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Cornell University Library 
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 American social problems; an introduction 
 
 3 1924 013 770 510 
 
The original of tliis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
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 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31 92401 377051 
 
AMERICAN SOCIAL PROBLEMS 
 
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 NEW YORK • BOSTON - CHICAGO - DALLAS 
 ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 
 
 LONDON - BOMBAY • CALCXTTTA 
 MELBOURNE 
 
 THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA. Ltd. 
 
 TORONTO 
 
AMERICAN 
 SOCIAL PROBLEMS 
 
 AN INTRODUCTION TO 
 THE STUDY OF SOCIETY 
 
 BY 
 HENRY REED BURCH, Ph.D. 
 
 SOMETIME FELLOW IN ECONOMICS, UXn-EESITY OF PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY AND COMMERCE 
 
 WEST PHILADELPHIA HIGH SCHOOL FOE BOYS 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 
 AHD 
 
 S. HOWARD PATTERSON, A.M. 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY AND COMMERCE 
 
 WEST PHILADELPHIA HIGH SCHOOL FOE BOYS 
 
 PHELADELFHIA 
 
 TStio gorfe 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 1919 
 
 AS rigAis reserved 
 
CorvsiGHT, 1918, 
 By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 
 
 Set up and electrotyped. Published June, 1918, 
 
 J. S. Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 
 Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 
 
SIMON N. PATTEN 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The stress of modern education upon the social sciences 
 has become increasingly evident during the present decade 
 to all students of secondary education. Whether it be 
 the historical, the poHtical or the economic side that is 
 emphasized, the tendency of such study is always to bring 
 to light the outstanding features of American civilization. 
 In fact, it is now everywhere recognized that the very 
 existence and permanency of our institutions is condi- 
 tioned upon a sound understanding of present American 
 problems. 
 
 This book has grown out of the attempt to socialize 
 one phase of secondary education and to bring it into 
 harmony with present day demands. It is designed to 
 meet the needs of an elementary course in the study of 
 society — especially of American society. A conscious 
 attempt has been made to emphasize the social aspect of 
 American hfe, rather than the political or the economic. 
 Although the three phases naturally overlap and are in 
 many cases inseparably interwoven, the main stress has 
 always been placed upon the social point of view. This 
 has been consistently emphasized and logically developed 
 in the discussion of the problems presented. 
 
 The method of treatment has been evolutionary and 
 historical, because growth and development is the very 
 essence of social institutions. It is also hoped that this 
 
viii Preface 
 
 method of approach and the material presented will help 
 to meet the demand for what has been termed "socialized 
 history." The aim has always been to guide and suggest, 
 while the language employed is easily within the beginner's 
 comprehension. 
 
 PHiLADELPfflA, May I, igiS. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. Introduction i 
 
 II. A Great Discovery 12 
 
 III. The Life of the Past 23 
 
 IV. The Past in the Present 33 
 
 V. The Influence of Environment .... 44 
 
 VI. History of the Family 56 
 
 VII. The Development of the State .... 67 
 
 VIII. The Problem of Population 79 
 
 IX. The American People 94 
 
 X. The Problem of Immigration .... 107 
 
 XL The American Race Problem . . . .124 
 
 Xll. The Problem of the City 141 
 
 XIII. The Rise of Industry 158 
 
 XIV. Social Effects of Industry 168 
 
 XV. The Problem of Adjustment .... 184 
 
 XVI. The Problem of Poverty 200 
 
 XVII. Organization of Charity 218 
 
 XVIII. The Problem of Crime 237 
 
 XIX. Treatment of Crime 251 
 
 XX. Defectives in Society 271 
 
 XXI. The Problem of Prohibition . . . .289 
 
 XXII. The Problem of Divorce 310 
 
 XXIII. The Evolution of the School . . . -333 
 
 XXIV. Moral Progress 353 
 
 ix 
 
AMERICAN SOCIAL PROBLEMS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 Introduction 
 
 I. The social ideal 
 
 1. The older attitude 
 
 2. The transition period 
 
 3. The new ideal 
 n. The study of society 
 
 1. Early writers 
 
 2. The rise of science 
 
 3. The modem science of society : 
 
 a. How handicapped 
 
 b. The progress attained 
 
 4. IMeaning of society : 
 
 a. Definition 
 
 b. Examples 
 
 5. The field of study : 
 
 a. Social evolution 
 
 b. Social organization 
 HI. Kindred subjects 
 
 1. Other social studies 
 
 2. The foimdation stones 
 
 The Social Ideal. — The ideal of society in the twentieth 
 century is that of social betterment, and he is greatest 
 among his fellows who best serves their truest The older 
 interests. But such an attitude was not always a^itude. 
 openly accepted. The modem ideal, already rooted in the 
 
2 American Social Problems 
 
 past, was overshadowed for several centuries by the ap- 
 parently conflicting principle of individualism. That is, 
 the advance of the individual, rather than the better- 
 ment of society, was the direct and conscious aim of most 
 of man's activities. This individualistic spirit was the 
 natural reaction against the principle of authority that 
 slowly grew up during the Middle Ages. With the re- 
 birth of learning, known as the Renaissance, the minds of 
 men began to acquire a new freedom, to cast off the bonds 
 of authority and the shackles of superstition. Thus the in- 
 dividuahstic attitude, fostered by intellectual development, 
 foimd its way through reformation into religion, through 
 revolution into government and through economic reorgan- 
 ization into industry. Its development was therefore 
 logical, and it is not difficult to understand how the inter- 
 est of the individual grew in importance while that of the 
 group to which he belonged correspondingly declined. 
 
 However, after centuries of experiment, individualism 
 has been tried in the balance and found wanting. The 
 The period world is now in a period of transition toward an- 
 of transition, other stage of development which we may call 
 that of socialization. Under the laissez /aire or " let 
 alone " system of politics the women of England toiled 
 under an industrial day of twelve and fourteen hours, 
 while " the bitter cry of the children " made government 
 regulation imperative. In our own day groups of indi- 
 viduals have monopolized and exploited for their personal 
 gain the free gifts of nature so that the voice of the socialist 
 and single taxer is heard throughout the land. Anti- 
 trust laws, interstate commerce acts, and industrial and 
 price-fixing regulations begin to give us the dawning 
 shock of paternalism. Regulation has become necessary 
 
Introduction 3 
 
 because the life of mankind is a group life ; no man is a 
 law unto himself. It is right for men to exercise the 
 rights of life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness only 
 when such action does not interfere with the correspond- 
 ing rights of others. Thus, intemperance is no longer 
 a matter of individual concern but of social regulation, 
 because the families of such imfortunates are not only 
 deprived of their rights to life and the pursuit of happiness, 
 but also because they become an additional charge on the 
 public expense. Again, the tipsy engineer holds the lives 
 of hundreds of others in his unsteady hand. The frontiers- 
 man of yesterday slaughtered his own cattle and baked 
 his own bread but, to-da} , the city consmner serves upon 
 his table articles of food prepared in many distant places, 
 by many different hands. Hence pure food laws become 
 necessary to social welfare. Societ}- must protect itseK 
 against the extreme individuaUst whether he be monopo- 
 list, spendthrift or food adulterator. 
 
 Democracy and Kberty for all are not assured mitil 
 ever}- indiNadual in society realizes his duty toward other 
 members of his group. The indi^'idual and the The new 
 group are reciprocal. Each exists for the benefit "'^'^ 
 of the other and their interests must harmonize if social 
 welfare is to be attained. The monk of the Middle Ages, 
 immured in his hermit cell, might work out his own in- 
 dividual salvation while the social group — the world 
 aroimd him — went perhaps to perdition. The twen- 
 tieth century ideal, however, is that of rendering social 
 service, and he is greatest in society who best serves his 
 fellows. This modern ideal is the antithesis of medieval 
 isolation. It is the ideal of socialization — the twentieth 
 century spirit of Christianity. 
 
4 American Social Problems 
 
 The Study of Society. — Since the dawn of civilization 
 man has sought an explanation of the world about him. 
 Early The early literature of each race, such as the my- 
 
 writers. thologies of the Chaldeans and of the Greeks, has 
 its own national and characteristic explanation. Existmg 
 institutions and codes of law are explained in terms of 
 some mythical lawgiver like the Spartan Lycurgus. From 
 the days of ancient Israel is heard the story of oppression, 
 and prophets of old from Moses to Amos lift up their 
 voices in protest against the social evils of the day. Each 
 age has dreamed its own Utopia which the march of cen- 
 turies has not yet brought to pass. Among the early 
 Greeks, Plato imagined an ideal " Repubhc " in which the 
 just man could Uve in happy security, while the drones 
 worked, the soldiers policed and the philosophers ruled. 
 He was followed by the more practical and less idealistic 
 Aristotle who, as tutor of Alexander the Great, had 
 an opportunity to visit the ancient world and make a 
 comparative study of the constitutions of the various city- 
 states existing at that time. In his book called " Poli- 
 tics " appears the oft-quoted statement that " man is a 
 political animal," — a being to whom poHtical association is 
 natural. 
 
 It will be observed that these early views are interest- 
 ing, but that many of them lack proof and conviction. 
 The rise There is a great mass of writing in all ages and in 
 of science, many lands upon social problems and condi- 
 tions. Much is fragmentary and imaginative, but some of 
 the material is sufficiently orderly and complete to be called 
 an embryotic science of society. It is only within the last 
 century, however, that a true science of society has come 
 into being. Let us then inquire into the nature of a 
 
Introduction 5 
 
 science and observe how it differs from mere speculation. 
 In the first place, science is really a method of investigation 
 rather than a body of subject matter. Its essential ele- 
 ments are the careful observation of data, the accurate 
 classification of phenomena and the observance of se- 
 quence, that is, the repetition of the same phenomena 
 under the same conditions. In the development of a 
 science an hypothesis or unproved theory is formulated 
 which is tested by repeated experiments and continual 
 observation. ^Aiter many such confirmations a scientific 
 law arises. Thus the science of astronomy emerged from 
 the superstitions of medieval astrology, just as the science 
 of modern chemistry emerged from alchemy when Bacon 
 insisted upon the experimental method of study rather 
 than the deductive logic of antiquity. 
 
 The study of hiunan society was slow to develop into a 
 science because of the complex and himian character of 
 the subject matter. The physical and natural The modem 
 sciences deal with matter, while the science of so- ^'^^^^ °^ 
 
 ' _ society : 
 
 ciety deals with man. ]\Iatter may be dissected h„w handi- 
 and analyzed, but man is ofttimes a creature of •^<^pp^- 
 whims and fancies. It is easy to predict how matter wiU 
 react imder given conditions, but it is often hazardous to 
 foretell man's conduct. Furthermore, the student of social 
 problems is handicapped by the element of personal feel- 
 ing and preconceived notions. Prejudice and personal 
 bias retard the development of social science because 
 science is impersonal. The aim of science is the discovery 
 of truth which must be accepted regardless of personal 
 opinion. Many social reforms have therefore failed be- 
 cause they represented individual ideals rather than scien- 
 tific knowledge. 
 
6 American Social Problems 
 
 Nevertheless, in spite of these handicaps, the science of 
 society has progressed wonderfully during the last half 
 The progress ccntury. The modern science of society aims to 
 attained. study social Conditions as they exist, to under- 
 stand the principles at work and to formulate laws accord- 
 ingly. Before the engineer builds his bridge across the 
 river he must understand thoroughly the theory of the 
 strength of materials, otherwise his structure wiU collapse 
 and result in great loss of life and property. Similarly, 
 before we seek to solve the problems of the feeble-minded, 
 the criminal and the poor, we must imderstand the laws of 
 heredity and of environment. Otherwise our social struc- 
 ture wiU be unsteady. Behind individual fluctuations 
 the great law of averages holds good. The modern science 
 of society, therefore, enables us to understand the true 
 significance of such vital problems as immigration, poverty, 
 divorce, prison reform and other social phenomena of 
 everyday life. 
 
 A society is a group of individuals enjojing conscious 
 
 relations with each other. Mere habitation of a common 
 
 nir..--„„ „» economic envirorunent is not sufficient to cause a 
 Meaning of 
 
 society: people to constitute a society. They must per- 
 Definiiion. ^^j^^ ^j^gj^. j^utyai relation and their common lot. 
 
 Furthermore, a society is not synonymous with a nation ; 
 although a nation may constitute a society. There may be 
 many associations within a nation, such as political parties, 
 industrial organizations and religious associations. A society 
 is an association. The realization of the similarit}" of the 
 members of a group to each other is called " consciousness 
 of kind " and constitutes the tie which binds the society 
 together. Thus, a religious association is a society boimd 
 together by the principle of " consciousness of kind." 
 
Introduction 7 
 
 On the other hand, mere possession of a common religion 
 is not in itself, xmder all circumstances. sirSicient to con- 
 stitute a unified society, because Christendom is 
 
 • • A • 11 ■ Examples. 
 
 composed of many soaeties. Agam, allegiance to 
 one sovereign and one flag is not in itseh sufiicient to consti- 
 tute one society because the great British Empire, with its 
 numerous and loyal colonial possessions, is a imion of many 
 societies, — not one organic whole. In the world of nature, 
 a forest of pine trees is not a society because there is no 
 mentality or intelligence capable of realizing similarity. 
 There is no consciousness of relationship. On the other 
 hand, a colony of ants and a swarm of bees do constitute 
 societies because they enjoy conscious relationships, v 
 
 The study of society is generally called sociology. From 
 what has been said it is easy to see that this subject is a 
 studv of the process of association ; that is, a study ^ 
 
 The field 
 
 of group life in any form m which it maj^ con- of study: 
 sciouslv exist either in the past or in the present. ■5'«*<^ 
 It therefore comprises a study both of the past 
 evolution and of the present organization of societies. 
 In the first place, the study of society seeks to understand 
 the origin and development of our great social institutions 
 such as the state, the church and the family. How, for 
 example, has the family become what it is to-day? It did 
 not always exist in its present form. Or, how has American 
 society of to-day developed such undesirable phenomena 
 as divorce, illiteracy and criminaUty? Certainly these 
 were not characteristic of our early Puritan ancestors. 
 The present can only be understood by a knowledge of 
 the past. ]\Iany of the causes and social forces of the past 
 are operating to-day or have left an indelible impress 
 upon modem social life. 
 
8 American Social Problems 
 
 The other side of our study is to investigate the present 
 day organization of society in order clearly to comprehend 
 Social or- the structurc and functions of existing institu- 
 ganization. tions. How is American society organized at the 
 present moment? What are the relations between the 
 different parts of our social system, such as the family, 
 the church, the state and the school ? What is the internal 
 organization of each of these institutions? A study of 
 social organization attempts to answer these questions, 
 and thus to throw light upon present day social problems. 
 Such a study will enable us, for example, not only to imder- 
 stand the relation between the family and the school with 
 the resulting overlapping of functions, but also to com- 
 prehend the internal structure of each and the task to 
 which each is peculiarly adapted. Armed with a knowl- 
 edge of principles, the student of sociology will approach 
 the study of modern social problems with the scientific 
 spirit and with the ability to offer effective remedies for 
 social evils and abuses. 
 
 Kindred Subjects. — Allied to the study of society are 
 the subjects of history, economics and politics. We may 
 other social thus speak of sociology and her " alhes." His- 
 studies. ^Qj-y jg |-jjg study of the development of the past 
 and is one of the laboratories of the sociologist. Again, 
 while history aims at a complete record of events and a 
 true picture of past conditions, sociology seeks to formulate 
 general laws and principles. Indeed sociology may be said 
 to have begun as a philosophy of history. Two distinct 
 social sciences, dealing especially with modern problems 
 and social conditions, are economics and political science. 
 Economics studies the twin problems of wealth and welfare 
 and investigates man's activities relating thereto. Since 
 
Iviroduction g 
 
 the whole modern world is wealth-producing, this subject 
 occupies a vital position among the social sciences. Pohti- 
 cal science deals only with one form of human association, 
 namely the state, which is perhaps the most imposing of 
 aU social institutions. Politics is the science of govern- 
 ment, while civics deals with concrete poUtical questions. 
 
 The foimdation stones of the science of society are (i) the 
 science of Ufe and (2) the science of mind. Biology is 
 the science of the world of life, of which the The founda- 
 human species is merely a part. A study of *^°° st°"es. 
 biology will show that much of the body-structure of man, 
 like many of his mental reactions, can be traced back to 
 the lower animals. The science of mind is called psy- 
 chology. A study of this subject will enable the student of 
 society to understand how men feel and act in groups. 
 Of course, the psychologist is interested particularly in 
 the mind of the individual, while the sociologist is chiefly 
 concerned with the mind of the whole group. The social 
 mind, illustrated by pubHc opinion, fashion and the mob 
 spirit, comes within the range of social psychology. Psy- 
 chology wiU also help the student of society to understand 
 the origin and development of instincts which find social 
 expression in family life, war and patriotism. 
 
 Accordingly, in the following pages, we shall proceed 
 to investigate the origin of man both in his physical struc- 
 ture and in his mental development. In the Hght of the 
 principles thus ascertained, we shall then examine the more 
 important social problems of American civihzation. 
 
lo American Social Problems 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. Show how early institutions were communistic. 
 
 2. Show how the period introduced by the Renaissance was ia- 
 dividualistic. 
 
 3. What do we call the third stage of development? 
 
 4. What is the social ideal ? 
 
 5. How should it mold our idea of the good citizen? 
 
 6. Give some actual illustrations of how the interests of the in- 
 dividual and of society could conflict. 
 
 7. Was the ascetic life of the Middle Ages a good life? 
 
 8. Name some social services of the monks. 
 
 9. In what book did Plato formulate his ideas on government ? 
 
 10. What> is the name of Aristotle's work ? 
 
 11. Name other social philosophers. 
 
 12. What is the scientific method? 
 
 13. How does a science differ from philosophy? 
 
 14. How does a social science differ from a physical science? 
 
 15. What does the "law of averages" mean? 
 
 16. What is necessary to make a science out of philanthropy? 
 
 17. Define a society. 
 
 18. What makes it a society ? 
 
 19. Give some faulty conceptions of society. 
 
 20. Give some illustrations of animal societies. 
 
 21. What are the two problems in a study of society? 
 
 22. Why is a knowledge of the past important? 
 
 23. How is the range of sociology wider and how narrower than 
 that of history ? 
 
 24. Name the social sciences. 
 
 25. Define and show the relation of each of the others to sociology. 
 
 26. Name, define and show the importance of the two foundation 
 sciences of sociology. 
 
 27. What does social psychology emphasize ? 
 
 TOPICS FOR SPECIAL REPORT 
 
 1. Plato's ideal republic. 
 
 2. The social studies of Aristotle. 
 
Introduction 1 1 
 
 3. Langland's "Piers Ploughman and More's "■ Utopia." 
 
 4. The ascetic ideal of the Middle Ages. 
 
 5. The rise of the scientific method (e.g. under Bacon). 
 
 6. The use and misuse of statistics. 
 
 7. Animal societies (e.g. bees and ants). 
 
 REFEREXCES 
 
 Ross, E. A. " Sin and Society." 
 GiDDixGS, F. H. "Elements of Sociology." 
 Ross. E. A. "Foundations of Sociology-." 
 Hayis, E. C. "Introduction to a Study of Sociology." 
 Wkight, C. D. "Practical Sociology." Chapter I. 
 Fairb.4xk:s. a. "Introduction to Sociology." 
 Ross. E. A. "Social Psychologj-." 
 DiL\iXY, J. Q. "Sociology." Chapter I. 
 
 Ellwood, C. a. "Sociologj- in its Psychological Asf>ects." Chap- 
 ters I to \J. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 A Great Discovery 
 
 I. The theory 
 
 1. A comparison 
 
 2. The discoverer 
 
 3. A brief statement 
 II. The proofs 
 
 1. Resemblance to lower animals 
 
 2. Rudimentary organs 
 
 3. The embryo child 
 
 4. Fossil remains 
 
 5. Experiments of breeders 
 III. The method 
 
 1. Nature's extravagance 
 
 2. The struggle for existence 
 
 3. Importance of variation 
 
 4. Natural selection 
 
 5. Influence of heredity 
 
 6. A later element — altruism 
 
 The Theory of Evolution. — The discovery of the theory 
 of evolution in the last century by Charles Darwin was 
 Acompari- almost as epoch making as the discovery of 
 ^''"- America by Columbus. The latter widened the 
 
 geographical horizon of the Middle Ages and the former 
 the intellectual horizon of our own times. Both men died 
 disappointed and misunderstood. Before the days of 
 Darwin, thinkers as far back as the ancient Greeks had 
 hinted at what we now call evolution, just as they had also 
 
A Great Discovery 13 
 
 guessed that the. world might be round and that the East 
 might be reached by saiUng westward. But the prede- 
 cessors of, Darwin had no more permanent results than the 
 Viking explorers who caught glimpses of America before 
 Columbus. Let us remember in concluding our com- 
 parison that neither of the two discoverers was right ia every 
 respect. Later discoveries proved that Columbus had not 
 reached the Indies and that the world' was larger than he 
 had imagined. Later researches have changed some of 
 Darwin's theories and we have found that the theory of 
 evolution reaches out into fields beyond biology. Both 
 men were pioneers blazing the trail for others to follow; 
 both ushered in a new era of thought. 
 
 Charles Darwin, the great English biologist, was born 
 in 1809, the birth year of so many illustrious men. He 
 spent four years upon a voyage of exploration The 
 around the world in which he succeeded in col- discoverer, 
 lecting many valuable specimens and much important 
 scientific data. About the middle of the last century, 
 appeared his first book on the " Origin of Species " and 
 later a second work entitled " The Descent of Man." 
 These books are important because they contain a full 
 statement of the theory of biological evolution with numer- 
 ous examples drawn from different fields of nature. Their 
 publication aroused a storm of protest which continued 
 long after his death in 1882. 
 
 In order clearly to understand the nature of Darwin's 
 discovery let us see what evolution is and what it is not. 
 The popular idea of this theory is far from being a brief 
 exact. In the first place the existence of God is statement, 
 not denied nor is it stated that man is descended from the 
 ape. In brief, Darwin's theory of descent is that all exist- 
 
14 American Social Problems 
 
 ing species have sprung from a few simple, primitive types. 
 It asserts the relationship of all forms of life and traces the 
 story of how, from a few simple unicellular forms, have 
 arisen the numerous complex and multicellular organisms 
 now in existence. Man and many of the lower animals 
 have come from the same biological stock. 
 
 The Proofs of Evolution. — Since Darwin's death new 
 evidence has been discovered in support of his theory of 
 descent. At present we have five main arguments in its 
 favor. 
 
 Comparative anatomy shows very striking similarities 
 
 of structure in man and the higher animals. In comparing 
 
 man with the other primates, the ape for example, 
 
 biancesto we find similar structures bone for bone and 
 
 lower muscle for muscle. The similarities of the skele- 
 
 animals. 
 
 tons are apparent to the most casual observer in 
 a museum of natural history. While we think of the hairy 
 covering as distinguishing the ape from man, the differ- 
 ence is merely one of quantity due to the fact that man's 
 environment no longer calls for such protection. A close 
 inspection under a magnifying glass will show that almost 
 the whole human body is covered with hair and its slant, 
 noticeably in the arms, is the same as may be observed in 
 the ape. 
 
 There are in the human body, as in other higher animals, 
 numerous rudimentary or, more properly, vestigial organs. 
 Rudimen- The horse at one time had four toes which he has 
 tary organs, gince lost in the long process of evolution. A 
 close examination of the hoof will reveal vestiges of what 
 were once fully developed toes. In human beings the 
 pineal gland and the vermiform appendix are examples of 
 what we call vestigial organs. Many organs, which are 
 
A Great Discovery 15 
 
 now functionless in man, are foirnd active and useful in 
 some of the lower animals. The conclusion drawn from 
 these facts is that there must have been a time in man's 
 earUer history when these organs did function and were of 
 use. For example, we have traces of muscles behind the 
 ears which formerly served to move them. The coccyx of 
 the human spine is a reduced relic of what once functioned 
 as a tail. At the inner angle of the human eye is a fold of 
 tissue .which has no meaning unless it be explained as a 
 remnant of that third eyelid which in many lower verte- 
 brates, Hke the birds, is greatly developed so that it may 
 be drawn over the whole eyeball inside the lids. 
 
 The human infant before and shortly after birth re- 
 sembles some lower forms of Hfe. Pictures of the human 
 embryo at different stages of development seem xhe embryo 
 to show that it passes through the same sue- '='^'*- 
 cessive stages of development as the species has gone 
 through in the process of evolution. This is known as the 
 recapitulation theory. The human embryo at an early 
 stage resembles a fish and, later on, some of the higher 
 vertebrates. At one stage of development it is impossible 
 to distinguish between the human embryo and that of one 
 of the higher apes. After birth the human infant has a 
 remarkably strong finger grip and an ability to sustain its 
 own weight by hanging with its hands. 
 
 If the above reasoning is correct, there must have existed 
 at one time or other primitive ancestral types from which 
 man has evolved. Therefore, search has been possU 
 made for the so-called missing links, that is for "™»^s. 
 types midway between man and the higher apes. This 
 has resulted in the discovery of a number of very important 
 fossil remains. For example, it is now possible by a series 
 
1 6 American Social Problems 
 
 of actual skeleton remains to trace the evolution of the 
 horse back to a creature, not much larger than a dog, which 
 possessed four toes instead of the present hoof. It is like- 
 wise possible by means of fossil human remains to trace 
 man back to the time when he was Just emerging from a 
 more primitive and apelike form. The first discovery of 
 any importance was made in a cave in Diisseldorf , Germany. 
 On the island of Java, there have also been discovered fossil 
 remains of a creature which must have walked erect but 
 whose brain capacity was midway between man and the 
 ape. Numerous later discoveries in England and upon 
 the continent of Europe have filled the gaps in man's past 
 history. The geological deposits in which they are foimd 
 and the rock strata above them tell us approximately when 
 each type lived and we marvel at the humble beginnings 
 of our species and at its great antiquity. 
 
 From a few primitive types have arisen our various 
 breeds of domestic animals. Breeders have learned that, 
 Experiments by carefuUy selecting the type of animal desired, 
 of breeders, j-j^gy g^j-g a,ble to breed approximately that type. 
 Thus are produced race horses and draft horses by the 
 process of artificial selection made use of by animal breeders. 
 Likewise, nature exercised a natural selection by weeding 
 out those organisms not adapted to their particular en- 
 vironment. Only those plants and animals survived that 
 were best fitted to their locahty. Hugo de Vries, a Dutch 
 botanist, has shown how sudden variations of a permanent 
 character called mutations may also produce new types, 
 just as Darwin's slower method of natural selection was 
 shown to produce the survival of the fittest by preserving 
 favorable variations and eliminating the unfavorable. If 
 new types can be produced before our very eyes, how can 
 
Courusij Anuricjrt Mu^iupi of Xaiurai Htsiory. 
 
 An" Artist's Coxception' of Xe.\xderthal M.\x. 
 
A Great Discovery 17 
 
 we doubt that the process of selection took place in the 
 past? Species are not fixed definitely for all time. They 
 change slowly with changes of en\Tromnent or else they 
 perish. 
 
 The Method of Evolution. — Ha\-ing examined the 
 proofs back of this theory, let us inquire into the method 
 of evolution. Here, again, there are five link'; in our chain 
 of reasoning. 
 
 Nature is so van.- fertile in the nimiber of offspring 
 created as to appear almost Wcisteful to the casual ob- 
 ser^er. -\s we go down the scale of life the wature sex- 
 number of offspring increases. A single shad in tra^aeance. 
 the spawning season produces milhons of eggs. Darwin 
 showed, for illustration, that if every elephant, which is 
 the slowest breeding animal. Kved its normal length of 
 life and if to even,- pair were bom the average of six off- 
 spring, there would be, at the end of seven hundred and 
 fifty years, nineteen million li\"ing elephants descended 
 from a single pair. 
 
 Ob\-iously, not all the numerous offspring ever reached 
 maturity. If ever\- acorn grew to be an oak, the dry land 
 of this world, in the course of a few hundred ^^ stmggie 
 years, would not be sufficient space for the growth for exist- 
 of all the oak trees. If ever}- egg of a shad were 
 permitted to reach maturity, the rivers would be full of 
 fish. ^Millions perish and every year countless numbers 
 must be bom in order to insure the perpetuity of the species. 
 The world of nature is only apparently calm and peaceful. 
 Underneath the supposed contentment there rages a cease- 
 less struggle due to competition for food, air. sunshine and 
 space. Throughout the scale of life, larger animals feed 
 Uf>on smaller ones. Two young trees growing side by side 
 
1 8 American Social Problems 
 
 are rivals for the sunshine. The one sapling that obtains 
 it may grow to maturity, but at the expense of the other, 
 which soon perishes. For every starfish living, nearly 
 half a milHon die each year. The fact that the struggle for 
 existence is keenest in the lower forms of life explains their 
 greater productivity. It is necessary for survival. 
 
 No two individuals, though born of the same parents, 
 are exactly alike. Children of the same parents, although 
 Importance possessing a family resemblance, are quite dif- 
 ofvanation. fgj-gjit ixom each Other. In lower forms of life 
 the amount of variation is less, but nevertheless it exists. 
 If we measure the length of oak leaves taken from the same 
 tree, we find that some are longer than others, and birds 
 of the same parents vary not only in size and strength but 
 also in color. 
 
 In the struggle for existence, in which the great majority 
 of organisms perish, the stronger and those better adapted 
 Natural to their environment survive, while the weaker 
 
 selection. g^jj^j un^t are eliminated. This process is called 
 natural selection or survival of the fittest. Out of the 
 numerous variations or tj^es, nature selects the qualities 
 most favorable to survival in that en\iromnent. Let us 
 illustrate. In a meadow were placed a niunber of chick- 
 ens. Those conspicuous by their white color fell a prey 
 to hawks, but those of a speckled hue resembled the back- 
 ground. Hence the latter survived because of a color 
 variation which was favorable to their existence in that 
 locality. The process of natural selection, going on for 
 numerous generations, tends to eliminate in that locality 
 all types of chickens except those that are speckled. Again, 
 natural selection can be seen working among colonists in a 
 strange land of rigorous climate in which only the hardiest 
 
A Great Discovery 19 
 
 can survive. The function of natural selection is to weed 
 out the unfit or unadapted and thus constantly to raise the 
 t}pe or adapt it to the environment. The old mastodons, 
 whose skeletons we find in museums, were adapted to the 
 marshy environment of thousands of years ago. Failing 
 to adapt themselves to the new enviroimient, they perished. 
 In his early history man won out in the fierce struggle for 
 existence because of his superior intelligence, which en- 
 abled him to trap and slay the larger animals among which 
 he hved. To-day natural selection exists in the form of 
 conflict and competition between indi^■iduals and between 
 groups of individuals. ^\lthough in cix-ilized commvmities, 
 few perish from starvation or are ruthlessly killed by their 
 stronger fellows, yet they are forced into the lower or 
 poorer classes in society. Artificial restrictions, like laws 
 of property and inheritance, often prevent many indi- 
 viduals from actually facing a fierce struggle for existence 
 in modern society. 
 
 It is a common fact that like begets like, or that the off- 
 spring resemble the parents in spite of individual varia- 
 tions. This is the factor in evolution which in- influence of 
 sures the persistence of the species. In the iieredity. 
 struggle for existence, heredity tends to preserve those 
 variations which have been shown to be favorable to a 
 particular enviroimient. The unfavorable variations tend 
 to be eliminated, and thus are not perpetuated. In the 
 course of many centuries, the favorable variations tend to 
 become the only surviving t\'pes. Not all traits, however, 
 are transmissible. Acquired characteristics are those 
 achieved in the lifetime of the individual and, since they 
 are not inherent, they are not usually transmissible. Just 
 as the son of a one-armed man will be bom with two arms, 
 
20 American Social Problems 
 
 so the strong biceps of the blacksmith will not necessarily 
 be inherited. Weak eyes may be inherited, but not the 
 blindness caused by some explosion. Tuberculosis is a 
 disease caused by a bacillus and is not inherited, as are the 
 weak lungs which make possible the attacks of the disease. 
 This distinction between acquired and inherent traits ap- 
 phes to mental as well as to physical characteristics. For 
 example, the problem of the feeble-minded in society is a 
 grave one because feeble-mindedness is an inherent mental 
 trait and will be passed on from generation to generation 
 so long as feeble-minded people propagate, in spite of all 
 the education we may give these unfortunates. 
 
 In answer to the controversy opened by the pubUcation 
 of Darwin's " Descent of Man," Henry Drummond put 
 A later ^^^ ^ volume which he called the " Ascent of 
 
 element— Man." Admitting the evidence of Darwin's 
 theory of descent, he objected to the cold- 
 hearted struggle for existence in society and in its place 
 substituted the principle of altruism or the struggle for the 
 life of others. As we ascend the scale of hfe, the period of 
 infancy becomes longer and maternal care more necessary. 
 Fish merely deposit their eggs and leave them to their fate, 
 but the mother bird not only hatches her eggs but also 
 watches over her young fledgelings. The period of human 
 infancy lasts for many years, and the increased maternal 
 care is the source of altruism and of much that is spiritual 
 and sympathetic in the human breast. Thus the source 
 of altruism arises from the rearing of offspring, and the 
 family group is the generator of cooperation. But the 
 struggle for existence is not eliminated by cooperation. 
 It makes competition a group struggle rather than an 
 individual one. It is a device which enables one group 
 
A Great Discovery 21 
 
 to struggle more successful!}' against another. Wild 
 horses live in herds and thus protect themselves against 
 wolves. In hiunan society the group having the strongest 
 national life will triumph in war over its more poorly or- 
 ganized rivals. In primitive society, the weakling was 
 eliminated because he was of no value to the group, but in 
 civilized society the sick and unfit are cared for. Thus 
 arise the modern social problems of defectives, delinquents 
 and dependents. 
 
 QUESTIOXS FOR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. What was the great contribution of Charles Darwin? 
 
 2. Show how a beKef in evolution need not destroy one's reU- 
 gious con\'ictions. 
 
 3. How was Darwin's theor>' received by the public? 
 
 4. State the five proofs of the Darwinian theory of descent. 
 
 5. Xame the factors in the process of evolution. 
 
 6. Show the part each played. 
 
 7. 'WTiich is the most important to the student of sociology? 
 
 8. \Miat traits are transmissible by heredity and which are not? 
 
 9. Give some practical examples. 
 
 10. How does the non-transmissible character of acquired traits 
 prevent the children of those living in slums from sinking into physical 
 degeneracj'? 
 
 11. Show how the struggle for existence and natural selection 
 operate to-day. 
 
 12. What is altruism? 
 
 13. WTiat is the danger of exaggerating this principle? 
 
 TOPICS FOR SPECIAL REPORT 
 
 1. The life and work of Charles Darwin. 
 
 2. The theory of evolution before Darwin. 
 
 3. Later changes in the theory of Darwin. 
 
 4. Weismann's theory of germ plasm in the study of heredity. 
 
22 American Social Problems 
 
 5. How malnutrition or poisoning of the body cells may indirectly 
 affect the germ ceUs. 
 
 6. Mutations or permanent variations (Theory of De Vries). 
 
 7. The culture epoch theory. 
 
 8. The evolution of the horse. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Darwin, C. " Descent of Man." 
 
 Chapin, F. S. "Social Evolution." Chapter I. Variation and 
 
 Heredity. Chapter II. Struggle for Existence. Chapter III. 
 
 Origin and Antiquity of Man. 
 Drummond, H. "Ascent of Man." Chapter II. Scaffolding Left 
 
 in the Body. Chapter VII. Struggle for Life of Others. 
 ScHUMUCKER, S. C. "Meaning of Evolution." 
 Conn, H. W. "Methods of Evolution." Chapters I to V. 
 CoNKLiN, E. G. "Heredity and Environment." 
 
CHAPTER HI 
 The Life or the Past 
 
 I. Universal evolution 
 
 1 . The work of Spencer 
 
 2. The evolution of worlds 
 
 3. Biological evolution 
 
 4. Mental evolution 
 
 5. Social evolution 
 
 II. Life of primitive man 
 
 1. Sources of kxiowledge 
 
 2. Neanderthal man 
 
 3. Early characteristics 
 III. Achievements of the past 
 
 1. The process of invention 
 
 2. Examples: 
 
 a. Tools and implements 
 
 b. Discovery of fire 
 
 c. Domestication of animals 
 
 d. Agriculture 
 
 e. Clothing 
 /. Language 
 
 Universal Evolution. — We have seen how Darwin 
 worked out the theory of evolution in biology. It was 
 left for another great Englishman, Herbert Spen- The work of 
 cer, to show that not only have animal species Spencer, 
 come to be what they are by a slow, gradual development, 
 but that nearly everything else in nature has, for centuries, 
 been undergoing a slow but persistent change. Thus, 
 
 23 
 
24 American Social Problems 
 
 the process of evolution applies to inanimate objects such 
 as the rocks in the earth's crust which have not always 
 been as we know them to-day. Again, that which is in- 
 tangible, like our human intelligence, our moral code or 
 our great social institution of the state, has not suddenly 
 come into being but has slowly developed from most 
 humble beginnings. Nothing is fixed or final, however 
 permanent it may seem. The slowness of the change 
 makes the development difficult to perceive. This con- 
 ception of universal evolution Spencer developed in his 
 " Synthetic Philosophy," a monumental work consisting 
 of volumes on various related subjects. Those on soci- 
 ology marked the beginning of a modern, scientific study 
 of society. 
 
 There are four phases of universal evolution, — 
 (i) world, (2) biological, (3) mental and (4) social. 
 
 Cosmic or world evolution deals with the development 
 of our solar system and of our earth. It embraces the 
 The evoiu- scienccs of astronomy and geology. The nebular 
 tionof hypothesis explains how, centimes ago, out of 
 
 chaos planets were developed by a process of con- 
 densation due to the attraction of particles of matter for 
 each other. Geology goes on to explain how the earth 
 condensed as it cooled. With the formation of the earth's 
 crust, we can read in the various strata of rocks the record 
 of millions of years of geological development. 
 
 A hundred million years ago, as soon as the waters of 
 the sea became sufficiently cool, life appeared on the earth. 
 Biological Science is no more capable of explaining how fife 
 evolution. originated than is the finite mind capable of 
 grasping the enormity of time required for the evolution 
 of worlds. If we let the width of a man's thumb represent 
 
The Life of iJie Past 25 
 
 the time tliat has elapsed between the present time and the 
 gra\- dawn of history told by the pyramids of Egypt, the 
 length of a walking stick would represent the age of the 
 human species. In other words, man's prehistoric life is 
 many times the length of the historic. A line to represent 
 proportionally the age of the earth's crust, wliicli is roughly 
 the period of biological evolution, would stretch over a 
 distance of several cit}- blocks. The period required b>- 
 world e\olution is so many times the span of biological 
 evolution that a unit of comparison is difficult to formu- 
 late. Biological evolution is the story of the development 
 of living forms from the lower to the higher, and from the 
 simple to the complex. Darwdn was the pioneer who 
 discovered the theory of biological evolution and we have 
 discussed both his proofs and his method. 
 
 As we ascend the scale of life we see a gradual increase 
 of mental power. Lower forms of life have feelings and 
 react according to sensations of pain and pleasure, but do 
 not seem to reason. That intelh'gence, however, Mental 
 is not entirely a human characteristic may be evolution, 
 seen by a close observation of dogs and horses. ^Mental 
 evolution began before biological evolution was over and 
 natural selection worked in favor of the keen intelligence 
 which could see danger and escape it. Thus, primitive 
 man, because of his intelligence, won out in the struggle for 
 existence against the strong and fierce animals about him. 
 But instinct as well as intelligence played a part in man's 
 mental evolution. .\ii instinct may be defined as an in- 
 born tendency possessed bj' indi\'iduals of the same species. 
 ;Man's instincts are more general and more modifiable 
 than are those of the lower animals. In other words, as 
 mental evolution progresses, instincts become less important 
 
26 American Social Problems 
 
 and intelligence more important. Mention of some 
 human instincts should be made because they lie at the 
 basis of our social institutions. Thus the family rests 
 upon the reproductive and parental instincts. The in- 
 stinct of association has been responsible for man's social 
 evolution and upon it rest great institutions like the state 
 and other forms of social organization. Among other 
 human instincts is that of self-defense, because it was 
 usually necessary to fight in the early struggle for existence. 
 Under the strain of modern warfare, when the bitterness of 
 conflict scrapes off the veneer of civilization, we see this 
 primitive instinct showing itself almost as clearly as in 
 savage peoples. However, with the evolution of mind, 
 the instincts play by far a relatively less important part 
 than the reason in the development of mankind. 
 
 As we ascend the scale of civilization we see a greater 
 degree of group life or cooperation. Lower forms of Ufe 
 Social possess the social instinct and live in groups, 
 
 evolution Witness the schools of fish, flocks of birds and 
 herds of animals. Excellent examples of group Ufe are 
 found among the ants and bees. Thus social evolution, 
 like mental evolution, began before biological evolution was 
 completed. This is shown by the existence of group life 
 among the lower animals. Just as natural selection worked 
 in favor of those possessing keen intelligence, so it placed 
 a premium upon group life or cooperation. Consciously 
 or unconsciously, it was seen that in union there lay strength. 
 Association or group life is a device by which animal species 
 have been enabled to survive, and man's social instinct, 
 like his bodily structure and mental life, can be traced 
 back to the lower animals. Like intelligence, the social 
 instinct has been constantly on the increase and civilized 
 
The Life of the Past 27 
 
 man is distinguished from primitive man by a greater 
 degree of organization. Man's dominant position is due 
 almost as much to his superior power of association as to 
 his superior intelligence. 
 
 Life of Primitive Man. — Fossil remains of primitive 
 man afford good evidence of his appearance. Likewise, 
 a knowledge of his early environment furnishes sources of 
 additional evidence of the life and activity of ^"wiedge. 
 primitive man. Finally, primitive races of to-day reveal 
 to us what our own ancestors were Uke centuries ago. 
 From these three lines of reasoning, we are able to re- 
 create primitive man in our imagination. 
 
 Let us taJte, for illustration, the primitive type of Nean- 
 derthal man, so named from the valle}' in Germany where 
 his remains were first discovered. Similar dis- Neanderthal 
 coveries have smce been made in caves from ™^- 
 France to Hmigary and we infer that Neanderthal man 
 was a common type centuries ago in Europe. Skeletons 
 of the mammoth and woolly rhinoceros found with him seem 
 to show that he lived in the great Ice Age. There have 
 been discovered sufficient of his own bones to give a fairly 
 good description of this early man. Neanderthal man 
 was short and massive in structure and of powerful frame. 
 The thick bones show large muscle attachments and we 
 infer that he was therefore strong and muscular. He must 
 have been a thick-necked individual carrying his head 
 tilted slightly backward. The joints show that he walked 
 upright with a slight bend at the knees. Neanderthal 
 man was just becoming accustomed to a permanent 
 upright posture and walked with a shuffling gait. Such 
 was the ancestor of a large number of present European 
 peoples. 
 
28 American Social Problems 
 
 Fossil remains like those on the island of Java show a 
 more primitive type. On the other hand skeletons like 
 Early char- the Essex woman or the Galley Hill man ap- 
 acteristics. proach more and more closely our own type. 
 The massive jaws and teeth of primitive man indicate 
 that before the discovery of fire his diet must have been a 
 tough one. The large and powerful arms were adapted for 
 climbing to escape the beasts of prey. Huge digestive 
 organs were necessary since primitive man gorged himself 
 after the successful hunt because it might be a long time 
 before more food could be obtained. Tough and hardy, 
 the survivors were able to endure the pain and exposure 
 which killed ofif the weakhngs. Although possessing great 
 natural powers of observation, primitive man's reasoning 
 power was limited like that of the modern savage. He 
 was a good imitator, however, and many of his earUest 
 inventions were copied from the animal world. His in- 
 terpretation of the phenomena of nature was the simplest 
 and most direct. The running brook in which he saw his 
 own shadow or other self and the whisthng wind were to 
 him indications of the numerous spirits always hovering 
 about him for good or ill. 
 
 Achievements of the Past. — The accomplishments of 
 primitive man in the long prehistoric period are often re- 
 ferred to as social origins. They are good illustrations of 
 both mental and social evolution since they show the 
 increasing power of human intelligence and an increasing 
 degree of cooperation in group activities. 
 
 Such a strenuous environment as that in which primitive 
 man lived was fraught with constant danger and calculated 
 to stimulate the development of mentality. Man finally 
 triumphed over his fierce animal rivals by the crude inven- 
 
RtTDE WeAPOXS of PRIMITIVE ^MaN. 
 
 A Falxolithic FliQt Hatchet from Deninaik ; B Neolithic Danish Axe-Hammer, 
 drilled for handle ; C Spear-head from Denmark ; D Flint Arrow-head from CivUa 
 Nuota, Italy ; E Vsirious Flint Arrow-heads from the Swiss Lake Dwellings ; F Knife 
 with tang to fit into handle from the Swiss Lake Dwellings ; G Socketed Knife from 
 the Swiss Lake Dwellings; H Square Socketed Iron Hatchet from the Swiss Lake 
 Dwellings ; I Bronze Spear-head from the Swiss Lake Dwellings ; K Bronze Arrow- 
 beads from the Swiss Lake Dwellings; L Mode of fixing handle to a Scandinanan 
 
The Life of the Past 29 
 
 tions of his dawning intelligence. These were at first more 
 accidental than conscious, although a useful device was 
 remembered and imitated. Finding that a tree The process 
 which had fallen over a stream was an excellent of invention, 
 means of crossing, primitive man imitated in other places 
 by dragging a log in position and by this operation invented 
 the first bridge. However, the achievements of man were 
 more or less conscious as compared with those of the lower 
 animals, Hke the nest-building of birds. As we have said, 
 man relies more upon intelligence than upon instinct. 
 Again, the process of invention is accelerated and becomes 
 more conscious as the history of civilization unfolds. But 
 the great purposive inventions of to-day rest upon the 
 accidental discoveries of prehistoric times. Thus, the 
 modern steam engine would have been impossible without 
 the discovery of fire., somewhere back in the long-forgotten 
 past. The twentieth century " sky-scraper " is but the 
 latest stage in t\e evolution of housing which began long 
 ages ago when a half-naked savage built a rude shelter for 
 protection from the wind and rain. The child of to-day 
 is the heir of the ages, but primitive man had to learn 
 everything from the beginning. 
 
 Let us, then, trace a few of the most notable examples of 
 man's achievements. The earliest implements in use were 
 the club and pointed stick. The bow and arrow Examples : 
 constituted as great a discovery for primitive Took and 
 
 J J. .1 r i-T. J implements. 
 
 man as gunpowder for the men 01 the modern 
 world. Man learned to work in stone and to chip it down 
 to form a cutting edge. Thus we speak of the rough 
 stone age and of the age of polished stone which covered 
 long years of prehistoric time. It is only within a com- 
 paratively recent period that we reach the age of bronze, 
 and finally that of iron and steel. 
 
30 American Social Problems 
 
 The discovery of fire made cooking possible, for primi- 
 tive man like many savages to-day was accustomed to raw 
 Discovery food. The Fuegians, for example, of ten eat their 
 of fire. ^gj^ T^^^ ^g jjjgy ^g^jj^g them from the water. How 
 
 fire was discovered is unknown, but many legends, like 
 that of Prometheus, seek to explain its origin. It made 
 possible the campfire for the center of tribal life, and the 
 hearth-fire for family gatherings. 
 
 Primitive man slowly learned that it was poor policy 
 to kill more game than was actually necessary. By keep- 
 Domesiica- ™S some auimals alive in captivity, there was 
 lion oj created a constant source of food and man was no 
 
 longer dependent merely upon the chances of the 
 hunt. The domestication of the dog resulted probably 
 from man's desire for company and amusement. A pas- 
 toral life necessitated wandering from place to place in 
 search of new fields. Hence, for the safety of the mi- 
 gratory group, there was developed a closer organization 
 as illustrated by the patriarch Abraham of the Old Testa- 
 ment. As we pass from the hunting and fishing to the 
 pastoral stage, a higher civiUzation prevails. 
 
 Agriculture was accidentally discovered by seeds falling 
 
 upon the ground of the camping places. The agricultural 
 
 stage represents an advance over the pastoral. 
 
 Agriculture. i i ti- i m 
 
 It calls for a more settled hfe, while a given area is 
 capable of supporting a larger popiilation. This means a 
 greater degree of association, resulting in greater division 
 of labor and greater mental stimulus. Hence the thickly 
 settled river valleys of the Nile, and of the Tigris and 
 Euphrates, were the birthplaces of civilization. 
 
 Clothing did not originate so much from the feeling of 
 modesty or the need of climatic protection, as from the 
 
The Life of the Past 31 
 
 desire for personal adornment and visible distinction. At 
 first skins of animals served as a covering, but later came 
 the utilization of the native fibers of the various 
 
 ,. . .,, • 1- Clothing. 
 
 locahties. Weavmg and the art of pottery- 
 are good illustrations of woman's share in primitive culture. 
 Although speech is regarded as a purely human acquisi- 
 tion, the lower animals have certain sounds and cries 
 familiar to their fellows. The origin of human 
 speech has been explained by a number of dif- 
 ferent and fanciful theories. Whatever the origin, its 
 progress has been wonderful. The increasing ideas and 
 needs of civilization have resulted in a corresponding in- 
 crease in the vocabulary. There are some savage tribes 
 of to-day whose language embraces but a few hundred 
 words. In comparatively recent times, the device of 
 writing was invented. The first attempts are known as 
 picture writing. This was succeeded by the use of charac- 
 ters to represent words or syllables as is shown in the de- 
 velopment of Egyptian hieroglyphics. Finally, an al- 
 phabet was invented, later carried to Europe by Phoenician 
 mariners, and thence spread all over the western civilized 
 world. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. Explain the meaning of universal evolution. 
 
 2. Give its four phases. 
 
 3. Compare the worjc of Darwin with that of Spencer. 
 
 4. How did natural selection work in mental evolution ? 
 
 5. How in social evolution ? 
 
 6. What was the appearance of Neanderthal man? 
 
 7. Describe the life of primitive man. 
 
 8. What is an instinct ? 
 
 g. Name the most important human instincts. 
 
32 American Social Problems 
 
 10. Show how man's social and mental life can be traced back to 
 the lower animals. 
 
 11. Discuss the process of primitive invention. 
 
 12. Name five examples of social evolution. 
 
 13. Describe each. 
 
 14. Compare the length of prehistoric with that of historic time. 
 
 TOPICS FOR SPECIAL REPORT 
 
 1. The life and contemporaries of Herbert Spencer. 
 
 2. Geological evolution and the nebular hypothesis. 
 
 3. Some prehistoric creatures {e.g. the mastodons) and their ex- 
 tinction in the struggle for existence. 
 
 4. The fossil remains of prehistoric man in Europe. 
 
 5. Theories of the origin of language. 
 
 6. The discovery of fire and its effect upon the development of 
 civilization. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Spencer, H. "Principles of Sociology." Chapters V to \Tn. 
 
 Thomas, W. I. "Source Book of Social Origins." (Reference book 
 for any topic.) 
 
 Hayes, E. C. "Introduction to a Study of Sociology." Chapter 
 XXVII and Chapter XXVIII. 
 
 SoLLAS, W. J. "Ancient Hunters and Their IModern Representa- 
 tives." 
 
 Keith. "Ancient Races of Men." 
 
 London, Jack. "Before Adam" (fiction). 
 
 Myers. "Dawn of History." 
 
 Chapin, F. S. "Social Evolution." Chapter IH. Origin and Anti- 
 quity of Man. 
 
 Dealey, J. Q. "Sociology." Chapter II. Early Social Develop- 
 ment. Chapter III. Achievement and Civilization. 
 
CIL\PTER IV 
 
 The Past in the Pkesent 
 
 I. The burden of tradition 
 
 1. A twofold story : 
 
 a. The advantage 
 
 b. The disadvantage 
 
 2. The origin of foLkwaj's : 
 
 a. Examples 
 
 b. Some survivals 
 
 3. Varying customs : 
 
 a. Examples 
 
 b. Social heredity 
 
 4. The widening circle : 
 
 a. Through conquest 
 
 b. Through revolution 
 II. Other social forces 
 
 1. Imitation 
 
 2. Fashion 
 
 III. How the crowd acts 
 
 1. Influence of suggestion 
 
 2. Characteristics of the crowd 
 
 3. Importance of social control 
 
 The Burden .of Tradition. — Social evolution is the 
 story of how men organized into groups, that is, the story 
 of human association. We have seen two good a twofold 
 results of this process. In the first place, social ^^^'■ 
 organization was a valuable asset to society be- (age and du- 
 cause thereby the chances of obtaining food and "'^"""^se-- 
 protection were increased ; and secondly, in the compara- 
 D 33 
 
34 American Social Problems 
 
 tive safety of group life, the great achievements of pre- 
 historic times were accomphshed. Through association, 
 the invention and gain of one member of the group became 
 the common property of all. But progress was not so 
 rapid as might at first be supposed, because there is another 
 effect of association on group life not so favorable to social 
 advancement. After the process of social evolution has 
 been going on for some time, the group tends to develop 
 certain customary ways of doing things which become 
 fixed and binding upon all the individuals associated in 
 that particular group. Patriotism or loyalty to the group 
 is judged by conformity to its traditions and customs. 
 Innovations are frowned upon, further progress is hampered, 
 and the group civilization becomes either stagnant or 
 static; Even to-day, in every society, we may see both the 
 static and the dynamic forces at work. The dynamic 
 forces are those of change and look to the future, while the 
 static forces oppose change as dangerous and look back 
 to the traditional past. Thus, we speak of the radicals 
 in politics who would make constitutional changes, and of 
 the conservatives who cling to the unaltered constitution of 
 the fathers. Some nations reach a static condition at an 
 early stage of their civilization, while other nations and 
 cultures forge ahead. Western or European civilization 
 may be spoken of as dynamic in comparison with the static 
 Oriental cultures of China and India. 
 
 After long and crude experimentation, primitive man 
 arrived at a useful invention or a successful method of 
 Origin of doing a thing. The successful method was imi- 
 foikways : tated by the rest of the group and unconsciously 
 Examples. became the customary method or folkway. 
 After numerous generations, the constant repetition of 
 
The Past in tlie Present 35 
 
 this particular method made it as binding upon the group 
 as habit upon an individual. For illustration, a way of 
 buUding a canoe was hit upon by some individual and 
 followed by the rest of the group. This satisfied a social 
 want and, for a long time, no further discoveries in boat 
 building were made. That particular type of canoe be- 
 came the model for the group and other types of craft were 
 regarded with suspicion. Again, folkways often originated 
 from false inferences. An Eskimo who happened to have 
 the bone of a dog with him upon the hunt was successful 
 in his undertaking. Primitive man does not reason logi- 
 cally, but draws a conclusion by the most direct inference. 
 Hence in his mind the hunt was successfvd because the 
 hunter carried with him upon his journey the dog's bone. 
 Others imitated and the ciistom grew up and became a 
 folkway among those people. 
 
 This is comparable to the ignorant man of to-day who 
 ascribes luck to a horseshoe or to a rabbit's foot. Indeed, 
 the source of most of our modem superstition some 
 goes back to a beUef in spirits and to the folkways ™™»'*- 
 of our untutored ancestors. Hallowe'en is a night of frolic 
 and pleasure, but the origin of this holiday was the serious 
 business of appeasing the e\-il spirits according to the 
 charms and rituals prescribed in the folkways of the group. 
 If asked the reason for any particular ceremony or proce- 
 dure, the answer was: " Our fathers did this before us." 
 Fear of the displeasure of dead ancestors prevented any 
 change or innovation. The scope of folkways ranges from 
 the regulation way of making a fire to the tribal laws of 
 royal succession. Indeed, many of our laws and institutions 
 may be traced back to these tribal customs which have 
 grown up slowly and unconsciously. No study of society 
 
36 American Social Problems 
 
 would be complete without some mention of them be- 
 cause they reflect the life and thought of the group as well 
 as the influence of environment. Tradition is an important 
 and significant phase of the social or group mind as well 
 as an aspect of association. 
 
 Each group thinks its own folkways right and laughs at 
 the customs of the foreigner. We think it impolite to 
 Varying make a noise while eating, but the Indian would 
 customs : deem it a sHght to his host not to smack his Ups as 
 xampes. ^ ^j^^ ^j^^^ ^-^^ meal has been enjoyed. The 
 Christian gentleman takes off his hat in church, but the 
 Mohammedan his shoes. Our moral ideas are, strictly 
 speaking, not our own but rather those of the group in 
 which we live. We look with horror upon the Eskimos 
 who kill their aged parents, but they regard such action 
 as a serious moral duty when old and infirm people become 
 a burden to the group. We have been taught toleration 
 and sympathy, but had we lived some centuries ago, we 
 should have rejoiced at the burning of heretics and thought 
 that such sacrifices pleased God. 
 
 The atmosphere of custom into which every child is 
 born is called social heredity. It is fuUy as important 
 Social as the physical heredity of which we spoke in a 
 
 heredity. preceding chapter. The social environment en- 
 velops us as a cloud and unconsciously determines for us 
 almost everything we do from the language we speak to 
 the dress we wear. Individuality represents but a slight 
 variation of the social heredity. We take almost every- 
 thing as we find it and accept the group traditions from 
 democracy to the diimer hour. We regard other moral 
 systems as undesirable or unworthy just as their followers 
 look upon ours in the same light. Thus, the Japanese who 
 
The Past in the Present 37 
 
 place the duty of the son to the father on a higher plane 
 than his duty to his wife regard their moral codes as supe- 
 rior to our moral and rehgious S3'stems. As the child learns 
 the mother tongue, so he imbibes the customs and moral 
 ideas of the group, claiming them in time as his own. The 
 indi\'idual mind is but a part of the social mind. 
 
 Each group, as we have seen, has its own collection 
 of folkways and moral ideas which it beHeves to be the 
 best and the truest. Thus the " cake of cus- The widen- 
 tom " is hard to break. It may be done, how- "^ '^•^^ '• 
 ever, by forces from within or by forces from conquest and 
 without, — by internal revolution or by foreign resolution. 
 conquest. In other words, tradition may be broken by 
 changes in the social and physical environment. In the 
 past the method of conquest has been the more common. 
 Each group cherishes its own folkways so highly as to be 
 w illin g to fight for them. It wUl resist to the last ditch 
 the invading " barbarians " or wiU seek to spread by force 
 of arms its own civilization. Thus, Alexander the Great 
 spread Grecian civilization in the East, and the patient 
 Roman soldier carried the Latin tongue and culture from 
 the Tiber to the Thames. So, to-day, our own generation 
 witnesses the titanic struggle between the advocates of 
 Teutonic " kultur " and the proponents of Anglo Saxon 
 liberalism. Often the civilizations of invader and invaded 
 fuse and a restilting culture is imposed upon each. In- 
 ternally, revolutions are violent changes in the folkways 
 which are shattered in favor of more liberal ideas. It is 
 difl&cult, however, to force such a change. Peter the Great 
 found trouble in westernizing Russia, and the French 
 Revolution resulted in frightful carnage and vandalism. 
 By the bloody path of war and revolution, history has 
 
38 American Social Problems 
 
 progressed and modern man has become heir to the culture 
 of all ages and civilizations. Knowledge of other cultures 
 should rid him of group provincialism, while Hberal educa- 
 tion should free mankind from the bonds of superstition 
 and ignorant worship of tradition. 
 
 Other Social Forces. — We have seen how imitation 
 has worked as a conservative force to preserve the folk- 
 
 . . ways of the fathers. It may also work as a pro- 
 
 gressive force to spread inventions and new ideas 
 when once originated. The laws of imitation were first 
 studied by a Frenchman named Gabriel Tarde who was 
 puzzled by the repetition of certain crimes. Among other 
 laws he found that imitation is greater in a densely popu- 
 lated region where means of communication are good. 
 Thus, a new Parisian style of hat or a new English novel 
 may be found almost immediately in American homes. 
 News of war with Japan, however, took a long time to 
 spread throughout the thinly populated and remote parts 
 of Siberia. 
 
 Fashion represents the changing or transient aspect of 
 
 the social mind, just as folkways or custom represent its 
 
 more permanent side. Fashion does not show a 
 
 Fashion. , ... 
 
 steady progress, but rather a series of cycles. 
 Thus the short sleeve succeeds the long sleeve, and the 
 furniture of our grandfather once relegated to the attic 
 has again become fashionable. The origin of style seems 
 to He in the instinctive desire for personal adornment and 
 the wish to be distinguished from the common crowd. 
 Thus, Occidental ladies pierce their ears, and Orientals 
 their noses. Another law of imitation is that the masses 
 tend to copy after the classes. Therefore, fashions represent 
 the leisure class ideals rather than those of work and service. 
 
The Past in the Present 39 
 
 The Chinese ladies bind their feet and thereby become in- 
 capacitated for degrading physical labor. A style spreads 
 rapidly until it becomes common. Then it is abandoned 
 by its sponsors because of nvmierous imitations. It is 
 necessary for the safety of democracy to suppress the ex- 
 travagant fashions of the wealthy and to stimulate the 
 development of practical folkways and social customs 
 among the masses. 
 
 How the Crowd Acts. — Suggestion is a phase of the 
 social mind associated with imitation. It is the result of 
 one mind acting upon another. Like imitation, it influence of 
 increases with the degree of association, so that it suggestion, 
 is greater in crowds than among a few indi\-iduals. Sug- 
 gestion is the secret of hypnotism and of many supposed 
 miracles like those of the Hindoo fakirs. It is heightened 
 by abnormal states of mind, such as hysteria or the fatigue 
 brought on by continuous fasting. It is stronger where 
 there is a lack of scientific knowledge. The prophet 
 Mohammed, the dreamer of dreams, saw a vision which 
 he communicated to the ignorant and emotional Arabs 
 among whom he Hved. As the ston.^ spread, it gained 
 credence from an increasing number of believers, so that 
 Islam finally spread from Persia to the Pyrenees. Chil- 
 dren are more susceptible to suggestion - than adults and 
 the skillful teacher realizes the power and danger of this 
 device. It is the secret of hero worship and often the source 
 of power wielded by the leader over the credulous mul- 
 titude. 
 
 It is in the crowd that the power of suggestion is greatest. 
 Thus, diiring the Great Plague in London, when heaps of 
 dead bodies lay in the street accentuating the terror and 
 imagination of the crowd, heightening its power of sugges- 
 
40 American Social Problems 
 
 tion, Defoe tells us how one individual pointed to a white 
 cloud in the sky, calling it an angel and declaring that it 
 Character- ^^^ robed in white and armed with a sword. Im- 
 istics of mediately, by suggestion, the apparition spread 
 
 and all believed and were afraid. The credulity 
 of a crowd is incredible. History furnishes nimierous 
 examples, such as the preaching of Peter the Hermit, 
 when thousands followed the example of those around them 
 and shouted for the sign of the Cross. Like a contagion 
 the crusading movement spread. Another characteristic 
 of the crowd is the loss of a sense of individual responsi- 
 bility. In a mob the individual can be led on to imdreamed 
 of deeds of violence, such as the lynching or burning of 
 innocent or untried victims. The excitement and emotion- 
 alism of the crowd may be seen in war times as well as in 
 great religious revivals. The crowd feels and acts but it 
 cannot deliberate and reason. When it does so, it ceases 
 to be a crowd and becomes a deliberative assembly. The 
 crowd is unstable and cannot last. Rallying quickly aroimd 
 any one capable of temporary leadership, it will disappear 
 after the crisis as quickly as it was formed. A final charac- 
 teristic of a crowd is its fickleness. Those who sang 
 " Hosanna in the Highest " cried out a few days later 
 " Crucify Him, Crucify Him ! " 
 
 By a process of education it is necessary to build up an 
 individuality strong enough to withstand the influence of 
 Importance ^^^ crowd and the magic of its demagogue leader, 
 of social The sensational newspaper which prints the 
 
 harrowing details of crime wields a sinister 
 power of suggestion to further crime. Social control can 
 be developed only through the avoidance of sensationahsm 
 and through a constructive program of sane teaching, 
 
T}te Past in the Present 41 
 
 intellectual seK-possession, and the creation of the feeling 
 of responsibility. An inteUigent public opinion which 
 soberly discusses questions of the day is the sole hope of a 
 democracy. It represents the most advanced stage of 
 the social mind, just as the mob is the lowest form of as- 
 sociation. Social control is the collective or group mind, 
 uninfluenced by the magic of suggestion or the blindness 
 of imitation, intelligently cognizant of a course of action 
 best suited to the welfare of the group. A society, free 
 but incapable of self-control, brought about the excesses of 
 the Reign of Terror. On the other hand, a society kept 
 in order by the iron hand of autocracy has its Bastille or 
 its " Mailed Fist." The aim of social progress is the 
 development of a group capable of controlling itself in 
 peace, liberty and intelligence. This is the problem of 
 socied control. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. Give two good results of association. 
 
 2. Contrast a static and a dynamic ci\Tlization and give examples. 
 
 3. Show some static and dynamic forces at work in our own so- 
 ciety at the present time. 
 
 4. ^Miat are folkways ? 
 
 5. How do folkways arise ? 
 
 6. WTiat come out of folkways? 
 
 7. Whj' is a study of a nation's folkways important? 
 
 8. Do folkways influence your own life ?■ Explain. 
 
 9. ^^^lat is social heredity ? 
 
 10. Show its molding power upon the individual. 
 
 11. Show how the ideas of right and wrong vary with different 
 groups. 
 
 12. Is the standard of morality determined by the group? 
 
 13. Give an illustration. 
 
 14. How are local customs broken and how do new ideas spread ? 
 
42 American Social Problems 
 
 15. How are civilized man's customs superior to those of savages? 
 
 16. What do you mean by a "cake of custom"? By the "melting 
 pot " of civilization ? 
 
 17. Give some laws of imitation. 
 
 18. Contrast fashion and custom. 
 
 19. Show by illustration how fashion moves in cycles. 
 
 20. Show the danger of having our ideals and fashions set by a 
 moneyed leisure class. 
 
 21. What is the social mind? 
 
 22. Show how suggestion works. 
 
 23. Under what circumstances can it be seen to best advan- 
 tage? 
 
 24. Name the characteristics of the crowd. 
 
 25. How can the mob spirit be avoided? 
 
 26. What is social control ? 
 
 TOPICS FOR SPECIAL REPORT 
 
 1. Some present superstitions and their origins. 
 
 2. An interpretation of the curious customs of some primitive 
 people (e.g. Eskimos or Australians). 
 
 3. The attempt of the British government to civilize and suppress 
 certain barbaric local customs in its dependencies (e.g. the killing of 
 widows in India). 
 
 4. The French Revolution and its changes in manners and cus- 
 toms. 
 
 5. Tarde's "Laws of Imitation." 
 
 6. Conflicting ideas of beauty and dress in various parts of the 
 world. 
 
 7. Laws of fashion (see "Social Psychology" by Ross). 
 
 8. A personal experience illustrating the principles of mob psy- 
 chology. 
 
 9. Personal experiences illustrating the power of suggestion. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Sumner, W. G. "Folkways." Chapter I. Fundamental Notions 
 of the Folkways. Chapter II. Characteristics of the Folkways. 
 
The Past in the Present 43 
 
 Ross, E. A. "Social Psychology." Chapter II. Suggestion. Chap- 
 ter in. The Crowd. Chapter R". Mob Mind. Chapter \'. 
 Prophylactics against Mob Mind. Chapter VI. Fashion. 
 
 Chapin, F. S. "Social Evolution." Chapter VL. Social Heredity. 
 
 Ross, E. A. "Social Control." 
 
 Bagehot, W. "Physics and Politics." 
 
 Patten, S. N. " New Basis of Civilization." 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 The Influence of Environment 
 
 I. The two factors 
 
 1. Heredity 
 
 2. Environment 
 
 II. Importance of physical enviroimient 
 
 1. Influence of nature 
 
 2. Effect of natural selection 
 III. Effects of physiography 
 
 1. Resources and occupations 
 
 2. Accessibility 
 
 3. Isolation 
 
 4. Form of government 
 
 5. Other social institutions 
 
 6. Cultural and religious ideas 
 rV. CHmatic influences 
 
 1 . Temperature 
 
 2. Rainfall 
 
 3. Weather 
 
 V. Conservation of resources 
 
 1. Physical conservation 
 
 2. Industrial conservation 
 
 3. Htunan conservation 
 
 The Two Factors. — The two factors in the explanation 
 of any social problem are heredity and environment. That 
 Heredity ^^ ^° ^^y' ^^^ causes back of social phenomena 
 and environ- are Subjective, in the individual, and objective, 
 in the environment. The prisoner behind the 
 bars is there because of a bad heredity or an unfortunate 
 
 44 
 
The Influence of Environment 45 
 
 environment. Let us first more clearly define our terms. 
 We have spoken before of heredity, but have used the word 
 in two senses. In the chapter entitled " A Great Dis- 
 covery " heredity was used in its commonly accepted 
 biological sense of physical heredity, which deals with in- 
 herent physical and mental traits. In the preceding 
 chapter we spoke of social heredity, which is something 
 entirely different, since it means the social environment of 
 custom and tradition inherited from the past. The word 
 environment is also used iu two senses — physical and 
 social. The social environment refers to existing in- 
 stitutions and human surroundings. Physical environ- 
 ment means merely natural conditions of geography and 
 climate and includes, for example, a treatment of the re- 
 lation between physical configuration and human civiliza- 
 tion. It is in this sense that we use the word environment 
 in this chapter. 
 
 Importance of Physical Environment. — By the in- 
 fluence of physical environment we mean the effect of 
 nature upon man. The biologist cannot under- influence of 
 stand the desert cactus or the polar bear without "^t^^. 
 some knowledge of the peculiar environment of each. 
 Similarly, the student of society must know the tropical 
 African backgroimd of the American negro in order to 
 imderstand some of his present characteristics. We have 
 mentioned the custom among the Eskimos of killing aged 
 and infirm parents. This is the social effect of a physical 
 environment which is found in the rigorous Arctic climate 
 where it is difficult to procure a living. 
 
 Again, man is not exempt from the principle of natural 
 selection working through the environment. The Scandi- 
 navian immigrant unaccustomed to the dry sunny climate 
 
46 American Social Problems 
 
 found along the eastern coast of the United States prefers 
 the rainy Northwest which resembles his native land. On 
 Effect of ^^^ other hand, the negroes who migrate north- 
 natural ward are not adapted to such a climate and 
 
 sfilfictioii 
 
 would tend to die off in our northern states 
 were their ranks not recruited by fresh levies from the 
 South. Professor Boaz, after a series of experiments in 
 which he measured the skulls of immigrants and those of 
 their children, puts forth, perhaps without sufficient proof, 
 the theory that the effect of the new American environment 
 can be seen in a physical change in the shape of the head 
 due probably to a diet of softer food. If this be true, it is 
 very significant, for length and breadth of skull are sup- 
 posed to be the most permanent of physical characteristics. 
 Effects of Physiography. — Natural resources include 
 soil, rivers, minerals, animals and plants. The great river 
 Resources valleys of the Nile, the Euphrates and the 
 and DC- Ganges were sufficiently fertile to support a 
 
 teeming population and thus became the cradles 
 of civilization. The possession of forest lands rich in 
 timber for ship building, as well as proximity to the sea, 
 made the Phoenicians great mariners. The occupations 
 of a people are originally determined by natural environ- 
 ment. In one region men are fishermen, in another herds- 
 men, and in still another farmers. Each occupation 
 develops its own type of culture. The story of ancient 
 history is a record of the incursions of warlike herdsmen 
 upon the more peaceful and more highly civilized agri- 
 culturists of the plains below. Thus, the invasion of 
 Egypt by the Hyksos or shepherd kings lowered the civi- 
 lization of that region. In ancient Greece there came into 
 conflict the interests of the men of the shore (merchants), 
 
The Influence of Environment 47 
 
 the men of the hills (shepherds), and the men of the plains 
 (farmers). The location of a source of motive power is 
 also important. The development of steam power placed 
 the factories of England in the north where the great coal 
 fields were located. Thus the center of population was 
 gradually shifted from the south to the north. This 
 principle makes us wonder what effect the development of 
 China's resources will have upon Oriental ci\-iIization. 
 
 Rivers and bodies of water are the routes of war, of trade 
 and of ci\'ilization. The open door into central Europe 
 was through the river valley of the Danube and Accessi- 
 up these plains swept successive waves of in- ^'^^■ 
 vasion. The present race mixture in Austro-Hungary is 
 the modern result of these invasions. Down the Rhine 
 floated the civilization of the Christian monks. Later, 
 this river became the trade route for the medieval com- 
 merce of the Hanseatic cities. Palestine was the highway 
 for invading armies between Eg>-pt and Persia. Its ac- 
 cessibility caused its repeated conquest by successive 
 empires. Thus, because of fear of absorption, the people 
 of this land have clung tenacious!}^ to their national char- 
 acteristics. Another result of accessibility may be seen 
 in Greece. This small peninsula has the greatest sea- 
 coast of any country of similar size. Since no point is far 
 from the sea, the people became a maritime nation. They 
 not only had access to the earher, oriental civilizations, 
 such as the Egyptian, but were also able to spread their 
 own culture throughout the jNIediterranean world. 
 
 Rivers and seas, however, may also sers-e an opposite 
 purpose and act as barriers to invasion. Thus England 
 has often been saved from continental invasion because 
 of its insularity. Witness the Spanish Armada and the 
 
48 American Social Problems 
 
 futile attempt of Napoleon to conquer England. Mountain 
 ranges are also great barriers. The Alps have been an 
 ^ , . obstacle to invading armies from Hannibal to 
 
 Isolation. ° 
 
 Napoleon. Note how the physical map of Europe 
 frequently coincides with the political, and how often 
 mountains and rivers form the boundary lines of states. 
 The general result of geographical inaccessibihty is not 
 only to prevent the disastrous invasions of barbarian 
 peoples, but also to hinder the peaceful spread of a higher 
 civilization and of a foreign culture. In mountain-walled 
 Thibet the group culture has become stagnant because of 
 lack of intercourse with the outside world. The Scotch- 
 Irish settlers of our early American history were among 
 the most energetic and progressive of pioneers. How then 
 can we explain the present backward condition of some of 
 their descendants whom we designate as the " poor whites " 
 of the southern mountains? The solution of the problem 
 is found in the new environment. Shut in by the sur- 
 rounding mountains, they have isolated themselves from 
 the culture about them and the most primitive conditions 
 prevail. Again, the cUmate, or rather the peculiar local 
 environmental disease known as hookworm, has sapped 
 their vitality and produced a peculiar type of laziness. 
 
 The people of an inaccessible land feel little need for the 
 protection afforded by strong government. Love of liberty 
 Form of with perhaps a certain degree of lawlessness 
 government. a,QQxns, to go along with a mountain environment, 
 as illustrated by the Scotch Highlanders and Balkan pa- 
 triots. Democracy is the spirit of the mountains and 
 aristocracy that of the plains. Compare democratic 
 Switzerland's initiative and referendum with the Junker 
 party of agricultural East Prussia. Again, democracy 
 
The Influence of Environment 49 
 
 seems to be fostered by the growth of commerce. Great 
 plains may become the seats of successive empires as in 
 Asia, but a land broken up by seas or mountain develops 
 the political ideal of the city-state of the Greeks and early 
 Romans. 
 
 Other social institutions beside the state are affected by 
 geographical enviroimient. For example, certain environ- 
 ments favor pastoral life which develops a other social 
 patriarchal society. Here child-bearing is the ™stitutions. 
 great duty and polygynous marriages flourish as shown by 
 the story of Abraham in the Bible. In a rigorous and 
 barren en\-iromnent it is difficult to support many children, 
 with the result that the polyandrous family flourishes. 
 Again, let us note the history of slavery in our own country. 
 Negro slaves were to be foimd in all of the thirteen original 
 colonies. NattiraJ conditions in the North made the in- 
 stitution unprofitable and legislative abolition voiced the 
 popular feeling. In the South, however, where agriculture 
 was the leading industry and where plantation life suited 
 the local environment, slavery grew and flourished. A 
 great cbnl war was necessary to decide whether a nation 
 thus di\'ided could endure. 
 
 The national character of a people is affected by its 
 geographical environment. The awe-inspiring aspects of 
 nature in India, as revealed by the enormous cultural and 
 mountain masses of the Himalayas, the ravages religious 
 of the hurricane, of the tempest and of the 
 earthquake, as well as the fierce beasts and snakes of the 
 jungle, inspire the inhabitants of that land with a feeling 
 of fear and reverence rather than that of inquiry. Hence 
 the religious spirit of that environment is strong and tra- 
 dition is hard to break, as the British government has 
 
50 American Social Problems 
 
 found in its dealings with the natives. Greece, on the con- 
 trary, lacks the terrifying aspects of nature, and mountains 
 and lakes merely give variety, beauty and suggestion to the 
 landscape. It is difficult to imagine Athenian culture 
 growing up an3^where but in its native geographical en- 
 viroimient. The founders of the great monotheistic re- 
 ligions of the world — Zoroaster, Moses, Buddha, Christ 
 and Mohammed — belonged to the semi-tropical and 
 desert zone. Here the thinker is impressed with the one- 
 ness of nature by the vast expanse of sea and sky. On the 
 other hand, a people dwelling in a more varied environment 
 of forest, stream and hill tend toward polytheism. Trees 
 are the homes of spirits and satyrs, while streams become 
 peopled with nymphs and mermaids. 
 
 Climatic Influences. — Physical environment sets cli- 
 matic limitations to human habitation. Life in the Arctics 
 Tempera- is hard and natural selection plays havoc among 
 *"''• fur hunters and gold seekers. Until recent 
 
 times the tropics have been fatal to the white man, but a 
 scientific knowledge of the causes of disease and of methods 
 of sanitation, as illustrated in the work of the Panama 
 Canal Zone, is making possible a Caucasian conquest of 
 the tropics. At the present time, however, the temperate 
 latitudes seem most favorable to the development of an 
 advanced civilization. The heat belt, which was the seat 
 of many ancient cultures, has contributed little to human 
 advancement in the last thousand years. That civilization 
 has advanced from the south to the north, as much as from 
 the east to the west, is seen in the successive rise of empires 
 from ancient Eg3^t to modern Britain. As man has be- 
 come more civilized, he becomes more accustomed to a 
 colder and moister climate, ' 
 
The Influen<:e of Environment 51 
 
 A moderate rainfall is just as important as a temperate 
 climate. Too heavy a precipitation is favorable only to 
 tropical forest and swamp. Too sKght a rain- 
 fall means aridity and the pastoral industry is 
 the most suitable to such a region because grass is the 
 chief kind of vegetation. That population is scanty in 
 dry regions may be seen by a comparison of two maps, the 
 one showing the distribution of rainfall and the other of 
 population. Compare the popiilation of our western 
 states with that along either coast, or the population of 
 Arabia with that of India. There is an interesting ex- 
 planation of the historical movements of peoples into 
 Europe. The origroal home of the Ar\an race, having dried 
 up because of climatic changes, was no longer capable of 
 supporting so large a population. Hence the various 
 waves of migration and invasion, which swept from the 
 grass lands of western Asia into Europe. 
 
 Local and temporary climatic changes are called the 
 weather. Clear cool weather is invigorating, while damp- 
 ness and high humidity are both depressing and The 
 enervating. These effects have often been re- ^eatJier. 
 vealed by varying efficiency among employees and by the 
 conduct of school children. Dry windy weather stimu- 
 lates the nervous system and \italizes himian energy. This 
 often finds expression in increased efficiency or in greater 
 freedom of movement. The effect of the change of seasons 
 may also be seen in the records of crime. Crime against 
 property, like burglary, increases in winter, while crime 
 against person, like murder, increases in spring and summer. 
 
 Conservation of Resotirces. — In view of the tremendous 
 importance of natural resources it is evident that effective 
 measures should be taken for their proper conservation. 
 
52 American Social Problems 
 
 Of course, so far as the life of man is concerned, the 
 physiography of nature is practically unchangeable. But 
 „. . , the resources of nature found in land, water and 
 
 Physical _ ' _ 
 
 conserva- mountains are not only exhaustible, but their 
 very utilization is the source of wealth and the 
 mainspring of human development. If man is to progress 
 he must utilize the soil, the minerals and the water power 
 furnished by his natural environment. In America, the 
 Indian failed in this utilization and the white man's justi- 
 fication for his conquest of America is to be found in his 
 development of these resources. As the centuries have 
 passed, however, our forests, our minerals and our water 
 power sites have been ruthlessly appropriated by private 
 individuals. It is this exploitation of natural resources 
 that makes necessary governmental action for their con- 
 servation. Years ago European coimtries realized the 
 necessity for regulation, whereby the government could 
 control the amount of resources individually appropriated. 
 Slowly the United States is recognizing the importance of 
 this principle which seeks to socialize for the benefit of all 
 the great forest lands, the wonderful mineral resources and 
 the stupendous water power found in nature. 
 
 The principle of conservation may also be applied to 
 industry. The aim of conservation is the eh'mination of 
 trial waste. Man has not only been extravagant in 
 conserva- his Utilization of natural resources, but also 
 wasteful in industrial processes. Formerly, 
 many products of industry were cast aside as waste, but 
 now man realizes that such by-products, as they are called, 
 are capable of further utilization. In fact, the great modern 
 " trust " has often so conserved and utilized its by-products 
 as to be able to sell its main product at a price lower than 
 
The Influence of Environment 53 
 
 that placed upon it by competitors. With the growth of 
 d\Tli2atioii and an increasing cost of production, still 
 greater emphasis will be placed upon the principle of con- 
 servation in industry. To be sure, this problem is economic 
 rather than social, but it is here mentioned because of its 
 social significance in modem ci\Tlization. 
 
 Again, the principle of conserv^ation applies to human 
 life. Indeed, it is in this field that conserx^ation assumes 
 its greatest importance. " What profiteth it a Human con- 
 man, if he gain the whole world and lose his own servation. 
 soul? "" This is equally true of national life. Without 
 health and happiness, natural resources and industrial 
 wealth avaU Httle. The prime object of modem civiliza- 
 tion should be the conservation of human life. Formerly 
 men, women and children toiled incessantly under con- 
 ditions which had little regard for their health and comfort. 
 Sickness, accident and death followed in the path of in- 
 dustry without arousing the pubKc conscience. To-day, 
 however, everjrwhere we find an awakening sense of social 
 and moral obligation in the treatment of human labor. 
 
 -»o" 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. Name two factors in any sociological explanation. 
 
 2. Divide the causes of some practical social problems into the 
 hereditary and environmental. 
 
 3. In what two senses is the word " heredity" used? 
 
 4. The word " enviroimient "? 
 
 5. Show how some plants and animals are adapted to their physi- 
 cal environment. 
 
 6. Show how the natural selection of a physical environment 
 works with man and give practical illustrations. 
 
 7. Name some iUustrations, other than those used ia the text, of 
 the effect of natural resources upon the occupations and life of a people. 
 
54 American Social Problems 
 
 8. What is the effect of rivers in opening up a country? 
 
 9. Give original illustrations from American history. 
 
 10. Illustrate the effect on civilization of nearness to the sea. 
 
 11. Name in order of importance several natural barriers. 
 
 12. Name a good and a bad result of natural geographical isola- 
 tion. 
 
 13. Illustrate. 
 
 14. Name and illustrate the various ways that physical environ- 
 ment may affect the form of government. 
 
 15. The social institutions. 
 
 16. Explain the theory of the effect of natural environment upon 
 the cultural and religious ideas of a race. 
 
 17. Can you think of any objection to this theory? 
 
 18. What are the two natural elements in climate? 
 
 19. Illustrate the effects of each. 
 
 20. How do you interpret the fact that the earliest civilizations were 
 in warm countries and the modern great nations in temperate lands ? 
 
 21. How does rainfall affect density of population? 
 
 22. What theory accounts for the migrations such as led to the 
 overthrow of the Roman Empire ? 
 
 23. Illustrate from your own experience the effect of weather 
 influences. 
 
 TOPICS FOR SPECIAL REPORT 
 
 1. The fertile river valleys of the Nile and Euphrates. 
 
 2. The Rhine and Danube rivers as waterways for invasions, 
 civilization and commerce. 
 
 3. Effects of the insularity of England. 
 
 4. The Alps and the historj' of Italy. 
 
 5. The Allegheny Mountains as a barrier. 
 
 6. Climatic influences upon crime. 
 
 7. The conquest of the tropics by a knowledge of the causes of 
 their peculiar diseases such as yellow fever. 
 
 8. The sanitation campaign of the U. S. Government in Cuba and 
 Panama. 
 
The Influence of Enviromnent 55 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Chapin, F. S. "Social Evolution." Chapter V. Influences of 
 
 Physical Enviromnent. 
 H.\YES, E. C. "Introduction to a Study of Sociology." Chapter III. 
 
 Geographical Causes and their Social Effects. 
 Semple, E. "Influences of Physical Enviromnent" (large reference 
 
 book for any selected topic). 
 Thomas, W. I. " Source Book for Social Origins." Parti. 
 Dexter, E. G. "Weather Influences." 
 HTrarixGTON', E. "Pulse of Asia." 
 
 P.\TTEN, S. N. "New Basis of Civilization." Chapter I. 
 Huntington, E. " Civflization and Climate." 
 Patten, S. N. "Development of Enghsh Thought." 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 History of the Family 
 
 I. Social Institutions 
 
 1. Their meaning 
 
 2. Examples and origin 
 
 II. The family as an institution 
 
 1. Its importance 
 
 2. Its functions : 
 
 a. Primary 
 
 b. Secondary 
 
 III. Development of the family 
 
 1. Among lower animals 
 
 2. In the higher forms of Hfe 
 
 IV. Forms of the family 
 
 1. The maternal system 
 
 2. The paternal system 
 
 3. Exogamy and endogamy 
 ■4. Forms of polygamy : 
 
 a. Polyandry 
 
 b. Polygyny 
 
 5. The monogamic family 
 
 Social Institutions. — There are certain recognized forms 
 of human association which have the support and approval 
 Their oi society. These are called social institutions, 
 
 meaning. There are also other forms of association not sanc- 
 tioned by society, arising sporadically and lacking perma- 
 nency. If the individual takes part in these non-sanctioned 
 forms of association he incurs the displeasure of society 
 
 56 
 
History of the Family 57 
 
 and often becomes a social outcast. Therefore, every 
 normal member of society seeks acti^-ities and associations 
 approved by the society in which he Hves. After the 
 lapse of ages these forms of association and ways of living 
 becom,e crystallized into social institutions. It is scarcely 
 necessary to say that social institutions vary in different 
 parts of the world and in different stages of human develop- 
 ment. 
 
 Among the great social institutions of to-day are the 
 family, the state, the church, the school and industrial 
 society. The historical thread of each stretches Examples 
 far back into the dim past in a fairly continuous ^^ origin 
 story. Different ages and different peoples have molded 
 these fundamental institutions according to the particular 
 physical environment and social heredity at hand. Thus 
 the two great factors in social evolution — heredity and 
 enviromnent — he at the roots of our social institutions. 
 Our problem now is to trace the past development of these 
 t\'pical social institutions, to note the effects of physical 
 en\Tronment and social heredity, and then to study the 
 present organization and problems of each. 
 
 The Family as an Institution. — The primary and most 
 important social institution is the family. Indeed the 
 family, rather than the individual, may be called its impor- 
 the imit in society, just as the ceU in biology is '*"'^^- 
 the nucleus of all organic development. The family may be 
 regarded as a rmniature societj*. Since it contains both 
 sexes, it is capable of reproducing itself and, since it includes 
 all ages, it contains the various social relationships illus- 
 trated by the authority of the father and the obedience of 
 the children. We may call it the primary form of associa- 
 tion from which developed later institutions. Thus, the 
 
58 American Social Problems 
 
 first industrial society was the family. In savage society 
 the father goes upon the hunt, while the mother builds the 
 hut and prepares the food and makes the clothing. The 
 'family of the frontiersman of our own day is practically an 
 independent economic unit, providing for itself most of 
 the necessary articles and utensils, as well as food and 
 clothing. Again, religious hfe has centered and stUl should 
 center in the family. The patriarchal father was the 
 first high priest and the hearth-fire the seat of the earliest 
 religious devotions. The child's earhest education is 
 obtained at his mother's knee, and the institution of the 
 school continues the work already begun by the family. 
 Finally, government and the institution of the state had 
 their roots in the institution of the family. The patriarch 
 Abraham was a tribal chief and the Roman pater familias, 
 who ruled his family, was responsible to the state for the 
 conduct of the members of his household. 
 
 The primary function of the family is the biological one 
 of reproduction, the perpetuation of the human species. 
 Its func- '^^^ industrial function of the family has, for the 
 tions : most part, been lost ; for production, to-day, has 
 
 Prtmary. gone from the home into the huge factory. 
 Again, the school and the various church organizations 
 have become modern substitutes for the educational and 
 reUgious life of the family. But no social changes can 
 undermine its primary biological function — the birth of 
 offspring. The family is the social institution which 
 produces new individuals for society and cares for them 
 until maturity. Thus, the primary function of the family 
 is to transmit physical life from generation to genera- 
 tion. This function is as permanent as the human race 
 itself. 
 
History of the Family 59 
 
 There is also a secondary function of the family, namely, 
 to transmit social possessions from generation to genera- 
 tion. These may be material possessions such as seco,,dary 
 property and wealth, or the spiritual possessions f"'"^'"'"- j 
 of the race, such as the mother tongue or our ideals of 
 govermrient and rehgion. The transmission of these pos- 
 sessions we call the process of socialization. This second- 
 ary function of the family is to fit the individual for the 
 larger life of societ}'. It is to prepare for citizenship in 
 the broadest sense of the word. This duty is at present 
 in grave danger of being forgotten, unless the church and 
 the school come to the rescue of the family. For example, 
 the school must not only enlarge its curriculum to include 
 work in the social sciences, but it must also introduce 
 courses in domestic science and in vocational training in 
 order to give that preparation for later life which was for- 
 merly given in the home. The Simdaj" school has come 
 into being to give religious training to many boys and girls 
 who would never receive such instruction at home. 
 
 Development of the Family. — The lowest form of animal 
 life, £is seen in the amoeba, reproduces by simple di\'ision 
 called fission. There is no sex differentiation j^^^ 
 into male and female. Ascending the scale of lower 
 life, however, sex differences become more and 
 more apparent. In the lower forms of life, the relation 
 between the sexes is momentary and exists merely for the 
 purpose of reproduction. Xo care is given the offspring 
 and perpetuity of the species is obtained only by the re- 
 production of great numbers. This stage is well illustrated 
 by fish. Birds represent a higher stage of family de- 
 velopment. It is necessary that they care for their eggs 
 imtil they are hatched, and the pairing of male and female 
 
6o American Social Problems 
 
 lasts for a season. Mammals suckle their yoimg, who thus 
 require increasing care, while the male secures food and 
 protection. Hence the male and female often live to- 
 gether until after the birth and rearing of offspring. This 
 we call the primitive pairing system from which developed 
 the family. It may be regarded as a device of nature for 
 the preservation of offspring during the period of infancy. 
 
 As we ascend the scale of life, the period of infancy be- 
 comes longer and the family more permanent. By the 
 In the higher time we reach the higher animals and those re- 
 forms of life, sembling man, the simple pairing system of one 
 male and one female is very common. The gorilla and 
 other primates Hve in relatively permanent family groups 
 which are usually monogamous. Thus, the origin of the 
 human family may be traced back to the lower animals, 
 and monogamy began before the himian stage was reached. 
 There is a sociological theory that at one time in man's 
 early history sex relations were so confused that primitive 
 man had no fairly definite form of the family. As we have 
 seen, the evidence from the higher animals contradicts this 
 view. Again, the most primitive peoples existing to-day 
 practice monogamy and live in relatively stable family 
 groups. For these and other reasons, scientifically estab- 
 lished, we are warranted in believing that primitive man had 
 a fairly permanent and definite monogamic family which goes 
 back to the primitive pairing system of the higher animals. 
 
 Forms of the Family. — From the study of societies, 
 such as the Iroquois Indians, it has been discovered that 
 relationship was once traced through the mother, 
 maternal Property and authority descended through the 
 sys em. female line. Children took the mother's name 
 and belonged to the mother's clan. The chief transmitted 
 
History oj the Family 6i 
 
 his authority not to his own son but to his eldest sister's 
 son. This form of the family is known as the maternal 
 or metronymic system because of the importance of the 
 mother. It represents an earlier stage of the family 
 through which most societies have passed. The maternal 
 system of tracing relationship was first adopted because 
 maternal relationship was most obvious. There was no 
 doubt of the identity of the mother because of the physi- 
 ological connection between mother and child. Hence 
 some writers have claimed that, before the dawn of history, 
 there existed a period of confused family relationships. 
 As we have seen, this does not seem likely. The maternal 
 system prevailed because the relationship of mother and 
 child was most ob\-ious, while the physiological importance 
 of the father was not learned trntil afterward. Again, the 
 maternal system does not mean that women were dominant 
 politically or sociaU}., although it is true that their position 
 was higher in this form of the family than under the later 
 paternal system. 
 
 The transition to a condition where descent was traced 
 through the male line, and where the husbands and fathers 
 were supreme, was due to a nmnber of causes. The pater- 
 War led to the custom of wife captiure from other °^ system, 
 tribes. Thus we have the story of the capture of the 
 Sabine women by the early Romans. This was succeeded 
 by the more peaceful custom of ^.-ife purchase. Among 
 the Zulus, where wife purchase prevails, a woman who 
 proves childless or a poor laborer may be returned and the 
 purchase price demanded from the girl's father. In either 
 case of wife capture or wife purchase, the wife was regarded 
 as the property of her husband. A third cause of the 
 decline of the position of woman lay ia the development 
 
62 American Social Problems 
 
 of pastoral life. This necessitated a larger area and re- 
 moved the wife far from the protecting influences of her 
 original family. A good illustration of patriarchal society- 
 is found in examples taken from the Old Testament. Thus, 
 the story of Jacob illustrates wife purchase by the labor 
 of seven years for Rachel. In a patriarchal society the 
 father is a petty tyrant wielding immense power over his 
 family. Hence, in early Rome, the father had the power 
 of life and death over his sons. The progress of mankind, 
 however, has broken this authoritative form of the family 
 and has raised the position of women and children. 
 
 Exogamy is the practice which reqiiires a man to find his 
 wife in some clan other than his own. Endogamy, on the 
 Exogamy Contrary, is the practice of marrying within the 
 and group. For biological reasons, inbreeding is 
 
 often pernicious, and perhaps natural selection 
 favored the group practice of exogamy since it is the more 
 common of the two customs. Again, exogamy may have 
 arisen from the custom of wife capture from other tribes. 
 The latter method was very common at one time and 
 survivals of it exist in many marriage ceremonies. The 
 bride is carried off by her intended husband, pretending 
 to lament and struggle against her capture. 
 
 The institution of polygamy has given rise to three forms 
 of the family. Polygamy really means " much married " 
 Forms of ^^^ applies either to a plurality of wives or to a 
 polygamy : pluraHty of husbands or to a combination of both. 
 Thus, among the Hawaiians, there is a curious 
 custom known as group marriage. A small group of men, 
 usually brothers, marry several women, usually sisters. 
 Every woman in the group is wife to every man in the 
 group but family ties are kept intact and regarded as 
 
History of the Family 63 
 
 sacred within this group. Polyandry, while also rare, is 
 more common than group marriage. It is the iinion of 
 several men, usually brothers, with one woman. The best 
 illustration of this form of the family is found in the barren 
 mountain lands of Thibet. It is a device to keep down 
 population where the niggardliness of nature makes diffi- 
 cult the production of food. Another cause of polyandry 
 lies in the social custom of female infanticide or the practice 
 of killing infant girls. This reduces the proportion of 
 women and leads to this unbalanced form of the family. 
 
 PolygjTiy is the marriage of one man to several women 
 and represents the most usual deviation from the pre^ 
 vailing monogamic form of the family. This 
 
 ^. . -L ^ . . Polygyny. 
 
 practice reqmres, however, a certam economic 
 surplus. 'Primitive man could not have practiced it 
 widely because his food supply was limited. Indeed, in the 
 so-called polygynous countries of to-day, the practice of 
 ha\Tng more than one wife is confined usually to the upper 
 and richer classes. Less than five per cent of the people 
 of Turkey and Egypt are polygynous, although the Mo- 
 hammedan religion sanctions the custom. Again, the 
 numerical equality of the two sexes makes the spread of 
 polygyny on a large scale impossible, unless continuous 
 warfare decimates the male population. Wife capture and 
 purchase favored the development of polygyny, while 
 the desire for children, which is an important character- 
 istic of patriarchal society, also stimulated the development 
 of this institution. 
 
 ISIonogamy has been the prevailing form of marriage 
 in aU ages and in aU places. Its development from the 
 primitive pairing system is the story of the evolution of the 
 family. Other forms of marriage, such as polygjmy and 
 
64 American Social Problems 
 
 polyandry, are merely local or temporary deviations from 
 the usual form. In most civilized countries the monogamic 
 The mono- f^i^ity is now and has been for centuries the 
 gamic only Sanctioned form of marriage. Aside from 
 
 ^' the moral aspects of the question, there are 
 
 certain sociological reasons for its superiority. It secures 
 the better care of children, as exemplified in a lower rate of 
 infant mortality, and fulfills more completely the secondary 
 function of the family, that of socialization. The mono- 
 gamic family alone is capable of producing the higher 
 affections because it fosters altruism instead of the jealousy 
 engendered by the very nature of the polygynous family. 
 Polygyny lowers the position of woman in every locality 
 where it exists. It is no mere coincidence of history that 
 the monogamic family and a higher civilization are found 
 arising together. Each produces the other. Monogamy 
 favors the development of altruism and cooperation which, 
 in turn, is often the determining factor in the struggle for 
 existence forever taking place among nations. A soimd 
 family life generally means a sound national life. The 
 sturdy moral and military qualities of the early Romans 
 sprang from the nucleus of a healthy family life. Luxury 
 and vice in the later days of Rome imdermined the family 
 and thereby the nation. Thus, we can read the fall of an 
 empire in a rising divorce rate, in a rising rate of infant 
 mortality, and in a falling native birth rate. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. Name the social institutions. 
 
 2. What does sociology study concerning them? 
 
 3. Explain the importance of the family as the primary social 
 institution. 
 
History of tJie Family 65 
 
 4. Distinguish between the primary and secondary functions 
 
 of the f amil y 
 
 5. Explain each. 
 
 6. Trace the development of the family up through the animal 
 world. 
 
 7. Explain the maternal stage of the family. 
 
 S. Give the reasons for the transition to the paternal stage, 
 o. Give some characteristics and illustrations of patriarchal 
 society. 
 
 10. What may cause p)olyandr\' ? 
 
 11. Distinguish between polygamy and polygyny. 
 T.2. What are the causes of polygjTiy? 
 
 13. AMiat are the checks to the spread of polygyn}-? 
 
 14. Give the social advantages of monogamy. 
 
 15. Illustrate how a healthy family and national life go together. 
 
 TOPICS FOR SPECL\L REPORT 
 
 1. E^'idences of family life among birds. 
 
 2. The matriarchate of the Iroquois Indians. 
 
 3. The patriarchal f amil y of the Old Testament. 
 
 4. The powers of the Roman father. 
 
 5. The effect of polygyny upon the civilization of Mohammedan 
 countries. 
 
 6. Polyandry in Thibet. 
 
 7. ^larriage customs of the Greeks and Romans. 
 
 REFERENXES 
 
 EiiWOOD, C. A. "Sociologj- and Modern Social Problems." Chap- 
 ter IX to \TI inclusive. 
 
 Haves, E. C. "Introduction to a Study of Sociology." Chapter 
 XXIX. 
 
 BiACKMAR, F. W., and Gellix. "Outlines of Sociology." Chapter 
 ^". Organization and Life of the Family. 
 
 P.\RSONS, E. C. "The Family." (Illustrative material.) 
 
 WESTERiL-vKCK, E. "Histor>- of Human Family." (Reference.) 
 r 
 
66 American Social Problems 
 
 Howard, Geo. E. "History of Matrimonial Institutions." (Ref- 
 erence.) 
 
 Fairbanks, A. "An Introduction to Sociology." Chapter IX. 
 Family as a Social Unit. 
 
 Dealey, J. Q. "The Family in its Sociological Aspects." 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 The Development of the State 
 
 I. Nature and origin of the state 
 
 1. Definition 
 
 2. Origin: 
 
 a. Fanciful theories 
 i. The sociological view 
 n. Functions of the state 
 
 1. Primary 
 
 2. Secondary 
 
 III. Stages of development 
 
 1. The patriarchal family 
 
 2. The gens or clan 
 3- The tribe 
 
 4. The city-state 
 
 5. The nation 
 
 IV. Institutions related to the state 
 
 1 . Nature of war : 
 a. Causes 
 
 h. Results 
 
 2. Rise of slavery 
 
 3. Development of law and property 
 
 Nature and Origin of the State. — Like the family, the 
 state is another important institution of society. It is a 
 societv organized poUtically for the purpose of 
 
 ^., ,* .-,. Definitioii. 
 
 preservmg the group and of protectmg the m- 
 
 dividuals composing it. We may define the state as a 
 
 community of people inhabiting a definite area, fairly well 
 
 67 
 
68 American Social Problems 
 
 unified under some sort of government and ruled by ofi&cials 
 under a body of written law or in accordance with un- 
 written custom. Its purpose is social control for the 
 common good through cooperation. 
 
 The origin of the state is difiicult to trace because of its 
 divergent roots and because of the numerous fanciful 
 Origin: theories that obscure its early history. Almost 
 
 Fanciful cvcry people has its tradition of an ancient law- 
 giver, like the Greek Draco or the Roman Numa. 
 These wise men, if they ever really existed, did not give to 
 the people by divine inspiration a new and briUiant code 
 of laws, but merely collected and put into written form the 
 customs and traditions of many generations. Each nation 
 looks back to some mythical hero, claiming him as its 
 founder. Thus Rome had its Romulus and England its 
 Arthur. Later in history appeared the " Divine Right " 
 theory of the state, by which kingship was viewed not as a 
 political development, but as a divinely ordained institu- 
 tion. Under this view the church and the state could not 
 be easily separated. The EngHsh Stuarts claimed their 
 power from God, and in France so absolute was this type 
 of government that Louis XIV could say, " I am the state." 
 This view of the state was followed by the " Social Con- 
 tract " theory of such philosophers as Hobbes, Locke and 
 Rousseau. It was claimed by these writers that man- 
 kind originally lived in a state of nature, characterized by 
 war, confusion and individual liberty. In order to secure 
 protection, the people voluntarily surrendered this natural 
 liberty to some chief whom they selected to rule over them 
 in order that they might have peace and civil liberty. 
 
 The foregoing theories were the products of tradition, 
 or of a speculative philosophy, or of the desire to justify 
 
The Development of the State 69 
 
 despotic rule. The true origin of the institution of the 
 state is not to be found in such simple explanations. Its 
 basis lies in man's social instinct, that is in his Thesocio- 
 ioherent desire for the companionship of group ^^^"^ '»««'■ 
 life. Another factor is cooperation, which developed 
 group solidarity in the conflict with other peoples. Slowly 
 there developed from rude and simple beginnings the modern 
 state. It was a gradual development of poKtical control 
 made necessary by the attempts of men to live together 
 harmoniously within a given area. As the patriarchal 
 family expanded, there was no conscious effort to build up 
 a state. Custom developed into law and the patriarch 
 into king. War, since it required organization for suc- 
 cessful prosecution, furthered the evolution of the state. 
 The temporary leader in battle tended to become the per- 
 manent chief. Again, in times of peace, the enforcement 
 of group folkways and customs made authority necessary. 
 This authority was rather reKgious than political, but in 
 primitive society there was Httle differentiation between 
 church and state. 
 
 Functions of the State. — The primary function of the 
 state is to protect its members ia the enjoyment of their 
 rights of Hfe and property. As we have seen, Pnmaiy 
 this was one reason for its origin. When the ft™<=tions. 
 state can no longer afford protection from foreign attack, 
 it ceases to exist and confusion reigns. The fall of the 
 Roman Empire was succeeded by feudahsm and the in- 
 di^'idual looked to his nearest and most powerful lord for 
 protection. Internally, the function of the state is to pre- 
 serve the social order, that is, to protect each member of 
 society in the enjo5anent of his rights. It must hold in 
 check the imsocial individual who would iofringe upon the 
 
70 American Social Problems 
 
 privileges of others. Thus, the state is the guardian of 
 property and regulates its transfer and inheritance. It 
 seeks to define crime and also to punish it by the admin- 
 istration of justice in its courts. 
 
 With the decline of the functions of the early family, the 
 power and activity of the state have increased. The 
 Secondary modern ruler, taking the place of the patriarchal 
 functions. father, governs a great community stretching 
 over an enormous area. The function of protection ex- 
 pands into diverse forms of which our early ancestors had 
 no conception. Thus, the state now regulates trade and 
 industry, coins money, estabhshes standards of measure 
 and formulates tariffs. The regulation of transportation, 
 of the pubHc health and of sanitation has come within its 
 jurisdiction, as well as the control of education which 
 formerly rested with the church or the school. Lastly has 
 come the care of defectives and dependents for whom little 
 systematic provision was formerly inade. With the growth 
 of industry and the increase of population, the modern 
 state has become almost paternalistic. Thus the functions 
 and powers of the state have increased with the growing 
 culture of society. The ideal of citizenship is becoming 
 that of social service. 
 
 Stages of Development. — The two roots of the state 
 lie in kinship or blood-relationship and in the institution of 
 Thepatri- pnvate property. The state grew up with the 
 archai development of the idea of private property for 
 
 family. . , « , . , 
 
 the protection oi which government came mto 
 
 existence. Kinship is the other basis of the state, for the 
 
 patriarchal family expanded into the gens, the phratry, 
 
 the tribe and finally the nation. The primitive social 
 
 group or " horde," as it is sometimes called, was composed 
 
The Development of the State 71 
 
 of several family groups, the patriarchal family being much 
 larger than the modern one. The family in the modern 
 sense of the word includes merely the parents and offspring ; 
 for to-day when each son marries, he is regarded as forming 
 another family. In former da 3s. however, he did not es- 
 cape his original family jurisdiction, but merely brought 
 his wife into his father's household. The patriarchal 
 father ruled over all his sons, their wives and their sons' 
 families. The oldest surviving male was head of this large 
 patriarchal family. He was judge, high priest and ruler, 
 often possessing power of life and death over his Httle com- 
 munity. He was the custodian of the foLk:wa}'s, or un- 
 written law, and the administrator of justice and of religious 
 sacrifices. After death, he was deified by the ceremony 
 of ancestor worship. 
 
 The family expanded in numbers not only by natmal 
 increase but also by adoption or fictitious kinship. A 
 stranger might be brought into the group and. The gens 
 after going through a ceremony of initiation, "dan. 
 was regarded as a true member of the family into which 
 he had been adopted. Thus the patriarchal family ex- 
 panded into a larger group called the gens or clan. This 
 was a union of several families who possessed similar re- 
 ligious ceremonies and beliefs. The binding social tie ex- 
 panded from kinship into common religion. The heads 
 of the gentes or clans became officers of some importance. 
 By further expansion, a union of several gentes or clans 
 was caUed curia by the Romans or phratry by the Greeks. 
 The purpose now became more political than religious. 
 Covering a greater area, the new group contained the 
 germs of local government. The first Roman assembly 
 sat according to curia which have been likened to the 
 
72 American Social Problems 
 
 wards of a modern city. We can observe this process 
 
 among the Iroquois Indians who formed a federation of 
 
 six tribes. Each tribe was divided into two phratries, each 
 
 of which was subdivided into several clans named after 
 
 various animals. There were, for example, the clans of the 
 
 wolf, the bear and the turtle. 
 
 More important than either the clan or the phratry is 
 
 the larger unit called the tribe which often represents the 
 
 group as a whole. Among many peoples the 
 The tnbe. 
 
 development of the state never gets beyond the 
 
 tribal stage. The Iroquois Indians, by a federation of 
 
 tribes, were beginning to develop a nation when the white 
 
 man appeared. The chief purpose of tribal organization 
 
 is to secure cooperation in war. A capable chief or war 
 
 leader is generally chosen from the heads of the clans. In 
 
 many cases the phratry does not seem to be so important, 
 
 although the custom varies with different peoples. The 
 
 chief leads all the clans in war and in times of peace acts 
 
 as presiding ofi&cer or judge. As the group organization 
 
 perfects itself, the chief becomes king. His office tends to 
 
 become hereditary and his power despotic as long as war 
 
 continues. 
 
 The most ancient tj^e of the nation is that which we 
 
 call the city-state, so well illustrated by early Rome and by 
 
 The city- the small independent communities of ancient 
 
 state. Greece. These were often based upon tribal 
 
 units. Early Rome, for example, was made up of three 
 
 tribes, each consisting of ten curice. The early city-states 
 
 were very small, consisting merely of a single walled town 
 
 and the surrounding territory. Each was an independent 
 
 self-governing community, making war, negotiating peace, 
 
 and demanding allegiance from its citizens. 
 
The Development of tJie State 73 
 
 The early city-state expanded into the nation either by 
 the process of war or b}' the struggle of one city-state 
 against another and the incorporation of the 
 
 , . The nation. 
 
 conquered by the conquerors. An economic 
 factor in the conquest lay in the desire for booty or the 
 more modern desire for commercial expansion. The suc- 
 cessful nation became constantly larger by devourLag its 
 rivals. The field of historj- is strewn with the wrecks of 
 conquered ci^■ilizations, like those of Troy, Etruria and 
 Carthage. While the process of external expansion is go- 
 ing on, there is taking place internally the diflferentiation of 
 political organs and functions such as is found in the modern 
 state. Church and state tend to separate, while the 
 government divides itself into the executive, the legislative 
 and the judicial. Separate institutions like senate, as- 
 semblies and courts appear. The trend of development 
 is not always toward a greater degree of democracy, be- 
 cause men are often willing to Kve under a despotism which 
 protects their lives and their property. As .Aristotle has 
 pointed out, a frequent cycle of poHtical change is from 
 monarchy to aristocracy and from aristocracy to tjTanny. 
 When the rule of the tyrant becomes unbearable, the 
 tyraimy is succeeded by a democracy which, upon be- 
 coming corrupt or inefficient, gives place once more to 
 monarchy. 
 
 Institutions Related to the State. — The process of war 
 brought about the amalgamation of the state. In the 
 patriarchal days each family avenged a wrong Nature of 
 done to one of its members. In a later stage of ""• <^'"""- 
 political development, the warfare was carried on between 
 tribes. In modem times war is waged between nations or 
 between groups of nations. With the growth of the po- 
 
74 American Social Problems 
 
 litical unit, the area affected has become constantly larger. 
 War may be regarded as the group phase of the struggle 
 for existence. As population increases and presses upon 
 food supply, the group tends to expand territorially. This 
 necessity for expansion brings the group into conflict with 
 its neighbors and war results. Besides this economic factor, 
 racial antagonism and the clash of cultures or religions are 
 potent causes of war. Man's primitive instincts are easily 
 aroused, and the havoc of conflict is too apparent to need 
 mention. Many regard war to-day as an anachronism, a 
 relic of the primitive days of barbarism. The economic 
 stakes for which it is waged fade frequently into insignifi- 
 cance when compared with the loss of property involved. 
 The appalling loss of life is sometimes in vain, for unfortu- 
 nately right is not always victorious. 
 
 Nevertheless, so long as man's primitive instincts remain, 
 
 war seems to be a necessary part of the struggle for existence. 
 
 War, too, often stimulates the hardy virtues of 
 
 Results. ' . ' , ^ , , -^ . . 
 
 a decaymg people. It develops patriotism and 
 serves the purpose of moral regeneration. Another good 
 result of war has been the development of a higher degree 
 of social organization, for conflict made group solidarity 
 necessary. Government often arose around some com- 
 petent leader who led his people to victory or safety. Thus 
 the law-giver Moses led the children of Israel out of Egypt, 
 guided them during their period of war and migration, and 
 around him crystallized the slowly forming nation. The 
 dangers of war tend to make the ruler's power more auto- 
 cratic, and kingship developed in Judea after the long wars 
 with neighboring peoples. Another result of past wars 
 was the breaking of the " cake of custom " by a cross- 
 fertilization of cultures. Captive Greece conquered, by 
 
The Development of the State 75 
 
 her civilization, the victorious Romans. War resulted also 
 in the formation of social classes, for the conquerors often 
 held the conquered as slaves or as a subject class, like the 
 Helots of the Spartans. So, in England, there existed for 
 a century a great gulf between the upper class Norman 
 nobles and the lower class conquered Saxons. 
 
 Thus the institution of slavery developed mth war. The 
 lives of the conquered were spared in order that they might 
 relieve the conquerors of the burden of monot- Rise of 
 onous labor. Because of the creation of a slave ^'«^- 
 population, industry ceased to be the lot of women as was 
 the custom during the savage or himting stage. Slavery 
 disciplined many subject peoples to habits of steady work 
 and enabled the conquerors to Hve a life of leisure. 
 The cultures of Greece and Rome were products of sla^e 
 ci\'ilizations. Slavery has been common in the past and 
 has been justified by the folkways and moral standards pi 
 the group practicing it. Gradually, the lot of the slave im- 
 proved, imtil the final disappearance of this institution from 
 civilized society. 
 
 Laws, as we have seen, originated in folkways and un- 
 written customs which were later codified into legal systems 
 by able statesmen. They reflect group stand- ueyeiop- 
 ards of conduct. The rise of the state and mentofiaw 
 the progress of law are parallel developments. 
 One reason for the existence of law is the protection of the 
 indi\adual in his rights of property. Among primitive 
 peoples the only recognized private property is a personal 
 possession, such as a weapon or a bodily ornament. The 
 belongings of another are respected merely out of regard 
 for the owner or fear of him. The institution of private 
 property gradually develops as the group mind or public 
 
76 American Social Problems 
 
 opinion considers property rights as distinct from the in- 
 dividual himself. The enforcing of justice upon the thief 
 is no longer an individual matter of the aggrieved party, 
 but becomes a group function for which the state comes 
 into existence. Primitive people are generally more or less 
 communistic. Hunting grounds belong to the group and 
 not to the individual. The Australian hunter, for example, 
 regards the game he kills as belonging to others besides 
 himself, and explicit rules for its disposition are found in the 
 folkways. Individual rights are difficult for most savages 
 to understand. The growth of civilization has been marked 
 by the development of the idea of individual property 
 rights as distinct from primitive savage communism. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. Give a brief definition of the state as an institution of society. 
 
 2. What are the four elements necessary? 
 
 3. Name three theories of the state. 
 
 4. Explain each. 
 
 5. What is the basis of the state in human instinct? 
 
 6. Show the r61e of coSperation. 
 
 7. Explain the idea of evolution as apphed to the development 
 of the state. 
 
 8. What made authority necessary in times of war? 
 
 9. In peace ? 
 
 10. What is the primary function of the state ? 
 
 1 1 . When does feudalism arise ? 
 
 12. Can you give any illustrations other than medieval Europe? 
 
 13. Name some other functions of the state. 
 
 14. Show how its sphere of activity has grown. 
 
 IS- Give a description of the patriarchal famUy as a imit of gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 16. Explain the clan and the phratry. 
 
 17. What were the differences between them? 
 
The Development of the State 77 
 
 18. Give the organization of the Iroquois Indians. 
 
 19. Discuss the tribal stage of political development. 
 
 20. Define and illustrate the city-state. 
 
 21. Show the process by which nations developed from small city- 
 states. 
 
 22. Illustrate the growth of poUtical iustitutions and the develop- 
 ment of separate organs of government. 
 
 23. How does this illustrate the evolutionary principle of devel- 
 opment from the simple to the complex ? 
 
 24. Give Aristotle's cycle of government. 
 
 25. Give some good results of war. 
 
 26. ^^'hat is your opinion about its abohtion in the near future ? 
 
 27. Give two good results of slavery in the past. 
 
 28. Do you think our Southern slaveholders believed the insti- 
 tution to be just ? 
 
 29. What are the two roots of the state ? 
 
 30. Trace the development of the idea of private property. 
 
 TOPICS FOR SPECL\L REPORT 
 
 1. The city-state of the Greeks. 
 
 2. The clans of ancient Rome. 
 
 3. Aristotle's defense of slavery as typical of the ancient Greeks. 
 
 4. The social contact theory. 
 
 5. The theory of the divine right of kings. 
 
 6. Communism. 
 
 7. Condirions necessary for the abolition of war. 
 
 8. Some famous lawgivers of antiquity. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Hayes, E. C. "Introduction to a Study of Sociology." Property, 
 
 pp. 519-520; State, pp. 538-541 ; Slavery, pp. 536-538. 
 BiACKiiAR, F. W., and Gillen*. "Outlines of Sociology." Chapter 
 
 M^I. Origin and Development of the State. Chapter VIH. 
 
 Theory and Fimctions of the State. 
 Ellwood, C a. "Sociology and Modem Social Problems." War, 
 
 PP- 47-51. 
 
78 American Social Problems 
 
 Dealey, J. Q. "Sociology." Chapter VI. Development of the 
 
 State. 
 Fairbanks, A. "Introduction to Sociology." Chapter X. The 
 
 State as an Organ of Social Activity. 
 Fowler, W. W. "The City State of the Greeks and Romans." 
 Wilson, W. "The State." Chapters I and II. 
 
CHAPTER Vni 
 
 The Problem or Population 
 
 I. Growth of population 
 
 1 . Its importance 
 
 2. Its modem increase : 
 
 a. Early conditions 
 
 b. Causes of increase 
 
 3. Laws of population : 
 
 a. Theory of jMalthus 
 
 b. ]Modern opinion 
 
 4. In foreign countries 
 
 5. In the United States 
 11. Distribution of population 
 
 1. Geographical 
 
 2. Other methods : 
 
 a. Race 
 
 b. Nativity 
 
 c. Sex 
 
 d. Age 
 III. Vital statistics 
 
 1. Meaning 
 
 2. A falling birth rate : 
 
 a. In Europe 
 
 b. In .\merica 
 
 c. The causes 
 
 3. A falling death rate : 
 
 a. The reasons 
 
 b. Other influences 
 
 Growth of Population. — The problem of population is a 
 national aspect of family life. We have seen that reproduc- 
 
 79 
 
8o American Social Problems 
 
 tion or the creation of new members of society is the 
 primary function of the family, and that an increase of 
 Its population is essential to the development of the 
 
 importance. g(.g^(.g qj. national life. Other things being equal, 
 the relative importance of a group tends to rise or fall with 
 an increase or decrease in its numbers. Mass is a consider- 
 able factor in survival, a principle of highest significance 
 in times of fierce warfare. 
 
 While no reliable statistics are available, it is generally 
 believed that the population of Europe during the Middle 
 
 Ages was stationary. Conditions prevented any 
 Its modem 
 increase : Considerable growth of numbers for, while feudal 
 
 Early warfare devastated the crops, famine and pesti- 
 
 COnditionS. 1 1 t rr-n 
 
 lence swept the land. The few walled towns 
 and cities of that time were filthy, unsanitary and con- 
 gested centers, through which the Black Plague could 
 make terrible headway. In spite of the enorrrious death 
 rate, a correspondingly high birth rate kept medieval popu- 
 lation up to the limit fixed by the productivity of the land. 
 This was not great, however, for the area under cultivation 
 was small and the methods of farming crude. When the 
 Council of Clermont preached the First Crusade in 1095, one 
 argument advanced in its favor was that it offered a means 
 of escape from over population in France. Throughout the 
 Middle Ages and during modern times, until the opening 
 of the nineteenth century, population increased slowly. 
 
 During the last century, however, a remarkable increase 
 took place in the population of the civilized world. From 
 Causes of 1800 to 1900 European Russia increased in popu- 
 mcrease. lation from forty to one hundred six millions, 
 Germany from twenty-seven to fifty-six, France from 
 twenty-five to thirty-nine and Great Britain from twenty- 
 
The Problem of Population 8i 
 
 five to forty-one millions. Increase of population means 
 a surplus of births over deaths, and this surplus during 
 the nineteenth century was due to a fall in the death rate 
 rather than to a rise in the birth rate. The advance of 
 medical science and of pubHc hygiene has prolonged human 
 Ufe by cutting down the death rate. Again, during the 
 last century, the existence of a larger population was made 
 possible by improved economic conditions due to various 
 inventions and discoveries. No longer did a third of the 
 land he fallow as in the Middle Ages, but rotation of crops 
 was practiced. Increased knowledge of agriculture and 
 new inventions, such as the machine plow and the com- 
 bined harvester and reaper, multiphed many times the 
 food supply. The rise of the factory system and the 
 development of steam transportation have made luxuries 
 commonplace and famines exceptional. The civilized 
 world had passed from an economy of pain to an economy 
 of pleasure, as Professor Patten so aptly phrased it. Finally, 
 the geographical area for production has been widened. 
 The great plains of the Mississippi, of South America, of 
 South Africa and of Austraha have been developed. These 
 vast regions, originally possessed by a very sparse native 
 population, are now producing foodstuffs for the European 
 population. 
 
 From what has been said it will be seen that there is a 
 close connection between growth of population and increase 
 of food supply. Because of this relationship, 
 
 Laws of 
 
 writers have been tempted to lay down laws of population: 
 population. Thus in 1798 an Enghsh economist Theory bf 
 named Thomas Malthus published " An Essay 
 on Population." He originally contended that while food 
 supply increased only in an arithmetical progression, popu- 
 
82 American Social Problems 
 
 lation tended to increase in a geometrical ratio. This 
 theory was later modified to the mere assertion that popu- 
 lation tended to increase faster than the food supply. 
 Positive checks upon population are those factors which 
 increase the death rate. Good examples of these are war, 
 pestilence and famine. Negative or preventive checks 
 are those which decrease the birth rate, such as the higher 
 age of marriage and the development of a feeUng of re- 
 sponsibUity. Such in brief was the theory of Thomas 
 Malthus who beUeved the source of most human misery 
 lay in the tendency of population to outstrip the means 
 of subsistence. His writings were so widely read that 
 there soon grew up aroimd him a pessimistic school of 
 philosophers. Little hope was held for the future of 
 society, and war, famine and pestilence were regarded as 
 necessary evils to keep down surplus population. The 
 very century in which Malthus died disproved his melan- 
 choly theory, mentioned here merely because of its historical 
 importance. As we have seen, not only were new areas 
 of production opened, but also upon old lands intensive 
 farming was practiced. A progressive society, character- 
 ized by invention and cooperation, can set no arbitrary 
 hmit to its productivity. Again, the same century pro- 
 duced a falling birth rate which, as a negative check, makes 
 uimecessary the operation of such positive checks as war and 
 famine in the process of adjusting population to food supply. 
 It may be stated that, while the growth of population is 
 limited by food supply and general economic conditions, 
 Modern it is impossible to lay down any exact laws upon 
 opinion. ^jjg subjcct. Savagcs in the hunting and fishing 
 stage do not develop a dense population. The American 
 Indians were probably not more numerous in the days of 
 
The Problem of Population 83 
 
 Columbus than at present, but had apparently reached 
 their maximum growth of population. A whole continent 
 can support only a sparse population so long as it is used 
 as a himting ground. When the pastoral stage is reached, 
 a given area wiU support more people, but a wandering 
 life necessitates large areas inadequately developed. A 
 fairly dense population develops only when the agricultural 
 stage is reached. The fourth stage, that of commerce 
 and manufacturing, has produced a congestion in cities 
 and a density of population imparaUeled in history. 
 
 The last census found over one hundred million people 
 living under the American flag, ninety-two millions of 
 whom resided in continental United States. In point of 
 numbers China with its four hundred millions comes first. 
 Should this nation take hold of western ci\Tlization as did 
 Japan, it is destined to become a mighty factor in the 
 world of to-morrow. We have compared the populations 
 of the nations of western Europe in 1800 ^\-ith the figures 
 for 1900 and have seen the remarkable increase during 
 the past century. Let us compare the latter figures with 
 those for 1910 and see what the future may promise. 
 
 European Russia jumped from one hundred six to one 
 hundred thirty-foirr millions. Germany from fifty-six to 
 sixty-five, France from thirty-nine to thirty-nine in foreign 
 and one-half miUions, Great Britain and Ireland """tnes. 
 from forty- two to forty-five, Austria from forty-five to 
 forty-nine, Itaty from thirty-two to thirty-five, Spain 
 from eighteen and one-half to nineteen and one-half millions 
 and the United States from seventy-six to ninety-two mil- 
 Uons. Looking over the figures for Europe we notice 
 first of all that, generally speaking, there was no diminution 
 in the rapid rate of increase which marked the last century. 
 
84 American Social Problems 
 
 Of course this does not take into account the effect of the 
 World War upon present population. In the second place, 
 the rate of increase varies greatly in the different countries 
 and, if continued, this difference will greatly affect their 
 future relative importance. In spite of a high death rate, 
 Russia leads the Ust because of an enormous birth rate. 
 Thus that nation may become a still greater factor in 
 future European politics, although a high birth rate and 
 a high death rate indicate a relatively low plane of civiliza- 
 tion. France and Germany afford an interesting com- 
 parison. While Germany comes second in rate of increase, 
 France is last in the Ust, for her population is little more 
 than stationary. If the ratios for the first ten years are 
 typical of the century, the relative importance of these 
 nations will be greatly affected. A century from now, a 
 country of forty million people will be of little more im- 
 portance than Holland or Belgium is at present. 
 
 Immigration has been largely responsible for the enormous 
 increase in the population of the United States. At the time 
 In the when our independence was achieved there were 
 
 United about three million people inhabiting the thirteen 
 
 original states. Since then, in every generation 
 of thirty years, our population has doubled itself. Natu- 
 rally, the increase has been greatest in the newer states of 
 the West. The following table shcJws the result of each 
 census : 
 
 1790— 3,929,214 1850 — 23,191,876 
 
 1800— 5,308,483 1860 — 31,443,321 
 
 1810— 7,239,881 1870 — 38,558,371 
 
 1820— 9,638,453 1880 — 50,1^5,783 
 
 1830 — 12,866,020 1890 — 62,947,714 
 
 1840 — 17,069,453 1900 — 75,994,575 
 
 1910 — 91,972,266 
 
The Problem of Population 85 
 
 Distribution of Popiilation. — About one-half of the 
 world's population lives in Asia and one-quarter in Europe. 
 The remaining dry land of the globe including Geographical 
 Africa, AustraHa, North and South America •Ustni'ution. 
 contains little over a quarter of the world's total popu- 
 lation. In Europe the industrial nations of Belgium and 
 England are the most densely populated. Before the World 
 War the population of Belgi^im averaged six himdred thirt)- 
 six per square rmle. Italy and Germany came next with a 
 respective density of one hundred six and one hundred four 
 people per square kilometer. The least densely populated 
 of all Europe are Russia and Scandinavia. As compared 
 with western Europe, the United States is sparsely 
 peopled. Germany, for example, is ten times as densely 
 populated as our own country. The average density for 
 the United States as a whole is thirtj'-one per square mile, 
 var}dng from five hundred eight in Rhode Island to less 
 than one in Nevada. The center of population, however, 
 has been moving steadily westward from the older states 
 along the Atlantic seaboard. When the first census was 
 taken in 1790 this center was located near Baltimore, 
 but it has moved steadily westward through Maryland, 
 Virginia, West Virginia, Ohio and Indiana. The 1910 
 census located it near Bloomington in south central Indiana. 
 The dry climate and High altitude of our mountain states 
 of the West make a dense population improbable in that 
 region. The density of popiilation in the eastern states 
 is much greater than in the western, for the East is the 
 commercial and industrial section where nimierous large 
 cities flourish. Indeed, at present, almost haK our entire 
 population lives in cities of twenty-five himdred or more 
 inhabitants. During the last ten years our urban popu- 
 
86 American Social Problems 
 
 lation has increased three times as fast as the rural. About 
 five per cent of our entire population is within the limits 
 of greater New York City. 
 
 About nine-tenths of our population is white, while the 
 remaining one-tenth is negro, most of whom are located 
 other south of the Mason and Dixon line. There are 
 
 methods: about one-fourth of a million Indians, and about 
 ^'^'^^- one hundred fifty thousand Mongolians, chiefly 
 
 located in California. This number of Mongolians may 
 be divided fairly equally between the Chinese and the 
 Japanese. 
 
 About eighty-five per cent of our present population is 
 
 native born, the remaining fifteen per cent being foreign. 
 
 The number of those of foreign parentage is 
 
 Nativity. .... , , . • i -kt 
 
 quite high and reaches a maximum in the JNew 
 England and Middle Atlantic States of over twenty-five per 
 cent. As we shall see later, there is a great tendency of our 
 foreign-born population to become congested in the cities. 
 How nature provides for the approximate numerical 
 equality of the sexes is a problem of biology, but that such 
 is the case may be seen by examining large num- 
 bers of birth records. As men are more likely to 
 migrate than women, new countries like our own, affected 
 by immigration, will show a slight excess of males over 
 females. Older countries, affected by emigration, show a 
 slight excess of females. War tends to reduce the proportion 
 of males. In the United States there is an excess of two 
 and one-half million males over the number of females. 
 In Europe, before the World War, there was a slight excess 
 of women. 
 
 The average age in the United States as found by the 
 census of 1910 was approximately twenty-six years. The 
 
TJie Problem of Population 
 
 87 
 
 Age. 
 
 Meaning. 
 
 suffrage laws vary in the different states, but the propor- 
 tion of those over the legal age of twenty-one is slightly 
 over one-half. The proportion of males of mili- 
 tary age from eighteen to forty-five years is about 
 one-fifth the population or approximately twenty mUhons. 
 About the same proportion makes up the school population 
 of the coimtry. 
 
 Vital Statistics. — Under vital statistics are included the 
 records of births and deaths in a nation. These are 
 reckoned according to every thousand of the 
 population. Thus, a death rate of nineteen and 
 seven-tenths per cent would mean that in a given year, in 
 a given community, an average of shghtly over nineteen 
 people died out of every thousand of the population. 
 Death records are fairly accurate, but in spite of legal 
 requirements the registration of births in our country is 
 far from complete. 
 
 We have seen that the population of Europe, before the 
 World War, was increasing. This was true in spite of a 
 falling birth rate, for the death rate had also fallen so that 
 there stUl was a considerable excess of births over deaths. 
 Let us examine the birth rates of three typical nations : 
 
 Birth Rate 
 
 1871-1880 
 
 1881-1S90 
 
 1891-1900 
 
 Germany . 
 England and Wales 
 France . . . 
 
 39-1 
 35-5 
 25-4 
 
 36.8 
 23-S 
 23-9 
 
 36.1 
 30.0 
 22.1 
 
 340 
 27.6 
 20.8 
 
 The above table is evidence of a declining birth rate in 
 three leading coimtries of Europe. This fact is extremely 
 
88 American Social Problems 
 
 significant, for it seems to indicate that a high civilization 
 is characterized by a low birth rate. Again, the difference 
 A falling ^ the birth rates of Germany and France is 
 birthrate: most Striking. There are many reasons for 
 this difference, but perhaps the most important 
 is the economic. Germany in the last generation made 
 great industrial progress and became capable of supporting 
 a large population, while in France economic and social 
 conditions were not so favorable to the growth of large 
 families. For example, French law requires an equal 
 division of the father's property among the children. 
 This plan has encouraged small families among the peasants 
 so that the holdings of each son may not be too small. 
 This low birth rate has been a problem to French statesmen 
 and a scheme of taxation has even been proposed to meet 
 the situation. According to this plan, the highest tax 
 would fall upon bachelors, whereas a father. of three chil- 
 dren might be entirely exempt from taxation. 
 
 In America, a similar but not so pressing a problem 
 
 exists, for we are facing a decrease in the birth rate of our 
 
 native white stock. The average size of the 
 
 In America. , r ^^ ^ 
 
 American family has decreased from five and 
 six-tenths in 1850 to four and five-tenths in igio. Thus 
 in the last half century it has decreased by more than one 
 person. The falling birth rate is most noticeable in New 
 England, so that the very phenomenon occurring in France 
 is equally visible in Vermont and New Hampshire. This 
 decrease is most apparent when we compare our native 
 birth rate with the birth rate of our immigrants. In 1910, 
 in Massachusetts, the native birth rate was fourteen and 
 eight-tenths, while the birth rate of the foreign born was 
 forty-nine and five-tenths. The death rates of native 
 
The Problem of Population 89 
 
 born and foreign bom were sixteen and three-tenths and 
 fifteen and five-tenths respectively. Hence the native 
 stock in Massachusetts is decreasing, since the birth rate 
 is actually lower than the death rate. Among the foreign 
 immigrants, however, the surplus of births over deaths is 
 enormous. \Vhat ^"ill be the future of Puritan New Eng- 
 land if this situation continues and who ^ill inherit the 
 land of the Pilgrim fathers? In the South, however, the 
 situation is not so serious, for there the native white stock 
 is holding its own. 
 
 The most important cause of the declining birth rate 
 among our native white stock is found in the economic 
 situation. American standards of Hving have 
 
 ,..,., , The causes. 
 
 been constantly rismg, while wages have not 
 risen proportionately. This relatively lower increase in 
 wages has been attributed to the lower standards of immi- 
 grant laborers who, in their competition with native 
 laborers, force down wages. As a consequence, the Amer- 
 ican seems to be delaying the age of marriage, and the 
 result is the small family. If he wishes to give to his 
 children desired advantages, a moderate income will not 
 permit him to rear a large family. The increase in the 
 cost of liA-ing has exceeded the increase in wages and far 
 outstripped the salary of the so-called middle classes. As 
 a result, the birth rate falls rather than the standard of 
 living. Curiously enough the size of the family seems 
 to vary inversely with the extremes of income. \\Tiat 
 has been said above applies mainly to the great middle 
 class. Comparing the so-called upper and lower classes 
 of American society, based of course upon income, we find 
 that the birth rate of the " laboring class " is much higher 
 than that of the " social set." In this latter case a desire 
 
90 
 
 American Social Problems 
 
 for luxurious ease and comfort often militates against 
 large families. In addition to selfishness, there are many 
 other causes, beside the economic, which help to explain 
 the declining birth rate of native white Americans. 
 
 From the following table we may observe a falling 
 death rate in three leading European countries : 
 
 
 1875-1899 
 
 1900 
 
 1900-1909 
 
 Germany 
 
 England and Wales . . . 
 France 
 
 24.4 
 
 19-3 
 22.0 
 
 22.1 
 18.2 
 21.9 
 
 19-5 
 15-8 
 19.8 
 
 This fact of a falling death rate is also true of our own 
 country. Thus the death rate in Massachusetts was 
 A falling nineteen and three- tenths in 1890 and seventeen 
 death rate: and seven-tenths in 1900. In the same decade, 
 the death rate in the state of New York fell 
 from nineteen and six-tenths to seventeen and nine-tenths. 
 The stage of civilization attained by a people may be 
 read in the death rate of a nation, for enlightened coimtries 
 attempt to prolong human life and to lessen preventable 
 diseases. Modern medical science has done much in this 
 direction. In the last century the death rate of cities has 
 been cut in half by a knowledge of public hygiene and 
 sanitation. One by one the causes and carriers of disease 
 are being discovered and conquered. The ehmination of 
 typhoid by a more careful disposal of sewage, of yellow 
 fever by the extermination of the mosquito, and of small- 
 pox by compulsory vaccination are the triumphs of medical 
 science. The crusade against tuberculosis is still being 
 waged. However, infant mortality, although decreasing. 
 
The Problem of Population 91 
 
 is still high. Baby-saviag campaigns have resulted in 
 popular education upon this subject. Clean milk and fly- 
 less homes will accompUsh marvels. At the present time, 
 however, one-half of all infants born die before the age of 
 five years. In 1900, hx the registered area of the United 
 States, sixteen and two-tenths per cent of all children 
 born died within the first year. 
 
 \Yar is an ob\'iously important factor affecting the death 
 rate. Economic depression raises the price of food and 
 with it the death rate. Industrial accidents other 
 kill thousands annually in the United States •».^«"»<;«- 
 alone, and occupational diseases take a terrible toU. Cli- 
 mate and season are two other important factors influenc- 
 ing the death rate. In cold climates winter is often fatal, 
 while in warm lands summer brings the dreaded fever. 
 It would seem that sex and conjugal condition are also 
 factors in longevity, for apparently males are shorter 
 Kved than females and bachelors do not live as long 
 as married men. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. Why do you ttiink the population of Europe during the Middle 
 Ages was stationary? 
 
 2. Show the great increase during the nineteenth century. 
 
 3. Give reasons for it. 
 
 4. State the theory of Malthus. 
 
 5. Criticize it and show the falsity of his fears. 
 
 6. WTiat is the "law of diminishing returns"? 
 
 7. ^\Tiat relation does it bear to Malthus' theory ? 
 
 8. Show the relation between occupation and density of popu- 
 lation. 
 
 9. Compare the countries of Europe in respect to their present 
 rates of increase. 
 
92 American Social Problems 
 
 10. Show the enormous rate of increase in the population A 
 United States. 
 
 11. To what is it due ? 
 
 12. What continents are most densely populated? 
 
 13. What countries of Europe are the most and what the least 
 densely populated ? 
 
 14. What is the average density of population in the United 
 States? 
 
 15. How does it vary from East to West ? 
 
 16. How does it compare with Europe? 
 
 17. Show how the center of population has moved westward. 
 
 18. Show how our population is distributed by race ; by nativity. 
 
 19. Distribute population according to sex ; according to age. 
 
 20. What are vital statistics ? 
 
 21. Compare the birth rates in France and Germany. 
 
 22. Compare the birth rates in America of the native and the 
 foreign born. 
 
 23. What will be the result if this difference continues? 
 
 24. Give reasons for our falling native birth rate. 
 
 25. Where is it most, and where least, apparent? 
 
 26. Show the falling death rate in Europe ; in America. 
 
 27. How has the advance of medical science prolonged human life 
 and cut down the death rate ? 
 
 28. Discuss infant mortality. 
 
 29. Describe some factors that influence the death rate. 
 
 TOPICS FOR SPECIAL REPORT 
 
 1. The opening of new areas for the production of food. 
 
 2. The possibilities of scientific farming. 
 
 3. The pressure of the population of China upon its resoxirces; 
 of India. 
 
 4. The effects of the theory of INIalthus upon later writers. 
 
 5. An explanation of the alleged static population of France. 
 
 6. The rapid increase of population in Germany. 
 
 7. The possibility of further lowering the death rate in civilized 
 countries. 
 
 8. The falling of the birth rate of the native white Americans. 
 
Tftc Problem of Population 93 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Elxwood, C. a. "Sociology and MLxlern Social Problems." Chap- 
 ter IX. Growth of Population. 
 
 Wright, C, D. "Practical Sodolog>-." Chapter II. Population 
 of U. S. Chapter III. Status of the Population of U. S. 
 Chapter IV. X.uive and Foreign Born. 
 
 B.ULEY. "Modern Social Conditions." 
 
 United States Census Reports. 
 
CHAPTER IX- 
 
 The American People 
 
 I. Method of growth 
 
 1. The two ways 
 
 2. An odd theory 
 
 II. The original groups 
 
 1. The South: 
 
 a. Early settlement 
 
 b. Social Hfe 
 
 2. New England : 
 
 a. How founded 
 
 b. Compared with the South 
 
 3. Middle Colonies : 
 
 a. Their origin 
 
 b. Another element 
 
 4. Later additions : 
 
 a. French Huguenots 
 
 b. Scotch-Irish 
 
 III. National expansion 
 
 1. Territorial growth 
 
 2. Social results 
 
 3. Waves of immigration : 
 
 a. Number 
 
 b. Causes 
 
 IV. The early immigration of the nineteenth century 
 
 1. The Irish 
 
 2. The Germans 
 
 3. The Scandinavians 
 
 Method of Growth. — Increase of population may take 
 place by either of two methods. There may be a growth 
 
 94 
 
The American People 
 
 95 
 
 of the native population due to a natural surplus of births 
 over deaths. This w^as the theme of the preceding chapter. 
 A second method of increase which we are now The two 
 to investigate is bv immigration from foreign *"^- 
 lands. Both these methods have played an important 
 part in the great numerical expansion of the American 
 people. There is. moreover, a very interestiiig relation 
 between the native birth rate and the rate of foreign im- 
 migration, as win be seen bv a studv of the following table : 
 
 1^40 
 i8;o 
 i860 
 1S70 
 1880 
 1890 
 1900 
 igio 
 
 Yeas 
 
 Pek Cest of ! 
 
 Toiil ISCSEASE 
 
 Per Ci2rr by 
 
 Per Ceht bs 
 Bkih 
 
 32.67 
 35-87 
 
 4.66 
 10.04 
 II. 12 
 
 28.01 
 2583 
 24^6 
 
 22.6s 
 
 7.-0 
 
 15.38 
 
 30.08 
 
 7--9 
 
 22.79 
 
 25.50 
 -=■73 ! 
 
 10-46 
 
 5.S6 
 
 15.04 
 14.87 
 
 21.0; 
 
 11-57 
 
 9-45 
 
 This table shows that, generally speaking, as the rate of 
 foreign immigration has increased the native birth rate 
 has fallen. Hence Professor Walker argues that An odd 
 it is doubtful whether foreign immigration has *«<^- 
 actually increased the sum total of our population which 
 was increasing as rapidly before the enormous wave of 
 immigration as afterwards. Again, although the South 
 has received littie immigration since the Ci^"il War. her 
 population has increased proportionately just as rapidly 
 as the population of the North has been recruited by 
 foreign immigration. 
 
 However this may be, the volume of foreign immigra- 
 
96 American Social Problems 
 
 tion has been sufl&ciently great to play an important part 
 in our national life. We shall discuss in this chapter the 
 past story of immigration and in the following the present 
 problem confronting us. 
 
 The Original Groups. — In 1607, at Jamestown, was 
 founded the first permanent EngUsh colony in America. 
 The South ■ From the earhest times to the present, the New 
 Early World has been regarded as a land of boimdless 
 
 seuiement. possibilities. The first EngHsh colonists in Vir- 
 ginia expected to find gold and precious stones and to return 
 to the mother land with the wealth of the New World. 
 Instead, death and starvation faced them, whUe the life of 
 the new colony hrnig by a thread. The cultivation of 
 tobacco, however, gave the South a permanent industrial 
 basis. The nationaUty of the immigrants was almost 
 purely English, but of the most varied character and social 
 condition. After the execution of Charles I and the es- 
 tablishment of the Commonwealth, a number of royalist 
 families fled to Virginia rather than submit to political 
 conditions at home. The exodus of the ca\"ahers to the 
 New World is responsible for such names as Washington, 
 Marshall, Mom:oe and Madison in American history. 
 Many of the first families of the South had their roots 
 in the aristocracy of Old England. Many also were 
 sprung from the country gentry and from the middle class 
 who came to America to escape political vexation or to 
 recruit a failing fortune. The lower classes also sent their 
 quota. Indentured servants came o\'er at the rate of a 
 thousand a }'ear. Kidnappers smuggled over victims 
 snatched from the streets of London, while prisoners were 
 often gi^•cn the choice between the gallows and the New 
 World. Dr. Johnson considered Americans " a race of 
 
The American People 97 
 
 convicts " who " ought to be content \\'ith anything we 
 allow them short of hanging." This comment of an old 
 English pedant should be remcr.bered by the descendants 
 of these same Americans, not because of its inaccuracy, 
 but rather to prevent ourseh'es from falhng into a similar 
 error \^-ith regard to our own present-day immigrants. 
 
 The founding of Georgia by Oglethorpe, as an asylum 
 for debtors languishing in Enghsh prisons, should be in- 
 teresting to the student of social problems. The 
 
 ,. . .... . 1/-.1- 1 1 Social life. 
 
 cultivation of indigo m the Larolinas played 
 the same role as the cultivation of tobacco in Virgim'a. 
 Cotton did not become king in the South until after the 
 invention of the cotton gin. Slavery was introduced and, 
 as in Spanish America, it was especially suited to plantation 
 life. A broad and fertile land made agriculture the natural 
 industr}-, while large estates developed a landed aristoc- 
 racy. The home of the planter was magnificently located 
 upon a hill overlooking a river, up which came the yearly 
 ship from England to discharge its cargo of luxuries and 
 to receive its crop of tobacco. Li\'ing at a distance from 
 each other, travelers were royally entertained and South- 
 ern hospitality became justly famous. The county s}s- 
 tem of local government, instead of the township, was the 
 natural poHtical development of a widely scattered popu- 
 lation engaged in agriculture. The estabUshed church was 
 the AngUcan. 
 
 Plymouth Rock is still the shrine of tourists, for here in 
 1620 landed the Pilgrim fathers. For the sake of con- 
 science, they sailed the stormy Atlantic and en- UewEng- 
 dured the bleak shores of New England. In ^^ 
 their old home, state and church were united and founded. 
 the Anglican form of worship was obhgatory. After a 
 
gS American Social Problems 
 
 brief stay in Holland, the Pilgrims were granted the right 
 to settle in America where they could worship God as they 
 pleased. With the Restoration in 1660, the persecutions of 
 Archbishop Laud drove to the New World thousands more 
 of dissenting Puritans. In this great exodus several 
 regicides took refuge. Virginia had been the Mecca for 
 royahsts for whom, a short time before, the parliamentary 
 Commonwealth had become unsafe. New England, after 
 the restoration of the Stuart king, became the haven for 
 the adherents of the " Roundhead " party. 
 
 Like Virginia the early settlers of New England were 
 
 purely of English stock, but of very different character. 
 
 We have spoken already of the pohtical and 
 
 Compared '■ 
 
 with the religious differences between them. The cava- 
 ""' ■ lier type in the South was merry and pleasure 
 
 loving, while the New England Puritan was grave and stern. 
 Roisterers, gossips and Sabbath breakers were punished. 
 In America, to-day, the Puritan traditions of the Sabbath 
 still hnger in spite of the broadening spirit of the twentieth 
 century. The climate, the hilly nature of the land and the 
 fear of the Indians prevented agriculture from developing 
 into the plantation system. For the same reasons, the 
 township system of local government developed with its 
 school and meetinghouse. Self-government became a 
 passion with the Puritan, who fought for freedom from the 
 days of the Boston tea-party to the time of the abolition 
 movement against slavery. Puritan blood has sometimes 
 been responsible for narrowness and bigotry in our national 
 character, but it has always been willing to fight for a cause 
 that it believed to be just. 
 
 The Middle Colonies had a rather checkered career and 
 their origin, unlike that of the other two sections, was not 
 
The American People 99 
 
 purely English. Let us trace their racial heredity. The 
 Dutch were the first to settle New Amsterdam as a trad- 
 ing post with the Indians for furs. Their line Middle 
 stretched from Fort Nassau (now Gloucester, Colonies: 
 N.J.) to Fort Orange (now Albany, N.Y.). ^*^"'"«'»- 
 Long after the English occupied their territory, Dutch 
 names like Schuyler, Astor and Van Rensselaer continued 
 to appear in American life. The customs and character- 
 istics of the Knickerbockers have colored New York. The 
 Swedes settled at the mouth of the Delaware and named 
 Christiana Creek after their queen. They were absorbed 
 in turn, however, by the Dutch and English. Peimsyl- 
 vania and Maryland are two famous examples of colonies 
 founded as asylums from reHgious persecutions, by William 
 Penn for the Quakers, and by Lord Baltimore for the Roman 
 Cathohcs. Religious liberty characterized the Middle 
 Colonies. This toleration affords a good illustration of 
 the liberalizing effects of a cross fertilization of cultures. 
 
 The Swedes and the Dutch lost their colonies to the 
 English, who continued to migrate to America in large 
 numbers. A new element, however, was fovind Another 
 in a large wave of German immigration which «'«"««'• 
 began to pour into Pennsylvania about this time. Wilham 
 Penn had advertised his colony in a pamphlet directed to 
 the oppressed of all nations. This was circulated widely- 
 through the Palatinate region of Germany. There the 
 peasants had suffered greatly from the horrors of the 
 Thirty Years' War and in the wars with Louis XIV of 
 France. Many dissenting Protestant sects, like the Dun- 
 kards and the Mennonites, sought liberty in the New World. 
 So vast was this alien tide that it was feared the EngUsh 
 would be outnumbered by the German population which 
 
lOo American Social Problems 
 
 settled the rich agricultural valleys of Pennsylvania. 
 Among the great men of this group we may mention 
 Pastorius, the German Quaker, who settled Germantown, 
 Rittenhouse, the mathematician, and the patriot Muhlen- 
 burg. 
 
 Louis XIV of France revoked the Edict of Nantes which 
 had granted toleration to the Protestant Huguenots. Under 
 Later addi- P^™ of Conformity or persecution this enterpris- 
 tions: jng and industrial class of French citizens fled to 
 
 ugiieno s. jjQiia^jj(j^ England and America. New Rochelle, 
 named after the old Huguenot stronghold in France, was 
 founded near New York. South Carolina also had a 
 sprinkling of this immigration which furnished such names 
 in American history as Paul Revere and John Jay. 
 
 Among the most aggressive of our early settlers were 
 the Scotch-Irish. They were the Protestant Scotch, 
 The Scotch- mostly Presbyterians, who had settled northern 
 insh. Ireland in the days of James I. Through them 
 
 Ulster became a great industrial center, but the growing 
 linen industry was deliberately killed by an act of the 
 English parliament. Again, conformity to the established 
 AngUcan church was necessary to the enjoyment of many 
 rights of citizenship. Therefore, at the beginning of the 
 eighteenth century, a great wave of Scotch-Irish migra- 
 tion to America took place. As the seacoast was already 
 occupied, they settled along the frontier marked by the 
 Allegheny Mountains. Their line stretched from New 
 Hampshire and Vermont, through central Pennsylvania 
 west of the German settlement, and down through the 
 Shenandoah Valley into Virginia and the Carolinas. The 
 Scotch-Irish were of that pioneer type who cleared the 
 forests and fought back the Indians. They won the West 
 
The American People loi 
 
 for a later generation and have kept alive ideals of democ- 
 racy. To this group belong many illustrious statesmen and 
 generals, like Patrick Henry, Andrew Jackson and General 
 Grant. 
 
 National Expansion. — Such were the people who settled 
 the thirteen original states and such was the racial heredity 
 of the 5'^oung nation. At the time when independ- Territorial 
 ence was achieved only the seacoast back to the s^"''*- 
 mountains was occupied. The movement of population 
 across the Appalachians was just begiiming. In Jefferson's 
 administration was acquired the great Louisiana Purchase 
 which moved our western limits from the Mississippi 
 River to the Rocky Movmtains. Land could be had for 
 the settling and a long train of prairie schooners swept 
 westward. The later discovery of gold in our new posses- 
 sion of California was an additional attraction. Canals, 
 pubKc roads and steam transportation opened up this 
 vast region. The divergent elements in our colonial 
 stock first began to amalgamate in this western melting 
 pot of races. 
 
 The development of the American people illustrates 
 two results of migration as a factor in social evolution. 
 First of all, immigration acts as a selective pro- sodai 
 cess because it picks out of a foreign population "^^suits. 
 the stronger, the more restless and the more energetic 
 elements. They are the pioneers who brave the dangers 
 of travel across the sea and the unknown fate of a strange 
 land. Another result of immigration is the intermingling 
 of peoples. The crossing of nationalities in America has 
 been well-nigh universal, so that pure strains of racial 
 blood are comparatively rare. Cultures have mingled 
 as well as blood. The " cake of custom " having been 
 
I02 American Social Problems 
 
 broken, the new land became heir to the culture of numerous 
 civilizations out of which America is now molding its own. 
 
 At the same time that our national domain was expand- 
 ing westward, waves of migration were coming to America 
 „ . from Europe. As water seeks its level, so popu- 
 
 Wavesof ^ , j 
 
 immigra- lation moves from dense to sparsely settled 
 *'°°' regions. The coimtries principally contributing 
 
 Number. • j 
 
 to our early unmigration were Great Bntam and 
 Ireland, Germany and Scandinavia. Between 1820, the 
 first year for which we have statistics, and the present 
 time, over thirty million immigrants have come to America. 
 Half of this ntunber has arrived since 1890, which date marks 
 the beginning of immigration on a large scale. The 
 sources of immigration have steadily shifted from northern 
 Europe to the Mediterranean lands. For this reason we 
 speak of the early, and of the later, immigration of the 
 nineteenth century. 
 
 In 1820 the nmnber of immigrants was eight thousand. 
 This group increased slowly, not passing the one hundred 
 
 thousand mark until the forties were reached. 
 
 Cduses, 
 
 Two significant dates are 1846 and 1848. The 
 former marked the failure of the potato crop in Ireland, 
 while the latter ushered in the political revolutions of 
 Central Europe. Both events sent large numbers of 
 immigrants to America, but the increase of numbers was 
 checked by the outbreak of the Civil War. In the seventies 
 the numbers rose again, growing still larger in the eighties. 
 The proportion declined, however, during the nineties. 
 With the opening of the twentieth century and up until 
 the outbreak of the World War, immigration to the United 
 States assumed enormous proportions, passing the mark 
 of one million annually. It is interesting to note how the 
 
The American People 103 
 
 fluctuations in immigration have corresponded to economic 
 conditions in the United States. The curve of migration 
 corresponds almost exactly with the rise and f aU of national 
 prosperity in this country. 
 
 The Early Immigration of the Nineteenth Centixry. — 
 Because our institutions are modeled largely upon those 
 of Great Britain, American history has its 
 beginnings in England. Her contribution to 
 the early colonists was ntunerically the greatest, — English, 
 Scotch and Welsh immigration to this coimtry continuing 
 long after the war for independence. Ireland, however, 
 has occupied a unique position in American history. From 
 1820 to 1850 the Irish made up two-fifths, and, during the 
 fifties, one-third, of our total immigration. The popula- 
 tion of the island was reduced one-half by famine and emi- 
 gration. There are probably now more Irish in America 
 than in Ireland itself, and the people have decidedly 
 colored our national character. At first the Irish immigrant 
 was received into the " pick and shovel caste," but he has 
 risen rapidly from the ranks of unskilled labor to positions 
 of honor and trust in the community. Many Americans 
 prominent in public life are of Irish descent, for they have 
 shown rare capacity in executive positions. Many, how- 
 ever, have not advanced because the Irish-American, as 
 compared with the German-American, seems to fall into 
 extremes of conduct. 
 
 The German-American element in our population is of 
 equal importance. Over five millions of Germans have 
 come to this country during the last century. The 
 At first, as we have seen, this migration was due Gennans. 
 to religious oppression, but later it was the result of po- 
 litical oppression. As compared with the Irish, this group 
 
I04 American Social Problems 
 
 of immigrants was steady, thrifty and provident. Be- 
 cause of different language and customs, the German 
 element in this country has been more difficult to assimi- 
 late than the Irish. Germans tend to settle in communities 
 like those in Pennsylvania, Missouri, Illinois and Wisconsin. 
 They have become skilled artisans, small tradesmen and 
 have also attached themselves to the soil. The Irish have 
 been fond of competitive sports and athletic games, but 
 the German-American has found interest in gymnastic 
 societies, festivals and choruses requiring cooperation 
 rather than competition. The Irish policeman and the 
 German band are typical of opposing racial characteristics. 
 At the present time there are probably over a million 
 people in the United States who were born in Norway, 
 The Scan- Sweden or Denmark. Norway has given to us 
 dinavians. g^ greater percentage of her people than any other 
 country except Ireland. The home of the Scandinavian 
 immigrant has been the Northwest, including the states of 
 Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, North and South Dakota 
 and Iowa. The Irish immigrants were almost entirely 
 Catholic, but the Scandinavians were Protestant. This 
 group has recruited the rural farming population of our 
 country and has also played an important part in the lum- 
 bering and transportation industries. In point of literacy 
 this group leads. Like the German and the Irish migra- 
 tion, the Scandinavian immigration to this country has 
 about ceased. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. In what two ways may population increase? 
 
 2. What is the relation between them? 
 
 3. Explain Professor Walker's theory. 
 
Tlie American People 105 
 
 4. Describe the character of the ^'i^giIlia settlers. 
 
 5. Compare the Xew Englanders with them. 
 
 6. Compare the different institutions of the two regions. 
 
 7. What alien peoples settled in the Middle Colonies? 
 S. Give some of their characteristics. 
 
 9. What was the effect of this mixture of races and creeds? 
 
 10. Give the motive and character of the Huguenot settlers. 
 
 11. Of the Scotch-Irish. 
 
 12. Where did these people settle ? 
 
 13. State the ancestry of some famous American^. 
 
 14. What was the effect upon immigration of the territorial ex- 
 pansion of our young narion ? 
 
 15. Give two effects of migration upon social evolution. 
 
 16. Trace the rise and fall of immigration and show its relation 
 to conditions in Europe and in the United States. 
 
 17. From what countries did the early immigration of the nine- 
 teenth centur>- come ? 
 
 iS. Make a list of the various causes. 
 
 19. Give the number and characteristics of the Irish immigra- 
 rion. 
 
 20. Of the German immigrarion. 
 
 21. Of the Scandinavian immigration. 
 
 TOPICS FOR SPECL\L REPORT 
 
 1. The historical background in England for the settlement of 
 \'irginia and of Xew England. 
 
 2. Geographical environment as an explanation for differences 
 in the institutions of Xew England and the Southern colonies. 
 
 3. The contributions of non-English nationalities to the life and 
 customs of the Middle Colonies. 
 
 4. The r61e of religious persecution in the settiement of 
 America. 
 
 5. The Scotch-Irish pioneer in American history-. 
 
 6. German immigration to this country. 
 
 7. The effects of the potato famine in Ireland. 
 
 8. The revolutions of 1S48 in continental Europe as affecting 
 emigration. 
 
iq6 American Social Problems 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Thwaites, R. G. " The Colonies." 
 Ross, E. A. "Old World in the New." Chapters I to IV. 
 Warne, F. J. "Immigrant Invasion." Chapter IV. 
 Commons, J. R. "Races and Immigrants in America." Chapter II. 
 Ellwood, C. a. "Sociology and Modem Social Problems." Chap- 
 ter X. Irmnigration Problems. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 The Problem of Immigration 
 
 I. Present sources 
 
 1. The change 
 
 2. The ItaUans 
 
 3. The Slavs 
 
 4. The Russian Jews 
 
 5. Other groups 
 
 II. Distribution of immigration 
 
 1. Geographical 
 
 2. Industrial 
 
 III. Effects of immigration 
 
 1. Economic effect 
 
 2. Social effect 
 
 3. Political effect 
 
 4. Illiteracy 
 
 5. Poverty and crime 
 
 6. Other social effects 
 rV. Asiatic immigration 
 
 1. Its history 
 
 2. Its problems 
 
 V. Restrictions upon immigration 
 
 1. The usual restrictions 
 
 2. The proposed remedy 
 
 Present Sources. — In the last two decades of the 
 nineteenth century a remarkable change began to take 
 place in the character of American immigration. 
 
 . The change. 
 
 Previously the supply had been drawn from 
 northern Europe in the Teutonic and Celtic countries 
 
 107 
 
io8 American Social Problems 
 
 of Scandinavia, Germany, Great Britain and Ireland. 
 Now the source of supply began to shift to the south- 
 east, including the countries of Italy, Austro-Hungary 
 and Russia. This change is easily perceived by a study 
 of the following table, which gives the percentage of immi- 
 gration for six groups : 
 
 1882 1907 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland . . . 22.8% 8.8% 
 
 Germany 3i-7% 2.9% 
 
 Scandinavia 13.3% 3.9% 
 
 Total 67.8% 15.6% 
 
 Italy 4.1% 22.2% 
 
 Austro-Hungary 3.7% 26.3% 
 
 Russia 2.7% 2o.i% 
 
 Total 10.5% 68.6% 
 
 This table shows that, during recent times, the percent- 
 ages of immigration from the countries of northern and 
 southern Europe have been practically reversed. The 
 change in the character of the immigration is likewise sig- 
 nificant. A Hne drawn diagonally across Europe from 
 northeast to southwest separates two distinct civilizations. 
 The northern area (except France, from which we receive 
 few immigrants, and Ireland) is Protestant and, generally 
 speaking, has been accustomed to some degree of political 
 freedom. The southern area is Cathohc in religion and, 
 as yet, not altogether accustomed to free institutions. 
 Such a geographical line would also separate literacy 
 from illiteracy, and the intelligent artisan and farmer 
 from a backward peasantry scarcely removed from serf- 
 dom. Finally, it would separate the Teutonic races from 
 the Latin and the Slav. The European type north of 
 this imaginary line is similar to our colonial stock and is 
 
The Problem of Immigration 109 
 
 capable of adjusting itself to American institutions. The 
 races to the southeast, however, present a more difficult 
 problem of amalgamation. Whereas ia earlier times the 
 immigrants to America often sought a refuge from re- 
 ligious and political persecution, the cause of the more 
 recent immigration is largely economic. 
 
 Before the World War, Italy was sending to our shores 
 between one-quarter and one-half million immigrants 
 
 aimually. The reason for this Italian immigra- 
 
 . . , . , . , . , , The Italians. 
 
 tion is entirely economic, for m the native land 
 living has become precarious. The rich resources of 
 America caU the ItaHan from his impoverished and over- 
 populated land. The Italian immigration has settled 
 largely in the North Atlantic states, showing a great 
 tendency to congest in cities. Often an entire village 
 has been transplanted to one street in the ghetto of a 
 great city. Only one-fifth of the immigrants are women, 
 and the absence of family ties encourages a migratory 
 nfe. Hence many shift from place to place, borne along 
 with the tide of a fluctuating labor market. After ac- 
 quiring a little of the new world's wealth, they often seek 
 to return to their native Italian village. A distinction, 
 however, should be made between the North and the 
 South Italian stocks which are fundamentally different. 
 The racial distinction may be read in physical character- 
 istics, while traits of character are also divergent. The 
 better class of north Italian stock often seeks Argentina 
 and other South American lands, where it becomes an 
 important factor in industrial enterprises. The occupa- 
 tions of the Italian in America include construction work, 
 trading and farming, as well as many forms of imskilled 
 labor. 
 
no American Social Problems 
 
 At the present time there are nearly two million Slavs 
 in the United States, half of whom are Poles. So great 
 „ „. is the number of the various Slavic groups that 
 
 The Slavs. b i- 
 
 their European habitat is a Babel of tongues 
 and a mass of confusion. In numerical proportion we 
 find, after the Poles, the following groups, — Bohemians, 
 Moravians, Slovaks from the Carpathian Moimtains, 
 Slovenes from the head of the Adriatic, Croatians, Dalma- 
 tions, Russians (exclusive of the Hebrews), Bulgarians, 
 Servians, Montenegrins, Slavonians, Ruthenians, Lithu- 
 anians and Letts. Three-fourths of these immigrants 
 are males and their illiteracy is extremely high. The 
 Slavs belong almost entirely to the class* of unskilled 
 labor which finds occupation in the mines and in the 
 great manufacturing industries where brawn, not brain, 
 is essential. They have settled mainly in the mining 
 and industrial region which has its central point in western 
 Pennsylvania. An exception is found in the case of Poles 
 and Bohemians who settle upon farms. The Slavs are 
 remarkable for their fecundity. Large families and a high 
 birth rate are the rule. They are slow in assimilation 
 and many of their different groups seek to found in the 
 new world a nationalism impossible of attainment in the 
 old. The future of Slav immigration is of vital importance, 
 for immigration has scarcely touched the millions of Slavs 
 in Russia. If we except Poland, the latter country has 
 sent us only her Hebrew element. 
 
 At the present time there are over two million Hebrew 
 immigrants in America, so that one-fifth of all the Jews 
 Russian in the world reside in the United States. 
 Jews. America is, indeed, the " Promised Land." As 
 
 compared with other groups, the Hebrew seeks to bring 
 
The Problem of Immigration iii 
 
 over his entire family and to make America his permanent 
 home. The Jews have settled almost entirely in the 
 cities, preferring commerce and trading to manual labor. 
 Garment and cigar making are more attractive to them 
 than ordinary unskilled labor. The sweat shop industries 
 are good examples of the exploitation of the Jewish immi- 
 grant. There are comparatively few Jews in prison or in 
 the almshouses. Intellectually, they rank higher than 
 other immigrants, as may be readily seen by the records 
 of school children in foreign districts. Out of the six 
 million Jews in the Russian pale, nearly two million have 
 been forced to America by the iire of persecution. A 
 background of centuries of race prejudice has so cemented 
 this group that rehgious and other traditions prevent 
 their quick absorption into American civilization. How- 
 ever, they do assume outward American characteristics 
 and the rise of the Hebrew in wealth and social position 
 is marvelous. 
 
 The attempted Russification of Finland has driven thou- 
 sands of these people to America. Like the Swedes, the 
 Finns have become farmers in our great North- other 
 west. The Magyars or Hungarians are partly sto\yps. 
 Mongul in blood and descended from the Asiatic invaders 
 who settled in the plains of the Danube River. There 
 are a quarter of a miUion of these Htmgarians in our land 
 and, like the Slavs, they may be found in the mining and 
 industrial regions of America. Many return to Europe 
 with their American earnings, leaving behind, not infre- 
 quently, an undesirable record. During the last fifteen 
 years, about one hundred and fifty thousand Greeks have 
 come to us from the land of Homer. Among this people, 
 as well as the Italians, the padrone system of labor flourishes. 
 
112 
 
 American Social Problems 
 
 Many boys live under a master, by whom and for whose 
 benefit their labor is exploited. From Asiatic Turkey 
 come not only the Turks, but also the Armenians and 
 Syrians, who peddle anything from oHve oil to costly rugs. 
 These people are subject to rigid immigration inspection, 
 for the disease of trachoma or granulated eyelid is common 
 among them. 
 
 Distribution of Immigration. — We have seen the 
 tendency of immigrants to congest into groups and have 
 Geograph- noted the favored spot of each national group, 
 icai. -pj^g figures for 1907 showed that sixty-five per 
 
 cent of those who came that year settled in the North 
 Atlantic states, twenty-three per cent in the North Central 
 states, but only four and one-half per cent in the South, 
 and six per cent in the West. From the following table, 
 compiled from the census of 1910, we may observe the 
 percentage of foreign population in certain typical states : 
 
 State 
 
 Percentage oe 
 
 State 
 
 Percentage of 
 
 Foreign Born 
 
 Foreign Parentage 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 32.8 
 
 Minnesota . . 
 
 71-5 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 31.2 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 70.6 
 
 New York 
 
 29.9 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 68.7 
 
 Connecticut . 
 
 29s 
 
 Wisconsin . . 
 
 66.8 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 27.1 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 66.0 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 26.2 
 
 Connecticut . 
 
 63.1 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 2S-9 
 
 New York 
 
 63.0 
 
 The seven states on the left show that over a quarter 
 of their population has been born in foreign lands. In 
 addition to this fact, the seven states on the right show 
 that two- thirds of their population are of foreign parentage. 
 
The Problem of Immigration 
 
 "3 
 
 This table indicates not only the size of the foreign ele- 
 ment in our population, but also the fact that it is largely 
 located in our North Atlantic and Middle states in the 
 East, and in the North Central states of the \^'est. 
 
 The congestion of foreign inunigration in urban centers 
 may be shown by a similar table (also taken from the 1910 
 census) for five leading American cities : 
 
 City 
 
 Percentage oe 
 Foreign Born 
 
 Percentage of 
 Foreign Parentage 
 
 New York 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 St. Louis 
 
 Boston 
 
 40.4 
 
 35-7 
 24.7 
 
 18.3 
 3S-9 
 
 78.6 
 
 77-S 
 56.8 
 54-2 
 
 74.2 
 
 We have already seen the characteristic industries of 
 
 the different nationaUties of our immigrant population. 
 
 As a general conclusion, it is safe to say that 
 
 ^ ' . . / Industrial, 
 
 four-fifths of our recent immi grants belong to 
 
 the group known as unskilled labor. The important 
 industries in which they are engaged are mining, con- 
 struction work, transportation and domestic service. 
 Agriculture does not play an important part in the life 
 of the immigrant. 
 
 Effects of Inunigration. — The economic effect of immi- 
 gration is well illustrated by the attitude of organized 
 labor upon the question of unrestricted immigra- Economic 
 tion. Organized labor asserts, mth much truth, **^'^*- 
 that immigrant labor has lowered wages by its willingness 
 to submit to a lower standard of living than that accepted 
 by the American workman. Therefore, just as the Amer- 
 
114 American Social Problems 
 
 ican manufacturer is protected, so should American labor 
 be safe-guarded, in order that the higher standards of 
 living of American workmen may not be lowered by the 
 low wage of immigrant labor. On the other hand, there 
 may be an economic need for unskilled immigrant labor 
 to perform the work spurned by American labor. Hence 
 there seems to be a real place for immigrant labor in the 
 United States. For example, great construction enter- 
 prises are carried on by gangs of immigrants, who toil in 
 our mines and foundries to make America an industrial 
 leader. Instead of going upon the farm, colonies of for- 
 eigners settle around great industrial centers. As a re- 
 sult, the exploitation of the immigrant has been great. 
 He is thrown into the maelstrom of industry, with its long 
 hours of work, dangerous trades and unhealthy working 
 conditions. This problem we shall meet again, but it is 
 most acute among the ignorant immigrant classes. If 
 the American worker has been displaced by his lower 
 waged rival, he has more often been hfted into the higher 
 plane of skilled industries. He has left, rather than been 
 forced out of, the ranks of unskilled labor. 
 
 The recent immigrants from southern Europe are racially 
 different from native Americans and from the earlier 
 Social representatives of northern Europe, who were 
 
 effect. close to US in blood and civilization. Conse- 
 
 quently, they are more difficult to assimilate. Of course, 
 America is the " melting pot " of nations, where there is 
 brewing a national character whose exact nature is difficult 
 to foretell. Whether the new mixture will be sociologically 
 inferior or superior to the old, it is impossible to predict. 
 Only its future development in the new environment can 
 answer that question. The public schools are doing the 
 
The Problem of Immigration 115 
 
 wonderful work of ^Americanizing the children of the 
 immigrants, and the rapidity of the process among the 
 second generation is remarkable. Community centers 
 and night schools are solving the more difficult problem 
 among the older immigrants, who seek to learn at least 
 the rudiments of our language. The homes in the con- 
 gested immigrant section are frequently unhealthy and 
 the position of woman is often unfortunate. More than 
 anything else do we fear the lowering of American ideals 
 and standards of Hving. 
 
 The poKtical effect of immigration may be seen es- 
 pecially in the conduct of municipal govermnent in the 
 United States. Massing in large groups in our Political 
 great industrial centers, immigrants have come ^^'^■ 
 to wield poUtical power. Often the " declaration of in- 
 tention " to become citizens of the United States has 
 been sufl&cient qualification for voting in mmiicipal elec- 
 tions. Consequently, the pohtical " boss " has ralHed 
 around him the foreign vote of our large cities in exchange 
 for favors and rewards of various kinds and descriptions. 
 If America is to have clean and efl&cient municipal gov- 
 ernment, our cities must be purged of this form of poUtical 
 bribery. Recently, it was feared that the foreign vote 
 and influence might play an insidious part in national 
 poUtics and in international pohcies. However, this fear 
 of the so-called " hyphenated " American seems to be 
 groimdless. 
 
 A large amount of the illiteracy in the United States is 
 due, partly to the negro in the South, and partly to the 
 immigrant in the North. In igio over five and 
 
 .„. lUiteracy. 
 
 a half millions m our country were ilhterate. 
 
 The number of illiterates among the foreign born was 
 
ii6 American Social Problems 
 
 about equal to that among the native born, in spite of 
 the fact that the foreign born comprised only a minority 
 of our total population. In Massachusetts, the percentage 
 of illiteracy for the native population was five-tenths per 
 cent, and for the foreign born twelve and seven-tenths per 
 cent. 
 
 A special prison census taken some years ago showed 
 that twenty-three and seven-tenths per cent of the male 
 Poverty white prisoners in the United States were foreign 
 and crane, bom, while for the same year twenty-three per 
 cent of the total male white population over the age of 
 fifteen years were foreign born. Hence, our immigrants do 
 not seem to show an undue proportion of crime. The 
 South Italian group, however, has an unenviable police 
 record and shows a high proportion of serious crime. 
 The children of immigrants also show a remarkable tend- 
 ency toward crime. This is due more to the bad social 
 environment of the city slums in which they are reared 
 than to a criminal tendency in their racial heredity. In 
 the matter of poverty and dependency, the immigrants also 
 have an undesirable record. The number of foreign born 
 in our almshouses is greater than the number of native- 
 born whites, although this group constitutes less than 
 one-fifth of the total white population. More stringent 
 laws regarding immigration will imdoubtedly cut down 
 this excessive proportion of dependency among the foreign 
 born. 
 
 Among the recent immigrants, there are about three 
 times as many men as women. This has affected the 
 other social proportion of sexes in the United States and has 
 effects. produced a slight excess of males in our total 
 
 population. A numerical disproportion of the sexes is 
 
The Problem of Immigration 117 
 
 undesirable. Again, the social evil of vice and immorality 
 has been accentuated by immigration. Inspectors must 
 keep a vigilant watch to prevent the importation and 
 exploitation of women for immoral purposes. Another 
 social effect of immigration is the tendency to keep down 
 the native birth rate. In America, the birth rate of the 
 foreign immigrant is much higher than that of the native 
 white stock. 
 
 Asiatic Immigration. — European immigration has come 
 to this country by way of the Atlantic and at first settled 
 largely in our eastern section. A smaller Asiatic 
 
 Its history. 
 
 unmigration has crossed the Pacific and settled 
 along our western coast, principally in the state of Cali- 
 fornia. The immigration of the Chinese began with the 
 discovery of gold in 1849. They later crossed in such 
 large numbers that Congress in 1882 passed a Chinese 
 Exclusion Act. This deliberately and completely forbade 
 the entrance of Chinese of the laboring class into this 
 country. The proportion of Chinese has therefore de- 
 clined until, at present, there are only about seventy-two 
 thousand in the United States. They are found as small 
 tradesmen, in domestic service and in the fruit and truck 
 industries d CaHfornia. Our colonial possessions in the 
 Pacific Ocean also have a large proportion of MongoHans. 
 These islands have been stepping stones to America, 
 although numerous stories are current as to how the 
 Chinese have smuggled themselves across the northern 
 border from the Dominion of Canada. British Columbia 
 has a similar problem in the immigration of cheap Hindu 
 laborers known as coohes. As yet, the. number of these 
 people in our own land is insignificant. The Japanese 
 on our Pacific coast, however, have been a problem of 
 
ii8 American Social Problems 
 
 more or less importance. Although these Asiatics did 
 not begin to cross over to America imtil after the Chinese, 
 their number is now as great. They have also settled in 
 the cities and agricultural valleys of the Paci&c slope, a 
 considerable proportion of the fruit industry of California 
 being in their hands. As their numbers increased, the 
 industrial competition and race friction grew more acute, 
 apd, to-day, a slight race problem exists in California. 
 The legislation of the state discriminates against the 
 Japanese in matters of land holding and public school 
 education. This situation has caused the national gov- 
 ernment some uneasiness and has often strained the friendly 
 relations between the two great nations. There is no 
 Japanese exclusion act, but a " gentlemen's agreement " 
 between the two governments prevents Japan from issuing 
 passports to Japanese laborers who would seek to inomi- 
 grate to America. 
 
 The problems arising from Asiatic immigration are 
 more intense than those resulting from the European 
 immigrant. Illiteracy is high among Asiatics, 
 as is also the disproportion between the sexes, 
 for Oriental immigration is almost entirely male. Many 
 also have not sought to make America their permanent 
 Jiome, but to return to Asia with the wealth secured in 
 the new land. The industrial problem of low wages and 
 low standards of Hving is intensified with Asiatic immi- 
 gration, while the pohtical objection to such immigration 
 also holds. More important than either, however, is the 
 social effect of Asiatic immigration, for the Mongolian 
 presents an almost impossible problem of assimilation. 
 The Asiatics are so homogeneous that race difference 
 presents in their case a barrier regarded by many as in- 
 
The Problem of Immigration 119 
 
 superable. If this Oriental immigration were not ex- 
 cluded, America, would be confronted with a Mongolian 
 race problem in the West similar to the Xegro problem 
 in the South. We have seen that, other thin g*; being 
 equal, immigration tends to move from a dense area of 
 population to a rich and sparsely settled region. Hence, 
 the pressure of the millions of over-popidated Asia upon 
 the thinly settled lands of the new world. To overcome 
 this imdesirable mixture of such totally alien groups, a 
 policy of exclusion seems to offer the only effective remedy. 
 Restrictions upon Immigration. — Except for the ex- 
 clusion of Asiatics, Httle restriction has been placed by' 
 our national government upon foreign immigra- The usual 
 tion. Because our territory seemed boundless restrictions, 
 and our resources limitless, we welcomed European settlers 
 to help us lay the foundations of our future greatness. 
 But now OUT national boundaries seem fixed, and free land 
 in the United States is nearly exhausted. Again, the 
 character of our immigration has changed and the South 
 European stocks bring us a different racial hereditj'. The 
 older immigrants delight to call themselves Americans 
 and would exclude as " undesirable " the newer arri^•als. 
 In this, there is an element of truth. ]Many European 
 nations have often used the United States as a " dimiping 
 ground " for criminals, paupers and defectives. Agita- 
 tion for restriction upon immigration goes as far back as 
 the " Native American " and " Know Nothing " parties 
 of the ante helium days. In 1S75, a law was passed ex- 
 cluding criminals and immoral women from our shores. 
 In 1888, the labor unions succeeded in ha\'ing Congress 
 pass a law prohibiting the importation of foreign contract 
 labor. Numerous immigration laws have been passed in 
 
I20 American Social Problems 
 
 recent years, and inspection offices have been created to 
 keep out the following classes of undesirables: (i) con- 
 tract labor ; (2) anarchists ; (3) those immigrating for 
 immoral purposes ; (4) criminals (except for pohtical 
 offenses not recognized by the United States) ; (5) paupers 
 and those likely to become pubHc charges because of lack 
 of visible means of support ; (6) mental defectives such as 
 the insane and feeble-minded, and (7) those having in- 
 fectious diseases such as tuberculosis or trachoma. Steam- 
 ship companies, which formerly made large dividends 
 from their steerage cargo, are now required to transport 
 back to their native land all immigrants who fail to pass 
 our inspection laws. If this were done in European ports, 
 the futile journey across the sea would be avoided. At 
 present, ElUs Island near New York is the great inspection 
 point and clearing house for arriving immigrants. 
 
 These restrictions do not seem stringent enough for the 
 leaders of organized labor, who oppose the competition of 
 .pj^g the low-waged immigrant. Many advocate a 
 
 proposed greater head tax or possession by the immigrant 
 upon his entry into America of a considerable 
 sum of money. The most popular scheme is the literacy 
 test, which requires the applicant for admission to our 
 shores to be able to read or write in some language, not 
 necessarily English. Such a bill passed Congress at 
 different sessions, but was vetoed successively by Presi- 
 dents Cleveland, Taft and Wilson. However, this bill 
 has now finally been enacted into law over President 
 Wilson's veto. Such a test cuts down the amoimt of 
 immigration, if this is the only end desired. It is easy 
 of application and may be applied at foreign ports, thus 
 saving the passage to America of many otherwise dis- 
 
The Problem of Immigration 121 
 
 appointed immigrants. ]\Iany, however, do not desire 
 this restriction of immigration because they feel .America- 
 needs a supply of unskilled labor. Again, others feel that 
 the infusion of new blood, as well as the various cultures 
 of Europe, will make the future .\merica richer and better 
 after the difficult process of adjustment and assimilation 
 is passed. Granting, for the sake of argument, that it 
 is necessary to restrict the amount of immigration, wiU 
 the literacy test be most productive of good results ? The 
 easiest way is not always the best. Abihty to read and 
 write does not necessarily mean good citizenship. A 
 Uteracy test may not be the best means of selection, be- 
 cause it is neither an accurate valuation of the biological 
 worth of a national stock, nor a measure of individual 
 character and native ability. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 
 
 1 . What European countries formerly sent us the greatest number 
 of immigrants ? 
 
 2. What nations now lead in the number sent us? 
 
 3. Show this change from statistics. 
 
 4. When did it begin to take place ? 
 
 5. Compare the civilizations of Northern and Southern Europe 
 with respect to the type of immigrant each sends us. 
 
 6. Compare the causes of the earlier and later immigration. 
 
 7. Give the causes of the Italian immigration. 
 
 8. Compare the North Italian with the South ItaUan t3rpe. 
 
 9. Give the characteristics of the Slav group and compare it 
 with the Italian. 
 
 10. Give the characteristics of the Hebrew immigrants from South 
 Russia. 
 
 11. Name and describe the other lesser groups. 
 
 1 2. Show the geographical and industrial distribution of our immi- 
 grants as a whole. Give statistics. 
 
122 American Social Problems 
 
 13. Where geographically, and in what particular industries, does 
 each immigrant group tend to settle ? 
 
 14. Name some states which lead in the number of foreign born, 
 giving statistics to illustrate the point. 
 
 15. Indicate the states having the highest percentage of those bom 
 of foreign parentage. 
 
 16. Give some figures to show the percentage of foreign born and 
 the percentage of foreign parentage in our leading cities. 
 
 17. Explain the economic problem resulting from immigration. 
 
 18. Try to trace back your own descent. 
 
 19. Explain the social problem resulting from immigration. 
 
 20. Explain the political problem. 
 
 21. State the effect of immigration upon crime. 
 
 22. State the effect of immigration upon pauperism. 
 
 23. Give the history of Asiatic immigration to America. 
 
 24. Where, and in what industries, have the Orientals settled? 
 
 25. Why was the Chinese Exclusion Act necessary? 
 
 26. What is the situation with Japan in this respect? 
 
 27. What is the economic basis of the so-caUed "Yellow Peril "? 
 
 28. What groups of immigrants are now excluded ? 
 
 29. Make out a case for and against the literacy test. 
 
 30. What is your own opinion with respect to restrictions upon 
 immigration ? 
 
 TOPICS FOR SPECIAL REPORT 
 
 1. EUis Island. 
 
 2. The various nationalities in Austria-Hungary. 
 
 3. Russia's past treatment of the Jews. 
 
 4. The effect of the present war upon immigration. 
 
 5. Our recent law for the restriction of immigration. 
 
 6. The Americanization of the immigrant. 
 
 7. The unskilled immigrant and organized labor. 
 
 8. The steerage passage to America. 
 
 9. The foreign quarter in your own locality. 
 
The Problem of Immigration 123 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Ross, E. A. "The Old World in the New." Chapters V to XII. 
 
 Commons, J. R. " Races and Immigrants in America." Chapter IV. 
 
 Steixer, E. a. "On the TraU of the Immigrant." 
 
 Warxe, F. J. "The Immigrant Invasion." 
 
 Brandenbctrg, B. "Imported Americans." 
 
 Steixer, E. A. "From Alien to Citizen." 
 
 AxTix, Mahy. "The Promised Land." 
 
 Rns, J. A. "Making of an American." 
 
 Zangwill, I. "The Melting Pot." 
 
 Faircheld, H. p. "Immigration." 
 
 HonRWiCH, I. A. "Immigration and Labor." 
 
 CoOLiDGE, M. R. " Chinese Immigration." 
 
 KAWAKAin, K. K. "Asia at the Door." 
 
 Steester, E. a. "The Immigrant Tide." 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 The American Race Problem 
 
 I. Background of the Negro 
 
 1. Origin of race 
 
 2. The African environment 
 
 3. Slave trade 
 
 4. Slave life 
 
 5. Negro characteristics 
 II. Number of Negroes 
 
 1. The increase 
 
 2. The distribution 
 
 III. Problems of the Negro 
 
 1 . Reconstruction 
 
 2. The poUtical problem 
 
 3. The social problem 
 
 4. Crime and pauperism 
 
 5. Industrial problems 
 
 6. Education and leadership 
 
 7. The solution 
 
 IV. The Indian 
 
 1. Early treatment 
 
 2. Present condition 
 
 In addition to the foreign inunigrant, the Negro is an- 
 other extraneous element in our population. He possesses 
 a still different racial heredity and presents a difl&cult 
 problem of readjustment to a new physical and social 
 environment. 
 
 Background of the Negro. — The biological evolution of 
 mankind was probably from some one, rather than from 
 
 124 
 
The American Race Problem 125 
 
 several, of the more primitive species. From this common 
 stock race differentiation probably took place. Whether 
 the earHest man was white, black or of a origin of 
 still different type cannot be positively asserted. "^*'^*- 
 Primitive man migrated in several directions from his 
 original home in some central portion of the eastern hemi- 
 sphere. The natural selection of different geographical 
 environments seems to have slowly developed the different 
 branches of the human race. ^\n imaginary line drawn 
 from England to Java is rich in fossil remains of primitive 
 man. Such a line also separates the MongoHan to the 
 northeast in Asia from the Negro to the southwest in 
 Africa. The Caucasian race lies midway between the two 
 regions and its different branches occupy the various 
 geographical environments along this line. Hence, some 
 writers believe that here may be found the origin of the 
 human species. One branch migrated to the northeast 
 into Asia, another to the southwest into Africa, while 
 stiU others, remaining in their original home, became the 
 progenitors of the Caucasian race. The dark skin and 
 other physical characteristics of the present negro had a 
 survival value in the tropics of Africa. In the Asiatic en- 
 viroimient there was a different set of survival values and 
 natural selection worked here to produce the MongoHan 
 race. Long before the dawn of history, the natural selec- 
 tion of different en\ironments thus slowly developed a 
 differentiation into races of the primitive hmnan stock. 
 
 The tropical environment of the negro helps to explain 
 his racial heredity, which in turn enables us to tmderstand 
 many of his present physical and mental traits. The 
 nature and permanency of his physical characteristics 
 are obvious. The mental traits, however, are less ap- 
 
126 American Social Problems 
 
 parent but equally important. The natural selection of a 
 tropical environment, operating for thousands of years, has 
 The African Produced in the negro qualities which cannot be 
 environ- overcome by a few centuries of civilization. A 
 few examples will illustrate this point. Severe 
 physical exertion is fatal in the tropics, so that the very ener- 
 getic are usually eliminated. Again, nature furnishes a 
 bountiful supply of food and natural selection places no 
 premium upon industry and foresight, as it does in colder 
 climates of the North. Since the death rate is high, the 
 birth rate must be correspondingly high in the group that 
 survives. Thus, certain writers seek to explain the insta- 
 bility and the rapid rate of increase of the negro as part 
 of his racial heredity, which developed during thousands 
 of years in the African tropics. 
 
 The Spanish planters in the West Indies developed negro 
 slavery before the historic Half Moon discharged its 
 human cargo at Virginia in 1619. Many Englishmen of 
 The slave Elizabethan days sought to monopolize this 
 ^^^^- carrying trade. The gallant sea rovers who 
 
 sailed the Spanish Main were merchantmen or pirates, 
 slavers or men of war, as the occasion demanded. Hawkins 
 made a fortune out of the slave trade and proclaimed this 
 fact upon his family coat of arms. That enormous numbers 
 of negroes were carried to America is attested by the large 
 percentage of negro blood in the mixed races of Latin 
 America. Many of the leading families in the present re- 
 publics of South America and the West Indies have a strain 
 of colored blood coursing through their veins, The popu- 
 lation of Haiti consists largely of the descendants of slaves. 
 In colonial days, there was a famous triangular voyage in 
 which certain mariners from the North sold slaves to their 
 
The American Race Problem 127 
 
 southern cousins. The slaves were brought from Africa 
 to the Spanish and English plantations, where molasses was 
 taken on board for New England. Here it was made into 
 rum with which to buy more slaves in Africa. This was 
 not difficult, for this institution flourished in that country 
 where frequent tribal wars furnished a ready supply of slave 
 labor. In some parts of Africa it was difficult to get three 
 men to go on a journey together, for fear that two might 
 conspire to sell the other into slavery. Later, the Portu- 
 guese and Arabs monopolized the business of procuring 
 slaves for sale on the coast. The passage to America was 
 known as the middle voyage, and the negroes were crowded 
 between the decks, which were so low that in many cases 
 it was impossible to sit upright. So close together were 
 they packed that the group must turn over in mass at a 
 given signal. The mortality was enormous because the 
 sick, the crazed and the blinded were often thrown over- 
 board. Slavers calculated upon delivering but a part of 
 their human cargo. This traffic was a dark blot upon 
 American history, made darker by the fact that later the 
 Mayflower was desecrated by use for such purpose. The 
 National government forbade the importation of slaves 
 after 1808, while the Congress of Vienna, held in 1815 at 
 the close of the Napoleonic wars, legislated against the 
 traffic in human lives. 
 
 There are two sides to the story of slavery. In America, 
 the negro became Christianized and learned of a higher 
 civilization. In some states, however, it was 
 
 . Slave life. 
 
 illegal to teach slaves to read and write. Con- 
 ditions of life under slavery were not always so bad as they 
 have been depicted. The material comforts of the American 
 slave compared favorably with the life of European peas- 
 
128 American Social Problems 
 
 ants of the same day. In most cases they were well housed, 
 well fed and well cared for, because the self-interest of even 
 the cruel planter dictated such a course as profitable to 
 himself. Slave trading was most pernicious, however, be- 
 cause it broke up the family. At auction sales, mother and 
 children, husband and wife, were often separated. Most 
 of the slaves accepted their fate stoically, for their moral 
 ideals were low and their conceptions of family life unde- 
 veloped. Again, slavery was not calculated to develop 
 in the negro a regard for the property rights of others. It 
 was difficult for the slave to understand the institution of 
 property when his own most sacred possession — life itself — 
 was taken from him. As the master planned the present 
 and future of the slave, it was unhkely also that slavery 
 would develop individual initiative and self-control. 
 Slavery thus hindered the development of independent 
 manhood and, merely from the economic standpoint, its 
 evils far outweighed its advantages. 
 
 We have seen the effects of a tropical environment upon 
 the racial heredity of the negro. Some of these slavery 
 Negro char- accentuated as, for example, irresponsibility 
 actenstics. g^j^^j ^^^ Undeveloped moral sense. Under these 
 circumstances may we expect the family ideals of the negro 
 to compare favorably with our own? Is it natural, too, 
 that slaves suddenly freed from compulsion should readily 
 acquire habits of steady industry? The inefficiency of 
 negro labor is due partly to his improN'ident recklessness, 
 and partly to his newly acquired freedom. Prohibition 
 has estabUshed itself in the South to make negro labor more 
 efficient and to diminish crime. The negro's ignorance and 
 superstition are proverbial, while his uncleanliness exacts 
 a terrible toll. He is deeply religious, but relics of African 
 
The American Race Problem 129 
 
 folkways are to be found in his fabric of Christianity. His 
 imagination and childish love of story telling often lead to 
 an almost unconscious exaggeration and untruthfulness. 
 The negro represents a nature people, unmoral rather than 
 immoral. Not only is he affectionate, but he is singularly 
 free from ^andictiveness. The C\\\S. War showed frequent 
 e\-idences of the loyalty of the negro to the household of 
 his master who was fighting to perpetuate the institution 
 of sla^•ery. He is not only cheerful and happy, but his folk 
 songs constitute a real contribution to -^\merican music. 
 
 Number of Negroes. — The census of 1910 showed nine 
 million eight himdred and twenty-seven thousand negroes 
 in the United States. At present there are at xhe 
 least ten millions in this country. Although """ease, 
 their number has doubled since the Ci\il War, the per- 
 centage of negroes in our total population has gradually 
 diminished from about fifteen per cent at that time to about 
 ten and one-half per cent at present. ^\lthough their birth 
 rate is high, their death rate is correspondingly high. This 
 is particularly true in the cities, where the negro death rate 
 is often half as high again as the death rate of the whites. 
 That the negro is not adapted to the en\irormient of the 
 northern states is sho-^^-n by the fact that his race would 
 die in the North were it not recniited by fresh migrations 
 from the South. There are two conclusions concerning 
 the negro's rate of increase. In the first place his numbers 
 are not proportionately increasing as rapidly as is the white 
 race. On the other hand, the negro is absolutely increas- 
 ing in nimiber, and there is no indication that the race will 
 die out or become numerically insignificant like the Indian. 
 The futxire of America still holds the solution of the negro 
 race problem. 
 
I3C 
 
 American Social Problems 
 
 Since the home of the negro is in the South, the race 
 question has often been called the Southerner's problem. 
 The dis- Nearly nine-tenths of all our negroes live south of 
 tribution. the Mason and Dixon Line. The " Black Belt " 
 is a broad agricultural plain extending from Virginia to 
 Texas. Here live eight- tenths of all the negroes whose 
 rate of increase in this section is very high. The census of 
 1 910 shows the following percentages of negroes in our 
 southern states : 
 
 Mississippi . 
 South Carolina 
 Georgia . . . 
 Louisiana . . 
 Alabama . . 
 
 Texas 
 
 S6.2% 
 
 Florida .... 
 
 . 41 -0% 
 
 si-^% 
 
 Virginia .... 
 
 . 32-6% 
 
 45-1% 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 . 31.6% 
 
 43-1% 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 . 28.1% 
 
 42-5% 
 
 Tennessee . . . 
 . . 17.7% 
 
 . 21.7% 
 
 This table shows that, in the two states of Mississippi 
 and South Carolina, there are actually more negroes than 
 whites. Before 1861 the negroes Hved almost entirely 
 upon the plantations and picked the cotton crop. Since 
 then many have gone to the northern states, but we have 
 seen how natural selection has operated there to keep down 
 their numbers. There has also been a considerable move- 
 ment into the cities. A similar sad fate has awaited them 
 here, for the negro does not seem adapted to city life. In 
 spite of this fact, in certain cities like Jacksonville, Charles- 
 ton and Savannah, about one-half of the population is 
 composed of colored people. 
 
 Problems of the Negro. — Slavery, threatening the exist- 
 ence of the Union, gave rise to the great conflict which re- 
 Recon- suited in its abolition. The Emancipation 
 
 struction. Proclamation issued by President Lincoln was 
 a war measure, the legaKty of which was later estabUshed 
 
The American Race Problem 131 
 
 by constitutional action. The Civil War thus resulted in 
 the passage of the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth 
 amendments. The first abolished slavery, the second 
 granted the negro citizenship and the third enfranchised 
 him. A Freedmen's Bureau, created to protect the black 
 man in the enjoyment of his new rights, began the work of 
 education. Suddenly, and with no preparation, between 
 four and five million slaves became American citizens. 
 The later enfranchisement, without training or preparation, 
 led to sad results. The " carpet bagger " directed the 
 ignorant colored vote for his own benefit and an era of 
 negro domination followed the war. Colored legislators 
 sat in the proud halls of southern capitals, while iUiterate 
 ex-slaves wasted the public funds in a wave of corrupt and 
 foolish extravagance. Federal troops organized military 
 districts and made more fearful the dark days of the Re- 
 construction period. Under President Hayes the troops 
 were withdrawn, and the South recovered but did not for- 
 get the era of negro rule. As the whites obtained gradual 
 control, the negro was driven from poHtics. 
 
 The new constitutions of many southern states, adopted 
 since the war, provide for the practical disfranchisement 
 of the negro. Mississippi led this movement ThepoUtical 
 in 1890 when the new constitution provided p™''!^™- 
 that every voter should be able to read or to interpret a 
 clause of the constitution. The negro has found this task 
 difficult before a Southern election board. Other states 
 have added a " Grandfather's Clause " which exempts 
 from the literacy test the descendants of those who voted 
 prior to i860. Although legally the negro is kept from 
 voting, not because of race, but by reason of illiteracy, yet 
 the spirit of these laws is undoubtedly contrary to the 
 
132 American Social Problems 
 
 fifteenth amendment. By the poUtical problem of the 
 negro, we mean therefore that arising from the franchise 
 and from the principle of equality before the law. " No 
 taxation without representation " might be the cry of the 
 negro as well as that of any other disfranchised group. In 
 the South, the negro has Httle share in making the laws and 
 but shght participation in their administration. The 
 negro has been guilty of hideous crimes, but has sometimes 
 been convicted without due process of law and without 
 sufficient proof of guilt. This method of punishment oc- 
 casionally results in scenes of mob violence and anarchy, 
 such as were witnessed in Atlanta in 1906. Mob spirit, 
 both dangerous and contagious, presents a serious problem 
 in social control. It feeds upon ignorance and prejudice. 
 Enfranchisement, however, might increase rather than 
 diminish race friction. Lynchings also occur in the border 
 states of the North where the negro possesses the right to 
 vote. A greater social control and a more intelligent 
 citizenship are necessary to prevent such disorders. An- 
 other effect of negro suffrage is to increase political cor- 
 ruption, for the negro is ignorant and illiterate. In north- 
 ern cities, the negro vote is as easily controlled as the 
 immigrant's. 
 
 American civilization has made a great gulf between the 
 two races in all lines of social life and activity. According 
 The social to modern standards, one drop of colored blood 
 problem. makes a man a negro doomed to suffer social 
 ostracism. The laws of many states forbid the inter- 
 marriage of negroes and whites. This is regarded by in- 
 telligent men of both races as a wise prohibition. A cross- 
 ing between the negro and the white may not be biologically 
 disastrous, and the physical quahties of the offspring may 
 
The American Race Problem 133 
 
 not necessarily be lowered; but the social consequences 
 of such a union are disastrous, for the offspring is always 
 relegated to the negro group. Careful students estimate 
 that between one-third and one-half of our negro popu- 
 lation shows an infusion of white blood. This mixed 
 group is composed of extremes. Since the mulatto is often 
 the product -of conditions of \'ice, it is not surprising that 
 he frequently Hves up to the traditions of his origin. Born 
 and surrounded by a bad social environment, his tendency 
 toward crime is natural. The ambitious and forward 
 mulatto is often regarded with suspicion by both races, to 
 neither of which is he able to adjust himself. On the other 
 hand, this mixed group has produced many of the great 
 leaders of the colored race. 
 
 The amount of crime among the negroes is far in excess 
 of that warranted by their proportion to the total popu- 
 lation. This tendency seems to be increasing rather than 
 decreasing. It is greater in the border states of the North 
 than in the South, where tradition has fixed crime and 
 the negro's place in society. The maximmn of pauperism, 
 crime among negroes is reached in the city, where the 
 congested negro quarter furnishes the cause of numerous 
 disturbances for the local pohce authorities. Furious re- 
 ligious revivals and festivals are regarded as dangerous 
 to these temperamental people. Strong drink may make 
 the docile and good-natured negro quarrelsome and criminal. 
 A serious crime committed by a colored man may throw a 
 whole district into a fever of excitement, whereas the same 
 deed committed by a white man attracts Httle attention. 
 Vice as well as crime exists among the negroes. The pro- 
 portion of illegitimate births among the colored popu- 
 lation is much greater than that among the whites. In- 
 
134 American Social Problems 
 
 deed, in some quarters, a permanent family life hardly 
 exists. Negro pauperism is also high for, unfortunately, 
 the negro group contributes an undue proportion of its 
 members to the almshouses and to the various charitable 
 institutions of our great cities. Students have estimated 
 that from a half to three-fourths of the negroes live below 
 the poverty line. 
 
 The industrial problem of the negro is often regarded as 
 fundamental in the matter of race adjustment. Its es- 
 industriai sence is the making of the negro an ef&cient and 
 problems. dependable factor in economic production. 
 Economic independence will help the race to solve the 
 problems of crime and pauperism. The negro must learn 
 habits of steady work, the lessons of thrift and industry, 
 and accustom himself to a system of labor by free contract. 
 Much has been accompHshed since the break-up of the old 
 system, when the freed slave was turned loose upon a new 
 and strange economic environment without either land or 
 capital. However, much remains to be accomplished, for 
 the industrial progress of the negro has been slow in com- 
 parison with that of many immigrant groups. The typical 
 negro is a farmer and may be found in the cotton fields of 
 the " Black Belt." Only in rare cases does he own the 
 land, for a survival of the plantation system flourishes in 
 the large estates of the white landlords. These are broken 
 up into small tracts worked by the negroes. Since most 
 of the negroes are poor, the landlord supplies not only the 
 tract of land with its little cabin, but also the few tools and 
 other instruments of production. There is often a planta- 
 tion supply store at which the negro has a charge account 
 for the food and other supplies which he purchases. After 
 the cotton crop is picked, it is sent to the neighboring gin 
 
The American Race Problem 135 
 
 and a settlement made. WTien the rent, the account at 
 the plantation store and other charges are deducted, the 
 balance is turned over to the dusky farmer. This is small 
 enough, for prices are high and the interest upon credit 
 purchases is hea^y. A contract has been signed which 
 holds the negro to his job and fugitives are severel}' treated 
 by the law. In some places a system closely resembling 
 peonage has been tmcovered. The planter, however, 
 often finds it difficult to secure negroes for steady work. 
 
 The great cr}- of the developing South is for labor and 
 more labor. Hence some of our immigration, like the 
 ItaUan, is going south and competing with the negro upon 
 the farm and cotton field. In spite of race friction, the 
 Southerner seems to prefer the labor of the negro around 
 whom his native traditions cluster. The negro is better 
 off, working steadily upon the farm, than floating hap- 
 hazardly in the current of unskilled labor. A migratory 
 negro of the ignorant laboring class often gets into trouble 
 and is regarded suspiciously in the South. Xegro owner- 
 ship of land is as desirable in the South as native peasant 
 ownership in Ireland, where the agrarian problem is some- 
 what similar. Slowly, progress is being made and many 
 negroes own considerable property. The per capita wealth 
 of our colored population has increased, but among the 
 masses poverty is still the rule. 
 
 Industrial education is the cr},"ing need of the negro, if he 
 is to be trained to habits of steady industrj" and to rise 
 above the group of unskilled labor. Great £^„^tjo„ 
 trade schools, like Tuskegee and Hampton, and 
 have done much to create intelligent workers 
 and good citizens. Booker T. Washington, the late 
 principal of Tuskegee, who emphasized this side of negro 
 
136 ■ American Social Problems 
 
 education, was regarded as the great leader of his race. 
 A different view is held by Dr. Wm. E. B. DuBois, who 
 pleads for the higher and more cultural education of the 
 negro. Undoubtedly, this kind of education is necessary 
 to provide colored teachers for the negro race. The negro 
 must help solve his own problems and this is impossible 
 without intelligent native leadership. From the negro 
 universities of Atlanta, Fisk and Howard have come 
 scores of intelligent colored men and women equipped to 
 serve as professional teachers in the colored schools of the 
 South. In the distribution of public and private funds 
 between the colored and the white schools, the basis of 
 determination should be one of need and necessity. That 
 this work merits hearty financial support is beyond ques- 
 tion. It has borne fruit in many directions, for both men 
 of letters and race leaders may be cited among the negroes. 
 Paul Laurence Dunbar is a poet of note, while one of the 
 pictures of Mr. H. 0. Tanner hangs in the galleries of the 
 Luxembourg. 
 
 The present negro problem is the natural outgrowth of 
 
 early economic and social conditions. Let us remeiiiber, 
 
 that the negro is here not at his own request, but 
 
 The solution. , r , • r i ' 
 
 as a result of the action of our ancestors. But 
 what shall we do with the negro? " is the oft-repeated 
 question. Liberia was founded as a colony in Africa for 
 the freed slaves of America. The experiment, however, can- 
 not be called successful and the precedent is not likely to 
 be followed. The transportation of ten millions of negroes, 
 even if desired, is impracticable. In his present stage of 
 economic development, it is dif&cult to see how the negro 
 could properly support himself. He might even lapse into 
 a state of barbarism. Some sensational writers fear the 
 
The American Race Problem 137 
 
 assimilation of the freed negroes with our own Caucasian 
 stock. This is alike undesirable and improbable, for such 
 infusion cannot take place without the consent of both 
 parties. There is no one patented solution for any social 
 or economic problem, nor may future conditions be prophe- 
 sied. The present pohcy seems to be that of a separate, 
 but friendly, coexistence of the two races. An inteUigent 
 leadership and sound industrial education will develop the 
 negro into a useful and law-abiding citizen. When he be- 
 comes an efficient producer, his own poverty and crime wiU 
 diminish. Then the South will be more likely to grant him 
 genuine political rights. In the meantime, an intelUgent 
 understanding of the negro problem will tend to remove 
 many of the difficulties involved in its solution. 
 
 The Indian. — In addition to the Negro and the Mon- 
 golian, America has the Indian. His problem is interest- 
 ing only historically. In comparison with the Early 
 number of negroes in this country, the present treatment, 
 quarter of . a million Indians is insignificant. Like the 
 Negro, however, the Indian has been the victim of con- 
 ditions over which he had no control. The European 
 settlers drove him from his hunting grounds and appropri- 
 ated for themselves his original home. In the wars of con- 
 quest many regarded the dead Indian as the only good 
 Indian. To be sure, William Penn and Roger Williams 
 stand out as pleasing contrasts to this opinion. Before the 
 advancing Caucasian tide, the Indian, like the buffalo, has 
 disappeared below the horizon. There are probably as 
 many Indians to-day as when Columbus discovered America. 
 The Indian population has decreased relatively because 
 his birth rate is much lower than that of the whites. Con- 
 tact with European civilization seemed fatal to these nature 
 
138 American Social Problems 
 
 people. They learned its vices rather than its virtues. 
 Alcohol, it is said, has killed more Indians than the white 
 man's bullet. An indoor hfe, with its resulting tuber- 
 culosis, seems also singularly fatal to the Indian. 
 
 The United States Government has set aside reserva- 
 tions for the Red Man and appropriates funds for supplies 
 Present and maintenance. While this may be a just 
 condition. poHcy, the lack of necessity on the part of the 
 Indian for self-support is bound to encourage laziness and 
 undermine independent manhood. Again, our dealings in 
 the past with these people have not always been free from 
 corruption and injustice. It is hoped that a better day is 
 dawning. Government schools, like Carlisle, seek to teach 
 the Indian habits of industry and to give him vocational 
 training. As a result, many Indians have adopted our 
 civilization and are being assimilated into the American 
 population. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. Discuss the origin of race and show the working of natural 
 selection in race development. 
 
 2. Show the effect of the tropical environment of Africa upon the 
 racial heredity of the negro. 
 
 3. Sketch the history of the slave trade. 
 
 4. Give the good and the bad effects of slavery. 
 
 5. Give some characteristics of the negro. 
 
 6. Explain some of these in terms of his physical and social en- 
 vironment. 
 
 7. How does the rate of increase of the negro compare with that 
 of the whites ? What of the future ? 
 
 8. Where is the negro not increasing in numbers? 
 
 9. Give figures to show that the negro is the race problem of the 
 South. 
 
 10. What states have a greater colored population than white ? 
 
The American Race Problem 139 
 
 11. \\'here and what is the "Black Belt"? 
 
 12. Sketch the political status of the negro. 
 
 13. How is the fifteenth amendment circumvented? 
 
 14. \\hat is your opinion as to the political equality of the 
 negro? 
 
 15. Is the negro protected in his rights of citizenship? 
 
 16. \Miat is the extent of infusion of white blood in the negro ? 
 
 17. Discuss the unfortunate social consequences. 
 
 iS. Show that the midatto group is made up of two extremes. 
 WTiy? 
 
 iQ. Discuss crime and pauperism among the negroes. 
 
 20. What is the extent of poverty in this group? 
 
 2 1 . WTiat is the essence of the negro industrial problem ? 
 
 22. Discuss the system under which the "Black Belt" is 
 farmed. 
 
 2$. Compare the two tj'pes of negro education. 
 :!4. Name some leaders of the race. 
 
 25. What is your idea regarding the outlook of the negro 
 problem? 
 
 26. How has the Indian been treated by the European settlers? 
 by our national government ? 
 
 27. How has contact with civilization affected the Indians? 
 jS. Is the Indian d>ing out ? 
 
 TOPICS FOR SPECL\L REPORT 
 
 1. The various negro races of Africa. 
 
 2. Legislation against the slave trade. 
 
 3. Conditions of the negro under slavery. 
 
 4. The f amil y life of the negro. 
 
 5. The life and work of Booker T. Washington. 
 
 6. Tuskegee Institute. 
 
 7. Institutions for the higher education of the negro. 
 S. The negro and city Ufe. 
 
 9. Industrial efficiency and negro labor. 
 
 10. The "Black Belt." 
 
 11. The Freedmen's Bureau and Reconstruction days. 
 
 12. The negro and the franchise. 
 
I40 
 
 American Social Problems 
 
 Merriam, G. S. 
 Miller, Kelly. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 "The Negro and the Nation." 
 "Race Adjustment.'' 
 
 Dubois, W. E. B. 
 Washington, B. T. 
 Washington, B. T. 
 Washington, B. T. 
 Washington, B. T. 
 Washington, B. T. 
 Stone, A. H. 
 Baker, R. S. 
 
 ' Souls of Black Folk." 
 "Negro Problem." 
 "Story of the Negro." 
 "Up from Slavery." 
 "Working with the Hands." 
 "Future of the American Negro." 
 
 "Studies in the American Race Problem.' 
 
 "Following the Color Line." 
 
 Hoffman. "Race Traits." 
 Murphy, E. G. "Bases of Ascendency." 
 Tillinghast, J. A. "Negro in Africa and America." 
 Smith, W. B. "The Color Line." 
 McKenzie, F. A. "The Indian." 
 
 "Negro Education" Bulletin, 1916, nos. 38 and 39, Bureau of Edu- 
 cation, Department of the Interior. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 The Problem of the City 
 
 * 
 
 I. The city in the past 
 
 1 . Its history 
 
 2. Early conditions 
 
 II. Urban conditions in the United States 
 
 1 . Growth of American cities 
 
 2. The causes 
 
 3. City-planning 
 
 ' 4. Housing conditions : 
 
 a. Congestion 
 
 b. Results 
 
 c. Remedies 
 
 5. Public health 
 
 6. Social conditions 
 
 7. The future 
 
 III. Contrast between city and country 
 
 1. The past 
 
 2. The new era 
 
 Closely connected with the problem of immigration is 
 that of city life. In fact, cities have always been power- 
 ful magnets attracting not only the foreign population, 
 but also the discontented ambitious element in rural life. 
 It is desirable, therefore, to trace the development of the 
 city from early times to its present imposing position in 
 modern society. 
 
 The City in the Past. — Ancient history tells us of some 
 famous cities. The proud city of Nineveh was the metrop- 
 
 141 
 
142 American Social Problems 
 
 olis of the Assyrian Empire, and Babylon, along whose 
 
 walls several chariots might run abreast, is said to have 
 
 had a million inhabitants. Although Athens has 
 
 Its history. ° 
 
 determined the content of culture for hundreds 
 of years, its size was insignificant when measured by 
 modern standards. The City of the Acropolis in the 
 flower of its growth had perhaps a hundred thousand in- 
 habitants ; while Rome, when distroyed by Nero, probably 
 contained a half milHon people. The Romans, however, 
 were fond of urban life and their civihzation was charac- 
 terized by many famous towns. These declined during 
 the Middle Ages when population, then largely rural, 
 lived upon the feudal manors of that day. The develop- 
 ment of commerce revived some of the. old cities and 
 stimulated the growth of others. As the towns grew from 
 manorial villages, many purchased or forcibly secured their 
 independence from the lord to whom allegiance had been 
 due. The Renaissance was born in the city-states of 
 northern Italy, and the Reformation was fostered in the 
 free cities of Germany. The cities of Europe continued to 
 grow slowly in size, but even the great capitals of that day 
 were insignificant when compared with their present 
 counterparts. As late as 1815 the Congress of Vienna 
 sat within the walled town which had not yet expanded 
 from its shell. The rapid growth of cities has taken place 
 only within the last hundred years, in the period following 
 the Industrial Revolution. Four-fifths of London's growth 
 took place during the last century, and a like expansion is 
 equally true of Paris and of Petrograd. The recent de- 
 velopment of Tokio shows that Oriental cities, affected by 
 Western civilization, may experience a similar mushroom 
 growth. 
 
The Problem of the City 143 
 
 The medieval town was characterized by narrow, crooked 
 and unpaved streets. Garbage and refuse were thrown 
 from the window often to the discomfort of pass- Eaxiy 
 ing pedestrians. Street cleaning was unknown ^oixiitions. 
 because rain occasionally accomplished the desired result. 
 The houses were gabled with projecting upper stories 
 which, to-day, stiU give the picturesque effect of early times. 
 Signs, placed before the various shops, pictured the wares 
 whose names few could read. At night apprentices fastened 
 huge shutters to the front of the shop and the doors were 
 bolted. Along the dark narrow streets roisterers were 
 frequently attacked by footpads, and to keep the peace 
 a night watch, with arms and lantern, was employed. In 
 later times, the night watch sang the hours and with it, 
 perchance, a bit of scriptural advice. Chains were fastened 
 across the streets and the town gate was kept shut until 
 sunrise. The romance of time has given color and pic- 
 turesqueness to the scene, but the towns and cities of the 
 past were unpleasant and e\nl places as compared with 
 those of modern times. With no knowledge of sanitation 
 or public hygiene, the death rate was enormous. Numbers 
 were recruited by fugitive serfs and by those drawn thither 
 by the comparative peace and the possibility of commercial 
 gain. Plagues, like the Black Death, and great fires, 
 like that of London, brought fearful destruction to life and 
 property. 
 
 Urban Conditions in the United States. — The United 
 States Census Bureau classifies communities with a popu- 
 lation of 2500 or more as urban. There are q^^^^^^^ 
 three such groups: (i) those haA-ing a popu- American 
 lation from 2500 to 25,000, constituting a small 
 city ; (2) those from 25,000 to 100,000, classified as mediimi- 
 
144 
 
 American Social Problems 
 
 sized cities ; and (3) those over 100,000, or large cities. 
 In 1800 there were only five cities in the United States 
 with a population of over 10,000 ; while the census for 
 1910 showed over six hundred cities of such size or over. 
 Indeed, they made up thirty-seven per cent of our popula- 
 tion. Using the classification of the national census to 
 designate cities, we find that our urban -population is 
 almost half the total population. In the decade between 
 the census of 1900 and that of 1910, our urban population 
 increased eleven millions while the rural advanced only- 
 six millions. If, under rural population we exclude all 
 towns and limit ourselves strictly to the dwellers in the 
 country, we find that urban population in the United States 
 increased six times as rapidly as the purely rural popula- 
 tion. Our urban population is concentrated largely in 
 the northeastern section of the country. The states of 
 Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Illi- 
 nois contain half of our country's total urban population. 
 The combined New England and Middle Atlantic States 
 contain almost one-half of the total urban population. If 
 we include the North Central States the proportion is 
 two- thirds. The census for 1910 showed the following 
 percentages of urban population for these states : 
 
 Rhode Island 
 Massachusetts 
 Connecticut 
 New York . 
 New Jersey 
 California . 
 Illinois . . 
 
 96.7% 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 92.8% 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 897% 
 
 Ohio . . . 
 
 78.8% 
 
 Washington . 
 
 75.2% 
 
 Maine . . 
 
 61.8% 
 
 Maryland 
 
 61.7% 
 
 Colorado . 
 
 60.4% 
 
 59-2% 
 SS-9% 
 S3.o% 
 Si-4% 
 50.8% 
 
 SO.4% 
 
 The above states thus contained an urban population 
 of one-half or over. It is interesting to notice how this 
 
The Problem of the City 145 
 
 distribution corresponds to the proportion of immigrants 
 and of those of foreign parentage. Note, also, that these 
 states, with few exceptions, constitute our great commer- 
 cial and industrial centers. The southern and western 
 sections of our country are not only more thinly populated, 
 but their proportion of city dwellers is also much lower, 
 because of the different nature of the occupations of the 
 people in those regions. A comparison withi European 
 conditions will also be interesting. Although European 
 countries are more densely populated, the proportion of 
 city dwellers is not so high as in some of our industrial 
 states. The urban population of England and Wales 
 is seventy-eight per cent, Germany fifty-seven per cent 
 and France forty-one per cent ; while Russia has a propor- 
 tion of city dwellers as low as thirteen per cent. It is 
 evident, therefore, that there has been an unprecedented 
 growth of cities since the Industrial Revolution of the eight- 
 eenth century. In America, this growth has been espe- 
 cially rapid. 
 
 The Industrial Revolution, introducing the factory sys- 
 tem and modern industrialism, has been the prime cause 
 of the development of cities. Cities have grown 
 
 . The causes. 
 
 up around manufacturing centers, for superior 
 transportation facilities make an urban location of in- 
 dustry advantageous. Hither are brought raw materials, 
 which are converted into finished products and shipped 
 to far distant places. Again, the city furnishes an excellent 
 labor market. Since trade and commerce are as important 
 as manufacturing, the city is generally located upon some 
 point favorable for commerce and often arose where a 
 natural break in transportation occurred. The famous 
 cities of northern Italy, like Venice and Genoa, occupied 
 
146 American Social Problems 
 
 a central position in the commerce of medieval Europe. 
 Across the Mediterranean, their ships sailed to and from 
 the Orient. From them the goods were sent by the rivers 
 of Germany and France to points in northern and western 
 Europe. When the commercial world shifted its center 
 from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, these ports lost 
 their strategic position and suffered decline. In Europe 
 and America, we find cities located upon navigable waters, 
 New York upon a bay, Chicago upon a lake and San 
 Francisco upon the coast. A city, located upon a modern 
 commercial route, may be the outlet for the products of 
 the local environment as well as the distributing point for 
 incoming goods. Thus, Chicago taps the cattle and grain 
 industry of the West and New Orleans exports much of the 
 cotton of the South. New York, the largest city in America, 
 is as cosmopolitan in its commerce as in its population. 
 
 The superior advantages of the city constitute another 
 attractive force. Higher wages and more varied oppor- 
 tunities lure many ambitious country lads to the city where 
 they seek fame and fortune. The use of machinery in 
 agriculture has also decreased the proportion of men needed 
 on the farm. The combined harvester and reaper can 
 do the work of many men, and other agricultural inven- 
 tions have temporarily displaced scores of farm hands. 
 The period of adjustment, which the introduction of ma- 
 chinery necessitated, came later in farming than in manu- 
 facturing ; hence the exodus from farm to city. The city 
 also offers superior educational advantages. Again, its 
 varied life contains more opportunities for comfort and 
 amusement ; for, until recently, modern pleasures and 
 conveniences, such as are foimd in city homes, did not exist 
 upon the farm. 
 
Tlte Problem of the Cily 147 
 
 So rapid has been the development of cities in America 
 that the consequences have often been unfortunate. No 
 one would have dreamed that the site of Fort city 
 Dearborn would become in fifty years the great pi"">>^^- 
 city of Chicago. Because of the rapidity of urban growth 
 no provision was made for the future development of the 
 city. Crooked streets naturally grew up along early roads. 
 Like the cow paths of Boston. Hideous sliuns have arisen 
 to house the poorer groups who have crowded into them. 
 Incidentally, however, it might be wise to realize that such 
 conditions existed £dso in the great cities of antiquity, 
 where overcrowding and its attendant eAols were great. 
 In the development of many American cities, no sjstem 
 has characterized municipal building operations, and much 
 confusion exists which might otherwise have been avoided. 
 Frequently, ri^^er fronts have been monopolized b}' manu- 
 facturing plants and shipping concerns have thought only 
 of their own interests. Unfortunateh', indi\'idual gain 
 has come before ci\'ic beauty and welfare. Grotesque 
 contrasts in buildings offend the eye. Europe saw the 
 danger before America, and Continental cities resolved to 
 protect the health and comfort of the city dweller. Half 
 a century ago Paris, in spite of the enormous expense in- 
 volved in the demoHtion of valuable property, remodeled 
 itself by a magnificent system of boulevards. 
 
 Wasliington is one of tlie few American cities that was 
 designed in advance and properly planned for future 
 growth. Hence it has saved the expense which Paris 
 incurred. Many American cities, like Philadelphia, are 
 facing a great public expenditure, which could have been 
 avoided by a carefuUy designed plan for future develop- 
 ment. German cities are also beautiful and well planned. 
 
 e>- 
 
148 American Social Problems 
 
 Vienna is one of the most magnificent cities in the world, 
 while the glory of Budapest is unsurpassed. The water 
 fronts of many European cities are a source of beauty, as 
 well as a highway for commerce and industry. Splendid 
 stone bridges, monuments, parks and drives are to be found. 
 The location of industry is prescribed by the municipahty 
 and a large portion of the water front preserved for the 
 people. In some German cities a zone system has been 
 established, whereby one section is reserved for factories, 
 another for business houses, and still another for residences. 
 A comprehensive planning of transportation lines and 
 of city streets is highly advantageous to urban development. 
 Many American cities have followed the checkerboard plan 
 of William Perm, who is said to have taken his idea from 
 ancient Babylon. This scheme is simple and systematic, 
 but it often causes congestion on the few streets that lead 
 into the central business section. The best plan, perhaps, 
 is to map out the city in the form of a wheel. Its central 
 throbbing section would correspond to the hub and the 
 main streets to the spokes, while the cross streets would 
 be a series of rings. The construction of buildings should 
 then be plaimed in accordance with principles of architec- 
 tural beauty and symmetry. Municipal buildings might 
 well be grouped in the civic center where the wide avenues 
 ,and broad boulevards converge. Ample provisions should 
 be made for squares, parks and public places, which serve 
 not only as sources of communal pleasure, but also as es- 
 sential factors in public health. Suburbs for the working 
 man at low rentals are more needed in the modern city 
 than villas for the richer group. Such a scheme in con- 
 nection with a system of cheap and rapid transportation 
 win materially help to solve the problem of mass conges- 
 
The Problem of the City 149 
 
 tion. This has been tried in certain cities of England 
 where a special commutation rate to workers has enabled 
 them to live in the outskirts of the city. This plan seeks 
 to prevent, rather than to cure, the problem of congestion. 
 
 The growth of cities has been attended by a development 
 of the so-called " slum " districts. In them the housing 
 conditions are such as to arouse alarm for the Housmg 
 physical and moral condition of their inhabit- conditions: 
 ants. The basis of this problem, hke many '^^"'""'■ 
 others, is economic; for, as the city increases in popula- 
 tion, real estate rises in value. The result of this tendency 
 is a greater density of population in a given area. WTiile 
 the city has grown outward in mam" districts, it has like- 
 wise grown upward in others. Of this the modem " sky- 
 scraper " is witness. What has happened in the business 
 section has also taken place in the congested hving quarters 
 of a great metropolis. Thus the tenement house has sprung 
 into existence. This is a large building, or series of build- 
 ings, several stories high and capable of accommodating a 
 large niimber of families. The law in New York defines 
 a tenement house as the residence of three or more f amiUes, 
 each independent of the other and each providing its own 
 cooking faciUties. In fact, the number of cooking stoves 
 is often used to determine the number of families. Con- 
 gestion may also result from the occupancy of old shacks 
 in alleys imfit for himian habitation. 
 
 The tenement house has arisen in many of the formerly 
 fashionable quarters of the city now converted into business 
 sections. As the former inhabitants have moved out, the 
 poorer groups, often foreign immigrants, have occupied 
 their homes. These old houses, many of which are fairly 
 large, are used to accommodate a number of famiUes. The 
 
150 American Social Problems 
 
 problem of housing is aggravated by the existence of the 
 lodger. We have seen that, with the foreign immigrants, 
 the number of men predominates. Many of these laborers 
 may room together or become lodgers with one family. 
 Desire for gain is strong among this group and that, as 
 well as poverty, has led to very low standards of living. 
 Housing commissions and various charity organizations 
 have discovered some alarming facts. Two or more families 
 often occupy the same room, and many beds are never 
 free from human burdens. 
 
 Congestion and housing conditions affect not only 
 
 physical health but moral character. In the first place 
 
 congestion results in the spreading of contagious 
 
 The results. 1 -i , 1 r ■ 
 
 diseases, while lack of air and sunshine permits 
 the spread of tuberculosis. " Bandbox " houses of one 
 room upon another, situated to the rear of high buildings, 
 possess no adequate facilities for light or ventilation. 
 Another common evil is the lack of water and of a proper 
 system of drainage. Many families use but one hydrant 
 and the amount of washing enjoyed bears a direct relation 
 to the adequacy and nearness of the water supply. Drain- 
 age facilities are so inadequate that refuse water is often 
 emptied into a back yard, which also serves as a dumping 
 ground for garbage, ashes and rubbish. Toilet facilities 
 are extremely inadequate. Flies become efficient carriers 
 of disease, while bacteria flourish in the dark, damp and 
 unclean environment. Infant mortality runs high in con- 
 gested quarters, where hot summers and cold winters reap 
 a rich harvest of human life. The moral dangers of con- 
 gestion, although perhaps less apparent, are none the less 
 real. In one small room, individuals of all ages and both 
 sexes congregate. Under these conditions it is impossible 
 
The Problem of the City 151 
 
 to develop proper ideals of morality and family life — the 
 very foundations of human society. Such conditions 
 breed the criminal, the immoral and the degenerate ele- 
 ment in American society. 
 
 What remedies may be suggested for these housing 
 conditions so fatal to the life and character of modern 
 peoples? Since congestion is the root of the The 
 evil, the problem must be approached from this '•«»»«''»"• 
 standpoint. Either congestion itself must be removed or 
 its evils mitigated. The former method has been sought 
 by the advocates of comprehensive city-planning. Ac- 
 cording to this plan, the great congested quarters of the 
 city would be denuded of their surplus population by their 
 removal to suburban districts to which adequate means 
 of transportation would be established. The success of 
 this plan depends upon its cheapness. Unless rentals are 
 reasonable and transportation rates low, the plan cannot 
 succeed. Again, paternal schemes have been tried, such 
 as that of the Krupps at Essen in Germany, and the ex- 
 periment of the Pullman Company near Chicago. Philan- 
 thropists, like Ruskin and Peabody, have also attempted 
 to improve the housing conditions of the laboring class. 
 Perhaps the most practical plan is that of strict govern- 
 ment regulation and municipal inspection of housing con- 
 ditions in the more densely populated sections of the 
 city. Regulations must be enacted and rigidly enforced 
 to guard the health, comfort and safety of those living in 
 congested quarters. A-campaign of education will accom- 
 plish much in developing in the community a realization 
 of " how the other half lives " ; while a sound solution of 
 the problem of immigration will materially lessen the evil 
 of congestion. 
 
152 American Social Problems 
 
 The growth of the modern city bears a vital relation to 
 the problem of public health. We have already seen the 
 PubUc effect of bad housing conditions, with all their 
 
 health. attendant evils, upon the health of the congested 
 
 sections of a great city. But in addition to proper housing 
 conditions, many other factors enter into the health and 
 safety of urban populations. Of first importance is the 
 water supply. This should be plentiful and free from 
 contamination. Because of the lack of proper waterworks 
 and an adequate filtration system, many cities have suf- 
 fered from a poor and contaminated water supply. Again, 
 it is imperative for the maintenance of public health that 
 the city should be suppUed with an adequate system of 
 underdrainage and an effective sewage disposal plant. 
 The proper disposal and collection of garbage, together 
 with the elimination of unclean rubbish, is a most impor- 
 tant factor in the maintenance of public health. A pure 
 milk supply is only second in importance to a clean water 
 supply. Because of carelessness and ignorance in the 
 preparation of the milk diet, thousands of babies are sacri- 
 ficed annually in every great city. Pure food regulations 
 and cold storage restrictions are also made necessary by 
 the conditions of urban life. Protection, too, should be 
 afforded against the spread of contagious disease. Houses 
 must be fumigated to kill the germs of tuberculosis, scarlet 
 fever, diphtheria and smallpox. The health department 
 of a, great city holds as many lives in its care as are in- 
 trusted to the police and fire departments. Many hospitals 
 maintain free clinics and dispensaries, some of which in- 
 clude a special social service department. To-day, in our 
 great cities, the public schools employ nurses and physicians 
 to examine the eyes and to care for the teeth of thousands 
 
The Problem of the City 153 
 
 of children. Likewise, the playground movement has 
 begun and recreation centers are located in many school 
 \ards. PubUc baths are a source of both pleasure and 
 bodily cleanliness, while tlie parks of the city afford rehef 
 to the thousands who never ask themselves where the}- will 
 spend the smiimer. 
 
 The city is the great laboratory for the stud}' of sodet}-. 
 Here are intensified the great social problems of race, im- 
 migration, crime and poverty. It is not that social 
 the city is inherently more wicked than the """Ji^ons. 
 country, but the fact of great numbers accentuates the 
 problem. We have seen that the problems of immigra- 
 tion and of city life are inseparable. It is also in the city 
 that the negro problem shows some of its worst e\ils. 
 The crowding togetlier of whites and blacks often results 
 in considerable race friction and disorder among the 
 ignorant classes of each race. Poverty and pauperism 
 are more common in the city than in the country, for 
 many unfortunates drift in from the surrounding rural 
 districts. Urban charitable institutions support during 
 the winter the migratory group which leaves with the 
 advent of spring. Many cases of permanent relief for- 
 merly lived in the country and came to the city with no 
 definite means of support. It has been estimated that a 
 third of the population of many big cities live below the 
 povert}" line, and in some of them as high as ten per cent 
 have required the assistance of charit}-. The city's record 
 of crime is unen\"iable and is often t^-ice as large as that 
 of the country. Vice seems associated with city life ; but 
 illiteracy is not so great among the native born in the city 
 as in the country. 
 
 But what of the future? The " citv beautiful " is the 
 
154 American Social Problems 
 
 ideal of those who would remodel city Hfe upon more 
 artistic lines by inaugurating an era of city-planning for 
 _ future development. A second ideal centers 
 
 The future. 
 
 in public health. The examination of men for 
 military service in the great World War wiU disclose 
 valuable statistics concerning the health of city dwellers. 
 There is no doubt, however, that the urban death rate is 
 shrinking. The city, which was formerly regarded as 
 extremely unhealthy, is becoming more sanitary with the 
 advance of scientific knowledge. Preventable disease, 
 however, can be still further cut down by greater civic 
 cooperation. A third ideal is that of reform in housing 
 conditions, and committees of citizens have determined 
 that the slum must go. The political ideal seeks a muni- 
 cipal government which is both efficient and democratic. 
 Some American cities have already adopted a commission 
 form of government to insure better civic housekeeping. 
 Let us hope that the future will not bear out the words 
 of Ambassador Bryce, the great student of American in- 
 stitutions, that municipal government has been the great 
 failure of American democracy. 
 
 Contrast between City and Country. — The more rapid 
 increase of urban population as compared with rural has 
 
 _. already been indicated. The appeal of the city 
 
 Thepjst. , •' , '^'^ , . , 
 
 to the country boy was ever present, and, m the 
 
 past, rural districts were frequently drained of the ambi- 
 tious element qualified for future leadership. Country 
 schools were often few and poor, while the school term was 
 shortened to meet the demands of farm life. Higher 
 education could only be obtained in the city. Work on the 
 farm was hard and the hours of labor long. Indeed, the 
 farmer and his family have probably been exploited as 
 
The Problem of the City 
 
 ^Jo 
 
 much as any other element in American society. He has 
 patiently suflFered a working day from simrise to sunset, 
 while his wife has not only performed the chores of farm 
 life but also reared large families. The farmer, himself, 
 has endured longer hours of work than those permitted 
 by many trade unions. In the past, his daughters and 
 sons have sought an escape ia city life from the hard rigor 
 of the farm. 
 
 In recent years, however, a change has gradually taken 
 place. A decreasing proportion of food producers and 
 an increasing proportion of food consumers has 
 
 , J T . ... The new era. 
 
 elevated trie unportance and economic position 
 of the farmer. Higher prices and better U^ing conditions 
 combine to make his life more enjoyable. Xo longer is 
 he necessarily confined and bound b} tradition. The 
 creation of a federal department of agriculture has been 
 beneficial in the dissemination of better methods of farm- 
 ing. Expert advice upon seeds and soUs can be had for 
 the asking. Education has advanced with material pros- 
 perity and the modem fanner is beginning to see the value 
 of sending his boys to school. The countr}- high school 
 has appeared upon the landscape. The rural free de- 
 liver}- of man, the newspaper and the telephone help the 
 farmer to keep abreast of the times. The mail order 
 offices of the big department stores send their catalogues 
 to his door, while the interurban electric trolley takes 
 him quickly to town. Finally, the advent of the auto- 
 mobile has produced better roads and promoted sociabiHty. 
 Thus the former isolation of country life is fast disappear- 
 ing. 
 
156 American Social Problems 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. Name and describe some famous cities of antiquity. 
 
 2. What stimulated the growth of towns in the Middle Ages? 
 
 3. Describe their appearance and sanitary conditions. 
 
 4. What modern industrial changes caused an unprecedented 
 growth of cities ? Illustrate from European cities. 
 
 5. Compare urban and rural development in America. 
 
 6. What is the distribution of urban population in the United 
 States ? 
 
 7. What are the causes of the growth of cities in recent years? 
 
 8. Give the result of such a rapid growth of cities. 
 
 9. Outline the advantages of a comprehensive system of city 
 planning. 
 
 10. How woiild it help solve the problems of congestion? 
 
 11. Describe some conditions of bad housing with which you are 
 familiar. 
 
 12. Give the effects of such conditions upon public health and 
 morality. 
 
 13. Give some remedial suggestions. 
 
 14. What do you think of municipal tenements and corporation 
 villages ? 
 
 15. What should housing legislation prohibit and what should be 
 demanded ? 
 
 16. Show the relation between public utilities and city health. 
 
 17. Show some definite ways in which pure food laws protect the 
 public health. 
 
 18. Describe the activities of a bureau of public health. 
 
 19. Why is a social service department a valuable addition to a 
 hospital staff ? 
 
 20. What social ills are intensified in a city? 
 
 21. How do city and country compare in poverty and crime? 
 
 22. What should be the ideals of the future city? 
 
 23. Describe the change which has taken place in rural life. 
 
Tlie Problem of the City 157 
 
 TOPICS FOR SPECIAL REPORT 
 
 1. The government of European cities as compared with that of 
 the average American city. 
 
 2. The water fronts of French and German cities. ' 
 
 3. The p)ossibilities of city-planning in America. 
 
 4. The water supply of your city. 
 
 5. The tenement problem of a large city. 
 
 6. Housing conditions in some slum district near you. 
 
 REFERENXES 
 
 Wilcox, D. F. ' The American City." 
 
 RoBiNSOX, C. M. " Modem Ci\dc Art." 
 
 RoWE, L. S. "Problems of City Government." 
 
 Allex, Wii. H. 'EflScient Democracy." 
 
 SsnTH, S. G. "Social Pathology." 
 
 Weber. "Growth of Cities." 
 
 Bailey, L. H. '' The Country Life Movement in the United States." 
 
 GoDFKEY, H. "The Health of the City." 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 The Rise of Industry 
 
 I. The institution of industrial society 
 
 1. Definition and origin 
 
 2. Stages of development 
 
 3. Characteristics of industry 
 II. Before the age of machinery 
 
 1. The manorial system 
 
 2. The gilds 
 
 3. Later changes 
 
 III. The industrial revolution 
 
 1. The invention of machinery 
 
 2. The factory system 
 
 3. Social effects on England 
 
 4. Parliamentary legislation 
 
 The Institution of Industrial Society. — The origin and 
 development of the family and of the state have already 
 Definition been traced. Another important institution is 
 and ongin. ^.jjg^^. q£ industrial socicty, which may be defined 
 as a society organized for economic production. Primitive 
 society was simple and unorganized. Social evolution 
 has developed complex organizations within the group 
 and has separated or differentiated various specialized 
 institutions. Herbert Spencer compared this process of 
 differentiation to organic evolution in the field of biology. 
 Lower organisms have little differentiation of structure, 
 but in higher forms specialized organs are to be found. 
 Nervous, reproductive, digestive and circulatory systems 
 
 158 
 
The Rise of Industry 159 
 
 begin to appear. Primitive society had few distinct social 
 institutions. These were developed in the slow process 
 of social evolution by a growth of organization and co- 
 operation. Thus, the state became an institution distinct 
 from the family, just as industrial society became inde- 
 pendently organized. All social institutions, however, 
 are closely related to, and easil}" affected by, each other. 
 Just as we have seen the beginnings of the family in the 
 animal world, so we ha^e examples of industrial societies 
 among the lower animals. Xote, for example, the or- 
 ganization and cooperation of beavers in building a dam, 
 or of bees in making honej'. However, it is instinct, not 
 intellect, that characterizes most of the industrial activities 
 of lower animals. 
 
 Social evolution divides the development of industrial 
 society into the following stages : (i) hunting and fishing ; 
 {2) pastoral ; (0 agricultural, and (4) industrial, stagesof de- 
 There is no clear-cut line of demarcation be- Teiopment. 
 tween these economic stages. Like other periods of his- 
 tory, one fades gradually into the other. Often we may 
 see both existing side b}" side. Agaiii. some groups ad- 
 vance more rapidly than others and arrive earlier at an 
 advanced stage. With the passing from the himting and 
 fishing period to the pastoral, and then to the agricultural 
 stage, there are developed the early handicrafts like weav- 
 ing and pottery making. \Mien the fourth economic 
 stage is reached, society has usually attained a high degree 
 of ciNTlization. 
 
 The development of industrial society is marked by 
 certain detmite characteristics. In the first place, social 
 organization and cooperation may be read in a greater 
 di^ision of labor. This is absent among primitive groups 
 
i6o American Social Problems 
 
 where each family is a complete economic umt. In more 
 advanced societies there is a specialization of effort ; one 
 Character- ^^'^ farms, another makes shoes, and still an- 
 istics of other exchanges the goods produced in the com- 
 munity. In addition to the growth of social or- 
 ganization, there goes on a process of invention and dis- 
 covery within the group, whereby man has been enabled 
 to utilize more fully his economic environment. Dis- 
 coveries and inventions, such as the rotation of crops, 
 the expansive power of steam and the modern mechanical 
 inventions, have multiplied enormously the productivity 
 of nature. This has been called man's conquest of nature 
 and is part of the process of the evolution of industrial 
 society. The twin forces of invention and social or- 
 ganization have created a social surplus, that is, a surplus 
 of goods above what is needed for present consumption. 
 Each new invention or change in organization means a 
 problem of social adjustment and the transition period 
 may be one of hardship. Another characteristic of in- 
 dustry may be found in the formation of social classes, 
 whose existence is due to the development of industrial 
 society, as well as to the growth of the state, the effect of 
 war and numerous other forces. The earHest division of 
 labor and of social classes was based on sex. In savage 
 societies the women worked while the men hunted. Later, 
 society was divided into a slave and a leisure class. We 
 have seen how the conquering group exploited the labor 
 of the conquered by the institution of slavery. Upon it 
 developed many ancient cultures and civiHzations. Modern 
 industrial society involves social distinctions based upon 
 labor and capital. These groups, however, should not be 
 antagonistic, but complementary and interdependent. 
 
, The Rise of Industry i6i 
 
 Before the Age of Machinery. — During the Middle 
 Ages, when agriculture was the prevailing occupation, 
 population was widely scattered throughout the ^^ 
 
 , " ^ The 
 
 covmtry districts of Europe. The institution of manorial 
 feudalism, determining the economic as well as ^^ *™" 
 the military organization of society, made the manor the 
 unit of agricultural production. The serfs, who tilled the 
 soil, Uved in small \Tllages close to the protecting walls 
 of the neighboring cattle or manor house. Their wretched 
 huts, with thatched roof and crude interior, often sheltered 
 both man and beast. On all sides lay the lord's estate 
 composed of woodland for hunting, meadow land for graz- 
 ing and the lands for actual farming. Some of these 
 farm lands the lord kept for himself, but the remainder 
 was di^^ded into strips for the serfs, who worked not only 
 their own lands but also their lord's. The serf also paid 
 the lord a rent in the form of a share of the produce derived 
 from the land which he tilled for his own support. Xot 
 only were methods of agriculture crude, but one-third of 
 the land lay fallow every year. The manor, shut off from 
 the outside world and supported b}- its own acti^■ities, had 
 little intercom-se with the rest of Christendom. 
 
 The medieval towns were the birthplaces of commerce 
 and manufacturing, which were carried on b}- an organiza- 
 tion of trade and craft gilds. A trade gild ^ ^^ 
 
 The gilds. 
 
 included the merchants of that particular 
 town and a craft gild the makers of a special commodity. 
 Xot only was a fraternal spirit maintained in each group, 
 but a practical monopoly was secured by the members, 
 who excluded outsiders from participation in the production 
 of that particular commodity and also placed restrictions 
 up>on their own activities. The quantity and quality of 
 
i62 American Social Problems 
 
 the goods produced were carefully regulated. Medieval 
 production was, of course, carried on by hand and under 
 the careful eye of the master. A boy worked as an appren- 
 tice while he learned a trade. After the period of appren- 
 ticeship had expired, he became a journeyman and could 
 then work for wages. Upon the accumulation of a little 
 capital, he might set up a shop for himself and become 
 a master workman. Medieval trade and commerce was 
 carried on at certain markets and by great aimual fairs. 
 
 The Crusades, stimulating commerce, helped to break 
 down feudaUsm; while the Black Death hastened the 
 Later gradual decay of serfdom. When the manorial 
 
 changes. system began to decUne, a class of farm laborers 
 appeared to take the place of the medieval serf. With 
 the dechne of gilds, great trading companies came into 
 existence, like the London and East India Companies, 
 which planned to carry on commerce with the new lands 
 that had been discovered. The craft gilds were replaced 
 by the domestic system of manufacturing, whereby artisans 
 could now set up hand machinery in their own homes and 
 there carry on production free frOm the protection of the 
 gild. The necessity for some sort of protection in industry, 
 together with the decUne of feudalism, led finally to the 
 development of strong national governments. 
 
 The Industrial Revolution. — The textile industries were 
 the first to be revolutionized by the use of machinery. 
 Theinven- Under the domestic system, weaving was done 
 tion of upon the hand loom by the father of the house, 
 
 assisted perhaps by a journeyman, while the 
 women did the spinning on the primitive spinning wheel. 
 But, during the second half of the eighteenth century, a 
 great series of mechanical inventions took place which 
 
The Rise of Industry 163 
 
 completely altered these simple processes. Hargreaves and 
 Arkwright invented a " spi nnin g jenny " which could spin 
 several threads at once out of the raw material, while a 
 power loom superseded the slower method of weaving by 
 hand. Another Enghshman, named Watt, gave to the 
 world the steam engine. Eh Whitney's cotton gin in- 
 creased the supply of raw cotton for the mantifacture of 
 cloth. These were the first of a series of great mechanical 
 inventions which have continued down to our own day. 
 The movement began in England in the manufacture of 
 textiles, but has spread to other lands and other industries. 
 The locomotive and the steamboat have revolutionized 
 means of transportation as much as the earher inventions 
 revolutionized mfethods of manufacturing. The last cen- 
 tury- has been called the age of steam and machinery. 
 
 The new machinery was responsible for the change to 
 the factory system of manufacturing. The cumbersome 
 mechanical inventions were too large and costly The factoiy 
 for the cottage weavers and spinners to set up in system, 
 their homes. Large factories were therefore built to house 
 the new machinery, and production went from the home 
 into large specialized industrial plants. Since this method 
 required great sums of money, a new capitalistic class, who 
 owned the instnmients of production, sprang into existence. 
 The laborers, who had formerly owned their own tools, 
 now became a group of machine operators who no longer 
 worked for themselves. Population shifted to the regions 
 where coal and iron were to be foimd and great industrial 
 towns grew up. Many of the estates, which had formerly 
 been regarded as common pasture land, were inclosed for 
 the benefit of the local landlord, who raised sheep in order 
 to procure a supply of raw wool for the manufacture of 
 
164 American Social Problems 
 
 cloth. This change worked hardship to the rural laborers, 
 many of whom came to the towns to seek employment in 
 the factories. Again, the new machinery drove many of 
 the hand weavers out of employment. In alleys and cellars 
 some kept up a futile competition for a lower wage, while 
 others retaliated by burning and destroying the new 
 machinery. A period of adjustment was necessary before 
 labor could adapt itself to the new industrial environment. 
 During this period of transition there was considerable 
 disorder and distress. In the long run, however, machinery, 
 like any other improvement, was of great benefit to society. 
 It not only multiplied the output, but made possible the 
 lowering of prices to such a level that the new goods could 
 come within the reach of all. The factbry system, how- 
 ever, divided society into the opposing camps of labor and 
 capital, whose apparently conflicting interests have created 
 many modern social problems. 
 
 The Industrial Revolution was largely responsible for 
 England's proud position of industrial and commercial 
 . leadership, which continued undisputed tmtil the 
 
 effects on economic expansion of Germany and America. 
 °^^ ■ Looking overseas at the great colonial empire, 
 Enghshmen might well be proud of their country's achieve- 
 ment ; but, glancing inwardly at industrial conditions, the 
 picture was not inspiring. In fact, the social effects on 
 England of the great industrial revolution were alarming. 
 The early factories were unhealthy and the housing condi- 
 tions equally bad. Hours of labor were so long that a 
 working day of twelve, thirteen and fourteen hours was 
 not unusual. Great evils of child labor and of women 
 in industry sprang into existence. Children were sent 
 into the factories by their parents at the age of eight and 
 
The Rise of Itidusiry 165 
 
 indeed younger. Pauper children from the poorhouses 
 were bound over to the manufacturers into a \TrtuaI 
 slavery. They were given food of the coarsest description 
 which tliey often ate while working. The children 
 were abused and driven to their work which lasted twelve 
 hours a day. Accidents were frequent, disease common, 
 and the excessive toil often put an early end to their un- 
 happy lot. In the mines equaUy bad conditions were 
 found by an investigating committee. Women and men 
 worked side by side, ahnost naked, in the damp imwhole- 
 some shafts of the mine. A part of the work of the smaller 
 women and children consisted in dragging carts of coal 
 through underground passages frequently three feet or less 
 in height. Little girls carried a half himdredweight of 
 coal up steep ladders to the surface. A mere recital of 
 this testimony before ParUament made imnecessary any 
 discussion of the desirabiUty of reform in mining conditions. 
 But in spite of the real dangers of the new industrial 
 conditions, England was rather loath to pass social legis- 
 lation for their betterment. The I<iisscz faire „ ,. 
 theory of government was popular. It held taryiegis- 
 that government regulation of industrial condi- °° 
 tions would interfere with the natxiral operation of economic 
 laws. This attitude was consistent with the national poUcy 
 of free trade and the repeal of the corn laws. Greedy 
 manufacturers prophesied disaster, if they should be de- 
 prived of their supply of female labor. But the fear of 
 physical degeneracy of the workers at length made gov- 
 ernment action imperative. A famous factor}" law was 
 passed the year following the Great Reform Bill of 1S52. 
 Xo children under nine years of age were to be employed, 
 and those from nine to thirteen were to work only eight 
 
1 66 American Social Problems 
 
 hours a day. Young persons from thirteen to eighteen 
 could not work over twelve hours, and none of these at 
 night. A corps of inspectors was created and factory 
 regulation became a reality. A subsequent act of 1847 
 limited the work of women to ten hours a day. Since it 
 was unprofitable to work the factories by men alone, with- 
 out the aid of women and children, a ten-hour day gradually 
 became the common standard for all. In 1842 a law had 
 been passed regulating labor in mines. It prohibited all 
 underground work by females and by boys under thirteen. 
 In recent years the British Parliament has passed other 
 factory laws, and the new era of government regulation 
 has been strikingly characterized by an increasing amount 
 of social legislation. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. Define industrial society. 
 
 2. Describe its evolution. 
 
 3. What are the four stages of development? 
 
 4. Compare society to an organism — showing the process of 
 evolution taking place in each. 
 
 5. How was industrial society brought about ? 
 
 6. State the advantages of an industrial society over an agricul- 
 tural community. 
 
 7. Why does an industrial society combine at the same time 
 so many benefits and evils ? 
 
 8. Enumerate both benefits and evils. 
 
 9. Give the characteristics of the development of industrial 
 society. 
 
 10. Describe the organization of a feudal manor. 
 
 11. What two kinds of gilds were there? 
 
 12. Describe the regulations and advantages of the gilds. 
 
 13. What factors influenced commerce during the Middle Ages? 
 
 14. What was the original meaning of the word "manufacture"? 
 
The Rise of Industry 167 
 
 15. What economic changes took place at the close of the Middle 
 Ages and at the beginning of the modern era ? 
 
 16. Name some of the great mechanical inventions that introduced 
 the Industrial Revolution. 
 
 17. Explain the effects of the factory system. 
 
 18. What social evUs resulted in England? 
 
 ig. Sketch the history of parliamentary legislation and give the 
 important biUs. 
 
 TOPICS FOR SPECIAL REPORT 
 
 1. Woman's share in primitive industry. 
 
 2. The gild system of production. 
 
 3. The domestic system of manufacturing. 
 
 4. The advent of machinery and steam power. 
 
 5. The effect of the Industrial Revolution upon the skilled artisan, 
 
 6. ChUd labor in England before 1832. 
 
 7. The important factory laws of England {e.g. that of 1833). 
 
 8. Contemporary social legislation in England. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 MUNRO, D. C. " A History of the Middle Ages." 
 
 Cheyney, E. p. "Industrial and Social History of England." 
 
 Chapters II-IX (inclusive). 
 Seagee, H. R. "Principles of Economics." Chapters I and XXX. 
 Ashley, W. J. "Enghsh Economic History." (Reference.) 
 Cunningham. "Growth of English Commerce and Industry." 
 
 (Reference.) 
 Spencer, H. "Principles of Sociology." (Reference.) 
 TOYNBEE. " Industrial Revolution." 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 Social Effects of Industry 
 
 I. Child labor in the United States 
 
 1. History and extent 
 
 2. Causes and remedies 
 
 3. The effects 
 
 4. Recent legislation 
 II. Women in industry 
 
 1. Similarity to child labor 
 
 2. The sweat shop 
 
 3. Low wages 
 
 4. New occupations 
 III. Occupations of risk 
 
 1. Dangerous trades 
 
 2. Industrial accidents : 
 
 a. Extent and character 
 
 b. Railroad accidents 
 
 c. Other accidents 
 
 3. Proposed remedies : 
 
 a. Social insurance 
 
 b. Compulsory state insurance 
 
 The effects of the Industrial Revolution manifested 
 themselves in America in a manner similar to that which 
 characterized the growth of industry in England. But the 
 United States, unlike England, was a young agricultural 
 country when the factory system first wrought its havoc 
 in the Old World. In recent years, however, the growth 
 of manufacturing in America has been rapid and has been 
 
 168 
 
Social Ejfects of Industry 169 
 
 accompanied by a number of industrial problems which 
 have had marked social significance. Among the most 
 important of these are the problems of child labor, of 
 women in industry and of dangeroxis trades and occupations. 
 Child Labor in the United States. — The early effects 
 of the factor}- system in .\merica somewhat resembled the 
 conditions already described in England. Al- History 
 though the opening of oui mines was not at- a^d extent. 
 tended by such horrors as prevailed in the Old World, the 
 early situation in the textile milk was reprehensible. In 
 New England, where manufacturing began, children imder 
 sixteen often worked twelve, thirteen and fourteen hours 
 a daj". The first important legislation upon child labor 
 in this country was passed by Massachusetts in 1836. 
 Alore stringent laws were subsequently enacted and other 
 states followed her example. But America labors under a 
 peculiar disadvantage in securing such legislation. Man}- 
 social questions, which in Europe are matters of national 
 legislation, in our own country fall within the sphere of 
 state action. Hence, great variations occur in the realm 
 of laws dealing with prohibition, child labor, women in 
 industry and like problems. The action of the federal 
 government in such matters can be obtained only by a 
 constitutional amendment, or by a liberal interpretation 
 of its control over interstate commerce. At present, there- 
 fore, the child labor situation va,ries with the different laws 
 of the several states. Xew England, which in this regard 
 formerly held an unenviable reputation, has now by ap- 
 propriate legislation materially improved the child labor 
 situation. With the growth of an industrial South, this 
 evil has appeared in the southern cotton mills to an alarm- 
 ing extent. Much of the cotton is also picked by child 
 
170 American Social Problems 
 
 labor. In several southern states the National Child Labor 
 Committee estimated that half of the children between ten 
 and thirteen years of age in that section could be classified 
 as wage earners. A large proportion of child labor is used 
 in agriculture, but this is not considered so harmful in. its 
 physical effects as Hfe in the mill. Many children in 
 country regions leave school, temporarily or permanently, 
 for the occupation of fruit and berry picking. Many are 
 also at work, legally or illegally, in the great canneries of 
 the South and. Middle States. 
 
 The introduction of machinery and the minute sub- 
 division of labor, accompanying the factory system, lessen 
 Causes and the need for the skilled artisan. Little strength 
 remedies. g^^^ intelHgence are required to feed and attend 
 many machines in the modern factory. Hence the labor 
 of children will often sufl&ce in modern industrial Kfe. 
 As compared with that of men, such labor is cheap and 
 plentiful, and it is therefore necessary to enact special 
 legislation in order to protect such workers, who often 
 fall a prey to the thoughtless or selfish employer. An in- 
 different public is a second factor in the child labor 
 problem. Cheap goods will sell in spite of the fact that 
 this cheapness is often secured at the price of the child's 
 health and welfare. The Consumers' League has done 
 much in a campaign of popular education to inform the 
 public concerning the social cost of such production. It 
 has an honor list of industrial firms, whose working con- 
 ditions are good, and whose patronage is worthy of public 
 approval. The Christmas slogan of " Shop early " has 
 accomplished much good for the young men and women 
 employed in department stores. A third factor in the 
 problem is the child himself. • Poverty is one cause of child 
 
Social Effects of Industry 171 
 
 labor, because the child's small wages are often needed to 
 supplement the family income. Again, the child himself 
 may be glad to leave school because it does not appeal to 
 him. It is often far removed from practical hfe and the 
 discipline is irksome. Later, this short-sighted poKcy will 
 be apparent, when the child who has remained in school 
 forges ahead of those who have left before completing the 
 course. It is perfectly true, however, that the modern 
 school should provide a curriculum sufficiently diversified 
 to appeal to the needs of aU classes of children. 
 
 The effects of child labor are injurious to the child, to 
 society and to industry. Even under the most favorable 
 working conditions, such labor is highly in- 
 jurious from the physical point of view. Child- 
 hood is the period of physical growth reqmring an abun- 
 dance of fresh air, freedom and activity. It is also the 
 period of mental growth and development. The monotony 
 of repeated operations of the same character is a poor sub- 
 stitute for self-expression and intellectual training. Again, 
 in the factory, the moral atmosphere of the child's sur- 
 roundings is frequently bad and he comes into contact 
 with many existing evils before the age of irmocent child- 
 hood has passed. In the second place, child labor has in- 
 jurious effects upon society. It tends to break up family 
 life by taking the child out of his normal place in the home. 
 The young wage earner very quickly tends to become in- 
 dependent of parental authority. His opportunity to rise 
 is hmited, and he becomes accustomed to low wages and 
 standards. It is also well to remember that these child 
 laborers will become the fathers and mothers of the next 
 generation and that they are not receiving proper training 
 for their future in society. Finally, a word should be said 
 
172 American Social Problems 
 
 of the effect of this problem upon industry. Child labor 
 in the long run is not always the cheapest labor. It lowers 
 the efi&ciency of the worker for, generally speaking, every 
 dollar earned before the age of fourteen is taken from later 
 earning capacity. Moreover, the labor of children is waste- 
 ful. They are unreliable and their carelessness is a fre- 
 quent cause of accidents. 
 
 Most of our recent child labor laws have been passed 
 since 1895. A National Child Labor Committee, organized 
 Recent in 1904, has urged reform in many states and 
 
 legislation, suggested model laws for enactment. Since 
 each state enacts its own laws, the employers affected by 
 the proposed legislation threaten to remove their plants 
 to other states. New York and Illinois have excellent 
 child labor laws, and the Pennsylvania legislature in 
 191 5 passed a law decidedly improving the child labor 
 situation in that state. A happy augury for the future is 
 found in the recent creation of a Federal Child Labor 
 Bureau and in the enactment of a law prohibiting child 
 labor in industries engaged in interstate commerce. A 
 model child labor law must not only be clear and distinct 
 in language, but must also provide an effective machinery 
 for the enforcement of its provisions. A salaried corps of 
 inspectors should be created with power to prosecute 
 violations of the law. While many employers seek to 
 cooperate in enforcing the law, others have been guilty of 
 evasion. 
 
 It is generally agreed that a model child labor law should 
 cover certain well-defined points. The maximum working 
 day should be one of eight hours instead of ten, as found 
 in some states. Night work should also be prohibited and 
 a closing hour fixed. The minimum age at which the child 
 
Social Effects of Itidustry 173 
 
 is permitted to work should be fourteen. Some states 
 still have a limit of twelve years of age, and certain southern 
 states make an exception even to this age in the case of the 
 children of pauper parents. Children between the ages of 
 fourteen and sixteen should have duly signed working 
 papers. The state laws on child labor should be correlated 
 with those upon compulsory education. No children 
 should be permitted to enter what are called the " danger- 
 ous trades " and these should be specified in the law. 
 
 Women in Industry. — Women as well as children be- 
 came workers under the new factory system. The economic 
 causes of both problems are much the same similarity to 
 and their effects quite similar. For physical <*iid labor, 
 reasons, the efficiency of woman is sometimes not so high 
 as that of man ; while her health and ^•itality are often 
 seriously impaired through the strain of industry. Again, 
 the entrance of woman into industry is marked by low 
 wages and inferior standards of living. From the stand- 
 point of society the effect upon family Hfe may be equally 
 bad, especially in the case of mothers forced to leave small 
 children. The secondary fimction of the family is that of 
 socialization, or the preparation of children for the life of 
 society. This cannot be accomplished in a disrupted 
 family life. However, woman cannot be denied her right 
 to independence and seK-support; for this movement is 
 but a part of the larger field of equahty into which she has 
 entered. Nevertheless, it is necessary to protect her in the 
 exercise of this new freedom. Therefore laws have been 
 passed to regulate the industries into which she may enter, so 
 thather surroimdings may be healthful and sanifary. There 
 exists as great a discrepancy in the various laws of the 
 different states upon these matters as upon child labor. 
 
174 American Social Problems 
 
 The number of women employed is very high in the manu- 
 facturing states of our North Atlantic section and also in 
 parts of the South. At the present time there is a total of 
 nearly eight million women engaged in various industries 
 in the United States. This means that about one female 
 in every five is gainfully employed. Not only has the 
 total number of women in industry increased but also the 
 proportion to the total population has advanced. 
 
 Because many of those concerned are women, a word 
 may be said here about the sweat shop system. This is 
 The sweat found principally in large, congested cities, and 
 shop. especially in the clothing industry located in 
 
 these centers. The cloth, after being cut for garments in 
 the principal establishments, is distributed to various 
 small shops and private houses in the neighborhood. Here 
 men, women and children make the finished garment. 
 Employment is irregular and wages are determined by the 
 " sweater " who takes advantage of the immigrant, the 
 aged, the children, the inexperienced and those in dire 
 need. Hours of' labor are long in the busy season, and 
 the surroundings, where the work is done, are often detri- 
 mental to the health of the worker. Factory laws are 
 vain against these abuses because the sweat shop may be 
 located in the home of the individual. 
 
 In most occupations the wages of women are much lower 
 than those of men. Therefore, many women have raised 
 the cry of " equal pay for equal work." How- 
 ever, while most women have only themselves 
 to support or simply the family income to supplement, men 
 usually bear the burden of the entire family support. 
 Again, competition with women has resulted in a lower- 
 ing of the wages of men. To supplement the income, other 
 
Social Effects of Industry 175 
 
 members of the family have sought gainful occupations. 
 Hence, many argue that this whole movement is that of a 
 circle with nothing gained in the end. They therefore look 
 with disfavor upon the entrance of women into business 
 and industrial life. Certain special investigations have 
 shown that, in some industries, the wages of women are 
 criminally low. The wage allowed precludes any possi- 
 bility of maintaining a decent standard of living for those 
 women who must support themselves. The result is bad 
 housing, insufficient food and clothing, and Httle, if any, 
 means of recreation. To escape this, many women, it is 
 claimed, have been tempted to Uves of immorahty. Hence, 
 several states have passed minimimi wage laws which fix 
 the lowest wage that may be paid women workers in certain 
 employments. Massachusetts led this movement in 1912, 
 It would seem that the state can only protect women 
 from exploitation by refusing to permit them to work for 
 a wage insufficient to maintain a decent standard of living. 
 The occupations of women may be grouped under the 
 following heads : (i) domestic service ; (2) agriculture ; 
 (3) industry; (4) commerce and business; Newoccu- 
 (s) professional Kfe. Domestic service em- p*''"'^- 
 ploys a large number of women, but has been exempted from 
 many laws dealing with women in industry. Although 
 American women have not engaged in agriculture to any 
 great extent, European immigrants sometimes pick fruit 
 and berries. In the South a large part of the cotton crop 
 is picked by colored women. The great change, however, 
 has come in the last three groups of occupations. We 
 have seen the entrance of women into industry and have 
 noted its causes and effects. Of more recent years, women 
 have invaded commerce, business and the professions. 
 
176 American Social Problems 
 
 Formerly the onl}' profession open to women was that of 
 teaching. The great universities, however, have now 
 begun to open wide their doors to women who desire to 
 stud}' law or medicine or the new profession of social ser- 
 vice. Formerly, women were rarely seen in the mercantile 
 pursuits, but now they are repeatedly taking the places 
 of men as clerks, stenographers and saleswomen. Since 
 the age of marriage has advanced, women have assimied 
 such positions in order to provide for themselves a means 
 of support. Many women desire the economic inde- 
 pendence secured through a professional or business career. 
 In most cases, however, women are simply " loaned " to 
 industry and eventually find their rightful place in the 
 home. 
 
 Occupations of Risk. — In the path of the Industrial 
 Revolution there followed certain occupations of risk that 
 Dangerous have left a deep impression upon society. The 
 trades. name " dangerous trades " is appUed to them 
 
 because the very nature of the occupation is dangerous 
 to the health and safet}' of the worker. These may con- 
 veniently be considered from the point of xiew of the chief 
 sources of danger inherent in such trades. One source of 
 danger lies in the poisonous character of the materials used 
 in certain branches of industr}-. The effect of such work 
 upon the individual is frequently seen in the disease known 
 as lead poisoning, which often occurs in the manufacture of 
 white lead. This substance enters the system through the 
 skin or by way of the alimentary canal, when the worker is 
 not careful to wash his hands before eating. Paralysis, 
 insanity and finally death may result. Several European 
 countries have greatly reduced the mortahty in this trade 
 by forbidding such practices as dry rubbing, and by insist- 
 
Social Effects of Industry 177 
 
 ing upon the necessity of certain precautionary measures. 
 Workers with phosphorus frequently contract a char- 
 acteristic disease, singularly fatal, known as phosphorus 
 jaw. This is one of the few dangerous trades against which 
 our government has legislated. 
 
 A second source of danger hes in those industries which 
 expose the limgs to an excessive amoimt of dust. Natiure 
 has furnished protection for occasional exposure to a 
 normal amoimt of dust, but continual exposure to this 
 irritant is extremely dangerous. The lungs become spotted 
 with foreign particles which make fearful ravages upon the 
 delicate membrane. Tuberculosis and other diseases of 
 the lungs and bronchial tubes affect the respiratory organs. 
 This dust danger is well illustrated in coal mining. By 
 screening the coal wet, the amount of coal dust in the air 
 may be reduced. A similar pernicious effect often results 
 from the dust generated by stone cutting and by metal 
 grinding, and from the lint in textile mills. Suction tubes 
 and blowers should be used to draw off this \-itiated air 
 from the atmosphere. Certain gases and fumes may also 
 be both dangerous and poisonous. In such cases, the work 
 should be done in a helmet or imder a hood with a forced 
 draft. In many of the chemical trades the work is of a 
 dangerous character. 
 
 A third source of danger lies in sudden changes of temper- 
 ature and air pressure. When steel workers, or those em- 
 ployed near hot furnaces, feel the outside contact of the 
 cold blast of winter, they become an easy prey to pneumonia. 
 Underground workers in mines, tunnels and subways often 
 develop pecuHar diseases due to changes of air pressure. 
 Although higher wages are sometimes paid to workers in 
 certain trades, because of their acknowledged dangerous 
 s 
 
178 American Social Problems 
 
 character, society must still further protect them from the 
 unusual strains of industry. The law must prescribe pre- 
 cautionary measures and insist upon their enforcement. 
 Shorter hours and frequent periods of rest are absolutely 
 essential to the health and safety of such workers. 
 
 The industrial accident, impairing if not altogether 
 
 destroying the' efficiency of the worker, is another product 
 
 of the factory system. Although this problem 
 
 accidents: is economic in character, it must here be men- 
 
 Exkniand tioned bccausc of its great social significance. 
 
 character. _^ 
 
 The report of the first Cooperative Safety Con- 
 gress showed that, on the average, one worker was killed in 
 every sixteen minutes and one injured in every sixteen 
 seconds. This is the price in human life that America has 
 paid for speed. The responsibility for this condition rests 
 upon both the employer and the worker. The worker is 
 sometimes careless, indifferent or ignorant ; while the 
 employer is often negligent in supplying safety devices and 
 in rigidly enforcing the law. Of recent years a campaign 
 of popular education has been inaugurated with the slogan 
 " Safety First." A national organization for the safety 
 of the worker uses the " white cross " to stand for pre- 
 vention, in the same way that the " red cross " stands for 
 first aid to the injured. Industrial accidents may be 
 commonly classified according to occupation, as railroad, 
 mining, factory and building accidents. 
 
 The Interstate Commerce Commission carefully com- 
 piles the statistics relating to railroad accidents. It would 
 Railroad seem that in an average year one employee is 
 accidents. killed for every four hundred employed by the 
 railroad. This of course does not include thousands of 
 passengers who have been killed or injured in the wrecks. 
 
Courtesy of I'nirersUy of lUinots. 
 
 CiRCiiLAR Saw Guarded to Pre\-ext AcxaoExr. 
 
Social Effects of Industry 179 
 
 A comparison with certain European countries, like Eng- 
 land and Germany, shows that there is no justification for 
 such an appalling loss of hfe. Remedial measures should 
 apply to company and workman ahke. The corporation 
 should not only install the latest and most approved signal 
 devices,, but should also use steel coaches wherever possible. 
 Unfortunately, the financial condition of some railroads 
 has prevented an expenditure of funds for such purposes. 
 A federal law requiring automatic couplers has reduced 
 markedly the number of casualties among trainmen. The 
 employee, however, cannot be relieved of his individual re- 
 sponsibility. He must be constantly on the alert for his 
 own safety and for that of others. From the railroad 
 point of view it is an absolute waste to employ ignorant, 
 careless or unsteady workmen. On the other hand, hours 
 of work should not be so continuous as to produce fatigue 
 and lowered efl&ciency. 
 
 Statistics regarding mining accidents are compiled by 
 state inspectors and are neither so complete nor so accurate 
 as those regarding railroads. Of mining ac- other 
 cidents, those in coal mines are the most niimer- <^<^'^"t'- 
 ous. In the coal-producing countries of Europe the out- 
 put has increased greatly, but the number of deaths per 
 thousand has decreased. This is due to legislation con- 
 cerning the operation of mines and to the establishment of 
 testing stations for the study of problems relating to safety 
 in mines. Much has been accompHshed by government 
 regulations concerning the use of safety lamps, explosives 
 and the proper support of small passageways. In regard 
 to manufacturing, we find the same incompleteness of 
 statistics, because of the system of state inspection of 
 factories. The chief source of danger here lies in the 
 
i8o American Social Problems 
 
 use of unguarded machinery. Safety appliances are 
 often discarded in the " speeding up " process. Inef- 
 ficient labor and long-continued work upon the same 
 monotonous operation frequently result in careless ac- 
 cidents. The effects of industrial accidents and dangerous 
 trades are more than an impairment of individual efficiency 
 or a sacrifice of hfe and limb. They also represent an 
 enormous loss of productive power. Again, the burden 
 of such injuries falls not only upon the worker himself, but 
 also upon his family and the community. Loss of the ser- 
 vices of the breadwiimer may make the family destitute 
 of proper support and thus dependent upon society. 
 
 In view of these marked effects of dangerous trades and 
 industrial accidents upon society, it is important that the 
 individual affected be provided with legal ma- 
 remedies: chinery whereby he may be reimbursed for in- 
 Sociai juries suffered at the hands of his fellow men. 
 
 insurance. . . _ 
 
 That IS, society must offer some means of pro- 
 tection to the workman or to his family for social injiuries. 
 The first step toward social insurance is found in the Em- 
 ployer's LiabiHty Act, under which the injured workman 
 may bring suit against the employer to recover damages 
 for injury suffered. However, because of the doctrine of 
 contributory neghgence, it was often impossible for the 
 workman to receive any recompense for his injury, if it 
 could be proved that such injury was partly caused by his 
 own carelessness or by that of his fellow workers. It, 
 therefore, marked a great step in advance for the workman 
 when society evolved the idea of a Workman's Compensa- 
 tion Act, whereby the expense of lawsuits is generally 
 eliminated. According to this act, the workman, for his 
 injury, receives automatically a percentage of his wages 
 
Social Ejfcds of Industry i8i 
 
 or a certain sum in proportion to the injiiry sustained. 
 Even though the fault may be largely that of the workman, 
 the employer must bear the brunt of the financial burden, 
 and in this way accept financially the risk which the 
 laborer assumes physically. Hence the employer is more 
 apt to consider the safety of his employees. In 1897, to 
 supersede the older Employer's Liability Act, England 
 passed a Workman's Compensation Act. In the United 
 States, this legislation is largeh- a matter of state action 
 and several commonwealths, including Pennsylvania, have 
 enacted such laws. 
 
 A final step in the process of social insurance is that of 
 compulsory state insurance. Germany early adopted this 
 plan. In 1SS4 a law was enacted requiring em- (-„„,4^^„ 
 ployees to become members of mutual accident ^latc 
 
 , , ^, imurance. 
 
 msurance compames supervised by the govern- 
 ment. Germany also has compulsory insurance against 
 illness, to which fund both employees and employers con- 
 tribute. A third form of state insurance is represented 
 by old age pensions. To this fund not onl}- the employer 
 and employee contribute, but the state also bears a portion 
 of the burden of ever}- aimuity. These plans have usually 
 been regarded as paternalistic by Kberal democratic coun- 
 tries and, for this reason, have not jet been generally 
 adopted. However, with the increase of governmental 
 acti\-ity along the lines of social welfare, it is more than 
 likely that the near future will witness even the most demo- 
 cratic countries taking such action. 
 
i82 American Social Problems 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. Sketch the history of child labor in the United States. 
 
 2. What states and industries are conspicuous in this regard? 
 
 3. Why is it more difficult in the United States than in England 
 to legislate against this evil ? 
 
 4. Give some causes of child labor and suggest remedies. 
 
 5. State fully the effects of child labor. 
 
 6. What points should a model child labor bill cover? 
 
 7. What organization has done much to lessen child labor? 
 How? 
 
 8. Compare the chUd labor problem with that of women in in- 
 dustry. 
 
 9. Discuss the evils of the sweat shop. 
 
 10. Show the relation of women in industry to men's wages. 
 
 11. What are some results of an inadequate wage for women? 
 
 12. How and why have some states tried to regulate this problem? 
 
 13. Give five classes of women's occupations. 
 
 14. Show how woman's sphere of activity has increased. 
 
 15. What do you think wiU be some results of it? 
 
 16. Classify some dangerous trades and tell what the source of 
 danger is in each. 
 
 17. Can you name any others beside those in the text? 
 
 18. Give an estimate of the annual number of industrial ac- 
 cidents. 
 
 19. Who are to blame and why? 
 
 20. What occupations lead in this respect and how may conditions 
 in each be improved ? 
 
 21. What are the social effects of industrial accidents? 
 
 22. Compare American and European conditions with regard to 
 industrial accidents. 
 
 23. Find out what you can about the "Safety First" move- 
 ment. 
 
 24. What is the meaning of social insurance ? 
 
 25. Compare the Employer's Liability Act with the Workman's 
 Compensation Act. 
 
 26. Show what Germany has done in the field of compulsory state 
 insurance. 
 
Social Effects of Industry 183 
 
 TOPICS FOR SPECIAL REPORT 
 
 1. The diild labor laws of your own state. 
 
 2. The work of the " Consumers' League." 
 
 3. Af inim iim wage laws. 
 
 4. \A"orking conditions in our mines. 
 
 5. \A'orking conditions in some factory or department store near 
 you. 
 
 6. The railroads and industrial accidents. 
 
 7. Government regulation of dangerous trades in the United States 
 and other countries. 
 
 8. Contemporary social legislation in the United States. 
 
 REFERENXES 
 
 .\D.iiis and SuMXER. "Labor Problems." Chapter 11. 
 
 Rejxjrt of the Xational Child Labor Committee. 
 
 Spargo, Johx. "Bitter Cry of the Children." 
 
 Clopper, E. X. "Child Labor in the City Streets." 
 
 Kelley, F. "Some Ethical Gains through Legislation." Chapters 
 I, II, m. 
 
 Reports of Consumers' Leagues. 
 
 ■\Iaxgoid, G. B. "Child Labor Problems.'' Book 3, Chapters I-V. 
 
 Abbott, Edith. "Women in Industry." 
 
 BuRCH, H. R., and Xearixg, S. "Elements of Economics." Chap- 
 ters xn, xni. 
 
 Se.\ger, H. R. "Social Insurance." 
 OLm:R, T. "Dangerous Trades.'' 
 Oliver, T. "Diseases of Occupation." 
 \^AX VoRST. " The Woman WTio Toils." 
 Se.\ger, H. R. "Principles of Economics." 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 The Problem of Adjustment 
 
 I. Nature of adjustment 
 
 1 . Maladjustments 
 
 2. Need of adjustment 
 
 3. Meaning of adjustment 
 
 4. Principles of adjustment 
 
 5. Results accomplished 
 
 6. The social surplus 
 II. Methods of adjustment 
 
 1 . Through organization : 
 
 a. How capital organized 
 
 b. How labor organized 
 
 c. How society organized 
 
 2. Through changes in taxation : 
 
 a. Usual forms 
 
 b. Newer forms : 
 (i) Income taxes 
 
 (2) Inheritance taxes 
 
 (3) Effect of war 
 
 3. Through changes in distribution : 
 
 a. Why necessary 
 
 b. Profit-sharing 
 
 c. The single tax 
 
 d. Socialism 
 
 Nature of Adjustment. — In the preceding chapters we 
 have seen numerous examples of maladjustment, that is, 
 Maiadjust- of the failure of society to adjust itself properly 
 ments. ^q great changes in the social environment. In 
 
 a country like China, where the force of tradition is potent, 
 
 184 
 
The Problem of Adjustment 185 
 
 these maladjustments are explicable. It is not difl&cult 
 to understand why, in spite of rich natural resources, the 
 specter of poverty stalks the land and the death rate rises 
 to enormous proportions. The ways of the fathers inter- 
 fere with the utilization of the environment. In the 
 United States, however, there is little justification for 
 maladjustment. America is a new country, full of modern 
 ideas and untrammeled by tradition. It is rather startling 
 therefore to find, in a land of popular education and dem- 
 ocratic ideals, a society that fails to change the environ- 
 ment of law and custom in order to meet the new conditions 
 brought about by the Industrial Revolution. 
 
 That revolution, culminating in the factory system and 
 in large scale production, transformed our economic Kfe 
 and made social adjustment necessary. In the Need of ad- 
 present age, therefore, a number of imsettled i"stment. 
 problems of an economic and social character have sur- 
 vived the transformation of our industrial environment. 
 Housing and health conditions do not conform to scientific 
 knowledge and present ideals. In a land of riches, poverty 
 still exists and women and children labor for long hours 
 in unhealthy factories. Men still work imrestricted in 
 the dangerous trades, while every year hmnan hves are 
 sacrificed in industrial accidents. Friction between labor 
 and capital results in strikes and lockouts and from such 
 industrial conflicts society suffers. In view of all these 
 circumstances, the need of adjustment is evident. 
 
 Adjustment is the removal by society of apparent ob- 
 stacles in the path of progress. These obstacles come down 
 to us from the past in the form of customs, laws. Meaning of 
 fixed ideas and methods of living. They have adjustment. 
 been suited to an older environment — either physical or 
 
i86 American Social Problems 
 
 social — but are out of harmony with present conditions. 
 Society must, therefore, change this social heredity so that 
 to-day the life of man may reach its full fruition. For 
 example, the traditions of hard continuous toil, of low 
 wages, of bad housing conditions and of unhealthy work- 
 ing surroundings have come down to us from an age when 
 such ideas were an outgrowth of meager physical resources 
 and of lack of scientific knowledge. But to-day, in normal 
 times, an eight-hour day, high wages and good working 
 conditions are easily attainable. Society, therefore, must 
 change from the old to the new regime. This process of 
 change is called adjustment. 
 
 All hfe is a process of adjustment. We find it at work 
 in the physical world, in organic Hfe and in society. In the 
 Principles of physical world the proccss is unconscious. But, 
 adjustment, -^yhen Society seeks to change environing social 
 conditions in order to meet the needs of man's present 
 life, it proceeds on two principles. First, it acts on the 
 theory that man himself is capable of improvement and 
 for the most part mif ettered by laws of physical and mental 
 inheritance. While, of course, the existence of certain in- 
 herited physical and mental handicaps is recognized, 
 society, in working out the process of adjustment, pro- 
 ceeds on the principle that the vast majority of mankind 
 is inherently capable of progress. In other words, man's 
 future is not regarded as already determined by his biologi- 
 cal past. The son of a pauper may have in him the germs 
 of greatness as much as the child of the millionaire. In 
 the second place, the process of adjustment is accomplished 
 through the principle of cooperation. Society, working 
 together, must accomplish the changes in the social en- 
 vironment necessary to man's freedom and development. 
 
The Problem of Adjustment 187 
 
 Compared to the organized force of society, individual 
 effort is powerless. Never wiU great changes be wrought 
 in the social order, until the doctrine of unshackled in- 
 dixiduaUsm is recognized as belonging to the past age 
 that gave it birth. 
 
 Although much remains to be accomplished, society 
 has already made many adjustments. Serfdom and 
 slavery ha\e been abohshed, while the fate of Results ac- 
 autocrac}"^ hangs in the balance. Xo longer do ""npiished. 
 men toil so incessantly as when conditions of life were 
 precarious. Professor Patten in his '' Xew Basis of Civili- 
 zation " discusses the social and economic gains of the 
 last centur}\ Production has so increased that many goods, 
 formerly regarded as luxuries, are now consumed by all. 
 Inventions have not only lightened the burden of labor, 
 but ha^"e also resulted in more leisure time for the worker. 
 The wealth of our natural resources is so abundant that 
 exploitation is no longer necessary. Higher ideals pre- 
 vail and public opinion will no longer tolerate what was 
 once regarded as necessary and normal. For this reason, 
 society is more seriouslj- thcin e^er considering the problem 
 of adjustment. 
 
 The process of adjustment must be continuous ^\ath 
 every change in the social and economic environment. 
 For example, if society has created an enor- The social 
 mous amount of surplus wealth, it will mt\\- surplus, 
 tably follow that certain adjustments will have to be made 
 by society for the disposition of that wealth. For many 
 years past, in the United States, an enormous amount of 
 surplus wealth has been created. It exists in the form of 
 railroads and canals, as well as in '' trust " products and 
 land values. This wealth has been called the social sur- 
 
1 88 American Social Problems 
 
 plus because it is regarded, not so much as the result of 
 individual, as of social action. In other words, the social 
 surplus is primarily the result of cooperation, and its 
 increase is characteristic of an advancing civilization. 
 Primitive man hved from hand to mouth without the ac- 
 cumulation of any surplus. In the httle that he con- 
 sumed, however, he was rather commimistic, because the 
 land and game were shared by all. But modem men pro- 
 duce collectively great quantities of goods which are sub- 
 ject to individual appropriation and consumption. In the 
 production of these goods, thousands of men have vmited. 
 Without this cooperation, they could not have been pro- 
 duced. Hence, the term social surplus has been appHed to 
 them. In the process of modem manufactiuiag, for 
 example, the final product is possible only by means of 
 the principle of di\'ision of labor and by the complete co- 
 operation of all the labor involved. The creation of this 
 social surplus by our modem industrial system has led to 
 a new problem of adjustment. 
 
 Methods of Adjustment. — How has society attempted 
 to meet the new problem of adjustment made necessary by 
 the creation of a social surplus? That is to say, through 
 what channels may this socially created wealth be returned 
 to the worker and the commimity? With the hope of 
 solving this problem, certain groups in society have ad- 
 vocated special methods of adjustment. It is our piupose 
 here to present the main outlines of these plans, rather 
 than to pass judgment upon their respective merits. 
 
 One method of adjustment that society has generally 
 accepted and usually advocated is that of organization. 
 Of course, capital and labor are equally essential to pro- 
 duction. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, 
 
The Problem of Adjustment 189 
 
 society, aside from the landowner, became divided into 
 two great classes — those of capital and labor. In the 
 nineteenth century, the capitaUstic class became 
 
 1 • , , -IT. , , , r , Through or- 
 
 highly organized. It owned the tools of produc- ganization : 
 tion, offered the worker employment, and paid Bow capital 
 
 1 . T 1 I- • 1 <• f organized. 
 
 him wages, it was therefore m the form of wages 
 that labor received its share of wealth. The determina- 
 tion of these wages rested largely with the employer. For, 
 as the capitaHstic class became thoroughly organized, it 
 could fix wages at the level desired. It must be remembered 
 that, when capital became organized in the form of the 
 great " trusts " of the latter part of the nineteenth cen- 
 tury, these combinations attempted to crush competition 
 and to wield great monopoly power. This exercise of 
 monopoly power brought with it certaia advantages. 
 For example, capital, so organized, could control the prod- 
 uct from raw material to finished article, reduce the cost 
 of production, utilize by-products and, through special- 
 ization in industry, secure the highest possible efficiency. 
 From a social point of view, these gains to industry might 
 result in tremendous advantages to the commimity. 
 
 But how did this power, wielded by organizations of 
 capital, actually manifest itself ? As far back as the begin- 
 ning of the nineteenth century, its effect on labor ^ow labor 
 was apparent and, toward the close of the same "namzed. 
 century, its effect upon society was equally apparent. 
 Instead of the advantages of organized capital redoimding 
 to the benefit of labor and the community, they were 
 largely appropriated by the capitalists themselves. Low 
 wages, long hours of work and imsanitary working con- 
 ditions forced labor to form equally powerful organizations ; 
 and, later, high prices and inferior products forced the 
 
ipo American Social Problems 
 
 community to take similar measures for its protection. 
 In other words, the advantage of decreased cost of produc- 
 tion, instead of going to labor in the form of higher wages 
 or to the community in the form of lower prices, went to 
 the capitalistic class in the form of higher prices and larger 
 profits. Labor organizations were first looked upon as 
 conspiracies and their leaders severely punished. To-day, 
 however, they have secured a firm place in the social and 
 economic system. The American Federation of Labor 
 is one of the most influential organizations in this country, 
 wielding enormous power in behalf of its members. Labor 
 reUes upon this organization to secure a larger share of 
 the social surplus. This it accomphshes by securing higher 
 wages, shorter hours and better working conditions. It 
 employs the weapons of the strike, the lockout and the 
 boycott. Of course, the exercise of this power is often 
 dangerous to the community, as well as to the worker and 
 employer. The great anthracite coal strike in Pennsyl- 
 vania was sufficient evidence of this danger, while the 
 bold threat of the Railroad Brotherhoods (191 6) shows the 
 tremendous power now exercised by such organizations 
 as well as their possible danger. The Industrial Workers 
 of the World is a later organization of labor that shows 
 to what extremes labor will go to gain a larger share of 
 the social surplus. It openly advocates violence and 
 destruction of property. Such illegal and anarchistic 
 methods deserve society's severest condemnation. 
 
 We have also seen that the community has suffered 
 from the organization of capital in the form of the 
 How society trust and other great industrial combinations. 
 orsanized. -pj^g decreased cost of production, brought about 
 by large scale production, should, however, appear in lower 
 
The Problem of Adjustment 191 
 
 prices and better goods for the community. Society thus 
 demands its share of the social surplus. When, therefore, 
 it was found in the latter years of the nineteenth century 
 that prices were rising out of all proportion to cost of 
 production, and that the consumer was becoming a victim 
 of organized capital's monopoly power, society began to 
 take measures for its own protection. In 1887 the In- 
 terstate Commerce Commission had been established and 
 in 1890 the Sherman Anti-Trust Law was passed. The 
 former applied primarily to railroads and the latter to 
 trusts. These acts have later been strengthened by a 
 number of amendments and new enactments for the pro- 
 tection of the public. In this manner, society is seeking 
 an adjustment to the new economic conditions. The 
 public, through lower prices and better goods, seeks to 
 break the undue monopoly power exercised by organized 
 capital. With the abnormal conditions brought about 
 by war, society sees still further the necessity for self- 
 protection. 
 
 Another method of appropriating the social surplus is 
 through taxation. In this country, during the last century, 
 the system of taxation employed caused the 
 
 ■' jr J Through 
 
 burden to fall largely upon the poor and the changes in 
 great middle class. Nine-tenths of our rev- t*™*"""-' 
 
 ° . . Usualforms. 
 
 enue was formerly derived from customs duties 
 and excise taxes. Duties, of course, are laid upon imported 
 articles, while excises are internal taxes. The former 
 fall upon a multitude of goods, including wool, sugar and 
 other articles in daily use ; while the latter are laid chiefly 
 upon tobacco and alcoholic drinks. All of these taxes 
 are indirect, that is, the burden of paying them may be 
 shifted from the producer to the consumer. In this 
 
192 American Social Problems 
 
 manner, the support of the government fell largely upon 
 the poorer classes in society because the goods taxed 
 were so largely consumed by them. From a social point of 
 view, this system of taxation had the effect of discriminat- 
 ing in favor of the wealthier classes in society. 
 
 Consequently, with the growth of the idea of social wel- 
 fare, society began to work out changes in the method of 
 Newerforms taxation. Here was an enormous social surplus 
 of taxation. — wealth Socially created — that was largely 
 escaping taxation and remaining in the hands of private 
 individuals. How was this surplus to be returned to the 
 society that created it? In other words, what change in 
 environing conditions, in laws and traditions, was society 
 obhged to accomplish in order to bring about necessary 
 readjustments? Evidently the laws and customs, justify- 
 ing the larger taxation of middle class consumption, must 
 undergo a complete transformation. Accordingly, society 
 set about accomplishing this by means of the utilization 
 of income and inheritance taxes, as well as by the employ- 
 ment of the excess profits tax. 
 
 Prior to 1913, the United States experienced great diffi- 
 culty in levying an income tax, because the Constitution 
 required that direct taxes should be laid in proportion to 
 the population. Such a tax laid during the Civil War was 
 declared constitutional, but a later income tax law enacted 
 during the last decade of the nineteenth century was de- 
 clared unconstitutional by the United States Supreme 
 Court. With the adoption "of the constitutional amend- 
 ment of 191 3, however, the restriction laid upon the levy- 
 ing of direct taxes was removed, so that income tax laws 
 are now as constitutional as those imposing tariff duties. 
 It is needless to say that such laws are intended to take 
 
The Problem of Adjustment 193 
 
 directly from the individual a certain share of his wealth 
 which the cooperative processes of society have helped to 
 produce. A portion of the social surplus is thus returned 
 to society. This fund is used for the promotion of social 
 welfare, while the consumption of the poorer classes is 
 correspondingly relieved of a portion of the burden of 
 taxation. 
 
 Another form of direct taxation is the inheritance tax. 
 Social inequahties are exemplified in inherited fortunes 
 as much as by slum enviromnents. Inheritance taxes are 
 usually graduated so that the larger inherited fortunes, 
 when they pass into new hands, are taxed more heavily 
 than smaller ones. Several European countries employ 
 such a tax, while a few of our own states (New York, 
 Pennsylvania and Wisconsin) also make use of this form 
 of taxation. Of course this tax is designed to eliminate, 
 rather than to accentuate, the glaring inequahties in in- 
 dividual incomes. In the course of time, the benefits of 
 an invention go to society and are not forever confined to 
 the family of the inventor. The advocate of the inherit- 
 ance tax asks why a part of the social surplus should not 
 be similarly enjoyed. For it must be remembered that 
 the fruits of this taxation would, in normal times, be en- 
 joyed by society in the form of better educational facil- 
 ities, larger means of recreation, greater leisure time and 
 in other phases of social welfare. In justice to the American 
 industrial genius, it must here be said, however, that al- 
 ready a large part of the social surplus has been volun- 
 tarily relinquished from individual possession and is being 
 socially enjoyed in the form of great educational founda- 
 tions, large public hbraries and fine charitable institutions. 
 
 Undoubtedly, war has hastened this process of socializa- 
 
194 American Social Problems 
 
 tion of wealth, and, when the period of conflict passes, its 
 effects will still be felt in an increased sociaUzation. Of 
 course, the benefits of such changes in methods of taxation 
 will, unfortunately, be required at first to repair the damage 
 and misfortune brought about by the conflict. Society, 
 therefore, may from this point of view be no better off 
 than it was before the great conflict began. It will prob- 
 ably be worse off, because the enormous amount of capital 
 that has been destroyed must be replaced. War has given 
 rise also to the excess profits tax, which seeks to take from 
 the artificially enriched industries the funds required for 
 the conduct of the government and for the prosecution of 
 hostilities. It has recently been estimated that, whereas 
 formerly customs duties and excise taxes furnished nine- 
 tenths of the revenue of the United States goverrmient, 
 over one-half of our total revenue from taxation is now 
 secured from the income and excess profits taxes (191 8). 
 
 Another method that society is gradually employing 
 to adapt itself to the condition brought about by the crea- 
 Through tion of a social surplus is reflected in various 
 changes in changes in the well-estabUshed system of wealth 
 
 distnbuhon: f _ •' 
 
 Why distribution. Of course, by distribution we 
 
 necessary. mean the manner in which the wealth of society 
 is distributed among the factors in production — land, 
 labor and capital. The landlord recei\es rent, the laborer 
 wages and the capitalist interest. The rise of the trust 
 and of other great forms of organized capital has given 
 birth to another factor in production, called managing 
 ability, that receives for its labor and capital a new share 
 in distribution called profits — a combination of wages 
 and interest. Now, the nineteenth century brought about 
 a condition whereby these shares in distribution — rent, 
 
The Problem of Adjustment 19S 
 
 interest, capital and profits — were very imevenly dis- 
 tributed. The growth of the social surplus was the main 
 cause of this uneven distribution, because this socially 
 created wealth went mainly to the landlord and to the 
 industrial manager. Consequently, rent and profits in- 
 creased enormously, while wages did not advance at the 
 same rate. In comparison with labor conditions abroad, 
 wages were high in the United States ; but, as compared 
 with the rise in rent and profits in this country, wages' 
 rate of increase was slow. These inequalities are well 
 illustrated by the estimate made several years ago that 
 seven-eighths of the families in the United States owned 
 but one-eighth of the national wealth. A later study 
 made in 191 5 estimated that sixty-five per cent of our papu- 
 lation — the poor class, but not paupers — possessed no 
 property ; that fifteen per cent composed the lower middle 
 class whose wealth was below $1000 ; that eighteen per 
 cent made up the upper middle class whose wealth ranged 
 from $2000 to $40,000 ; and that only two per cent of our 
 total population were wealthy in the modern sense of the 
 term. This two per cent owned three-fifths of the entire 
 property of the United States. Hence arises the demand 
 for a redistribution of the social surplus. 
 
 Perhaps the easiest method of readjustment is that 
 known as profit-sharing. According to this plan, the em- 
 ployer, industrial manager or " captain of in- proju- 
 dustry " voluntarily gives up part of his profits **"""«■ 
 to the worker. This may be accomphshed through stock 
 ownership, or through a system of deferred participation 
 in profits, or by means of giving a cash bonus to the laborer 
 in proportion to his wages. Naturally, the latter plan is 
 most acceptable to the worker, whose returns would rise 
 
196 American Social Problems 
 
 or fall in proportion to the degree of success in business 
 undertakings. This plan has recently been inaugurated 
 in an automobile industry where it has given great satis- 
 faction. In addition to his regular wages, the laborer 
 receives an extra cash bonus at the end of the year. 
 Labor co-partnership or cooperation goes a step farther 
 in this process and seeks to ehminate altogether the em- 
 ployer or entrepreneur. The working group subscribes 
 or borrows its own capital and substitutes for the em- 
 ployer a committee of workmen, who direct the business 
 undertaking for their mutual benefit. The best illustra- 
 tion of this experiment is found in the cooperative stores 
 throughout Great Britain. 
 
 The Single Tax theory, first promulgated by Heiu-y 
 George in his " Progress and Poverty," is another method 
 The single advocated for changing our system of wealth 
 '"^^^ distribution. Increased land values is an ex- 
 
 cellent example of socially created wealth. The holder 
 of idle land, whether it be in an agricultural or urban sec- 
 tion, waits upon the action of society for an increase in its 
 value. A farm is enhanced in value by the settlement of 
 the surrounding region, just as real estate values rise be- 
 cause of increased business or social improvements. In 
 either case, society contributes to the rise m the value of 
 the land. The Single Taxer calls this increased value, 
 due to social and not indi\'idual action, the " vmearned 
 increment " which, under our present system, is appro- 
 priated by the landlord in the form of rent. He does not 
 deny to the owner the value of any improvement he may 
 make on the land ; but he does beheve that the extra 
 value, created by society should be taken by the community 
 in the form of a heavy tax. In this manner, a part of the 
 
The Problem of Adjustment 197 
 
 social surplus could be returned to society, which would 
 be benefited by relief from other forms of taxation, by 
 increased production, by greater social benefits and by 
 decreased poverty. This principle has been applied in 
 New Zealand, in European countries, in Vancouver and, 
 in a modified form, in some of our own American states. 
 While it is doubtful whether the Single Tax will accomphsh 
 all that its advocates claim, it is undoubtedly true that this 
 principle offers society a splendid chance to secure a part of 
 the social surplus. It is, therefore, more than Ukely that 
 the future will see a greater utilization of this principle. 
 
 The most radical readjustment urged by social reformers is 
 that embodied in the term Socialism. This system attempts 
 to secure the social surplus for the worker by 
 
 !• -r 11111 11 •!• Socialism. 
 
 taking it from the landlord and the capitahst. 
 The Single Taxer aims to socialize land, but the SociaUst 
 would also socialize capital. That is, " the tools of pro- 
 duction " are to be owned by society. Pubhc owner- 
 ship is to supersede private monopoly. Thus, wages 
 will be increased by eliminating, to a large extent, profits, 
 interest and rent. Labor is to have " the right to the full 
 product," and the social surplus is to be divided among 
 all laborers. Under this system, it is claimed that ex- 
 ploitation of labor would cease and that private monopoly 
 for individual gain would no longer exist. In their place 
 would arise equal opportunity for all and common cooper- 
 ation for the public good. The evils of competition 
 would be replaced by the advantages of monopoly, existing 
 only for the public service. Through collective owner- 
 ship of the means of production, the salvation of society 
 wtjuld be attained. Such ideals are beautiful ; but is . 
 society ready for this experiment? If we stake all, we 
 
198 American Social Problems 
 
 may lose all. Unfortunately, self-interest, not the spirit 
 of social service, is still the leading motive in human 
 nature. Public morality is often low, while inefi&ciency 
 and corruption are yet found in public life. While un- 
 doubtedly the functions of modern governments are 
 rapidly expanding, it is still questionable whether the 
 governmental structure could bear the additional strain 
 imposed upon it by the complete adoption of such a sys- 
 tem. Rather is a solution of the problem to be sought 
 in a gradual absorption of so-called sociaUstic doctrines 
 into the widening functions of modern government. Only 
 indirectly will the true mission of socialism be fulfilled. 
 
 This discussion may make us question whether the 
 problem of poverty is, or ever will be, capable of com- 
 plete solution. Is it possible for society to make such 
 changes in the social system as to secure complete ad- 
 justment between man and his environment? Is there 
 something inherent in human nature that prevents this 
 harmony from being attained? To answer these ques- 
 tions more fully we shall examine in detail the problem 
 of poverty, the phenomenon of crime and the group of 
 natural defectives. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. Give some examples of maladjustments. 
 
 2. Give meaning and examples of the process of adjustment. 
 
 3. When is it necessary for society to make adjustments? 
 
 4. Show the relation between progress and adjustment. 
 
 5. Mention some great adjustments made by society in the nine- 
 teenth century. 
 
 6. Explain the "social surplus." 
 
 7. How did the social surplus give rise to another problem of ad- 
 justment ? 
 
The Problem of Adjustment 199 
 
 8. How did labor seek an adjustment ? 
 
 9. How did the public ? 
 
 10. Give several plans of profit-sharing. 
 
 11. What is the essential creed of sociaUsm? 
 
 12. What is your opinion regarding the advantages and disad- 
 vantages of socialism ? 
 
 13. Define what is meant by the "Single Tax." 
 
 14. What are its advantages and justification ? 
 
 15. Where have income and inheritance taxes been tried? 
 
 16. What is their justification ? 
 
 17. Should society permit the amassing of huge fortunes and their 
 inheritance ? 
 
 TOPICS FOR SPECIAL REPORT 
 
 1. The effect of war upon the social surplus. 
 
 2. The cooperative stores of Great Britain. 
 
 3. The effect of war upon income and inheritance taxes in 
 Europe and America. 
 
 4. The life and work of Henry George. 
 
 5. Single tax reforms in Australasia. 
 
 6. Karl Marx and the early socialists. 
 
 7. State sociaHsm in Germany. 
 
 8. The present platform of the sociahst party in America. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Patten, S. N. "New Basis of Civilization." 
 
 BuxcH, H. R., and Nearing, S. "Elements of Economics." Chap- 
 ters I, XXXII, XXXVIII-XLI (inclusive). 
 
 Seager, H. R. "Principles of Economics." Chapters XX\TI- 
 XXXIII (inclusive). 
 
 Hayes, E. C. "Introduction to Study of Sociology." Chapters 
 \TI-X (inclusive.) 
 
 KiKKUP, T. "History of Sociahsm." 
 
 Wells, H. G. "New Worlds for Old." 
 
 George, Henry. "Progress and Poverty." 
 
 Nearing, Scott. "Social Adjustment." 
 
 Oilman, N. P. "Profit Sharing." 
 
 Jenks, J. W. " Government Action for Social Welfare." 
 
II. 
 
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 
 The Problem of Poverty 
 
 Nature of poverty 
 
 I. 
 
 Definition of terms 
 
 2. 
 
 Extent of : 
 
 
 a. Poverty 
 
 
 b. Pauperism 
 
 3- 
 
 The point of view : 
 
 
 a. Change of attitude 
 
 
 b. Reformers' errors 
 
 
 c. Theory of evolution 
 
 Ci 
 
 auses of poverty 
 
 I. 
 
 Environmental : 
 
 
 a. Physical environment 
 
 
 b. Economic environment 
 
 
 (i) Low wages 
 
 
 (2) Unemployment 
 
 
 (3) Other causes , 
 
 
 c. Social environment 
 
 
 d. Defects in government 
 
 
 e. Defects in education 
 
 2. 
 
 Individual : 
 
 
 a. Degeneracy 
 
 
 b. Disease 
 
 
 c. Intemperance 
 
 
 d. Crime 
 
 
 e. Desertion 
 
 
 /. Death of main support 
 
 
 g. Old age 
 
 
 h. Defectives 
 
 
 i. Indolence 
 
The Problem of Poverty 201 
 
 Nature of Poverty. — In a discussion of poverty it is 
 necessary at the outset to define several terms. That 
 class in society with the lowest income is usually Definition 
 referred to as the " poor." With the advance of °^ **'™^- 
 civihzation, the standards of hving of both rich and poor 
 have been raised. The well-to-do classes live in luxury 
 unknown a few centuries ago to the corresponding group. 
 The poor of to-day also possess more comforts than those 
 enjoyed by a similar group in earHer society. The poor, 
 however, in the sense of the lowest income class have per- 
 sisted in society and must continue to exist in spite of all 
 adjustments society may make. The rise of standards of 
 living will go on in all classes, but in spite of this upward 
 movement, the poor will necessarily remain so, unless 
 society sweeps away all economic distinctions. In sociol- 
 ogy, however, the term " poor " is not used in this popular 
 sense. The, sociologist employs the special term poverty 
 to mean the condition of that group only whose income, 
 and therefore standard of living, is not high enough to 
 maintain normal health and efficiency. It is in this sense, 
 and to such a group, that the term poverty will be applied 
 in this chapter. It may even be possible for the advance of 
 civihzation to eliminate such a group by raising its in- 
 come to an amount required to maintain an " efi&ciency " 
 standard of living. The pauper group is a part of the 
 poverty class. Paupers are those individuals or famihes, 
 in almshouses or in their own homes, who require economic 
 help frorn various charity organizations. They belong to the 
 group known as social debtors, for pauperism is essentially 
 a state of dependency. Those individuals, however, who 
 live in a condition of poverty, but who are too proud to 
 receive outside help, should not be referred to as paupers. 
 
202 American Social Problems 
 
 The extent of poverty is difficult to determine, for social 
 measurements cannot be made with absolute and undeviat- 
 Extentof: ing accuracy. Standards of health and ef- 
 Poveriy. ficicncy vary with the individual judgment of 
 the observer. Again, the purchasing power of income 
 fluctuates with the rise and fall of prices. Since poverty 
 has an economic basis, its extent throughout the general 
 population varies greatly with industrial prosperity and 
 depression. Poverty is also much higher in the city than 
 in rural communities. The extent of pauperism is almost 
 equally difficult to determine. The almshouse shelters 
 such different groups of dependents as the sick, the feeble- 
 minded, the aged and the shiftless. Records are generally 
 poorly kept and, unfortunately, many societies for long 
 periods of time kept no records whatever. Several in- 
 dividuals, however, have made special studies of the extent 
 of poverty in a particular locality. Charles Booth made 
 the first great investigation of its kind for London, and 
 Rowntree undertook a similar study for the city of York. 
 In these cities the estimated proportions of those living in 
 poverty, that is, below an income required to maintain the 
 normal standard of health and efficiency, were thirty and 
 seven-tenths per cent and twenty-seven and eight-tenths 
 per cent respectively. Robert Hunter, by similar investi- 
 gations in our own country, estimated that the proportion 
 of those living in poverty in our large cities and industrial 
 centers rarely fell below twenty-five per cent. It is smaller 
 of course in the rural sections but, for our country at large, 
 the expression " the submerged tenth " is probably not an 
 exaggeration. In 1904, in normal times of peace, Mr. 
 Hunter estimated that about ten million inhabitants of 
 the United States were most of the time underfed, poorly 
 

 
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The Problem of Poverty 203 
 
 housed and insufl&ciently clothed. On this basis the 
 poverty group, excluding paupers, would seem to range 
 from ten to twelve per cent of our total population. 
 
 The census of 19 10 gave the number of dependents in 
 our various institutions as 700,000. This estimate, how- 
 ever, has little significance because most paupers 
 
 111 1 r 1 Pauperism. 
 
 are not in the almshouses but are cared for by 
 what is known as the system of outdoor relief. The total 
 nvunber of dependents is probably between four and five 
 millions. It is more likely to be nearer the upper than the 
 lower figure because our population has increased nor- 
 mally since 1904, and there is no indication that the per- 
 centage of pauperism in normal times has materially de- 
 chned. The support of this army of dependents requires 
 annually about a half biUion dollars. If we include the 
 paupers with the poverty group, the total number of such 
 persons will probably reach the fifteen million mark in 
 ordinary times. The effects of the World War and new 
 economic conditions remain to be seen in both Europe and 
 ^\merica. The percentage of pauperism in ovir own country 
 has been placed at five per cent. The following stray facts 
 seem to bear out this estimate. In 1903, twenty per cent of 
 the population of the city of Boston were aided by pubHc 
 rehef. In the same year, fourteen per cent of the families 
 living in the borough of Manhattan were evicted from their 
 homes for nonpayment of rent ; and, in spite of the fear 
 of a pauper's grave, ten per cent of those who died in the 
 same borough were buried in potters' field. 
 
 The old attitude toward poverty was that it always had 
 existed and always would continue to exist so long as the 
 world endured. Almsgiving was regarded as a rehgious 
 duty and an indication of the piety of the donor. The 
 
204 American Social Problems 
 
 monasteries of the Christian Church sheltered the poor and 
 
 unfortunate of the Middle Ages. So, to-day, innurnerable 
 
 beggars in the Mohammedan countries of the 
 Point of ^^ 
 
 view: world contmually appeal to the traveler for 
 
 Change oj ' ' alms f or the love of Allah. ' ' The modern view- 
 
 attilude. 
 
 pomt, however, is that poverty m its narrow 
 sociological meaning is unnecessary. The same scientific 
 spirit which has rooted out smallpox, yellow fever and other 
 physical contagions is striving to cure the social disease 
 of poverty. The remedy is not indiscriminate almsgiving, 
 because that kind of charity only increases pauperism. 
 The causes which produce this unfortunate condition must 
 be eliminated by individuals and by society. Poverty will 
 then diminish in the same way that the ehmination of the 
 mosquito has reduced the amount of yeUow fever in the 
 tropics. 
 
 A number of social reformers have made the error of 
 assuming that poverty had but one cause. Thus, Malthus 
 beUeved poverty was due to the pressure of population 
 upon food supply. Karl Marx sought its explanation in 
 Reformers' the Ownership of the instruments of produc- 
 errors. ^Jq^ ^^y ^j^g capitaHstic class. Socialism was 
 
 therefore his remedy. To Henry George, poverty was 
 the result of the rise in rent and only the " Single Tax " 
 could remove it. Poverty, however, is a complex phe- 
 nomenon and its causes are manifold. They are both ob- 
 jective and subjective. Not only environment, but he- 
 redity must be taken into account in analyzing the 
 causes of poverty. Each case of dependency has its 
 roots in a number of causes which he both in the individual 
 and in his environment. 
 
 Evolution in the field of biology may offer us a parallel. 
 
TJte Problem of Poverty 205 
 
 Society may be regarded, for most individuals, as a form 
 of the struggle for existence. Some environments are 
 more favorable to survival than others. Again, jiuory of 
 variations exist between indi\iduals ; some are «™^"''<"'- 
 stronger, wiser and more efficient than others. We have 
 seen that artificial handicaps may also exist, for there 
 is not Eilways an equalit}- of opportunity. Artificial se- 
 lection does not always eliminate the imfit, but merely 
 places them in the lower or poverty group. Altruism in 
 modern ci\Tlization expresses itself in the building of alms- 
 houses and in the organization of charity. Human society 
 also difiers from the animal world because of the existence 
 of a directive intelligence, by means of which man may 
 transform his en\'iromnent and make purposive changes 
 for his own betterment. 
 
 Causes of Poverty. — A people may suffer from poverty 
 because of the barrenness of the phjsical environment due 
 to poor soil or other natural restrictions. Mi- 
 
 EnviTon- 
 
 grations from poorer to richer regions then re- mental: 
 suit in wars. Again, there may be unfavorable P^iy^itaicti- 
 climatic conditions, such as an excess of moisture 
 or a lack of rainfall as found in swamp lands and deserts. 
 Scientific agriculture, however, has done much for the pro- 
 ducti^"ity of such regions and has made them more capable 
 of supporting a larger population. Natural forces may 
 produce floods, earthquakes, storms or droughts and cause 
 a given locahty to suffer from temporary poverty or even 
 pauperism. Ulustrations of this fact are found in the 
 Johnstown flood, in the San Francisco earthquake and in 
 the storm at Galveston. Fires in our great cities have, 
 by force of accident, reduced many fa mili es of means to 
 actual want. Again, certain diseases, like malaria and 
 
2o6 American Social Problems 
 
 hookworm, flourish in particular environments. Inhabit- 
 ants of these regions are regarded as indolent and shiftless, 
 whereas their constitutions are really undervitalized by 
 environmental influences. 
 
 The minimum wage under which a normal standard of 
 health and efiiciency may be maintained has been va- 
 Economicen- riously estimated. For the normal family in 
 vironmnit. jg^^ ^jjg aunual sum of $700 or $650 was fixed 
 as the minimum in certain places. For larger cities, like 
 New York, Dr. Chapin estimated that a yearly income of 
 less than $800 was not sufficient to maintain a normal 
 standard of living for the average family of five persons. 
 A similar sum was fixed upon after an investigation of the 
 stockyard district of Chicago. There were, however, at 
 that time five million industrial workers in the United 
 States who were annually earning $600 or less. While a 
 number of these were single men, found among the un- 
 skilled immigrant laborers, a considerable proportion of 
 them were supporting families. In 1908, sixty-five per cent 
 of the workers in the steel industry of Pittsburg, " the 
 city of a thousand milUonaires," were classified as un- 
 skilled laborers with wages ranging from S405 to $505 a 
 year. A wage lower than the minimum required to main- 
 tain an " efficiency " standard of living seems to be the 
 story of the New York tenements, of the stockyard dis- 
 trict of Chicago, of the industrial towns of Pennsylvania 
 and of the coal fields of West Virginia. Of recent years the 
 problem has become more acute because of the great in- 
 crease in the cost of living. Prices have increased enor- 
 mously, while the rise in wages, except in the war industries, 
 has not been proportional. Several years ago, four-fifths 
 of the adult male wage earners in many industrial sections 
 
The Problem of Poverty 
 
 207 
 
 of this country' were recemng less than $750 a year, while 
 a third received less than S500. The foUowing chart, made 
 after careful study of the incomes and expenditures of 
 representative families, shows conditions in New York 
 City in 1907 : 
 
 Cost of Lrixg of 230 F amtttf s ix Greater New York 
 
 
 Five Persons in Family 
 
 HcsBAND, Wrn: and Three 
 
 Children tn-der 14 Years 
 
 OF Age 
 
 Group I 
 $6oo-$7oo 
 
 Group n 
 $70o-t8oo 
 
 Group m 
 $8oo-$9oo 
 
 Average Income . . 
 
 S650.OO S746.OO 
 
 SS45.OO 
 
 Number of families 
 
 76 
 
 83 
 
 71 
 
 Expenditure for : 
 
 Amovint 
 
 % 
 
 Amount 
 
 "To 
 
 Amount' % 
 
 Food . . 
 
 Rent .... 
 
 Clothing . 
 
 Light and fuel 
 
 Insurance . 
 
 Sundries . . 
 Total ... 
 Deficit or surplus . . 
 
 2SS 43.0 
 154 , 23.5 
 91 13-9 
 35 ' 5-3 
 18 2.7 
 70 10.7 
 
 34-^ 
 
 156 
 
 102 
 
 37 
 
 19 
 
 00 
 
 45-S 
 20.9 
 13.6 
 4-0 
 ^•5 
 12.0 
 
 367 45-4 
 167 20.7 
 112 13.S 
 39 ' 4-8 
 19 : 2.5 
 103 12.7 
 
 656 100. 
 - 6 
 
 746 100 — 
 
 
 S07 100 — 
 + 38 
 
 Unemplo>Tnent, another phase of our economic environ- 
 ment, may be defined as involuntary idleness during normal 
 working tune. It applies only to the group of wage 
 earners who are capable and willing to work, and not to the 
 shiftless cind indolent who avoid work at all hazards. This 
 problem is social, as well as economic, in character. The 
 Charity Organization Society of New York states that 
 a haK of all their applicants need work rather than ma- 
 terial help. During the winter of 1914-1915 the imem- 
 ployment problem became so acute in Philadelphia that a 
 
2o8 American Social Problems 
 
 commission was appointed to investigate the problem. 
 The report is most fruitful. During the winter, in a city 
 of about one and a quarter million inhabitants, the number 
 of imemployed in various occupations ranged from fifty 
 to two hundred and fifty thousand. The amount of un- 
 employment in normal times was found to be alarming. 
 Lace weavers, for example, were found to have worked only 
 three-fifths of their time in the last five years. One repre- 
 sentative carpet mill never failed to lose twenty per cent 
 of its time in any year during the last four years. It was 
 estimated that dock hands did not work more than two 
 days each week. It was found that every winter thousands 
 of ItaHans returned to Philadelphia from the truck farms 
 of South Jersey to render the city's unemployment problem 
 more acute. Except in times of war or great prosperity 
 there is probably a permanent excess of the supply of labor 
 of the lowest grade. This situation partly explains why 
 wages are so low, and why unemployment is so acute, 
 among imskilled workers. Alternations of dull and busy 
 seasons also throw many out of emplo}Tnent. 
 
 The problem of imemployment would be alleviated by 
 the dovetailing of occupations, whereby an industn,-, lo- 
 cated in an agricultural district, would furnish employment 
 between the seasons of harvesting and planting. Seasonal 
 trades are the source of much unemployment, but in some 
 cases there is little excuse for their being seasonal. Better 
 industrial organization in the form of labor exchanges or 
 bureaus would help greatly in the solution of this problem. 
 In times of panic and industrial depression the problem 
 of unemployment becomes most acute. The local and 
 federal governments should plan in advance their pro- 
 grams of public improvements, and as great a proportion as 
 
The Problem of Poverty . 209 
 
 possible of this work should be deferred until labor crises 
 arise. PubUc emplojTnent agencies should be estabhshed 
 to furnish prompt and ready knowledge of the opportunities 
 for labor. 
 
 The effects of unemployment are serious. In the first 
 place this maladjustment represents a great waste of 
 economic resources. It often means that the family of the 
 unemployed worker becomes destitute and must be sup- 
 ported by the community. Charity may tide over the 
 situation, but it is no solution of the real problem. Fi- 
 nally, unemployment often results in a deterioration of the 
 worker. It may lead to family desertion or, b}' enforcing 
 idle habits, it may pauperize the laborer himself. 
 
 That changes in industn,' may produce temporary hard- 
 ship is weU illustrated by the transition from the domestic 
 to the factory system of industry. The amount of poverty 
 is also greater during industrial crises and in periods of 
 financial distress. Strikes and lockouts have a similar 
 effect. Again, a bad system of land tenure, such as existed 
 in England during the time of the " inclosures,"' produces 
 much poverty. For many years the great Mississippi 
 \"alley furnished a supply of free land to those in our coimtry 
 who cared to move westward. The poverty problem in 
 America may be said to date from the practical exhaustion 
 of this supply of free land. Other economic causes of 
 poverty may be fovmd in various maladjustments brought 
 about by changing economic conditions. 
 
 Social enATronment is another factor in the problem of 
 poverty. Unsanitary living conditions may be as much 
 the cause as the result of poverty. We have social m- 
 alread}- spoken of bad housing conditions in "'■'"'"»«"*■ 
 connection vdXh. the problem of the city. Such conditions 
 
2IO American Social Problems 
 
 may produce sickness which often results in the death or 
 unemployment of the wage earner. Thus, the family be- 
 comes dependent upon the charity of the commimity, a 
 situation which might have been obviated by different liv- 
 ing conditions. Sickness or death of the breadwinner may 
 be merely the immediate and most obvious cause of poverty 
 resulting from bad housing. Such distinctions are im- 
 portant, for in each case of poverty there are numerous 
 contributory causes. Again, the associations that prevail 
 in the congested districts of a great city may injure the 
 morals as much as the health of those concerned. Idle- 
 ness, shiftlessness or degeneracy in family Ufe may thus 
 result in poverty. The saloon, the immoral dance hall, 
 vicious theaters and amusement places may lead to the 
 dissipation of funds required for the necessities of life. 
 Moreover, such pleasures inculcate ideas other than those 
 of steady industry and produce a degenerating effect upon 
 the health and morals of the worker. Again, unrestricted 
 immigration may be as injurious to the immigrant him- 
 self as to the American worker whose wages and standards 
 of living he lowers. Our study of immigration has shown 
 how large a percentage of the recipients of charity were 
 foreign born. Unwise philanthropy as a factor in poverty 
 will be discussed in the following chapter. It will be 
 sufficient to state in this coimection that, so long as begging 
 is more profitable than working, poverty will spread 
 throughout society. 
 
 Political corruption often returns to power the legislator 
 who fails to pass laws in favor of those who elect him. Be- 
 Dcfects in cause of inadequate legislation, monopoly prices 
 government. ^^-^^ ^qq large a sharc of the laborer's wages, 
 child labor continues to harass his family and the building 
 
The Problem of Poverty 211 
 
 inspector fails to report his landlord's condemned tenement. 
 Legislation is no panacea for social ills, but wise laws and 
 their proper enforcement will accomplish beneficial re- 
 sults. They are an essential part of any scheme of social 
 reform. Again, bribery of the voter may result in the 
 purchase of the necessities of life for some poverty-stricken 
 individual . The word " boss " may be to him a greater 
 help in time of trouble than the local charity organization. 
 Such a policy, however, is to say the least, shortsighted, 
 because it does not eliminate the causes and conditions 
 which give rise to poverty. The poor man's vote should 
 compel beneficial legislation for social reform. The at- 
 titude toward government is changing and its sphere of 
 acti\dty widening. Like other institutions of society, 
 government is being socialized. It must provide for the 
 pubhc health and recreation, as well as for the public safety. 
 Bad housing conditions and unsanitary working conditions 
 are a reproach to good government. 
 
 Among other ideals, education should aim to make the 
 individual self-supporting. Lack of industrial training in 
 our pubHc schools has been one cause of de- Defects in 
 pendency. Until recently, it often happened «'i'"^<^'">"- 
 that a boy could not receive training in a trade at public 
 expense unless he committed a crime and was sent to the 
 industrial school or to the reformatory. Statistics also 
 show that the proportion of illiteracy and ignorance among 
 dependents is abnormally high. 
 
 Let us now inquire into those causes of poverty which are 
 individual rather than enviroimiental in nature. Pauper- 
 ism is an acquired characteristic and consequently not 
 hereditary. But a physical and mental degeneracy, caus- 
 ing poverty or pauperism, may be inherent in the germ ceU 
 
212 American Social Problems 
 
 and therefore hereditary. This fact would seem to ex- 
 plain why pauperism may " run " in a given family and be 
 Individual regarded by the uninformed as hereditary. Such 
 causes : degeneracy may take various forms in the second 
 eseneracy. gg^gj-^tion. The offspring of a drunken parent 
 may incline toward both drunkenness and pauperism. 
 Neither characteristic is strictly speaking hereditary, as 
 is the inherent weakness or degeneracy which produces 
 it. The physical and mental stamina of certain stocks 
 may be subnormal and their offspring, under force of cir- 
 cumstances, may drift into one of the various social debtor 
 classes. They may also be regarded as inferior variations 
 which cannot care for themselves in their struggle for 
 existence. Certain studies of degenerate families seem to 
 bear out this conclusion. For example, a study of the 
 Juke family by Dugdale shows a long line of descendants 
 traced in prison records, almshouses and drunkards' graves. 
 The influence of the social environment of a particular 
 family is also important, but must not be confused with its 
 physical heredity. The only members of the Juke family 
 who amounted to anything were those who left their old 
 associations and started life afresh in some new community. 
 Dr. Goddard finds his clew to degeneracy and pauperism 
 in feeble-mindedness, and estimates that one-half of the 
 inmates of almshouses are feeble-minded. As feeble- 
 mindedness is hereditary, and not acquired, we are able to 
 understand how many cases of pauperism may run in the 
 same family. This is the theme of his most readable little 
 story of the Kallikak family. Only segregation of the 
 feeble-minded will prevent the propagation of their kind 
 and the passing on to future generations of degeneracy and 
 pauperism. 
 
The Problem of Poverty 213 
 
 Disease is a most important cause of poverty. Dr. 
 Devine states that seventy-five per cent of poverty is due 
 to disease, not twenty-five per cent as is 
 usually supposed. It is certain that from 
 twenty-five to forty per cent of all cases applying for reUef 
 represent a temporary or permanent disabihty due to sick- 
 ness. This is the individual expression of such objective 
 causes as unsanitary living conditions, improper housing, 
 bad working conditions and dangerous trades. 
 
 Although the importance of intemperance as a cause of 
 poverty has perhaps been exaggerated, nearly one-fourth of 
 all cases coming before charity organizations inumper- 
 may be traced to the ravages of alcohol. The '^^^■ 
 Committee of Fifty who investigated this subject found 
 that over forty-one per cent of the inmates of alms- 
 houses owed their condition directly or indirectly to 
 alcohoHc excess. Many families five in want and squalor 
 because the breadwiimer persists in spending his income in 
 the saloon. As a destroyer of efficiency, alcohol is a fre- 
 quent cause of unemplo3anent. Intemperance is a sub- 
 jective cause of poverty, but it has its roots in nmnerous 
 objective causes such as pernicious social customs, long 
 hours of work and poor facihties for recreation. In- 
 temperance and the saloon must be regarded as resxilts, 
 as well as causes, of poverty. Immorality must also 
 be mentioned, for Dugdale places it even ahead of in- 
 temperance as the cause of the degeneracy of the Juke 
 family. 
 
 The imprisonment of the breadwinner is a frequent cause 
 of poverty to his family. Society shelters, 
 feeds and clothes the criminal, but permits 
 innocent members of his family to suffer. To remedy 
 
214 American Social Problems 
 
 this injustice some states have laws by which the products 
 of convict labor are turned over to their families. 
 
 Desertion by the head of the family appears in from five 
 
 to ten per cent of all cases of dependency in our large cities. 
 
 Children may be abandoned by their parents, or 
 
 Desertion. .,,.,,, ^ , . 
 
 Wives by their husbands. In the case of many 
 destitute families relatives show a remarkable indifference 
 to their condition. Charity workers find a surprising 
 amount of neglect upon the part of near relatives and a 
 failure to help in cases of dependency. 
 
 Death of the main support appears in from ten to twenty 
 per cent of relief cases. Some form of social insurance for 
 
 the poor or a sound life insurance system within 
 main their reach is earnestly advocated. Widows and 
 
 orphans, however, have always appealed to 
 human sympathy, and funds given by philanthropists have 
 founded numerous institutions for the care of such persons. 
 Charity workers find little difficulty in caring for orphans, 
 for more funds are at their disposal for this group of des- 
 titutes than for any other. 
 
 Old age is frequently a cause of dependency and the 
 almshouse is often the final home for the aged. Such a 
 
 situation is cruelly unfair. Many old persons 
 
 have been industrious workers and have reared 
 large families. But, now, having outgrown their period of 
 usefulness, they are incapacitated for further work. Old- 
 age pensions would lift the stigma of the poorhouse from 
 the aged, who have no means of support for their de- 
 clining years. Society should at least provide separate 
 and comfortable homes for the aged, where husband 
 and wife will not be parted and where they will not 
 come into contact with the feeble-minded, the degenerate 
 
The Problem of Poverty 215 
 
 and other subnormal groups found in the average abns- 
 house. 
 
 Defectives are frequently public charges. The crippled 
 and the blind constitute a large proportion of the beggars 
 upon our streets. At present the ahnshoiose is 
 
 1 1 • r t ■% • Defectives. 
 
 the general depositor}' for most of these variant 
 groups. Special methods of treatment for each class of 
 defectives will be discussed in a later chapter in which this 
 group of social debtors will be carefully analyzed. 
 
 Shiftlessness and laziness are individual characteristics 
 which may lead to poverty and pauperism. It is estimated 
 that from ten to fifteen per cent of all cases of 
 distress may be attributed to these indi^^dual 
 weaknesses. However, a number of so-called cases of 
 laziness have been found, upon physical examination, to be 
 due to an undervitalized health condition. For example, 
 the shiftlessness of the " poor white trash "' of the South 
 was found in some cases to be due to hookworm. IMalaria 
 may play the same role, and poor health and malnutrition 
 may often result in a lowered ^'itaUty. Again, retarded 
 school children in slum districts have been found upon 
 examination to be underfed and anaemic. F,n\nrnnTnent^ 
 however, will not explain every such case; for there are 
 some indi\dduals who are inherently lazj' and shiftless. 
 Again, many poor people are in a condition of poverty 
 because of their own uiipro\ddence. A lack of judgment 
 prevents their exercising a wise economy in apphing their 
 earnings to the purchase of food, clothing and other nec- 
 essaries. Scarcity of funds necessitates buying in small 
 quantities and only for immediate consumption. Hence 
 the poor are often overcharged. For this reason, tactful 
 settlement workers are carefully studying the manner in 
 
2i6 American Social Problems 
 
 which the poor spend their small incomes and are seek- 
 ing to advise them as to what constitutes wise economy. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. Define poverty in its sociological sense. 
 
 2. Distinguish between poverty and pauperism. 
 
 3. What is your opinion about the final elimination of poverty? 
 
 4. Give an estimate of the extent of poverty. 
 
 5. Give an estimate of the extent of pauperism. 
 
 6. How has our point of view regarding poverty changed ? 
 
 7. Why is it important to study the causes of poverty? 
 
 8. What mistake did several reformers make? 
 
 9. Explain poverty from the standpoint of the theory of evolu- 
 tion. 
 
 10. Explain how the causes of poverty overlap. 
 
 11. Distinguish between the immediate and the remote, or the 
 main and the contributory, causes of poverty. 
 
 12. What twofold classification do we make of the causes of 
 poverty ? 
 
 13. Explain the relation of the physical environment to poverty. 
 Give illustrations. Give others not in the text. 
 
 14. Discuss the relation of wages to standards of living. 
 
 15. What is the meaning of a minimum standard of living? 
 
 16. Discuss the experiments made to express this in terms of 
 income. 
 
 17. What has been the effect of the increased cost of living upon the 
 relation between incomes and standards ? 
 
 18. Discuss the percentages of the income of different groups 
 spent for the necessities of life. 
 
 19. Discuss the causes, remedies, extent and effects of unemploy- 
 ment. 
 
 20. Give the economic causes of poverty. 
 
 21. Give the causes resident in the social environment. Name 
 others besides those in the text. 
 
 22. Show how one factor may be both a cause and a result of pov- 
 erty. 
 
The Problem of Poverty 217 
 
 ^3. What defects in government and in our educational system 
 increase povert>-? 
 
 24. Explain the relation of degeneracy to pauperism. 
 
 25. Is pauperism hereditar},- when it seems to run in the same 
 family in successive generations ? 
 
 26. Xame in order of importance the various causes of poverty 
 resident in the individual. 
 
 2-. Discuss each. 
 
 2S. What is often the cause of laziness? 
 
 TOPICS FOR SPECL\L REPORT 
 
 1. The amount of poverty in some great city (e.g. London or 
 Xew York). 
 
 2. A minimum standard of living for your community (make de- 
 tailed estimate of expenditures at present prices). 
 
 3. Thecausesof the jwverty of the'" X" family. (A study of some 
 pxjor family with which you are acquainted. Distinguish between 
 immediate and remote causes.) 
 
 4. The alle ged improvidence of the px)or as a cause of their fx)verty. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Wakner, A. G. "American Charities." Chapter II; also m, IV 
 
 and V for supplement aiy reading. 
 De\ts"z. E. T. "Miser>- and its Causes." 
 Ellwood, C. A. "Sociologj' and Modern Social Problems.'" Chap)- 
 
 terXm. 
 Wrmis, J. H. "Repwrt upwn the Unemployed in Philadelphia." 
 Streightofp. ''The Standard of Lhing." 
 Hesideksox. C. R. '■Dep)endents, Defectives and Delinquents." 
 
 Chapters I, H, IH, IV. 
 SiniH, S. G. 'Social Pathology." 
 HCNTER, R. "Poverty." 
 DuGDAiE, R. L. "The Jukes." 
 
 Chapix. "The Standard of Living in Xew York City." 
 BcRCH, H. R., and Xeaeing, S. "Elements of Economics." Chap>- 
 
 ters TV, V. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 
 Organization of Charity 
 
 I. History of charity 
 
 1. Early times 
 
 2. England — the poor law 
 
 3. America — indoor and outdoor relief 
 
 4. Germany — Elberfeld system 
 
 5. The modern point of view 
 II. The almshouse 
 
 1. Its characteristics 
 
 2. Reforms and remedies 
 III. Outdoor relief 
 
 1. The church 
 
 2. Medical charities 
 
 3. Private associations 
 
 4. Charity organization societies 
 
 5. Principles of relief 
 
 6. Friendly visiting in the family 
 
 7. Social settlements 
 
 8. Care of dependent children 
 
 History of Charity. — Charity in its old sense of alms- 
 giving is a very ancient practice often mentioned by 
 
 Hindu, Chinese and Egyptian philosophers. In 
 
 Early times. • a i 1 1 n 1 
 
 ancient Athens, a poor tax was regularly collected 
 
 and, in Judea, the synagogue was the center of relief for 
 
 the poor. Its successor, the Christian Church, attempted 
 
 in early times to socialize wealth through the process of 
 
 communism. One of the first officers in the primitive 
 
 218 
 
Organization of Charity 219 
 
 church was the deacon, whose chief duty was to look after 
 the poor of the congregation. Ancient Rome was said 
 to ha^e had asj'lums for abandoned children and for 
 wounded soldiers. The poor may have sought shelter in 
 the pubhc baths of Rome, as the}- do at present in our 
 own parks and pubhc buildings. Trajan is reported to 
 have cared for five thousand poor children. The most 
 famous reUef'in Rome, however, was what was known as 
 " Caesar's bread." The poor Roman citizen could obtain 
 food from the pubhc granaries free or at a very low price. 
 It has been estimated that, at the time of Juhus Cassar, 
 three hundred and twenty thousand persons were registered 
 for the free distribution of grain. Although intended as 
 a social reform by Gracchus, its vicious and pauperizing 
 influence upon the Roman people may be seen in the 
 laziness and immorahty of the later empire. It is the 
 classical example of unwise philanthropy, which destroys 
 independence, b}" remo\'ing the necessity for work. 
 
 In Rome, the support of the poor had back of it the 
 pohtical motive of securing the votes of the " populares." 
 In the ]Middle Ages ahnsgixong was regarded as a method 
 of securing the favor of heaven. The effect upon the 
 giver seemed more important than the result upon the 
 recipient. The medieval ascetic spirit foimded numerous 
 monasteries which served as inns for weary pilgrims and 
 travelers. That riches were associated T;\ith sin, and 
 poverty with saintly character, is well illustrated by St. 
 Francis of Assisi and by the Order of Poor Friars. A 
 monastery was often the center of alnisgi\-ing, and indis- 
 creet charity frequently produced a great increase in the 
 number of beggars who thronged the doors of the beauti- 
 ful cathedrals. The church, however, was the only or- 
 
2 20 American Social Problems 
 
 ganized force in the Middle Ages which attempted to 
 alleviate distress by founding hospitals, asylums and 
 retreats for children and unfortunates. 
 
 With the break-up of serfdom, European nations began 
 to pass laws against vagrancy and wandering serfs. The 
 „ , , dissolution of the -monasteries by Henry VIII 
 
 England — •' 
 
 the Poor of England increased the amount of unrelieved 
 ^^^' distress. It was not until the age of Elizabeth 
 
 that the state began to supersede the church as the dispens- 
 ing agent of charity. Laws were passed which became 
 the foundations of the famous English Poor Law. The 
 parish was to make a list of its poor who were to be helped 
 by the compulsory contributions of the more prosperous. 
 The administration of these laws tended to increase pauper- 
 ism and the consequent expenditure for relief. All the 
 needy were to receive help and, as almost all laborers were 
 needy, they were entitled to the stipend. This situation 
 was undermining the independence and manhood of the 
 English workman. Again, this condition was being ex- 
 ploited by employers who refused to raise wages because 
 of the state's supplement to labor's income. It has been 
 estimated that the amount spent for poor relief in 1818 
 reached 7,870,801 pounds, or almost forty million dollars, 
 for a population of only eleven million people. In 1832 
 a royal commission was appointed to investigate the matter 
 of state relief. It was found that a man was often econom- 
 ically better off when rated as a pauper than when rated 
 as an independent worker. In 1834 a new Poor Law Act 
 was passed. It provided for a central government board 
 and inspectors to examine the work of the local authorities. 
 No state relief was to be given to the destitute if able- 
 bodied. They must seek the workhouse to be built by 
 
Organization of Charily 221 
 
 the union of parishes. The cessation of pubhc outdoor 
 rehef was marked by a great decrease in the amount of 
 pauperism. The workhouse now became the only in- 
 stitution of pubhc charity. Its deadening character and 
 maladministration have been criticized by many reports 
 and pictured in many works of fiction. Its counterpart, the 
 American almshouse, will be discussed in a later section. 
 
 By indoor rehef is meant the institutional care of the 
 poor supported in almshouses. Outdoor rehef is the 
 caring for this same dependent group in their 
 own homes by gifts of money, provisions or indoor and 
 
 other necessaries. Indoor rehef is a recognized °^}^°°^ 
 
 f relief. 
 
 function of the modern state, for otherwise in- 
 dividuals might die upon the streets. Outdoor relief, 
 however, as a state function, is still a matter of debate. 
 The very helpless should be placed in institutions, but the 
 care of those in shght need had perhaps best be left to 
 private and individual charity. We have seen the history 
 of pubhc outdoor relief in England and know why it was 
 stopped. In America there has been no consistent national 
 pohcy. Public outdoor rehef may exist in one commimity 
 and be absent in another. Most of our large cities, like 
 New York and Philadelphia, have abandoned this policy. 
 When it was abandoned in Brooklyn, it was surprising to 
 note how the appeals to private charitable organizations 
 failed to show the increase that had been expected. The 
 influence drawn from this fact is that much of the former 
 pubhc outdoor relief had not been needed or had been 
 unwisely distributed. There are arguments both for and 
 against pubhc outdoor relief. In its favor may first be 
 mentioned its apparent economy. It seems unnecessary 
 to send an individual or his family to the poorhouse when 
 
222 American Social Problems 
 
 a slight financial aid will permit them to live at home. 
 Again, since the disability of the breadwinner may be only 
 temporary, outdoor relief often preserves the unity of the 
 family. This system is also more flexible and may be 
 varied according to the needs of the situation. Much 
 of the economy, however, of public outdoor relief has 
 not been a reality. English experience has shown how, 
 like a contagion, the acceptance of relief may spread 
 throughout a community. Again, giving to the poor 
 requires great discrimination and an experience in social 
 work not usually found in public officials. In many of 
 our cities political corruption has vitiated its administra- 
 tion. The probabihty and amount of public rehef has 
 often been affected by the size of the pauper vote. 
 
 A number of German communities have handled the 
 
 administration of public outdoor relief in a special maimer. 
 
 The best known plan is the Elberfeld system. 
 
 Germany — _ _ '^ _ -^ 
 
 Elberfeld This is based upon the unpaid personal services 
 sys em. ^^ citizens acting in systematic cooperation with 
 
 each other and imder a salaried superintendent. There 
 is a thorough examination of each individual dependent, 
 a careful guardianship of him during his period of depend- 
 ency and a consistent effort to help him regain economic 
 independence. Four cases are usually assigned to each 
 citizen almoner, who therefore knows thoroughly the needs 
 of each dependent family. He is empowered to give relief 
 according to a graduated scale prescribed by law. 
 
 Modern organized charity is the twentieth century 
 development of what was known in earlier times as alms- 
 giving. It differs from its early form as much as the modern 
 locomotive differs from the prairie schooner. The scientific 
 spirit has brought about as great a transformation in the 
 
Organizatiofi of Charity 223 
 
 methods of charity as in the methods of transportation. 
 Poverty is no longer regarded as always necessary and 
 saintly. It is viewed as a social disease re- _. 
 
 •' The modem 
 
 suiting either from a faulty social and economic point of 
 environment or from iadi\-idual delinquencies. "^^' 
 The aim of organized charity is no longer the mere 
 giving of alms to reUeve an immediate distress which may 
 shortly recur. The causes of poverty are investigated in 
 the hope that many of them may be removed. A Ust of 
 these causes has already been revealed in the previous 
 chapter. On the physical side, the productivity of the 
 natural environment is being Lacreased and such phenomena 
 as droughts and famines are becoming matters of scientific 
 prevention. Maladjustments in the economic environment 
 are being gradually eliminated, and experts in industrial 
 management are attacking the problem of unemployment. 
 Unfortunately, however, low wages inadequate for effi- 
 cient li^-ing still stalk, Kke gaimt specters, a land of fabulous 
 riches. The social en\dronment must also be remodeled. 
 Unsanitary housiag conditions, the congestion of immi- 
 grants and the slums of our cities must disappear from 
 the society of to-morrow. Defects iu otir governmental 
 and educational systems must also be remedied. The 
 feeble-minded and inherentlj- degenerate must be so 
 segregated that they cease to propagate their kind. In- 
 dixadual and social ideals of health and efficiency must be 
 raised to a higher lever in order that shiftlessness and 
 indolence may be reduced to a minimmn. All this will 
 not be accomplished by any sudden or quick reform, but 
 only by the long, slow process of social evolution guided 
 in a progressive manner by human inteUigence. But while 
 these are our ideals for the future of society, we must not 
 
224 
 
 American Social Problems 
 
 neglect the practical problems of distress that confront 
 us to-day and which require our immediate attention. 
 
 The Almshouse. — The poorhouse is the fundamental 
 institution in American relief. It cares for the destitute 
 not otherwise provided for and has been the sieve through 
 which all forms of social derelicts, except the duly con- 
 victed criminal, have passed. The almshouse often con- 
 tains the insane, the epileptic, the feeble-minded, the 
 bUnd, the deaf, the crippled, the sick and those destitute 
 of friends. Here mmgle old folks and children, men and 
 women, the honest and the dishonest. The first charac- 
 teristic of the almshouse is therefore the heterogeneous 
 character of its unclassified and unsegregated inmates. 
 This may be clearly shown, for example, from the follow- 
 ing table taken from Warner's "American Charities": 
 
 Missouri Almshouses 1903 
 
 89 
 
 Counties 
 (Less than 
 
 200 
 Paupers) 
 
 St. Louis 
 
 TOTAI, 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 White 
 
 Colored 
 
 Age above 60 .... 
 From 18 to 60 . . . . 
 
 Under 18 
 
 Between 2 and 14 . . . 
 Defective classes : . . . 
 
 Insane 
 
 Feeble-minded . . . 
 
 Epileptic 
 
 Blind 
 
 Crippled 
 
 Paralytic 
 
 Able to do some work 
 
 1044 
 759 
 
 1 593 
 210 
 
 669 
 1037 
 
 87 
 
 72 
 
 293 
 
 504 
 
 96 
 
 92 
 
 187 
 67 
 
 79S 
 770 
 
 1463 
 82 
 
 593 
 
 885 
 
 67 
 
 20 
 
 884 
 47 
 85 
 22 
 76 
 31 
 
 1839 
 1529 
 3056 
 292 
 1262 
 1922 
 
 154 
 92 
 
 1177 
 
 551 
 181 
 114 
 263 
 98 
 
 54 
 46 
 
 8.7 
 37-7 
 57-7 
 
 4.6 
 
 71.2 
 IS 
 
Organization of Charity 225 
 
 A second general characteristic of the almshouse is the 
 fact that its inmates are often admitted and dismissed 
 practically at their own option. A general its char- 
 exodus of the able-bodied from the almshouse actenstics. 
 takes place in spring, but many return with the advent of 
 cold weather. Since little work is done, except small jobs 
 about the building, the very group which should be taught 
 habits of steady labor is often given an excellent training 
 in idleness. The institutional life is deadening to that 
 very • initiative which it should seek to kindle. The ad- 
 ministration of the building has often been inefficient, 
 because the remuneration of the superintendent is not 
 always sufficient to attract an able man. As official req- 
 uisites, affiliations with the political party in power are 
 usually more important than executive ability or a knowl- 
 edge of social problems and of scientific methods of charity. 
 It was formerly common to pay no stated salary to the 
 superintendent but to allow him the proceeds from the 
 attached farm. This abominable practice led to innu- 
 merable abuses and to the exploitation of the inmates. 
 The assistants were also frequently incapable, and the 
 medical service, especially needed, was often of the lowest 
 standard. If any system of inspection was required, it 
 was administered in a most perfunctory, if not corrupt, 
 fashion. 
 
 The very nature of these evils cries out for reform. 
 The almshouse should not be the dumping ground for all 
 the destitute classes of society. It should be Reforms and 
 used merely as the temporary clearing house remedies, 
 for various groups of defectives, to be assigned later to 
 special institutions. The feeble-minded should be put 
 under the permanent custody of a special institution, the 
 
 Q 
 
226 American Social Problems 
 
 blind (especially the young) should be sent to their own 
 schools, and the tubercular inmates should be placed in 
 sanitariums or in special hospital wards. The building of 
 separate institutions requires great expenditures of pubKc 
 funds but it is imperatively needed. Children should 
 never be permitted to grow up with such defectives, and 
 old folks, likewise, are deserving of better treatment. 
 Again, the almshouse should not be so easy of access and 
 of departure. Paupers should be regarded as socially 
 diseased and an attempt made to reestablish in them a 
 normal life and purpose. In only a few states are they 
 deprived of the right to vote, with the result that at elec- 
 tions they go forth to swell the majority of the political 
 organization in power. Women frequently use the alms- 
 house as a maternity hospital in which are born the il- 
 legitimate and feeble-minded. Careful records of ad- 
 mission and discharge should be kept so that each case 
 may be studied individually. At present few accounts 
 are filed except those dealing with financial expenditures. 
 The almshouse, which should provide a great amount of 
 valuable clinical material, has little information of worth 
 for the student of social conditions. Work of sound 
 economic or educational value should be afforded those 
 inmates that are physically or mentally capable of such 
 labor. The administration must also be reformed and ef- 
 ficient government supervision provided. Private as well as 
 public institutions which assume the responsibility for the 
 lives of inmates, and which appeal to the public for support, 
 should not be exempt from government inspection. Sal- 
 aries should be adequate and competent officials appointed. 
 An efficient corps of medical and social workers should be 
 added according to the size and needs of the institution. 
 
Organization of Charity 227 
 
 The best system of inspection seems to be that of a com- 
 mission of responsible persons appointed by the governor 
 without paj'^, but emplo}-iiig a salaried secretary and a 
 body of paid inspectors. A separate salaried board might 
 be charged with the centralized business administration of 
 the various state institutions, whose acti\dties must be 
 closely correlated. 
 
 Outdoor Relief. — In general it would seem that in- 
 stitutional or indoor relief should be undertaken by the 
 state. iMany private and rehgious associations, however, 
 maintain their own homes, asylums and other charitable 
 institutions. Many also receive large state appropriations, 
 although in most cases there is a legal pro^"iso that the 
 institutions so subsidized must be of nonsectarian charac- 
 ter. It is sometimes argued that the state should cease 
 these private appropriations and maiatain its own chari- 
 table institutions. WTiether these institutions be of a 
 pubUc or private character, it is e\"ident that in each state 
 there should be some system of government inspection and 
 supervision. 
 
 Outdoor rehef, on the other hand, has been left for the 
 most part to private charitable associations. Many of 
 these agencies for the relief of the poor in their 
 
 , 1 • • • • -1 Th^ church. 
 
 own homes are admimstered m coimection with 
 the acti\aties of various church organizations. There are 
 in .\nierica three main di\isions, — the St. Vincent de 
 Paul societies of the Roman Catholic Church, the United 
 Hebrew Charities and, finally, the various societies of the 
 different Protestant churches. There are also other in- 
 dependent religious organizations for philanthropic work, 
 some of which are most estimable. Others, however, are 
 fraudulent in nature, for the}' desec^'ate the religious garb 
 
2 28 American Social Problems 
 
 they assume for securing funds. Again, much of the most 
 sincere church charity is given in a very haphazard fashion. 
 Professional beggars are known to have deli?jerately taken 
 advantage of numerous church societies which sometimes 
 make Httle investigation of the ultimate effects of their 
 donations. In the third place, different sects should cooper- 
 ate, rather than discriminate, in their charitable activities. 
 The unfortunate- man who meets with an accident upon 
 the street is driven to the nearest hospital, Jewish or 
 Gentile, and no questions are asked regarding his creed. 
 More of the same spirit in charity work is needed. At 
 present, however, it would seem that distinct charity 
 organizations based upon religious sects have certain in- 
 herent advantages. Each religious organization under- 
 stands better, and meets more effectively, the needs of its 
 own group. It is also natural for dependents to seek 
 help first from members of their own religious sect. 
 
 The most direct aim of medical charities is the reUef 
 of the physical distress of the poor. The gain is social 
 Medical ^s well as individual ; for the community is 
 chanties. thereby spared the support of an otherwise 
 dependent member of society. Missionaries have found 
 that medical assistance is the quickest way to reach the 
 hearts and minds of those among whom they work. Social 
 workers in our own slums have found this fact to be equally 
 true. Many of our large city hospitals have a social 
 service department, whereby the social workers supple- 
 ment the work of the surgeon and nurse, by following up 
 the cases discharged from the hospital as cured. Medical 
 charity is also a means of diffusing information regarding 
 health, hygiene and sanitation. Organized medical charity 
 protects the public health. A municipal hospital is pri- 
 
Organization of Charity 229 
 
 marily designed to care for contagious diseases, and simi- 
 larly adequate provision should be made for tubercular 
 patients. Maternity hospitals or wards have been es- 
 tablished for the poor, and orthopedic hospitals correct 
 the deformities of growing children. It is also possible 
 for the poor to have the eyes examined free and thus to 
 correct fa\ilty vision. FioaUy, there are free dispensaries 
 for the dressing of woimds and for the care of other physical 
 Uls, as well as free wards for undergoing sm^gical operations 
 and for treatment during serious iUness. Although medical 
 charities have been taken advantage of by many indi^-iduals 
 who are able to pay for medical aid, their benefits far out- 
 weigh any weU-founded objections charged against them. 
 
 Private charitable associations are especially needed 
 when experiments are to be tried and pioneer work at- 
 tempted. Much of the charitable work, which is Pnvate as- 
 now done by government institutions, was first sodations. 
 undertaken by a group of indi^-iduals who proved, by 
 practical examples, what could be done along certain lines. 
 AU kinds of philanthropic work are carried on by private 
 associations. There are homes for orphans, for crippled 
 children and for the aged, founded by benevolent individ- 
 uals. There are also private asylums for certain classes 
 of defectives for whom the state has made no adequate 
 provision. There is an infinite number of large and small 
 associations for the relief of the poor in their own homes. 
 Free employment bureaus, housing commissions and settle- 
 ment houses in poverty-stricken quarters have been founded 
 by private philanthropy. All honor should be accorded 
 such public-spirited citizens and the spirit of altruism 
 which impelled them. Such institutions represent one of 
 the noblest characteristics of modem civilization. Private 
 
230 American Social Problems 
 
 charities, however, have their own pecuHar dangers. They 
 are so easily formed that there is a temptation to multiply 
 them. It therefore happens that some fields are over- 
 crowded, while others are neglected. Again, the fimds 
 of a small association are often inadequate to carry on the 
 work proposed but would be sufl&cient for a stronger 
 organization doing similar work. Among these numerous 
 good societies it is easy for fraudulent ones to flourish and 
 to collect money for supposedly benevolent purposes. 
 Again, money may be spent sincerely, but foolishly, ac- 
 cording to the eccentricity of the donor. Public-spirited 
 individuals who wish to make bequests would do well to 
 consult some ofl&cial in the local society for organized 
 charity. In this maimer a good perspective of the field 
 would be obtained, as well as expert advice from a pro- 
 fessionally trained social worker. 
 
 Charity organization societies — or similar associations 
 known by shghtly different names — exist in most of the 
 „, .^ large cities of Great Britain and the United 
 
 Chanty or- ° 
 
 ganization States. The pioneer American organization in 
 this field is the Society for Charity Organiza- 
 tion, established in 1877, in the city of Buffalo. Its purpose 
 may be regarded as that of a central clearing house for 
 all forms of outdoor relief. Its aim is not so much to 
 furnish material aid to the destitute as to help restore them 
 to economic independence. The causes of poverty are 
 studied in order that conditions in the environment may 
 be improved. Cases, requiring immediate need are re- 
 ferred to a particular charity to care for them. Thus, the 
 central organization acts as a directive agency rather 
 than a means of distribution of material help. If an 
 individual is out of work, employment is sought at one 
 
Organization of Charity 231 
 
 of the emplo\Tiient agencies ; if sick or diseased, admission 
 is secured to a free ward in a hospital or in a special asylum. 
 If a family seems in need of help, the society sends a trained 
 worker to make a careful study of the case, which is duly 
 recorded in a card index system. Recommendations are 
 made to benevolent societies likely to give aid, or the aid 
 of the former employer, of relatives and of friends, is sohdted 
 in order to help the unfortunate to regain his economic 
 independence. The Societ} for Organizing Charity is 
 sometimes criticized because so small a proportion of its 
 funds is spent for actual rehef and so large a proportion 
 for '■ red tape." Again, some object to its alleged sense 
 of superiority which seeks to direct the acti\^ties of other 
 societies, -\nswers to these objections are tmnecessary. 
 In- the matter of social ser\"ice there can be no such thing 
 as a caste of superiority. The need of organization and 
 investigation is so great as to call for a central society for 
 that particular purpose. Its case records are open to other 
 charity societies, which seek to give aid, but which have 
 neither the time nor abiUty for iuvestigation. The so- 
 called " red tape " prevents the success of impostors. 
 Hence, aU benevolent indiA-iduals, or private associations 
 for the dispensing of charity, will do well to seek this central 
 society for information as to the relative needs of their 
 various applicants. The Society for Organizing Charity 
 seeks to prevent overlapping and waste of energ}-. If aU 
 the charities of a city wovdd report to this one central 
 clearing house all that thej" are doing, they cotild easily 
 learn from how many sources the appUcant is receiving 
 help. Beggars upon the streets should be referred to this 
 society, and solicitors for funds should produce its written 
 endorsement before recei\dng favorable consideration. 
 
232 American Social Problems 
 
 The first principle of relief would seem to be the securing 
 of adequate knowledge before giving aid to the applicant. 
 Principles Is the family in actual need or is it seeking to 
 of reUef . jjyg ^^g g^ parasite upon the community ? What 
 kind of aid and what amount is needed? The habit of 
 indiscriminate almsgiving upon the street is a most per- 
 nicious practice. Many beggars are impostors, and others 
 should be placed in special institutions for defectives. 
 It is wise to remember that indiscriminate help may injure 
 rather than aid the recipient. The " nickel " given from 
 the impulse of generosity may find its way, not to the 
 home, but to the saloon. In the second place, the aim 
 of rehef should be to secure as far as possible the economic 
 independence of the needy. Thus the remote cause of 
 poverty must be removed, not merely the immediate 
 distress. The terms " worthy and unworthy " should be 
 replaced by " needy and not needy." No relief should 
 be given to those who are capable of supporting themselves. 
 In some cases discipline of the apphcant is needed, rather 
 than any rehef. Legal measures must also be taken in 
 such cases as that of the husband who deliberately deserts 
 his wife and children. A third principle of relief is to teach 
 the helpless how to help themselves, rather than actually 
 to help them in the most direct manner. A fourth prin- 
 ciple of scientific relief is the careful supervision of the 
 recipient of charity. This is well done by what is known 
 as " friendly visiting," a principle to which separate con- 
 sideration will be given. In conclusion, let it be stated 
 that scientific charity does not seek to do less but more 
 for the poor. It might seem from what has been said 
 that organized relief tends to suppress the impulse of 
 generosity. Nothing, however, could be farther from the 
 
Organization of Chariiy 233 
 
 truth; for scientific charity simply seeks to make reUef 
 
 more effective by a better direction of its usefuhiess. Thus 
 
 there arises a science of philanthropy which emphasizes 
 
 service rather than mere ahnsgiAong. 
 
 In order to investigate the cases, and to supervise the 
 
 work of organized charity, a corps of socijj workers is 
 
 necessary. Th^e are known as " friendly \"isi- „ . ,, 
 __ ■ -' Fnendly 
 
 tors." They do more than merely supply food visiting in 
 and clothing. Their aim is the rehabilitation ' ^' 
 of family life and the restoration of normal standards of 
 health, efficiency and morality. This new profession of 
 social service requires infinite tact, sound judgment, com- 
 mon sense, an attractive personality and a considerable 
 knowledge in a particular field. A knowledge of local 
 means of medical rehef, of laws of landlord and tenant, 
 of hygiene and of food values is essential to the success 
 of such work. The friendlj' \isitor must become per- 
 sonally acquainted with the individuals in the family and 
 must not pose as the agent of a charity organization. 
 Personal supervision of the dependent and his f amil y has 
 been the distinct characteristic of the Elberfeld system. 
 
 Friendly ^-isiting has been an essential part of the work 
 of settlement hoxises established in the slmn districts of 
 various cities. HuU House in Chicago, for sodai settle- 
 example, has been a center of ennobling influences ™™*s- 
 which have radiated throughout a very dark section of the 
 city. Open house is maintained and various forms of 
 recreation and games appeal to the young and old. The 
 spirit is fraternal and the inhabitants of the section are not 
 dealt with in a patronizing manner. Higher ideals of 
 morality, of family life, of industrial efficiency and of 
 personal health and cleanliness are continually upheld. 
 
234 American Social Problems 
 
 Advice is not superimposed, but given incidentally where- 
 ever possible. Such a social settlement ministers to a 
 much larger group than paupers and dependents ; for 
 many independent and self-respecting people of the poorer 
 class are helped by such means to higher standards of 
 living. The social settlement not only acts as an antidote 
 to the dangers of the big city, but also offsets the baneful 
 influence of the streets. Police magistrates and the 
 juvenile courts have recognized the value to the deUnquent 
 child of such institutions. 
 
 No child should be permitted to remain for any length 
 of time in the poorhouse. Unfortunately, many or- 
 phanages are but little better ; for the institu- 
 
 \.faX6 or ^ 
 
 dependent tional atmosphere of such places is deademng to 
 ' ^"' the growing child. The cottage system, con- 
 sisting of a number of small houses each imder a house 
 mother, is immeasurably superior to the institutional 
 plan. The securing of homes in real families is undoubtedly 
 the best plan of treatment, although it requires great 
 care in selection. Since it is fairly easy to secure, some 
 method of visitation should be maintained after adop- 
 tion. The child of the depraved home presents a more 
 complex problem than does the orphan. Where great 
 cruelty is practiced, or where the parents are immoral or 
 habitually intoxicated, the courts may take the child out 
 of the home and place it elsewhere. This is only done 
 in extreme cases, because one important principle of relief 
 is to keep the family intact and the child under the in- 
 fluence of its mother. For that reason, the state of Illi- 
 nois inaugurated the system of pensioning widows with 
 children. Under such a system, the poverty-stricken 
 mother is not compelled to part with her child whose sup- 
 
Organization of Charity 235 
 
 port might otherwise have been problematical. The 
 opponents of this law maintain that it cannot be adminis- 
 tered without abuses. Day nurseries have been established 
 in some districts, where poverty compels mothers to work 
 for long hours in factor)-, shop or domestic service. While 
 this plan is a dangerous in\itation to many to shift the 
 care of their children from the home to the nurser>', the 
 only other alternatives are to confine the little ones in the 
 close rooms of the tenement or to allow them to roam 
 the neighboring streets and allej's. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSIOX 
 
 1. Tell of the effects of the free distribution of grain in Rome. 
 
 2. What was the medieval attitude toward chant}'? Explain 
 the work of the church. 
 
 3. Explain the effects of the English Poor Law. 
 
 4. Give the arguments, for and against, pubhc outdoor relief in 
 America. 
 
 5. \Miat has been its history in this country ? 
 
 6. WI13- do 3'ou think it has succeeded in some German cities? 
 
 7. Describe the Elberfeld system. 
 
 8. How does the modem point of view regarding poverty and 
 charity compare with the older? 
 
 9. \\Tiat is the outlook for the future ? 
 
 10. What are four characteristics of the almshouse? 
 
 11. What reforms can you suggest ? 
 
 12. Discuss the strong and weak points of church charities. 
 
 13. What charitable work does your church do? 
 
 14. Do you think it is scientifically done and what improvements 
 do you suggest ? 
 
 15. What charitable associations have you ever seen at work? 
 
 16. Justify medical charities as a community fimction. 
 
 17. What are some dangers of numerous private charitable asso- 
 ciations? 
 
 18. What is the purpose of the Charity Organization Society? 
 
236 American Social Problems 
 
 ig. Show its relation to other charitable organizations. 
 
 20. Has your locality any such organization ? 
 
 21. What are some principles of a sound relief policy? 
 
 22. Why is the work of a "friendly visitor" difficult? 
 
 23. Why is it necessary to investigate cases and why does the de- 
 pendent famUy need supervision ? 
 
 24. When is it necessary to remove children from their homes? 
 Is this a usual policy ? 
 
 25. What should be your attitude toward beggars upon the street? 
 
 TOPICS FOR SPECIAL REPORT 
 
 1. The charitable work of the medieval monks. 
 
 2. The history of the EngHsh Poor Law. 
 
 3. Friendly visiting. 
 
 4. The work of your nearest society for organizing charity. 
 
 5. The work of a settlement house near you. 
 
 6. The inmates of an almshouse. (Information to be secured by 
 a personal visit or from the published reports of some institution.) 
 
 7. The work of some orphanage. (In your description indicate 
 whether it has the institutional atmosphere.) 
 
 8. How a group of students might cooperate in some form of 
 organized social work. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Devine , E . T. " Prmciples of Rehef . ' ' 
 
 Wabjster, a. G. "American Charities." 
 
 Henderson, C. R. "Dependents, Defectives and Delinquents." 
 
 Part II. Chapters I to X. 
 Mangold, G. B. " Child Problems." Book V. Chapters I to X. 
 Addams, Jane. "Twenty Years at Hull House." "The House on 
 
 Henry Street." 
 Henderson, C. R. "Modern Methods of Charity." 
 Richmond, M. E. "Friendly Visiting." 
 Devine, E. T. "The Spirit of Social Work." 
 Smith, S. G. "Social Pathology." Chapters on The Church and 
 
 Charity, The State and Charity, Private Charity and Poverty. 
 Devine, E. T. "The FamUy and Social Work." 
 
CHAPTER XVni 
 The Problem of Crime 
 
 I. General considerations 
 
 1. The progress attained 
 
 2. Crime and the law 
 
 3. Extent of crime 
 
 4. Cost of crime 
 
 5. Alleged increase 
 H. Causes of crime 
 
 1. En^■ironmental : 
 
 a. Physical environment 
 
 b. Economic en^■i^omnent 
 
 c. Social en\'iromnent : 
 
 (i) Density of population 
 
 (2) Family life 
 
 (3) Race and nationahty 
 
 (4) Social customs 
 
 d. Defects in government 
 
 e. Defects in education 
 
 2. Indi^•idual : 
 
 a. Hereditary traits 
 
 b. Acquired traits 
 
 c. Age and sex 
 
 3. Some conclusions 
 
 in. Classification of crimes and criminals 
 
 1. Classes of crimes 
 
 2. Classes of criminals 
 
 3. An old theor}- 
 
 General Considerations. — The advance of civiliza- 
 tion has been marked by greater security of life and prop- 
 
 237 
 
238 American Social Problems 
 
 erty. The function of the state in whatever form it 
 existed was always to protect the members of the group, 
 Progress not only from outside invasion, but also from im- 
 attained. social individuals within. The growth of associa- 
 tion has branded as criminals those who refuse to cooperate 
 in preserving the social order. The " King's Peace " was 
 one of the first expressions of the growing police power 
 of the state. Early conditions, in comparison with modern, 
 presented a greater amount of turmoil and confusion. In 
 ancient Rome, gangs of cutthroats and freed gladiators 
 were hired for the work of assassination. The cities of 
 medieval and modern Europe were notoriously imsafe. 
 The carrying of rapiers became a social custom foimded 
 upon necessity. As late as the reign of Queen Aime, the 
 narrow, imUghted streets of London were harassed by foot- 
 pads and " gentlemen " who played " pranks " upon their 
 victims. Outlaws, like the fabled Robin Hood, were so 
 numerous in the rural districts as to make traveling vm- 
 safe. Not only were piracy and smuggling common, but 
 the government itself resorted to the press gang in order 
 to recruit naval enlistments. Modern society has been 
 made much safer by the repression of such disorders, so 
 that in the course of centuries there has been a great de- 
 crease in the number of brutal and serious crimes. While 
 numerous individual cases of cruel crime still exist, they 
 are not nearly so common and flagrant in character. 
 Modern society, however, has a new type of unsocial in- 
 dividual in its midst, more polished and less brutal, but 
 equally dangerous. Professor Ross well describes him in 
 " Sin and Society." The complexity and organization 
 of twentieth century society permit him to work at long 
 range and with less fear of detection. Instead of running 
 
Tlte Problem of Crime 239 
 
 a dagger through his \-ictim, the modem criminal may 
 suppl}- impure milk or adulterated food -with the same 
 deadly result. Or, rather than loot a house and carry- 
 off the goods, he may wreck financial xmdertakings and rob 
 umocent stockholders, .\lthough the old brutal crimes 
 are therefore not so numerous, a new tj-pe of refined crim- 
 inal has sprung iato existence. Hence, the development 
 of commerce and industry has made necessary- the enact- 
 ment of new criminal laws. 
 
 The simplest definition of crime is that of \-iolation of 
 the law. Crimes are wrongful acts against society, or 
 agaiost individuals, punishable by legal penalty, crime and 
 At one time, crime was regarded simply as an t'^e'^w- 
 offense against the individual affected. The aggrieved 
 man or his family sought vengeance against the offender 
 without the interv'ention of the group as a whole. Grad- 
 uaUj', however, the idea grew up that crimes were offenses 
 not only against indiA"iduals, but also against society. 
 The newl}" estabUshed social order was regarded as being 
 threatened b)' such unsocial indi^^duals. Therefore, the 
 political unit, whether in the form of the patriarchal family, 
 the tribe, the feudal group or the nation, was forced to 
 meet its own problem of social control. The group, not 
 the indi\"idual, came to punish crime. To this day. how- 
 ever, torts require the initial action of the indi\adual, 
 rather than the state, for their redress. In order to define 
 and punish crime it was found necessary to formulate a 
 body of laws, written or unwritten, explaining what should 
 constitute de\dations from the normal standard of con- 
 duct. A good idea of the ci^■ili2ation of a people, or of 
 an age, may be obtained from its code of laws. A com- 
 parison of the Twelve Tables of early Rome with the elab- 
 
240 American Social Problems 
 
 orate code of Justinian illustrates one phase of the social 
 progress attained during the intervening period. The 
 legal code reflects not only the degree but also the tj^e of 
 civilization. Each society punishes severely those crimes 
 which threaten its particular type of social organization. 
 In a theocracy, blasphemy and, in an absolute monarchy, 
 lese majeste are great crimes against the state. In an 
 industrial society new crimes, like the falsification of 
 records and the forging of checks, must be defined in the 
 legal code. 
 
 As civilization has advanced, the normal standard of 
 conduct has risen. Crime will always be present in society, 
 since there will always be those who fail to meet the con- 
 stantly rising standards of conduct. Like poverty, crime 
 is somewhat relative in character. Laws, as the legal 
 expression of the group standard of morality, must reflect 
 the popular will. Statute books must therefore be kept 
 abreast of the changing social conscience. It is unfor- 
 tunate to have obsolete laws upon the statute books, and 
 so-called blue laws should either be enforced or repealed. 
 Again, new laws should be passed to express new social 
 standards of pubhc opinion. Otherwise, individuals may 
 be held morally guilty by the community, but their ac- 
 tions may be entirely within the law. The social con- 
 science may see Uttle difference between unregulated child 
 labor and slavery, or between certain dangerous trades 
 and murder ; but this subjective estimate of individual 
 action is not sufi&cient, for public opinion must express 
 itself in laws and, to secure the enforcement of these laws, 
 the social conscience must be educated to the new standard. 
 This process of education should precede the legal enact- 
 ments which, otherwise, will remain unenforced. Pro- 
 
The Problem of Crime 241 
 
 hibition, for example, will fail if it does not reflect the 
 sentiment of the community. 
 
 The extent of crime is difficult to determine, for the 
 number of prisoners con\'icted and sentenced represents 
 but a fraction of the total nmnber of criminals. Extent of 
 ]\Iany are not even apprehended, while others "™^- 
 are acquitted because of a lack of con\Tncing e\'idence. 
 Our estimates, however, can be based only upon the 
 nmnber of sentences rendered or upon the number of 
 persons actually in confinement in a given year. The 
 number of foreign-born criminals is not in excess of its 
 proportion to the general number of males of criminal 
 age in our total population. We have seen, however, 
 that the children of the foreign born show a decided criminal 
 tendency. It often happens that about one-third of our 
 prison popxilation is negro — a proportion far in excess 
 of the proportion of the colored to the total population. 
 That the number of the two sexes in society at large is 
 fairly equal is a famihar biological fact. The male popu- 
 lation in prisons, however, is about ten times that of the 
 female. In 1910 there were 470.763 persons committed 
 to penal institutions. This number is not unusual and the 
 number of annual commitments approximates the half 
 miUion mark. The nvmiber of conWctions is never equal to 
 the nimiber of crimes committed. The special prison census 
 of 1904 reported for that year a little over tno thousand 
 conA"ictions for homicide, while the actual number of such 
 crimes committed was several times that figure. Indeed, 
 the annual homicide rate in the United States, for the 
 opening years of the twentieth centun,-. has been between 
 six and ten thousand. England, on the other hand, has 
 averaged between three and four hundred such cases. 
 
242 American Social Problems 
 
 In the year 1900, Eugene Smith estimated that in 
 the United States there were 250,000 persons who made 
 Cost of their living wholly or partially by crime. To 
 
 crime. maintain these criminals it cost the country 
 
 $400,000,000 annually, while another annual expenditure 
 of $200,000,000 was necessary for their trial and convic- 
 tion. This total of $600,000,000 was about the equivalent 
 of the annual sum spent for public education in the United 
 States. This estimate of the cost of crime would prob- 
 ably be conservative for the present time. 
 
 The alleged increase of crime in recent years is difficult 
 to determine because standards of conduct have not re- 
 AUeged mained constant. New laws have been added 
 increase. ^^^^ j^g^ offenses Created, which did not exist 
 previously. Moreover, the number of commitments and 
 the number of crimes are not identical. Again, an apparent 
 increase of crime may mean merely that the law is being 
 more strictly enforced. There also exists a great dis- 
 crepancy between the laws of the different states. It 
 would seem, however, to some writers that there has been 
 an increase of crime in the United States. This assertion 
 is based upon the fact that the prison population has 
 increased proportionately more rapidly than the total 
 population. The statistics of certain states collected be- 
 tween 1907 and 1 9 10 indicate an increase of serious crime, 
 while the increase of minor offenses is generally admitted. 
 Other writers, however, take a different view of the matter. 
 European statistics do not show any decided increase of crime 
 within the last few years. If anything, a slight decrease 
 has been noted in some countries of continental Europe. 
 England, whose criminal procedure is excellent, shows a 
 considerable decrease in the number of crunes conmiitted. 
 
The Problem of Crime 243 
 
 Causes of Crime. — Both in number and character the 
 causes of crime resemble those of poverty. The same set 
 of circmnstances, which may make one individual a pauper, 
 makes another a crinaiaal. The causes of crime he both 
 in the environment and in the individual. 
 
 There seems to be a generally accepted opinion that 
 crimes against person are more common in southern 
 countries and crimes against property are more 
 prevalent in northern lands. Similarly, in the mental: 
 same country, crimes against property, such as Physical en- 
 
 ... . . T -1 1 . vironment. 
 
 burglary, mcrease m winter, while those agamst 
 persons, like murder and assault, show an increase in spring 
 and simimer. Curves of the increase and decrease of 
 crime, which have been plotted graphically, show this 
 variation according to climate and season. Weather 
 influences also have a decided influence upon conduct, 
 as all indi\iduals in charge of large groups have noticed. 
 Wardens in prisons and asylums note a decided difference 
 in the conduct of the inmates upon clear crisp windy days 
 and upon damp days with high humidity. 
 
 The economic causes of crime are similar to those of 
 poverty. Individuals react differently to the same set of 
 causes. Unemployment may drive one man Economic 
 to steal and another to beg. Inadequate wages ^■^•i'-onmeni. 
 may reduce one woman to a standard of Hving below the 
 poverty line, while another of weaker will becomes a moral 
 delinquent. The student should review the economic 
 causes of poverty and observe how they are applicable to 
 crime. 
 
 Conditions in large cities are conducive to crime, for 
 here social ills and economic maladjustments are intensi- 
 fied. Glaring contrasts between poverty and riches are 
 
244 American Social Problems 
 
 temptations to illicit gains. Here bad associations are easily 
 formed, for the criminal as well as the pauper group gravi- 
 s„ciai tates toward the city. Gangs of thieves make 
 
 enmronment. ^heir quarters in congested districts, like those 
 depicted in Dickens' story of OHver Twist, and in similar 
 tales of to-day. After long monotonous hours of toil, 
 immoral amusement places are sought for relaxation as 
 an escape from crowded tenement houses. The city 
 must, therefore, furnish wholesome recreation centers 
 which may compete with the vicious theaters and dance 
 halls. Motion pictures, too, should be censored so that 
 wrongful ideals may no longer be upheld before their 
 audiences. All these conditions are typical of the city 
 which represents a great density of population. At the 
 other extreme are isolated and sparsely settled communi- 
 ties, which are also characterized by increased criminality. 
 Note, for example, the lawlessness of frontier life. The 
 regions between these two extremes of density of popu- 
 lation are freest of crime. 
 
 The family should be the chief agent in the socializa- 
 tion of the individual. Demoralized homes, which cannot 
 perform this function, furnish an imdue proportion of 
 criminals. Illegitimate and even dependent children seem 
 inclined toward criminal careers. Eighty-five to ninety 
 per cent of delinquent children in reform schools come 
 from bad homes. On the other hand, a healthy stable 
 family life is antagonistic to crime. The proportion of 
 unmarried to married men is also greater in the prisons 
 than in the general population. 
 
 We have seen that the criminality of the negro is from 
 three to four times as high as that of the whites. Again, 
 children of the foreign born, rather than the immigrants 
 
The Problem of Crime 245 
 
 themselves, show a greater proportion of criminaUty. 
 The South Italian, however, is often prone toward serious 
 crimes and the Irishman toward minor offenses. 
 
 Social drinking in the form of '" treating '' is a bad social 
 custom and is sometimes, directly or indirectly, responsible 
 for crime. The saloon, for many weak individuals, is the 
 door to the jail as well as to the almshouse. The carrAing 
 of concealed weapons is also a \"icious custom, and the 
 elaborate display of wealth is a suggestion to crime. The 
 moral attitude of the community toward crime is extremely 
 important, ^"hen the standard of conduct is high and 
 public opinion severe, there is relative^ a srucdl amoxmt of 
 crime. A rigid enforcement of the law. rather than hea^y 
 penalties. wiU result in a diminution in the number of 
 crimes committed. 
 
 Defects in law and government will increase the amoimt 
 of crime. If the police are lax or criminal in the perform- 
 ance of duty, crime will floxxrish, and the crim- Defects « 
 inals will be given poHtical protection by the verj" s<^<^'^"'«"^- 
 ofl&cers whose duty it is to enforce the law against them. 
 This is the stor\" of mmaerous vice commission reports. 
 The legislature and the courts should cooperate to make 
 justice swift and certain. In England, crime has been 
 reduced by this method. A faulty prison system, under 
 which first offenders mingle with hardened criminals, is 
 also productive of crime. 
 
 Defects in our educational system may indirectiy be 
 the cause of crime, just as they are of poverty. lUiteracy 
 is high in the jails as well as in the almshouses. Defects in 
 and lack of industrial training is equally appar- «'"«^«'»- 
 ent. The teaching of a trade in early years might well 
 have afforded idle hands an opportunity for honest work. 
 
246 American Social Problems 
 
 The causes of crime residing in the individual may be 
 
 hereditary or acquired. Crime is no more hereditary 
 
 than is pauperism, although the physical or 
 
 Individual , , , , . . , ■ 1. 
 
 causes: mental degeneracy back of it may be mnerent. 
 Hereditary This degeneracy may be transmissible and 
 thereby cause certain families to show bad crim- 
 inal records. We do not believe, however, that there is 
 a fixed criminal type, but that criminaHty is often the evi- 
 dence and result of inferior biological stock. Investiga- 
 tions of criminologists show that criminals in general pre- 
 sent a greater number of physical abnormalities than the 
 average man. Imbeciles, the insane and epileptics consti- 
 tute an undue proportion of the criminal class. Judges 
 have found it difficult to distinguish between crime and in- 
 sanity, and have confessed doubt as to whether the criminal 
 should be committed to the penitentiary or to the asylum. 
 Mental degeneracy, like feeble-mindedness, may " run " in 
 families, producing criminals, paupers, drunkards and im- 
 beciles. The criminal who is inherently degenerate will 
 have offspring likely to follow in his footsteps. But the 
 criminal who becomes such because of his environment 
 will be apt to have normal offspring. 
 
 -However, if these children are surrounded by bad in- 
 fluences in early childhood, it is easy for them to become 
 Acquired Criminals. The cause lies, not in heredity, but 
 trails. jj^ |-jjg jjg^jj social environment from which they 
 
 should have been freed. Acquired traits are the effects 
 upon the individual of the social and economic environ- 
 ment. These are usually not transmissible. Just as 
 normal conditions produce normal men, so an abnormal 
 and unhealthy environment may produce the criminal. 
 Intemperance, for example, is an abnormality brought 
 
The Problem of Crime 247 
 
 about by the evils of environment. The Committee of 
 Fifty found that alcohol was the chief cause of crime in 
 thirty-one and eighteen-hundredths per cent of cases and 
 a contributory cause in forty-nine and ninety-five- 
 hundredths per cent. Bad company and evil associations 
 also loom large in many criminal careers. 
 
 Other individual factors affecting crime are age and sex. 
 Practically all crime falls within the active period of life, 
 between the ages of twenty-one and forty. The 
 
 , . . . . . ^, . Age and sex. 
 
 average age of men m pemtentianes is often be- 
 tween twenty-seven and twenty-eight years. Sex is also 
 important, for the prison population is largely made up of 
 males. Easily nine-tenths of those sentenced to imprison- 
 ment are men. 
 
 In order to reduce the amount of crime in society the 
 environment must be improved by the removal as far as 
 possible of its causes. Since the reformation some con- 
 of the criminal is difficult, the actual prevention elusions, 
 of crime should be the aim of society. Three conditions 
 are necessary. In the first place, the evils in the environ- 
 ment must be corrected. Furthermore, each child should 
 be afforded proper development through the normal pro- 
 cess of education and socialization in the midst of healthy 
 surroundings. A third condition is also necessary. There 
 must be enough control exercised by society over heredity 
 to eliminate, by practical eugenic measures, the inherently 
 degenerate in society. 
 
 Classification of Crimes and Criminals. — Serious crimes 
 are known as felonies, but the less important, like vagrancy, 
 are called misdemeanors. A great difference classes of 
 in criminal laws exists among the several states, crimes. 
 The legal codes of the different states have varying degrees 
 
248 American Social Problems 
 
 of punishment for the same offense. This condition fre- 
 quently works injustice, as well as confusion, in the ad- 
 ministration of criminal laws. Another distinction should 
 be made. Vice is an act which injures the individual 
 himself, but not necessarily society, which crime does 
 affect. Our present social organization is so complex, 
 however, that this distinction is of little real value. Drunk- 
 enness may become as much a crime as a vice. Sin is 
 distinctive as an offense against God's law rather than 
 man's. A most fundamental distinction in classifying 
 crimes is that between crimes against persons and crimes 
 against property. Another tj^e of modern offense repre- 
 sents crimes against the social order, for civilized society 
 seeks to supervise numerous actions — from the regulation 
 of transportation to the issuance of marriage licenses. 
 Crimes may be classified subjectively as well as objec- 
 tively. Thus, there may be (i) crimes by accident; 
 (2) those of passion ; (3) those of premeditation. 
 
 There are numerous classifications of criminals, but the 
 most useful is the simple division of criminals into three 
 Classes of classes : (i) the born; (2) the habitual; and 
 criminals. ^2) the occasional. The born or instinctive 
 criminal is the individual of bad heredity and of degenerate 
 stock. He may be insane, feeble-minded or affiicted with 
 other hereditary handicaps. The habitual criminal has 
 a normal heredity but has been perverted by an evil en- 
 vironment. Hence his criminality is acquired. With the 
 development of bad habits and a vicious point of view, 
 it is almost as difficult for him, as for the born criminal, 
 to lead an upright life. Both these types are repeaters 
 before the bar of justice. The occasional criminal is 
 rather the single offender. He has committed a crime in 
 
The Problem of Crime 249 
 
 passion, or under the force of circumstances, and is most 
 capable of future reformation. 
 
 The great Italian criminologist, Caesar Lombroso, ex- 
 poimded the theory of a certain definite criminal type. 
 To this tj-pe belonged most of the individuals An old 
 who had committed serious crimes against so- ^^o^f- 
 ciety. It could be recognized by physical characteristics 
 such as skull and jaw formation. According to this theory, 
 certain signs of mental degeneracy, such as insensibility 
 to the sufferings of others, were supposed to be present. 
 This class was indifferent to social approval or disapproval 
 and the fact of guilt created no sense of shame. This 
 degenerate criminal class was regarded as resulting from 
 atavism or reversion to tj'pe. A primitive man had been 
 born into modern civilized society. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. 'UTiy have our crimiiial laws increased in number ? 
 
 2. What acts are now regarded as criininal which were not so 
 regarded in the past ? 
 
 3. Name some offenses which were formerly regarded as criminal 
 but are no longer so regarded. 
 
 4. How do the crimes of the unsocial individual of to-day differ 
 from those of the past ? 
 
 5. Define crime. 
 
 6. Who punished crime in early society? 
 
 7. Why does crime persist with the advance of civilization? 
 
 8. Explain how law is the legal expression of the group stand- 
 ard of conduct. Is it fixed or variable ? 
 
 9. Why is the extent of crime difficult to determine? 
 
 10. Give an estimate of the size of the prison population of the 
 United States. 
 
 ir. What racial groups are conspicuous ? 
 
 12. Estimate the cost of crime in the United States. 
 
250 American Social Problems 
 
 13. Is crime increasing ? 
 
 14. How are the causes of crime similar to those of poverty? 
 
 15. What influences in the physical environment affect conduct 
 and how ? 
 
 16. Why is crime prevalent in the city? 
 
 17. What practical municipal reforms can you suggest? 
 
 18. How is a healthy family life preventive of crime? 
 
 19. Name some vicious social customs. 
 
 20. Show how defects in government and political corruption in- 
 crease crime. 
 
 • 21. Show the relation between crime and hereditary degeneracy. 
 
 22. Show the relation between crime and age, and crime and sex. 
 
 23. What should be the three aims of preventive measures ? 
 
 24. Distinguish between several kinds of crime. 
 
 25. Give a simple classification of criminals. 
 
 TOPICS FOR SPECIAL REPORT 
 
 1. The new type of criminal. (See "Sin and Society," by Ross.) 
 
 2. Crime and city life. 
 
 3. Crime and the negro. 
 
 4. Crime and the immigrant. 
 
 5. The Italian school of criminologists represented by Lombroso. 
 
 6. The effect of climate and the seasons upon crime. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Ross, E. A. "Sin and Society." 
 
 Ellis, H. "The Criminal." 
 
 Hayes, E. C. "Introduction to the Study of Sociology." Chapter 
 
 XXXII. 
 Ell WOOD, C. A. "Sociology and the Modern Social Problems." 
 
 Chapter XIV. 
 Henderson, C. R. "Dependents, Defectives and Delinquents." 
 
 Part IV. Chapters I, II and V. 
 Smith, S. G. "Social Pathology." Chapters on The Nature of 
 
 Crime, Economics and Crime, Psychology of Crime. 
 
CIL\PTER XIX 
 Treatment of Crime 
 
 Criminal procedure 
 
 1. Historical development : 
 
 a. Private warfare 
 
 b. Medieval trials 
 
 c. King's court 
 
 d. Jur)- trial 
 
 e. A bod)' of law 
 
 2. ^lodem problems : 
 
 a. The legal machinery 
 
 b. Defects in system 
 II. Punishment of crime 
 
 1. The point of ^iew : 
 
 a. \'engeance 
 
 b. Prevention 
 
 c. Reformation 
 
 2. Early treatment : 
 
 a. Former cruelty 
 
 b. Prison reform 
 
 3. The present prison system : 
 
 a. The county jail 
 
 b. Mass treatment 
 
 c. Xeed of special institutions 
 
 d. Administration 
 
 e. Prison labor 
 
 4. Advocated reforms : 
 
 a. Indeterminate sentence 
 
 b. Parole 
 
 c. Substitutes for imprisonment 
 
 d. Abolition of capital punishment 
 
 231 
 
252 American Social Problems 
 
 5. Delinquent children : 
 a. Juvenile courts 
 h. Reform schools 
 
 Criminal Procedure. — In the patriarchal, tribal and 
 feudal stages of society the aggrieved man's cause was 
 Historical championed by his family, tribe or feudal lord. 
 
 develop- -pj^s method of settlement caused endless blood 
 ment : 
 
 Private fcuds like those which existed between the Ara- 
 
 warjare. ]-,ian tribes or the clans of the Scotch high- 
 landers. The injury was avenged with interest by the 
 perpetration of a similar wrong upon the aggressor himself 
 or his group. Thus, the strife and confusion continued in 
 the well-known feudal warfare of medieval Europe. Such 
 was also the condition in ancient Israel, where Moses in- 
 stituted cities of refuge, in which homicides were tem- 
 porarily safe from the avenger. The altars of ancient 
 temples and of medieval cathedrals were protecting sanc- 
 tuaries. Gradually, the power of the central government 
 increased and took into its own hands the restoration of 
 order and the punishment of crime. In time, the injury 
 came to be measured in terms of money value. This was 
 known as wergeld (worth money) among the Anglo-Saxons, 
 and the code of King Alfred regulated minutely how much 
 was to be paid for the loss of an eye, a hand or a finger. 
 
 A famous method of trial in the Middle Ages was that 
 by ordeal. The rehgious faith of the period was respon- 
 Medievai sible for the beUef that God would declare in 
 trials. some miraculous way the iimocence or guilt of 
 
 the accused person, who was required to place his hand in 
 boiling water, or to walk over red-hot plowshares. If, 
 after three days, the wound was regarded as healing, the 
 accused was considered innocent. Otherwise, he was 
 
Treatment of Crime 253 
 
 guilt}", for God had refiised to protect him. A more 
 rational method was that of compurgation. The accused 
 might bring his friends to swear that thej- believed his 
 oath. If the number of compurgators was not sufficient, 
 he must undergo the ordeal. The word of a noble was 
 equal to that of se^■eral thanes, whose testimony in tvu-n 
 outweighed that of ordinary freemen. William the Con- 
 queror introduced into England from the continent the 
 wager of battle. Each party, hke Rebecca in Scott's 
 " Ivanhoe," ciose a champion and the two warriors fought 
 out the cause in the presence of God and man. 
 
 In the Middle Ages there were three kinds of courts — 
 those of the nobles, those of the church and those of the 
 king. The church tried all sins such as heresj % The time's 
 and the condemned were handed OAer to the "'"*• 
 state for execution. Many other matters, like those per- 
 taining to marriage and divorce, fell within her jurisdiction. 
 Each noble lord also maintained his own court and pos- 
 sessed dungeons in his castle for those vassals who refused 
 to obey his law. As feudalism declined, most cases came 
 gradually into the kings court. The accused received 
 a fairer trial from the royal justices upon the circuit than 
 from the feudal courts. As the fines and penalties con- 
 stituted a considerable source of income, the jurisdiction 
 of the king's peace became graduallj- extended. The 
 baronial courts came to be things of the past. Certain 
 streets, houses. indi\iduals. da>^ and other such circum- 
 stances were declared to be under the king's peace, and aU 
 cases thus arising were to come before the king's courts. 
 
 There are two kinds of juries — the petty and the grand. 
 The former tries the criminals whom the latter has prcA^i- 
 ously indicted or held for court. The king's coiu-t in 
 
254 American Social Problems 
 
 England developed trial by jury as a more suitable method 
 
 of administering justice than the old medieval customs 
 
 just described. The traveling royal justice, 
 
 Jury trial. . • i j 
 
 who was to sit upon the case, issued an order 
 for a number of men to investigate the offense and render 
 a sworn verdict. In a criminal case, they were to state 
 whether they thought the man guilty or not and, in a civil 
 case, they were to designate which of the two parties had the 
 better claim. Gradually a distinction was made between 
 those who knew the facts, and came to be regarded as 
 witnesses, and those who were unacquainted with the facts. 
 The latter were apt to be more impartial and were called 
 to pass judgment upon the case. These constituted the 
 germ of the petty jury. The grand jury, as well as the 
 petty jury, is associated with the reign of Henry II of 
 England. At that time there had been a great increase 
 in the number of crimes, and the criminals had not been 
 apprehended. Hence, Henry II provided that, when the 
 king's justices came to a county, a number of men should 
 be selected and required to give upon oath the number of 
 crimes committed in that locality and the names of those 
 suspected. The state, and not the aggrieved individual, 
 thus came to be the prosecuting party, and the grand jury 
 came into existence for the indictment of criminals. The 
 sheriff of each county was required to raise the " hue and 
 cry " against the offender and could demand the assistance 
 of all good citizens in securing the arrest of the supposed 
 crijninal. 
 
 The justices sitting as a combined body, or the individual 
 members upon the circuit, kept a record of the cases settled 
 and the decisions rendered. These may be regarded as 
 the formal legal expression of the unwritten customs and 
 
Treatment of Crime 255 
 
 moral ideas of the community. They were generally logi- 
 cal, consistent, conformable to custom and came to be 
 knownas the "common law." This body of law a body of 
 was centuries in formation and, to-day, lies at '""'• 
 the bottom of English jurisprudence and its American off- 
 spring. In addition to the common law there is also statu- 
 tory law. This is made up of numerous formal enactments 
 passed, iu England, by Parhament and, in our own country, 
 by the national Congress and state legislatures. 
 
 Although the federal courts pimish offenders against 
 national laws, the great volume of criminal cases, as well 
 as civil, come before the state courts. Each 
 
 ,..,,. .,..,,. . , . , Modem 
 
 state IS divided mto judicial districts which problems: 
 correspond, more or less, with county lines. The legal 
 
 rt-.i • 1- • • - 1 • r inachinery. 
 
 The state judiciary is organized mto courts of 
 common pleas for civil cases, and courts of quarter sessions 
 for the trial of crimiaals. Since every citizen has the right 
 to be protected from arbitrary seizure, a warrant is gen- 
 erally required for his arrest, unless the ofi'ense has been 
 committed in the presence of the constable or policeman. 
 The sheriff is the supreme coimty official charged with the 
 duty of arrest, custody or execution of the criminal. The 
 coroner is the county official who investigates the causes 
 of deaths in an effort to prevent and punish crime. Cases 
 may be brought before a magistrate, in the city, or a jus- 
 tice of the peace, in the country. Trivial cases are within 
 their jurisdiction and they may discharge the prisoner 
 or assign a light penalty in the form of fine or imprison- 
 ment. If the offense is serious, the prisoner is sent to jail 
 to await trial hy the county court, or set free upon the pay- 
 ment of bail given in proportion to the seriousness of the 
 offense. The accusation is tested before the grand jury 
 
256 American Social Problems 
 
 and a bill of indictment is filed or the accused is released 
 because of insufficiency of evidence against him. If not 
 released, the prisoner is finally arraigned before the bar of 
 justice when his case is called before the court. The 
 charge is read and he may plead innocent or guilty. He 
 may employ his own lawyer or, if he is unable to pay for such 
 service, the state provides an attorney for him. The dis- 
 trict attorney, or one of his assistants, represents the state 
 by the prosecution of the criminal. Witnesses who testify 
 are forced to appear in court by the serving of subpoenas. 
 A jury of twelve men renders a verdict of guilty or not 
 guilty, and the judge fixes the sentence. The jury de- 
 cides upon the evidence in the case — true or false — and 
 the judge upon its legal significance. 
 
 The jury system is rightly regarded as one of the greatest 
 results of English political development. The prisoner 
 Defects in who is givcu cvcry opportunity for defending 
 the system, himself is regarded as innocent luitil proved 
 guilty. Like all social institutions, trial by jury, how- 
 ever, has its defects. Under this system a large number of 
 the guilty escape, for it is agreed that it is better for nine 
 guilty persons to escape than for one innocent man to suffer. 
 A unanimous verdict of the twelve jurors is generally 
 necessary for conviction and, if any one of the nimierous 
 . rules of procedure is broken, a new trial may be secured. 
 In this country the work of the courts is notoriously slow, 
 whereas justice should be swift and certain in order to 
 be effective. In the third place, those serving upon juries 
 are often relatively uneducated. Intelligent individuals 
 who should perform this civic duty often seek to escape 
 such work in order to engage in their own more profit- 
 able occupations. Others plead conscientious objections to 
 
Treatment of Crime 257 
 
 serving. Again, the jury is apt to be swayed by the skill 
 and eloquence of la\\yers who gain their ends by sentimental 
 use of the pathetic prisoner or of the dramatic witness. 
 Some writers upon jurisprudence would substitute for the 
 jury a bench of three judges. ]Many regard this, however, 
 as too radical an innovation. 
 
 Undoubtedly some changes should be made in legal pro- 
 cedure. For example, the state should employ social ex- 
 perts in criminology as well as those versed in the law. 
 These should be trained to distinguish between the dif- 
 ferent classes of criminals and to pass upon questions of 
 insanity and abnormality. Their special training in 
 psychology would also enable them to evaluate testimony. 
 'In the next place, a great discrepancy exists in the admin- 
 istration of the law. Not only do the legal codes of the 
 different states vary greatly in penalties inflicted for the 
 same crime, but within a given state there is a great varia- 
 tion in the severity of the decisions of the different judges. 
 This situation is difl&cult to avoid because the hiunan 
 equation is ever present. 
 
 The last objection to our criminal system, however, is 
 most fimdamental. We are still seeking to make the 
 pimishment fit the crime and not the criminal. Retribution 
 is usually the aim of punishment and its character and 
 amount are fixed according to the gravity of the crime. 
 However, if reformation is the desired end, the punishment 
 should be made to fit the needs of the criminal, rather than 
 the nature of the crime. Such a policy would mean that 
 different offenders would receive different sentences for the 
 same offense. The single offender or occasional criminal 
 might be treated with leniency because he is not likely to 
 repeat his wrongdoing. The habitual criminal, however, 
 
258 American Social Problems 
 
 might be sentenced for the same offense to the permanent 
 custody of the penitentiary, and the instinctive criminal 
 assigned to one of the institutions for defectives. It must 
 be said, however, that judges do make distinctions between 
 first offenders and hardened criminals. They are also sen- 
 tencing a greater proportion of prisoners to specialized insti- 
 tutions where more individual treatment may be secured. 
 
 Punishment of Crime. — The first point of view in re- 
 gard to punishment for crime was that of revenge. This 
 Point of attitude was most conspicuous in the early days 
 view: of private warfare, when the aggrieved indi- 
 
 Vengeance. yidual or his group vented his wrath upon the 
 offender, whose entire family was often made to suffer. If 
 the offender himself could not be secured, substitutes taken 
 as hostages might suffer the fate intended for the original 
 wrongdoer. " An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth," 
 was the spirit of that age. 
 
 Somewhat of the same spirit continued long after crime 
 came to be looked upon as a social rather than an individual 
 offense which the state itself undertook to pim- 
 ish. In order to deter others from a similar 
 course, an attempt was made at intimidation through tor- 
 ture and death by the most cruel means. Executions were 
 pubhc and the heads of criminals and political victims were 
 placed upon long poles and exhibited from the walls and 
 towers of the town. This was a common sight upon 
 London Tower. 
 
 Curiously enough, the severity of the penalty has been 
 
 foimd to have a less direct relation to the repetition of tte 
 
 crime than was at first supposed. Torture and 
 
 Reformation. . 
 
 barbaric punishments have lowered the public 
 morality, and driven toward crime as many as have been 
 
Treatment of Crime 259 
 
 deterred from it b} fear of cruel penalties. The modem 
 point of \iew toward the whole criminal problem is that of 
 reformation or improvement, both in the criminal himself 
 and in his environment. Prevention of crime through the 
 improvement of the social environment is most fundamental. 
 Regarding the individual criminal, the reformatory rather 
 than the punitive attitude should be taken. Like the 
 pauper, he should be viewed as one who is socially dis- 
 eased. In rendering sentence society, through its instru- 
 ment the judge, shqiold prescribe for him in the role of 
 social physician. 
 
 Formerly, manj- crimes were ptmishable by death ad- 
 ministered in various ways according to social sanction. 
 Burning was common for slaves and heretics 
 
 Early treat- 
 
 but, with the advance of civilization, beheading ment: 
 became popular. In England, the block and, ^""""^ 
 
 crucliy. 
 
 in France, the guillotine took the place of the 
 stake. Hanging has been a common fate for modem 
 criminals and onl)" recentlj' has it given way to the more 
 humane method of electrocution. Until recent times 
 torture was frequently practiced. The victim raight be 
 drawn and quartered, or broken upon the wheel, and in 
 ancient times crucifixion was common. The death penalty 
 was not only cruel but frequent. In the first quarter of the 
 sixteenth century the pubUc executioner at Nuremberg 
 put to death eleven htmdred and fiftj-nine persons, and 
 seventy thousand executions took place during the reign 
 of Henry VIII of England. As late as the last centurv', the 
 death penalty was inflicted upon children and those guilty 
 of minor offenses such as stealing. Branding and flogging 
 were also common. Unfortunates sentenced to sit in the 
 pillor)- were pelted by jeering crowds, while the public 
 
26o American Social Problems 
 
 hangings at Tyburn prison in London were regarded as 
 holiday amusements. In revolutionary France the women, 
 while knitting, enjoyed the ghastly guillotine. 
 
 The prisons of ancient times defy description. Pris- 
 oners languished in filthy underground dungeons until 
 Prison re- death put an end to their niisery. Often they 
 form. were poHtical offenders against whom no just 
 
 legal charge could be brought. Such was the situation in 
 the famous Bastille. To prevent this arbitrary imprison- 
 ment, the Enghsh parliament had . passed a " Habeas 
 Corpus Act." Debtors, however, continued to suffer im- 
 prisonment until very recent times. Prison conditions 
 were unspeakable. The sick and diseased spread their 
 contagions, while often the two sexes mingled promiscu- 
 ously. In some jails so Httle food was provided that many 
 prisoners were forced to beg from their more fortunate 
 brethren. The jailors were generally brutal characters 
 who exacted fees on the sHghtest pretext. The warden of 
 the Marshalsea, pictured in Dickens' story, had at one 
 time an income of £3000 a year derived from such sources. 
 Modern prison reform may be said to date from the time 
 of the Italian, Beccaria, and the Enghshman, John Howard. 
 Beccaria was a student who pubUshed a book against torture 
 and advocated a reform of the criminal law. John Howard 
 (17 26-1 790) was one of the greatest reformers of aU times. 
 As sheriff of Bedford, he was placed in charge of the prison 
 where a century before John Bunyan had written " Pil- 
 grim's Progress." By personal experience he became 
 acquainted with the jail conditions which he pictured be- 
 fore the House of Commons. A great traveler, he visited 
 the prisons of many leading European countries and 
 studied their wretched conditions. He caUed attention 
 
Treatment of Crime 261 
 
 to the most glaring evils and inaugurated a movement for 
 their reform. 
 
 The greatest e^il in our present prison system is the 
 coimty jaU. This is regarded by experts as a most efficient 
 school for crime. Here prisoners are committed The present 
 thirty or ninetv davs for minor offenses. In prison sys- 
 the jail are confined those guilty of misde- The county 
 meanors, while the more serious felons are sent ■'''''• 
 to the penitentiary'. Old and yoimg mingle freely, and the 
 \'icious hardened criminal narrates his deeds to the young 
 offender, who thus acquires criminal knowledge and bad 
 habits. The tramp, the outcast, the drunkard and the 
 disorderly are kept here along with those who are merely 
 awaiting trial. In most counties there is not sufficient 
 need or enough funds to warrant the building of larger and 
 better jails. When such is the case, however, several 
 counties should imite in the building of a district jail which 
 can pro\dde proper separation of prisoners, adequate 
 discipline, regvdar industry and effective reformatory 
 measures. 
 
 Difference in tv'pes of criminals makes the need of in- 
 di'sddualized treatment imperative. In other words, dis- 
 tinctive institutions for different criminal nass 
 classes are needed. The instinctive criminal, "■««''»«"'• 
 often feeble-minded or otherwise defective, cannot be re- 
 formed and is dangerous at large in society. This small 
 group should be kept in permanent custod3^ The habitual 
 criminal is difficult of reformation and is apt to commit 
 further crime. He should be placed in a state penitentiary, 
 under an indeterminate sentence, and should be kept there 
 until there is adequate proof that he is no longer a menace to 
 society. The single offender should be separated from the 
 
262 American Social Problems 
 
 hardened criminal. In some cases he may well be dealt 
 with outside the prison walls by a system of probation. 
 Young offenders need very careful treatment because they 
 present the possibility of reform. Reform schools are 
 therefore needed for juvenile offenders. 
 
 In order to avoid mass treatment and to individualize the 
 prison systems for the various groups of offenders, Pro- 
 „ , , fessor Ellwood suggests that each state should 
 
 Need of °" 
 
 special have at least the followmg separate types of 
 
 insMuHons. institutions: (i) county and city jails, which 
 should be used only for the temporary detention of pris- 
 oners awaiting trial. One evil of our present system, as we 
 have seen, has been the use of the county jail or the city 
 " lock-up " as the place of imprisonment for all the differ- 
 ent groups of prisoners serving petty sentences. (2) Re- 
 form schools for all children under sixteen years of age, or 
 at least under the compulsory school age. (3) Reforma- 
 tories for first offenders, particularly for the young. This 
 group would thus be separated from habitual criminals, 
 and in the treatment of this class industrial training should 
 be emphasized. (4) State penitentiaries for all habitual 
 criminals. (5) Special reformatories for vagrants, in- 
 ebriates and like characters. (6) Hospital prisons for the 
 criminally insane. Other defectives, wherever found, 
 should receive specialized treatment. 
 
 The administration of institutions dealing with chari- 
 ties and corrections is generally under a board of managers 
 Adminis- or a commissiou. The responsible head of the 
 iraiion. prison, however, is the warden or superintendent. 
 
 In order to secure efficient administration this officer should 
 be empowered to appoint subordinates, but under a civil 
 service system. There should be a competent medical 
 
Treatment of Crime 263 
 
 staff in addition to the force of clerks, guards and house- 
 keepers. Industrial training is important because, if the 
 prisoner is to become a useful member of society, he must 
 have some means of livelihood when discharged from 
 prison. Trade schools should be established for the young, 
 while the older men are given emplojment in the shops or 
 in work aromid the institution. In the past, prisoners 
 have been forced to perform unprofitable occupations or 
 those of little practical value in after life. In some peni- 
 tentiaries, classes are conducted where illiterate con\dcts 
 are taught to read and write. 
 
 Formerly, prison discipline has been very se^ ere and the 
 lock step method in vogue. Warden ]SIcKenty, of the 
 Eastern Penitentiary in Pennsylvania, has foimd that a 
 more libercd spirit is not only advantageous to the man 
 himself in the process of reformation, but is also a factor 
 for good throughout the entire institution. The same 
 spirit characterized the work of Superintendent Osborne 
 at Sing Sing. Instead of the brutal punishments, the 
 deprivation of special pri\Tleges may be used with greater 
 power for effective discipline. Under this system pris- 
 oners are graded and each grade has greater privileges than 
 the one below. !Marks and demerits may be given, so 
 that the prisoner with a good record may be able to advance 
 to the highest grade. There may also be the possibility 
 of shortening the sentence by good behavior. In some 
 hardened cases it is found necessary to resort to a system 
 of soUtar}' confinement, combined with restricted diet, or 
 even to corporal punishment. In earlier days, a con- 
 troversv existed between the advocates of what was known 
 as the solitary or separate s} stem of confinement and its 
 opponents. They have been known as the Pennsylvania 
 
264 American Social Problems 
 
 and Auburn systems respectively. The former method 
 guards against corruption due to evil associations, but 
 the lack of human contact may result in insanity or some 
 lesser form of mental abnormality. 
 
 It may be said of the administration of prisons, as well 
 as of almshouses, that more complete records should be 
 kept. There should be some central clearing house for 
 the records of prisoners, many of whom have been found 
 to be repeaters under assumed names. There is a system 
 of measuring each individual criminal known as the Ber- 
 tillon system. The lengths of the bones are recorded, for 
 these do not grow after physical maturity is reached. A 
 front and side photograph of the prisoner is also taken 
 for the " rogues' gallery." The print of the thumb is a 
 further mark of identification, for no two of these are 
 alike. 
 
 Prisoners were employed in earlier days at most severe 
 
 labor. In the last century convicts, like Jean Valjean in 
 
 Victor Hugo's story, were sent to the galleys. 
 
 Prison labor. „ • 1 1 1 • • 
 
 Convict labor upon the roads is still common and 
 may be beneficial, if properly regulated and supervised. 
 It was formerly the custom to lease a gang of convicts to 
 some contractor who was responsible for their care. They 
 were often poorly treated, however; for profit, not reforma- 
 tion, was the aim of the contractor. The evil of this system 
 became so apparent that the state was forced to keep con- 
 trol of its prisoners when they were turned over to an outside 
 employer. Prisoners should be made to work because 
 idleness is physically, mentally and morally pernicious. 
 The work, however, should have some kind of educational 
 value, and enable the convict to earn an honest living. In 
 the past, prisoners have been taught a trade only to find, 
 
Trcalwaif of Crime 26^ 
 
 when discharged, that it possessed Uttle practical economic 
 value. Organized labor has opposed convict labor as 
 injurious to the wages of the free workman. Some states 
 either prohibit or place a limit upon the prison output. 
 Under the law of 1S97, in Pennsjlvania, not more than 
 thirty-nve per cent of the inmates of a penal institution 
 may be employed in the production of goods for sale, nor 
 may any power machiner\" be used. The " state use " 
 system attempts to overcome this objection of the labor 
 unions by producing articles needed in various state in- 
 stitutions. F;urms are also being purchased by the state, 
 because outdoor work is physically most beneficial to the 
 prisoner. ConNicts are also at work upwn roads and other 
 public improvements. 
 
 It is imjxissible to know in advance just how long it will be 
 necessary to keep an individual a prisoner before he is suffi- 
 cientlj'^ disciplined to be set at large. Hence many Advocated 
 advocate the indeterminate sentence which does refarms: 
 notstateexactly the length of imprisonment. The Koie sn- 
 con^"ict must finrnish e^"idence by his conduct, ''""^' 
 self-control, obedience and habits of steady work, that he is 
 capable of making an honest h\-ing. Students of law fear 
 that this system woxild be a temptation to prison officials 
 to keep certain prisoners longer in jail than would be just 
 to them. On the other hand, an indi^■idual con\'icted of 
 some serious crime might be released too soon. The oc- 
 casional criminal would profit, and the. habitual criminal 
 suffer, by its adoption. It is true that the indeterminate 
 sentence places an enormous responsibility in the hands 
 of the wardens of tlie penitentiaries. It also necessitates 
 an entire change in our point of ^^ew toward the criminal. 
 Punishment must no longer be imalterably fixed according 
 
266 American Social Problems 
 
 to the nature of the crime, but must be adjusted to the 
 nature of the man who commits the crime. 
 
 The indeterminate sentence presents the objection that 
 it is impossible for prison ofi&cials to predict how a man will 
 use his newly obtained freedom. His conduct 
 within prison walls may be sufficiently excellent 
 to win the approval of the officials, but when restraint is 
 removed he may again become morally deficient. Hence, 
 some writers have argued that the prisoner should not be 
 permanently discharged, but only conditionally freed imder 
 the system of parole. He is not to be released until em- 
 ployment has been found for him, and he must break loose 
 from his former evil associations. He must return to the 
 penitentiary occasionally with a report from his employer 
 and, perhaps, from another reputable citizen. At the end 
 of his term of sentence, he is relieved of this supervision, 
 which has been a good preparation for absolute freedom. 
 If, on the other hand, he violates his parole or again falls 
 into evil ways, he is returned to jail. The parole system 
 has many good features but, like other prison reforms, it is 
 difficult of administration. Clever criminals have been 
 known to forge reports and meanwhile resort to their old 
 practices. The administrator should always hesitate about 
 furnishing parole to the habitual criminal. 
 
 Instead of being sentenced to the county jail for a mis- 
 demeanor, the offender, unless a dangerous character, might 
 
 Substitutes ^^ P^*" "PO"^ probation by the judge. When 
 }orim- work has been secured, he should be regularly 
 
 nsonmen . yjgj(-g^ j^y |-]^g probation ofhcer. For the first 
 offender, the fear of imprisonment may be a great de- 
 terrent. But if, on the other hand, he were imprisoned, 
 he might lose all hope of an honest future. In certain 
 
Treatment of Crime 267 
 
 cases fines may be substituted for imprisonment, but some 
 method should be devised whereby poor ofifenders may be 
 able to discharge their indebtedness in installments and 
 thus avoid jail. Fines, however, have Uttle reformative 
 value to the criminal and frequently work great hardship 
 to his poverty-stricken family. Reparation to the injured 
 party should be required as the condition necessary to sus- 
 pend a sentence of hard labor. This is not only just to 
 the injured party, but also of disciplinary value to the 
 offender. Transportarion of criminals has sometimes been 
 used as a substitute for imprisonment, but the results have 
 not always been beneficial., Australia was originally used 
 as a penal colony, but the practice was finally stopped after 
 nmnerous appeals from the colonists. For vagrants, 
 feeble-minded and certain other classes of delinquents, 
 agricultural colonies under strict super\'ision have been 
 advocated. Such colonies, however, must be kept iso- 
 lated. 
 
 The abolition of capital punishment has been urged by 
 some writers, who question the right of society to take the 
 life of an individual, while admitting its right 4j„j^j„„ 
 to put the offender in permanent custody in of capital 
 
 , - . ., ' ^ punishment. 
 
 order to prevent a recurrence 01 similar out- 
 rages. Others regard the death penalty for murder as just, 
 and plead the old argument of retribution expressed in the 
 rule of " an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth." Others 
 fear that the abolition of capital pimishment would lead to 
 a great increase in the number of serious crimes committed. 
 We have seen, however, that the fear of cruel punishment 
 does not always work as a deterrent to crime. At present, 
 the death penalty prevents many juries from condemning 
 criminals whose gmlt is practically assured. The abolition 
 
268 American Social Problems 
 
 of capital punishment would thus result in a greater number 
 of convictions for the serious crimes. 
 
 Juvenile courts were first established in our large cities. 
 
 Certain states have since authorized all judges, in districts 
 
 where there is no special juvenile court, to sus- 
 
 Delinquent , r , -it -i 
 
 children : pcnd Ordinary rules of procedure in dealing with 
 Juvenile criminals under eighteen years of age. The 
 
 courts. ,..,., . ., 
 
 object aimed at in such cases is to prescribe 
 reformatory treatment for those young persons who seem to 
 be starting upon a criminal career. In conjunction with the 
 court there is a probation ofl&cer to investigate the case and 
 to supervise the young dehnquent. He is not sentenced to 
 imprisonment, but is allowed to return home upon proba- 
 tion. The court officer watches over his conduct and en- 
 vironment. School attendance or, if beyond school age, the 
 character of employment is especially important in these 
 cases. Home conditions should be good and association with 
 evil companions avoided. No pubhcity is given these 
 juvenile offenders who, under such circumstances, might 
 be tempted to regard themselves as of some importance. 
 
 Special institutions are needed for youths who have com- 
 mitted crimes serious enough to send an adult to the peni- 
 Reform tentiary. A rural environment and the occu- 
 schoois. pation of agriculture are often found to be 
 beneficial, while trade instruction is necessary for those 
 who return to city life. The cottage system of adminis- 
 tration in such cases is more effective than mass treatment 
 in dormitories. Individualization and personal contact 
 are essential in the education and reformation of youthful 
 offenders. The aim of all such treatment is the quickening 
 of the moral sense, and the development of self-reliance in 
 the form of ability to acquire economic independence. 
 
Treatment of Crime 269 
 
 QUESTIOXS FOR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. How was crime originally punished ? 
 
 2. Describe the various kinds of trial used in the Middle .\ges. 
 
 3. Trace the origin of trial by jury in England. 
 
 4. Follow the trial of a criminal from his arrest to his con\-icuon. 
 Show the duties of the various judicial bodies and officers. 
 
 5. Show the strength and weakness of our present criminal 
 procedure. 
 
 6. What reforms are advocated? 
 
 7. How was the point of \iew toward the criminal changed? 
 Discuss the three stages. 
 
 S. Discuss early prison reform and reformers. 
 9. Discuss the e^'ils of the present coimty jaU. 
 
 10. Show the dangers of mass treatment. 
 
 11. What different t^pes of insriturions are needed in any ade- 
 quate prison system ? 
 
 12. What improvements have been made in penal administrarion ? 
 
 13. Discuss the opposirion to convict labor. 
 
 14. What should be the the aim of convict labor? 
 
 15. Show the evils of the contract system. 
 
 16. Give the arguments in favor of and against the indeterminate 
 sentence. 
 
 17. Explain the parole system. 
 
 iS. WTiat subsritutes for imprisonment have been tried? 
 
 19. Give the arguments for and against capital punishment. 
 
 20. What is your opinion? 
 
 21. How do the juvenile courts differ from the others? 
 
 22. What are the fvmctions of a probation officer? 
 
 TOPICS FOR SPECI.\L REPORT 
 
 1. Trial by ordeal and compurgation. 
 
 2. The judicial system of Henrj' II. 
 
 3. The criminal code of England a century ago. 
 
 4. The Hfe of John Howard. 
 
 5. Early prisons and their occupants. 
 
 6. The model penitentian.-. 
 
270 American Social Problems 
 
 7. Trade unions and convict labor. 
 
 8. The reform school and the boy criminal. 
 
 9. The penal institutions of your own state. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Hayes, E. C. "Introduction to a Study of Sociology." Chapter 
 
 XXXIII. 
 Henderson, C. R. "Dependents, Defectives, and Delinquents." 
 
 Part IV, Chapters III, IV, VI. 
 Mangoid, G. B. "Child Problems." Book IV. 
 Wines, F. H. "Reformation and Punishment." 
 Smith, S. G. "Social Pathology." Chapter on Treatment of 
 
 Crime. 
 Reports of the National Conference of Charities and Corrections. 
 State Prison Association Reports. 
 Ellis, H. "The Criminal." 
 
 Henberson, C. R. "Preventive Agencies and Methods." 
 Taylor, W. L. "The Man Behind the Bars." 
 
CH-\PTER XX 
 
 Defecti\t:5 rs" Society 
 
 I. Physical defectives 
 
 1. The blind: 
 J. Extent 
 
 b. Causes 
 
 c. Treatment 
 
 2. The deaf : 
 
 a. Extent 
 
 b. Causes 
 
 c. Treatment 
 3- The crippled 
 
 n. ilental defectives 
 
 1. The insane: 
 c. Extent 
 
 b. Causes 
 
 c. Treatment 
 
 2. Epileptics 
 
 3- The feeble-minded : 
 
 a. Definition and extent 
 
 b. The three classes 
 
 c. Its hereditary character 
 
 d. The dangers 
 
 e. Xeed of institutions 
 in. Conclusion 
 
 1. Social debtor classes 
 
 2. The future 
 
 Physical Defectives. — The census of 1900, as originally 
 reported, placed the number of blind in the United States 
 
 271 
 
272 American Social Problems 
 
 at a hundred and one thousand, but a revision by experts 
 led the Census Bureau to reduce this number to sixty-five 
 ThebKnd: thousand. The census of 1910 showed a further 
 Exieni. reduction by reporting 57,272 bhnd people in our 
 
 population. The difficulty in estimating the number of 
 blind lies in classifying the partially blind who constitute 
 about half the total number. The proportion of males 
 among the bhnd is higher than that of females, because 
 many men lose their vision in explosions and other indus- 
 trial accidents. Almost half the blind are reported as 
 being sixty years of age or over. It is therefore evident 
 that blindness is associated with advancing age and with 
 the dechne of physical vigor. For the good of future 
 generations it is imperatively necessary that eyesight be 
 properly safeguarded. Greater precautions must be taken 
 in the school, in the home, in the factory and in other places 
 of employment. The correction of errors of vision by the 
 use of glasses may be preventive of future blindness and is 
 becoming viewed as a matter of social as well as individual 
 concern. 
 
 Blindness from infancy is not uncommon. A large 
 proportion of this physical defect is due to a disease known 
 Causes of ^^ Ophthalmia, an infant blindness, which has 
 bhndness. been estimated to cause about one-tenth of all 
 cases of blindness. It often occurs in cases where the 
 parent is diseased, but it may be prevented in almost every 
 case by washing the eyes of the newly born babe in a very 
 weak solution of silver nitrate. This preventive measure 
 is rarely practiced by the ignorant midwives who officiate 
 at the births of many infants in our poorer and immigrant 
 homes. Hence the plea for the presence of a physician 
 at each birth, and the use of the maternity hospital for 
 
Defectives in Society 273 
 
 those too poor to pa,y for proper medical attendance. 
 WTiile conditions of modem civilization are especially severe 
 on the eyes, the advance of medical science may counteract 
 the tendency toward defective vision. It is by reason 
 of this fact that the proportion of blind of school age is 
 not increasing, but actually decreasing, in comparison 
 with the general increase of blindness in the total popula- 
 tion. 
 
 According to the census of 1910 there are fortj'-four 
 schools for the blind in the United States. At present 
 there are about five thousand students. Schools Treatment 
 for the blind were first established through pri- "/*'"«'■ 
 vate funds in Boston, New York and Philadelphia ; but 
 various states are now making special provision at pubhc 
 expense for the education of this group of imfortunates. 
 The course includes the losual elementarj- branches and 
 special instruction in reading and writing and industrial 
 training. The first system of printing devised for the 
 blind was by means of raised letters. The system of 
 Louis Braille, devised first in 1S29, does not use the actual 
 letters but employs dots, a plan which possesses many 
 advantages over the earlier system. In a number of 
 public schools in our larger cities special classes for the 
 blind are maintained. This arrangement does not neces- 
 sitate their leaving home permcmently to live in a distant 
 institution. It is necessary that parents educate their 
 blind children, for the Census reported that nearly one- 
 half of the blind were not in attendance at any school. 
 It is surprising to learn how much can be done by scientific 
 educational training to make blind children, who are still 
 in the formative period, independent and self-reUant. 
 Other faculties can be trained to do a large part of the work 
 
 T 
 
274 American Social Problems 
 
 ordinarily done by the eyes. When bhndness occurs, the 
 sense of touch becomes highly developed. 
 
 The treatment of the blind is rendered difficult by the 
 fact that a large proportion of them suffer from other 
 defects as well. A study at the Peimsylvania Institution 
 for the Blind revealed, for example, that forty-five per 
 cent of the girls and thirty-six per cent of the boys had 
 indications of curvature of the spine. In weight, height 
 and lung capacity they were also below the normal. Phys- 
 ical exercise, especially of a corrective nature, is impera- 
 tively needed. Industrial education must also be empha- 
 sized. Manual training is taught the blind, as well as 
 handicrafts, like chair-caning, broom-making and carpet- 
 weaving. Employment is necessary to keep the blind 
 from dwelling upon their misfortune and from becoming 
 morbid and melancholy. A second and equally important 
 reason for occupation is the necessity for securing economic 
 independence. The blind beggar upon the street is not 
 only a pathetic figure, but often a cause of misdirected 
 charity, injurious to himself as well as to the community. 
 
 The number of blind engaged in gainful occupations 
 is increasing and the state should deliberately foster the 
 movement. Several states have established special work- 
 shops for the blind, where they can find certain types of 
 work adapted to their abilities. Special employment 
 agencies also are on the lookout for positions which can be 
 filled by the blind. The adult who becomes bUnd in mature 
 years, through accident or loss of physical vigor, is the most 
 unfortunate of this entire group, for a complete readjust- 
 ment is necessary in his case. New York City has adopted 
 a system of giving pensions to the adult blind, as a subsidy 
 to those who are trying to become self-supporting. 
 
Dcjccthes in Society 
 
 ■/:> 
 
 In addition to the blind, the deaf and the dumb consti- 
 tute two other classes of physical defectives. Some im- 
 fortunates. like the celebrated ^Miss Helen Keller, The deaf: 
 possess all three defects. The inability to speak, i^**"*- 
 however, has been found in a number of cases not to be 
 due to any defect in the brain or speech organs. Deaf 
 mutes are often unable to speak, or are forced to speak 
 imperfectly, because of their inability to hear. ZMany 
 have never learned to talk merely because of a lack of 
 opportunity to hear themselves and others speak. About 
 five per cent of the deaf are also feeble-minded and should 
 be placed in institutions for the latter rather than for the 
 former. A national census in 1906 recorded the number 
 of deaf as 86,515. There are, therefore, apparentlj" more 
 deaf than bUnd in the United States. There are so many 
 degrees of deafness that it is even harder to estimate exactly 
 the number of deaf than to approximate the number of 
 the blind. In round numbers, it is somewhere near one 
 hundred thousand and does not seem to be decreasing in 
 proportion to the total population as does the number of 
 bUnd. Of the total number, about one-fourth are reported 
 as being totally devoid of the power of speech. WTiat 
 proportion of these are really dumb or have simply never 
 learned to speak because of their deafness cannot be as- 
 certained. 
 
 There are nmnerous causes of deafness, but the most 
 common are, perhaps, accident and disease, causes of 
 Adults are often attacked by catarrhal colds and <^^/»"^- 
 diseases of the ear. In the young, scarlet fever, meningitis 
 and adenoids stand out conspicuously as causes of deaf- 
 ness. A third caiise may be found in geographical enAoron- 
 ment. The mountainous coimtry of Switzerland has a 
 
276 American Social Problems 
 
 high deaf rate, while the low country of the Netherlands 
 has a lower one. This may, however, be due to other 
 than geographical causes. Blindness is also higher in 
 bright desert lands where the rays of the sun are intense. 
 The multitude of blind beggars in the Orient may, 
 however, also be due to the lack of medical knowledge 
 and of scientific treatment. A fourth cause of deafness is 
 heredity, although the exact part played by this factor is 
 difficult to ascertain. The marriage of deaf people, with 
 whom deafness is inherent and not merely acquired, will 
 often result in deaf children. About one-fifth of all the 
 deaf are born deaf and a large proportion of these come 
 from totally or partially deaf parents. A fifth cause may 
 lie in consanguineous marriage, that is, in marriage be- 
 tween near relatives. Thus the Jews, who permit the 
 marriage of cousins, have an unusually high rate of deaf- 
 ness. It has been stated that four per cent of the deaf 
 are the offspring of consanguineous marriages. Near 
 relatives are apt to possess a somewhat similar heredity. 
 If defective hearing should exist in both parents, this 
 physical handicap will be intensified in the child who draws 
 his heredity from both. There is little, however, to prove 
 that consanguineous marriage is in itself a cause of deaf- 
 ness, provided the defect does not exist in parental 
 heredity. 
 
 The education of the deaf is highly important because, 
 as we have seen, many present the possibiUty of being 
 Treatment of taught to speak. When the speech organs or 
 the deaf. brain centers are defective, the sign language 
 may readily be utilized as a method of communication. 
 For those who are merely deaf and have the ability to speak, 
 the reading of the lips of the speaker will enable the con- 
 
Defectives in Society 277 
 
 versation to be followed. The ability to understand 
 what is being said by watching the lips of the speaker is 
 now being taught, and the facility of the deaf in this re- 
 spect is sometimes marvelous. It is naturally easier for 
 the deaf to pursue higher education than for the blind, 
 and for this reason Columbia Institute at Washington 
 offers them collegiate work. There is a special agency for 
 collecting and diffusing knowledge concerning the deaf 
 in America. It is known as the Volta Bureau and was 
 endowed by Dr. Alexander Graham Bell with the money 
 awarded him by the French Government for the invention 
 of the telephone. Certain large cities have day classes 
 for the deaf in addition to the state institutions. Like 
 similar classes for the blind, they possess the advantage 
 of allowing the children to Hve in their homes and to mingle 
 with other normal children. Industrial training is impor- 
 tant for their economic independence. The number of 
 occupations open to the deaf is far in excess of those open 
 to the bUnd and, as a result, most of the former become 
 entirely or partially self-supporting. 
 
 Certain physical deformities exist from birth due to 
 hereditary causes. A large number, perhaps, are caused 
 by accidents. In the case of industrial accidents. The 
 the crippled should be beneficiaries of some type ^^ppI^^- 
 of social insurance. Often they can become self-supporting. 
 As with the two other groups of physical defectives, spe- 
 cial preference should be shown them in filling positions 
 within their capabilities. Railroads, for example, often give 
 such positions as flagman to men crippled in their service. 
 The aim should be to prevent the crippled from becoming 
 beggars upon the streets. Frequently, they evade the law 
 by becoming venders of small articles, which the " pur- 
 
278 American Social Problems 
 
 chaser" seldom takes. Crippled peddlers should not be 
 allowed to trade upon their misfortunes. This is as de- 
 moraUzing to themselves as to the community. It may 
 also lead to the feigning of injuries to excite the pity and 
 generosity of the passer-by. Personal interest, not merely 
 a financial contribution, will accompUsh the best social 
 results. The local charity agent will strive to find honor- 
 able positions for such unfortunates and will look after 
 them imtil they become self-supportiag. In cases of very 
 serious injury, when they have no income or relatives 
 capable of supporting them, the crippled should become 
 inmates of a special home for incurables. 
 
 Mental Defectives. — It has been estimated that there 
 are about a half million mental defectives in the United 
 The insane: States. Of these, about two hundred thousand 
 Exient. fall within the various groups included under the 
 
 general term insane. This is a conservative estimate, 
 for the census of 1910 reported 187,791 persons in institu- 
 tions for the insane. In addition to this nmnber, there 
 are many insane in almshouses, jails and in their own 
 private homes. The aimual cost of the care of the insane 
 has been estimated to equal the annual sum expended on 
 the construction of the Panama Canal. It seems to be 
 increasing both in Europe and America. This increase 
 in the amount and cost of insanity must, however, be 
 somewhat discoimted because many cases of insanity, 
 formerly concealed, are now being disclosed and cared for 
 in pubhc institutions. Again, since the lives of the insane 
 are being preserved by modern medical science, there is 
 a natural increase in the total number of insane patients. 
 The cases show a slight excess of males over females and a 
 decided excess of adults over the young. 
 
Defectives in Society 279 
 
 Among the various interrelated causes of insanity, heredi- 
 tsLTy predisposition may first be mentioned, .\lthough 
 insanity may seem to nm in families, its rela- causes of 
 tion to heredity is not so clearly established as is "«""">■• 
 that of feeble-mindedness. It would seem that insanity 
 is often more an acquired characteristic than an inherent 
 one. A mental weakness or instabUity may be inherent 
 in certain family stocks and, under pressure of circimi- 
 stances, an indi\ddual of such ancestry is more apt to 
 become insane than one who has inherited a soimder 
 and stronger mental constitution. We have said that 
 tuberculosis was not hereditary but that weak lungs were. 
 Similarl)-, it is the neurotic taint or the predisposition to- 
 ward mental disorder that ma}' result in insanity, epilepsy 
 or some other mental disease. A second cause of insanity 
 is immoraHty, which produces terrible diseases leading to 
 insanity. Children of parents suffering from such diseases 
 are more likely to be mental defectives than those of healthy 
 parentage. Again, immoraKtj- and its resultant diseases 
 may produce mental disorders in the uidi\'idual himself. 
 Softening of the brain and insanity often foUow in later 
 Hfe as a result of physical excesses. Alcohohsm is another 
 important cause of insanity, which may appear either in 
 the individual guilty of such excess or in his offspring. 
 Again, fracture of the skull, bone pressvire, blood clots 
 and lesions of the brain may result in insanity. Finally, 
 bad mental habits may be the cause of an unbalanced 
 mind. Worry, shock, fright, overwork, severe mental 
 strain and anxiety are frequent causes of insanity, par- 
 ticularly when the mind is not naturally strong. 
 
 In ancient times the insane were regarded as possessed 
 by devils. Their incoherent statements were sometimes 
 
28o American Social Problems 
 
 considered prophetic utterances, and their wild actions 
 ascribed to supernatural influences. In recent times, and 
 Treatment of upon American soil, mental defectives have occa- 
 ihe insane. sioually bccu bumcd or hung as witches. Luna- 
 tics have often been put in prison and in chains for safe- 
 keeping. Modern science, however, insists upon medical 
 treatment for the insane, in addition to detention. If 
 such cases are treated as soon as signs of mental disorder 
 manifest themselves, it is sometimes possible to effect a 
 cure. Insanity may take such diverse forms as melan- 
 choHa, paranoia or hysteria. The monomaniac is the in- 
 dividual whose mind is unbalanced in one direction, while 
 the maniac is one whose mind does not function properly 
 upon any subject. Many asylums group their patients 
 according to ease of administration. The noisy patients, 
 the filthy and the orderly are the usual distinctions. The 
 insane of wealthy famihes may secure proper treatment 
 in numerous private asylums, but insane paupers generally 
 receive inadequate care. Many are kept in the almshouse 
 in special cells and httle attempt is made at curative treat- 
 ment. Some insane are still confined in jails and prisons. 
 A good working classification of insane patients is that of 
 acute and chronic cases. For the chronic cases kindly 
 custodial care is needed, but for the acute cases medical 
 treatment may result in considerable improvement. Per- 
 sons afflicted with a mental malady will often recover, if 
 at all, within the first year. Hence the need of haste and 
 the necessity for individual and personal attention. There 
 is Httle definite knowledge of permanent cures for these 
 obscure mental maladies, but much has been accomplished 
 by the use of massage, baths of various kinds, electricity, 
 varied diets, and general mental and physical rehabilitation. 
 
Defectives in Society 281 
 
 Epileptics must be treated as a special class of mental 
 defectives. Epilepsy itself is a Kttle miderstood malady, the 
 causes of which are very obscure. The ordinary 
 
 ... J- 1 1- • Epileptics. 
 
 manilestations of the disease are convulsions, of 
 greater or less severity, at varying intervals. The lives 
 of many otherwise intelligent and useful people are over- 
 shadowed by a dread of these terrible attacks. ]SIany 
 feeble-minded, however, are also epileptic, and epilepsy is 
 a common trait of criminals. About half the children of 
 epileptic parents are epileptic, and nearly aU the other haK 
 show serious defects of different kinds. It is, therefore, 
 the dut}' of society to discourage the propagation of such 
 people. Special pro\dsions should be made for their 
 custody; for the public care of epileptics ia America is 
 most deficient. They are either left at large or are placed 
 in almshouses and insane asylums, in neither of which 
 institutions are they properly cared for. Special colonies 
 should be founded for epileptics, who need a quiet out- 
 door Hfe, a careful diet, and mental and physical occupa- 
 tion in agreeable surroimdings. 
 
 Feeble-mindedness must be distinguished from insanity. 
 The insane suffer from a cessation of the normal working 
 of the mind : the feeble-minded from an unde- 
 
 The fccl)lc~ 
 
 veloped mentality. The brain of the insane rep- minded : 
 resents a broken or impaired mental machinery, DefinUion 
 
 attd extent. 
 
 while that of the feeble-naindedhas been imperfect 
 from' childhood. ^\n adult whose intelligence has been nor- 
 mal may become insane in later Hfe, but the feeble-minded 
 are generally such from birth. They have inherited a low- 
 grade mentality. Again, an insane person maj' have all 
 his faculties, but they have ceased to work in unison. On 
 the other hand, the feeble-minded indi\idual has been bom 
 
2»2 
 
 American Social Problems 
 
 with some faculties lacking. The number of the feeble- 
 minded is alarmingly great. Conservative estimates made 
 in Great Britain and in the United States fix a proportion 
 of one feeble-minded to every three hundred of the popula- 
 tion. The grades of mentality shade so gradually from the 
 normal to the subnormal, that it is difficult to estimate 
 even approximately the number of feeble-minded. It is 
 certain, however, that there are more feeble-minded than 
 insane persons. Dr. Goddard places the number in the 
 United States at three or four hundred thousand. 
 
 An attempt has been made to fix the standard of intelli- 
 gence for each year of mental development in the Hfe of 
 The three the average child by the system of Binet tests. 
 classes. This provides a long series of questions for each 
 
 year of childhood. Their character is practical and the 
 subjects are chosen from the child's everyday experiences. 
 They become more difficult and require more thought 
 for each advancing year. On the basis of satisfactory 
 answers to the majority of the questions in each series, 
 a child's mentality is classified as, for example, that of a 
 normal eight year old or that of a ten year old. Since 
 psychological or mental experiments are never so exact 
 as those of physical science, the results of the Binet tests 
 of mentality cannot be regarded as absolute. By such 
 a general scheme, however, the feeble-minded are classified 
 according to their mental age irrespective of their actual 
 age. Of these, there are three groups: idiots, imbeciles 
 and " morons." A mentality equal to that of a normal 
 child of two years belongs to the idiot class. These cannot 
 care for themselves, nor learn to speak, and many are 
 physically deformed and misshapen. Since they are 
 generally short-lived and cannot reproduce, this class is 
 
Defeclives in Society 2 S3 
 
 not self-perpetuating. The group whose mentality may 
 advance fxirther, but is limited to that of a normal eight 
 3-ear old child, constitutes the imbecile class. Members 
 of this group may live to maturity, but their mentaUty, 
 actions and conduct will be those of a young child. The 
 " morou " represents the mental abihty of normal children 
 between eight and twelve years of age. This is the most 
 dangerous group because it so nearly approximates the 
 normal. The " morons ' mingle with the rest of the 
 world uimoticed by the casual observer. The dangers 
 arising from these child-adults in society will be discussed 
 later. 
 
 Although ^"ice and alcoholism sometimes produce feeble- 
 mindedness, the condition itself is generally due to heredi- 
 tary causes. WTiile it is true that this taint may jis krredUary 
 p.iss over certain indi\"iduals and e%en genera- ''*"^"«'<"'^- 
 tions, feeble-mindedness nevertheless runs in families. A 
 law of heredity, known from its discoverer as Mendel's 
 law, throws Hght upon the proportion of feeble-minded 
 offspring born of the union of a normal person with one 
 who is feeble-minded. The mating of two feeble-minded 
 persons seems certain to produce feeble-minded oflspring. 
 It would thus appear that feeble-mindedness is not usually 
 an acquired trait, but is generally inherent in the germ 
 cell. The hereditary- character of feeble-mindedness may 
 be clearly shown by a study of various famiUes like the 
 Kallikaks. the Pineys. the IshmaeKtes and the Smoky Pil- 
 grims. Here it is seen to persist ia particular famihes, 
 and to be widespread in certain isolated localities where 
 these defectives have propagated their kind. From such 
 studies it is e^^dent that considerably over half the ntmvber 
 of cases of feeble-mindedness are hereditary-. It must 
 
284 American Social Problems 
 
 be said, however, that some feeble-mindedness, like the 
 "Mongolian " type, has appeared in families whose heredity 
 fails to furnish any feeble-minded ancestry. 
 
 A very small proportion of the feeble-minded are confined 
 
 in institutions. The vast majority of these physical adults, 
 
 with childish minds, are at large in society and 
 
 The dangers. . 
 
 a constant menace to its welfare, iney react 
 easily to suggestion, for inhibition or restraint is a charac- 
 teristic of the adult mind. The feeble-minded naturally 
 find it difficult to compete with those of normal intelligence, 
 and a larger number are the recipients of charity or find 
 their way into the poorhouse. Possessing the physical 
 strength of adults, they become, through their mental 
 deficiency, a constant source of crime. Indeed many are 
 moral imbeciles incapable of distinguishing right from 
 wrong. Out of six hundred children appearing before a 
 Chicago Juvenile Court, twenty-six per cent were feeble- 
 minded. A large proportion of the inmates of reforma- 
 tories and prisons also belongs to this class. Dr. Goddard 
 places the proportion of feeble-minded in our almshouses 
 at about one-half and gi'vjes the same ratio for the criminal 
 class. Again, it has been estimated that from twenty-five 
 per cent to fifty per cent of the immorality among women 
 is due to feeble-mindedness. The cost to the state in crime 
 and pauperism of the feeble-minded would justify the ex- 
 penditure of a large sum of money for their custodial 
 care. If they are permitted at large, they will continue 
 to reproduce their kind and to lower the average level of 
 intelligence throughout society. This is the great danger 
 of the moron group, who closely approximate the physical 
 normal, but who transmit the hereditary taint of feeble- 
 mindedness to their offspring. 
 
Defectives in Society 285 
 
 The need of custodial care for the feeble-minded is 
 imperative, if society ever expects to reduce the number 
 of these defectives. They must be segregated xcedofin- 
 and prevented from mating. This course is best ^'»'»'«""- 
 suited to their own real happiness because they deUght 
 in the amusements and toys of childhood. They take 
 pleasure in playing with other children of the same mental 
 age. In this manner, they would no longer be exploited 
 or tempted by those of mature inteUigence. Little hope, 
 however, can be held out for their ultimate advancement. 
 Feeble-mindedness is apparently incurable. Nothing can 
 be done for idiots except to satisfy their physical wants. 
 The imbecile group does not need so much attention and 
 they may be taught to care for themselves. The morons, 
 however, are capable of recei\Tng an education equivalent 
 to that of children of corresponding mental age. Manual 
 training may teach them to use their hands productively. 
 Few states have met the problem of the feeble-minded by 
 pro^'iding for their permanent custodial care in special 
 institutions. Indeed, there are not nearly enough such 
 institutions to care for this defective group. The insti- 
 tution for the feeble-minded at Vineland, New Jersey, is 
 deserving of special mention, for here Dr. Gk)ddard has 
 carried on his valuable investigations. 
 
 Conclusion. — The last five chapters have dealt with 
 social groups for whom adjustment is imperatively needed. 
 They are all subnormal. All act as a hindrance sodai debtor 
 to social progress and constitute a large part of 'losses, 
 the general problem of social adjustment. They are con- 
 veniently designated the social debtor classes and comprise 
 the dependents, the delinquents and the defectives in 
 society. The causes of their deficiency have been seen to 
 
286 American Social Problems 
 
 lie both in social environment and in individual character. 
 In order to eliminate maladjustments, the environment — 
 both economic and social — must be transformed to meet 
 the needs of the individual. Adverse environing condi- 
 tions must be so changed that individual abnormality may 
 be removed wherever possible. " An ounce of prevention 
 is worth a pound of cure " is as true of social ills as of bodily 
 ailments. Poverty and crime must be prevented rather 
 than cured, and conditions giving rise to defectives must 
 be as largely as possible ehminated. 
 
 In considering the future of these unfortunates, indi- 
 vidual heredity must be regarded as well as the social 
 environment. Society has already begim the 
 
 The future. , . ,. „, .... . , 
 
 work of adjustment. Charity is bemg organized, 
 
 almshouses improved and prison systems reformed. But 
 what is being done to improve the race biologically? The 
 solution of many social problems depends not only upon 
 the progress of ideas, the psychological factor, but also 
 upon the physical improvement of man, the biological 
 factor. From this point of view, a sound physical heredity 
 is as important as a good social enxdronment. Eugenics 
 may be defined as the science of the biological improve- 
 ment of the race. Because man in the past has grown up 
 haphazardly, is there no reason for supposing that con- 
 scious measures may not be taken for his deliberate bio- 
 logical improvement? To be sure, extremists have brought 
 this idea into disrepute by their radical suggestions. But 
 all students of society agree that a rational application of 
 eugenic principles will not only result in race improvement, 
 but that such application is imperatively needed for cer- 
 tain classes in society. For example, it is undoubtedly 
 the duty of society to prevent the propagation of inherently 
 
Defectives in Society 287 
 
 degenerate biological stocks, b'ke the feeble-minded, whose 
 deficiency is hereditary. As society advances, it is hoped 
 that its eugenic standards will be raised. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. How may infant blindness be treated? 
 
 2. Give the extent of blindness in the United States. Is it in- 
 creasing ? 
 
 3. Describe any school for the bliad that you have seen. Name 
 any in your community. 
 
 4. \\'hat lines of training are especially needed ? 
 
 5. Give the extent and causes of deafness. 
 
 6. Explain the role of heredity in producing deafness. 
 
 7. Why is the inability to speak so common in the deaf? 
 
 8. WTiat should be society's attitude toward, and treatment of, 
 its crippled members ? 
 
 9. WTiat should you, as an individual, do for the crippled beggar 
 upon the street ? 
 
 10. Discuss the extent and increase of insanity. 
 
 1 1 . Discuss the causes of insanity. 
 
 12. Is insanity hereditary? 
 
 13. How were the insane regarded and treated in former times? 
 
 14. ^Tiat improvements are needed to-day? 
 
 15. ^Miat should society do for the group of epileptics? 
 
 16. Distinguish between feeble-mindedness and insanity. 
 
 17. Discuss the extent of feeble-mindedness in the United States. 
 
 18. Discuss the three groups of the feeble-minded. 
 
 19. Show its hereditary character. 
 
 20. WTaat are the dangers arising from the feeble-minded being 
 at large in society ? 
 
 21. Can feeble-mindedness be cured? 
 
 22. To what extent may they be taught? 
 
 23. What is the duty of society regarding the feeble-minded? 
 
 24. \Miat are the three groups of social debtors ? 
 
 25. \Miat should be the attitude of society toward the individual 
 social debtor? 
 
288 American Social Problems 
 
 26. What shoiild be the keynote of reform? 
 
 27. What is " eugenics " ? 
 
 28. What may the future hope for in this direction ? 
 
 TOPICS FOR SPECIAL REPORT 
 
 1. Ophthahnia, or infant blindness. 
 
 2. Industrial training for the blind. 
 
 3. Teaching the deaf and dumb to speak. 
 
 4. Civilization and increased insanity. 
 
 5. The provision made for the care of the feeble-minded by the 
 laws of your state. 
 
 6. The work of some school for feeble-minded children. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Smith, S. G. " Social Pathology," Chapters on Nature of Insanity, 
 Care of the Insane, The Feeble-minded, Provision for the 
 Blind, Treatment of the Deaf. 
 
 Henderson, C. R. "Dependents, Defectives, and Delinquents." 
 Part III. 
 
 United States Census. Special Reports on Blind and Deaf. 
 
 United States Census of 1910. "Insane and Feeble-Minded." 
 
 GoDDAED, H. H. " Feeble-Mindedness." 
 
 GODDAED, H. H. "Kallikak Family." 
 
 Davenport, C. B. " Heredity in Relation to Eugenics." 
 
CIL\PTER XXI 
 
 The Problem of Prohibitiox 
 
 I. Historical survey 
 
 1. Attitude of the past 
 
 2. Temperance movements in America 
 n. Alcohol and society 
 
 1. Consumption of liquor 
 
 2. The economic aspect : 
 
 a. Size of liquor industry' 
 
 b. A source of government revenue 
 
 c. Impaired industrial efhciency 
 
 3. The social aspect : 
 
 a. Report of Committee of Fifty 
 
 b. Poverty and pauperism 
 
 c. Crime and alcohol 
 
 d. Family life 
 
 e. The public health 
 
 /. Alcohol and heredity 
 
 g. The race problem 
 
 h. The social cost of drink 
 
 4. Regulation of the traffic : 
 
 a. Prohibition 
 
 b. Local option 
 
 c. License s\-stem 
 
 d. Gothenburg system 
 
 e. The limitations 
 
 5. The saloon : 
 
 d. Present features 
 
 b. Restrictions 
 
 c. Substitutes 
 
 r ::S9 
 
290 American Social Problems 
 
 Since society is constantly undergoing adjustment, new 
 problems are always calling for solution. Social morality 
 varies from age to age in accordance with changes in social 
 thought and customs. What is regarded as legitimate 
 in one period is considered, in another, as subversive of 
 society's best interests. The old individualistic attitude 
 toward conduct is giving way to that of social welfare. 
 Hence society is beginning to regulate man's consumption 
 and to direct it, wherever possible, into productive channels. 
 Perhaps the most important of these new problems of 
 adjustment is that of prohibition which, from small be- 
 ginnings, has steadily advanced to a position of great 
 magnitude. 
 
 Historical Survey. — The use of fermented liquors seems 
 known to all races and all ages. The ancient Hebrews 
 Attitude of cultivated the vine and, in the Bible, frequent 
 the past. references are made to wine and the vnne 
 press. Indeed a total abstainers' society existed long 
 before the Christian era in a sect of Israelites who drank 
 no wine. The classical peoples of Greece and Rome were 
 also wine drinkers, and festivals were held in honor of 
 Bacchus, the god of conviviality. The Koran, however, 
 forbids the use of intoxicants, and Mohammedan lands 
 have been free from alcohoHc excess. This is likewise true 
 of the followers of Buddha and Brahma, and of most 
 Oriental nations. The Chinese empire has been supposedly 
 under prohibition for 2400 years, as an imperial edict 
 forbidding the use of intoxicants was issued in 459 B.C. 
 European civilization, however, has imfortunately carried 
 strong drink to various " unenlightened " nations of the 
 earth. " Fire water " has often had the same effect upon 
 the black tribes of Africa as upon the red men of America. 
 
The Problem of Prohibition 291 
 
 However, European nations have long been accustomed to 
 the use of alcohoUc beverages. The countries of North 
 Europe have shown the same fondness for their national 
 beers and ales, made from grains, as the Mediterranean 
 lands have shown for the fermented juice of the grape. 
 The Anglo-Saxon, like other Germanic races, evinced a 
 great desire centuries ago for eating, drinking and fight- 
 ing. Their mead halls are famous in song and story. 
 In fact, the " flowing bowl " was in almost universal use 
 throughout the Middle Ages, and in general use until 
 comparatively recent times. Indeed, certain cordials bear 
 the names of the monastic orders which made them, for 
 their manufactvu-e was considered altogether legitimate. 
 In the nineteenth century, dninkenness upon the streets 
 was a common sight in England as well as in the United 
 States. For centuries the national drink of Russia was 
 vodka, a kind of potato whisky. At the beginning of the 
 World War its sale was forbidden by an imperial decree, 
 but it is almost too early to state the social result of this 
 sweeping prohibition. In fact, the titanic conflict called 
 serious attention everywhere to the prohibition problem 
 and gave it a general impetus never before attained. 
 
 ]Many of the early colonists brought to America the taste 
 for alcohol and the desire for conviviality. In the early 
 days social drinking was universal and the clergy ^ 
 drank in the homes of their parishioners. Strong movements 
 drink was considered essential to barn raisings 
 and husking bees. It was served upon all special occasions, 
 and weddings and funerals alike were characterized by the 
 consumption of liquors. Before the Ci\-il War, however, 
 great temperance movements were inaugurated. Soci- 
 eties were formed whose members pledged themselves not 
 
292 American Social Problems 
 
 to use distilled liquors. Later were formed total abstainers' 
 societies which proscribed the use of all alcoholic bever- 
 ages. The first permanent prohibition law was passed by 
 Maine in 1851, and a national prohibition party was later 
 organized. Religious denominations also began to take a 
 stand against the consumption of liquor, and certain church 
 organizations, like the Catholic Total Abstinence Society, 
 were organized. One of the earliest independent temperance 
 societies was the Order of Good Templars. In 1883 the 
 Women's Christian Temperance Union, under the leader- 
 ship of Frances E. Willard, was made a world-wide organ- 
 ization. It has undertaken a campaign of education to 
 keep young people from the use of alcohol. An Anti- 
 Saloon League of the various states has also been federated 
 into a strong national organization. It has agitated for 
 legislation toward prohibition or local option and has in- 
 sisted upon the enforcement of all existing laws against 
 the saloon. 
 
 Alcohol and Society. — The number of habitual and even 
 
 occasional users of alcoholic Uquors has steadily declined. 
 
 The total abstainer was formerly rarely to be 
 
 Consump- ■' •' 
 
 tionof found, but now a large area of our country is 
 
 '^^^' under either prohibition or local option laws. 
 
 In spite of these facts the consumption of alcoholic bever- 
 ages steadily increased. In order to understand this in- 
 crease we should divide alcoholic liquors into their natural 
 groups. In the first place, these are the malt liquors such 
 as beer and ale. The percentage of alcohol in the average 
 American beer is three or four per cent. . The second group 
 includes the different varieties of wines. Here the per- 
 centage of alcohol varies from about eight to fifteen per 
 cent. Distilled liquors such as whisky and gin, constitut- 
 
The Problem of Prohibition 293 
 
 ing the next class, contain as high as thirty-five or forty- 
 five per cent of alcohol. The consumption of distilled 
 hquors in America has remained fairly constant, amoimt- 
 ing annually to about one and one-half gallons per capita. 
 Of wines we drink little, as compared with their enormous 
 consumption in France, Italy and other European coimtries. 
 Our per capita consvunption has varied from one-third 
 to two-thirds of a gaUon. The consimiption of malt 
 liquors is much larger and has been upon the increase. 
 This fact is alleged by some to further the cause of tem- 
 perance, because these Hquors contain so small a percent- 
 age of alcohol. The increased constunption of malt liquors, 
 however, has not been accompanied by a decreased con- 
 sumption of distilled hquors. In 1910 the per capita 
 consumption of malt Hquors had reached twenty gallons 
 and, in 1914, twenty and one-haK gallons, but in 1915 it 
 fell (as did that of other kinds of Hquor) to eighteen and 
 one-quarter gallons. The total annual consumption of 
 beer in the United States is greater than that of any other 
 country in the world. Our national drink bill is almost 
 two bilKon doUars a year, or twenty doUars per capita. 
 This is almost double 'the annual expenditures of the federal 
 government in normal times and is over three times the 
 entire smn spent for education in the United States. 
 
 The amount and cost of Hquor consumption in the United 
 States indicate the economic importance of this industry. 
 In the last forty years of the nineteenth century The 
 the industries of our coimtry grew in productive economic 
 capacity about sevenfold. The United States size oj liquor 
 Brewers' Association points to the United States i'^^^'^y- 
 Census to show that our brewing industries in the same 
 period have grown twentyfold. There are about fifty 
 
294 American Social Problems 
 
 thousand employees in the brewing industry. Here wages 
 are relatively high, while the number employed in pro- 
 portion to the capital invested is low. The United States 
 Census for 1910 found that in this business there were 
 about sixty-eight thousand retail dealers with one hundred 
 thousand employees. The total capital invested in the 
 liquor business is hard to approximate. In 1905 the United 
 States Manufacturers' Census capitalized the malt liquor 
 industries at over a half biUion dollars. Indeed, they 
 ranked sixth among our leading industries. Our annual 
 consumption of sixty million barrels of beer requires every 
 year one himdred million dollars' worth of farm products. 
 This citation of the magnitude of the brewing and liquor 
 industries must not be taken as an argument in their favor, 
 but rather as evidence of the pressing need of a compre- 
 hensive solution of the whole question. 
 
 However, it is an economic fact that a great industry 
 cannot suddenly be legislated out of existence without 
 temporary maladjustment, although the final result may be 
 entirely beneficial to society. Both the labor and capital 
 involved in the enterprise would be obliged to seek other 
 industries and in certain cases the individual loss might 
 be great. Of course, the farm products which enter into 
 the production of liquors would eventually be used in the 
 manufacture of breadstufifs. The govermnent's attitude 
 on this question has been recently expressed in a federal 
 law which became effective September, 191 7. In order to 
 conserve the food supply of the nation, this act forbids in 
 time of war the use of grains for purposes of alcoholic 
 distillation. In this manner, it is hoped more fully to 
 utilize the food value of grain, and at the same time grad- 
 ually to change individual consumption from unproduc- 
 
The Problem of Prohibition 295 
 
 tive to productive channels. This war measure has given 
 a tremendous impetus to the prohibition movement. 
 
 From the very beginning of our national histon^ the 
 liquor industry has been heaxil)' taxed. An internal 
 excise tax, as well as a tariff upon foreign im- , 
 
 ^ ° J source ci 
 
 ports, was part of ^Alexander Hamilton's com- gorermmeiu 
 prehensive plan of proxiding for the finances of "^""*- 
 the new repubhc. Both th^e taxes have always fallen 
 hea\"ily upon alcohol. In fact, before 191 7. the federal 
 income derived from all liquor taxation was about a quarter 
 of a billion dollars annuaUj'. Before the World War the 
 internal revenue taxes came second to the custom receipts 
 as a source of national income. The three branches of 
 internal revenue in order of importance were : (i) the tax 
 upon distilled liquor which, because of its higher rate, 
 yielded two or three times the amount of {2) the tax upon 
 fermented Hquors. such as beer and other malt liquors and 
 (3) the tax upon tobacco. The states, and particularly the 
 local government, also receive a large income from the 
 taxation of alcohol through Ucenses to sell. Indeed, we 
 may state, in conclusion, that about one-fifth of our annual 
 drink bill goes to the government. But when we consider 
 the relation of alcohol to crime, to the almshouse, and 
 to lowered economic efficiency, we shall see that the liquor 
 industry- is but a false and delusive source of income. 
 
 The spread of the prohibition movement has been largely 
 due to industrial causes. WTiile some phases of the problem 
 are still open to discussion, the economic basis of j^^-^^j 
 prohibition is the sohd grovmd upon which the inJiastrnd 
 whole movement rests. Alcohol and indus- - 
 trial efficiency are essentially antagonistic. Formerly, 
 work was often irr^ular and performed by the laborer 
 
296 American Social Problems 
 
 in his own home and at his own convenience. Now, pro- 
 duction is based upon the factory system, and work is 
 done by cooperative effort. Definite working hours make 
 the tipsy employee undesirable, no matter how skillful he 
 may be when sober. Again, the use of machinery, now 
 universal, requires a steady hand and a clear head. An 
 employee addicted to alcohol may therefore imperil the 
 hves of others as well as the safety of himself. Indeed, 
 alcohol has been a potent cause of industrial accidents. 
 Sobriety is an essential element in the " Safety First" move- 
 ment, and many railroads are requiring total abstinence 
 as a condition of employment. Organized labor, which 
 formerly resented the idea that the " workman should 
 have a keeper," is now beginning to see in alcohol a foe 
 to its best interests. During strikes, the goverimient may 
 forbid the local sale of intoxicants, in order to prevent 
 the drunken disorder which so frequently accompanies 
 them. Even in times of regular industry, the distress 
 caused by alcoholic excess is apparent. Many employers 
 have therefore advocated prohibition on purely economic 
 grounds. Parts of the South have gone " dr)- " in order 
 effectively to insure the economic rehabihty of the negro. 
 We may state in conclusion, therefore, that alcohol rep- 
 resents a great loss of efficiency to the employee, and a 
 waste of material, time and effort to the employer. 
 
 Thus far we have discussed the economic side of the 
 prohibition problem and have indicated the importance 
 The social of alcohol in terms of labor and capital. It is 
 aspect: j^^^ q^j. purpose to show the reverse of this pic- 
 
 Reportof .-,,,, ■ r , 
 
 Commiuee of ture, m Order to see how large a proportion of the 
 ^'^'^- destruction of both material and immaterial 
 
 wealth is caused by this same agency. It is well known, 
 
The Problem of Prohibition 297 
 
 for example, that a direct relation exists between the use of 
 alcohol and the spread of crime and pauperism. The 
 basis of our discussion is a special investigation upon this 
 subject by a sub-committee of the so-caUed " Committee 
 of Fifty." This committee was made up of a number of 
 prominent and trained men, who undertook a sociological 
 investigation of the "liquor problem in its various aspects. 
 It has been criticized for spending so much time and effort 
 upon obvious causal relationships. The Committee, how- 
 ever, ver}- properly wished to present carefully collected 
 and absolutely definite statistical facts of scientific value. 
 It spent a long period investigating thousands of indi\adual 
 case records and \dsited hundreds of almshouses and state 
 penitentiaries. The spirit of prejudice is absent from 
 this report, and no causes are ascribed to alcohol imless 
 the relationship is definitely estabUshed. \Miile the report 
 of this committee appeared in the last decade, it is never- 
 theless one of the best and most comprehensive investiga- 
 tions of its kind. 
 
 We have seen that the causes of poverty are nimierous 
 and that an individual may be both \a.zy and intemperate. 
 In the report of the Committee of Fifty intem- poteriyand 
 perance is not regarded as a cause of poverty p<^"P"'^^- 
 " unless it was foimd to be so important that without it 
 poverty would not have existed and imless it was the 
 principal and determining cause." This investigation con- 
 cluded that about twenty-five per cent of the poverty 
 which comes imder the \-iew of charity organization socie- 
 ties may be traced directly or indirectly to alcohol. Of 
 the cases studied, eighteen per cent fell into poverty through 
 personal intemperance, and nine per cent through the 
 intemperance of parents or others. Of the cases in alms- 
 
298 American Social Problems 
 
 houses, thirty-seven per cent may be traced to alcohol. 
 In the case of destitute children not less than forty-five 
 per cent of the dependency was found to be due to the 
 intemperance of parents, guardians or others. While 
 admitting that there are other important causes of poverty 
 and that poverty itself may be a cause as well as a result 
 of intemperance, it is impossible to escape the conclusion 
 that alcohol increases the sum total of poverty in a com- 
 munity. 
 
 It is also impossible to trace crime to a single cause, and 
 we are often forced to speak of first, second and even 
 Crime and third causes of Crime. The statistics collected 
 alcohol. j^y ^]jg Committee of Fifty relate only to con- 
 
 victs in state prisons and reformatories. Since they do 
 not include the ordinary county jails, which hold persons 
 sentenced for mere misdemeanors, such as drunkenness, 
 the estimate of the role of alcohol is less significant than 
 would otherwise appear. The investigation covered 13,402 
 convicts in seventeen prisons and reformatories scattered 
 throughout twelve different states. It was conducted 
 with the utmost care and exactness. Of the total nimiber 
 of cases investigated, intemperance appeared as one of the 
 causes in nearly fifty per cent. It was, however, a first 
 cause of crime in only thirty-one per cent and the sole 
 cause in but sixteen per cent. Other investigations con- 
 firm the importance of intemperance as a cause of crime: 
 
 Intemperance is often the cause of a disrupted family 
 life. The importance of the family as a social institution 
 ^ ., ,., and the necessity of a wholesome family hfe for 
 
 Family life. ..... 
 
 the socialization of children cannot be too 
 strongly emphasized. The immoderate consumption of 
 alcohol, resulting in the intemperance of husband or wife, 
 
The Problem of Prohibition 299 
 
 is often fraught with fearful consequences to the develop- 
 ment of happy childhood and to the economic independ- 
 ence of the family. Alcohol, as we have seen, is a frequent 
 cause of poverty and often results in the destitution of 
 children. Intemperance may also put the breadwinner 
 in jail. Drunkenness is a frequent cause of desertion and 
 in some of our states a legal basis of divorce proceedings. 
 
 The habitual use of alcohol weakens the physical power 
 of resistance to disease and, thereby, results in many 
 curable maladies proving fatal. Again, alcoholic xke public 
 excess is the direct cause, in many instances, of ''^f'^"'- 
 certain diseases of the heart, liver, kidneys and nervous 
 system. Finally, there is alcoholism itself, a specific 
 disease named directly after its cause. How many men 
 aimually fill drunkards' graves cannot be accurately esti- 
 mated, for alcohoHsm itself is not recorded by the coroner 
 when friends of the deceased are able to designate any other 
 cause. We have also seen that intemperance is a cause of 
 insanity. Dr. Billings, representing the Committee of 
 Fifty, found, from a recent compilation of reports of 
 numerous insane asylums, that not more than from four- 
 teen to thirty-nine per cent of the inmates were total ab- 
 stainers. The average showed that twenty-four per cent 
 of all the insanity was attributed by the authorities of 
 these institutions to alcohol. In cases of feeble-minded- 
 ness, however, alcoholism may represent the effect rather 
 than the cause. 
 
 Is the taste for alcohol inherited ? It is often popularly 
 stated that the alcoholic appetite is inherited and that the 
 son follows in the father's footsteps, not from Alcohol and 
 choice, but from compulsion. However, we *«''«'^»'3'- 
 know that acquired characteristics are not inherited. If 
 
300 American Social Problems 
 
 they were, each generation would begin where the pre- 
 ceding generation ended. Racial progress or racial de- 
 generation would be quick and cumulative. Biology 
 teaches the doctrine of the " continuity of the germ plasm," 
 that is, that only those characteristics inherent in the germ 
 cell are transmissible to the offspring. By the nontrans- 
 missible character of acquired traits, nature protects itself 
 and gives a fresh start to each generation. However, a 
 physical degeneracy may be characteristic of the germ cell, 
 and this inherited weakness may make resistance to al- 
 cohol extremely difficult. For example, a deranged nervous 
 system may be inherited, and this in turn may develop a 
 taste for alcohol. The second generation of alcohol users 
 may be of an inferior physical stock, and alcoholism itself 
 may be a manifestation of a defective biological inheritance. 
 Moreover, it must be borne in mind that the germ cell is 
 contained in the body cell and dependent upon the latter 
 for nourishment. Hence, the germ cell may be indirectly 
 affected by malnutrition or by the poison of alcohol or by 
 disease toxins. 
 
 An overindulgence in alcoholic liquors is primarily the 
 white man's vice and from him the negro and Indian have 
 The race learned it. Recently, however, precautions have 
 problem. been taken to safeguard the negro in this respect. 
 The country negro of the South finds it difficult to secure 
 alcohol because of prohibition laws. Even in the towns 
 where the saloon evil exists, his poverty acts as a check 
 in this direction. Although the use of alcohol by the negro 
 has not been so great, yet it has been a source of consider- 
 able race friction and the cause of much prohibition sen- 
 timent in the South. It has been an effective agent for 
 crime by arousing the worst passions of the negro. On 
 
The Problem of Prohibition 301 
 
 the other hand, many lynchings and race riots have been 
 instigated by the white man's craving for alcohol. Alcohol 
 is therefore conducive to the mob spirit as well as to 
 crime. 
 
 We have spoken of the cost of Uquor in the United States 
 and of our large annual drink bill. This, however, repre- 
 sents only the first cost. A second and greater The social 
 cost may be read in poverty, crime and shortened '^"^^ "^ ^""^■ 
 Uves. Those who die from alcohoHsm are enumerated in 
 the census report as less than one per cent, but we have 
 seen why this estimate is lower than the actual number. 
 Investigations of medical men have shown that at least 
 three per cent should be so classified. Moreover, this 
 estimate does not take into account the loss of life due to 
 murders and suicides, in which alcohol plays a sinister 
 role. Nor does it include those killed or injured in acci- 
 dents caused by intemperance. It is also impossible to 
 estimate the enormous economic loss from impaired in- 
 dustrial efficiency due to alcohol. Attempts have been 
 made to estimate in dollars and cents the pubHc cost of 
 liquor in the form of government expenditures for the 
 support of paupers and criminals. The following estimate 
 was made by Professor Collins of the annual expense at- 
 tributable to alcohol in poor rehef cases : 
 
 $4,OCX3,CXX) 
 
 5,500,000 
 
 5,400,000 
 
 3,200,000 
 
 4,100,000 
 
 12,000,000 
 
 30,500,000 
 
 $64,700,000 
 
 Hospitals (40% due to liquor) 
 
 Insane Asylums (35% due to liquor) 
 Feeble-minded institutions (45% due to liquor) 
 Almshouses (37% due to liquor) . 
 Public Orphan Homes (46% due to liquor) 
 Outdoor Relief (30.5% due to liquor) . . . 
 rrivate Charity (30.5% due to liquor) . . . 
 
302 American Social Problems 
 
 If fifty per cent of crime is chargeable to liquor (as esti- 
 mated by the Committee of Fifty and the Massachusetts 
 Labor Bureau Investigations), we may attribute to alcohol 
 one-half of the cost of pohce, of criminal courts and of jails 
 and penitentiaries. The sum has been found to be about 
 $40,000,000 armually. 
 
 The social evils due to alcoholic excess make necessary 
 some kind of government regulation of the hquor traffic. 
 Regulation The old individualistic theory of " personal 
 of the traffic: liberty" is not applicable to present-day condi- 
 tions. It is true that sumptuary laws may be carried to 
 excess and that the individual's consumption of economic 
 goods may be over-regulated. This criticism, however, 
 cannot be justly applied to the regulation of the alcoholic 
 appetite. The spirit of the twentieth century is against the 
 anti-social element in society ; it does not tolerate the de- 
 velopment of anti-social tendencies. Society has long recog- 
 nized the right of the state, through its police power, to 
 restrict individual action for the sake of public welfare, 
 when such unrestrained action interferes with the health, 
 safety or morals of the community. From the financial 
 standpoint alone, it is evident that, when public taxation 
 is charged with the support of jails and almshouses filled 
 with alcohoKcs, the community must have the right to 
 regulate the consumption of alcohol. 
 
 The regulation of the liquor traffic, like many other social 
 problems in the United States, is within the jurisdiction 
 Prohibition of the Several states. Hence, unlike European 
 movement. countries, the legal status of the question varies 
 with each commonwealth. Permanent federal prohibition 
 would require a constitutional amendment which has not 
 yet received the ratification of three-fourths of the states. 
 
The Problem of Prohibition 303 
 
 The anti-alcohol sentiment has resulted, however, in the 
 passage of prohibitive legislation in many states, and, in 
 recent years, the geographical area of the " dry " territory 
 has rapidly increased, .\lthough a few states have re- 
 pealed such laws, the net result, measured in area and popu- 
 lation, has been greatly in favor of the prohibition move- 
 ment. Prohibition has succeeded in making impossible 
 the legal manufacture of alcohohc beverages in such states. 
 The Supreme Court, however, upheld the legahty of ship- 
 piag liquor into " dry " territory from other states. Con- 
 gress, therefore, under its interstate commerce power, 
 passed the Webb-Kenyon Law, which prohibits this specific 
 thing. Prohibition has not been entirely successful in 
 preventing the sale of intoxicants in " dry " territory. 
 ^\^lile it has almost completely eliminated the public sale 
 of alcohol, the more vicious institution of the " speak easy " 
 has spning into existence in certain communities. Again, 
 the sentiment in the towns of certain prohibition states 
 is sometimes in favor of the sale of alcohohc liquors. This 
 situation has not infrequently resulted in a secret evasion 
 of the law or even in its open defiance. Prohibition, 
 therefore, to be effective must have the absolute support 
 of public sentiment in the commimity affected. That the 
 movement tends to decrease crime and pauperism is borne 
 out by the experience of Kansas, where statistics relating 
 to jails and almshouses are favorable to the prohibition 
 cause. 
 
 We have seen that, in order to be effective, prohibition 
 requires the support of public sentiment throughout the 
 state. Of coiurse it is more difficult to receive 
 
 Local option. 
 
 undivided support from a large area than from 
 
 a smaller one. The system of local option attempts to 
 
304 American Social Problems 
 
 meet the situation by permitting each community within 
 the state to pass upon the liquor question. A locaHty 
 opposed to prohibition would not, therefore, have this 
 system imposed upon it by a state-wide policy. A county 
 which deliberately votes itself dry is much more apt to 
 have sufi&cient public sentiment against Uquor to make 
 the law effective. While local option lessens the likehhood 
 of open contempt or defiance of the law, it still has the prob- 
 lem of the " speak easy," or the secret evasion of the law. 
 It also makes the liquor question omnipresent in local 
 poKtics. The exact method by which the power of local 
 option is exercised varies according to legal usage in dif- 
 ferent states. In some commimities a vote is taken an- 
 nually ; in others, once in several years, and in still others 
 a vote on the question may be taken at any time upon the 
 petition of a sufficient number of voters. 
 
 Several states are without any provision for local option 
 and are under what is known as the Hcense system. This 
 The license IS oftcn referred to as the high license system, 
 system. f qj. frequently the sum required to obtain a Hcense 
 
 is so great as to reduce to a minimum the number of Hcense 
 holders. The inverse proportion of the amoimt of the 
 license fee to the number of Hquor dealers has afforded an 
 easy system of regulating the traffic. Not only does the 
 high Hcense system lessen the number of saloons, but it 
 helps to drive out of existence those of the worst char- 
 acter. However, costly improvements and capitalistic in- 
 vestments are no indications of moral respectabiHty. But 
 it may be said that the high license system is more apt to 
 result in a closer obedience of the law, since the holders 
 have much to lose if their licenses are not renewed. Many 
 object to the license system because of the government 
 
The Problem of Prohibition 305 
 
 recognition and implied sanction of the business. Again, 
 its administration 15 difficult because of political interests. 
 Generally the hcensiag power is vested ia the county 
 courts, the judges of which haxt the right to determine 
 how manj" taverns maj- exist in a community. The 
 license system is a source of considerable revenue to the 
 community. In fact, one objection urged against its 
 abohtion is the necessity of increasing the tax rate in order 
 to make up a resulting loss of revenue. 
 
 The Gothenburg system originated in Scandina^'ia. 
 The aim of this system is the elimination of the motive 
 to private gain in the liquor traffic. So long as TkeGathen- 
 large profits accrue to individuals or corpora- *"'^f^^'«"- 
 tions interested in the sale of intoxicants, the saloon will 
 be made an attractive place for private gain. Under the 
 dispensary' or state account system, as the plan is also called, 
 the sale of some or of aU classes of Kquors is conducted by 
 the government itself. As originally worked out in Scan- 
 dina^"ia. a sharp distinction is made between the nuld malt 
 liquors and the distilled spirits. The first group is not 
 regarded as sufficiently pernicious to come within the 
 regulations of the system. The retail traffic in spirits, 
 however, is placed in the hands of public corporations, the 
 profits of which, after deducting five per cent on the capital 
 invested, go to public piuposes. Thus the motive to 
 private gain is removed. The pubUc spirit shops are rela- 
 tively few and comparatively unattractive. They lack 
 the entertaining features which sometimes make the tavern 
 a center of sociabiUtj'. Desiring to imitate the good fea- 
 tures of this system. South Carolina at one time proposed 
 to create a complete state monopoly of the liquor traffic, 
 and to appropriate to the public treasury all the profits 
 
3o6 American Social Problems 
 
 accruing therefrom. The trial of the foreign system, 
 however, proved rather unsuccessful in this country and 
 South Carolina abandoned it for local option and, later, 
 for prohibition. 
 
 Social reform by restrictive legislation is always diffi- 
 cult. If men could be legislated into goodness, the millen- 
 The nium would be easily attainable. It is far easier 
 
 Utmtahons. jq pg^gg prohibition laws than to change the habits 
 and desires of mankind. This must not for a moment be 
 considered a reflection upon prohibition ; it is a mere state- 
 ment of fact. Always we must bear in mind that the under- 
 lying principle of social reform is the development of 
 character. Prohibition is merely a means to an end and 
 must always be regarded as such by the student of society. 
 It is a valuable instrument of economic and social reform 
 because it makes more difficult the satisfaction of unworthy 
 desires. It hedges the individual with restrictions upon anti- 
 social actions. It is thus a prop and moral support to 
 right conduct. It is not, however, an end in itself. 
 Furthermore, we must remember that prohibition must 
 rest upon a solid foundation of favorable public sentiment. 
 Without this element, it may become an incentive to the 
 violation of law. 
 
 Unfortunately, for many years, the American saloon 
 presented one of the most acute social problems of urban 
 The saloon : ^^^^- ^^ performed the twofold function of satis- 
 Present fying the physical appetite and of gratifying the 
 social desire for comradeship. In fact, many 
 social writers characterize the saloon as " the poor man's 
 club." Here, in the cold winter months, are warmth, 
 food and drink. Newspapers are also provided and the 
 wage earner, possessing the spirit of democracy, is attracted 
 
The Problem of Prohibition 307 
 
 by the atmosphere of social freedom. Frequently, the 
 saloon is a center of political activity and the rendezvous 
 of local politicians. This attracts the voters and gives them 
 a feeling of importance. Not infrequently, too, the saloon 
 performs the function of an employment bureau. 
 
 Until the saloon is aboUshed, it must be carefully re- 
 stricted. It is obvious that restrictions must be placed 
 upon the sale of Hquors to minors, to intoxi- 
 
 ., , 11.,,,, -K-r Restriclions. 
 
 Gated persons and to habitual drunkards. No 
 selling should be permitted on Sundays, election days or 
 on legal hohdays. The hours of selling must be strictly 
 limited, and the searchHght of pubUcity must be turned 
 upon the saloon. These restrictions must be rigidly en- 
 forced ; for it is far better, for example, to repeal the 
 Sunday closing law than to have it openly violated. Every 
 attempt should be made to restrict the saloon in its tendency 
 to become a place of amusement. Such features as danc- 
 ing and music must therefore be absolutely prohibited. 
 
 It is a sad commentary upon American social conditions 
 that, in the past, American workmen in large cities should 
 have been so largely dependent upon the 
 
 •iiT 1 11- f-i Substitutes. 
 
 saloon for social me and comradeship. Sub- 
 stitutes for the saloon must be foimd. One of these lies 
 in the formation of workingmen's clubs. The Yoimg 
 Men's Christian Association has done splendid work in 
 encouraging the physical and moral growth of American 
 manhood by providing gjonnasiums and wholesome amuse- 
 ment centers, as well as reading rooms, and the means of 
 educational advancement. The Young Women's Chris- 
 tian Association is doing a similar work for girls and young 
 women. Municipal clubhouses might well be established 
 where proper dancing and other healthful amusements 
 
3o8 American Social Problems 
 
 could be enjoyed. Community centers for musical cele- 
 brations and other entertainments are well worth the 
 financial outlay involved. Germany has its low-priced 
 opera and France the begiiming of a municipal theater. 
 Experiments have also been made in coffee houses, tea 
 houses and temperance taverns, where amusement fea- 
 tures and social attractions are provided. The motion 
 picture house has also made great inroads on the saloon. 
 In fact, time may prove this form of amusement to be the 
 most successful competitor of the saloon. From another 
 point of view the tendency in American Hfe toward out- 
 door sport may prove a most potent factor in the ehmina- 
 tion of the saloon. Outdoor life must take the place of 
 indoor relaxation. Finally let us remember that, above 
 everything else, the best antidote to the saloon is a happy 
 family life. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. Give the history of temperance sentiment and societies in 
 America. 
 
 2. Find out what you can about the present organizations against 
 liquor. 
 
 3. Discuss the consumption of different liquors in the United 
 States. 
 
 4. What is our annual drink bill ? 
 
 5. Show the economic importance of the liquor industry. 
 
 6. Discuss hquor as a source of federal revenue. 
 
 7. How is the modern organization of industry particularly in- 
 jured by the consumption of alcohol? 
 
 8. Show the relation between intemperance and poverty. 
 
 9. What is the relation between intemperance and crime? 
 
 10. Can a "taste for liquor run in the family"? 
 
 11. Name the four methods of dealing with the liquor traffic. 
 
 12. Show the need of the Webb-Kenyon Law. 
 
 13. Discuss the advantages of prohibition. 
 
The Problem of Prohibition 309 
 
 14. Discuss the high license system as a means of regulating the 
 liquor traffic. 
 
 15. Discuss the aim and salient features of the dispensary system. 
 
 16. How does your state handle the liquor problem ? 
 
 17. What seems to be the present outlook for prohibition? 
 
 18. What legal restrictions of saloons are helpful ? 
 
 19. Why is a substitute for the saloon necessarj-? 
 
 20. \Miat experiments have been urged along this line ? 
 
 21. What semi-phUanthrppic organizations have done efficient 
 social service in competing with the saloon ? 
 
 TOPICS FOR SPECI.\L REPORT 
 
 1. The effect of the World War upon the legal status of the liquor 
 traffic in the different nations. 
 
 2. The hquor problem in Maine as compared with that in Kansas. 
 
 3. The proposed amendment to the federal Constitution. 
 
 4. The opinion of life insurance companies regarding the use of 
 alcohol. 
 
 5. The evils of fraudulent patent medicines. 
 
 6. The work of the Women's Christian Temperance Union and of 
 the Anti-Saloon League. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Committee of Fifty Reports on the 
 
 Liquor Problem — Summary of Investigations. 
 
 Liquor Problem — Economic Aspects. 
 
 Liquor Problem — Legislative Aspects 
 
 Liquor Problem — Physiological Aspects. 
 
 Liquor Problem — Substitutes for the Saloon. 
 Barker. "The Saloon Problem and Social Reform." 
 Warner, H. S. " Social Welfare and the Liquor Problem." 
 BEiiAN, L. T. "Prohibition of the Liquor Traffic." 
 Year Book of United States Brewers' Association. 
 Anti-Saloon Year Book. 
 
CHAPTER XXII 
 The Problem of Divorce 
 
 I. Marriage relations 
 
 1. Early peoples 
 
 2. The Romans 
 
 3. Marriage a sacrament 
 
 4. Marriage a civil contract 
 II. Divorce in the United States 
 
 1 . Marriage laws in the United States 
 
 2. The rapid increase of divorce 
 
 3. Comparison with Europe 
 
 4. Distribution of divorce : 
 a. Geographical 
 
 h. Urban influence 
 
 c. Race 
 
 d. Nativity 
 
 e. Religious behef 
 /. Other facts 
 
 5. Legal grounds for divorce 
 III. Causes of the increase of divorce 
 
 1 . Economic changes : 
 
 a. Modern industriahsm 
 h. Economic emancipation of woman 
 c. Higher standards of Hving 
 , d. City life 
 
 2. Social progress : 
 
 a. Rise of individualism 
 
 h. The woman's movement 
 
 c. Popularization of education and law 
 
 d. Moral and religious changes 
 
 310 
 
Tlie Problem of Divorce 311 
 
 rV. The outlook 
 
 1. National Congress on Uniform Divorce Laws 
 
 2. Work of religious bodies 
 
 3. Remedies: 
 a. Legal 
 
 6. Educational 
 
 4. A problem of adjustment 
 
 The family is rightly regarded as the most fimdamental 
 institution of society, and yet, even this institution is. to- 
 day, undergoing important changes. Li fact, not only the 
 family but the school and the church are affected by the 
 general process of social readjustment taking place through- 
 out the world. Accordingly, in the remaining chapters, 
 we shall discuss first, the instability of modern family 
 life ; secondly, the evolution of the school and, finally, 
 the present tendencies in moral and religious development. 
 
 Marriage Relations. — Xot only are the beginnings of 
 the present monogamic family found among the most 
 primitive peoples, but its rudimentary germs Early 
 may even be traced back to the simple pairing Peoples, 
 system of the higher animals. Thus, the present form of 
 the family rests upon thousands of jears of evolution, and 
 its ultimate stability will not be endcingered b}^ one short 
 period of transitional development. Nevertheless, even 
 among primitive peoples, we find numerous de\'iations 
 from the permanent monogamic form of marriage. Here 
 the duration of the marriage relation varies from a ven,- 
 transitory state, among a few groups, to lifelong union 
 among others. Lideed, the character and permanency 
 of famil}' life is one indication of the degree of civilization 
 attained by a particular society. Sometimes the relation 
 is so temporary' as to scarcely deser\e the name of marriage. 
 
312 American Social Problems 
 
 With the development of group life, loose marriage relation- 
 ships become more definite, and some sort of ritual or 
 symbolic ceremony grows up to celebrate the union. Di- 
 vorce in the sense of breaking up this marriage relation- 
 ship is very old. Among early peoples, the right to a 
 dissolution of the bond was generally given to the man 
 and not to the woman. This was true in polygynous 
 lands, but not where polyandry prevailed. Among all 
 civilized peoples, from the earliest times, the ideal marriage 
 has been that of lifelong union. The ancient law code of 
 Hammurabi, ruler of the earlier Babylonian kingdom, 
 mentions causes of divorce, punishments for the woman 
 who violates the marriage relationship and regulations 
 for the disposal of the property or for the transfer of the 
 dowry of divorced parties. In ancient Jewish society, 
 where the patriarchal system prevailed, family life was 
 stable and authoritative. But even here, the right of the 
 husband to put away his wife was conceded in the Mosaic 
 code. 
 
 The family of the early Romans was not only patriar- 
 chal, but also characterized by ancestor worship. The 
 The marriage ceremony was of a religious nature, 
 
 Romans jj^ .^^jjj(,jj ^.j^g bride's father freed her from the 
 worship of her own household gods, whereupon she accepted 
 the ancestor worship of her husband's family. Divorce 
 and polygyny were practically unknown among the early 
 Romans, whose family life was pure and stable. Adop- 
 tion was frequently resorted to by the Roman family when 
 the line of descent was jeopardized by the lack of natural 
 offspring. With the decay of ancestor worship, however, 
 the patriarchal family declined. The decadence of family 
 life was also hastened by the growth of a skeptical phi- 
 
Tim Problem of Divorce 313 
 
 losophy, and by the numerous political and social changes 
 of the later repubUc. In the days of the Empire, marriage 
 came to be regarded as a private contract and the old 
 idea of the rehgious nature of marriage, prevalent in the 
 early Repubhc, gradually disappeared. The great law 
 system of Rome also began to grow in complexity and to 
 include the legal rights of women and children. Divorce, 
 which was formerly almost unknown, became more and 
 more frequent. The right of divorce was opened to wives, 
 as well as to husbands. Among certain classes, in the 
 decadent period of Roman history, divorce was so com- 
 mon and so easy to obtain that a stable family life ceased 
 to exist. Vice was rampant and played a sinister part in 
 the downfall of the Empire. Rome at this time is the 
 classical illustration of the apparently direct relationship 
 between imstable family life and national disintegration. 
 
 The Christian ideal of the jSIiddle Ages was ascetic. 
 The early church fathers regarded both woman and the 
 institution of marriage as obstacles in the path of Marriage a 
 saintly living. Celibacy was the rule for the sacrament, 
 clergy. Whereas the early church had exercised but little 
 jurisdiction over marriage, the ceremony later became 
 religious and was performed by the priest in the parish 
 church. Marriage was finally eniunerated as one of the 
 sacraments of the church and the whole subject placed 
 \mder ecclesiastical jurisdiction. This point of view, 
 known as the sacramental theory, regards marriage as 
 indissoluble. The wide jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical 
 courts of the Aliddle Ages included not only religious 
 matters, but also questions regarding marriage. The 
 church courts not only possessed the power to try heretics, 
 but also the authority to pass upon the validity of mar- 
 
314 American Social Problems 
 
 riages. A marriage might therefore be annulled because of 
 some fault impairing its validity, but divorce itself was not 
 granted. The Roman Catholic Church to-day still regards 
 marriage as a sacrament and refuses to recognize any 
 right of divorce. 
 
 The Protestant Reformation, weakening the authority 
 of the church, served to strengthen the authority of the 
 „ . state. This resulted finally in the civil authority 
 
 Marriage -^ 
 
 a civu taking over many powers formerly exercised by 
 
 the church. The Renaissance had attacked the 
 ascetic ideals of the medieval church and the Protestant 
 Reformation permitted the marriage of its clergy. The 
 trend of modern times has been consistently toward a 
 separation of church and state, and this movement has 
 reflected itself in a changing attitude toward marriage. 
 A civil marriage act was passed by the England of Crom- 
 well. On the continent, this development was largely a 
 result of the French Revolution, and the nineteenth century 
 witnessed the triumph of the idea throughout Europe. 
 Although the laws regarding divorce had long remained 
 practically undisturbed, the principle involved in the new 
 theory began to produce its results later. Ecclesiastical 
 courts, like those of the feudal nobles, had long lost all 
 power, for their jurisdiction had been usurped by the 
 state courts. When divorce was finally recognized, the 
 civil courts were the only proper legal agencies to grant 
 the right. In the marriage ceremony of to-day the re- 
 ligious, as well as the civil idea, persists. An entirely 
 civil marriage, however, is possible and the ceremony 
 may be performed by a magistrate or by a justice of the 
 peace. It is usually necessary to procure a license from 
 the state authorities before any ceremony can be performed 
 
The Problem of Divorce 315 
 
 by a clergyman. Some European countries require a 
 civil marriage, but it may be followed, if desired, by the 
 religious ceremony. 
 
 Divorce in the United States. — In the United States, 
 the whole question of marriage and divorce lies within 
 the jurisdiction of the several states. The 
 federal government has no authority in the laws in 
 matter. Hence, great discrepancies exist within g™*®"* 
 the several states in both marriage and di- 
 vorce laws. For example, there is no uniformity regard- 
 ing the legal age of marriage, nor agreement concerning 
 the degree of relationship within which marriage is for- 
 bidden. Certain states forbid the intermarriage of whites 
 with negroes, others of whites with Indians, and still others 
 of whites with Chinese. Again, some states are lax in 
 the enforcement of marriage laws and in requiring the 
 registration of all marriages. This registration is either 
 not done at all or so poorly done in some sections as to be 
 of no real value. In general, we may say that the marriage 
 laws of the United States are entirely too lax, and that 
 hasty marriages often result in divorce. Not only should 
 the applicant for a marriage license be required to live a 
 given time in the district, but it has also been proposed 
 that a certain time should elapse between the issuance of 
 the license and the performance of the marriage ceremony. 
 Laws have been recently passed in some states prohibit- 
 ing the marriage of certain degenerate classes, like the feeble- 
 minded and those possessing hereditary defects. Other 
 eugenic measures have also been proposed to improve the 
 physical stock of the race. Some of these are excellent, 
 but others are too radical in the physical tests required 
 for the marriage certificate. 
 
3i6 American Social Problems 
 
 In 1887 the Commissioner of Labor was authorized 
 by Congress to collect and report the statistics of marriage 
 and divorce throughout the country. This re- 
 crease of port covered the twenty years from 1867 to 1887. 
 In South Carolina no marriages were recorded, 
 and in other districts the registration was far from com- 
 plete. Divorce statistics for this period, unUke those for 
 marriage, were fairly complete and sufficiently accurate 
 for purposes of scientific study. In 1905 the Director 
 of the Census was authorized to make a similar investi- 
 gation for the next twenty years, namely from 1887 to 
 1906 inclusive. This was pubHshed several years later 
 and made possible a study of the divorce movement in the 
 United States over a continuous period of forty years. 
 Unfortunately, we have no complete and authoritative 
 figures for the years following 1906 to enable us to bring 
 the investigation up to the present time. It was found 
 from this census study that, in the decade between 1867 
 and 1876, one hundred and twenty-two thousand divorces 
 were granted; between 1877 and 1886, two hundred and 
 six thousand ; between 1887 and 1896, three hundred and 
 fifty-two thousand and between 1897 and 1906, five hundred 
 and ninety-three thousand. The chart on the opposite page 
 shows the steady annual increase in the number of divorces. 
 
 This chart also shows that, in the last twenty years, 
 almost a million divorces have been granted in the United 
 States. This increase of divorce should be compared with 
 the increase of population. In this way we " refine " our 
 " crude " statistics of divorce. This may also be accom- 
 plished by comparing the number of di\'orces with the 
 number of marriages. Whereas the population in 1905 
 was little more than double that of 1870, divorces were 
 
Tlte Problem of Divorce 
 
 317 
 
 six times as nirmerous. Thus we ma^- say that the increase 
 of divorce has been three times as rapid as the increase 
 of population. Whereas the married population a little 
 more than doubled between 1870 and 1900, the number 
 of divorces increased fivefold. Whether this threefold 
 velocity of divorce will continue constant, be accelerated 
 or be diminished, is a matter of conjecture. A projection 
 
 1867 
 
 9=937 
 
 1877 
 
 15,687 
 
 1887 
 
 27,919 
 
 1897 
 
 44,699 
 
 1868 
 
 10,150 1878 
 
 16,089 
 
 1888 
 
 28,669 
 
 1898 
 
 47,849 
 
 1869 
 
 i°.939 
 
 1879 
 
 17,083 
 
 1889 
 
 31,735 
 
 1899 
 
 51,437 
 
 1870 
 
 10,962 
 
 1880 
 
 19,663 
 
 1890 
 
 33,461 
 
 1900 
 
 55,751 
 
 1871 
 
 11,586 
 
 1881 
 
 20.762 1891 
 
 35,540 
 
 1901 
 
 60,984 
 
 1872 
 
 ii,390 
 
 1882 
 
 22,112 
 
 1892 
 
 36,579 
 
 1902 
 
 61,480 
 
 1873 
 
 13.156 
 
 1883 
 
 23,198 
 
 1893 
 
 37,468 
 
 1903 
 
 64,925 
 
 1874 
 
 13,989 
 
 1884 
 
 22,994 
 
 1894 
 
 37,568 
 
 1904 
 
 66,199 
 
 187s 
 
 14,212 
 
 1885 
 
 23,472 
 
 1895 
 
 40,387 
 
 190S 
 
 67,976 
 
 1876 
 
 14,800 
 
 1886 
 
 25,535 
 
 1896 
 
 42,937 
 
 1906 
 
 72,062 
 
 Total 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 1867- 
 
 
 1877- 
 
 
 1887- 
 
 
 1897- 
 
 
 1876 
 
 122,121 
 
 1886 
 
 206,595 
 
 1896 
 
 352,263 
 
 1906 
 
 593,362 
 
 of the same rate to the end of the present centtuy would 
 mean that half of the marriages, then contracted, would 
 end in divorce. Such a situation would not be unlike 
 that prevailing in the days of the declining Roman Empire. 
 The Census of 1910 reported 156,176 men, or three-tenths 
 per cent of the entire male population, as divorced, and 
 185,101 women, or four-tenths per cent of the female 
 population. These figures, however, did not include any 
 divorced persons who had remarried. Thus the number 
 was smaller than the actual number of divorce cases. 
 
3i8 American Social Problems 
 
 The United States has the unenviable reputation of 
 leaduig the civilized world in divorce. Professor Willcox, 
 Comparison in his book upou the divorce problem, gave the 
 with Europe, following divorce figures for 1885 and showed 
 that the United States, at that time, had more cases of 
 divorce than all the leading nations of Christendom com- 
 bined : 
 
 United States . 23,472 Russia ijSp 
 
 France .... 6,245 Austria 1,718 
 
 Germany . . . 6,161 Great Britain and Ireland . 508 
 
 In the same year Australia granted a hundred divorces 
 and Canada but twelve. Professor Ellwood gives the 
 following figures for 1905, just twenty years later: 
 
 United States . . 67,976 Austro-Hungary 5,785 
 
 Germany . . . 11,147 Great Britain and Ireland . 821 
 
 France .... 10,860 Australia . 339 
 
 Canada 53 
 
 While this table shows the United States still far in the 
 lead, it is also important, incidentally, to note how rapidly 
 the divorce rate increased in the European countries. 
 But although the increase in the number of divorces is 
 not a national but an international phenomenon, charac- 
 teristic of modern civilization, our own country is the most 
 conspicuous example of this evil. In 1905 we had about 
 one divorce to every twelve marriages, while in France the 
 ratio was one to thirty ; in Germany one to forty-four 
 and in England one to four hundred. In a few of the 
 states the ratio ranged from one to eight, one to seven, 
 one to six, and in Oregon, Washington and Montana, 
 there was one divorce to every five marriages. The 
 
The Problem of Divorce 319 
 
 infrequency of divorce, however, does not necessarily in- 
 dicate, as will be shown later, a better or higher family 
 life in those states or nations possessing a lower divorce 
 rate. Customs, laws or religious behefs may keep the 
 family intact even when family life is disintegrat- 
 ing. Where divorce is difficult or impossible to obtain, 
 there may be many disrupted families who caimot reg- 
 ister their disruption in the divorce statistics of the 
 courts. The " Report on Marriage and Divorce " by the 
 United States Census Bureau already mentioned shows 
 that our divorce rate is higher than that of any other 
 western nation. It is about three times that of France, 
 five times that of Germany, and thirty times that of Great 
 Britain. 
 
 We have already seen that a great difference exists 
 between the divorce laws and, consequently, the divorce 
 rates of the different states. In general, the Distribution: 
 divorce rate is greater in the Northern and Geographical. 
 Western states than in those to the South and East. Di- 
 vorce has been compared to a great cloud lowering from 
 the Northwest. There are three great geographical 
 centers of divorce: (i) New England, (2) the states 
 of the Central West, and (3) the Rocky Mountain and 
 Pacific Coast states. The Middle Atlantic and Southern 
 groups of states show the lowest proportion of divorce. 
 Recently, however, the divorce rate has shown a rapid 
 increase in some Southern states and also in the city of 
 Philadelphia. The Census Report (1909) showed that the 
 divorce rate in the North Central states was two and one- 
 half times that of the North Atlantic states, while the 
 divorce rate of the Western division was four times as 
 great. 
 
320 American Social Problems 
 
 In Europe, divorce was regarded as a phenomenon of 
 city life, because the rate was so much higher in the urban 
 Urban in- than in the rural districts. The census inves- 
 fiuence. tigation, however, found that this difference 
 
 was not so strikingly significant in the United States. Al- 
 though great variations exist, it is nevertheless true that 
 in our own country the divorce rate is higher in the urban 
 than in the rural districts. 
 
 Court records in the South often do not give informa- 
 tion concerning the color of the litigants. Consequently, 
 it is impossible to establish any definite fact in 
 
 Race. , ^ , . ■' . ^ .. 
 
 regard to the comparative proportion of divorce 
 between the two races. Again, many of the negroes Kve 
 so near the poverty line that legal divorce through the 
 courts is too expensive. Simple desertion, often by mutual 
 consent and without due process of law, is comparatively 
 more common. 
 
 The role of the immigrant in the divorce problem is not 
 so uncertain. The divorce rate is much higher among 
 
 the native born than among the foreign element 
 
 Nalivity. , , . - 
 
 of our population. Many immigrants come 
 from lands where both tradition and religion are so strong 
 that these forces persist in the new country and operate 
 against the divorce evil. 
 
 Because of the uncompromising attitude of the Roman 
 Catholic Church against this evil, divorce is much more . 
 Religious common in Protestant than in Catholic com- 
 behef. munitics. In Switzerland, for example, the 
 
 divorce rate is higher in the Protestant than in the Roman 
 Catholic cantons. Some observers claim that the divorce 
 rate is highest among those of no religious profession. 
 
 The divorce rate is about four times as high among 
 
The Problem of Divorce 321 
 
 childless couples as among those having children. Of the 
 milKon divorces granted between 1887 and 1906, no 
 children were reported in about sixty per cent 
 of the families affected. Thus, children would 
 seem to be an important factor in about two cases out of 
 five. Regarding the party to whom the divorce is granted, 
 we find that twice as many women receive divorces as men. 
 Thus, about two-thirds of all divorces are granted upon 
 the plea of the wife, and about one-third upon the plea 
 of the husband. Regarding the duration of married life, 
 the census report showed that, in one-quarter of all the 
 marriages terminated by divorce, the separation took 
 place within two years, and, in one-half of the cases, 
 within five years after marriage. 
 
 The legal grounds for divorce vary as much among the 
 different states as do the actual rates of divorce. South 
 Carolina refuses to grant divorce. New York 
 has but one cause, while in other states there grounds for 
 are many legal grounds upon which divorce may 
 be granted. The three leading ones are desertion, cruelty 
 and adultery. Often the legal grounds upon which divorce 
 is granted reveal little information as to the real cause of 
 the disrupted family Hfe. To the student of social prob- 
 lems, the causes underlying the broken family are of more 
 importance than the actual divorce, which merely legalizes 
 the disruption already accomplished. Furthermore, deser- 
 tion, for which reason two-fifths of all divorces are granted, 
 is a " blanket " term. It is used in many cases as the 
 legal ground for granting the divorce, but the real cause 
 of the disrupted family is not disclosed. Although there 
 is but one legal ground for divorce in New York, many 
 divorces are granted under that name but for other causes. 
 
322 American Social Problems 
 
 Variation between the states in the strictness of divorce 
 laws often results in a certain amount of migration from 
 state to state for divorce seekers. Hence, a change in 
 our constitutional system, whereby a uniform federal di- 
 vorce law may be enacted, is earnestly advocated by many 
 students of the divorce problem. 
 
 Causes of the Increase of Divorce. — The rise of the 
 factory system marked the passing of the economic fimc- 
 
 tion of the family. Production went from the 
 changes: home to the factory. In earlier days, the 
 Modernin- father farmed, the wife spun and within the 
 
 family circle were produced most of the necessi- 
 ties of life. To-day, even articles of food, like bread and 
 soup, are more often prepared in the factory than in the 
 home. Although division of labor and the use of ma- 
 chinery have made goods cheaper and more plentiful, 
 these forces have broken up the economic interdependence 
 of family life. Great industrial centers have developed 
 where not only fathers, but also mothers and children, 
 find employment. The factory system has lessened the 
 work to be done at home, but has offered to women and 
 children employment in the factory. Different members 
 of the family become employed in different places and 
 occupations. Interests vary and the home sometimes 
 becomes merely a place in which to eat and sleep. Such a 
 situation often results in the production of unsocialized 
 children, because high ideals of family Ufe are lacking. 
 Again, the neglect of practical training in the duties of 
 motherhood may bear fruit in the unhappy homes of a 
 future generation. That the school is taking over some 
 of the old home duties may be seen by the new vocational 
 courses and the courses in domestic science. Mothers, 
 
The Problem of Divorce 323 
 
 employed long hours in factories, have Httle time to teach 
 or to illustrate by example the art of happy home-making 
 to daughters often similarly employed. In some cases, 
 nervous or physical exhaustion makes them unfit for their 
 own duties of wife and mother. The severe struggle for 
 existence may also take the charm from married life. An 
 equally grave situation is met in the homes of another 
 class where the opposite situation prevails. Modern 
 industriahsm has lessened the amount of work to be done 
 in the home, particularly in the cities. Therefore, women 
 of the wealthy class often hve at idle ease. It is this group 
 of " idle rich," where the birth rate is low, that furnishes 
 so many divorce scandals. Leisure time, unprofitably or 
 imwholesomely employed, saps the moral fiber far more 
 than a hard-pressed or overworked existence. In con- 
 clusion, we may say that the industrial revolution has broken 
 the economic imity of the family and placed the industrial 
 work of woman outside the home. It has brought an in- 
 creasing amount of wealth imevenly distributed. Un- 
 fortunately, not only leisure time and the size of the family 
 seem inversely proportional, but social classes at opposite 
 extremes often present, for far different reasons, a Kke 
 problem of disrupted family hfe. 
 
 The entrance of woman into industry has been marked 
 by various economic as well as social consequences. While 
 the movement will xmdoubtedly be ultimately 
 
 . . , , Economic 
 
 advantageous to society, it nevertheless pro- emancipa- 
 duces in the period of transition certain un- '»"»''/ 
 desirable social consequences. Until very recent 
 times, woman, rightly or wrongly, has always been regarded 
 as economically dependent upon man. This view has 
 obtained in spite of the fact that woman has always per- 
 
324 American Social Problems 
 
 formed a large part of the industrial labor of society. 
 Her work, however, has been less noticeable than that of 
 man, because it has been confined to the home. Matri- 
 mony, therefore, was regarded as a means of support for 
 women. But, now, the employments opened to woman 
 have so widened that matrimony is no longer regarded as 
 a necessary means of support. Divorce offers a way out 
 of an imhappy married hfe, while industry furnishes the 
 means of support. Woman is now in industry as an in- 
 dependent competitor, receiving definite wages for serv- 
 ices rendered. This growing economic independence of 
 woman may be read in the laws estabhshing the property 
 rights of married women. Not only divorce but late 
 marriages, as well as spinsterhood, are frequent manifes- 
 tations of the economic emancipation of woman. 
 
 With the advance of industrial civiUzation, has come a 
 
 rise in standards of living which, of course, has been ac- 
 
 companied by an increase in the cost of Hving. 
 
 standards Wants and desires have increased faster than 
 
 mng. incomes. The luxuries of yesterday have be- 
 come the necessities of to-day. Higher standards of living 
 are socially desirable, but when they exceed wholesome 
 limits the results are often disastrous. Each group desires 
 to imitate the standards set by the next higher economic 
 class. This is the cause of much domestic unhappiness, 
 which reflects itself in increasing divorce. Luxurious 
 living and the increased cost of hving are thus partly re- 
 sponsible for the later age of marriage and for the increase 
 of divorce. Professional men of to-day are often, finan- 
 cially, unable to undertake the responsibilities of married 
 life until they attain the larger income that comes with 
 later years. But at this later age, the habits of the in- 
 
Tlie Problem of Divorce 325 
 
 dividual are ^elati^-ely more fixed and harder to change. 
 Thus, the adjustment necessitated by marriage is more 
 difficult in later than in early life. On the other hand, 
 it may be said that mature jears bring judgment and 
 discretion, while early marriages, rashly contracted by 
 impetuous youth, often result in marital disasters. It is 
 true that a rising divorce rate in this country has accom- 
 panied the advancing age of marriage, but the latter may 
 not be the direct cause of the former. 
 
 Our new industrial system has resulted in an enormous 
 growth of cities. As we have seen, the divorce rate is 
 higher in urban than in rural communities. 
 Here are most apparent the differences m stand- 
 ards of hving. Again, vice and immorahty are often 
 associated with city life. Slums constitute a difficult 
 environment for a wholesome family life, while a normal 
 happy family life is hard to attain even among those hving 
 in the fairly congested districts. 
 
 The rise of individualism, as we have seen, took place 
 
 in the period following the Renaissance. It expressed 
 
 itseh in the Protestant Reformation and in the 
 
 Social 
 French and American Revolutions. As a further progress: 
 
 resiilt of this liberalizing movement, marriage ^'«o/«»- 
 
 . . dividualism. 
 
 came to be regarded more as a civu contract than 
 as a sacrament. The old authoritative t}pe of the family 
 reached its extreme development in patriarchal days, 
 when woman was regarded as the property of the hus- 
 band. For many centuries, traces of that spirit lingered 
 in family life but, to-day, they have been entirely ob- 
 Uterated by the spread of indi\ddualism. Again, social 
 institutions are not now regarded as existing for themselves 
 but rather for the benefit of those who create them. Thus, 
 
326 American Social Problems 
 
 the family as an institution is not always considered in- 
 herently sacred. 
 
 The rise of individualism has reflected itself in what is 
 
 generally known as the " Woman's Movement." We have 
 
 spoken of the economic emancipation of woman 
 
 Woman's and now pass to a consideration of the intellec- 
 
 ovemen . ^^^j ^^^ legal aspccts of the problem. The in- 
 ferior position of woman, due to her economic dependence 
 upon man, no longer exists. Under the old system, the 
 wife had little redress for wrongs suffered. She often 
 accepted her fate stoically, but with the acquisition of 
 new rights and a new point of view, woman has chosen to 
 obtain relief from conditions to which she formerly sub- 
 mitted. The rising divorce rate — unfortunate though it 
 be — does reflect the growing freedom of American women 
 and does not necessarily indicate that conditions of family 
 Ufe are worse than they were before the movement began. 
 
 The decrease of illiteracy shows that education is no 
 
 longer the prerogative of the few. Public schools, free 
 
 . Hbraries, and daily newspapers disseminate 
 
 lion ofeduca- knowledge which brings emancipation from tradi- 
 
 lionandlaw. .• tt- 1 j 1 1 1 
 
 tion. Knowledge and progress always produce 
 social unrest. To this principle the institution of marriage 
 is no exception. Existing injustices are more keenly felt, 
 and an escape is sought from a condition which formerly 
 was endured. Law, as well as education, has been popu- 
 larized. Ordinary legal knowledge is now within the reach 
 of every one, and the courts are open to all. Individuals 
 who formerly knew little of divorce now know how and why 
 it may be obtained. 
 
 History bears witness to the fact that no stable family 
 life has endured without a religious basis. In Rome, the 
 
The Problem of Divorce 327 
 
 decay of religion was followed by the increase of divorce. 
 At present, we are witnessing the passing of the dogmatic 
 age of religious history. With the change in , , , 
 
 . r^ . ° Moral and 
 
 the point of view goes an increase of divorce. reUgibus 
 Although dogma to-day does not occupy a ''*'"'«"• 
 position of supreme importance, it is true that character 
 and service are becoming more important. New ethical 
 concepts of right and wrong are being formed. Formerly, 
 it was regarded as pious to continue the sacred marriage 
 relationship in spite of all differences, and to endure any 
 suffering that might arise. At present, however, the 
 modern attitude seems to be that marriage, Hke the Sab- 
 bath, was made for man and not man for marriage. Again, 
 an increase of divorce does not necessarily mean an in- 
 crease of immorality. It may mean that our moral stand- 
 ards are higher and that fewer wives will permit infidelity 
 or brutahty. Thus, the new situation may really be an 
 indication of higher ideals of family happiness, and of the 
 fact that women are no longer compelled to tolerate a 
 dual standard of morahty. 
 
 The Outlook. — In response to the invitation of the 
 governor of Pennsylvania, a commission of over one 
 hundred representatives from almost all the national 
 states of the Union met at Washington, in Feb- Congress on 
 
 Uniform 
 
 ruary, 1906. This meeting was known as the Divorce 
 National Congress on Uniform Divorce Laws. ^^'^^' 
 No federal divorce law was regarded as feasible because 
 it would require the passage of a constitutional amendment. 
 It was desirable, however, that all states cooperate in order 
 to secure uniform divorce legislation. It was agreed that 
 all applicants for divorce should be bona fide residents of 
 the state in which the suit is fikd, and that, to secure a 
 
328 American Social Problems 
 
 decree of absolute divorce, the applicant should reside 
 two years in the state. The congress desired to see the 
 number of causes of divorce reduced and to standardize 
 the whole divorce question. It was thought that a decree, 
 dissolving the marriage tie and permitting the remarriage 
 of either party, should not become operative imtil after 
 the lapse of a reasonable time. The Wisconsin, Uhnois 
 and California rule of one year was recommended. It 
 was also recommended that each state collect and publish 
 annually statistics upon marriage and divorce. While 
 uniform divorce laws would be of great advantage, it 
 must not be imagined, however, that mere tmiformity 
 of legislation would prevent the increase of divorce, the 
 causes of which are deep-seated and complex. 
 
 The attitude of the Roman CathoHc Church upon 
 divorce has already been mentioned. The Protestant 
 „, , ^ churches have also been alarmed at the rapid 
 
 Work of . _ _ _ '^ 
 
 religious increase of divorce and, at various meetings of 
 the governing bodies of the different denomina- 
 tions, action has been taken upon the subject. Slight 
 discrepancies exist in the resolutions of the different bodies, 
 but a consistent effort has been made to lessen the number 
 of causes of divorce. Infidelity is usually regarded as the 
 sole scriptural ground for the granting of divorce. The 
 indiscriminate marriage of divorced people has also been 
 condemned. 
 
 The desirability of uniform marriage and divorce laws 
 is apparent, but uniformity in administration is also 
 Remedies: needed. Not only a decrease in the number of 
 ^^i'^^- causes fpr absolute divorce, but also a legal 
 
 prohibition of the marriage of divorced people, is often 
 recommended. This latter restriction, however, is re- 
 
The Problem of Divorce 329 
 
 garded by some writers as both dangerous and undesirable. 
 Better, perhaps, would be the recommendation of the 
 National Congress on Uniform Divorce that a certain 
 time must elapse after the granting of divorce before re- 
 marriage is permitted. This is sometimes done by a 
 nisi or conditional clause, which prevents the divorce 
 from becoming operative until after the lapse of a year 
 or two. This condition affords the possibility of a recon- 
 ciliation, while it lessens the likelihood of fraud or scandal. 
 Some communities have established special Courts of 
 Domestic Relations. Under this system, all applications 
 for divorce first come before a special tribunal which care- 
 fully investigates the case in order to determine whether, 
 for the good of society, the dissolution of the family tie is 
 warranted. Reconciliation is generally the aim of the 
 court, but unfortunately, it is often too late to accomplish 
 this end. Regarding all remedies for divorce, it is well 
 to remember that divorce itself is merely the legalization 
 of the disruption of family life already accomplished. 
 Real reform has its roots in premarital conditions and 
 in family life itself, rather than in restrictions on divorce. 
 Bad marriages are essentially the cause of divorce. These in- 
 clude, in the words of Professor Howard, "frivolous, merce- 
 nary, ignorant and physiologically vicious unions." Again, 
 the various causes resident in the environment, which hinder 
 a wholesome family life, should be carefully considered in 
 any comprehensive attempt to solve the divorce problem. 
 
 In seeking to remove the divorce evil, the proper educa- 
 tion of the young is as necessary as the legal remedies. 
 Education, in its broadest sense, is designed to , . , 
 
 . . . Educational. 
 
 fit the child for his proper place m society. It is 
 
 more than formal instruction in a course of study. It 
 
330 American Social Problems 
 
 should therefore emphasize the basic position of the family, 
 the sanctity of the marriage relationship and the necessity 
 for high family ideals. To do this the church, the school 
 and the home should cooperate, each having the same aim 
 but pursuing different methods. The importance of the 
 family, not only to the individuals concerned but to society 
 itself, should be emphasized. Attention therefore must 
 be given, not only to moral education, but to careful train- 
 ing in the actual duties of the home. From the stand- 
 point of the family, the modern course in domestic science 
 is a most important factor in promoting social welfare. 
 
 It would seem that the family, Hke other social institu- 
 tions, is in a process of transition. The economic bonds 
 which formerly held the family together are 
 of adjust- weakening, while at the same time the patri- 
 ""*" ■ archal ideal of family life is gradually disap- 
 
 pearing. The family of the future must depend solely 
 upon mutual love, consideration and forbearance. It will, 
 therefore, be stronger and of a higher type. Again, the 
 tmfortunate increase of divorce is one indication of social 
 progress, which is always a costly process. EnUghteimient 
 illuminates injustices and maladjustments. The older type 
 of family was more stable because it rested upon an au- 
 thoritative basis. A more democratic type must be evolved 
 in harmony with the higher ethical standards of the age. 
 Of the monogamic family we need not despair. The 
 single pairing family will persist. After the process of 
 adjustment is completed, the ideal of lifelong union will 
 once more triumph. The new type of family will be 
 founded upon the principle of mutual attraction and con- 
 sideration, while the spirit of dominance ajid subordina- 
 tion will disappear. 
 
The Problem oj Divorce 331 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. Is the permanent monogainic family an old social institution ? 
 Discuss from the life of primitive peoples. 
 
 2. Compare the family life of early and later Roman history. 
 
 3. Discuss the institution of marriage in the Middle Ages. 
 
 4. Explain the sacramental theory of marriage. 
 
 5. Show how marriage came to be regarded as a civil contract. 
 
 6. Xame some proposed reforms regarding our marriage laws. 
 
 7. Show the rapid increase of divorce in the United States. 
 
 8. What do you mean by "refining" statistics? 
 
 9. Illustrate in the case of divorce. 
 
 10. How does our divorce rate compare with that of Europe ? 
 
 11. Show the geographical distribution of divorce in the United 
 States. 
 
 12. Compare the urban and rural rates. Give reasons for the 
 difference. 
 
 13. Show the influence upon our divorce rate of race, nativity 
 and religious beUef. 
 
 14. What are the most important legal groimds of divorce ? Dis- 
 cuss their general significance to the student. 
 
 15. Outline the causes of the increase of divorce. 
 
 16. Discuss the effects of the industrial revolution upon the home 
 and family life. 
 
 17. How does the opening of numerous occupations to women 
 affect the divorce rate and why? 
 
 18. Show the role played by the higher standards and increased 
 cost of Uving. 
 
 19. Explain the rise of individualism and its effect upon divorce. 
 
 20. Discuss the effect of the popularization of law and educa- 
 tion. 
 
 21. How has the moral and religious sentiment in regard to 
 marriage altered ? 
 
 22. Discuss the proposed legal remedies for the divorce problem 
 and their limitations. 
 
 23. Explain another remedy. 
 
 24. Show how the increase of divorce presents a problem of social 
 adjustment. 
 
332 American Social Problems 
 
 25. Explain both the pessimistic and the optimistic side of the 
 phenomenon of increased divorce. 
 
 TOPICS FOR SPECIAL REPORT 
 
 1. The position of women in ancient Athens and Rome. 
 
 2. The cost of social progress. 
 
 3. City life and divorce. 
 
 4. The problem of desertion. 
 
 5. Migration for divorce. 
 
 6. The remarriage of divorced people. 
 
 7. The divorce laws of your state. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Ellwood, C. a. "Sociology and Social Problems." Chapter \TII. 
 
 LiCHTENBERGER, J. P. "Divorce — a Study in Social Causation.'' 
 
 GooDSELL, W. "The Family as a Social and Educational Institu- 
 tion." 
 
 WiLLCOX, W. F. "The Divorce Problem: A Study in Statistics." 
 
 Howard, G. E. "History of Matrimonial Institutions." (Refer- 
 ence.) 
 
 Abler, F. "Marriage and Divorce." 
 
 Report on Marriage and Divorce — U. S. Census 1909. 
 
 Blackmar, F. W., and Gillin. " Outlines of Sociology." Chapter X. 
 
CHAPTER XXIII 
 
 The Evolution of the School 
 
 I. Historical survey 
 
 1. Primitive peoples 
 
 2. The Greeks and Romans 
 
 3. The ^Middle Ages 
 
 4. The Renaissance 
 
 5. Development of national school systems : 
 a. In Europe 
 
 h. In the United States 
 n. Recent tendencies 
 
 1. The scientific movement 
 
 2. The sociological tendency 
 
 3. Vocational training : 
 
 a. Industrial education 
 h. Commercial schools 
 c. Agricultural schools 
 
 4. Social acti\aties 
 
 5. Other educational institutions 
 in. Education and social progress 
 
 1. Educational readjustment 
 
 2. Methods of social progress 
 
 The school, another important institution of society, 
 has slowly evolved from humble beginnings. Its present 
 form should, therefore, be studied in the Hght of its past 
 history. Like the institution of the family, it is now under- 
 going great changes due to the process of gradual readjust- 
 ment to new conditions. 
 
 333 
 
334 American Social Problems 
 
 Historical Survey. — Among primitive peoples there 
 is no separate institution known as the school, and, often, 
 Primitive not even a specialized class of teachers. The 
 peoples. family is the earliest school, and the home the 
 chief place of instruction. The aim of the training is to 
 fit the child for his physical and social environment. Prac- 
 tical training in the means of obtaining food, clothing 
 and shelter is obtained more by unconscious imitation 
 than by formal instruction. The teaching of the folk- 
 ways and customs of the group is carried on either by the 
 parents or by the elders of the tribe. Initiation cere- 
 monies are found among nearly all primitive people and 
 have special educational significance. By this means the 
 boy who has reached manhood is ofl&cially admitted to 
 the tribe. The main purpose of the test is to measure 
 endurance and courage, which are the most highly esteemed 
 virtues among primitive peoples. The youth may even 
 be beaten and subjected to mutilation, which may leave 
 identification marks throughout Ufe. Some Australian 
 tribes, for example, knock out one of the front teeth in 
 the ceremony of initiation. 
 
 With the advance of civilization, we find the begiiming 
 of a specialized class of teachers. These, at first, are the 
 elders and the medicine men, who later develop into the 
 priestly caste. They form the earliest teachers to pass 
 down the learned lore and sacred traditions of the group. 
 Thus, the priests of ancient Egypt and Chaldea possessed 
 a monopoly of the knowledge and learning of that day and 
 gave instruction in religious ceremonies. But among early 
 peoples the school, as a separate institution, did not exist, 
 and the education of the masses was confined to the prac- 
 tical training of the home. 
 
The Evolution of the School 335 
 
 Since the method of primitive education was largely 
 that of imitation, conformity to group standards was 
 sought rather than independent thinking. Al- Greeks and 
 though the school as a separate institution had ^°™™s 
 developed among the Chinese and Hindus, education 
 with them consisted largely of mere memorization of 
 sacred texts. It is among the ancient Greeks that we 
 first find e\'idences of a more liberal spirit in education. 
 Here was given the opportunity for individual development, 
 a fact which explains their progress in ci%"iIization. The 
 ideal of a well-rounded education was fostered. The 
 body of the youth was trained by gymnastics and the 
 mind by music, literature and philosophy. Aristotle 
 expressed the aim of life as " hving happily and beauti- 
 fully." A familiarly modem note laj- in the fact that the 
 Greeks regarded education as a means of fitting the in- 
 di\'idual for citizenship. The Romans were a more prac- 
 tical people than the artistic and intellectual Greeks 
 whom they sought to imitate. In the earUer days of 
 Rome, the home was the chief educational center, and here 
 were taught the simple ^'irtues and plain rules of conduct. 
 The later period of Roman historj' witnessed the establish- 
 ment of an elaborate s}stem of schools. Numerous li- 
 braries and several universities were founded. As among 
 the Greeks, education was merely for the higher classes 
 and did not touch the great masses of the population, a 
 large proportion of whom were merely slaves. 
 
 Under Constantine, Christianity became the official 
 religion of the Roman Empire and later, through an edict 
 of Justinian, the secular schools and imiversities The Middle 
 were closed. Education was henceforth domi- ^^■ 
 nated by the church. The pagan learning fell into dis- 
 
336 American Social Problems 
 
 repute and the old culture declined. The ideal was no 
 longer that of complete living, but rather that of religious 
 asceticism. The only schools were those of the mon- 
 asteries, which sought to prepare their inmates for the 
 clergy. In spite of the general ignorance, the monasteries 
 were seats of learning where the monks laboriously copied, 
 and thus preserved, the old manuscripts. Scholasticism 
 must here be mentioned as a peculiarly characteristic 
 feature of the intellectual life of the Middle Ages. The 
 syllogism was used in an academic attempt to systematize 
 knowledge and to support various theological dogmas. 
 Under these influences, universities arose with faculties 
 of theology, law, medicine and philosophy. Large assem- 
 blies of students gathered, in the various imiversity towns, 
 to listen to Abelard and other great teachers of that day. 
 These turbulent centers of the intellectual Uf e of the Middle 
 Ages prophesied the dawning of a brighter day. 
 
 The Renaissance has been characterized as an outburst 
 of individuaUsm. This characteristic was, perhaps, most 
 The Ren- marked in its intellectual and artistic aspect, 
 aissance. -pj^g JQy ^f living Succeeded the monastic ideal 
 of ascetism, and a more scientific knowledge of the natural 
 world penetrated the shadows of medieval superstition. 
 A clearer insight of the old world of the ancient Greeks 
 and Romans stimulated a greater interest in their intellec- 
 tual life. These new interests led to a study of the classical 
 languages and literatures. Although Latin had been the 
 language of the learned during the Middle Ages, Greek 
 had been almost entirely neglected. The poet Petrarch 
 represented the new spirit in Italy, as did Erasmus the 
 Renaissance in Northern Europe. The content of the 
 new education, called humanism, was largely made up of 
 
The Evolution of the School 337 
 
 the study of the classics. Ahnost to our own day, it con- 
 tinued to be the accepted t^-pe of higher education and, 
 with sHght modification, represented the traditional idea 
 of culture and of liberal education. The last century, 
 however, witnessed the reaction. It must be remembered 
 that the new learning was confined to the few, for the 
 masses continued to hve and labor in ignorance. 
 
 Until recent years, schools were regarded as private 
 ventures, and a gentleman's education was regarded as a 
 
 matter of concern only to himself and his parents. ^ , 
 
 -' ^ _ Develop- 
 
 There were no national school systems at pubHc ment of 
 
 ™,, •XT. 4. national 
 
 expense. Ihe pioneers of such a movement are school sys- 
 to be found in various philanthropic institutions t^ms: 
 of education, such as the charity schools of Eng- 
 land. The great progress of democracj- in the last century 
 had its effect upon education, which has come to be re- 
 garded as a civic necessity. The former aristocracy of 
 learning is a thing of the past. The masses, whom the 
 past regarded as mere " hewers of wood and drawers of 
 water," are no longer content to remain in ignorance. 
 The old medieval monarch may have wished merely a 
 loyal peasantry, but modern democratic nations caimot 
 continue to exist without educated citizenship. Thus, 
 during the last century and a hah, the leading nations of 
 Europe have developed state systems of education. Prussia 
 was one of the first to organize a scheme of universal educa- 
 tion and to make the sjstem compulsory. This was ac- 
 complished by the benevolent despot, Frederick the Great. 
 A national system of education had its beginnings in 
 France during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic periods. 
 Louis PhUippe, upon the advice of his minister Guizot, 
 organized a scheme of elementary education, whereby 
 
338 American Social Problems 
 
 each commune was required to establish a primary school. 
 Under the present Third Republic, elementary education 
 has been made free to all and compulsory. The seculariza- 
 tion of the school system from church control has also 
 gradually taken place. The administration of schools in 
 France is highly centralized under a Minister of Educa- 
 tion. A national system of education was late in appear- 
 ing in England, because the estabhshed AngHcan church 
 maintained a strong grip on educational institutions. In 
 1870, however, an important law was passed estabhshing 
 elementary schools supported by government grants. 
 Compulsory school laws have also been passed. 
 
 Our own early educational policy varied in the different 
 colonies. The aristocratic ideal reflected itself in the 
 
 famous dictum of Governor Berkeley of Virginia 
 United condemning free schools. In New England, on 
 
 the other hand, the schoolhouse, like the meet- 
 inghouse, was conspicuous in every township. As early 
 as 1647, Massachusetts required each town of fifty families 
 to have an elementary school, and each town of a hundred 
 families a grammar school — an institution similar to the 
 secondary school of to-day. That the fathers of our nation 
 realized the importance of higher education was witnessed 
 by the founding of such colleges as Harvard and WiUiam 
 and Mary. The early part of the nineteenth century 
 saw the rapid extension of the common school system 
 throughout the United States. The " Kttle red school- 
 house " dotted the western wilderness which had been so 
 rapidly developed by our hardy pioneers. The public 
 high school, a characteristic American educational insti- 
 tution, arose to take the place of the older Latin grammar 
 schools and the private academies. Normal schools were 
 
The Evolution of the School 339 
 
 also established for the training of teachers. Not only 
 has the number of students increased but educational 
 standards have risen. 
 
 There is no centralized administration of schools in 
 the United States, for each commonwealth has its own 
 independent system. These state systems, however, do 
 not vary so widely as might be expected. Every state 
 has a weU-organized plan of elementary education, and 
 nearly all have a secondary or high school system, 
 proA'iding instruction for three or fovu" additional years. 
 Many commonwealths have large and well-endowed state 
 imiversities, so that free education from kindergarten to 
 college is within the reach of aU their citizens. Our Ameri- 
 can democracy, with its fxmdamental principle of the 
 separation of church and state, has regarded education as 
 the bulwark of free institutions. Unlike Europe, rehgious 
 or sectarian schools have not been incorporated into our 
 public educational system. Another difference between 
 the school sjs terns of Europe and those of America Hes in 
 our refusal to recognize class distinctions. In Germany, 
 for example, there are separate schools for those who ex- 
 pect to prepare for the imiversities and for those who must 
 leave school as soon as possible. The needed differentia- 
 tion in preparation takes place in the elementary schools. 
 In the United States, on the contrar}-, it is deferred to as 
 late a date as possible. There is but one educational 
 ladder for all classes. The system of separate schools 
 for different groups may be more efficient in producing 
 results, but it is distasteful to the ideals of American 
 democracy. 
 
 Recent Tendencies. — The scientific experiments of 
 R(^er Bacon gleamed like a bright star in the dark sky of 
 
340 American Social Problems 
 
 medieval ignorance and superstition. The various proph- 
 ecies of his brilliant imagination have since become facts 
 ^jjg of everyday experience. With the Renaissance, 
 
 scientific began the dawn of a new era in physical 
 movemen . g(,jg^^g -pj^g theory of Copernicus shattered 
 the older astronomical ideas, while Gahleo, peering through 
 his crude telescope, dared to assert that it was not the sim 
 but the earth which revolved. Scientific investigation 
 not only continued, but geographical discoveries widened 
 the field of knowledge. The movement gradually pro- 
 gressed until it culminated, in the nineteenth century, 
 in the development of the biological sciences. We have 
 already discussed the work of Darwin and Spencer, and 
 must here mention the name of Thomas Huxley. The 
 scientific movement also reflected itseK, in a practical 
 manner, in a great series of mechanical inventions. The 
 steam engine, for example, revolutionized land and water 
 transportation as well as the methods of manufacturing. 
 Modern life has been transformed by the appHcation of 
 steam and electricity to industry. As in the days of the 
 Renaissance, the human intellect has been reborn. 
 
 The scientific movement has affected not only industry 
 but also education. Through its influence, the content of 
 Uberal education has begim to expand, and now numerous 
 new studies clamor for admission into the curriculum. In 
 his essay upon education, Herbert Spencer threw down 
 the gauntlet to conservatives and boldly asked the question, 
 " What knowledge is of most worth? " After discussing 
 various aims, he answers this question by declaring that 
 education should be a practical preparation for life. " How 
 to Live? — that is the essential question for us." In his 
 enumeration of the studies conducive to that end, the 
 
TJte Evolution of iJte School 341 
 
 sciences take a commanding position. The so-called 
 cultural subjects are not entirely eliminated but are rel- 
 egated to the leisure time of life and, therefore, of educa- 
 tion. Thomas Huxley also advocated the value of the 
 sciences in comparison with the traditional study of the 
 classics. Xot only is a knowledge of science valuable, but 
 the training in scientific method is most important. Thus, 
 science has foimd its way into an assured place in the cur- 
 riculum, not only of the secondarj- schools, but also of the 
 elementary schools. Physics and chemistr\- are, therefore, 
 taught in the high schools in addition to mathematics and 
 the classics. In the elementan,' schools, geograph}-, physi- 
 ology^ and nature study find a place beside the " three R's." 
 ileanwhile, courses in the modern sciences had found their 
 way into the colleges and universities. Great scientific and 
 technical schools were foimded for instruction in engineer- 
 ing, in chemistr}^ and in industrial organization. 
 
 One other effect of the scientific movement in education 
 must be mentioned. ^Mien the scientific method of ob- 
 servation and experimentation was directed toward educa- 
 tion itself, great changes took place in the method of teach- 
 ing and in school administration. ]Many accepted methods 
 were found, in the Ught of scientific tests, to represent 
 merely traditional ideas. With the development of psy- 
 cholog}', education is becoming a science as well as a prac- 
 tical art. The popular cry for efficiency has been echoed 
 from industry- to education. The old-fashioned school- 
 master and the " little red schoolhouse " of our parents 
 are passing into history. Changes are taking place so 
 rapidly as to become bewildering. The " fad "' evil is 
 common to periods of transition, and mere radicalism 
 must not be interpreted as progress. However, the new 
 
342 American Social Problems 
 
 problems of a new age always require educational read- 
 justment. In conclusion, we may state that the scientific 
 movement of the nineteenth century has been characterized 
 by a great increase in the content of education, by the ad- 
 dition of the natural sciences, and also by great changes 
 in methods of school administration. 
 
 The sociological movement in education grew out of 
 the scientific. It answers the question " What knowledge 
 
 is of most worth?" by emphasizing the im- 
 The SOCIO- -' ^ _ ° 
 
 logical portance of that knowledge which fits the indi- 
 
 en ency. yidual to meet the needs of his social and eco- 
 nomic environment. The aim is social rather than indi- 
 vidual. Upon its theoretical side, it would add to the cur- 
 riculum the social, as well as the natural, sciences. Thus, 
 in higher education, the social sciences have taken a most 
 important place in the curriculum. Economics has foimd 
 its way down into the secondary schools and civics into 
 the elementary schools. Even sociology itself, in the form 
 of a study of concrete social problems, is now being in- 
 corporated into the high school curriculum. On its prac- 
 tical side, the sociological view of education adds to the 
 curriculum vocational training for those pupils who must 
 soon join the ranks of wage earners. This ideal of educa- 
 tion aims to prepare the individual for his economic and 
 social environment by means of industrial education, or 
 by commercial training, or by agricultural instruction. 
 
 One of the most conspicuous educational movements of 
 to-day is the development of vocational training. This 
 Vocational ™^y ^^^^ three forms: (i) industrial, (2) corn- 
 training: mercial and (3) agricultural. Under the older 
 Industrial, ^y^^^^ ^f industry, the individual passed 
 through the stage of apprenticeship, wherein he was taught 
 
The Evolution of the School 343 
 
 by the master of the shop all phases of his future occupa- 
 tion. FoUowitig the Industrial Revolution and the devel- 
 opment of the factofy system, this method of " learning 
 a trade " gradually declined. At present, the work of a 
 factory employee is generally hmited to a single process, 
 and only occasionally does the eniployer attempt to broaden 
 the knowledge of the workers. Hence the school, an out- 
 side agency, has been called upon to meet the demands of 
 industrial education. Many states of Europe have had 
 training of this sort for half a century. In Germany, 
 continuation schools have been used for this purpose. A 
 continuation school is so called because in it education is 
 continued after the pupil has discontinued regular school 
 sessions. The employee is permitted by his employer to 
 return to school a certain number of hours each week. 
 Many locahties have made such attendance compulsory 
 for all apprentices up to the age of eighteen and have 
 required the employers to grant them time for such study. 
 Not only is training provided for the lower grades of ar- 
 tisans, but instruction is given to foremen, superintendents 
 and technical clerks. Similarly, girls are trained for 
 numerous vocations, including housekeeping and mother- 
 hood. 
 
 The system of industrial training in Mimich is well 
 known. It provides a special elementary class devoted 
 to instruction designed to link the school with the 
 industrial world. It thus ptepares for the higher and 
 more technical classes of the continuation schools. The 
 industrial development of Germany, before the World 
 War, resulted partly from this and other allied t)^es of 
 education. Industrial education in our own coimtry 
 appeared later than in Europe. Real skill and technical 
 
344 American Social Problems 
 
 knowledge were needed under the stress of international 
 competition for industrial supremacy. The earhest in- 
 dustrial schools in America were founded by private 
 philanthropy, or as a result of individual experiment. In 
 the twentieth century, however, they appeared as an in- 
 tegral part of the pubHc school system. Trade schools 
 have been established in niunerous cities, while continua- 
 tion classes have sometimes been inaugurated in coimec- 
 tion with compulsory education laws. Thus, the recent 
 law of Peimsylvania requires partial school attendance for 
 employees between fourteen and sixteen years of age. 
 Manual training courses had already been estabhshed in 
 secondary schools and have even appeared lately in the 
 more elementary grades. The purpose of manual train- 
 ing instruction, as distingtiished from that of trade schools, 
 is to offer the student general industrial training rather 
 than to prepare him for any particular occupation. 
 
 Vocational training has not been altogether industrial. 
 With the great expansion of commerce, as well as of manu- 
 Commerciai facturing. Came the demand for a thorough prep- 
 schoois. aration for a business career. Only of recent 
 
 years, in the United States, has this phase of education 
 come to be regarded as a function of our public school 
 system which, throughout the greater part of the nine- 
 teenth century, stressed the purely traditional . side of 
 education. At the present time, however, commercial 
 courses have won a recognized place in our system of 
 pubhc education. In England, in spite of her dominating 
 position in the markets of the world, commercial educa- 
 tion has been but a recent development. In our own 
 country, the early history of commercial education was the 
 usual story of private enterprise fulfilling a public need. 
 
The Evolution of tlie School 345 
 
 Indeed, at the present time, business colleges and other 
 such private institutions number about one-half of all 
 students of commercial education. Finally, however, the 
 insistent demand for a modern t^-pe of education won the 
 recognition of public school authorities. Since the open- 
 ing of the present centur}-. great progress in this t\pe of 
 education has been made. Commercial courses, as well 
 as the manual training, have been added to the older and 
 more purely academic high school curriculum. By recog- 
 nizing the divergent needs of the various students, who 
 attend American public high schools, secondary education 
 is no longer a merely traditional preparation for a classical 
 college career. In fact, the vmiversities themselves have 
 long since recognized the need of practical education. 
 Not only their splendid engineering schools, but also their 
 widely attended courses in finance and commerce, bear 
 eloquent witness to the great educational readjustment 
 made by our American universities. 
 
 Another aspect of vocational education is the agricul- 
 tural. In 1862 Congress appropriated lands in every state, 
 amotmting to millions of acres, for the promo- AgricuUurai 
 tion of education. Because of the ob\'ious ' ^<^'"o^- 
 needs of national life, it was stipulated that agricultural 
 education should be emphasized ia the schools thus founded. 
 Nearly all our states, therefore, have established colleges, 
 which receive pubKc support, and which pro\-ide means of 
 agricultural instruction. The need for such training is 
 great, because the United States is stiU primarily an agricul- 
 tural nation and her present methods of farming are often 
 wasteful and inadequate. In many rural commimities, 
 agricultural courses in high schools have been organized 
 and, indeed, the movement is even taking root in the 
 
346 American Social Problems 
 
 elementary school system. Not only has agricultural 
 education resulted in more efficient methods of farming, 
 but it has also stimulated an interest in coimtry life and 
 its opportunities. In many rural commimities the school 
 has become, for the surrounding farmers, a cooperative 
 center where soils are tested, the results of experiments 
 shown, and a general knowledge of scientific farming dis- 
 seminated. 
 
 Vocational education is but one illustration of the in- 
 creasing social service performed by the school. For those 
 Social who are too old to attend day sessions, the ele- 
 
 activities. mentary system provides night schools, where 
 immigrants learn to read and write the Enghsh language 
 and where the foundations of American citizenship are 
 laid. High schools have their courses for the more ad- 
 vanced students, while the imiversity extension movement 
 and the evening college courses afford development for 
 minds more matured. In fact, the educational opportuni- 
 ties of the present age are so great that no excuse exists 
 for general ignorance. The functions of the school have 
 increased in many ways. Playgrounds are now frequently 
 operated in connection with the public school system and 
 afford opportunities for recreation in the congested areas 
 of the cities. School gardens have also been opened. 
 Again, modern administrative school methods have pro- 
 vided special schools and classes for the mentally deficient. 
 Many cities not only maintain open air classes for tuber- 
 cular children, but also look after the education of the deaf 
 and the blind. Free medical and dental service is provided 
 for the poorer pupils, while many school systems even 
 employ a special corps of trained nurses. School lunches 
 are frequently served at cost to the pupils or furnished 
 
3 
 Z 
 
 z 
 
 E 
 < 
 
The Evolution of the School 347 
 
 free to the poorer children in immi grant sections. Social 
 ser\dce has become a department of the schools as well as 
 of the hospitals. The attendance ofl&cers of the depart- 
 ment of compulsor\^ education cooperate with the probation 
 officers of the juvenile coiu^ts to check the criminal careers 
 of youthful lawbreakers. 
 
 Another educational development of social importance 
 is what is known as the " Home and School Movement."' 
 It seeks not only to bring the parents of the children into 
 closer touch with the work of the school, but also to ac- 
 quaint the teacher with the social background of the pupU. 
 In some commimities the schoolhouse has become a social 
 center. Here the people of the community gather to 
 listen to lectures on present-day topics, or to enjoy some 
 kind of dramatic or musical entertainment. While com- 
 munity singing is still new in America, it has nevertheless 
 met with great success in social centers frequented by the 
 music-lo\Tng immigrants. Athletic contests, classes in 
 gymnastics, and even folk dancing have been held in these 
 centers. In some sections, where the community spirit 
 is strong, sociables and educational amusements have been 
 planned. Since the school plant is pubhc property, there 
 is no good reason why it should not be used more fre- 
 quently for community functions. 
 
 In addition to the public school, there are nmnerous other 
 institutions of an educational character. Foremost among 
 these is the pubHc library. In this form of ^^^ 
 philanthropy, ]Mr. Carnegie has taken the lead, educational 
 having devoted a large part of his fortune to the 
 bmlding of public Kbraries. Here the leading magazines 
 are on file and books of fiction, travel and scientific knowl- 
 edge may be read. The newspaper has been a great means 
 
348 American Social Problems 
 
 of popularizing education by the dissemination of infor- 
 mation. The sensational journal, however, is more per- 
 nicious than valuable, for stories of scandal and details 
 of harrowing crime exercise a most baneful influence upon 
 the pubHc mind. Museums and art galleries constitute 
 another educational agency. Europe, however, is far 
 ahead of America in art collections and in general apprecia- 
 tion of the artistic side of life. Since good pictures have 
 great educational and moral value, many cities have es- 
 tablished pubHc museums and art galleries. Here are 
 exhibited not only works of art, but scenes and products 
 of far distant places. Industrial exhibits, showing the 
 stages in the production of various commodities, have also 
 been introduced. Zoological gardens and city aquari- 
 ums must here be mentioned as containing specimens of 
 animal Ufe interesting and instructive to the general 
 public. 
 
 Education and Social Progress. — One evidence of 
 educational readjustment is the growing content of the 
 „^ ,. , curriculum. We have already mentioned the 
 
 Educational -^ 
 
 readjust- great development of the natural and social 
 ™*" ■ sciences. Since the sum total of human knowl- 
 
 edge is constantly increasing, each age must decide for 
 itself what knowledge is of most worth. Educational 
 readjustment is one indication of intellectual progress, 
 for static societies abhor educational changes. Again, 
 methods of teaching and progress in school administration 
 must keep pace with the growth of the science of educa- 
 tion. A third factor in educational readjustment is the 
 spread of the spirit of democracy. Education for all is 
 the modern ideal, for education itself is both a cause and 
 a result of democracy. The need of " the classes " is not 
 
The Evolution oj tlie School 349 
 
 that of " the masses "" ; the educational ideals of the 
 aristocracy of yesterdaj- are not the democratic ideals of 
 to-day. Consequentl3% the curricula and the courses of 
 modern schools have expanded far beyond the straight 
 and narrow path of Eintiquity that lead to " culture " and a 
 ■ liberal education." We haA'e seen that the enormous 
 commercial and industrial development of the past century 
 has reflected itself in educational changes. Industrial 
 society feels the need of intelligent workers, and the present 
 generation asks for that t}"pe of education which will best 
 prepare it for the practical duties of everyday life. There- 
 fore, vocational courses are demanded bj- the many who 
 must soon leave school for the workaday world. Again, 
 the Industrial Revolution has largely cut down the educa- 
 tional function of the family, so that the school is now 
 forced to teach many things that were formerly learned 
 in the home. A final factor in educational readjustment 
 is the growth of the social ideal. The indi\'idualistic 
 education of the past must give way to the training for 
 group life and for democratic citizenship. The increasing 
 complexity of our social order and the growing interde- 
 pendence of indi^-idualistic acti\dties make cooperation and 
 social morality imperative. 
 
 Social maladjustments, like poverty, inefficiency and 
 backward traditions, are obstacles in the path of social 
 progress. Society may remove these by three jj^jij^dsof 
 different methods. The first is the biological — sodai 
 that is, the improvement of the human stock p™^*^- 
 through the process of selection whereby the imfit are 
 eliminated. The second plan of attack is to improve 
 social and economic conditions by a reorganization of 
 societv and its institutions. There is still a third method 
 
350 American Social Problems 
 
 of approaching the problem. This emphasizes the im- 
 portance of a sound education whereby every member 
 of society is prepared for a Ufe of usefulness in the com- 
 munity. The family, the school and the church must 
 cooperate in instilling into the minds of the young such 
 social ideals as the dignity of labor, subordination to au- 
 thority, and respect for the rights of others. Education 
 in its social sense is designed to fit the individual for his 
 place in group life. It aims not merely to develop mental 
 power and individual capacity, but also to strengthen moral 
 character and to develop right habits of Uving. It seeks 
 more than the mere transmission of culture from genera- 
 tion to generation. The schools of to-morrow, however, 
 must not be content with merely producing skilled artisans 
 or efficient business and professional men. They must 
 strive to improve the quality of citizenship in the com- 
 munity. Hence the importance in the modern school of 
 sound training in the social sciences, whereby the citizens 
 of the RepubHc may learn to think and to act intelligently 
 on the great civic questions of the day. A healthy pubUc 
 opinion is absolutely essential to the preservation of de- 
 mocracy. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. Discuss the methods of practical and religious training among 
 primitive peoples. 
 
 2. Describe and give the significance of the ceremony of initia- 
 tion. 
 
 3. How did Greek and Oriental education diSer in ideals? 
 
 4. Discuss the monastic schools and the culture of the Middle 
 Ages. 
 
 5. What do you understand by the "humanistic" education of 
 the Renaissance ? 
 
 6. Trace the development of national school systems in Europe. 
 
Tlu Evolution of the School 351 
 
 7. Why has the progress of democracy siinmlated this movement ? 
 S. Compare the present school systems (elementary, secondary 
 and higher) of England, France and Germany with our own. 
 9. Discuss education in colonial America. 
 
 10. Show our educational progress in the last century. 
 
 11. Give the effect upon education of the scientific movement. 
 
 12. Explain the sociological tendency in education. 
 
 13. Discuss the industrial education and the continuation schools 
 of Germany. 
 
 14. What is the United States doing in this respect? 
 
 15. Discuss the progress of commercial education in the United 
 States. 
 
 16. Discuss the value of agricultural schools. 
 
 17. Enumerate the social activities of the school. 
 
 iS. What agencies for social betterment are now cooperating with 
 the school? 
 
 19. Discuss the purpose and work of a social center. 
 
 20. Msit and describe a school used for this purpose. 
 
 21. Xame some other agencies for popular education in addition 
 to the school. 
 
 22. Describe in detail the possibilities of the one in which you are 
 most interested. 
 
 23. Summarize the causes of educational readjustment. 
 
 24. Discuss three methods o^ social progress. 
 
 25. Explain the social ideal of the new education. 
 
 26. Defend or criticize the placing of this course in social problems 
 in the curriculum of your school.- 
 
 TOPICS FOR SPECLAL REPORT 
 
 1. The old Chinese education and s\-stem of competitive exami- 
 nations. 
 
 2. The Uberal education of the Greeks. 
 
 3. The life of the students (and their studies) in the medieval 
 universities (e.g. the Universitj- of Paris imder Abelard). 
 
 4. The great humanists of the Renaissance {e.g. Petrarch and 
 Erasmus' 
 
 5. Some famous pubUc schools of Englan d. 
 
352 American Social Problems 
 
 6. The educational institutions of Germany (e.g. the Gymnasia 
 and Realschulen) . 
 
 7. The secularization of the schools of Europe (e.g. in France). 
 
 8. The democratic ideals in American education. 
 g. Linking the schools with our industries. 
 
 10. Cultural ideals in education. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Monroe, P. "A Brief History of Education." Chapters I- VII, 
 inclusive, and Chapters XII, XIII and XIV. 
 
 Graves, E. P. "A Student's History of Education." 
 
 Graves, E. P. "AHistory of Education in Modern Times." Chap- 
 ters I, IV, VIII, IX, X, XI and XII. 
 
 King, I. "Education for Social Efficiency." 
 
 Gillette, J. M. "Vocational Education." 
 
 Dewey, J. "Democracy and Education." 
 
 Dewey, J. "Schools of To-morrow." 
 
 Boone, R. G. "Education in the United States." 
 
 Wright, C. D. "A Practical Sociology." Chapter XI. 
 
 BuRCH, H. R. "Economic and Social Side of the School Curriculum." 
 
CH.\PTER XXR^ 
 Moral Progress 
 
 I. Ideas of primitive people 
 
 1 . Belief in spirits 
 
 2. Magic 
 
 3. Animisin 
 
 4. -Ancestor worship 
 n. Religion and group life 
 
 1. Higher development 
 
 2. Influence of en\Tronment 
 
 3. A priestly class 
 
 4. The church as an institution 
 
 5. Effect on group life 
 m. Evolution of moralitj- 
 
 1. Social origins 
 
 2. Group standards 
 
 3. Four stages of progress 
 
 4. Societ}'^ and the individual 
 
 5. The role of altruism 
 r\'. floral adjustment 
 
 1. The aim of adjustment 
 
 2. Social morality 
 
 3. The church and social reform 
 
 Ideas of Primitive People. — Primitive men imagine 
 that the world about them is peopled with innimierable 
 spirits. Their imagination attributes life to such geUef in 
 inanimate objects as mountains, brooks and spirits, 
 stones. The various phenomena of nature are explained, 
 not as the result of natural causes, but as the work of these 
 2 A 353 
 
354 American Social Problems 
 
 multitudinous spirits. To the primitive mind every act 
 implies an actor and every effect a doer. The idea of 
 abstract cause is beyond its comprehension. Thus the 
 tree, swayed by the wind, is regarded as moved by the 
 spirit either within itself or in the air. The scientific mind 
 coldly analyzes echoes as sound waves, but the savage 
 regards them as the voices of mocking spirits. Grottoes, 
 strange bowlders or peculiarly shaped tree stumps are 
 considered the abodes of such invisible creatures. To these 
 spirits, the imagination of primitive people naturally gives 
 human characteristics. Thus, there may be good and 
 bad, or friendly and hostile, spirits. Primitive men live 
 in constant fear of the supposedly evil spirits that people 
 their environment of field and forest. 
 
 Such formal education as primitive man enjoyed was 
 largely a study of how to placate the evil spirits and how 
 „ . to prevent them from harming him. Thus, the 
 
 Magic. . d ' 
 
 storm which destroyed his hut was regarded by 
 our early ancestor as the work of an evil or hostile spirit 
 which must be appeased. The search for spirit charmers 
 led to a belief in various forms of magic. INIany of our 
 present-day superstitions are modern survivals of primi- 
 tive beUef in magic. For example, the drawing of a circle 
 was supposed to keep the evil spirits within its circum- 
 ference, and the horseshoe was imagined to hold within 
 itself the friendly spirits of good luck. Fire has always 
 been regarded as affording protection against evil spirits. 
 Thus the sacred flame of the ancients gave protection 
 against unseen terrors. Evil spirits were also regarded 
 as incapable of crossing ruiming water. Yelling and beat- 
 ing upon tom-toms was practiced by the medicine man of 
 early days to drive the evil spirit from his sick patient. 
 
Moral Progress 355 
 
 The idea of mjrstery and the use of symbols produce fe- 
 tishes and amulets, which were supposed to protect their 
 wearers. Crops would not grow unless a certain ritual 
 prescribed by the folkways was performed. The American 
 Indians were amazed to see the white man's corn grow up, 
 in spite of the fact that he had not appeased the spirits 
 of the harvest. 
 
 Animate as well as inanimate objects were regarded 
 as possessed by spirits. Certain animals were therefore 
 held to be sacred, while others might be killed 
 
 , _ _ , Annnisni- 
 
 m the chase, provided an apologetic ritual was 
 offered to the spirit thus dispossessed of its abode. In 
 fact, the idea of the transmigration of the souls of departed 
 men into the bodies of animals is still believed by some 
 peoples. Alan earh* came to regard himself as possessing 
 a spirit or other self. This belief in a dual personaUty 
 is called animism. The conjecture of primitive man con- 
 cerning an other self was confirmed by seeing his own 
 shadow follow him, or by observing his own image re- 
 flected in the clear water of some still pool. Again, the 
 mental phenomena of dreams and sleep encoxu"aged him 
 in this belief. In his dream, primitive man travels afar 
 or rides upon a venturesome chase, but upon awakening, he 
 finds that he is in the same spot where he lay down to 
 sleep. In spite of the \dA'id experiences of his dream, his 
 friends tell him he has not been away from them. Con- 
 sequently, he reasons that his other self must have been 
 absent upon the adventures of his dream. In swoons or 
 faints, the other self takes a similar temporary departure. 
 Death he imagines must be a like experience, although the 
 separation between spirit and body seems permanent. 
 Consequently, the dead man's weapons are buried with 
 
356 American Social Problems 
 
 him, for his spirit will need them in the " Happy Hunting 
 Grounds." 
 
 The dead man's spirit is more to be feared than his 
 actual Hving self. If powerful in life, how much more 
 Ancestor powerful will be his unseen spirit? Thus, there 
 worship. arises the need of appeasing these jealous venge- 
 ful spirits of the dead hovering about them. Often no 
 one will dare appropriate the weapons or property of the 
 deceased warrior. The survivors unite to chant his praises 
 and procure mourners to continue the demonstration of 
 their grief. Primitive man indeed feared to " speak ill 
 of the dead." The departed spirit of a great chief might 
 even be worshiped after his death. So also might be the 
 deceased head of the patriarchal family, whose authority 
 during life was so much feared. As the spirit was supposed 
 to hover near the body it had just left, great care was 
 taken in its burial. The graves and tombs of ancient people 
 were therefore matters of the greatest importance. Offer- 
 ings of food and wine were placed there at regular intervals, 
 and the descendants of the dead ancestor met at his tomb 
 to perform certain rites in his honor. Indeed, Herbert 
 Spencer, in his " ghost theory," goes so far as to assert 
 that graves were the first altars and tombs — the earliest 
 temples of mankind. 
 
 Religion and Group Life. — Among primitive people 
 religion is a matter of fear rather than of love and hope. 
 Higher de- Nevertheless, the spirit of the dead ancestor 
 veiopment. ^quM be apt to favor his own clansmen, if they 
 did not neglect to do him honor. In this maimer, the 
 spirit of the departed chief was thought to become a tribal 
 deity and to favor his chosen people. With the expansion 
 of the patriarchal family into the tribe, the tribal deity 
 
Moral Progress 357 
 
 becomes supreme over the various household gods. Each 
 tribe has its own god to fight its battles against the peoples 
 and gods of other tribes. In the clash of conflict the re- 
 ligious, as well as the poUtical organization, becomes stronger. 
 The successful tribal deity tends to become the one god 
 over the ever-increasing group. Thus the way is paved 
 for monotheism. A polytheistic tendency, however, may 
 result in the formation of elaborate mythologies, like 
 those of the Greeks and Romans. Existing institutions 
 of the group are accredited to fabled ancestors, kings 
 or leaders, while natural causes and origins are explained 
 in terms of a hierarchy of gods and goddesses. Frequently, 
 the lesser deities fade into obscurity and one god, like 
 Jupiter, is recognized as supreme. Man's conception of 
 his deity also changes as the group progresses in civili- 
 zation. The fear of the numerous spirits to be placated is 
 succeeded by a feeling of awe and reverence toward the 
 one great god. He is frequently regarded as a great king 
 and the fountainhead of justice and power. Likewise, 
 the bloody sacrifices and the offerings of food change to 
 higher and more symbolic forms of ritual. Only by the 
 sacrifice of a pure heart and an upright spirit can civilized 
 man come into communication with the Deity. In general, 
 the higher the civilization of the group, the higher the moral 
 standards of its religion. Thus, all the truly great religions 
 of the world have emphasized ethics and moral relation- 
 ships. 
 
 The influence of the physical environment upon the 
 reUgious ideas of a people has already been discussed. 
 Greece with its gentle, varied landscape was con- influence 
 
 ^ ' ■*■ of environ- 
 
 trasted with the awe-inspiring aspects of nature ment. 
 
 in India. This physical difference is probably one element 
 
358 American Social Problems 
 
 in the explanation of the spiritual differences between the 
 two religious philosophies of these civilizations. The 
 desert associations of monotheism and the forest and hill 
 environment of polytheism were also indicated. How- 
 ever, the social as well as the physical environment must 
 be considered. For example, where backward social 
 conditions prevail, the group may remain for a long time, 
 or indeed permanently, in the stage of animism. Or, 
 where cruel tribal wars of extermination persist, religion 
 will be fettered by crude ideals. The god will be one of war 
 who delights in blood and carnage. Dogma in religion 
 is apt to flourish imder a despotic government, while 
 democracy encourages a more tolerant spirit. Again, 
 commerce, resulting in intellectual expansion as well as 
 in material development, frequently fosters the growth of 
 higher ideals in religion. As the civiUzations of different 
 groups commingle, their rehgious behefs frequently fuse. 
 Thus, the conquests of Alexander the Great amalgamated 
 not only the cultures, but the religious ideas, of the Greeks 
 and Asiatics. 
 
 In exercising control over unfriendly or hostile spirits, 
 certain individuals were supposed to have unusual power. 
 Apriesfly These became known as medicine men. They 
 class. fasted occasionally, for it was conducive to 
 
 sleeplessness and to the weird workings of their imagina- 
 tions. Their dreams were often regarded as evidences 
 of divine inspiration, and as the result of direct communica- 
 tion with the unseen spirits of the air. Mutilation of the 
 body, or special dress, marked them off from other members 
 of the tribe. Because of his supposed supernatural powers, 
 the medicine man held a social position of great impor- 
 tance and veneration. His influence over the tribe was 
 
Moral Progress 359 
 
 "frequently greater than that of the chief. His methods 
 of social control were often despotic, but resulted in greater 
 group unity or solidarity. As the tribe grew iu size, the 
 number of medicine men increased, imtil gradually a so- 
 called priestly class arose in society. They alone were 
 learned in the group traditions and in the secrets of magic 
 art. The ritual and sacrifice had especial value when per- 
 formed by them. At a ver}^ early stage in the history of 
 hiunan societ}, they sought to have their knowledge re- 
 garded as a sacred secret. Only the select few were ad- 
 mitted within the inner circle, while the masses were kept 
 in dark ignorance. A great burden of ritual and of sacri- 
 ficial ceremony was built up in order to make necessary 
 the pubHc support of this leisure class. Frequently, how- 
 ever, the priests were the earHest students, scientists, 
 philosophers and teachers. Thus they aided the cul- 
 tural advancement, not only of their own group, but of 
 the civilized world. The learned priests of ancient Egj-pt 
 were supported by the income from the land especially 
 set aside for that purpose. Both the mathematical science 
 and the astrological magic of the priests of Chaldea were 
 bequeathed to later European ci\'inzation. 
 
 The church is the social institution of the group con- 
 secrated to religious purposes. Primitive society is homo- 
 geneous and shows Httle tendency toward dif- T-h <* ch 
 ferentiation iuto separate institutions. One of asanin- 
 the earliest developments of group activities, 
 however, is found in the separation of a ruling class from 
 the masses. The evolution of the state has already been 
 traced. Another early class distinction is found in the 
 formation of a priestly class, who as we have seen de- 
 veloped from the men of supposed, supernatural power in 
 
360 American Social Problems 
 
 primitive society. The church, as an institution separate' 
 from the state, is rarely found in early society. Indeed, 
 the complete separation of church and state has been 
 accomplished only in modern times. In former days, 
 heretics were tried by the church courts and executed by 
 the secular authorities of the state. The city of Geneva, 
 under John Calvin, was a theocracy and maintained a 
 close union of church and state. The organization of the 
 church, like that of the state, is determined by the ideals 
 of the times — monarchical, aristocratic or democratic. 
 Despotism is wilHng to vest in some central authority 
 power over men's consciences and to enforce moral and 
 religious conformity. Democracies favor toleration and 
 the separation of church from state, as well as civil and 
 political liberty. 
 
 ReUgion has always been a powerful social force tend- 
 ing toward group soUdarity. Indeed, in many primitive 
 Effect on societies, it was the main bulwark of the social 
 group life. order, long before law and government were 
 established. Since men cling to the faith of the fathers, 
 religion is naturally a most conservative force. The 
 church, therefore, has been one of the most static of all 
 social institutions. A heretic in the Middle Ages was 
 regarded as antagonistic and dangerous to the social order. 
 Nonconformity to church teachings was a politcal offense 
 in many Protestant countries. One of the saddest pages 
 of history is the long story of the bloody persecutions 
 and religious wars waged by the Established Church against 
 those who disagreed with its teachings. Thus, men have 
 drawn the sword to enforce or defend their own interpre- 
 tation of the Gospel of Peace. The aim, however, was to 
 develop group solidarity in belief. 
 
Moral Progress 361 
 
 Evolution of Morality. — Religion is concerned with 
 man's relations to the Supreme Being, while morality 
 deals with the code of conduct governing the sodai 
 relations between men themselves. The origin ""s™^- 
 of this code of conduct stretches far back into the \-ista 
 of the past. Indeed, there may have been a time in the 
 history^ of primitive society when man was unmoral, that 
 is, neither moral nor immoral. His mentalit}" may not 
 have been sufficiently developed to have formulated 
 standards of conduct. In fact, some very unciA"ilized 
 tribes of to-day are not far above this level. Such is also 
 the condition of the yoimg child who has not yet formed 
 any conceptions of right and wrong. On the other hand, 
 lower animals sometimes appear to have very admirable 
 qualities, such as devotion and mother love, but these are 
 based largely upon mere biological iastinct. Indeed, the 
 instinctive basis of human nature must not be underesti- 
 mated even in the morality of civilized man. Evolution 
 has made the human reason a factor in guiding blind in- 
 stinct. Progress has been marked by a greater use of the 
 intellect in making ethical distinctions between right 
 and wrong. The beginnings of a crude morality resulted 
 from the necessities of group life. WTiere men Hved to- 
 gether there grew up certain customs, or methods of 
 action, prescribed by usage. ^Miatever, by experience 
 or coincidence, seemed harmful to the group was frowned 
 upon and became " taboo." Certain other actions, of 
 instinctive or chance origin, proved themselves by the 
 process of natural selection to be of value to group 
 svirvival. Frequently, however, irrational ideas based 
 upon mere superstition unconsciously became part of the 
 social tradition. 
 
362 American Social Problems 
 
 Standards of conduct vary among different peoples. 
 The mores of the group determine what is right and what 
 Group is wrong. Thus, cannibalism is a sacred rite in 
 
 standards. |-}^g moral code of certain savage tribes ; while 
 the sacrifice to the gods of youths and maidens was a reli- 
 gious duty among such an otherwise advanced people as 
 the Aztecs. Christian ethics commands " love your 
 enemies," but vengeance is the solemn duty of the heathen 
 savage. On the other hand, the moral cede of primitive 
 communistic societies would not tolerate our ethics of 
 individual property rights. Thus we see that morality 
 is a social, rather than an individual, valuation. From 
 this point of view, an individual should be called good or 
 bad only in the light of his social enviromnent. He is 
 considered the most moral who best lives up to the ethical 
 standards of his group — whatever they may be. Even 
 the greatest moral philosophers of antiquity, like Con- 
 fucius and Socrates, must be considered in the light of their 
 age and civilization. Individual morality is a greater or 
 less variation from the standards of the group. More- 
 over, another social characteristic of morality Hes in the 
 fact that there may be two separate standards of conduct, 
 — one applicable to members of the group and another 
 applicable to outsiders. Thus, the savage might indis- 
 criminately scalp those outside the group, but not his 
 fellow tribesmen. Again, the colonists of America often 
 regarded the Indian as an inferior creature who might be 
 robbed of his lands, but they were most scrupulous in their 
 ethical relations toward each other. 
 
 When primitive man develops beyond the stage of mere 
 physical pleasure, he enters upon a period of morahty 
 more restrictive in character. In early civilizations, cer- 
 
Moral Progress 363 
 
 tain prohibitions thus come to be placed upon man's 
 conduct, and obedience is secured through fear of punish- 
 ment. But a civilization founded upon mere Four stages 
 prohibition, like the " taboo " of the sa^•age, is of progress, 
 necessarily backward and imreasoning. It assmnes that 
 men are too ^^•icked or ignorant to act positively for the 
 attainment of definite objects. Primitive man was re- 
 strained from committing certain actions, inimical to 
 group interests, through fear of punishment or social 
 ostracism. In fact, our own recent and, perhaps, present 
 method of suppressing crime by intimidation is the natural 
 outgrowth of this theory of morality. The next stage of 
 moral development is an advance over that of mere pro- 
 hibition. \Vhen a certain social custom was seen to be 
 partly good and partly bad, some scheme of discrimina- 
 tion was deWsed by the growing intelligence. This power 
 of intellectual consideration showed that the group had 
 advanced in its attitude toward hmnan conduct. It may 
 well be illustrated by Roman civilization in which the 
 spirit of compromise was developed and handed down to 
 later generations. The problem was looked at from the 
 social point of view, and an attempt was made to arrive 
 at a course of conduct best suited to the general interest. 
 The third stage in the development of morality represents 
 a protest against this predominance of group interests. 
 The individual begins to weigh his own importance and to 
 set his interests against those of society. This \'iew is 
 well illustrated, to-day, by the attitude of the " conscien- 
 tious objector," who really represents a survival of the 
 older individuahstic attitude toward conduct. Although 
 well meaning, he is usually antagonistic to group interests. 
 He does not seem to realize that the world is entering 
 
364 American Social Problems 
 
 upon the threshold of a fourth stage of morality, — a 
 morality of the world order. This is the international 
 aspect of social morality. This morality is not only 
 positive, striving for the attainment of definite ideals, but 
 humanitarian, endeavoring to embrace within its opera- 
 tion all lands and peoples. 
 
 The great problem of moraHty, therefore, is that of 
 reconcihng the interests of the individual with those of 
 „ . society. The clash of selfish personal desires 
 
 Society -^ . . 
 
 and the With social mterests has been an agelong con- 
 individual. ^j^^. j^a,rly civilizations in their attempts to 
 develop group moraHty frequently followed irrational 
 folkways which, nevertheless, were] rigidly enforced by 
 law and reUgion. When primitive society was commimis- 
 tic, the conflict between individual and group interests 
 was not so keen. With the growth of social classes, how- 
 ever, the few have claimed the right to decide what was 
 best for the social interest. It thus happened that fre- 
 quently their own ideas and interests colored the social 
 fabric of human institutions. Against the formaHsm of 
 the dominant classes, reformers and prophets have arisen 
 to preach the falsity of current beliefs and practices. 
 Thus, Socrates taught a nobler code of ethics than that of 
 the Sophists, and the Founder of Christianity rebuked the 
 Pharisees who followed the letter rather than the spirit 
 of the law. Individuals, in advance of their age, have 
 suffered martyrdom for insisting upon the right to follow 
 the dictates of their own consciences when these came 
 into conflict with the accepted ideas of society. Subse- 
 quent history discloses whether or not they have succeeded 
 in their attempt to bring about a readjustment of the 
 group morality to a higher level. However, those who 
 
Moral Progress 365 
 
 refuse to conform to the current morality may not only 
 be those who rise above it, but also those who fall below 
 it. Each age has not only its reformers but those who 
 are egoistic, or even vicious enough, to insist upon the 
 acceptance of their own point of view, irrespective of 
 society's mandates. In the treatment of nonconformists, 
 society must choose between a policy of toleration and one 
 of repression. An inflexible civilization deals out the same 
 fate, alike, to the misguided ideaUst and to the criminal; 
 for the offense in both cases is one of nonconformity. A 
 higher ci^•ilization strives to work out the problem of how 
 an individual may obey the moral code of the group and 
 at the same time follow the dictates of his conscience. In 
 this manner, the group ethics becomes less rigid and more 
 elastic. A constant moral readjustment must go on in 
 a progressive society, the ideals of which are constantly 
 advancing. 
 
 The origin of altruism may be traced to the biological 
 fact of parenthood, and to the increasing length of the 
 period of infancy. Its value in group siirvival TherSieof 
 has been discussed in an earHer chapter. Co- ^t""sm. 
 operation, as well as conflict, has been a favorable element 
 in the process of natural selection at work in human socie- 
 ties. The importance of this element has been ideally 
 expressed in the thought that " the meek shall inherit 
 the earth." But it is, nevertheless, true that man has had 
 to struggle not only against his physical environment but 
 also against his fellow men. Strong instincts of self-as- 
 sertion still remain in the hiunan breast. Along with the 
 struggle for his own existence, however, went man's struggle 
 for the lives of his fellows. Altruism and self-interest have 
 clashed at times, but the former has steadily increased in 
 
366 American Social Problems 
 
 importance. It has become more purposive in modern 
 society, because it is directed by the growing human in- 
 telligence. Thus, slavery has disappeared in civilized 
 lands. Modern altruism is content not merely with 
 temporary alleviation of distress, but it seeks to banish 
 the very causes of human misery. Again, the social 
 circle within which altruism operates has constantly 
 widened. Thus, sympathy is felt not only toward members 
 of the family and clan, but toward fellow tribesmen and, 
 finally, toward all members of the nation. Indeed, sym- 
 pathy to-day, like culture and commerce, is international 
 in its manifestations. Christianity is evolving a new world 
 order. Generous help is extended to distressed Belgians 
 and Armenians, as well as to those within our own national 
 boundaries. Patriotism or love of country is an intensely 
 national aspect of altruism and cooperation. The fires 
 of war may bring to light the more primitive instincts 
 of men and nations, but from the ashes, phoenix-like, will 
 rise a humanitarianism greater than the world has ever 
 before experienced. 
 
 Moral Adjustment. — If civilization is not to remain 
 static, moral ideas must become more rational with every 
 The aim of period of historical evolution. Constant read- 
 adjustment, justments are therefore necessary if higher levels 
 of morality are to be attained. Viewed in this Kght, the 
 moral systems of the past represented the attempts of 
 their founders to bring the group morality up to the stand- 
 ard of the new social ideals. The process of adjustment 
 was sometimes evolutionary and sometimes revolutionary. 
 At the present time, through the development of Chris- 
 tian ideals, society is attempting to evolve a positive 
 system of world morality. Repression must give 
 
Moral Progress 367 
 
 way to expression. The primitive " taboo " of early 
 societ}- may be well enough for ignorant savagery, but it 
 is essentially antagonistic to the new world order. The 
 moralit}" of freedom should supersede that of compulsion 
 without danger to the social order. This development 
 is rendered difficult, however, by the growing complexity 
 of society and by the multiplicity of human relationships. 
 The individual must exercise an intelligent discrimination 
 against those acts harmful to the social weKare. He must 
 seek not merely to avoid a penalty, but rather to attain 
 the happiness which Hes in social well-being. This ideal 
 is becoming the new basis of world morality. Professor 
 Patten has shown that, not the avoidance of pain, but 
 the attainment of pleasure is the need of modem society. 
 Human nature is not so depraved that men wiU seek the 
 evil rather than the good. It is the duty of society, there- 
 fore, to eliminate as far as possible social and economic 
 ills in order that man may attain highest happiness. This 
 objective method may be known as the moralization of 
 mans enviroirment. From the subjective side, the highest 
 social ideals should be impressed upon the heart and mind 
 of the growing individual. 
 
 Thus, a social morahty of an ever-widening scope is the 
 great need of the present age. In earUer times it was 
 thought proper for the individual to flee from sodai 
 the wickedness of the world in order to save his "oraiity- 
 own soul. In monastic isolation, apart from his feUows, 
 the ascetic of the ^Middle Ages sought to work out his 
 own salvation. In the twentieth century, however, such 
 conduct would be regarded as purely negative in the 
 social good accomplished. The change of ideal is expressed 
 in the poetic " Vision of Sir Launfal " who, in a burst 
 
368 American Social Problems 
 
 of sympathetic altruism, saw at last the Holy Grail. So- 
 cial morality does not underestimate individual goodness. 
 Virtue is personal and a society can be only as moral as 
 the individuals composing it. The modern view of moral- 
 ity does, however, evaluate the goodness or badness of 
 an act by its social, rather than by its individual, con- 
 sequences. Thus, a crime against society is of deeper 
 significance than an individual vice ; although society does 
 not, for a single instant, condone the act of vice. When 
 men lived in comparative isolation, a social morality was 
 not so imperative. The modern age, however, is as social 
 as our civilization is cosmopolitan. Books and news- 
 papers disseminate all kinds of knowledge, while foreign 
 commerce reaches to all parts of the globe. Although 
 division of labor in modern industrial society makes in- 
 dividuals mutually dependent upon each other, this inter- 
 dependence is remote and indirect. We have, for example, 
 little direct communication with those who manufacture 
 our foods, build our houses and make our laws. Who 
 indeed, to-day, is our neighbor? He is invisible but 
 effective. Hence the need of a wider and more far-reach- 
 ing social morality. Men may hesitate to-day to rob 
 orphans and widows, but they unblushingly sell goods of 
 an inferior quality to the general public. The long-range 
 crimes of the present century make necessary, therefore, 
 a similar long-range morality. In conclusion, let us state 
 that social morality insists that man is his brother's keeper 
 and interprets in the widest possible sense the term 
 " brother." 
 
 The Great Teacher, in defining the greatest law, added 
 the corollary " Love thy neighbor as thyself." We are 
 at present still far removed from this exalted ideal of 
 
Moral Progress 369 
 
 humanitarianism ; nor have we yet attained the new 
 world order. The church, however, has always been an 
 altruistic institution. Let us not forget that _ ^ . 
 
 . '^ The church 
 
 the medieval monks, whose asceticism we have and social 
 mentioned, performed pioneer social work. By "^°™- 
 practical example, they taught the dignity of manual labor 
 as well as the art of philanthropy. Monasteries were 
 retreats for the sick of body as well as for the sick of heart. 
 Here were received the weary traveler, the orphan and the 
 pauper. With the Renaissance and the breaking up of 
 the medieval system, the spirit of individualism wrought 
 changes in religious ideals. At present, too, it would seem 
 that the church is going through another period of read- 
 justment, for character rather than creed is being em- 
 phasized. Sectarianism declines with the rise of the ideal 
 of social service. Thus, the twentieth century will witness 
 the church fulfilling the mission of its Founder, spreading 
 its altruistic spirit throughout society, and cementing 
 once more the broken fabric of ciAdhzation. To accom- 
 plish this end, it will become the stanch ally of the family, 
 the school and the state in their attack upon the obstacles 
 that He in the path of human progress. Such an alliance 
 will be mutually helpful and the church itself will instill 
 into the work of regeneration the vital spirit of hope and 
 human sympathy. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. Do you think the belief of the savage in spirits is natural? 
 
 2. What was the purpose of magic ? Illustrate. 
 
 3. Explain animism and the factors in its development. 
 
 4. Explain the existence of ancestor worship among many peoples. 
 
 5. What effect has the expansion of the group upon rehgion? 
 
370 American Social Problems 
 
 6. What does polytheism seek to explain ? Illustrate from Greek 
 history and mythology. 
 
 7. Contrast the religious conceptions of backward and advanced 
 civilizations. 
 
 8. Explain the influence upon religion of the physical and social 
 environment. 
 
 9. Explain the authority of the medicine man. 
 
 10. Discuss the historical importance and social position of the 
 priests of ancient Egypt and Babylon. 
 
 11. Discuss the historical connection between church and state. 
 
 12. How was religion a factor in favor of group solidarity? 
 
 13. Trace the social origins and evolution of morality. 
 
 14. What is the effect of the mores of the group upon the conduct 
 of the individual ? 
 
 15. Explain four stages in moral progress. 
 
 16. Discuss two different classes of individual nonconformists to 
 the current morality approved by the group. 
 
 17. What policies toward them may society foUow? 
 
 18. In what way does modern altruism differ from the earlier 
 altruism ? 
 
 19. Why does progress necessitate a constant moral readjust- 
 ment? 
 
 20. Why is a social morality especially necessary for the present 
 age? 
 
 21. How do you think that it can best be taught? 
 
 22. Discuss the past philanthropic work of the church. 
 
 23. How do you explain the present readjustment of the church? 
 
 24. What is the church now doing for social welfare? 
 
 25. What is your church doing? What else can it do ? 
 
 26. How may the church aid in teaching a social morality ? 
 
 TOPICS FOR SPECIAL REPORT 
 
 1. The medicine man among the American Indians. 
 
 2. The ancestor worship of the Romans and Chinese. 
 
 3. The social ethics of some great religious teachers (e.g. Buddha 
 and Confucius). 
 
 4. The heretic of the Middle Ages. 
 
Moral Progress 371 
 
 5. The separation of church and state (e.g. in France, England and 
 Italy). 
 
 6. The church as a factor in social progress. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Ross, E. A. "Sin and Society." 
 
 Ross, E. A. "Social Control."' 
 
 Patten, S. N. "New Basis of Civilization." 
 
 Patten, S. N. "The Social Basis of Religion." 
 
 Thompson, R. E. "Divine Order of Human Society." 
 
 Stelzle, C. "American Social and ReUgious Conditions." Chapter 
 
 XI. 
 Spencer, H. "Principles of Sociology." 
 Dealey, J. Q. "Sociology." Chapter VII. 
 Hayes, E. C. "Introduction to a Study of Sociology." Morahty 
 
 — pp. 541 to 550; Religion — Chapter XXX. 
 Blackmar, F. W., and Gillin. "Outhnes of Sociology." Chapters 
 
 XI, XII, XIII. 
 Wright, C. D. "A Practical Sociology." The Church, pp. 72-76. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Acxressibility, 47. 
 
 Acddents, 178 et scq. 
 
 Acquired characteristics, 19 el seq. 
 
 Adjustment : 
 
 and divorce, 330. 
 
 methods of, 188 et seq. 
 
 moral, 366 et seq. 
 
 problem of economic, 184 et seq. 
 African environment, 126. 
 Agriculture : 
 
 development of, 30. 
 
 education in, 345. 
 Alcohol : 
 
 and crime, 298. 
 
 and efficiency, 295, 296. 
 
 and heredity, 299, 300. 
 
 and poverty, 213, 297. 
 
 and pubhc health, 299. 
 
 consumption of, 292. 293. 
 
 regulation of traffic, 302 et seq. 
 
 size of industry, 293, 294. 
 
 social cost of, 301. 
 
 source of revenue, 295. 
 Almshouse: 
 
 characteristics, 225. 
 
 reform, 225 et seq. 
 American Federation of Labor, 190. 
 American people, 94 et seq. 
 
 see also Immigration. 
 American race problems, see Xegro 
 
 Tndian 
 
 Ancestor worship, 356. 
 
 Animism, 355. 
 
 -Anti-Saloon League, 292. 
 
 "Ascent of Man," so. 
 
 Asiatic immigration, iiy et seg. 
 
 Association: 
 
 advantages, 26, 33. 
 
 development of, 26. 
 
 disadvantages, 34. 
 Auburn prison system, 264. 
 
 B 
 
 Background of negro, 126. 
 Beggars, 277. 278. 
 
 see also Charity and Poverty- 
 Bertillon s>-3tem. 264. 
 ■Black Belt," 130. 
 Binet tests, 2S2- 
 
 Biological evolution, 12 et seq., 24, 
 Birth rates, S7. SS. 
 Blindness: 
 
 extent and causes, 272. 
 
 treatment of, 273. 274. 
 Breeders' exjjeriments, r6. 
 
 Capital, rSg. 
 
 Capital punishment, 267. 
 
 CavaUer immigration, 96. 
 
 Charity: 
 
 agencies for, 227 c/ seq. 
 
 almshouse, 224. 
 
 dependent children, 234. ■' 
 
 friendly \-isitors, 233. 
 
 history of, 218 et seq. 
 
 organization societies, 230. 
 
 outdoor reUef, 227 c/ seq. 
 
 principles of, 232. 
 Child labor: 
 
 causes and remedies, 170. 
 
 extent in U. S.. 169. 
 
 history- in England, 165. 
 
 l^islation, 165. 172. 
 
 social effects, 171. 
 Children: 
 
 delinquent, 268. 
 
 dependent, 234. 
 Church: 
 
 and charity, 227. 
 
 and divorce, 320, 3 28. 
 
 and social reform, 369, 227 rf seq. 
 
 development of institution, 359 et seq- 
 
 see Religion and Morality. 
 
 373 
 
374 
 
 Index 
 
 City: 
 
 and crime, 153, 244. 
 
 and divorce, 325. 
 
 early conditions, 143. 
 
 future of, 1S4. 
 
 growtli in United States, 144. 
 
 health of, 152. 
 
 housing conditions, 149 el seg. 
 
 in past history, 141 ct seq. 
 
 planning, 147. 
 
 social conditions, 153. 
 City-state, 72. 
 Clan, 71. 
 
 Climatic influences, 50, 51. 
 Clothing, 31. 
 Colonists : 
 
 Middle Atlantic, gg. 
 
 New England, 97 ei seq. 
 
 Southern, 96. 
 Commercial education, 344, 345. 
 Committee of Fifty, 296 et seq. 
 Common law, 75, 255. 
 Compurgation, 253. 
 Congestion : 
 
 housing conditions, 149. 
 
 remedies, 151. 
 
 results of, ijo. 
 Congress on Uniform Divorce Laws, 
 
 327 et seq. 
 Conservation : 
 
 human, 53. 
 
 industrial, 52. 
 
 physical, 52. 
 Consumers' League, 170. 
 Consumption of liquors, 292 et seq. 
 Continuation schools, 343. 
 Contract theory ; 
 
 of marriage, 314. 
 
 of the state, 68. 
 Cooperation, 20, 26. 
 Coroner, 255. 
 Cosmic evolution, 24. 
 Cost : 
 
 of crime, 242. 
 
 of drink, 294, 301. 
 
 of hving, 206, 207. 
 
 of living and divorce, 324. 
 Country Hfe, 154 ct seq. 
 County jails, 261, 
 Court : 
 
 defects in present system, 256, 237. 
 
 development of, 252 el seq. 
 
 Court — Continued : 
 
 juvenile, 268. 
 
 legal machinery of, 255. 
 
 see Jury. 
 Crime: 
 
 alleged increase, 242. 
 
 and the law, 239. 
 
 causes of, 243 et seq. 
 
 classes of, 247, 248. 
 
 cost of, 242. 
 
 extent of, 241. 
 
 legal procedure, 252 f/ seq. 
 
 punishment of, 258 et seq. 
 Crippled, 277. 
 Crowd characteristics, 40. 
 
 Dangerous trades, 176 el seq. 
 Darwin, Charles, 13. 
 Deaf and dumb ; 
 
 extent and causes, 275. 
 
 treatment, 276, 277. 
 Death rates, 90. 
 Defectives : 
 
 bhnd, 272 el seq. 
 
 crippled, 277, 278. 
 
 deaf and dumb, 27s et seq. 
 
 epileptics, 281. 
 
 feeble-minded, 281 et seq. 
 
 insane, 278 c/ seq. 
 Degeneracy and poverty, 212. 
 DeUnquents, see Crime. 
 Dependency, see Poverty. 
 "Descent of Man," 13. 
 Desertion, 214, 320, 321. 
 Distribution of : 
 
 divorce, 319. 
 
 immigration, 112. 
 
 negro, 130. 
 
 population, 85. 
 
 urban population, 144. 
 
 wealth, 194 et seq. 
 District attorney, 256. 
 Divine right theory," oS. 
 Divorce : 
 
 causes of increase, s-- et seq. 
 
 comparison with Europe, 31 8. 
 
 distribution, 319, 320. 
 
 history of, 311 et seq. 
 
 increase in United States, 316, 317. 
 
 legal grounds for, 321. 
 
Index 
 
 375 
 
 Divoroe — Omtiinied : 
 
 National Congress on, 327 et seq. 
 probkm of adjustment, 330. 
 religious bodies, 328, 320. 
 remedies, 328. 
 
 Domestication ol aniinalt;, 30. 
 
 Drink problon, see AlcoboL 
 Drummond, Heniy, 20. 
 Dnmkenness, see AlcohoL 
 Dutch in America, 99. 
 
 Economic : 
 
 adjustment, 184 et seq. 
 
 aspBA of education, 342 et seq. 
 
 aspect of liquor problem, 2^5 et seq. 
 
 causes of crime, 243- 
 
 causes of povert}% 206 et seq. 
 
 causes of social ills, 168 et seq. 
 
 changes and divorce, 322 et seq. 
 
 development of society, 15S rf seq. 
 
 enects of environment, 46 et seq. 
 
 effects of immigration, 113, 114. 
 
 problon of negio, 134. 
 Education : 
 
 agricultma], 345. 
 
 and dime, 245. 
 
 and divorce, 326. 
 
 and poverty. 211. 
 
 and social progress, 349, 350. 
 
 commercial, 344, 345. 
 
 de\'eiopment of school s\-~teins- 5 
 et seq. 
 
 i-in^ Sfiddle Ages, 335. 336. 
 
 during Renaissance, 336. 
 
 ind"jstrial 342 et seq. 
 
 institutions of. 347, 34S. 
 
 of Greeks and Romans, 335. 
 
 of negro, 135, 136- 
 
 of iKimitive peoples, 534. 
 
 sdentiiic movement in, 340. 341. 
 
 50 r: : ! peal tendency, 342 . 
 
 vocational training, 342 et seq. 
 Effidencj- and alcohol, 29s, 296. 
 Elberfeld system, 222. 
 Embryo child, 15- 
 Employeis' Liability Act, 180. 
 Endogamy, 62. 
 Environment : 
 
 and dime, 243. 
 
 and heredity, 44. 
 
 and natural selection, 46. 
 
 Environmoit — Cmtiiuud : 
 
 and poverty, 205 et seq. 
 
 and religion, 4q, 357. 
 
 climatic influences, 50. 51. 
 
 effects of phy^iogtaphy. 46 et seq. 
 
 importance of, 45. 
 
 pli\~acal and social, 45. 
 Einleptics, 2S1. 
 Evolution : 
 
 biological, 12 et seq., 24- 
 
 brief statement, 13. 
 
 discover^', 13. 
 
 mental, 25. 
 
 method of, 17. 
 
 of worlds, 24- 
 
 pnMfe, 14. 
 
 social, 26. 
 
 mm'ersal, 23. 
 Esogamy, 62. 
 
 Factory laws, 165, 172. 
 Factory system, 163, 322. 
 Family: 
 
 and alcohol, 298, 299. 
 
 devek>iHnent, 39 et seq. 
 
 end(^amy and exogamy, 62. 
 
 forms of, 60 et seq. 
 I functions. 58, 59- 
 1 importance, 57. 
 
 life and dime, 244. 
 I maternal and paternal, 60, 61. 
 I monogamy, 64. 
 
 polyandry, 63. 
 
 polj'gamy, 62 et seq. 
 
 polyg3"ny, 63. 
 Fashion. 38. 
 Feeble-minded: 
 
 elates of, 2S2. 
 
 danger to society, 284. 
 
 extent of, 2S1. 282. 
 
 hereditary character, 283. 
 
 need of institutions, 285. 
 Felony, 247. 
 Feuds, 252. 
 Folkways : 
 
 examples, 34. 35. 
 
 origin, net seq. 
 
 survivals, 35. 
 Fossil remains, 15, 16. 
 Freedmen's Bureau, 131. 
 
376 
 
 Index 
 
 French Huguenots, loo. 
 Friendly visiting, 233. 
 
 Gens, 71. 
 
 Geological evolution, 24. 
 
 Geological proofs of evolution, 15. 
 
 George, Henry, 196. 
 
 German immigration, 103, gp. 
 
 Ghost theory, 356. 
 
 Gild,, 161. 
 
 Gothenburg system, 305. 
 
 Government : 
 
 and environment, 48. 
 
 defects in and poverty, 210, 211. 
 
 defects in and crime, 245. 
 
 see State. 
 Greek education, 335. 
 Group : 
 
 and reUgion, 356 el seq. 
 
 conformity to, 33 et seq. 
 
 life in, 3, 26. 
 
 pohtical development, 67. 
 
 H 
 
 Health : 
 
 and alcohol, 299. 
 
 falhng death rate, 90, gi. 
 
 of city, 152. 
 Heredity : 
 
 and alcohol, 299, 300. 
 
 and crime, 246, ' 
 
 and environment, 44. 
 
 and feeble-mindedness, 283. 
 
 and insanity, 279. 
 
 physical and social, 45 . 
 
 social, 36, 45. 
 Home and school movement, 347. 
 Housing conditions, 149. 
 Huguenots, 100. 
 
 I 
 
 Idiots, 282. 
 Illiteracy, iis, 116. 
 Imbeciles, 283. 
 Imitation, 38. 
 Immigration : 
 
 and crime, 116. 
 
 and national growth, 95, loi. 
 
 and poverty, 116. 
 
 Asiatic, 117. 
 
 Immigration — Continued : 
 
 causes of early, 102. 
 
 distribution of, n2. 
 
 early colonists, 96. 
 
 effects of, 113. 
 
 French Huguenots, 100. 
 
 Germans, 103, 99. 
 
 Irish, 103, 
 
 ItaUans, 109. 
 
 other groups, in. 
 
 recent changes, 107. 
 
 restrictions upon, 119. 
 
 Russian Jews, no. 
 
 Scandinavians, 104. 
 
 Scotch-Irish, 100. 
 
 Slavs, no. 
 
 waves of, 102. 
 Imprisonment : 
 
 see Prisons. 
 
 substitutes for, 266, 267. 
 Income tax, 192. 
 Increase of : 
 
 crime, 242. 
 
 divorce, 316 e/ seq. 
 
 insanity, 278. 
 
 population, 80, 83, 84. 
 Indeterminate sentence, 263. 
 Indian : 
 
 early treatment, 137. 
 
 present condition, 138. 
 Individual and society, 364. 
 IndividuaUsm and divorce, 325. 
 Indolence and poverty, 215. 
 Industrial : 
 
 accidents, 178. 
 
 education, 342 et seq. 
 
 efi&ciency and alcohol, 295, 296. 
 
 maladjustment, 184 el seq. 
 
 problem of negro, 134, I35- 
 
 problems of society, 168 et seq. 
 
 Revolution, 162 el seq. 
 
 Workers of the World, igo. 
 Industrial society : 
 as an institution, 158. 
 before machinery, 161. 
 characteristics of, 160. 
 stages of development. 159. 
 Industrialism and divorce, 322. 
 Industry : 
 
 liquor, 293 el seq. 
 
 negro in, 134, 135. 
 
 social effects of, 1 68 el seq. 
 
Index 
 
 •<// 
 
 Indasby — Comlimtd: 
 
 unempioymeiit, :^c7 ti seq. 
 
 women in, 175 rf scq. 
 Inhoited traits. 19, so. 
 
 see Hereditj-- 
 Initiation ceremoni^ 334. 
 Insanity: 
 
 causes, 279. 
 
 ertent, 27S. 
 
 treatment, ,;So. 
 Instincts, 25, 26. 
 Institutions: 
 
 for defectives, see particular group 
 desired. 
 
 of education; 347. 54S. 33o et «9- 
 
 penal, -ci et scq. 
 
 sodal, 56. 57- 
 Insuiance, social, iSo rf sfq. 
 Intemperance, see Alcohol. 
 Interstate Commerce Commission. 191. 
 In\'«ntion, ;g. 
 
 Invention of machineiy, 16,: el stq. 
 Isolation, 4S. 
 I talian immigration, 109. 
 
 Jails: 
 
 county, ;6i, 
 
 see Piisons. 
 Jukes, ::i2. 
 Jury: 
 
 defects in, ,:56. 
 
 origin, 254. 
 
 procedure, 255, 
 Juvenile court, 268. 
 
 Kallikak family, 212. 2S3. 
 King's court, 253. 
 King's peace, 253- 
 
 l,abor oiganizations, 1S9, 190. 
 Lai^uage, devdt^pment <tf, 3 1. 
 Law: 
 
 and crime, 239. 
 
 common. 255. 
 
 flevdcqiment of, 75, 255. 
 
 <rf divorce, 321. 
 
 <rfmaniase, 315. ' 
 
 Legislation : 
 
 cbild labor, 165, 172. 
 
 dangeious trad^ i-;6 el seq. 
 
 divorce, 321. 327. 
 
 immigiation, iiget seq. 
 
 liquor traffic 302 el se,;. 
 
 women in industry, 173, 175. 
 License systan, 304. 
 Liquor problem, see .\lcohol, 
 Lombioso, 249. 
 
 M 
 Magic, 354. 
 
 Maladjustment, 1S4 el seq. 
 Malthus, Thomas, Si. 
 Manorial s>"stem, 161. 
 Marriage: 
 
 among earh,- peoples, 311. 
 
 dvil contract theoij", 314- 
 
 laws in United f tjtes, 315. 
 
 of Romans, 312- 
 
 sacramental theory, 313. 
 
 see Divorce and Familj-. 
 Maternal fami^~, 60, 61. 
 Medical charities, 22S. 
 I Medicine men, 35S. 
 I Medie\-al, see Middle Ages. 
 ', Mental e\-olution, 25. 
 Method of e\T)lution, 1: et seq. 
 Middle .\ges : 
 
 charity, 219. 
 
 education, 335. 336. 
 
 industry, 2Ci el seq. 
 
 marriage, 313. 
 
 population. So. 
 
 p iiniiJiTTipnf^i^ 259. 
 
 towns, 143. 
 
 trials, 232. 
 Middle colonies, 99. 
 ilinimiun standards, 206, 207. 
 Minimum wage laws, 175. 
 Misdemeanor, 247. 
 Mob mind, 39 el scq. 
 Monogamy, 64. 
 Monopofies, 1S9. 
 Morality : 
 
 and the indindual. 364. 
 
 group stajidards, 362. 
 
 problon of adjustment, 366 et seq. 
 
 ii5le of altruism, 365. 
 
 social origins, 361. 
 
 stages of pn^re^ 363. 
 
378 
 
 Index 
 
 Morons, 282. 
 Mountains, effects of, 48. 
 Municipal problems, see City. 
 Mutations, 16. 
 
 N 
 
 Nation, see State. 
 National expansion, loi. 
 Natural selection, 18, 46. 
 Nature : 
 
 extravagance of, 17. 
 
 influence of, 45 ct seq. 
 
 see Environment. 
 Neanderthal man, 27. 
 Nebular hypothesis, 24. 
 Negro : 
 
 African environment, 126. 
 
 and the Reconstruction, 130, 131. 
 
 characteristics, 128. 
 
 crime and pauperism, 133. 
 
 distribution of, 130. 
 
 education of, 135, 136. 
 
 increase of, 129. 
 
 industrial problem, 134. 
 
 political problem, 131. 
 
 slave Ufe, 127. 
 
 slave trade, 126. 
 
 social problem, 132. 
 New England Colonies, 97 et seq. 
 
 O 
 
 Occupation : 
 
 and environment, 46. 
 
 of risk, 176 et seq. 
 
 of women, 173 el seq. 
 Old age, 214. 
 Ordeal, 252. 
 
 Organized charity, 230, 218 et seq. 
 Origin : 
 
 of race, 125. 
 
 of species, 13. 
 Origins, social, 28 et seq. 
 
 Padrone system, iii. 
 Parole, 266. 
 
 Paternal family, 61, 62. 
 Patriarchal family. 61, 62. 
 
 Patten, S. N., 187; 367. 
 Pauperism : 
 
 definition, 201. 
 
 extent, 203. 
 
 see Poverty. 
 Penal colonies, 267. 
 Penal system, see Prisons. 
 Penitentiaries, see Prisons. 
 Pennsylvania prison system, 263. 
 Philanthropy, see Charity. 
 Physical environment : 
 
 see Environment. 
 Physiography, effects of, 46 el seq. 
 Polyandry, 62. 
 Polygamy, 62 et seq. 
 Polygyny, 63. 
 Poor, see Poverty. 
 Population : 
 
 distribution in United States, 85. 
 
 falling birth rate, 88. 
 
 falling death rate, go. 
 
 increase in United States, 84. 
 
 in foreign countries, 83. 
 
 laws of, 81. 
 
 modern increase, 80. 
 Poverty : 
 
 almshouse, 224. 
 
 and alcohol, 213, 297. 
 
 and immigration, 116. 
 
 and negro, 133. 
 
 causes of, 205 et seq. 
 
 compared with pauperism, 201. 
 
 definition, 201. 
 
 extent of, 202 el seq. 
 
 history of charity, 218 el seq. 
 
 outdoor relief, 227 et seq. 
 
 point of view, 204. 
 Prehistoric man, 27, 28. 
 Priesthood, 358. 
 Primitive man, 27, 28. 
 Prison system : 
 
 administration, 262, 263. 
 
 county jails, 2bi. 
 
 deUnquent children, 26S. 
 
 labor of convicts, 264. 
 
 mass treatment, 261. 
 
 reforms advocated, 263 et seq. 
 
 special institutions, 262. 
 Probation officers, 268. 
 Profit sharing, 195. 
 Progress : 
 
 and divorce, 325 et seq. 
 
Index 
 
 379 
 
 Progress — Continued : 
 and education, 348 ci scq. 
 moral. ^153 et seq., 363. 
 
 Prohibition, 30;, jSq cI se<i. 
 
 Proofs of evolution, 14 d seq. 
 
 Property rights, 75, 
 
 Public health, 151. 
 
 Public health and alcohol, 299. 
 
 Public ownership. 107. 
 
 Punishment of crime, 258 ei seq. 
 
 Puritans, 07. 9S. 
 
 Race problems, 124 et seg. 
 Regiilation of liquor traffic, 31^ c/ seq. 
 Religion : 
 
 ancestor worship, 356. 
 
 and group life, 350 el seq., 360. 
 
 jinimi^m 355. 
 
 belief in spirits, 333, 354. 
 
 higher development, 330, 357. 
 
 influence of enx-ironment, 49, 357. 
 
 institution of church, 359. 
 
 magic, 354. 
 
 of primiti\-e peoples, 353 et seq. 
 
 pri^thood, 35S. 359. 
 
 see Moralitj- also. 
 Renaissance, ;. 3^5, 336, 340. 
 Roman: 
 
 education. 335. 
 
 family Ufe, 31:;. 313. 
 
 Sacramental theon- of marriage, 313. 
 "Sifetj- First" movement, 17S. 
 Saloon : 
 
 present features, 306. 307 . 
 
 restrictions, 307. 
 
 substitutes, 307. 30S. 
 
 see -\lcohol also. 
 Scandinanan inmiigia.tion, 104. 
 Schools: 
 
 agricultural, 345. 
 
 as sodal centers, 347 
 
 conmiercial. 344. 
 
 continuation, 343. 
 
 de\-elopment in Europe, 337. 
 
 Schools — Conliiiued: 
 
 development in United States, 338. 
 
 reform, ::oS, 202. 
 
 vocational, 342 et scq. 
 
 wider activities of, 346. 
 
 see Education. 
 Scientific movement, 340 et seq. 
 Scotch-Irish, 100. 
 Settlement houses, 233. 
 Sheriff, 255. 
 
 Sherman Anti-Trust Law, 191. 
 Sin, 24S. 
 Single tax, 196. 
 Slaven" : 
 
 in America, 127. 12S. 
 
 institution of, 75. 
 Slave trade, 120. 
 Slums, 149. 
 Social: 
 
 actiNnties of school, 346. 
 
 conditions of city. 153. 
 
 contract theor>-, oS. 
 
 control, 40, 41. 
 
 cost of crime, 242. 
 
 cost of drink, 301. 
 
 debtor classes, 2S5 et seq. 
 
 effects of immigrarion, 114. 
 
 effects of industry, loS ei seq. 
 
 environment, 36, 45. 
 
 en\"ironment and crime, 244. 
 
 environment and poverty. 20Q, 210. 
 
 evolution. 20. 
 
 forces, 34. 
 
 heredit>', 36, 45. 
 
 institutions, 56. 57. 
 
 insurance, iSo. 
 
 life in colonies, 07 et seg. 
 
 moralit}', 361 et seq. 
 
 origins, 2S et seq. 
 
 problem of negro. 132, 133. 
 
 progress and divorce, 325 et seq. 
 
 progress and economic adjustment. 1S5 
 
 progress and education, 34S et seq. 
 
 progress and family. 50. 
 
 progress in moraliti.". 363. 
 
 progress, methods of, 349, 350. 
 
 reform and church, 369. 
 
 surplus, 1S7. iSS. 
 Socialism, 197. 
 Societ>-: 
 
 and iodividual, 364. 
 
 for organizing charity, 230. 
 
38o 
 
 Index 
 
 Society — Continued : 
 
 raeaming of, 6 ei seq. 
 
 study of, 4 et seq. 
 Socialization : 
 
 ideal of, 3. 
 
 of wealth, ig2 et seq. 
 Sociological tendency in education, 342 
 
 et seq. 
 Southern colonies, 96. 
 Spencer, Herbert, 23 et seq., 340, 356. 
 Spirits, 353 et seq. 
 Standards : 
 
 moral, 362. 
 
 of living, 206, 207. 
 
 of living and divorce, 324. 
 State : 
 
 allied institutions, 73 et seq. 
 
 definition, 67. 
 
 development of, 70 et seq. 
 
 functions, 69 et seq. 
 
 insurance, 181. 
 
 origin, 68. 
 Static forces and stages, 34. 
 Struggle for existence, 17. 
 Substitutes for imprisonment, 266, 267. 
 Substitutes for saloon, 307, 308. 
 Suggestion, 39. 
 Sweat shop, 174. 
 Swedes : 
 
 immigration, 104. 
 
 in colonies, 99. 
 
 Tarde, Gabriel, 38. 
 Taxation, 191 et seq. 
 Temperance movements, 291, 292. 
 Temperature : 
 
 and crime, 243. 
 
 effects of, so. 
 Tenements : 
 
 evils of, 149. 
 
 remedies, 151. 
 Tradition, 33 et seq. 
 Transmissible traits, 19, 20. 
 Transportation of convicts, 267. 
 Treatment of prisoners, 251 et seq. 
 Trials, 252 ct seq. 
 Tribal religion, 356, 357. 
 Tribe, 72. 
 Trust problem, 189. 
 
 U 
 
 Unemployment, 207, 208. 
 Universal evolution, 23 et seq. 
 United States : 
 
 child labor in, 169. 
 
 consumption of Hquor, 292, 293. 
 
 cost of crime, 242. 
 
 defectives, 271 et seq. 
 
 development of schools, 338, 339- 
 
 distribution of divorce, 319 et seq. 
 
 distribution of immigration, 112. 
 
 distribution of population, 85. 
 
 distribution of wealth, 194. 
 
 educational changes, 341 et seq. 
 
 extent of crime, 241. 
 
 extent of poverty, 202. 
 
 foreign born, 112, 113. 
 
 grounds for divorce, 321. 
 
 immigration to, 95. 
 
 increase of crime, 242. 
 
 increase of divorce, 322 et seq. 
 
 increase of population, 84. 
 
 industrial accidents, 178. 
 
 marriage laws, 315. 
 
 national expansion, loi. 
 
 negroes in, 129 et seq. 
 
 population increase, 84. 
 
 poverty, 202 et seq. 
 
 prison system, 261 et seq. 
 
 unemployment, 207, 208. 
 
 urban conditions, 143 et seq. 
 
 urban population, 144. 
 
 Variation, 18. 
 
 Vice, 248. 
 
 Vital statistics, 87 et seq. 
 
 Vocational education, 342 et seq. 
 
 W 
 
 Wager of battle, 2S3. 
 Wages : 
 
 and standards, 206, 207. 
 
 of women, 174, 175. 
 Walker's theory, 93. 
 War, 73 cl seq. 
 Warfare, private, 252. 
 
Index 
 
 381 
 
 Washington, Booker T., 135. 
 Wealth, distribution of, 194 et seq. 
 Weather influences, 51, 243. 
 Woman's movement, 326. 
 Women : 
 
 in industry, 173 et seq. 
 
 in industry and divorce, 323, 324. 
 
 Women — Continued : 
 
 low wages of, 174, 175. 
 
 new occupations of, 175, 176. 
 Women's Christian Temperance Union, 
 
 292. 
 Workmen's Compensation Act, 180. 
 World evolution, 24. 
 
 Printed in the United States of America. 
 
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