIMALS. 
 
 Of integers directly under each other from the decimal 
 point to the left, and the decimals from the decimal point 
 to the right, as in the following example : — 
 
 12.75 
 
 24.027 
 
 14.5 
 
 16.1278 
 
 67.4048 
 
 To subtract decimals. 
 
 Set the whole numbers and decimals under each other, as 
 directed above, and proceed as in common subtraction, as 
 in the following example : — 
 
 75.15 
 
 28.875 
 
 46.275 
 
 To multiply decvmals. 
 
 Set the figures and multiply as in common multiplication, 
 and point off in the product as many decimals as there are 
 decimal places in the multiplier and multiplicand, as in 
 the following example : — 
 
 23.25 
 22.15 
 
 11625 
 2325 
 4650 
 4650 
 
 514.9875 
 
FRACTIONS — DECIMALS. 
 
 259 
 
 To divide deaimals. 
 
 Proceed as in common division, and point off to the right 
 
 in the quotient as many decimals as the decimal places in 
 
 the dividend exceed the decimal places in the divisor, as in 
 
 the following example : — 
 
 2.48] 129.952 [52.4: 
 124 
 
 Useful decimals. 
 
 5 95 
 4 96 
 
 A 
 
 .0625 
 
 .333+ 
 
 
 .lUl-f- 
 
 4 (A) 
 
 .125 
 
 .666-- 
 
 ■ 
 
 .2222-- 
 
 ^ . 
 
 .1876 
 
 .2 
 
 (f) 
 
 .3333- - 
 
 A* 
 
 .25 
 
 .4 
 
 
 .4444- - 
 
 .3125 , 
 
 .6 
 
 , , 
 
 .5555- - 
 
 A™ 
 
 .375 
 .4376 
 
 f -8 
 
 \ .1428-1- 
 
 (f) 
 
 ■ 
 
 .6666- - 
 .7777- - 
 
 im 
 
 .6 
 
 .2856-1- 
 
 
 .8888- ■ 
 
 .6625 
 
 .4285-t- 
 
 ■h 
 
 .1 
 
 1 (W 
 
 .625 
 
 .5712-J- 
 
 A(i) 
 
 .2 
 
 
 .6875 
 
 .7141-f 
 
 A 
 
 .3 
 
 i ^'*^ 
 
 .75 
 .8125 
 
 f ,8569-f- 
 
 A(t) 
 
 .4 
 .7 
 
 i (H) 
 
 .875 
 
 
 ft 
 
 .9 
 
 ft 
 
 .9376 
 
 
 
 
FACTS ABOUT PRINTING AND BOOK- 
 MAKING. 
 
 The following are the different styles of type ordinarily 
 used in hodk-^inting : — 
 
 PICA. 
 
 Springs are weakened by use, but recover their 
 strength if laid by. 
 
 SMALL PICA. 
 
 Metals have five degrees of lustre — splendent, shining, 
 glistening, glimmering, and dull. 
 
 LONG PEIMEE. 
 
 The hardness of metals is as follows : Iron, Platimim, Copper, 
 Silver, Gold, Tin, Lead. 
 
 BOrRGEOIS. 
 A fall of 1-10 of an inch a mile will produce a current in rivers. 
 
 BREVIER. 
 Melted snow produces about 1-8 of its bulk of water. 
 
 MINION. 
 Silica is the basis of the mineral world, and carbon of the organized. 
 
 NONPAREIL. 
 Sound passes in water at a Telocity of 4708 feet per second, and In aii^lOO feet, at a tem- 
 perature of 83°. 
 
 AGATE. 
 At the depth of 45 feet, the temperature of the earth is uniform throughout the year. 
 
 PEARL. 
 
 The weight of a cable foot of air is 527.0] grains, or 1 205 ounces, avoirdupois. 
 
 Note, — Viwmond is smaller than pearl — Emerald still smdUer. 
 
TACTS ABOUT FEINTING AND BOOK-MAKING. 261 
 
 "We do not apologize for giving the above and the few 
 following facts about printing, because that art has become so 
 univei-sally used by all classes that it is of practical impor- 
 tance to disseminate information in regard to it. 
 
 The specimens given above are called Roman ; CAPI- 
 TALS and R MAT. T. CAPITALS belong legitimately with this 
 style. Italics are cast to accompany it, to give emphasis to 
 certain parts of the matter being composed, or set up. Italic 
 figures and small capitals of italic are hot made. Many 
 other styles of type, such as Black Letter, Script, Church 
 Text, Clarendon, Title, Ionic, Full Face, &c., are cast, and 
 are ordinarily used to display certain lines in Job Printing, 
 and are consequently called job type. 
 
 Printers generally charge for the setting of type, or, as 
 they technically term, it, the composition of matter, by the 
 number of ems it contains. An em is the square of the 
 body of the type ; they measure the matter composed by 
 I multiplying the number of ems or lines it is in length by the 
 number of ems or lines it is in width. Nonpareil is half the 
 size in body of Pica, consequently 4 ems of Nonpareil equal 
 1 of Pica. Agate is half Small Pica. Pearl is half Long 
 Primer. 
 In 1 square inch there are , 
 
 36 ( 
 
 3ms Pica. 
 
 50 
 
 
 Small Pica. 
 
 56i 
 
 
 Long Primer 
 
 72J 
 
 
 Bourgeois. 
 
 87 
 
 
 Brevier. 
 
 113| 
 
 
 Minion. 
 
262 FACTS ABOUT FEINTING AND BOOK-MAKING. 
 
 In 1 square inch there are 144: ems Nonpareil. 
 
 " " " 200J " Agate. 
 
 " " " 225 « Pearl. 
 
 That is according to the type in the office where this book 
 is printed ; different founders vary the sizes of type slightly, 
 60 that the above is not a perfectly accurate guide in measur- 
 ing the number of ems in a page or book ; still it is sufficiently 
 so to give a very close approximation to what any printer 
 would measure. In using the above to calculate in ems the 
 contents of a page or book, be particular to calculate square 
 irhches, not inches square. The price of type-setting in New 
 York varies with the different printers. Generally the price 
 for book composition is from 80c. to $1.00 per 1000 ems. 
 Much figure- work is charged extra, so also is an extra charge 
 made where a very narrow column is set. Pearl is charged 
 extra on account of its smallness. The price given is for 
 plain matter. 
 
 PressworTc is charged for by the token, which is 250 im- 
 pressions of the press. Prices vary so much per token, ac- 
 cording to the quality of the work and the number of im- 
 pressions, that it is next to impossible to give an idea of it 
 that will benefit the reader; Plain book-work, in editions 
 of 1000 to 2000 copies, is charged usually at 50c. to $1.00 
 per token. 
 
 SIZES OF BOOKS. 
 
 The various sizes of books were named from the number 
 of folds that were made of a sheet of paper 19 inches by 24, 
 
FACTS ABOUT PRIimNG AND BOOK-MAKING. 263 
 
 which, at the time the sizes of books acquired their names, 
 was the largest sheet manufactured. Thus, a sheet of that 
 size folded once, making 2 leaves or 4 pages, was called a 
 folio volume ; folded twice, making 4 leaves or 8 pages, was 
 " called a quarto volume ; folded four times, making 8 leaves 
 or 16 pages, was called an octavo; folded six times, making 
 12 leaves or 24 pages, was called a duodecimo, &c. They 
 are written thus : 2fo., ito, 8vo, 16mo, &c. 
 
 Afterwards, when the sheets came to be manufactured 
 larger, books continued to be designated as above, but were 
 distinguished from the above sizes by giving the new sheets 
 names, and prefixing the name of the sheet to the above. 
 Thus, a sheet 22 inches by 28 was called "Royal," and hence 
 books printed on it were called royal folio, royal quarto, 
 royal octavo, &c. 
 
 Table, showing the mtmber of lea/oes a/ndjpages from the 
 foldving of a sheet. 
 
 ^ 
 
 Folds. 
 
 2fo 1 
 
 4to 2 
 
 8vo 4 
 
 12mo 6 
 
 16mo 8 
 
 18mo 9 
 
 24mo 12 
 
 32mo 16 
 
 LeaTei. 
 
 Pages. 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 16 
 
 32 
 
 18 
 
 36 
 
 24 
 
 48 
 
 32 
 
 64 
 
 Note. — The foldings, leaves, and pages ot the royal sheet, 
 &c., are the same as the above, but the sheet being larger of 
 course the leaves and pages are larger. 
 
STKENGTH OF MATEKIALS. 
 
 Tensile strength. 
 
 Tensile strength is the amount of cohesion existing be- 
 tween the atoms of a mass, or the tenacity with which the 
 fibres or particles of a body resist separation. The tensile 
 strength of a body is therefore in proportion to the number 
 of its fibres, or to the area of its section. , 
 
 Table, showing the weight in lbs. necessary to isa/r 
 one square inch of the following svbstances. 
 
 METALS. 
 
 Designation. 
 
 Copper, wrought, 
 " cast...., 
 " wire.... 
 
 Gold, cast 
 
 Iron, " 
 
 . Iron Wire 
 
 " bestbai:... 
 " medium bar 
 " inferior " 
 
 Lead 
 
 Platinum wire . . 
 
 Silver, cast 
 
 Steel 
 
 Tin, block 
 
 Zinc, cast 
 
 Brass 
 
 Wt. in lbs. 
 
 34,000 
 
 19,000 
 
 61,200 
 
 20,000 
 
 27,000 
 
 103,000 
 
 72,000 
 
 fiO.OOO 
 
 30,000 
 
 880 
 
 63,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 120,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 3,500 
 
 42,000 
 
 Designation. 
 
 Ash 
 
 Beach 
 
 Birch 
 
 Box 
 
 Cedar 
 
 Chesnut 
 
 Cypress 
 
 Elm 
 
 Fir, strongest 
 
 " American 
 
 Lig. vita: 
 
 Locust 
 
 Mahogany 
 
 Slaple _. . . 
 
 Oak, American, white . 
 
 " seasoned 
 
 Pino, Pitch 
 
 Poplar 
 
 Sycamore 
 
 Walnut 
 
 Willow 
 
 AVt.inlbs. 
 
 16,000 
 11,500 
 15,000 
 20,(100 
 11,400 
 10,500 
 
 6,000 
 13,400 
 12.000 
 
 8,800 
 11. BOO 
 20,500 
 21,000' 
 10,600 
 11.500 
 13;600 
 12,000 
 
 T.tXJO 
 13;003 
 
 7;Cn3 
 13,000 
 
6TKENGTH OF MATEEIALS. 265 
 
 2'o find the tensile strength. 
 
 EuLE. — Multiply the area of the transverse section in 
 inches, by the weight given in the preceding table, and the 
 product will be the strength in lbs. 
 
 Example. — "What is the tensile strength of a seasoned 
 white oak scantling 2 inches by 3 ? 
 
 Solution. — 2x3=6, area of transverse section, x 13,600 
 = 81,600 lbs. Ans. 
 
 Example Second. — What is the tensile strength of a 
 round poplar stick 3 inches in diameter ? 
 
 Solution. — 7.068, area of circle (^de table of the areas 
 of circles), x 7,000=49,476 lbs. Ans. ' 
 
 Example Third. — What is the tensile strength of the best 
 bar iron, 2 inches broad by 1 inch thick ? 
 
 Solution.— 2x1=2, area of transverse section, x 72,000 
 =144,000 lbs. Ans. 
 
 Note. — The above gives the maxknum tensile strength of 
 the materials, or the utmost strain they are capable of sus- 
 taining when drawn lengthwise. But it is to be borne in 
 mind that the jiractical value is about one-fourth of the 
 above. 
 
 12 
 
266 
 
 STRENGTH OF MATEEIALS. 
 
 Table, showing the strength of iron wire rope and hempen 
 
 cable. 
 
 Fine Wire,.. . 
 
 Coarse Wire, ■ 
 
 Circumference of 
 
 
 Wire Bope 
 
 Trade 
 
 la iDcbea. 
 
 Kumber. 
 
 6.02 
 
 1 
 
 6.20 
 
 2 
 
 6.44 
 
 3 
 
 4.90 
 
 4 
 
 4.50 
 
 6 
 
 3.91 
 
 6 
 
 3.86 
 
 7 
 
 2.98 
 
 8 
 
 2.56 
 
 9 
 
 2.45 
 
 "10 
 
 4.45 
 
 11 
 
 4.00 
 
 12 
 
 3.63 
 
 13 
 
 3.26 
 
 14 
 
 2.98 
 
 15 
 
 2.68 
 
 16 
 
 2.40 
 
 17 
 
 2.12 
 
 18 
 
 1.9 
 
 19 
 
 1.63 
 
 20 
 
 1.53 
 
 21 
 
 1.31 
 
 22 
 
 1.23 
 
 23 
 
 1.11 
 
 24 
 
 0.94 
 
 25 
 
 0.88 
 
 26 
 
 0.78 
 
 27 
 
 ClrcumferencQ of Hemp 
 Bope. of equal Btrength, 
 la laches. 
 
 15} 
 14j 
 13 
 12 
 10| 
 
 I* 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 lOf 
 10 
 
 9J 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 4.75 
 
 4. 
 
 3.3 
 
 2.80 
 
 2.46 
 
 2.2 
 
 2.04 
 
 1.75 
 
 1.50 
 
 Breaking weight 
 
 la tons or 2,000 
 
 IbB. 
 
 74. 
 
 65. 
 
 64. 
 
 43.6 
 
 35. 
 
 27.2 
 
 20.2 
 
 16. 
 
 11.4 
 8.64 
 
 36. 
 
 30, 
 
 25. 
 
 20. 
 
 16. 
 
 12.3 
 8.8 
 7.6 
 6.8 
 4.09 
 2.83 
 2.13 
 1.66 
 1.38 
 1.03 
 0.81 
 0.56 
 
 J. A. Roebling, C. R 
 
 STRENGTH OF CABLES, ROPES, AND HAWSERS. 
 
 To jmd the strength of cahles. 
 
 KuLE. — ^Multiply the square of the circumference in inches 
 by 120, and the product is the weight in lbs. the cable will 
 bear with safety. 
 
STEENGTH OF MATERIALS, 
 
 267 
 
 ExSlMple. — ^What weight will a cable 6 inches in circum- 
 ference bear with safety ? 
 
 . Solution.— 6''=36x 120=4320 lbs. Ans. 
 
 To find the strength of ropes cmd hawsers. 
 
 -Rule. — Multiply the square of the circumference in inches 
 by 200, and it gives the weight in lbs. the rope will bear 
 with safety. 
 
 Table, showmg what weight a hemp rope wUl hea/r with 
 
 safety. 
 
 circumference 
 
 1 
 
 'I 
 l| 
 
 2 
 
 ? 
 3 
 
 3i 
 
 lbs 
 
 200 
 
 312.6 
 
 450. 
 
 612.5 
 
 800. 
 
 1012.6 
 
 128fl. 
 
 1512.5 
 
 1800. 
 
 2112.5 
 
 Circumference. 
 
 ^ 
 
 3| 
 
 4 
 
 n 
 
 6 
 
 5^ 
 64 
 5| 
 
 lbs. 
 
 2450. 
 
 2812.6 
 
 3200. 
 
 3612.5 
 
 4050. 
 
 4512.6 
 
 6000.' 
 
 6512.6 
 
 6050. 
 
 6612.5 
 
 Circumference 
 
 6 
 
 ^ 
 
 n 
 
 8 
 
 lbs. 
 
 7200. 
 
 7812.5 
 
 8450. 
 
 9112.5 
 
 9800. 
 
 10512.5 
 
 11250. 
 
 12012.5 
 
 12800. 
 
 STRENGTH OF METAL AND WOODEN EODS. 
 
 A rod having an area of the 1000th part of a square inch, 
 made of the following materials, will sustain weights as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 Designation. Lbs. 
 
 Cast steel 134 
 
 Best wrought iron 70 
 
 Cast iron 19 
 
 Copper 19 
 
 Platinum 16 
 
 Silver 11 
 
 Gold 9 
 
 BeBignatioiL 
 
 Tin 
 
 Lead 
 
 Oak 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 Beach 12^ 
 
 Ash. 14 
 
 White Pine 11 
 
268 
 
 STEENGTH OF MATEEIALS. 
 
 HEMPEN COEDS. 
 
 Hempen cords when twisted will support the following 
 weights to the squa/re inch of their section : — 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 J to 1 inch. . . 
 1 to 3 inches. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 8746 
 6800 
 
 Diameter. Lbs. 
 
 3 to 6 inches 5345 
 
 5 to 7 inches 4860 
 
 Note. — A square inch of hemp fibres will support a 
 weight of 9200 lbs. 
 
 The maximum strength of a good hemp rqpe is 6400 lbs. 
 to the square inch. \i^ practical value not more than one- 
 half this strain. Before breaking it stretches from \\.o\, 
 and its diameter diminishes from \ to ^. 
 
 The strength of manilla is about \ that of hemp. "White 
 ropes are \ more durable. 
 
 LATERAL OR TRANSVERSE STRENGTH. 
 
 Table, showing the transverse strength of timber, 1 foot 
 long and 1 vnch square : Weight suspended from one end. 
 
 Material. 
 
 Breakini! weight. 
 
 GreateHt deBec- 
 
 Welg't borne with 
 safety. Lba. 
 
 Value for gcnerU 
 
 
 Lbi. 
 
 tlon. inchei. 
 
 use. Lbs. 
 
 White oak, seasoned 
 
 240. 
 
 9. 
 
 196. 
 
 40. 
 
 Chesnut, " 
 
 170. 
 
 1.8 
 
 115. 
 
 65. 
 
 Yellow pine, " 
 
 150. 
 
 1.7 
 
 100. 
 
 62. 
 
 White » " 
 
 135. 
 
 1.4 
 
 95. 
 
 64. 
 
 Ash, " 
 
 175. 
 
 2.4 
 
 105. 
 
 77. 
 
 Hickory, " 
 
 270. 
 
 8. 
 
 200. 
 
 50. 
 
8TEENGTH OF MATERIALS. 
 
 269 
 
 Table, showing the transverse 8tren0h of iron — sq%iare 
 iar, 2 inches iy 12 inches long : Weight suspended from 
 
 one end. 
 
 Material. 
 Cast iron 
 
 Creaking weifht, 
 Lba. 
 
 6781 
 
 Weight borne safely 
 Lba.' 
 40(jO 
 
 Talus. 
 400 
 
 Value for eeue- 
 
 ral use. 
 
 290 
 
 Round, 3 inches diameter hy 12 inches long; 
 pended from end. 
 
 Weight sus- 
 
 terlal. I 
 ; irirn. I 
 
 Material. 
 Cast irirn. 
 
 Breaking well 
 l.ba. 
 l^UOO 
 
 Weight borne with 
 
 aafety. Lbs. 
 
 8000 
 
 Talce. 
 241) 
 
 Value for general 
 use 
 17.5 
 
 Note. — The strength of a projecting beam is only one- 
 fourth of what it would be if supported at both ends, aud 
 only one-sixth of what it would be if fixed at both ends. 
 The former is to the latter as 2 is to 3. 
 
 To find the transverse strength when the har or heam is 
 fixed at one end and the load applied at tlie other. 
 
 EuLE. — Multiply the value in the preceding table by the 
 breadth, and square of the depth in inches, and divide the 
 product by the length in feet. The quotient will be the 
 weight in lbs. 
 
 Example. — ^What weight will a seasoned white oak beam 
 4 inches square and projecting 36 inches sustain ? 
 
 Solution. — ix 4' x 40=2560-7-3 feet, projection, =853^ 
 lbs. Ans. 
 
 Example 2d. — ^What weight will a cast iron bar 2 inches 
 square and projecting 4 feet sustain ? 
 
 Solution.-— 2 x 2' x 400=3200-f-4=800 lbs. Ans. , 
 
270 BTEENGTH OF MATERIALS. 
 
 Note. — ^When the beam is loaded uniformly throughout 
 its length the result must be doubled. 
 
 Wlien the har or ieam is fixed at hoik ends and the weight 
 allied in the middle. 
 
 EuLE. — Multiply the value in the preceding table by six 
 times the breadth, and the square of the depth in inches, 
 and divide the product by the length in feet. 
 
 Example. — What weight will an ash beam 8 inches deep 
 by 10 broad and 10 feet long sustain in the middle, when 
 fixed at the ends ? 
 
 Solution.— 77x60 x8'=295680-r-10=29668 lbs. Ans. 
 
 Example 2d. — What weight will a cast iron bar 2 inches 
 square and 4 feet long support, when applied in the 
 middle, the ends being fixed? 
 
 Solution.— 400 x 12, six times breadth, x 2'=19200-f-4= 
 4800 lbs. Ans. 
 
 Note. — ^When the weight is equally distributed along its 
 entire length, thfe above results must be doubled. 
 
 Wlien the har or heain is s\i{pported at ioth ends amd the 
 weight, applied in the middle. 
 
 EuLE. — Multiply the value in the preceding table by the 
 square of the depth, and four times the breadth in inches, 
 and divide the product by the length in feet. 
 
 Example. — What weight will a white pine beam 8 inches 
 broad by 6 deep and 6 feet long carry when applied in %t& 
 middle, the ends being supported ? 
 
8TEENGTH OF MATEEIAIiS. 271 
 
 SoLOTioN.— 64 X 6' X 32=24576-=-6=4129+lbs. Ans. 
 Example 2d. — ^What weight will a cast iron bar 2 inches 
 square and 60 inches between the supports carry ? 
 
 Solution.— 400 x 2' x 8=12800-^5 feet =2560 lbs. Ans. 
 
 Table, showing the resistance of materials to crushing. 
 
 Designation. 
 ■WOODS. 
 
 Ash 
 
 Beech, well seasoned 
 
 Birch, " " 
 
 Cedar, 
 
 Elder 
 
 Elm, well seasoned, 
 
 Fir, (ppruce,) 
 
 Mahogany 
 
 Oak 
 
 Pine, pitch, 
 
 " yellow, 
 
 Poplar, 
 
 Pycamore, highly seasoned. 
 
 Walnut, 
 
 Willow, 
 
 METALS. 
 
 Brass, yellow 
 
 Iron, cast, 
 
 " bar 
 
 " boilerplate 
 
 HINEItALS. 
 
 Brick, common, 
 
 " fire 
 
 Brickwork, 
 
 Chalk 
 
 Granite 
 
 CrusUns weight per square Inoji. 
 
 In lbs. 
 8,683 
 
 19,363 
 
 11,663 
 5,863 
 9,973 
 
 10,331 
 6.819 
 8,198 
 6,982 
 6,790 
 6,445 
 6,124 
 
 12,101 
 7,227 
 6,128 
 
 10.304 
 98,000 
 40,000 
 32,000 
 
 800 
 
 1,700 
 
 612 
 
 384 
 
 11,000 
 
 la tons of 2 QO lbs. 
 4.3 
 9.6 
 6.8 
 2.9 
 4.9 
 6.1 
 3.4 
 4.09 
 2.9 
 3.3 
 2.7 
 2.5 
 6. 
 3.6 
 3.06 
 
 6.15 
 49. 
 20. 
 16. 
 
 0.40 
 
 0.85 
 
 0.306 
 
 0.16 
 
 5.50 
 
 STRENGTH OF ICE. 
 
 Ice 2 inches thick wiU bear men on foot. 
 « 4 " " " " horseback. 
 
272 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 
 
 Ice 6 inches thick will bear cattle and teams with light 
 
 loads. 
 " 8 " " " teams with heavy loads. 
 
 " 10 " " will sustain a pressure of 1000 lbs. per 
 
 square foot. 
 
 This supposes the ice to be sound throughout its whole 
 thickness, without "snow-ice." 
 
WEIGHT OF SQUAEE EOLLED lEON. 
 
 
 From -jij- inch to VI inches^ and 1 foot in len0h. 
 
 &1;:a In 
 
 Wolght la 
 
 size In 
 
 Weight In 
 
 size In 
 
 
 
 pouQds. 
 
 inches. 
 
 pounds. 
 
 Inches. 
 4.| 
 
 pouucja. 
 64.700 
 
 •A 
 
 013 
 
 2. 
 
 13.520 
 
 
 2. 
 
 15.2()3 
 
 4.4 
 
 68.448 
 
 •4 
 
 .053 
 
 2. 
 
 17.112 
 
 4,| 
 
 72.305 
 
 •A 
 
 118 
 
 2.i 
 
 19.066 
 
 4.| 
 
 76.264 
 
 
 2. 
 2.| 
 
 21.120 
 
 4-5 
 
 80.333 
 
 . 
 
 .211 
 
 23.292 
 
 5. 
 
 84.481 
 
 . ■ 
 
 .475 
 
 2.i 
 
 25.560 
 
 5.i- 
 
 88.784 
 
 
 .S45 
 
 ^•F 
 
 27.939 
 
 h.\ 
 
 93.168 
 
 . 
 
 1 . 321) 
 
 3. 
 
 30.416 
 
 bA 
 
 97.657 
 
 
 1.901 
 
 3. 
 
 33.010 
 
 5-4 
 
 102.240 
 
 •■ 
 
 2.588 
 
 3. 
 
 3. 
 
 35.704 
 
 5.? 
 
 106.953 
 
 1. 
 
 3.380 
 
 38.603 
 
 5.| 
 5.| 
 
 111.756 
 
 -' - 
 
 4.278 
 
 3.^ 
 
 41.408 
 
 116.671 
 
 
 5.280 
 
 3.| 
 
 44.418 
 
 6. 
 
 121.664 
 
 1.- 
 
 6.3!)0 
 
 3. J 
 3.| 
 
 47.634 
 
 6, J 
 
 132.040 
 
 i& 
 
 7.604 
 
 50.756 
 
 6. J 
 
 142.816 
 
 8.92B 
 
 4. 
 
 54.084 
 
 6. a 
 
 154.012 
 
 
 10.352 
 
 4-J 
 
 57.517 
 
 7. 
 
 165.632 
 
 i-t 
 
 11.883 
 
 4.i 
 
 61.055 
 
 7.} 
 
 177.672 
 
 KIze fa 
 
 Inches. 
 
 7.i 
 
 8.i 
 8 J 
 
 9.i 
 
 9-i 
 9.| 
 10. 
 
 10. i 
 10. 1 
 
 11. 
 
 11. 1 
 11. i 
 
 "Weight in 
 pouDds. 
 
 190.136 
 203.024 
 216.336 
 230.068 
 244 . 220 
 258 800 
 273.792 
 289.220 
 305.056 
 3^1.332 
 337.920 
 355.136 
 372.672 
 3B0.628 
 408.9 
 427.812 
 447.024 
 466.684 
 486. 6i6 
 
 12* 
 
274 WEIGHT OF SQUAEE EOLLED IBON. 
 
 Example. — "What is the weight of a bar of rolled iron 1|- 
 inches square and 12 inches long ? 
 
 In column 1st find 1^, and opposite to it is 7.604 pounds, 
 which is 7 lbs. and ^Yo^o of a lb. If the lesser denomina- 
 tion of ounces is required, the result is obtained as follows : 
 Multiply the remainder by 16, pointing off the decimals as 
 in multiplication of decimals, and the figures remaining on 
 the left of the point indicate the number of ounces. 
 
 Thus, -^^ of a lb. = .604 
 16 
 
 9.664 ounces. 
 The weight, then, is 7 lbs. Q-j^o^ ounces. 
 
 If the weight for less than a foot in length was required, 
 the readiest "operation is this : 
 
 Example. — "What is the weight of a bar 6J inches square 
 and 9f inches long ? 
 
 In column 5th, opposite to 6 J, is 132.040, which is the 
 weight for a foot in length. 
 
 6^x12 inches =132.040 
 
 6. 
 
 « 
 
 is J 
 
 — 
 
 66.020 
 
 
 3. 
 
 (( 
 
 isi 
 
 of 6= 
 
 33.010 
 
 
 ■i 
 
 a 
 
 is^ 
 
 of 3 = 
 
 . 6.6016 
 
 
 •i 
 
 a 
 
 is ^ 
 
 on= 
 
 2.7508 
 
 
 9.f 
 
 108..AAMr 
 
 pounds 
 
"WEIGHT OF ItOUND EOLLED lEON. 
 
 l^rom \ mch to 12 inches diameter, and 1 foot m length. 
 
 Dlamet'r 
 
 Weight In 
 
 Dlamet'r 
 
 Weleht In 
 
 Dlamet'r 
 
 Weight In 
 
 Dlamet'r 
 
 Weight in 
 
 tn Inches 
 
 pouads. 
 
 La inches 
 
 pounds. 
 
 n inches 
 
 pouadB. 
 
 In Inches 
 
 pounds. 
 
 •tH, 
 
 010 
 
 ^■i 
 
 11.988 
 
 i.h 
 
 4.4 
 
 53.760 
 
 7.^ 
 
 159.456 
 
 2. 
 2.4 
 
 13.440 
 
 56.788 
 
 8. 
 
 169.856 
 
 ■i 
 
 .041 
 
 14.975 
 
 *i 
 
 69.900 
 
 8. 
 
 180.696 
 
 ■t\ 
 
 .093 
 
 2. 
 
 16.688 
 
 4| 
 
 63.094 
 
 8. 
 
 191.808 
 
 
 .165 
 
 2. 
 
 18.293 
 
 5. 
 
 66.752 
 
 8. 
 
 203.260 
 
 
 .373 
 
 2. 
 
 20.076 
 
 5. 
 
 69.731 
 
 9. 
 
 215.040 
 
 
 .663 
 
 2. 
 
 21.944 
 
 6. 
 
 73.172 
 
 9. 
 
 227 . 152 
 
 . 
 
 1.043 
 
 3. 
 
 23.888 
 
 5. 
 
 76.700 
 
 9. 
 
 289.600 
 
 . 
 
 1.493 
 
 3. 
 
 25.926 
 
 ^■i 
 
 80.304 
 
 9., 
 
 262.376 
 
 •■ 
 
 2.03J 
 
 3. 
 
 28.040 
 
 5. 
 
 84.001 
 
 10. 
 
 266.288 
 
 
 2.654 
 
 3. 
 
 30.240 
 
 6. 
 
 87.776 
 
 10. i 
 
 278.924 
 
 1. 
 
 3.360 
 
 3. 
 
 32.512 
 
 6. 
 
 91.634 
 
 10. i 
 10.4 
 
 282.988 
 
 
 4.172 
 
 3. 
 
 34.886 
 
 6. 
 
 95.652 
 
 306.800 
 
 1.- 
 
 6.019 
 
 3.4 
 
 37.332 
 
 6-i 
 
 103.704 
 
 11. 
 
 321.216 
 
 1.^ 
 
 5.972 
 
 3.* 
 
 39.864 
 
 6.x 
 6.4 
 
 112.160 
 
 11. 
 
 336.004 
 
 1. 
 
 7.010 
 
 4. 
 
 42.464 
 
 120.960 
 
 11. 
 
 351.104 
 
 1. 
 
 8.128 
 
 4. 
 
 4S.174 
 
 7. 
 
 130. 048 
 
 11. 
 
 366.536 
 
 1. 
 
 9.333 
 
 4. 
 4. 
 
 47.952 
 
 7.ih 
 
 139.544 
 
 12. 
 
 382.208 
 
 2. 
 
 10.616 
 
 50.815 
 
 7.1 
 
 149.338 
 
 
 
 The application of this table is precisely fiimilar to that 
 of the preceding one. 
 
MASONEY. 
 
 A perch of stone is 24.75 cubic feet ; when built in the 
 wall, 22 cubic feet make 1 perch, 2| cubic feet being 
 allowed for the mortar and filling. 
 
 Three pecks of lime and four bushels of sand to a perch 
 of wall. 
 
 To find the number of perches of stone in walls. 
 
 Rule. — Multiply the length in feet by the height in feet, 
 and that by the thickness in feet, and divide the pi'oduct by 
 22, and the quotient will be the number of perches of stone 
 in the wall. 
 
MASONET. 277 
 
 Example. — How many perches of stone contained in a 
 wall iO feet long, 20 feet high, and 18 inches thick ? 
 
 Solution. — 40 feet, length, x 20 ft., height, X 1 J feet, 
 thick,=1200-4-22=54.54: perches. Ans. 
 
 Note. — ^To find the number of pei'ches of masonry, divide 
 the product, as above, by 24.75, instead of 22. 
 
 £rick-work. 
 
 The dimensions of common bricks are from 7|- to 8 inches 
 long, by 4|- wide, and 2J thick. Front bricks are 8^ inches 
 long, by 4^ wide, and 2^ thick. 
 
 The usual size of fire bricks is 91 inches long, by 4i wide, 
 by 21 thick. 
 
 Twenty common bricks to a cubic foot when laid ; 15 
 common bricks to a foot of 8-inch wall when laid. 
 
 To find ike number of common hricks in a wall. 
 
 EuLE. — Multiply the length of the wall in feet by the 
 height in feet, and that by its thickness in feet, and that 
 again by 20, and the product will be the number of bricks 
 in the wall. 
 
 Example. — How many common bricks in a wall 40 feet 
 long by 20 feet high and 12 inches thick ? 
 
 Solution.— 40 ft., length, x 20 ft., height, x 1 ft., thick, 
 X 20=16000. Am. 
 
 Note. — For walls 8 ins. thick, multiply the length in feet 
 by the height in feet, and that by 15, and the product will 
 be the number of bricks in the walL 
 
278 MASONET. 
 
 When the wall is perforated by doors and windows, or 
 other openings, find the sum of their cubic feet by severally 
 multiplying their lengths and widths and thicknesses in feet 
 together, and deducting the whole from the cubic contents 
 of the wall, including the openings, before multiplying by 
 2(3i or 15, as above. 
 
 Laths. 
 
 Laths are \\ to 1^ inches wide by 4 feet long, are usually 
 set \ inch apart, and a bundle contains 100. 
 
THE MECHANICAL POWERS. 
 
 The mechanical powers are three in number, namely : 
 the LEVEE, the inclined plane, and the pullet. The 
 wheel and the axle is a revolving lever ; the wedge is a 
 cZowJZe. inclined plane, and the screw is a revoking inclined 
 plane. 
 
 THE LEVEE. 
 
 To find tJie length of the longest arm of tlie lever ; the 
 weight to he raised, the power to be applied, and the length 
 of the shortest arm of t/ie lever being gi/ven. 
 
 Rule. — ^Multiply the weight by its distance from the ful- 
 crum and divide the product by the power, and the quotient 
 is the distance from the fulcrum the power must be applied, 
 or, the longest arm of the lever. 
 
 Example. — Given, a weight of 900 lbs.,, distant 2 feet from 
 the fulcrum, to be raised by a force or power of 75 lbs. ; re- 
 quired, the length of the longest arm of the Itever. 
 
 Solution. — 900 lbs., the weight, x 2 feet,, di&tance from 
 fulcrum, =1800-;- 75 lbs., the power,=24 feet. Ans. 
 
 To find the length of the shortest arm of the lever ; the 
 weight to be raised, the power to be applied, and the length 
 qf the longest arm of the lever being given. 
 
280 THE MECHA2TICAL I»OWEES. ' 
 
 EuLE.— Multiply the power by its distance from the ful- 
 crum, and divide the product by the weight, and the quo- 
 tient is the distance the weight must be placed from the 
 fulcrum, or, the sliortest arm of the lever. 
 
 Example. — ^What distance must a weight of 800 lbs. be 
 placed from the fulcrum, to 'ho raised by a power of 150 lbs. 
 placed 8 feet from the fulcrum ? 
 
 Solution. — 150 lbs., the power, x 96 inches, its distance 
 from the fulcrum,=lM00^800 lbs., the weight,=18 inches. 
 Ans. 
 
 To find the power required to raise a given weight; the 
 distances of the weight and the power from the fulcrum 
 heing given. 
 
 EuLE. — Multiply the weight by its distance from the ful- 
 crum and divide the product by the distance of the power 
 from the fulcrum. 
 
 Example. — "What power will raise a, weight of 600 lbs. 
 20 inches from the fulcrum, applied 8 feet from the ful- 
 crum ? 
 
 Solution. — 600 lbs., weight, x 20 inches, distance of weight 
 fioirt fu]crum,=12000-^96 inches, distance of power from 
 fulcrum, =125 lbs. Ans. 
 
 To find the weight, at a givendistancefrom the fulcrum, 
 a given power at a given distance from the fulcrum will 
 raise. 
 
 EuLE. — Multiply the power by its distance from the ful- 
 
THE MECHANICAL POWERS. 281 
 
 crura and divide the product by the distance of the weight 
 from the fulcrum, / , , . 
 
 Example. — "What weight will a power of 250 lbs. 10 
 feet from the fulcrum raise, the weight placed 20 inches 
 from the fulcrum ? 
 
 Solution. — 250 lbs'., the power, x 120 inches, its distance 
 from the fulcrUm,=:30000H-20 inches, distance of weight 
 from fulcrum,=1500 lbs. Ans. 
 
 The GENEKAL EULE, therefore, for ascertaining the rela- 
 tion of power to weight in a lever, is.: the power applied, 
 multiplied by its distance from the fulcrum, is equal to the 
 weight multiplied by its distance from the fulcrum. 
 
 The pressure upon the fulcrum equals the sum of the 
 weight and power. 
 
 Note. — It must be remembered that, according to the 
 foregoing rules and examples, the weight and force are made 
 by the introduction of the lever to equal or balance each 
 other. Hence, to get at their j>ractical value, we must either 
 shorten the short armi, or lengthen the long arm of the lever, 
 add to the power, or deduct from the weight, to such an 
 extent as each may judge for himself expedient under' the 
 circumstances. 
 
282 
 
 THE MECHANICAL POWEES. 
 
 THE INCLINED PLANE. 
 
 To find the power or force required to raise a given weight 
 up cm inclined plane of a given length and height. 
 
 EtJLE. — As the length of the plane is to its height, so is 
 the weight to the power. 
 
 Example. — Required the power necessary to raise 1500 
 lbs. up an inclined plane 20 feet long and 8 feet high ? 
 
 Solution.— As 20 : 8 : : 1500 : 600 lbs. Ans. 
 
 To find the height of an inclined plane wlien its length 
 and hose are given. 
 
 EuLE.— Subtract the square of the base from the square 
 of the length, and the square root of the remainder is the 
 height. 
 
 Example. — Given an inclined plane, the length of which 
 is 40 feet and base 38 : required, its height ? 
 
 SpLirriON. — 1600, square of length, — 1444, square of 
 base, = |/ 156 = 12.49 feet. Ans. 
 
 To find the length when its hdse and height are given. 
 
THE MECHANICAL POWERS. 283 
 
 KuLE. — ^Add the squares of the height and the base, and 
 tlie square root of their sum will be the length. 
 
 , Example. — ^What is the length of an inclined plane the 
 base of which is 20 feet and its height 12 ? 
 
 Solution. — 400, square of base^ + 144, square of height, 
 = V 644 = 23.32 feet. Ans. 
 
 To find t/ie base when the length cmd height are given. 
 
 EiTLE. — Subtract the square of the height from the square 
 of the length, and the square root of the remainder will be 
 the base. 
 
 Example.— What is the base of an inclined plane, whose 
 height is 10 feet, and length 25 ? 
 
 Solution. — 625, square of length, ^100, square of 
 height, = y' 525 = 22.91 feet. Ans. 
 
 To find t/ie pressure of a weight on an inclined plane when 
 raised hy its equivalent power. 
 
 Rule. — As the length is to the weight, so is the base to 
 the pressure. . 
 
 Example. — What is the pressure of 1000 lbs. on an in- 
 clined plane, the length of which is 80 feet and the base 70 ? < 
 
 Solution. — 80 feet, length, : 1000 lbs., :: 70 feet, base, 
 : 875 lbs. Ans. 
 
 Notes. — When the line of direction of the power is par-; 
 allel to the plane, the power is least and the pressure 
 least. . 
 
284 TH^ MECHANICAL POWEES. 
 
 When the power does not run parallel to the plane, di'aw 
 a line perpendicular to the direction of the power's action 
 from the end of the base line (at the back of the plane), and 
 the intersection of this line on the length will determine the 
 length and height of the base. 
 
 THE WHEEL AND THE AXLE. 
 
 The power multiplied by the radius of the wheel is equal 
 to the weight multiplied by the radius of tlie axle. 
 
 As the radius of the wheel, is to the radius of the axle, so 
 is the effect to the power. 
 
 To find ike weight a ffiven tractile- force or power will 
 move on a wheel and axle of given radii. 
 
 EuLE. — Multiply the tractile or drawing force by the 
 radius of the wheel, and divide the product by the radius of 
 the axle. 
 
 ExAJttPLE.^What weight will a tractile force of 250 lbs. 
 draw on a wheel (or wheels) of a radius of 3 feet : radius of 
 axle 4 inches ? 
 
 Solution. — 250 lbs., tractile force, x 36 incbes, radius 
 of wheel, = 90004-4: inches, radius of axle, = 2250 lbs. Ana. 
 
 To find the tractile force required to move a given weight 
 on a wheel and axle of given radii. 
 
THE MECHANICAL POWEKS. . 285 
 
 EuLE. — ^Multiply the weight by the radius of the axle 
 and divide the product by the radius of the wheel. 
 
 Example. — ^Eequired, the tractile force necessary to draw 
 2000 lbs. on a wheel of 2^ feet radius, and axle of 3 inches 
 radius ? 
 
 Solution. — 2000 lbs., weight, x 3 inches, radius of 
 axle, = 6000 -i- 30 inches, radius of wheel, = 200 lbs. Ans. 
 
 To find the radius required for a wJieel to move a given 
 weight hy a gimen force on a given radius of axle. 
 
 KuLE. — Multiply the weight by the radius of the axle 
 and divide the prod act by the force. 
 
 Example. — What radius must a ^ wheel have, the radius 
 of whose axle is 4 inches, to move a weight of 1320 lbs. by a 
 force of 220 lbs ? 
 
 SoLUTioN.^1320 lbs., weight, x 4 inches, radius of axle, 
 = 5280 -f-220 lbs., tractile force, = 24 inches. Ans. 
 
 To find the radius of an axle required to move a given 
 weight iy a given force, on a wheel of a given radius. 
 
 Rule. — Multiply the force by the radius of the wheel and 
 divide the product by the weight. 
 
 Example. — ^A weight of 1200 lbs. is to be moved on a 
 wheel of 4 feet radius by a force of 150 lbs. : What must be 
 the radius of the axle ? 
 
 Solution. — 1501bs.,ibrce, x 48 inches, radius of wheel, = 
 7200 -H 1200 lbs. = 6 inches. Ans. 
 
286 THE MECHANICAL POWEES. 
 
 Note. — It will be observed that, according to the above 
 rules, illustrated by the foregoing examples, the power or 
 force of traction and the weight or load are equivalents ; 
 that is to say, the one is, by the interposition of the wheel 
 and axle, made to counterpoise the other. To find their 
 easy practiced vaZue, deduct ^ from the weight, or add ^ to 
 the tractile force. 
 
 THE WEDGE. 
 
 f- ' n 
 
 Tojmd the force necessary to separate two bodies from 
 one another in a direction parallel to the back of the wedge. 
 
 Rule. — As the length of the wedge is to half its back, so 
 is the resistance to the force. 
 
 Example. — The length of the back of a double wedge is 
 6 inches, and its length through the middle 12 inches. Re- 
 quired, the force necessary to separate a substance having a 
 ■ resistance of 200 lbs. ? 
 
THE MECHANICAL POWERS. 287 
 
 Solution.— 12 inches, length, : 3 inches, back, : : 200 lbs., 
 resistance, : 50 lbs. Ans. 
 
 To find the requisite force when only one of the todies is 
 movable. 
 
 KuLE. — As the length of the wedge is to its back, so is 
 the resistance to the force. 
 
 Example. — What power applied to the back of a wedge 
 will raise a weight of 20,000 lbs.; the wedge being 6 inches 
 deep and 100 long on its base ? 
 
 Solution. — 100 inches, length, : 6 inches, depth, :: 20,- ' 
 000 lbs., weight, : 1200 lbs. Ans. 
 
 Note. — The power of the wedge increases as its length 
 increases, or as the thickness of its back decreases. 
 
288 
 
 THE MECHANICAL POWEES. 
 
 THE SCREW, 
 
 The screw is a revolving inclined plane, or an inclined 
 plane wound round a cylinder. Hence, when its length and 
 its pitch, or height, are ascertained, the same rules that 
 govern the inclined plane apply to the screw. 
 
 To find the length of the inclined plane of a screw. 
 -Rule. — Add the square of the circumference of the screw 
 to the square of the pitch, or distance between the threads, 
 and take the square root of the same, which will be the 
 length of the plane. The lieight is the distance between 
 the consecutive threads. 
 
THE MECHANICAL POWERS. 289 
 
 Example, — ^What is the length of the inclined 'plane of a 
 screw of 12 inches circumference and 1 inch pitch? 
 
 Solution.— 12' + 1'= 145 and |/ 145=12.04159 inches. 
 Ans. 
 
 Note. — It will be observed that the length of the plane as 
 given in the above example is the length of only one turning 
 of the screw, or the length of once round the circumference, 
 which, in ascertaining the power of a screw, is all that is 
 necessary to be known of the length. The entire length of 
 the plane and the entire height of the screw have nothing 
 to do with its power. A single section, comprising one 
 revolution of the plane or the cylinder, is enough. 
 
 To find the povjer required to raise a given weight hy 
 means of a screw of given dimensions. 
 
 EiJLE. — As the length of the inclined plane is to the 
 pitch, or height of it, so is the weight to the power. 
 
 Example. — What is the power i-equisite to raise 9000 lbs. 
 by a screw 15 inclies circumference, and 1^ inches pitch ? 
 
 Solution.— 15' + l^'=227i and y 22'fi=15.62 inches, 
 length, then 15.62 inches, length, : 1^ inches, pitch, : : 9000 
 lbs., weight, : 864.27 lbs. . Ans. 
 
 Note. — When a wheel or capstan is applied to turn the 
 
 screw, the length of the lever is the radius of the circle 
 
 described by the handle of the wheel or capstan bar, and 
 
 half the diameter of the screw is the radius of the axle. 
 
 When the screw is turned by a wheel, a crank, or capstan, 
 
 13 
 
290 
 
 THE MECHANICAL P0WEE8. 
 
 find the power of the wheel, crank, or capstan by naeans of 
 the rules given under " The "Wheel and the Axle," and de 
 duct the force thus acquired from the force necessary to drive 
 the screw in raising the weight alone. The remainder is the 
 force required to raise the weight by the combined power 
 of the screw and the lever. 
 
 THE PULLEY. 
 
 When only one cord or rope is used. 
 
 To jmd the force necessary to raise a given weight hy 
 means of a pulley of a given number of sheaves, <&c. 
 
 RtJLE. — Divide the weight to be raised by the number of 
 parts of the rope engaged in supporting the lower or mov- 
 able block. 
 
THE MECHANICAL POWERS. 291 
 
 Example. — What is the force required to raise 600 lbs. 
 by means of a lower block containing six sheaves : rope 
 fastened to the upper block ? 
 
 - Solution.— 2x6=12; then, 600-r-12=50 lbs. Ans. 
 
 Example 2d. — "What force when the rope is fastened to 
 the lower block ? 
 
 Solution.— 6x2 + 1=13; then 600-M3=46.16 lbs. Ans. 
 
 When more than one rope is used. 
 
 In a Spanish JBurton, where there are two ropes, two 
 movable pulleys, and one fixed and one stationary pulley, 
 with the ends of one rope fastened to the support and 
 upper movable pulley, and the ends of oe other fastened 
 to the lower block and the power, the weight is to the 
 power as 6 to 1. 
 
 In one where the ends of one rope are fastened to the 
 support and the pOwer, and the ends of the other to the 
 lower and upper blocks^ the weight is to the power as 4 to 1. 
 
DEFINITIONS OF MATHEMATICAL FOEMS. 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 -B 
 
 Parallel Lines are everywhere 
 equally distant ; a;s, A B and C D. 
 
 An Angle is the difference of direc- 
 tion between two lines which meet ; 
 as, A D E. The point of meeting is 
 called the vertex of the angle, and when 
 the angle is named the letter at the 
 vertex is placed second ; as, C D E. 
 
 A Right Angle is formed when a 
 straight line meeting another rhakes 
 two equal angles ; as, A D C and C D B. 
 
 An Acute Angle is one less than a 
 right angle ; as, E B D, Fig. 3. 
 
 An Ohtuse Angle* is one greater 
 ° than a right angle ; as, A D E, Fig. 4. 
 
 A Surface has two dimensions^length and breadth. 
 A Triangle is a figure having three sides ; as, A B C, 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 E D 
 
 V 
 
 B 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 I! 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 Fro. 5. 
 
 The Altitude of a triangle is the per- 
 pendicular distance of the vertex from 
 the line of the base; as, B C is the 
 altitude of the triangle ABC, Fig. 5. 
 A Right- Angle Triangle is a triangle having a right angle ; 
 
 * As the right angle contains 90°, it follows that the acute angle contains 
 less, and the obtuse angle more, than 90°. 
 
DEFINITIONS OF MATHEMATICAL FOEMS. 
 
 293 
 
 Fra. 6. 
 
 □ 
 
 Flo. 
 
 CI 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 A iR 
 
 1" 
 
 as, A B, Fig. 5. The side opposite the right angle is called 
 the hypothenuse ; as, A B. 
 
 A Parallelogram is a four-sided fig- 
 ure whose opposite sides are parallel; 
 as, Fig. 6. 
 
 A Rectangle is a parallelogram 
 whose angles are right angles; as, 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 A Square is a rectangle the sides of which 
 are equal. Fig. 8. 
 
 A Trapezoid is a four-sided figure having but 
 two of its sides parallel ; as, A B C D, Fig. 9. 
 
 The Altitude of a Parallelogram, a 
 Kectangle, a Square or a Trapezoid is 
 the perpendicular distance between 
 the base and the line of the parallel side 
 opposite the base ; as, E F, Fig. 9. 
 
 A Circle is a plane surface bounded by a line, every point 
 of which is equally distant from a point called the centre ; 
 as, A B C D, Fig. 10. 
 
 The Circumference of a circle is the line 
 by which it is bounded ; as, A BC D, Fig. 10. 
 
 Tlie Diameter of a circle is a straight line 
 passing through the centre and terminating 
 in the circumference ; as, D E B, Fig. 10. 
 
 The Radius of a circle is the distance from the centre to 
 tliG circumference ; as, E F. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
294 
 
 DEFINITIONS OF MATHEMATICAL FOEMS. 
 
 Fio. 18. 
 
 Fie. 13. 
 
 Fie. 14. 
 
 Fie. 15. 
 
 Fio. iL j^ Solid has three dimensions — ^length, 
 
 breadth, and thickness ; as, Fig. 11. 
 
 A Prism is a solid whose sides are paral- 
 lelograms, and whose ends are equal and 
 similar ; as, Fig. 12. 
 
 "When the ends of a prism are triangular, 
 it is called a triangular prism ; as, Fig. 12. 
 
 When the. ends of a prism are square, it 
 is called a square prisrn • as. Fig. 13. 
 
 "When the ends of a prism are hexagonal, 
 it is called a hexagonal prism ; as. Fig. 14. 
 
 "When the ends of a prism are circular, it 
 is called a cylinder ;^ as, Fig. 15. 
 
 When all the sides of a rectangular prism 
 
 are square, it is called a ciibe ; as, Fig. 16. 
 
 A Pyramid is a solid, the base of which is a 
 
 plane rectilinear figure, and having sides which 
 
 are triangles whose vertices meet at a point at 
 
 the top called the vertex of the pyramid. Fig. 17. 
 
 The Altihide of a pyramid or a cone is the 
 
 perpendicular distance from the vertex to the 
 
 plane of the base ; as. Fig. 17. 
 
 A Cone is a solid, the base of which is a circle, 
 and which tapers uniformly to a point at the top 
 called a vertex. Fig. 18. 
 
 • A cylinder is a regular polygon, or prism, with an infinite number of sides. 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
DEFINITIONS OF MATHEMATICAL FORMS. 
 
 295 
 
 A Frustum of a pyramid or a cone is the 
 part that remains after cutting off the top by a 
 plane parallel to the base. 
 
 Fig. 19 represents the frustum of a pyramid. 
 
 Fig. 20 represents the frustum of a cone. 
 
 An Ellvpse is a plane curve such that the sums 
 of the distances of any points in the bounding 
 line from two points within called the foci are 
 always equal. 
 
 The line A B passing through the foci is 
 called the major diameter ; and the diame- ^l 
 ter perpendicular to A B at its centre is 
 called the minor diameter. 
 
 A Sphere is a solid, bounded by a convex sur- 
 face, every point of which is equally distant from 
 a point within called the centre ; as. Fig. 22. 
 
 A Spheroid is a solid, generated by the revo- 
 lution of an ellipse about one of its diameters. 
 If the ellipse revolves about its major diameter 
 the spheroid is called ^roZa^e. If about its mi- 
 nor diameter the spheroid is called oblate. 
 
 Fig. 23 roi^resents Si prolate spheroid. 
 
 Fig. 24 represents an oblate spheroid. 
 
 FlO. 19 
 
 / 
 
 Fis. SO. 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 — B 
 
 Fie. 33. 
 
'^^^. .^^(^- ko(^^ 
 
 CIECLES. 
 
 To find the circumference of a circle. 
 
 Rule 1. — Multiply the diameter by 3.1416, and the pro- 
 duct will be the circumference. 
 
 E0LE 2. — Or, as 7 is to 22 so is the diameter to the cir- 
 cumference. 
 
 Example. — What is the circumference of a circle whose 
 diameter is 25 ? 
 
 Solution.— 25x3.1416=78.54:. Atis. By Eule 2.-7: 
 22::25 : 78.5. J.ws. 
 
 To find the diameter of a circle. 
 
 Eule 1. — Divide the circumference by 3.1416, and the 
 quotient will be the diameter. 
 
 Eule 2. — Or, as 22 is to 7, so is the circumference to the 
 diameter. 
 
 Example. — "What is the diameter of a circle whose cir- 
 cumference is 69.11 ? 
 
 Solution.— 69.11^3.1416=22. A-ns. By Eule 2.-22 : 
 7:: 69.11 : 22. Ans. 
 
 To find the area of a circle. 
 
 Eule 1. — Multiply the square of the diameter by .7854, 
 or the square of the- circumference by .07958, and the pro- 
 duct will be the area. 
 
CIRCLES. 297 
 
 EuLE 2.— Or, multiply half the circumference by half 
 the diameter. 
 
 EuLE 3. — Or, as 14 is to 11, so is the square of the diam- 
 eter to the area. 
 
 EuLe 4. — Or, as 88 is to 7, so is the square of the circum- 
 ference to the area. 
 
 To find the side of an equal square containing the same 
 area as a given circle. 
 
 EuLE. — Take the square root of the area, which will be 
 the side of the equal square. 
 
 To find the solidity of a sphere. 
 
 Edle. — Multiply the cube of the diameter by .5236, and 
 the product is the solidity. 
 
 EXPLANATION AND TTSE OF THE FOLLOWING TABLE. 
 
 In the left hand column will be found the diameter of the 
 circle ; in tlie next column to the right will be found its 
 corresponding circumference ; in the third to the riglit will 
 be found the area, and in the right hand column will be 
 found tlie length of the side of an equal square containing 
 the same area. 
 
 Example. — What is the side of a square having the same 
 area as a circle of 64J inches diameter ? 
 
 Solution. — Find 64| in the left-hand column, and oppo- 
 site it to the right, under the heading " Side of Equal 
 
 Square," will be found 57.101, the length of the side. Ans. 
 
 13* 
 
298 
 
 CIRCLES, 
 
 Table, sJwwmg the Areas of Circles and the Sides oftlieii 
 equivalent Squares, from 1 to 100. 
 
 Slam 
 
 Ctrcum. 
 .3921) 
 
 Ares. 
 
 .01227 
 
 .7854 
 
 .04908 
 
 1.570 
 
 .1963 
 
 2.35C 
 
 .4417 
 
 3.141 
 
 .7854 
 
 3.927 
 
 l.a27 
 
 4.712 
 
 1.767 
 
 5.497 
 
 2.404 
 
 G.283 
 
 3.141 
 
 7.068 
 
 3.976 
 
 7.8.'>4 
 
 4.908 
 
 8.639 
 
 5.939 
 
 9.424 
 
 7.068 
 
 10.21 
 
 8.295 
 
 10.99 
 
 9.621 
 
 11.78 
 
 11.044 
 
 12.56 
 
 12.666 
 
 13.35 
 
 14.186 
 
 14.13 
 
 15.904 
 
 14.91 
 
 17.720 
 
 15.70 
 
 19.635 
 
 18.49 
 
 21.647 
 
 17.27 
 
 23.768 
 
 18.0fi 
 
 25.967 
 
 18.84 
 
 28.274 
 
 19.63 
 
 30.679 
 
 20.42 
 
 33.183 
 
 21.20 
 
 35.784 
 
 21.99 
 
 38.484 
 
 22.77 
 
 41.282 
 
 ■23.56 
 
 44.178 
 
 24.34 
 
 47.173 
 
 25.13 
 
 50.265 
 
 25.91 
 
 53.456 
 
 26.70 
 
 56.745 
 
 27.48 
 
 60.131 
 
 28.27 
 
 63.617 
 
 :!9.05 
 
 67.200 
 
 29.84 
 
 70.882 
 
 30.63 
 
 74.662 
 
 31.41 
 
 78.539 
 
 3.'. 20 
 
 82.516 
 
 32.98 
 
 86.590 
 
 33.77 
 
 90.762 
 
 34.55 
 
 95.033 
 
 85.34 
 
 99.402 
 
 36.12 
 
 103.86 
 
 Side nt' 
 equal square, 
 
 .110 
 .221 
 
 .443 
 .663 
 .886 
 1.107 
 1.329 
 1.550 
 lr772 
 1.994 
 2.215 
 2.437 
 2.658 
 2.8fcO 
 3.101 
 3.323 
 3.544 
 3.766 
 8.9J-8 
 4.2IJ9 
 4.431 
 4.652 
 4.h74 
 6.095 
 5.317 
 6..'>38 
 5.760 
 5.98^ 
 6.203 
 6.425 
 6.6)6 
 6.868 
 7.089 
 7.311 
 7.532 
 7.7.M 
 7.976 
 8.197 
 8.419 
 8.640 
 8.862 
 9.083 
 9.305 
 9.526 
 9.748 
 9.970 
 10.191 
 
 llj 
 12 
 
 n\ 
 ^H 
 
 12* 
 
 13 
 
 13i 
 
 13* 
 
 nf 
 
 14 
 
 Hi 
 
 14| 
 
 15 
 
 15J 
 
 15^ 
 
 J5J 
 
 16 
 
 16J 
 
 164 
 
 16| 
 
 17 
 
 17i 
 
 I'f 
 18 
 
 18J 
 
 m 
 
 19 
 
 \H 
 u\ 
 i9i 
 
 20 
 
 2ui 
 
 ■U)\ 
 
 20* 
 
 21 
 
 2li 
 
 24 
 U 
 
 22J 
 22| 
 23 
 23J 
 
 Circum. 
 
 36.91 
 37.69 
 38.48 
 39.27 
 40.05 
 40.84 
 41.62 
 42.41 
 43.19 
 43.98 
 44.76 
 45.55 
 46.33 
 47.12 
 47.90 
 48.69 
 49.48 
 50.26 
 61.(15 
 51.83 
 52 61 
 53.40 
 54.19 
 54.97 
 55.76 
 56.54 
 57.33 
 68.11 
 58.90 
 59.69 
 60.47 
 61.26 
 62.04 
 62.83 
 63.61 
 64.40 
 65.18 
 65.97 
 66.75 
 67.54 
 68.32 
 69.11 
 69.90 
 70.68 
 71.47 
 72.25 
 73.04 
 
 Area. 
 
 108.43 
 113.09 
 117.85 
 122.71 
 127.67 
 132.73 
 137.88 
 143.13 
 148.48 
 153.93 
 159.48 
 165.13 
 170.87 
 176.71 
 182.65 
 188.69 
 194.82 
 201 U6 
 207.39 
 213.82 
 220.35 
 226.98 
 233.70 
 240.52 
 247.45 
 254.46 
 261.58 
 268.80 
 276.11 
 283.52 
 291.03 
 298.64 
 306.35 
 314.16 
 322.06 
 330.06 
 338.16 
 346.36 
 354.65 
 363.05 
 371.64 
 380.13 
 388.82 
 397.60 
 406.49 
 416.47 
 424.55 
 
 Side of 
 equal square. 
 
 10.413 
 10.634 
 10.856 
 11.(177 
 11.299 
 "11.520 
 11.742 
 11.9r>4 
 12.185 
 12.407 
 12.628 
 12.850 
 13.071 
 13.293 
 13 514 
 13.736 
 13 958 
 14.179 
 14.401 
 14.622 
 14.844 
 15.065 
 15.287 
 15 508 
 15.730 
 15.952 
 16.173 
 16.395 
 16.616 
 ]6.i-38 
 17.053 
 17.281 
 17.502 
 17.724 
 17.946 
 18.167 
 18.389 
 18.610 
 18.832 
 19.053 
 19.275 
 19.496 
 19.718 
 19.940 
 20.161 
 21.383 
 20.604 
 

 
 
 
 
 CIECLE8. 
 
 
 
 269 
 
 
 
 
 
 Side of 
 
 
 
 
 Side of 
 
 
 Dlam. 
 
 23i 
 23} 
 
 Clrcum. 
 
 Area. 
 
 equal square. 
 
 DIam. 
 
 Clrcum. 
 
 Area. 
 
 equal sqiinrs 
 
 
 73.82 
 
 433.73 
 
 20.826 
 
 36 
 
 113. 
 
 1017.8 
 
 si.roi 
 
 
 74.61 
 
 443.01 
 
 21.047 
 
 36} 
 
 113.8 
 
 1032.0 
 
 32.125 
 
 
 24 
 
 75.39 
 
 452.39 
 
 21.269 
 
 3fi| 
 
 114.6 
 
 1046.3 
 
 33.347 
 
 
 24i 
 
 76.18 
 
 461.86 
 
 21.491 
 
 36| 
 
 115.4 
 
 1060.7 
 
 32.568 
 
 
 21 
 24 
 
 76.96 
 
 ^71.43 
 
 21.712 
 
 37 
 
 116.2 
 
 1075.2 
 
 32.790 
 
 
 77.75 
 
 481.10 
 
 21.934 
 
 37} 
 
 117. 
 
 10^9.7 
 
 33.011 
 
 
 25 
 
 78.54 
 
 490.87 
 
 22.155 
 
 371 
 
 117.8 
 
 1104.4 
 
 3S.233 
 
 
 25J 
 
 79.32 
 
 600.74 
 
 22.377 
 
 37* 
 
 118.6 
 
 1119.2 
 
 33.455 
 
 
 ZSi 
 
 feO.ll) 
 
 610.70 
 
 22.598 
 
 38 
 
 119.3 
 
 1134.1 
 
 33.676 
 
 
 2fl| 
 
 81.89 
 
 620.77 
 
 22.820 
 
 38} 
 
 120.1 
 
 1149.0 
 
 33.898 
 
 
 26 
 
 81.68 
 
 630.93 
 
 23.041 
 
 38| 
 
 120.9 
 
 1164.1 
 
 34.119 
 
 
 26} 
 
 82.46 
 
 641.18 
 
 28.263 
 
 381 
 
 121.7 
 
 1179.3 
 
 84.341 
 
 
 2Gi 
 
 83.25 
 
 651.54 
 
 23.485 
 
 39 
 
 122.5 
 
 1194.5 
 
 34.562 
 
 
 264 
 
 84.03 
 
 662.00 
 
 23.706 
 
 39} 
 
 123.3 
 
 1209.9 
 
 34.784 
 
 
 27 
 
 84.82 
 
 572.55 
 
 23.928 
 
 3!) 
 
 124. 
 
 1226.4 
 
 35.005 
 
 
 27i, 
 
 85.60 
 
 68.3.20 
 
 24.149 
 
 39 
 
 124.8 
 
 1240.9 
 
 35.227 
 
 
 27J 
 
 86.39 
 
 593.95 
 
 24..H71 
 
 40 
 
 125.6 
 
 12.56.6 
 
 35.449 
 
 
 V7i 
 
 87.17 
 
 604.80 
 
 24.592 
 
 40} 
 
 126.4 
 
 1272.8 
 
 35 . 670 
 
 
 28 
 
 87.96 
 
 615.75 
 
 24.814 
 
 40| 
 
 127.2 
 
 1288.2 
 
 85.892 
 
 
 28} 
 
 88.75 
 
 626.79 
 
 25.035 
 
 40J 
 
 128. 
 
 1304.2 
 
 36.113 
 
 
 28^ 
 
 89. S3 
 
 637.94 
 
 25.257 
 
 41 
 
 128.8 
 
 1320.2 
 
 36.335 
 
 
 28| 
 
 90.32 
 
 649.18 
 
 25.479 
 
 41} 
 
 129.5 
 
 1336.4 
 
 36.556 
 
 
 29 
 
 91.10 
 
 660.. 52 
 
 25.700 
 
 41 
 
 130.3 
 
 1352.6 
 
 36.778 
 
 
 29} 
 
 91.89 
 
 671.95 
 
 25.922 
 
 i[ 
 
 131.1 
 
 1369.0 
 
 86.999 
 
 
 29] 
 
 92.67 
 
 683.49 
 
 26.144 
 
 42 
 
 131 .9 
 
 1383.4 
 
 37.221 
 
 
 ??* 
 
 93.46 
 
 695.12 
 
 26.305 
 
 42} 
 
 132.7 
 
 1401.9 
 
 ;i7.443 
 
 
 30 
 
 94.24 
 
 706.86 
 
 26.688 
 
 m 
 
 133.5 
 
 1418.6 
 
 37.664 
 
 
 30} 
 
 95.03 
 
 718.69 
 
 26.808 
 
 m 
 
 134.3 
 
 1435.3 
 
 37,886 
 
 
 30i 
 
 95.81 
 
 730.61 
 
 27.029 
 
 43 
 
 135. 
 
 1452.2 
 
 38,107 
 
 
 ??* 
 
 96.6IJ 
 
 742.64 
 
 27.2.'il 
 
 43} 
 
 135.8 
 
 1469.1 
 
 38 329 
 
 
 31 
 
 97.38 
 
 754.76 
 
 27.473 
 
 43 
 
 136.6 
 
 1486.1 
 
 38.550 
 
 
 31} 
 
 98.17 
 
 766.99 
 
 27.694 
 
 4?f 
 
 137.4 
 
 1603.3 
 
 38.772 
 
 
 3U 
 
 98.97 
 
 779.31 
 
 27.916 
 
 44 
 
 1.S8.2 
 
 1520.5 
 
 38.993 , 
 
 
 3l| 
 
 99.74 
 
 '791.73 
 
 28.137 
 
 44} 
 
 139. 
 
 1537.8 
 
 39.215 
 
 
 32 
 
 100.0 
 
 804.24 
 
 28.3.'i9 
 
 441 
 44f 
 
 139.8 
 
 1665.2 
 
 39.437 
 
 
 32} 
 
 101.3 
 
 816.86 
 
 28.580 
 
 140.5 
 
 1572.8 
 
 39.658 
 
 
 32* 
 
 102.1 
 
 829.. 57. 
 
 28.802 
 
 45 
 
 141.3 
 
 1590.4 
 
 39.880 
 
 
 32| 
 
 102.8 
 
 842.39 
 
 29.023 
 
 46} 
 
 142.1 
 
 1608.1 
 
 40.101 
 
 
 33 
 
 103,6 
 
 855.30 
 
 29.245 
 
 451 
 
 142.9 
 
 1625.9 
 
 40.323 
 
 
 33} 
 
 104.4 
 
 868.30 
 
 29.467 
 
 46| 
 
 143.7 
 
 1643.8 
 
 40.. 564 
 
 
 331 
 
 105.2 
 
 881.41 
 
 29.688 
 
 46' 
 
 144,6 
 
 1661.9 
 
 40.766 
 
 
 33| 
 
 106. 
 
 894.61 
 
 29.910 
 
 46} 
 
 145,2 
 
 1680.0 
 
 40.987 
 
 
 34 
 
 106.8 
 
 907.92 
 
 30.131 
 
 461 
 
 146. 
 
 1698.2 
 
 41.209 
 
 
 34} 
 
 107.5 
 
 921.32 
 
 30.353 
 
 46 
 
 146.8 
 
 1716.6 
 
 41.431 
 
 
 ^H 
 
 108.3 
 
 934.82 
 
 30.574 
 
 47 
 
 147.6 
 
 1734.9 
 
 41.652 
 
 
 343 
 
 109.1 
 
 948.41 
 
 30.796 
 
 47} 
 
 148.4 
 
 1753.4 
 
 41.874 
 
 
 35 
 
 109.9 
 
 962.11 
 
 31.017 
 
 ^n 
 
 149.2 
 
 1772.0 
 
 42.095 
 
 
 35} 
 
 110.7 
 
 975.90 
 
 31.239 
 
 471 
 
 150. 
 
 1790.7 
 
 42.317 
 
 
 35* 
 
 111.5 
 
 989.80 
 
 31.461 
 
 48 
 
 160.7 
 
 1809.5 
 
 42.538 
 
 
 35| 
 
 112.3 
 
 1003,7 
 
 31.682 
 
 48} 
 
 151.5 
 
 1828.4 
 
 42.760 
 
 
 
 

 " 
 
 300 
 
 
 
 CIECLES. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Side of 
 
 
 
 
 side ot 
 
 
 48J- 
 
 Clrcum. 
 I5i.3 
 
 Area. 
 
 equal square. 
 
 Olam. 
 
 Clrcum. 
 
 Area. 
 
 equal Equara 
 
 
 1847.4 
 
 42.982 
 
 61 
 
 191.6 
 
 2922.4 
 
 54.059 
 
 
 4S| 
 
 153.1 
 
 1866.5 
 
 43.203 
 
 61} 
 
 19:!. 4 
 
 2946.4 
 
 64.281 
 
 
 ^9 
 
 153.9 
 
 1885.7 
 
 43.425 
 
 61 
 
 193.2 
 
 2970.6 
 
 64.502 
 
 
 49} 
 
 154.7 
 
 1905. 
 
 43.646 
 
 61 
 
 193.9 
 
 2994.7 
 
 54.724 
 
 
 49| 
 
 155.5 
 
 1924.4 
 
 43.868 
 
 62 
 (i2 ■ 
 
 194.7 
 
 3319.0 
 
 64.946 
 
 
 40| 
 
 156.2 
 
 1943.9 
 
 44.089 
 
 195.5 
 
 3043.4 
 
 55.167 
 
 
 60 
 
 157. 
 
 1963.5 
 
 44.311 
 
 62 
 
 196.3 
 
 3067.9 
 
 65.389 
 
 
 511} 
 
 1.57.8 
 
 1933. 1 
 
 44.632 
 
 62 
 
 lUT.l 
 
 3 92.5 
 
 65.610 
 
 
 50i 
 
 1.58.6 
 
 2002.9 
 
 44.754 
 
 63 
 
 197.9 
 
 3117.2 
 
 55.832 
 
 
 1.59.4 
 
 2022.8 
 
 44.976 
 
 63} 
 
 198.7 
 
 3142.0 
 
 66.053 
 
 
 51 
 
 160.2 
 
 2042.8 
 
 45.197 
 
 63i 
 
 199.4 
 
 3166.9 
 
 66.275 
 
 
 «'* 
 
 IGl. 
 
 2062.9 
 
 45.419 
 
 6:-ij 
 
 200.2 
 
 3191.9 
 
 56.496 
 
 
 6li 
 
 161.7 
 
 2083.0 
 
 45.640 
 
 64 
 
 201. 
 
 3216.9 
 
 56.718 
 
 
 51J 
 
 162. 5 
 
 2103.3 
 
 45.862 
 
 Hi 
 
 201.8 
 
 3242.1 
 
 56.940 
 
 
 52 
 
 163.3 
 
 2123.7 
 
 46.083 
 
 64 
 
 202.6 
 
 3267.4 
 
 67.161 
 
 
 i^^ 
 
 164.1 
 
 2144.1 
 
 46.305 
 
 64J 
 
 203.4 
 
 3292.8 
 
 57.383 
 
 
 62A 
 
 164.9 
 
 2164.7 
 
 46; 526 
 
 65 
 
 204.2 
 
 3318.3 
 
 57.604 
 
 
 52J 
 
 1115.7 
 
 2185.4 
 
 46.748 
 
 65} 
 
 204.9 
 
 3343.8 
 
 57.826 
 
 
 * 63 
 
 166.5 
 
 2206.1 
 
 46.970 
 
 65* 
 
 205.7 
 
 3369.5 
 
 68.047 
 
 
 53i 
 
 167.2 
 
 2227.0 
 
 47.191 
 
 m 
 
 206.5 
 
 3395.3 
 
 58.269.. 
 
 
 53^ 
 
 168. 
 
 2248.0 
 
 47.413 
 
 66 
 
 207.3 
 
 3421.2 
 
 58.490 
 
 
 53| 
 
 168.8 
 
 2269.0 
 
 47.634 
 
 66} 
 
 208.1 
 
 3447.1 
 
 68.712 
 
 
 64 
 
 169.6 
 
 2290.2 
 
 47.856 
 
 66* 
 
 208.9 
 
 8473.2 
 
 58.934 
 
 
 64} 
 
 170.4 
 
 2311.4 
 
 48.077 
 
 66* 
 
 209.7 
 
 3J99.3 
 
 59.155 
 
 
 64* 
 
 171.2 
 
 2332.8- 
 
 48.299 
 
 67^ 
 
 210.4 
 
 3.525.6 
 
 59.377 
 
 
 64| 
 
 172. 
 
 2354.2 
 
 48.520 
 
 67 . 
 
 211.2 
 
 3552.0 
 
 69.598 
 
 
 55 
 
 172.7 
 
 2375.8 
 
 48.742 
 
 67 
 
 212. 
 
 3578.4 
 
 69.820 
 
 
 68} 
 
 173.5 
 
 2397.4 
 
 48.964 
 
 67- 
 
 212.8 
 
 3605.0 
 
 60.041 
 
 
 5^ 
 
 174.3 
 
 2419.2 
 
 49.185 
 
 68 
 
 213.6 
 
 3631.6 
 
 60.263 
 
 
 55^ 
 
 175.1 
 
 2441.0 
 
 49.407 
 
 68} 
 
 214.4 
 
 3658.4 
 
 60.484 
 
 
 SB 
 
 175.9 
 
 2463.0 
 
 49.628 
 
 68* 
 68| 
 
 215.1 
 
 3685.2 
 
 60.706 
 
 
 56} 
 
 176.7 
 
 2485.0 
 
 49.850 
 
 21f.9 
 
 3712.2 
 
 60.928 
 
 
 6(ii 
 
 17?. 5 
 
 2507.1 
 
 60.071 
 
 f.9 
 
 216.7 
 
 3739.2 
 
 61.149 
 
 
 5(i| 
 
 178.2 
 
 2529.4 
 
 50.293 
 
 69} 
 
 217.5 
 
 3766.4 
 
 61.371 
 
 
 57 
 
 179. 
 
 a551.7 
 
 50.614 
 
 69 
 
 218.3 
 
 3793.6 
 
 61.592 
 
 
 57} 
 
 179.8 
 
 2574.1 
 
 50.736 
 
 HUJ 
 
 219.1 
 
 3821.0 
 
 61.814 
 
 
 57^ 
 
 180.6 
 
 2596.7 
 
 60.9.'' 8 
 
 70 
 
 70} 
 
 704 
 
 219.9 
 
 3S48.4 
 
 62.035 
 
 
 67a 
 
 181.4 
 
 2619.3 
 
 61.179 
 
 220.6 
 
 3875.9 
 
 62.257 
 
 
 68 
 
 182.2 
 
 2642.0 
 
 51.401 
 
 221.4 
 
 3903.6 
 
 62.478 
 
 
 5f} 
 
 182.9 
 
 2664.9 
 
 61.622 
 
 7I'| 
 
 222.2 
 
 3981.3 
 
 62.700' 
 
 
 6f^i 
 
 183.7 
 
 2687.8 
 
 61.844 
 
 71* 
 
 223. 
 
 8959.2 
 
 62.922 
 
 
 68| 
 
 184.5 
 
 2710.8 
 
 62.065 
 
 71} 
 
 223,8 
 
 3987.1 
 
 63.143 
 
 
 59 
 
 185.3 
 
 2733.9 
 
 52.287 
 
 7)1 
 71} 
 
 224.6 
 
 4016.1 
 
 63.365 
 
 
 69} 
 
 186.1 
 
 2757.1 
 
 62.608 
 
 225.4 
 
 4043 2 
 
 63.686 
 
 
 59^ 
 
 186.9 
 
 2780.5 
 
 62.730 
 
 72 
 
 226.1 
 
 4071.5 
 
 63.808 
 
 
 ^3 
 
 187.7 
 
 2803.9 
 
 52.9,52 
 
 72} 
 
 226.9 
 
 4099.8 
 
 64.029 
 
 
 60 
 
 188.4 
 
 2827.4 
 
 63.173 
 
 72 
 
 227.7 
 
 4128.2 
 
 64.251 
 
 
 60} 
 
 189.2 
 
 2851.0 
 
 53.395 
 
 72J 
 
 228 6 
 
 4156;7 
 
 64.473 
 
 
 60X 
 
 1 
 
 190. 
 
 2874.7 
 
 53.616 
 
 73 
 
 229. S 
 
 4185.3 
 
 64.694 
 
 
 190.8 
 
 2898.6 
 
 63.838 
 
 73} 
 
 230.1 
 
 4214.1 
 
 64.916 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
CIRCLES. 
 
 301 
 
 Clrcum. 
 
 Area. 
 
 230.9 
 
 4242.9 
 
 231.6 
 
 4271.8 
 
 2:«.4 
 
 4300.8 
 
 233.2 
 
 4329.9 
 
 234. 
 
 4359.1 
 
 234.8 
 
 4388.4 
 
 23 J. 6 
 
 4417.8 
 
 236.4 
 
 4447.3 
 
 237.1 
 
 4476.9 
 
 237.9 
 
 4506.6 
 
 238.7 
 
 4536.4 
 
 239.5 
 
 4566.3 
 
 240.3 
 
 4596.3 
 
 241.1 
 
 4626.4 
 
 241.9 
 
 4656.6 
 
 242.6 
 
 4686.9 
 
 243.4 
 
 4717.3 
 
 244.2 
 
 4747.7 
 
 215. 
 
 4778.3 
 
 245.8 
 
 4809.0 
 
 246.6 
 
 4839.8 
 
 247.4 
 
 4870.7 
 
 248.1 
 
 4901.6 
 
 248.9 
 
 4932.7 
 
 249 7 
 
 4963.9 
 
 2511.5 
 
 4995.1 
 
 251.3 
 
 5026.5 
 
 252.1 
 
 5058. 
 
 252.8 
 
 ■ 5089.5 
 
 253.6 
 
 5121.2 
 
 2.i4.4 
 
 5153.0 
 
 255.2 
 
 5184.8 
 
 256-. 
 
 5216.8 
 
 256.8 
 
 5248.8 
 
 257.6 
 
 5281. n 
 
 258.3 
 
 5313.2 
 
 259.1 
 
 6345.6 
 
 259.9 
 
 6378.0 
 
 260.7 
 
 5410.6 
 
 261.5 
 
 5443.2 
 
 262.3 
 
 6476.0 
 
 263.1 
 
 5508.8 
 
 263.8 
 
 5541.7 
 
 264.6 
 
 5574.8 
 
 265.4 
 
 5607.9 
 
 266.2 
 
 5641.1 
 
 267. 
 
 5674.5 
 
 267.8 
 
 5707.9 
 
 268.6 
 
 6741.4 
 
 269.3 
 
 6775,0 
 
 side of I 
 equal Bquare.l Dlam. 
 
 65.137 
 
 65.359 
 
 65.580 
 
 65.802 
 
 66.023 
 
 66.245 
 
 66.467 
 
 66.688 
 
 66.910 
 
 67.191 
 
 67.353 
 
 67.574 
 
 67.796 
 
 68.017 
 
 68.239 
 
 68.461 
 
 68. 682 
 
 68.90*, 
 
 69.125 
 
 69.347 
 
 69.568 
 
 69.790 
 
 70.011 
 
 70.233 
 
 70.455 
 
 70.676 
 
 70.898 
 
 71.119 
 
 71.341 
 
 71.562 
 
 71.784 
 
 72.005 
 
 72.227 
 
 72.449 
 
 72.670 
 
 72.892 
 
 73.113 
 
 73.335 
 
 73.566 
 
 73.778 
 
 73.999 
 
 74.221 
 
 74.443 
 
 74.664 
 
 74.886 
 
 76.107 
 
 76.329 
 
 73.550 
 
 75.772 
 
 75.993 
 
 86 
 86i 
 86* 
 86| 
 87 
 87} 
 87J 
 87-1 
 88 
 88} 
 88| 
 884 
 89 
 S9i 
 89J 
 89f 
 ,■^90 
 90} 
 90J 
 
 m 
 
 91 
 91} 
 91^ 
 91^ 
 
 »"4 
 
 92 
 
 92} 
 
 92| 
 
 92f 
 
 93 
 
 93} 
 
 93J 
 
 93| 
 
 94 
 
 94} 
 
 94^ 
 
 9 If 
 
 95 
 
 95} 
 
 95J 
 
 95| 
 
 96 
 
 96} 
 
 96^ 
 
 96f 
 
 97 
 
 97} 
 
 974 
 
 97| 
 
 98 
 
 98} 
 
 Circnm. 
 
 Area. 
 
 270.1 
 
 6808.8 
 
 270.9 
 
 5842.6 
 
 271.7 
 
 6876.6 
 
 272.5 
 
 5910.5 
 
 273.3 
 
 5944.6 
 
 274.1 
 
 5978.9 
 
 274.8 
 
 6013.2 
 
 275.6 
 
 6047.6 
 
 276.4 
 
 6082.1 
 
 277.2 
 
 6116.7 
 
 278. 
 
 6151.4 
 
 278.8 
 
 6186.2 
 
 279.6 
 
 6221.1 
 
 280.3 
 
 6256.1 
 
 281.1 
 
 6291.2 
 
 281.9 
 
 6326.4 
 
 282.7 
 
 6361.7 
 
 283.5 
 
 6397.1 
 
 284.3 
 
 6432.6 
 
 285.1 
 
 6468.2 
 
 285.8 
 
 6503.8 
 
 286.6 
 
 6539.6 
 
 287.4 
 
 6575.5 
 
 288.2 
 
 6611.6 
 
 289. 
 
 6647.6 
 
 289.8 
 
 6683.8 
 
 290.5 
 
 6720.0 
 
 291.3 
 
 6756.4 
 
 292.1 
 
 6792.9 
 
 292.9 
 
 6829.4 
 
 293.7 
 
 6866.1 
 
 294.5 
 
 6902.9 
 
 295.3 
 
 6939.7 
 
 296. 
 
 6776.7 
 
 296.8 
 
 7013.8 
 
 297.6 
 
 7050.9 
 
 298.4 
 
 7088.2 
 
 299.2 
 
 7122.5 
 
 3'i0. 
 
 7163.0 
 
 300.8 
 
 7200.5 
 
 301.5 
 
 7238.2 
 
 302.2 
 
 7275.9 
 
 303.1 
 
 7313.8 
 
 303.9 
 
 7351.7 
 
 304.7 
 
 7389.8 
 
 305.5 
 
 7427.9 
 
 306.3 
 
 7466.2 
 
 307. 
 
 7504.5 
 
 307.8 
 
 7542.9 
 
 308.6 
 
 7581.5 
 
 Side or 
 equal square. 
 
 76.215 
 
 76.437 
 
 76.658 
 
 76.880 
 
 77.101 
 
 77.323 
 
 77.544 
 
 77.766 
 
 77.987 
 
 78,209 
 
 78.431 
 
 78.652 
 
 78.874 
 
 79.095 
 
 79.317 
 
 79.538 
 
 79.760 ' 
 
 79.981 
 
 80.203 
 
 80.425 
 
 80.646 
 
 80.868 
 
 81.089 
 
 81.311 
 
 81.532 
 
 81.754 
 
 81.975 
 
 82.197 
 
 82.419 
 
 82.640 
 
 82.8G2 
 
 83.083 
 
 83.305 
 
 83.526 
 
 83.748 
 
 83.970 
 
 84.191 
 
 84.413 
 
 84.634 
 
 84.856 
 
 85.077 
 
 85.299 
 
 85.520 
 
 85.742 
 
 85.964 
 
 8G.185 
 
 86.407 
 
 86.628 
 
 86.850 
 
 87.071 
 
302 
 
 CIECLES. 
 
 Dlam. 
 
 Circum. 
 
 309.4 
 310.2 
 311. 
 311.8 
 
 Area. 
 
 side or 
 equal square. 
 
 Oiam. 
 
 Circum. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Fide of 
 equal square. 
 
 9fi 
 981 
 99 
 99i 
 
 7620.1 
 76.58.8 
 7697.7 
 7736,6 
 
 87.293 
 87.514 
 87.736 
 87.958 
 
 99i 
 99J 
 100 
 
 312.5 
 313.3 
 314.1 
 
 7775.6 
 7814.7 
 7853.9 
 
 88.179 
 88.401 
 88.622 
 
 To find, hy means of the Table, the square or circle that 
 will contain the area of a hoard or surf axe of given length 
 am,d width. 
 
 Rule. — Find the area of the board or surface by multi- 
 pl^'ing its width by its length, and in the columns opposite 
 the area thus found, headed respectively " Diam.^'' " Cir- 
 cum." and " Side of Egual Square^'' will be found the 
 dimensions of the circle and square that contains the area. 
 
 Example. — What is the side of a square, and what the 
 diameter and circumference of a circle, that will contain the 
 same area as a board that is 22 inches wide by 12 feet long ? 
 
 Solution. — 22 inches, width, x 144 inches, length, =31 68 
 square inches, area of board: Then, in the table, opposite 
 the area of 3166.9 (the nearest number to 3168) under the 
 columns headed respectively " Diam.," " Circum.," and 
 "Side of Equal Square," will be found 63^ inches, diame- 
 ter, 109.4 inches, circumference, and 56.275 inches, side of 
 square. Arts. 
 

 
 SQUAEES, CUBES, 
 
 AND EOOTS. 
 
 Table of Squares, Cubes, and Square 
 
 and Cube Boots, of 
 
 
 
 
 all numbers from 
 
 1 to 1000. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Cnbe. 
 
 8f\. Root, 
 
 Cu. Boot. 
 
 No. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Cube. 
 
 Sq Root. 
 
 Cu. RooL 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 T. 
 
 1. 
 
 64 
 
 2911 
 
 167464 
 
 7 3484G9 
 
 3.779763 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 1.41421? 
 
 1.259B21 
 
 66 
 
 302-. 
 
 166376 
 
 7.416196 
 
 3.802953 
 
 2 
 
 g 
 
 27 
 
 1.7ilAU60 
 
 1.442V.50 
 
 66 
 
 3136 
 
 17561ti 
 
 7.483J14 
 
 3.825S62 
 
 4 
 
 It 
 
 64 
 
 2. 
 
 1 587401 
 
 67 
 
 3249 
 
 1"5193 
 
 7.649334 
 
 3.848501 
 
 { 
 
 25 
 
 125 
 
 2.236068 
 
 1.7U997I1 
 
 6- 
 
 8364 
 
 195)12 
 
 7.61B773 
 
 3.870877 
 
 ( 
 
 Sf 
 
 216 
 
 2.449489 
 
 1.8L7121 
 
 69 
 
 34-1 
 
 206379 
 
 7.681145 
 
 3.892996 
 
 1 
 
 49 
 
 843 
 
 2.645751 
 
 1.9li933 
 
 10 
 
 3600 
 
 216000 
 
 7.74596S 
 
 3.9I4S67 
 
 ) 
 
 64 
 
 612 
 
 2.828427 
 
 2. 
 
 81 
 
 3721 
 
 2269S1 
 
 7.810249 
 
 3.936497 
 
 { 
 
 81 
 
 729 
 
 8. 
 
 2.0S0084 
 
 62 
 
 384! 
 
 2 i832ii 
 
 7.874107 
 
 3.957J92 
 
 1( 
 
 100 
 
 1000 
 
 3.162277 
 
 J. 154436 
 
 6:j 
 
 3969 
 
 2)0047 
 
 7.93725,-i 
 
 3.979167 
 
 11 
 
 121 
 
 ld3l 
 
 8.316624 
 
 2.2i398U 
 
 64 
 
 4096 
 
 2 2144 
 
 8. 
 
 4. 
 
 12 
 
 144 
 
 1728 
 
 3.464101 
 
 2.2H942!i 
 
 66 
 
 42.5 
 
 274621 
 
 8.0S2257 
 
 4.020728 
 
 IS 
 
 169 
 
 2197 
 
 3.C05r.61 
 
 2.»61335 
 
 66 
 
 435U 
 
 287496 
 
 8.1210.iH 
 
 4.041240 
 
 14 
 
 lOH 
 
 2744 
 
 3.7416 7 
 
 2.410142 
 
 67 
 
 4480 
 
 300 6ii 
 
 8.185362 
 
 4.061548 
 
 16 
 
 225 
 
 3:176 
 
 3.872983 
 
 2.4f621.J 
 
 68 
 
 4621 
 
 3,443i 
 
 8.216211 
 
 4.0S165S 
 
 IP 
 
 256 
 
 4096 
 
 4. 
 
 2.519842 
 
 69 
 
 4761 
 
 328609 
 
 8.306623 
 
 4.101566 
 
 17 
 
 289 
 
 4911 
 
 4.123106 
 
 2.67121-2 
 
 70 
 
 4000 
 
 84:i000 
 
 8.366600 
 
 4 1212S6 
 
 18 
 
 824 
 
 6832 
 
 4.242640 
 
 2 620741 
 
 71 
 
 604 
 
 357911 
 
 8.426149 
 
 4.140818 
 
 19 
 
 361 
 
 835tl 
 
 4.3S88^IS 
 
 V.6«840i 
 
 72 
 
 6184 
 
 373248 
 
 8.485.81 
 
 4.160168 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 8000 
 
 4.47213- 
 
 2.711418 
 
 73 
 
 6329 
 
 389017 
 
 8.644003 
 
 4.179339 
 
 21 
 
 441 
 
 9261 
 
 4.fi82575 
 
 2.;6'«i23 
 
 74 
 
 6476 
 
 405224 
 
 8. 60^325 
 
 4.198336 
 
 22 
 
 484 
 
 1064S 
 
 4.690415 
 
 2.S020.i9 
 
 75 
 
 6626 
 
 421875 
 
 S.81O254 
 
 4.217163 
 
 23 
 
 623 
 
 12167 
 
 4.795S:n 
 
 2.1.43167 
 
 76 
 
 6776 
 
 438976 
 
 8.717797 
 
 4.235824 
 
 S4 
 
 576 
 
 138^4 
 
 4.898979 
 
 2.884409 
 
 77 
 
 69i9 
 
 45663S 
 
 8.774964 
 
 4.261321 
 
 25 
 
 626 
 
 1 56-26 
 
 6. 
 
 2 92J018 
 
 7H 
 
 6084 
 
 474662 
 
 8.831760 
 
 4 272669 
 
 26 
 
 67" 
 
 176711 
 
 6.099019 
 
 2.962496 
 
 79 
 
 6241 
 
 493039 
 
 8.888194 
 
 4.290841 
 
 27 
 
 729 
 
 lie-is 
 
 6.196162 
 
 3. 
 
 80 
 
 6400 
 
 612000 
 
 8.944271' 
 
 4.309870 
 
 28 
 
 784 
 
 21952 
 
 6.2)I60> 
 
 3.036589 
 
 81 
 
 6661 
 
 631441 
 
 9. 
 
 4.326749 
 
 29 
 
 841 
 
 2I3S9 
 
 6.385164 
 
 3.07-31T 
 
 82 
 
 67:4 
 
 651368 
 
 9.055385 
 
 4.3444H1 
 
 30 
 
 900 
 
 27010 
 
 6.471226 
 
 3.107232 
 
 8b 
 
 6889 
 
 571787 
 
 9.110433 
 
 4.362071 
 
 S] 
 
 961 
 
 29791 
 
 6.667764 
 
 3.141381 
 
 84 
 
 70.56 
 
 692704 
 
 "9.165161 
 
 4.379519 
 
 82 
 
 10J4 
 
 S276'j 
 
 6.«66864 
 
 3.174802 
 
 85 
 
 722.1 
 
 614125 
 
 9.219514 
 
 4.396830 
 
 33 
 
 lOSO 
 
 359.17 
 
 6.74466^ 
 
 3.207534 
 
 86 
 
 7598 
 
 636U66 
 
 9.273618 
 
 3.414C05 
 
 34 
 
 ll5li 
 
 39304 
 
 6.830951 
 
 3.239612 
 
 87 
 
 7669 
 
 653603 
 
 9.327379 
 
 4.431047 
 
 35 
 
 l-'25 
 
 42'i75 
 
 6 916079 
 
 3.271016 
 
 88 
 
 7744 
 
 681172 
 
 9.380S31 
 
 4 447960 
 
 36 
 
 12^1'^ 
 
 46656 
 
 6. 
 
 3 SO 1027 
 
 89 
 
 7921 
 
 704969 
 
 9.433081 
 
 4.464745 
 
 37 
 
 1369 
 
 60663 
 
 8.0S276-: 
 
 3.33 '222 
 
 90 
 
 81110 
 
 729000 
 
 9.486833 
 
 4 481401 
 
 38 
 
 1444 
 
 64872 
 
 6.164414 
 
 3.861975 
 
 91 
 
 8281 
 
 763571 
 
 9.63939J 
 
 4.497942 
 
 39 
 
 1621 
 
 69319 
 
 6.241998 
 
 3.391211 
 
 92 
 
 8464 
 
 778688 
 
 9.591663 
 
 4.514367 
 
 40 
 
 1600 
 
 61000 
 
 6.324656 
 
 3.419952 
 
 93 
 
 8ri49 
 
 804367 
 
 9 643630 
 
 4.630665 
 
 41 
 
 ]6S1 
 
 68921 
 
 6.403124 
 
 3.44S2I7 
 
 94 
 
 8836 
 
 830584 
 
 9.695360 
 
 4.646838 
 
 42 
 
 1764 
 
 740SS 
 
 6.480740 
 
 3.476127 
 
 96 
 
 9026 
 
 857375 
 
 9.746794 
 
 4 562903 
 
 43 
 
 1849 
 
 79 07 
 
 6.657418 
 
 8.603398 
 
 96 
 
 9216 
 
 884738 
 
 9.797950 
 
 4.677857 
 
 44 
 
 1936 
 
 851-4 
 
 8.633249 
 
 8.630348 
 
 97 
 
 9409 
 
 912673 
 
 9.848867 
 
 4.694701 
 
 46 
 
 2025 
 
 91126 
 
 6.70«2n3 
 
 3.6668<<3 
 
 98 
 
 9604 
 
 941192 
 
 9.899494 
 
 4.610436 
 
 48 
 
 2116 
 
 97336 
 
 6.7Mi30 
 
 3.68:048 
 
 09 
 
 9801 
 
 970299 
 
 9.949374 
 
 4.626065 
 
 47 
 
 22 9 
 
 10382! 
 
 6.866654 
 
 3.e0882-i 
 
 100 
 
 lOOtO 
 
 lOOOOOO 
 
 10. 
 
 4.641589 
 
 48 
 
 2J04 
 
 110592 
 
 6. 9.28203 
 
 3.t.3J211 
 
 101 
 
 10201 
 
 103090 
 
 10.049375 
 
 4:667010 
 
 49 
 
 2401 
 
 117649 
 
 7. 
 
 3.669306 
 
 102 
 
 1U404 
 
 1061208 
 
 10.099604 
 
 4v672330 
 
 6' 
 
 25011 
 
 125000 
 
 7.071067 
 
 3.684031 
 
 lOJ 
 
 10600 
 
 10J2727 
 
 10.148891 
 
 4.687548 
 
 51 
 
 2601 
 
 132661 
 
 7.141428 
 
 3.708430 
 
 104 
 
 10816 
 
 1124864 
 
 10.198030 
 
 4.702669 
 
 62 
 
 2704 
 
 ]40ti08 
 
 7.211 1(12 
 
 8.732511 
 
 105 
 
 11026 
 
 1167626 
 
 10.24606C 
 
 4.717694 
 
 63 
 
 2809 
 
 148877 
 
 7.280109 
 
 3.766286 
 
 106 
 
 11236 
 
 1191016 
 
 10.295630 
 
 4.732624 
 

 
 
 
 304 
 
 SQUAEES, CUBES, 
 
 AND 
 
 liOOTS. 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 "li)7 
 
 -quarc. 
 
 Cube. 
 
 Sq. Boot. 
 
 Cu. Root. 
 
 No. 
 
 172 
 
 Square. 
 
 Cube. , 
 
 Kq.Koot. 
 
 Cu. Koot. 
 
 
 
 114)9 
 
 1225043 
 
 10.344080 
 
 4.747459 
 
 29684 
 
 5088448 
 
 13.114877 
 
 •6.661i98 
 
 
 
 lOi- 
 
 11 64 
 
 12697,12 
 
 10.392304 
 
 4.7622l'3 
 
 173 
 
 29929 
 
 6177717 
 
 13.162946 
 
 5.67i0.j4 
 
 
 
 JOU 
 
 1188. 
 
 1-^96 29 
 
 10 4 0.)06 
 
 3.776856 
 
 174 
 
 30276 
 
 6-268024 
 
 13.190.0d 
 
 6.58J770 
 
 
 
 110 
 
 12 0" 
 
 133 000 
 
 10.4880S)> 
 
 4.7914-.0 
 
 176 
 
 306 i5 
 
 6369376 
 
 13,'2-i8i66 
 
 6.593446 
 
 
 
 111 
 
 12E2 
 
 1367631 
 
 10.636663 
 
 4.805896 
 
 176 
 
 30976 
 
 64617)6 
 
 13 2t6499 
 
 6., 04019 
 
 
 
 n-. 
 
 12.>44 
 
 1404928 
 
 10.6«30)6 
 
 4.8202f4 
 
 177 
 
 31329 
 
 664V23:. 
 
 13.30(134 
 
 6.614673 
 
 
 
 11: 
 
 V.769 
 
 1442897' 
 
 10.6!iai46 
 
 4.8S468S 
 
 178 
 
 31H84 
 
 66:i97.5i 
 
 13.341664 
 
 6.62.1226 
 
 
 
 114 
 
 12996 
 
 1481544 
 
 10.67707K 
 
 4.848'0? 
 
 179 
 
 32 41 
 
 67368 i9 
 
 13.3:91)88 
 
 6.636741 
 
 
 
 llr 
 
 13226 
 
 1620876 
 
 10.723806 
 
 4.862944 
 
 180 
 
 324 
 
 683.000 
 
 13.41640-, 
 
 6.b4aa6 
 
 
 
 111 
 
 l:-4.')P 
 
 166'1896 
 
 10.770329 
 10.816613 
 
 4.876999 
 
 181 
 
 32761 
 
 6923741 
 
 13.46i6.4 
 
 5.656651! 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 13659 
 
 1601613 
 
 4.890973 
 
 182 
 
 33124 
 
 C02'5e8 
 
 13.490737 
 
 5.) 61051 
 
 
 
 ; lis 
 
 1 9..'4 
 
 1643032 
 
 10.862780 
 
 4.eOI86S 
 
 183 
 
 3 489 
 
 6128487 
 
 13 6:;7749 
 
 6.677411 
 
 
 
 119 
 
 14161 
 
 1686 16!i 
 
 10.908712 
 
 4.9,8686 
 
 U4 
 
 33866 
 
 ; 62-9604 
 
 13.66461,0 
 
 6.687734 
 
 
 
 ISO 
 
 14400 
 
 1728000 
 
 10.954461 
 
 4.93..'424 
 
 185 
 
 34.25 
 
 633162;. 
 
 13.601470 
 
 5.698019 
 
 
 
 121 
 
 KM! 
 
 177.661 
 
 11 
 
 4.94r088 
 
 186 
 
 34 90 
 
 6434866 
 
 13.633181 
 
 6.70S267 
 
 
 
 12i 
 
 14SSJ 
 
 181384S 
 
 11.016361 
 
 4.969S75 
 
 187 
 
 34969 
 
 6539203 
 
 13.674794 
 
 6.718479 
 
 
 
 12; 
 
 ].'il29 
 
 18608U7 
 
 11.0g:<636 
 
 4.973190 
 
 1S8 
 
 35344 
 
 664467 
 
 13.;llij0a 
 
 6.7-28654 
 
 
 
 12J 
 
 153 ;c 
 
 1906;.2I 
 
 11.13552(> 
 
 4 986631 
 
 189 
 
 35721 
 
 6751269 
 
 13.747127 
 
 6.738701 
 
 
 
 125 
 
 lnt!26 
 
 1953 12f 
 
 11 180339 
 
 6; 
 
 19U 
 
 36100 
 
 68590011 
 
 13.7810)8 
 
 6.748897 
 
 
 
 l-.'l 
 
 16S76 
 
 2000376 
 
 11.224972 
 
 6.013298 
 
 191 
 
 36481 
 
 6917871 
 
 13.8-.0275 
 
 5.758966 
 
 
 
 12i 
 
 16121 
 
 ■iOIS383 
 
 11 2n9427 
 
 •6.026626 
 
 192 
 
 36864 
 
 70778S8 
 
 13.83t)4 6 
 
 6.7i;8998 
 
 
 
 ■' ]2^ 
 
 16i«l 
 
 t097162 
 
 11.313708 
 
 6.039684 
 
 193 
 
 37249 
 
 7189057 
 
 13.892414 
 
 6.77899B 
 
 
 
 129 
 
 16611 
 
 2146t8P 
 
 11.357816 
 
 6.162774 
 
 194 
 
 37636 
 
 7301384 
 
 13.92838b 
 
 6.783960 
 
 
 
 130 
 
 16a0|. 
 
 2197000 
 
 11 401751 
 
 6.0n6797 
 
 19f. 
 
 38 2b 
 
 7414876 
 
 13.964-4U 
 
 5.79889.) 
 
 
 
 131 
 
 1716 
 
 2248091 
 
 11.4(6623 
 
 6.078763 
 
 196 
 
 3S416 
 
 762953f 
 
 14. 
 
 6.808766 
 
 
 
 13i 
 
 1742. 
 
 229996S 
 
 11.489125 
 
 5.091643 
 
 197 
 
 S8S09 
 
 7645373 
 
 14.03:,668 
 
 6.3.8648 
 
 
 
 13;- 
 
 176~» 
 
 23526:i7 
 
 11.632662 
 
 5.104469 
 
 198 
 
 39.04 
 
 776239; 
 
 14.071-247 
 
 6.£2347a» 
 
 
 
 13^ 
 
 17.61. 
 
 2406101 
 
 11.57.=83e 
 
 6.1172cO 
 
 i:>9 
 
 39601 
 
 7880699 
 
 U.1067d6 
 
 6.8:i8z72 
 
 
 
 13S 
 
 18225 
 
 2460373 
 
 U.6 8950 
 
 6.129928 
 
 -.00 
 
 40000 
 
 800)000 
 
 14.l4-il35 
 
 5.846035 
 
 
 
 131. 
 
 184!il 
 
 2il5J56 
 
 11.661903 
 
 6.142563 
 
 201 
 
 40401 
 
 812060 
 
 14.177446 
 
 6.857765 
 
 
 
 137 
 
 187r.9 
 
 257135:i 
 
 I1.7U4699 
 
 5.165137 
 
 202 
 
 4080) 
 
 8242408 
 
 I4.21-2b70 
 
 5.867461 
 
 
 
 13b 
 
 19U44 
 
 262807-- 
 
 11.747344 
 
 6.167649 
 
 203 
 
 41209 
 
 8366427 
 
 14.247806 
 
 6.877130 
 
 
 
 13« 
 
 19 2 
 
 2686H19 
 
 11.789821- 
 
 6.180101 
 
 20) 
 
 41)16 
 
 84896f4 
 
 14.'282<56 
 
 6.886766 
 
 
 
 UC 
 
 19000 
 
 2744000 
 
 11.832169 
 
 5.192494 
 
 *0j 
 
 42025 
 
 881512.5 
 
 14.317821 
 
 5.896368 
 
 
 
 U 
 
 1) 81 
 
 2803221 
 
 11 874342 
 
 8 204828 
 
 2C6 
 
 4243b 
 
 87418 If 
 
 H.352;00 
 
 6.905941 
 
 
 
 142 
 
 20 M 
 
 2M.;28S 
 
 11.9163 6 
 
 6.217103 
 
 £07 
 
 42349 
 
 8869743 
 
 14.387494 
 
 5.91548L 
 
 
 
 143 
 
 i0449 
 
 2924 07 
 
 11.9682t:0 
 
 5 229321 
 
 206 
 
 43264 
 
 899891'. 
 
 14.42-220. 
 
 6.924991 
 
 
 
 14J 
 
 SOiit 
 
 2985984 
 
 12. 
 
 6.241482 
 
 209 
 
 43681 
 
 9123329 
 
 14.46683.. 
 
 5.934473 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 2.02S 
 
 3048626 
 
 12.041694 
 
 5.2.-35^8 
 
 -.10 
 
 44100 
 
 9261000 
 
 14.49137t 
 
 6.943911 
 
 
 
 146 
 
 2l3it 
 
 31121:^6 
 
 12.08S04t 
 
 6.265637 
 
 211 
 
 44621 
 
 9.193931 
 
 14.6261-3 
 
 6.9 3341 
 
 
 
 14. 
 
 2 60t. 
 
 3176S23 
 
 12 124.366 
 
 6.277632 
 
 21. 
 
 44944 
 
 ■962812!. 
 
 14.5602 9 
 
 6.962731 
 
 
 
 14f 
 
 2:904 
 
 3241792 
 
 12.165626 
 
 6.289572 
 
 211> 
 
 46369 
 
 9663597 
 
 14.6946 9 
 
 6.9T2091 
 
 
 
 14t 
 
 2 20 
 
 8307949 
 
 12.20fi565 
 
 6.30146') 
 
 214 
 
 45796 
 
 9800344 
 
 14.628736 
 
 6.981426 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 2260. 
 
 3375000 
 
 12.247446 
 
 5.313293 
 
 216 
 
 46226 
 
 9938375 
 
 14 61>2<78 
 
 6.99ji2J 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 12S01 
 
 3412351 
 
 12 2S8206 
 
 6.3261)74 
 
 216 
 
 46666 
 
 1C07769 
 
 14.69B93> 
 
 6. 
 
 
 
 15-- 
 
 ;314 
 
 3511808 
 
 12.328828 
 
 5.336^03 
 
 217 
 
 47089 
 
 10218318 
 
 14.730919 
 
 6.009244 
 
 
 
 IK 
 
 2340J 
 
 35S1577 
 
 I2.369.J16 
 
 0.348481 
 
 218 
 
 47:24 
 
 103i02S2 
 
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 672400 
 
 661368000 
 
 28.6:i6642 
 
 9.359901 
 
 8!I5 
 
 78322; 
 
 393154126 
 
 -29.748946 
 
 9.f0n964 
 
 821 
 
 674041 
 
 663387661 
 
 28.653097 
 
 9.363704 
 
 886 
 
 78499t 
 
 695506466 
 
 29.765762 
 
 9.604589 
 
310 BQUAEES, CUBES, AND BOOTS. 
 
 »o. 
 
 Square 
 
 Cube. 
 697864103 
 
 Sq. Root, 
 
 Cu. Root. 
 
 No. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Cube. 
 
 Sq. Boot. 
 
 Cu. Root. 
 
 "887 
 
 78676! 
 
 0.7oa64o 
 
 9.608181 
 
 "914 
 
 891131 
 
 84113 3'<4 
 
 30.7245f3 
 
 9 E0J736 
 
 ese 
 
 78854 
 
 700227072 
 
 29.79932- 
 
 9.611791 
 
 91! 
 
 f9;i0.fi 
 
 84390 16: 5 
 
 0.74.8 2 
 
 9.81:n68 
 
 880 
 
 79l):-2 
 
 7026U53t9 
 
 39.81610! 
 
 9^6]63-7 
 
 94 
 
 891911 
 
 846690.3U 
 
 3.1.76711:) 
 
 9.H6P69 
 
 890 
 
 702101 
 
 7'496900) 
 
 ■i9 f3-28h7 
 
 9.6190111 
 
 94 
 
 8siC'80 
 
 8492781 '23 
 
 10 7;t36i 
 
 9 820117 
 
 89' 
 
 79388 
 
 70:347971 
 
 29.8496'23 
 
 9. 621601 
 
 94f 
 
 81-87114 
 
 85197 13F2 
 
 .0.7896l.> 
 
 9.823572 
 
 892 
 
 79866) 
 
 7 973<!2b8 
 
 .2 J. 866369 
 
 9. 1 26-201 
 
 941 
 
 9OJ0O1 
 
 854670349 
 
 :i0.8lfi84: 
 
 9.8-27025 
 
 89o 
 
 7974-1! 
 
 712 21!)67 
 
 2^.8^3lll 
 
 9.629797 
 
 9.ii 
 
 902600 
 
 857171001 
 
 3i.8^':070 
 
 9.830175 
 
 891 
 
 79323! 
 
 7145169H4 
 
 29.899832 
 
 9.63331 
 
 9.1 1 
 
 901411) 
 
 860086361 
 
 0.838-28 
 
 9.833823 
 
 895 
 
 8010.:. 
 
 7I6'J17376 
 
 29.9166 
 
 9.6.369S1 
 
 9 S 
 
 90330 
 
 862801403 
 
 i0.8.'-.4497 
 
 9.837369 
 
 89i 
 
 802811 
 
 719.i21l3ii 
 
 29.933269 
 
 9.640 89 
 
 96: 
 
 908209 
 
 86S62iI77 
 
 •30.87069I' 
 
 9 810812 
 
 897 
 
 8046O! 
 
 72173(273 
 
 29. 9499.^8 
 
 9.644154 
 
 9 4 
 
 910111 
 
 868-2! 06-4 
 
 30.88'8B! 
 
 9.844253 
 
 8!)- 
 
 80640-1 
 
 721160792 
 
 ;9. 96664' 
 
 9.647736 
 
 96 
 
 912(12 
 
 871.983875 ifO.fO 074 
 
 9 847692 
 
 899 
 
 803 .'0 
 
 726572699 
 
 29.983328 
 
 9.651316 
 
 96 
 
 916936 
 
 873721816 :0 919 4! 
 
 9. 8.511 '28 
 
 800 
 
 81000C 
 
 7.90000 
 
 0. . 
 
 9.634893 
 
 06 
 
 916-49 
 
 8764 7491 
 
 30.93 '416 
 
 9.864561 
 
 901 
 
 8118 V 
 
 731432701 
 
 iO. 016662 
 
 9.6!84t,8 
 
 96' 
 
 91776- 
 
 879217912 
 
 30.86 67 
 
 9.8!j7992 
 
 90^ 
 
 8136C4 
 
 738870808 
 
 iO. 031314 
 
 9.66 040 
 
 950 
 
 619f8 
 
 8^9740.9 
 
 30.6677-.! 
 
 9.861421 
 9 8fl'84» 
 
 901- 
 
 81610 
 
 736'14327 
 
 10.04996S 
 
 9.6i6E0') 
 
 86 
 
 9'2!6tJ0 
 
 88473(0 30.9838a 
 
 904 
 
 817211 
 
 738763264 
 
 10. M 659 
 
 9.6f9176 
 
 96] 
 
 92352 
 
 187603681 
 
 :;i. 
 
 9.868 72 
 
 905 
 
 819..2t 
 
 741217*6 
 
 10 033217 
 
 9.671740 
 
 9(2 
 
 92544 
 
 S80-.77I28 
 
 :.1.0le!24 
 
 9.871694 
 
 m 
 
 820831 
 
 743677416 
 
 10.099?33 
 
 9.f76301 
 
 9 ' 
 
 92736! 
 
 893056347 
 
 3l.fl3--.!41 
 
 9 876113 
 
 907 
 
 8-2 i64! 
 
 746142613 
 
 10 116441' 
 
 9.67981 
 
 96 
 
 92929 
 
 895141:44 
 
 31.048 1"!' 
 
 9.878:80 
 
 90S 
 
 82446 
 
 748613312 
 
 O.13303f 
 
 9.683416 
 
 96: 
 
 93122: 
 
 8986 121 26 
 
 :U.O 44^9 
 
 9.681946 
 
 9U9 
 
 82(i2Sl 
 
 7nl089429 
 
 lO.l.g 26 
 
 9.B86970 
 
 9r.t 
 
 9: 316 
 
 f0l4'2Si!6 
 
 31 .081 640 
 
 9.S81367 
 
 911 
 
 823111 
 
 763571000 
 
 30.16 20r 
 
 9.690521 
 
 m 
 
 93508! 
 
 C01.-3IC63 31.0966!;- 
 
 9.888767 
 
 fill 
 
 82992 
 
 7.16058021 
 
 i0.1f277ti 
 
 9.R940l;9 
 
 961- 
 
 987C2- 
 
 907039-.3-2 
 
 1.11 69' 
 
 9.892174 
 
 91 
 
 831744 
 
 7586505:8 
 
 ■30.1993 7 
 
 9. f 97616 
 
 96 
 
 938961 
 
 909853209 
 
 31.1287r4 
 
 9 896580 
 
 913 
 
 893 6 
 
 7-11048497 
 
 10. 215' 89 
 
 9. 7011 St 
 
 9.0 
 
 9IU9II1 
 
 91-2673 00 
 
 31.K482 
 
 g.cgtgss 
 
 914 
 
 83 39 
 
 763651944 
 
 10.23241'.! 
 
 9.70tr,98 
 
 97 > 
 
 94-641 
 
 91549861 1 
 
 31.16l)-7'2 
 
 9.902S83 
 
 916 
 
 83-22! 
 
 78 060B75 
 
 10.2489611 
 
 9.70>^28l) 
 
 07: 
 
 944784 
 
 918311048 
 
 31.178314 
 31 19-947 
 
 9 905781 
 
 910 
 
 839051 
 
 7H66 6 96 
 
 i0.2i6l91 
 
 9.71177! 
 
 97; 
 
 9467 ii 
 
 921117317 
 
 '9.909177 
 
 917 
 
 84' 88! 
 
 771096213 
 
 30.'2?£0i7 
 
 g.715;:06 
 
 97-1 
 
 9488- 6 
 
 92M04-24 
 
 31.' 0167. 
 
 9.91-571 
 
 9l^ 
 
 84-272- 
 
 77362(163 i 
 
 0.29*614 
 
 9.T 8836 
 
 !I7 
 
 !>6062! 
 
 626859375 
 
 31.22 9 1 
 
 9,916962 
 
 916 
 
 81456 
 
 776161569 
 
 30.31(01 
 
 9.72-;363 
 
 07 e 
 
 862571 
 
 829714176 
 
 :l.'240v'68 
 
 9.610361 
 
 920 
 
 8464u< 
 
 778688001 
 
 30.3lliHl 
 
 9.72888 
 
 977 
 
 964:'2!' 
 
 9325748S13 
 
 31.266999 
 
 9.922738 
 
 9Ji 
 
 84824 
 
 7812-29'^61 
 
 .'.0.347991 
 
 9.7-2941 
 
 97 > 
 
 9561-4 
 
 63J441'.52 
 
 31 27.99] 
 
 9.9261 2 
 
 9i2 
 
 860 8-1 
 
 78.777448 
 
 30.364l-i 
 
 9.7329 
 
 97! 
 
 96844 
 
 938313739 
 
 ■11 .28817!- 
 
 9. 129604 
 
 92 J 
 
 8619,! 
 
 7863 0467 
 
 ■10.38091!. 
 
 9.736448 
 
 fl 1. 
 
 96140 
 
 94ligi0(.0 
 
 :'.I.3l49.;' 
 
 9.9: 2883 
 
 9i4 
 
 I63T 6 
 
 7 8S8830-:4 
 
 30.3973 !► 
 
 9.739963 
 
 9- 
 
 962,6 
 
 944076141 
 
 :n.3 091! 
 
 9.93 261 
 
 92! 
 
 85661! 
 
 79146312J 
 
 0.413-1-. 
 
 9.743476 
 
 98 
 
 96432-' 
 
 91691:61(8 
 
 31 3 tSV 
 
 9.919636 
 
 921 
 
 857J7t 
 
 79411227 76 
 
 5'). 4 024f 
 
 9.746985 
 
 91-S 
 
 96621't 
 
 94986 Oti7 
 
 31.S62-;.( 
 
 9.943109 
 
 »i7 
 
 85932!- 
 
 T9' 697983 
 
 ;0.44i'674 
 
 9 760493 
 
 964 
 
 9 8.6( 
 
 952763904 
 
 31.368774 
 
 9,9ir379 
 
 9t 
 
 86118' 
 
 799178752 
 
 10.41309 
 
 9 763998 
 
 9- 
 
 970-21! 
 
 96667162'. 
 
 1.3847(i!. 
 
 9.849747 
 
 929 
 
 Ii6a04 
 
 801765' f 9 
 
 30.47950 
 
 9.767 00 
 
 08f 
 
 9721!'f 
 
 9 66-52. 6 
 
 31.400631 
 
 g.g631'3 
 
 930 
 
 864U0 
 
 t'01357000 
 
 0.49li9l'l 
 
 9.761010 
 
 U87 
 
 974169 
 
 9iii! 04803 
 
 31.416 6( 
 
 9. 9; 6471 
 
 931 
 
 86676 
 
 8-6954491 
 
 30.5:2 92 
 
 9.764497 
 
 88' 
 
 976144 
 
 9641302:2 
 
 31.41'24l7 
 
 0.869839 
 
 »ti 
 
 8rt'f2 
 
 Mli5fi7f68 
 
 30.6-28675 
 
 9.767192 
 
 9-9 
 
 978121 
 
 9>17361669'U.448J-.0 
 
 8.9631' 8 
 
 933 
 
 8704a! 
 
 812166237 
 
 iO.MSOiS 
 
 9 771484 
 
 99 
 
 9-OI0( 
 
 970.991:00 M 464266 
 
 9.966654 
 
 93) 
 
 872351 
 
 814'8060« 
 
 10.66141: 
 
 9 774974 
 
 991 
 
 98 O'l 
 
 973-242.71 31 48016i 
 
 9.9696C9 
 
 9?6 
 
 874-JS 
 
 8174003-6 
 
 10.677769 
 
 9.778461 
 
 99- 
 
 9-! -106 
 
 !■7l-^1914^8 31.4960:1 
 
 P. 97-262 
 
 83 
 
 876U9e 
 
 820025t.£6 
 
 31.694 17 
 
 9 782946 
 
 99 
 
 98S04! 
 
 9: 914665? 
 
 31.61.602 
 
 9.976612 
 
 937 
 
 8779l)i 
 
 ^2J66695^ 
 
 0.6104 6 
 
 9.786-28 
 
 994 
 
 9SiiO ;i 
 
 982107784 
 
 31 .627rC6 
 
 0.979959 
 
 93' 
 
 87!<8l'l 
 
 82629W72 
 
 10.6 6786 
 
 9.798908 
 
 91.1 
 
 9900-21 
 
 985074876 
 
 .1.6436 1 
 
 9.983104 
 
 939 
 
 8817' 
 
 82793 019 
 
 ■10.643106 
 
 9.79.386 
 
 99' 
 
 99 01 
 
 9'l!i047936 
 
 31.569467 
 
 9.986648 
 
 94, 
 
 fsseoi 
 
 83058400'! 
 
 ■'.0.65941!' 
 
 9.7958hl 
 
 997 
 
 99400' 
 
 991026978 
 
 31.176 (16 
 
 9 9899r0 
 
 941 
 
 88648 
 
 8332-!7621 
 
 30.67.'.72 
 
 9.799333 
 
 998 
 
 9961104 
 
 991011992 
 
 31.60113- 
 
 9,993328 
 
 942 
 
 8873ri4 
 
 835896888 
 
 0.692018 
 
 9.80281.3 
 
 999 
 
 SO'Oll 
 
 997. 02999 
 
 si.eceoel 
 
 9.906665 
 
 943 
 
 88924'. 
 
 838661807 
 
 3O.7O80O6 
 
 9.1:0.271 
 
 luOO 
 
 lOLOOwO 
 
 11,00000000 
 
 31.622776 
 
 10; 
 
THE SOIL. 
 
 The soil is made up of decomposed rocks and decayed or 
 decaying organic matter. The proportion of orga»ic mat- 
 ter is small — ^not averaging in fertile soils more than five 
 per cent. All of the rest of the soil is of a mineral origin, 
 and has at some period formed a part of the rocky crust of 
 the earth. 
 
 By the action of air, and heat, and frost, and the friction 
 of running and falling water, and the movement of rocks 
 and stones in moving water, these substances have been suf- 
 ficiently pulverized to form the foundation material of our 
 present soil. 
 
 During uncounted ages these processes have been going 
 on, and they are still active; and, in addition to these, 
 the chemical changes which result from the exposure of pul- 
 verized mineral matter to the action of air and moisture, 
 and the successive growth and decay of plants, have oper- 
 ated, and are still operating, to ripen the soil to our uses. 
 
 In the early ages, when perhaps the composition of the 
 atmosphere w^is different from what it is now (and when the 
 soil was surely very different), only plants of a low order, 
 such as are now extinct, could grow at all. These absorbed 
 certain matters from the atmosphere, and, on their decay, 
 gave them to the soil, — thus helping to fit it for the growth 
 
312 THE SOIL. 
 
 of a higher order of plants, which were in time succeeded 
 by others, and those by others, until, finally, the changes 
 effected in the soil by the action of the chemical forces, and 
 by the deposit of vegetable matter, have enabled it to pro- 
 duce the vegetation required for the uses of man. 
 
 Classification of soils. 
 
 Some soils were formed mainly of the rocks on which they 
 now lie — as those of the granite region of New England — 
 and these take their names from these rocks, as granitic soil, 
 limestone soil, sandstone soil, &c. 
 
 Others have been formed by the deposit, by means of 
 great floods, or the gradual silting of rivers. The latter 
 of these (as the flat lands of the Mississippi Yalley) are 
 called alluvial soils ; and the former (comprising those soils 
 of varied composition in which occur clay, gravel, boulders, 
 &c.) are called diluvial soils. 
 
 Another classification, which is much more definite, is the 
 following : — 
 
 1. Ptjee Clat consists of about 60 per cent, of silica and 
 40 per cent, of alumina and oxide of iron, usually chemi- 
 cally combined. 
 
 2. Steongest Clay Soil consists of pure clay, mixed 
 with 5 to 15 per cent, of silicious sand. 
 
 3. Clay Loam consists of pure clay, mixed with 15 to 30 
 per cent, of fine sand. 
 
 4. Loamy Soil deposits from 30 to 60 per cent, of sand. 
 
THE fiOIL. 313 
 
 6. Sakdt Loam deposits from 60 to 90 per cent, of sand. 
 
 ^ 6. Sakdy Soil contains no more than 10 per cent, of pure 
 clay. 
 
 To analyze the above soils with a view to dassifyi/ng them. 
 
 EuLE. — Weigh a portion of the soil and spread it thinly 
 on writing paper, and dry it for an hour or two in an oven, 
 the heat of which is not great enough to discolor the paper 
 — the loss of weight is the quantity of water it contained. 
 
 Weigh and then boil another equal portion, and when 
 thoroughly incorporated with the water, pour it into a vessel, 
 and allow the sandy parts to deposit until the fine clay is 
 also beginning to settle ; then pour oif the water, collect the 
 sand, dry as before, and again weigh, which will give the 
 per cent, of sam,d it contained. 
 
 The above classification and analysis of soils have refer- 
 ence only to the water, clay, and sand which they contain, 
 while lime is also an important constituent, of which they 
 are rarely entirely destitute. This gives rise to a further 
 classification. 
 
 7. Maelt Soil is one in which the proportion of lime is 
 more than 5, and not over 20 per cent, of the whole, weight. 
 
 8. Caloa«eou8 Soil, in which the lime exceeds 20 per 
 cent. 
 
 To analyze ma/rly and calcareous soils, with a view to 
 their classification as above. 
 
 EuLE. — ^Mix 100 grains of the dry soil with half a pint 
 
 14 
 
314 
 
 THE SOIL. 
 
 of water, and add, half a wine-glassful of muriatic acid ; 
 stir it thoroTighly during the day, and let it stand and settle 
 over night. Pour off the clear liquid in the morning, and 
 again fill the vessel with water and stir thoroughly, and 
 when clear again pour it off; dry the soil and weigh it. 
 The loss is the quantity of lime the soil contained. If it 
 exceeds 5 grs., class as a marly soil ; if more than 20 grs., 
 class as a calcareous soil. 
 
 9. Vegetable Moulds, which are of various kinds, con- 
 taining from 15 to 60 or 70 per cent, of organic matter. 
 
 To analyze vegetable moulds, with a view to their classifi- 
 cation as above. 
 
 Eple. — Dry the soil well in an oven, and weigh it ; then 
 heat it to a dull I'edness, over a lamp or bright fire, until the 
 combustible matter is burned away and evaporated. Again 
 weigh it, and the loss is the quantity of organic matter it 
 contained. 
 
 Besides the foregoing ingredients, every soil must contain 
 more or less of all the elements which enter into the com- 
 position of vegetation. They must hold, in a form adapted 
 to its growth and support, silex, alumina, carbonate of Ume, 
 sulphate of li?ne, potash, soda, magnesia, sulfphur, phos- 
 phorus, oxide of iron, mamganese, chlorine, and, probably, 
 iodine. They are called the " inorganic or earthy parts of 
 soil," and constitute from one-half of one per cent, to over 
 ten per cent, of all vegetables. Their analysis is too diffi- 
 
THE SOIL. 
 
 315 
 
 cult and complicated to be attempted by any but a practical 
 agricultural chemist. 
 
 The value of soil analysis, even when made by the most 
 careful and skilful chemists, is practically very little. The 
 quantity of matter which is capable of affording food to 
 plants is so very small, in proportion to the whole bulk of 
 the soil, even in those of the most fertile character, that it 
 is questionable whether a sample to be analyzed could be so 
 carefully prepared as to represent the average character of 
 the whole field. Then, again, if we were to procure a cor- 
 rect analysis of a very fertile soil, and then were to crop it 
 for a series of years without manure until it refused to pro- 
 duce paying crops, and were to have it analyzed again, it is 
 not likely that the chemist would detect any change in its 
 composition. In like manner, if we were to add to it 500 
 lbs. to the acre of bone dust, — enough to make it produce 
 abundantly, — analysis would fail to detect the small quantity 
 of phosphate of lime that we had added in the bones. 
 
 Another argument against the value of the analysis of the 
 soil, and a very strong one, is found in the fact that the fer- 
 tility of the soil depends less on the quomtity of plant food 
 that it contains than on its condition. The roots of plants 
 cannot feed on the inside of a pebble ; they can only apply 
 their pumps to its surface and take 'in so much of what is 
 there exposed as can be dissolved in the moisture which goes 
 to form their sap. Neither can roots travel about iujthe 
 soil ; they grow into certain places, and tjiere they remain. 
 
316 THE SOIL. 
 
 If an inch away from them there is a mass of rich food, they 
 cannot make use of it — save by sending out new shoots to 
 embrace it — ^but must remain content with the poorer tract 
 in which they lie. Consequently, the uniform distribution. 
 of the plant food, its solubility, and its eayposure on the sur- 
 faces of the particles of the soil are quite as important as 
 its quantity. 
 
 Chemical analysis teaches us none of those things — at 
 least it does not teach them so definitely as we would need 
 to know them to be able to make any practical use of its 
 assistance. 
 
 In addition to these, fertile soils must also contain carbon, 
 oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen, which are called the organic 
 parts of soils, from their great preponderance in vegetables' 
 and animals, of which they constitute from 90 to over 99 
 per cent. 
 
 General results of analytical exa/minations of soils. 
 
 1. A due admixture of organic matter is favorable to the 
 fertility of a soil. 
 
 2. This organic matter is the more valuable in proportion 
 to the quantity of nitrogen it holds in combination. 
 
 3. The mineral part of the soil must contain all those 
 substances which are met with in the ash of the plant, and 
 in such a state of chemical combination that the roots of 
 plants can readily take them up in the requisite propor- 
 tions. \ 
 
THE BOIL. V 
 
 317 
 
 Table, showing the composition, m 1000 parts, of different 
 Jevnds of soil. 
 
 OONSTITOKITTS. 
 
 FertUfl without msnurB. 
 
 FirtUe with mftaura. 
 
 Very Barren. 
 
 Organic matter, 
 
 97. 
 
 60. 
 
 40. 
 
 Silica, 
 
 648. 
 
 833. 
 
 758. 
 
 Alumina, 
 
 67. 
 
 81. 
 
 101. 
 
 / Lime, 
 
 69. 
 
 18. 
 
 4. 
 
 Magnesia, 
 
 8. 
 
 8. 
 
 1. 
 
 Oxide of Iron, 
 
 61. 
 
 30. 
 
 91. 
 
 " of Manganese, 
 
 1. 
 
 3. 
 
 trace 
 
 Potash, 
 
 2. 
 
 trace 
 
 • ■ . ■ 
 
 Boda, 
 
 4. 
 
 * . . • 
 
 . • •• 
 
 Chlorine, 
 
 2. 
 
 .•-• 
 
 .... 
 
 Sulphuric Acid, 
 
 2. 
 
 1. 
 
 ■ ■ >• 
 
 Phosphoric " ^ 
 
 4. 
 
 2. 
 
 .... 
 
 Carbonic " 
 
 40. 
 
 4. 
 
 
 Loss, 
 
 15. 
 
 ■ • ■ ■ 
 
 6. 
 
 Note. — ^The soil designated " fertile without manure " 
 has been cultivated sixty years without manuring, yielding 
 abundant crops. The soil designated " fertile with manure " 
 has been cultivated over forty years, yielding good crops 
 with ordinary manuring; while that designated "very bar- 
 ren " could scarcely be made to yield anything by the 
 greatest manuring and most careful cultivation. 
 
 The following is an analysis of three specimens of very 
 fertile soils, made by Sprengel : — 
 
 Soil near 
 Osterbruch. 
 
 Silica, Quartz, Sand, and Silicates 84.510 
 
 Alumina 6.435 
 
 Oxides of Iron 2.395 
 
 Oxides of Manganese 0.450 
 
 Lime 0.740 
 
 Magnesia 0.525 
 
 Potash and Soda extracted by water 0.009 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 0.120 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 9.046 
 
 Chlorine in common Salt 0.006 
 
 Humic Add 0.V80 
 
 Insoluble Humus 2.995 
 
 Organic matters containing Nitrogen 0.960 
 
 Water 0.029 
 
 
 near Hoya. 
 
 near weserbe. 
 
 71.849 
 
 83.318 
 
 9.350 
 
 3.085 
 
 6.410 
 
 5.840 
 
 0.925 
 
 0.620 
 
 0.987 
 
 0.720 
 
 0.245 
 
 0.120 
 
 0.007 
 
 0.005 
 
 0.131 
 
 0.065 
 
 0.174 
 
 0.025 
 
 0.002 
 
 0.006 
 
 1.270 
 
 0.800 
 
 .650 
 
 4.126 
 
 2.000 
 
 1.220 
 
 0.100 
 
 0.1,50 
 
318 t THE SOIL. 
 
 The above had remained a long time in pasture, and the 
 second was remarkable for the fattening qualities of its grass 
 when fed to cattle. 
 
 The following are arable lands of great fertility :— 
 
 .From Ohio. Soil 
 
 Boil from Moravia, Soil. Subsoil. from Belgium. 
 
 Silica and ^fine Sand 77.209 87.143 94.261 64.517 
 
 Alumina 8.514 5.666 1.S76 4.810 
 
 Oxides of Iron 6.592 2.220 2.336 8.316 
 
 Oxide of Manganese 1.520 0.360 1.200 0.800 
 
 Lime 0.92t 0.564 ^-"^^^^^TAm^ ^-^O* 
 
 Magnesia 1.160 0.312 0.310 ^^^'f 10.361 
 
 Potash, chiefly combined with °' 
 
 SUioa 0.140 0.120) (0.100 
 
 Soda, ditto ....0.640 0.025 f "■''*^ 1 0.013 
 
 Phosphoric Acid, combined 
 
 with Lime and Ox. of Iron.. 0.651 0.060 trace 1.221 
 
 Sulphuric Acid and Gypsum.. 0.011 0.027 0.p34 0.009 
 
 Chlorine in common Salt 0.010 0.036 trace 0.003 
 
 Carbonic Acid united to the 
 
 Lime 0.080 
 
 Humic Acid 0.978 1.304 0.447 
 
 Insoluble Humus.... 0.540 1.072 
 
 Organic Substances containing 
 
 Nitrogen 1.108 LOll 
 
 " Of these soils, the first had been cropped for 160 yeara 
 successively, without either manure or naked fallow. The 
 second was a virgin soil, and celebrated for its fertility. 
 The third had been unmanured for twelve years, during the 
 last nine of which it had been cropped with beans, barley, 
 potatoes, winter barley and red clover, clover, winter barley, 
 wheat, oats, naked fallow." — Johnston. 
 
 Depth of soU — its irryportwnce. 
 
 If 50 be assumed as the value of a given soil when it is six 
 inches deep, its value when of different, depths will be as 
 follows : — 
 
THE SOIL. 
 
 319 
 
 If 3 inches deep, it is worth 38 
 
 4 " 11 11 11 42 
 
 6 " " » " 46 
 B " " " " 50 
 
 7 " " " " 64 
 
 If 8 inches deep, it is worth 68 
 
 9 " ", " " 62 
 
 10 " " " " 66 
 
 11 " " " " 70 
 
 12 " " " " 74 
 
 Hence each farmer may make an estimate for himself, 
 with regard to every variety of his soil, whether the cost of 
 increasing its depth will equal or exceed its value after the 
 task is performed. 
 
 This, of course, supposes that the soil is of the same quality 
 throughout its whole depth, and it refers only to its chemi- 
 cal composition. There are other considerations which 
 make the depth of the soil more important even than the 
 above table will indicate. If a soil is equally rich through- 
 out its whole depth, it would be of more than double value 
 if of double depth ; for its ability to withstand drought, and 
 its great capacity to absorb the water of heavy rains (with- 
 out being made too wet) would made it better, irrespective 
 of the elements of fertility that it might contain. Then 
 again, some soils which are of apparently no value may be 
 made quite fertile by being ploughed a little deeper than 
 has been done. 
 
 Table, showing the weight per cuhio foot of the different 
 hinds of earth. 
 
 Loose earth or sand. 95 lbs. 
 
 Common soil 124 " 
 
 Strong soil 127 " 
 
 Chalk 174 " 
 
 Clay. 135 lbs. 
 
 Clay and stones 160 " 
 
 Brick 125 " 
 
 Note. — 23 cubic feet of sand, 18 cubic feet of earth, or 
 17 cubic feet of clay, make a ton. Eighteen cubic feet of 
 
320 EXHAUSTION OF SOILS. 
 
 gravel or earth, before digging, make 27 cubic feet when 
 dug. 
 
 As a rough estimate, it may be stated that an acre of or- 
 dinary soil weighs 100 tons for every inch of its depth. 
 
 EXHAUSTION OF SOILS. 
 
 Each crop taken from a field exhausts the soil to the ex- 
 tent of the inorganic or earthy substances that are found in 
 the totality of the crop removed. Unless, therefore, these 
 elements are returned to the soil in some shape it gradually 
 loses its fertility, and finally refuses to produce altogether. 
 Hence the necessity for manuring, irrigating, or resting the 
 soil, that it may again, by accumulating these elements, re- 
 cover its fertility. By returning a crop in toto to the soil, 
 by ploughing it in or leaving it to decay and mingle again 
 with it, it accumulates in mass and grows in fertility, not 
 by the substances thus returned to it, but by fertilizing ele- 
 ments gathered in or combined from the atmosphere, by rains 
 and dews descending on it, and by capillary attraction from 
 beneath. 
 
 By knowing the composition of the subtracted crops and 
 the added manures, the farmer can keep a debit and credit 
 account with his fields, which will be sufficiently accurate 
 to enable him always to keep his land improving. To enable 
 him to ascertain approximately what his various crops remove 
 from the soil, we introduce the following tables, &c. To 
 
EXHAUSTION OF SOILS. 
 
 321 
 
 b9. 
 
 lb9. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 50 
 
 387 
 
 15 
 
 90 
 
 60 
 
 378 
 
 21 
 
 77 
 
 58 
 
 447 
 
 15 
 
 40 
 
 58 
 
 434 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 53 
 
 389i 
 
 3i 
 
 70 
 
 64 
 
 367 
 
 22 
 
 40 
 
 54 
 
 390 
 
 4 
 JdknsUm. 
 
 51 
 
 ascertain what will replace this subtraction, let him consult 
 the section on manures. 
 
 Table, shomvng the orga/nic suhsicmoes removed from the soil 
 in 1000 lbs. each of thefollowvng crops when perfectly dry. 
 
 Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Nitrogen. Ash. 
 lbs. 
 
 Hay 458 
 
 Bed Clover Hay 474 
 
 Potatoes 440 
 
 Wheat- 461 
 
 Wheat- straw 484 
 
 Oats 507 
 
 Oat-straw. 601 
 
 Note. — Of all the vegetable productions which are gath- 
 ered as food for man or beast in their dry state — 
 
 Carbon forms nearly one-half by weight. 
 
 Oxygen rather more than one-third. 
 
 Hydrogen little more than five per cent. 
 
 Nitrogen from 1^ to ^per cent. 
 
 EaHhy matter from 1 to 20 ^e?* cent. 
 Table, showvng the quantity of inorganic matter removed 
 from the soil in 1000 lbs. each of the following crops in, 
 
 their ordinary state of di-yness. 
 
 lbs. 
 Wheat about 20 
 
 Wheat-straw. 
 
 Barley 
 
 Barley-straw. 
 
 Oats 
 
 Oat-straw 
 
 Eye 
 
 Eye-straw 
 
 Indian Com 
 
 Indian Corn stalk, &c. 
 
 50 
 SO 
 50 
 40 
 61) 
 20 
 40 
 15 
 60 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Beans about 30 
 
 Peas " 30 
 
 Pea-straw " 50 
 
 Meadow Hay " 50 to 100 
 
 Clover Hay. M 90 
 
 Eye-grass Hay. " 95 
 
 Potatoes " 8 to 15 
 
 Turnips " 5 to § 
 
 Carrots " 15 to 20 
 
 14* 
 
 Johnston. 
 
322 
 
 EXHAUSTION OF SOILS. 
 
 Tajble, showing the quantity, and Tcinds of inorganic matter 
 removed from the soil in 1000 Tbs. each of the following 
 crops. 
 
 
 2.2n 
 
 A 
 <2 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 0.90 
 
 a 
 0.29 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0.60 
 
 .3 
 
 0.10 
 
 ■s 
 
 o 
 
 ^1 
 
 Is 
 
 Wheat— Gr&in 
 
 2.40 
 
 0.96 
 
 4.00 
 
 0.40 
 
 tract 
 
 11.77 
 
 '• Straw 
 
 n nn 
 
 0.29 
 
 2.40 
 
 0.32 
 
 0.90 28.70 
 
 0.37 
 
 l.TO 
 
 U.30 
 
 
 
 36.18 
 
 
 2.7S 
 
 2.90 
 
 1.06 
 
 1.80 
 
 0.25 11.82 
 
 .69 
 
 2.1C 
 
 0.19 
 
 trace 
 
 
 23.49 
 
 Straw 
 
 1.80 
 
 0.48 
 
 6.S4 
 
 D.7« 
 
 1.46,33.56 
 
 1.18 
 
 1.60 
 
 0.70 
 
 0.14 
 
 1.20 
 
 62.42 
 
 OatB— Grain 
 
 ISO 
 
 1.32 
 
 0.86 
 
 [).67 
 
 0.14 19,76 
 
 0.35 
 
 O.70 
 
 0.10 
 
 O.40 
 
 
 26.80 
 
 " Straw 
 
 8,70 
 
 O.Oli 
 
 l.ftU 
 
 0.22 
 
 0.06 45 8S 
 
 0.7fl 
 
 0.12 
 
 0.05 
 
 0.(12 
 
 0.02 
 
 57.40 
 
 Rye— firain 
 
 6.32 
 n.S2 
 
 o.n 
 
 1.22 
 1.76 
 
 0.44 
 0.12 
 
 0.24! 164 
 
 0.23 
 1.70 
 
 0.46 
 0.61 
 
 0.09 
 0.17 
 
 0.4'.: 
 
 0.34 
 
 10.40 
 
 '* Straw 
 
 0.25 
 
 22.97 
 
 27.93 
 
 Fieldl Bean 
 
 Hean j Straw 
 
 4.16 
 
 s.u 
 
 1.C6 
 
 l.f,8 
 
 0.34 
 
 1.26 
 
 0.89 
 
 2.92 
 
 0.41 
 
 
 
 21.33 
 
 IR.Sfi 
 
 O.iiO 
 
 6.24 
 
 2.09 
 
 O.n 
 
 2.20 
 
 0.34 
 
 2.26 
 
 0.80 
 
 COT 
 
 0.05 
 
 31.21 
 
 Fieldl Pea 
 
 Pea J Straw 
 
 «.10 
 
 7.39 
 
 0.68 
 
 1.36 
 
 o.2r 
 
 4.10 
 
 0.63 
 
 1.90 
 
 0.38 
 
 o.iu 
 
 
 24.64 
 
 2.35 
 
 4.028 
 
 2.334 
 
 27.30 
 .331 
 
 3.42 
 .824 
 
 0.61 
 .Ofi( 
 
 U.96 
 .084 
 
 3.37 
 
 .640 
 
 2.40 
 .401 
 
 U.04 
 
 .160 
 
 0.2'. 
 .032 
 
 0.07 
 
 49.71 
 
 
 8.284 
 
 FotatoM. Tops...::::: 
 
 8.19 
 
 .OS 
 
 12 97 
 
 1.70 
 
 .04 
 
 4.94 
 
 .42 
 
 1.97 
 
 .60 
 
 .02 
 
 
 30.84 
 
 
 2.3RB 
 
 1.04f 
 
 .7fi2 
 
 .264 
 
 .036 
 
 .38S 
 
 .801 
 
 .367 
 
 .239 
 
 .03:.' 
 
 
 6.303 
 
 Turnipa,. ^„;^\\\\\ 
 
 S 23 
 
 2.2i 
 
 6.20 
 
 .65 
 
 .03 
 
 1.2S 
 
 2.62 
 
 .98 
 
 .87 
 
 .17 
 
 
 18.09 
 
 
 3.633 
 
 ?,.07a 
 
 .922 
 .702 
 
 667 
 .468 
 
 .3S4 
 .270 
 
 .039 
 .024 
 
 .137 
 .162 
 
 .270 
 .192 
 
 .614 
 .100 
 
 .070 
 .178 
 
 .033 
 .005 
 
 .060 
 1 
 
 6.619 
 
 ParsnipR 
 
 R;e Grass 
 
 4.180 
 
 8.81 
 19.95 
 
 &94 
 6.29 
 
 7. 34 
 
 27.80 
 
 0.90 
 3..<!a 
 
 31 
 0.14 
 
 27.72 
 3.61 
 
 3.63 
 4.47 
 
 0.26 
 
 6.67 
 
 0,06 
 3.62 
 
 
 
 62.86 
 
 Red Clover 
 
 74.78 
 
 
 .■>1.05 
 
 6.7S 
 
 33.4! 
 
 3.06 
 
 1.90 
 
 14. 7J 
 
 3.63 
 
 6.06 
 
 2.11 
 
 0.63 
 
 
 91.32 
 
 
 13, 4C 
 
 6. If 
 
 4S. 3' 13.48 
 
 0.3C 
 
 3.3(1 
 
 4.04 
 
 13.07 
 
 3.1^ 
 
 o.to 
 
 
 96 62 
 
 Sainfoin 
 
 20.67 
 
 4.37 
 
 21.95|2.88 
 
 0.66 
 
 6.00 
 
 3.411 9.16 
 
 1.67 
 
 1 
 
 69.67 
 
 Note. — In the foregoing table, the grain, beans, peas, 
 straw, and hay, are estimated after they have been dried in 
 the air; the roots as they have been taken from the field. 
 The potato loses in drying 69 per cent, of water ; the turnip 
 91 ; the carrot 87 ; the turnip-leaf 86 ; the carrot-leaf, pars- 
 nip, and parsnip-leaf, each 81 ; and the cabbage 93. 
 
 Besides the organic elements present in each of the above 
 crops, and which form about 97 per cent, of the entire dried 
 weight of each, it is not only necessary that all the above 
 * Included in potash. 
 
EXHAUSTION OF SOILS. 323 
 
 morgwnio substances should exist in the soil, but that they 
 be also found in a form adapted to the wants of the grow- 
 ing crop. 
 
 Analysis of the Ash of the Hop, showing the elements 
 it removes from the soil. 
 
 In 100 parts there are of 
 
 Vine & Blossom. Blossom. 
 
 Silica 13.24 21.05 
 
 Chloride- of Sodium ... 7.73 
 " Potassium. 3.77 
 
 Soda. 0.13 
 
 Potash 21.49 25.18 
 
 Lime 34.79 15.98 
 
 Vine k Blossom. Blossom. 
 
 Magnesia 4.09 5.77 
 
 Sulphuric Acid ^4.63 5.41 
 
 Phosphoric " 6.34 9.08 
 
 Phosphate of Iron 3.79 7.45 
 
 Chloride of Potassium. 1.67 
 
 Alumina a trace 
 
324 EXHAUSTION OF SOILS. 
 
 < The following tables, extracted from Waring's Elements 
 of Agriculture, will be found convenient for ordinary com- 
 putations : — 
 
 Amount of Inorganic Matter removed from the soil by ten 
 bushels of grain, tfec, amd hy the straw, c&c, required in 
 their production — estimated, in pounds : 
 
 
 Wheat 
 
 1200 lbs. 
 Wheat 
 Straw. 
 
 Kye. 
 
 1630 lbs. 
 
 Bye 
 Straw. 
 
 Potash. 
 
 2.86 
 
 1.04 
 .34 
 
 1.46 
 .08 
 .03 
 
 6.01 
 
 .14 
 
 8.97 
 
 .12 
 
 4.84 
 
 2.76 
 
 .94 
 
 4.20 
 
 2.22 
 
 .79 
 
 47.16 
 
 2.51 
 
 1.33 
 .56 
 
 1.18 
 .15 
 .11 
 
 5.64 
 
 .05 
 
 11.34 
 
 .20 
 
 5.91 • 
 
 1.58 
 
 .88 
 
 .05 
 
 2.49 
 
 .30 
 
 42.25 
 
 Soda 
 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 Oxide of Iron 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 
 
 
 Chlorine ' 
 
 Silica 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 72 
 
 Hi 
 
 66 
 
 
 
 
 Com. 
 
 leao lbs. 
 
 Com 
 
 stalks. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 700 lbs. 
 
 Oat 
 Straw. 
 
 Potash 
 
 2.78 
 
 .12 
 1.52 
 
 4.52 
 .06 
 
 6.84 
 
 19.83 
 
 6.02 
 
 4.74 
 
 .57 
 
 .36 
 
 12.15 
 
 1.33 
 
 19.16 
 
 1.69 
 
 .39 
 .64 
 .02 
 .66 
 2.80 
 .02 
 .18 
 
 12.08 
 
 3.39* 
 1.59 
 .78 
 1.41 
 1.07 
 1.36 
 20.32 
 
 Soda 
 
 Lime 
 
 
 Oxide of Iron 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 71 
 
 6i 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 
EXHAUSTION OF SOILS. 
 
 325 
 
 
 Buck 
 •Wheat. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 660 bbls. 
 Barley 
 Straw. 
 
 aoooibs. 
 
 Flax. 
 
 Potash 
 
 1.01 
 
 2.13 
 .IS 
 
 1.20 
 .14 
 .26 
 
 6.40 
 
 .09 
 
 1.90 
 1.18 
 
 .96 
 1.00 
 
 .20 
 
 .01 
 6 36 
 
 .01 
 8.90 
 
 2 57 
 .23 
 
 3.88 
 
 1.31 
 .90 
 .66 
 
 1.25 
 
 .40 
 
 28.80 
 
 11.78 
 
 Soda 
 
 11.82 
 
 Lime 
 
 11.85 
 
 Ma({nesia 
 
 9.38 
 
 Oxide of Iron 
 
 7.32 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 
 
 3.19 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 
 
 13.05 
 
 Ghloriue 
 
 2.90 
 
 Sihca 
 
 25.71 
 
 
 
 Pounds carried off. 
 
 11 
 
 14 
 
 40 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 Beans. 
 
 1120 lbs. 
 Bean 
 Straw. 
 
 Field 
 Peas. 
 
 1366 lbs. 
 
 Pea 
 
 Straw. 
 
 Potash 
 
 5.54 
 
 1.83 
 
 98.98 
 
 .28 
 
 .10 
 
 .16 
 
 7.80 
 
 .13 
 
 .18 
 
 36.28 
 
 1.09 
 
 13.60 
 
 4.65 
 
 .20 
 
 64 
 
 5.00 
 
 1.74 
 
 4.90 
 
 5.90 
 1.40 
 
 .81 
 1.30 
 
 .18 
 
 .64 
 5.50 
 
 .23 
 
 .7 
 
 3.78 
 
 Soda. 
 
 
 Lime 
 
 43.93 
 
 
 6.50 
 
 Oxide of Iron 
 
 1.40 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 
 
 5.43 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 
 
 3.86 
 
 Chlorine 
 
 .08 
 
 isihca 
 
 16.02 
 
 
 
 Pounds carried off 
 
 17 
 
 68 
 
 16 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 ITon 
 Turnips. 
 
 635 lbs. 
 Turnip 
 Tops. 
 
 1 Ton 
 Potatoes. 
 
 2000 lbs. 
 
 Refl 
 Clover. 
 
 Potash., 
 
 Soda 
 
 Lime 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 Oxide of Iron 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 
 
 Phosphoric Acid. . . 
 
 Chlorine 
 
 Silica , 
 
 Pounds carried off, 
 
 7.14 
 .86 
 
 2.31 
 .91 
 .23 
 
 2.30 
 
 1.29 
 .61 
 
 1.36 
 
 4.34 
 
 .84 
 
 8.61 
 
 .48 
 
 .13 
 
 1.81 
 
 1.31 
 
 2.36 
 
 .13 
 
 27.82 
 .93 
 1.03 
 2.63 
 .26 
 6.81 
 6.25 
 2.13 
 2.14 
 
 31.41 
 8.34 
 
 43.77 
 
 5.25 
 
 .23 
 
 7.05 
 
 10.28 
 5.86 
 6.81 
 
 17 
 
 15 
 
 50 
 
 118 
 
326 
 
 EXHAUSTION OF SOILS. 
 
 
 2000 lbs. 
 
 Meadow 
 
 Hay. 
 
 2000 lbs. 
 
 Cabbage. 
 
 Water 9-10 
 
 Potash. 
 
 18.11 
 1.35 
 
 22.95 
 6.15 
 1.69 
 2.70 
 5.97 
 2.69 
 
 37.89 
 
 5 25 
 
 Soda 
 
 9.20 
 
 
 9 45 
 
 Magnesia.. , 
 
 2 70 
 
 Oxide of Iron 
 
 25 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 
 
 9 60 
 
 
 6.60 
 
 
 2.60 
 
 Silica .. 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 45 
 
 
 
MANUEES. 
 
 
 In order to restore to the soil the matters which have been 
 taken from it by the removal of its produce, as well as to 
 add to its power to produce — to make it richer, or to keep it 
 from growing poorer — we make use of what are known as 
 manures. 
 
 This term is a very comprehensive one, and is taken to 
 mean all substances — whatever their character or origin — 
 which will have the effect of causing a larger growth of 
 vegetation. 
 
 Manures may be either Tnechcmioal or chemical in their 
 
328 
 
 MANUEES. 
 
 mode of aetion, or they may partake of both of these ch^, 
 racters. For inst^ce, barn-yard manure is both mechanical 
 and chemical in its effect. 
 
 By reason of its bulk and its coarseness it loosens tlie soil 
 and makes it more porous when mixed with it ; when it is 
 used as a top-dressing it shades the ground, and protects it 
 in a measure against the effect of frost and of too great heat ; 
 being a very active absorbent of moisture, it modifies the 
 effect of drought; its decomposition produces heat, and 
 raises the temperature of the soil. 
 
 All of these are mecTiMnicdl effects. 
 
 On the other hand, it affords to the roots of plants sub- 
 stances which enter directly into their structures, as chemical 
 constituents ; it also yields various acids, alkalies, and salts 
 which enter into combination with the constituent parts of 
 the soil, and — in one way or another — make them more 
 available as plant food. 
 
 These are chemical effects. 
 
 The v,se of Ma,nures. 
 
 In the use of manures the farmer should be guided not 
 only by the effect that will be produced on the immediate 
 crop — although this is, of course, the first consideration — 
 but quite as much by the condition in which the soil will be 
 left for the production of future crops. Unless he does this 
 he may find that, while he has reaped a temporary benefit, 
 he has inflicted a lasting injury on his fields. 
 
 It will be remembered that in our account of the soil it 
 
MANUKES. 329 
 
 was shown that the a^iount of mineral plant food that is 
 actually present in the soil in an available form is extremely 
 limited. In a state of nature, our fields would produce only 
 such crops as could be fed by the small amount of this 
 plant food which is rendered available from year to year, 
 and there would be no diminution of production. On the 
 contrary, the decay of the crop of one year would probably 
 add to the supply available for the next year. The removal 
 of the crop iy man, not the production of a crop which on 
 decay returns its elements to the soil, is what impoverishes — 
 is what makes the use of manure vitally necessary on all but 
 virgin lands. 
 
 The larger the crop — provided it decays on the land — the 
 more the fertility of the soil is increased. 
 
 The larger the crop — provided it is removed from tJie 
 land — the more the fertility of the soil is diminished. 
 
 If the crop is made larger by the use of manure, and is 
 removed from the land, the manure has caused a larger 
 amount of mineral plant food to be taken away. But if 
 the manure itself contains the full equivalent of what enters 
 into the crop, and so makes up for its drain upon the soil, 
 there will be no impoverishment. If, on the other hand, the 
 manure does not contain the equivalent of the ash-constitu- 
 ents of the crop, but has only stimulated it to take an extra 
 supply from the soil, the injury is obvious. 
 
 In some cases, a soil that will produce 10 bushels of wheat 
 without manure will produce 25 bushels if dressed with 100 
 
330 MANUEES. 
 
 lbs. of sulphate of ammonia. The extra 16 bushels con- 
 tain about 18 lbs. of mineral matter more, which was sup- 
 plied by the manure, and this is equal to one and a half 
 year's supply for the natural crop of the land. The effect 
 of this sort of farming is that the soil is made to produce 
 more than it can afford to in one year, and has its supply of 
 mineral plant food exhausted to the detriment of its future 
 productiveness. 
 
 Twenty years ago, the wheat lands of Delaware, which 
 had been producing very small crops, were' made, by the 
 use of very small doses of Peruvian guano, to double, triple, 
 even quadruple their yield. The farmers were immensely 
 elated. They had found a sort of philosopher's stone, and 
 a few years would make their fortune. Alas for their hopes 
 — a very few years demonstrated the fact that the guano had 
 been a curse rather than a blessing. Their lands were poorer 
 than ever, and even largely increased doses of the specific 
 were powerless to bring them up even to their old stan- 
 dard. 
 
 Had the wheat and straw been consumed on the farm, 
 and all of their mineral constituents returned to the soil, 
 the guano would have been a means of great permanent 
 improvement. 
 
 Or, had the same increase of production been effected by 
 the use of a manure containing the full equivalent of what 
 the crop was to take from the soil, the impoverishment of 
 the land would have been prevented. 
 
MANURES. 331 
 
 The foregoing is intended to convey the fundamental ideas 
 ■which we should bear in mind in deciding what manures we 
 are to use, and in what quantity. It is quite impossible to 
 establish any set of rules which shall be an exact guide for 
 all cases, but the following are always a safe guide : — 
 
 1. Apply in the manure the full quantity of the different 
 ash ingredients of the crops that wiU he produced before 
 •ma/nwre will he applied again. 
 
 2. Procure from, abroad maoiure containing the full 
 quantity of the different ash ingredients of all produce sold 
 from the farm, amd allow none to he wasted at home. 
 
 A close adherence to these two rules, accompanied by 
 good cultivation, and the draining of such land as needs 
 draining, will make any farmer rich who exercises ordi- 
 nary judgment and prudence in the management of his 
 affairs. 
 
 To speak with scientific accuracy, it is not necessary to 
 return quite all that the crops take away. 
 
 The processes by which soils were originally formed being 
 still in operation, there is a constant fresh development of 
 plant-food in the ground, and this will, in greater or less 
 degree, compensate for the loss by the removal of crops. 
 
 Practically, however, it is best to place this development 
 of fresh matter to the account of improvement, and, by 
 making up the full amount df all removals, to make sure 
 that the land is constantly growing better instead of worse. 
 
 As want of space forbids a more full discussion, of the 
 
332 MANUKES. 
 
 established theories concerning the use of manure, the atten- 
 tion of the reader is called to the following : — 
 
 Classification and description of manures. 
 
 Manures naturally divide themselves into such as are of 
 mineral, of vegetable, and of animal origin. 
 
 Mineral manures are such as originate from various 
 mineral substances, such as lime, which is the product of 
 limestone, marble, chalk, or marl, after the carbonic acid 
 has been expelled by an intense heat; marls, which are 
 composed of carbonate of lime, mixed with clay, sand, or 
 loam; shell sand, calcareous sand, green sand marl, gyp- 
 sum, phosphate of lime, salt, and salts of various kinds, 
 &c. 
 
 Vegetable mamv/res are such as are produced from de- 
 composed vegetable matters, which also contain some of the 
 inorganic or mineral substances. 
 
 Animal manures consist chiefly of the flesh, blood, bones, 
 horns, and hair of sea and land animals, and of the solid and 
 liquid excrements of land animals and birds, and also con- 
 tain some of the inorganic or mineral matters. 
 
 Analysis of Fish Ouano. 
 
 ■Water expelled by 212° heat. . 8.06 
 
 Sand 0.33 
 
 Oil 2.40 
 
 Organic Matter 50.72 
 
 Super- Phosphate of Lime 9.85 
 
 Sulphate of Lime, Hydrated. . . 19.62 
 
 Sulphate of Magnesia O.Tl 
 
 " Potash 2.0.5 
 
 " Soda 2.42 
 
 Chloride of Sodium 1.12 
 
 Sulphate of Ammonia ■■ ■ 2.? 2 
 
 Br. Apjohn. 
 
MANTJEES. 
 
 333 
 
 Analysis of Perii/oia/n. Ouamo. 
 
 In every 100 parts there are of 
 Organic Matter, contaiaing Nitrogen, Including TIrate of Ammonia, and 1 
 
 capable of affording from 8 to IT per cent of Ammonia, by slow}- 50. 
 
 change in the soil ; 
 
 Water 11- 
 
 Phosphate of I/ime 25 . 
 
 Ammonia, Phosphate of Magnesia, Phosphate of Ammonia and Oxa- ) ^g 
 
 late of Ammonia, containing from 4 to 9 per cent, of Ammonia . . . . ) 
 
 Silicious matter from the crops of birds 1. 
 
 Dr. Ure. 
 
 Another analysis. 
 
 "Water 13.09 
 
 Organic Matter, containing Ammonia 53.11 
 
 Common Salt and Sulphate of Soda 4.63 
 
 Carbonate of Lime 4.18 
 
 Phosphate of Lime and Magnesia. 23.54 
 
 Silicious Matter or Sand 1-39 
 
 Johnston. 
 
 Professor S. W. Johnson publishes the following table : — 
 Analysis of Peruvian Ouano. 
 
 ■Water ] 
 
 Organic Matter | 
 
 Ammonia, potential 
 
 " actual 
 
 Phosphoric, Acid soluble 
 
 in water 
 
 Phosphoric Acid insoluble 
 
 in water ...... 
 
 Sand, &c., insoluble in acids 
 Phosphate of Lime, 
 
 equivalent to total S- Av. 
 
 Phosphoric Acid . 
 
 66.32 
 5.82 
 8.93 
 
 4.69 
 
 10.05 
 1.69 
 
 65.18 
 5.95 
 9.08 
 
 3.64 
 
 10.50 
 1.52 
 
 21.28 
 
 II. 
 
 12.63 
 52.27 
 
 -16.03 
 
 -15.19 
 
 12 . VO 
 51.46 
 
 15.98 
 14.08 
 
 2.45 2.6 
 31.69 
 
 IIL 
 
 -68.00 68.10 
 
 ' i 
 17.8618.85 
 
 IV. 
 
 59.46 
 16.32 
 
 Analysis of Boli/oian Ouano. 
 
 ■Water ; 6-91 
 
 Organic Matter containing Ammonia 55.52 
 
 Common Salt and Sulphate of Soda 6.31 
 
 Carbonate of Lime v ^-87 
 
 Phosphate of Lime and Magnesia 25.68 
 
 Silicious Matter or Sand.. l.Tl 
 
 Johnston. 
 
334: MAHTJEES. 
 
 Note.— The guano of the Lobos Islands is from 25 to 33 
 per cent, less valuable than the above. 
 
 How to select a good a/rticle of gucmo. 
 
 1. The drier the better — there is less water to pay for and 
 transport. 
 
 2. The lighter the color the better — it is the less com- 
 pletely dissolved. 
 
 3. If it has not a strong ammoniacal smell, it ought to 
 give off such a smell when a spoonful of it is mixed with a 
 spoonful of slaked lime in a wine-glass. 
 
 4. When put into a tumbler with water and stirred well, 
 and the water and fine matter poured off, it ought to leave 
 but little sand or stones. 
 
 5. "When heated to redness over a fire or bright flame, 
 until the animal matter is burned away, the ash should 
 nearly all dissolve in dilute muriatic acid. 
 
 6. In looking at the printed analysis (which almost all 
 dealers furnish), see that the per cent, of water is small ; 
 that the organic matter containing ammonia approaches to 
 50 or 60 per cent. ; that the phosphates do not exceed 20 per 
 cent., and the common salt and sulphate of soda do not ex- 
 ceed 5 or 6 per cent. — Johnston. 
 
 Row to Apply Gucmo. — From 200 to 500 lbs. per acre is 
 a proper dressing, the largest quantity being required for the 
 more sterile soils. Mix it thoroughly for a few days with 
 five times its bulk of vegetable mould or loam and some 
 
MANURES. 
 
 335 
 
 charcoal or gypsum, after breaking the himps and' sifting in 
 alternate layers. Avoid the use of ashes or lime, as they 
 tend to expel the ammonia. Keep it under cover, beyond 
 the reach of water or rains, until used. It may then be 
 scattered broadcast upon meadows or graimj, or placed near 
 the seeds or young plants in the hill. 
 
 Analysis of lone {crushed) manwre. 
 
 In 100 parts, there are of 
 
 Carbonate of lime 3.t6 
 
 Fluoride of Calcium 3. 
 
 Gelatine (the substance of horn) 33.25 
 
 Lime 55.5 
 
 Phosphate of Magnesia 2. 
 
 Soda and Common Salt 2.6 
 
 Table, showing the comparatvoe value of animal manures, 
 with farm-yard manure as the standard. 
 100 lbs. farm-yard manure is equal to 
 125 lbs. solid excrements of the cow. 
 
 73 ' 
 
 ■' 
 
 91 ' 
 
 ' liquid 
 
 16 ' 
 
 ' " 
 
 98 
 
 ' mixed 
 
 54 
 
 ( (( 
 
 36 
 
 1 11 
 
 64 ' 
 
 ( i( 
 
 cow. 
 
 3 lbs. 
 
 Dry Flesh. 
 
 horse. 
 
 5 " 
 
 Pigeon's Bung. 
 
 cow. 
 
 15 " 
 
 Liquid Blood. 
 
 horse. 
 
 4 " 
 
 Dry Blood. 
 
 cow. 
 
 3 " 
 
 Feathers. 
 
 horse. 
 
 3 " 
 
 Cow Hair. 
 
 sheep. 
 
 3 " 
 
 Horn Shavings. 
 
 pig- 
 
 3i" 
 
 Dry Woollen Bags. 
 
 Johnston 
 
 Note. — The most powerful substances in the above table, 
 viz., dry woollen rags, horn shavings, cow hair, feathers, &c., 
 hold little or no water, and contain the fertilizing elements 
 of the others in very compact forms. They show less *m- 
 msdiate sensible effect upon the crop than the others, because, 
 being so dry and compact, they are long decomposing, but 
 continue to evolve fertilizing matter long after the softer and 
 more fluid manures have spent their force. 
 
336 MANHKES. 
 
 Decom,jposed vegetables as mcmure. 
 
 The characteristio distinction between animal and vege- 
 table manures lies in the fact of the former containing a 
 much larger proportion of nitrogen than the latter. 
 
 There are two grounds upon which the relative values of 
 different vegetable substances as manures may be estimated. 
 First, from the quantity and kind of inorganic matter they 
 contain. Second, from the proportion of nitrogen present 
 in each. 
 
 Table, showing the relative values of decomposed vegetables 
 as manures, from the inorganic matter they contain. 
 
 Inorganic Matter, 
 lbs. lbs. 
 
 ton Wheat Straw made into manure returns to the soil 70 to 3fi0 
 
 " Oat " " " " " 100 to 180 
 
 " Hay " " " " " 100 to 200 
 
 " Barley " " " " " 100 to 120 
 
 " Pea " " " " " .100 to 110 
 
 " Bean " " " " " 100 to 130 
 
 "Rye " " « • « » 50 jq 100 
 
 " Dry Potato-tops " " " " 400 
 
 " Dry Turnip-tops " " " " 370 
 
 " Rape Cake " " " " 120 
 
 " Malt Dust " " " " 180 
 
 " Dried Seaweed " " " " 560 
 
 Johmion.- 
 
 Table, showing' the relative values of decomposed vegetables 
 
 as manures, from the nitrogen they contain. 
 
 100 lbs. of farm-yard manure is equal to 
 
 130 Ibg. Wheat Straw Manure. 
 
 150 
 
 ' Oat 
 
 180 
 
 ' Barley " 
 
 85 
 
 ' B'kwh't " 
 
 45 
 
 ' Pea 
 
 50 
 
 ' Wheat Chaff 
 
 80 
 
 ' Green Grass 
 
 75 
 
 ' Potato Tops 
 
 80 lbs Fresh Seaweed Manure. 
 
 20 
 
 ' Dried " " 
 
 26 
 
 ' Bran ofWheatorCom " 
 
 13 
 
 ' Malt Dust " 
 
 8 
 
 ' Rape Cake " 
 
 250 
 
 ' Pine Sawdust- " 
 
 180 
 
 ' Oak 
 
 26 
 
 ' Coal Soot " 
 
 \ 
 
MANUKES. 337 
 
 Notes. — The immediate effect of vegetable manures in 
 hastening the growth of plants is dependent, in a great 
 measui-e, upon the quantity of nitrogen they contain, which 
 is given off chiefly in the form of ammonia during their 
 decay in the soil, and may be nearly exhausted in a single 
 season. 
 
 Their perma/iient effect and value is to be estimated by 
 the quantity and quality of inorganic matter they contain, 
 or ash they leave when burned, and may not be exhausted 
 for several years. 
 
 Besides' inorganic matters and nitrogen, there are other 
 ingredients in vegetable manures which are necessary to the 
 sustenance and growth of plants. 
 
 Each of the elements present in decayed or decaying plants 
 is capable either of ministering to, or preparing food for such 
 as are still alive. • 
 
 All refuse vegetable or animal matter on a farm, such as 
 straw, leaves, vegetable tops, chips, sawdust, ashes, dead 
 animals, bones, horns, hoofs, entrails, &c., &c., should be 
 carefully saved and composted, or otherwise made into 
 manure for the use of the farm. 
 
 Analysis of a manure heap in the condition usuall/y ap- 
 plied to the field. 
 
 Fresh. 
 
 Water 64.96 
 
 Orgauio Matter 24.71 
 
 Inorganic Salts 10.33 
 
 15 
 
 Dried at 212°. 
 
 Carbon 3'7.40 
 
 Hydrogen 5.27 
 
 Oxygen 25.B2 
 
 Nitrogen ].76 
 
 Ashes (inorganic matter) ...... 30.05 
 
338 
 
 MANURES. 
 
 Inorgctnio matters. 
 
 Soluble in Muriatic AcicL 
 
 Smca 21.01 
 
 Phosphate of Lime 1.11 
 
 " Magnesia. 2.26 
 
 " Iron 4.68 
 
 Carbonate of lime. 9.34 
 
 " Magnesia 1.63 
 
 Sand 30.99 
 
 Carbon 83 
 
 Alkali andloss 3.14 
 
 86.99 
 
 Soluble in Water. 
 
 Potash 3.22 
 
 Soda 2.13 
 
 Lime 0.34 
 
 Magnesia 0.26 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 3.21 
 
 Chlorine 3.16 
 
 SUioa '.... 0.04 
 
 13.01 
 86.99 
 
 Bichardson. 100.00 
 
 Analysis of other specimens of fresh farmryard manures. 
 
 Farm jard Manure Farm-yard Maniire 
 From Kent. From SurreT.*^' 
 
 Per centage of Ash 
 
 Silica 
 
 Potash 
 
 Soda 
 
 Lime A 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 Common Salt 
 
 Phosphate of Iron 
 
 " Alumina 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 
 
 From Kent. 
 
 9.2 
 
 70.79 
 8.32 
 0.92 
 6.90 
 0.66 
 1.43 
 2.04 
 1.63 
 1.89 
 1.68 
 trace 
 
 90.96 
 
 From Surrey. 
 
 9.6 
 
 71.32 
 5.14 
 1.68 
 
 12.32 
 0.82 
 1.22 
 2.03 
 2.54 
 1.67 
 1.27 
 
 99.91 
 
 Allen fy Oreenhm. 
 
 Composition of fresh farm-yard manure (composed of 
 horse, pig, and cow dung, ahout fourteen days old). 
 Analysis made November 3, 1854, by Dr. Augustus 
 Voelcker, Professor of Chemistry in the Eoyal Agricul- 
 tural College, Cirencester, England : — 
 
MANUBES. 339 
 
 "Water 66.17 
 
 * Soluble organic matter 2.4:8 
 
 Soluble inorganic matter (ash) — 
 
 Soluble silica (silicic acid) 237 
 
 Phosphate of lime. 299 
 
 Lime 066 
 
 Magnesia OH 
 
 Potash 573 
 
 Chloride of sodium 030 
 
 Carbonic acid and loss 218 
 
 IM 
 
 f Insoluble organic matter 25.76 
 
 Insoluble inorganic matter (ash) — 
 
 Soluble silica ( ,nicic acid I ^67 
 
 Insoluble silica { ) 561 
 
 Oxide of iron, alumina, with phosphates. .596 
 (Containing phosphoric acid, .178) 
 (Equal to bone earth, .386) 
 
 Lime .....r. 1.120 
 
 Magnesia 14:3 
 
 Potash 099 
 
 Soda 019 
 
 Sulphuric acid .061 
 
 Carbonic acid and loss 484 
 
 4.05 
 
 100.00 
 
 * Containing nitrogen 149 
 
 Equal to ammonia .181 
 
 •f Containing nitrogen 494 
 
 Equal to ammonia -599 
 
 Tlie whole manure contains ammonia in a free state 034 
 
 ■1 <i « « in the form of salts 088 
 
340 
 
 MANUEES. 
 
 According to this analysis one ton (2000 lbs.) farm-yard 
 manure contains — 
 
 Soluble silica (silicic acid) 24 lbs. 
 
 Ammonia (actual or potential) lof " 
 
 Phosphate of limie 13^^ " 
 
 Lime ^Z^ " 
 
 Magnesia 3^1,^ " 
 
 Potash 13^ " 
 
 Soda If " 
 
 Common salt -3^ " 
 
 Sulphuric acid 2\ " 
 
 "Water 1323f " 
 
 Woody fibre, &c 579 " 
 
 Of course no two samples of farm-yard manure are ex- 
 actly of the same composition. That analyzed by Dr. 
 Yoelcker was selected with much care, as representing a 
 fair average. 
 
 GEEEN SAND MAEL (oF NEW JEESEt). 
 
 Protoxide of iron 15.5 
 
 Alumina. . . , 6.9 
 
 Lime 5.3 
 
 Magnesia 1.6 
 
 Potash i 4.8 
 
 Soluble silica 32.4 
 
 Insoluble silica and sand 19.8 
 
 Sulphuric acid .6 
 
 Phosphoric acid 1.3 
 
 Water 8.0 
 
 Carbonic acid, &c 3.8 
 
 100.0 
 
MANUEES. ' 341 
 
 This is an average of three analyses copied from Prof. 
 Geo. Hi Cook's Eeport of the Geology of New Jersey. 
 According to this estimate one ton (2000 lbs.) of green 
 sand marl contains — 
 
 Soluble silicic acid . 648 lbs. 
 
 Lime 106 lbs, 
 
 Magnesia 32 " 
 
 Potash 96 " 
 
 Sulphuric acid 12 " 
 
 Phosphoric acid* ... 26 " 
 
 To give a better idea, of the formation and composition 
 of stable manure, the following is copied from " Waring's 
 Elements of Agriculture " : — 
 
 "digestion and its peoduots. 
 " Let us suppose that we have a full-grown. ox, which is 
 not increasing in any of his parts, but only consumes food 
 to keep up his respiration, and to supply the natural wastes 
 of his body. To this ox we will feed a ton of hay which 
 contains organic matter, with and without nitrogen, and 
 soluble and insoluble earthy substances. Now let us try 
 to follow the food through its changes in the animal, and 
 see what becomes of it. Liebig compares the consumption 
 of food by animals to the imperfect burning of wood in a 
 stove, where a portion of the fuel is resolved into gases 
 and ashes (that is, it is completely burned), and another 
 portion, whigh is not thoroughly burned, passes off as soot. 
 In the animal action in question, the food undergoes 
 changes which are similar to this burning of wood. A 
 part of the food is digested and taken up by the blood, 
 
 * Equal to phosphate of lime 56^ lbs. 
 
342 MANUEES. 
 
 wliile another portion remains undigested, and passes the 
 bowels as solid dung — corresponding to the soot of combus- 
 tion. This part of the dung, then, we see is merely so 
 much of the food as passes through the system without 
 being materially changed. Its nature is easily understood. 
 It contains organic and mineral matters in nearly the con- 
 dition in which they existed in the hay. They have been 
 rendered finer and softer, but their chemical character 
 (their composition) is not materially altered. The dung 
 also contains small quantities of nitrogenous matter, which 
 has leaked out, as it were, from the stomach and intestines. 
 The digested food, however, undergoes further changes 
 which aifect its character, and it escapes from the body in 
 three ways — i. e., through the lungs, and skin, through the 
 bladder, and through the bowels. It will be recollected 
 from the first section of this book, p. 20, that the carbon in 
 the blood of animals unites with the oxygen of the air 
 drawn into the lungs, and is thrown off in the breath as 
 carbonic acid. The hyd_rogen and oxygen unite to form 
 a part of the water which constitutes the moisture of the 
 breath. 
 
 " That portion of the atmospheric part of the hay which 
 has been taken up by the blood of the ox, and which does 
 not contain nitrogen, is emitted through the lungs. It con- 
 sists, as will be recollected, of carbon, hydrogen, and oxy- 
 gen, and these assume, in respiration, the form of carbonic 
 acid and water. 
 
MANTJEE8. 343 
 
 " The atmospheric matter of the digested hay, in the 
 blood, which does contain nitrogen, goes to the hladder, 
 where it assumes the form of urea — a constituent of urine 
 or liquid manure. 
 
 " We have now disposed of the imperfectly digested food 
 (the dung), and of the atmospherie matter which was taken 
 up by the blood. All that remains to be examined is the 
 earthy matter in the blood, which would have become ashes 
 if the hay had been burned. The readily soluble part of 
 this earthy matter passes Into the bladder, and forms the 
 earthy parts pf urine. The more msoZwSZe part passes the 
 bowels, in connection with the dung. 
 
 " If any of the food taken up by the blood is not returned 
 as above stated, it goes to form fat, muscle, hair, bones, or 
 some other part of the animal; and as he is not growing 
 (not increasing in weight), an equivalent amount of the 
 body of the animal goes to the manure to take the place of 
 the part retained.* 
 
 " "We now have our subject in a form4o be readily under- 
 stood. "We learn that when food is given to animals it is 
 not^M^ out of existence, but is merely changed in form; 
 and that in the impurities of the breath we have a large 
 portion of those parts of the food which plants obtain from 
 air and from water ; while the solid and liquid excrements 
 
 * This Hccount of digestion is ncrc, perhaps, striotly acenrate in a'phyBiological 
 point of view, but it is sufficiently so to give an elementary understanding of 
 the character of excrement as manure. 
 
34:4 MAHUKES. 
 
 contain all that was taken by the plants from the soil and 
 from manures. 
 
 " The Solid Dung contains the undigested parts of the 
 food, the more insoluble parts of the ash, and the nitro- 
 genous matters ■which have escaped from the digestive 
 organs. 
 
 " The LiQum Mahuee contains the nitrogenous parts of 
 the digested food, and the soluble parts of the ash'. 
 
 " The Beeath contains those parts of the fully digested 
 food which contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but no 
 nitrogen, or at least a very inconsiderable quantity of it." 
 
 LIQUID MANUKE. 
 
 We believe there is no system of enriching the land for 
 small gardens, with a view to perfection of crops, so truly 
 economical and so easily available as that of using liquid 
 manure. We occasionally hear of a gardener, or an ama- 
 teur grower of some special plant or ci'op, that has practised 
 enriching with liqitids, but it is only occasionally ; yet the 
 result of every record is in its favor, and a searching inquiry 
 into any extra production of fruit, flower, or plant almost 
 invariably gives watering with liquid manure as the cause. 
 There is in almost every family a waste of liquids, which usu- 
 ally go into the sewer or drain, or possibly upon the road, 
 where they are of no avail, but if saved by being conduct- 
 ed to a tank, would enrich the entire garden spot of vege- 
 
MANUEES. 345 
 
 tables, small fruits, furnish stimulus to the rose and other 
 flower borders, and keep the grass-plot green and fresh even 
 in the hottest and driest weather of midsummer. The use 
 of a little plaster (gypsum) occasionally, thrown in and 
 around the tank, would always keep it sweet and clean. By 
 the use and practice of liquid manuring no delay need ever 
 occur in planting-time because of the manure not being on 
 hand, or not being in a sufiiciently rotted condition ; but 
 planting could proceed, and the application of manure be 
 made at leisure. — Horticulturist. 
 
 Value of liquid manures. 
 
 The urine voided from a cow during one year contains 
 900 lbs. solid matter, and compared with Peruvian guano 
 at $50 per ton is worth $20. It will manure IJ acres of 
 land, and is more valuable than its dung, in the ratio, by 
 bulk, of 7 to 6, and in intrinsic value as 2 to 1. — Dana. 
 
 The Urine of the Cow contains of water 92.6 per cent. 
 
 " " Horse " " 94. " 
 
 " " Sheep " " 96. » 
 
 " •' Hog " " 92.6 " 
 
 Human " " 93.3 '■ 
 
 The remainder is composed of salts and rich food for vegetables. — Sprmgel. 
 
 Poudrette cmd Urate. 
 
 Poudrette is the nariie given to the human excrement 
 after being mixed with charcoal dust or charred peat, to 
 disinfect it of its effluvia, and when dried becomes con- 
 venient for use or transportation. 
 
 Urate is the name given to urine after mixing with it 4 
 
 15* 
 
346 
 
 MAJSCEES. 
 
 or ^ of its weight of ground gypsum, and allowing it to 
 stand several days. The urine combines with a portion 
 of the ammonia, after which the liquid is poured off and 
 the remainder dried. — Allen. 
 
 Analysis of night soil. 
 
 The excrement of -a healthy man yielded in 1000 parts — 
 
 Mucilage, fat, and animal matter. \&l. 
 
 Saline matters 12. 
 
 Undeoomposed food 10. 
 
 Water 733. 
 
 Albumen 9. 
 
 Bile 9. 
 
 Man's urine yielded in 1000 parts — 
 
 Water 933. 
 
 Urea , 30.1 
 
 Uric acid ]. 
 
 Free acetic acid, lactate ofl 
 
 ammonia, and animal mat- !■ 17.1 
 
 ter ) 
 
 Mucus of the bladder 3.3 
 
 Sulphate of potash 3.7 
 
 " soda 8.2. 
 
 Phosphate of ammonia. 1.6 
 
 " soda 2.9 
 
 Sal ammoniac '. 1.6 
 
 Common salt 4.6 
 
 Phosphate of lime and mague- J 
 
 sia, with a trace of silica >■ 1.1 
 
 and fluoride of calcium ) 
 
 1000. 
 Benelms. 
 
 Urea is a solid product of urine, and gives in 100 parts- 
 
 Carbon . . 
 Oxygen . 
 
 19.99 1 Hydrogen. 6.66 
 
 26.63 I Nitrogen 46 6S 
 
 JProut. 
 
THE DKY EAETH SYSTEM. 
 
 It has long been a difficult problem to decide in what 
 way to dispose of human excrement so as to make use of its 
 invaluable ingredients as manure, and, at the same time, 
 to avoid the offensiveness which attends its management in 
 China and Japan, and in all countries where it is habitually- 
 applied to the soil. 
 
 This problem has at last found a satisfactory solution in 
 the invention of the Eev. Henry Moule, Vicar of Fording- 
 ton, Dorsetshire, England. 
 
 This invention is based on the power of common soil, 
 when dried and sifted, to absorb, not only the moisture of 
 human excrement, but its odor as well. 
 
 This power of absorbing odors is due to both the clay 
 and the decomposed organic matter in the soil. It was 
 first discovered, or at least first satisfactorily explained, by 
 Prof. "Way, chemist to. the Koyal Agricultural Society of 
 England, whose interesting experiments on the subject are 
 detailed in the Society's Journal. 
 
 It is odd that this easy means of arresting the ofiensive 
 exhalations of human excrement was not long ago generally 
 adopted. We have a practical illustration of this use of 
 earth in the case of animals of the feline race, whose de- 
 jections are extremely offensive. They turn and carefully 
 cover these with earth. In the adhesion of the world to 
 many of the tenets of the Mosaic law, it is strange that we 
 have overlooked the sound advice given in the 12th and 
 
348 MANTJEES — THE DET EAETH SYSTEM. 
 
 13th verses of the xxiii. chap, of Deut., where we read, 
 " Thou shalt have a place also without the camp whither 
 thou shalt go forth abroad ; and thou shalt have a paddle 
 upon thy weapon ; and it shall be when thou shalt ease thy- 
 self abroad, thou shalt dig therewith and shalt turn back 
 and cover that which cometh from thee." 
 
 Mr. Moule's invention issusceptibleof many modifications. 
 The apparatus which he has devised, and which is coming 
 into quite general use in England, especially in detached 
 country houses and cottages, where there is no supply of 
 water for water-closets, consists of a hopper-shaped reservoir 
 behind and above the ordinary water-closet seatf or holding 
 the supply of dry earth, — this forms a back ; a water-tight 
 vessel or vault under the seat ; and a mechanical arrangement 
 for measuring out the proper quantity of earth (about a pint 
 and a half) and throwing it forward upon the evacuation, 
 which it entirely covers while it absorbs all the moisture. 
 
 This apparatus is simple, inexpensive, not liable to get 
 out of order, and cannot be obstructed by frost. 
 
 A modification of the same, still more simple, cheap, and 
 equally effective, though much less convenient, consists of a 
 tub or box (filled with dry earth) at the side of the seat, and 
 a common tin scoop with which to throw the earth upon the 
 deposit. , This pkn is being generally adopted in the prisons 
 and workhouses of England and the British colonies. 
 
 In fact, any vessel containing two inches or more of 
 sifted, dry earth, and a second vessel containing a supply 
 
MANITEES — THE DEY EAKTH SYSTEM. 349 
 
 of earth and a scoop or cup with which, to handle it, will 
 answer a good purpose on emergency, and will enable the 
 poorest person not merely to mitigate but to absolutely 
 overcome the most offensive accompaniment of sickness.* 
 
 While this invention offers relief from untold misery and 
 annoyance to all who cannot conveniently establish water- 
 closets in their houses, its agricultural importance makes it 
 especially interesting to farmers. 
 
 It is a fact too well known to need discussion in our lim- 
 ited space, that of all manures none are at once so powerful 
 and so well adapted to the growth of all crops as " night- 
 soil," or human excrement, though its highly offensive 
 character has generally prevented its use, and has associated 
 with it an idea of degradation. In most parts of the coun- 
 try farm-hands would leave their places rather than to have 
 anything to do with the stuff; and where it is commonly 
 used, it is made a nuisance to wide neighborhoods. 
 
 By the aid of the dry earth system every real and fan- 
 cied objection to its use is done away with. The mixed 
 earth and " soil," when dried and pulverized, are absolutely 
 without other smell than that of freshly turned earth ; and, 
 although every atom of fertilizing matter has been retained 
 in a most available form, there is nothing by which, from 
 either appearance or odor, its character could be suspected. 
 
 The most remarkable part of the whole matter is, that 
 
 * For more particular information on tliis subject, the reader is referred to a 
 pamphlet entitled " Earth Closets, how to make and how to use them," pub- 
 lished by the N. T. Tribune Association. 
 
350 
 
 MANURES ^THE DRY EARTH SYSTEM. 
 
 when the ordm-e is once decomposed and (by sifting) inti- 
 mately mixed with the earth, it has the same quality as any 
 other decomposed organic matter, i. e., it acts as a deodori- 
 zer. Consequently, the same earth (by drying and sifting) 
 may be used over and over again, always (at least up to the 
 eighth or tenth time of using) being inodorous and as good 
 a disinfectant as fresh earth ; therefore the quantity of earth 
 which it is necessary to prepare and store need not be very 
 large, and it may be made so rich as to be equal to Peru- 
 vian guano' in its effect on vegetation. 
 
 In short, in the opinion of the writer, who has had per- 
 sonal experience in tlie iise of the apparatus, in " sickness 
 and in health," the adoption of the dry earth system is 
 " the coming reform." 
 
 Table, showing the comparative increase of corn hy different 
 fertilizers. 
 
 QDAunir or rEBTiiJZBB. 
 
 No Manure 
 
 500 lbs Superphosphate of Lime 
 
 3,C90 '• Guano , 
 
 4 300 " Superphosphate Lime & 640 1 be. Guano 
 61320 " Guano and 640 lbs. dissolved Bones . . 
 6ll040" Guano & 400 lbs. Superphosphate Lime 
 
 7:16 loads Stable Manure , 
 
 8j32 " '• 
 
 '' & 200 bus. leached Ashes... 
 " & 640 lbs. Super P Lime.. . 
 " & 320 lbs Guano & 1320 ibs ) 
 I Superphosphate Lime . { 
 12!Hog mfinuro from 108 bus. corn 
 
 9;i6 
 
 10 16 
 I1I32 
 
 a 
 
 % 
 
 «■> 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 tf 
 
 
 
 
 !i " 
 
 « 
 
 i 
 
 B-S 
 
 rt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a ^' 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 B 
 
 " 
 
 
 $ 
 
 46 
 
 18 
 
 12 CO 
 
 50i 
 
 22i 
 
 19 00 
 
 58 
 
 30 
 
 25 10 
 
 61 
 
 23 
 
 18 40 
 
 u\ 
 
 46f 
 
 38 60 
 
 35 
 423 
 
 7J 
 
 16 00 
 
 14^ 
 
 32 00 
 
 41 
 
 8 
 
 12 00° 
 
 49^ 
 
 I4i 
 
 17 80» 
 
 60 
 
 1"} 
 
 10 BOO 
 
 43 
 
 m 
 
 16 20 
 
 cog 
 
 cd « -, 
 o t- S 
 
 bus 
 
 qrts. 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 C| 
 
 8 
 
 6J 
 15 
 
 Hi 
 
 2if 
 
 30 
 
 Only the increase over the experiments 7 and S with stable manure alone. 
 
MANURES. 351 
 
 All tables showing the comparative effect of different 
 manures are of very problematical value. There are so 
 many circu|nstanees and conditions of soil, climate, expo- 
 sure, moisture, previous treatment of the land, &c., &c.— 
 all of which affect, more or less strongly, the amount of the 
 crop— that it is never possible (in the light of our still 
 imperfect knowledge concerning the growth of plants, and 
 their relations to the soil) to decide how far any increase or 
 decrease may be due to the manure used, and how far to 
 other caiises. 
 
 Table, showing the efect produced upon the quantity of the 
 crop hy equal quantities of different manures appUed to 
 the same soil, sown with an equal quantity of the same 
 seed. » 
 
 Betum in bushels from each bushel of seed. 
 Manure applied, "WTieat. Barley. Oats, Rye, 
 
 Blood 14 16 12^ 14 
 
 Night-goil. 13 14i 13i 
 
 Sheep-dung 12 16 14 13 
 
 Horse-dung 10 13 14 11 
 
 Pigeon-dung 10 12 9 
 
 Cow-dung Y 11 16 9 
 
 Vegetable manure 3 7 13 6 
 
 Without manure 4 5 4 
 
 Moisture absorbed by different manures. 
 
 1000 parts horse-dung, dried in a temperature of 100° 
 Fahrenheit, absorbed by exposure to the air at a 
 temperature of 62° Fahrenheit, moisture, parts 145 
 
 1000 parts cow-dung, under same circiimstances, " 130 
 
1 
 
 352 MANURES. 
 
 
 1000 parts pig-dung, under the same circumstances,parts 
 
 120 
 
 sheep-dung, " 
 
 11 (( 
 
 81 
 
 pigeon-dung," " 
 
 " ii 
 
 50 . 
 
 " rich alluvial soil, " 
 
 i( ii 
 
 14 
 
 " fresh tanners' bark, " 
 
 (1 (( 
 
 115 
 
 putrified " " 
 
 « a 
 
 145 
 
 " refuse marine salt, " 
 
 ee ii 
 
 A^ 
 
 " soot, " 
 
 CC (I 
 
 36 
 
 " burnt clay, " 
 
 (( « 
 
 29 
 
 " coal ashes, " 
 
 tC (( 
 
 14 
 
 " lime, ^ " 
 
 (( u 
 
 11 
 
 " sediment from salt-pans, " " 
 
 10 
 
 " crushed rock-salt. 
 
 a ti 
 
 10 
 
 " , gypsum. 
 
 <c <c 
 
 9 
 
 " chalk. 
 
 a a 
 
 4 
 
 Table, showing the nurnher of 
 
 loads of manure and the 
 
 "number of heaps to each load 
 
 required to each acre, the 
 
 heaps at giveri distances apart. 
 
 
 
 Is 
 -I' 
 
 Is 
 
 HCMBEK OF HEAPS IN A LOAD. 
 
 I&. 
 
 112 1 3 1 4 1 5 
 
 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 , 
 
 10 
 
 ■i 
 
 538 
 
 2B9 
 
 179 
 
 134 
 
 1U8 
 
 89i 
 
 77 
 
 67 
 
 60 
 
 54 
 
 3i 
 
 395 
 
 168 
 
 132 
 
 99 
 
 79 
 
 66 
 
 66} 
 
 49} 
 
 44 
 
 89} 
 
 4 
 
 203 
 
 151 
 
 101 
 
 ^^ 
 
 m 
 
 50* 
 
 43} 
 
 371 
 
 33} 
 
 30} 
 
 ^h 
 
 239 
 
 120 
 
 79J 
 
 60 
 
 47 
 
 39} 
 
 84} 
 
 30 
 
 26} 
 
 24 
 
 s 
 
 194 
 
 97 
 
 64i 
 
 48J 
 
 38 
 
 32 
 
 Tii 
 
 24} 
 
 2U 
 
 19} 
 
 H 
 
 160 
 
 80 
 
 53J 
 
 40 
 
 32 
 
 26 
 
 22f 
 
 20 
 
 17| 
 
 16 
 
 6^ 
 
 131 
 
 67 
 
 44| 
 
 331 
 
 27 
 
 22} 
 
 19} 
 
 16| 
 
 15 
 
 13} 
 
 6J 
 
 115 
 
 57} 
 
 381 
 
 28; 
 
 23 
 
 19 
 
 16} 
 
 14} 
 
 12| 
 
 11} 
 
 7' 
 
 99 
 
 m 
 
 33 
 
 24} 
 
 19| 
 
 16J 
 
 14 
 
 12} 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 7J 
 
 86 
 
 43 
 
 28i 
 
 21 
 
 17 
 
 U\ 
 
 12} 
 
 10| 
 
 9} 
 
 8} 
 
 s' 
 
 ^^ 
 
 37i 
 
 25i 
 
 19 
 
 15f 
 13| 
 
 12} 
 
 lol 
 
 9 
 
 Si 
 
 7} 
 
 H 
 
 67 
 
 33J 
 
 221 
 
 lej 
 
 Hi 
 
 9i 
 
 ^ 
 
 7 
 
 6| 
 
 9^ 
 
 60 
 
 3(1 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 8} 
 
 7 
 
 6| 
 
 6 
 
 H 
 
 53i 
 
 26J 
 
 18 
 
 13J 
 
 lOf 
 
 9 
 
 7^ 
 
 6' 
 
 6 
 
 5i 
 
 10 1 48i 
 
 24i 
 
 16i 
 
 12 
 
 H 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 H 
 
 4J 
 
 
 
MANTJKES. 353 
 
 Explanation. — In the left hand column are placed the dis- 
 tances of the rows and the heaps in each row (*. e., the dis- 
 tances between the heaps in each direction), and at the top 
 of the columns will be noticed the number of heaps intended 
 to be made of each load ; the point where the two meet 
 gives the number of loads per acre which will be required 
 for that purpose. 
 
 Example 1. — Required the number of loads necessary to 
 manure an acre, dividing each load into six heaps, and pla- 
 cing them 4J yards apart ? 
 
 Solution. — In the left hand column find 4^ (the distance 
 of the heaps apart), and opposite it to the right, under 6 
 (the number of heaps in each load), will be fouad 39|, 
 Ans. 
 
 Example 2. — A farmer has a field containing 5|- acres, 
 over which he wishes to spread 82 loads of manure. Now, 
 82 divided by 5^ gives 15 loads per acre, and by referring 
 to the table it will be seen that the desired object can be at- 
 tained by making 4 heaps of each load, and placing them 9 
 yards apart, or by 9 heaps at 6 yards apart, as may be 
 thought most advisable. 
 
 Notes. — A cubic foot of half rotten stable manure will, 
 weigh 56 lbs. ; if coarse or dry, 48 lbs. 
 
 A load of mcmure is about 36 cubic feet, and of the first 
 quality will weigh 2016 lbs. ; of the second, 1728 lbs. 
 Eight loads of the first kind spread over an acre will give 
 
354 AETIFICIAL MAUUEES. 
 
 108 lbs. to each square rod, and about 3^ lbs. to each square 
 yard. 
 
 Five loads will give 63 lbs. to each square rod. ' 
 
 To find tlie numher of loads of manure required to the 
 acre, for a given number of lbs. per square foot. 
 
 Rule. — Multiply 43560 (the nUmber of square feet in an 
 acre) by the number of lbs. you wish to spread on each 
 square foot, and divide the product by 2016, and the quo- 
 tient will be the nunsber of loads required. 
 
 Example.- — Required, the number of loads of manure to 
 cover a 2-acre field, giving 2 lbs. of manure to each square 
 foot? 
 
 Solution.— 43560 x 2 x 2 = 174240-=- 2016 = 86.4 loads, 
 Ans. 
 
 AETIFICIAL MANURES. 
 
 It is a self-evident truth that if we sell, we must buy, or 
 we must be content to see our stock on hand reduced. 
 
 This principle applies nowhere else with more force than 
 to the stock of mineral plant-food in the soil. This is, after 
 " all, our " stock in trade " — ammonia, carbonic acid, and wa- 
 ter ; — the sources of nearly ninety-nine-hundredths of our 
 crops we can draw from the floating capital of the world, 
 and, except in the case of ammonia, we need give ourselves 
 but little trouble about them. "With the mineral matters, 
 however, the case is very different. Some of them, it is true, 
 
ARTIFICIAL MANDEES. 355 
 
 are so abundant and so universally distributed that they do 
 not demand much attention ; but some others, on the other 
 hand, have been distributed by nature with so sparing a 
 hand, that our constant care should be given to keeping our 
 supply of them undiminished. They exist only in the soil ; 
 the winds cannot waft them to us, nor do they come, as am- 
 monia does, in every summer shower. They are the hard 
 currency of our banking system, and our business will always 
 be limited by the amount we have in our vaults, and by the 
 promptness with which we make good* their loss when we 
 have put them in circulation. 
 
 This fact has created a demand for artificial manures, 
 the theory of whose production is, that the phosphate of lime 
 which has found its way into the bones of animals, and has 
 thus become, for the moment, unavailable to the farmer, 
 shall be returned by some process which shall convert refuse 
 bones into manure, or that it shall be replaced from some 
 other source, as from the phosphatic guanos from which 
 superphosphate of lime is largely made; and that potash, 
 lime, &c., shall be collected, in the form of ashes, &c., &c., 
 and returned to the soil. 
 
 If all the artificial manures that have been put into the 
 market had been honestly made, the demand for them would 
 have been much greater even than it now is. 
 
 But the fact that their composition can be ascertained 
 only by careful chemical analysis, which farmers are incom- 
 petent to make, has led to no end of fraud, and one never 
 
356 
 
 ARTIFIGIAL MANURES. 
 
 knows, in purchasing a ton of superphospjiate, poudrette, 
 guano, &c., whether he is or is not paying for half a ton of 
 coal-ashes or other worthless dirt. The consequence of this 
 has been that many farmers have bought a little superphos- 
 phate as an experiment, have found no beneficial result from 
 its use, and so have given it up as a bad job and pronounced 
 the whole system of artificial manuring a swindle. The 
 example of each man has had its effect on his neighbors, and 
 there is, consequently, a wide-spread belief that all artificial 
 manures are hunibugs. 
 
 At the same time, there are so many who do fully under- 
 stand the value of these fertilizers, and whose land absolutely 
 needs their aid, that the manufacture and sale of such as 
 are of established good quality has reached enormous pro- 
 portions. 
 
 On farms where large stocks of cattle are fed, and for lands 
 which are enriched by the raising of clover as a green crop, 
 the necessity for the use of foreign manures is much less 
 than where the crops are mainly sold off, and no recupera- 
 tive process (such as the use of green crops) is adopted. 
 
 There is, in all fertile lands, a large reserve stock of min- 
 eral plant-food which is not yet in a proper condition to be 
 taken up by roots, and if the cropping is not too severe — 
 the produce being mainly consumed at home, and the ma- 
 nure economically used, or the frequent use of green crop 
 manuring being resorted to — the gradual development, in 
 an available form, of these mineral matters will maintain 
 
AETIFICIAL MANURES. 357" 
 
 the land in a fair state of fertility for a very long; time, and 
 here the use of mineral manures is less obvious than in other 
 cases. 
 
 It is a fallacy, however, to suppose that these lands do not 
 need mineral manuring. By the system pursued, we are 
 simply drawing on the capital stock, and j sooner or later, we 
 shall touch bottom. It all looks fair enough now, but at 
 some future day we or our successors must pay the penalty 
 of our improvidence by finding that the land will no longer 
 produce good crops without the use of more purchased ma- 
 nure than can profitably be applied to them. 
 
 The only safe rule (the only honest course, when we con- 
 sider the fact that we are only life-tenants of our farms, and 
 are in duty bound to leave them, unimpaired if not improved, 
 to those who are to come after us) is to bring back on to the 
 farm, every year, as much of the more valuable elements of 
 vegetable ashes as we have sold off from it, whether in meat 
 milk, grain, or hay. In this way only can we be sure that 
 our land and our crops will each year improve. 
 
 The great deficiency of our older soils is in the items of 
 phosphoric acid and potash. (Lime is more often needed 
 as an agent for the development of matters already contained 
 in the soil than as a direct food for plants.) 
 
 While ammonia has been classed among the non-essential 
 elements of manure, its action as a stimulant is so remark- 
 able that it is, commercially considered, the most valuable 
 of all. 
 
358 ABTIFICIAL MANTJEES. 
 
 Professor S. W. Johnson of the Sheffield Scientific School, 
 Yale College — the highest authority in America — gives the 
 following as the analysis of the best Superjphosphate of Lime 
 that ever came under his. examination : — 
 
 Analyds of Mapei Improved Superphosphate .of Lime. 
 Manufacture of 1852. 
 
 Water 4.54 
 
 Organic and volatile matter 22.96 
 
 Sand and matters insoluble in acids ' 1.48 
 
 Soluble phosphoric acid 10.65 
 
 Insoluble " " lO.lT 
 
 Ammonia 2. 78 
 
 Phosphate of lime equivalent to phosphoric acid 45.11 
 
 The following is also from Johnson : — 
 
 Analysis of Coe^s Superphosphate. ^ Manufacture of 1856. 
 
 Water, organic and volatile matters 38.02 
 
 Sand and matters insoluble in acids 3.37 
 
 Soluble phosphoric acid 3.84 
 
 Insoluble " " l'''-84 
 
 Ammonia o.Q't 
 
 Phosphate of lime, equivalent to phosphoric acid . . . 46.47 
 
 Johnson also gives the following apalysis of lone^ash^ or 
 the residue of burnt bones : — 
 
 Analysis of Deburg's Bone Meal. 
 
 Water • ■■'• 3.04 
 
 Organic and volatile matters, mostly charcoal 2.07 
 
 Sand and insoluble matters , 11.19 
 
ABTIFICIAI, MAinjEES. 359 
 
 Lime 42.17 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 35.42 
 
 Carbonic " 1.23 
 
 Magnesia and sulphuric acid, with undetermined 
 
 matters 4.88 
 
 100.00 
 Also the following : — 
 
 Analysis of Bone Dust. 
 
 Water 8.75 
 
 Organic matter 27.25 
 
 Sano 5.37 
 
 Earthy phosphates 45.32 
 
 Carbonate of lime and loss 13.31 
 
 100.00 
 Ammonia 2.98 
 
 Also the following : — 
 
 Analysis of Fish Ouano, or the refuse of Fish Oil Worlcs. 
 
 Water 9.67 
 
 Organic (animal) matter 67.78 
 
 Sand 2.05 
 
 Lime 3.76 
 
 Soluble phosphoric acid 3.38 
 
 Insoluble " " 81 
 
 Ammonia yielded by animal matter 8.36 
 
 Purchasers of manures will fitid the following table — taken 
 
360 AETIFICIAL MAinJEES. 
 
 fi-om Judd's Agricultural Annual for 1868 — of great value, 
 as affording a good general guide in determining the value 
 of manure by the use of an analysis : — 
 
 Peices of Staiidabd Feetilizees, and a Standaed fok 
 
 Peices. 
 
 The prices of some of the standard fertilizers offered in 
 
 the New Toi'k market simply as such, in December, 1867, 
 
 are as follows :— - 
 
 Peruvian Guano, in quantities of 50 tons, per long ton, (gold) $60.00 
 
 do do in smaller quantities the price varies ■with the premi- 
 um on gold ; with gold at 35 per cent, prom., per 200O lbs 85.00 
 
 Baker's or Jarvis' Island Guano — a phosphatio Guano from the S. Paci- 
 ' fie Ocean, which should contain equivalent to 60 to 70 per cent, of 
 
 bone phosphate of lime; per 2000 lbs 45.00 
 
 Superphosphate of lime, per 2000 lbs 65.00 
 
 Bone, fine ground, in 250 lb. hbls., per 2000 lbs 45.00 
 
 Flour of bone, per 2000 lbs 60.00 
 
 Fine floated bone, per 2000 lbs 65.00 
 
 Fish manure, dry and finely ground, per 2000 lbs 45.00 
 
 do unground, per 2000 lbs 30.00 
 
 Gypsum or plaster, sold in quantities of 1 bbls., per bbl. (250 lbs). . . 1.15 
 
 Shell lime, in bulk, per bushel 10 
 
 do per bbl 1.50 
 
 Sulphuric acid of 66 degrees, (oil of vitriol) per lb 2|c. 
 
 do do of 60 degrees, (pan acid) 2Jo. 
 
 Carboys containing about 150 lbs. of this acid cost $3 
 each, and may be returned when empty. 
 
 The following table was prepared by John B. Laws, of 
 Rothampstead, England. The money values of the manure, 
 resulting from feeding the several substances are based on 
 

 
 ARTIFICIAL MANUBES. 
 
 361 
 
 
 the English (gold) prices of manure ; they would be consi- 
 
 
 derably higher here, but this does not affect their relative 
 
 
 value. 
 
 
 
 Average Composition, per cent, and per ton, of 
 
 various 
 
 
 hinds of Agricultural Produce, &c. 
 
 
 
 
 PEH CENT. 
 
 LBS. PER (LONG) TON. 
 
 11 
 
 
 ^, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 as 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 S| 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 s 
 
 ■cS 
 
 
 
 j; 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 % 
 
 If 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 !l 
 
 
 
 •S5 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 "i . 
 
 Is 
 
 
 c' 
 
 E? 
 
 •g 
 
 ■gs 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 -a 
 1 
 
 at 
 
 
 "S 
 
 t 
 
 •a 
 
 i! 
 
 111 
 
 ■g 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 C-* 
 
 fM 
 
 fi 
 
 iS 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 £ 
 
 i£ 
 
 g 
 
 !>* 
 
 
 1. Linseed cake 
 
 88.0 
 
 7,00 
 
 4.92 
 
 1.65 
 
 4.75 
 
 1,971 
 
 156.8 
 
 110.3 
 
 S7.0 
 
 106.4 
 
 19,72 
 
 
 2. Cotton-Beed cake 
 
 89.0 
 
 8.00 
 
 7.00 
 
 3,12 
 
 6.50 
 
 1,994 
 
 179.2 
 
 156.8 
 
 70.0 
 
 145,6 
 
 27.86 
 
 
 3. Rape cake 
 
 89.0 
 
 8.00 
 
 5.75 
 
 1.76 
 
 5,00 
 
 1,994 
 
 179.2 
 
 128.8 
 
 39.4 
 
 113,0 
 
 21,01 
 
 
 4. Limeed ., 
 
 90.0 
 
 4.00 
 
 3.38 
 
 1..57 
 
 3,80 
 
 2,016 
 
 89.6 
 
 75.7 
 
 80,7 
 
 86,1 
 
 16,65 
 
 
 5. Beans 
 
 84.0 
 
 3.00 
 
 2.20 
 
 1.27 
 
 4.00 
 
 1,862 
 
 67.2 
 
 49.3 
 
 2S,4 
 
 89,6 
 
 16,75 
 
 
 6. Peas 
 
 84.5 
 
 2.40 
 
 1.S4 
 
 0,96 
 
 3.40 
 
 1,893 
 
 53,8 
 
 41.2 
 
 21.5 
 
 76.2 
 
 13,38 
 
 
 7, Tares 
 
 84.0 
 
 2.00 
 
 1.03 
 
 0.06 
 
 4.20 
 
 1,892 
 
 44.8 
 
 36.5 
 
 14,8 
 
 94.1 
 
 16.75 
 
 
 8. lentils 
 
 88.0 
 
 3.00 
 
 1.89 
 
 0.96 
 
 4, SO 
 
 1,971 
 
 67.2 
 
 43.3 
 
 21,6 
 
 96,8 
 
 1«,61 
 
 
 9. Malt dust 
 
 94.0 
 
 8.50 
 
 6.23 
 
 2.12 
 
 4.20 
 
 2,106 
 
 190,4 
 
 117.1 
 
 47.5 
 
 94,1 
 
 18.21 
 
 
 10. Locust beans 
 
 85.0 
 
 1.75 
 
 
 
 1,25 
 
 1,904 
 
 39,2 
 
 
 
 28.0 
 
 4,81 
 
 
 11. Indian meal 
 
 88. 
 
 l.SO 
 
 'ilis' 
 
 6;.S6 
 
 1.80 
 
 1,971 
 
 29.1 
 
 "25!.3 
 
 '•r'-s 
 
 40,3 
 
 0,65 
 
 
 13. Wheat 
 
 85.0 
 
 1.70 
 
 1.87 
 
 0.60 
 
 l.SO 
 
 1,904 
 
 38.1 
 
 43.0 
 
 11.2 
 
 40.8 
 
 7,08 
 
 
 13. Barley 
 
 84.0 
 
 2.20 
 
 1.S5 
 
 0.55 
 
 1,65 
 
 1,862 
 
 49.3 
 
 30,2 
 
 12.3 
 
 37.0 
 
 6,13 
 
 
 14. Malt 
 
 95.0 
 
 3.60 
 
 1.60 
 
 0.66 
 
 1.70 
 
 2,128 
 
 58.2 
 
 85,8 
 
 14.6 
 
 38.1 
 
 6,65 
 
 
 15. Oats 
 
 8«.0 
 
 3.85 
 
 1.17 
 
 0.60 
 
 2,00 
 
 1,926 
 
 63.8 
 
 26.2 
 
 11.2 
 
 44,8 
 
 7.70 
 
 
 IC. Fine pollard* 
 
 8fi.O 
 
 5.60 
 
 6.44 
 
 1.46 
 
 2,00 
 
 1,920 
 
 125.4 
 
 144.2 
 
 32.7 
 
 68.2 
 
 13.53 
 
 
 17. Coarse poUardt. 
 
 86.0 
 
 6.20 
 
 7.62 
 
 1.49 
 
 2,58 
 
 1,926 
 
 1E8.9 
 
 168.4 
 
 .53,4 
 
 67. 6 
 
 14, £6 
 
 
 18. Wheat bran 
 
 80.0 
 
 6.60 
 
 7.95 
 
 1.45 
 
 2,55 
 
 1,926 
 
 147,8 
 
 178.1 
 
 32,5 
 
 67.1 
 
 14,59 
 
 
 IS). Clover ha^ 
 
 84.0 
 
 7.50 
 
 1.25 
 
 l.EO 
 
 2.50 
 
 1,8S3 
 
 168.0 
 
 28.0 
 
 39.1 
 
 66,0 
 
 9.64 
 
 
 20. Meadow hay |8-1.0 
 
 6.00 
 
 0.88 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.50 
 
 1,663 
 
 ,134.4 
 
 19,7 
 
 .33.6 
 
 33,6 
 
 6.43 
 
 
 21. Bean straw |82.6 
 
 5.55 
 
 0.90 
 
 1.11 
 
 0.90 
 
 1,648 
 
 124.3 
 
 20,2 
 
 24.9 
 
 20.2 
 
 3.87 
 
 
 S3. Pea straw 82.0 
 
 5.95 
 
 0.65 
 
 0.89 
 
 
 1,837 
 
 133.3 
 
 19.0 
 
 19.9 
 
 20.2 
 
 3.74 
 
 
 V\ Wheatstraw. iM.O 
 
 5.00 
 
 0.05 
 
 0.65 
 
 oieo 
 
 1,662 
 
 112,0 
 
 12.3 
 
 14,6 
 
 13.4 
 
 2,68 
 
 
 3-1. Barley straw '85.0 
 
 4.50 
 
 0.37 
 
 0.63 
 
 0.50 
 
 1,904 
 
 100,8 
 
 8.3 
 
 14.1 
 
 11.2 
 
 225 
 
 
 25. Oat straw 83.0 
 
 5.50 
 
 0.48 
 
 0.930.00 
 
 1,859 
 
 123.2 
 
 10.7 
 
 20,8 
 
 13.4 
 
 2.90 
 
 
 21). Mangel wurzel 13.5 
 
 1.00 
 
 0.09 
 
 0.26 
 
 0.25 
 
 280 
 
 22.4 
 
 2,0 
 
 5.6 
 
 6.6 
 
 1,07 
 
 
 S7. Swedish turnips 11.0 
 
 0.68 
 
 0.13 
 
 0,18 
 
 0.23 
 
 ■ 246 
 
 13.4 
 
 2.9 
 
 4.0 
 
 4.6 
 
 ill 
 
 
 2S. Common turnips | 8.0 
 
 0.68 
 
 0.11 
 
 0.29 
 
 0.18 
 
 179 
 
 15.2 
 
 2.5 
 
 6.5 
 
 4.0 
 
 O.fO 
 
 
 2(1. Potatoes 24.0 
 
 1.00 
 
 0..S2 
 
 0,43 
 
 0,85 
 
 637 
 
 22.4 
 
 7.2 
 
 9.6 
 
 7,8 
 
 l.SO 
 
 
 ro. Carrots 13.5 
 
 0.70 
 
 0.13 
 
 0.23 
 
 0,20 
 
 802 
 
 15.7 
 
 2.9 
 
 5.1 
 
 4,5 
 
 0.80 
 
 
 31. Parsnips. 15.01.001 0.42 'O.EO'O 23 
 
 836 23.4' 9.4 
 
 8.1 
 
 4.9 
 
 1.14 
 
 
 * Middlings, Canielle. + Shipstuff. 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
TILE DRAINING. 
 
 I have preferred to head this article as I have, rather than 
 to say simply " draining " or " under-draining," because I 
 believe in the use of tiles under all circumstances when it 
 is possible to procure them, and because the making of stone 
 drains is understood by every farmer who lives in a region 
 that is blessed with wet land and stone. 
 
 At the same time, I would not be thought to undervali;e 
 the usefulness of stone drains. Neither the stone nor the 
 tile has any influence, in itself, on the. fertility of the soil. 
 Any material by the use of which we can make a passage- 
 way through the soil will make a perfectly good drain, as 
 liong as it keeps the passage open. 
 
 The question is to be decided simply by the consideration 
 of cost and durability ; and here the tiles have an immense 
 advantasje. 
 
 In the first place, they are very much chearper than stone ; 
 and in the second, the drain which they make is very much 
 more likely to be permanent. 
 
 It will, I am aware, strike many farmers whose land is, 
 encumbered with stones, as a singular proposition that it is 
 cheaper to pay twenty-five or thirty dollars per acre for tiles, 
 when there are stones on the place that it would be an ad- 
 vantage to get rid of But it is a fact, nevertheless. The 
 
TILE DEAININO. 363 
 
 cost of collecting the stones, of breaking (or selecting them) 
 to a proper size, of laying them in the drain, and of pro- 
 tecting them from the rattling down of loose dirt among 
 them, and from the burrowing down of field-mice, is very- 
 great, and in addition to this we have to calculate the cost 
 of digging the very much wider ditch that is required for 
 their use. 
 
 To drain land in the best manner there are required about 
 sixty rods of drain four feet deep, and fifty cents a rod for 
 the above items (which is the utmost that tile should cost) 
 would not pay one-half of the actual cost of stones, if we 
 calculate the labor of teams and men at anything approach- 
 ing their full value. 
 
 As to durability. A tile drain, when properly laid, is pack- 
 ed closely in the most compact subsoil within our reach, has 
 its joints (which are very close) encased in an earthen collar, 
 is closed at its upper end by a flat stone against the tile, and 
 its outlet secured by a grating. No dirt can get in to stop 
 it up, and no vermin can use it for a camping ground. The 
 only thing (except in rare instances the roots of trees) that 
 can enter it at all is the water that it is intended to carr^' 
 away. 
 
 Of course I speak of a tile drain that is made of good 
 materials and is made in a proper manner. It is very easy 
 to make a drain that will not be worth the cost of the tiles, 
 not worth anything ; and many such drains are made by 
 careless or ignorant people, who, seeing their uselessness, 
 
^"^ TILE DEAIHING. 
 
 are loud in tlie praise of stone drains, and never want to see 
 anotlier draining tile so long as tliey live. 
 
 A good tile-draiu, made of good clay and well burnt, 
 properly laid on a uniform descent, and liming a good out- 
 let, is practically as permanent as the earth in which it is 
 imbedded. 
 
 And now, how to make such a drain. It would take 
 much more than the few pages that can be here devoted to 
 the subject to tell. All that my space will allow me to do 
 is to give a few general rules and directions, which will suf- 
 fice to enable a farmer to understandingly decide for himself 
 whether he will make his drains of stones or of tiles; and a 
 few arguments which may convince him that he cannot 
 afford to let his wet land go undrained. 
 
 The draining tile is made in several forms, known as the 
 " round,'^ the " sole," and the " horse-shoe." The last men- 
 tioned represents the first step that was taken in advance of 
 the use of stones, and it has long been condemned as an in- 
 ferior article by all who have had experience in the use of 
 the other kinds. The sole-tile^ which has an egg-shaped ori- 
 fice, and has a flat side to lie upon, is theoretically very 
 good, and is really very good, only not the best. The flat 
 side is a delusion, for the reason that it generally is not fiat, 
 being very liable to be warped out of shape in the burning, 
 while the uneven drying of the clay before it is burnt, or 
 the friction of the die through which it is moulded, is very 
 apt to so distort its shape as to make it diflBcult to make a 
 good joint. 
 
TILE DRAINING. 365 
 
 The round tile, if well made, is much better, is pi-actically 
 perfect. A tile does not need a flat side to lie upon, for in nine 
 cases out of ten the bottom of the ditch is not flat, and as soon 
 as each piece is put in its place, and while it is held there by 
 the tile-layer, a second man covers it sufiBciently to hold it 
 firmly. The smaller sizes have collars or rings to fit them, 
 and these keep the joints " in line " and prevent loose dirt 
 from rattling into the wider openings. ■ Another great ad- 
 vantage of the round tiles is that, if they don't fit each other 
 as they are first laid, they can be turned over until the 
 slight inequalities of the two ends will correspond. 
 
 All of the larger tile makers now make the round tiles, 
 and most of them make them very well. A machine in- 
 vented by Mr. Tiffany (of the Crosmann Clay and Manufac- 
 turing Company, Woodbridge, New Jersey) moulds the tiles 
 more smoothly, and presses them harder, than any other yet 
 brought into use. Mr. C. W. Boynton, of "Woodbridge, 
 however, seems to have brought more real talent to the 
 manufacture of tiles than any one else who has under- 
 taken the business, and his pipes are probably the best now 
 made, inasmuch as they are two feet ^ong — twice the usual 
 length — and are supplied with connecting pieces for admit- 
 ting lateral drains into the main trunk lines. Heretofore it 
 has been the custom to pick a hole in the side of the tile of 
 the main drain, and to bring the end of the lateral against 
 it, closing the irregular openings by covering them with bits 
 of broken tile or small stones ; and it was nice work to 
 
366 TILE DBAINnirG. 
 
 avoid breaking the pipe, and at the same time to make the 
 joint so accurately as to neither retard the flow nor to admit 
 earth from the filling. 
 
 Boynton's pipes, -which are shown in the accompanying 
 cuts, have a branch piece nicely fitted to the side of the 
 pipe that is to form a part of the mkin, the branch forming 
 a part of the lateral. On the end of this branch a collar 
 may be placed to receive the end of the lateral, making as 
 good a joint at the junction as at any other part of the 
 drain. 
 
 Before this improvement was made, it was often neces- 
 Barj", where a tile came into the main, to make a silt-basin 
 to catch any silt that might be deposited by the more S'lug- 
 gish flow of the water at that point. By its aid these silt- 
 basins may be, in nearly all cases, dispensed with, as the 
 lateral enters in an oblique direction, and the velocity of its 
 flow will be imparted to that of the main. 
 
 Eie. L Fia. 2. 
 
 Fia.S. 
 
 Fig. 1 shows the round tile ; Fig. 2, the collar ; Fig. 3, the 
 manner of laying these ; Fig. 4, the connecting joint of the 
 
TILE DRAINING. 367 
 
 main with a branch to receive the lateral ; and Fig. 5 the 
 
 Via. 4. 
 
 manner of laying the tiles at the junction of a lateral drain 
 with the main. 
 
 Fis. 5. 
 
 Hules to he observed in making Tile Drains : — 
 
 1. EvGiy drain (unless there is some special reason to 
 the contrary) should run directly down the steepest de- 
 scent of the land — not obliquely, but straight down the hill. 
 
 2. Wherever possible, the drains should be four feet 
 deep, especially when the subsoil is a stiff clay hard-pan. 
 
 3. When the drains are four feet deep, they should be 
 forty feet apart. If only three feet deep, they should be 
 only twenty feet apart; and if more than four feet, they 
 may safely be placed at greater distances than forty feet. 
 
368 TILE DEAINING. 
 
 i. The rate of fall or inclination of a drain should not de- 
 crease as it approaches the outlet. It may be increased as 
 much as is convenient. The rule is, to keep the water run- 
 ning faster and faster, rather than slower and slower, as it 
 gets on in the drain. 
 
 5. The outlet should always be clear and free — never, if 
 it can possibly be avoided, so arranged as to be obstructed 
 by mud or dead water. 
 
 6. The tiles should have' no porous material of any kind 
 over them, but should be imbedded (and firmly packed) in 
 the closest clay that is accessible. 
 
 1. In digging the ditch, always commence at the lower 
 end and work toward the top ; in laying the tiles, commence 
 at the upper end, and continue toward the outlet. 
 
 8. Never have tiles laid by the piece (or rod), but al- 
 ways by the day, and by the most faithful and careful man 
 that can be found ; if possible, do it yourself, and remem- 
 ber that the golden rule of draining is that, as the weakest 
 link of a chain is the measure of its strength, so is the 
 worst laid tile of a drain the measure of its goodness* 
 
 If the drains are laid at distances of forty feet it will take 
 just about one thousand feet of tiles to drain an acre. 
 
 As to the sizes of tiles required, it will make a difference 
 whether the faiU is rapid or slight ; but under all ordinary 
 circumstances, where there are no springs to be disposed of, 
 only the natural drainage of the land itself (its accumulated 
 
 * Talpa, or the Chronicles of a Clay Farm. 
 
TILE DEAINING. 369 
 
 rain-fall), the first 1600 feet in length, whether it be a single 
 drain or several laterals, may be made of the smallest sized 
 tiles (1|- inch). Beyond this amount and up to 5000 feet, 
 2-ineh tiles will suffice. From 5000 to 10,000 feet use 3- 
 inch, and from 10,000 to 20,000 feet use 4-inch. 
 
 These sizes would not suffice for the immediate i-emoval 
 of all the water of a very heavy rain-fall, but it is to be re- 
 membered that before the water can get to the tiles it must 
 filter slowly through four feet of soil, and could reach the 
 drain but slowly, were it ever so large. Then again, it is 
 not important that the water of a heavy rain be removed 
 within an hour of its falling ; it does no harm to have it 
 settle slowly away, so long as it really does settle away, and 
 does not stand to be evaporated from the surface, nor to 
 flow off" over it ; and it is desirable that the drains should 
 occasionally run "more than full," so that a strong flow of 
 water may wash out any obstructions that may have accu- 
 mulated in them. 
 
 The question should not he so much how large a tile is 
 necessary to carry the water, as how large a tile will the 
 water {after heamy rami) he able tojhish and keep clean. 
 
 In the foregoing, I have simply stated rules and principles 
 which have been proven by long experience to be correct. 
 The'evidences of their truth and reliability, and the argu- 
 ments on which they are founded, could not be set forth in 
 the limited space which has been allowed for the subject in 
 
 this book. The object here is to set forth rules and to give 
 
 16* 
 
370 
 
 TILE DEAINING. 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 Tools nsed in laying drain tile. 
 
TILE DEAININGi 
 
 371 
 
 directions. Those who are desirous of investigating reasons 
 will find them stated in other works which are devoted to 
 the fuller discussion of the various topics here touched upon. 
 
 The ditches are usually dug, in this country, with the or- 
 dinary pick, spade, and shovel, with the single addition of a 
 narrow scoop to work in the narrow bottoms of the drains. 
 Such a scoop may be made by cutting a common, round- 
 pointed, long-handled shovel down to a width of four or five 
 inches. 
 
 In Europe, where much more extensive operations of 
 drainage are carried on than are known in this country, sets 
 of tools especially adapted for all the diiferent operations 
 are used. One set of these is shown in Fig. 6. 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 The position of the workman in cutting a narrow ditch 
 
372 
 
 TILE DEAINING. 
 
 for a tile, or rather in finishing the bottom of the ditch with 
 the scoop, is shown in Fig. 7. 
 
 The manner of secm-ing the outlet so as to keep out ver- 
 
 > 
 
 Via. 9. 
 
 mm, and, at the same time, to prevent the earth from caving 
 in about the end of the drain, is shown in Fig. 8. 
 
WHT SHOULD LAND BE DEAINED ? 373 
 
 The manner in which draining tiles are moulded from moist 
 clay may be learned from Fig. 9, which represents a strong 
 wooden box filled with clay, which, by the pressure of a 
 lever, is forced out through 'holes which have the shape of 
 the outside of the tile. A plug stands in the middle of 
 each hole (supported from within, so that the clay can en- 
 tirely surround it as it comes out), which makes the bore of 
 the tile. 
 
 WHY SHOULD LAND BE DEAINED? 
 
 There is one condition of soil that is the most favorable 
 for the growth of nearly all agricultural plants— that is a 
 condition of irorousness, moisture, warmth, and aeration. 
 The roots of plants need to be.in a dark place, to be sur- 
 rounded hy moisture (tliis is very different from being 
 soaked in water), and to be sufiiciently supplied with air. 
 
 There are other conditions of fertility, such as ^richness 
 in plant-food, &c., which, although of the utmost impor- 
 tance, are apart from our present subject. "What we have 
 now to do with is the meGhanioal state of the soil, as dis- 
 tinguished from its chemical composition and action — that 
 is to say, with its moisture, its temperature, the ease with 
 which roots can penetrate it in search of nutriment, and the 
 opportunity for the admission of atmospheric air to their 
 vicinity. 
 
 The effects of drainage on the chemical constitution of 
 the soil, and on the chemical action of its ingredients as 
 
374: WHY SHOULD LAND BE DBAINEDI 
 
 aifecting vegetation, is very great ; but it is not necessary to 
 the strength of the argument that they should be detailed 
 here, and their sufficient .discussion would require too much 
 space. 
 
 Moisture. 
 
 By the moisture of the soil we mean a condition resem- 
 bling that of a sponge which has been dipped in water and 
 then lifted out and allowed to drain. "While in the water it 
 was saturated — that is, all of its pores were filled with 
 water — but on being removed the water all runs out from its 
 pores, except the small amount that adheres (by capillary 
 attraction) to its substance. 
 
 In like manner the undrained soil, after a heavy rain, is 
 saturated. All of the spaces between its particles are filled 
 with water. After draining, this water all passes away, 
 except the small amount which adheres to the surfaces of 
 the particles, and that which fills the more minute pores 
 of these particles. There is enough water in the soil in this 
 condition to supply the demands of plants ; but there is not 
 — as there was before draining — so much as to interfere with 
 their healthy growth. 
 
 Not the least beneficial effect of draining is that which is 
 the result of the admission of air to its lower and cooler 
 parts, causing a deposit of moisture in dry weather, which 
 is sufficient to supply the needs of vegetation, and to 
 greatly mitigate, if it does not even entirely overcome, the 
 effects of drought. 
 
' WHY SHOULD LAKD BE DRAINED? 375 
 
 That land should be made damper by being made more 
 dry, that under-draining should be one of the best pre- 
 ventives of the ill elFects of drought^this is the apparently 
 anomalous proposition on which one of the strongest argu- 
 ments in favor of draining is based. 
 
 When Tve see a field baked to the consistence of a brick, 
 gaping open in wide cracks, and covered with a stunted 
 growth of parched and thirsty plants, it seems hard to be-' 
 lieve that the simple laying of hollow tiles, four feet deep, 
 in the dried-up mass, would do anything at all toward the^ 
 improvement of its condition ; for the present season it 
 would not, but for the next it would, and for every season 
 thereafter, and in increasing degree, so long as the tiles 
 continued to act as efiective drainage. 
 
 The baking and cracking, and the unfertile condition of 
 the soil are the result of a previous condition of entire satu- 
 ration. Clay cannot be moulded into bricks, nor can it be 
 dried into lumps unless it is first made soaking wet. Dry, 
 or only damp clay, once made fine, can never again be made 
 lumpy, unless it is first made thoroughly wet, and is pressed 
 together while in its wet condition, itfeither can a consi- 
 derable heap of pulverized clay, kept covered from the rain, 
 but exposed to the sun and air, ever become even apparently 
 dry, except within a few inches of its surface. After 
 under-draining has had time to bring the soil, to a depth 
 of two or three feet, to a thoroughly drained condition, 
 it will equally prevent it from being baked into lumps, or 
 
376 WHY SHOULD LAND BE DRAINED? 
 
 from becoming, for any considerable deptb below the sur- 
 face, too dry for the purposes of vegetation. In the first 
 place, the water of heavy spring rains, instead of lying 
 soaking in the soil until the rapid drying of summer bakes 
 it into coherent lumps, settles away and leaves the clay, 
 within a few hours after the rain ceases, and before rapid 
 evaporation commences, too much dried to crack into 
 lumps. 
 
 The other direct effect of under-draining is to remove 
 from below, jwater which, if not so removed, would be eva- 
 porated from the surface. 
 
 The formation of a crust on the surface of the ground 
 is in direct proportion to the quantity of water that is 
 removed by evaporation, and the crust constitutes a barrier 
 against the admission of air. Consequently the larger the 
 quantity of water that is removed by the drains, the smaller 
 is the obstacle offered to the entrance of air. The more 
 constantly the lower parts of the soil are relieved from ex- 
 cess of water and supplied with air, the more deeply will 
 roots descend ; and the more frequently will the air in the 
 lower soil be changed, the easier its communication with 
 the atmosphere. 
 
 On these tw'o principles depends the immunity from 
 drought which under-draining helps us to secure. In dry 
 weather the soil gets its moisture from the deposit of dew, 
 on the surface during the night, and on the surfaces of the 
 particles of the lower soil constantly, day and night. 
 
"WHY SHOULD LAUD BE DRAINED? 377 
 
 Temperature. 
 
 The temperature of the soil is a matter of the utmost 
 consequence. Seeds cannot germinate, and plants cannot 
 grow "without there being a certain amount of heat in the 
 soil, and there is no means by which this heat is so much 
 and so constantly reduced as by the evaporation of water 
 from its surface.. In proportion as we remove by the means 
 of under-draining the water which would, if not so removed, 
 remain to be evaporated, w€ allow the soil to attain a 
 higher temperature, and so to become more productive. 
 
 TJie penetration of roots. 
 
 In a soil that is usually too wet, the roots of plants con- 
 fine their operations to the few inches of dry soil at the 
 surface, as they will not push into a cold, compact, wet subT 
 soil. Draining removes the water from the subsoil, allows 
 it to become sweet and warm and loose, and fit for the 
 entrance of roots, which are tliweby enabled to seek farther 
 for a greater quantity and a greater variety of food. 
 
 The circulation of air. 
 
 Atmospheric air, if not absolutely necessary to the life 
 and action of the roots of plants, greatly favors their growth 
 and their absorption of food. Aside from its direct supply 
 of carbonic acid to the ifeeding parts of the roots, it brings 
 moisture to the soil by which they are surrounded, and aids 
 in preparing its nutrient constituents for assimilation. 
 
 -d- 
 
EOTATION OF CEOPS. 
 
 The experience of practical farmers very early demon- 
 strated the necessity for adopting a system of changes in 
 the crops grown on the same soil. Thus, we find in the 
 writings of Columella, Varro, Theophrastus, and others who 
 in ancient times wrote on the subject of agriculture, distinct 
 rules laid down as to the com-se of cultivation to be pur- 
 sued in order to prevent the exhaustion of the soil, or, rather, 
 to prevent it from failing to produce a particular crop so 
 long as it was fertile for anything, and to enable it to make 
 jfull use of whatever manures were applied to it. 
 
 In more modern times, the reasons why rotations are ne- 
 cessary have been, in a measure, explained by the aid of 
 chemistry, but we have not materially improved on the 
 practice of those who cultivated the soil 2000 years ago. 
 
 "Hie various crops appropriate different elements from the 
 soil, or the same elements in different proportions. Of 
 course, by raising the same crop year after year from the 
 same field, its quantity and quality not only yearly deterior- 
 ate, but the soil becomes exhausted of the special ingredi- 
 ents which go to support the growth of that particular 
 product, while it accumulates the elements especially adapted 
 to some other crop. 
 
e<5tation of ceops. 379, 
 
 The principle on which rotations are based may be readi- 
 ly understood from the following illustration : — 
 
 What are known as the root crops contain, in their ashes, 
 a very large proportion of potash. The average amount of 
 this substance contained in the ash of potatoes, turnips, 
 beets, and caiTots, is fully fifty per cent, of the whole ; that 
 is, they contain as much of this single ingredient as of all 
 the other mineral ingredients combined. Wheat, rye, oats, 
 and barley, on the other hand, contain an average of only 
 twenty-fime per cent., or only one-half as much of this as of 
 all the other ingredients. "^ 
 
 If we examine their content of phosphoric acid, however, 
 we shall find the case <^ite different. For instance, the 
 four root crops above named contain an average of only 
 about thiHeen per cent, of this element, while the four 
 grain crops contain an average of about thirty-seven per 
 cent. 
 
 Again, lime forms but about three per cent, of the ash of 
 most root crops, while it exists in clover and most of .the 
 fodder plants to the extent of about ihirty-fi/oe per cent, of 
 their ash. ' 
 
 If we were to follow through the whole range of the 
 mineral constituents of our crops, we should find similar 
 variations in the amounts appropriated by the difierent 
 plants which are commonly grown on our fields. 
 
 Now, suppose that on a field of average quality we find 
 that wheat or some other grain grows to advantage. Stimu- 
 
380 EOTATION OF OEOPS. 
 
 lated by the profits of the cultivation of this grain, we con- 
 tinue to grow it year after year, without intermission. The 
 result is that — sooner or later, often within two or three 
 years — we find the yield steadily diminishing. One reason 
 for this is that we have been constantly robbing the soil of 
 undue amounts of phosphoric acid, and (without rendering 
 it unfertile for some other ci'ops, such as potatoes) we have 
 seriously impaired its capacity for the production of wheat. 
 If, instead of raising wheat the second year, we had raised 
 potatoes, or clover, or some plant of an entirely different 
 character from wheat, we should have drawn more evenly 
 on all of the resources of the land, and should have post- 
 poned the exhaustion of its stock of available phosphoric 
 acid. 
 
 Here then comes in play, also, another element which it 
 is necessary for the farmer to consider, namely : — there are 
 constantly going on in the soil (which may be considered a 
 natural chemical laboratory) certain chemical and mechani- 
 cal processes, whose effect is to continually set free from 
 other combinations and prepare for the use of plants the 
 various minerals which constitute their ashes. Therefore, 
 if we bring a grain crop into the rotation only once in four, 
 five, or six years, the simple action of these processes will, 
 in the intervening time, set free enough phosphoric acid for 
 a second crop. Soils differ, not only in their composition, 
 but in the rapidity with which their elements are set free ; 
 consequently we find some soils on which the same crop may 
 
EOTATION OF CROPS. 381 
 
 safely be tried every second or third year, and others on 
 which we must allow a much longer interval. 
 
 The same rule that applies to the soil holds good also with 
 regard to manures. These almost always contain various 
 matters which go to feed plants, and we must study to so 
 arrange our crops as to make profitable use of all that they 
 can yield ; and, if they are of a sort to need time and the , 
 action of the chemical and mechanical influence of the at- 
 mosphere and of the soil for the complete development of 
 all of their constituents, we must adjust our crops, so far as 
 possible, to take up these constituents as they are prepared 
 for use. 
 
 The foregoing is the basis of the chemical theory of rota- 
 tions. 
 
 In addition to this, we must consider the influence exerted 
 on the soil by the roots which are left in the ground wh^n 
 the crop is removed. This element of the influence which 
 plants exert on plants which are to follow them in the same 
 soil is especially important in the case of clover, which is 
 so active in its fertilizing effect, that it may be assumed that 
 we have overcome our great difliculty in bringing up a poor 
 soil when we have enabled it to grow a good crop of clover. 
 One especial virtue of this plant is that it sends its roots far 
 into the subsoil, and thus appropriates, by means of its vigo- 
 rous feeding powers, useful materials which were out of the 
 reach of the roots of plants of other species. These materials 
 are deposited in tJie substance of the plant, and (on its decay 
 
382 EOTATION OF CEOPS. 
 
 ■when ploughed in, or on the decay of its roots when these 
 alone are left in the soil) they are presented to the new crop 
 in a most acceptable form. The raising of other green crops 
 to be ploughed in for manure, is advantageous for the same 
 reasons. 
 
 Two most valuable accessions to the rotation of crops will 
 be found in the root crops, and in green forage crops to be 
 either cured for winter use or fed to animals kept on the 
 "soiling" system. To these crops the richest animal ma- 
 nures may be profitably applied, and, while they will make 
 a most luxui'iant growth, they will "draw the fire" of the 
 manure, and leave the land in the best condition for the 
 growth of grain crops. 
 
 Copeland says :* " "When it was discovered that roots of 
 all kinds were not only good food, but the best food for cattle, 
 those farmers who believed in the discovery cultivated roots, 
 and found, not only that their value as food was inestimable, 
 but that, with a given expenditure in manure and labor, 
 roots gave a larger return in value than any other crop. 
 This was the turning point, the rising tide-wave of improv- 
 ing agriculture. The new crop was an improvement in 
 every respect. It restored fertility better than the fallow, 
 gave an immense amount of fodder, and insured a corre- 
 sponding increase in manure, from the greater number of 
 cattle which could be fed from the farm. 
 
 "Under, the. old system — the same pursued in New Eng- 
 
 "* Country Life, page 435. 
 
KOTATION OF CE0P8. 383 
 
 land at the present day — there was a large and a small white 
 crop, one large yield of hay, then smaller and smaller, then 
 good pasture, then poori This rotation gave a change from 
 better to worse. The new practice demonstrated that there 
 need be no " worse." It showed that a root crop should 
 follow the sod and should be followed by grain ; that again 
 by grain or grass and clover ; that by pasture and roots. At 
 first it was made a point that a white crop should never be 
 taken two years in succession, and after going through roots 
 and grass it was found, on returning to the white crop, that 
 the ground was so much richer than before, that a number 
 of bushels was taken previously unheard of in the neigh- 
 borhood." 
 
 Liebig says :* " The succession of crops in rotation is al- 
 ways made dependent upon the cereals ; the preceding crops 
 are selected of such a kind that theii- cultivation will not 
 injure, but rather improve the succeeding corn crop. The 
 selection of the particular kind, however, is always governed 
 by the condition of the soil. In a field abounding in stalk 
 and leaf constituents, it is often found useful to have wheat 
 preceded by tobacco or rape, rye by turnips or potatoes, 
 since these plants, by drawing from the soil a large amount 
 of leaf and stalk constituents, serve to restore a more suitable 
 proportion between the straw and corn constituents for the 
 future cereal crop, and, at the same time, to diminish in the 
 arable soil those conditions which favor the growth of weeds. 
 
 * The Natural Laws of Husbandry, page 227. 
 
384 EOTATION OF CHOPS, 
 
 Prof. James F. "W. Johnston says :* " Two practical rules 
 are suggested by the fact that different plants require differ- 
 ent substances to abound in a soil in which they shall be 
 capable of flourishing. 
 
 "1. To grow alternately as many different classes or 
 families of plants as possible, repeating each class at the 
 greatest convenient distance of time. In this country 
 (England) we grow, chiefly, root crops — corn plants refined 
 for seed — leguminous plants, sometimes for seed (peas and 
 beans), and sometimes for hay or fodder (clover and tares), 
 and grasses ; and these in alternate years. 
 
 " Every four, five, or six years, therefore, the same class 
 of plants comes round again, and a demand is made upon 
 the soil for the same kinds of food in the same proportion. 
 ***** ^ perfect rotation would include all those 
 classes of plants -which the soil, climate, and other circum- 
 stances allow to be cultivated with a profit. 
 
 " 2. A second rule is, to repeat the same species of plants 
 at the greatest convenient distance of time. * * * * * 
 
 " Instead, therefore, of a constant repetition of the turnip 
 every four years, theory says, make the carrot or the potato 
 take its place now and then, and instead of perpetual clover, 
 let tares, or peas, or beans occasionally succeed to your crops 
 of corn.f 
 
 * Agricultural Chemistry, page 493. 
 
 t " Corn, in English agricultural writing, is a general term corresponding to 
 our grain.'" 
 
EOTATION OF CE0P8. 385 
 
 " The land loves a change of crop because it is better 
 prepared yith that food which the new crop will relish than 
 with such as the plant it has long fed before continues to 
 require. 
 
 " It is for this reason that new species of crop or new 
 varieties, when first introduced, succeed remarkably for a 
 time, and give great and encouraging returns. * * * * 
 
 " It is constant variety of crops which, with rich manu- 
 ring, makes our market gardens so productive, and it is the 
 possibility of growing in the fields many different crops in 
 succession that gives the fertility of a garden to parts of 
 Italy, Flanders, and China." 
 
 The rotation to be adopted may be best selected by ^ach 
 farmer for himself — keeping in mind the foregoing principles 
 — with reference to his soil, his market, his climate, the 
 price and supply of labor in his neighborhood, and the ex- 
 tent to which he can accumulate manure. 
 
 The rotation which the writer has adopted for his own 
 farm is the follow;ing ; — 
 
 First year : — Indian corn, on sod land, manured the pre- 
 vious autumn with .the entire accumulation of manure in the 
 barn cellar, then ploughed and left in the rough furrow for 
 the fullest exposure to frost, harrowing thoroughly before 
 planting time. 
 
 After the crop is taken off in the fall, the land to be 
 ploughed and again left in the rough furrow to winter. 
 
 ir 
 
386 
 
 EOTATION OF CROPS. 
 
 Second year : — Roots, the ground being properly divided 
 between carrots, mangel wurzel, turnips, and parsnips. 
 
 For this crop the land is cross-ploughed in the spring, 
 dressed with one-half of the winter's accumulation of manure 
 in the cellar, and from 100 to 250 lbs. of superphosphate of 
 lime, both sowed broadcast on the furrow and thoroughly 
 harrowed in. 
 
 Third' year : — Green forage crops for " soiling " cattle — 
 mainly oats and Indian corn in successive sowings. 
 
 These crops receive the balance of the winter's manure, 
 and a good- portion of the land is cleared off in time, for 
 winter rye to be sown. 
 
 Fourth year : — The winter rye is cut green, very early in 
 the season, for " soiling " the cattle, and on the land not 
 occupied with it a crop of green fodder is grown that can be 
 got off by August 1st. 
 
 In the early autumn the land to be sown to wheat, and 
 seeded down with timothy and clover. 
 
 Fifth year : — The grain harvested and the growth of 
 grass and clover left on the land. 
 
 Sixth year :—'Y-wo cuttings of hay to be taken off, and 
 • the land to be manured and ploughed in the fall for the suc- 
 ceeding crop of corn, with which the rotation recommences. 
 
PEOPERTIES AND COMPOSITION OF MILK, 
 BUTTER, &c. 
 
 Composition of Milk in 1000 parts. 
 
 Water 54Q 
 
 Casein 4q 
 
 Milk-sugar 45 
 
 Butter, or oil 4q 
 
 Phosphate of lime I7 
 
 Phosphate of magnesia 4. 
 
 Chloride of potassium 9 
 
 Common salt 2 
 
 Free soda 3 
 
 1000 
 
 Note. — Milk is heavier than water in the proportion of 
 103 to 100. 
 
 The rapidity with which cream rises to the surface de- 
 pends upon the temperature to which it is exposed. 
 ^ew milk, set aside, will cream, in 
 
 36 hrs. if the temperature of the air is 60° Fahrenheit. 
 
 24 " " « « 550 « 
 
 18 to 20 " " « " 68° « 
 
 10 to 12 " " " « 77° « 
 
 At a temperature of 34° to 37°, it may be kept two to 
 
388 PKOPEETIES AKD COMPOSITION OF MILK, BUTTER, &C. 
 
 three weeks without throwing up any noticeable amount of 
 cream. 
 
 Cream contains the greater part of the fatty matter of the 
 milk, a small portion of the curd, and considerable water. 
 
 Good cream, when skilfully churned, will yield about 
 one-fourth of its weight of butter. 
 
 The temperature at which Tnilk can be churned most, eco- 
 nomically is 65° Fahrenheit. 
 
 The temperature at which cream can be churned most 
 economically is at 58° Fahrenheit. 
 
 Butter contains more or less of all the ingredients of the 
 milk. Essentially it consists of the fat of milk mixed with 
 about one-eighth of its weight of water, a small quantity 
 of casein or curd (cheesy matter), and of saline matter. 
 The casein seldom exceeds two per cent, of the whole 
 weight. 
 
 The fat of hutter, when solidified by pressing out the oil, 
 is identical with the solid fat of the human body. 
 
 The oil of hutter is a peculiar kind of fat not hitherto 
 detected in any other substance. 
 
 These two ingredients vary considerably with different 
 samples ; hence the different degrees of hardness which dif- 
 ferent samples present. The solid fat abounds more in 
 winter ; the liquid fat more in summer. They are in about 
 the following proportions in 100 parts : — 
 
 Summer. Winter, 
 
 Solid fat 40 65 
 
 Oil of butter 60 35 
 
PEOPEKTIES AND COMPOSITION OF MILK, BUTTEE, &0. 389 
 
 The main cause of butter becoming rancid is the chemi- 
 cal decomposition which the casein or curd it contains un- 
 dergoes by exposure to the air. This chemical change in 
 the cheesy matter may be prevented — 
 
 1st, By thoroughly washing and salting before the cheesy 
 matter has had time to become altered by exposure to the 
 air ; 
 
 2d, By taking care that any water that may remain in 
 or around the butter be kept perfectly saturated with salt ; 
 
 3d, By carefully excluding the air from the vessel in which 
 the butter is packed. 
 
 About half a pound of tl^e best Ashton salt is used to 10 
 pounds of butter. 
 
 Milk contains a peculiar kind of sugar called milk-sugar, 
 which, being highly soluble in water, passes off in the whey 
 and goes to fatten pigs. In some countries it is extracted 
 and made an article of commerce. 
 
 The main cause of milk becoming sour is the chemical 
 change which this sugar undergoes, without fermentation 
 and therefore without loss, into an acid called lactic acid. 
 
 This lactic acid is the cause of the curdling of the milk, 
 which may be hastened by hastening the change of the milk- 
 sugar into lactic acid by the addition of any other acid, such 
 as vinegar or rennet. 
 
 Pure casein is nearly insoluble in pure water, either by 
 boiling or otherwise. By adding, however, a little soda to 
 ^he water, it dissolves and returns to its milky condition ; 
 
390 PEOPEETIES AND COMPOSITION OF MILK, BTJTTEE, &0. 
 
 when, by adding some more milk-sugar (or lactic acid), it 
 again curdles. 
 
 The milk of nearly all animals contains the same ingredi- 
 ents. The best known varieties consist nearly of — 
 
 "Woman. Cow. Ass. Goat. Ewe. 
 
 Casein 1.5 4.5 1.8 4.1 4.5 
 
 Butter 3.6 3.1 0.1 3.3 4.2 
 
 Milk-sugar.... 6.5 4.8 6.1 5.3 5.0, 
 
 Saline matter.. 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.6 0.7 
 
 Water 87.9 87.0 91.7 86.7 85.6 
 
 100. 100. 100. 100. 100. 
 
 The butter and cheese producing quality of milk is 
 shown by the following 
 
 Table. 
 
 100 lbs. milk contains about 3 lbs. pure butter. 
 100 lbs. " " " 7.8 lbs. " cheese. 
 
 100 lbs. " averages " 3.*5 lbs. common butter. 
 100 lbs. " " " 11.7 lbs. " cheese 
 
 100 lbs. skim-milk yields " 13.5 lbs. skim-milk " 
 1 qt. wine measure weighs 35 oz. 
 1 qt. milk " " 41 oz. 
 
 The milk of different cows varies much in richness. We 
 have known one from 65 lbs. of whose milk were made 64 
 oz. of butter. A full milk cheese contains about 33 per 
 cent, of water, and a skim-milk cheese about 60 per cent. 
 
 Butter at 50 cents per pound will yield about as much 
 profit as cheese at 15 cents, making no allowance for the 
 value of skim-milk over whey. 
 
BUTTEE AND CHEESE-MAKmG. 
 
 The Butter Dairy. — The qiiality of butter doubtlessly 
 depends more upon the manufacture than upon all other 
 causes combined, yet it is true that the cows, the grass or 
 food, and the water, have much to do with the delicacy of 
 its flavor and richness of its color. It is a notorious fact that 
 eight-tenths of the butter that is sold in the market brings 
 from jwe io fifteen cents per pound less than it would have 
 done had it been properly manufactured. Factory cheese 
 for the same reason brings from three to eight cents per 
 pound more than dairy. It costs no more to make a good 
 article than an inferior oije, and when this fact is fully -ap- 
 preciated, thousands of dollars will be saved annually to the 
 dairyman farmer. 
 
 Milk-room. — The best milk-room is one through which 
 a stream of pure spring water flows, and a reservoir under 
 the " pan rack " is very desirable. When this cannot be 
 had, select a room or building on the north side of the 
 house, through which fresh air can freely circulate. If a 
 cellar is chosen, it should be dry and thoroughly ventilated 
 by large latticed windows and doors. No decaying vegeta- 
 bles should be allowed to remain in it, as the milk and 
 cream easily become tainted. Close and damp cellars are 
 
 V 
 
392 EUTTEE AND CHEESE-HAICING. 
 
 entirely unfitted for a milk-room, and should not be used. 
 The temperature of the milk-room should be as uniform 
 us passible, ranging from 55° to 65°. When the weather is 
 cold, a fire should be kept in a stove on which a basin of 
 pure water is placed, to prevent the air from becoming so 
 dry as to form a crust on the cream. When too warm the 
 temperature can be reduced by hanging wet linen sheets 
 near the doors and windows, the lower edges of which dip 
 into a vessel of water. 
 
 Cleanliness. —In every department of butter-making the 
 utmost cleanliness should be observed. Milk and cream 
 rapidly absorb noxious gases, and are especially affected by 
 the acids and gases which arise from the decomposition of 
 sour milk or cream. Every utensil used in connection with 
 the dairy should be scalded every time used in boiling 
 water, in which, occasionally, a small piece of bicarbonate 
 of soda has been dissolved. All traces of mflk or cream 
 accidently spilled on the floor should be carefully removed. 
 
 SeUing the Milk. — As soon as the milk is drawn from the 
 cow it should be strained into the setting pans, to a depth 
 of not over two inches. The complete raising of the cream, 
 especially in warm weather, is thus greatly facilitated. In 
 summer the temperature of the milk should be reduced as 
 soon as possible to about 62°. Powdered ice put into the 
 pail before straining is best ; setting the pail in cold spring 
 or well-water for a few minutes will answer. A small 
 piece of crystallized soda aboat the sizeof a common acorn, 
 
BUTTEE AND CHEESE-MAKING. 393 
 
 dissolved in a little water, put into each pail of milk before 
 straining, to correct the acidity as it is formed, will increase 
 the quantity of cream, and improve the quality of the but- 
 ter. Milk, if kept at the proper temperature, need not stand 
 over thirty-six hours. If the cream does not rise in that 
 time, the quality of the butter will be impaired by the for- 
 mation of a bitter acid, which gives to the butter a dis- 
 agreeable flavor. In winter the quantity of cream will be 
 increased, and its quality improved, by bringing the milk to 
 a temperature of about 120° before setting. 
 
 Cream. — As soon as the cream is taken from the milk it 
 should be placed in stone jars or tin pails and set in a cool 
 place. Sprinkle a small handful of fine salt over the top of 
 the cream, and let it stand until churned. Should there 
 be any milk at the bottom of the jar it should be -sepa- 
 rated from the cream, for the cheesy particles of the sour 
 milk become mixed with the butter during the process of 
 churning, and give it the white cheesy appearance which 
 is sometimes observed when the butter " comes white." The 
 cheese decomposes upon exposure to the air, and renders 
 the butter rancid. Such butter should never be packed 
 with the good, for it will surely spoil the whole ; " a little 
 leaven will leaven the whole lump." 
 
 Chwrning. — The proper temperature at which to churn 
 
 cream is from 55° to 60°, and care should be taken that the 
 
 cream be " washed down " so that all will granulate at the 
 
 same time. "When the butter " has come " to the size of 
 
 17* 
 
394: ' BUTTEE AJJD CHEESE-MAKING. 
 
 peas, draw or pour off the buttermilk, and pour into the 
 churn a pail of cool water, and thoroughly " gather " by the 
 aid of the " dasher " the butter into a compact mass ; after 
 which remove it to the butter-bowl. It should be again 
 washed until the water is free from the least trace of milki- 
 ness, and then salted. Use the best Ashton salt, and if free 
 from water one-half pound of salt is sufficient for 10 pounds 
 of butter. Common salt should never be used, for it con- 
 tains impurities which injure the butter. The cheapest 
 salt in this case is certainly not the most economical. While 
 the salt is being worked in, if too soft let it stand in a cool 
 place not over three or four hours, then work again and 
 pack. "While working, absorb all the moisture from the 
 butter with a sponge covered by a linen cloth, previously 
 moistened in cold water, and continue to work until all the 
 brine is absorbed. No milky brine * should be allowed to 
 remain in the butter, for it decomposes and injures it. 
 During the process of working the temperature of the butter 
 should not be higher than 55° or 58°. "When it becomes 
 warmer than this it looses its waxy, gramilar appearance, 
 and becomes sticky and greasy. "When the salt is not 
 thoroughly worlred in, the butter will have a streaked or 
 marbled appearance. 
 
 Pachmg. — Place no undissolved salt in the bottom of the 
 
 * We have known those who would not work the hrine out of the butter 
 " heoause," say they, "it will weigh less ;" mistaken shrewdness, to gain a 
 penny they lose a pound. That it is necessary to leave brine in the butter to 
 " keep it " is a great mistake. 
 
BUTTER AND CHEESE-MAKING.- 395 
 
 tub or pail, unless covered with a cloth so the butter cannot 
 come in contact with it. If this caution is not observed 
 when sold, four or five pounds of butter is thus rendered 
 comparatively worthless. Never pack a poor " churning " 
 with the good butter, thinking it will not be found out. The 
 sale of many a good firkin of butter is spoiled by a few 
 pounds of poor butter becoming rancid in the centre or bot- 
 tom, which taints the whole package. If there is any but- 
 ter that is even suspiciouStput it by itself. 
 
 Select neat pails, tubs, or firkins made of white oak, and 
 cleanse them by placing in each about a pound of the 
 common bicarbonate of soda, and then filling with boiling 
 water, letting the water remain for twenty-four hoiirs. Great 
 care should be used in cleansing pails that are to be re-filled,* 
 as they are usually bedaubed to a greater or less extent with 
 rancid butter. A neglect of this precaution will often cause 
 great loss. Butter until the first of June should be packed 
 in pails or tubs and shipped as soon as made. This butter 
 will keep sweet only a short time. As soon as the 
 weather becomes too warm to ship without risk, pack in 
 firkins, being careful to exclude the air as far as possible 
 while packing. When the firkin is filled to within an inch 
 of the top, dissolve two tablespoonfuls of white cofiee 
 sugar, and a piece of saltpetre about the size of a common 
 bean, in sufiicient strong brine to cover the butter and 
 
 * Pails or tubs after being once used, if properly deansed, are preferable 
 to new ones. 
 
396 
 
 BUTTEE AND CHEESE-MAKTNG. 
 
 exclude the air. Place it in a cool dry cellai", and do not 
 disturb it until ready to be shipped. In the fall the butter 
 should be packed in pails or tubs and sold as fresh butter. 
 An air-tight butter pail or tub is very desirable for ship- 
 ping spring and fall butter. 
 
 Test of good hutter. — Grood butter should have a granular, 
 waxy consistency, and a rich yellow color, except in the 
 winter and spring, when the color is of a pale yellow or 
 ijearly white. When cut it should not soil the polished 
 blade of the knife, and the cut surfaces should be free from 
 a dewy appearance. The taste and smell should be entirely 
 free from the slightest trace of rancidity, for if not, however 
 good otherwise, when exposed to the air for a few days it will 
 become almost worthless. The flavor of butter is various, 
 generally depending upon the season, the water, the food 
 of the cows, &e. The preference is merely a matter of 
 choice. If butter upon being cut or repacked is covered 
 with small drops of milky brine, it shows that it has not 
 been sufiiciently washed and worked, and although sweet it 
 will not remain so if exposed to the air. When opened 
 for use it should be immediately covered with a strong 
 brine. When it is sticky or greasy, it shows that it was too 
 warm while being churned and worked, or has been over- 
 heated since. Such butter is rancid, or will become so as 
 soon as opened. 
 
 Setting-pan. — To insure a perfect separation of the cream 
 from the milk a setting-pan has been successfully iised in 
 
BUTTER AND CHEESE-MAKING. 397 
 
 England. It consists of a large tin pan about four inches deep, 
 holding from four to six pails of milk. It may either set 
 on a table or float in a reservoir of running spring water. 
 Where runm'ng water is not to be had, the proper tempera- 
 ture may be obtained by the dripping of melting ice. At 
 one end is a tube covered with a fine strainer to prevent the 
 escape of the cream,|Jhrough which the milk is to be drawn 
 off, leaving the crean; in the pan. All the cream may be 
 secured \>j rinsing the pan in a little warm water. 
 
 The Cheese Dairy. — The superiority of factory cheese 
 is entirely due to the great care exercised in its manufacture. 
 But little cheese is now made by private dairies, for it can be 
 better and more economically manufactured at the factory. 
 With proper management it is more profitable for those who 
 do not live near a cheese factory to make butter, unless they 
 provide themselves with all the necessary apparatus. 
 
 JSich Cheese. — The richness of cheese varies in propor- 
 tion to the amount of the butter that remains entangled in 
 the curd. The following brief directions are from a practi- 
 cal cheesemaker : — 
 
 ""When two milkings are united, strain the evening's 
 milk and cool by means of pieces of ice dropped into the 
 pails before straining. In the morning take off all the 
 cream, mix it with twice the quantity of new milk. Add 
 warm water enough to raise it to the temperature of 98°. 
 Kub annatto through a silk cloth sufiicient to make the curd 
 the color of rich cream. Into this put rennet sufficient to 
 
398 BUTTER AND CHEESE-MAKING. 
 
 curd in 35 minutes. Stir the whole into the milk pre- 
 viously raised to the temperature of 86°. The milk should 
 be warmed by means of a pail of hot water set into it, but 
 never by putting it over the fire, for the least burning of 
 the milk will spoil the cheese. "While the curd is setting, 
 cover with a cloth to prevent the surface from cooling. 
 The method of cutting, scalding, fpd pressing depends 
 upon the varieties of cheese to be manufactured. About |- 
 of a pound of the best Ashton salt is sufficient for 20 lbs. 
 of curd. Care should be taken that the whey be entirely 
 expressed." i 
 
 The difierent varieties of cheese come to mai-ket under 
 the names of Chedder, Cheshire, and Gloucester. These 
 are English cheese. The Dunlop cheese is from Scotland. 
 The Dutch cheese is made in the north of Holland. The 
 Parmesan cheese is made in- Italy. Factory cheese is the 
 best manufactured in this country, some of it being equal to 
 the English. The private dairy cheese is of every grade and 
 quality, from the richest Chedder to that made of skim-milk. 
 
 Thermometer. — In the butter and cheese dairy the ther- 
 mometer should be a constant companion. Those who 
 trust to sensations are not aware how easily they may be 
 deceived. Let a person put one hand in cold water, the 
 other into warm, then both into another vessel, and it will 
 feel warm to one hand and cold to the other. The only 
 certain guide is the thermometer j its cost is but a trifle, it 
 will save many dollars annually. 
 
BUTTEE AND CHEESE-MAKING. 399 
 
 Ice-house.— 'Next in importance to the thermometer is 
 the ice-house. Many farmers say " I can't aiford it." 
 They should say " I can't afford to be without it." It will 
 save three times its cost every year. The method of build- 
 ing the following is so simple, and involves so trifling an 
 expense that no man need have an excuse. 
 
 Select a place on the north side of some building ; lay a 
 floor twelve feet square on scantlings, one foot from the 
 ground. Set firmly in the ground, near each corner, two 
 posts, from four to six inches square, and about eight or ten 
 feet long. When the weather becomes cold, place on the 
 floor saw-dust, tan-bark, or rye-straw, to the depth of eight 
 or ten inches. On the top, place another floor of the same 
 size, putting a curb tnside the posts to keep the filling be- 
 tween the floors in its place. Next make a cui-b ten feet 
 square and six inches deep, and fasten the corners with 
 common gate-hooks. On a cold day place the curb on the 
 centre of the floor, put in two inches of tan-bark, and dash 
 water over the bottom until it forms a coat of ice that will 
 not leak. Fill the curb with water and let it stand until 
 frozen solid. With boiling water thaw the curb loose, raise 
 it to the top of the frozen mass, fill and freeze as before. 
 Continue so doing until the mass is of the desired heighf. 
 Place boards on the inside of the posts, and fill the space 
 with tan-bark or rye-straw ; nail boards on the outside of 
 the posts and fill the space with rye-straw; cover the top 
 with tan-bark to the depth of ten inches. Over the whole 
 
400 
 
 BDTTEE AND CHEESEfMAKING. 
 
 put a roof, to shield from the Bun and rain. Cut and take 
 the ice from the top. Ice can be thus kept the entire 
 season. If a stream of running water can be turned into 
 the curb, the labor of filling will be much lessened. 
 
 .««>''^lja!S<&«-^ 
 
SOILING CATTLE. 
 
 This is a rather unmeaning expression, and its origin is 
 no more clear than is the fitness of its application ; still it 
 has come into such general use that it is now too late to 
 change it. 
 
 It is applied to the feeding of cattle in yards or in sta- 
 bles, with grass or other green fodder, cut and hauled to 
 them. 
 
 This practice is very rapidly growing in favor in all 
 localities where land is very high priced, where manure is 
 largely used, where the finer class of animals are kept, and 
 where for any reason it is desired to keep a large stock on 
 a small place. It is the best foundation of what is called 
 High Farming. 
 
 It has been found by experiment that if a field bearing 
 luxuriant grass or clover is divided into two equal parts, 
 one half being used as pasture and the crop of the other 
 being cut and fed in the stable as often as it grows to a suf- 
 ficient height, this latter half will support, for the same 
 time, four times as many animals of equal weight as will 
 the depastured portion ; and while the usual allowance of 
 pasture land is at the rate of two acres for each cow, the 
 allowance of land in soiling, where the system is practised 
 in the best manner, is at the rate of only one-half of an 
 acre for each cow. 
 
402 SOILING CATTLE, 
 
 Of course, this would not hold good on ordinary land 
 which had been in no way prepared for the practice, but 
 after one or two years' preparation by judicious use of 
 the manure made by the animals fed, and by the aid of 
 proper management, any fair land will support, on the sys- 
 tem of soiling, four times as much stock as if they grazed 
 upon it constantly and voided upon it all of their manure. 
 
 It was for a long time questioned, and very naturally 
 too, whether cattle would remain in good health if they 
 were deprived of the exercise which they necessarily take 
 in getting their own food in the fields ; but ample experi- 
 ence has proved that, if they are allowed good yards in 
 which to exercise for a short time, once or twice a day, they 
 keep in better condition and are less liable to disease than 
 when they are exposed to the various changes of the weather 
 in the fields. 
 
 It is. also sometimes objected that this treatment is an 
 unnatural or an artificial one. To this the reply is that our 
 domestic animals are artificial productions. In nature we 
 see no working oxen, aind no cows give duriug the whole 
 year a tenth part of the quantity of milk that cows have 
 been forced to give in a state of domestication. 
 
 With the writer, the soiling of cattle is not a matter of 
 theory. He has adopted the system on his own farm, and 
 has sufiicient evidence in his own practice of its substantial 
 advantages. 
 
 Perhaps the most practical way to give an idea of the 
 
SOILmO CATTLE. 403 
 
 manner in which, stock is managed under the.soiling system 
 will be to describe the operations as there carried out.* 
 
 The farmf comprises sixty acres, lying in a nearly square 
 body, and all in one field. Adjoining the main farm there 
 is a small field in which to pasture calves during their first 
 summer only, but it is not intended that the older animals 
 shall ever feed except in their stalls. 
 
 In the centre of the farm there is an enclosure of about 
 four acres, within which are concentrated all of the farm 
 buildings ; outside of this there is nothing to interfere with 
 cultivation — no interior fences, rocks, nor trees. 
 
 The bai'n-yards occupy two acres of what was formedy 
 an apple-orchard, and in the middle of this stands the barn 
 (40 ft. X 100 ft.). This has a cellar under the whole for the 
 accumulation of manure, and (one corner of it) for the storage 
 of roots. The main floor — the whole extent of the building 
 — is occupied by two rows of stalls, the animals facing a cen- 
 tral passage-way, through the entire length of which there 
 runs a. railway with a car, for distributing the food. The 
 next floor above is used for the storage of hay and grain and 
 of implements, and for the cutting and steaming of food 
 in winter. Each floor and the cellar can be entered by 
 loaded teams. 
 
 On the cattle floor there is ' a system of water-troughs 
 which are constantly supplied from a tank on the floor 
 
 * To make this description more complete, a few improvements which are 
 contemplated for the coming year are spoken of as though now in operation, 
 f Ogden Farm, Newport, B. I. 
 
404 SOILING CATTLE. 
 
 above, which is filled by a wind-mill, from a running 
 spring. By this means water is always kept within reach 
 every animal. 
 
 The floor is divided into four principal parts, separated 
 from each other by bars which run (one on each side of the 
 barn) from the rear of the stalls to the wall ; and each of 
 these divisions has its own door, communicating with a yard 
 nearly half an acre in size, surroimded by a four-foot stone 
 wall, and sufficiently shaded by the remains of the former 
 orchard. Each set of animals has its own quarters and its 
 own ample exercising ground, so that all danger from 
 over-crowding is avoided. 
 
 They are turned out for exercise in pleasant weather at 8 
 A.M. and at 2 p.m., and are kept out (by closing the doors) 
 for about two hours each time. If the doors are left open 
 they return to their stalls almost immediately. Being 
 abundantly fed, they show no disposition to move about, and 
 I am satisfied that they give more milk and keep in better 
 condition than if they were allowed the best pasture without 
 shelter, even in the summer time. 
 
 Five times a day they are given as much green fodder as 
 they will eat. This is cut in the field, loaded on to a cart, and 
 hauled to the upper floor of the barn, where it is dumped 
 through a trap-door into the car, by which it is carried to 
 the stalls. The manure is dropped through an open slat- 
 floor, and through scuttles, into the cellar, whence it is 
 drawn in wagons directly to the field, having been well 
 
SOILING CATTLE. 405 
 
 worked over by hogs while in the cellar. Thus it will be 
 seen that the labor of attending to a large stock of cattle is 
 reduced to the lowest possible amount.; 
 
 AKRANGEMENT OF CROPS FOR SOILING. 
 
 The amount of land that it is necessary to appropriate for 
 the supply of fodder for each animal must, of course, depend 
 on the quality of the land and on the degree to which its 
 productiveness is forced. 
 
 Under all ordinary circumstances, one-half acre of land, in 
 good heart and in goo.d tilth, should be allowed for each 
 full-grown milch cow of the ordinary breeds (more for short- 
 horns), but, under high cultivation, this will allow a consider- 
 able amount of the produce to be cut for winter use. 
 The regular soiling crops are the following : — 
 "Winter Eye, 
 Cabbages, 
 Oats, 
 Clover, 
 Grass, and 
 Indian corn. 
 Many other crops are available, such as Hungarian grass 
 or millet, wheat, Jerusalem artichoke, sainfoin, &c., but 
 the foregoing are the regular dependence of American far- 
 mei-S, and are the best for common use. 
 
 The best essay that has yet been written in this country 
 
406 
 
 SOILING CATTLE. 
 
 on the subject of " soiling " was prepared for the Massachu- 
 setts Agricultural Society by the Hon. Josiah Quincy, and 
 was published in the Joui-nal of that Society for 1820. 
 His recommendation is as follows : — 
 
 " 1. As early in April as the state of the land will permit, 
 which is usually between the 5th and the 10th, on properly 
 prepared land, sow oats at the rate of four bushels to the 
 acre. 
 
 " 2. About the 20th of the same month, sow oats or barley, 
 at the same rate per acre, in like quantity and proportions. 
 
 " 3. Early in May, sow, in like manner, either of the 
 above gi-ains. 
 
 "4. Between the 10th and the 16th of:li|ay, sow Indian 
 corn (the flat Southern being the best) in drills, three bush- 
 els to the acre, in like quantity and proportions. 
 
 " 5. About the 25th of May sow corn in like quantity and 
 proportions. 
 
 " 6. About the 5th of June repeat the sowing of corn. 
 
 " 7. After the last-mentioned sowing, barley should be 
 sown in the above-mentioned quantity and proportions, in 
 succession, on the 15th a;nd 25th of June, and on the 1st 
 of, or early in July ; barley being the best qualified to resist 
 the early frosts." 
 
 Mr. Quincy depended on the mowing of the best of 
 his grass land to carry his stock through the month of June, 
 or from the earliest pasturing season to the 1st of July, 
 
SOILING CATTLE. 407 
 
 when he expected his first sowing of oats to be ready for the 
 scythe. After the first killing frost, he depended on the 
 tops of about twelve acres of root crops, for the use of 
 fifteen cows. 
 
 The plan which I have adopted is a modification of the 
 above, and is as follows (for twelve cows) : — 
 
 1. Early in the autumn sow three acres of winter rye, to 
 be cut from May 15th to June 16th. 
 
 2. Early in April, three acres oats, to be cut from June 
 15th to July 1st. 
 
 3. Late in April, two acres oats or barley, to be cut from 
 July 1st to July 15th. 
 
 4. Early in May, two acres oats or barley, to be cut from 
 July 15th to August 10th. 
 
 5. Middle of May, two acres corn, to be cut from August 
 10th to September 1st. 
 
 6. Middle of June, the three acres from which rye has 
 been cut to be sown with corn, to be cut from September 
 1st until September 20th. 
 
 7. Early in July, the first three acres sown with oats to be 
 resown with barley, to be cut from September 20th until the 
 harvest of roots and cabbages furnishes a stock of green 
 refuse, which will suffice until winter feeding commences. 
 
 This is an allowance of twelve acres for twelve cows, and 
 assumes that the latter end of the season will be helped out 
 by root tops, &c., The reason for appropriating so much land 
 
408 
 
 BOILING CATTLE. 
 
 is that the soil is not yet in suiiiciently good condition to inr 
 sure an ample supply from a much smaller area. In a season 
 of extraordinary drought the whole of the product may be 
 consumed, but in any ordinary year a very large part of it 
 would be in excess, to be cured and stored for winter use, 
 and to furnish a supply of dry food, with which occasion- 
 ally to alternate with the fresh fodder, to prevent the too great 
 relaxation of the bowels which a free use of succulent food 
 sometimes causes. 
 
 In September three acres of the four comprising ITos. 4 
 and 5 should be sown with winter rye for the following 
 spring's use, and the rotation should follow in regular order. 
 If all of the manure made in the soiling season were to be 
 used on these twelve acres year after year, I am satisfied 
 that they- might be made in time to. support, during the 
 whole of the usual pasturing season, thirty milch cows, or 
 five cows for each two acres. 
 
 In my own case, as one of my reasons for adopting the 
 system of soiling has been that it is the best help in bring- 
 ing up a worn-out farm, I shall each year raise my forage 
 on fresh land, so as to give the whole place the benefit of 
 the treatment. 
 
 Of course, a rule which will apply in one region may not 
 be the best for another, and each farmer must decide for 
 himself the extent to which he can profitably adopt the sys- 
 tem on his farm, and also what crops will best -aeeomplish 
 the desired end in his own case. 
 
SOILING CATTLE. 409 
 
 "Where it is desirable to plough as little as possible, clover 
 and grass may with advantage enter much more largely into 
 the arrangement. 
 
 Two general principles, however, may be stated as appli- 
 cable to all of the more temperate regions of our Northern 
 States — 
 
 1. The earliest abundant food will be secured by the use 
 of winter rye. 
 
 2. The hest and most abundant food for the later summer 
 and earlier autumn time will be secured by the use of Indian 
 corn. 
 
 AEGUMENTS IN FAVOE OF SOILING. 
 
 Mr. Quincy states the following as the leading advan- 
 tages of this system : — 
 
 " 1st. The saving of land. 
 
 " 2d. The saving of fencing. 
 
 " 3d. The economizing of food. 
 
 " 4th. The better condition and greater comfort of the 
 cattle. 
 
 " 5th. The greater product of milk. 
 
 " 6th. The attainment of manure." 
 
 On the subject of the 3d item — the economy of food — he 
 says : " There are six ways by which beasts destroy the ar- 
 ticle destined for their food — 1. By eating ; 2. By walking ; 
 
 3, By dunging ; 4. By staling ; 5. By lying down ; 6. By 
 
 18 
 
410 ■ SOILING CATTLE. 
 
 breathing on it. Of these six, the first only is useful. All 
 the others are wasteful." 
 
 The other points he elucidates with equal force, but at 
 too great length for full quotation here. 
 
 The statement made above that a milch cow may be kept 
 during the ordinary pasturing season upon the produce of 
 one-half acre of land, while of land of the same character at 
 least two acres would be necessary on the pasturage system, 
 is sufiicient to illustrate the saving of land. Yet this state- 
 ment, which will be supported by the testimony of all who 
 practise the system on land of good quality, is far below the 
 estimate of many who have had a lifelong experience of soiling 
 in Europe. Some of them place the proportion in favor of 
 soiling as high as 1 to 7. Of course the amount of stock 
 which may be fed from the produce of a single acre depends 
 very much on the manner in which that acre is cultivated, 
 and the question of the cost of labor must determine whether 
 it is or is not profitable to force the production beyond k 
 given extent. 
 
 As to fencing, it is only necessary to remind nearly every 
 farmer of his own experience of .the first cost of building, 
 and of the yearly cost of repairing the fences of his own 
 farm, and to say that by the soiling system, when completely 
 carried out, all interior fences may and should be entirely 
 dispensed with,. 
 
 Add to the question of expense, the fact that useless head- 
 lands and their nurseries of noxious weeds are got rid of. 
 
SOILING CATTLE, 411 
 
 and that the plough can be driven, if desired, straight through 
 from one side of the farm to the other, and the argument 
 needs no re-enforcement. 
 
 Concerning the condition of the cattle, the following is 
 stated by Quincy : — " One writer asserts that he has kept a 
 large herd for several years in this way, and during the 
 whole time ' he never had an animal essentially sick, had 
 never one die, and had never one miscarry.' " The general 
 result of the experience of hundreds of farmers in Europe, 
 and of considerable experience in America, is, that cattle 
 are really better ofi' in every way, under the protection of 
 the soiling barn, with its ample and regularly supplied 
 food, and with the advantage of daily currying and exer- 
 cise, than when left to shift for themselves exposed to the 
 vicissitudes of the weather. 
 
 The quantity of milk may never be so large as it is du- 
 ring the flush weeks of June, when the cows ai-e gorging 
 their maiden appetites on rich grass ; but the consumption 
 of food from the first of May to the first of November (and 
 consequently the yield of milk) will be much greater. 
 
 " Last, but by no means the least," the question of manure 
 asserts its claim to the fullest consideration. Were it not' 
 for this item of the calculation the arguments in favor of 
 soiling would lose more than half their force. 
 
 The immense superiority, both in quality and evenness of 
 distribution over the soil, of manure which is made and kept 
 under cover, over that which is dropped at random on pas- 
 
412 SOILING CATTLE. 
 
 ture fields; and the advantage of being able to apply it 
 ■when we please, where we please, and in such quantities as 
 we please, are too well known to all who have to use ma- 
 nure to produce paying crops, for any argument on the sub- 
 ject to be necessary. There is no way in which so much 
 manure of such excellent quality can be landed on the farm 
 without a far greater outlay of money than is necessary to 
 pay for all the labor required for ploughing, sowing, " tend- 
 ing," cutting, and hauling the food, and for currying and 
 feeding the animals under the most complete soiling man- 
 agement. 
 
 Of course the manure argument does not hold (nor is 
 the system of soiling to be recommended) for those districts 
 of the West where the laughing harvest follows the tickling 
 hoe; where straw is burned in the fields, and barns are 
 moved to get away from the accumulated manure. But for 
 the older settled countries of the East and South (and for 
 the future West— the West with its " inexhaustible fertil- 
 ity " exhausted) it does hold, and with such force that as 
 population grows more dense— and farmers more wise — it 
 alone, even if there were no other advantage in the system, 
 must in time compel the rapid" increase of the practice of 
 soiling. 
 
STEAMING FOOD FOE STOCK. 
 
 A more recent improvement than " soiling " in the keep- 
 ing of feattle, on farms where it is important to make every 
 pound of food tell with the fullest effect in the production 
 of meat, muscle, or milk (and on what farm is this not im- 
 portant ?), is the stea/ming of food in winter. 
 
 Although this practice has been the subject of much less 
 exiperiment than soiling, and is, consequently, less generally 
 recognized as worthy of adoption, enough is known of its 
 advantages, both by experience and from theory, to make 
 its brief discussion necessary to the completeness of this 
 book. 
 
 During the past year I have investigated the subject with 
 some thoroughness, and have detei-mined to adopt it on my 
 own farm ; and I can hardly do better than to give here 
 some account of my investigations, in order that my readers 
 may decide for themselves the soundness of my reasons for 
 the determination. 
 
 My serious attention was first called to the matter by an 
 article in the Keport of the Department of Agriculture for 
 1865, written by Mr. E. W. Stewart of ISTorth Evans, N. Y. 
 He therein details his own experience of ten years in steam- 
 ing food for a large stock of cattle and horses, gives a suc- 
 cinct statement of the reasons why steaming is beneficial, 
 
416 STEAMING FOOD FOE STOCK. 
 
 and, sustains his own opinion by the concurrent testimony 
 of other practical farmers who have found the practice bene- 
 ficial. 
 
 The following are the results of the operation as stated by 
 Mr. Stewart :— 
 
 " 1. It renders mouldy hay, straw, and corn-stalks per- 
 fectly sweet and palatable. Animals seem to relish straw 
 taken from a stack which has been wet and badly damaged 
 for ordinary use ; and even in any condition, except ' dry 
 rot,' steaming will restore its sweetness. When keeping a 
 large stock, we have often purchased stacks of straw which 
 would have been worthless for feeding in the ordinary way, 
 and have been atle to detect no difference, after steaming, 
 in the smell or the relish with which it was eaten. 
 
 " 2. It diffuses the odor of the bran, corn-meal, oil-meal, 
 carrots, or whatever is mixed with the feed, through the 
 whole mass ; and thus it may cheaply be flavored to suit the 
 animal. 
 
 "3. It softens the tough fibre of the dry corn-stalk, rye- 
 straw, and other hard material, rendering it almost like 
 green succulent food, and easily masticated and digested by 
 the animal. 
 
 "4. It renders beans and peas agreeable food to horses, as 
 well as other animals, and thus enables the feeder to com- 
 bine more nitrogenous food in the diet of his animals. 
 
 " 5. It enables the feeder to turn everything raised into 
 
STEAMING FOOD FOR STOCK. 417 
 
 food for liis stock, without lessening the value of his manure. 
 Indeed, the manure made from steamed food decomposes 
 more readily, and is therefore more valuable than when used 
 in a fresh state. Manure made from steamed food is always 
 ready for use, and is regarded by those who have used it as 
 much more valuable, for the same bulk, than that made 
 from uncooked food. - 
 
 " 6. "We have found it to cure incipient heaves in horses ; 
 and horses having a cough for several months at pasture, 
 have been cured in two weeks on steamed food. It has a 
 remarkable effect on horses with a sudden cold and in con- 
 stipation. Horses fed upon it seem much less liable to dis- 
 ease ; in fact, in this respect, it seems to -have all the good 
 qualities of grass, the natural food of animals. 
 
 " 7. It produces a marked difference in the appearance of 
 the animal, at once causing the coat to become smooth and 
 of brighter color— regulates the digestion, makes the animal 
 more contented and satisfied, enables fattening stock to eat 
 their food with'less labor (and consequently requires less to 
 keep up the animal heat), gives working^animals time to eat 
 all that is necessary for them in the intervals of labor; and 
 this is of much importance, especially with horses. It also 
 enables the feeder to fatten animals in one-third less time. 
 " 8. It saves at least one-third of the food. We have found 
 two bushels of cut and cooked hay to satisfy cows as well 
 as three bushels of uncooked hay, and the manure in the 
 case of the uncooked hay contained much more fibrous 
 
 18* 
 
418 STBAMCNG FOOD FOE STOCK. 
 
 matter nnutilized by the animal. This is more particularly 
 the case with horses." 
 
 Other publications on the subject fully confirm Mr. Stew- 
 art's estimate, and we commend his essay, which is accessi- 
 ble to all, to the careful attention of every feeder of farm 
 stock. 
 
 In January (1868) I visited the farm of Messrs. S. & D. 
 Wells, at Wethersfield, Conn., for the purpose of examining 
 their cow stable and its fixtures. 
 
 The leading features of this establishment are a constant 
 water-supply, and apparatus for cutting and steaming food.* 
 The latter was introduced at a cost of about $500. It com- 
 prises a three-horse steam-engine of very simple construction, 
 a tubular boiler of sufficient capacity to run the engine, a 
 strong power stalk-cutter, and a chest for steaming food. 
 
 There were about thirty cows in the stable. They receive 
 steamed food morning and night, and dry hay at noon. The 
 steamed food consists of hay of poor quality, straw, or corn- 
 stalks, cut to short lengths, sprinkled until thoroughly wet, 
 and then dusted with bran or meal, and steamed for about 
 two hours. 
 
 The engine has power enough to cut in a couple of hours 
 
 * The water is brought from a living spring and flows through galvanized iron 
 pipes which form the connections between the bottoms of small iron troughs 
 standing at the head of the partitions which divide each pair of stalls. The last 
 trough overflows through a pipe near its top, and the water wells up to the 
 level of this overflow in each trough of the series. By this simple arrange- 
 ment, a constantly changing supply of water is kept always in front of the 
 cattle. 
 
STEAMrN& FOOD FOB STOCK. 4:19 
 
 a supply sufficient for the wliole week, and enough is steamed 
 at one charge to last for three or four days. Steam is made 
 only twice in each week (once for cutting and steaming, 
 and once for steaming only), and then only for a short time. 
 
 The steaming box is about four feet square and eight feet 
 high. The materials are put into the box from the floor above 
 that of which the cow stable is an extension, and are re- 
 moved through a door in one of its sides on the feeding floor. 
 Elevated a short distance above the bottom, there is a false 
 bottom perforated with many holes. The steam is let in be- 
 low this, and is thus allowed to rise evenly through the 
 the whole mass. 
 
 The box is made of two thicknesses of one-inch, matched 
 spruce boards (one set running up and down, and the other 
 across). The doors are not made with any very great care 
 to prevent the escape of steam, nor does it seem to be con- 
 sidered necessary to do moi'e than to have the box strong 
 enough to hold its "burden of wet fodder. 
 
 The Messrs. Wells find that Mr. Stewart's opinion — given 
 above — ^is, in all essential particulars, sustained by the re- 
 sults of their experience. They think that steaming adds 
 one-half to the feeding value of fodder. 
 
 It was what I saw on their farm, more than anything else, 
 which caused me to decide on adopting the system in my 
 own practice. My apparatus is not yet completed, and I 
 cannot, therefore, speak on the subject with the authority of 
 a successful experimenter ; but from all that I can learn, I 
 
420 STEAMING FOOD FOE STOCK.- 
 
 am satisfied that the advantages of steaming have hardly 
 been overrated. 
 
 The theory of the process (in a nutshell) is this : Cattle 
 and horses in a state of nature live the year round on succu- 
 lent green herbage. "When the cold weather begins to cut 
 sliort the supply in the more northern latitudes, they migrate 
 toward the south. Man steps in and keeps them in the 
 colder climate. He substitutes dried grass for fresh grass. 
 Steaming will, in a great measure, restore hay to the condi- 
 tion of green grass. Also, many constituents of hay, straw, 
 &c., are insoluble and indigestible. Bj the action of heat 
 and moisture they become soluble, or at least are reduced to 
 a condition in which they are easily available to the digest- 
 ive organs of animals. Starch-grains, accoi-ding to the best 
 authorities, are coated with a layer or cuticle which resists 
 — to a great extent — the action of the juices of the stomach, 
 while its interior parts, could they be directly exposed, 
 would readily be assimilated ; therefore, as heat causes the 
 interior of the grains to swell and burst their coating, ex- 
 posing themselves on the surface, as the interior parts of a 
 kernel of corn do in " popping," the process of steaming 
 (or any cooking) makes the starchy part of food more readily 
 available. 
 
 Examinations of the droppings of animals fed on cooked 
 and uncooked food furnish results which confirm the fore- 
 going opinion. 
 
 Carefully conducted experiments on animals of equal. 
 
STEAMING FOOD FOK STOCK. 421 
 
 weight, and of like condition in all respects, invariably show 
 that those which are fed on cooked food take on fat, and 
 form bone and muscle more rapidly than those which get 
 only raw food. If, after a certain time, the food is changed 
 — the cooked being given to the animal that has been receiv- 
 ing the uncooked, and vice versa — the rapidity of growth 
 will change too. The trial has often been made, and the 
 result has been invariably the same. 
 
 In fact, in all of the essays and opinions on the subject of 
 cooking food for domestic animals, in this country and in 
 Europe, I have failed to find the first one that is not decid- 
 edly favorable. 
 
 Steaming, of course, is valuable only because it is a means 
 of cooking, and the arguments in its favor bear equally on 
 the subject oi loiling. Steaming As rapidly coming into 
 use because of its greater convenience and economy. 
 
 How to inahe a Steaming Apparatus. — Any device by 
 which steam may be generated under a very slight pressure 
 — barely sufiicient to cause it to penetrate the mass to be 
 cooked — and conducted to the vessel in which the steaming 
 is to be done, will accomplish the desired purpose ; but, of 
 course, the more convenient the arrangement, and the less 
 the waste of steam (whether by condensation or otherwise), 
 the more economically the process may be performed, as to 
 both time and fuel.' 
 
 Mr. Stewart suggests a plan which, from its cheapness, 
 will answer a good purpose where the stock to be cooked 
 
422 STEAMING FOOD FOK STOCK. 
 
 for is small, or where it is desired to experiment on a small 
 scale. 
 
 It is a box made of well jointed 2inch pine, seven or 
 eight feet long, and about two and a half feet wide, with a 
 bottom of No. 16 sheet iron, nailed securely on to the lower 
 edge of the sides and ends, and turned up a little outside of 
 them — say half an inch. This box has a false bottom, of 
 wood or iron, placed about three inches above the fast bot- 
 tom, and perforated with many small holes, and a closely- 
 fitting cover over the top. 
 
 It sta,nds on brick walls which do not come quite so far 
 out as the wooden sides of the box. At one end of the 
 chamber enclosed by these walls there is a wood fire-place, 
 and from the other end a chimney rises. 
 
 The space between the bottom and the false bottom is 
 partly filled with water, cut hay mixed with meal or bran 
 is put in the box above the false bottom, the cover is closed, 
 and the fire is started. The steam rises through the per- 
 forations in the false bottom, and cooks the mass above 
 it. 
 
 A much more complete apparatus for steaming, and in 
 large practice a more economical one, comprises a boiler for 
 generating the steam, a box in which to place the food, and 
 a wooden, or well protected steam-pipe to connect the two. 
 The box should have a perforated false bottom, and the steam 
 should be introduced beneath this, so that it may diffuse 
 itself uniformly through the mass. 
 
STEAMING FOOD FOR STOCK. 
 
 423 
 
 The boiler may, of coui-se, be of any pattern that will 
 secure the economical generation of steam. A discarded 
 engine-boiler will answer every pui-pose if it is strong enough 
 to bear a pressure of, say, five or ten pounds to the inch — a 
 slight pressure being necessary to force the steam through 
 the mass of hay. 
 
 D. E. Prindle's Agricultural Boiler, which is shown in 
 the accompanying cut, is admirably adapted for this use. 
 
 RG. 1. 
 
 Fio. 2. 
 
 Prindle's Agricultural Steamer and Cauldron (shown in 
 Flo's. 1 and 2) is the invention of Mr. D. E. Prindle, of East 
 Bethany, New York, and is largely manufactured by Messrs. 
 Savery & Co. of Philadelphia. 
 
 Its popularity seems to be rapidly increasing, and there is 
 no question that it is the best steaming apparatus for the use 
 
4:2i STEAMING FOOD FOR STOCK. 
 
 of all farmers who do not employ steam-engines that has 
 yet been invented. 
 
 It consists of a cauldron set over a furnace arranged to bum 
 either wood or coal, and furnished, with a dome which fits 
 closely over it and is keyed down so as to make a steam-joint 
 It is provided with a test-cock to show when it needs the 
 addition of water, a safety-valve which is also a vacuum 
 valve, a funnel for filling, and one or more pipes to convey 
 the steam to the cooking-boxes. 
 
 Aside from its use in steaming fodder for cattle, it may be 
 used to heat water to scald hogs, or for other purposes, to 
 warm buildings, to cook roots or meal for hogs or grain for 
 fowls, and for a variety of other purposes for which hot air, 
 hot water, or steam are useful. 
 
 For farm use, especially when constant steam is not re- 
 quired, Prindle's steamer is much better than an engine- 
 boiler, as it works only at a very low pressure, and is conse- 
 quently quite safe, and is much cheaper when we consider 
 the cost of setting up the larger engine-boiler, and its more 
 expensive transportation. 
 
 Full particulars concerning the Prindle steamer may be 
 obtained by application to the inventor. 
 
 I have not determined, in my own case, what power to 
 adopt for the cutting of my long fodder. The question is 
 about evenly balanced between a small steam-engine, a wind- 
 mill, and a railway horse-power, for final use ; but as the first 
 cost will be less, I shall commence with the horse-power 
 
STEAMING FOOD FOE STOCK, 425 
 
 belonging to a threshing machine, and a Prindle boilerj 
 changing to one, tlie engine or mill, at a future day, if it 
 seems desirable. 
 
 It is hardly prudent to make any positive calcxilations in 
 advance of actual experiment, but I anticipate-^and I base 
 my calculations on a very careful survey of the whole field 
 — a saving of ahoxit forty per cent, in the cost of feeding 
 my stock, over the present system of feeding only the best 
 hay uncut. A part of the saving will be due to the more 
 digestible condition of the food, and a part to the fact that 
 a much cheaper quality of hay, or straw, or corn-stalks can 
 be largely used. A saving of very much less than this, 
 when from thirty to forty head are to be provided for, will 
 be enough to make a fair profit on the business. 
 
 The various uses for which steam can be adapted seems 
 to be but little understood by the masses. Fear of explo- 
 sfons, scalding, &c., as well as want of knowledge of its 
 great advantages, has thus far prevented its general intro- 
 duction. 
 
 The want of a perfectly safe and easily managed low 
 pressure apparatus with which to accomplish all the require- 
 ments of domestic use, has also been a great drawback. 
 The great advantages of cooking, heating, boiling, &c., by 
 steam, are obvious when it is remembered that it can be 
 done with much less water and fuel, requiring but little care 
 of the operator, and using wooden vessels (if desired) of any 
 kind, size, or shape (a great desideratum). By its use there 
 
426 BTEAMmG FOOD FOE STOCK. 
 
 is no re-filling of IcettUs (the ordinary mode) to get a desired 
 quantity ; no constant watcHng or stirring, or removal of 
 tlie substance -while hot, to prevent burning ; no cleaning of 
 kettles for every separate job, which can be done by steam. 
 By the use of this powerful agent, large quantities may be 
 boiled or steamed, or several vessels (if need be) treated at 
 the same time ; and when desirable, the steam can be con- 
 veyed in pipes or logs to some little distance, using proper 
 care in protecting the same from condensation ; thus avoid- 
 ing, many times, danger from fire, and accommodating itself 
 to all the various purposes of domestic economy, as well as 
 in the manufacturing of many articles or compounds, when 
 danger from burning or explosion is so common. By steam 
 the clothes may be boiled at any point in the barrel or tub ; 
 the bath-tub may be warmed in an adjoining room ; the farm 
 or stock-feeder could easily cook in quantities at a, time, or 
 . scald his hogs, steam his barrels, &c., &c. "We believe that 
 when a cheap, simple, and perfectly safe apparatus is once 
 introduced, that the subject (as it deserves) will receive 
 much more attention, as by steam all classes might as easily 
 be benefited. 
 
 ADVANTAGES OF COOKED FOOD. 
 
 The Americcm Agrioultv/rist for January, 1860, says: 
 " Experiments made by C. M. Clay, of Kentucky, showed 
 that one bushel of dry corn made 6 lbs. 10 oz. of pork ; 
 of boiled com, 14 lbs. 7 oz., and boiled meal, 16 to 18 lbs." 
 
STEAMING FOOD FOE STOCK. 427 
 
 M&rtorCs Cyelopcedia of Agriculture (than which there 
 IB no higher authority in Europe) says : " As to steaming 
 food for cattle, there is abundant experience to recommend 
 it. The process of cooking renders sohible that which would 
 otherwise be imperfectly digested. It removes, in some 
 cases, what would otherwise be unwholesome ; and it renders 
 savory what would otherwise be distasteful." 
 
 Lovdori's Encyclopoedia of Agriculture remarks : " Un- 
 less food be thoroughly deprived of its vegetative powers 
 before it enters the stomach, the whole nourishment which 
 it is capable of affording cannot be derived from it. The 
 most effectual mode of destroying the living principle is by 
 \h.Q application of heat, by steaming or boiling." 
 
 The Society of Shakers, at Lebanon, K T., famous for 
 pork-raising, say: "For fattening animals, swine particu- 
 larly, we consider three of cooked equal to four of raw 
 meal." 
 
GAEDENING FOE MAEKET. 
 
 "While market-gardening, as a systematic business, ia 
 quite distinct from farming, there is no farmer who lives 
 near a town who may not make the raising of certain crops 
 on a small scale very profitable. Success in this branch of 
 the business of the farmer requires that the land to be devo- 
 ted to its prosecution he dry, warmly situated, with a good 
 exposure, and rich and again rich. 
 
 The amount of manure which may be jprofitahVy applied 
 to land intended for the growth of market vegetables has 
 hardly any limit. One hundred cartloads of good horse 
 
GAEDENIXG FOE MAKKET. 429 
 
 manure to an acre, every year, will pay more profit than 
 ■will fifty loads ; and I am inclined to believe that even two 
 hundred load8 would pay better still. 
 
 The cultivation of vegetables entails, in any case, a heavy 
 outlay for labor, seed, expenses of marketing, &c., and these 
 are about the same (except in the matter of marketing) for 
 a light as for a heavy crop — it takes a certain amount of 
 produce to pay the cost, and up to this point there is no 
 profit. Beyond this point, except the cost of the manure, 
 it is nearly all profit, and the more we can stimulate exces- 
 sive production the more rapidly will the ratio of profits 
 increase over the expenses, 
 
 No farmer canhope to become really successful in raising 
 vegetables for market until he is prepared to expend— in- 
 cluding the value of the manure used — at least $300 annu- 
 ally on every acre of his. garden land. "With this outlay, 
 if his soil is good and well placed, and his market is a 
 good one, and if he is the right mem for the lusmess, he 
 ought to make a clear profit of $500 per acre. 
 
 The character of the market should be well understood. 
 If there is 'a manufacturing town near by, or any town hav- 
 ing a population which includes a large proportion of labor- 
 ing people, the case is a simple one. 
 
 It should be well understood that it does not pay (at least 
 so far as gardening is concerned) to feed the rich. They 
 are like the black sheep of the fiock, that don't eat so much 
 as the white ones — there are not. so many of them, and, as 
 
430 GARDENING FOE MAEKET. 
 
 another reason, they do not eat so largely of coarse vege- 
 tables. A hearty Irish laborer, with a stout hardworking 
 wife and a table full of healthy children, will use up cabba- 
 ges and turnips in a way to delight the heart of a gardener ; 
 and the atmosphere of a manufacturing town will evapo- 
 rate a farmer's load of these vegetables as the sun dries up 
 the morning mists. 
 
 To any one who is disposed to venture an acre or two in 
 gardening, no better service can be do'ne than to recommend 
 him to read Peter Henderson's " Gardening for Profit," 
 wherein are laid down precise rules for the management of 
 every department of the business. 
 
 We have here only space to give a few practical hints 
 which will be chiefly of use to farmers who propose to de- 
 vote a portion of their time to the simpler kind of garden- 
 ing. 
 
 It may be given as a general rule, that the only crops 
 that it will pay the fa/rmer to raise, in his market garden, 
 are beets, cabbages (early and late), sweet corn, cucumbers, 
 onions (rare-ripes), parsnips, radishes, spinach, and tomatoes. 
 
 The size, a/rraTvgement, omd equvpment of the garden. — 
 We will suppose a farmer to be about to embark in this busi- 
 ness, and that he is willing to invest in it a capital of one 
 thousand dollars. Of course the same general rules will apply 
 for a more or less extensive operation. He should select two 
 acres of light dry land (if he has it, and if not he should 
 thoroughly underdrain it), if possible with an exposure to 
 
GAEDENING FOE MAEKET. 431 
 
 the east or south. If it is sheltered from the north and 
 west by an orchard or by other trees, so much the better. 
 
 The land may be more economically arranged if it lies in 
 about a square body, and should be fenced on the north and 
 west sides with a tight board fence six or eight feet high. 
 A fence of the latter height, made in the best manner, of 
 pine boards, capped with a spruce rail, will cost in the 
 vicinity of New York about $200 for 600 running feet. This 
 fence should set close to the ground, so that the wind cannot 
 draw under it, and it will have the effect of very materially 
 modifying the climate, and enabling the growing of much 
 earlier vegetables. 
 
 Close in the northwest corner he should then set up two 
 parallel rows of hemlock boards, nailed to 2x3 stakes, driv- 
 en into the ground. The back line of boarding should be 
 12 inches high, parallel to the fence and three feet distant 
 from it. The other row should be 8 inches high, parallel to 
 and 6 feet and 2 inches distant from the first, outside meas- 
 urement. Both to be 187 feet long, with boards to close up 
 the ends, and the ground enclosed by them should be spaded 
 and manured. This is the " cold frame," which is to be 
 covered by 50 sashes, each 3 feet 9 inches wide by 6 feet 2^ 
 inches long, having four rows of glass, each containing nine 
 8x10 lights set lengthwise across the space — the rails being 
 ten inches apart. The sashes to be made of If inch stuff 
 and strengthened by a flat rod of iron (1 inch by ^ inch) 
 let in flush on the under side and screwed fast to the bara 
 
432 GABDENING FOE MARKET. 
 
 and rails, across the middle of the sash. It is best to 
 make the sashes in the best manner, as they are a very im- 
 portant part of the permanent stock in trade of the garden. 
 They will cost, at an outside price, $250. 
 
 The ground of the garden should be deeply ploughed and 
 subsoiled in July or August, and if the weeds that grow 
 upon it are likely to ripen their seeds, they should be mow- 
 ed down late in the fall. Before winter sets in, the largest 
 amount of horse manure that can be bought for $200, de- 
 livered, should be spread upon the surface, and left exposed 
 to the rain and melting snow of the winter. 
 
 About the middle of September, sow in a well-prepared 
 . seed-bed in an old garden, twelve ounces of the seed of Jer- 
 sey Wakefield cabbage, and four ounces of Fottler's Im- 
 proved Brunswick. At about the same time sow on three 
 feet of one end of the cold frame, one ounce of black-seeded 
 butter lettuce, and one ounce of eaxly-curled Simpson lettuce, 
 giving to each about nine square feet. These are to remain 
 where they are sown during the winter. The cabbage plants 
 will be large enough to transplant about six weeks from the 
 time of sowing, when they are to be " pricked out " in the 
 cold frame two inches apart each way, which will give about 
 800 plants to a sash. These plants should be well watered, 
 and sprinkled with a light coating of air-slaked lime. 
 
 They will need to be protected by the glass until they are 
 firmly rooted (the sashes being tilted up at the back to give 
 them air whenever the sun is on them), and on frosty nights, 
 
GABDENING FOE MAEKET. 433 
 
 and they should be gradually accustomed to the cold air, so 
 that they may be able to withstand the hard freezing that 
 they will get in the winter; all through the winter they 
 should have air whenever the frost is thawed from the under 
 side of the glass, and on fine days the sashes should be strip- 
 ped off from them altogether. The end where the lettuce 
 plants are standing should have less air, and should have 
 the protection at night of an old carpet thrown over the 
 sash. Directly in front of the cold frame there should be a 
 second frame made of exactly the same size and character. 
 This should be filled with straw, leaves, or other rubbish 
 which will keep it from freezing, and about the last of Feb- 
 ruary or the first of March its covering should be removed 
 and about three inches of well-rotted manure should be dug 
 into it — not too deeply. The lettuce plants are now to be 
 transplanted to this frame, at distances of six and a-half or 
 seven inches each way (about seventy plants to a sash), and 
 covered by the sashes which may now be taken entirely from 
 the hardened cabbage plants. If light board shutters have 
 been provided to cover the cabbages during severe storms, it 
 will be better, but they will stand any amount of hardship 
 after their winter's training. The lettuce plants should have 
 plenty of air during fine weather (and some air whenever 
 it is not freezing), should be abundantly watered if the 
 season is dry, and should be forced by as much heat as can 
 be given them without depriving them of air. They will 
 
 be ready for market about the middle of May, when lettuce 
 
 19 
 
iSi GABDENING TOE MARKET. 
 
 usually sells in towns (not in the larger cities) for from 8c. 
 to 12c. per head. 
 
 Dm-ing the latter part of April, plant sixty three-inch 
 pots with half a dozen seeds each of White Spine cucum- 
 ber, and set them in a warm light room in the house. By 
 the time the lettuce is sold off these will be sturdy plants, 
 and they should be thinned to three in each pot. Now dig 
 holes a foot deep, and a foot in diameter, at intervals 
 of three feet in the lettuce frame, and fill them with very 
 thoroughly rotted and rich compost, covering it with a little 
 soil. On each of these plant the contents of a pot, without 
 disturbing the roots of the plants, and cover closely with 
 the sashes. Give a little air in the middle of the day, but 
 cover close from 4 p.m. until 10 a.m., and during all chilly 
 weather ; water copiously, and uncover to all warm rains. 
 
 By the latter pai't of June the picking will commence (at 
 from 5c. to 30c. each), and it may be continued as long as 
 ihe price is not less than Ic. each. This crop is more un- 
 certain and varying in its results than lettuce, but it usually 
 pays well, and is very inexpensive. 
 
 Now let us sum up the probable income of 50 sashes, 
 managed as directed above : — 
 
 35,000 cabbage plants, at $10 $350 
 
 3,500 lettuces, at 8c 280 
 
 Cucumbers (from $25 to $100), say 50 
 
 This is earned with a small investment, and the labor is 
 
GAEDENOfG FOE MAEKBT. 435 
 
 mainly done in the fall and winter, when other work is 
 slack ; andiit has the great advantage of coming in early, 
 when there is a demand for ready money to pay for labor, 
 &c. 
 
 Five hundred tomato plants may be started in the kitchen 
 window, or in a small hot-bed, and by the middle of April 
 they may be pricked out in one end of the lettuce frames As 
 early in May as the danger of frosts has passed, they should 
 be set out at intervals of fifteen inches along the foot of the 
 fence on the north and west sides of the field, to be trained 
 up against it (tacked fast), and kept trimmed to single 
 stems. At a height of six feet they should be pinched off 
 and their growth kept close. They should be planted in a 
 very rich soil, and well watered. They can hardly fail to 
 produce early crops, and ought to sell for $75 to $100. 
 
 Now we come to the management of the field crops. 
 
 If we could only raise cabbages year after year on the 
 same land, our business would be a very simple one. We 
 might take two crops yearly (an early and a late one) of the 
 most profitable and easily raised vegetable on our list. 
 
 But, unfortunately, one crop in two years is all we can 
 reasonably hope for, as the " club-foot " will surely attack an 
 immediately succeeding crop on the same ground, and our best 
 plan is to arrange to grow as many cabbages as we safely 
 
 can ^making this point our constant aim — and to occupy 
 
 the land as profitably as possible the rest of the time. 
 
 Therefore, the field should be divided into two equal parts. 
 
436 GAEDENING FOK MAEKET. 
 
 one side being prepared for cabbages and the other for such 
 other crops as will not interfere with the gro\|tJi of cab-, 
 bages the next year. 
 
 The first operation is the preparation of the ground for 
 early cabbages, for which we devote a space of about one 
 acre. 
 
 The manure which was spread in the fall should be 
 lightly ploughed in — not deep enough to turn up the old sod 
 — and a thousand pounds of Peruvian guano, two thousand 
 pounds of fish guano, or fifteen hundred pounds of bone- 
 dust, should be evenly sown over the ground, and thoroughly 
 harrowed in. Either of these manures will cost about $40. 
 As early as it is possible to get the ground into proper con- 
 dition, as described above, the cabbage plants in the cold 
 frame should be set out, in rows two feet apart, and about 
 16 inches apart in the rows. It will probably be best to 
 plant three-fourths of the piece with the Jersey Wakefield, 
 and the remainder with the Brunswick, which will begin to 
 be fit for market at about the time when the Wakefield is 
 all sold. 
 
 This amount of land will receive about 16,000 plants, 
 leaving about 20,000 plants to be sold from the frame. If 
 the value of cold frame plants is understood in the vicinity, 
 they will be readily taken up at $10 per thousand. 
 
 If there is a good summer market for lettuce, the Early 
 Curled Simpson may be set out between the rows of cabbage, 
 when it will grow to a marketable size before the whole 
 
GAEDBNING FOE MARKET. 437 
 
 ground will be required by tbe main crop. In the neigh- 
 borhood of small towns this wiU. not be worth while, as 
 there is but little demand for lettuce after June 1st. 
 
 As soon as the cabbages are planted — and this may be 
 done even so early as in March, if the weather is fine — ^the 
 other half of the garden should be manured and prepared 
 in the same manner, and planted with beets, onions, pars- 
 nips, spinach, and radishes ; the first four in about equal 
 proportions, and in the following manner : — 
 
 Beets (of the Bassano and the early turnip-rooted blood 
 variety) should be very thickly planted in rows 18 inches 
 apart — thickly, because the early frosts may cut off a part 
 of the crop — and when they are fairly up, they should be 
 singled out to intervals of about 4 inches in the rows. 
 
 The onions should be " sets " raised the previous year. 
 These may usually be bought for from $6 to $10 per bushel, 
 according to size — the -smallest bearing the highest price. 
 They should be set in rows 9 inches apart, and at intervals 
 of 3 inches in the rows, being firmly pressed down in the 
 bottoni, of the line made by the marker. Every seventh 
 row sEottLd be omitted to leave room to walk among the 
 crop, ana%ie sets should be entirely covered by raking the 
 beds evenly over. 
 
 Onions raised from the seed are rather a farm than a gar- 
 den crop, and will not pay to raise on land so expensively 
 manured as that under consideration. 
 
 Onions raised from "sets" are called Bare Bvpes, audi 
 
438 GAEDENING FOE MAKKET. 
 
 they always meet a ready sale in any market where there is 
 a market for any vegetables. Still, as it is considerable 
 work to tie them, it will be best not to raise more than one- 
 quarter of an acre of them. 
 
 Pa/rsnips should be planted early in May on well pre- 
 pared (deeply loosened) ground, in rows 27 inches apart, the 
 seed being strewn thickly in the rows, and the plants finally 
 thinned to intervals of six inches. The reason for putting 
 the rows so wide asunder is that it enables us to cultivate 
 the crop with the horse-hoe at a time when labor can be ill 
 spared for hand-hoeing. 
 
 Spmach. — This crop, the first year, must be planted in 
 the spring ; by planting very early, on ground so heavily 
 manured, it will be in market ahead of green peas, and will 
 bring a good price, but after these are plenty it can 
 hardly be sold at any price. The cultivation of this crop 
 is extremely simple. The seeds are sown pretty thickly 
 (say 10 lbs. per acre) in rows about 12 or 14 inches apart, 
 and the land kept clean until it is large enough to cut. 
 
 For all subseqiient years, spinach should be planted about 
 September 15th, on the ground from which the Brunswick 
 cabbage has been taken, this being first well manured with 
 animal manure. It will require (above the latitude of New 
 York) a light covering of seaweed, leaves, or straw during 
 winter. Coming very early into market, it often brings 
 four doUa/rs a iarrd. 
 
 BadAshes are a stolen crop, and, to a limited extent, they 
 
GAKDBNING FOE MAKKET. 439 
 
 may be very pi-ofitably grown. It is best to raise both the 
 long scarlet and the short top turnip-rooted varieties — the 
 former for common trade, and the latter for those who are 
 more choice in their taste, the proportion of each being 
 regulated according to the character of- the market. 
 
 The seed may be sown, rather thinly, with a seed drill 
 between the rows of beets. No cultivation is needed. The 
 seed is the only cost except the preparation for market, and 
 this need be applied only to so much as there is a sale for ; 
 the rest can be simply cut out with a push hoe, before the 
 beets will require the whole ground. 
 
 We have now provided for the planting of all the land, 
 and will need to commence promptly to use the hoes, of 
 which at least two should be kept going incessantly until 
 the crops are all firmly established, and are able to hold their 
 own against weeds. In fact, at no time during the growth 
 of the crops, until they are too large to be worked among 
 without injury, should weeds be allowed to grow at all. If 
 they once get started so that there must be a fight to get rid 
 of them, we may as well say good-bye to all hope of profit, 
 for they will require more labor than it will be pleasant to 
 pay for, and the crops will be materially injured, by them. 
 If, on the other hand, every foot of the land be lightly hoed 
 over (or even raked with a light iron rake until it becomes 
 too hard) once a week, there will be no weeds to kill, and 
 the plants themselves will be sufficiently benefited by the 
 operation to pay the cost. 
 
440 GARDENING FOE MAEKET. 
 
 Ha/rvesUng the crops, <mdpreparmg them for market. 
 
 The first sales will be of radishes and sjpmach. Long 
 radishes are pulled, and tied in bunches, and then thrown 
 into water. In a few minutes they are taken out by the 
 tops, laid against a board which stands sloping into the 
 water, and there washed clean with a wisp-broom. 
 
 The round radishes grow at the top of the ground, and so 
 little dirt adheres to them that they only require to be 
 soaked for a few minutes and then shaken in the water. 
 
 Spinach is simply cut off at the top of the root and packed 
 (dry) in barrels — 40 lbs. being a barrel. It is the easiest of 
 all the crops, except cabbages, to prepare for market. 
 
 Parsnips are, as every farmer knows, either left in the 
 ground until spring, or taken up in the fall and stored like 
 any other roots. 
 
 Beets are pulled when about half grown; the outside 
 leaves torn off so as to leave only enough to hold them 
 by securely, the roots washed clean, and tied in bunches of 
 four or five, according to the varying custom of different 
 markets. 
 
 Onions (rare-ripes) are pulled when the bulb has a diameter 
 of three-quarters of an inch or thereabouts — the larger the 
 better — and, after the removal of the dead skin,^ are tied in 
 bunches of five or ten. For the New York market, they 
 must be washed. For Eastern markets this is not necessary. 
 It is quite an addition to the cost of preparation. 
 
 Oahhages (the early sorts) are simply cut off near the 
 
GAEDENING FOR MAEKET. 4-4:1 
 
 ground, with nearly all their leaves, and, if they are to be 
 shipped, are packed in barrels or crockery-crates. They 
 will stand a good deal of rough treatment. 
 
 Prices of Early Yegetahles. — On this subject but little 
 can be said that will be a criterion for different localities, ex- 
 cept that in nearly all of the smaller towns they sell for from 
 50 to 100 per cent, above the New York quotations. The 
 cause of this anomalous condition is that these towns are 
 nearly always supplied with early vegetables from the larger 
 cities. 
 
 Probably the following may be taken as a fair average of 
 prices in towns of from 10,000 to 50,000 inhabitants, during 
 a series of years : — 
 
 Cabbages, 8 cents each. 
 
 Onions (rare-ripes), 50 cents per dozen bunches of five 
 each. 
 
 Beets, 75 cents per dozen bunches of five each. 
 
 Radishes, 30 cents per dozen bunches of about ten each. 
 
 Spinach, $1.50 per barrel. 
 
 Second Crops.— We have now cleared all of the land ex- 
 cept that which is occupied by the parsnips. This produces 
 but one crop during the season, and we have not very much 
 more to expect from the use of the land. Our profit must 
 have come mainly from the early crops. Still, enough may 
 be expected to make a fair return for the labor of cultivation, 
 and for the use of the land and manure, and the land needs 
 
 to be cultivated for its own sake. The gardeners about the 
 
 19* 
 
44:2 GABDENING FOE MARKET. 
 
 large cities, having a market for everything green that 
 they can raise during the whole year, and for some crops, 
 such as celery and salsify, which meet with no sale in small 
 places, find their second crops very profitable ; but, in our 
 case, the chances are that we must be content with small 
 returns from this source. ^ 
 
 We are debarred from raising rutabagas, or French tur- 
 nips, and late cabbages, for the reason that these cannot 
 follow our crop of cabbages, and if they were made to fol- 
 low any of the other crops they would injure the land for 
 the growth of early cabbages the next year. 
 
 Celery is a good crop for land that is in good condition, 
 but it is hardly worth raising for small markets. 
 
 Horseradish, sweet herbs, Tnangel wurzel, sweet corn, and 
 common turnips are about the only safe reliance. Of 
 these, the first' is the most profitable, as it finds a ready sale 
 among the pickle-makers in cities. Concerning its cultiva- 
 tion, the following is copied from an article furnished by 
 Peter Henderson for the Eeport of the Agricultural Depart- 
 ment for 1865 : — 
 
 " The culture is very -simple, and so far very profitable. 
 The plants or sets used are the pieces broken ofi" from the 
 main root in its preparation for market. These are cut into 
 lengths of about six inches, and are from one-quarter to one- 
 half inch in diameter. They are planted letween the rows 
 of cabbage or cauliflower as soon as these crops are planted 
 in th^ Spring, and aibout the same distance apart between 
 
GARDENING FOB MARKET. 443 
 
 the plants. The set or root is planted perpendicularly, three 
 inches under the surface. There is no danger in planting 
 the sets thus deep, for horseradish is particularly tenacious 
 of life, and will start and push through the soil even if 
 planted much deeper. The motive in planting it under^the 
 surface is to delay its starting, so as not to interfere with 
 the cabbage crop, which may close over it without any 
 injury whatever to the horseradish. It sometimes happens, 
 however, either from planting too near the surface, or by 
 the sets being very strong, that the horseradish grows so 
 strongly as to interfere seriously with the cabbage crop. 
 In such cases it must be cut off by the hoe, and this will 
 not injure it in the slightest degree. We have often had to 
 hoe it off twice before the cabbage crop was ready. It will 
 be borne in mind that it is the root only of this crop that is 
 wanted, and that, being grown mostly in the late summer 
 and fall months, the removal of the leaves in June, or July 
 even, does not in any way affect the crop. 
 
 " As soon as the cabbages have been cut off the stumps are 
 dug up, and the ground deeply hoed, so as to encourage the 
 growth of the horseradish crop. This rarely requires to be 
 done more than once, the rapid growth of the leaves smother- 
 ing all weeds. It attains its full growth of root by the end 
 of October, when it may be dug up ; but, being an entirely 
 hardy plant, we usually defer lifting it until all our more 
 tender vegetables are secured, so that the time of digging it 
 up is usually in November and December. It is then place^ 
 
444 GAEDENING FOE MAEKBT. 
 
 in pits adjacent to the vegetable house, so that it can be got 
 at conveniently, and trimmed during leisure time in winter. 
 Its preparation for market is very simple, being merely 
 trimming off the small roots (which are kept for next season's 
 planting), washing, by rinsing them around in a large tub ; 
 weighing — for it is all sold by weight — and packing in bar- 
 rels. 
 
 " The average weight per acre is four tons, and for the past 
 five years it has sold for $200 per ton, or $800 per acre. 
 During March of last year it sold as high as $250 per ton. 
 I have always considered it the most safe and profitable 
 crop of our gardens." ' 
 
 Whether these results could be obtained if the production 
 of horseradish were largely increased, it is impossible to 
 say ; but there is no doubt that its cultivation will remain 
 fairly remunerative. 
 
 Sweet herbs are a safe crop to raise, even at a distance 
 from market, as they can be dried and stowed away in a loft 
 until the leisure time of winter allows them to be bunched 
 and packed for shipment. Henderson estimates the average 
 yield per acre at $600. 
 
 The varieties usually grown for commercial purposes are 
 thyme, sage, summer savory, and sweet marjoram. The 
 cultivation of all of these is precisely the same. 
 
 The plants are raised from seed sown in April in a very 
 fine and rich seed-bed, and they are planted out in the field, 
 at any time after they are large enough up to the last of July, 
 
GAEDENING FOB MAKKET. 445 
 
 in rows about 12 inches apart, and at somewhat less than 
 this distance in: the row. They should be kept free from 
 weeds until they cover the ground. At this stage each 
 alternate row should be cut out, after which the crop will 
 spread and occupy the whole ground again, and in very 
 favorable seasons it will sometimes close up after alternate 
 rows have been taken out a seconds time. 
 
 Mcmgel-wurzel (or field beet) is a safe crop for the far- 
 mer to raise, inasmuch as it is the best of all the roots for 
 cattle food ; and, in rich ground, it produces enormously, 
 while it does not interfere with the growth of cabbages the 
 following year. 
 
 For a second crop the plants should be raised from seed 
 planted very early in May, and it should be set out at dis- 
 tances of 30 inches by 15 inches. It is a perfectly safe and 
 easy crop to transplant, if care be only taken not to attempt 
 the operation until the roots are at least as tliick as the little 
 finger. 
 
 The distances recommended as the best ones at which to 
 set the plants are larger than are usual in this coiintry, but 
 on land so rich as that under consideration, the leaves will 
 cover the whole space, and the roots will grow to an enor- 
 mous size, giving a larger yield than if more thickly set out. i 
 
 Sweet corn is a fair crop to raise for market, but its cul- 
 tivation is so well understood by all that it is only necessary 
 to say here that it should follow the spinach and the onions, 
 which are the first out of the ground in June. 
 
446 GAEDENING FOB MABKET. 
 
 Common turmps are the poorest paying of all the arti- 
 cles recommended, for a second crop, but they are also 
 raised with very little trouble, and as the seed may be sown 
 at any time in July, they are often available to follow the 
 last removed of the first crops, except the Brunswick cab- 
 bages, and these will not usually be cleared a^ in time to 
 prepare the ground for anything but spinach for the follow- 
 ing spring. 
 
 Profits. — This is hardly a safe subject for estimate; so 
 much depends on the land, the situation, the man, and the 
 market, that one will gain where another would lose, and the 
 ratio of profits will vary from zero to an almost fabulous 
 amount. However, under any favorable circumstances, a 
 man tolerably well qualified for the business, provided he 
 will use mmiure with what he may think a wasteful hand, 
 might expect about the results of the following table, for 
 an average of ten years.* 
 Expenses :— 
 
 Kent and taxes, say. $30 
 
 Interest on cost of improvements and tools, 
 
 say on $800, at 1 per cent 56 
 
 Wear and tear 100 
 
 Manure (2 acres) 160 
 
 Labor (equal to two men for the whole year) 1000 
 Seeds and plants 50 
 
 Total $1,396 
 
 * The first year, the outlay for manure will be more, and, owing to tho 
 crude condition of the soil, the returns will be less. 
 
GABDEHING FOE MAKKET. 447 
 
 Beceipts : — 
 
 From use of 50 sashes, as per previous 
 
 estimate $680 00 
 
 From 450 tomato vines on the fences 
 
 (say 25c. each) 112 60 
 
 1 acre, 10,000 cabbages af 8p 800 00 
 
 3 tons horseradish (2d crop) 500 00 
 
 ^ acre beets, 300 dozen bunches at 75c. 225 00 
 
 J " onions, 500 dozen bunches at 50c. 250 00 
 
 i " spinach, 50 barrels, at $2 100 00 
 
 ^ " parsnips, 200 bushels at 75c 150 00 
 
 Eadishes from among beets and cab- 
 bages, say 100 OO 
 
 J acre sweet herbs (2d crop) 100 00 
 
 ^ " sweet corn (2d crop) 25 00 
 
 ^ " mangel-wurzel, say 250 bushels 
 
 at40c 100 00 
 
 J " common turnips 25 00 
 
 Total $2,487 50 
 
 Deduct 'expenses 1,396 00 
 
 Net profits $1,091 50 
 
 Of course there are chances that the profits will be much 
 
 less than the above amount, but there are at least equal 
 chances that they will greatly exceed it. 
 
STEAM CULTIVATION. 
 
 For many years it has been a di-eam of American inven- 
 tors to devise some means by which a locomotive steam- 
 engine could be made to tkke the place of the team in 
 ploughing. 
 
 Thus far, although some of the devices have been made 
 to work tolerably well, none of them have achieved such suc- 
 cess as to commend them to general use. 
 
 It has fallen to the lot of England to make the first appli- 
 cation of steam to ploughing that has been so decidedly 
 successful as to come into very general use. They have 
 abandoned the idea of making the steam-engine travel at 
 the front of the plough, and place it on one of the headlands, 
 broadside to its work, an " anchor " standing opposite to 
 . it on the other side of the field. 
 
 Under the engine there is a horizontal windlass, five feet 
 in diameter, and a similar windlass is attached to the anchor. 
 A steel wire rope passes around these two windlasses, its 
 ends being fastened to the carriage to which the ploughs are 
 suspended, and which forms a link in the endless chain. 
 
 The windlass under the engine is so arranged that it 
 clasps the rope firmly on those parts where its pulling force 
 is exerted, and lets go as the rope leaves it, in its movement 
 toward the anchor. 
 

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STEAM CULTIVATION. 451 
 
 The ploughs are set in " gangs " on a tilting frame. One 
 end of the frame carries right hand, and the other end left 
 hand ploughs. The ploughman sits on the end of the frame 
 which is " in work," and guides the carriage by means of a 
 steering wheel. His weight holds the end on which he sits 
 down to its work, and tilts the other end up, so that its 
 ploughs are in the air. If the width of the field is consider- 
 able, " rope porters " or guiding wheels keep the rope from 
 running on the ground, and thus save power and prevent 
 wear and tear. 
 
 The ploughs being ready to commence their work at the 
 side of the field next to the engine, this is set in motion 
 and the ploughs are drawn toward the anchor ; when they 
 arrive at the anchor side of the field, the ploughman changes 
 his seat to the other end of the frame, and the engine is re- 
 versed, drawing the ploughs toward it ; and in this manner 
 they are moved back and forth until the whole length of the 
 field is ploughed. They are then moved to the ends of the 
 headlands and these are ploughed. 
 
 The engine is a locomotive, and advances along the head- 
 land so as to be always opposite its work, and the anchor is 
 moved at the pleasure of the operator, by the action of its 
 windlass. 
 
 The ploughs are used in all cases where there is a sod or 
 a long stubble to be turned under, but fallow land is culti- 
 vated by the substitution of long-toothed grubbers, which 
 work at a greater depth.^ 
 
452 STEAM CULTIVATION. 
 
 The construction of the steam ploughing apparatus, and 
 its mode of operation, are shown in the illustrations which 
 accompany this article. 
 
 Among the advantages claimed for it are the following : — 
 
 1. Greater rapidity of work, allowing land to be speedily 
 prepared for the crop while in the proper condition, thus 
 greatly lessening the danger that planting will be delayed 
 by rains. 
 
 2. Cheapness of work — the cost (in England) being re- 
 duced from about $5 per acre, the cost with horses, to 
 about $1.25, the cost with the steam apparatus. 
 
 3. Improved condition of the land. 
 
 4. Better drainage. 
 
 6. Greater activity in the performance of all the work of 
 the farm. 
 
 Concerning rapidity of work, it may be stated that a 
 lirhorse engine set will plough from 9 to 12 acres per day, 
 and do the work better (deeper) than it can possibly be done 
 with any ordinary farm team. 
 
 At the Annual Show of the Eoyal Agricultural Society at 
 Bury St. Edmonds, in 1867, Fowler's cultivator smashed 
 up light stubble-land at the rate of 50 acres per day of 
 10 hours, and did the work at a cost of about 25c. per acre, 
 including all charges for fuel, wear and tear, and attendance. 
 
 Anything which places it in the power of the farmer to 
 prepare his land for planting at so rapid a rate as even 8 
 
STEAM CtrLTIVATION. 453 
 
 acres per day, must do much to free Mm from the annoyance 
 of frequent delays from wet weather at a time when it is im- 
 portant that everything proceed rapidly. 
 
 The comparative cost of cultivation, when done by steam 
 instead of horses, is, of course, dependent on circumstances. 
 On small farms, and for use in small fields of irregular shape,, 
 the cost of mamtaining an expensive set of machinery, and 
 the time lost in moving from one field to another, would 
 more than make up for any saving in the actual cost of the 
 work. On farms having 250 acres of land under the plough, 
 and having few fields of less than 10 acres, the saving in 
 cost of work would be very great. 
 
 This saving of cost, h6wever, is of minor consequence as 
 compared with the other advantages of steam cultivation. 
 
 The improved condition of the land, including its better 
 drainage, is the great argument in favor of the process. 
 
 The movement of the ploughs is nearly twice as rapid as 
 that of the horse-plough, and the furrow, instead of simply 
 being turned over, is thrown from the mould-board so rapidly 
 that it is much more thoroughly pulverized. As the furrows 
 are all laid in one direction, there are no dead furrows left 
 when the work is done. In the ordinary ploughing of an acre 
 of land it receives 350,000 foot-marks per acre, one-half of 
 these being upon the earth at the bottom of the furrows, 
 which in time becomes "compacted to an almost water-tight 
 condition. In steam ploughing, the land is not touched by 
 a hoof, and when (as is often the case) all the operations of 
 
464 BTEAM CtJLTIVATION. 
 
 harrowing, rolling, and Beed-drilling are done by steam, it is 
 left in a condition most favorable to the growth of the crop, 
 and to the rapid subsidence of water of rains — assuming 
 that the land is either naturally or artificially under-drained. 
 
 Not the least benefit of steam cultivation (accompanied 
 by the use of the steam-engine for threshing, grinding, fod- 
 der-cutting, &c.) is found in the greater activity which is im- 
 parted to all the business of the farm. The same diflference, 
 but in less marked degree, is to be observed in the use of 
 horses instead of oxen. 
 
 The motive power sets the time of the whole establish- 
 ment, and as the use of oxen leads to a slow, drawling, list- 
 less habit, so steam gives an activity and bustle to every- 
 thing which makes wages and board tell with better efiect 
 on the year's performances. 
 
 In the Journal of the Koyal Agricultural Society, for 1867, 
 there is a very elaborate report of the results of the exami- 
 nations of the committees which had been appointed " to 
 inquire into the results of steam cultivation in use by 135 
 farmers and stock companies in England." 
 
 The following are some of the conclusions at which they 
 arrived : — 
 
 " In nearly all the cases reported it will be seen that the 
 expenses of cultivation are very much reduced, and yet that 
 a larger amount of produce is. said to have been realized. 
 
 "Not only are the operations themselves better done, 
 quicker done, less expensively done, but all kindred and col- 
 
STEAM CULTIVATION. 455 
 
 lateral movements have had imparted to them a speed and 
 ' whirr ' characteristic of steam ; men acquire the habit of 
 doing the day's work in the day, and of not leaving it for 
 the morrow. The day's labor, to^ on a steam farm repre- 
 sents more work with less distress to the physical frame of 
 the laborer, and better remuneration. Steam is working a 
 revolution — slightly manifested as yet, so that we can only 
 speak of tendencies in farm practice, and in the character of 
 the rural population. They are being trained for the era of 
 machinery in agriculture. 
 
 " In most cases an increase of produce, in some instances 
 as much as 8 bushels per acre (of wheat), has resulted from 
 steam cultivation. 
 
 " We may state as our general conclusion that steam 
 tackle, whether of Fowler, Howard, Smith, or other makers, 
 is now so far perfected and settled in form and details, that 
 it may be classed among old-established, standard farm 
 machinery, and no longer among the novelties of the day. 
 
 " We find, as the result of experience, that which we 
 already anticipated theoretically, viz., that the increased 
 depth of surface and the absence of pressure greatly increase 
 the absorbing powers of the soil, and consequently assist the 
 action of the drains. 
 
 " Mr. Wm. Smith, of Woolston, England, was one of the 
 pioneers of steam cultivation, and is still one of its most 
 zealous advocates. A short time ago he extended an invi- 
 tation to all who were interested in the subject to visit his 
 
456 
 
 STEAM CULTIVATION. 
 
 farm and witness the operation of his tackle, and to see its 
 effect. He communicates to a London paper the substance 
 of the statements he made to his visitors, and from this I 
 extract the following, as serving to illustrate the complete- 
 ness with which the system has been tried and found satis- 
 factory : — 
 
 " You must see that these fields are not only heavy clay, 
 but hilly and uneven, and the face of them shows that they 
 are well drained as well as well cultivated. 
 
 " This field, No. 3, on which you stand, together with 
 No. 2, through which you have passed, and ISTo. 1 (light 
 land), which I will hereafter show you, contain 32 acres^ 
 and were smashed by steam-power on the 31st of August, 
 and the 1st, 2d, and 3d of September, at the following 
 cost : — 
 
 Labor £3 14 
 
 Coal 1 12 
 
 Oil 2 6 
 
 Interest on money, and wear and tear 2 9 6 
 
 £1 18 00 
 Or is. 9(^. per acre (about $1.15). 
 
 * ********** 
 
 " Now I will let you know what the operations and cost 
 of seed-beds have been on these four fields under steam 
 culture for 14 years, taking those on field No, 3 to repre- 
 sent the lot : — 
 
 "10 steam-power smashings, 2 ridgings and subsoilings 
 
STEAM CITLTIVATIOM'. 457 
 
 by steam-power, 2 cultivatings and drillings at one operation, 
 each by steam-power ; 1 cross cultivating by steam-power, 
 1 cross cultivating and seeding at one operation by steam- 
 power, 7 horse cultivatings, 1 horse subsoiling, 1 ridge 
 ploughing by horseg^^ The total cost of these operations has 
 been £6.11.9, or 9s. 5d. per acre as the average cost of a seed- 
 bed, exclusive of planting or drilling, except those planted 
 by steam-power. 
 
 " The cropping on No. 3 during that period has been 1 
 of peas, 2 of barley, 5 of beans, 5 of wheat, and 1 of Swedes. 
 
 " The average yearly produce under steam culture, has 
 , been, on these four fields, quite 14 bushels per acre more 
 than it had been under horse culture. 
 *********** 
 
 " Now let us look into the working of the tackle since the 
 5th of October last. On that day I started it on No. 4 
 (heavy land), 10 acres, ridging and subsoiling it for beans. 
 It was finished on the 6th at 4.10 p.m. The depth of work 
 is 9 inches ; the consumption of coal 1 ton ; and the pres- 
 sure on the engine 60 lbs. 
 
 " We then shifted the tackle nearly half a mile to No. 1 
 (heavy land), 8 acres, and we finished that field at 12.15 
 P.M. on the 8th. Depth of work 10 inches ; consumption of 
 coal 16 cwt. ; pressure on the engine 65 lbs. 
 
 " We then shifted the tackle a quarter of a mile to No. 3 
 
 (light land, part 1), 5 acres, and finished it on the 9th at 
 
 12.20 P.M. Depth of work 10 inches ; consumption of coal 
 
 9 cwt. ; pressure on engine 60 lbs. 
 
 20 
 
458 STEAM CULTIVATION. 
 
 " We then sliifted the tackle a mile to No. 6 (light land), 
 14 acres, wocking all day on the 10th (the 11th was Sun- 
 day), working again all day on the 12th, and we finishedon 
 the 13th at 8.40 a.m. Depth of work 11 inches ; consump- 
 tion of coal 29 cwt. ; pressure on engine 65 lbs. 
 
 " We then shifted the tackle more than a mile to No. 3 
 (light land, part 2), 6 acres, and finished it on the 14th at 
 11.50 A.M. Depth of work 10 inches; consumption of 
 coal 10 cwt. ; pressm-e on engine 60 lbs. 
 
 " We then shifted the tackle to where it now stands, on 
 No. 4 (light land), for you to see it at work. 
 *********** 
 
 " It is not a set of new-fangled tackle, got up for the pur- 
 pose of racing, for the common portable engine has done 
 10 years' hard work. It has done, in addition to my plough- 
 ing, a lot of threshing and grinding, yet it is in capital trim. 
 The cost of repairs has been but a mere trifle. 
 
 " The windlass has had 10 years' work. In 1858 it did 
 65 acres for the late Prince Consort, on the Flemish farm, 
 Windsor, and I have worked it on my farm ever since. 
 *********** 
 
 " I have worked the rope 7 years. The first year it got 
 out several times. At one or other of the splices it pulls in 
 two ; indeed it has not, during these 9 days' work, gone 
 through a day without a break ; therefore the men have had 
 the mending of the ropes to do as well as tlje ridging and 
 Bubsoilinp,. * * * * 
 
 " My average quantity of work per day is much greater, 
 
STEAM CUIiTIVATIOIT. 459 
 
 and my average consumption of coal per acre is much less, 
 than it has ever been before. This is mainly due to my 
 land having been deeply worked so many times before. 
 
 " The sum total of all this evidence proves plainly that the 
 Woolston system of applying steam-power to the cultiva- 
 tion of the soil gives clean dress and cheap seed-beds, and 
 that fancy tackle is not needed on show days. The boy 
 that • you see working the implement is only 14 years old. 
 He ha^ done all my work this year, and well too. The 
 work is before you to speak for itself." 
 
 It is found,, for use in neighborhoods where the &rms 
 are small, that it is the best plan to form joint-stock com- 
 panies to own and operate the tackle — ^hiring it out by the 
 day or by the acre, and giving the precedence to stock- 
 holders. This plan would work the best among the smaller 
 farmers of our Eastern States— but at the West, where the 
 proprietorships are larger, it will be most advantageous to 
 have the apparatus, with its engine to do other work, at- 
 tached to the farm. 
 
 It is sometimes objected that much of the land in this 
 country is too rough, and too stony for the steam-plough 
 ever to gain a foothold. The same objection was made twenty 
 years ago to the use of the mowing machine in New Eng- 
 land, and there is every reason to suppose that when the 
 advantages of the steam-plough are once fully realized, even 
 the hillsides of Vermont will smile under its influence. 
 
HOUSE TAINTING. 
 
 The foUoMring receipts and directions arc cpndonsod from 
 a practical English work ou the art of house painting. 
 They arc principally designed for the inexperienced and 
 those who, living at a distance from cities, have great diffi- 
 culty in obtaining first-class workmen. 
 
 To make the work satisfactory, it is vdry necessary for the, 
 workman to have very clean all the vessels, brushes, and cans 
 ho may require in the course of his work, such as the vari- 
 ous paints, pots, or vessels in which ho mixes or from which 
 he uses his colors. These are sometimes bought at the 
 shops, handsomely made of stout tin, and such arc easily 
 kept clean, and save their expense in color, which is readily 
 brushed down their smooth sides. He will also require a 
 marble slab and muUer, to grind the finer colors used in 
 painting. Sometimes a small cast-iron mill is useful not 
 only to grind colors, but to pass the tinted color through, so 
 that it may be more thoroughly mixed. 
 
 It is presumed the workman will know what brushes he 
 will require, according to the work he has in hand. 
 
 In preparing to paint a good dwelling, after having ob- 
 tained the necessary colors and brushes, see that you liave a 
 few pounds of good pumice stone, a quire or two of assorted 
 land paper, to smooth the inequalities in the work ; some 
 
HOUSE PAnrriNQ. 461 
 
 twenty pounds of putty, to stop up after the firet coat in 
 every part of the house ; a sufficiency of fine slaked lime, 
 and a proper number of large and small vessels, to mix the 
 colors in and use it from ; a few pounds of soaked glue, &o. 
 
 If the wood- work be new, and no wall work required, you 
 will go over it carefully with a small brush, and some of the 
 glue size, colored with red lead, covering what knots and 
 stains may appear in the wood, after which the priming 
 coat of almost all oil, and good white lead, tinted with 
 Indian red, should be evenly brushed over the work ; and, 
 as soon as dry, the putty knife and putty should follow, to 
 stop all the cracks and nail holes. Then should follow the 
 second coat, with a little spirits of turpentine in the oil, and 
 the color slightly tinged with blue black. This is generally 
 thought sufl5cient for the attic and third stories. But the 
 rest of the house is usually finished with old ground white 
 lead, thinned with spirits of turpentine. The roof, if cov- 
 ered with tin, should be painted once in three years. There 
 are many different methods in use. Some paint with raw 
 oil, dry Spanish brown and a little red lead, to dry it, 
 for fear of a rain; others, with Spanish brown, more 
 red lead, and half whale oil with the linseed oil ; others 
 use yellow ochre and black, mixed in the same oils; 
 others use a roof paint, made by boiling paint skins in whale 
 oil and carefully straining them while warm, reserving the 
 remaining skins, to stop the leaks around chimneys and 
 dormer windows. This last mentioned paint is probably 
 
4G2 
 
 BOnSK FAINXIMO. 
 
 serviceable from its elasticity. In the country, many paint 
 their roofs and out-buildings in the same way, using some- 
 times Venetian red from its brjghtness. 
 
 Many complaints are continually made that white lead, 
 and colors composed thereof, do not endure, and are quickly 
 beaten off by exposure to tlie sun and rain. This difficulty 
 occurs as much from the manner of using the paint as from 
 its quality. As this occurs in outside work, it is to be at- 
 tributed, first, to the condition of the work to be painted, 
 being generally in such a state as to absorb the oil from the 
 first coat, tliereby leaving it in a dusty state, and liable to 
 be washed of by the first rain. This can be guarded 
 against, only by filling the old work, in painting two thin 
 coats over it, one upon the other, as soon as dry ; and fin- 
 ishing it with one Ihicker coat, to protect it and shed the 
 rain. A fourth coat, if the immediate expense is not 
 heeded, will repay its cost in additional service and beauty. 
 
 The white lead can be procured of any requisite quality 
 at the color stores. It is thought that the best article is 
 the most economical, as it works out with more ease, and 
 repays the difference of cost in its appearance. Linseed 
 oil is also better for having due age, for the same reasons as 
 the white lead, working with softness and advantage after 
 parting with the water which is generally combined with 
 now oil. 
 
 The quality and fineness of the white lead used adds 
 materially to the work, and that which is well ground, and 
 
MTXmO PAINTS. 463 
 
 has such mellowness from age as will cause it to work 
 Bmoothlj under the brush, in connection with good linseed 
 oil, will certainly repay any reasonable additional cost. The 
 first coats should always be mixed with clear linseed oil ; 
 the fourth coat may be used with boiled oil and one-quarter 
 part spirits of turpentine. 
 
 Putty is best purchased at a good color store, where you 
 can depend upon its being made of good dry whitening and 
 linseed oil. It should be carefully and freely used after the 
 work has had one coat of paint, for the fresh paint holds the 
 putty yery firmly. 
 
 Harmony of Colors. — Ked looks well with blacks, 
 whites, or yellows. Blues harmonize with whites and yel- 
 lows. Greens, with whites, black or yellow. Gold, with 
 blacks or browns. White appears well with any color. 
 Purple, pink and white, &c., &c. 
 
 MIXING PAINTS. 
 
 A Beautiful White Paint.— For inside work, which 
 ceases to smell, and dries in a few hours. Add one pound 
 of frankincense to two quarts of spirits of turpentine; 
 dissolve it over a clear fire, strain it, and bottle it for use ; 
 then add one pint of this mixture to four pints of bleached 
 linseed oil, shake them well together, grind white lead in 
 spirits of tiuT)entino, and strain it, then add sufficient of the 
 lead to make it proper for painting ; if too thick in using, 
 
464 MEONO PAINTS. 
 
 thin with turpentiae, it being suitable for the best intemai 
 work on account of its superiority and expense. 
 
 For a Pure White Paint. — Nut oil is the best ; if lin- 
 seed oil is used, add one-third of turpentine. 
 
 To Mix Common White Paint.— Mix or grind white 
 lead in Unseed oil to the consistency of paste, add turpen- 
 tine in the proportion of one quart to a gallon of oil ; but 
 these proportions must be yaried according to circumstances. 
 Remember to strain your color for the better sorts of work. 
 If the work is exposed to the sun, use more turpentine for 
 the ground color to prevent its blistering. 
 
 For Knotting. — Mix white or read lead powder in strong 
 glue size and apply it warm. 
 
 Common Flesh Color. — Stain your white lead with red 
 lead, and mix with oil and turps. 
 
 Fine Flesh Color. — ^Is composed of white lead, lake and 
 vermilion. 
 
 A Beautiftil Color for Carriages, &c. — Mix carmine 
 lake with black japan. 
 
 Cream Color. — This is a mixture of chrome yellow, the 
 best English Venetian red, white lead, and red lead, in 
 oil. 
 
 Pearl Gray. — White lead, with equal portions of Prus- 
 sian blue and lampblack, mix with oil and turps. 
 
 Fa-wm Color. — Grind some burnt amd raw terra sienna 
 very fine. Two or three pounds of this is sufficient to stain 
 
inxmo PAINTS. 465 
 
 white load for a large building. This color is of a superior 
 shade, and very excellciit for inside work. 
 
 Blue. — Grind Prussian blue in turps ; other blue very 
 fine in linseed oil, and mix it with white paint to the tint 
 required. 
 
 Buff — This is a mixture of French yellow, chrome yel- 
 low and white lead, tinged with a Httle Venetian red, oil 
 and turps. 
 
 Stravr. — A mixture of chrome yellow and white lead, 
 oil and turps. ^ 
 
 Drab. — Eaw and burnt umbe» and white lead, with a lit- 
 tle Venetian red, linseed oil and turps. Another. — ^Burnt 
 umber and white lead, with a little Venetian red, oil and' 
 turps, as before. 
 
 Steel. — Mix white lead, Prussian blue, fine lake and ver- 
 digris, in such proportions as to produce the required color. 
 
 Purple. — White lead, Prussian blue and vermilion, or 
 lake, with oU and turps. 
 
 Violet. — Is composed ol vcrmihon, mixed with blue- 
 black, and a little white. 
 
 French Gray. — White lead and Prussian blue, tinged 
 with vermilion ; and for the last coat substitute carmine 
 for the vermilion. Mix with oil and turps. 
 
 Silver. — Use white lead, indigo, and a small portion of 
 blue-black, as the shade may requiio. 
 
466 
 
 MIXING PAINTS. 
 
 Gold. — Mix Naples yellow or patent yellow with a small 
 quantity of orange chrome and a little Spanish white. 
 
 Dark Chestnut. — ^Mix red ochre and black. Use yellow 
 ochre when you require to lighten the color, in oil. 
 
 Salmon. — ^White lead, tinged with the best English Yen- 
 etian red, oil and turps. 
 
 Peach Blossom. — "WTiite lead, tinged with orpiment ; 
 mixed with oil and turps. 
 
 Drab.— White load with a little Prussian blue and French 
 yellow, linseed oil and turps. Another. — ^White lead, with 
 a little French yellow and lamp-black, linseed oil and turps. 
 AnotJier. — White lead with a little chrome green and blue- 
 black. 
 
 Lead. — This is a mixture of lamp-black and white lead, 
 with a little litharge. 
 
 Chocolate. — Mix lam,p-black and Venetian red with a 
 little red lead, or litharge, to harden the color and give a 
 drying quality. The colors must be ground, and mixed 
 with boiled oil and a little turps. 
 
 Dark Red, for Common Purposes.— Mix English Vene- 
 tian red in boiled oil with a little red lead and litharge, to 
 give a drying quality. 
 
 Orange.— Mix red lead and French yellow with linseed 
 oil and turps, or use deep chrome yellow. 
 
 Bright YeUow for Floors, &c.— White lead and linseed 
 oil, mixed with some French yellow, and a little chrome 
 
MIXING PAINTS. 467 
 
 jello-w to briglitcn it ; some red lead, bnrnt ■white vitriol 
 and litharge added to give it a very drying qnality. This 
 color mixed with equal parts of boiled oil and turpentine, 
 and used very thin. 
 
 Dark Yello"w. — Mix French yellow in boiled oil, adding 
 to it a little red lead and litharge, to give the paint a drying 
 qnality. 
 
 Light Yello-w. — This is a mixture of French yellow, 
 chrome yellow and white lead, with oil and turps. Another. 
 — French yellow, white lead, and red lead. Another. — 
 Grind raw terra sienna in turps and linseed oil ; mix with 
 white lead. If the color is required of a warmer cast, add 
 a little burnt terra sienna ground in turps. 
 
 Olive Green. — A suitable, cheap, and handsome color for 
 outside work, such as doors, carts, wagons, &c. 
 
 Grind separately Prussian blue and French yeUow in 
 boiled oil, then mix to the tint required with a little burnt 
 white vitriol to act as a drier. Another. — Black and blue 
 mixed with yellow, in such quantities as to obtain the colors or 
 shades required. For distemper, use indigo and yellow pink 
 mixed with whiting or white lead powder. Another. — 
 This is a mixture of Prussian blue, French yellow, a small 
 portion of Turkey umber, and a little burnt vitriol. Ground 
 the same way. Another, m oH. — ^Mix Prussian blue and 
 chrome yellow. Grind the same. Another shade. — A mix- 
 ture of Prussian blue and French yellow, with a smaD 
 
468 MIXINO PAINTS. 
 
 ^autity of Avhito lead and Turkey umber and burnt -white 
 vitriol. Grind tlie same. 
 
 Light Green. — ^White mixed with verdigris. A variety 
 of shades may be obtained by using blue and yellow with 
 white lead. 
 
 Grass Green. — Yellow mixed with verdigris. Anotlier. 
 — Mix one pound of verdigris with two pounds of white 
 lead. Walnut oil is the best for this purpose. 
 
 Invisible Green, for outside -work. — Mix lamp-black 
 and French yellow, with burnt white vitriol. These colors 
 mix in boiled oil. Burnt vitriol is the best drier for greens, 
 as it is powerful and colorless, and consequently will not 
 injure the color. 
 
 To Paint a Bronze. — Grind good black with clirome 
 yellow and boiled oil ; apply it with a brush, and when 
 nearly dry use the bronze powder at certain parts and the 
 edges also ; the eflfect will be a brassy hue. 
 
 A Good Imitation of Gold. — ^Mix white lead, chrome 
 yellow, and burnt sienna, until the proper shade is obtained. 
 
 Tar Paint for Fences, Roofs, &c. — Common tar mixed 
 with whiting. "Venetian red or French yellow, according 
 to the color required. This should be warmed in a large 
 iron kettle in the open air, and applied with a large paint- 
 ing-brush. It is" an excellent preservative of the wood, and 
 looks well for rough work. 
 
 Paint Driers. — Litharge, — This is a useful drier, and 
 
MIXING rAnrrs. 469 
 
 niaj be used in all kinds of paints, except greens and very- 
 delicate colors. White Vitriol or Copperas. — This turns 
 into water, especially when used in black paints ; and is 
 almost useless for any color till the water of crystallization 
 is evaporated, and then it becomes a powerful drier, and 
 may be used for every delicate color, as it is perfectly trans- 
 parent ;■ but when used in its raw state in white paint, has 
 the effect of turning it 'yellow. Sugar of Lead. — This is 
 a very useful and transparent drier, not so powerful as 
 white vitriol, but it may be used with it to advantage. 
 
 Milk Paint for In-door Work. — The quantity for one 
 hundred square feet : — One quart of skimmed milk, three 
 ounces of lime, two ounces of linseed or poppy oil, one 
 pound and a half of Spanish white or whiting. Put the 
 lime into a clean bucket, add sufficient of the milk to slake 
 the lime, add the oil a few drops at a time, stirring the 
 mixture with a flat stick till the whole of the oil is incorpo- 
 rated in the mass ; then add the remainder of the milk, 
 and afterwards the Spanish white or whiting, finely pow- 
 dered, and sifted gently over the mixture by degrees. 
 Curded milk will do for the purpose, but it must not be 
 sour. One coat of this will do for ceilings and staircases 
 in general ; two coats or more for new wood. Where color 
 is required, you may use powdered umber, ochres, chromes, 
 greens, blues, pinks, &c., &c., ground in milk. For particu- 
 lar work, strain the color through a hair sieve. 
 
 Lime White-wash. — ^Lime whitewash is made from lime 
 
470 MEXUfO . PAINTS 
 
 well slaked. Dissolve two ponnds and a half of alum in 
 boiling water, and add it to every pailful of whitewash. 
 Lime whitewash should be used very thin, and when it is 
 sufficiently bound on the wall by means of alum, two thin 
 coats will cover the work better ; this may be used for the 
 first coat, .thinned with water. Most whitewashers apply 
 their wash too thick, and do not mix a proportionate quan- 
 tity of alum to bind it, consequently the operation of the 
 brush rubs off the first coat in various parts and leaves an 
 uneven surface, and the original smooth surface of the wall 
 is entirely destroyed. 
 
 Italian Marble. — This looks bold, and is well adapted 
 for columns, &c., and is easy to imitate. The ground a 
 light buff. For the graining colors, prepare a rich, warm 
 buff, made in the following manner : Mix stiff in boiled oil 
 white lead and good stone ochre, and tinge with vermilion, 
 then grind some burnt terra sienna very fine in burnt oil, 
 and put it into another pot; mix some pure white stiff 
 in oil, and keep this separate. Thin these colors with tur 
 pentine, have ready a brush for the buff, and another for 
 the terra sienna. Proceed to work as follows : Take the 
 brush intended for the buff moderately full of color, and 
 dab it on freely and carefully in different patches, some of 
 them larger than others, and varying them as much as pos- 
 sible. "When these are laid on, take the other brush and 
 fill in with the terra sienna the spaces between ; as soon as 
 this is done, take a dry duster or softener and blend the 
 
UrXINO FAINTS. 471 
 
 edges tx*gcthcr, making it appear as soft as possible. Pro- 
 ceed in this manner till the whole is finished, then take a 
 hair pencil and draw a few thin white veins over the work, 
 varyhig them as much as is necessary ; take another pencil 
 for the terra sienna, and run a few thin lines intermixing 
 with the whole ; varnish when dry. 
 
 To Imitate Granite. — For the ground color, stain your 
 white lead to a light lead color, with lamp-black and a little 
 rose-pink. Throw on black spots with a graniting machine, 
 a pale red, and fill up with white a little before the ground 
 is dry. 
 
 A Cheap Oak Vamisli. — Two quarts of boiled oil, one 
 and a half pound of litharge, three quarters of a pound of 
 gum shellac, one ounce of gum. AH boiled together, and 
 stirred up till dissolved, then take oflF the fire and add two 
 quarts of turps. When settled, stram into a bottle and cork 
 §&r use. 
 
 Common Oil Varnish.— Take one gallon of quick drying 
 oil, two pounds of resin, and one quart of turpentine; put 
 the resin with the drying oil into a varnish kettle, and let it 
 dissolve in a gentle heat; take it from the fire and gradually 
 pour in the spirits of turpentine. If too thick add more of 
 the turpentine. 
 
 Transparent Varnish for Pictures.— Take the white of 
 four eggs and two ounces of loaf sugar ; beat them up in 
 lime water to the proper consistency for varnishing. 
 
472 , inxmo paints. 
 
 For Varnishing on Wood, Unpainted.— Quarter of a 
 pint of wood naphtha, quarter of a pint of spirits of wine, four 
 ounces of benzoin, four ounces of orange shellac, added all 
 together. If) not thick enough with those ingredients for 
 your purpose, add more of the gums benzoin and shellac. 
 
 Waterproof Varnish, for Linen or Calico. — One pint 
 of turpentine, one and a half pint of linseed oil, seven ounces 
 of litharge, one ounce of sugar of lead. Strain it, apply 
 it with a brush, and dry it in the sun or in a warm place. 
 
 Instructions. — Oil of turpentine deadens^ the color of 
 paints ; varnishes, copal, &c., brighten the color. 
 
BOLDKBS AXD CE1EKNT8, 473 
 
 SOLDERS. 
 
 For lead solder. — Melt 1 part block tin, and when luscd, 
 add 2 parts of lead. Use resin with it. 
 
 For tin solder. — Melt 4 parts of pewter, 1 part of tin, 
 and 1 part bismuth together. Use resLn with it. 
 
 CEMENTS. 
 
 Glue. — ^Melt 1 lb. glue in 2 quarts warm water. For a 
 glue that will resist the action of water, boil 1 lb. of glue 
 in 2 quarts of skimmed milk. Pulverized chalk added to 
 glue strengthens it. 
 
 Soft cement. — ^For boilers, steam-pipes, »fec. : 4 parts red 
 or white lead, ground "in oil, with 2 or 3 parts iron filings. 
 
 Hard cement. — Mix iron borings or filings with salt 
 water, then add a small quantity of sal ammoniac with 
 water. 
 
 nydraulic cement — for cisterns, sewers, cellars, pipes, 
 &c., is purchased by the barrel, which contains 300 lbs. 
 
 Dry cennent — which will resist the weather equal to 
 marble, is made of 2 parts sifted ashes, 3 parts clay, and 1 
 part sand, mixed with oil, and applied while soft. 
 
 Brown mortar J'or mmonry, hrick-worh, die. 
 Mix 1 part lime, 2 parts sand, a small quantity of hair 
 with water. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 tLPHABETlOALLr ABBANGED. 
 
 A. 
 
 AocouNTB, Keepiko OF •. 227 
 
 Accounts by single entry, with examples 227 
 
 " double " " " 229 
 
 Form of bill of sundries 231 
 
 " receipt in full 237 
 
 « check 238 
 
 " due-bilL 238 
 
 " promissory note 238 
 
 " " " with surety 238 
 
 " draft or bill of exchange 239 
 
 Explanation of all the above 240' 
 
 ALConoL, PnopoRTios or, in Liquobs 190 
 
 Anohlar Meascre, Illustrated 23 
 
 Animals, Life and Inoreabe of. 197 
 
 Table, showing the period of reproduction and gestation of domes- 
 tic animals and fowls 193 
 
 Table, showing when forty weeks (the period of gestation in a 
 
 cow) will expire, from any day throughout the year.. .' 199 
 
 Growth and life of animals 199 
 
476 CONTENTB. 
 
 Amiiixs, AoE or, lUustrated 201 
 
 To fiud the age of a horse -. 201 
 
 (I u « II II <^ttie 200 
 
 « « « « " sheep 208 
 
 " " " « " goats 208 
 
 Animals, Food of, Illustrated 212 
 
 Table, showing the comparative diiTerence between good hay and 
 
 other food for stock — being the results of experiments 212 
 
 Table, showing the comparative difference between good hay and 
 other food for stock — ^being the mean between experiment and 
 
 theory 213 
 
 Table, showing the quantity of food different animals require per 
 
 day to each 100 lbs of their live weight 213 
 
 Table, showing the daily food required by the ox 214 
 
 Table, showing the effects produced by an equal quantity of dif- 
 ferent kinds of substances as food for sheep 215 
 
 AinMALS, Computed Weight or. 209 
 
 Annuities. 219 
 
 Table, showing the amount of $1 for any number of years from 1 
 
 to 24, at 5 and 6 per cent, compound interest 219 
 
 Table, showing the present worth of $1 annuity at 5 and 6 per 
 cent compound interest for any number of years from 1 to 34, 218 
 
 ApoTnEOASiES' Weight, table 158 
 
 " fluid measure, table 156 
 
 AbITHMETIOAL CnABAOTEBS, Es^FLANATION Or 14 
 
 Aktifioial Manures 357 
 
 Avoirdupois Weight, table 1^2 
 
coNTKirrs. 477 
 
 B. 
 
 rAsc 
 BaIiANoes, false, Illustrated 84 
 
 To detect false balances 84 
 
 To find the true weight 84 
 
 Board Fence (see fences). 125 
 
 Board Measure C2 
 
 Books, Sizes of (see printing) 2G0 
 
 Bonds— U. S. Bonds 242 
 
 Boxes, Capacity of 81 
 
 Brick-work (^jee masonry) 27G 
 
 Butter, Properties and Composition of_ 387 
 
 Butter and CnEESE-MAKwa. 391 
 
 The butter dairy. 391 
 
 The milk room. 391 
 
 Cleanliness ^^2 
 
 Setting the milk. 392 
 
 Cream-churning. 393 
 
 Packing for market 394 
 
 Test of good butter. 396 
 
 The cheese dwry. ^^^ 
 
 Quality of cheese 397 
 
 To construct an ice-house for the dwiy 399 
 
 Analysis of butter 390 
 
 C 
 
 Capaoitt or Boxes. Bl 
 
 " Waook-Beds, Illustrated 82 
 
 eASK-OAUOiNO, Illustrated. 78 
 
478 OONTENTB. 
 
 rAsa 
 
 To find the contents of a cask by three dimensions 79 
 
 u (I a u 11 11 II four " 79 
 
 Cattle, SoiLiMo 401 
 
 CattxiE, to find twb Age of 206 
 
 Cattle, Computed WEiani or, Illustrated. 209 
 
 Table, showing the compute weight of cattle from their girth, &o. 211 
 
 Cements i73 
 
 Glue 473 
 
 Soft: cement 473 
 
 Hard cement '. 473 
 
 Hydraulic cement ; 473 
 
 Dry cement. 473 
 
 Brown mortar for masonry, brickwork, &c 473 
 
 Circles 296 
 
 To find the circumference of a circle 296 
 
 " " diameter " 2Di6 
 
 " « area " 296 
 
 To find the side of an equal square containing the same area as a 
 
 given circle 297 
 
 To find the solidity of a sphere 297 
 
 Table, showing the areas of circles and the sides of their equal 
 
 squares, from 1 to 100. 298 
 
 To find, by means of the table, the square or circle that will .con- 
 tain the area of a board or surface of given length and widtii. 302 
 
 CmcnLAR Measube, Illustrated. ^ 23 
 
 Cisterns, Illustrated 86 
 
 To find the number of gallons in square or oblong cisterns. .... 86 
 
CWNTENTS. 479 
 
 To find the number of gallons in triangular cisterns 86 
 
 " " " " circular " 87 
 
 Table, showing the contents of circular cisterns from 1 foot to 25 
 
 feet in diameter for each 10 inches in depth 87 
 
 To find the number of gallons in tub-shaped cisterns 88 
 
 To ascertain the size of cisterns adapted to roofs 89 
 
 Table, showing the contents of circular cisterns in barrels for 
 
 each foot in depth 90 
 
 To construct filtering cisterns to fiimish pure water for domestic 
 
 use 91 
 
 Charcoal, to prepare 115 
 
 Cheese Dairy (see butter and cheese) 397 
 
 Cloth Measure, table 169 
 
 Coke 118 
 
 Commercial Abbretiatioms 18 
 
 Compound Interest, table of 218 
 
 Contents 4^5 
 
 Corn on the Cob in Cribs, to measure, Illustrated. 57 
 
 When the crib is equilateral 57 
 
 When the crib is flared at the sides 58 
 
 CoSn, relation of Pork to 194 
 
 Table, showing price of pork per lb. at different prices per bushel 
 
 for com 194 
 
 To find the price of pork, the price of com being given 195 
 
 To find the price of com, the price of pork being given 195 
 
 Crops, Rotation of 378 
 
 Botation of field crops 385 
 
480 CONTENTS. 
 
 TJlOU 
 
 Rotation of garden crops 386 
 
 Chemical theory of rotation. 381 
 
 Crops, Nctritivs Valcb op 190 
 
 "CcBio Measure, table 171 
 
 To find the cubic contents of any solid body 171 
 
 Cubes akd Cube Boots, table of, from 1 to 1000 303 
 
 Cultivation, Steam, Illustrated. 450 
 
 Decimals — Fractions 257 
 
 To reduce fractions to decimals 257 
 
 To add decimals 257 
 
 To subtract decimals 258 
 
 To multiply decimals 258 
 
 To divide decimals 259 
 
 Table of useful decimals 259 
 
 Decrease and Expectation of Human Life 216 
 
 Table, showing the decrement and expectation of human life. . . 216 
 Table of St. Maur. 217 
 
 Definitions of Mathematical Forms 292 
 
 Parallel Lines 292 
 
 An Angle 292 
 
 A Right Angle 292 
 
 An Acute Angle .' 292 
 
 An Obtuse Angle 292 
 
 A Surface 292 
 
 A triangle 292 
 
 The Altitude 292 
 
CONTENTS. 481 
 
 rAGi 
 A. Right Angle Triangle 293 
 
 A Parallelogram 293 
 
 AKeotanglo 293 
 
 A Square 293 
 
 A Trapezoid 293 
 
 The Altitude 293 
 
 ACircle 293 
 
 The Circumference 293 
 
 The Diameter 293 
 
 The Radius 293 
 
 A Solid 294 
 
 A Prism 294 
 
 Triangular Prism 294 
 
 Hexagonal Prism 294 
 
 Cylinder. 294 
 
 Cube 294 
 
 A Pyramid 294 
 
 The Altitude. 294 
 
 A Cone ; 294 
 
 A Frustum 295 
 
 AnEUipse... 295 
 
 ASphere 295 
 
 A Spheroid • 295 
 
 DEPin OF sowiso Wheat 193 
 
 Diet, Solid Matteb and Water in Articles of 198 
 
 Table showing the proportion of solid matter and water in 100 
 
 parts each of various articles of diet 198 
 
• 482 CONTEIOB. 
 
 PAOI 
 
 Dbainino Tile. 362 
 
 How to make a drain. 364 
 
 Different kinds of tile used. 364 
 
 Boynton's improvement in makin;; tile 365 
 
 Rules to be observed in making tile drains 3G7 
 
 Size and quantity of tile required to the acre 368 
 
 Tools used in laying drain tile 370 
 
 now to make drain tile, Illustrated 373 
 
 Why should land be drained 373 
 
 The effects of drainage 374 
 
 Dry Measubk, table. .' 162 
 
 E. 
 
 Eakth, Pressure op, against Walls 255 
 
 EsoLian Monet, table 149 
 
 " Gold and silver coin , 149 
 
 " Copper coin 150 
 
 Canadian currency 150 
 
 Exhaustion of Soils (see soils, ex}iaustion of) 320 
 
 Expectation and Decrease of Human Life 216 
 
 Table, showing the decrement and expectation of human life. . 216 
 
 St Maur's Table 217 
 
 F. 
 
 False Balances, Illastrated. 84 
 
 To detect false balances 84 
 
 To find the true weight 84 
 
 Fences and Fenoino, Illustrated 125 
 
CONTENTS. 483 
 
 RaU fence ^20 
 
 Table, showing the number of rails, stakes, and riders required 
 
 for each 10 rods of fence 127 
 
 Post and rail fence 128 
 
 Table, showing the number of posts and rails required for eaoh 
 
 10 rods of post and rail fence 128 
 
 Post and board fence 128 
 
 To find the number of feet of boards required foreach rod of post 
 
 and board fence 129 
 
 To find the number of posts required for a given length of post 
 
 and board fence 129 
 
 Fences, Hedge (see hedge plants) 130 
 
 F'EKCES, WiKE 134 
 
 Food of Anlmals (see animals, food of). Illustrated; 212 
 
 Food for Stock, Stea^ino 415 
 
 FnACTioNS (see decimals) 257 
 
 Table of useful decimals 259 
 
 Freights, By-laws of N. "Y. Chamber of Commerce. 442 
 
 FCEL 113 
 
 Table, showing the comparative values of fire woods 113 
 
 Table, showing the weights per cubic foot of different kinds of 
 
 coal 115 
 
 Properties of charcoal 11(5 
 
 To prepare charcoal. , 115 
 
 Table, showing the number of parts of charcoal aiTorded by 100 
 
 parts of different kinds of wood. ' 118 
 
 Coke 118 
 
484 CONTENTS. 
 
 , PAOI 
 
 Table, showing the weight, evaporatire powers for weight, bulk, 
 
 and character of fuel 119 
 
 Combustible matter of fuel 120 
 
 Table, showing the heating power of different ccmbustibles 121 
 
 Table, showing the effects of heat upon certain bodies 121 
 
 Table, showing the relative value of different fuels by weight. . . 121 
 Table, showing the number of gallons of water which may be 
 
 lifted to various heights by the consumption of 112 lbs. of coal 122 
 Table, showing the price of parts of a cord of wood at given 
 rates per cord 123 
 
 G. 
 
 Gabden Seeds, QnAurrrT op, to plant, &o 192 
 
 GrARDENINO FOR MaEKET 428 
 
 Size, arrangement, and equipment of the garden 430 
 
 Construction and care of the hot-bed 432 
 
 Profits of the same 434 
 
 Management of field crops. 435 
 
 Vegetables best adapted for market. 437 
 
 Harvesting the crops 440 
 
 Prices of early vegetables 441 
 
 Profits of the business 446 
 
 Q-A0aiNO, Cask, Illustrated 78 
 
 Glue, to melt and apply , 473 
 
 Goats, to find the aoe op 208 
 
 QovERyMENT Land Measure ,... 50 
 
 Grain, MEAsriEJCEUT op, in Granaries, Illustrated 60 
 
CONTENTS. 485 
 
 Q-BAis, "WEionT OF, as established by the Legislatures of the differ- 
 ent States i . . . 189 
 
 Grain, per oest. or Oii. in 191 
 
 Grain, quantity or, to bow per aore, &o 192 
 
 Gravity, SpEoino, Illustrated. 182 
 
 To find the specific gravity of a body. 183 
 
 " " " " " " " Kghter than water 183 
 
 To reduce the gravity of a body to its weight in lbs. per cubic foot 184 
 
 Table, showing the specific gravity of various bodies 185 
 
 To find the weight of a cubic foot of substance, the specific grav- 
 ity being given , 185 
 
 To find the number of cubic feet in any irregular body 166 
 
 Table, showing the weight of a cubic foot of diiTerent substances 187 
 
 a. 
 
 Hay, Measureuent of, Illnstrated 51 
 
 To find the number of tons of hay raked into windrows 52 
 
 « " " " " " in a mow. 52 
 
 " " " " " " in old stacks. 53 
 
 !' " " " " " in long, square stacks 53 
 
 « " « » " " when -taken out of old mows 
 
 or stacks. 54 
 
 Table, showing the price per cwt. of hay at given prices per ton 64 
 An easy mode of ascertaining the value of a given number of lbs. 
 
 of hay at a given price per ton of 2000 lbs 55 
 
 Heat, Effects of, on different Bodies 121 
 
 HEATiNa nfOLOSED Air 122 
 
486 C»NTENT8. 
 
 , rAOi 
 
 Heatiko by Steam-pipx 123 
 
 Hedoi Plants 130 
 
 Directions for setting and trimming. 131 
 
 To preserve plantsduring tlie winter 131 
 
 Setting evergreens 131 
 
 Osage orange 132 
 
 Honejlocust. 132 
 
 Buck thom.„ 132 
 
 Privit. 132 
 
 Hawthorn 133 
 
 Norway spruce. 133 
 
 Arbor vit» 133 
 
 Hemlock 133 
 
 Hop, Analysis of, Illustrated. 323 
 
 Horse Power, Illustrated 136 
 
 Horse Power, origin and definition oC 139 
 
 Table, showing the labor one horse is able to perform at different 
 
 rates of speed on canals, railroads, and turnpikes 140 
 
 Table, showing how much one team and plough will perform in a 
 
 day in acres and tenths 141 
 
 Draught of a horse 136 
 
 Power of the horse when aided by horse-mill 136 
 
 Travel per day of the horse 136 
 
 Burden of the horse 136 
 
 Endurance of the horse 139 
 
 To compute the power of a water&U. 139 
 
 " " " " of a steam-engine 140 
 
C0NTEKT8. 487 
 
 To find the age of the horse. 201 
 
 Food of the horse 213 
 
 House Faimtino , 4C0 
 
 IIuuiLK Stbenotd 135 
 
 Utdiuulicb, Illustrated 93 
 
 The fundamental laws of hydraulics, &c 93 
 
 To find the velocity of a stream issuing from a head of water. . . 95 
 
 To find the head, the velocity being given 96 
 
 To find the quantity of water that will issue from an opening, 
 
 the dimensione of the opening and the head being given. .... 96 
 To find the velocity of currents in ditches, sluices, brooks oi rivers 97 
 To find the volume of water discharged by drains, sluices, brooks, 
 
 &c., of given dimensions, in a given time. 98 
 
 To find the velocity of water running through pipes 98 
 
 To find the quantity of water discharged tlirough pipes 99 
 
 To find the pressure of a fluid on the bottom of a vessel, cistern, 
 
 or reservoir 100 
 
 To find the pressure on the side of a vessel 100 
 
 HTDiunuo Ram, tue, Illustrated 103 
 
 To ascertain the quantity of water and the height to which it 
 
 may be elevated by a given fall and volimie of water 105 
 
 Working results of water rams now in use. J 106 
 
 Etdraclio Press, THE, Illustrated. * 110 
 
 I. 
 
 loc HoiTBE, to construct an 399 
 
 Ice, Stkenoth of • 271 
 
488 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAoa 
 Illustrations, List or 17 
 
 Inclined Plane, Illastrated 282 
 
 Ihtebest, Simple 213 
 
 Interest, Compound 218 
 
 Table of simple interest at 7 per cent, for each day to a month, 
 
 from$l to $100 ; 222 
 
 Table of simple interest at 6 per cent, for each day to a month, 
 
 from $1 to $100 224 
 
 Table, showing the interest of $1 to $5,000 from 1 day to 2000 
 
 days, at 6 or 7 per cent 220 
 
 Iron, WEionT or square rolled, Illustrated. 273 
 
 f " "round " 275 
 
 ^Ieepino Accounts (see accounts, keeping of) 227 
 
 By single entry, with examples 227 
 
 By double entry, with examples 229 
 
 I.. 
 
 Land, Measurement op. Illustrated 43 
 
 When the field is a square, a parallelogram, a rhombus, or a rhom- 
 boid 44 
 
 When the field is triangular. 44 
 
 When the field is a trapezium or trapezoid 45 
 
 When the field is an irregular polygon 45 
 
 When the field is long and the sides crooked and irregular 46 
 
 When the field is long and the sides and ends crooked and irregular 46 
 
 When the field is a circle 47 
 
CONTENTS. 489 
 
 Plots containing an acre 47 
 
 Table, showing the square feet and the feet square of the fractions 
 
 of an acre 48 
 
 <• Table, showing the number of hills or plants on an acre, for any 
 distance apart, from 10 inches to 6 feet — the lateral and longi- 
 tudinal distances being unequal 48 
 
 Table, showing the number of plants, hills, or trees contE^ined in 
 an acre at equal distances apart, from 3 inches up ta 66 feet . 49 
 
 Land Measure, Q-oternment. 50 
 
 Ltrns, size of, number in a bundle, &c 279 
 
 LATirnoE 24 
 
 Lead Pipe, weight of 112 
 
 Table, showing the weight of lead pipe per yard from J to 41' 
 
 inches diameter 112 
 
 Table, showing the weight of very light lead pipe 112 
 
 Lever, the, Illustrated 279 
 
 Life and Increase or Animals, Illustrated .... 197 
 
 Table, showing the period of reproduction and gestation of ani- 
 mals and fowls 198 
 
 Table, showing when forty weeks (the period ^of gestation in a 
 
 cow) will expire from any day throughout the year. 199 
 
 Growth and life of animals 199 
 
 Life, Decrease and Expectation of 216 
 
 Table, showing the decrement and expectation of life 216 
 
 Table of St. Maur 217 
 
 LiGHTXiNO Bods, Illustrated ...... 251 
 
 To construct a lightning-rod , ; ... 251 
 
490 ooNTEirre. 
 
 rAsi 
 
 Conductors of electricity 253 
 
 Non-conductors 253 
 
 Dr. Franklin's theory 253 
 
 Liquors, fbofortiom of AloohoIi in 190 
 
 List of Illustbatioks 17 
 
 Loas SEDUCED to Ihoh-board Mkasube 70 
 
 Table, showing the number of feet (board measure) of inch 
 boards contained in round saw-logs of various dimensions. . . 71 
 
 LoKoiTUDE (see seasons, &c.), Illustrated. 19 
 
 LoNO Measure, table 107 
 
 n. 
 
 Uakures 32/ 
 
 The use of manures ^ 328 
 
 Rules in deciding what manures should be used 331 
 
 Classification of manures 332 
 
 Mineral manures 332 
 
 Vegetable manures 332 
 
 Animal manures. 332 
 
 Analysis of fish-guano 332 
 
 Analysis of Feruvian guano 333 
 
 Analysis of Bolivian guano 333 
 
 How to select a good article of guano. 334 
 
 How to apply guano 331 
 
 Analysis of bone (crushed) manure 335 
 
 Table, showing the comparative value of animal manures, with 
 &rm-yard manure as the standard 335 
 
CONTENTS. 491 
 
 Decomposed vegetables as manures 336 
 
 Distinction between animal and vegetable manures 336 
 
 Dable, showing the relative values of decomposed vegetables as 
 
 manures from the inorganic matter they contain 336 
 
 Table, showing the relative value of decomposed vegetables as 
 
 manures from the nitrogen they contain 336 
 
 Analysis of a manure-heap in the condition usually applied to 
 
 the field 337 
 
 Analysis of other specimens of fresh farm-yard manure 338 
 
 Analysis of green sand marl (of New Jersey) 340 
 
 " Digestion and its products " 341- 
 
 Value of liquid manures 344 
 
 ^ Poudrette and urate 345 
 
 Analysis of night-soil 346 
 
 The dry earth system 347 
 
 Invention of Eev. Mr. Moule 347 
 
 To construct earth closets and their use 348 
 
 Table, showing the effect produced on the quantity of the crop 
 
 by equal quantities of different manures applied to the same 
 
 soil 351 
 
 Table, showing the comparative increase of corn by different 
 
 fertilizers 350 
 
 Moisture absorbed by different manures 351 
 
 Table, showing the number of loads of manure and the number 
 
 of heaps to each load required to each acre, the heaps at given 
 
 distances apart 352 
 
 Weight of manure per cubic foot 353 
 
492 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGV 
 
 Load of manure, how much it is 353 
 
 To find the number of loads of manure required to the acre for a 
 
 given number of lbs. per square foot 354 
 
 Makcres, AmiFiciAL 354. 
 
 Analysis of Mape's improved superphospliate of lime 358 
 
 Analysis of Coe's superphosphate 358 
 
 Analysis of Deburg's bone meal 358 
 
 Analysis of bone dust 359 
 
 Analysis of fish guano 359 
 
 Prices of standard fertilizers 3G0 
 
 Average composition per cent, and per ton of various agricultural 
 
 products 3G1 
 
 Markino Goods 247 
 
 Market, Gtardenimo for 446 
 
 Masonry, Illustrated 276 
 
 To find the number of perches in stone walls 276 
 
 Brick-work 277 
 
 Dimensions of bricks. 277 
 
 To find the number of bricks in a wall 277 
 
 Laths 278 
 
 Materials, SxREKOTn of 264 
 
 Tensile strength 264 
 
 Table, showing the weight in lbs. necessary to tear asunder one 
 
 square inch of various materials 204 
 
 To find the tensile strength 2G5 
 
 Table, showing the strength of iron-wire rope and hempen cable 266 
 
 To find the strength of cables 266 
 
CONTENTB. 493 
 
 PAoa 
 
 To find the strength of ropes and hawsers. 2C7 
 
 Table, showing what weight hemp rope will bear with safety. . . 207 
 
 Strength of metal and wooden rods 207 
 
 Hempen cords 208 
 
 Lateral or transverse strength 208 
 
 Table, showing the transverse strength of timber 208 
 
 Tables, showing the transverse strength of iron 209 
 
 To find the transverse strength when the bar or beam is fixed at 
 
 one end, and the load applied at the other 209 
 
 When the bar or beam is fixed at both ends and the weight applied 
 
 in the middle 270 
 
 When the bar or beam is supported at both ends, and the weight 
 
 applied in the middle 270 
 
 Table, showing the resistance of materials to crushing 271 
 
 Strength of ice 271 
 
 MATHEsrATiOAL FoBMS, Definitioss of. Illustrated 292 
 
 Measukement of Land (see land, measurement of), Illustrated .... 43 
 
 " Hat (see hay, measurement of). Illustrated. .... 51 
 
 " GrUAiN IK Gkanames, Illustrated CO 
 
 " Timber (see timber measurement). Illustrated. . . 01 
 Measures and WEionis, tables of U. S. (see weights and mea- 
 sures) 145 
 
 Measures of Capacity compared -. 103 
 
 Tables of English weights and measures 103 
 
 MEOnANioAL Powers, Illustrated 279 
 
 The lever. Illustrated 279 
 
 The inclined plane, Illustrated 282 
 
494 CONTEIfTS. 
 
 PAOI 
 
 The -wheel and the axle 284 
 
 The wedge, Illustrated 286 
 
 The screw, Illustrated. 288 
 
 The pulley, Illustrated 290 
 
 Metals, fusino heat of 121 
 
 Metric System of Weights and Measures 173 
 
 " " origia and history of. 173' 
 
 >. " " countries that have adopted the 173 
 
 " " act of Congress authorizing; 174 
 
 " " formation of tablies 170 
 
 " " table of Unear measure 177 
 
 " " table of square measure 178- 
 
 " " table of cubic or solid measure 179 
 
 " " table of dry and liquid measure 179 
 
 " " table of weights 180 
 
 " " table of angles 181 
 
 " " tables of equivalents 181 
 
 Milk, Properties and Composition of 387 
 
 Analysis of milk 387 
 
 Table, showing the effects of various degrees of heat in making 
 
 new milk cream 387 ■ 
 
 Analysis of the milk of different animals 390 
 
 Miscellaneous WEiGnTS 153 
 
 Mixing Paints -. . . 4G0 
 
 Monet (see United States Money) 145 
 
 Mortar, brown, for Masokrt, Brioe-work, &o 4G3 
 
COITTENTS. 495 
 
 N. 
 
 Nutritive value of certain Crops 190 
 
 Table, showing the nutritive value of certain crops. 190 
 
 o. 
 
 Oil, per cent, in different seeds, grain, &c 191 
 
 Table, showing the percent, of oil in different seeds, grain, &c...' 191 
 Osage Orange — ^hedge plants. 130 
 
 P. 
 
 Painting 460 
 
 House painting t 460 
 
 Mixing paints 463 
 
 A beautiful white paint 403 
 
 A pure white paint , 464 
 
 Common white paint. 464 
 
 For knotting 464 
 
 Common flesh color 464 
 
 Fine flesh color ^ 464 
 
 A beautiful color for carriages 464 
 
 Cream color 464 
 
 Pearl gray. , 464 
 
 Fawn color 464 
 
 Blue 465 
 
 Buff 465 
 
 Straw : 465 
 
 Drab 465 
 
 Steel 465 
 
1 
 
 496 COMTENTS. 
 Purple 
 
 rAoi 
 465 
 
 Violet. 
 
 465 
 
 French gray , 
 
 465 
 
 SUver. . . 
 
 465 
 
 Gold 
 
 465 
 
 Dark chestnut. 
 
 466 
 
 Salmon 
 
 406 
 
 Peach blossom 
 
 .- 466 
 
 Drab 
 
 466 
 
 Lead 
 
 466 
 
 Chocolate 
 
 466 
 
 Dark red 
 
 466 
 
 Orange 
 
 466 
 
 Bright yellow 
 
 466 
 
 Dark yellow 
 
 467 
 
 Light yellow. .'. 
 
 467 
 
 Olive green 
 
 467 
 
 Light gi^n. 
 
 467 
 
 Grrass gre^n 
 
 Invisible green. 
 
 468 
 
 468 
 
 Bronze ■. 
 
 468 
 
 Imitation of gold 
 
 468 
 
 Tar paint 
 
 468 
 
 Paint-driers 
 
 408 
 
 Milk paint .' 
 
 469 
 
 Lime whitewash. 
 
 469 
 
 Iti^ian. marble 
 
 470 
 
 
 
CONTENTS. 497 
 
 FAOl 
 
 Imitation granite 471 
 
 Oak Tarnish 471 
 
 Oil varnish. 471 
 
 Varnish for pictures 471 
 
 Varnish for unpaint^d wood 472 
 
 "Waterproof varnish for cloth, &c 472 
 
 Pendulums (see time, seasons, &o.), Illustrated 31 
 
 Plakk Measuke 62 
 
 Table, showing the contents (board measure) of planks of various 
 
 dimensions 67 
 
 Plants (see hedge plants) 130 
 
 Pork, eelatiok of Corn to. 194 
 
 Table, showing the price of pork per lb., at different prices per 
 
 bushel for corn 194 
 
 To find the price of pork per lb., the price of corn being given . . 195 
 
 To find the price of corn, the price of pork being given 195 
 
 Post and Rail Fence (see fences). Illustrated , - 128 
 
 Post and Board " (see fences) .•? 128 
 
 Powers, the Mechanical, Illustrated 279 
 
 Practical Beader, to the 11 
 
 Preface 7 
 
 Pressure of Earth against Walls 255 
 
 Printing, facts about 260 
 
 The different types used in book printing 260 
 
 The number of ems made by different type 201 
 
 Press-work 262 
 
 Sizes of books 262 
 
498 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGl 
 
 Table, showing the number of leaves and pages from the folding 
 
 of a sheet 2G3 
 
 Pkopeeties and Composition or Milk, Butter, &a 387 
 
 Proportion op Alcohol in Lkjuors 190 
 
 " Weight to Bulk op various Substances 193 
 
 Pullet, the. Illustrated. . 290 
 
 R. 
 
 Rail Fence, Illustrated 126 
 
 Rain, average fall of (see temperature and average fall of rain).. S7 
 
 Relative value of Gold and Currency 243 
 
 Table, showing the greenback value of $1 at the different quota- 
 tions of gold. ." 243 
 
 Highest quotation of gold in New York during the civil war. . -244 
 
 " " " " Richmond " » " " .. 244 
 
 English bonds and consols, explanation of. 244 
 
 " Selling Short," explanation of 245 
 
 " Seller's Option," " " 245 
 
 "Buyer's Option," " " 245 
 
 Stock Quotations, " " 246 
 
 " Bull," commercial definition of 245 
 
 "Bear," " " " 245 
 
 "Stag," " " " 245 
 
 Rods, LionxsiKO 251 
 
 To construct a lightning-rod 251 
 
 Roots, Square and Cube, table op 303 
 
CONTENTS. 499 
 
 PAoa 
 Rotation of Crops 378 
 
 field crops 385 
 
 " garden crops 3?G 
 
 s. 
 
 SOANTLINO MeASTJKE 72 
 
 Table, showing the contents (board measure) of scantling of 
 
 Tarious dimensions 72 
 
 Screw, the. Illustrated 288 
 
 Seasons, Time, &c. (see time), Illustrated 19 
 
 Seeds, weight of, as established by the Legislatures of the different 
 
 States ■■ 189 
 
 Seeds, oil per cent, in 191 
 
 " quantity of, to sow or plant per acre, &c 192 
 
 Sheep, to find the age of 208 
 
 Soiling Cattle 401 
 
 Experiments by the author 402 
 
 Arrangement of crops for soiling. 405 
 
 Arguments in favor of soiling 409 
 
 Soils, Exhaustion of 320 
 
 Table, showing the organic substances removed from the soil in 
 
 1000 lbs. each of the various crops 321 
 
 Table, showing the inorganic matter removed from the soil in 1000 
 
 lbs. each of the various crops.,. , 321 
 
 Table showing the kinds of inorganic matter removed from the 
 soil in 1000 lbs. each of the various crops 322 
 
500 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAOS 
 
 Analysis of the hop, showing the elements it removes from the 
 
 soil 323 
 
 Table, showing amount of inorganic matter removed from the soil 
 
 by ten bushels of grain 324 
 
 Soils 311 
 
 Classification of soils ' 312 
 
 To analyze soils 813 
 
 G-eneral results of analytical examinations of soils 316 
 
 Table, showing the composition in 1000 parts of different soils. . 317 
 
 Analytic table of three very fertile soils 317 
 
 Analytic table of arable lands of great fertility 318 
 
 Depth of soil — its importance 318 
 
 Table, showing the weight- per cubic foot of the different kinds of 
 
 earth 319 
 
 SOLDEHS 473 
 
 Lead solder. 473 
 
 Tin solder....: 473 
 
 Solid Matter and Water in articles of Diet 188 
 
 Table, showing the proportion of solid matter and water in 100 
 
 parts each of the various articles of diet 188 
 
 Speoifio G-ravitt (see gravity), Illustrated 182 
 
 Square Measure, table 165 
 
 Squares and Square Roots, table of, from 1 to 1000 303 
 
 Steamino Food tor Stock 415 
 
 Report of the Department of Agriculture 416 
 
 now to make a steaming apparatus 421 
 
 Prindle's Agricultural Steamer and Cauldron (Illustrated) 423 
 
CONTENTS. 501 
 
 PAOI 
 
 Advantages of cooked food 425 
 
 Steam Cultivation, Illustrated 450 
 
 Advantages claimed 452 
 
 Keport of the Uoyal Agricultural Society 455 
 
 Steam Potter, rules for computing 140 
 
 Stock, Steamino Food fob. 415 
 
 Stock Quotations 240 
 
 Strenoth, HuifAN 135 
 
 Strength of Materials (see materials, strength of) 204 
 
 Success in Business 240 
 
 Short credits 240 
 
 Small profits 240 
 
 Economy in expense 247 
 
 Marking goods. .' 247 
 
 Surveyors' Measure, table 16f 
 
 T. 
 
 Temperature and fall of Rain, averaoe of 37 
 
 Table, showing the average temperature of the four seasons at 
 points on the Pacific and Atlantic coasts, and the interior of 
 
 this continent 37 
 
 Periodical rains, region of. ' 38 
 
 Frequent rains, " 39 
 
 Scanty rains, " 39 
 
 Table, showing the latitude and, longitude, the elevation above 
 the level of the sea, the mean annual temperature, and the 
 
 average fall of rain in various places in the United States 49 
 
 Tile Drainino (see draining) 302 
 
502 CONTENTS. 
 
 Timber, Measukement of, Illustrated 61 
 
 Board measure 62 
 
 To ascertain the contents (board measure) of board?, scantling, 
 
 and plank 62 
 
 Table, showing the contents of inch boards from 6 inches to 30 
 
 broad, and &om 4 to 24 feet long 63 
 
 Square timber. 65 
 
 To measure square timber 65 
 
 Plank measure ; 62 
 
 Table, showing the contents (board measure) of planks of various 
 
 dimensions 67 
 
 Round and square timber 64 
 
 To measure round timber, Illustrated 65 
 
 Logs reduced to inch-board measure 70 
 
 Table, showing the number of feet (board measure) of inch 
 
 boards contained in round saw-logs of various dimensions. ... 71 
 
 TnnE, Seasons, &c., Illustrated 19 
 
 To reduce longitude to time 19 
 
 Time, apparent and mean , 21 
 
 To ascertain the length of the day and night 21 
 
 Pendulums, Illustrated 31 
 
 To find the length of a pendulum for a given number of vibra- 
 tions per minute 3] 
 
 To find the vibrations per minute, the length of the pendulum 
 
 being given 32 
 
 Measure of time, table. Illustrated 25 
 
 Division of the calendar year 26 
 
CONTENTS. 503 
 
 TiO% 
 
 Old style (0. S.) and new style (N. S.) 27 
 
 Decade, what period it is 27 
 
 Century, « " « 27 
 
 Lunar Cycle, what it is 27 
 
 Grolden Number, what it is • • . 27 
 
 Solar Cycle, what it is 28 
 
 To find the lunar cycle or golden number 28 
 
 Table, showing the number of days from any day in the montt 
 
 to the same day in any other 28 
 
 Table, finding the number of days between two dates 20 
 
 Table, showing the planets, &c., in the solar system 27 
 
 Distance of the planets, and size compared with the earth 32 
 
 V. 
 
 United States Bonds, explanation of. 242 
 
 Five-Twenties 242 
 
 Ten-Forties 242 
 
 Seven-Thirties 212 
 
 Sixper cents, of '81 243 
 
 United States Monet, table 143 
 
 " " Gold coin I'tQ 
 
 " " Silver coin 1^7 
 
 " " Copper coin 143 
 
 Alloy of Gold and Silver. 147 
 
 V. 
 
 Velocity, table of 1™ 
 
501 OONTENTS. 
 
 W. 
 
 rAoa 
 
 Wages 224 
 
 Table of wages at $3 to $25 per month of 20 working days 224 
 
 Waoon-beds, Capacity or, Illustrated 82 
 
 'I'o find the contents of wagon-beds 82 ■ 
 
 Walls, fbessure of Eabtu against 255 
 
 Water Ram, Illustrated.. 103 
 
 Weather , 33 
 
 Table, for telling the weather through all the lunations of the year 33 
 
 Wedge, the, Illustrated 286 
 
 Weights and Measures, tables of IT. S., Illustrated 145 
 
 Long measure 167 
 
 Hair's breadth.. 108 
 
 Gunter's chain 108 
 
 Bopes and cables 108 
 
 Greographical and nautical measure 109 
 
 Miscellaneous long measures 108 
 
 Measures of circles 23 
 
 Measures of surfaces 105 
 
 Land measure 43 
 
 Paper measure 203 
 
 Liquid measure 100 
 
 Standard gallon measure 161 
 
 Dry measure 102 
 
 Standard bushel measure 162 
 
 Imperial or British bushel. 163 
 
 Miscellaneous dry measures 163 
 
COHTENTS. 505 
 
 rAsi 
 
 Measure of ■weights, avoirdupois 153 
 
 Troy weight. 156 
 
 Troj weight reduced to avoirdupois 157 
 
 Diamond measure 157 
 
 Measure of time 25 
 
 Measure of value 145 
 
 Standard of gold and silver 148 
 
 Miscellaneous weights and measures 153 
 
 Heaping measure 1G3 
 
 Barrel measure •. 153 
 
 Ton weight and ton measure 172 
 
 A sack of wool 155 
 
 A pack of wool ,. 155 
 
 A trussof hay 56 
 
 A load of hay 56 
 
 A bale of hay 56 
 
 A firkin of butter 155 
 
 A bale of cotton 155 
 
 Weight, Compute, of Cattle, Illustrated 209 
 
 ■Weight of Lead Pipe 112 
 
 Weights of Gkais, Seeds, &o 189 
 
 Table, showing the weight of grain, seeds, &o., as established by 
 
 the Legislatures of the different States 189 
 
 Weight of Sqcaee Rolled Iron 273 
 
 Table, showing the weight of square rolled iron from tV inch to 
 
 12 inches, and 1 foot long 273 
 
 Weight of Round Rolled Irok 275 
 
606 
 
 OONTENTS. 
 
 PAe« 
 
 Table, showing the weight of round rolled iron from i inch to 
 12 inches diameter and 1 foot long 275 
 
 WEICni, PROPORTIOS OF, TO BULK OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES 193 
 
 Table, showing the weight per cubic foot of various substances, • 
 
 and the number of cubic feet required to make a ton of each.. 193 
 
 Wheat, depth of Sowino. 193 
 
 Wheel and Axle 284 
 
 Whitewash 4G9 
 
 Wind 35 
 
 Tiible, showing the force and velocity of wind 36 
 
 To find the force of wind acting against a surface 35 
 
 Wire Fences. 134 
 
 i 
 Wood Measure, Illustrated 62 
 
 To ascertain the number of cords in a given pile of wood 62 
 
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