CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 
 
 3 1924 096 224 872 
 
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WSk 
 
 Alacown (J.), F.L.S., Manitoba and the 
 REAT North- West, a full and Complete 
 latory of the Country, inoluaiog the Educa- 
 ONAL and Religious History of Manitoba 
 id the North-west, the History of the 
 Oman Catholic Kissiona in St. Boniface, eto, 
 iii illustrations, a stout 8vo vol of 687 pp, 
 leep, 1.25, 1882. 
 
 T 
 
 BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME 
 FROM THE 
 
 SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND 
 
 THE GIFT OF 
 
 fienrg ^- Sage 
 1891 
 
 JOHN BRITNEI^L. 
 Bookseller 
 
 280 YoNGE St., Toronto, ( 
 Canada 
 Upwards of ioo.cxm voliimes o/ 
 he best Old European Kooks in 
 Stock. Frequent consigiuiients 
 from our depot in London, Eng', 
 
 CATALOGUES MONTHLY. 
 
HISTORY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
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MANITOBA 
 
 AND 
 
 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST: 
 
 THE FIELD FOR INVESTMENT; THE HOME OF THE EMIGRANT, 
 
 BEING A 
 
 ^nlX and (f^ompXcU ^tst0i;;g of the (e>onntvvif 
 
 ITS GEOGRArHY, AREA, SITUATION, AND BOUNDARIES ; ITS EARLY HISTORY AND PROGRESS ; INCIDENTS 
 OP THE SETTLEMENT FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD UP TO THE PRESENT TIME; TOPOGRAPHY AND 
 GENERAL CIIAUACTER OF THE COUNTRY — ITS CLIMATE, TOGETHER WITH TABLES OF TEMPERATURE 
 AND CLIMATIC CHANGES ; FUEL SUPPLIES — COAL, TIMBER, ETC. ; THE SOIL— ITS WONDERPUI, 
 RICHNESS AND FERTILITY; NATURAL PRODUCTS — GRAIN, FRUITS, GRASSES, AND FLOWERS; 
 NATURAL HISTORY, WITH ENUMERATIONS OP ITS MAMMALS, REPTILES, INSECTS, BIRDS AND 
 FISUES ; STOCK RAISING — SPECIAL ADVANTAGES AND ADAPTABILITY; MINERAL RE- 
 SOURCES AND PROSPECTS OF DEVELOPEMENT ; THE WATER SUPPLY — RIVERS, LAKES, 
 ETC. ; STEAMBOAT AND INTERPROVINCIAL COMMUNICATION; THE RAILWAY 
 SYSTEM — ITS RISE, PROGRESS, AND DEVELOPEMENT ; THE INDIANS — THEIR PAST 
 HISTORY AND PRESENT STATUS; THE HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY AND ITS 
 RELATIONS WITH THE COUNTRY — ITS PAST AND PRESENT HISTORY, 
 LANDS AND LAND POLICY ; THE GOVERNMENT AND RAILWAY LANDS — 
 MODE OF SURVEY AND LAYING OUT TOWNSHIPS, LAND REGU- 
 LATIONS OF EACH ; ADVICE TO IMMIGRANTS AND SETTLERS, 
 
 BY JOHN MACOUN, M.A., F.L.S., 
 
 Dontinion Field Naturalist and Botanist, and for nine years past Gover7imevt Explorer 
 of the North- West ^/bnnerly Professor of Botany in Albert University , Belleville. 
 
 TO WHICH HAS BEEN ADDED THE 
 
 EDUCATIONAL & RELffilOUS HISTORY OF MANITOBA & THE NORTH-WEST, 
 
 By GEORGE M. GRANT, D.D., Principal Queen's University, Kingston, Ont., 
 Autlwr of" Ocean to Ocean" dr'c, fir'c. 
 
 B 3T0EY OF THE EOMAH CATHOLIC IISSIOIS IN ST. BOUIFACE, 
 
 CONTRIBUTED BY His Grace THE ARCHBISHOP TACHE'S Secretary ; also 
 
 MONTANA AND THE BOW RIVIR DISTRICT COMPARKD FOR GRAZING PDRPOSES, 
 
 By ALEXANDER BEGG, ivko spent the season o/i^'&i exofnining both sections tuitk 
 a view of establishing a Ranche ; also 
 
 SKETCH OF THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF WINNIPEG, 
 
 By J. C. McLAGAN. 
 
 ITie whole profusely Illustrated with Lithographs and Engravings, City and Town Plans, 
 and the most complete system of Maps yet issued, to which has been added an 
 
 APPENDIX OF STATISTICS OF THE DOMINION OF CANADA, 
 
 t)f much value and prepared with great care. 
 
 AN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF INFORMATION 
 in regard to the Great North-West. 
 
 puilisijtll is 
 THE WORLD PUBLISHING COMPANY, GUELPH, ONT. 
 
 1882. 
 
^.\^^lB'b 
 
 Entered according to Act of Parliament of Canada, in the year one thousand 
 eight hundred and eighty-two, by James Waiter Lyon, in the office of the Minister 
 of Agriculture. 
 
 M ONTR EAL: 
 
 Ef)t BurlanB iHttogtapfiic ffiompans, 
 
 ELECTROTYPERS * PRINTERS. 
 
TO HIS EXCELLENCY THE RIGHT HON. 
 
 K.T., G.C.M.G., 
 GOVERNOR GENERAL OF CANADA, 
 
 ETC., ETC., ETC. 
 
 IS MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED 
 
 EY SPECIAL PEEUISSIOK- 
 
PREFACE 
 
 Frequent demands upon my time and patience for information regarding 
 the North- West have compelled me to put in book form the gleanings of the 
 past ten years. 
 
 In the volume now offered to the public I have attempted to give a truth- 
 ful description of the greater part of the country suitable for the habitation 
 of civilized man. Several chapters are devoted to its Natural History and 
 Botany. These may be considered as a compendium of our present 
 knowledge. 
 
 In the chapters on the capabilities of the soil, stock-raising, climate, &c., 
 I have spoken from my own knowledge and on my own authority. Where 
 my own knowledge of any matter was considered insufficient, I have quoted 
 from other writers of known ability and truthfulness. 
 
 Statements from actual settlers are in their own words, and as their 
 addresses are given these can be verified. Nearly every matter pertaining to 
 the country has been touched upon, and where thought worthy elaborated. 
 To give the work that completeness to which it aspires appendices have been 
 added by other writers on matters for wliich their knowledge specially fitted 
 them. 
 
 As qualifications for writing the work I may mention a twenty years 
 study, theoretical and practical, of Botany, Natural History, and Physical 
 Geography. 
 
 After ten years study of these subjects I accompanied, as botanist, Mr. 
 Sandford Fleming, and the author of " Ocean to Ocean,'' on their cele- 
 brated expedition across the continent. In the year 1875 I was appointed 
 botanist to the expedition, which, under the leadership of the Director of the 
 Geological Survey, explored the Peace Eiver and Rocky Mountaina Two 
 
VI PEEFACE. 
 
 yeais later I ■was asked by the Dominion Government to write a report on 
 the North- West Territories, and availed myself of all reliable information 
 regarding the country. The summers of 1879-80-81 have been spent in 
 traversing the least known parts and investigating the forma, flora, meteoro- 
 logy and physical phenomena of the country. It will thus 1 ■ seen that my 
 opportunities have been ample. 
 
 Of the imperfections of the book I need not speak. The tiitics wUl point 
 out these. In writing I have had the delight of revisiting in imagination 
 many a cheery camp-fire, and many a scene of vast and lonely beauty, on 
 which memory loves to dwell, and of feeling that I was endeavoring to 
 describe to my fellow-countrymen, with simplicity and truthfulness, a portion 
 of that magnificent heritage of which as yet they know so little. 
 
 JOHN MACOUN. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 General Geography. 
 
 The Dominion as a whole — Its Extent and Area — Nova Scotia — New Brunswick — 
 Prince Edward Island — Quebec — Ontario — Keywadin — Manitoba — North- West Ter- 
 ritories — British Columbia — North-West and Manitoba a vast Plain — Southern or 
 Prairie Section — Middle or Partially Wooded Section — Region of Continuous Forest — 
 Basin of Lake Winnipeg — Its Kivers and Lakes — Mackenzie River Basin — Th« 
 Churchill and Nelson Rivers — General View of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 Physical Geography of Manitoba, 
 
 Its Situation and Boundaries — Area — General Characteristics — Red River Prairie — 
 Pembina Mountain — Wet Country along its Base — Riding Mountain — View from 
 its Summit — Dauphin Lake— Duck Mountain — Lake Winnipeg — Lakes Manitoba and 
 Winnipegoosis — South Western Manitoba — Turtle Mountain — Red River — Graphic 
 Picture of the Prairie near Winnipeg — Fort Garry — Assiniboine River — Land on 
 Assiniboine — Souris River — Snake Creek— Oak Lake — Vicinity Suited for Stock- 
 farming — Sand Hills, at Snake Creek — Little Saskatchewan — Land on Little 
 Saskatchewan — Settlements in its Valley^Shoal Lake— Bird Tail Creek — Surrounding 
 Country — ShellRiver — Country North to Fort PeUy — Indian Farm — General Character 
 of Soil — A Desert changed to a Paradise — Timber for Building Purposss — Where 
 Located — Building Stone— Brick Clays — Water Supply near Winnipeg. 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 Character of Gmmtry between lat. 49° and 50° west of 
 
 Manitoba. 
 
 Description of Moose Mountain — Plain from its Top — West side of Moose Mountain — 
 Timber on the Mountain— View from High HiU — Souris Plain — West of Moose Moun- 
 tain — Character of Soil — of Vegetation — of Surface — Great Clay Plain — Its Rough 
 Surface — Scarcity of Water — Wild Roses — A Visit to the Coteau — Cactus Plain — 
 Wood in the Coteau — Description of Coteau — Resemblance to Turtle Mountain — Ab- 
 sence of Wood — Plateau of Lignite Tertiary — Wood Mountain — Disappearance of the 
 Buffalo. 
 
Viii "tX CONTENTS. 
 
 / 
 
 4/ CHAPTER. IV. 
 
 '"dhiracter of Country between lat. 50° and 51° West of 
 
 Manitoha. 
 
 Assinitoine below Brandon— Brandon— Assiniboine Rapid- Land near Brandon— Bran- 
 don Hills— Land along the C.P.R.— Flat Creek— Gopher Creek— Land "West of Gopher 
 Creek— Pipestone Creek— "Weedy and "Wolf HiUs— Rich Country along the C. P. R.— 
 Qu'Appelle River— Navigation of the Qu'AppeUe— Country North of the Qu'AppeUe— 
 Pheasant Plain, Leach Lake— "Very rich Land in this Region— Long Lake— Fish in 
 Long Lake— Waterfowl— Creeks at the Head of Long Lake— Country "West of 102nd 
 Meridian— "Wood for House building and other Purposes— Country "West of Touchwood 
 HiUs— Estimate of good Land in Qu'AppeRe Valley— Unequalled tract for "Wheat- 
 Early Ripening of Grain— Absence of Summer Frosts— Early Spring —Moose Jaw Creek 
 —Dry Country in its "Vicinity— Sand HiUs "West of it— The Coteau— Old "Wives Lakes 
 —Country West of Lakes — Excellent Pastures— Nutritious Grasses— Their Distribution 
 —Sage Brush and Cactus no Proof of Aridity— Bullrush Lake— Strong Current 
 Creek "Want of "Wood — High broken Country — Appearance of Cypress Hills, 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Character of Country between lat. 51° and 52° West of 
 
 Manitoba. 
 
 Country "West of the Assiniboine — Beaver and Touchwood Hills — Heavy Forest — Rich 
 and Lovely Country — Great Salt Plain — Immense Plain to the South — Tract North of 
 the Qu'AppeUe— Rich Soil and Rank Grass— Last Mountain— "Water Scarce on Sur- 
 face — Broken Country, Twenty-two Miles "Wide— Fine Pasture Lands — No Bad Soil 
 m Eighty Miles — Lines of Boulders, near Humboldt — Cause of "Wood at Certain 
 Points — Extensive Plain Southwest of Touchwood HiUs — Salt Marshes — Little Touch- 
 wood Hills — Mission at this Point — File Hills — South Saskatchewan, "Voyage Do>\ ii 
 It — Moose Woods — North of Moose "Woods — Land East of River — Soil of Great Depth 
 — Aroline, or Telegraph Grossing — Rich Land — Country "West of River — Fine Level 
 Tract — Eagle Creek — Eagle Hills, Fine Country for Stock 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 Character of Country between lat 52° and 53" West of 
 Manitoba 
 
 Porcupine Mountain — Country on Red Deer River — Soil very Rich — Exhaustless Fertility 
 of the Carrot River Country — Prince Albert Settlement — Its Early History — "Wonderful 
 Progress in a few Years — Description of the Settlement — Many Houses in Course of 
 Erection — Fall Sowed Wheat a Success — No injury from Frost — Duck Lake Settlement 
 — Fort Carlton and its "Vicinity — Country between the Rivers — Eagle Creek — The Bear 
 and Eagle Hills — Land South of Them — Description of Battleford and Vicinity — Its 
 Future Sketched Out — Laud in the Neighborhood — Character of Soil — Police Farm at 
 
CONTENTS. IX 
 
 Battleford — The Government Farm— Remarkable Vitality of Seeds— Depth of Roots in 
 the Soil— Plain South of Battleford— Coulees of the Plain— Their Origin— Country- 
 North of Bear Hills — Splendid Pasture Land — Water Abundant — Grasses of the Plains 
 — Cause of Absence of Wood — Constant Prairie Fires^Why the South side of a Hill is 
 without Wood — What Causes Aridity — Description of Hand Hills — Cactus not a Proof 
 of Aridity of Climate — Fine Rich Land South of Battleford— Immense Area of Good 
 Land — Manito Lake— Sounding Lake — Neutral Hills — Fine Pastoral Land to the 
 Southwest — Land around Sullivan's Lake — Fine Land West of Sounding Lake — 
 Rich Country at the Head of Battle River— Millions of Tons of Hay in This Re- 
 gion — General View of the Country — Lakes Filled with Fish — Beaver still Numer- 
 ous — All Lakes and Ponds Filled with Birds in Spring and Fall — Bears and Wolves. 
 Numerous some Seasons, but Never Injurious Except to Small Stock. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Description of the Gowntry Drcdned hy the North Sixskatche- 
 ivan and Athahasca Rivers 
 
 Extensive District South of North Saskatchewan — One Solid Block of 13,000,000 Acres 
 — Large Area of Fertile Land North of River — Star Mission, its Success — Multitudes 
 of Whitefish — Lac La Biche Mission — Farmingjat the Lake — Wheat, Barley, &o. — 
 — Victoria Mission — Small-pox Ravages — Rev. George McDougall his Death, the 
 Edmonton Pioneer — Former Lawlessness at Edmonton — Change Caused by the Police- 
 — Edmonton, its Mills, Churches, Stores — Coal and Iron at Edmonton — Review 
 of the Country — Ninty-six per Cent. Good Soil over a Vast Area — Lands for the 
 Irish without Rent — St. Albert Mission, its History and Success — Catholic Mis- 
 sionaries, their Work and Success — Rocky Mountain House, Fine Timber — Gold 
 Washing — Beaver River, very Rich Land — Green Lake, Abundance of Fish — 
 Chipweyan Indians — Athabasca River and Country — Size of the River and its Tribu- 
 taries — Little Slave River — Pembina River, Coal in its Banks — The McLeod — 
 Baptiste's River — Jasper House and Valley — Climate of the Valley, Snow Fall very 
 Light, Warm Winds, Dry Climate, Spring Weather — Horses Living out all Winter 
 — Source of Warm Winds — Fertile Belt — Richness of It — Where Located — Prairie 
 still Better — Wet Lands — Summer Frosts — Late Sowing — Fall Sowing, its Success. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Peace River, 
 
 Position of the Lands Described — Area of the Region in Question — Character of Rocks 
 and Soil — Its Composition and Disposition — Peace River Prairie — Location of 
 Prairie — Sandy Soils along Athabasca— Origin of Peace River Prairie — Wonderful 
 Vegetation — Climate of Peace River — Summer of 1879 — All Sorts of Grain and Vege- 
 tables Mature — Ripening of Grain at Dunvegan and other Points — Depth of Snow — 
 Setting in of Winter — Opening of Spring— Breaking up of the Ice — Difference in 
 Climate of Valley and Plateau — Occurrence of Frost — Comparison of Temperatures — 
 Peace River Spring as Early as in Manitoba — Cause of Exceptional Climate — 
 Chinook Winds — Length of Day and Increased Sunlight give Warm Summers — 
 
I CONTEKTS. 
 
 Immunity from Grasshoppers — Description of Little Slave Lake — Eipening of Grain 
 at this Point — Wliitefish in the Lake — ^Abundance of Beaver — Climate Unchanged to 
 the North— Soil of the Northern Plain— Eipening of Grain at Vermilion — Summer 
 Climate of that Region— Milder Climate Farther North at Little Red River — 
 "Vicinity of Fort Chipweyan — Extraordinary Wheat on Poor Soil — Crops at Fort 
 Simpson on Mackenzie's River — Climate and Crops at Fort Liard, Lat. 61" — Barley 
 Ripens under the Arctic Circle — Farming on Peace River a Success— Lakes Teeming 
 ■with Fish— Birds in Countless Flocks — Rocks of Peace River, Limestone, Gypsum — 
 Abundance of Salt— Bituminous Shales on Athabasca River — Tar Springs— Descrip- 
 tion of the River — Appearance of its Banks — Land Between the Athabasca and th» 
 Peace Rivers. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Climate of the North- West. 
 
 Notes from Blodgett's Climatology^Its Great Value — Lake Superior Compared with 
 North-West — Summer Heat Decisive of Climate — Thermal Lines Curve Northward — 
 Spring opens Simultaneously on a Northwest line Between St. Paul's and Mackenzie 
 Rivers — Deserts not Found North of Lat. 47°— Rain Sufficient on the Northern 
 Plain — Buffalo more Abundant in the North — Peace River Compared with Germany 
 and Russia — Canadian North- West the Better — A Prophecy Thirty Years Ago— Size 
 of our North- West — Lord Selkirk's Opinions Seventy Years Ago — 500,000 Square 
 Miles with a Mild Climate. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Practical Semarhs on Climate. 
 
 ilr. Anderson, of Listowel, Ireland, on Climate — Great Heat Causes no Inconvenience — 
 Intense Cold Hardly Felt — Manitoba Winter Climate Better than that of Ontario — 
 Snow Seldom over Twenty Inches in Depth — Seasons in Manitoba — Manitoba in the 
 Middle of the Continent — Long Days of Summer — Autumn Weather— Snowfall — Heat 
 and Humidity — Comparison of Summer Temperatures — Warm Summers and Dry Cold 
 Winters — Table of Mean Temperatures — Summer Temperatures Compared — Peace 
 River Climate — Manitoba Climate — Hardness of Wheat— Grains in the Cluster — Min- 
 nesota Nowhere — Peace River Wheat — Isothermal Lines — Com and Wheat Zones — 
 Temperature Necessary for Successful Wheat Culture — The Wheat Zones — Probably 
 Three-fourths of the Wheat Lands of America in the New North- West — 200,000,000 
 Acres — Extent of the Territory — Lord Selkirk's Opinions Seventy Years Ago — Great 
 American Desert— Its Effect on Climate — Changes Observed Passing North — How the 
 Isothermal Lines Curve — Where the Heated Air comes From — Two Currents passing 
 North— Summer Temperature the same over 300,000 Square Miles— Moisture in Sum- 
 mer, its Absence in Winter — Rainfall of the Year — -Progress of the Seasons — Fall 
 Frosts not Injurious, Climate Unsurpassed for Farmers — Its Possibilities Unlimited — 
 Depth of Winter Frost— Its Beneficial Effects on Soil— Table of Rainfalls for 1879 and 
 1880 — Rainfall and Cloudlessness — Testimony of Settlers Regarding the Healthiness 
 of the Climate. 
 
CONTENTS. Xi 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 Natural JProd^icts of the Soil. 
 
 Comparison of Floras — Peace River Flora Compared with that of Ontario— Forest Flora 
 — Flora of the Prairies— List of Species — " Sugar Maple" — Syrup from the Birch — 
 Wild Plums — Cherries — Service Berries — Their Value — Berries in Pemmican — How 
 Pemmican is Made — Berries for Breakfast — Strawberries — Currants and Gooseberries 
 — Black " Jurrants very Valuable — High Bush, Cranberries^ Raspberries of Many 
 Species — Jam from the Cloud Berry — Common Cranberries — Blueberries — Wild 
 Sarsaparilla — Silver Berry— Buffalo Berry — Beautiful and Valuable Shrubs — Wild 
 Hops — Hazel Nuts — Flowers and Shrubs at Brandon — Their Beauty and Utility — 
 Strawberries at Brandon — Shmbs of the Prairie — Moose Mountain Flowers— Flowers 
 at the Sand Hills and Flat Creek — Line of C. P. R. — Pipestone Creek — Flowers of 
 the Plain — Great Souris Plain — Acres of Lilies — Gardens of the Prairie — Roses Fill 
 the Air with Perfume — Flowers at Moose Jaw Creek — Flowers of the Cypress Hills — 
 Wild Lupines Covering Square Miles — Mushrooms, their Great Value and Enormous 
 Size and Numbers — Mushrooms over 200 Miles of Country — Lycoperdons (Puif- 
 balls) not Poisonous — Flora at Long Lake, Lilies, Anemones, Pentstemons, Poten- 
 tillas and many Others — Common Poplar a Remedy for Intermittent Fever. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 liaising Wheat. 
 
 Red River Prairie, Description of its Soil — An Old Countryman's Views — Extent of the 
 Wheat Lands — 150,000,000 Acres of Wheat Lands — Manitoba Excluded from the 
 Calculation — Good Land Continues for 100 Miles at a Time — Fixed Laws Regarding 
 the Growth of Wheat — Northern Limits of Wheat Zone — Northern Wheat more Pro- 
 lific — The Cause Explained — How Wheat Grows in Spring, and Summer — Why Mani- 
 toba Wheat is Hard — Roots Penetrate to a Great Depth — ^Analysis of Soil, far Supe- 
 rior to the Best Wheat Land in Europe — Best Soil in the World in the North- West — 
 Manitoba Formerly an old Lake Bottom — Soil of the Second Prairie Steppe — Soil of 
 the Third Plateau — Gypsum very Abundant — Cactus no Proof of Aridity — Setter's 
 Farm Described — AVheat Growing amongst Cactus — ^Appearance of the Land — Results 
 of 1880 — of 1881 — Seed Bought in Minnesota in 1876 — Progress since Then — Mani- 
 toba Wheat Admitted Duty Free into Minnesota — Opinions of Pioneer Press of St. 
 Paul's, Minnesota, regarding North- West Wheat — Statements of Residents — Average 
 Crop for Four Years — Average Yield of Canadian North-West Compared with the best 
 States in the Union — Great Weight of the Grain — Qu'Appelle Region as a Wheat 
 District — Prince Albert and Edmonton as Wheat Districts — Description of Edmon- 
 ton — Cust's Farm at Edmonton — Country on Peace River — Excellent Wheat Lands 
 far to the North — Cucumbers Ripen in. Lat. 60° — Wheat in Lat. 61° First-class — 
 Spring Frosts not Hurtful — Fall Wheat not Suited for the North-West — Fall Sowing 
 Recommended — No Doubt of its Success — Instances of Fall Sowing — FaU Sowing the 
 True Policy of Settlers on the Prairie — Wheat Production of the Future beyond Cal- 
 culation — England should Realise that we have the Greater part of the Wheat Lands 
 of America — England's True Policy — Farmers Testimony Regarding the Soil. 
 
Xii CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 dermis, Boot Crops, Seed Time and Harvest, Boads, &g. 
 
 Barley— Its great Weight in the North— Bay of Quinte Barley— Additional 100,000,- 
 000 Acres Suited to Barley North of the Wheat Belt— Uses of Barley in the West- 
 Testimony Regarding its Culture in Manitoba— Average Yield for Four Years— Com- 
 pared with the United States— Enormous Yield of Oats— Testimony of Residents in 
 Manitoba— Average sixty Bushels per Acre— Nearly Three Times Greater than Ohio 
 — 100 Bushels per Acre often Raised — Potatoes a sure Crop to the Arctic Circle — 
 Rotten ones Unknown — Chipweyans as Potato Cultivators — Remarkable size of 
 Potatoes at Hay Lakes— Late Growth of Potatoes— Feeding Stock an Easy Matter — 
 Pumpkins, Melons, and Cucumbers in the North — Melons Grow and Ripen North of 
 St. Petersburg, or 1,200 Miles Northwest of Winnipeg and 900 Miles North of the 
 Boundary — Extent and Capacity of the Country Beyond the Range of Average Com- 
 prehension — Testimony of Residents Regarding the Productive Powers of the Soil — 
 Timothy an Excellent Crop— Good Fall Pasture— Wild Hops— Clover— Flax— Hemp 
 
 Why all Crops Succeed so Well — Southern Russia a Parallel Case— Commencement 
 
 of Spring — Setting in of Winter — Seed-time in the North-West— Varies in Certain 
 Localities— Harvest Time— Earliest in the Qu'Appelle Valley— Always Free from 
 Frost — Qu'Appelle Valley Compared with Saskatchewan — Time for Taking up Roots 
 — Testimony Regarding Seed Time and Harvest — Roads of the West merely Cart 
 Trails — No real Roads other than Railways in the Country — Description of Leading 
 Trails — How Trails are Formed — Where they Lead to — No Attempts made to 
 Improve them — Travellers Tell of their Own Incapacity — Experienced men Never get 
 "Stuck" — How to Cross a "slew" with Loaded Carts — Trails or Roads of Ten 
 Years Since — How they were Formed — Indian Trails — Roads of the Future. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Grasses of the Plains, Forests, and Mountains. 
 
 Pastures of the Prairies — Their Value in Various Sections — Design of the Chapter — List 
 of Grasses, their Habitats — List of Cyperaceae, their Habitats — List of Rushes — List 
 of Legummosffi (Pea Family) — Why Certain Grasses have Various Names — Effects of 
 Burning the Grass — "Wild Oat" of Southwestern Manitoba a Bugbear — Sheep 
 Killing by its Awns a Myth — Description of the Grass — How it Injures Man or 
 Beast — Hay made of this Grass — Its Effects on Horses — Really the best Grass on the 
 Plains — Hay Grasses — Manitoba Hay — Practical Remarks on Manitoba Hay — Testi- 
 mony of Residents Regarding the Hay Crop — Sand Hill Grasses — Bunch Grasses — 
 Buffalo Grasses — "Grama-grass" — Grasses of the Alkali Lands — Valuable Grasses — 
 Grasses of the Bow River Country — Spring Food of Horses — Summer Food — Winter 
 Grass of the Prairie — Winter Pasture in the Forest — Only one Poor Grass in Ninety- 
 six — Value of the Pea Family — Artemisia Frigida as a Forage Plant — Eurota lanata — 
 Analyses of Grasses. 
 
CONTENTS. xii: 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Stock Raising. 
 
 Method of the Chapter — Cypress Hills — General Description, Altitude, Wood, Water, 
 Grass — Value for Summer Pasture — Winter Pasture North of the Hills — Shel- 
 ter in the Coulees — Plain North of the Hills — Its Description and Character — 
 Bow Eiver and Cypress Hills Compared — Summer Pasture Everywhere — Enumera- 
 tion of Localities — All Equally Valuable — Ponies can Winter Anywhere — The Reason 
 of This — Prairie Grass real Hay in Winter — Why Canadian Horses Die — How to 
 Remedy This — Mr. Mackenzie's Opinion — Canadian Horses must be Fed — Cattle 
 Succeed Well as they are always Grass Fed — Ponies use the Hoof ; Cattle the Nose 
 to Procure their Food in Wintei- — When Cattle must be Fed — Incidents on the 
 Prairie in AVinter — Mr. Selwyn's Testimony — Dr. Dawson's Testimony — Wild Cattle 
 Winter out — Winter Shelter a Necessity — Other Locations as Good as Bow 
 Rivei' — Country West of Cypress Hills — Hand Hills as They are Now — Descrip- 
 tion of the Hills— The " Store "—Country West of Sounding Lake— Tail Creek— 
 Remains of Former Fights — Bow River Country — Natural Hay — Country Better 
 Suited for Pasture than Farming — Description of the District — Root Crops easily 
 Raised for Cattle Feed — Winter Storms Never do Harm if Food is Abundant — Sheep 
 Raising — Keeping Hogs, easily Fattened — Animals easily Fattened in the North — 
 Illustrations of this Fact — Riga Exports Hides and Tallow — Our Plains of same 
 Character as Russian Ones — Food Abundant Everywhere — An Irish Delegate's Views 
 on Stock Raising — Mr. Spence's Opinions Regarding the same Matter — Testimony of 
 Settlers Regarding Cold. 
 
 CHAPTEE XVI. 
 
 /Stock liaising in the Bow River District compared with 
 
 Montana. 
 
 [Chapter Written by Alex. Bego, Esq.I 
 
 American Writers Ignore our North- West, or Speak of its Sterility — Bow Eiver District 
 Defined — Montana Stock-raisers Testify to the Superiority of the Bow River District 
 — Description of North-Western Montana — It Improves as We Go North — Cattle 
 now in the Bow Elver Country — No Loss from Winter Storms — Renting Grazing 
 Lands — Statistics of Stock in Montana — Chinook Winds — Description of the Rocky 
 Mountains — How to Stock a Ranche — Sort of Cattle to Choose — Comparison of 
 Varieties of Stock — Capital Necessary to Establish a Ranche — Size of a Ranche — The 
 Rate of Increase — Profits on the Investment — Will There be a Market? — Another 
 Estimate of Cost and Profit — Is it Wise to Lay in Some Hay — Sort of Men for Herds- 
 men — Men and Cattle Should be Comfortable — The C. P. E. to cross the Bow Eiver 
 District — Sheep-farming as a Future Business — Eveiy Eequirement in the Eegion in 
 Question — A Perfect Sheep's Paradise — No Sheep Ever Lost by Severe Weather in 
 Montana — Little Disease among Sheep — Profit from Sheep Farming in Colorado — 
 Equally as Good in Bow Eiver Country — Breeding and Bearing Horses — Conclusion. 
 
Xiv CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTEE XVII. 
 
 Water Swpply. 
 
 Supposed Insufficient Eainfall — Souris Plain Thought to be a Desert — Settlement 
 Proves the Contrary — Brackish and Pure Water; — Where Saline Lakes and Ponds are 
 
 Situated Want of Running Streams Accounted for — Rainfall quite Sufficient — 
 
 Prairie Fires the Cause of Apparent Scarcity — Surface Water Scarce in many Locali- 
 ties — Brackish Water always Preferred by Horses and Cattle — Moderately deep Wells 
 Supply good Water — Cause of Poor Water on the Manitoba or Red River Prairie — 
 Artesian Wells a Success at Winnipeg — How to Obtain good Water in any Part of 
 the Country— Statements of Actual Settlers Regarding the Water Supply. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 Fuel Supplies. 
 
 Scarcity of Fuel not Real — Views of the Canadian, the Englishman, and the Yankee — 
 Supply of Southwestern Manitoba — Turtle Mountain — Moose Mountain a Source 
 of Supply — Scarcity of Wood West of This — Cypress Hills — Government Reserves 
 Fuel — Fuel Generally Sufficient in Manitoba — Supply for Pheasant Plain — Scarcity 
 of Wood West of Touchwood HiUs— Eagle Hills Supply — Fuel Abundant North of the 
 Prairie — Peat Deposits Abundant — Their Distribution — Peat on nearly all Farms 
 now — Mineral Fuels near the Boundary — Analyses of Coals — Value of the Lignites — 
 St. Mary's River Coal — ^Analyses of Coals by Prof. Haanel — Souris Coal Field — Coal 
 at Cypress Hills — Coal on Bow River — Its Value as Fuel — Red Deer River Coals — 
 Crawling Valley Coal — Saskatchewan Coal — Eighteen feet Seam above Edmonton — 
 Analyses of these Coals — 211 MUes of Coal Exposures on the Saskatchewan — 25,000 
 Square Miles of a Coal Field — Edmonton the Centre of this Coal Field — Coal on the 
 Pembina River — Peace River Coal — Coal at the Arctic Sea — Extent of Coal Field — 
 No want of Fuel in the Future. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 Timber Supply. 
 
 Minnesota Considered — Lake of the Woods — Line of the C. P. R. — Varieties of Timber — 
 Where Located — Beren's River — No Pine West of Lake Winnipeg — Distribution of 
 White Spruce — Black Spruce — Scrub Pine — " Cypress " — Balsam Poplar — Aspen 
 Poplar — Cottonwood — Oak — Elm — Ash — " Sugar Maple " — Birch, Tamarac and 
 Black Willow — Timber on Winnipegoosis — Supply for Rapid City, Minnedosa, 
 Odanah, Birtle — Riding Mountain — Duck and Porcupine Mountains — Timber North 
 of the Saskatchewan— Athabasca Valley — At Edmonton — On Turtle Mountain — ■ 
 Cypress Hills— St. Mary's River — Timber in Bow River Country — Pheasant, File, 
 and Touchwood HiUs — Eagle Hills — Battle River — Red Deer River— Tributaries of 
 South Saskatchewan — Conclusion. 
 
CONTENTS. XV 
 
 CHAPTBE XX. 
 
 Mammals of the North-West. 
 
 Introduction — Emimeration of the Garni vora, of the Ungulata, of the Chiroptera, of the 
 Insectivora, of the Eodentia — The American Panther, its General Appearance and 
 Eange — The Canadian Lynx, its Description and Distribution — Hunting on Peace 
 River — Foxes, Anecdotes Respecting them — Wolves — The Coyote — The Grey Wolf, 
 his Habits — Occurrence on the Plains — When easily Taken — Anecdotes Illustrative of 
 their Cunning and Tenacity of Life — Pine Marten and Fisher — Wolverines, the 
 Enemies of the Trappers — Anecdotes of the Wolverine — Mink and Otter — Skunks — 
 Eaten by Hunters — Badgers and their Habits — Danger of Riding on Horseback — 
 Mode of Killing Badgers — Notes on the Black Bear— Their Habits — The Terrible 
 Grizzly — Fears of the Indians on Peace Eivei' — Nearly all Carry Scars Inflicted by Bears 
 — Description of One Killed at the Hand Hills — Indian Woman Killed by a Grizzly — 
 The Cabree or Prong Homed Antelope — Black Tailed Deer — Wapiti or American Elk, 
 its Distribution — The Moose — Hunting Moose an Art — Starvation on Peace River in 
 1875 — Caribou Found in the North — Hunting on the Barren Grounds — The Rocky 
 Mountain Goat — Description of It — Hunting in Bow Eiver Pass — The Big Horn or 
 Rocky Mountain Sheep — Measurement of their Horns — Musk Ox of the Barren 
 Grounds — Its general Appearance and Habits — Warmth of its Covering — The Butlalo, 
 its Distribution — Wood Buffalo on the Athabasca — Their Present Scarcity — Buffalo 
 Hunting in the Past — Mode of Camping in the Indian Country — Mode of Eunning 
 Buffalo — Exciting Scenes — The Charge, Conflict and Pursuit^The Buffalo Pound in 
 Former Days — How the Indians Slaughtered the Buffalo — Doctor Hector's Account — 
 Moles and Shrews, Eich Soil where they Are— Gophers and Prairie Dogs, their Habits 
 — Mode of Catching Prairie Dogs — Beaver — Stories Related of their Instinct— Con- 
 struction of their Dams — Beaver Houses — Their Construction — Muskrats, their Num- 
 bers and Habits — Character of Country they Inhabit — Muskrats as Weather Prophets 
 — The Foolishness of the Prophets — How the Muskrat Builds his House — Pouched 
 Gopher and Jumping Mice — Porcupines and their Habits — The Prairie and Woodland 
 Hares — Great Numbers of the Latter — Rocky Mountain Hare. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 Birds of the No7-th-West. 
 
 Large Numbers Breed in the Country — Enumeration of Singing Birds — Notes on the 
 Thrushes, Warblers, SwaUows, Finches — Prairie Birds — Peculiarities of the Cow-bird 
 — Blackbirds a Great Nuisance — The Fly-catchers, Enumeration of the Species — 
 Night Hawks, Humming Birds, and Woodpeckers — All these are Forest Species — 
 Range of the Humming Birds — Hawks and Owls— The Owl of the Prairie— Hawks 
 very Beautiful and Abundant— Their Habits— The Wild Pigeon— Prairie Chicken, 
 Ptarmigan and Grouse — Enumeration of the Waders — Numerous both in Species and 
 Numbers — Plover — Avocets — Godwits — Sandpipers and Snipe in Myriads— Bitterns 
 and Cranes often Numerous — Enumeration of the Ducks, Geese, and Swans — Their 
 Breeding Places — Notes on the Eiver Ducks— Countless Myriads in the Fall — Game 
 
 B 
 
XVI CONTENTS. 
 
 Birds Around or in a Pond — A Common Sight — How to Procure a Supper — The Mer- 
 gansers or Sheldrakes — Pelicans, their Habits and Breeding Places — Their Modes of 
 Fishing — Gulls and Terns — Very Abundant on the Larger Lakes — Their Summer 
 Haunts — Loons, Grebe and Dah-chicks — Habits of the Grebe — The Great Western 
 Grebe — Synoptical Table of the Birds — Notes on the Prairie Birds — Birds near Bran- 
 don in 1880 — At Flat Creek — At Moose Mountain— Souris Plain — Around Salt 
 Ponds — Multitudes of Ducks and Prairie Chickens — Taking to the Stubble Fields — 
 Notes on the Hawks — On the Owls — On the Gulls. 
 
 CHAPTEK XXII. 
 
 Notes on Reptiles, Fishes, and Insects. 
 
 List of Reptiles — Snakes in Spring and Autumn — Gathering of Snakes at Livingstone — 
 Snakes in BuUrush Lake — Fishing for Siredons — Rattlesnakes — Lizards — Toads 
 and Frogs— List of Fishes— The Perches — The " Dore " — Carp Family — Their Great 
 Numbers — Not Considered Good Food — Dried for Dogs and Bait — The Pike or Jack 
 Fish — Its Habits — The Cat Fish — Salmon Family — Ai'ctic Salmon — Mountain Trout 
 — Arctic Trout — Anecdotes — Bow River Trout — White Fish — Their great Value — 
 White Fish in the Prairie Region — In the Forest Region — West of the Mountains — 
 The little White Fish or Herring — The Gold-eye — Fishing for Gold-eyes in the 
 Rivers of the Prairie — Western Pickerel — Its Value — The Loche or Burbot — The 
 Sturgeon — Fish Supply of the Saskatchewan Valley and Prairie Country — Qu'Appelle 
 and Long Lake Fisheries — Notes on Insects — Butterflies of the Prairie — Myriads in 
 June — Absence of Moths — Coleoptera or Beetles — Grasshoppers and their Allies — 
 Grasshopper Plague— Its Causes and Prevention — Conclusion. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 Minerals of the North- West. 
 
 Boundary of the Laurentian Series — Lower Silurian Rocks — Limestone at the Stone 
 Fort near Winnipeg — Building Stone of Winnipeg — Devonian Series along Lakes 
 Manitoba and Winnipegoosis — Salt Deposits in these Rocks — Pure Salt Collected in 
 1881 — Description of the Manufacture of Salt on Lake Winnipegoosis — Devonian 
 
 Rocks on Peace River — Gypsum, Salt, and Petroleum — Gypsum on Peace River 
 
 Salt Springs of Salt River — Tar Springs on the Athabasca — Cretaceous Series Its 
 
 Extension— Limestone and other Boulders — Gravel and Sand — Niobrara Limestone 
 
 Souris Coal Field— Coal in the Peace River Country — Lignite Tertiary — Its Probable 
 Extension— Coal Deposits of Immense Extent — Pure Hematite in connection with 
 
 the Coal — In the Saskatchewan Country — At Edmonton — Along Peace River Its 
 
 Probable Value— Gold on the Saskatchewan— On Peace River— Gold Washing Seldom 
 Remunerative— Brick Clays— Their Great Value and Probable Extent— Concluding 
 Remarks. 
 
CONTENTS. XVU 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 History of the North- West, from the discovery of America 
 to the year 1821. 
 
 First Voyage of Jacques Cartier — "What he Intended Doing— Second Voyage— The Dis- 
 covery of the St. Lawrence — Montreal Beached — Eoherval's Attempt at Settlement — 
 His Want of Success — Champlain Founds Quebec, in 1608 — Interferes in Indian 
 Quarrels — Lake Superior heard of, in 1615 — Missionaries Traverse its Shores, 1641 — 
 Frenchmen Cross by the Dawson Eoute and Lake Winnipeg to Hudson Bay, in 1666 — 
 Offers of Service to the Quebec Merchants, Renewed in Paris, Accepted in England — 
 Gillam's Voyage — Formation of Hudson's Bay Company, in 1670 — Establishment of 
 Forts on the Bay — Quarrels with the French — English Left in Possession of the Bay — 
 French Trade Extended "Westward — Duluth on Lake Superior — Red River Reached 
 and Forts Erected, 1732 — Fort a la Come Reached, before 1763 — Cession of the Coun- 
 try — Canadian Traders in the "West — Hudson's Bay Company move Inland, in 1774 — 
 Canadians in the Interior Nearly 100 years Before them — The Athabasca Beached by 
 the Canadians — Hudson's Bay Company Beach Red River, in 1793 — The Trade open to 
 all Parties — Formation of the North- West Company, 1783 — Fort William, on Lake 
 Superior, their Head-quarters — Quarrels with the Hudson's Bay Company — Lord Sel- 
 kirk Buys Shares, gets Control of the Concern, Obtains a Grant of Land, and Attempts 
 Settlement — The North- West Company Deny his Bight to the Land, and Claim Prior 
 Eights — They Publicly state their Determination to Fight — Counter Preparations by 
 the Hudson's Bay Company — Settlers Leave for Canada, in 1815 — Arrival of Governor 
 Semple — Preparations to Expel the North- West Company — Both Sides Prepare for War 
 — Forts Gibrdltar and Pembina Taken by Semple — North- West Property Confiscated 
 — Bed River Blockaded — Attempt to Provision the Boats — Governor Semple Interferes 
 and Loses his Life — Hudson's Bay Company Account of the Fight — Opposite Account — 
 Apathy of the British Government before the Fight — Warned Repeatedly by the North- 
 Westers — Lord Selkirk's Preparations — Takes Possession of ]?ort William — The Colony 
 Re-established in 1817 — Troubles with the Grasshoppers — Union of the Companies 
 in 1821. 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 History from 1821 to 1870. 
 
 Arrival of th« Swiss — Settlement of the old Hudson's Bay Company's Servants — Terri- 
 ble Winter of 1825 — Disastrous Flood of 1826 — Emigration of the Swiss — Bed River 
 Colony Prosperous — Sir George Simpson's Policy — Attempts at Various Industries — 
 
 Sheep Farming Cause of Failure — Lord Selkirk's Title to the Land Eeverts to the 
 
 Hudson's Bay Company — Farming Tried on a large Scale — Schools Established — 
 Everything Done to Prevent Successful Farming-^Half-breeds Frighten the Com- 
 pany—The Council of Assiniboia Formed — Duty Imposed on Imports and Exports — 
 Regulars Sent into the Colony — People Petition for their Bights — They take the Law 
 into their Own Hands and Trade becomes Free— Red Biver Flood of 1852 — Captain 
 Palliser's Expedition — Expedition under Dawson and Hind — Arrival of Dr. Schultz — 
 
XVlll CONTENTS. 
 
 The iVbr-TTfister Established — Hudson's Bay Company's Opposition — The Dominion 
 Established — A Demand made for the North-West Territories — Country Systemati- 
 cally Be-littled — Bishop Tache's Book — He sees no Good in the Countiy — Purchase 
 of the Territory — Steamboat on Red River — Dr. Schultz Imprisoned — The Power of 
 the Company Broken — Portage la Prairie — Grasshopper Plagues — Canada Takes Steps 
 to Acquire Possession of the Country — Conflicting Interests — Mutterings of the Storm 
 in the Fall of 1869 — The Claims of the French Half-breeds — Surveyors Stopped by 
 Louis Riel — Hudson's Bay Company and Roman Catholic Fathers Decline to Interfere 
 — An attempt at Independence — Fort Garry given up to Riel — Governor McTavish's 
 Explanation — His Evident Complicity with the Rebels Almost Admitted — His Child- 
 like Simplicity — O'Donohue Joins the Rebels — He Introduces the Fenian Element — 
 His Letter to the Canadian Government — Bill of Rights drawn Up — The Movement is 
 seen in its proper Aspect — Canadians Attempt to break Riel's Power — Their Imprison- 
 ment — Murder of Scott — Arrival of Bishop Tache — Riel changes fi-om a Wolf to a 
 Lamb — Fenian Flag Pulled Down — Arrival of Colonel Wolseley with his Troops, and 
 Flight of Riel and Lepine — Conclusion. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 Ten Years' Reminiscences and Notes on the Various 
 Settlements and Villages. 
 
 Purport of the Chapter — Manitoba and Winnipeg as They Were in 1872 — Grasshopper 
 Plague— Crop of 1875— Stage Ride in the Winter of 1875— Disappearance of the 
 
 Grasshoppers — Settlements Extend to the Second Plateau — Nelsonville Founded 
 
 Wet Seasons Commence — Many Observers Condemn the Country^ Rapid City Com- 
 menced in 1878 — Land in the Neighborhood Rapidly Settled— The Assiniboine 
 Ascended to Fort EUice in May, 1879 — Crowds enter the Country East of Port 
 EUice — Birtle Founded — Rock Lake Settlement — Winter of 1879-80— Odanah and 
 
 Minnedosa the Rage in the Spring of 1880 — Grand Valley Comes into Notice 
 
 Stiff-necked and Soft-hearted Immigrants — Mosquitoes Prove too Much for Them 
 — English Ideas of Canadian Kindness — Canadian Notions Regarding Englishmen's 
 Inability to Fall in with the Ways of the Country — No Stealing on the Plains 
 
 — Settlements North of Birtle — Formation of the " Syndicate" The " Boom" at 
 
 Portage la Prairie — Winnipeg and Emerson take the Fever — Route of the C.P.R. 
 
 Changed in the Spring of 1881 — Brandon Founded on the Assiniboine Vigor of 
 
 the Syndicate — Railway Opened to Brandon — Speculation at Fever Heat Conflict- 
 ing Statements Regarding the Country— Short Notices of Selkirk, Emerson, Portage 
 la Prairie, Morris, Brandon, Rapid City, Minnedosa, Odanah, Birtle, etc., etc. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 Description and History of Winnipeg. 
 
 Position of Winnipeg— Fort Rouge— Fort Selkirk— The Founders of Winnipeg— Winni- 
 peg in 1870 — Railway Surveys— Pembina Branch— Winnipeg the Outlet of the Inter- 
 ior Trade— The " Boom " in 1881— Statistics of the Trade of Winnipeg— Enumeration 
 
CONTENTS. XIX 
 
 of the Chief Buildings — Present Area of the City — The Business Corporations — City 
 Schools — Former Trade with "Winnipeg — Contrasted with the Present — Railway 
 Grounds and Offioes — Postal Facilities Past and Present — Leading Societies — The 
 Press of "Winnipeg — Agricultural Society — Extracts from Lord Dufferin's Speeches — 
 Geographical Position — Rivers and Lakes of Canada — Mennonites and Icelanders — 
 The Future of the City — Appearance of "Winnipeg to a New- Comer — How Business 
 is Transacted — Preponderance of Males — Occupation of the People — Their Steady 
 Habits. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 Churches and Schools in the North-West. 
 
 [A Chapter "Wkitten by G. M. Geant, D.D., Pkincipal op Queen's UsrvEESiTY, 
 Kingston, Ont.] 
 
 First Settlers in Manitoba Presbyterians — Their Piety — Attachment to the Church 
 of their Fathers — First Anglican Missionaries — Their Zeal and Prudence — High- 
 land Tenacity — Arrival of Rev. John Black — Kildonan Church — Roman Catho- 
 lic Missions — Establishment of Churches and Schools by Missionaries from the 
 Church of England — Rupert's Land Divided into Four Dioceses — One Episcopal 
 Church for Canada — Methodist Missionaries — Rev. George Macdougal — Rev. 
 George Young — Methodist Churches in "Winnipeg — Missions of the Presbyterian 
 Church — Knox and St. Andrew's Churches — A Common Mission Board for the 
 Protestant Churches Required — First School Act — Its Provisions and Amendments 
 on it — Educational Development — Difficulties Caused by Sparse Settlement — High 
 School "Work — Colleges — St. Boniface — St. John's — Manitoba College — Manitoba 
 University — Harmonious Co-operation in it of all Churches and Colleges — Happy 
 Solution of Difficulties Considered Insuperable Elsewhere — Omens for the Future. 
 
 BoMAH Catholic Missions, by Archbishop Tache's Secretary — Missions' of St. Boniface — 
 East St. Boniface — Colleges — Charitable Institutions. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 Indians of the Prairie and the Forest. 
 
 The Intention of the Chapter — Extinction of Indian Titles — Enumeration of Different 
 Indian Treaties— Location of the Lands Ceded— General Terms of the "Various Treat- 
 ies — Indian Characteristics — Former Habits— Horse Stealing no Crime — Considered a 
 "Virtue and still Indulged in — How Conducted around the Cypress Hills in ] 880— How 
 I Saved my Horsrs — The Union Jack Versus the Stars and Stripes — Settlers need have 
 no Fear— Indians and their Occupations on Lakes Manitoba and Winnipegoosis — Food, 
 Game, and Furs — Potatoes and Garden Vegetables— Indian Reserve at Fort Pelly— 
 Cote's Medal— Reasons for Marrying More than one Wife— Minnesota Sioux— Gener- 
 ally Hard "Working and Peaceable— Plain Crees— Their Feuds with the Blackfeet— 
 Extract from Palliser— Peace made Ten Years Ago— Big Bear— His Desire for Better 
 Terms— The "Wood Crees— Quiet and Industrious— The Chipweyans as Farmers— Food 
 of the Indian Tribes— The Assiniboines— Anecdotes Regarding their Pecuharities — 
 Conclusion. 
 
XX CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTEK XXX. 
 
 The Western Indians and the North-West Mounted Police. 
 
 [This Chapter was Weitten by Alexander Begg, Esq.] 
 
 Indians Previous to 1874 — The Blackfeet — Their Number — Eeport of Eev. C. Scollen in 
 1876 — "Whiskey Traffic Destroys Many— Small-Pox — Eesults of Illicit Liquor Busi- 
 ness—Mounted Police to the Rescue — Treaty in 1877 — Location of the Tribes — 
 Instructors in Agriculture and Stock-Eaising— Text of Treaty — Yearly Subsidies — 
 Ammunition — Salary of Teachers Paid — Supply of Tools, Stock, and Agricultural 
 Implements — Agreement on Part of Indians — Success of this Policy — Opinion of Lord 
 Lome — Conduct of Hudson Bay Company Eulogized — Also that of Mounted Police — 
 Increase of Latter to Five Hundred — Cost of Indians and of Police — Officers of the 
 Force — New Headquarters. — Indian Question still a Delicate one — Extract from 
 Toronto Mail — Account of Distribution of Food — Contractors for Food Supply. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 Steamboats and the Development of our River and Lake 
 
 Navigation. 
 
 First Steamboat on Eed Eiver — Attempts to Establish a, Trade — Want of Success — 
 Opening of the Northern Pacific— Eegular Trade Established on Eed Eiver in 1872 — 
 In Three Years it Increases to 50,000 Tons — Doubts cast on the Navigation of the 
 Eed and Saskatchewan Elvers in 1876 — Mr. Trow's Statement made in 1877 — Eed 
 Eiver Fleet in 1879— Navigation of Lake Winnipeg — Assiniboiue Opened up — Its 
 Capacity and Present Facilities — The Qu'AppeUe and Souris — The South Saskatche- 
 wan — North Saskatchewan — .Steam Navigation on the Athabasca, on Peace Eiver, 
 on the Mackenzie — Lake Athabasca and Great Slave Lake — Impediments to Naviga- 
 tion — The Future of the Lake and Eiver Trade — Summary of Navigable Waters. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 The Past, Present, and Future of our Railway Systems. 
 
 PalUser's Expedition — His Eeport on the Country and Mountain Passes — Canada acquires 
 the Hudson's Bay Company's Territories — British Columbia unites with the Domin- 
 ion — Sandford Fleming appointed Chief Engineer — Yellow Head Pass — Trip of the 
 Chief Engineer — My trip to Peace Eiver — " Ocean to Ocean " published — My report 
 on the Flora and Climate — Continuation of the Surveys — My second Eeport — Called 
 before a Committee of the House — My third Eeport considered Extravagant — Surveys 
 draw to a Close — Diverse Opinions regarding the Country — My views regarding Peace 
 Eiver Confirmed — Exploration of the Buffalo Plains — Sir Charles Tupper Endorses my 
 Staternents — A General Awakening as to the Value of the Country — Eailway Commu- 
 nication Effected with Winnipeg — Formation of the " Syndicate" — Eeview of the 
 Surveys and their Eesults — ^Constraction of the Lake Superior Branch — Lines Snr- 
 
CONTENTS. XXI 
 
 veyed — Cost of Surveys — Increased value of the Country — " Syndicate " carry the 
 £oad South — Brandon Located — Lines Located by the " Syndicate " — Lines in Opera- 
 tion — South Western Colonization Railway Company — A net work of Railways 
 Contemplated— Only Two Outlets Calculated at Present— The Future Traffic— The 
 Nelson River Route — The Churchill and Saskatchewan Route — Prince Albert and 
 Peace River — The Great City of the Future. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 Advice to Immigrants both as Regards Beaching the Country 
 and What to do when They get there. 
 
 Where Information can be Obtained — Fare to Canada — Articles Required on the 
 Voyage — From Whom to get Information — A Government Officer at each Ship- 
 ping Port — How to Label Bonded and other Goods — How to Act on Board Ship — 
 Articles Needed for the Voyage — Household Articles to be Bought — Mechanics' 
 Tools — Farmers Should bring no Furniture— Warm Clothing to be Brought — Routes 
 from Quebec to Manitoba — Agent at Duluth — Agents in Manitoba — Fare from 
 Quebec to Manitoba — Carrying Heavy Freight a Mistake — Agents' Duties — Dominion 
 Land Offices — Correspondence with Officials — How to Address Letters — Points to be 
 Noted — Cautions to Immigrants — No Purchase of Homestead Land Valid until Title is 
 Obtained — All Titles or Assignments should be Registered at Ottawa — Bounty War- 
 rants and Land Scrip — Duties of Homesteaders — Make Entry of Homestead as soon as 
 Possible — See that no One has any Claim to the Land Selected — Titles to all Lands 
 Purchased should be Examined into — Land Guides will Assist at Selections of Lands 
 — How to Select Good Land — How to get Good Sweet Water — Hay and Wood Secon- 
 dary to Good Soil and Water — Spring best Time to Emigrate —Good Crops Raised on 
 Spring Ploughing— New Plan of Sowing in Spring — Old Country People should fall 
 into the Ways of the Country — Deep Ploughing in Manitoba a Mistake— How to 
 Bring Money and Where to Place it— Illustrations of How much can be Saved in Five 
 Years— Success Depends on the Settler— Canadian North-West Compared with 
 Dakota and Minnesota — Opening of Canadian Pacific Railway— Statements of Settlers 
 Regarding Outfit — Mode of Procedure— Prices— Amount of Money Necessary— Success 
 in Fanning — Climate — Wintering Cattle, Oxen, and Horses — The Kind of Settlers 
 Needed. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 Advice to Settlers and Travellers. 
 
 Protection against Sudden Storms in Winter— Thunder, Rain, or Wind Storms in Sum- 
 mer—How to Protect Horses and Cattle from Flies— Smudges— Keeping the Tent 
 Clear of Mosquitoes — Care of Horses when Travelling — How to Find Lost Horses — 
 Precautions to be Used— Where to Pitch a Camp in Summer— In Winter— How to Find 
 Water— How to Know Sweet Water— Protection against Prairie Fires— Saving Hay 
 and Fences—How to Travel Over the Prairie With or Without a Eoad— White Mud 
 Swamps— Carelessness of Travellers as Regards their Personal Comforf^How to Pre- 
 vent a Prairie Fire— Penalty for Starting One— Crossing Streams with Bridges— How- 
 to Cross, &c., &c . 
 
XXll 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 North-West Land ' Regulations and Mode of Survey. 
 
 Inauguration of the Surveys — The International Boundary — Principal Meridians — Size 
 of Townships — Numbering of Ranges and Townships — Base Lines — Correction Lines — 
 Size of Townships — Road Allowances — How Survey Lines .are Marked on the Ground 
 — Dominion Land Regulations — Diagram showing the Division of a Township into 
 Sections— General Regulations— Homesteads and Pre-emptions — Colonization Plan 
 Number One — Plan Number Two — Timber for Settlers — Pasturage Lands — General 
 Provisions — Canadian Pacific Railway Lands— Conditions of Sale — Liberality of 
 Canadian Land Regulations — Hudson's Bay Company's Lands — School Lands — Lands 
 at Private Sale. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 Statistics. 
 
 Populatioi} of the Dominion in 1881 as Compared with that of 1871 — Population of the 
 Cities and Towns — Place of Birth — Religious Belief. — Areas of the Provinces, etc. 
 
 ^^d 
 
 m 
 
 'XT 
 
PHOTO LITH BY THE aURLANO LiTtI CO MONTREA(_. 
 
 BIRDS* EYE VIEW OF WINNIPEG. 
 
MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 General Oeograjphy. 
 
 The Dominion as a whole — Its Extent and Area — Nova Scotia — New Brunswick — 
 Prince Edward Island — Quebec — Ontario — Keywadin — Manitoba — Nori;h-West Ter- 
 ritories — British Columbia — North-West and Manitoba a vast. Plain— Southern or 
 Prairie Section — Middle or Partially Wooded Section — Region of Continuous Forest — 
 Basin of Lake Winnipeg — Its Rivers and Lakes — Mackenzie River Basin — The 
 Churchill and Nelson Rivers — General View of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 The Dominion of Canada includes at present all British 
 America, except Newfoundland, which still elects to re- 
 main a Crown colony. Beginning at the East, it includes 
 the Provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince 
 Edward Island. These were formerly called the Maritime 
 Provinces. Upper and Lower Canada are now Ontario 
 and Quebec. Manitoba and the North-West Territories 
 extend from the boundary of Ontario to the crest of 
 the Rocky Mountains, and west of this range and the 
 120th Meridian lies British Columbia, which includes the 
 two old Crown colonies of Vancouver's Island and British 
 Columbia. 
 
 This vast dom.ain extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific, 
 and is equal in size to the United States, or a square 
 of 1,770 miles. It includes about 3,000,000 square miles. 
 
 The Province of Nova Scotia consists of the Peninsula of 
 Nova Scotia and the Island of Cape Breton. These lie to 
 the south-east of New Brunswick and Prince Edward 
 Island, and form the most eastern part of the Dominion. 
 The Peninsula of Nova Scotia is of a triangular shape, and 
 2 
 
18 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 is connected with New Brunswick by an isthmus sixteen 
 miles wide. Its surface is undulating and picturesque and 
 is dotted over with many small and beautiful lakes, which 
 contain multitudes of fine fish. 
 
 Nova Scotia is rich in minerals, having no less than three 
 extensive coal fields, which are destined, owing to the 
 fostering care of its Government, at no distant day, to 
 be a large source of revenue to the Province, as it 
 owns the mines and receives a royalty on all coal taken 
 from them. Iron, gypsum, and gold are not only abun- 
 dant, and a source of present wealth to many, but hold 
 out future prospects of large returns for foreign invest- 
 ments. The best agricultural lands of Nova Scotia are 
 situated at the head of the Bay of Fundy, though the soil 
 almost everywhere is good. Nova Scotia has been long 
 noted for its apples, of which vast quantities are shipped 
 to England. 
 
 Halifax, the capital of Nova Scotia, is situated on one of 
 the finest harbors in America. Owing to its proximity 
 to the Gulf Stream, the harbor rarely freezes over. This 
 fact and the position of the city as the terminus of the In- 
 tercolonial Railway have made Halifax the winter port of 
 the Dominion. Owing to the excellent construction and 
 management of the Intercolonial, it is fast growing in 
 favor with the travelling public. 
 
 Besides farming and mining, a large number of the in- 
 habitants are engaged in the coast and deep sea fisheries, 
 which are very remunerative. Ship-building is exten- 
 sively carried on and gives employment to numerous 
 mechanics and others. On the whole, taking into con- 
 sideration its mining, fishing, farming, and ship-building. 
 Nova Scotia can support a far larger population in afiiuence 
 than she now possesses. 
 
 New Brunswick lies northwest of Nova Scotia, and has 
 many points in common, but differs in shape, being very 
 
GENERAL GEOGRAPHY. 19 
 
 compact and little broken by narrow bays. Numerous 
 large bays indent its coast on the side of the Gulf, and here 
 ship-building and lumbering operations are extensively 
 carried on. The surface of the Province is very much 
 diversified, and mountain and valley, noble rivers and 
 clear lakes follow each other in quick succession through- 
 out its whole extent. Much of the surface is still covered 
 with forest, but along the rivers and in the valleys excel- 
 lent farms and farming lands are to be seen. • 
 
 This Province possesses three fine rivers which add much 
 to its value, as by means of these the timber cut in the forests 
 can be floated down to the sea or used in the construction of 
 ships for which New Brunswick is justly noted. The St. John 
 is 450 miles long, and is navigable from Fredericton, the 
 capital, to its mouth, a distance of eighty -four miles. Small 
 steamers ply on the river above the city for 1 20 miles further, 
 or up to the Great Falls,' which are eighty feet high. The 
 Miramichi is 225 miles long and navigable for thirty 
 miles from its mouth, which is very wide, and here many 
 large ship-building establishments are located. The Resti- 
 gouche is 200 miles long, and forms the boundary between 
 Quebec and New Brunswick. Both the latter rivers flow 
 into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, while the St. John empties 
 into the Bay of Fundy. 
 
 Like Nova Scotia, New Brunswick possesses mines of 
 coal and iron, and she has also abundance of lead, asphalt, 
 granite, marble, and other valuable minerals. Besides 
 timber and ships, her exports are grain, fish, iron, coal, 
 lime, and gypsum. The resources of the Eastern Pro- 
 virices have of late been greatly developed, and their 
 trade is every month increasing in volume. 
 
 Prince Edward Island is very fertile and possesses a sa- 
 lubrious climate. Its inhabitants are chiefly engaged in 
 fat ming and fishing, and are well repaid for their labor in 
 both cases. The island is crescent-shaped, about 130 miles 
 
20 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 long, with an average breadth of thirty-four miles. In 
 general the land is very, level, and being free from rock 
 is easy of tillage and very productive. Immense quan- 
 tities of potatoes are raised and exported to Boston and 
 other cities along the coast, where they bring ready sale 
 at remunerative prices. 
 
 The climate of all three Provinces is alike as regards the 
 autumn, which is delightful in the extreme. Nova Scotia 
 has less extremes of heat and cold, but is more subject to 
 chilling fogs than either of the others. New Brunswick has 
 cold winters and late springs, but the summers are warm 
 9,nd growth is rapid. Owing to the insular position of 
 Prince Edward Island, its climate is less liable to extremes 
 than that of the other Provinces. As a rule, the air is dry 
 and bracing, the winters are cold and the summers tempered 
 by the sea breezes. 
 
 Quebec may be said to lie in the valley of the St. Law- 
 rence. It extends from the mouth of the river to some 
 distance west of Montreal. The 45th parallel separates 
 it from the United States, while the Ottawa river 
 is its boundary on the side of Ontario. Since its disco- 
 very, Quebec has been noted for its vast Pine forests, its 
 noble rivers and lakes, and its magnificent scenery. 
 The increasing trade of Montreal, owing to the develop- 
 ment of the west, has caused business men to bestir them- 
 selves, so as to retain the traffic that is flowing to their 
 doors, and a consequence of this action is the development 
 of their railway system by which they are in communica- 
 tion with all points of the compass. The St. Lawrence has 
 been deepened, and vessels drawing twenty feet of water 
 come to Montreal to load. 
 
 Besides the Western trade in grain and other products, 
 the Ottawa and its various branches send large rafts of 
 timber to Quebec, from whence it is exported to England. 
 Much fertile land is to be found in Quebec, especially in 
 
GENERAL GEOGEAPHY. 2l 
 
 the Eastern Townships and in the Ottawa valley, £ind 
 there are large deposits of iron, copper, and lead, 
 which are worked with success in many parts of the Pro- 
 vince. Many other minerals of use in the arts are obtained, 
 but of late years, none have been more talked of than the 
 Phosphate mines, north of Ottawa. Gold is obtained by 
 washing in many streams to the south of the St. Lawrence, 
 the principal of which is the Chaudiere, near Quebec, where 
 for a number of years, gold washing has been carried on. 
 
 Ontario presents the appearance of a triangular penin- 
 sula, and is bounded on the south and southeast by Lakes 
 Erie and Ontario, and the Riv6r St. Lawrence, and on the 
 west by a line still undefined. To the north and 
 northwest, there are immense forests, which are now, 
 and will be for years to come, a source of great wealth to 
 its inhabitants, as all the public lands belong to the 
 people of the Province. 
 
 The surface rises in no place into what may be called a 
 mountain, but, as a rule, the whole of the country is un- 
 dulating, and where not encumbered with rock, fit for the 
 plough. It is only along Lake Superior and the Georgian 
 Bay, where high rugged hills and precipitous cliffs give a 
 barren and desolate aspect to the scenery that other than 
 fertile lands can be seen. The Laurentian Hills run west- 
 ward from the Thousand Islands, below Kingston, to the 
 Georgian Bay, and continue northwestward by Lake 
 Superior to the Lake of the Woods and Lake Winnipeg. 
 North of this line of hills the country, instead of being 
 continuously fertile, is much broken by rocky ledges, small 
 lakelets, swamps, and sandy tracts ; but, nevertheless, 
 there is still much fine rich land throughout this region, 
 and experience proves that the farmer can plough up to 
 the rocky ledge without any difficulty. 
 
 All the rivers of Ontario flow either into the St. Law- 
 rence or the Great Lakes. Owing to the diversified charac* 
 
22 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 ter of the country, these are numerous, but unimportant as 
 regards internal communication. Besides rivers, many- 
 beautiful spring brooks traverse the country in all direc- 
 tions, and these connecting with multitudes of small lakes 
 filled with the best of game-fish, enable the sportsman or 
 farmer to have pleasure or profit, or both, without going far 
 from home. The small clear streams spoken of are now be- 
 coming of great value and will be increasingly so in the 
 future. Within a few years, cheese factories have become 
 very numerous, and the manufacture of cheese a leading 
 industry. Soon butter factories will be added, and then 
 Ontario's rich pastures " by the brooks " will be valued as 
 they should, and grain raising become a thing of the past. 
 
 Water power sufl&cient to grind all our wheat and manu- 
 facture all our clothing has been going to waste for ages, 
 but now the spirit of enterprise has taken possession of our 
 people, and manufacturing establishments are rising on 
 every hand. On the Trent alone, there are over twenty 
 miles of rapids, where innumerable mills could be erected 
 for every purpose. At present, the Government contem- 
 plate the formation of a canal by means of this river, to 
 connect the waters of Lake Ontario with the Georgian 
 Bay, so that the grain of the West may find a sure and 
 speedy transit to the East. Should this c^nal be built, 
 manufacturing towns will, as a matter of course, rise along 
 its track, and the dream of many will be a glad reality. 
 To the capitalist, there is no better field on the American 
 continent for investment, than is presented by Ontario 
 to-day. 
 
 Minerals 'of almost every description are abundant in the 
 Laurentian Hills. Silver mining on Lake Superior, gold 
 mining in Madoc, iron mines in various places, of surpassing 
 richness and great extent, would surely place Ontario in a 
 prominent position as a mining country, yet these are not 
 all ; on the shores of Lakes Huron and St. Clair are large 
 
GENKKAL GEOGRAPHY. 23 
 
 deposits of salt and petroleum, which seem well nigh inex- 
 haustible. Northeast of Kingston, phosphate is found 
 everywhere. Lead, gypsum, marble, copper, graphite, lith- 
 ographic stone, and numerous other metals and minerals 
 exist in workable quantities in many places, but hitherto, 
 the want of capital has prevented their development. 
 
 Of the fruits of the soil, Ontario may justly be proud; 
 her apples to-day stand A 1 in the English markets. 
 Peaches and grapes are grown in enormous quantities, and 
 the latter are now raised without difficulty in everj'^ part of 
 the Province. Barley grown along Lake Ontario is alto- 
 gether superior to anything that can be produced in the 
 United States, and always commands a good price. All 
 other grains are raised in abundance. Ontario wheat has 
 long been known as a first-class article, and is only 
 excelled now by that of its sister Province, Manitoba. 
 
 Keywadin is a tract of rough, broken country, lying 
 between Ontario and the North-West Territories. Its 
 southern boundary is the United States, and its northern 
 the shores of Hudson's Bay. This region is but little 
 known in its eastern part, but may be characterized as a 
 land of rocks, lakes, rivers, marshes, and muskegs, 
 with occasional Islands, or small patches, of good land 
 intermixed. Along Kainy River, there is a belt of very 
 rich land, but this is overshadowed at present by the 
 fertile lands of Manitoba, which fill men's minds to the 
 exclusion of everything else. The boundary question 
 is not yet settled, but when it is, Keywadin will pass 
 out of existence and become merged in Ontario and 
 Manitoba. 
 
 Manitoba, by the Act of 1880, had its boundaries ex- 
 tended, so as to include the greater part of the existing 
 settlements formed, during the past few years, along the 
 western boundary. As now extended, it reaches from 
 the Ontario boundary on the east to 101" 30' west long.. 
 
24 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOETH-TTEST. 
 
 and from the International Boundary on the south to the 
 Saskatchewan and Lake Winnipeg on the north. 
 
 The North-West Territories extend from Manitoba 
 westward to the crest of the Rocky Mountains. 
 Where the Rockies cross the 120th Meridian, that line 
 is taken as the eastern boundary of British Columbia. All 
 the vast tract enclosed between these lines and extending 
 indefinitely to the north, is known by the general term of 
 North-West Territories. British Columbia is that portion 
 of the Dominion which extends from the western boundary 
 of the North-West Territories to the Pacific, and includes 
 Vancouver Island and Queen Charlotte's Islands. Its west- 
 ern boundary is the Pacific, from lat. 49° to the head of 
 Portland Channel, in lat. 56°. From this point, the line 
 passes at a distance of twenty-five miles from tide water, 
 northwesterly, until it reaches the 143rd Meridian. The 
 60th parallel is its northern boundary. As a separate chap- 
 ter will be written on this Province, I shall merely notice 
 that, were it for no other reason than its position, British 
 Columbia is a necessity to the Dominion. Besides posi- 
 tion, it has forests of unsurpassed excellence, fisheries with- 
 out a rival, coal fields unequalled on the West coast, a 
 climate at once mild and salubrious, and rivers flow- 
 ing over " golden sands." It is well known that from 
 its southern boundary to its most northern explored point, 
 gold in paying quantities has been found. 
 
 The North-West Territories and Manitoba may be char- 
 acterized as a vast plain, gentlj^ sloping to the north and 
 northeast. Its southeastern extremity (at Emerson), 
 is about 700 feet above the sea, and rises gradually as we 
 proceed west, until it reaches an altitude of nearly 4,000 
 feet at the base of the Rockies, on the International Boun- 
 dary. Lake Winnipeg, which receives the waters of the 
 interior is only 627 feet above the sea. It will be seen that 
 from the Rocky Mountains to Lake Winnipeg, a distance, in 
 
GENEKAL GEOGRAPHY. , 25 
 
 round numbers, of 1,000 miles, the fall is about 3,000 feet, or 
 three feet to the mile. In this 1,000 miles there are two 
 lifts, of over 600 feet each, which serve to divide the 
 prairie country into three great subdivisions, having the 
 same general characteristics. 
 
 Under the name of the First Prairie Steppe, is included 
 the low plain of Manitoba, bounded by a line of elevated 
 country which commences on the International Boun- 
 dary, at a point some distance west of Emerson, and 
 extends northwestwardly under the names of Pembina, 
 Riding, Duck, Porcupine, and Pas Mountains to near Cum- 
 berland House, on the Saskatchewan, in long. 102° west 
 and lat. 53° 37' north. This plain, in its southern part, 
 being more elevated, is drier and better fitted for agricul- 
 ture than the northwestern part, where Lakes Manitoba 
 and Winnipegoosis and their surrounding marshy lands 
 take up much of the surface. The soil, however, in the 
 northern part is exceedingly rich, and marshy meadows 
 covered with tall grass, take the place of the weedy or 
 grassy prairies of the south. The soil of this lower plain 
 is a dark-colored or black alluvium of great depth and 
 almost inexhaustible fertility. 
 
 Ascending the broken hills, or face of the escarpment 
 which is the eastern slope of the " Mountains " spoken of 
 above, the traveller is surprised to find that the " Moun- 
 tain " has disappeared, and he stands on a plain almost as 
 level as the one left behind, but much better adapted to 
 farming purposes, as the soil is warmer, the surface more 
 rolling, and therefore drier, and water of a better quality 
 and more plentiful in the form of brooks. This is the 
 Second Prairie Steppe, and contains an enormous quantity 
 of excellent land. 
 
 Its boundary on the east has been already described, 
 and the International Boundary, for 270 miles, is its south- 
 ern one. The Coteau de Missouri, crossing the Boundary 
 
26 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOETH-WEST. 
 
 in long. 103° 30' west, sweeps up to the northwest and 
 crosses the South Saskatchewan in lat. 50° 45', where it 
 takes the name of the Bad or Bear Hills. Passing north- 
 ward it becomes the Eagle Hills, about fifty miles to the east 
 of Battleford. This range of hills is about ten miles to 
 the south of Battleford, in lat. 52° 35', and from thence the 
 elevated country extends northwesterly to Lac la Biche, 
 in lat. 55°. Groups of drift hills are scattered at intervals over 
 this plateau, but anything to be called a mountain has no ex- 
 istence. The Turtle and Moose Mountains, Brandon Hills, 
 Pheasant Hills, File Hills, Touchwood Hills, and other 
 small groups found at various points can scarcely be called 
 hills. They are in most cases merely t, series of ridges, 
 and rounded drift eminences encompassed by marshes and 
 lakelets, which prevent the destruction of their forests 
 at uncertain intervals. Therefore the wood ranges on 
 them from mere twigs of a year old, up to trees eighteen 
 inches in diameter. 
 
 The Third Prairie Steppe, or Lignite Tertiary Plateau, is 
 bounded on the east by the western boundary of the pre- 
 ceding one, and includes the remainder of the great plain 
 south of Lac la Biche. Wood Mountain and the Cypress 
 Hills are both on this plateau, and deserve the name of hills, 
 the latter even that of " mountain," as the western part 
 attains an elevation of 4,000 feet above the sea, or 2,000 
 feet above the plain to the north. This section of 
 the country is more broken than the others, and large 
 tracts are better suited for pasturage than for the 
 plough. Salt lakes and ponds, rolling hills, alkaline flats, 
 deep ravines called coulees, and rivers flowing in deep 
 channels, are the leading features of the district. Cactus 
 flats, hills of pure sand, and large areas of excellent agricul- 
 tural lands will attract the attention of different observers, 
 so that varied and conflicting accounts are being and have 
 been given of it. 
 
GENERAL GEOGRAPHY. 27 
 
 Leaving out the areas covered with gravel, or which 
 consist principally of drifting sand, the remaining level 
 country will sooner or later become farming lands, and 
 the broken country pasturage. It is within this area that 
 all, or nearly all, the coal exposures noticed in this book 
 are to be found, and as a rule at no great distance from 
 the surface. Ninety per cent, then of the first two areas 
 consists of excellent soil. On the third steppe are areas such 
 as the one south of Battleford, where 10,000 square miles of 
 good land may be found in one block. Further inves- 
 tigation is required before the more southern part can be 
 definitely described. 
 
 That part of the prairie lying west of Moose Mountain, 
 and a line connecting it with the Touchwood Hills, may be 
 said to be wholly without wood, between the Boundary 
 and lat. 52° north. Wood Mountain and the Cypress Hills, 
 together with the narrow river valleys, are the only ex- 
 ceptions. Although at present without wood or even a 
 bush for more than one hundred miles at a stretch, yet the 
 only cause of this absence of trees is the ever recurring 
 fires which burn off the grass and shrubby plants almost 
 every season. Permanent water in abundance is found where 
 not a willow or poplar twig has been seen for years. 
 Should a range or group of sand hills intervene, shrubbery 
 and even trees are found amongst them, though the plain 
 in the vicinity is without a single twig. It requires very 
 little observation to detect the reason. All fires cease when 
 they touch those hills. Theories regarding an insufiicient 
 rainfall, based on the absence of trees, are fallacious, as 
 all grasses form a sward on every part of the southern 
 prairie, except where the soils are either too sandy, or the 
 opposite — Cretaceous clay. With these exceptions all the 
 surface is covered with grass, though much of it is very 
 short. 
 
 Passing north of lat. 52° west of the Touchwood Hills, 
 
28 .MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOETH-WEST. 
 
 the traveller advancing from the south will notice first 
 little tufts of willows nestling close to the north eastern 
 corner of a little pond of clear water. Still advancing north, 
 he will notice these clumps becoming more common and 
 occasionally showing stems two or three years old; these 
 are soon followed by little poplars, and should a larger 
 pond than usual be seen, a small group is sure to cling to it. 
 Having frequently passed from south to north on the great 
 prairie, and never having seen any change in the mode of 
 arrangement as above briefly described, I came to the con- 
 clusion that the prairie fires explain the absence of wood. 
 
 In the partially wooded region which lies north of the 
 prairie, ponds are more frequent and often marshes abound. 
 The soil is very rich, and as the newly cleared land 
 produces longer grass, this section and the more northern 
 forest belt along the Saskatchewan were called the " Fer- 
 tile Belt" by Captain Palliser, and others, who merely 
 reiterated his statements. The mixed forest and prairie 
 extending from Rapid City westward, including the Pheas- 
 ant, File, and Touchwood Hills, and the country north of 
 lat. 52° and south of the North Saskatchewan is of this 
 nature. All the surveyors who have located the lands in 
 this mixed prairie and poplar belt complain of numerous 
 ponds and marshes that retard their work and cause them 
 to suffer much from wet clothes while " chaining " in the 
 fall when the water is cold. 
 
 The broken /roni of prairie and forest land has no defi- 
 nite line either to the north or to the south. The wetter 
 the land towards the south the farther the wood extends 
 in that direction, and the drier towards the north the 
 farther the prairie extends northward. Prairie then 
 means a dry and generally level tract in the north ; and 
 the occurrence of wood towards the south implies an eleva- 
 ted region of ponds and lakelets, as the Turtle and Moose 
 Mountains. 
 
GENERAL GEOGRAPHY. 29" 
 
 Continuous forest extends from the soutli end of Lake 
 Manitoba by the Riding, Duck, and Porcupine Mountains, 
 and northwestward to Fort a la Come, east of Prince 
 Albert. It thence ascends more to the north and follows 
 the height of land south of the Beaver Kiver, and includes 
 the whole valley of the Athabasca and its tributaries. 
 
 Lake Winnipeg, as may be seen by an examination of 
 the map, is the lower part of a basin, of which the First 
 Prairie Steppe was formerly a part. On the east it receives 
 Winnipeg River, a large and turbulent stream, which 
 discharges the Lake of the Woods and its accumulated 
 waters. Farther to the north, Beren's River flows into the 
 lake, and by means of this stream and the Severn, which 
 flows north, the Hudson's Bay Company kept open a summer 
 route independent of the more regular highway of Hayes 
 River, usually spoken of as the Nelson River Route. 
 
 At its southern extremity Lake Winnipeg receives the 
 Red River, which at the city of Winnipeg is 900 feet wide, 
 and averages ten feet in depth. Winnipeg is at the 
 confluence of the Red and Assiniboine Rivers, and from its 
 situation must be a city of great importance in the future. 
 The Red River rises in Northern Minnesota, and after 
 forming the boundary of this State and Dakota, enters 
 Manitoba at Emerson. Many people think that because Min- 
 nesota and Dakota are south of Manitoba they must neces- 
 sarily be warmer, but a little reflection shows that 
 the greater altitude more than compensates for the higher 
 latitude. Manitoba is actually warmer, both in winter and 
 summer, than either Northern Dakota or Minnesota. 
 
 In ascending the Assiniboine we have, in succession, the 
 Souris and Qu'Appelle, both draining a very extensive 
 region, which is nearly all prairie, and both flowing in 
 deep narrow valleys through the Second Prairie Steppe. 
 On the north side of the river we have the Little Saskat- 
 chewan and Bird Tail Creek, both taking their rise in the 
 
30 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Riding Mountain. Farther to the north, Shell River, 
 a rapid stream rising in the Duck Mountain, enters from 
 the east ; about fifty miles above, the White Sand, which is 
 really the main river, enters from the west. 
 
 On the west side of Lake Winnipeg another Little Sas- 
 katchewan is found, and this apparently insignificant stream 
 drains an area of not less than 30,000 square miles. All 
 surplus waters of Lakes Manitoba and Winnipegoosis empty 
 by it into Lake Winnipeg. What this means will be 
 understood by simply enumerating the rivers that flow into 
 Lakes Manitoba and Winnipegoosis, and considering that the 
 only outlet of these is by this Little Saskatchewan. The 
 White Mud River enters the head of Lake Manitoba and 
 drains much of the wet country crossed by the C. P. R. 
 between Portage la Prairie and the " Big Plain." It is 
 worthy of note that this river rises quite close to the Assini- 
 boine and flows northeasterly. Mossy River discharges 
 Lake Dauphin ; Pine River and two others drain the eastern 
 slopes of the Duck and Riding Mountains. Swan River, a 
 large stream 300 feet wide, drains the Porcupine Mountain, 
 and, greatest and last of all, the Red Deer River enters 
 the head of Lake Winnipegoosis, and with its tributaries 
 drains the whole country as far west as the 106th 
 meridian. 
 
 All the waters flowing into the great Saskatchewan 
 come from the Third Prairie Steppe, except the Carrot 
 River, which runs parallel with the Red Deer River and 
 enters the Saskatchewan near Cumberland House. The 
 main affluents all take their rise in the Rocky Mountains, and 
 uniting on the plain become one mighty river. Thus the 
 South Saskatchewan is formed by the union of St. Mary's, 
 the Belly, the Bow, and another Red Deer River, which rises 
 in the Rocky Mountains and joins the main stream about 
 long. 110° west and lat. 51° north. Below this the river 
 widens, and at the Elbow, near the source of the Qu'Appelle, 
 
GENERAL GEOGRAPHY. 31 
 
 is 1,848 feet wide and with a channel ten feet deep. The 
 only streams which do not originate in the Mountains are 
 Strong Current Creek and Maple Creek, the latter draining 
 the west end of the Cypress Hills, while the former receives 
 the waters of the eastern end. The chief tributaries of the 
 North Saskatchewan are Battle Eiver, which enters at 
 Battleford, and the Brazeau, which it receives southwest 
 of Edmonton. 
 
 The Mackenzie Kiver drains an immense area, both east 
 and west of the Rocky Mountains, and pours a mighty 
 flood into the Arctic Sea. Its great southwestern branch — 
 the Peace Eiver — takes its rise on the west side of the 
 mountains, and flows northwesterly along their western 
 base to lat. 56°, where it receives the Finlay Branch, 
 which drains a large area in the northeast of British 
 Columbia. The united stream now turns east and, after a 
 course of nearly seventy miles, emerges from the Eocky 
 Mountains. It flows through the plateau east of the 
 range, in a channel 1,000 feet below its level. Turn- 
 ing more to the north, it sweeps in majestic curves 
 through a rich and fertile plain, which constantly dimin- 
 ishes in altitude as the river gets to the north and north- 
 east. For 770 miles it flows through a most lovely and 
 fertile region, receiving in its course many rivers, the 
 most notable of which are the Smoky and Pine, which 
 drain the district of country lying between the Peace 
 and Athabasca. When the river leaves the mountains, 
 its channel is under 500 yards in width, but before it 
 enters Slave Eiver, twenty-five miles north of Lake 
 Athabasca, it is over 1,000 yards wide. A branch 
 stream, named the " Quatre Fourches " Eiver connects 
 it with Lake Athabasca, and by this stream, in early sum- 
 mer, there is a steady flow of water into the lake, but in 
 autumn this is changed, and the waters of the Lake flow 
 into the river. The author found this to be the case in 
 
32 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 August, 1875, when there was a strong current flowing from 
 Lake to River. 
 
 Lake Athabasca is about 250 miles long, by some twenty- 
 five in breadth, and receives the drainage of a very exten- 
 sive region, which is almost wholly covered with forest. 
 The Athabasca River, which enters the western end of the 
 lake, takes its rise in the Rocky Mountains, close to the 
 sources of the Columbia, and flows in a general northeast 
 course, till it enters the Lake. In its course, it receives the 
 Macleod, Pembina, and Lac la Biche Rivers from the south, 
 while on the north it receives Little Slave River, which, 
 after a course of fifty miles from Little Slave Lake, empties 
 into it a little north of lat. 55°. Little Slave Lake is an 
 extensive sheet of water lying nearly east and west, about 
 seventy-five miles in length and five in average breadth. 
 In lat. 57°, the Athabasca receives the Clearwater — a fine 
 stream of pure water which comes from the elevated coun- 
 try east of Portage la Loche. 
 
 Lake Athabasca discharges its accumulated waters by 
 Slave River which, twenty-five miles below, receives the 
 Peace, and both, under the former name, discharge into the 
 still larger basin of Great Slave Lake. At the efflux of 
 this lake, the real Mackenzie commences. At Port Simp- 
 son, in lat. 61° 50' north, it receives the Laird from the 
 west, some of the branches of which have their rise close to 
 the sources of the Finlay, far west of the Rocky Mountains. 
 It is on the upper waters of the Liard, that the rich gold 
 fields of northern British Columbia are located, where 
 hundreds of miners are engaged every summer. After 
 receiving the Liard, the mighty flood, increased in volume 
 and power, flows on, without break or obstruction, to the 
 Arctic Sea, a distance from Fort Simpson of 700 miles in a 
 straight line. A little south of the Arctic Circle, Great 
 Bear Lake River enters from the east. Here was Fort 
 Franklin, where the Arctic explorers wintered. North 
 
GENEEAL GEOGRAPHY. 38 
 
 of the Arctic Circle is Fort Good Hope, the most northerly 
 of the Hudson's Bay Company's posts in the North -West. 
 
 The Churchill and Nelson are the great Rivers of 
 Hudson's Bay, and enter its southwestern extremity ; the 
 latter about lat. 57°, while the mouth of the other is more 
 than a degree further to the north. The Churchill^ under 
 the name of the Beaver River, rises in the high lands, 
 north of Fort Edmonton, and flows generally eastward to 
 the meridian of Fort Carlton when it turns north and flows 
 into Tsle la Crosse Lake. This lake also receives the 
 drainage of that extensive region lying northwesterly 
 towards Portage la Loche. From this lake, under the 
 name of English River, it flows easterly through a chain 
 of beautiful lakes, connected by more or less rapid dis- 
 charges, and often bordered by cliff's of Laurentian g;iiess. 
 Before receiving the " Great River," which discharges 
 the waters of Rein-deer Lake, it turns northeasterly, 
 and, keeping the same general direction, enters Hudson's 
 Bay nearly 100 miles farther north than the Nelson. 
 Owing to the peculiar character of the region traversed 
 by this river, its waters are quite clear, and in marked 
 contrast with all the other western rivers. Before it re- 
 ceives the Little Churchill, it is one-third of a mile wide, 
 but below that it widens out to nearly a mile. Nelson River 
 discharges the surplus waters of Lake Winnipeg, and will 
 be fully described in another place. 
 
 The Rocky Mountains are the only mountains of the 
 North-West. It is true that groups of hills and so-called 
 mountains are occasionally met with, but nearly all these 
 are composed of gravel and sand, and with the exception 
 of the Cypress Hills, are very slightly elevated above the 
 plain. The Rockies cross the International Boundary about 
 the 114th Meridian, and run northwesterly, being in lat. 
 56° north on the 122nd Meridian, and ten degrees farther 
 north on the 131st Meridian. They form one continuous 
 3 
 
34 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 chain, composed of a number of separate transverse ridges, 
 between which the multitude of small streams that form 
 the large rivers have their sources. The larger lateral 
 valleys receive many of these small streams, and it is up 
 these that the various passes are to be found. The Kootanie 
 Pass to the south, in lat. 49" 30' north is 6,000 feet above 
 the sea. As we go northward, the passes get much lower, 
 so that the Peace River Pass is only 2,000 feet above the 
 sea, while the mountains decrease very little in altitude. 
 Peace River and the Liard are the only rivers which break 
 through the chain. These have their sources in a series 
 of mountains farther to the west. The highest part of 
 the chain in British America, is where the Fraser and the 
 Columbia, running to the west, almost unite with the 
 North Saskatchewan and Athabasca flowing to the east. 
 Here Mounts Brown and Hooker rear themselves to the 
 height of over 15,000 feet, and their glaciers are the sour- 
 ces of those mighty rivers which flow on the one hand to 
 the Pacific and on the other to Hudson's Bay and the Arctic 
 Sea. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 Physical Oeograjphy of Manitoba. 
 
 Its Situation and Boundaries — Area — General Characteristics — Bed Eirer Prairie—" 
 Pembina Mountain — Wet Country along its Base — Biding Mountain — View from 
 its Summit — Dauphin Lake— Duck Mountain — Lake Winnipeg — Lakes Manitoba and 
 Winnipegoosis — South Western Manitoba — Turtle Mountain — Red Eiver — Graphic 
 Picture of the Prairie near Winnipeg — Fort Garry — Assiniboine River — Land on 
 Assiniboine — Souris River — Snake Creek— Oak Lake — Vicinity Suited for Stock- 
 farming — Sand Hills, at Snake Creek — Little Saskatchewan— Land on Little 
 Saskatchewan — Settlements in its Valley — Shoal Lake — Bird Tail Creek — Surrounding 
 Country — Shell River — Country North to Fort PeUy — Indian Farm — General Character 
 of Soil — ^A Desert changed to a Paradise — Timber for Building Purposes — Where 
 Located — Building Stone — Brick Clays — Water Supply near Winnipeg. 
 
 The eastern boundary of Manitoba is still undefined, 
 but as originally formed, its limit was the 95th Meri- 
 dian, which touches the Lake of the "Woods. On the south, 
 the International Boundary separates it from Minnesota 
 and Dakota. Its western boundary is about 101° 20' west 
 long., and its northern, lat. 53°. Within these limits 
 is comprised a total area of about 50,000 square miles, but 
 that part of the country in the vicinity of Lakes Manitoba 
 and Winnipegoosis, is low and marshy. 
 
 Its general character is that of a level plain, sloping 
 gently to the north, and becoming swampy as we 
 approach the lake basins. The greater part is included 
 in the First Prairie Steppe, defined in the preceding 
 chapter. This includes Lakes Winnipeg, Manitoba, and 
 Winnipegoosis, and . the low lying lands in their vicin- 
 ity ; that part of the Eed Eiver Valley, north of the Inter- 
 national Boundary ; and the Assiniboine Valley for twenty- 
 five miles west of Portage la Prairie. The whole of this dis- 
 trict was evidently at one time a lake basin, and the pre- 
 sent rich soils are largely derived from the silts deposited 
 
 (35) 
 
36 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 during a long series of years, when the present surface was 
 under water. These rich alluviums have been the theme 
 of many writers, and it is not necessary for me to 
 enlarge on their fertility, or capacity for growing grain 
 crops continuously. Suffice it to say that the cause of the 
 poor water and alkaline soil in numerous localities, can be 
 traced, in every instance, to the exceeding richness of the 
 soil, and as long as it retains its salts, so long will it be 
 noted for fertility. 
 
 The following extracts from the Report of Dr. George 
 M. Dawson, Geologist and Naturalist to the British North 
 American Boundary Commission, will be found of great 
 interest, as giving an exact account of the region in quep- 
 tion from the standpoint of a competent observer : — 
 
 " Of the alluvial prairie of the Red River, much has 
 already been said, and the uniform fertility of its soil can- 
 not be exaggerated. The surface, for a depth of two to 
 four feet, is a dark mould, composed of the same material 
 as the subsoil, but mingled with much vegetable matter. 
 Its dark color is, no doubt, in part due to the gradual accu- 
 mulation of the charred grasses left by the prairie fires. 
 The soil may be said to be ready for the plough, and in 
 turning the tough thick prairie sod, the first year, a crop 
 of potatoes may be put in, though it is not efficiently 
 broken up till it has been subjected to a winter's frost. 
 When the sod has rotted, the soil appears as a light friable 
 mould easily worked, and most favorable for agriculture. 
 The marly alluvium underlying the vegetable mould, 
 would in most countries be considered a soil of the best 
 quality, and the fertility of the ground may therefore be 
 considered as practically inexhaustible. 
 
 " The area of this lowest prairie has been approximately 
 stated as 6,900 square miles, but of this the whole is not 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF MANITOBA. 37 
 
 at present suited to agriculture. Small swamps are scattered 
 pretty uniformly over its surface, and in some places very 
 large areas of swampy land occur, as will be seen on refer- 
 ence to the large map of Manitoba, lately published by the 
 Government. The greater part of these swamps are, how- 
 ever, so situated as to be easily drained, either into the 
 Red River or some of its tributaries, which are usually de- 
 pressed thirty or forty feet below the level of the surface. 
 At present, the swamps in the vicinity of the settlements 
 are made to yield supplies of natural hay ; and until hay- 
 grass is sown and regularly cultivated, the " hay -swamps" 
 will continue to be a necessary part of the economy of the 
 settler. The wide overflow of these swamps in the spring, 
 when the season is wet, or when the dissolution of the 
 winter's snow takes place very rapidly, is shown by the 
 large area often found to be strewn with the dead shells of 
 fresh-water molluscs, chiefly of the genus Limnaea. 
 
 " As a measure of the possible agricultural capacity of this 
 great valley, take one-balf of the entire area, or 3,400 
 square miles, equalling 2,176,000 acres, and, for simplicity 
 of calculation, let it be supposed to be sown entirely in 
 wheat. Then, at the rate of seventeen bushels per acre — 
 which, according to Prof. Thomas, is the average yield for 
 Minnesota — the crop of the Bed River Valley would 
 amount to 40,992,000 bushels. 
 
 " The wooded area of this lowest Prairie Steppe is quit6 
 small. The Red River and its tributaries are fringed with 
 trees, of which Oak ( Quercus macrocarpa, var. ) , Elm ( Ulmus 
 Americana), Poplar {^Populus tremuloCdes, etbalsami/era), and 
 Ashleaved Maple {Negundo aceroides), are the most abun- 
 dant. In some places the trees attain a large size, and the Oak 
 woods bordering many of the streams are especially beau- 
 tiful. Much of the best timber has, however, already been 
 culled out, and it is yearly decreasing, without any sys- 
 tematic attempt for its preservation. The steamers running 
 
38 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOETH-WEST. 
 
 on the Red River are among the largest consumers. Away 
 from the immediate borders of the streams, the prairie, 
 though covered with luxuriant sod, is absolutely treeless. 
 It is fortunately the case, however, that the Red River 
 valley is bordered on the east by the forests already de- 
 scribed, and on the west by the wooded district of Pembina 
 Mountain and its northern extensions." 
 
 The Pembina Mountain is par excellence the ancient 
 beach in the valley of Lake Winnipeg. Dr. Owen describes 
 it as it occurs a few miles south of the 49th Parallel. " After 
 a hot and fatiguing ride over the plains, we arrived an hour 
 after sunset at the foot of the Pembina Mountain. In the 
 twilight, as we stood at our encampment on the plain, it 
 looked as if it might be 800 feet or more in height ; but in the 
 morning, by broad daylight, it seemed less. When I came 
 to measure it, I was somewhat surprised that it did not ex- 
 ceed 210 feet. I observed on this as on many other occa- 
 sions, that a hill rising out of a level plain, appears higher 
 than it really is, especially when, as in this case, the trees 
 on its flank and summit are of small growth. Pembina 
 Mountain is, in fact, no mountain at all, nor yet a hill. It 
 is a terrace of a table-land, the ancient shore of a great body 
 of water, that once filled the whole of the Red River Valley. 
 On its summit it is quite level and extends so, for about five 
 miles westward, to another terrace, the summit of which, I 
 was told, is level with the great Buffalo Plains, that stretch 
 away toward the Missouri, the hunting grounds of the Sioux 
 and the Half-breed population of Red River. 
 
 " Instead of being composed of ledges of rock, as I was led 
 to suppose, it is a mass of incoherent sand, gravel, and shin- 
 gle so entirely destitute of cement that with the hand alone 
 a hole several feet deep may be excavated in a few minutes. 
 The Pembina River has cut through this material a deep 
 narrow valley, but little elevated above the adjacent 
 plain." Fifteen miles north of the Boundary Line, the 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF MANITOBA. 39 
 
 escarpment rises by four distinct terraces one over the other, 
 three of which are from twenty to twenty-five feet high. 
 Beyond this there is a gradual ascent of two miles, covered 
 more or less with boulders, before the level of the next 
 plateau is reached. It runs northwesterly from a point about 
 thirty miles west of Red River, and merges into the Riding 
 Mountain, west of the head of Lake Manitoba. In front of 
 this broken escarpment, there are numerous marshes and 
 pools of water which, north of the Assiniboine, prevent settle- 
 ment for long distances. In rear, or to the west of this 
 marshy tract, sand hills and sandy slopes rise one over the 
 other, until the level of the plateau is attained. This pla- 
 teau is the Second Prairie Steppe. 
 
 Riding Mountain rises from the lower plain at its south- 
 eastern termination by three successive steppes, each one 
 separated from the other by a gently sloping plateau. 
 The greater part of the mountain is densely covered with 
 forest. On the ridges the soil is dry and gravelly and 
 precisely like that of Pembina Mountain. 
 
 High above the Pembina Mountain the steppes and 
 plateaux of the Riding and Duck Mountains rise in well 
 defined succession. On the southern and western slopes 
 of these ranges the terraces are distinctly defined ; on the 
 northeast and north sides they present a precipitous escarp- 
 ment which is elevated fully 1,000 feet above Lake Win- 
 nipeg, or more than 1,600 feet above the sea. 
 
 Standing on the edge of the escarpment of the Riding 
 Mountain and looking in the direction of Dauphin Lake, a 
 gulf, two or three miles wide, and some two hundred and 
 fifty feet deep, is succeeded by two ranges, one lower than 
 the other, of cone-shaped hills covered with boulders. 
 The hills are parallel to the general trend of the escarp- 
 ment. In some places they are lost on the plateaux on 
 which they rest, in others they stand out as bold eminences, 
 showing the extent of denudation which gave rise to them. 
 
40 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 These ranges of conical hills correspond with terraces on 
 the west side of the mountain. 
 
 Dauphin Lake, lying at the base of the Riding Mountain, 
 is about 750 feet above sea level. It is twenty-one miles 
 long, and twelve miles in breadth. It receives several 
 streams which rise in the Duck and Riding Mountains and 
 discharges its surplus waters into Lake Winnipegoosis by 
 Mossy River, a stream about 125 feet wide and averaging 
 from five to seven feet in depth. This lr.ke is altogether 
 surrounded by marshes which are separated from one 
 another by narrow ridges of dry ground. 
 
 Northeast of Dauphin Lake is Duck Mountain, a high 
 range of table land similar in every respect to that of the 
 Riding Mountain described above. To the west this range 
 is cut off from the Porcupine Mountain by Swan River 
 which flows in a wide valley between the two ranges. On 
 the west the Assiniboine cuts it off from the great prairie 
 so that it is almost isolated by these two rivers. The 
 " Mountain, " as you proceed from west to east, consists 
 of a series of broken or gently swelling hills very 
 slightly elevated above the plain. These hills are covered 
 with brush, brule, or forest and are extremely difficult to 
 travel through owing to the tangled pea and other 
 vines which constantly retard the footsteps. As the hills 
 are penetrated the forest becomes denser, and before 
 the eastern escarpment is reached^ Poplar, Aspen, and 
 Spruce of large size are very common. Standing on the 
 edge of the escarpment, Lake Winnipegoosis lies at your 
 feet. From this point, over 1,000 feet above the Lake, the 
 view is very fine. As a whole the hills may be considered 
 as forest and the soil uncommonly fertile. 
 
 Lake Winnipeg receives the waters of numerous rivers, 
 which drain in the aggregate an area of 400,000 square 
 miles The Saskatchewan is its most important tributary. 
 The Lake, at its southern extremity receives the Red 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF MANITOBA. 41 
 
 "River, -which, together with its important affluent, the 
 Assiniboine, drains an area of extraordinary fertility and 
 ■extent. In length Lake Winnipeg is about 300 miles, and 
 in several places fifty miles broad. Lakes Manitoba and 
 Winnipegoosis together are nearly as long, and the broad- 
 est part of the first named is not less than thirty miles 
 across. Nearly the whole country between Lake Winnipeg 
 and its western rivals is occupied by smaller lakes, so that 
 between the Duck and Riding Mountains and the western 
 shore of Lake Winnipeg, one half of the country is per- 
 manently covered with water. These lakes are shallow, 
 being seldom over sixty, and often for long distances under 
 ten feet in depth. 
 
 As to the second Prairie Steppe along the Boundary, 
 or what is now South- Western Manitoba, Dr. Dawson 
 says, at page 287 of his report, " The extreme western 
 margin of the Red River prairie in the vicinity of the 
 Pembina Mountain, is diversified by groves of oak, which 
 stretch out from their base, and would, no doubt, be much 
 more extensively wooded but for the constant recurrence of 
 prairie fires. The front of the escarpment, and its summit, 
 forming the edge of the Second Prairie Steppe, are in some 
 places thickly wooded, and always show extensive patches 
 of timber. The forest covered area increases north-west- 
 ward. In the vicinity of the Line, the woods owe their 
 preservation to the protection against fires afforded by 
 the broken nature of the edge of the escarpment, by the 
 great valley of the Pembina River, and its systems of 
 tributary coulees, and to the frequent occurrence of 
 patches of swamp. Poplar is probably the most abundant 
 tree, though, even after ascending the escarpment, groves 
 of oak are found. The wooded region has, however, in all 
 localities suffered much from local fires ; most of the trees 
 at present living are small, while traces of a former heavy 
 forest growth frequently appear. 
 
42 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 " In some places pretty extensive prairie areas occur 
 between Pembina Escarpment and Pembina River, and 
 witb the exception of a few localities, near the edge of the 
 escarpment, where the Cretaceous Clays are near the sur- 
 face, the soil is of excellent quality, and differs from that 
 of the Red River Valley by the addition of a considerable 
 proportion of sandy material. Swamps are here pretty 
 thickly scattered, and some of them attain large dimensions 
 in spring. Those parts of them which are permanently 
 wet, however, bear luxuriant crops of natural hay-grass, 
 and the general aspect of this region is favorable. 
 
 "On crossing the Pembina River the eastern margin 
 of the great treeless plain is entered. No woods now 
 appear, except those forming narrow belts along the 
 valleys of the streams, and soon even the smaller bushes 
 become rare. The shrubs met with are generally stunted, 
 from the absence of shelter against wind, and the frequent 
 passage of prairie fires. The little thickets consist, 
 according to situation, of dwarfish snow-berry {Symphori- 
 carpus occidentalis) , Spiroea, roses and willows, fringing the 
 small swamps and pools. The metallic-leaved silver-berry 
 {JElcegnus argentea), comparatively rare in the Red River 
 Valley, now begins to occur in abundance on the drier 
 areas. In the last week of May, 1874, the common flowering 
 plants on this eastern part of the First Prairie Steppe, were : 
 Viola cucullata, V. pedata, Ranunculus rhomboideus, Anemone 
 patens, then going to seed, and the whole prairie covered 
 with its brownish woolly heads; Geum triflorum, found 
 most abundantly near the edge of the escarpment, less 
 common westward ; Astragalus caryocarpus, becoming 
 rapidly more abundant westward, Antennaria plantaginifo- 
 lia, Lithospermum canescens, first blossoms. 
 
 " The undulating character of the prairie between Pem- 
 bina Escarpment and Turtle Mountain, and the occasional 
 occurrence of stony and gravelly hillocks, has received 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF MANITOBA. 43 
 
 mention in the chapters on the drift. With reference to 
 the soil, west of Pembina Eiver, nearly the same remarks 
 apply as to that east of it. It is fertile, though not so 
 deep or inexhaustible as that of the Red River Valley, 
 and rests on a gravelly, drift sub-soil. Swampy bottoms 
 bearing a good growth of hay-grass abound, but their area 
 is quite small as compared with that of the dry ground. 
 Toward the end of the summer, most of these swamps dry 
 up completely, and extensive regions are then Avithout 
 other water supply than that derived from the streams 
 and rivers, which lie in deep valleys, and are often far 
 apart. I do not think, however, that difficulty would be 
 found in obtaining water by wells sunk in any of the lower 
 parts of the prairie. The rainfall of this region is probably 
 slightly less than that of the Red River Valley, but appears 
 to be sufficient for agricultural purposes. It seems probable 
 that at a period not very remote, a great part of this dis- 
 trict was covered with forest trees. The humidity of the 
 soil and climate is sufficient for their growth, and in some 
 places little hummocks, resembling those formed in a forest, 
 and known as "cradle hills," were observed. On approach- 
 ing Turtle Mountain, the tendency of this part of the 
 prairie to reclothe itself, is shown by the recurrence of 
 thickets of seedling poplars on the sheltered sides of the 
 undulations, wherever the fires have not passed for a few 
 years. Between Pembina River and Turtle Mountain, 
 and especially toward the latter place, the deep narrow 
 paths, or ruts, made by the buffalo when travelling, are 
 still quite apparent, though the animal has not been known 
 so far east for many years. They have here a remarkably 
 uniform northwest and northeast direction. 
 
 " The water of the swamps and ponds of this part of the 
 prairie is generally sweet, but one distinctly saline lake 
 was seen. It had not the thick fringe of grasses and 
 sedges of the other ponds, and here, for the first time, the 
 
44 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Salicornea was met with in some abundance. There were 
 also many dead shells of Limncea and Planorhis parvus, but 
 whether these molluscs lived in the saline water, or were 
 washed thither from some neighboring swamp, I was unable 
 to determine." 
 
 The Red River rises in Otter Tail Lake in the State of 
 Minnesota, in lat. 46° 24', and at first flows to the south- 
 west, but in lat. 46° 9' it turns to the north and shortly 
 after enters on the great prairie, through which it cuts its 
 tortuous course, without a break, to its entrance into Lake 
 Winnipeg in lat. 50° 20'. To get a proper idea of the Red 
 River in Manitoba it is merely necessary to imagine a 
 stream from 300 to 600 feet wide, with a moderate current, 
 which has in the course of ages excavated a winding trench 
 or canal to the depth of from thirty to forty feet, in a 
 tenacious clay, through a nearly level country, for a distance 
 exceeding one hundred miles. As the river winds through 
 the plain it forms peninsulas of varying size, and these are 
 generally covered with heavy forest. This remark applies 
 only to that portion of the river from twenty miles south 
 of Winnipeg to Emerson. 
 
 As the primitive features of the Red River prairie are 
 fast disappearing, and towns and villages springing up in 
 every part, the following extract from the pen of Prof. 
 Hind will be read with interest, as it is a typical descrip- 
 tion of what can be seen, in part, on the great prairies 
 beyond the settlements at the present time. The scene is 
 laid close to Winnipeg. " Here stretching away, until lost 
 in the western horizon, the belts of wood on the Assini- 
 boine rise above the general level, while from the Assini- 
 boine towards the north again is an uninterrupted expanse 
 of long waving prairie grass dotted with herds of cattle, 
 and in the fall of the year with immense stacks of hay. 
 This is the ordinary aspect of the country, comprising that 
 portion of Red River settlement which lies between Mill 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF MANITOBA. 45 
 
 Creek and Fort Garry. Remove the farm houses and churches, 
 replacing them on the river banks by forest trees of the 
 largest growth, and the country between Fort Garry and the 
 49th Parallel, as seen along the road to Pembina, a distance 
 of seventy miles, is continually reproduced in its ordinary 
 aspect of sameness, immensity, and unclaimed endowments. 
 " But it must be seen in its extraordinary aspects before it 
 can be rightly valued and understood, in reference to its 
 future occupation by an energetic and civilized race, able to 
 improve its vast capabilities and appreciate its boundless 
 beauties. It must be seen at sunrise, when the vast plain 
 suddenly flashes with rose-colored light, as the rays of the 
 sun sparkle in the dew on the long rich grass, gently stirred 
 by the unfailing morning breeze. It must be seen at noon- 
 day, when refraction swells into the forms of distant hill 
 ranges the ancient beaches and ridges of Lake Winnipeg, 
 which mark its former extension ; when each willow bush is 
 magnified into a grove, each far distant clump of aspens, not 
 seen before, into wide forests, and the outline of wooded 
 river banks, far beyond unassisted vision, rise into view. It 
 must be seen at sunset, when just as the ball of fire is 
 dipping below the horizon, he throws a flood of red light, 
 indescribably magnificent upon the illimitable waving green, 
 the colors blending and separating with the gentle roll of 
 the long grass, seemingly magnified toward the horizon into 
 the distant heaving swell of a parti-colored sea. It must be 
 seen too by moonlight, when the summits of the low green 
 grass waves are tipped with silver, and the stars in the west 
 suddenly disappear as they touch the earth. Finally it must 
 be seen at night, when the distant prairies are in a blaze, 
 thirty, fifty, or seventy miles away ; when the fire reaches 
 clumps of aspen, and the forked tips of the flames, magnified 
 by refi^action, flash and quiver in the horizon, and the 
 reflected light from rolling clouds of smoke above tell of the 
 havoc which is raging below 
 
46 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 " These are some of the scenes which must be witnessed 
 and felt before the mind forms a true conception of these 
 prairie wastes, in the unrelieved immensity which belongs 
 to them, in common with all the ocean, but which, the 
 everchanging and unstable sea, seems to offer a bountiful 
 recompense, in a secure though distant home, to millions 
 of our fellow men." 
 
 Fort Garry is situated a few hundred yards west of the 
 confluence of the Assiniboine and Red Rivers. A bridge 
 has been built across the former at this point. Common 
 report makes the river nearly double the width now that 
 it was forty or fifty years ago. At present the breadth is 
 over two hundred feet and this it preserves up to the 
 mouth of the Souris where it is 230 feet wide. Above 
 this point the river decreases in width but increases in 
 depth, and after " the Rapids" are passed, seven miles below 
 Brandon, no other obstructions are met with until we pass 
 Fort Ellice. At this point the river is still 135 feet wide, 
 and for nearly 100 miles, by land, north of this to the 
 mouth of the "White Sand River, its breadth and depth 
 change very little. Fifteen miles above Fort Ellice are the 
 Marquette Rapids which are caused by sand-bars and gravel. 
 The Assiniboine rises in about lat. 52° 20' and long. 103" 15' 
 west, and runs southeasterly to the great southern bend, 
 thirty -five miles west of Brandon, where it changes its 
 direction nearly east and joins the Red River in lat. 49° 
 54'. The country on both sides of the Assiniboine, for 
 thirty miles west of Winnipeg, is of the same general char- 
 acter as that of the Red River, except that there is much 
 more wood in the vicinity of the Assiniboine, especially 
 on the south. The soil is of the best quality, but owing 
 to the unbroken uniformity of the surface it is very wet in 
 many places, and in a few, as at Bale St. Paul, subject to 
 overflow from the river. Twenty miles west of Portage 
 la Prairie the banks increase in height, the country be- 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF MANITOBA. 47 
 
 comes more elevated and sandy and we enter on the Second 
 Prairie Steppe and soon after' reach, the mouth of the Souris. 
 
 This stream rises near the Squirrel Hills, up north of the 
 great Souris Plain, very near the line of the C. P. R., 
 and joins the southern branch of the river coming from 
 the Coteau. Keeping a southeasterly course it crosses 
 the International Boundary into Dakota about the 102nd 
 Meridian and flows southeasterly to about lat. 48° 10', 
 when it turns again to the north and enters Manitoba east 
 of the 101st Meridian. Its course is now northeast through 
 a level plain supposed formerly to be of no value but now 
 considered the garden of the southwest. North of this the 
 Sand Hills are entered. 
 
 Plum or Snake Creek discharges Oak Lake, a sheet of 
 waiter several miles broad, which during the summer is the 
 abode of numerous water-fowl of many species. The land 
 around this lake is very rich but much of it is low and 
 marshy, producing enormous crops of hay, and from the 
 presence of timber the whole tract is well suited for stock- 
 farming on a large scale. 
 
 The low hills about Snake Creek are sand dunes, and on 
 their sides is a lovely Cactus [Mamillaria vivipara), which 
 is quite common in many other localities where sand pre- 
 dominates. The prairie on both sides of the Souris is tree- 
 less, but there is a thin belt of wood, more or less broken, 
 along Snake Creek. 
 
 The Souris at its mouth is 125 feet wide and about three 
 feet deep. Further up stream it becomes deeper, and, 
 although it is obstructed by rapids near its mouth, report 
 says it is navigable as far south as the Boundary 
 
 The Little Saskatchewan rises in the Riding Mountains 
 and for over a hundred miles flows through a rich and 
 generally fertile country. The flanks of the Riding Moun- 
 tain are cut up with numerous rivulets. These joining form 
 the Bird Tail Creek and Little Saskatchewan. The latter 
 
50 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 stream issues from the forest through an excavated valley 
 filled with balsam poplar, and an undergrowth of choke- 
 cherry, dogwood, and cranberry, with thickets of roses, 
 raspberry bushes, wild peas, vetches, convolvuli (^Galystegia 
 se]}ium), and wild hops. For the greater part of its course 
 this is the character of the valley, but below Minnedosa and 
 Odanah wood is not so abundant as higher up. All the 
 district drained by this stream is generally fertile but much 
 broken by ponds and hay marshes ; these, however, can be 
 easily drained in most cases, and lands now rejected from 
 this cause will be sought for in the future. Ponds and lakes 
 are numerous ; wild fowl in great numbers visit them every 
 spring and fall, and the river itself abounds in fish of 
 which great numbers are caught in the spring. The waters 
 of the river are beautifully clear and of sufficient depth to 
 float down logs from the Riding Mountains, for the use of 
 the settlers on its banks or the country on either hand. 
 The rising towns of Rapid City, Minnedosa, and Odanah 
 have been located in this valley and the country around is 
 fast filling up with an intelligent and geiierally well-to-do 
 'class of settlers. 
 
 Between the Little Saskatchewan and Bird Tail Creek, on 
 the west, is an extensive tract of very excellent land in the 
 midst of which is Shoal Lake, described by a writer in a 
 recent publication as follows : — 
 
 " Shoal Lake is distant about one hundred and seventy- 
 five miles from the city of Winnipeg. On reaching it, the 
 eye of the traveller is suddenly caught with the view of a 
 magnificent sheet of pure, crystal-like water stretching away 
 to his right some four miles, surrounded by gravelly and 
 sandy shores, and frmged here and there with thick belts of 
 timber, mostly poplar. This is said to be only one of a suc- 
 cession of beautiful lakes stretching from the Riding Moun- 
 tains, some twenty -five miles to the north, to the Assiniboine 
 River about thirty miles to the south. In spring and autumn 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF MANITOBA. 51 
 
 especially, myriads of wild fowl are to be seen popping over 
 the surface of these waters, which also abound with fish. 
 All of this, in connection with deer hunting (which can be 
 had within easy distance), affords excellent pastime for the 
 sportsman. The advantages for settlement, particularly for 
 stock-raising, although the excellence of the soil for agricul- 
 tural purposes cannot be doubted, are not only numerous, 
 but strongly inviting. The picturesque and undulating 
 country for many miles around, thickly dotted with bluffs of 
 poplar, with occasional large marshes intervening, afford 
 abundance of both fuel and hay for the settler. There is 
 also a Post-Ofl&ce and mail station, established here in con- 
 nection with the mail line between Winnipeg and Edmon- 
 ton. It is also a station of the Mounted Police, and will no 
 doubt become very soon a place of some importance. The 
 large increasing immigration continually moving westward, 
 will create an excellent market at this point." 
 
 Bird Tail Creek, a fine stream of pure water, takes its rise 
 in the western part of the Riding Mountain, and enters the 
 Assiniboine some distance east of Fort EUice. This stream 
 passes through a very rich section of country, which is far 
 less broken with ponds and marshes than the tract along the 
 Little Saskatchewan. In its northern part, it is almost all 
 forest, but after the stream leaves the " Mountain," the 
 country becomes more diversified, and prairie and aspen 
 bluffs give it a park-like appearance. The village or town 
 of Birtle is situated on the creek, twelve miles east of Fort 
 Ellice, in the midst of a very rich section, and at present 
 surrounded by fine farms, though the first house was erected 
 in the settlement in 1879. 
 
 Between Bird Tail Creek and Shell Eiver, m a north- 
 westerly direction, is a magnificent tract of country where a 
 few settlers have gone in, but where there is room for thou- 
 sands. The land is of the very best quality, and there is 
 abundance of wood and water. 
 
52 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOETH-WEST. 
 
 " From Shell Eiver to within ten miles of Fort Pelly, on 
 the left bank of the Assiniboine, is a tract of country un- 
 surpassed for beauty of situation and richness of soil in the 
 North-West Issuing from the Duck Mountain, are numerous 
 streams, which meander through a beautiful and fertile 
 country This area may be said to commence at Two Creeks 
 ten miles from Fort Pelly, thence on to Pine Creek, fifteen 
 miles further. The vegetation is everywhere luxuriant and 
 beautiful from the great abundance of rosebushes, vetches, 
 and gaudy wild flowers of many species. After passing Pine 
 Creek, the trail to Shell River pursues a circuitous route 
 through a country of equal richness and fertility. Shell 
 River is forty -two miles from Pine Creek, and in its valley 
 small oak appears, with balsam poplar and aspen, covering 
 a thick undergrowth of raspberry, currant, roses, and 
 dogwood." 
 
 Numerous settlers are located in the Shell Eiver country, 
 and all express themselves highly pleased with it. Dur- 
 ing the past summer the writer examined the Indian Farm 
 north of Pine Creek and obtained samples of wheat so fine 
 that they were the wonder of all beholders. About one 
 hundred days ripen wheat in this region, which is between 
 lat. 51° and 52°. 
 
 The general character of the soil in Manitoba, west 
 of the Pembina Mountain, is a rich sandy loam, often 
 varying to a very rich black loam, and at other times 
 passing into sand as the Souris is approached. In no section 
 of this district is frost injurious, as the land is generally dry 
 and the soil warm. On the Souris Plain, both east and 
 west of Turtle Mountain, the early explorers found short 
 grass and little water and called it a desert. Practical men 
 break up the dry and apparently sandy soil and produce 
 crops that astonish the world. To-day South-Western Mani- 
 toba is called the garden of the Province ; five years since 
 it was supposed to be a barren, irreclaimable waste. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF MANITOBA . 53 
 
 North of the Assiniboine the surface is more broken in 
 many places, the soil is deeper and richer, wood is more 
 abundant, but late-sowed grain is in danger of frost in unshel- 
 tered situations; water is abundant and good, and every 
 requisite for successful settlement is at hand. There is no 
 part of Manitoba where an immigrant cannot find good land, 
 but it is advisable at this early stage of settlement, when 
 land is abundant, to keep clear of wet lands, as drainage at 
 present in most localities on the lower plain is out of the 
 question. 
 
 Abundance of timber for building purposes can be obtained 
 on the Eiding and Duck Mountains. At present it is floated 
 down the Little Saskatchewan to Kapid City, down Bird Tail 
 Creek to Birtle, where it is sawn into lumber for the use 
 of settlers On Shell River, in the Duck Mountains, there 
 are fine groves of spruce, from which large numbers of logs 
 were cut and floated down to Brandon last year. Around 
 Lakes Manitoba and Winnipegoosis there are quantities 
 of spruce of large dimensions, which up to the present remain 
 untouched, except on the Fairford River, at the outlet of 
 Lake Manitoba, where Mr. Pratt, who owns the saw mill at 
 Totogon, obtains his logs. 
 
 Pine groves of elm, ash, maple {Negundo aeeroides), bal- 
 sam poplar, with occasional spruce and tamarac, are still to 
 be found in the Assiniboine Valley, and outside of the river 
 flats there are large quantities of fine aspen in many places. 
 Although there exists areas where wood of any kind is scarce, 
 still it is a mistaken notion that there is a general scarcity of 
 wood in Manitoba. 
 
 Stony Mountain, as its name implies, is largely composed 
 of rock. It is a whitish limestone, lying in horizontal beds 
 of varying thickness, very easily worked and said to be 
 uninjured by frost. As the quarries are only about six 
 miles from Winnipeg, it is of inestimable value to that city. 
 About twenty-five miles above Portage la Prairie, on the 
 
64 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Assiniboine River, there is a fine outcrop of limestone of 
 another variety, which will be easily worked and ought to be 
 a source of supply for Portage la Prairie and possibly Brandon. 
 A few other localities where rock is exposed have been 
 noted, but up to the present no action has been taken regard- 
 ing them. 
 
 Up to 1873 no brick clay was supposed to exist in the 
 country, but since that year knowledge in this line has so 
 increased that practical brickmakers now say that "Winnipeg 
 bricks are unsurpassed in any country for hardness and 
 durability. As towns increase, brick clays will be found with- 
 out difiiculty, and each locality will produce its own brick 
 as the variety worked at "Winnipeg is known to exist in other 
 parts of the province. 
 
 One difiiculty, which has been a serious one in the past, 
 has about disappeared, that is, the power to get good sweet 
 water in "Winnipeg and its neighborhood. At first all wells 
 sunk into the clay invariably gave brackish water, and 
 owing to this the supply for drinking purposes had to 
 be drawn from Red River. Last season a number of wells 
 were bored through the clay into a stratum of gravel below, 
 and in every case good water was obtained. It is now a 
 matter of certainty that excellent water exists in abundance 
 under the clay, and when this is struck and the surface 
 water kept out, pure water will be assured. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 Character of Country between lat. 49° and 50" west of 
 
 Manitoha. 
 
 Description of Moose Mountain — Plain from its Top — West side of Moose Mountain — 
 Timter on the Mountain — View from High Hill — Souris Plain — "West of Moose Moun 
 tain — Character of Soil — of Vegetation — of Surface — Great Clay Plain — Its Rough 
 Surface — Scarcity of Water — Wild Eoses — A Visit to the Coteau — Cactus Plain — 
 Wood in the Coteau — Description of Coteau — Resemblance to Turtle Mountain — Ab- 
 sence of Wood — Plateau of Lignite Tertiary — Wood Mountain — Disappearance of the 
 Buffalo. 
 
 In the preceding chapter we described that part of the 
 Souris Plain lying east and south of Moose Mountain. This 
 "Mountain " is part of an elevated group of drift hills that 
 extend to the northwest, under the name of Weedy, Wolf, and 
 Squirrel Hills. In the distance it presents the same appear- 
 ance as Turtle Mountain, and forms a blue line on the horizon 
 of considerable length. The distribution of wood upon these 
 hills and their environs, presents an exact counterpart of that 
 on Turtle Mountain. The east end of Moose Mountain 
 rises into a somewhat conical peak 340 feet above the gen- 
 eral level, and from it a wide view over the plain to the 
 south and west is obtained. Far as the eye can reach 
 stretches the naked plain, characterized a few short years 
 ago as a barren desert,- but now known to be of wonderful 
 fertility. Like Turtle Mountain this group of hills is com- 
 posed altogether of drift, and incloses numerous lakes of con- 
 siderable size; these lakes are the sources of a few small 
 streams, but in most instances they have no outlet, and in 
 the autumn their water becomes brackish and unfit to drink. 
 
 Moose Mountain, as seen from the prairie on the east side, 
 rises with a gentle slope and is flanked by marshes extend- 
 ing some miles to the east. Towards the south two or three 
 rounded points are seen rising to a considerable elevation, 
 
56 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 but when the base is reached nothing to be called a hill 
 is visible. On a westerly course we travelled twenty -one 
 miles along the hills, about three miles from the green timber 
 Having penetrated it nearly four miles, I am safe in stating 
 that there are at least 100 square miles of good timber, 
 nearly all balsam and aspen poplar. Occasionally a few small 
 ash and ash-leaved maple appear, but these are of no value 
 There is abundance of water in the hills, nearly one-fourth of 
 the surface being covered by it, but the greater part of it is 
 brackish, being in isolated ponds like those in the Touchwood 
 Hills. Whenever the ponds are connected by an outflow they 
 are invariably good. The others are not, unless fed directly 
 by springs. The whole country to the north of the continu- 
 ous wood consists of ridges, ponds, lakelets, and hay marshes, 
 with very little level land, but the soil is always good, even 
 on the tops of the ridges, which show gravel on the surface. 
 Pits were frequently dug and the black loam was never less 
 than nine inches in depth. Often with pebbles on the surface 
 first-class soil was found for a depth of eighteen inches. 
 
 From the top of the highest hill, at the northern end of the 
 continuous green wood, a very extensive view of the whole 
 country to the west and north was obtained. To the west 
 the view was bounded by our powers of vision, while to the 
 north numerous bluffs and ridges showed that some of the 
 timber still remained, which had been seen by Palliser and 
 Hind twenty years before. 
 
 South westward of this region lies the western part of the 
 great Souris Plain, which to the old explorers was a howl- 
 ing wilderness destined to sterility, on account of its light 
 rainfall, scarcity of water, and total absence of wood. This 
 immense treeless expanse, extending from the Souris River, 
 on the 101st Meridian, northwesterly to Moose Jaw Creek, 
 in nearly the 106th Meridian, we crossed diagonally 
 from Moose Mountain to the confluence of Moose Jaw and 
 Thunder Creeks. 
 
CHARACTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT 49° AND 50°. 57 
 
 After leaving Moose Mountain, the country, for a few 
 miles, is rather broken by occasional ponds of brackish water 
 and ridges contaiaing a large percentage of gravel. Pro- 
 ceeding westward, the country becomes more level, the soil 
 better, but water scarcer; almost imperceptibly, the tra- 
 veller enters upon a vast plaia, extending to the west and 
 south into the Tiorizon, without a bush or mound to break its 
 uniformity. At first, blue hills are seen to the north, but 
 as days pass, these disappear, and that sense of utter lone- 
 liness comes irresistibly upon him, that travellers crossing 
 the " Great Plains " of the United States have noted. 
 
 Numerous pits were dug into the soil each day, as we 
 proceeded. As we passed west from Moose Mountain, the 
 country became drier, the grass shorter, and the surface soil 
 more difficult to penetrate. "We never failed to find first- 
 class soil, but about eight inches of it was almost entirely 
 roots and often very hard and dry, but beneath this, at a 
 depth of two feet, it was quite soft. Roots penetrated much 
 beyond this depth. Fire passes over the country every 
 year, and, in 1879, in many places, burned the life so 
 completely out of the roots of the various grasses which have 
 a tendency to grow m clumps, that the following year, 
 scarcely a blade was seen. Although the grass is short 
 the rainfall is quite sufficient, as there is abundance of fresh 
 water ponds, and yet not a shrub over six inches high exists 
 in the country. I speak of the region east of the Qu'Ap- 
 pelle trail, which we crossed in lat. 50° 03'. 
 
 Before crossing the Qu'Appelle trail, the character of the 
 soil changed. Instead of being a black loam on the surface, of 
 varying depth, with a light colored clay sub-soil, it became 
 more homogeneous, and was generally a strong friable clay 
 with scarcely any water on the surface, but covered with a 
 crop of tall, rich-looking grass, which was remarkably green 
 and fresh. The soil was precisely the same as that I had 
 noted on the great plain, south of Battleford, in 1879. For 
 
58 MANITOBA AKD THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 forty -five miles, we passed over a region which was almost a 
 dead level, and yet so rough, throughout the greater part of 
 it, that our carts were nearly shaken to pieces. Patches 
 of skin were jerked off the necks of the horses, by the 
 twisting caused by the hummocks and hollows. By digging 
 pits into the soil, we ascertained the reason of this extraor- 
 dinary roughness. Although the ground appeared hard and 
 dry, it was not so. In reality, about eighteen inches of the 
 surface was quite soft, and so easily penetrated, that almost 
 without an effort, a spade could be thrust into it up to the 
 head. Beneath this, however, the clay was very hard and 
 dry. All the spring and summer, rain enters the soil quite 
 easily, by means of the cracks surrounding each hummock. 
 These are well described by Dr, Robert Bell, when s[Deaking 
 of another part of this region : — " The clayey ground, in this 
 part of the country, is rendered hummocky and difl&cult to 
 travel over by carts, owing to the fissures produced by dry- 
 ing, in former years. These fissures divide the ground into 
 spaces, usually five-sided, from one to two yards in width. 
 The edges of the fissures, by falling in, have gradually con- 
 verted the intervening spaces into dome-shaped mounds, 
 which are hard and unyielding. These principal hummocks 
 are again divided by minor fissures of more recent date. 
 This kind of surface extends alike over the flat-bottomed 
 hollows and low-swelling hills." The moisture descends 
 almost at once into the soil, by means of these cracks, and 
 owing to the imperviousness of the clay, is retained near the 
 surface, or just below where the soil is friable. The win- 
 ter's frosts expand this moist soil, and instead of these cracks 
 being caused by the sun, they are frost cracks, produced by the 
 heaving of the soil. Clay taken out at a depth of two feet, 
 was generally in little cubes, and it was between the crevices 
 of these that roots penetrated to an unknown depth. With 
 all our exertions, water was obtained on the surface only 
 four times in crossing this forty-five miles, and yet the 
 
CHARACTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 49° AND 50°. 59 
 
 whole air was odorous with roses which grow on bushes 
 a few inches in height. The prevailing grass of the region 
 was a species of wheat grass (Tnticum), closely related to 
 the quick, quack or couch grass of Ontario, a grass known to 
 be sweet and nutritious. 
 
 Southwest of this tract, blue hills began to show 
 themselves, but instead of water becoming more plentiful it 
 became scarcer, and with our utmost exertions we could not 
 obtain a drop, so that it was ultimately necessary to deviate 
 from my instructions and proceed to the north. Before I 
 was compelled to do this, however, I left the party encamped, 
 at a water pool, and with two others went thirty miles 
 to the south to locate the blue hills seen in that direc- 
 tion. Ten miles over such a country as I have been 
 describing, brought us to Moose Jaw Creek flowing to 
 the northwest, with banks about ten feet m height^ 
 and breadth about twelve feet The water was very 
 muddy. After crossing it, we came upon another creek 
 of pure sparkling water, which came from the Coteau 
 and emptied into the first, a little to the west of our 
 crossing. Nearly twenty miles over a perfectly level plam, 
 which in places was covered with a profusion of cactus, 
 brought us to the base of the Coteau, at a point near 
 the Cactus HUls. The plain between the creek and 
 the hills was principally Cretaceous clay, and occasional 
 patches of it were without any vegetation, except that 
 peculiar to arid soil. The ravines along the Coteau were 
 filled with wood of small size. Ash, elm, maple, and poplar 
 were the prominent species, but numerous shrubs were like- 
 wise seen. Along the creeks, willow clumps were common 
 but no trees. 
 
 The lift from the plain to the top of the hills was about 
 400 feet, and seemed to be the " ruins of an escarpment," as 
 the whole face consisted of a series of slides with the strata 
 tilted at various angles. The plain crossed south of the 
 
60 MANITOBA AND THE GKEAT NORTH-VEST. 
 
 creek, appeared to be principally composed of the wasliings 
 of the escarpraent, and was nearly level with a very slight 
 dip towards the creek. 
 
 Dr. Dawson, who carefully examined the Missouri Coteau, 
 thus speaks of it : " One hundred and twenty miles west of 
 Turtle Mountain, the second prairie plateau comes to an end 
 against the foot of the great belt of drift deposits, known as 
 the Missouri Coteau. 
 
 " The Missouri Coteau is one of the most important features 
 of the western plains, and is certainly the most remarkable 
 monument of the glacial period now existing there. Though 
 frequently mentioned in western reports, I cannot learn that 
 its structure has yet been carefully studied. I have had the 
 opportunity of examining more or less closely that portion 
 of it which crosses the forty -ninth parallel, for a length of 
 100 miles. 
 
 "Where cut somewhat obliquely by this parallel, the Coteau 
 may be said to extend for a distance of forty -five miles. At 
 right angles to its general course, however, its extreme 
 width at this point cannot be more than thirty miles. On 
 approaching it from the east, on the trail from Wood End, 
 which, as already stated, is somewhat more elevated than the 
 prairie lying east of it, a gradual ascent is made, till the edge 
 of the Coteau is reached, amounting in a distance of twenty- 
 five miles to about 150 feet. The country at the same 
 time becomes more distinctly undulating — as on approaching 
 Turtle Mountain from the east — till, almost before one is 
 aware of the change, the road is winding among a confusion of 
 abruptly rounded and tumultuous hills, which consist entirely 
 of drift material, and in many cases seem to be formed almost 
 altogether of boulders and gravel, the finer matter having 
 been to a great extent washed down into the hollows. 
 Where it appears, however, it is not unlike that of the drift 
 of the lower prairies, being yellowish and sandy. Among 
 the hills are basin-like valleys, round, or irregular m form, 
 
CHARACTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 49° AND 50°. 61 
 
 and without outlet, wMch are sometimes dry but generally 
 hold swamps or small lakes, which have frequently been 
 filled in with material washed from the hills so as to become 
 flatbottomed. The hills and valleys have in general no very 
 determinate direction, but a slight tendency to arrangement 
 in north and south lines was observable in some parts of 
 this region. The hills culminate on the line about the 305th 
 mile point, and westward from this point they are neither so 
 steep nor so stony. The country gradually subsides from 
 its rough and broken character, to that of rather boldly 
 undulating prairie, without, however, falling much in gene- 
 ral elevation below the tops of the bolder hills further east. 
 We have, in fact, passed up over the margin of the third 
 great prairie steppe. 
 
 " The whole of the Coteau belt is characterized by the 
 absence of drainage valleys, and in consequence its pools and 
 lakes are very often charged with salts, of which those most 
 abundantly represented are sodic and magnesic sulphates. 
 The saline lakes very generally dry up completely toward 
 the end of the summer, and present wide expanses of white 
 efflorescent crystals, which contrast in color with the crimson 
 Salicornea with which they are often fringed. The crystal- 
 line crust generally rests on a thick stratum of soft black 
 mud. 
 
 " The boulders and gravel of the Coteau were here observed 
 to be chiefly of Laurentian origin, with, however, a good 
 deal of the usual white limestone, and a slight admixture of 
 quartzite drift. On the western margin some rather large 
 disused stream valleys were seen, holding chains of saline 
 lakes ; but their relation to the drift materials of the Goteau 
 were not so clearly shown as in other localities further 
 north, to be described. 
 
 " In passing westward, from the last exposures of the ter- 
 tiary rocks near "Wood End, to the locality of their first 
 appearance within the Coteau, a distance of about seventy 
 
62 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-VEST. 
 
 miles, we rise about 600 feet and attain an elevation of about 
 2,500 feet above the sea. The slope of the surface of the 
 Lignite Tertiary then, assuming it to be uniform, is a little 
 less than one hundred feet per mile ; and on and against this 
 gently inclined plane, the immense drift deposits of the 
 Coteau hills are piled. 
 
 " Passing westward for about seventy miles, it is found to 
 preserve much the same appearance. The prairie of the 
 Coteau foot is rather undulating, and slightly raised above 
 the general level, but the edge of the hilly country of the 
 Coteau itself, is always from a distance well defined. To the 
 northward and eastward, boundless level, treeless plains 
 stretch to the horizon. The Traders' Road to Wood Moun- 
 tain, after passmg along the base of the Coteau for the dis- 
 tance above indicated, turns westward and crosses it, taking 
 advantage of a deep bay in its edge, in which also rises a 
 main tributary of the Souris River. The road then passes 
 for about fifty miles through the Coteau belt, which must 
 here be about thirty miles wide, and repeats almost exactly 
 the physical features already described, though in this par- 
 ticular locality neither quite so tumultuous nor so stony as 
 on the line. 
 
 " Following the Traders' Road westward for about twenty- 
 five miles toward Wood Mountain, it passes for the most 
 part between the southern edge of the Coteau proper, and 
 the northern margin of the Tertiary plateau. Wherever 
 from any hill, a view over the Coteau to the north can be 
 obtained, it is seen to stretch away to the horizon in a suc- 
 cession of wave-like mounds and ridges, which do not differ 
 much in average altitude. 
 
 " The intervening region, followed by the road on account 
 of its facility, has characters of its own. Wide and deep 
 valleys, often flat-bottomed, with systems of tributary coulees 
 are found everywhere cut in the soft rocks of the foot of the 
 Tertiary plateau. Some have small streams still flowino- in 
 
CHARACTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 49° AND 50°. 63 
 
 them, fed by the drainage of the plateau ; but for the most 
 part these old valleys are dry or occupied by chains of small 
 saliae lakes, the waters of many of which disappear early in 
 the summer. The lakes usually have the long river-like 
 forms of the valleys which contain them, and receive the 
 waters of the brooks which still flow. One of the most im- 
 portant, probably nine miles in length, forms the drainage 
 basin for the streams of Wood Mountain ; its sides are abrupt 
 and the water appears to be deep. These old valleys are 
 evidently of pre-glacial age, and have formed a part of the 
 original sculpture of the country. The heaping up of the 
 great drift deposits of the Coteau along the foot of the Ter- 
 tiary plateau, has blocked them up, and prevented the drain- 
 age finding its way northward as before. Since the eleva- 
 tion succeeding the glacial subsidence, the rainfall of the dis- 
 trict has never been sufficiently great, in proportion to the 
 evaporation, to enable the streams to cut through the barrier 
 thus formed. The ex;istence of these valleys, and the 
 arrangements of the drift deposits in this region, have impor- 
 tant bearings on several problems connected with its general 
 history." 
 
 The Coteau resembles Turtle Mountain in its physical fea- 
 tures and like that district would no doubt be thickly wooded 
 but for the prairie fires, which have sometimes run hundreds 
 of miles in the dry weather of autumn. As it is, the want 
 of wood is one of the most serious drawbacks, and animals fed 
 over these hills in summer would require to be wintered in 
 some of the river valleys to the north, or in the wooded 
 ravines of the Tertiary plateau to the south. The plateau 
 of the Lignite Tertiary is for the most part adapted for 
 pastoral purposes, and being covered with a good growth of 
 grass, is well suited for this use. The strip of country 
 between the plateau and the southern edge of the Coteau, 
 partakes in some measure of its character, but has a less 
 favorable appearance. 
 
64 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 One important advantage of this plateau is the existence 
 along its edges of sheltered ravines and valleys, containing 
 groves of poplars. Another is the presence beneath it of vast 
 deposits of lignite coal. In one of these sheltered valleys 
 the Half-breed settlement known as "Wood Mountain is 
 situated. Here there has been stationed for a number of 
 years a large detachment of the Mounted Police, and here too 
 Sitting Bull made his headquarters after the slaughter of the 
 American soldiers under Custer. In past time "Wood Moun- 
 tain was a noted locality, as the buffalo roamed in countless 
 thousands over the wide prairies on every hand, and the 
 hunters had only to kill and eat, as game abounded. All 
 this is changed, and now buffalo are becoming so scarce that 
 in the vicinity of Wood Mountain they scarcely ever 
 appear. 
 
V 
 
 . -J* — — — - 
 
^IPWf l!ii(Pi|p T^^'S vRBRS TSHRvWSr^TO'Wt'W^MS ^At^MWI^^MRkvHAi 
 
 OF PART OF THE 
 
^mw) #f 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 Character of Country between lat. 50° and 51° West of Mamiioba. 
 
 Assiniboine below Brandon — Brandon — Assiniboine Rapid — Land near Brandon — Bran- 
 don Hills— Land along the C.P.E.— Flat Creek— Gopher Creek— Land West of Gopher 
 Creek — Pipestone Creek — Weedy and "Wolf Hills — Rich Country along the C. P. R. — 
 Qu'Appelle River — Navigation of the Qu'Appelle — Country North of the Qu'AppeUe — 
 Pheasant Plain, Leach Lake — Very rich Land in this Region — Long Lake — Fish in 
 Long Lake — Waterfowl — Creeks at the Head of Long Lake — Country West of 102nd 
 Meridian — Wood for House building and other Purposes — Country West of Touchwood 
 Hills — Estimate of good Land in Qu'Appelle Valley — UnequaUed tract for Wheat — 
 Early Ripening of Grain — Absence of Summer Frosts — Early Spring— Moose Jaw Creek 
 — Dry Country in its Vicinity — Sand Hills West of it — The Coteau — Old Wives Lakes 
 — Country West of Lakes — Excellent Pastures — Nutritious Grasses — ^Their Distribution 
 — Sage Brush and Cactus no Proof of Aridity — Bullrush Lake — Strong Current 
 Creek — Want of Wood — High broken Country — Appearance of Cypress Hills. 
 
 The traveller ascending the Assiniboine finds that, after 
 passing the mouth of the Souris, the eroding power of the 
 river ceases ; its width sensibly diminishes and its tortuous- 
 ness increases, while the banks become so low that from the 
 hurricane deck of a steamer an extensive view, especially to 
 the south and southwest, can be obtained. Owing to the 
 crookedness of the river the ascent is slowly made, and an 
 intelligent observer does not fail to notice that this is the 
 reason that boats can ascend the river, for were it less 
 crooked, and its waters not thus backed up, no boat could 
 ascend the stream. 
 
 The " Rapid," situated about eight miles above the mouth 
 of the Souris, is caused by a ridge of boulders which here 
 crosses the river, and which can be seen as a gravel and 
 boulder ridge, extending back from the river on both sides. 
 On the south side this line of boulders seems to extend in 
 the direction of the " Hills of Brandon." 
 
 The point on the Assiniboine which is now called Bran- 
 don but formerly the " Grand Valley," was well named. 
 The river banks at this point are very low, but some dis- 
 5 
 
66 > MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 tance back on both sides, the country rises gradually until 
 the general level of the prairie is attained. The vallfey 
 lying between these elevations well deserves the name 
 of " Grand." It is certainly destined to be a place of 
 great importance both as regards its farming capabilities 
 and railway and steamboat privileges. The soil, however, 
 on the south side cannot be called first-class, as it contains 
 much sand and gravel in the ridges back from the river, and 
 many boulders on its surface. There is none of it, however, 
 that will not be taken up, if indeed any of it has been left 
 since the " boom " of last summer. 
 
 About eight miles south of Brandon lie the " Brandon 
 Hills," which are very picturesque on the east side, as they 
 rise ridge over ridge from the level of the Souris, which here 
 runs in a deep valley. Aspen is still found in some 
 abundance along the slopes, but much of it is useless except 
 for firewood. Standing 150 feet above the plain, on the most 
 western ridge of the Brandon Hills, the traveller once looked 
 over a vast grassy plain stretched out at his feet, without 
 bush or mound to break its uniformity, except one solitary 
 conical hill rising from the centre. Now, standing on the 
 same point, he looks no longer on a solitary waste, but sees 
 the plain dotted with the cabins of the settlers, and their 
 cattle grazing peacefully in the little valleys or up their 
 slopes. One short year more and stacks of grain will be 
 grouped over every part of the plain, and what in the spring 
 of 1880 was a vast prairie covered with waving grass, will, 
 in the spring of 1882, be alive with settlers, and its solitude 
 and loneliness gone for ever. 
 
 Proceeding westward on the line of the C. P. R., the soil 
 is a light sandy loam for a number of miles with many 
 boulders near the railway. Beyond this, the country is first- 
 class and comparatively level, but altogether without wood. 
 About eleven miles out from Brandon, a patch of sand hills of 
 about a square mile in extent is passed on the left, containing 
 
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68 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 some wood, consisting of oak and aspen of small size, fit onlj 
 for fuel. These hills — like all sand hills — are flanked by 
 marshes and hence protected from fire by water. Westward 
 from this point to Flat Creek the railway keeps to the 
 marshy plain, which extends all along the base of the high 
 rolling country more to the north, and which lies between 
 it and the Assiniboine. 
 
 The tract lying between Flat Creek on the south and 
 Gopher Creek on the north, is generally low and marshy, or 
 consists of sand hills, altogether unfit for farming, but emi- 
 nently suited for grazing purposes. In the marshes around 
 the hills immense quantities of hay can be cut. There is 
 good pasture, wood, and shelter in the hills themselves and 
 permanent water abounds. 
 
 After passing the last mentioned creek the land rises 
 gradually and its character at once changes. An excellent 
 farming country is entered upon, which extends with very 
 little change to Moose Mountain, a distance of nearly sixty 
 miles. For the whole distance the soil is rich and fertile, 
 having a black sandy or clay loam surface soil, with the sub- 
 soil varying from gravel coated with carbonate of lime in the 
 ridges to a light ash-colored clay in the more level parts. 
 All the water is good as far as the 102nd Meridian, but 
 beyond that very little is found except in Moose Mountain 
 itself. 
 
 Pipestone Creek, flowing in a narrow valley about 190 
 feet deep, was, when I crossed it on the 26th of June, a rapid 
 stream about twenty-one feet wide and thirty inches deep. It 
 rises in the high country between the Qu' Appelle and Moose 
 Mountain, and flows to the southeast into Oak Lake, described 
 in a previous chapter. Near the lake the banks of the Pipe- 
 stone are low and the valley not so confined, but as the 
 stream is ascended the valley narrows and becomes much 
 deeper, so that it is with extreme difficulty that carts can be 
 taken across it. The summit of the valley slope is generally 
 
CHARACTER OF COUNTRT BETWEEN LAT. 50" AND 61°. 69 
 
 covered more or less with boulders, but this is no unusual 
 occurrence, as the higher slopes of nearly all the river valleys 
 of the plains are similarly covered. The upper part of the 
 valley is filled with wood, which extends in clumps into the 
 Wolf Hills, that were formerly covered with fine forests of 
 aspen, but these have nearly all disappeared within the last 
 thirty years. 
 
 The "Weedy and Wolf Hills are a continuation of the Moose 
 Mountain ridge, and are of the same general character. 
 Many diverse opinions will be expressed regarding this 
 region, as men of various temperaments view it. To one it 
 will be a land of ponds, marshes, wUlow bushes, aspen 
 clumps, and rolling hills, altogether unfit for farming on 
 account of the broken character of the surface. Another see- 
 ing these characteristics will consider each one an element of 
 future good, and will say, this is a land destined to 
 become the garden of the North-West. Both will notice 
 that the soil is unsurpassed for richness, and as they examine 
 the rich black clay loam, the croaker will declare that 
 the soil is too rich, and that wheat would be sure to lodge 
 owing to the length of straw. These objections have been 
 urged to myself time and again, but they fall to the ground 
 when fairly tested. The tract to which these remarks apply 
 will be in the market the coming summer. That part 
 of it west of the 102nd Meridian, included in Eanges from 
 1 to 10 west, and Townships 15, 16, 17, comprising about 
 2,000 square miles, will be found superior to any other 
 locality yet opened for settlement. 
 
 The Qu'Appelle Eiver joins the Assiniboine about three 
 miles above Fort Ellice. At its mouth, and for twenty miles 
 up to the mouth of the Big Cat Arm Creek, it averages 
 seventy feet in width, with a depth of from eight to twelve. 
 Cut Arm Creek comes in from the north and has a width of 
 twenty-five feet, with an average depth of about three. 
 Between Big Cut Arm Creek and the Pishing Lakes, the 
 
70 MANITOBA AND THE GEEAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 river still retaras its size, being very little under seventy 
 feet in breadth, but its depth varies from three to ten feet. 
 Between the Second Fishing Lake and the Assiniboine, the 
 distance in a straight line is about 110 miles, but by the 
 winding of the river in its valley the distance is increased 
 to 270 miles. Qn'Appelle Post and Mission are situated 
 between the four Fishing Lakes, which are noted for 
 their great depth and the abundance of white fish 
 {Goregonus alhus) drawn from their waters. Above these 
 lakes the river still retains a breadth of forty feet, but the 
 depth decreases, so that at the Grand Forks, or outlet of Long 
 Lake, it has become an insignificant stream. The total 
 length of the valley is about 250 miles, but owing to its 
 tortuousness the river cannot be less than 500 miles 
 long. The valley for the whole distance averages fully a 
 mile in width, and its depth varies from 200 to 300 feet. 
 Small steamers can ascend to the Mission without difficulty 
 when a few obstructions, caused by boulders, are taken out of 
 the river's bed. The eastern end of the valley is of little 
 value, as sand dunes and gravel hills choke up its northern 
 side. Before Big Cut Arm Creek is reached the soil of 
 the valley becomes very rich, and this is its general charac- 
 ter for nearly 200 miles. 
 
 general description of the country north of the 
 qu'appelle. 
 
 Extending from the Qu'Appelle, northwest by Pheasant^ 
 File, and Touchwood Hills to Quill Lakes, eastward ta 
 the vicinity of Livingstone, and southward, a little 
 east of the 102nd Meridian, is a tract of country containing 
 at least 7,000 square miles, or about four and a half million 
 acres of excellent soil. It is true that the western side 
 is almost devoid of wood, but to compensate, the hills,, 
 extending all along its flank, are covered with trees. 
 Pheasant Plain, which extends from the crossing of the Pelly 
 
CHAKACTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 50° AND 51°. 71 
 
 Eoad eastward for twenty-five miles, is altogether without 
 wood, but the soil is exceedingly rich, and at no point is 
 the wood to the southwest ten miles distant. Proceeding 
 northward of the travelled road, the country becomes more 
 broken, ponds and marshes are numerous, and wood increases 
 both in size and quality, until it merges into continuous 
 forest south of the present telegraph line. A rich black 
 loam, about fifteen inches in depth, containing small grains 
 of quartz or other rock, is the prevailing surface soil, but 
 this imperceptibly passes into lighter colored sandy loam, as 
 the timber becomes more continuous and of larger growth. 
 The subsoil is generally a light colored marly clay, but this 
 again, in the ridges, passes into gravel, which is generally 
 gneiss covered with a coating of carbonate of lime. 
 
 From a little west of the 102nd Meridian, boulders are 
 numerous for about twenty miles, and occasionally after- 
 wards, but no soil is seen too stony for successful cultiva- 
 tion. 
 
 At many points we dug into the subsoil, and found it as 
 above. Tested with acid, it always gave indications of a 
 very large percentage of carbonate of lime. 
 
 The timber, on the tract passed over by me, is of very 
 little value, but good poplar for building purposes will be 
 found on the hills. Other explorers, who travelled the 
 northern and eastern portion of this section, speak highly 
 of its timber and of its being in considerable quantity. 
 Spruce is also found in the northeastern corner of it. 
 
 Good water seems to prevail throughout the whole region, 
 although the running streams are few and quite small. 
 Leach Lake, being fr3sh water, may contain fish. As there 
 is abundance of timber in that section and good water, a 
 large settlement will spring up in a year or two. 
 
 The grass marshes so frequently spoken of, are abundant 
 in this section, and are from the size of a flower plot up to a 
 number of acres. 
 
72 MANITOBA AND THE GEEAT NOKTH-WEST. 
 
 Long or Last Mountain Lake lies in a depression that has 
 a gentle descent from the east, extending over at least ten 
 miles. It is forty miles long and has an average breadth of 
 about one mile and a half. At its southern extremity a 
 small stream, running in a deep but comparatively wide 
 valley, discharges its surplus waters into the Qu'Appelle. 
 This point is named the Grand Forks. Close to it must be 
 the future city of the C. P R., as a branch line will be run 
 before many years along the shores of Long Lake. Near the 
 outlet of the Lake the banks are high but they gradually 
 disappear, the high land on the one side passing into Last 
 Mountain, and on the other forming an escarpment on the 
 west side of the lake. 
 
 The waters of the lake are sweet and pleasant to the 
 taste, quite clear and of great depth. Multitudes of fish are 
 caught here every fall by Indians who come down from the 
 Touchwood Hills for the purpose of fishing. This lake and 
 the four Fishing lakes in the valley of the Qu'Appelle are 
 noted for their Whitefish that for many years have been a 
 source of supply to all the Indians of the valley. Before 
 many years steamboats will be plying on its waters, and the 
 lovely land bordering on its shores will be dotted with 
 farmhouses. 
 
 Except on Last Mountain no wood is to be seen, but coal 
 can be supplied by means of the lake and the C.P.R. One 
 of the richest tracts in the Qu'Appelle valley lies east and 
 north from Last Mountain and when known will be speedily 
 taken up by farmers, as the much dreaded frosts of the Sas- 
 katchewan valley are unknown. 
 
 While encamped near the head of this lake, in 1879, we 
 had ample opportunity to examine this portion of the 
 country. We were particularly charmed with its soil, pro- 
 ductions, and position. Multitudes of pelican, geese, ducks, 
 avocets, phalaropes, water hens, and grebe, besides innu- 
 merable snipe and plover were everywhere in the marshes 
 
CHARACTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 50° AND 51°. 73 
 
 at the head of the lake or along its shores, or on small 
 islands lying to the south of the camp. This was early in 
 July and experience tells me that not one-tenth was then 
 seen of the bird life assembled in September and October. 
 
 To the east of the head of the lake lay the rich country 
 which produced the enormous mushrooms referred to in 
 Chapter XI, when speaking of the lilies and other flowers 
 which caused me to call this region the " Flower Garden 
 of the Northwest " 
 
 Passing roimd the head of Long Lake, from the east, 
 we found a creek a few yards wide, with a sluggish 
 current and a very miry bottom. Scarcely a mile from the 
 first creek, we came to another of a totally different charac- 
 ter. This creek had a gentle current of clear water, was 
 nearly three feet in depth, and about eighteen wide. A 
 fish weir was seen a short distance above our crossing, show- 
 ing that fish ran up stream in the Spring. In half a mile, 
 we crossed another creek, but this contained much less water. 
 
 The middle creek, which is much the largest and which 
 certainly contains fish in Spring, seems to be the stream 
 which discharges Wolverine Creek. I believe the land on 
 this stream will be found of unquestionable value, as the 
 water in the creek was quite pure. 
 
 The section lying west of the 102nd Meridian is bounded 
 on the south by the Qu'Appelle, on the west by Long Lake, 
 and by a line running northeasterly from the head of Long 
 Lake to Quill Lakes. It may be said to have, both as regards 
 surface and subsoil, a similarity of character, varying 
 from deep black clay loam, with a light colored marly 
 clay subsoil, to a light sandy or gravelly loam, with a 
 gravelly subsoil. Some travellers taking the washed out 
 subsoil thrown out by badgers, or found in cart ruts, as the 
 real soil of the prairie, have characterized parts of this region 
 as gravelly and sandy, but pits dug into the subsoil showed 
 but a small percentage of either. 
 
74 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOETH-WEST. 
 
 Abundance of good water is found on every part of this 
 tract for the greater part of the summer, and future settlers 
 will find that good permanent wells can be obtained, at a 
 reasonable depth, on any part of the prairie. Poplar wood 
 for house-building, fencing, and firewood, can easily be pro- 
 cured at Pheasant, File, and Touchwood Hills, which ex- 
 tend from southeast to northwest through its whole extent. 
 Almost continuous woods extend along the Carlton road, 
 from twelve miles east of its western boundary to where 
 the Qu' Appelle and Pelly road crosses it. Thence, eastward, 
 extends the Pheasant Plain, a stretch of twenty-five miles 
 long, without wood, but Pheasant Hills having abundance of 
 it, are always in sight. East and northeast of this plain, 
 copse wood is more or less abundant, until the Assiniboine is 
 reached. West of the hills spoken of, no wood exists, but 
 the soil is of the very best description. 
 
 A depression, of which Long Lake partly fills the southern 
 end, extends up to Quill Lakes. Although less than twelve 
 miles wide where it crosses the travelled road from Carlton, 
 the name of "Great Salt Plain" is given to a tract thirty miles 
 from east to west. This valley contains many lakelets of 
 brackish water. An alkaline creek, which crosses the 
 road, seems to discharge the surplus waters of Quill Lakes 
 into Long Lake. In this depression no wood is found. In 
 fact, not a bush, so far as known, grows on a belt of country 
 twenty-five miles wide, extending from the Qu' Appelle to 
 Quill Lakes. 
 
 I may here state that the appearance of the country 
 just described, was altogether different from what I expect- 
 ed. I had been led to believe that much of it was little 
 else than desert. Having crosoed that part of i': north of 
 the Qu' Appelle, in the summer of 1879, I can speak with 
 certainty of the fertility of the immense plain sloping 
 towards that river on both sides. 
 
 Starting from the Qu' Appelle at its mouth, and pro- 
 
CHARACTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 50° AND 51°. 75 
 
 jecting a line nearly due west to the South Saskatchewan, a 
 distance of over 250 miles, and including only the land south 
 of the Touchwood Hills, a belt, with an average breadth of 
 100 miles, extends right up the Qu'Appelle. Here we have 
 25,000 square miles, or 16,000,000 acres of land lying in 
 one block, that to my own knowledge, has over 90 per cent, 
 fit for agricultural or pastoral purposes. The only poor soil 
 in this extensive tract is that portion between Spy Hill and 
 Fort Ellice, and two small groups of sand hills, lying at 
 the sources of the Qu'Appelle. No alkaline soil is known 
 on any part of it, except a narrow tract extending from the 
 head of Long Lake toward Quill Lakes. Numerous small 
 brooks are found on both sides of the river, and where there 
 are no brooks, ponds of good water are seldom wanting. 
 There will be no difficulty in obtaining first-class wheat 
 crops throughout the greater part of it, as the soil is gener- 
 ally a rich black loam, mixed with silica, and at times con- 
 taining more or less gravel. The subsoil, in nearly every 
 case, is a light colored clay, or clay intermixed with pebbles 
 coated with carbonate of lime. Nearly the whole of the 
 surface is a gently undulating plain easily drained, and over 
 three-fourths of it sloping to the south. The crops at the 
 Qu'Appelle Mission, about the centre of the area, ripen 
 earlier than in any other part of the North-West ; barley 
 having been cut, both in 1879 and 1880, during the last 
 week in July. No summer frost has ever been reported 
 from this region, and authentic reports say, that the spring 
 is two weeks earlier than at "Winnipeg, Forty miles west 
 of the File Hills, wood is no longer found, and from that to 
 the Saskatchewan, not a bush of any description is seen. 
 
 Moose Jaw Creek, about eight miles below its confluence 
 with Thunder Creek takes a great bend to the east. At 
 this point the sides of the valley are one hundred and forty 
 feet deep. The breadth of the Creek is only sixteen feet, 
 with about four inches of flowing water. Small clumps of 
 maple and ash were observed, but no poplar. 
 
76 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 For the last twenty miles east of the Creek the country 
 was very dry, and shewed signs of drought but the soil 
 was rich and the grass tall. At our crossing, the creek flowed 
 from the southeast, but a short distance lower down, it 
 turned almost due east and then north, until it emptied into 
 the Qu'appelle. 
 
 West of Moose Jaw Creek the country changed at once, 
 and four miles south of our crossing passed into sand hills 
 which extended as low mounds from that point westward 
 and northward. 
 
 For thirty miles west from the creek the country was 
 very dry, and frequently sand and gravel hills were seen 
 with occasional patches of cactus, Opuntia Miasouriensis 
 where the surface was sandy ; but much good soil covered 
 with rich grass was also passed. To the south of our line of 
 travel the country was more hilly than to the north. 
 
 As we neared the base of the Coteau, alkaline plants 
 became common, and small brackish lakes frequent, these 
 being the usual harbingers of the approach to the Third 
 Prairie Steppe, or Coteau. At every point where I have 
 touched the Coteau I have noticed saline soil which has 
 evidently been formed from the washing away of the face 
 ■of the hills. 
 
 A journey of twenty-eight miles, through a broken hilly 
 country brought us to the head of Old Wives Lakes, which 
 lie in a depression between the hills. The head of the north- 
 ern Lake, is a series of detached alkaline ponds with mud 
 margins and very brackish water. 
 
 The waters of the Lakes are quite clear, but very salt. 
 Strange to say, environed by the before mentioned salt pools 
 a spring of excellent water was found not 100 yards from 
 the head of the northern lake. This Lake is quite shallow for 
 a long distance out, and the eastern side for many miles is 
 much indented by points and bays. The western side is less 
 broken, and is backed by higher hills than those which rise 
 
CHARACTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 50" AND 61°. 77 
 
 to the east. The twenty-eight miles of broken country 
 passed through before reaching the lake, is well suited for 
 pasturage, as there is abundance of water both fresh and 
 brackish in the hills, and the soil is of varying character, 
 sand or gravel prevailing. 
 
 Passing west from Old Wives Lakes, the hills change 
 their character and run in parallel ranges, from northeast 
 to southwest with abundance of good pure water in ponds. 
 Occasional swampy lakes varied the scenery. For about 
 twenty-one miles west of the lakes, very little of the land 
 could be claimed as agricultural, but all is excellent pasture. 
 
 In the fifty-one miles referred to above, the leading 
 grasses were all of the most valuable kinds for pas- 
 ture. They were noted for their value in the fol- 
 owing order. Stipa spartea (wild oats as named in 
 Manitoba), took the lead, as indeed it does on all 
 fairly dry and rich soils from Fort Ellice to the Rocky 
 Mountains. This grass is preferred at all seasons by horses 
 when travelling on the prairies, except late in July and 
 August when its seeds are ripe. After the frosts come, 
 horses always seek for this grass, and it is this species that 
 constitutes the principal buffalo grass of the great plains. 
 The other or more southern buffalo grass {Bouteloua 
 oligostacliya), easily known by its curling leaves, and 
 peculiar panicles of flowers was seen in some abundance on 
 the drier knolls, but it is only found iu quantity where the 
 soil is inclined to be arid, or much further to the southwest. 
 JHticum repens (Couch or Quick grass), is always found 
 where the soil is a strong clay, and wherever it is abundant, 
 sand IS not to be found. Koderia cristata and Poa coesia 
 grasses which have a tendency to grow in bunches, and are 
 hence often classed as " bunch grasses," were comparatively 
 common on the dry hills. These five species may be said 
 to constitute the bulk of the western pastures, but more 
 especially the three first mentioned. Artemisia cana 
 
78 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 (Canadian sage brusli), was met with, in some abundance on 
 the clay plaia, twenty miles west of Old Wives Lakes, 
 and is the same plant as that found by Palliser, nearly in 
 the same longitude, at the Elbow of the South Saskatchewan, 
 and called by him Artemisia tridentata, or the true American 
 sage brush, which in reality never crosses our boundary east 
 of the Eocky Mountains. This plant is no proof of aridity 
 of climate as it is found only on Cretaceous clay, and wherever 
 that crops out it is sure to be seen. At the present time it is 
 growing at the base of the hill on the left bank of the 
 Assiniboine, just opposite the mouth of the Qu'Appelle at 
 Fort EUice, and as a proof that even the presence of the 
 ■cactus does not always indicate aridity of climate, I may 
 state that anyone may find cactus growing in the Qu'Appelle 
 Valley, just south of where the Carlton road ascends out of 
 it. Here then are the two plants, which former writers 
 cited as proofs of the aridity of the climate of our western 
 plains, found growing in the neighborhood of Fort Ellice 
 where the rain-fall is known- to be abundant, because here 
 they find a suitable soil — the first mentioned, clay, the latter 
 clay and sand with a suitable amount of alkaline matter. 
 
 Twenty-five miles west of Old "Wives Lakes, is a fine 
 large fresh-water lake, called BuUrush Lake, which is at 
 least eight miles long and five broad. Three creeks enter 
 it from the north and west, and another discharges its sur- 
 plus waters from the south end. Clay cliflfs over sixty feet 
 high, are along the eastern side, and its waters, even at 
 less than a rod from the shore, are very deep. At 
 the north end of the lake, the trail from the Elbow joins the 
 other coming from Qu'Appelle. Four miles east of the 
 lake, good agricultural land was entered upon, which 
 extended all around it. As we rounded the north end a 
 sluggish stream was crossed, and beyond it another with 
 water standing in deep pools. These streams come 
 from the north. About two miles to the south another 
 
CHARACTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 50" AND 51°. 79 
 
 and larger stream was found coming from the hills and 
 emptying into the head of the lake. Crossing the plain and 
 a narrow range of hills with a rich, sandy loam surface soil, 
 we descended into another valley and here found Strong 
 Current Creek flowing to the east. Within a short dis- 
 tance, it turns to the north and enters a range of hills 
 which shuts in the valley on that side. The creek flowed 
 down a valley from the west and meandered through it, 
 having banks about ten feet high. Its bed was thirty yards 
 wide, but there was flowing water only over part of it. A 
 few willows grow in its bed, and these were the only 
 brush seen in seventy-six miles, as not a bush exists around 
 any of the lakes spoken of 
 
 Nearly the whole of the tract lying between the 
 Cypress Hills and Old Wives Lakes, has excellent soil, 
 and at tiraes spreads out into wide, slightly undulating 
 plains, covered with tall, rich grass. In other parts high 
 rolling hills with deep valleys, having a northwest and south- 
 east direction, are met with. Old Wives Creek receives the 
 drainage of all these hills, but it is only in spring that any 
 flow of water passes over its stony bed. The highest land 
 is always to the north and west, and some of the ridges or 
 narrow plateaux passed over, were found even higher than 
 the eastern end of the Cypress Hills. Occasionally brackish 
 lakes were seen, but water of any description was not abun- 
 dant, although we never suffered from the want of it. The 
 last twenty miles was over a gently undulating plain, with 
 fair soil and but little water. As we approached the Cypress 
 Hills, they rose before us bodily from the plain to the height 
 of 400 feet, with the various ravines which penetrated the 
 eastern face of the escarpment filled with wood. Along 
 their base were the usual alkaline ponds and poor soil, but 
 these were much restricted as Strong Current Creek was 
 found flowing south along the base of the hills. After 
 passing three miles south of our camp, it turns boldly to the 
 
80 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOETH-WEST. 
 
 north, so that before reaching the hills we were compelled 
 to cross it twice in less than two miles. Blue hills shut in 
 the horizon to the north ; twenty-five miles to the south- 
 east lay the high ridges we had left the preceding day, and 
 an interminable plain stretched away to the south, while in 
 our front were the Cypress Hills themselves. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 Character of Country hetween lat. 51° and 52" West of 
 
 Manitoha. 
 
 Country West of the Assiniboine — Beaver and Touchwood Hills — Heavy Forest — Rich 
 and Lovely Country — Great Salt Plain — Immense Plain to the South — Tract North of 
 the Qu'Appelle — Rich Soil and Rank Grass — Last Mountain — Water Scarce en Sur- 
 face — Broken Country, Twenty-two Miles Wide — Fine Pasture Lands — ITo Bad Soil 
 in Eighty Miles — Lines of Boulders, near Humboldt — Cause of Wood at Certain 
 Points — Extensive Plain Southwest of Touchwood Hills — Salt Marshes — Little Touch- 
 wood Hills — Mission at this Point — File Hills — South Saskatchewan, Voyage Dowi^ 
 It — Moose Woods — North of Moose Woods — Land East of River — Soil of Great Depth^- 
 — Aroline, or Telegraph Crossing — Rich Land — Country West of River — Fine Level 
 Tract— Eagle Creek— Eagle Hills, Fine Country for Stock. 
 
 After passing above the mouth of Shell River the land on 
 the right bank of the Assiniboine becomes exceedingly rich, 
 and in every respect as good as that east of the river. All 
 travellers and surveyors speak in the highest terms of the 
 land west of Fort Pelly and south of the telegraph line, 
 and although much of it is wet and generally covered with 
 forest or brush it is a very desirable country. The Beaver 
 and Touchwood Hills farther to the west are covered in part 
 with heavy forest, and although not suitable for present set- 
 tlement, owing to the forest and marsh which predominate 
 in some places, yet there are large areas covered with a 
 wealth of tall grass, pea vine, vetch, and lovely flowers that 
 will tempt the pioneers of the next few years to locate in 
 the park like country both north and south of these so-called 
 hills. 
 
 Extending west from the Touchwood Hills, is a level plain 
 without wood for thirty miles on the line of the Carlton 
 trail. This plain has been erroneously called the Great Salt 
 Plain, whereas the part of it to which the term applies, is 
 scarcely twelve miles wide on the trail. Stretching westerly 
 6 
 
82 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 from the hills, a plain over 120 roiles wide extends to the 
 South Saskatchewan For nearly the whole distance, the 
 surface is undulating or quite level with occasional waves 
 a mile or two apart. Scarcely a twig exists on the whole 
 plain. Fresh water and excellent soil are found every- 
 where. In the southern part, near the head of Little Arm 
 Creek, the country is broken into rolling hills, but the soil 
 is very rich. 
 
 The following description of this tract was written on the 
 ground, and gives a general picture of this section The 
 country described is generally on the 106th meridian from 
 the Qu'Appelle River north. 
 
 Our course was now due north for eighty mUes, so as to 
 traverse the great plain, extending northward from the 
 Qu'Appelle, in its greatest length. The soil of this plain 
 was thought to be generally sandy, so I resolved to examine 
 it every mile for the whole distance. We did not expect 
 to find any wood and but very little water on the journey, 
 so, after filling our kegs and piling a week's wood on our 
 carts, we started north. 
 
 Ascending out of the valley we found that the upper 
 part of the slope and the outer margin of the plateau, were 
 covered with boulders just as we had found them on the 
 southern side. As we receded from the river, the plain crossed 
 on September 11th began to assume the appearance of a 
 range of hills, but we knew it was only the undulations 
 rising slightly one over the other, and that no hills existed 
 in that direction. This is the Eye Brow Hill Range of 
 Hind's Report. For sixteen miles from the river, the 
 plateau was almost level, with a slight rise to the north. 
 The soil near the river was a light sandy loam with short 
 grass, but this soon changed for the better and the grass 
 became taller. 
 
 From the crest of the plateau, spoken of above, we could 
 see an immense distance to the west and north over a bound- 
 
CHARACTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 51" AND 52°. 83 
 
 less plain. Apparently about forty miles off, Last Mountain 
 rose from the plain, standing alone being a very promi- 
 nent object on the horizon in the northeast. Our course led 
 us along the edge of the plateau, and occasionally "cut banks " 
 could be seen in the distance, showing the course of Little 
 Arm Creek. All day we travelled over a level prairie, 
 covered with good grass, and having excellent soil but 
 not a drop of water except at the creek. Another day, over 
 the same level prairie, with Little Arm Creek flowing 
 through it, brought us to the margin of a broken, h'^ly 
 country which extended east and west as far as we could 
 see, and was twenty-two miles from south to north. 
 
 As we proceeded north, the soil constantly improved ; the 
 grass was always tall, water abundant and good, and this 
 tract although rough and much broken by lakelets, ponds, 
 hay-marshes, and hills, had a rich soil and was well suited 
 for pasture everywhere. Near the head of Little Arm 
 Creek, clumps of bushes were observed nestling along the 
 margin of some lakelets. These showed that, if fires could 
 only be stopped, bushes suitable to shelter stock would 
 soon grow up. 
 
 A descent of 100 feet brought us to a plain, which extend- 
 ed far to the north, while the hills we had just left, ran 
 almost due east and west. Fifteen miles over the plain 
 brought us to our most northern limit, latitude 51° 43' 
 
 In travelling the eighty miles just described, I never 
 observed bad soil. No sandy soil was seen except close to 
 the Qu'Appelle. The greater part of the surface was level 
 or gently rolling, and where it did rise into hills, the soil was 
 always good. I constantly dug into the dry knolls and 
 found excellent soil, although pebbles were on the surface 
 and boulders were frequently seen. For the first thirty- 
 five miles water was scarce, but after that it was always 
 plentiful. Brackish water was never detected, except 
 once, until we descended from the line of hills. After that 
 
84 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 occasional pools were seen in circular depressions or narrow 
 valleys. For tlie last fifteen miles boulders on the knolls 
 were of constant occurrence. Occasionally the country 
 became more rolling and a few willows and small poplars 
 about two years old were seen around the hollows, but not 
 large enough to use as fiiel. 
 
 Turning east we travelled for twenty-five miles over 
 either a level or undulating prairie, with a clay loam surface 
 soil, having numerous boulders at times scattered over it. 
 The high ground left on Saturday, Sept. 11th, was seen in 
 the south, but to the north a high undulating country alone 
 was visible, with occasional patches of small wood. 
 
 We now crossed a stony tract about five miles wide, 
 running north and south, and afterwards entered on a 
 level sandy loam plain, which extended to Wolverine Creek, 
 a distance of six miles. This plain showed signs of alkali, and 
 was the poorest land we had seen since leaving Strong Cur- 
 rent Creek. After getting a supply of wood and communi- 
 cating with Humboldt so as to fix our longitude, I turned 
 south for the purpose of traversing what is known as the 
 Great Salt Plain. Had the country in the vicinity of Hum- 
 boldt continued as good as farther south, no wood would be 
 found here either, but the stony tract referred to with 
 jxumerous marshes, ponds and long narrow lakes, lying south 
 of the woods, stops the tires and saves the wood. The soil 
 near the margin of the woods was a dark colored sandy loam, 
 containing a very large percentage of silica. 
 
 This sandy and alkaline soil vanished as soon as we 
 crossed Wolverine Creek, which is here nothing but a series 
 of pools connected by sloughs. Proceeding south we entered 
 upon a very level plain, which continued without change, 
 except for the better, for thirty miles. Many clumps of 
 small poplars of from one to six years growth were passed, 
 and occasionally a narrow ridge or roll in the prairie, but 
 nothing like a hill was seen for many miles. Near the 
 
CHARACTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 61° AND 52°. 85 
 
 centre of this tract we crossed a fine creek twenty feet wide, 
 with two feet of flowing water in it, which is probably the 
 discharge of Quill Lakes, and is the middle creek that 
 enters the head of Long Lake. The creek merely runs in a 
 slight depression, with banks nowhere more than four feet 
 high, margin always dry and no signs of alkali. For many 
 miles a higher tract could be seen to the west, with many 
 prominences covered with trees or brushwood, but this dis- 
 appeared or merged into the high country which lies to the 
 southwest, and which is a continuation of the elevated region 
 described as extending east and west from the head of Little 
 Arm Creek. In the direction of the Touchwood Hills high 
 rolling land could be seen, with occasional patches of wood. 
 On this whole plain the greater part of the grass was 
 tall enough for hay, water was abundant and always good, 
 the soil invariably a rich sandy or clay loam, and no gravel 
 except in the subsoil. The only poor land observed was a 
 narrow strip on each side of Wolverine Creek. 
 
 Crossing a small stream flowing nearly west we passed for 
 six miles through a very fine country with rich soil, but 
 all the depressions were alkaline and the marsh water gen- 
 erally brackish. The country at this point seemed to be 
 covered on the higher ground with a thia coating of drift, 
 but this in the lower places gave place to Cretaceous clay, 
 which here took the form of white mud swamps instead of 
 the hard baked clay flats of the southern prairies, where- the 
 rainfall was light. Having reached a small creek flowing to 
 the west, and seeing Last Mountain lying southeast of us, we 
 changed our course to the southeast before crossing the creek, 
 and very soon entered on another part of the plain spoken 
 of above, which was much more difficult to cross owing to 
 numerous white mud swamps that lay in our course. Reach- 
 ing the creek again, now flowing in a valley about half a 
 mile wide, and crossing it with extreme difficulty, we entered 
 on a fine undulating country of great extent. 
 
86 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOETH-WEST. 
 
 The tract described above is the only alkaline soU we saw 
 on the " Great Salt Plain," which certainly is a misnomer, 
 as I stated in my report of last year. That an extensive, 
 treeless, and in some parts waterless plain, extends west and 
 northwest from the Touchwood Hills I admit, but I do not 
 admit, and am prepared to disprove that an alkalLue plain 
 thirty miles wide extends either on the Carlton trail or any 
 other line west or northwest from the Touchwood Hills. 
 There is undoubtedly a saline depression extending from 
 Quill Lakes to Long Lake, the worst parts of which are 
 largely made up of white mud swamps or brackish marshes, 
 but there are no data to show that it covers twenty per cent, 
 of the area assigned to it. 
 
 The country around the flanks of the Touchwood Hills is 
 much broken or undulating, and has a good rich soil varying 
 from dark colored clay loam to sandy loam. It is always 
 covered with a certain amount of dark earth, and frequently, 
 when gravel is seen on the surface, none is found by digging. 
 The subsoil is usually a light colored clay loam, containing 
 more or less gravel, which is generally covered with 
 carbonate of lime. A line of broken country connects the 
 Little Touchwood Hills and Last Mountain, and is more or 
 less covered with small poplar copse. "Were the country level 
 no wood could grow, as fires constantly sweep over the level 
 ground without obstruction, and destroy all the young wood. 
 
 I left my party when we reached the trail leading from 
 Qu'Appelle to the Mission, and found the Missionary getting 
 in his potatoes and other roots. His crops this year were 
 very fine, the frost having done them no harm. He showed 
 me over four hundred bushels of as fine potatoes as I ever saw, 
 and told me all the Indians had abundance of them. Owing to 
 the broken nature of the surface, farming by white men at 
 this point would not be profitable, but it seems just the place 
 for Indians. Patches of good arable land, interspersed with 
 little lakes and hay marshes, were seen everywhere, and 
 
CHARACTER OF COUNTRT BETWEEN LAT. 51° AND 52°. 87 
 
 from the abundance of feathered game at this time (October 
 1st) it might be called the hunter's paradise. In three or 
 four days any man with a breech loading shot-gun could 
 have supplied himself with his winter's meat, as all lakes 
 and ponds at that time were alive with ducks of many 
 species. Indeed, from the middle of August until the lakes 
 and ponds freeze up for the winter, water fowl are very 
 plentiful everywhere. Multitudes breed in the country, 
 and about the middle of September the sea ducks begin to 
 arrive, and myriads of them crowd every pond. 
 
 A ride of fifteen miles over a very rough trail brought 
 me to Touchwood Post, on the Carlton Trail. The country 
 between these two points — especially the western part — is 
 very rough and much broken up by ponds and lakelets, with 
 intervening ridges, but except on the western side near the 
 Mission, nothing worthy of being called a hill was seen. What 
 is generally denominated the Touchwood Hills by travellers 
 is merely the broken country lying between the Little and 
 Big Touchwood Hills, the one lying to the right of the trail, 
 the other to the left. In the vicinity of the Mission, on the 
 Indian Reserve, are fine groves of large-sized poplar, well 
 suited for house building, and, excepting this, very little but 
 second growth aspen and brush was seen. 
 
 I may as well state in this connection that the Touch- 
 wood Hills and File Hills as regards altitude can scarcely be 
 considered hills at all. They are merely elevated plateaux, 
 or more strictly speaking watersheds, protected from fire by 
 innumerable ponds and marshes, which are scattered every- 
 where over their surface, and in my estimation can never be 
 first-clas: farming lands, though well suited for hay and 
 stock farms. The Big Touchwood Hills extend eastward 
 and merge into the Beaver Hills, and both are merely an 
 elevated tract from which the small streams flowing to the 
 Qu'Appelle on the south, or the White Sand River on the 
 north receive their waters. Experience has taught me that 
 
88 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 ■wherever trees and brushwood are found, there we may look 
 for a broken country, and one that contains too much water, 
 while the open treeless prairie, generally condemned to 
 sterility, is by far the best farming land. 
 
 From the Elbow of the South Saskatchewan to its junction 
 with the North Branch below Prince Albert, the river 
 meanders through a valley of varying width, which cannot 
 be better described than by reproducing the account written 
 by Prof. Hind of his canoe voyage down the River from the 
 Elbow in August, 1858. 
 
 " The banks of the river slope gently from the prairie on 
 the southwest side to an altitude of about 250 feet, they 
 then become abrupt. On the northwest side the Sandstone 
 cliff, varying from thirty to sixty feet in altitude, rises 
 abruptly from the river, then follows a hilly slope to the 
 prairie level. Trees, consisting chiefly of aspen, are found 
 in patches on both sides. The river continues about half a 
 mile broad, with numerous sand-bars and low alluvial islands. 
 The drift above the sandstone is gravelly, and many small 
 sand dunes occur on the hill bank sloping to the prairie, and 
 have progressed beyond the prairie to a considerable dis- 
 tance. A treeless prairie, boundless and green, except where 
 the patches of drifting sand occur, is visible on either hand 
 from the top of the bank ; below, the river glides with a 
 strong current two and two and-a-half miles an hour, filling 
 the broad trench or valley it has eroded. The June berry, 
 La Poire, is very abundant ; shrubs or trees, eighteen to 
 twenty feet high, loaded with this fruit, perfectly ripe and 
 of excellent flavor, are numerous in every grove ; the ber- 
 ries are of the size of large black currants, very juicy and 
 sweet. This shrub is the La Poire of the Red River Voyar 
 geurs. 
 
 " About twelve miles from our camp, or sixty miles from 
 the Elbow, forests of aspen begin to show themselves on the 
 banks, after passing through a low country, which is an 
 
CHARACTER Or COUNTRY BETWEEN ,LAT. 51° AND 52". 89 
 
 expansion of the river valley. Ripple marks are numerous 
 on the fresh mud, the furrows lying parallel to the course of 
 the stream. They are quite recent and similar to those observ- 
 ed on Red River in spring. The ash-leaved maple begins 
 to show itself, but the aspen is the prevailing tree. The 
 woods are not continuous, and the prairie on either side of 
 the river remains bare ; it is fast regaining its former alti- 
 tude. Sand hills are visible in the distance from the top of 
 the bank La Poire is very abundant and fine flavored. 
 The exposed cliffs consist of reddish loam, and the rock is no 
 longer seen below them. At a point fifty -three miles from 
 the Elbow, we made a careful section of the river, and found 
 its breadth to be nearly one-third of a mile (28 chains) ; its 
 greatest depth was ten feet on the east side, but on the west 
 side there is another channel with nine feet of water. 
 
 "As we approached the Moose Woods we passed for several 
 hours between a series of low alluvial islands, from ten to 
 twelve feet above the water. They sustain some fine elm, 
 balsam, poplar, ash, ash-leaved maple, and a vast profusion 
 of La Poire. The river valley is bounded by low hills lead- 
 ing to the prairie plateau four to eight miles back. The 
 country here furnishes an excellent district for the estab- 
 lishment of a settlement. The spot where we camped for 
 the night is an extensive, open, undulating meadow, with 
 long rich grass, and on the low elevations rose-bushes, in 
 bloom, grow in the greatest profusion. It is only ten feet 
 from the water, yet it does not appear to be flooded in the 
 spring ; water-marks and ice -marks are nowhere seen above 
 four feet from the present level of the broad river. 
 
 " The region called the Moose Woods, which we entered 
 last evening, is a dilatation of the Saskatchewan flowing 
 through an extensive alluvial flat six miles in breadth, and 
 cut into numerous islands by the changing course of the 
 stream. This flat is bounded by sand hills, some of which are 
 nothing more than shifting dunes. The woods are in patches. 
 
90 MANITOBA AND THB GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 and in the low land consist of balsam poplar, white wood, 
 and aspen. Small aspen clumps cover the hills, but no liv- 
 ing timber of importance has been seen as yet, although 
 many fine dead trunks are visible, probably destroyed by 
 fire. The river continues to flow through a broad alluvial 
 flat for about twenty-five miles. Its water is very turbid 
 like that of the Mississippi, holding much solid matter in 
 mechanical suspension. 
 
 " Beyond the Moose Woods the banks close upon the river^ 
 and have an altitude not exceeding sixty feet. The breadth of 
 the stream contracts to 250 yards, with a current fiilly three 
 miles an hour. On the east bank the prairie is occasionally 
 wooded with clumps of aspen, on the west side it is treeless, 
 and shows many sand hills. During the afternoon we land- 
 ed frequently to survey the surrounding country. Nothing 
 but a treeless, slightly undulating prairie was visible ; many 
 large fragments of limestone not much water-worn lie on 
 the hill banks of the river, which is about 100 feet in 
 altitude. The river continues very swift, and maintains a 
 breadth of 250 yards. Frequent soundings during the day 
 showed a depth of ten to twelve feet. A little timber dis- 
 plays itself occasionally on the east bank below the level of 
 the prairie. 
 
 "At 8 A.M. we arrived at a part of the river where it 
 showed an increase in breadth ; it is now about a quarter of 
 a mile broad, still flowing through a treeless plain, in which 
 only one low hill is visible. This character continues for 
 many miles, the hill banks then begin to increase in altitude? 
 and are about 100 feet high, but the river flows through a 
 dreary treeless plain for thirty miles from our camp, after 
 which " The Woods," as they are termed, begin ; they con- 
 sist of a few clumps of aspen on the hill flanks of the deep 
 valley of the river. The face of the country is changing 
 fast, it is becoming more undulating, and patches of aspen 
 woods appear on the prairie ; here and there, however, the 
 
r 
 
 CHARACTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 51° AND 52°. 91 
 
 remains of a heavier growth are visible in clusters of black- 
 ened trunks ten to fourteen inches in diameter. During the 
 afternoon we anchored to measure the rate of the current. 
 The river is 200 yards broad, and it flows three miles and a 
 half an hour. Its average depth is seven and a half feet." 
 
 . The land on the east side of the river was examined by 
 Mr. George Simpson, D. L. S., during the past season all the 
 way from the " Elbow " to the Middle Crossing (Batoche's) 
 and pits were dug every twenty miles to the depth of four 
 feet. Excepting a little in the neighborhood of the Elbow,, 
 all land passed over and examined by him was first class. 
 He reports that along the river the soil is rather sandy. 
 These views are in accordance with my own. Later still a 
 correspondent of the " Globe " reports that in this sandy belt, 
 Mr. Clark, who keeps the ferry at the Telegraph Crossing,, 
 informed him that, though the soil was not particularly 
 promising in appearance, it was remarkably productive. 
 " Everything in his garden grew and matured admirably 
 this season, and he is very confident that grain would do 
 well here. Large quantities of small timber are to be 
 found along the banks of the South Saskatchewan within 
 easy reach, and altogether ' Aroliue or the Telegraph 
 Crossing' as it is called, promises to become a prosperous 
 settlement in time." 
 
 On the west side of the river the surface of the country 
 is drier and less broken than on the east. Although the 
 soil is sandy loam and contains some gravel and in places 
 boulders on the surface, taken as a whole, the district be- 
 tween the two rivers, south from Duck Lake, to the Moose 
 "Woods, will make a fine agricultural settlement. I know 
 that all manner of reports have been spread regarding it, but 
 I still cling to my own opinions, corroborated as they are by 
 the thorough examination of Mr. Simpson and the in- 
 telligent correspondent of the " Globe " who remarks of the 
 section west of the river : — 
 
92 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 " For the first few miles this morning the trail led along 
 fine uplands, from which we were enabled to take our last 
 look at the great discolored slopes away to the north of the 
 river, where the purple bronze of the leafless bluffs contrast- 
 ed richly with the limitless stretches of pale yellow prairie 
 grass, a glorious boundless expanse that will some day be 
 dotted over with countless farm houses, and be the home of 
 a hardy, wealthy, and prosperous community, but which is 
 now only pressed by the stealthy tread of the coyote as he 
 chases the timorous hare, and where even the lonely moose is 
 seldom disturbed by the prowling half-starved savage. 
 
 " As we left the bank of the great prairie stream of the 
 north, we passed through broad stretches of treeless plain, 
 where the soil is both rich and dry, but the presence of 
 many small boulders is likely to render it unpopular with 
 farmers so long as the settler has so much choice country 
 from which to select. 
 
 " We have travelled some twenty -nine miles according to 
 our own estimate of distances through open, treeless prairie, 
 where the soil looks rather light and gravelly, but where 
 the rich growth of buffalo grass would indicate that it is 
 much more productive than it appears to be. Indeed it is 
 rather difficult to judge fairly of a prairie country at this 
 season' of the year, as everything looks parched and dried up 
 with the severe frosts of early winter." 
 
 Westward of this tract the country gradually merges into 
 the broken ground along the southeastern part of the Eagle 
 Hills. Before reaching these. Eagle Creek is crossed flowing 
 through a valley covered with tall rich grass, and beyond, 
 the hills rise in tumultuous masses without any order. 
 Nearly all the land is good. In all the valleys the grass 
 was of sufficient length for mowing. Excellent fresh water 
 is found everywhere. Few localities could be found better 
 adapted for stock raising than this part of the Eagle Hills. 
 Should fire wood and shelter be wanted all that is necessary 
 
CHARACTER OF COUNTRY BET-WEEN LAT. 51° AND 52°. 93 
 
 is to move farther north towards the Saskatchewan, where 
 there is abundance of both in the Eagle Hills. Numerous 
 brooks of never failing water flow from the hills into the 
 Saskatchewan. 
 
CHAPTEK VI. 
 
 Character of Country between lat. 52° and 53° West of 
 Manitoba. 
 
 Porcupine Mountain — Country on Red Deer Eiver — Soil very Eioh — Exhaustless Fertility 
 of the Carrot River Country — Prince Albert Settlement— Its Early History— Wonderful 
 Progress in a few Years — Description of the Settlement — Many Houses in Course of 
 Erection — Fall Sowed Wheat a Success — No injury from Frost — Duck Lake Settlement 
 — Fort Carlton and its Vicinity — Country between the Rivers — Eagle Creek — The Bear 
 and Eagle Hills — Land South of Them — Description of Battleford and Vicinity — Its 
 Future Sketched Out — Land in the Neighborhood — Character of Soil — Police Farm at 
 Battleford — The Government Farm — Remarkable Vitality of Seeds — Depth of Roots in 
 the Soil — Plain South of Battleford — Coulees of the Plain — Their Origin — Country 
 North of Bear HiUs — Splendid Pasture Land — Water Abundant — Grasses of the Plains 
 — Cause of Absence of Wood — Constant Prairie Fires — Why the South side of a HiU is 
 without Wood — What Causes Aridity — Description of Hand HiUs — Cactus not a Proof 
 of Aridity of Climate — Fine Rich Land South of Battleford — Immense Area of Good 
 Land — Manito Lake — Sounding Lake — Neutral Hills — Fine Pastoral Land to the 
 Southwest — Land around Sullivan's Lake — Fine Land West of Sounding Lake — 
 Rich Country at the Head of Battle River — Millions of Tons of Hay in This Re- 
 gion — General View of the Country — Lakes Filled with Fish — Beaver still Numer- 
 ous — AU Lakes and Ponds Filled with Birds in Spring and Fall — Bears and Wolves 
 Numerous some Seasons, but Never Injurious Except to Small Stock. 
 
 The Porcupine Mountain lies west of the Duck Mountain, 
 and is separated from it by Swan River and its valley. It 
 is bounded on the east and north by marshes, but on the 
 south and west it passes by easy transitions into the more 
 elevated plateau to the west. The " Mountain " itself is 
 covered with a heavy forest of spruce and aspen. The 
 trees, being preserved from fire by the surrounding marshes, 
 attain a large size. 
 
 Red Deer River, emptying into the northwestern corner 
 of Lake Winnipegoosis, passes through a fine country. Its 
 upper part possesses a soil only excelled by that of Carrot 
 River, a fine stream which flows parallel to it and empties 
 into the Saskatchewan, east of Cumberland House. All 
 travellers and explorers unite in praising this extensive 
 
CHARACTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 52° AND 53°. 95 
 
 region, and settlers wlio went there two years since, have 
 produced enormous crops on soil which is practically inex- 
 haustible 
 
 Marcus Smith, C. E., who travelled through this region 
 in 1879, thus expresses himself regarding it : " We travelled 
 southward from Fort a la Corne to Carrot Kiver, and up 
 the banks of the latter to its outlet from Water Hen Lake. 
 Here we found several fields of wheat with very heavy 
 ■crops nearly ripe, and two farm homesteads. I examined 
 the well at one of them and found a depth of six feet of 
 black mould on the top, with sixteen feet of stiff clay loam 
 to the bottom of the well. Mr. Robinson, the proprietor, in- 
 formed me that this summer fourteen farms had been select- 
 ed and a number of farmers were coming in next spring. 
 
 " We started from the Lake on a course 30° east bearing 
 for Little Quill Lake, and reached the summit of the range 
 ■without difficulty, about nineteen miles from the Lake, in 
 which the rise is less than 200 feet. The surface of the 
 ground is very uniform, the soil of the richest quality, and 
 several feet in depth. It is equal to the best parts of Manitoba 
 — chiefly prairie with scattered clumps of poplar and willow, 
 till near the summit of the ridge, which is nearly covered 
 with a forest of poplar. Between Humboldt and Quill Lakes 
 -the country is variable in some places, low and swampy 
 where there is much willow brush, but eastward of this line, 
 where the trail crosses the telegraph line, there are several 
 miles of a beautiful park-like country, the trail wandering 
 in open glades through groves of aspen. Before we reached 
 the Quill Lake we came upon an alkaline pRiin extending 
 northward to the telegraph line ; this continues eastward to 
 near Fishing Lake, and probably also to some considerable 
 distance north of these lakes." 
 
 Prince Albert settlement, situated between the two bran- 
 -ches of the Saskatchewan, was originall}'^ a Presbyterian 
 Mission established about fourteen years ago by the Rev. 
 
96 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Mr. Nesbitt. For some years after its location, it was thought 
 that besides christianizing the Indians they could be taught 
 farming, but buffalo being plenty they would not settle. 
 
 In the summer of 1875 Captain Moore, an Irish gentleman 
 of means, brought machinery for a steam saw mill on waggons 
 from Winnipeg a distance of fully 700 miles by the road 
 they had to travel. From that time the progress of the 
 settlement was assured. Besides the saw mill a grist mill 
 was erected, and flour at once fell to Winnipeg prices, but 
 owing to the large amount required for the Indians it is 
 much dearer at present. 
 
 The progress of Prince Albert during the last six years has 
 been astonishing, and at present it is the most important 
 point west of Brandon. In 1877 there were about 500 
 people in the vicinity, and about 1,200 acres under cultiva- 
 tion. Now report says there are 3,000 people in the 
 neighborhood. The correspondent of the Toronto " Globe " 
 writing from Prince Albert last August thus describes 
 the settlement: — 
 
 " The settlement, or rather the aggregation of settle- 
 ments, including the Prince Albert District (extending from 
 Fort Carlton down to the junction of the north and south 
 branches of the Saskatchewan), includes a strip of territory 
 about eighty miles from east to west, by fifty miles from north 
 to south. This district contains a white and Half-breed popu- 
 lation of about 3,000 souls. Here there are about 10,000 
 acres under crop, and fully 5,000 acres newly broken this 
 year, the latter figure furnishing the reader with some idea 
 of the rapidii^'' with which settlers have been flocking in 
 within the last year. The town of Prince Albert may be 
 designated as about four miles long by half a mile wide, 
 along the south bank of the North Saskatchewan. The 
 town is situated on a plateau considerably above high- water 
 mark in the river, and is bounded on the south by a narrow 
 and shallow ravine, beyond which rises another bench or 
 
CHARACTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 52° AND 53°. 97 
 
 bluff to the level of the surrounding prairie, which is con- 
 siderably higher than the plateau upon which the town 
 stands. The population of Prince Albert proper is about 
 800, but some idea of its rapid growth may be obtained 
 from the fact that there are now no less than thirty-one 
 buildings in course of erection in the town, and many parties 
 intending to build are merely waiting to secure the services 
 of carpenters, which are in great demand just now." 
 
 Speaking of early frosts he says : '' Mr. Miller informed 
 me that though he had been in the country eight years he 
 had never lost anything by- early frosts. He does all his 
 ploughing and sows his wheat late in the fall. In this way 
 the wheat does not germinate till the following spring, but 
 as soon as the frost is out of the surface of the ground, the 
 wheat begins to grow, and is really well on the way before 
 it could be put in the ground under the ordinary system of 
 spring ploughing. Last year there was a pretty sharp frost 
 about the 25th or 27th of August, but Mr. Miller sold his 
 whole crop of wheat at $1.75 per bushel." 
 
 Duck Lake Settlement is located half-way between Carl- 
 ton on the North Saskatchewan and Batoche's Crossing of 
 the South Saskatchewan. In the summer of 1875 Stobart, 
 Eden & Co. started a store at this point, and the same year 
 broke up a small piece of ground. That small piece has now 
 become a large farm, and, other parties coming in, a fine set- 
 tlement has been formed. Between Duck Lake and Prince 
 Albert the country is generally a light sandy loam, but much 
 of it would be considered very poor when compared with 
 other sections. South from Duck Lake the land improves 
 and is generally well suited for farming. 
 
 Fort Carlton is situated on the right bank of the North 
 Saskatchewan, and has been for some years the headquarters 
 of the Hudson's Bay Company. Here every summer the 
 Council meet and discuss the business of the Company, and 
 receive the returns of the year's trading. Little farming is 
 7 
 
98 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 done close to the fort, but many fine farms are located 
 between it and Duck Lake. To supply the settlers and 
 themselves, Stobart, Eden & Co. have a portable flour mill, 
 which does good work for the settlement. 
 
 The tract of country lying southwest of this between the 
 rivers has been described in the preceding chapter. Lying 
 north of the river is a fine tract that may be seen from the 
 heights above Eagle Creek, and which, when settlement 
 crosses the river, will be very attractive. Eagle Creek, a 
 fine stream of pure water, enters the Saskatchewan at the 
 eastern end of the Eagle Hills. This stream seems to rise 
 in a large coulee that extends many miles into the great 
 plain south of Battleford. 
 
 The Bear Hills pass gradually into the Eagle Hills, which, 
 at first, turn to the northeast, but, as they approach the North 
 Saskatchewan, they rend to the northwest and continue in 
 that direction until they reach Battle River, some distance 
 west of Battleford. At Battleford their base is about eight 
 miles south. As they pass eastward they draw nearer to 
 the Saskatchewan. Their northern slope is a continuous for- 
 est of very good poplar {Pojpulus tremuloides and halsamifera), 
 which breaks up and becomes interspersed with prairie as it 
 approaches that river. Between Battleford and Eagle Creek 
 no less than twenty-two small streams issue from the forest 
 and make their way into the river. Owing to these streams, 
 the country between the hills and river is very much cut 
 up, and rendered well nigh impassable for loaded carts, when 
 the kills are wet and slippery 
 
 The land bordering on the river is generally a sandy 
 loam, but many fine farms will yet be located there. In the 
 hills themselves, and southward from them, the land is very 
 rich, the soil being a black clay loam, changing as it gets 
 drier (southward) into a sandy one, but with very little 
 change in vegetation. Mr Wilkins, D L S , crossed diagon- 
 ally through the hills, while I passed on both sides of them. 
 
CHARACTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 52° AND 53°. 99 
 
 and Hs report of tke land at the Mission and at the Govern- 
 ment Farm agrees with my own observations. The land in the 
 southern extension of the hills is very much broken and con- 
 tains multitudes of ponds and fresh-water marshes, where 
 immense quantities of natural hay of the best quality goes to 
 waste every year. Although many people think the hills 
 the best for settlement, I believe future settlers will prefer 
 the prairie, as there is less broken land, less marsh and 
 swamp, and less labor required to make a home. 
 
 As the views of the " Globe's " correspondent regardirig 
 Battleford are nearly in accord with my own, I give his 
 description : — 
 
 " This place is certainly one of the most beautiful and pic- 
 turesque in the North-West, and if ever there was a spot 
 which nature intended for the site of a city it is Battleford. 
 The steamboat landing on the Saskatchewan is two or three 
 miles west of where Battle River falls into the larger stream, 
 but for a long way (several miles at least above this) the 
 general direction of the two streams is parallel, though the 
 strip of land between them is seldom above two miles and a 
 half, and in places less than three-quarters of a mile, in width. 
 This strip of land between the two rivers consists of a beau- 
 tiful plateau of fine, smooth upland prairie. Its highest por- 
 tion is along its centre, midway between the two streams, 
 and it slopes away gently toward each. The lowest portion 
 of this plateau is fifteen or twenty feet above the narrow 
 strips of bottom land along both rivers, which latter in times 
 of spring floods are sometimes partially submerged. On the 
 other hand the highest portion of this plateau (which the 
 reader will have already identified as the site of the future 
 city of Battleford,) is considerably lower than the level of 
 the prairie blufis, which rise beyond the Saskatchewan on 
 the north and Battle River on the south. Here is a spot 
 which could be easily drained by sewers falling each way 
 from the central ridge ; the whole outer boundary would be 
 
100 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 river frontage, at ■which the Saskatchewan steamers could 
 land at nearly all times, while the smaller craft, which 
 would be required to navigate Battle River, could perform 
 the service from the forks when the larger steamers could 
 not ascend on the south side of the peninsula with safety. 
 With a city located on this peninsular plateau ( which is now 
 only occupied by the barracks of the Mounted Police), the 
 south bank of Battle River and the north bank of the Sas- 
 katchewan (about four miles apart) would afford the most 
 charming situations for villa and suburban residences. 
 
 " Regarding the country in the immediate vicmity of 
 Battleford, I am quite aware that what I have to say flatly 
 contradicts what appears to me to be the general impression 
 concerning it. Before coming here I was told that Battleford 
 was in the midst of a sterile, dreary waste of sand, but I wish 
 we had a few hundred square miles of just such dreary wastes 
 of sand in Ontario and Quebec. The soil is not the deep, 
 black loam which I have seen m other portions of the Nortli- 
 West, but at the same time that it is not unproductive 1 
 shall presently produce abundant proofs It is a rich and 
 very friable soil, in which there is unquestionably some 
 sand, but for all that it is deep, strong, warm and extremely 
 productive. I should have stated before that the few houses 
 (beyond the houses of Government officials, which are on 
 the crest of the beautiful high bluff south of Battle River), 
 are located on a narrow strip of bottom land south of the 
 smaller stream, and the plateau to which I have already 
 referred is the site of the future city." 
 
 The police farm at Battleford was established in 1879. 
 In the spring of that year Inspector Walker broke up the 
 soil, and on my visit about the first of August I found every- 
 thing well advanced and wrote in my journal, — " The police 
 farm, situated on the point of land between Battle River 
 and the Saskatchewan, is a sandy alluvium, and appears to 
 be very dry and barren, but it certainly has produced good 
 
CHARACTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 52° AND 53°. lOl 
 
 crops this year. Three months ago it was barren prairie^ 
 now oats, barley, potatoes, and turnips, are growing luxuri- 
 antly. In the garden, also broken up this spring, are cab- 
 bages, cauliflowers, and other vegetables of the finest de- 
 scription. Timothy and clover had been sown to form a 
 grass plot, and these were now in flower and gave promise 
 of producing abundance of seed. The Governor's farm, 
 situated on the sand hills to the east of his residence, waa 
 also visited. Here the soil, outside the fence, was covered 
 with the short prairie sward indicative of dryness, and 
 which would have been pronounced as unfit for cultivation 
 by most people, yet within the fence were excellent oats, 
 middling barley, short in the ear but grain fine, and first- 
 class wheat, the latter standing thick on the ground, nearly 
 five feet high, with correspondingly long ears, nearly ripe. 
 
 " Besides the exuberant growth of most grains there is a 
 remarkable vitality imparted to them in this region that 
 astonishes a stranger. I am more and more convinced that 
 it is not soil which is the cause of the astonishing crops pro- 
 duced in the west, but the peculiar climate. When digging 
 up the prairie soil, even in the hardest clays, I could never 
 get below the roots of grass, and these were so numerous 
 that they seemed to fill the soil. Owing to the severe win- 
 ter's frost, and the light rainfall in spring, the young roots 
 are enabled to penetrate the soil to a depth wholly beyond 
 the belief of an eastern farmer. They seem to follow the 
 pores opened by the frost right into the subsoil, and hence, 
 instead of drawing their nourishment from four or five 
 inches of soil, they draw it from eighteen to twenty-four 
 inches." 
 
 The great plain south of Battleford is not easily described, 
 except in general terms, owing to its immense size and 
 changing character. Coming from Battleford I found excel- 
 lent grass, plenty of good water, and a rich loam or clay 
 soil until I passed some distance south of lat. 52°, and west 
 
102 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 of the same Meridian. My assistant and myself noticed the 
 change from a good strong clay, producing excellent pasture, 
 to another clay covered with Artemisia and small Cactus, 
 where the water was scarce and bad, and the pasture poor and 
 dried up. On examination this clay proved to he the Creta- 
 ceous St. Pierre beds of Dr. G. M. Dawson's Boundary 
 Survey Report, and contains remains of Baculites and other 
 fossils, together with nodules of brown iron ore. This tract of 
 bad land is principally confined to the section between 111th 
 and 112th meridians and between the 51st and 52nd par- 
 allels. Except this region the Great Plain, as far as known, 
 is not arid, but produces good grass, has generally abundance 
 of water, and usually a good soil. This extensive tract is 
 almost wholly without wood of any description. Not a 
 shrub enlivens its surface, except occasional clumps of rose 
 bushes {Rosa hlanda) a few inches high, the western snow- 
 berry {Symjjhoricarpus occidentalis) , and the beautiful Silver 
 berry {Elceagnus argentea). These could not be called 
 bushes except on the ground of being woody. They are 
 never seen more than three years old and hardly ever that. 
 The coulee, in which Tramping Lake lies, is still partly 
 wooded with poplar and maple, but except in this and a few 
 other localities not seen by me, no wood exists. 
 
 Coulees are quite a marked feature of the plains, but do 
 not appear to be a part of the present natural system of 
 drainage. They seem to be of an earlier geologic time, other 
 than being dry water-courses of the present, and here the 
 few creeks, which carry off the surplus water, originate. 
 The Qu'Appelle Valley is a well known instance ; the val- 
 ley in which the Red Deer Lakes lie is another. Crawling 
 Valley between Red Deer and Bow Rivers is a third, and 
 here on the Great Plains is a fourth, as Tramping Lake Coulee 
 is said to be the head of Eagle Creek on the one side, and 
 a stream emptying into Battle River on the other. As a 
 rule, the lakes found in the coulees are salt, but this is easily 
 
CHARACTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 52° AND 53°. 103 
 
 accounted for, as their bottoms are always on the Cretaceous 
 clay, and the springs near the bottom of the coulee are 
 brackish likewise, while the springs nearer the prairie level 
 contain good sweet water. All brooks found on the plains, 
 although containing good water themselves, have saline soil 
 along the sides of their valleys, and not unusually there are 
 brackish lakes and marshes in these valleys. 
 
 Extending northwards from the vicinity of the Bear Hills, 
 is a tract of broken country with deep coulees, salt lakes, 
 and occasional sand hills, which seem to extend westward 
 to Tramping Lake. Much of the soil, however, is very rich, 
 and there are large tracts of farming land intermixed with 
 small areas of a broken and stony character. Captain Palliser's 
 remark as to the barrenness of this country can only apply 
 to the absence of wood, as he speaks again, on page 84 of his 
 Eeport, thus : " The buffalo were seen in great numbers," and 
 that " the country was entirely barren," and again, on the 
 same page, he says, " we found only a swamp containing 
 miserable herbage, which had been cropped by the buffaloes 
 and afforded very scanty pasture for our horses." Here 
 again I presume that the barrenness is not produced by 
 natural causes, but by artificial ones. 
 
 A perusal of my own journal and that of Mr. Wilkins 
 shows that this region, although not everywhere suited for 
 agriculture, possesses many fine tracts fit for the plough, and 
 always good pasture. In the Pacific Railway Report of 1879, 
 page 90, Col. MacLeod well describes the section he saw. He 
 says : " The whole country is a high rolling prairie, with 
 gravelly ridges running in every direction. Grass of vary- 
 ing quality is to be found everywhere, and water varying 
 with the season." Captain Dairy mple Clarke, in the same 
 Report, says : " I should call the Great Plains a fine grazing 
 country ; in many places the traveller comes across buffalo or 
 bunch grass. This grass is most nutritious and always pre- 
 ferred to other grass by both horses and cattle." With the 
 
104 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 statements of these gentlemen, I entirely agree, and, further- 
 more affirm, that as this same region was the winter home of 
 the buffalo, so in the near future it will be the winter home 
 of immense herds of cattle, which can exist, as they did, by 
 going on to the wind swept hill tops for nutritious food, when 
 the poorer grass of the valleys lies covered by a mantle of 
 snow. Water for cattle no more than for buffalo is needed 
 in winter, as there is always snow enough among the grass 
 to meet their wants. After the first of October our horses 
 went to the hill tops for good grass, and I found on examin- 
 ation that they always cropped the northern buffalo grass 
 {Stipa spartea) or if the hill was very dry, the southern one 
 {Bouteloua oUgostyclia). I must emphatically deny the 
 statements made imputing barrenness to this region, but I 
 admit that running streams or cool springs are extremely 
 rare. Wood is absolutely absent, and even a bush a few in- 
 ches high is seldom seen. 
 
 The real cause of the absence of wood on every part of 
 the region under consideration is undoubtedly prairie fires 
 which sweep over almost every part of it year after year, des- 
 troying the seedling trees as long as there are any seeds left to 
 germinate, and year by year killing the bushes until the 
 capacity of the root to send up shoots dies out, and then even 
 willows cease to grow. Would any person affirm that wil- 
 lows could not grow on the margin of the ponds where such 
 plants as Polygonum aquaticu7n, Potamogeton perfoliatus and 
 gramineit^, ZJtricularia vulgaris, Alisma Americana, and 
 Sagittaria variabilis could grow and flourish ? And yet the 
 first four of these were found in scores of ponds, and any 
 botanist knows that these require permanent water. It 
 was so moist on the plains that Cacti could not exist, but 
 one could hardly walk through the Red Deer River Valley 
 for them. While on the plains not a bush could be seen, 
 yet in the valley, only a few yards from the Cacti, trees 
 three feet in diameter stood. 
 
CHARACTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 52° AND 53°. 105 
 
 Palliser states that the southern sides of all valleys were 
 much moister than the northern, and that the southern slopes 
 of all hills were without wood, and deduces from this the 
 aridity of the climate. I am inclined, with all respect, to 
 differ from Captain Palliser in this conclusion. It only proves 
 that a surface inclined to the sun will naturally become dry, 
 while one inclined from it will retain its moisture. When 
 fires come on the plains the dry side of the hill is soon de- 
 nuded, while the moist side is left intact. The inference is 
 plain. If aridity is the cause of the absence of wood, how is it 
 that the sand hills at the head of the Qu' Appelle, where the 
 ground is certainly dry, are covered with it? The Bad 
 Hills to the northwest of Red Deer Lakes, have wood like- 
 wise, while the Bear Hills to the north, which contain no 
 sand, are without even a bush. The sand hills, observed by 
 Mr. Wilkins and myself in the centre of the Great Plain, 
 have brush in some quantity, while on good soil none exists. 
 Finally, there is not a series of sand hills throughout the 
 country, no matter how poor the soil, but what has either 
 wood or brush, while immense tracts of first class soil is 
 without a bush. The rich soil with its abundance of grass 
 afibrds, when dry, fuel for the flame which destroys any 
 seedling that may spring up; at the same time the sand 
 hills, being unable to carry fire through their extreme 
 poverty, keep it alive. 
 
 Sand and aridity are popularly classed together ; but it 
 should rather be sand and unfruitfulness. The impervious 
 clays are arid throughout the regions explored by me. A 
 comparatively small tract, commencing at Red Deer River, 
 east of Blood Indian Creek, about the 111th Meridian, extend- 
 ing northwesterly to ruear the 52nd parallel, and thence west 
 to the Red Deer River, south of the Squirrels Head, is large- 
 ly a region of impervious clays, and this was the worst tract 
 seen by me or my assistant during the summer of 1879. 
 Much of this tract is without drift, and the Cretaceous clays 
 
106 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 come to the surface, causing aridity, and producing alkaline 
 swamps (white mud swamps), ponds, and lakes in abundance. 
 
 The Hand Hills and their eastern extension are like an 
 oasis in this unpromising region, for surrounding them on 
 every side is the hard baked clay of the St. Pierre beds. 
 The only soil throughout the region explored which would 
 not naturally produce timber are these Cretaceous clays, 
 well worthy the name " Bad Lands." 
 
 I therefore maintain that the aridity, where it exists, is 
 the result of soil and not of climate. Palliser, on page 11 
 of his Report when referring to this region, makes two 
 statements corroborative of this. Describing the valley of 
 the South Saskatchewan Palliser says : — " Even on the al- 
 luvial points in the bottom of the valley, trees and shrubs 
 only occur in a few isolated patches. The steep and lofty 
 sides of the valley are composed of calcareous marls and clays 
 that are baked into a compact mass under the heat of a 
 parching sun. Sage and Cactus abound, and the whole of 
 the vegetation bespeaks an arid climate." Eight lines below 
 this on the same page he says : — " In the midst of the 
 arid plain traversed by the South Saskatchewan, there are 
 isolated patches of table land upon the surface of which the 
 vegetation becomes luxuriant, and pasture of a fair quality 
 may be found. The expedition spent two weeks at the 
 Hand Hills, which form one of those patches, for the purpose 
 of recruiting the horses." 
 
 Here the natural order of things is reversed, and aridity 
 is in the valley and luxuriance on the hill-tops. Why is 
 this ? Not because of climate certainly, but on account of 
 soil. All the arid spots, all the salt lakes, and the brackish 
 marshes of the entire plain, were traced to one cause — the 
 Cretaceous clay. 
 
 Artemisia cana seems to be almost peculiar, on our plains, 
 to the Cretaceous clay, and in the north the Cactus can only 
 find on the clay the aridity of soil that is suited to its wants. 
 
CHARACTER OF COUNTRY BETWEEN LAT. 52" AND 53°. lOT 
 
 The vegetation of these clays when dry outside of stream 
 valleys, was characterized by numerous species of Artemisia,, 
 and many Compositae, which in the north preferred salt lands. 
 In Red Deer River Valley, Gacti, Artemisia, and various 
 Ghenopodiacece vied with each other in luxuriance, while 
 grass and the more useful herbaceous plants were almost 
 entirely absent. 
 
 Lying southwest from Battleford is a fine rich country 
 which is reached about six miles from that " city " The 
 country is almost a perfect level of good clay loam without 
 a bush to break the monotony of the waving grass to the 
 south. A fine rich country extends to the west from Battle- 
 ford for at least eighty miles. It is generally level and often 
 for many miles without a twig. In the vicinity of Manito 
 Lake, there are large quantities of wood, and consequently 
 there is broken country with numerous ponds and marshes. 
 
 Sounding Lake is a sheet of brackish water about seven 
 miles long and four miles wide, surrounded on its north, east, 
 and south sides with wood, the poplar averaging about six 
 inches in diameter. South of the lake, as far as could be 
 seen, nothing met the eye but conical hills. Between 
 Sounding Lake and the " Nose" the country is hilly', but 
 contains good pasture, wood, and water. The hills generally 
 have a black loamy soil, while the valleys are principally 
 clay or clay loam. Along the north of the lake the country 
 is sandy, extending about six miles to the east where heavy 
 clay with rich grass is met with. The wood ceases as soon 
 as the sand is left. South of this line of travel a series of 
 hills was seen, doubtless a continuation of those over which 
 we crossed before reaching Sounding Lake. 
 
 The Neutral Hills lie northwest of Sounding Lake. Gen- 
 erally they are mere ridges of broken, more or less wooded, 
 country with clumps of small aspen scattered over their sur- 
 face where protected from fire by either water or sand. 
 Stretching southwest from this point and extending to Tail 
 
108 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Creek is a wide tract of broken country well suited for stock 
 raising and supplied with abundance of wood and water, both 
 being found of excellent quality in the ravines and narrow 
 valleys opening into Battle River. Sullivan's Lake, a large 
 sheet of fresh water lying about the middle of this section, 
 has much good land around it, but the greater part of this 
 land is best suited for pasturage as it is much cut up by cou- 
 lees and sharp or rolling hills. 
 
 Lying still further west and between Battle and Red 
 rivers is a tract of fine rich agricultural land that has no 
 superior in the North-West. Still further west is a large 
 district lying around the head of Battle River and south- 
 west towards Red Deer River, where millions of tons of hay 
 grow every year owing to the richness and moistness of the 
 soil. This region though wet is well suited for stock, as 
 the natural grasses are of the very best quality, and shelter 
 is to be had close at hand. 
 
 The region embraced in this chapter contains a large 
 amount of prairie and forest lands all of the very best des- 
 cription. Rivers and small streams are found in almost 
 every part, and many lakes abounding in fish of excellent 
 quality are dotted over the surface. "West of the Porcu- 
 pine Mountain many beavers are yet trapped in winter. 
 Little game, other than birds, of which there are myriads 
 every spring and fall, is to be found in the country. Bears 
 and wolves are occasionally met with, but no injury to 
 either person or stock is ever done by them. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Description of the Govntry Drained hy the North Saskatche- 
 wan and Athabasca Rivers. 
 
 Extensive District Soutli of Nortli Saskatchewan— One Solid Block of 13,000,000 Acres 
 — Large Area of Fertile Land North of River— Star Mission, its Success— Multitudes 
 of Whitefish — Lac La Biche Mission— Fanning at the Lake— Wheat, Barley, &c. — 
 —Victoria Mission— Small-poz Ravages- Rev. George McDougall his Death, the 
 Edmonton Pioneer — Former Lawlessness at Edmonton — Change Caused by the Police 
 — Edmonton, its Mills, Churches, Stores — Coal and Iron at Edmonton — Review 
 of the Country— Ninty -six per Cent. Good Soil over a Vast Area— Lands for the 
 Irish without Rent— St. Albert Mission, its History and Success— Catholic Mis- 
 sionaries, their Work and Success— Bocky Mountain House, Fine Timber— Gold 
 Washing— Beaver River, very Rich Laud— Green Lake, Abundance of Fish— 
 Chipweyau Indians— Athabasca River and Country— Size of the River and its Tribu- 
 taries — Little Slave River — Pembina River, Coal in its Banks — The McLeod — 
 Baptiste's River— Jasper House and Valley— Climate of the Valley, Snow Fall very 
 Light, Warm Winds, Dry Climate, Spring Weather— Horses Living out all Winter 
 -Source of Warm Winds— Fertile Belt— Richness of It— Where Located— Prairie 
 still Better — Wet Lands — Summer Frosts — Late Sowing — Fall Sowing, its Success. 
 
 Northwest from Battleford, south of the North Saskat- 
 chewan, the land is rather poor and sandy for fifty miles, 
 but proceeding northwestward beyond this into the valley of 
 the Vermilion River, the soil gets very rich and continues 
 so all the way to Edmonton, a distance of over 200 miles. 
 After leaving Battleford and reaching the meridian of Fort 
 Pitt, the whole country between the North Saskatchewan on 
 the north and Battle River on the south, and for thirty miles 
 beyond Edmonton on the west, may be described as fertile 
 and well suited for settlement. Much of it is so extremely 
 rich, and the exuberance of its vegetation so great, that 
 travellers have extolled it possibly beyond its merits, as large 
 tracts of it are wet and bushy, and, probably, subject to 
 summer frosts. Of that portion south of the telegraph 
 line this cannot be said, as it is generally level, and for the 
 most part with but little water on the surface. This tract is 
 
110 MANITOBA AND THE GEEAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 unsurpassed in the North-West for its capacity to grow "wheat 
 as the soil is rich, the surface is almost level, and what slope 
 there is inclines to the south. The great area described 
 above, containing not less than 13,000,000 acres, is yet with- 
 out inhabitant, except the settlements in the vicinity of 
 Edmonton. 
 
 North of the Saskatchewan is a fine country, commencing 
 a little east of Prince Albert, and extending westerly to 
 Lac St. Ann's, fifty miles west of Edmonton. Owing to 
 the southern bend of the river this tract varies in width 
 from forty to one hundred miles. Throughout the whole 
 of it the soil is warm, containing both sand and gravel, but, 
 nevertheless, is generally rich and very fertile. It has 
 likewise a southern aspect, and will therefore be free from 
 frost in summer. 
 
 About fifty miles north of Carlton the " Star Mission," in 
 connection with the Church of England, is situated. This 
 Mission was established in 1874, and placed in charge of the 
 Rev. Mr. Hinds, who, besides being a minister, was a practi- 
 cal farmer. He at once commenced to teach the old men 
 farming and the children English, and in less than one year 
 had a number of small farms commenced, and the children 
 well advanced in the knowledge of English. Since then he 
 has been very successful, and in 1879 Mr. O'Keefife, D.L.S., 
 writes of the Mission : " At Sandy Lake the Indians under 
 the supervision of the Rev. Mr. Hinds, Church of England 
 Missionary, were cultivating successfully fine fields of grain 
 and raising vegetables." Of the country in this vicinity 
 the same writer says : " No finer country could be desired 
 than the section above described. The water is pure and 
 abundant, and the land extremely rich. Pea vine, vetches, 
 grasses, and, in fact, all herbaceous plants were luxuriant. 
 Very fine fish are in all the lakes and rivers of the section ; 
 the whitefish being extremely abundant, large, and of fine 
 quality. The timber on this section is not so good as that 
 
THE NORTH SASKATCHEWAN AND ATHABASCA COUNTRY. Ill 
 
 eitlier east or west of it, but many groves were scattered 
 through it. 
 
 " In the northwestern part of it the land is very good, but 
 the timber is not of large size, being nearly all second 
 growth, as the old timber had been burnt down some years 
 before. The whole section may be classed as level plain, or 
 gently rolling land, no hill being seen higher than fifty feet, 
 except in the vicinity of the Mission. The land generally 
 is a rich loam, with a small percentage of gravel, which 
 indeed is the prevailing character of the soil for many 
 miles. Spring wheat at the Mission, the best I have seen, 
 was fit to harvest August 20th, 1879." 
 
 Two hundred and fifty miles northwest of the Star Mis- 
 sion is Lac la Biche, where a Koman Catholic Mission has 
 been established for many years. Long before railways 
 were talked of, the Fathers at this Mission had brought in a 
 grist mill, worked by horse power, and here in Lat. 55° 
 wheat was being grown and ground, into flour long before 
 the value of the Red River Valley becaine apparent to 
 Canadians. 
 
 Marcus Smith, C.E., thus speaks of the Mission : " Lac la 
 Biche is 304 miles from Carlton. Mr. Trail, Hudson's Bay 
 Company's officer at this post, stated that there were about 
 forty families settled on this lake, principally Half-breeds 
 and French Canadians. The Catholic Mission is on the 
 lake shore, about nine miles northwest of the Post ; here I 
 met Bishop Farand, from whom much valuable information 
 was obtained concerning the country to the north and west. 
 
 " Barley and wheat thrive well here, and also vegetables. 
 There is a grist mill near the Mission. Abundance of white- 
 fish are in this and the neighboring lakes. The timber of 
 the country is spruce, poplar, and tamarac, all of good size. 
 The divide between Beaver River and the Athabasca water- 
 shed is not more than three miles from Lake la Biche." 
 
 The Victoria and Whitefish Lake Missions are under the 
 
112 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 control of the Canada Methodists, and around each quite a 
 settlement has been formed. In 1871 these Missions were 
 in a very flourishing state, but an outbreak of small-pox 
 devastated the settlement, and when the writer visited the 
 country in 1872, only the chimneys of the houses remained 
 standing. Their occupants were either dead or scattered 
 to the four winds. 
 
 The Rev. George McDougall, the pioneer Missionary to 
 these parts, lost a daughter at this time, and he told me 
 that the Blackfeet lay around for days waiting a chance to 
 kill him or his wife, because they thought he had brought 
 the calamity upon the country. God mercifully preserved 
 him at that time, but in the winter of 1875 he perished 
 miserably while visiting the Mission at Morleyville then 
 in charge of his son John. On this Mission he had set his 
 heart, and when the writer first saw him in 1872 he told of 
 the wonders of the Bow River country, and prophesied its 
 future greatness. In 1872 his house was the only one out- 
 side the Fort at Edmonton, and lawlessness was so common, 
 even amongst the semi-civilized Indians around the fort, 
 that murders were of frequent occurrence. A month or two 
 before my visit an Indian, from some unexplained cause, 
 became angry with his wife and attempted to kill her with 
 a knife, but she fled from him. He pursued and overtook 
 her, and stabbed her to death a short distance from the 
 fort. A relative of the woman when pointing out the 
 spot where she died, asked with great earnestness when 
 would law reach them, and I replied that it was then on 
 its way m the person of Col. Robertson Ross, the Adjutant- 
 General, who would set everything right. He came and 
 the Mounted Police were sent out, and the murders then 
 so frequent ceased. 
 
 This is Edmonton society as it was in 1872. The state 
 of farming was very little better. Fully one-half of the 
 ripened wheat was smut, and doubt prevailed whether the 
 
THE NORTH SASKATCHEWAN AND ATHABASCA COUNTRY. 113 
 
 climate was at all suited for that grain. In 1881 Edmon- 
 ton appears as a town and settlement of great importance. 
 It has its regular agricultural shows, its balls, and its public 
 exhibitions, where the inhabitants vie with each other in 
 such matters as their exhibits, their agility, their personal 
 attractions and refinement. Lawlessness has passed away, 
 and although the stockade is still around the fort, the guns 
 still in the bastions, and the great gate and wicket closed 
 at night, the fear of Indians, like the buffalo, has passed 
 away, and only the Hudson's Bay Company's officials recall 
 the time, scarcely ten years since, when the Blackfeet 
 and Sarcees made night hideous with their fearful yells 
 and threatenings, on account of the cruel murder of two of 
 their number under the very guns of the fort. 
 
 Edmonton is a general term applied to a district, but still 
 there is a concentration of houses and places of business 
 called by that name. The village is some distance below 
 the fort on the north side of the river. The Church of 
 England and Canada Methodists have each a church, and a 
 Presbyterian Mission having been established, a church 
 will soon follow. There are several stores well stocked 
 with goods suitable to the country, the chief being owned 
 by J. H. McDougall, John Brown, and P. Heinwick, each 
 carrying a stock of goods worth from $25,000 to $30,000, in- 
 cluding freight, which swells the cost of goods in this distant 
 part of the country. Three grist and saw-mills grind all 
 the flour and saw all boards necessary for the settlement, 
 and nothing is wanting now except railway communication, 
 or better steamboat service upon the river. Abundance of 
 coal can be dug out of the river bank, and less than a mile 
 above the fort there is a deposit of bog iron ore, which may 
 prove valuable when properly examined. 
 
 We are now 890 miles by cart trail northwest from 
 Winnipeg, and over this immense distance pits, four feet 
 deep and twenty miles apart, have been dug, and a careful 
 8 
 
114 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOETH-WEST. 
 
 examination of the soils shows that only about five per cent, 
 of the -whole distance is unfit for agriculture and classed as 
 third class soils, when compared with those of Prince 
 Edward County which is one of the most productive districts 
 of Ontario. The extent of these fertile lands cannot be 
 realized by any person reading the accounts published in 
 newspapers or blue books, nor even in passing over the trails 
 as these are only particular Imes. But having traversed the 
 country in every direction I am enabled to grasp their 
 immensity, without realising in any appreciable degree their 
 influence upon the future of the civilized world. Seeing 
 millions of acres of arable lands lying without inhabitants 
 in one part of the British Dominions, and learning that in 
 another part people on the brink of starvation are mur- 
 dering each other for the privilege of renting a potato 
 garden, causes one to exclaim against the shortsighted- 
 ness of Governments, in not assisting emigration, and on 
 the other hand against the foolishness of people remaining 
 where their normal state for generations has been and will 
 be one of poverty. 
 
 Nine miles west of Edmonton is St. Albert Mission, the 
 largest and most prosperous Mission settlement in the North- 
 West. It is the seat of a Bishopric, having Bishop's palace, 
 cathedral church, nunnery, and various other buildings, all 
 of large size and well furnished. The Bishop's palace, as 
 described by a late writer, is a magnificent building . " This 
 is a handsome frame structure, eighty by thirty-two feet, 
 three stories high, including a large attic, lighted by rows ^ 
 of dormer windows, besides a large and well-lighted base- 
 ment." Pere la Comb established the mission in 1858, when 
 this was only an Indian and Half-breed camping ground. 
 Nine years later he was succeeded by Pere la Due, Avho 
 gave place to Bishop Grandm m 1871, and from that to the 
 present time St. Albert has been the seat of a Bishopric, from 
 which many eminent men have gone out to preach the glad 
 
THE NOETH SASKATCHEWAN AND ATHABASCA COUNTET. 115 
 
 tidings to the beniglited Indian women, that, in the sight 
 of the "Great Spirit," the woman is equal to the man, and 
 by this means to stamp out polygamy and make marriage 
 more respected. Throughout the whole North-West there 
 have been no men, of any Church, superior in any sense to 
 the Fathers with whom the writer has met in his numerous 
 journeys both east and west of the Rocky Mountains. He 
 looks upon their labors as having produced due respect for 
 the marriage relationship, a proper regard for the Sabbath, 
 and an earnest for peaceable conduct and upright dealings 
 one with another, in every part of the country he has 
 visited. 
 
 Lake St. Ann's may be said to be the present limit of 
 available land on the old line of the C. P. R. Little farming 
 is carried on. The whitefish fisheries constitute the most 
 noteworthy industry. These were more highly valued in 
 years gone by when people and dogs depended almost entire- 
 ly on meat, but at present they receive little attention 
 
 The Rocky Mountain House was formerly the frontier 
 trading post on the borders of the Blackfeet country, and 
 here the plain Indians came in all the splendor of their 
 untutored savagary, and in days when Rum was king held 
 their wild orgies in front of the fort. Since the advent of 
 the police, and peace with the Crees, the Blackfeet roam 
 and trade at will, and this fort has lost much of its impor- 
 tance as a trading post. This post is about 150 miles south- 
 west of Edmonton, within sight of the Rockies and on the 
 margin of the Saskatchewan. It is 3,195 feet above the sea 
 and the neighborhood is of very little value as a farming coun- 
 try. Splendid groves of spruce and even forests of the same 
 tree are on the upper Saskatchewan and its tributaries, and 
 here in future will probably be the headquarters of the 
 Rocky Mountain lumbering companies. 
 
 Gold washing has been practised for many years in the 
 vicinity of Edmonton, but in no case has success been 
 
116 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH- WEST. 
 
 SO marked as to cause any parties to leave off farming for 
 the purpose of prosecuting it. That fine flour gold is de- 
 posited on the bars each year is certain, but where it comes 
 from, or whether it exists in large quantities, is still a matter 
 of doubt. 
 
 Beaver Eiver flows in a valley parallel to the North Sas- 
 katchewan, from a point nearly north of Edmonton to the 
 Meridian of Carlton, a distance in a straight line of nearly 300 
 miles. It turns north at Green Lake, 150 miles north of 
 Carlton, apparently into a valley of which Green Lake is a 
 part. When the Beaver river is high in spring, it fills 
 Green Lake by means of a small stream connecting the two, 
 but as its waters lower the current changes and the Lake 
 begins to empty itself. The valley of Beaver River contains 
 very rich land, but future experiments are necessary before 
 wheat can be relied on as a sure crop. 
 
 Green Lake is about eighteen miles long by from one to 
 two wide. It is surrounded on all sides by a very fine 
 poplar or aspen forest. The soil is rich and the climate suit- 
 able for the growth of wheat. Beaver River and Green Lake, 
 like all the northern rivers and lakes, are full of whitefish. 
 Throughout all the northern forests the Chipweyan locates 
 himself on the margin of a lake, builds himself a house, 
 clears a potato patch, and sets his nets. A visit to these 
 nets twice a day gives him his food the year round, and 
 his potato patch in the fall, and a few bears furnish him with 
 a change before winter sets in. When he retires to his win- 
 ter hunting ground, near a lake, he sets his nets under the 
 ice, and is still independent of four-footed game 
 
 The Athabasca country is very little known, as it is all 
 covered with forest and difl&cult of access. Much of it is wet, 
 and that section through which the old C. P. R. line passes 
 is very wet and marshy, and full of muskegs. These are 
 veritable peat bogs being composed of the same material as 
 the bogs of Ireland and Scotland. 
 
THE NOETH SASKATCHEWAN AND ATHABASCA COUNTRY. 117 
 
 The Athabasca at Fort Assiniboine, northwest of Edmon- 
 ton, is fiilly 300 yards wide, being rather larger than the 
 Saskatchewan at this point and flowing in a wider and deeper 
 valley. About sixty miles northeastwards from this place it 
 receives the discharge of Little Slave Lake from the west. 
 The valley of this river is generally level and the soil on 
 either side of the stream seems excellent sandy loam, and 
 where free from timber abounds in rich grass and pea vine. 
 Ascending the Athabasca from this point the first river met 
 with is the Pembina, a stream about thirty yards wide, 
 flowing from the southwest. This stream rises further out 
 on the plain than any other belonging to the Arctic basin. 
 It is known to show large exposures of coal in many parts of 
 its course of a quality much superior to that of Edmonton. 
 
 Proceeding still to the southwest we pass the mouth of 
 the McLeod, a large stream one hundred yards wide. 
 Here the banks of the Athabasca become 300 feet high. 
 Below this stream a sandstone clifi" 100 feet high, having a 
 coal seam five feet thick, is passed. Proceeding still up stream 
 we reach Baptiste's Eiver, a tributary from the west which 
 is ninety yards wide. On this stream there is abundance 
 of fine timber of various species, the spru^se as on all other 
 streams, proving to be the best. 
 
 Jasper House is beautifully situated on an open plain, 
 about six miles in extent within the first range of the Rocky 
 Mountains. As the valley makes a bend above and below, 
 it appears to be completely encircled by mountains which 
 rise from 3000 to 4000 feet, with bold craggy outlines. The 
 little group of buildings which form the "fort," has been 
 constructed in harmony with the picturesqueness of the 
 situation, after the Swiss style, with overhanging roofs and 
 trellised porticoes. The dwelling house and two stores form 
 three sides of a square, and these with a little detached hut 
 constitute the whole of this remote establishment. The clim- 
 ate of this valley is remarkable and is worthy of a passing 
 
118 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOKTH-"WEST. 
 
 notice. Mr. W. Moberly, C.E., who spent the winter of 1872-3 
 in the Jasper valley, twenty-two miles from the summit of 
 the Rocky Mountains, says in his report to Mr. Fleming : — 
 " The total fall of snow in the winter of 1872-3 at our depot in 
 Jasper Valley, twenty-two miles east of the summit of the 
 Yellow Head Pass, was two feet one and a half inches, and the 
 greatest depth on the ground at one time was six and one-half 
 inches. Jasper Valley from the Miette, and as far down the 
 Eiver Athabasca as I have been, viz., about forty miles below 
 Jasper House, has a dry climate. With the exception of a few 
 occasional drops, I never saw any rain. There were some 
 spells of frost in November, and a continuance of very cold 
 weather in December ; it was cold in January, and four or 
 five days in February ; at other times during the winter 
 the weather was comparatively warm, frequently not even 
 reaching the freezing point. The winds that blow with 
 much violence render Jasper Valley unpleasant in the win- 
 ter; the northeast wind always brought cold, and the 
 southwest warm weather. 
 
 " From the beginning of March to the 20th May, with the 
 exception ot a little snow on the 26th and 27th April, the 
 Weather was rdnarkably fine. This is the best season for 
 field work as the flies do not make their appearance until 
 the beginning of June. Comparatively speaking, the win- 
 ter months in the district referred to are not as severe as at 
 Toronto. To give an instance, I will mention that the pack 
 animals (horses and mules) with the expedition, after an 
 unusually hard season's work of about nine months duration, 
 when they were very much worn out and nearly starved, 
 after packing the supplies over the Rocky Mountains by 
 the Athabasca Pass, the altitude of which is 6025 feet above 
 the sea, and at a time when severe weather and snow storms 
 were almost incessant, — the animals were turned out about 
 the 20th January to shift for themselves, as we had no fod- 
 der for them. Not a single one of them died and they were 
 
THE NORTH SASKATCHEWAN AND ATHABASCA COUNTRY. 119 
 
 all in fair condition when they resumed work the following 
 March." 
 
 This exceptional climate is only found along the base of 
 the mountains, because when Mr. Moberly started east in 
 March, he found a moister and cooler climate in the valley 
 of the McLeod as he moved in the direction of Edmonton. 
 It is extremely probable, as he states in another part of his 
 report, that the warm currents of air that cause this dry and 
 warm climate at the head of the Jasper Valley, come up the 
 valley of the Columbia, from the " Great Columbian Desert " 
 east of Walla Walla and pass through the mountains by the 
 Athabasca and Yellow Head Passes. 
 
 Although the country lying between Jasper Valley and 
 Lac St. Ann's is supposed by many to be of little value on 
 account of bog and marsh, later explorers show that this 
 opinion is in part groundless, as Mr McLeod, C. E., speaks 
 in high terms of certain tracts on the McLeod and Pembina 
 rivers which were before thought to be marshy. 
 
 The " Fertile Belt " of Palliser is that section of the arable 
 lands which we have been describing in this and the pre- 
 ceeding chapter. The opinions of Palliser were based on the 
 vegetation alone, and where he met with prairie and short 
 grass this he pronounced a desert, while he praised exceed- 
 ingly the rich but moist lands lately denuded of forest. It is 
 now known that the prairie lands are better suited for im- 
 mediate settlement, and less subject to summer frosts, which 
 prove so injurious to late sown grain on the more ele- 
 vated and moister sections of the country. All the land 
 on the Saskatchewan is not equally suited for agriculture, 
 but there is no tract where there will not be continuous 
 settlement, and when we speak of summer frosts and too 
 much water and muskeg, and late harvests, we do not wish 
 to be understood as being afraid of these, but only to state 
 that these drawbacks exist. 
 
 All the wet land in the country can be very easily 
 
120 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH--WEST. 
 
 drained, as there is plenty of fall. Even at present it is 
 a question whether there is too much water in any part 
 recently settled. There are summer frosts in some locali- 
 ties, and late grain has heen injured, hut m the year 1880 
 none was damaged that was sown before the 10th June. 
 Surely this is late enough when seeding commences over 
 the whole country by April 20th. For the last three years 
 I have been recommending fall sowing as a sure means of 
 escaping injury from frost. By fall sowing I mean seeding 
 so late that germenation will not take place before spring. 
 This has been tried by Mr. Bannatine of Winnipeg, and 
 he reaped his grain two weeks ahead of that sowed in the 
 spring. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Peace River. 
 
 Position of the Lands Described — Area of the Eegion in Question — Character of Books 
 and Soil — Its Composition and Disposition — Peace Eiver Prairie — ^Location of 
 Prairie — Sandy Soils along Athabasca — Origin of Peace Eiver Prairie — 'Wonderful 
 Vegetation — Climate of Peace Eiver — Summer of 1879 — All Sorts of Grain and Vege- 
 tables Mature — Eipening of Grain at Dunvegan and other Points — Depth of Snow — 
 Setting in of "Winter — Opening of Spring — Breaking up of the Ice — Difference in 
 Climate of Valley and Plateau — Occurrence of Frost — Comparison of Temperatures — 
 Peace Eiver Spring as Early as in Manitoba — Cause of Exceptional Climate — 
 Chinook Winds — Length of Day and Increased Sunlight give Warm Summers — 
 Immunity from Grasshoppers — Description of Little Slave Lake — Eipening of Grain 
 at this Point — Whitefish in the Lake — Abundance of Beaver — Climate Unchanged to 
 the North— Soil of the Northern Plain — Eipening of Grain at Vermilion — Summer 
 Climate of that Region — Milder Climate Farther North at Little Eed Eiver — 
 Vicinity of Fort Chipweyan — Extraordinary Wheat on Poor Soil — Crops at Fort 
 Simpson on Mackenzie's Eiver — Climate and Crops at Fort Liard, Lat. 61° — Barley 
 Eipens under the Arctic Circle — Farming on Peace Eiver a Success — Lakes Teeming 
 with Fish — Birds in Countless Flocks — Eocks of Peace Eiver, Limestone, Gypsum — 
 Abundance of Salt Bituminous Shales on Athabasca Eiver — Tar Springs — Descrip- 
 tion of the Eiver — Appearance of its Banks — Land Between the Athabasca and the 
 Peace Elvers. 
 
 Dr. George M. Dawson, F. G. S., was sent out by the 
 Dominion Government in company with one of the C. P. E. 
 surveying parties in 1879, and spent the greater part of the 
 summer in exploring the Peace River country, and the fol- 
 lowing extract is taken from his official report. I prefer 
 giving his report to my own as he takes up the whole 
 subject : 
 
 " The portion of the Peace River country, for which the 
 exploration of last season enables pretty accurate general 
 information to be given, may be considered as extending 
 eastward from the Middle Forks of Pine River. West of 
 this point, as already stated, the areas of fertile land are 
 small, being confined to certain river valleys, which pene- 
 trate the foot hills of the Rocky Mountains and high plateau 
 
122 MANITOBA AND THE GEE AT NOETH-WEST. 
 
 attached to them. With this western limit, the region now 
 to be described may be considered as bounded on the north 
 by the fifty-seventh parallel, to its intersection eastward with 
 the Peace River. Thence the boundary may be assumed to 
 follow the Peace River southward to the mouth of Heart 
 Brook, near the confluence of the Smoky River. Thence 
 to run southeastward to the extremity of Lesser Slave 
 Lake, to follow the western border of the hilly region lying 
 to the south of the lake to the Athabasca River ; thence to 
 follow the Athabasca westward to the foot hills, and skirt- 
 ing the foot hills to run northwestward to the first men- 
 tioned point on Pine River. 
 
 " The tract included within the limits above given has an 
 area of about 31,550 square miles, and by far the larger 
 part of this area may be classed as fertUe. Its average 
 elevation may be stated as little over 2,000 feet, and this is 
 maintained with considerable uniformity, for though the 
 general surface slopes slightly from the north and south 
 toward Peace River, the region as a whole may be consid- 
 ered as a plateau through which the great gorge-like valley 
 of the Peace has been excavated. This valley has in general 
 a depth of 600 to 800 feet below that part of the plateau 
 bordering it, with a width of two to three miles from rim to 
 rim. Its tributary streams, at first nearly on the plateau 
 level, flow in yalleys of continually increasing depth as 
 they approach that of the Peace River. Those from the 
 southeastern portion of the region rise either in the Rocky 
 Mountains, or near the Athabasca, the tributaries received 
 by the latter stream from the north and northwest being — 
 with the exception of the Batiste — quite inconsiderable in 
 this part of its course. 
 
 " The ridges and hills by which this region is occasionally 
 diversified, appear in all cases to be composed either of the 
 generally soft rocks of the Cretaceous and Tertiary, or of 
 arenaceous clays containing erratics, and representing the 
 
PEACE EIVER. 123 
 
 boulder clays of the glacial period. These elevations are 
 generally slight, and with exceedingly light and gradual 
 slopes, the scarped banks of the streams constituting much 
 more important irregularities. These ridges, however, often 
 resemble detached portions of a higher plateau, and spread 
 widely enough to occupy in the aggregate a considerable 
 area, of which the soil is not so uniform in character as else- 
 where. With these exceptions, the soil of the district may 
 be described as a fine silt, resembling the white silts 
 of the Nechacco basin previously referred to, and not dissim- 
 ilar from the loess-like material constituting the subsoil 
 of the Eed Kiver Valley in Manitoba. This silt, at a short 
 distance below the surface, is greyish or brownish in color, 
 but becomes mixed superficially with a proportion of vege- 
 table matter to a varying depth. It has evidently been 
 deposited by a comparatively tranquil body of water not 
 loaded with ice, probably toward the close of the glacial 
 period, and has either never been laid down on the ridges 
 and undulations above referred to, or has been since re- 
 moved from them by natural processes of waste. As evi- 
 denced by the natural vegetation its fertility is great. 
 
 " West of the Smoky River, both to the south and north 
 of Peace River, there are extensive areas of prairie country, 
 either perfectly open and covered with a more or less luxuri- 
 ant growth of grass, or dotted with patches of coppice and 
 trees. 
 
 " The northern banks of the Peace River Valley are also 
 very generally open and grassed, and parts of the Valley of 
 the Smoky and other rivers have a similar character. The 
 total area of prairie land, west of the Smoky River, may be 
 about 3,000 square miles. The remainder of the surface is 
 generally occupied by second-growth forest, occasionally 
 dense, but more often open and composed of aspen, birch, 
 and Cottonwood, with a greater or less proportion of conif- 
 erous trees. Some patches of the original forest, however, 
 
124 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 remain, particularly in the river valleys, and are composed 
 of much, larger trees, chiefly coniferous, among which the 
 black spruce is most abundant. Handsome groves of old 
 and large cottonwoods are also to be found in some of the 
 valleys. Where the soil becomes locally sandy and poor, 
 and more particularly m some of the more elevated parts of 
 the ridges before described, a thick growth of scrub pme 
 and black spruce, in which the individual trees are small, 
 is found ; and in swampy regions the tamarac is not want- 
 ing, but grows generally intermixed with the black spruce. 
 
 " East of the Smoky Kiver, and southward toward the 
 Athabasca, the prairie country is quite insignificant in 
 extent, the region being characterized by second growth 
 woods of the character just described, which, on approaching 
 the Athabasca, are replaced by extensive and well-nigh im- 
 passable tracts of brul6 and wind-fall, in which second- 
 growth forest IS only beginning to struggle up. 
 
 " Though the prairies are most immediately available from 
 an agricultural point of view, the regions now covered with 
 second-growth and forest, where the soil itself is not inferior, 
 will eventually be equally valuable. The largest tract of 
 poor land is that bordering the valley of the Athabasca on 
 the north. This rises to an elevation considerably greater 
 than most of the region to the north and west, and appears 
 during the submergence to which the superficial deposits 
 are due, to have been exposed to stronger currents, which 
 have prevented the deposition of the fine silt, causing it to 
 be replaced by a coarser silt which passes m places with 
 actual sand, and alternates with ridges of boulder clay. 
 This region is also often very swampy, and for a width of 
 twenty to twenty-five miles on the trail from Sturgeon 
 Lake to the Athabasca is quite unsuited to agriculture, 
 though still in many places capable of yielding good summer 
 grazing when the forest has been completely removed by 
 fire. To the northward, more particularly to the east of 
 
PEACE RIVEK. 125 
 
 Smoky River, peaty and mossy swamps occupy part of the 
 surface, and these may be regarded as permanently unsuited 
 to agriculture. 
 
 " There is also a sandy tract, though of email width, along 
 the lower part of the Elk River near its junction with the 
 Smoky Deducting, as far as possible, all the areas known 
 to be inferior or useless, with about 20 per cent, for the por- 
 tions of the region under consideration, of which less is 
 known, the total area of land, with soil suited to agricul- 
 ture, may be estimated as at least 23,500 square miles. In 
 the absence of complete maps, such an estimate cannot be 
 otherwise than very rough, but may serve to give some 
 idea of the fact. 
 
 " Whatever theory be adopted, and may have been ad- 
 vanced, to account for the wide prairies of the western por- 
 tion of America further to the south, the origin of the 
 prairies of the Peace River is sufficiently obvious. There 
 can be no doubt that they have been produced and are main- 
 tained by fires The country is naturally a wooded one, 
 and where fires have not run for a few years, young trees 
 begin rapidly to spring up. The fires are, of course, ulti- 
 mately attributable to human agency, and it is probable 
 that before the country was inhabited by the Indians it was 
 everywhere densely forest-clad. That the date of origin of 
 the chief prairie tracts now found is remote, is clearly evi- 
 denced by their present appearance, and more particularly 
 by the fact that they are everywhere scored and rutted 
 with old bufialo tracks, while every suitable locality is 
 pitted with the saucer-shaped " bufi"alo wallows." It is 
 reported that a few buffaloes were seen last year near Pine 
 River, but the animal has now become in the Peace River 
 country practically extinct; an event which, according to 
 the Indians, happened at a date not very remote, owing to 
 a winter of exceptional severity, during which the snow 
 ' reached to the buffaloes' backs.' 
 
126 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 " The luxuriance of the natural vegetation in these prai- 
 ries is truly wonderful, and indicates, not alone the fertility 
 of the soil, but the occurrence of a sufficient rain-fall. The 
 service berry, or amalanchier, and the choke-cherry, are 
 very abundant in some places, particularly on the so-called 
 Grande Prairie, which constitutes the great berry gathering 
 ground of the Indians. 
 
 " With regard to the climate of the Peace Eiver country, 
 we are without such accurate information as might be ob- 
 tained from a careful meteorological record, embracing even 
 a single year, and its character can at present be ascer- 
 tained merely from notes and observations of a general 
 character, and the appearance of the natural vegetation. 
 
 " It may be stated at once that the ascertained facts leave 
 no doubt on the subject of the sufficient length and warmth 
 of the season to ripen wheat, oats, and barley, with all the 
 ordinary root crops and vegetables, the only point which 
 may admit of question being to what extent the occurrence 
 of late and early frosts may interfere with growth. This 
 remark is intended to apply to the whole district previ- 
 ously defined, though it must be remembered, in consider- 
 ing the subject, that the conditions of places situated in the 
 bottom of the trough-like river valley, and 600 to 800 feet 
 below the plateau, may be considerably different from those 
 of its surface. 
 
 " The summer season of 1879 was an unusual one, charac- 
 terized by excessively heavy rain-fall, with cold raw 
 weather in the early summer months. These conditions 
 did not extend to the west of the Rocky Mountains, but 
 appear to have been felt over the entire area of the plains 
 to the Red River Valley. As a result of this, the crops 
 generally throughout the North- West were later than usual, 
 and the mean temperature of even the latter part of the 
 summer appears to have been rather abnormally low. Not- 
 withstanding this, on my arrival at Dunvegan, on the 16th 
 
PEACE RIVER. 127 
 
 of August, small patches of wheat and barley in the garden 
 of the fort presented a remarkably fine appearance, and 
 were beginning to turn yellow. On my return to the fort 
 on August 31st these were being harvested, their com- 
 plete ripening having been delayed by overcast and chilly 
 weather which prevailed between these dates. At the first 
 mentioned date potatoes were quite ripe, with the balls 
 formed on the stalk, and the garden contained also fine 
 cabbages, cauliflowers, beets, carrots, onions, lettuce, and tur- 
 nips. Dwarf beans, cucumbers, and squashes, were also 
 flourishing, and though these plants are particularly tender, 
 showed no sign of frost. The two last named having been 
 sown m the open ground did not appear likely to perfect 
 their fruit. A few stalks of Indian Corn were also grow- 
 ing, though it is improbable that this plant would ripen its 
 seed m this district. 
 
 " When this garden was again visited on the last day of 
 August, the beans, cucumbers, and squashes had been 'cut 
 down by a frost, but not completely killed. The potato 
 tops were also slightly nipped. 
 
 " Rev. M. Tessier, who has been at Dun vegan as a Mission- 
 ary for some years, has always been able to ripen small, 
 black butter-beans, but in some seasons not without difii- 
 culty owing to frosts. He has also tried a few grains of 
 oats which he procured accidentally, and obtained a return 
 of astonishing adundance. About the date just referred to 
 the potato plants at Smoky River post (The Porks) were 
 badly cut down by frost, the tubers being, however, quite 
 ripe, fine and large. 
 
 " On the 15th September Mr. R McConnell, my assist- 
 ant, found the potatoes in the garden of the fort at the west 
 end of Lesser Slave Lake, and on the level of the plateau, 
 little affected by frost, with tubers large and ripe. Mr. 
 H. J. Gamble also ascertained that wheat thrives at this 
 place. We found some rude attempt at cultivation also 
 
128 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 at the Cree Settlement, which consists of a few log houses 
 built by Indians on the border of Sturgeon Lake, about 
 seventy miles southwest of the west end of Lesser Slave 
 Lake, and is at the average level of the country, with an 
 elevation of about 2,000 feet. Here, on September 14th, 
 the potato plants were slightly affected by frost, but not 
 more so than observed with those at Dunvegan two weeks 
 before. The tubers were quite ripe, but the Indians did not 
 intend to dig them for about ten days. Turnips were very 
 fine, and carrots, beets, and onions were good, though evi- 
 dently cultivated with very little care. Two or three very 
 small patches of barley had been almost completely destroyed 
 by mice, but a few stalks remaining were quite ripe and 
 with fine heads. The Indians here were very anxious to 
 have a supply of garden seeds, which I have since been able 
 to forward to them by the kindness of Messrs Stobart, 
 Eden & Co., of Winnipeg. 
 
 " At Fort St. John, ninety -five miles west of Dunvegan, 
 and so much nearer the mountains, on July 26th, 1875, 
 Professor Macoun states that potatoes, oats, barley and many 
 varieties of vegetables were in a very flourishing state in 
 -"Nigger Dan's" garden. The oats stood nearly five feet 
 high and the barley had made nearly an equal growth. The 
 barley and oats were both ripe about the 12th of August. 
 Professor Macoun was informed by Charlette at Hudson's 
 Hope, thirty miles still further west, that in 1874 there 
 was no frost from the 1st of May until the 15th of Septem- 
 ber. In 1875 sowing commenced the last week in April. 
 There appears to have been a frost on June 28th, but the 
 first autumn frost occurred on the 8th of September, and 
 Mr. Selwyn found the potato tops still green in the middle 
 of the month. Mr. H. J. Gamble saw wheat flourishing i 
 here in July last, but on his return in September it had 
 been cut down by frost. 
 
 " Such are the notes that can be obtained on the growth of 
 
PEACE KIVER. 129 
 
 cereals and vegetables in the district in question, Erom 
 information obtained at Dunvegan, it seems that the snow 
 disappears about the middle of April, westerly winds sweep- 
 ing it away fast. The river opens at about the same time. 
 Cultivation begins at about the end of April or first of May. 
 The river generally begins to freeze in November. The 
 depth of snow, I was told, averages about two feet, an es- 
 timate which agrees with Mr. Horetzky's statement. Mr. 
 Horetzky was also told that the plains were often nearly 
 bare up to the month of December, though the winter 
 usually sets in with the month November. Sir Alexander 
 Mackenzie remarked the same absence of snow in the early 
 winter months of 1792. It was entirely gone on April 5th, 
 1793, and gnats and mosquitoes were troublesome on April 
 20th. Horses almost invariably winter out well without 
 requiring to be fed. Hay should te provided for cattle, to 
 ensure perfect safety, for a period of three or four months, 
 though in some seasons it is necessary to feed the animals for a 
 few weeks only. The Indians of the " Cree Settlement " on 
 Sturgeon Lake, previously referred to, winter their horses 
 "without any difficulty round the borders of a neighbouring 
 lake, the shores of which are partly open. From Hudson'b 
 Hope the horses are sent southward to Moberly's Lake to 
 winter, and according to Mr. Selwyn, do well there. Lesser 
 Slave Lake, with its wonderful natural meadows, has long 
 been known as an excellent place for wintering stock, and 
 is referred to as such by Sir J. Richardson. 
 
 " Some general idea of the length and character of the 
 seasons at Fort St. John may be gained by an examination 
 of the extracts from the journals from 1866 to 1875, pub- 
 lished by Mr. Salwyn. The dates of opening and closing 
 of Peace River being an important clue to the mean tem- 
 perature of the region, may be quoted as summarized by 
 Professor Macoun in the same report (p. 156) : 
 
130 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Ice breaking Ice drifting first time. 
 
 1867 
 
 , 2l6t 
 
 November 8th. 
 
 1868 , 
 
 , 20tii 
 
 NoTcmber 7th. 
 
 1869 , 
 
 , 23rd 
 
 Norember 8th. 
 
 1870 , 
 
 26th 
 
 No record. 
 
 1871 , 
 
 , 18th 
 
 November 10th. 
 
 1872 , 
 
 ,- 19th. . 
 
 November 8th. 
 
 1873 
 
 , 23rd 
 
 November 4th. 
 
 1874 
 
 , 19th 
 
 October 31st. 
 
 1875 , 
 
 , 16th 
 
 
 " The average date of the breaking up of the ice may thus 
 be stated to be April 21st ; that on which ice is running on 
 the river for the first time, November 7th. In 1792 and 
 1793, when wintering at the mouth of Smoky River, Sir 
 Alexander Mackenzie observed the ice to be running for the 
 first time on November 9th, while the river was clear of ice 
 on the 25th April. I have been unable to find any precise 
 records of the dates of closing and opening of the Saskatche- 
 wan, biit Dr. Hector states these are usually the second week 
 of November and the second week of April respectively. 
 The Saskatchewan is a more rapid stream than the Peace. 
 
 " With regard to the probable difference between the actu- 
 al valley of the Peace and the plateau forming the general 
 surface of the country, Professor Macoun observes, speaking 
 of the vicinity of Fort St. John, that notwithstanding the 
 difference m altitude the berries on the plateau ripened 
 only about a week later than those near the river, while 
 he was informed that there was about the same difference 
 in the time of disappearance of the snow in spring. While 
 at Dunvegan I ascertained that a similar difference was 
 observed there, but it was added that this obtained chiefly 
 with the wooded parts of the plateau, the snow disappearing 
 on the prairies much about the same time as in the valley. 
 In my diary, under date September 5th, I find the follow- 
 ing entry : ' Aspens and berry bushes about the Peace 
 River Valley now looking quite autumnal. On the plateau 
 
PEACE RIVER 131 
 
 800 or 900 feet higher, not nearly so much so. Slight tinge of 
 yellow only on some aspen groves.' This difference, though 
 not altogether constant and depending much on diversity 
 of soil, appears to be actual. In October, 1872, Mr. Horetzky 
 writes : ' We observed that, curiously enough, the vege- 
 tation upon these uplands did not appear to have suffered 
 so much from the effects of frost, this being probably due 
 to the fact of the air in these upper regions being constantly 
 in motion, while in the deep and capacious valley of the 
 river the winds have often no effect.' 
 
 " The difference between the valley and the plateau being 
 thus very small, I have not treated separately the observa- 
 tions for temperature taken by myself in the different 
 situations. Most of the observations, however, refer to the 
 plateau, and including the whole time spent in the country, 
 from the Middle Forks of Pine River to the bank of the 
 Athabasca, cover a period of nearly two months. The mean 
 minimum temperature for the month of August, deduced 
 from observations extending from the 6th to the 31st of 
 the month, is 39' 9°. The mean of observations at 6 a.m. 
 during the same period is 42-3° ; that of the observations at 
 6 p.m. 59-5°. In September the mean minimum tempera- 
 ture was 28-1°. The mean of morning observations 34'3° ; 
 of evening observations 51"5° I have endeavored to deduce 
 from these observations mean temperatures for the months 
 in question, by correcting them by the tables of hourly 
 variations m temperature given by C. A. Schott in the 
 Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge (No. 277), but 
 find it impossible to do so, as the daily range is here so 
 much greater than that of any of the places represented by 
 the tables, which refer chiefly to the eastern portion of the 
 continent. It would appear that while in most places the 
 mean temperature of the day is reached about 8 p.m., it is 
 found in the Peace River country not far from 6 p.m., by 
 reason of the increased rapidity of loss of heat by radiation 
 
132 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 due to greater elevation and drier atmosphere. The maxi- 
 mum temperature was seldom observed, but the daily range 
 was very great, and the maximum probably several times 
 reached 80° in August, and often surpassed 70° in September. 
 
 " From the 6th to the 31st August I registered two nights 
 of frost, on the 13th and 20th of the month when the ther- 
 mometer showed 32° and 26° respectively. Both of these 
 were observed on the plateau, but one at least of them 
 (that of the 20th) must have occurred also in the valley, 
 from the effects produced at Dunvegan on tender vegetation. 
 These frosts occurred m very fine weather, following a day 
 of strong westerly wind, the result of which is to remove 
 from the surface of the earth the whole of the lower heated 
 layer of the atmosphere. This, succeeded by a calm and 
 cloudless night with transparent sky, causes the ther- 
 mometer to sink below the freezing point before morning 
 When not preceded by strong wind, mere transparency of 
 the atmosphere seems seldom or never to lead to frost m 
 August m this district, as many beautifully starlight nights, 
 without an approach of the mercury to freezing-point, were 
 observed 
 
 " Though in some cases such frosts as these may be general, 
 and extend over a wide district of country, it is more 
 usually found that they are quite local m character. 
 A few floating clouds, or light wreaths of mist, may arrest 
 radiation so far as to prevent frost over the greater part ol 
 the country, while some spot accidentally exposed during 
 the whole night under a clear sky experiences a tempera- 
 ture below 33°. The contour and character of vegetation 
 of the country also have much to do AVith the occurrence of 
 I'rosts, and it is very frequently the case that river valleys 
 are more subject to frosts than the upland districts. Dur- 
 ing the month of September, in a region for the most part 
 wooded, and often above the average altitude, between 
 Dunvegan and the Athabasca, nineteen frosts were regis- 
 
PEACE EIVER. 133 
 
 tered, the actually lowest temperature being 20' on Septem- 
 ber 18th. 
 
 " Through the kindness of Colonel Jarvis, of the North- 
 West Mounted Police, I have been able to secure a copy of 
 records kept by Dr. Herkomer, of Port Saskatchewan, on 
 the Saskatchewan River, about twenty miles northeast of 
 Edmonton. For comparison with the observed tempera- 
 tures m the portion of the Peace River country now dis- 
 cussed, they are invaluable; for in the whole district sur- 
 rounding Fort Saskatchewan and Edmonton, we now know 
 from actual and repeated experiment that wheat and all 
 other ordinary cereals and vegetables thrive, and yield 
 most abundant crops. The climate in its great diurnal and 
 annual range, corresponds exactly with that of the Peace 
 River country. Fort Saskatchewan is situated on the brow 
 of the Saskatchewan Valley, about seventy feet above the 
 river, and therefore probably less liable to frosts than either 
 the bottom of the river valley or extensive flat tracts of 
 plain, where there is little circulation of air. This, with 
 the position of the thermometers in regard to the buildings, 
 leads to the belief that if at all in error, as representing 
 the climate of the region generally, the indicated tempera- 
 tures are slightly too great. The thermometer appears to 
 have been read in all cases to the nearest degree only. 
 
 " A comparison may be made between the temperature 
 observed in the Peace River country duriug August and 
 September, with those at Fort Saskatchewan, as follows : — 
 
 Peace Eiver Country, mean of minima during August; 39-9°. 
 
 II II " « « " September, 28-1°. 
 
 .1 " " Frosts experienced during August, 3. 
 
 II II « " " September, 19. 
 
 Fort Saskatchewan, mean of minima during August, 39 '3°. 
 
 11 II « " " September, 31-1°. 
 
 II " Frosts experienced during August, 0. 
 
 II II II " " September, 15. 
 
 II II mean of maxima for August, 77-8°. 
 
 11 II « « September, 6-81°. 
 
 II II temperature of August, SS-S". 
 
 II II " September, 49-6°. 
 
134 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 " The mean of maxima and actual mean temperature for 
 the month cannot be stated for the Peace River country. 
 The actual mean for Port Saskatchewan is obtained by 
 adding the minima and maxima for each month together, 
 and is probably very nearly correct. 
 
 " While regretting that the data at disposal for the deter- 
 mination of the agricultural value of the Peace Eiver country 
 are not more ample, we may, I believe, arrive with consi- 
 derable certainty at the general fact that it is great From 
 such comparison as can be made, it would be premature to 
 allow that the climate of the Peace River is inferior to that 
 of the region about Edmonton or the Saskatchewan. It is 
 true that in both the Saskatchewan and Peace River dis- 
 tricts the season is none too long for the cultivation of 
 wheat, but if the crop can be counted on as a sure one — and 
 experience seems to indicate that it may — the occurrence of 
 early and late frosts may be regarded with comparative 
 indifference. The season is at least equally short through- 
 out the whole fertile belt from the Peace River to Mani- 
 toba, though early and late frosts are not so common m the 
 low valley of the Red River. The almo t simultaneous 
 advance of spring along the whole line of uhis fertile belt 
 is indicated by the dates of the flowering of the various 
 plants, a point referred to by me m some detail elsewhere. 
 It is further unquestionable that the winter is less severe, 
 and not subject to the same extremes in the Peace River 
 and Upper Saskatchewan regions as in Manitoba. 
 
 " We have already found reason to believe that the early 
 and late frosts, and not the absence of a sufficient aggregate 
 amount of heat, constitute the limiting condition of wheat 
 culture in the North- West; but that neither the Saskatche- 
 wan nor the Peace River countries he upon the actual verge 
 of the profitable cultivation of wheat appears to be proved 
 by the fact that oats succeed on the Saskatchewan, and also 
 ■ — in so far as one or two seasons can be accepted as evidence 
 
PEACE RIVER. 135 
 
 — on the Peace River; while it is well known that this 
 cereal is less tolerant of summer frost than wheat. This 
 is further proved by the fact that at Fort Vermilion and 
 Athabasca Lake, 180 and 300 miles respectively northeast 
 of Dunvegan, Prof. Macoun found wheat and barley ripen- 
 ing well ; but in this instance the fact is complicated by the 
 circumstance of the decreasing altitude of the country which 
 introduces a new condition. As no knowledge has been 
 gained of this country on the Lower Peace in addition to 
 that collected by Prof. Macoun in 1875, it is not included 
 m the above discussion, though from it additional great areas 
 might doubtless be added to the fertile tract. 
 
 "Referring to the journals kept at Fort St. John, Mr. 
 Selwyn, in the report already several times referred to, comes 
 to the conclusion that the climate of the Peace River com- 
 pares favorably with that of the Saskatchewan country, or 
 Montreal. 
 
 " It has often been stated in a general way that the 
 cause of the exceptionally favorable climate of the Saskat- 
 chewan and Peace River countries, as compared with those 
 of the eastern portion of the American continent, is to be 
 found in the prevalence of warm westerly winds from the 
 Pacific. Sir Alexander Mackenzie speaks of these westerly 
 winds in winter, writing : ' I had already observed at 
 Athabasca that this wind never failed to bring us clear 
 mild weather, whereas, when it blew from the opposite 
 quarter, it produced snow. Here it is much more percep- 
 tible, for if it blows hard southwest for four hours a thaw is 
 the consequence, and if the wind is at northeast it brings 
 sleet and snow. To this cause it may be attributed that 
 there is so little snow in that part of the world. These warm 
 winds come off the Pacific Ocean, which cannot, in a direct 
 line, be very far from us, the distance being so short that, 
 though they pass over mountains covered with snow, there 
 is not time for them to cool.' 
 
136 MAKITOBA AND THE GREAT NOETH-WEST 
 
 " Farther south these southwesterly currents are known as 
 ' Chinook Winds,' and similar consequences are observed 
 to accompany their occurrence. Sir Alexander Mackenzie, 
 however, in the summer of 1793, found the distance to the 
 Pacific coast from his wintering place, at the mouth of 
 Smoky River, greater than he appears to have imagined at 
 the time he penned the above quoted remarks, and it is 
 difficult indeed to understand how currents of air, blowing 
 for at least 350 miles across a country which is for the most 
 part mountainous, should retain enough warmth to temper 
 effectually the climate of the plains to the east. This diffi- 
 culty would appear to be particularly great in summer, 
 when the mountains are largely snow-clad, and the mean 
 temperature of the Peace and Saskatchewan Valleys, is pro- 
 bably considerably in excess of that of the region interven- 
 ing between them and the sea. 
 
 " In addition to the favorable climatic conditions indicat- 
 ed by the thermometer, the length of the day m summer 
 in the higher northern latitudes favors the rapid and 
 vigorous growth of vegetation, and takes the place, to a 
 certain extent, of heat in this respect. This has been sup- 
 posed to be the case from the luxuriant vegetation of some 
 northern regions, but Alfonse de Candolle has put the matter 
 beyond doubt by subjecting it to direct experiment. In 
 latitude 56°, which may be taken as representing that of 
 mucb. of the Peace River country, sunrise on 21st June 
 occurs at 3h. 12m., sunset at 8h. 50m ; while six degrees 
 further south in latitude 50°, which may be assumed to 
 represent Manitoba, sunrise occurs on the same day at 3h. 
 49m., sunset at 8h. 13m. The duration of sunlight, in the 
 first case, is 17h. 38m. ; in the second, 16h. 24m., or one 
 hour and a quarter in excess in the northern locality. This 
 excess of course decreases to zero at the spring and autumn 
 equinoxes, and the difference is reversed in the winter. 
 
 " A further circumstance giving to the Peace River country 
 
PEACE RIVER. 137 
 
 and that on the upper part of the Saskatchewan, other 
 things being equal, a value as farming land acre for acre 
 considerably greater than that of most parts of the North- 
 West, is the immunity of this region from the visits of the 
 devastating locust or grasshopper {Galaptenus sjpretus). I 
 have elsewhere discussed the question of locust invasions, 
 in several papers, and it has since been taken up by the 
 United States Entomological Commission It must suffice 
 to state here, that while a long series of years may pass with- 
 out the occurrence of serious invasions, these must continue 
 always, or at least for a very long time, to constitute a 
 drawback to the whole territory lying south of a line drawn 
 about sixty miles soath of Edmonton, and thence nearly 
 following the border of the wooded country eastward and 
 southward to Manitoba." 
 
 Little Slave Lake lies nearly east and west. It is about 
 seventy-five miles long, with an average breadth of about 
 five miles. The south shore is low and marshy Extensive 
 marshy meadows are around the southwestern extremity, 
 but owing to willow thickets their extent is unknown. South 
 of the lake the country is hilly, some of the hills even 
 rising into mountains, but to the north the country becomes 
 level and is said to pass into marsh some distance from 
 the lake Vegetables in abundance are raised at the Post, 
 and wheat and barley grow well but are seldom sown. 
 Barley ripened here on August 12th, 1872, while at Edmon- 
 ton the same year it did not mature until the 26th of that 
 month. 
 
 Large numbers of white fish are caught in the lake, and 
 in the surrounding woods moose are quite common, being 
 indeed the chief food of the people. Many beaver are still to 
 be found in the neighbourhood, and the Rev. Mr. Gordon 
 reports that as many as 8,000 were obtained in the winter 
 of 1878. 
 
 From the Rocky Mountains to very nearly Fort Simpson 
 
138 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 in latitude 62° there is scarcely any difference in soil or 
 climate, except that the latter improves as we recede 
 from the mountains. Near Fort Vermilion, in latitude 58° 
 24', I found both soil and climate everything I could desire. 
 
 The soil here is of the very best description, evidently 
 alluvial and of great depth. About half a mile from the 
 river the land rises nearly fifty feet, with increased luxu- 
 riance of vegetation, although two degrees north of St. John 
 barley and vegetables grow much c[uicker and ripen earlier 
 than at that Post. Barley sown on 8th May was cut August 
 6th, having been on the ground just ninety days. Turnips 
 and early rose potatoes were large with indications of heavy 
 crops. The whole country around this point is a plain, 
 elevated from fifty to one hundred feet above the river. 
 From frequent enquiries regarding the character of the soil 
 at a distance from the river, it is believed to be exactly like 
 that seen at Vermilion. The country intervening between 
 this and the Caribou Mountains seemed level or to slope 
 gradually up towards the mountains, and as far as the eye 
 could see was covered with aspen forest interspersed with a 
 few groves of spruce. No frosts occurred from early in May 
 to September 8th, 1875. Often whole seasons pass without 
 frost from early in May to October. Peace River at this 
 point is 3,000 feet wide. 
 
 At Little Red River, farther north, the climate seemed 
 still milder, and if anything the soil richer. Cucumbers 
 sown and ripened in the open air were seen August 15th, 
 and all garden vegetables were ripe. Fort Chipweyan, at 
 the west end of Lake Athabasca has comparatively poor soil 
 in its vicinity, being largely composed of sand ; still here I 
 obtained fine samples of wheat and barley that took the 
 bronze medal at the Centennial Exhibition, held in Phila- 
 delphia in the summer of 1876. The land is very low and 
 swampy, being but little elevated above the Lake. 
 
 Mr. Hardisty, Chief Factor in charge of Fort Simpson, 
 
PEACE RIYEK. 139 
 
 informed me that barley always ripened there, and that 
 wheat was sure four times in five. Melons, if started under 
 glass, ripen well. Frost seldom does much damage. 
 
 Chief Trader McDougall says that Fort Liard, in latitude 
 61° north, has the warmest summer climate in the whole 
 region. All kinds of grain and garden vegetables always 
 come to maturity. He has been on the Youcan for twelve 
 years, and says that in most seasons barley ripens under 
 the Arctic circle in longitude 143° west. 
 
 The localities mentioned were not chosen for their good 
 soil, but for their facilities for carrying on the fur trade or 
 for Mission purposes. Five-sixths of the land on Peace 
 River is just as good as the points cited, and will produce as 
 good crops in the future. The reason so little land is culti- 
 vated is owing to the fact that the inhabitants — whites and 
 Indians — dse flesh eaters. 
 
 For three years the Rev. M. Garrioch has been farming 
 at Vermilion, and has definitely settled the question of 
 fertility and climate at that point. All kinds of grain 
 ripen well and cattle winter as well there as anywhere else. 
 The testimony of residents, and the meteorological obser- 
 vations which have been taken at Fort Simpson for a series 
 of years, show that wheat can be successfully grown as far 
 north as lat. 61°, and barley up to the 66th parallel, or 
 under the Arctic Circle. 
 
 All the lakes of the north teem with fish of the very best 
 quality, — whitefish and enormous trout are the principal. 
 Geese, and ducks during the migrations are in countless 
 thousands, and supply the whole population with food. At 
 Fort Chipweyan many thousand geese are killed every fall 
 and preserved for winter use. Not less than 25,000 dried 
 white fish are required for the post every winter. Part of 
 these is fed to the train dogs and the others serve as rations 
 for the men when fresh fish are scarce. The seat of the 
 fishery is at the Quatre Fourche River, a point where four 
 
140 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 rivers meet, about eight miles from the Fort. Here fish 
 are caught every day in the year. 
 
 So little is known of the country between the Athabasca 
 and Peace Rivers that I have not attempted to describe it. 
 Rich soil, however, is known to prevail, but much of the 
 land is reported marshy on account of beaver. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Climate of the North-West. 
 
 Koteg from Blodgett's Climatology — Its Great Value — Lake Superior Compared with 
 North-West — Summer Heat Decisive of Climate — Thermal Lines Curve Northward — 
 Spring opens Simultaneously on a Northwest line Between St. Paul's and Mackenzie 
 Elvers — Deserts not Found North of Lat. 47° — Eain Sufficient on the Northern 
 Plain — Buffalo more Abundant in the North — Peace River Compared with Germany 
 and Russia — Canadian North-West the Better — A Prophecy Thirty Years Ago — Size 
 of our North- West — Lord Selkirk's Opinions Seventy Years Ago — 500,000 Square 
 Miles with a Mild Climate. 
 
 The region to which the following remarks will mainly 
 apply is bounded on the south by parallel of lat. 49° ; on 
 the north by parallel of lat. 60° ; on the east by meridian 
 95°; on the west by the line of the Rocky Mountains. An 
 area, in round numbers, of 667,600 square milps. 
 
 For many years this vast region was almost a blank on 
 our maps — little was known of it, either by Englishmen or 
 Canadians, beyond the fact that furs were obtained there- 
 from. More than twenty years ago, however, Americans 
 recognized its value, and foretold its great future and even 
 described it as the prospective granary of the world. 
 
 In 1857 Capt. Palliser was commissioned by the British 
 Government to examine the country south of the 54th 
 parallel. Commencing his examination at the interna- 
 tional boundary, in the vicinity of the Red River, he made 
 a few traverses and reached Fort EUice late in the season. 
 Proceeding up the right bank of the Qu'Appelle to its 
 head, he crossed the South Saskatchewan and proceeded 
 northward to Carlton, where he wintered. In June, 1858, 
 he turned southwest and spent the summer on the Great 
 Plains, wintering that year at Edmonton. In the follow- 
 
142 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST 
 
 ing spring he again proceeded south to the boundary, but 
 afterwards passed to the west into British Columbia. 
 
 He reported in very favorable terms of the northern 
 portion of the country that he had traversed, but of the 
 southern portion he spoke much less favorably — alleging 
 that running water was very scarce ; that no wood was to 
 be seen except in the river valleys ; and that, owing to the 
 enormous herds of buffalo which covered the plains at that 
 time, feed in many places was poor. 
 
 As far as public opinion was concerned the only imme- 
 diate result of this exploration was that a certain district 
 in the north became known as the " Fertile Belt," and that 
 the southern part, about which so little was said, was set 
 down, or assumed to be, arid and of slight value ; an 
 opinions till generally prevalent and mainly fostered hy 
 writers whose views have been based on a misinterpreta- 
 tion of Capt. Palliser's remarks. 
 
 The survey of the International Boundary and the es- 
 tablishment of the Mounted Police Force in 1874, tendered 
 in some degree to dispel the cloud which hung over the 
 south. Frequent journeys have done much since in the 
 same direction, yet in the minds of the general public, and 
 even of maiij' others who should be better informed, the 
 old prejudice, in a measure, exists. 
 
 In this case the past only repeated itself. How many 
 are the instances of wealth unknown having remained for 
 centuries under the eye of the dwellers on the spot, unap- 
 preciated and untouched ? 
 
 In our day the growth of the Dominion, demanding a 
 through communication from east to west, and the exigen- 
 cies of the over-populated countries of the old world, have 
 been the means of enlightening the world as to the extent 
 of the resources of the " Great North-West," thus fulfilling 
 the beneficent intentions of the all- wise Creator. 
 
 Explorers have traversed its length, settlers h;ive here 
 
CLIHATE OP THE NORTH-WEST. 143 
 
 and there dotted the new land, and the reports of one and 
 the other only stimulate us to further research. 
 
 Amongst those sent out to explore, I was first commis- 
 sioned by Mr. Fleming in 1872, to examine the flora of the 
 prairies between Winnipeg and Edmonton. The same year 
 I was despatched in company with Mr. Charles Horetzki, 
 to explore the Peace River and examine the country on 
 its banks. The journeys resulted in the discovery of the 
 low passes through the Rocky Mountains, and of an exten- 
 sive tract of fertile country, since known as the Peace River 
 District. 
 
 In 1875, I accompanied Mr. Selwyn, Director of the 
 Geological Survey, in the capacity of botanist, to British 
 Columbia and from thence by the Peace River Pass to the 
 east of the Rocky Mountains. Circumstances compelled 
 me to descend the Peace River from the Rocky Mountains to 
 Lake Athabasca, and 1 was thus enabled to see the country 
 as far north as lat. 59°. Turning eastward at this point a 
 journey of 1200 miles brought me to Winnipeg. 
 
 The general conclusions which I arrived at from my ex- 
 plorations of 1872 and 1875 were : 1st, That as there was 
 but one flora common to the region extending from eight to 
 twelve degrees of latitude, or as far north as 60°, and as 
 that flora required a high summer temperature for its exist- 
 ence, the thermometer would be found to show a corres- 
 pondingly even distribution of heat throughout the whole 
 district. 2nd, That exceptional or special conditions must 
 exist to produce that high and even distribution of heat 
 discovered as ranging over so great an area. 
 
 These conclusions have since been established as facts by 
 the recorded observations sent in from the Meteorological 
 stations at Winnipeg, Fort McLeod, and Fort Calgarry in 
 the south, and Fort Rae and Fort Simpson in the north. 
 (See Meteorological Report for 1878.) 
 
 In 1879 my attention was mainly directed to an investi- 
 
144 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 gatioii of the causes of the supposed aridity of the district 
 lying to the south. I found a parched surface, dried and 
 withered grasses, and in short every appearance of the ex- 
 istence of such aridity ; but closer examination showed that 
 these indications were illusory. At the point " Blackfoot 
 Crossing " lat 50° 43' where the consequences of aridity 
 appeared the strongest, I came upon ground broken up in 
 the spring, bearing excellent crops of all kinds — oats being 
 four feet high, while on the land outside the fence the 
 grass was burnt up and all other vegetation withered. 
 From this I argued that the rain-fall in the district was 
 evidently ample for the requirements of vegetation, but that, 
 until the baked crust was broken, it could not percolate the 
 ground as rapidly as it fell and so a great portion was 
 evaporated by the dry atmosphere and lost. Thus the 
 apparent aridity vanishes before the first efforts of 
 husbandry. Next to the question of aridity was that of 
 the high and even temperature of climate. On this point 
 I simply accumulated data bearing on the observations of 
 former years, all of which tended to prove that the great 
 plain to the northwestward, and north of lat. 49° extend- 
 in 't alona; the Saskatchewan and other rivers between the 
 100th and 115th Meridians, and the narrow strip of coast 
 north of Montery, California, present decided features of 
 difference from other districts of the American continent. 
 These differences and peculiarities I shall now deal with 
 seriatim. 
 
 TEMPERATURE, 
 
 It was long ago asserted as a principle by Geologists that 
 " land in quantity situated to the southward of lat 40° north, 
 very materially raises the temperature of lands lying to 
 the north of such parallel." (Sir C. Lyell). To the ex- 
 pression '■ land in quantity," I would add, wJien its character 
 i'j that of a desert or arid nature. Another maxim is 
 thus laid down by a well known writer on American 
 
CLIMATE OF THE NORTH-WEST. 145 
 
 Climatology (Blodgett) " that high arid plains are indica- 
 tive of great summer heat, of an arid atmosphere, and of 
 little rain or snowfall." Now the conditions required to 
 test the accuracy of both these propositions are presented 
 in the position occupied by the North-West Territory. 
 South of our boundary, within the United States, lies a vast 
 tract of land, generally arid or desert, of which at least 
 500,000 square miles are embraced in a plateau which has 
 a general level of COOO feet. At Laramie City in lat. 42° it 
 is about 7000 feet above sea level, thence northward 
 it rapidly falls off so that when it reaches our boundary 
 in lat. 49° at Pembina, it is considerably under 1000 feet. 
 At the base of the Rocky Mountains it is under 4000 feet. 
 From the boundary the plain extends far to the north and 
 only terminates at the Arctic Sea. In such a wide range 
 of latitude it might well be expected that a considerable 
 difference of temperature would be found. The following 
 Table, however shows the temperature as being wonderfully 
 uniform. (See Meteorological Report, 1878) : 
 
 bTtI! A W OP 
 
 Placb Lat. Long. W Jdne. Jdiy. Adgdst. „ j, 
 
 Winnipeg 49. 53 97.07 59.2 65.8 63.3 62. 8 
 
 Fort M:cLeod...49.39 113.42 60.6 63.3 57.0 60.3 
 
 Norway House.. 54. 00 98.00 54.9 63.5 61 .2 59.9 
 
 Fort Simpson... 6 1. 52 121.25 58.8 63.4 63.2 61.8 
 
 In the same parallels of latitude in Europe the tempera- 
 ture is recorded as follows. (See Blodgett) : 
 
 Place. Lat. Jdne. Juli. Adgust. 
 
 Penzance, S. W. England 50.08 59.5 62.1 61.1 60.9 
 
 Cracow, in Poland 50.04 64.0 65.8 64.9 64.9 
 
 Koeningsberg, in Prussia 54.42 57.4 62.6 61.7 60.6 
 
 St. Petersburg, in Bussia 59.56 58.2 62.7 60.8 60.6 
 
 We see that the summer temperature in the North-West 
 Territories is exceptional. Believing, however, that in 
 addition to the quoted causes, there are others which con- 
 tribute to this result of exceptional temperature, I purpose 
 for the present, to reserve the fact for further comment, 
 10 
 
 Mbad or 
 Sum. Mog. 
 
146 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH- WEST 
 
 and pass on to the subject of isothermals. The recorded 
 lines of equal temperature show that the various lines of 
 heat, as they make westing from the eastern coast of the 
 continent, tend in summer to curve upwards from the Gulf 
 of Mexico in a northwesterly direction to a point in lat. SO'", 
 long. 110° west. At this point the mean summer tempera- 
 ture is 70° F., while at "Winnipeg, on the same parallel of 
 lat., but 15° further east, the temperature is but 65°. Tra- 
 cing these isothermals still further north, the line of great- 
 est heat passes near Fort Vermilion in lat. 58° 24' and long. 
 116° 30' west. I may mention that at this point I found 
 barley cut on August 6th, 1875, and wheat almost ripe. 
 Still farther north and west the table shows that Fort Simp- 
 son has a mean summer temperature of 61° 8' F. Turning 
 to the west coast, the isothermal lines commence to turn 
 northward from the Gulf of California, and for a time skirt 
 the westerii side of the Rocky Mountains. On reaching 
 the loAV point of the chain between lat 41° and 45° they turn 
 to the east, cross the mountains, and strike the Dominion 
 boundary on the 115th meridian. These westerly currents, 
 named the " Chinooks " have been known to cause a rise in 
 the temperature of 60° in a few hours. When in that 
 country I enquired from a Half-breed about their effect on 
 the snow. His reply was, " the Chinooks lick up snow, 
 water and all." 
 
 After crossing the Rocky Mountains the thermometric cur- 
 rent of the west meets that of the east at or about the Hand 
 Hills in lat. 51° 20', long. 112°. There, in 1879, I found 
 that for days together, during August, the thei-mometer in 
 the shade registered from 87° to 92° F. From the Hand 
 Hills the united currents, following their resultant direc- 
 tion, carry the temperature of latitudes extending almost to 
 New Orleans over the North-West, and confer on it the 
 blessings of a climate, not only exceptional as regards 
 character, but productive of results to the agriculturist, 
 
CLIMATE OF THE NORTH-WEST. 147 
 
 which, I believe, are unsurpassed in any other part of the 
 world. 
 
 Returning to the course taken by the east and west cur- 
 rents before their union at the Hand Hills, it is a matter 
 for consideration, why that from the east departs from the 
 natural law which would give to it an eastward, in place of 
 a westward bend, while the western current follows the 
 natural law and bends to the eastward. 
 
 The answer to this question is the hey to almost every clrni- 
 atological peculiarity of the North -West. 
 
 The data which we have for the investigation of the 
 question : " Why does the eastern current of heat proceed- 
 ing northwestward from the Gulf of Mexico bend to the 
 west ? " are : 
 
 1st. Recorded observations, which show that land of a 
 desert character is heated to a greater degree than the 
 land or water adjoining. 
 
 2nd. Recorded observations which show that currents of 
 air are constantly on the move to where the land is most 
 heated. 
 
 3rd. The fact that to the westward of the tract running 
 northward from the Gulf of Mexico lies the " Great Ameri- 
 can Desert." 
 
 To my mind no argument is needed to show that the 
 cause of the divergence of the eastern thermometric current 
 to the westward is solely due to the position and effect pro- 
 .duced by the American Desert. A confirmation of this 
 inference is offered in the eastern hemisphere, where the 
 Southeast Trade winds are drawn out of their course by the 
 heated atmosphere of the Western Indies, and result in the 
 Southwest Monsoon, and further by the northeastern trend 
 of the isothermals in Northern Asia. In the transition 
 from summer to winter we find the desert losing its tem- 
 perature (terrestrial and atmospheric) and consequent attrac- 
 tive influence on air currents warmer than its own. The first 
 
148 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 effect of this is that the isothermals pass away from their 
 northern altitude and sink southward ; next, when freed 
 from the desert influences, they no longer trend to the west- 
 ward, but to the eastward. On the withdrawal of the 
 southern warm currents, other currents from the north and 
 from the west follow them up, particularly- on the east side 
 of the Rockies, and establish the prevailing northwest win- 
 ter winds, which being affected by the temperature of the 
 Arctic regions on the one hand, and by the mountains on 
 the other, bring the minimum line of cold far to the south. 
 Were the American Desert an inland sea, the summers of 
 our plains would lose their exceptional character, and our 
 winters would be like those of Eastern Europe. 
 
 In a book like the present, however, it would be out of 
 place to discuss the climate of the eastern hemisphere ; but 
 it could be shown that precisely similar causes to those 
 which I have specified exist there, and are productive of 
 the same results, 
 
 HUMIDITV. 
 
 The rainfall of the North-West offers as favorable a con- 
 trast to that of other districts as the temperature. Rains 
 usually come just when they are wanted and cease when 
 vegetation no longer requires them, and when their con- 
 tinuance would be detrimental to harvesting. Formerly 
 the rainfall of a country was judged by the average for the 
 whole year. Such a comparison, however, is misleading. 
 What we want to know is the quantity that may be expected 
 to fall :— 
 
 (a) During the period of vegetation, and its distribution 
 month by month. (6) During the harvest months. 
 
 The period of vegetation in the North-West embraces 
 May, June, July and August. The harvest months are Sep- 
 tember and October. I append the following tabulary ar- 
 ranged statements of rainfall : — 
 
CLIMATE OF THE NORTH-WEST. 
 
 149 
 
 Table I.— For 
 
 the Four Months of Vegetation. 
 
 
 POSITIO.N. 
 
 Rainfall in Inche.s. 
 
 Total for 4 
 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Alt. 
 
 May. 
 
 .June. 
 
 July 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Months. 
 
 Winnipeg, Manitoba 
 
 Toronto, Ontario 
 
 Fort Riley, Kansas 
 
 Rochester, New York 
 
 49.53 
 43.39 
 39.03 
 43.07 
 
 740 
 
 350 
 
 1300 
 
 506 
 
 2.17 
 2.98 
 4.14 
 3.04 
 
 3.42 
 3.04 
 
 3.08 
 
 2.68 
 3.72 
 l.OS 
 3.01 
 
 7.11 
 2.81 
 2.99 
 2.00 
 
 15.37 
 12.55 
 11.29 
 11.90 
 
 Table II. — For the Two Months of Harvest. 
 
 PLA(!E 
 
 Position. 
 
 Rainfall in Inches. 
 
 Total 
 
 
 Lat 
 
 Alt. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 
 
 49.53 
 43 39 
 39.03 
 43.07 
 
 740 
 
 350 
 
 1300 
 
 506 
 
 0.73 
 4.45 
 4.18 
 3.05 
 
 0.03 
 2.96 
 0.02 
 3.39 
 
 0.76 
 
 Toronto. Ontario 
 
 7.41 
 
 Fort Riley, Kansas 
 
 Rochester, New York 
 
 4.20 
 6.41 
 
 Having stated what the recorded facts as to rainfall are, 
 I will give my reasons for asserting that these facts are the 
 necessary consequences of the physical conditions existing 
 m the west of the North American Continent. 
 
 In the beginning of this chapter I referred to the posi- 
 tion of the Great American Desert, and pointed out one of 
 its effects on the air-currents rising northward from the 
 Gulf of Mexico — viz., its power to attract and draw them to 
 itself, and to the westward of their natural course. Another 
 effect arises from the heat given off by radiation during 
 the summer months. The Gulf air currents, laden with 
 moisture, when drawn over the desert, are met by the rari- 
 fied and heated air ascending from its surface, and the rain 
 which in the ordinary course they would shower down, 
 being prevented from falling, passes on and is wafted by the 
 prevailing winds m the direction of our North-West. There 
 their long borne and priceless load is given forth m the form 
 of our summer rains. 
 
150 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Having shown cause for the summer rains, I may now 
 state that the simple " suspension of those desert effects 
 which gave the summer rains," is the cause of the almost 
 total absence of rain in the autumn and winter periods. 
 
 It was shown when writing on the winter temperature, 
 that as the desert cooled down the main air currents from 
 the Gulf of Mexico no longer pursued a westward course, 
 but passed to the eastward. This change of direction takes 
 them over the region of the Canadian Lakes, where they 
 deposit an abundant rainfall. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS. 
 
 The progress of the seasons and the labors of the hus- 
 bandman may be summarized as follows : — 
 
 In April the hot and unclouded sun clears from the 
 lands the last of its light snow covering, thaws, and at the 
 same time dries the ground sufficiently to fit it for the 
 plough, and almost simultaneously for seeding. Germination 
 quickly follows and the young roots, moistened by the 
 thawing of the subsoil, follow the pores opened out by the 
 disintegrating power of the winter frosts, and penetrate to 
 a depth inconceivable to those who have not put the matter 
 to the test. By the time that the rains of May and June 
 come, the roots have a firm hold of the ground, and growth 
 is extraordinary. 
 
 The July and early August rains nourish and swell the 
 ear of the now ripening crops, and complete the promise of 
 the early spring. Towards the end of August the winds 
 change and the almost rainless period sets in and continues 
 all winter. The farmer harvests his crop without loss and 
 m the highest possil3le condition, stacking it in the open air, 
 without even the necessity of thatching it for the winter. 
 
 TO STOCK BREEDERS 
 
 The advantages are equally great. Storms of sleet or 
 wet snow are unknown on the western plains. The snow 
 
CLIMATE OF THE NORTH-WEST. 151 
 
 is always dry and light, hence cattle and horses may be left 
 out the whole winter without suffering from wet. Intense 
 cold they may experience, but stock-raisers know that where 
 the cold is dry, cattle are not hurt. Hence cattle can be 
 raised on the North-West Plains without buildings for win- 
 tering them. 
 
 Reference was made to Blodgett's Climatology in the 
 foregoing remarks, and I now quote a part of his work 
 bearing on the climate of our North-West, written by him 
 over thirty years ago. A careful study of what he says will 
 be necessary to the reading with profit of the succeeding 
 chapter : 
 
 " By reference to the illustration of the distribution of 
 heat we see that the cold at the north of the great lakes 
 does not represent the same latitude further west, and that 
 beyond them the thermal lines rise as high in latitude, in 
 most cases, as at the west of Europe. Central Russia, the 
 Baltic districts and the British Islands, are all reproduced 
 in the general structure, though the exceptions here fall 
 against the advantage, while there they favor it through 
 the influence of the Gulf Stream. 
 
 " Climate is indisputably the decisive condition, and when 
 we find the isothermal of 60° for the summer rising on the 
 interior American plains to the 61st parallel, or fully as high 
 as its average position for Europe, it is impossible to doubt 
 the existence of favorable climates over vast areas now un- 
 occupied. 
 
 " This favorable comparison may be traced for the winter 
 also, and m the average for the year. The exceptional 
 cold for the mountain plateaux, and of the coast below the 
 43rd parallel, masks the advantage more or less to those who 
 approach these areas from the western part of the Central 
 States, and from the coast of California ; but though the 
 distant mountain ranges remain high at the north, the width 
 of their base, or of the plateau from which they rise, is much 
 
152 MAN1T(JHA ANIJ THE GRKAT NOKTil-WEST. 
 
 less than at the 42nd parallel. The elevated tracts are of 
 less extent, and the proportion of cultivable surface is far 
 greater. 
 
 " It will be seen that the thermal lines for each season are 
 thrown further northward on passing Lake Superior to the 
 westward, in the charts of this work, than in those of the 
 military report prepared by the author. At the time those 
 were drawn the number of the observations beyond the 
 limits of the United States were so small that the full ex- 
 pression was not given to the statistics then used, in the 
 fear that some correction would ultimately be found to apply 
 to them, reducing the extreme northward curvatures they 
 indicated. But a further collection and comparison warrants 
 the position now given to the thermal lines, placing them 
 further northward than before, and extending them in a 
 course due northwest from Lake Superior to the 58th 
 parallel. For the extreme seasons, whiter and summer, this 
 accurate diagonal extension of the thermal lines across the 
 arenas of latitude and longitude is very striking. The 
 Buffalo winter on the upper Athabasca, at least as safely 
 as in the latitude of St. Paul, Minnesota ; and the spring 
 openn at nearly tlie same time along the immense line of -plains 
 from St. Paul to Mackenzie River. 
 
 '' The quantity of rain is not less important than the 
 measure of heat to all purposes of occupation; and for the 
 plains east of the Rocky Mountains there may reasonably be 
 some doubt as to the sufficiency ; and doubts on this point 
 whether the desert belt of lower latitudes is prolonged to the 
 northern limit of the plains. If the lower deserts are due to 
 the altitude and mass of the mountains simply, it would be 
 natural to infer their existence along the whole line, where 
 the Rocky Mountains run parallel and retain their altitude ; 
 but the dry areas are evidently due to other causes prim- 
 arily, and they are not found above the ilth parallel in fact. 
 It is decivsive of the general question of the sufficiency of 
 
CLIMATE or THE NORTH-WEST. 153 
 
 rain, to find the entire surface of the upper plains either well 
 grassed or well wooded ; and recent information on these 
 points almost warrants the assertion that there are no barren 
 tracts of consequence after we pass the bad lands, and the 
 Coteau of the Missouri. Many portions of these plains are 
 known to be peculiarly rich in grasses; and probably the 
 finest tracts lie along the eastern base of the mountains, in 
 positions corresponding to the most desert-like of the plains 
 at the south. The higher latitudes certainly differ widely 
 from the plains which stretch from the Platte southward to 
 the Llano Estacado of Texas, and none of the references 
 made to them by residents or travellers indicate desert 
 characteristics. Buffalo are far more abundant on the north- 
 ern plains, and they remain through the winter at their 
 extreme border, taking shelter in the belts of woodland on 
 the upper Athabasca and Peace Rivers. Grassy savannas 
 like these necessarily imply an adequate supply of rain; 
 and there can be no doubt that the correspondence with the 
 European plains in like geographical position — those of East- 
 ern Germany and Russia — is quite complete in this respect. 
 If a difference exists it is in favor of the American plains, 
 which have a greater proportion of surface waters, both as 
 
 lakes and rivers. 
 
 ******** 
 
 " Next the area of the plains east of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains, is not less remarkable than the first for the absence of 
 attention heretofore given to its intrinsic value as a pro- 
 ductive and cultivable region, within easy reach of emigra- 
 tion. This is a wedge-shaped tract, ten degrees of longitude 
 in width at its base along the 47th parallel, inclined north- 
 westward to conform to the trend of the Rocky Mountains, 
 and terminating not far from the 60th parallel in a narrow 
 liae, which still extends along the Mackenzie for three or 
 four degrees of latitude, in a climate barely tolerable. Lord 
 Selkirk began his efforts at colonization in the neigh- 
 
154 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 bourhood of Winnipeg as early as 1815, and from personal 
 knowledge he then claimed for this tract a capacity to sup- 
 port thirty millions inhabitants. All the grains of the cool 
 temperate latitudes are produced abundantly. Indian corn 
 may be grown on both sides of the Saskatchewan, and the 
 grass of the plains is singularly abundant and rich. Not 
 only in the earliest exploration of these plains, but now 
 they are the great resort for buffalo herds, which with the 
 domestic herds, and the horses of the Indians and the colo- 
 nists remain on them and at their woodland borders through- 
 out the year. 
 
 " The simple fact of the presence of these vast herds of 
 wild cattle on plains at so high a latitude, is ample proof of 
 the climatological and productive capacity of the country. 
 Of these 'plains and their woodland borders the valuable 
 surface measures fully. five hundred thausand square miles." 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 Practical Remarks on Climate. 
 
 Mr. Anderson, of Liatowel, Ireland, on Climate — Great Heat Causes no Inconvenience — 
 Intense Cold Hardly Felt — Manitoba Winter Climate Better than that of Ontario — 
 Snow Seldom over Twenty Inches in Depth — Seasons in Manitoba — Manitoba in the 
 Middle of the Continent — Long Days of Summer — Autumn Weather —Snowfall — Heat 
 and Humidity — Comparison of Summer Temperatures — Warm Summers and Dry Cold 
 Winters — Table of Mean Temperatures— Summer Temperatures Compared — Peace 
 RiTer Climate — Manitoba Climate — Hardness of Wheat —Grains in the Cluster— Min- 
 nesota nowhere — Peace Eiver Wheat — Isothermal Lines — Corn and Wheat Zones — 
 Temperature Necessary for Successful Wheat Culture — The Wheat Zones — Probably 
 Three-fourths of the Wheat Lands of America in the New North- West— 200,000,000 
 Acres — Extent of the Territory — Lord Selkirk's Opinions Seventy Years Ago — Great 
 American Desert— Its Effect on Climate — Changes Observed Passing North — How the 
 Isothermal Lines Curve — Where the Heated Air comes From — Two Currents passing 
 North— Summer Temperature the same over 300,000 Square Miles — Moisture in Sum- 
 mer, its Absence in Winter — Eainfall of the Year — Progress of the Seasons — Fall 
 Frosts not Injurious, Climate Unsurpassed for Farmers — Its Possibilities Unlimited — 
 Depth of Winter Frost — Its Beneficial Effects on Soil — Table of Kaiufalls for 1879 and 
 1880 — Eainfall and Cloudlessness — Testimony of Settlers Regarding the Healthiness 
 of the Climate. 
 
 In the preceding chapter I have given the facts and 
 deductions regarding the temperature and humidity of the 
 atmosphere of the North-West as noticed by myself. I shall 
 now give details of a more practical nature, and adduce 
 other evidence just as conclusive as my own, regarding sum- 
 mer and winter temperature, rainfall, and all other kindred 
 subjects which naturally fall under the term climate. 
 
 The following extract is from the report of Mr. R. H. B. P. 
 Anderson, of Listowel, Co. Kerry, Ireland. In it he gives 
 his views of the climate and seasons as observed by himself. 
 These are worth more than a passing glance, as he touches 
 with a master hand the most salient points of the subject. 
 
 " The Climate of Manitoba and the North-West is one of 
 the settler's most serious drawbacks, but we are inclined to 
 look upon it as a much more serious affair than it really is. 
 
156 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Description will do little to remove these impressions, 
 it must be experienced to be understood. At home, exces- 
 sive heat is generally accompanied by oppressiveness, with 
 its attendant weariness and inertia; and cold, as a rule, 
 with dampness, which makes it raw and piercing. Now 
 this is not the case in Manitoba or the North-West. The 
 lieat at 100° was undoubtedly very intense, but — and I 
 speak from personal experience — without sultriness. I per- 
 spired freely, but otherwise felt no inconvenience, and had 
 energy enough for any amount of work. This was an 
 unusual degree of heat; the summer mean is, I believe, 
 about 70°. Usually during summer there is a pleasant 
 breeze, and the higher the thermometer stands the more 
 likely is there to be a breeze. No matter how hot the day, 
 the night is sure to be cool. In winter the cold is very 
 great, but nothing like what it is at home in proportion to 
 the degrees of frost ; if it were, animal life would cease, 
 for the thermometer sometimes sinks to 40° and 50° below 
 zero — ^just imagine what that would mean in England ! but 
 when it does so it is certain to be accompanied by a bright 
 iind perfectly still atmosphere and a warm sun. However, 
 as a rule, it stands at from 10° to 15°. As I had not an 
 opportunity of experiencing it myself, I was not content 
 with the testimony of the ordinary settler concerning it, 
 but had that of such men as the Bishop of the Saskatche- 
 wan and clergymen of various denominations, as well as 
 bankers and others, on whose opinion I could rely. All 
 agreed in saying that one feels no colder when the thermo- 
 meter stands at 40° than when it is at 10° below zero, and 
 that winter is a delightful part of the year. Numbers of 
 people from Ontario said that the climate of Manitoba com- 
 pared favorably with that of Ontario. There are, however, 
 slight deviations which are intensely disagreeable. In the 
 summer there are sometimes extremely high winds and hail- 
 storms, and in the winter storms of wind and snow — 
 
PRACTICAL REMARKS ON CLIMATE. 157" 
 
 ' blizzards ' as they are called. In spring and early autumn 
 frosts sometimes occur, which do no good to the crops ; but 
 all these things apply to the Western Statesof America just 
 as much as they do to Manitoba. Indians camp out in their 
 wretched canvas-covered tents during the most severe 
 winters, and white men, when hunting, often do the same,. 
 and think nothing of it. A curious fact is that Europeans, 
 for the first two winters, bear the cold better than Cana- 
 dians. Snow does not fall to any extent till the beginning 
 of the year, and seldom exceeds an average of eighteen 
 or twenty inches in depth. When the thaw comes it is 
 unaccompanied by that abominable slushiness we have at 
 home ; the snow evaporates leaving the ground dry. During 
 spring and early summer an immense quantity of rain falls ; 
 drought, which so often ruins the farmer in the United 
 States, never occurs here. The dew is so heavy that one 
 would imagine that there had been a fall of rain in the 
 night. The seasons are as follows : Spring — April and May 
 Summer — June, July, August, and part of September 
 Autumn — ^part of September to the middle of November 
 and then Winter. Of course in so extensive a country as 
 Canada, there are slight differences in climate. In Ontario 
 the harvest is ten days earlier than in Manitoba. All agree 
 that as regards health the climate of the North- West cannot 
 be surpassed." 
 
 Another observer, Eev. ^Eneas McDonell Dawson, writes 
 as follows : — " Manitoba is situated in the middle of the 
 continent, nearly equally distant between the Pole and the 
 Equator, and the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Its climate 
 gives conditions of decided heat in summer, and decided 
 cold in winter. The snow goes away and ploughing begins 
 in April, which is about the same time as in the older Pro- 
 vinces of Canada, the Northern United States on the At- 
 lantic seaboard, and the North-Western States, Minnesota 
 and Wisconsin. The crops are harvested in August and 
 
158 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 September. The long, sunny days of summer bring vegeta- 
 tion of all sorts to rapid maturity. The days are warm and 
 the nights cool. Autumn begins about the 20th September 
 and last still November, when the regular frost sets in. The 
 winter proper comprises the months of December, January, 
 February and March. Spring comes in April. The summer 
 months are part of May, June, July, August, and part of 
 September. In winter the thermometer sinks to thirty and 
 forty degrees below zero , but this degree of cold in the dry 
 atmosphere of the North-West does not produce any un- 
 pleasant sensations. The weather is not felt to be colder 
 than that in the Province of Quebec, nor so cold as milder 
 winters in climates where the frost, or even a less degree of 
 cold than frost, is accompanied with dampness. In times of 
 wind storms, however, the cold is found to be specially 
 searching. The testimony of settlers is universal as to the 
 fact that the winter is on the whole, both pleasant and 
 healthy ; and former residents of both Ontario and Quebec 
 state that they like it quite as well as that of those provinces. 
 
 " Snow does not fall on the prairies to an average greater 
 depth than eighteen inches, and buffaloes and horses graze 
 out of doors all winter. They scratch the snow off the prairie 
 grass, and grow fat upon it. Horned cattle graze out of 
 doors part of the winter, but in some states of the weather 
 they require to be brought in. Instances are, however, 
 stated in which horned cattle have grazed out all winter. 
 
 " Heat and humidity are the two chief elements of climate, 
 and these two divisions of the North-west, the prairie and 
 wooded, have high summer temperatures and heavy summer 
 rains. South of the parallel of Manitoba, lie the regions of 
 summer droughts and great heat — producing the immense 
 deserts over the western territories of the United States, 
 The abundance of rain in British America, with summer 
 temperature sufficient to mature all the great staples of the 
 temperate zones, makes it a good agricultural country. The 
 
PRACTICAL REMARKS ON CLIMATE. 159 
 
 absence of summer rains, with high temperatures, leaves 
 vast areas of the interior of the United States barren wastes, 
 especially those parts of the country westward from the 
 100th Meridian or west of the Missouri. The following 
 table will serve for comparison between the summer tem- 
 peratures of the Ked River and the countries south : — 
 
 July. Augdst. Bommer Meam. 
 
 Bed River 69.10 71.16 68.03 67. T6 
 
 Chicago 62.07 70.08 68.05 67.03 
 
 Iowa 66.04 70.05 68.09 68.06 
 
 Wisconsin 61.07 68.06 65.07 65.03 
 
 New York 64.02 68.05 66.07 66.05 
 
 Toronto 64.02 67.95 65.00 66.98 
 
 It will thus be seen that the summer is warmer than that 
 of Northern Illinois, Western Wisconsin, Northern New 
 York or Toronto. In relation to agriculture the intensity 
 of winter cold is not injurious, but on the contrary it has 
 advantages, and its effect upon physical comfort is mitigated 
 as above stated, by a clear dry winter atmosphere," 
 
 Mr. J. W. Taylor, the Consul of the United States at 
 Winnipeg, who has a right to be considered an indisputable 
 authority on account of his long residence in Winnipeg, and 
 thorough knowledge of the subject matter in hand, wrote 
 the letter, from which the following extracts are taken, to 
 the Editor of the " Pioneer Press," St. Paul, Minnesota. Mr. 
 J. A. Wheelock, Commissioner of Statistics to whom he 
 alludes is the very man to whom he addresses his letter, 
 as the Editor and Statician are one and the same person, 
 and the present letter quotes the Editor against himself. 
 
 COMPARATIVE TEMPERATURE. 
 
 " A comparative statement of temperatures at St. Paul, 
 Winnipeg, and Battleford, for the first months of the current 
 year, including April, having been published by me and 
 noticed in the " Pioneer Press," I assume that your readers 
 will be interested in a similar statement for the year ending 
 
160 MANITOBA AND THE GKEAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 July, 1879, to which I have added the monthly observations 
 at Toronto : 
 
 N. Lat , W. Long. 
 
 Toronto 43.49 79.23. 
 
 St. Paul 44.52 93 05. 
 
 Winnipeg 49.50 96.20. 
 
 Battleford 52.43 109.00. 
 
 " It will be convenient to refer to latitudes as Toronto, 
 44° ; St. Paul, 45° ; Winnipeg, 50° ; Battleford, 53°. The 
 place last named is situated on the Saskatchewan River, and 
 is the capital of the North-West Territory of Canada, as the 
 vast district west, of Manitoba (longitude 99°) to the Rocky 
 Mountains is now known geographically and politically. 
 
 Table of Mean Temperatures. 
 
 
 Toronto. 
 
 St. Paul. 
 
 Winnipeg. 
 
 Battlefokb. 
 
 August 
 
 66.38 . . 
 
 .... 72.00 .. 
 
 67.34 .. 
 
 .... 67.79. 
 
 September . . , . 
 
 58.18 .., 
 
 .... 60.06 .. 
 
 .... 52.18 .. 
 
 .... 47.10. 
 
 October 
 
 45.84 ... 
 
 .... 46 03 .. 
 
 .... 85.84 ,. 
 
 .... 34.52. 
 
 November . , . . 
 
 36.06 ... 
 
 ... 38.03 .. 
 
 .... 30.66 ... 
 
 ,... 28.66. 
 
 December 
 
 25.78 . . 
 
 ... 19.03 .. 
 
 .... 11.97 .. 
 
 .... 7.43. 
 
 January 
 
 22.80 ... 
 
 . .. 16.03 .. 
 
 6.10 ... 
 
 0.45. 
 
 Febniary 
 
 22.74 ... 
 
 ... 15.02 .. 
 
 .... 12.32 .., 
 
 .... 10.25. 
 
 March 
 
 28.93 .. 
 
 .... 33.01 .. 
 
 .... 14.14 ... 
 
 .... 10.84. 
 
 April 
 
 40 72 .. 
 
 . ... 50.04 .. 
 
 .... 39-10 .. 
 
 .... 46.70. 
 
 May 
 
 51.74 .., 
 
 , ... 58.07 .. 
 
 .... 53.13 ... 
 
 .... 53.35. 
 
 
 61.85 ... 
 67.49 ... 
 
 .... 67.09 .. 
 ... 73.05 .. 
 
 .... 63.20 ... 
 .... 68.19 ... 
 
 ,... 60.35. 
 
 July 
 
 ... 63.95. 
 
 YlSAl'.LY MkANS. 
 
 44.04 ... 
 
 ... 45.61 .. 
 
 .... 36.67 ... 
 
 .... 36.46. 
 
 " A statement of mean temperature during the agricul- 
 tural season, from April to August inclusive, exhibits the 
 following proportions : — 
 
 Toronto. St. Paui.. Winnipeg. Battleford. 
 
 57.65. 65.05. 58.19. 58.53 
 
 " Thus it will be seen that the climate, in relation to agri- 
 culture, is warmer in Manitoba and over territory 700 miles 
 to the northwest, than in the most central districts of On- 
 tario, while St. Paul in lat. 45° is 7° 40' warmer than the 
 vicinity of Toronto, in lat. 44°. 
 
PRACTICAL REMARKS ON CLIMATE. 161 
 
 " I hope soon to be in possession of similar statistics from 
 Fort McMurray on the Athabasca River, and Fort Vermilion 
 on Peace River, respectively 1,000 and 1,200 miles due north- 
 west of "Winnipeg, and I have full confidence that the climate 
 at these points will not be materially different from Battle- 
 ford. The altitude of the Athabasca and Peace River dis- 
 trict is less, and the trend of the Pacific winds through the 
 Rocky Mountains is more marked than at Battleford. It 
 was on the banks of the Peace River, well up in lat. 60°, 
 that Sir Alexander McKenzie records, on the 10th of May, 
 the grass so well grown that buflfalo, attended by their 
 young, were cropping the uplands. 
 
 " But I find my best illustration that the climate is not 
 materially different west of Lake Athabasca, in lat. 60° 
 from what we experience west of Lake Superior, in lat. 46°, 
 in some personal observation of the northwestern extension 
 of wheat cultivation. In 1871, Mr. Archibald, the well- 
 known proprietor of the Dundas mills in southern Minnesota 
 visited Manitoba. He remarked that the spring wheat in 
 his vicinity was deteriorating^softening, — and he sought a 
 change of seed, to restore its flinty texture. He timed his 
 visit to "Winnipeg with the harvest and found the quality of 
 grain he desired, but the yield astonished him. " Look," 
 said he, with a head of wheat in his hand, " we have had an 
 excellent harvest in Minnesota, but I never saw more than 
 two well-formed grains in each group or cluster, forming a 
 row, but here the rule is three grains in each cluster. 
 That is the difference between twenty and thirty bushels 
 per acre." More recently, Professor Macoun, the botanist 
 of the Canadian Pacific Railway survey, has shown me two 
 heads of wheat, one from Prince Albert, a settlement near 
 the forks of the Saskatchewan, lat. 53°, long. 106° ; and 
 another from Fort Vermilion on Peace River, lat. 59°, long. 
 116°, and from each cluster of the two I separated five well- 
 formed grains, with a corresponding length of the head. 
 11 
 
162 MANITOBA AND TIIK GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Here was the perfection of the wheat plant, attained accord- 
 ing to the well-known physicial law, near the most northern 
 limit of its successful! growth. 
 
 ISOTHERMAL LINES. 
 
 " The line of equal mean temperature, especially for the 
 season of vegetation between March and October, instead of 
 following lines of latitude, bends from the Mississippi Valley 
 far to the north, carrying the zone of wheat from Minnesota 
 away to the 60th parallel in the valley of the Peace River, 
 and reproducing the summer heats of New Jersey and 
 southern Peinisylvania in Minnesota and Dakota, and those 
 of northern Pennsylvania and Ohio in the valley of the 
 Saskatchewan. * * # "Within the isothermal lines that 
 inclose the zone west and northwest of Minnesota, which 
 is being or is soon to be opened to cultivation, lies a vast 
 area of fertile lands from which might easily be cut out a 
 dozen new states of the size of New York. 
 
 CORN AN-J) WHEAT ZONKS. 
 
 " I assigned Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, and even south- 
 ern Minnesota to the zone specially adapted to corn, as the 
 more southern states constitute a cotton zone ; and observing 
 the imperative natural restrictions in the Mississippi Valley 
 on the successful production of wheat, I hazarded the 
 statement that three-fourths of the wheat producing belt of 
 North America would be found north of the international 
 boundary. This arithmetical division has since been ques- 
 tioned by the " Pioneer Press." 
 
 " I will venture to illustrate the climatic influences which 
 control the problem under consideration, by some citations 
 from ' Minnesota : Its place among the States ; by J. A. 
 Wheelock, Commissioner of Statistics,' which, though pub- 
 lished in 1860, is all the more an authority because of the 
 confirmation of twenty years. The general law of limitation 
 to the profitable cultivation of wheat is thus luminously 
 
PRACTICAL REMARKS ON CLIMATE. 163 
 
 stated. ' The wheat producing district of the United States is 
 confined to about ten degrees of latitude and six degrees of 
 longitude, terminating on the west at the 98th meridian. 
 But the zone of its profitable culture occupies a comparatively 
 narrow belt along the cool borders of the district defined for 
 inland positions by the mean temperature of 55° on the 
 north and 71° on the south, for the two months of July and 
 August. This definition excludes all the country lying 
 south of lat. 40", except western Virginia,, and north of that 
 it excludes the southern districts of Pennsylvania, Ohio, 
 Indiana, Illinois and Iowa, while it includes the northern 
 part of these states, Canada, New York, Western Virginia, 
 Michigan, Winconsin, Minnesota, and the Red River and 
 Saskatchewan Valleys. In general terms it may be stated 
 that the belt of maximum wheat production lies immediately 
 north of the districts where the maximum of Indian corn 
 is attained.' 
 
 *4£j At, ^u* 4X^ 4t 41^ ^ ^ 
 
 ^ ^ ^ "Tr 'rp TT •TT" "TT 
 
 " "Will the great interior of the continent contribute to 
 our exportations of wheat and its flour ? I refer to the terri- 
 torial organizations of Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, 
 Utah and Nevada. Let us take the most favorable of all — 
 Montana. Grand as are its resources, I am constrained to 
 believe that only one-thirteenth of its surface is within reach 
 of the unavoidable condition of irrigation, and that the 
 mountains, with their mineral wealth, and the uplands as 
 grazing grounds for cattle and sheep, will be the chief thea- 
 tres of industrial activity. After careful inquiry in 1868, 
 as United States Commissioner of mining statistics, I com- 
 mitted myself to the following statement : — ' The area of 
 the territory (Montana) is 146,689 square miles, equal to 
 93,881,184 acres — nearly the same as California, three times 
 the area of New "York, two and a half that of New England, 
 and yet no greater proportion is claimed by local authorities 
 as susceptible of cultivation than one acre in thirty, or a 
 
164 MANITOBA AND TPIE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 total of 3,346,400 acres. Of course a far greater surface will 
 afford sustenance to domestic animals. The limit to agri- 
 culture, as in Colorado and New Mexico, is the possibility 
 of irrigation.' * * * * It is the crowning feature of 
 the ' fertile belt ' which broadens with reduced altitudes and 
 constant air currents from the Pacific Coast, that the im- 
 mense trapezoid, whose apex is bounded on the Mackenzie, 
 has a sufficient quantity of summer rains for all the purposes 
 of agriculture as organized in the Atlantic and Mississippi 
 States. 
 
 " I have no pride of opinion as to the accuracy of an 
 impromptu estimate of proportions north or south of the 
 boundary. I would cheerfully waive it, confessing to an 
 arithmetical inaccuracy, if assured of a general acceptance of 
 the opinion with which the article of the •' Pioneer Press " 
 concludes, namely, that ' in Hudson's Bay Territory, outside 
 of the old provmces, 200,000,000 acres are adapted to wheat 
 raising.' That admission is more than enough to justify a 
 railroad policy, which will push, within ten years, the loco- 
 motive from Winnipeg fully 1,200 miles beyond its present 
 bourne on Red River." 
 
 The above extracts speak for themselves, and 1 have no 
 diffidence in placing before the public the following summary 
 of my own, after nine years study of the subject: — 
 
 The region included in the following observations lies 
 between the boundary (lat. 49°) and lat. 60° north, these 
 parallels forming the southern and northern boundaries of 
 the territory, while it extends from the 95th meridian to 
 the Rocky Mountains, following their northwestern trend to 
 lat. 60° north. 
 
 For many years this vast extent of territory lay as a 
 blank upon the maps, almost unknown to Englishmen and 
 Canadians, and counted valueless except as a fur bearing 
 country ; yet so long ago as 1812, Lord Selkirk said that the 
 valley of the Red River alone would maintain a population 
 
PE ACTIO AL REMARKS ON CLIMATE. 160 
 
 of 30,000,000. The Americans were always alive to its 
 true value, but, like true patriots, extolled their own country 
 in preference to the land of the stranger. Over twenty 
 years ago their writers called attention to it, and Wheelock 
 spoke glowingly of it in his work on Minnesota. In 1872, 
 I had the good fortune to spend a number of months 
 in the territory, and travelled over its whole extent from 
 east to west, and, being impressed with its importance as a 
 field for immigration, I have since then taken every oppor- 
 tunity to make myself acquainted with its climate and capa- 
 bilities. In the following pages will be found my conclusions 
 and the facts upon which they are based. 
 
 Geologists are aware that high arid plains always amelio- 
 rate the climate of countries north of them ; and Blodgett 
 in his work on the Climatology of the United States, says 
 that such plains are decisive of a high degree of summer 
 heat with an arid atmosphere and little rain or snow. 
 Within the United States there are at least 500,000 square 
 miles of arid country, almost constantly receiving enormous ■ 
 quantities of heat by day and giving it off at night by radia- 
 tion. The general level of this plateau is fully 6,000 feet. 
 At Laramie City it is about 7,000 feet above the sea, but 
 from this point it rapidly falls off to the north, so that when 
 it reaches the boundary at Pembina it is considerably less than 
 1,000 feet in altitude, and at the base of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains under 4,000 feet. As the plain descends to the north 
 the rainfall increases, the " cactus " and the " sage-brush " 
 give place to bunch grass, and this, north of the line, soon 
 passes into sward, quickly followed, as we proceed north- 
 ward, by copsewood, which, north of the Saskatchewan, is re- 
 placed by an aspen forest, or, on the watershed, by spruce. 
 No appreciable alteration in temperature takes place, but 
 only an increase of moisture as we pass to the north, and 
 with this increase of humidity a more equable temperature is 
 noticed. Less radiation takes place as we leave the high 
 
166 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 treeless plains, and, consequently, the variation of tempera- 
 ture is less strongly marked between day and night. 
 
 A careful examination of Blodgett's and Dove's charts 
 shows that the isothermals curve upward from the Gulf of 
 Mexico, and reach their northern bend in the United States, 
 on the 110th meridian. Here in lat. 50° the mean summer 
 temperature is placed at 70°, while at Winnipeg, 600 miles to 
 the east, it is 65°. Following these lines 9° further north, 
 we find that the isothermal of greatest heat passes Fort Ver- 
 million, lat. 58° 24', on the Peace River, and Edmonton on 
 the Saskatchewan, both points being noted for their pro- 
 ductions. On the Pacific side the isothermals commence 
 to curve north from the head of the Gulf of California, 
 reaching our boundary at the 115th meridian, havmg actually 
 crossed the Rocky Mountains before reaching this point, thus 
 producing those warm dry winds of the southwest which are 
 known in Montana and north of the boundary as " Chinook 
 Winds." These winds are noticed more particularly in 
 winter, and often raise the temperature over 60° in the 
 course of an hour or two. They are noted for being both 
 warm and dry, as they evaporate the snow as fast as they 
 melt it. Their effects are not much felt north of lat. 52", 
 and how lar east they extend is not known. 
 
 Here, then, we have two currents of warm air flowing 
 constantly into our territory, the one from the Gulf of 
 Mexico, the other from the Gulf of California, and unitedly 
 giving us heat and moisture which they have carried over 
 the " Great American Desert " to leave on the lower plain to 
 the north. Owing to the height and aridity of the " Desert," 
 much heat is absorbed during the day, but it is constantly 
 sent into the atmosphere at night, causing the air above the 
 plain to be just as warm at night as during the day. Fort 
 Laramie, in Wyoming Territory, is in the same latitude as 
 Boston, and although 7,000 feet above the sea, has a summer 
 temperature as high as Boston. A very little reflection will 
 
PRACTICAL REMAKKS ON CLIMATE. 
 
 167 
 
 show that, were the " Desert " an inland sea, the winters of 
 our interior would be like those of Eastern Europe. "We 
 would have a cooler summer and warmer winter. In an 
 article like the present it would be out of place to discuss 
 the climate of Eastern Europe, but the forces which enable 
 the Russian to build his capital almost on the 60th parallel 
 are precisely the same as those which send the warm air of 
 the Gulfs to ameliorate the climate of our own North-West, 
 and cause wheat and other cereals to be produced in the 
 highest perfection. The following table of temperature is 
 extracted from the Meteorological Report for i876 : — 
 
 
 '^1 
 
 St 
 
 
 
 •-3 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 < 
 
 1- 
 
 IJ 
 
 CD 
 
 m 
 CO 
 
 Fort Calgarry, Lat. 51° Long. 114- 
 Fort Simpson, Lat. 61= Long. 113° 
 Toronto, Lat 44° Long. 79° 
 Winnipeg, Lat. 50° Long. 97° 
 Fort McLeod, Lat. 50° Long. US" 
 
 36.7 
 
 i's'.k 
 
 35.4 
 39.8 
 
 51.8 
 44.6 
 51.5 
 52.1 
 63.3 
 
 61.0 
 
 58.8 
 65.5 
 69.2 
 60.6 
 
 69.0 
 63.4 
 6J.ii 
 
 6.-;. 8 
 
 63.3 
 
 53.5 
 63.2 
 70.2 
 63.3 
 67.0 
 
 47.2 
 46.9 
 67.5 
 51.8 
 60.3 
 
 51.5 
 
 68.' 6 
 64.6 
 64.0 
 
 67.8 
 61.8 
 68.2 
 62.8 
 60.2 
 
 It will be seen by the above data that Fort McLeod 
 and "Winnipeg, although 600 miles apart, have almost the 
 same temperature, and, more surprising still, that Port 
 Simpson, although 770 miles due north of Port McLeod, 
 is warmer. Here we have a triangle with its three angles 
 having almost the same summer temperature — its base being 
 600 miles in length, its perpendicular 770, and its hypothen- 
 use 900. Purther records will probably increase this area 
 but no continuous observations having been taken, we do 
 not hazard an opinion. 
 
 Captain Palliser, when in the Saskatchewan country in 
 1858-59, had pits sunk in the soil to see to what depth the 
 frost penetrated, and at what time in the spring; the soil was 
 free from it. On the level prairie in the vicinity of Edmon- 
 ton, the frost penetrated to a depth of seven feet during 
 the winter of 1858, while the next wmter it penetrated 
 to a depth of six feet. The former year there was scarcely 
 
168 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 any snow, which accounts for the greater depth of frost. It 
 may possibly remain in the ground all summer in a swamp 
 but cannot remain m a fairly dry soil all the year round, 
 except the mean annual temperature fall below freezing 
 point. It is well known that a coating of moss or straw 
 will keep the frost in the ground till June in Ontario, 
 and I should not be surprised to hear of frozen soil in Mani- 
 toba in July. Captain Palliser found that the ground, 
 three feet below the surface, grew colder until about the 
 25th February, when the temperature began gradually to 
 increase, but it was not until the 23rd of May that it had 
 risen to .32°. I infer that the great depth to which the soil 
 is frozen in winter is beneficial to the growing crops both 
 as a fertilizer and as a retainer of moisture. 
 
 After temperature the most important factor is humidity, 
 and here, again, we have a remarkable example of a well 
 known natural law As above stated, the winds are con- 
 stantly drifting northward, and in winter, owing to their 
 passage across the " American Desert," which is now very 
 cold, they lose most of their moisture, and pass over our 
 prairie as dry winds. In summer the very reverse of this 
 takes place ; the dry, hot plains prevent deposition, and 
 hence the winds come loaded with moisture, and give the 
 summer rains which cause such astonishing growth in June 
 and July. In most cases this dryness of the atmosphere is 
 injurious to growing crops, but, owing to the situation of the 
 ]3lains, in our case it is a positive good, the rains coming just 
 when wanted, and ceasing when of no further use to the 
 growing crop. The following data, taken from the Meteor- 
 ological Report of 1876, illustrate this : — 
 
 Winter. Spring. Summer. Autumn. 
 
 Quarterly rainfall at Winnipeg 0.00 5.69 10.52 0.04 
 
 "Toronto 5.61 6.63 5.74 3.18 
 
 First Half Si;cond Half 
 OF Year. of Year. 
 
 Snowfall, in iucli' s, at Winuipig 28. 29.7 
 
 " " Toronto i7.7 45.7 
 
PRACTICAL REMARKS ON CLIMATE. 169 
 
 It will be seen by the foregoing table that the rainfall at 
 Winnipeg in sutnmer and spring is nearly equal to that of 
 Toronto for winter, spring, and summer, and where Toronto 
 has over three inches in autumn, Winnipeg has scarcely any. 
 The absence of autumn rains in the west is a priceless boon, 
 as it enables the farmer to thresh and harvest his grain 
 without injury, and besides, gives him excellent roads when 
 he needs them most. 
 
 The progress of the seasons and the labors of the husband- 
 man, throughout the North-West, may be summed up as 
 follows : Early in April, the hot sun dissipates the slight 
 covering of snow, and almost immediately, ploughing com- 
 mences, as after the frost is out six inches, spring work may 
 begin. Seeding and ploughing go on together, as the ground 
 is quite dry, and in a few days the seed germinates, owing 
 to the hot sunshine ; the roots receive an abundance of moist- 
 ure from the thawing soil, and following the retreating frost 
 through the minute pores opened in it, by its agency pene- 
 trate to an astonishing depth (often two feet), all the time 
 throwing out innumerable fibres. By the time the rains 
 and heat of June have come, abundance of roots have formed, 
 and the crop rushes to quick maturity. It is just as much 
 owing to the opening power of the frost as to the fertility of 
 the soil that the enormous crops of the North-West are due, 
 and, as long as the present seasons continue, so long will the 
 roots penetrate into the subsoil, and draw rich food from the 
 inexhaustible reservoirs which I know are there. 
 
 After the middle of August the rains almost cease, and 
 for ten weeks scarcely a shower of rain falls, giving the far- 
 mer time to do all necessary work before the long winter 
 sets in. These general characteristics apply to the cli- 
 mate of the whole North-West, and the same results are 
 everywhere observed over tracts embracing 300,000 square 
 miles of territory. One important result of this peculiar 
 climate is the hardness and increased weight of the grain 
 
170 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 caused by it. Another, equally important, is the curing of 
 the natural hay. Our experience of October and November 
 has been that the horses and cattle do better to collect their 
 own food on the prairie than to be fed with hay. All stock 
 raisers know that it is not cold that injures horses or cattle, 
 but those storms of sleet or soft snow which are so common 
 in Ontario and the Eastern Provinces. Such storms are not 
 seen in the North-West, and the cattle are never wet from 
 November to April. 
 
 Many intelligent persons are afraid of the winters of the 
 North-West, as they measure the cold by the thermometer 
 rather than by their own sensibilities. It is not by the 
 thermometer that the cold should be measured, but by the 
 humidity of the atmosphere. All through the fall my men 
 never noticed a few degrees of frost, and it was no uncom- 
 mon thing to see a man riding in a cart without his coat, 
 when the thermometer was below freezing point. J. A. 
 Wheelock, Commissioner of Statistics for Minnesota, wrote 
 as follows concerning the atmosphere of that State, over 
 twenty years ago : " The dryness of the air in Minnesota 
 permits a lower range of temperature without frosts than in 
 moist climates. The thermometer htus frequently been no- 
 noticed at 20 degrees without material injury to vegetation. 
 In the damp summer evenings of Illinois and Ohio, for 
 example, the heat passes off rajsidly from the surface of the 
 earth and from plants. Frosts develop under such circum- 
 stances at a comparatively high temperature. The constant 
 bath of moisture has softened the delicate coverins; and 
 enfeebled the vitality of plants ; and thus a fall of the ther- 
 mometer wbich in Minnesota would be as harmless as a 
 summer dew, in Ohio would sweep the fields like a fire." 
 
 What Wheelock says of Minnesota is equally true of the 
 North-West Territories, and more so, as they are certainly 
 drier. Dry air is a non-conductor of heat, and as the 
 dryness increases with the lowering temperature, the in- 
 
PRACTICAL REMARKS ON CLIMATE. 171 
 
 creasing cold is not felt by either animals or plants, and 
 we find a solution to the paradox, that although water 
 may freeze, vegetation is not injured except when a humid 
 atmosphere is in immediate contact with it. The increase 
 of dryness in the air has the same effect as an increase of 
 warm clothing for man and beast. "We suffered less from 
 a temperature of 10° below zero, this winter, though lying 
 in tents, without fire, than we would have done in Ontario 
 with 10° degrees of frost. 
 
 In conclusion, after nine years' study of all available ma- 
 terial and constant observation, I can state that our peculiar 
 climate is caused by the " Great American Desert," which 
 commences at the 100th meridian, exactly south of our 
 prairies, and extends with little interruption to the bound- 
 ary of California. The winds passing over it descend on 
 our interior plain, giving out heat and moisture in the 
 summer, and in the winter wrapping the whole country 
 in a mantle of dry air, which moderates the climate so 
 much that without the aid of a thermometer no one would 
 believe the cold was so intense. "We, have then, a dry, clear, 
 cold winter ; a dry spring with bright sunshine ; a warm 
 summer with an abundance of rain, but not necessarily a 
 cloudy atmosphere, and a dry serene autumn, with possibly 
 a snow storm about the equinox. 
 
 An atmosphere like this, with a soil of abounding fertility 
 extending over a region of almost boundless extent, causes 
 me to feel that the words of Lord Beaconsfield were those of 
 a far seeing statesman, and that our great North-"West is 
 truly a land of " illimitable possibilities." 
 
 During the summers of 1879 and 1880 I was on the plains 
 the greater part of the season, and kept a record all the time, 
 from which I make the following extracts : — 
 
 1879. 
 
 June 19. Very heavy rain with severe thunderstonn. 
 
 „ 20. Beautiful day. Cloudy in the morning. 
 
 „ 21. Light showers in the forenoon. Thunder at night. 
 
172 
 
 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOKTH-WEST. 
 
 Ju 
 
 July 
 
 le 22. 
 
 , 23. 
 
 , 24. 
 
 , 25. 
 
 , 26. 
 
 , 27. 
 
 28. 
 
 29. 
 
 30. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 
 6. 
 
 7-£ 
 
 10. 
 
 11. 
 
 12. 
 
 13. 
 
 14. 
 
 15. 
 
 16. 
 
 IT. 
 
 18- 
 
 23. 
 
 24. 
 
 25- 
 
 31. 
 
 Aug. 1, 
 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 
 6- 
 12. 
 13. 
 14. 
 15. 
 16. 
 17. 
 18- 
 20. 
 21- 
 23. 
 24. 
 25. 
 26. 
 27. 
 
 Warm, pleasiint day. 
 
 Terrible thunder storm this morning. 
 
 Heavy rain all day. 
 
 Showers in the afternoon. 
 
 Rain as usual this morning. 
 
 Lovely day. Dew heavy. 
 
 Very beautiful day. 
 
 Thunder storms passing to the south all day. 
 
 Showers both north and south. No rain near ub. 
 
 Slight showers after noon. 
 
 Thunder storm with heavy rain in the evening. 
 
 Very lovely day. 
 
 Day very fine. 
 
 Severe thunder storm with heavy rain. 
 
 Slight showers in the afternoon. 
 Tery fine days. 
 
 Thunder storm with rain to the south. 
 
 Very hot day. 
 
 Thunder storm to the south. Gale from the west. 
 
 Gale continued all day. 
 
 Wind still strong. Light shower. 
 
 Gentle wind. Lovely day. 
 
 Thimder storm in the northwest. Lovelj' day. 
 
 Very fine day. Thunder storm in the night. 
 -2 2. Very beautiful days. 
 
 Heavy rain this morning and nearly all day. 
 
 Heavy showers in the afternoon. 
 -30. Lovely days. 
 
 Eain fell all the forenoon. Rain all night. 
 
 Wet forenoon. 
 
 Almost a frost this morning. 
 
 Day very hot. Thunder storm to the southeast. 
 
 Day very hot. Heavy rain in the night. 
 
 Cool morning. 
 •11. Weather intensely hot. 
 
 Thunder in the distance. Slight shower. 
 
 Very lovely day. Severe thunder storm at night. 
 
 Very lovely day. 
 
 Very hot day. 92° in shade. 
 
 Very hot day. Strong gale without a cloud. 
 
 Great change in the weather. Air qiiile cnnl. 
 19. Changes still continue. 
 
 Clouds look veiy rough. 
 22. Weather very pleasant. Thunder after dark. 
 
 Weather very jileasant. Terrific thunder storm in the night. 
 
 Bain and a strong gale. Our tents blown away. 
 
 Cool vrindy day. 
 
 Pleasant day. 
 
 Ruin threatening. 
 
PRACTICAL REMARKS ON CLIMATE. 173 
 
 Aug. 28. Rain threatening. Came at 6.00 p.m. Rained all night. 
 
 „ 29. Rain this morning. 
 
 „ 30 Lovely day. 
 „ 31. Cold showers. 
 
 During the month of September scarcely any rain fell, 
 but there were a number of cloudy days and white frosts at 
 night. The month closed with a thunder storm succeeded 
 by a number of hot days. These were followed by strong 
 winds which lowered the temperature, and on the 9th 
 October a heavy snow storm was experienced over the whole 
 country west of the Touchwood Hills. This snow soon dis- 
 appeared and lovely weather with occasional low temper- 
 atures continued till late in the season. 
 
 Thunder storm with rain. 
 Rain threatening all the morning. 
 Heavy rain with thunder. 
 !3. Very fine days. 
 Slight showers in the north in the evening. 
 Light local showers at noon. Terrific thunder at night. 
 Evening cool. 
 Slight rain after dinner. 
 Thunder storm with heavy rain. 
 Thunder storm with heavy rain in the afternoon. 
 Lovely day. 
 
 Thunder in the distance. 
 Heavy rain in the night. 
 Heavy rain at noon. 
 
 Showers ahout noon, accompanied hy thunder. 
 Lovely day. 
 Light rain at night. 
 Thunder storm in the afternoon. 
 Thvmder storm at night 
 Pleasant day. 
 Showery in the aftemooiL 
 Thunder storm in the night with heavy rain. 
 Showers all around in the afternoon. 
 Very fine day. 
 
 High wind and heavy showers. 
 Showers in the distance. 
 Day very hot. Usual thunder and rain storm. 
 Very hot day. Thermometer 87° in the shade. 
 Lovely day. 
 
 Lovely day. Strong wind all day. 
 Thunder and rain in the afternoon. 
 
 1880. 
 
 June 
 
 1 19. 
 
 jj 
 
 20. 
 
 » 
 
 21. 
 
 )7 
 
 22- 
 
 » 
 
 24. 
 
 j; 
 
 25. 
 
 » 
 
 26. 
 
 » 
 
 27. 
 
 J} 
 
 28. 
 
 n 
 
 29. 
 
 J) 
 
 30. 
 
 July 
 
 1. 
 
 )i 
 
 2. 
 
 » 
 
 3. 
 
 » 
 
 4. 
 
 ji 
 
 5. 
 
 » 
 
 6. 
 
 n 
 
 7. 
 
 » 
 
 8. 
 
 » 
 
 9. 
 
 » 
 
 10. 
 
 » 
 
 11. 
 
 » 
 
 12. 
 
 » 
 
 13. 
 
 J) 
 
 14. 
 
 » 
 
 15. 
 
 n 
 
 16. 
 
 ji 
 
 17 
 
 n 
 
 18. 
 
 » 
 
 19. 
 
 » 
 
 20. 
 
174 
 
 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Jiily 
 
 21. 
 
 J? 
 
 22. 
 
 ;j 
 
 23. 
 
 » 
 
 24. 
 
 V 
 
 25. 
 
 n 
 
 26. 
 
 11 
 
 27. 
 
 :? 
 
 28. 
 
 
 29. 
 
 
 30. 
 
 If 
 
 31. 
 
 Aug 
 
 1. 
 
 ■) 
 
 2. 
 
 )' 
 
 3. 
 
 11 
 
 4. 
 
 V 
 
 5. 
 
 11 
 
 6. 
 
 Jl 
 
 7. 
 
 JJ 
 
 8. 
 
 1) 
 
 9. 
 
 H 
 
 10. 
 
 11 
 
 11. 
 
 Jl 
 
 12. 
 
 5? 
 
 13. 
 
 1? 
 
 14. 
 
 11 
 
 15. 
 
 Day extremely hot. 
 
 89° in the shade. 
 95° in the shade. 
 
 Thunder storms in the distance. 
 
 Very -warm. 90° in the shade. 
 
 Terrible thunder storm in the afternoon. Max. 92°. 
 
 Usual thunder storm. Max. 93°. 
 
 Pleasant day. 
 
 Cloudy at night. 
 
 Tory fine day. 
 
 Light rain in the morning. Tliunder storm at noon. 
 
 Pleasant day. 
 
 Pleasant day. Wind strong from the south. 
 
 Day warm. Tliunder storm with heavy rain. 
 
 Thunder and rain all night. 
 
 Very pleasant day. 
 
 Ver3' warm all day. 
 
 Sun's rays extremely hot. Max. 92°. 
 
 Severe thunder storm in the afternoon. 
 
 Cool day. Heavy rain in the afternoon. 
 
 Very heavy rain with thunder all the forenoon. 
 
 Pleasant day. 
 
 Day very pleasant. 
 
 Stormy day -vrith heavy rain. 
 
 Cold rain, which continued all day. 
 16-17. Fine pleasant days. 
 IS. Light showers, 
 
 19. Cool and pleasant. 
 
 20. Day very hot. 
 21-22. Thunder storm all niglit with torrents of rain. 
 
 23. Heavy rain all day. 
 
 24. Cold rain all day. 
 
 25. Temperature low. Clearing up. 
 20-27. Very pleasant days. 
 
 28. Cloudy with light showers. 
 
 29. Pleasant day. Wind strong from the west. 
 
 30. Fine, pleasant day. 
 
 31. Heavy rain storm all day with a fierce gale. 
 
 September was much wetter than usual, with three very 
 cold rain storms and low temperature accompanied with 
 heavy gales. The early part of October was delightful with 
 warm pleasant weather. About the 15th this changed to 
 cold, and after this time the nights were more or less frosty. 
 
 Although rain is frequent in summer, cloudy Aveather is 
 uncommon, and many of the days on which rain is recorded 
 
PRACTICAL REMARKS ON CLIMATE. 175 
 
 were more than three-fourths cloudless. Heavy dew occur- 
 red every night that the minimum thermometer fell to 50°. 
 As the nights were nearly all cloudless the temperature 
 during the summer had a great range, being often 92° at 
 noon, and sinking to 55° in the night. A fall of temper- 
 ature was always followed by rain without thunder. All 
 severe thunder storms took place when the barometer was 
 very low, but a light one might take place at any time. A 
 rising barometer nearly always gave cloud, and very often 
 rain, in summer ; in the autumn this was always so. 
 
 The following notes on the healthiness of the climate are 
 taken from the evidence of a great number, and are append- 
 ed to show what settlers think of the country : — 
 
 Testimony respecting Climate. 
 
 Name. Post Office. Reuases. 
 
 Hawaxdand Swain Moms We have never had any sickness. 
 
 John Kelly „ The climate is very healthy. 
 
 George Cadman High Bluff We have had very little sickness. 
 
 William Jackson „ We have found the climate very healthy. 
 
 A. J. Moore Nelsonville The climate is very healthy. 
 
 Benj. J. Chubh „ Have had no sickness. 
 
 Allan Bell Portage la Prairie . We have enjoyed excellent health. 
 
 Jno. Brydon „ The climate is very healthy. 
 
 James Airth Stonewall The climate is healthy. 
 
 William Eagles „ The climate is healthy. 
 
 Isaac Casson Emerson Have found the climate very healthy. 
 
 F. T. Bradley ,, None of family suffered through climate. 
 
 A. Macdonald Gladstone The climate is very healthy. 
 
 Robert Fisher Cook's Creek Have had no sickness. 
 
 J. G. Buit ,, I find the climate very healthy. 
 
 George Taylor Poplar District This is a healthy climate. 
 
 P. H. Brown „ Healthy. Proper clothing is necessary. 
 
 J. S. Higginson Oakland No sickness in six years. 
 
 W. Gresson Meadow Lea The climate is very healthy. 
 
 James Stewart „ No case of sickness. 
 
 E. "W. Johnston Springfield The climate is fairly healthy. 
 
 William Corbitt „ My family have excellent health. 
 
 J. W. Adshead St. Charles The climate is very healthy. 
 
 Ben. Haitley « The climate is very healthy. 
 
 Robert Black Bird's HiU The climate is very healthy. 
 
 W. A. Mann » The climate is quite healthy. 
 
 G. V. Fitzgerald Ridareville The climate is very healthy. 
 
 D. F. Knight ^^ have had no sickness. 
 
176 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Name. Post Office. Rf,makks. 
 
 James Fleming West Lymie Have had no sickness. 
 
 S. Ballantyne „ We have had perfect health here. 
 
 J. Sutherland Kildonan The climate is exceedingly healthy. 
 
 J. Geddis „ The climate is very healthy. 
 
 William Green St. Agathe The climate is very healthy 
 
 D. G. Low „ The climate is exceedingly healthy. 
 
 John Smith Westhoume The climate is healthy. 
 
 Rev. T. Scott „ The country is decidedly good for health. 
 
 Andrew Dawson Headingly There is no sickness at all. 
 
 W. B. Hall „ The climate is healthy. 
 
 C. Begg Stone Fort Had forty-seven years of good health. 
 
 T. B. Robinson Rockwood i cannot complain of the climate at all. 
 
 Robert Bell „ rpi,g climate is very healthy. 
 
 William Hill Woodlands There is no sickness. 
 
 Neal McLeod Victoria The climate is quite healthy. 
 
 John Currie „ The climate is quite healthy. 
 
 Joseph Dobbs Sunnyside My family has never been sick. 
 
 John Hourie St. Anne The climate is extremely healthy. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 Natural Products of the Soil. 
 
 Comparison of Floras— Peace Eiver Flora Compared with that of Ontario— Forest Flora 
 —Flora of the Prairies— List of Species—" Sugar Maple"— Syrup from the Birch — 
 Wild Plums — Cherries — Service Berries — Their Value — Berries in Pemmican — How 
 Pemmican is Made — Berries for Breakfast — Strawberries — Currants and Gooseberries 
 — Black Currants very "Valuable — High Bush Cranberries — Baspberries of Many 
 Species — Jam from the Cloud Berry — Common Cranberries — Blueberries — Wild 
 Sarsaparilla— Silver Berry- Buffalo Berry— Beautiful and Valuable Shrubs— Wild 
 Hops — Hazel Nuts — Flowers and Shrubs at Brandon— Their Beauty and Utility — 
 Strawberries at Brandon — Shnibs of the Prairie — Moose Mountain Flowers— Flowers 
 at the Sand Hills and Flat Creek — Line of C. P. R.— Pipestone Creek — Flowers of 
 the Plain — Great Souris Plain — Acres of Lilies — Gardens of the Prairie — Eoses Fill 
 the Air with Perfume — Flowers at Moose Jaw Creek — Flowers of the Cypress Hills — 
 Wild Lupines Covering Square Miles — Mushrooms, their Great Value and Enormous 
 Size and Numbers — Mushrooms over 200 Miles of Country — Lyeoperdons (Puff- 
 balls) not Poisonous — Flora at Long Lake, Lilies, Anemones, Pentstemons, Poten- 
 tiUas and many Others — Common Poplar & Remedy for Intermittent Fever. 
 
 Having spent a number of years in exploring the interior 
 plains, and every season having made large collections of 
 the flora, I am able to state what the actual products of the 
 soil are. As every variety of soil and situation changes the 
 flora, an enumeration of the species of each particular dis- 
 trict would be necessary to enable a person capable of 
 judging to form a proper estimate of the relation of that 
 particular district, to another well-known one. In writing 
 of the Peace River Flora in 1877, and calling the atten- 
 tion to the climate of that district, I gave lists of the plants 
 collected at certain points on that river, and compared them 
 with those of Belleville, Ontario. The latter city being 
 in Lat. 44°, while the most southern part of the Peace 
 River country was north of Lat. 56°, or 840 miles north 
 of Belleville. As the difference in Longitude is about 43°, 
 the direct distance in a northwest line is close upon 2,250 
 miles. 
 
 12 
 
178 
 
 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOETII-WEST. 
 
 The collections referred to were made by myself in 1875, 
 and were as exhaustive as time would permit. It is well- 
 known, however, that the commoner plants are the typical 
 ones of a district, and these were the species observed by me. 
 The localities mentioned are Hudson's Hope, in Lat. 5G° 12' 
 whence Peace River issues from the Rocky Mountains ; St. 
 John's, 60 miles to the east ; Dunvegan, 120 miles lower 
 down ; Fort Vermilion, 300 miles further down and in Lat. 
 58° 24'. The others were made at Little Red River, 100 
 miles to the east, and the last at the western end of Lake 
 Athabasca, in Lat. 58° 42'. 
 
 COMPARISON OF FLORAS. 
 
 HudBon's Hope . . 
 
 St. John's 
 
 Dunvegan 
 
 Vermilion 
 
 Little Red River. 
 Lake Athabasca 
 
 Total. 
 
 BULLEVILI.K. 
 
 QljEBEC. 
 
 West of 
 Roc. MOHN. 
 
 211 
 
 130 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 248 
 
 161 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 246 
 
 IGO 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 159 
 
 112 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 128 
 
 S8 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 24:- 
 
 180 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 Great 
 Plains'. 
 
 79 
 44 
 39 
 50 
 
 In the column under Quebec I place species not found 
 at Belleville, but that belong to a cooler and possibly a 
 moister region. The only species that show any .signs of a 
 boreal tendency are those in this coluiim. Of all those 
 obtained at Vermilion only two fell into this column 
 namely, Yellow Rattle {lihinanthus Crl.Hta-yaUi), and the 
 Northern High Bush CYsa\\>Qrxy {Yihurniun. ijauciflorum) . 
 The features prominent in the whole region were a rich- 
 ness in the soil, and a rankness in the vegetation, never 
 seen in Ontario. 
 
 Last summer I spent in the forest country west of Lake 
 Winnipegoosis, and found about the same proportion of 
 species which indicated coolness and moisture, and a larger 
 percentage of eastern forms. 
 
NATURAL PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL. 179 
 
 The true prairie llora is altogether distinct from that of 
 the forest, but along every stream, in the prairie, forest 
 species are still numerous, so that an indiscriminate collec- 
 tion from any part of the plains is no indication of its true 
 character. 
 
 A better knowledge of the southwest will show that large 
 areas must remain permanent pasture, as there are tracts 
 where the plants indicate not an arctic but a mountain flora, 
 hence being too elevated for agriculture. The more prominent 
 of these areas are the Cypress Hills, and the elevated coun- 
 try that constitutes the foot hills of the Rocky Mountains, 
 lying between Forts McLeod and Calgarry. As I purpose 
 treating of the grasses when speaking of the great pastures, 
 I shall now give a list of all other species of plants which 
 have an economic value. 
 
 Lint of Species. 
 
 Vitis riparia, Mx. (Wild Grape) 
 
 Negundo aceroides, Moench. (Ash-leaved Maple.) 
 
 Prunus Virginiana, L. (Choke Cherry) 
 
 " Americana, Marsh. (Wild Plum.) 
 
 " Pennsylvanica, L. (Bird Cherry.) 
 Fragaria Virginiana, Ehrh. (Wild Ijtrawberry.) 
 
 " vesca, L. (Wood Strawberry.) 
 Eubus Chamoemorus, L. (Cloud Berry.) 
 
 " triflorus, Rich. (Dew Berry.) 
 
 " arcticuB, L. (Arctic Raspberry.) 
 
 " strigoBUS, Mx. (Raspberry) 
 Amelanchier Canadensis var. 
 
 Sascatoom of the Indian, La Poire of the French Half-breed, and the 
 June BeiTy of the Canadian. 
 Ribes hirtellum, Mx, 1 ^^^^-^ Gooseberries) 
 
 " oxycanthoides. L. J 
 
 " floridmn,L. I (Black Currants) 
 
 " Hudsonianum, Rich. i 
 " rubrum, L. (Red Currants) 
 Heracleum lanatum, Mx. (Cow Parsnip) 
 Aralia nudioaulis, L. (Wild Sarsaparilla) 
 Viburnum pauciflorum, Pylaie. 1 ^.jjj^j^ ^^^^ Cranberry.) 
 « OpuluB, L. ) 
 
 " Lentago, L. (Pembina Berries) 
 
 Vaccinium oxycoocus, L. 1 ^^ow Bush Cranberries) 
 
 « macrocarpon, Ait. J 
 
J82 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Vaccinium Vitis Idoea. (Cow Berry) 
 
 " Canadeuse, Kalru. \ 
 
 " coespitosum, Mx. [-(Blue Berries) 
 
 " myrtilloides, Hook. J 
 Arctostaphylos XTva^ursi, Spreng. (Bear Berry) 
 Ledum latifolium, Ait. 
 Eloegnus argentea, Pursh. (Silver Beny) 
 Shepherdia argentea, Nutt.. (Buffalo Berry) 
 Corylus Americana, Walt, "t ^^^^^j ^^^^^^ 
 
 " rostrata, Ait. J 
 
 Betula papyracea. Ait. (Canoe Birch) 
 Pinus contorta, Dougl. (Black or Sugar Pine) 
 
 The Ash-leaved Maple or Box Elder has been referred 
 to when speaking of the timber, and I will only further 
 remark that wherever a grove of these trees is to be found 
 there Indians have made sugar, and the bark pans in which 
 they caught the sap are still lying around. Never having 
 seen the sugar, nor heard of their mode of manufacturing it, 
 I can give no information regarding it. 
 
 Throughout the whole north a syrup is obtained from the 
 sap of the Canoe Birch (Betula papyracea) which is very 
 useful. Being a product of the northern forest it is a val- 
 uable contribution to the culinary department of a Chip- 
 weyan's household. 
 
 Wild Plums are Yery common in many parts of Manitoba, 
 and are simply delicious. In many localities this fruit can 
 be gathered by the bushel, but like the Wild Grape it is 
 local in its distribution, and does not extend beyond the 
 boundaries of Manitoba. Choke Cherries, which in Ontario 
 are extremely astringent, are in the North-West remarkably 
 sweet, and pleasant to the taste. This species is very 
 common on sand hills, and in thickets along the ravines or 
 coulees entering the western rivers, and extends far to the 
 north bearing as good fruit in the Peace Iliver Valley as it 
 does further south. His Excellency the Governor-General 
 spoke in very high terms of this berry when in conversation 
 with the writer some time since in AVinnipeg. Other gentle- 
 men have made the same remark, and all were surprised at 
 
NATURAL PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL. 183 
 
 its sweetness. It is a fact however that all fruits are sweeter 
 on the great plains than eastward. This is doubtless caused 
 by the cloudless skies and general dryness of the atmos- 
 phere. 
 
 La Poire, June, or Service Berry is the chief berry of 
 the west. Though common throughout the great plain, 
 forming thickets along the margin of all coulees where wood 
 grows, it attains its highest perfection along Peace River. 
 Below Dunvegan on the north side of the river the bank 
 rises in a succession of terraces. These terraces and the 
 slopes are covered with the Service Berry, and for many 
 miles along the river the bushes are purple with ripe 
 berries about the beginning of August. At this time, bears, 
 Indians, and Half-breeds, live almost entirely upon them. 
 It is no uncommon thing to see five or six bears in a morning 
 breakfasting on the berries and eating them with the great- 
 est relish. As bears are plentiful at this*time, their flesh 
 and these berries are the general food of the camp. While 
 visiting a berrying camp in 1875, on Peace River I was in- 
 vited to breakfast. Our bill of fare consisted of boiled bear's 
 flesh and Service Berries stewed in their fat. I need scarce- 
 ly say that I ate a light breakfast. When on the Peace 
 River Expedition in 1872, we had a quantity of pemmican 
 made at St. John to enable us to cross the mountains. This 
 pemmican consisted of one-third pounded meat (dried muscle) 
 pounded to dust or shreds one-third grease (fine render- 
 ed fat) and one-third Service Berries. Its manufacture 
 was very simple. The dried meat was put in a large trough 
 and the berries added, after which the grease melted, 
 was poured over the meat and berries. All was now thorough- 
 ly mixed with a wooden shovel, and put into skin bags 
 made out of raw hide, with the hair side out. As it was 
 shovelled into the bags a man pounded it solid. After these 
 were filled they were sewed up and our food was ready. 
 
 Strawberries are a very valuable crop, but more so in the 
 
184 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 middle regions, or northward than on the southern prairie. 
 The true home of the strawberry is on the mixed prairie and 
 forest lands, and here it bears heavy crops of fine delicious 
 fruit that are highly prized by all residents in the country. 
 While ascending the Assiniboine in June, 1879, a number 
 of us left the steamer while she was " wooding up " a few 
 miles above Brandon, and climbed the steep slope of 
 the right bank (the coldest one) to the summit and there 
 we obtained abundance of ripe strawberries on the 16th of 
 June. At this date many are still planting their potatoes. 
 
 Black Currants, Red Currants, and Gooseberries, are abun- 
 dant in many localities. The Gooseberries are represented 
 on the plains by Rihes oxycanthoides and in woods by Rihes 
 hirtellum. Only occasionally will the bushes be found load- 
 ed with ripe fruit, as some animal seems to live on the 
 fruit in its semi-ripe state. Last season during August and 
 a part of July we were in the alluvial valley of Red Deer 
 River and its tributaries. On all the alluvial flats fine 
 red and black currants were in the greatest profusion, and 
 the men at meal-time gathered a dessert from the bushes 
 close to them. Another Black Currant {Rihes Hudsonianum) 
 ripened later, and like the Missouri Currant [Ribes aureum) 
 instead of maturing altogether, as the common currant does, 
 continued for a long time ; the lower berries on the raceme 
 always ripening first. In many cases the crop of black 
 currants, were settlers there to gather them, would be of 
 great value. 
 
 High Bush Cranberries are very abundant in the north- 
 ern forest particularly Viburnum pauciflorum, which is the 
 most northern form and which ripens before the first frosts. 
 Viburnum Opulus is found principally in large clumps in 
 river valleys, or on the borders of little ponds within the 
 woods. Its fruit is not so acid as the other species, and is 
 more abundant. 
 
 The three species of dwarf Raspberry are valuable, espec- 
 
NATURAL PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL. 185 
 
 ially in the north where their fruit is in the greatest perfec- 
 ■;ion. Ruhus triflorus is common in Ontario, but it is only 
 in the cool damp forests north of Lat. 52" that it attains 
 that juiciness and size which gives it value. Ruhus arcticus 
 is first seen in the swampy district, west of the Lake of the 
 Woods, but here its fruit is of little worth. Westward on the 
 watershed of the Churchill about Isle La Crosse, and north- 
 ward towards Portage la Loche, it is a fine and very pro- 
 lific berry. Ruhus Cliamoemorus grows still farther north, 
 and this and the preceeding are often found together in the 
 muskegs. This species has a fine yellow fruit, and the pre- 
 ceeding a bright red one. Both grow together in the same 
 bog and often cover the surface with beautiful fruit. At 
 Isle la Crosse and Lake Athabasca large quantities of these 
 are collected by the Indian women, and made into jelly at 
 the Hudson's Bay Company's posts. 
 
 Red Raspberries are found everywhere in lately burnt 
 forest, and seem to be larger and better fruit than we have 
 in the east. Many writers speak as if this fruit wa,s every- 
 where, but being a close attendant on burnt forest, it dies 
 out when grass usurps its place. 
 
 Low Bush Cranberries are common in all peat bogs, and 
 tamarac swamps, but the fruit is not often gathered, as there 
 is no demand for it. Vaccinium Vitis-Idcea grows in great 
 profusion m all sandy or spruce woods, after the forest is 
 reached. It is one of the most abundant fruits, and is easily 
 .known by its bunches of bright scarlet fruit pendant on the 
 ends of small stems covered with evergreen leaves. This 
 fruit is common near Prince Albert. Although very acid it 
 makes a fine jelly and is a first-class addition to an explorer's 
 
 dessert. 
 
 Blueberries are not common except in certain localities, 
 and these are so far removed from where permanent settle- 
 ment will be made, that it is only necessary to mention the 
 sandy tracts where Banksian Pine flourishes to indicate 
 
186 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOETH-WEST. 
 
 where they may be obtained. The Dwarf Blueberry grows 
 abundantly on the elevated country west of Edmonton, and 
 here, as everywhere else, indicates a clima.te too cold for 
 successful wheat culture. 
 
 Wild Sarsaparilla forms the greater part of the vegetation 
 under the tall aspens in many sections, and wherever dry 
 forest is, or thick brush on the plains, there it is also. 
 Labrador Tea grows in all muskegs and marshes, and, if 
 half that is said of its virtues be true, it will yet be much 
 sought after by speculators, and manufactured into a specific 
 for many diseases. At present, when tea is scarce, the Indians 
 and Half-breeds use it sparingly. 
 
 Silver Berry is one of the commonest shrubs on the prairie, 
 and deserves a place in all collections of hardy species. 
 About the middle of June its small yellow flowers perfume 
 the air. This perfume is wafted for miles on the light breezes 
 of the prairie. Later its Silver Berries are attractive to the 
 " Pra Trie Chickens," and amongst its stems in the fall coveys 
 are sure, to be found. Even the leaves are beautiful, and 
 shine like silver, and when laid under a lens lovely stellate 
 hairs of great beauty are revealed. 
 
 Buffalo Berry is generally found iu the river or stream 
 valleys of the south. It has also been found on the Assini- 
 boine below Brandon, and at Manitoba House on Lake 
 Manitoba. This is another fine shrub with beautiful foliage 
 shining like silver, and in the months of August and Septem- 
 ber loaded with large clusters of bright red fruit. There is 
 no other berry in the southwest comparable to it for the 
 making of jelly. After we had been on bacon for months, a 
 jelly of these berries was a luxury of the highest order. 
 Grizzly bears are very fond of them, and are hunted where 
 these grow. The only grizzly ever seen by me was in a 
 thicket of these bushes. This shrub, if a quick grower, 
 would be excellent for fencing, as it has a number of short 
 and stiff thorny branches in every part. 
 
NATURAL PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL. 187 
 
 Wild Hops are common in every river bottom throughout 
 Manitoba. The past summer I found them climbing over 
 shrubbery and up trees, and forming festoons over the end 
 of every dead stick in the valley of Bed Deer River, lat. 
 53°. No place in the Assiniboine valley is without them. 
 At Fort Ellice the river bottom seems like a hop-yard after 
 the leaves have fallen in autumn. Hops are in great pro- 
 fusion in the Qu'Appelle Valley, and hang in larger bunches 
 than are generally seen in hop-yards. 
 
 Hazel nuts are found where there is brush. Many thick- 
 ets of these bushes extend for miles, and being generally 
 higher than a man's head, and growing in brul6 cause 
 travellers to dread them as they would a quagmire. The 
 fruit is gathered in great quantities by the Indians and 
 stored for winter use. 
 
 I purpose in the following pages to give a few notes on 
 the flora of districts, knowledge of which is generally desired. 
 A voyager on the Assiniboine in the ascent from Winnipeg 
 to Brandon, cannot but remark the paucity of species in the 
 river valley as regards trees. It is true he sees familiar 
 forms but many eastern species are wanting, and he looks 
 in vain for beech, maple, or pine, and only occasionally does 
 he see oak or ash. Poplar and elm with willows, which 
 sometimes attain to the size of trees, make up the bulk of the 
 wood, while roses {Rosa blanda) and Pembina berries ( Vi- 
 hurnum Lentago) form almost impassable thickets. The 
 Ostrich fern (^Struthiopteris Germanica) is occasionally very 
 abundant, and attains a great height, and all herbaceous 
 vegetation is astonishingly luxuriant. Climbers too are not 
 wanting, and Wild Hops {Humuhos Lupulus), Wild Balsam, 
 Apple {Echinocystis lobata), Hedge Bindweed {Galystegia 
 sepium), Wild Grapes ( Vitis riparia), and Virginia Creeper 
 {Ampelopsis quinque folia) , are common or occasionally seen. 
 
 Berry bearing shrubs are not rare, as thickets of Wild 
 Plum {Primus Americana), Easpberrj^ {Ruhus strigosios). 
 
188 HANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Service Berry (^Amelanchier Canadensis), High Bush 
 Cranberry [Viburnum Opulus et pauciflorum) , Wild Cherry 
 {Prunus Virginiana), and White Thorn (^Cratcegus cocci nea), 
 are very common, and bear well flavored fruit; Goose- 
 berries {Ribes oxycanthoides), Wild Black Currants {Ribes 
 Jioridum), and Red Currants (^Ribes rubrum), are abundant 
 in the valley, the two latter where the soil is wet, the 
 former on the drier slopes. A beautiful western shrub, 
 the Buffalo Berry [Shepherdia argeniea), is occasionally 
 met with on the Assiniboine, but it is only on the 
 Saskatchewan that it is seen in its beauty. A near con- 
 gener, the Silver Berry {Elcegnus argentea), is abundant on 
 the drier slopes, and throughout Manitoba is said to indicate 
 good soil, but in reality it is only an occupant of a dry one. 
 These two shrubs are well worthy of cultivation, being per- 
 fectly hardy, and having beautiful silvery leaves, and sweet 
 scented flowers — the blossoms of the latter about the middle 
 of June loading the air with their fragrance. Later in the 
 season, the former is borne down with its close clusters of 
 bright red acid berries, which when made into jelly and 
 sweetened we found to be an excellent corrective to salt pork. 
 The berries of the latter are of the same color as the 
 leaves, and are quite mealy. These with rose hips constituted 
 the principal food of our so called Prairie Chicken, the sharp- 
 tailed Grouse {Pedioecetes pJiasianellus), during the fall and 
 winter. 
 
 Besides the shrubs mentioned above, there are a few that 
 should not be passed without notice, on account of their 
 beauty. Foremost are the Lead Plant [AmorpJia canescens), 
 which was abundant at Portage la Prairie in 1872, and a 
 smaller species, Amorpha microphylla, which is found in 
 some abundance at the Rapids on the Assiniboine. Both 
 these species are worthy of a prominent place in any of 
 our gardens. Wild Honeysuckle (Lonicera parvijlora) and 
 two species ot Snow Berrj- {Symplwricarpus racemosvs et 
 
NATURAL PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL. 189 
 
 occidentalis) with wild Cornel [Gornus stolonifera) , and 
 Downy Arrow-wood (Viburnum pubescens), are found in 
 more or less abundance in the river valley. The Wild 
 Cornel or "Western Kinnikinik is very abundant in the 
 valleys of all streams, and it is from the inner bark of 
 this shrub mixed with tobacco, that all the Indians of 
 the plains, and the Half-breeds make the " Harouge " which 
 they prefer to pure tobacco. The Kinnikinik of the east 
 {^Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi,) and the Creeping Juniper {^Jun- 
 iperus Sabina var. procumbens) are abundant on all sandy 
 soil, and form the chief covering of the sand dunes and hills 
 throughout the country. 
 
 In the Grand Valley (Brandon) and west to the Moose 
 Mountain on the 102nd meridian, 452 species of plants were 
 noticed during the latter part of June, the majority of 
 which were common in Ontario ; a few seemed to have a 
 southern origin, while others were exclusively vrestern, and 
 others again extended far to the north. 
 
 At the time we crossed the extensive plain lying between 
 the Grand Valley and Moose Mountain (the latter part of 
 June), the whole country was gay with beautiful flowers. 
 The air was loaded with the perfume of roses, and the Elae- 
 gnus, and every little mound was bright with the tall purple 
 spikes of Oxytropus splendens and Lamberti, while the level 
 prairie was dotted with patches oi Arnica angustifolia looking 
 like the Marigolds of our gardens. Even the marshes were 
 beautiful with the nodding Plumes of the Cotton Grass 
 {^Eriophorum polystachyon) , and their borders lined with 
 Dodecatheon and the little yellow star grass {/Sisyrinchium 
 Bermudiana). 
 
 The Sand Hills at Flat Creek were covered in spots with 
 a beautiful Cactus (Mamillaria vivipara) which grew in 
 small compact clusters often not larger than a small apple 
 with a beautiful pink flower rising from the centre. A 
 lovely fern {Botrychium Lwnaria) was growing amongst 
 
190 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 the grass, and Lalhryus ve'iiosus — the western pea — formed 
 thickets in the hollows between the hills. Around these 
 hills were numerous marshes filled with various grasses, 
 and sedges, while the hills themselves produced vetches 
 and horse-tails {Equisetum). 
 
 At Pipestone Creek the vegetation (June 27th) was won- 
 derfully luxuriant, and pasture excellent. The leading 
 grasses were Avena pratensis, Sporoholus heterolepis, Poa 
 casia et serotina, Stipa spartea, Yilfa cuspidata, Galamagrostis 
 stricta et Canadensis, and Phalaris arundinacea. The ponds 
 contain Carex aristata in the centre where the water is deep 
 and permanent, outside this line Garex lanuginosa and Carex 
 marcida. The three species are found in this order all over 
 the country, and wherever they exist water is abundant. 
 When Carex aristata disappeared from the ponds, water was 
 bad or merely rain water, and we had to be on the alert. 
 
 The prominent flowers were three species of Penstemon, 
 (P. gracilis, cristatus et confertus var.), Hedysarum horeale, 
 Thermopsis rhombifolia, Gaura coccinea, Galium horeale, Sisy- 
 rinchium Bermudiana, Arnica angustifolia, and four species of 
 Astragalus (J. pectinatus, flexuosus, caryocarpus, et hisulca- 
 tus). All of these would have been ornaments to any gar- 
 den, and greAV in such profusion that they gave a marked 
 character to the landscape. 
 
 Passing westward towards Moose Mountain, Hedysarwm 
 horeale covered square miles of plain, and being tall, over two 
 feet high, its spikes of lovely pink flowers were exquisitely 
 beautiful, as they nodded to the pleasant summer breeze. 
 A handsome Primula (P. farinx)sa) was very conspicuous, 
 and together with its congener the DodecatJieon made the 
 margin of many a marsh a floral paradise with the profusion 
 of their lovely and bright tinted flowers. 
 
 The flora of Moose Mountain was in no respect dijfferent 
 from that of many parts of Ontario, except in the absence of 
 forest trees of which there were but few species. 
 
NATURAL PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL. 191 
 
 After passing out on to the " Souris Plain " a marked 
 change took place in the flora, and the soil became much 
 drier. Hedysarum Machenzii was occasionally seen in great 
 patches, and being of a rich velvety purple, charmed the eye 
 with its beauty. At this date (July 7th) many beautiful 
 flowers were in their prime, and their peculiar habitats were 
 worthy of more than a passing notice. Every species has 
 its own habitat, and at one time in going through a rich 
 hollow, lilies (Z. Philadelphicum) will cover acres with 
 orange red flowers. Leaving there and ascending a slope, 
 we will have to cross a carpet of the richest purple, for here 
 Astragalus Jlexuosus is extremely abundant, and fills the air 
 with its perfume. On yonder knoll Oxytropis splendens and 
 Castilleia sessiliflora dispute possession with Astragalus 
 pectinatus and Erigonum fiavum We pass the ridge and 
 now there is more water and a new series of plants come in 
 to view, and Zagadenus glaucus, PotentiUa gracilis, Anemone 
 Pennsylvanica and Lysimachia cihata, mixed with various 
 species of Astragali, are noted, and as hours pass into 
 days this ever changing panorama glides past filling our 
 hearts with delight as we contemplate this garden of 
 nature. 
 
 Days pass, and these lovely gardens are left behind, and 
 now stretched out on every side, is a vast clay plain with an 
 extremely rough surface. The flora has changed, birds have 
 almost disappeared, and even the hills have gone out of 
 sight, yet beauty is still around us on every hand, Koses 
 {Rosa hlanda), scarcely six inches high, load the air with 
 perfume. Lepachys columnaris enhances the beauty of the 
 landscape with its yellow flowers, and the rich green of the 
 grass is pleasing to the eye, yet over all this vast ex- 
 panse not a bird wings its flight, and our utmost exertions 
 could hardly obtain water for ourselves and horses. One 
 hundred miles and upwards is crossed, and the only shrubs 
 seen are the two snowberries (^Symphoricarpus racemosus 
 
192 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 et occidentalis) and the rose bushes, while Aster tnultiflorus, 
 Lejjachys and Triticum repens, with various Potentillae, make 
 up the bulk of the flora. 
 
 Moose Jaw Creek, like all other streams throughout the 
 country, had essentially an Eastern flora, and it was only on 
 the gravel ridges and clay slopes bordering its valley, that 
 the western forms were seen. Here the species were char- 
 acteristic of the arid plains to the south, and partook largely 
 of an alkaline character. 
 
 The flora of the Cypress Hills is very remarkable, and 
 differs in many respects from that of the plains. In the 
 coulees which extend into the hills on the north and east 
 sides, the vegetation is almost exclusively eastern, and con- 
 tains numerous forest species, while that of the plateau 
 above, and the upper slopes of the hills have the prairie 
 features of the Rocky Mountain flora, and both Alpine and 
 boreal species here find a home. 
 
 In the upper part of the coulees amongst the spruce at 
 the eastern end were Spircea hetulifolia, Geranium Richard- 
 sonii, Ilahenaria rotundifolia, Phleum alpinum, Arenaria nar- 
 difolia et verna, Delphinium azureum, and on the exposed 
 gravel points and ridges that rose almost perpendicularly 
 were Astragalus pauciflorus, Sedum stenopetalum, Cetraria 
 nivalis, aculeata et Islandica, Polygonum, Paronychia, et Yesi- 
 caria montana. In the deep coulees around springs of purest 
 water, were large patches of Mimulus Jarnesii covered with a 
 profusion of yellow flowers, and amongst the common sedges 
 were Carex /estiva and capillaris. These, all mountain 
 species, and numerous others known to dwell there, told a 
 tale that the botanist alone could understand. Whether the 
 Cypress Hills were an outlier of the Rocky Mountains or 
 not, their flora indicated that their climate was that of the 
 foot hills above Morleyville, and necessarily unfit to regu- 
 larly mature cereals, although, in sheltered valleys, barley 
 and potatoes could possibly be raised. 
 
NATURAL PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL. 193 
 
 The grasses of the plateau were of the real pasturage spe- 
 cies, and produced abundance of leaves, and were so tall, 
 that for miles at a time we had great difficulty in forcing 
 our way through them. The chief were species of Festuca, 
 Danthonia, Poa, Avena pratensis, Bromus, and Pfdeum alpin- 
 um, and although their seeds were all ripe (August 4th) 
 their leaves were quite green. 
 
 As we proceeded westward over the plateau, it became 
 more elevated and other species began to take prominence, 
 notably Impinus argentea and Potentilla frwlicosa covered 
 miles of country to the exclusion of other species, and as 
 both grew about eighteen inches in height, and h ad a bushy 
 habit, the whole country, for a day's travel, was either blue 
 or yellow or both, as either species prevailed or were inter- 
 mixed. In all my wanderings I never saw any spot equal 
 in beauty to the central plateau of the Cypress Hills, 
 
 After the middle of August, 1880, mushrooms became very 
 abundant, and continued with us until the latter part of 
 September, when the frosts became too severe, and prevent- 
 ed their growth. There were three species all equally large 
 and numerous, and although we consumed great quantities 
 of them we never observed any ill effects from their use. 
 There was one species, however, which was very large, and 
 more abundant than the others, which I did not touch, as I 
 did not like its appearance, yet the usual test indicated it to 
 be nutritious. While crossing the great plains north of the 
 QuAppelle in July, 1879, we found mushrooms by the cart- 
 load, and the past season we used them every day for three 
 weeks while travelling at least two hundred miles in an 
 easterly direction. From the reports of other travellers, and 
 my own observations, I am lead to believe that on nearly 
 the whole prairie abundance of mushrooms will be obtained 
 after any great rain fall during the summer. One species of 
 Lycoperdon (Puff Ball) was seen that grew to a very large 
 size, and numerous others were noticed during the whole 
 13 
 
194 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 season scattered over the plain in great profusion. No Lyco- 
 ijerdoiL is poisonous, but if gathered young before the spores 
 turn yellow, cut into thin slices, and fried, are highlj^ nutri- 
 tious. Were it possible to teach the Indians to discriminate 
 between the good and bad mushrooms, immense quantities 
 could be collected every year, dried and stored away for 
 future use as is done in Norway. 
 
 The following notes from m}" journal will illustrate the 
 flora in the vicinity of Long Lake as seen the first week 
 in July, 1879. Flowers are a most conspicuous feature of 
 the prairie. Hedysarum and various Astragali vieing with 
 the liij' and the vetch in loveliness and luxuriance. Often 
 whole acres would be red and purple with beautiful flowers, 
 and the air laden with the perfume of roses. Sometimes 
 lilies (^LUiinn l^hihidelplufinn) are so abundant that they 
 covered an acre of ground bright red, at others they are mixed 
 with another liliaceous plant {^Zagddenus glaturns) and form 
 a ring around the willow thickets which we pass. At anoth- 
 er time we come upon a pool of fine pure water, and within 
 is Carex arisfata which the horses love so well, around it 
 Avhere the water is neurlj" gone are Garex marcida and 
 lanuginosa. Outside of these a ring of white anemones 
 {Anemone Pennsi/luani<<() and growing Avhere it is slightly 
 drier a yellow flower (Po/enHUa graclli'i). As the ground 
 became still drier the Parf)le Pentstemons {Peidsteinon con- 
 fertuft) would appear, and lastly the lilies would surround 
 the whole. 
 
 Mushrooms are extremely abundant, and attain a fabulous 
 size. They grow in regular "fairy rings" often more than 
 40 feet in diameter. Some rings were found to contain so 
 many, that taking all good and bad from one ring, we could 
 almost load a cart. Other rings were devoted exclusively 
 to a species of giant Puff-ball which Avere extremely numer- 
 ous on almost ever}^ part of the plains. Amongst many 
 others I measured one specimen of a mushroom that was 33| 
 
NATURAL PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL 195 
 
 inches in circumference, and 2| inches through the cap. 
 The stem was over 2 inches in diameter and weight over 
 three pounds. 
 
 Dr. Loew, of the American Geological Survey, reports that 
 the bark of the common Aspen (^Populus tremuloides) is used 
 by the Indians in intermittent fever. His analysis of the 
 bark gives salicin and populin. The former was long ago in 
 common use in intermittents. "It has," says Dr. Rothrock, 
 " long been more or less a domestic remedy, and, indeed, of 
 a certaia class of practitioners, for this disease. It is not a 
 little remarkable, however, that it should be used by the 
 Indians, and we can only account for the fact that it does 
 possess some remedial power in this direction, which a ' hit 
 or miss' empiricism has led them to discover." 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Raising Wheat. 
 
 Red Eiver Prairie, Description of its Soil — An Old Countryman's Views — Extent of the 
 Wheat Lands — 150,000,000 Acres of Wheat Lands — Manitoba Excluded from the 
 Calculation — Good Land Continues for 100 Miles at a Time — Fixed Laws Regarding 
 the Growth of Wheat — Northern Limits of Wheat Zone — Northern Wheat more Pro- 
 lific — The Cause Explained — How Wheat Grows in Spring and Summer — Why Mani- 
 toba Wheat is Hard — Roots Penetrate to a Great Depth — Analysis of Soil, far Supe- 
 rior to the Best Wheat Land in Europe — Best Soil in the World in the North- West — 
 Manitoba Formerly an old Lake Bottom — Soil of the Second Prairie Steppe — Soil of 
 the Third Plateau — Gypsum very Abundant — Cactus no Proof of Aridity — Setter's 
 Farm Described — Wheat Growing amongst Cactus — Appearance of the Land — Besults 
 of 1880 — of 18S1 — Seed Bought in Minnesota in 1876 — Progress since Then — ^Mani- 
 toba Wheat Admitted Duty Free into Minnesota — Opinions of Pioneer Press of St. 
 Paul's, Minnesota, regarding North- West Wheat — Statements of Residents — Average 
 Crop for Four Years — ^Average Yield of Canadian North-West Compared with the best 
 States in the Union — Great Weight of the Grain — Qu'Appelle Region as a Wheat 
 District — Prince Albert and Edmonton as Wheat Districts — Description of Edmon- 
 ton — Gust's Farm at Edmonton — Country on Peace Eiver — Excellent Wheat Lands 
 far to the North — Cucumbers Ripen in Lat. 60° — Wheat in Lat. 61° First-class — 
 Spring Frosts not Hurtful— Fall Wheat not Suited for the North-West— Fall Sowing 
 Recommended — No Doubt of its Success — Instances of Fall Sowing — Fall Sowing the 
 True Policy of Settlers on the Prairie — Wheat Production of the Future beyond Cal- 
 culation — England should Realise that we have the Greater part of the Wheat Lands 
 of America — England's True Policy — Farmers Testimony Regarding the Soil. 
 
 The Red River Prairie, or first Prairie Steppe, differs 
 from the more western lands in being almost a dead level, 
 except occasional ridges of gravel, which slightly change 
 the uniformity of the surface. So much has been said and 
 written regarding this prairie that I shall quote the opi- 
 nions of only two individuals regarding it. One is noted 
 for his scientific attainments, the other for his general in- 
 telligence and close observation. Dr. George M. Dawson 
 thus describes the Red River Prairie in 1874 : — 
 
 "Of the alluvial prairie of the Red River, much has 
 already been said, and the uniform fertility of the soil can- 
 not be exaggerated. The surface for a depth of from two 
 
RAISING WHEAT 197 
 
 to four feet is a dark mould composed of the same material 
 as the subsoil, but mingled with much vegetable matter. 
 Its dark color is no doubt in part due to the gradual accumu- 
 lation of the charred grasses left by the prairie fires. The 
 soil may be said to lie ready for the plough, and in turning 
 the tough prairie sod the first year, a crop of potatoes may 
 be put in, though it is not efficiently broken up till it has 
 been subjected to a winter's frost. When the sod has 
 rotted, the soil appears as a light friable mould, easily 
 worked, and most favorable for agriculture. The marly 
 alluvium underlying the vegetable mould, would in most 
 countries be considered a soil of the best quality, and the 
 fertility of the ground may therefore be considered as practi- 
 cally inexhaustible. 
 
 The area of this lowest prairie has already been approxi- 
 mately stated at 6,900 square miles, but of this the whole is 
 not at present suited for agriculture. # # # * 
 As a measure of the possible agricultural capacity of this 
 great valley, take one-half of the entire area, or 3,400 square 
 miles, equalling 2,176,000 acres, and for simplicity of cal- 
 culation, let it be supposed to be sown entirely in wheat. 
 Then at the rate of seventeen bushels (the average is ovef 
 25) per acre — which according to Prof. Thomas is the aver- 
 age yield for Minnesota — the crop of the Red Eiver Valley 
 would amount to 40,992,000 bushels." 
 
 Our other quotation is from the report of Mr. R. H. B. P. 
 Anderson, of County Kerry, Ireland. His description 
 belongs partly to the Red River Prairie and partly to the 
 Pembina Mountain district : — " The soil varies much, as it 
 is natural to suppose over so large a tract of land, but as a 
 rule it is rich, black, vegetable mould, working very like 
 clay — rich beyond imagination and resting on a marly 
 clay. The depth of the surface soil varies a good deal, in 
 some places not more than ten or twelve inches, in others 
 as many feet. I am informed that chemical analysis has 
 
198 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 proved the soil to be the best adapted of any in the world 
 for the growth of wheat, and certainly practical experience 
 bears this out. It is very easily worked, becoming as fine 
 as powder. However, there are all descriptions of soil to 
 be had here, from the heaviest clay to the lightest sandy 
 loam." 
 
 The above extracts will show that almost all observers 
 class the land with the best in the world. Between Winni- 
 peg and Edmonton, a distance by cart road of 980 miles, the 
 various settlers affirm that where they are located is the 
 best land in the country. Travel where you may the same 
 story is told you, and proofs are shown of the astonishing 
 fertility of the soil. At Fort Calgarry in the south wheat 
 produces enormously, and in lat. 59", 600 miles due north 
 of that point, I obtained wheat that took the Bronze Medal 
 at the Centennial in Philadelphia, in 1876. In nineteen- 
 twentieths of all this vast area there is a clay subsoil with 
 a surface soil varying from black clay or clay loam to light 
 sandy loam. 
 
 It is difficult to give even an approximate estimate of the 
 extent of cultivable lands in the North-West Territories. 
 The following was made at the request of the Government' 
 in 1877 : If a line be drawn from the boundary line where 
 it is intersected by the 95th meridian, in a northwesterly 
 direction to where the 122nd meridian intersects the 61st 
 parallel, we shall have the base of an isoscles triangle, which 
 has its apex on the 115th meridian, where it intersects the 
 49th parallel, one side being the boundary and the other 
 the Rocky Mountains. This triangle encloses at least 300,000 
 square miles, or over 200,000,000 acres of land. In a rough 
 classification I estimated 80,000,000 acres as arable land and 
 120,000,000 acres as pasture, swamps, and lakes. After two 
 years further examination, I submitted another report to 
 the Government, of which the following is a condensed 
 summary. 
 
RAISING WHEAT. 199' 
 
 Since the date of my last report I have had opportunities 
 of gaining a much more extended personal knowledge of the 
 region, and I have had access to the reports of all the recent 
 explorations made by others, and had personal conversations 
 with the several explorers. I am, therefore, in possession 
 of much a dditional data and in a position to classify the 
 areas of land with greater general accuracy. I now submit 
 what I consider a tolerably correct estimate of the areas of 
 the several descriptions of land between the Rocky Moun- 
 tains and Manitoba, not including the latter province, and 
 excluding also any available land that may exist north of 
 lat. 57" in Peace River District. The total area of available 
 land suitable for agriculture and pasture was 150,081,280 
 acres after 30,000,000 acres had been deducted for bad and 
 wet lands. Within the whole area of 180,000,000 acres 
 there are isolated patches of unavailable land, consisting of 
 marshes and swamps, sand hills, barren clays and stony 
 tracts. Possibly not one-third or 10,000,000 acres of the 
 whole 48,000 square miles which I have deducted from the 
 total area could be classed as sterile or irreclaimably wet. 
 There can be no doubt that drainage will ultimately do 
 much to contract the area of land now considered valueless. 
 At present I consider that in the North-West of Canada, 
 beyond Manitoba and within the western and northern 
 limits defined, there are at least 150,000,000 acres of land 
 suitable for agriculture and stock-raising, and of this area I 
 feel confident that a higher percentage will be found avail- 
 able for growing grain than in that portion of Ontario so 
 well known for its productions — I refer to the peninsula 
 lying between the Lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario, and 
 bounded on the north and east by a line drawn from Kings- 
 ton to Lake Simcoe and the Georgian Bay. 
 
 Many unacquainted with the country think that good 
 land is in patches like most other districts. Often for 100 
 miles at a time no bad soil is seen in any direction, and the 
 
200 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOKTH-WEST. 
 
 only land not suited for grain would be tlie marshes or the 
 steep slope of a coul6e. Much of the southern district now con- 
 sidered fit only for pasture will yet be known as the best of 
 wheat lands. Nothing is needed to prove this but the plough. 
 
 There are certain laws applicable to wheat culture which 
 are of the greatest importance when studied in reference to 
 wheat growing in the North-West. Naturalists recognize 
 the fact that there are certain limits within which each 
 species of plant or animal attains its greatest development. 
 I may mention here, that if the mean temperature of the 
 two months, July and August, reaches 60°, wheat culture 
 will be profitable. Now in the tables given in the chapter 
 on climate, it is shown that in every part of the territory 
 the temperature exceeds this. I might even state that this 
 temperature is found over a far larger area. I believe that 
 wheat culture will yet extend to within a short distance of 
 Hudson's Bay and down the Mackenzie to lat. 65°. Another 
 physical law fixes the greatest yield near the northern limit 
 of successful growth. This was well exemplified by the 
 wheat obtained in 1875 at Lake Athabasca, in lat. 58° 42'. 
 
 In Ontario seldom more than two grains to the cluster are 
 found, in Manitoba three is the usual number, at Edmonton 
 four or five, and at Lake Athabasca five or six. Did the 
 average yield of Ontario reach fifteen bushels, the yield in 
 Manitoba would be twenty -three, at Edmonton over thirty, 
 and at Peace Kiver forty bushels. This accounts for the 
 large yields per acre reported from these places, and were 
 only the same number of ears per acre harvested in the west 
 the proportions would remain the same. But when an acre 
 without either stump or stone is reaped we may expect to 
 hear of thirty to forty bushels per acre being the average 
 on well-tilled fields in Manitoba. There is no reason why 
 sixty bushels to the acre should not be reaped. 
 
 On another page I have stated in detail the growth of 
 wheat froto seed time to harvest, and from that it will be 
 
RAISING WHEAT. 201 
 
 seen why the climate is so well suited for its growth. Cool- 
 ness with moisture in spring gives root growth. The porous 
 soil allows the roots to penetrate to an astonishing depth. 
 During June and July there is abundance of rain and great 
 heat, followed in August by still warmer weather and some 
 rain, which completes the cycle of growth. As soon as the 
 weather begins to cool, rain ceases and the air becomes very 
 dry, hardening the grain and giving it that flintiness and 
 weight for which all Manitoba wheat is noted. Two causes 
 combine to produce the enormous crops reaped on those lands. 
 The frosts of winter pulverise the ground to a depth of many 
 feet. Summer rains, with almost constant sunlight, give a 
 quick and vigorous growth. Owing to the looseness and 
 porousness of the soil in spring the roots throw out many 
 fibres, and when the rains come these openings are filled, and 
 the growing crop feeds on eighteen inches of soil instead of 
 three or four. Hence bad husbandry has little effect on the 
 crop for many years. As long as the west is blessed with 
 winter frosts and summer rains so long will teeming crops 
 be the product of her soil. Were it necessary for the growth 
 of the plant the small fibres could penetrate to a depth of 
 over three feet. It will be remembered that the land is 
 never wet when winter sets in. 
 
 Only a few samples of the soil have been properly an- 
 alyzed as far as I am aware. One I will give in the words 
 and figures of the chemist who made the analysis, Professor 
 Emmerling, Director of the Chemical Laboratory of the 
 Agricultural Association of Kiel, in Holstein. He writes 
 to Senator Emil Klotz : " The analysis of the Manitoba soil 
 is now completed, and the result is in 100,000 parts : 
 
 Potash 228.7 
 
 Sodinm 83.8 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 69.4 
 
 Lime 682.6 
 
 Magnesia 16.1 
 
 Nitrogen 486.1 
 
 (Signed) " V. Emmerling." 
 
202 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Senator Klotz writes from Kiel, May 4th, 1872 : "After 
 considerable delay I succeeded in obtaining the analysis of 
 the Manitoba soil from Professor Emmerling, and hope it 
 may be of service to you. Annexed I give you our analysis 
 of the most productive soil in Holstein, Avhereby you will 
 see how exceedingly rich the productive qualities of the 
 Manitoba soil are, and which fully explains the fact that the 
 land in Manitoba is so very fertile even without manure. 
 
 " The chief nutrients are, first nitrogen, then potash and 
 phosphoric acid, which predominates there ; but what is of 
 particular importance is the lime contained in the soil, 
 whereby the nitrogen is set free and ready to be absorbed in 
 vegetable organisms. The latter property is defective in 
 many soils, and when it is found defective recourse must be 
 had to artificial means by putting lime or marl (a clay i^hich 
 contains much lime) upon the same. According to the analy- 
 sis of the Manitoba soil there is no doubt that, to the farmer 
 who desires to select for his future home a country which 
 has the most productive soil and promises the richest harvest, 
 no country in the world offers greater attractions than the 
 Province of Manitoba, in the Dominion of Canada." 
 
 Analysis of Holstein soil and Manitoba soil compared : — 
 
 HOLSTEIN son,. MANITOBA SOIL. EXCESS IN MANITOBA SOIL. 
 
 Potash 30 228.7 198.7 
 
 Sodium 20 33.8 13.8 
 
 Phosphoric Acid.. 40 69.4 29.4 
 
 Lime 130 682.6 552.6 
 
 Magnesia 10 16.1 6.1 
 
 Nitrogen 4o 486.1 446.1 
 
 Manitoba or the first Prairie Steppe was originally with- 
 out doubt an old lake bottom. Lake Winnipeg is the 
 remains of the lake. It follows that nearly all Manitoba 
 possesses an alluvial soil, chiefly derived from decaying vege- 
 tation and the fine silts brought from the more elevated 
 region to the west. Lying along the western margin of the 
 Manitoba plain is a series of sand dunes, which gradually 
 pass into the second Prairie Steppe, the soil of which is 
 
RAISING WHEAT. 203' 
 
 diflferent from that of the plain below. The surface here 
 is principally a dark-colored sandy loam, sometimes passing 
 into clay, while at others it becomes quite light and sandy, 
 more especially in the vicinity of the various rivers. The 
 subsoil is very uniform and seems to be a light-colored 
 marly clay, containing numerous pebbles coated with car- 
 bonate of lime. 
 
 As we approach the confines of the third plateau the soil 
 gradually passes into clay and the surface and subsoil be- 
 come more homogeneous. It is on this plateau where most 
 of the pasture lands are situated. The greater part of it is 
 altogether without wood. The second steppe contains 
 much sand in certain localities and the third much gravel 
 in the more elevated tracts. It is simply then a change from 
 silt to sand and from sand to gravel. Only, however, about 
 five per cent, of the soil can be called either sandy or grav- 
 elly. The Second Steppe is composed of Cretaceous rocks 
 overlaid with a thick coating of drift, while the Third 
 Steppe is sometimes called the Lignite Tertiary Plateau, on 
 account of it being composed of this group of rocks. 
 
 One of the chief ingredients in this higher plateau is 
 Gypsum, which can be gathered in a crystallized state wher- 
 ever there is a slide in a river bank. The surface water of 
 this plateau is often a mild solution of Epsom salts where 
 the soil is not covered by drift and the clays obscured. 
 When the underlying Cretaceous clays are exposed the water 
 is equally bad and the soil shows signs of aridity, being cov- 
 ered more or less with Cactus {Opuntia Missouriensis) and 
 Artemisia {Artemisia cana). This is the "Sage Brush" of 
 Palliser's Report, but not of the American Desert as he asserts. 
 
 As it is generally supposed that these Cactus flats are 
 too arid for the growth of wheat, I insert an extract from 
 my report for 1880. The location referred to is on the 
 north side of the Cypress Hills, and certainly had every 
 appearance of sterility prior to being broken up. 
 
204 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH--WEST. 
 
 The creek upon -which the farm is located has on its banks 
 some willows and maples, the former being the largest I 
 have seen in the North-West, a few being three feet in 
 diameter. There is no poplar on the creek, and all fence 
 poles have to be brought from the hills. All the land broken 
 up was in the flats along the creek, and consisted almost 
 wholly of soil, which in my former reports I had pro- 
 nounced worthless. The hills were composed of light or 
 dark-colored sandy loam with numerous boulders and some 
 gravel on the hill tops, and the flats along the creeks of 
 Cretaceous clay and so arid that grass could not form a 
 sward. The flats were covered with sage brush [Artemisia 
 cana) and Cactus {Opuntia Missouriensis) and everything 
 betokened aridity. This was how the country looked when 
 I was there on August 13th, except the part under cul- 
 tivation. 
 
 Setter located the farm in April, set to work and broke 
 up the artemisia and cactus flats, but got only a little sown 
 before a drought set in, which continued all through June 
 and caused some of the seed to lie in the ground over three 
 weeks. Notwithstanding, I gathered ears of ripe wheat 
 on August 14th, and have been informed since that the 
 greater part of the crop ripened. At the time I gathered 
 the ripe ears of wheat, Cactus was in flower for the second 
 time, and both were flourishing together. The problem was 
 solved, that the apparently arid soils were only so in 
 appearance, and that all the land where not covered with 
 sand or gravel would yet " blossom as the rose." 
 
 The soil had been broken up only to the depth of a few 
 inches and the change was astonishing. I could not 
 penetrate the sun-baked clay, but not a yard away, where 
 he had ploughed, I could dig to any depth. On the one 
 hand was life, while on the other, the artemisia and cactus 
 gave evidence of death or profound slumber, as all vegeta- 
 tion was dried up by the great heat of the last month. 
 
RAISING -WHEAT. 205 
 
 My own observations and those of others who have care- 
 fully examined many parts of the country, cause me to 
 believe that actual settlement will show that fully eighty 
 per cent, of the land is arable or will be located as farms. 
 
 During the summer of 1875 the grasshoppers were very 
 destructive in Manitoba, and scarcely any wheat was raised. 
 The next spring nine-tenths of the seed had to be bought 
 in Minnesota, yet in the fall of 1878, 1,100,000 bushels of 
 wheat were harvested. In 1881 it had risen to millions 
 of bushels, and now when railroads are open to take 
 it to market, its production will go on at an ever increasing 
 ratio, the capacity of the country being only limited by the 
 means of transport. 
 
 I place the testimony of residents in a tabulated form, 
 to show the number of bushels raised by each per acre 
 during the four years 1877 to 1880. As I give name and 
 post-office address any person can verify the truth of the 
 statement. One column is set apart for the average weight 
 per bushel, so that parties may know that besides a large 
 average of bushels there is a high average of weight. 
 The number of bushels depends largely on soil, but the 
 weight solely on climate, for no wheat can be heavy in a 
 damp climate. Manitoba wheat is allowed to enter the 
 United States free of duty when a guarantee is given that 
 it is going to be manufactured for export. It has been found 
 that a mixture of hard Manitoba wheat and the softer Min- 
 nesota makes a far better flour than the Minnesota alone, and 
 the shrewd Yankee takes advantage of this and gets the 
 wheat admitted in bond. The following quotation from the 
 "Pioneer Press" of St. Paul, Minnesota, certainly a disin- 
 terested authority, will give point to the above statement. 
 It says in its issue of November 8th, 1880 : — 
 
 " It seems to be a settled fact that the further north wheat 
 is grown, up to a certain limit, the better it is. * * * 
 The future great wheat region of the world will, undoubt- 
 
206 
 
 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOETH-WEST. 
 
 edly be in the rich and far-famed valley of the Saskatchewan 
 where this grain grows to perfection, not only in quality but 
 in ever}^ other particular. The berry attains an amber 
 color, rounds out into a fullness it does not attam here, and 
 is rich in glutin, the life sustaining principle in flour. * * 
 Some two or three years ago samples were jDrocured from 
 several parts of the Province of Manitoba for trial. The best 
 of these was placed in the hands of some of our leading wheat 
 growers for cultivation. One variety, Scotch Fife, yielded 
 the first year, at the rate of thirty-seven bushels to the acre, 
 of a hard amber color, which the wheat inspector of the 
 Millers' Association at Minneapolis pronounced the finest 
 specimen he had seen since he had been connected with the 
 Association. Straw stood up stiff and strong, some of it 
 being over five feet high, the heads were long, while the 
 color of the growing grain was superb." 
 
 The above was scarcely in print when American buyers 
 were in the country, and the whole surplus Avas bought up 
 at a higher price than the Dakota wheat nearer home. 
 
 The following returns are given by some of the most re- 
 spectable and intelligent farmers in the North-West, and are 
 reliable. Where the average is below twenty bushels it 
 must be remembered that the cause is generally newly 
 broken land, or some misfortune to the crop : — 
 
 NAME. 
 
 ADDRESS. 
 
 YIELD PER ACRE. 
 
 Aver'ge 
 
 1S77. 
 
 1878. 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880' 
 
 Weight 
 Ijerbhl. 
 
 .Tohn Dilworth 
 
 High Bluff 
 
 25 
 30 
 25 
 25 
 25 
 25 
 33 
 35 
 30 
 30 
 28 
 25 
 25 
 30 
 
 20 
 28 
 30 
 20 
 29 
 23 
 20 
 35 
 32 
 32 
 20 
 25 
 25 
 28 
 
 23 
 25 
 30 
 24 
 26 
 34 
 16 
 35 
 35 
 31 
 20 
 22 
 25 
 22 
 
 25 
 40 
 25 
 25 
 30 
 30 
 20 
 40 
 37 
 30 
 30 
 30 
 35 
 35 
 
 61 
 
 George Cadman 
 
 William Jackson . . 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 62 
 
 William Eagles 
 
 S. C. Higginson 
 
 J Sutherland 
 
 
 65 
 
 Oakland 
 
 62J 
 63 
 
 Kildonan E 
 
 B. E. Mitchell 
 
 William Moss 
 
 Cook's Creek 
 
 High Bluff 
 
 66 
 60 
 
 
 
 64 
 
 John Ferguson 
 
 John Airth 
 
 
 61 
 
 stonewall 
 
 63 
 
 Kobert Fisher 
 
 Cook's Creek 
 
 St. Charles 
 
 64 
 
 J W AdBhead 
 
 63 
 
 Robert Black 
 
 Bird's Hill 
 
 62 
 
EAISING WHEAT. 
 
 207 
 
 NAME. 
 
 James Amisou . . 
 William Corbett 
 George Taylor . . 
 John Brydon . . . 
 
 E. J. Moore 
 
 J. Geddes 
 
 J. Macdouald . . . 
 
 0. Gillespie 
 
 A. P. Stevenson . 
 Ed-ward Scott . . 
 
 P. Furguson 
 
 Max. Wilton 
 
 A. Dawson 
 
 A. J. Hinker 
 
 F. Ogletree 
 
 T. H. Brown .... 
 
 G. A. Tucker . . . 
 A. V. Beckstead 
 
 A. J. Nugent 
 
 W. B. Hall 
 
 Charles Begg . . . 
 
 H. Grauby 
 
 A. Poison, jr . . . . 
 
 G. Tidsbury 
 
 J. B. Robinson . . 
 Neil Henderson . 
 Thomas Sigsons. 
 James Munroe . . 
 James Taylor ... 
 
 T. Dalzell 
 
 William Hill . . . , 
 
 J. Davidson 
 
 John Fraser 
 
 Alex. Adams . . . , 
 John Hourie .... 
 
 C. Stewart 
 
 W. A. Farmer . . . 
 
 E. Bumell 
 
 Robert Bell 
 
 John McKinnon. , 
 J. W. Carlton . . . . 
 E. P. Bradley 
 
 ADDRESS. 
 
 YIELD PER ACRE. 
 
 Hig;h Bluff 
 
 Springfield 
 
 Poplar Point 
 
 Portage la Prairie . . 
 
 Nelsonville 
 
 Kildonan 
 
 Gladstone 
 
 Plympton 
 
 Nelsonville 
 
 Portage la Prairie . . 
 
 Gladstone 
 
 High Bluff 
 
 Headingly 
 
 Green Ridge 
 
 Portage la Prairie . . 
 
 Poplar Point 
 
 Portage la Prairie . . 
 
 Emerson 
 
 West Lynne 
 
 Headingly 
 
 Stone Fort 
 
 High Bluff 
 
 Kildonan 
 
 High Bluff 
 
 Rockwood 
 
 Cook's Creek 
 
 Portage la Prairie . . 
 
 Kildonan 
 
 Headingly 
 
 High Bluff 
 
 Woodland 
 
 High Bluff 
 
 Kildonan 
 
 Clear Springs 
 
 St. Anne 
 
 Meadow Lea 
 
 Headingly 
 
 Nelsonville 
 
 Burnside 
 
 Portage la Prairie . . 
 
 Clear Springs 
 
 St. Pie 
 
 1877 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 26 
 
 31 
 
 27 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 33 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 35 
 
 27 
 
 25 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 15 
 
 26 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 24 
 
 38 
 
 20 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 1878. 
 
 34 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 33 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 27 
 
 29 
 
 34 
 
 30 
 
 17 
 
 38 
 
 20 
 
 27 
 
 35 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 16 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 35 
 
 34 
 
 2S 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 15 
 
 32 
 
 1879. 
 
 32 
 31 
 30 
 30 
 23 
 35 
 35 
 35 
 28 
 37 
 26 
 40 
 30 
 23 
 36 
 18 
 27 
 28 
 18 
 15 
 32 
 21 
 25 
 35 
 20 
 30 
 35 
 34 
 8- 
 33 
 15 
 30 
 22 
 30 
 18 
 15 
 20 
 30 
 30 
 30 
 10 
 40 
 
 1880. 
 
 35 
 
 50 
 
 36 
 
 30 
 
 28 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 26 
 
 30 
 
 27 
 
 23 
 
 35 
 
 25 
 
 40 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 30 
 
 34 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 Aver'ge 
 Weight 
 per bhl. 
 
 62 
 63 
 66 
 62 
 61 
 60 
 62 
 64 
 66 
 65 
 65 
 62 
 60 
 65 
 60 
 60 
 63 
 65 
 58 
 60 
 60 
 62 
 65 
 62 
 61 
 65 
 62 
 64 
 60 
 64 
 62 
 , 60 
 61 
 62 
 61 
 63 
 65 
 65 
 62 
 63 
 61 
 65 
 
 Average yield, according to the above, was over twenty- 
 six bushels per acre. Taking twenty-six bushels as the 
 average yield of the Canadian North-West, we will compare 
 this with American States : — 
 
 Canadian North-West 26 Bushels per Acre. 
 
 Minnesota 17 „ 
 
 Massaehusetts 16 ., 
 
 Pennsylvania 15 „ 
 
 Wisconsin 13 „ 
 
208 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Iowa 10 Bushels per Acre 
 
 Ohio 10 ,T 
 
 Illinois 8 „ 
 
 These facts show the superiority of the Canadian North- 
 West as a wheat-growing country. The weight of the 
 wheat grown is also remarkable. Taking the heaviest 
 samples of each country we find : — 
 
 Canadian North-West 66 lbs. per Bushel. 
 
 Minnesota 65 „ 
 
 Ohio 60 „ 
 
 Pennsylvania 60 „ 
 
 Illinois 58 „ 
 
 The Qu' Appelle region, partly surveyed last year, will be 
 opened up this year by means of the Canadian Pacific Rail- 
 way, and here in one block are at least 10,000,000 acres of 
 wheat lands which hitherto have been almost unknown to the 
 general public. Late surveys show that on the line of the 
 Canadian Pacific Railway, 100 miles west of Brandon, lies 
 the finest tract yet opened up, and having the warmest 
 summer climate in the North-West. 
 
 At Prince Albert, 600 miles from "Winnipeg, there is a 
 large settlement and abundance of wheat is grown. Two 
 steam grist mills and one portable mill at Duck Lake grind 
 the flour required for the surrounding country. Owing 
 to the influx of settlers and the necessity of supplying the 
 Indians, flour has been bringing a high price, and no diffi- 
 culty is found in disposing of the surplus. 
 
 Almost 1000 miles from Winnipeg is the Edmonton settle- 
 ment, and here farming is carried on extensively. Two 
 steam grist and saw mills are in operation, and at this distant 
 point they have regular Agricultural shows, where the 
 various products of the country are exhibited. The corres- 
 pondent of the Toronto " Mail," writing of the settlement 
 last October, thus speaks of its appearance and products : — 
 
 " Edmonton is located on the north side of the Saskatche- 
 wan River, 200 miles north of Calgarry, Bow River District, 
 
RAISING WHEAT. 209 
 
 and 300 miles west of Battleford, more or less — decidedly 
 more over the bad state of the roads when I travelled them. 
 The view of the river approaching from the south is very fine. 
 A plateau — the original level of the country — ^extends from 
 each side of the river, and it is only when near the edge of the 
 bank that the traveller recognizes the deep channel which 
 he has to cross to reach the town, apparently only a few 
 chains distant. Approaching a little nearer, however, he 
 perceives a large valley and a magnificent river sweeping 
 rapidly eastward and northerly around a curve which forms 
 a plateau large enough for a small farm, and then losing 
 itself in a gorge some distance below, near where steam 
 risiag from the smoke-stack of Edmonton Mills, gives evi- 
 dence of progress and industry. The banks of the river at 
 the ferry rise to nearly 200 feet, but the ascent is made by 
 the benches and plateaux to the upper level, and so is toler- 
 ably easy." After describing the town site, the Hudson's 
 Bay Fort and remarking on gold and coal mining, he proceeds 
 with his description and says : — 
 
 "Two steam mills for sawing and grinding have been 
 erected at Edmonton * * * * j^ ^jjj thus be seen 
 that the rich agricultural country in this neighbourhood will 
 have ample accommodation for having their wheat ground, as 
 well as opportunity of obtaining supplies of lumber for build- 
 ing purposes. But a short time since lumber had to be 
 manufactured by hand labor, consequently was comparatively 
 scarce. Now settlers can furnish their houses as economi- 
 cally as those 500 miles farther east. Whilst referring to 
 the surrounding country, I may mention that the most ex- 
 tensive farmer in the district is Mr. Oust, whose farm is 
 contiguous to the St. Albert's Mission. He is a native of 
 the County Derry, Ireland, and has been on his present farm 
 for five years. He had this year 180 acres of land under 
 wheat, yielding thirty bushels to the acre ; thirty-six acres 
 barley, yielding thirty-six bushels to the acre on new 
 14 
 
210 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOKTH-WEST. 
 
 & 
 
 ground ; and twelve acres of oats yielding, twenty-five 
 bushels to the acre. The grain crop this past season has 
 been lighter than former years, owing to cold, wet weather, 
 altogether exceptional in this district until the past two 
 years. His oats this year are only twenty -five bushels to 
 the acre, which he considered only half a crop. Mr. Oust 
 had twelve ploughs engaged last fall (1880) to do up the 
 ploughing for spring crop whilst the good weather lasted. 
 He has forty -four head of cattle, sixty hogs — twelve of them 
 fit to be slaughtered next week." 
 
 Four hundred miles to the north crops are just as 
 early as in the vicinity of Winnipeg, nine degrees or 650 
 liiiles farther south. While on Peace River, in 1875, I was 
 enabled to collect information regarding the raising of grain 
 along 770 miles of its course. Excellent potatoes were ob- 
 tained on July 21st, in lat. 56°, and oats and barley ripened 
 on the 12th August. Strange to say 400 miles to the north- 
 east splendid barley was in the stock on the 6th of 
 August, and wheat was ripe on the 12th. At Fort Ver- 
 milion, in lat. 58° 24', I had a long conversation with old Mr. 
 Shaw, who has had charge of the establishment for sixteen 
 years. He said that frost never injured anything on that 
 part of the river, and every kind of garden vegetables could 
 be grown. Still farther to the north and east, at Little Red 
 River, I found cucumbers, Windsor and pole beans ripe, and 
 was told that their summers were always warm and frost 
 did no harm. 
 
 Chief Trader Macdougall says that Fort Liard, in lat. 61° 
 N., has the warmest summer temperature of any place in the 
 district, and that all kinds of grain come to maturity, and 
 vegetables of every description could be raised with success. 
 At Fort Chipweyan I obtained the wheat and barley which 
 took the prize at the Centennial, and of the soil which pro- 
 duced it I wrote : " Less than two miles from the Fort is the 
 French Mission, where I obtained the barley and wheat. 
 
212 MANITOBA AND THE GKEAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 The soil here is a mixture of humus and sand, and in any 
 other locality would be considered valueless, but everything 
 planted or sown around the Mission seems to flourish." 
 
 There are no records to show that spring frosts ever 
 did harm to the growing grain. It is a well-ascertained 
 fact that as soon as spring does come, fine, warm weather is 
 continuous, and the only danger from frost is after heavy 
 rains in August. Fall wheat will never be a success on the 
 prairie, but there is no reason why it should not in the 
 moister country to the north. Usually September is too 
 dry for a fall growth on the open prairie, and besides, the 
 biting winds of winter, and the clear sunshine and light 
 snow fall, would destroy the crop. 
 
 For the last three years I have been advising settlers, both 
 by public lectures and personal conversation, to sow their 
 wheat and many garden seeds in the fall, say after the mid- 
 dle of October, instead of in the spring as they now do. 
 This is the true fall sowing, and it has only to be tried once 
 to prove its success. I was led to think of this while at 
 Battleford, in 1879, by seeing a field of self-sown barley 
 almost ripe before the other had headed out. In the same 
 field there had been a potato patch the preceding year, and 
 now it was overrun with seedling potatoes. Every potato 
 stalk had produced an abundance of fruit and now the seeds 
 were scattered and growing. During the fall, owing to the 
 dryness of the atmosphere, there is scarcely any growth, and 
 my advice is to sow so late that the grain cannot germi- 
 nate. Owing to the dryness of the seed and soil, it can- 
 not absorb water enough to cause it to rot. When the first 
 warm days of spring come the snow melts and passes into the 
 soil, the starch of the seed by this time has changed to 
 grape sugar, and germination taking place at the same time, 
 the young plants get a start that no drouth can injure. We 
 hope to see the day when nearly all the wheat shall be 
 sown at this time, and then August frosts can destroy no 
 
RAISING WHEAT. 213 
 
 more. About the 20tli August there is a sudden lowering 
 of the temperature, and all grain hard, at this time, is safe. 
 Grain ripens slowly after this and is often injured by frost. 
 
 Last season there were two notable instances of fall sowing 
 chronicled in the newspapers. Mr. Bannatine, of the city 
 of Winnipeg, sowed wheat and carrots early in the preced- 
 ing November, just a few days after I had advised it from 
 the public platform in that city. In July last the wheat was 
 two weeks ahead of spring-sowed grain, and doubtless it 
 ripened two weeks earlier. The other instance is related 
 by a correspondent of the Toronto " Globe," who, while at 
 Edmonton last October, got the facts from Mr. Oust. His 
 words are — " Like many other pushing and intelligent agri- 
 culturist in the North-West, Mr. Gust has come to the 
 conclusion, that in future the safest and best plan of oper- 
 ations will be to do as much fall sowing as possible, that is, 
 putting in spring crops in the fall, so that they will germi- 
 nate during the first warm days of spring, and mature for 
 harvest long before the early frosts that are liable to visit 
 this part of the country can possibly reach them. I am in- 
 formed that Mr. Reid, down at Fort Saskatchewan, has tried 
 the experiment of sowing spring wheat in the fall, and that 
 the results have been most satisfactory." 
 
 This is the true policy of settlers on the dry southern prai- 
 rie where crops may suffer from a June drought, or those 
 along the Saskatchewan where early frosts and cool winds 
 are engendered by the proximity of forests or muskegs. As 
 I have said fall wheat as sown in Ontario will never do on 
 the prairie, but late fall sowing for spring growth will an- 
 swer every purpose, and it requires no prophet to foresee it. 
 
 Much might be written about the future and calculations 
 made regarding the wheat production of years to come, but 
 such speculations are needless. In a very few years the 
 crop will be limited by the means of export, and just as the 
 carrying capacity of the roads increases, so will the crop. 
 
214 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH--WEST. 
 
 No sane man can doubt this, for a glance at the map will tell 
 him that there is actually no limit, but the want of a market, 
 to the wheat crop of the North-West. When the rulers oi 
 England awake, as they soon must, to the fact that within 
 the Dominion of Canada exist to-day, as virgin soil, three- 
 fourths of the wheat lands of North America, and that it is 
 to her they must look for their future supplies of food, 
 whether it be beef or flour, we will receive that amount oi 
 attention and consideration which, as England's greatest 
 colony, we deserve. What we want is men and money, and 
 both these a judiciously framed emigrant policy on the part 
 of Great Britain would give us. Year after year her people 
 are passing by thousands into the United States, there to 
 become alienated from the parent state, whilst one of her 
 own colonies offers superior advantages, and reconciles every 
 dissatisfied son to the old mother-land across the water. 
 The hand writing is on the wall and few care to read it, 
 but it stands there in flaming characters, — Give us land 
 for it is the people's — it is ours. A few short years and the 
 words change, and now they are — We take the land which 
 is ours by our heritage of labor, — and we will get it. A 
 few millions given now to assist emigration to the new 
 North-West would relieve the pressure and convert re- 
 bellious sons into loving grateful children. There is land 
 enough for all, and there is no reason why we should not 
 receive men for our offer of free land. 
 
 Farmers' Testimony respecting the Soil. 
 
 NAME. POST OFFICE. DEPTH OF SOIL. 
 
 Ben Hartley St. Charles Black loam from 16 to 20 inches. 
 
 John Dilworth High Bluff „ „ 18 to 24 inches. 
 
 George Cadman „ „ „ about 1 5 inches. 
 
 W. Jackson „ „ „ „ 18 inches. 
 
 A. Gillespie Greenwood My farm is chiefly bush land. 
 
 William Eades Stonewall Black loam 4 feet. 
 
 J. C. Higginson Oakland „ 2 feet. 
 
 J. Sutherland Kildonan Bast „ from 3 to 10 feet. 
 
 Allan Bell Portr.go li Prairie. , „ „ 18 inches to 2 feet. 
 
RAISING "WHEAT. 
 
 215 
 
 NAME. 
 
 POST OFFIOB 
 
 DEPTH OF SOIL. 
 
 James Sutton Nelsonville Black loam from 18 Inches to 2 feet, 
 
 A D. Cadenhead Scratching Eiver . . I have dug 12ft.without reaching bottom. 
 
 Adam Nelson Nelsonville Black loam 18 inches. 
 
 A. J. Hinker Green Sidge 
 
 Rev. T Cook Westbourne . . 
 
 F. Ogletree . . Portage la Prairie.. 
 
 T. Hy. Brown Poplar Point 
 
 G. A. Tucker Portage ia Prairie 
 
 A. V. Becksted Emerson 
 
 A. C. Harvey Poplar Point .... 
 
 G. C. Hall Portage la Prairie , 
 
 P. McKay Portage la Prairie 
 
 D. G. Lowe St. Agathe 
 
 A. J. Nugent West Lynne ... 
 
 W. B. Hall Headingly 
 
 G. Turner Lower Fort 
 
 J. G. Maley Morris 
 
 A. Hepburn Emerson 
 
 A. Poison Blildonan 
 
 G. Tidsbury High Bluff 
 
 James FuUerton Cook's Creek 
 
 F. B. Robinson Rock Wood 
 
 A. Nelson Stonewall 
 
 W. Hill Woodlands 
 
 N. McLeod Victoria 
 
 H. Hodgson Springfield 
 
 J. S. P. Carsley Ridgeville 
 
 W. Alymer St. Leon 
 
 Joseph Dodds Sunnyside 
 
 John Hourie St. Anne 
 
 P. Ferguson Gladstone 
 
 C. Empson Whynne 
 
 D. Gillespie Plympton 
 
 W. Grierson Meadow Lea .... 
 
 G. V. Fitzgerald Bigville 
 
 from 2 to 4 feet 
 
 about 1 foot. 
 
 from 18 inches to 2 feet 
 
 „ 18 inches to 2 feet. 
 
 „ 12 to 18 inches. 
 
 „ 3 to 4 feet. 
 
 „ 18 to 24 inches. 
 
 , 2 to 3 feet. 
 
 „ 3 to 4 feet 
 
 „ 3 to 4 feet. 
 
 „ 4 to 5 feet 
 
 „ 6 to 15 inches. 
 
 ., 6 to 36 inches. 
 
 „ 24 to 30 inches, 
 about 3 feet, 
 from 12 to 24 inches. 
 
 „ 10 to 36 inches, 
 about 20 inches, 
 from 8 to 24 inches. 
 
 „ 12 to 36 inches. 
 
 „ 12 to 18 inches, 
 about 18 inches. 
 
 „ 4 feet, 
 from 12 to 36 inches, 
 about 18 inches, 
 from 18 to 24 inches. 
 
 „ 24 to 36 inches. 
 
 „ 3 to 4 feet. 
 about 18 inches. 
 
 „ 4 feet, 
 from 12 to 18 inches, 
 about 18 inches. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Gerenh, Root Crops, Seed Time and Harvest, Roads, doc. 
 
 Barley — Us great Weight in the North — Bay of Quiute Bark'y — Additional 100,000,- 
 000 Acres Suited to Barley North of the Wheat Bel t — Uses of Barley in the West — 
 Testimony Regarding its Culture in Manitoba — Average Yield for Four Years — Com- 
 pared with the United States — Enormous Yield of Oats — Testimony of Residents is 
 Manitoba — Average sixty Bushels per Acre — Nearly Three Times Greater than Ohio 
 — 100 Bushels per Acre often Raised — Potatoes a sure Crop to the Arctic Circle — 
 Kotteu ones Unknown — Chipweyans as Potato Cultivators — Remarkable size of 
 Potatoes at Hay Lakes — Late Growth of Potatoes — Feeding Stock an Easy Matter — 
 Pumpkins, Melons, and Cucumbers in the North — Melons Grow and Ripen North of 
 St. Petersburg, or 1,200 Miles Northwest of Winnipeg and 900 Miles North of the 
 Boundarj' — Extent and Capacity of the Country Beyond the Range of Average Com- 
 prehension — Testimony of Residents Regarding the Productive Powers of the Soil — 
 Timothy an Excellent Crop — Good Fall Pasture — Wild Hops — Clover — Flax — Hemp 
 — Why all Crops Succeed so Well — Southern Russia a Parallel Case — Commencement 
 of Spring — Setting iu of Winter — Seed-time in the North- West — Varies in Certain 
 liccalities — Harvest Time — Earliest in the Qu'Appelle Valley — Always Free from 
 Frost — Qu'Appelle Valley Compared with Saskatchewan — Time for Taking up Roots 
 — ^Testimony Regarding Seed Time and Harvest — Roads of the West merely Cart 
 Trails — No real Roads other than Railways in the Country — Description of Leading 
 Trails — How Trails are Formed — Where they Lead to — No Attempts made to 
 Improve them — Travellers Tell of their Own Incapacity — Experienced men Never get 
 "Stuck" — How to Cross a "slew" with Loaded Carts — Trails or Roads of Ten 
 Years Since — -How they were Formed — Indian Trails — Roads of the Future. 
 
 Barley as a crop cannot be over-estimated when speaking 
 or writing regarding the North-West. Doubts may be cast 
 on the successful cultivation of wheat in many parts, but 
 regarding barley there can be no question, as it ripens 
 fifteen days earlier and resists fall frosts better. It is a 
 northern grtiin and reaches its highest developement in the 
 Mr North-West. Barley grown on Peace River weighs 58 
 lbs. to the bushel, and is so plump that it delights the eye 
 of an Englishman when he sees it. Samples brought by 
 myself from numerous points on the above river, were 
 weighed in Winnipeg by the Inspector of Inland Revenue, 
 and pronounced by him the finest in every sense he had 
 ever examined. 
 
OEOPS, HARVESTS, AKD ROADS 
 
 217 
 
 It is well known to residents in Ontario that Bay of 
 Quinte barley fetches a higher price in the United States 
 than that raised south of the lakes. This ia not so much 
 owing to soil as to climate. The great heat of the south 
 causes it to ripen before maturity, and consequently the 
 grain is shrivelled. In the north although the days are 
 hot the nights are cool and ripening is a slower process. 
 If 150,000,000 acres be given as the approximate number 
 of acres suited to wheat culture, another 100,000,000 acres 
 could be added if the raising of barley be taken into 
 account. On the shores of Hudson's Bay it has been raised 
 for many years. A round every post south of the Arctic 
 Circle, the Hudson's Bay Go's employes cultivate it. On 
 the Youcon it has been grown for many years within the 
 Arctic Cirple. From every point the same report comes 
 that the grain is in all cases plump and well filled up. 
 As food for hogs ' and horses it cannot be beaten, and 
 practical farmers seem to think it superior to oats for the 
 one, and peas for the other. Within the settlements it 
 is extensively sown, and outside of them it is the principal 
 crop, as it can be used for food by both man and beast. 
 That barley can be grown very successfully in Manitoba, 
 will be shown by the following table. The quality of the 
 grain is excellent, its color fine, and brewers pronounce it 
 second to none for malting purposes. 
 
 Average Yield for four Years. 
 
 
 YIELD PKH AOKE. 
 
 
 1877. 
 
 1878. 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 42 
 
 40 
 
 36 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 35 
 
 60 
 
 66 
 
 70 
 
 — 
 
 40 
 
 46 
 
 62 
 
 40 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 42 
 
 39 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 AT'aee 
 weignt 
 
 per 
 bushel. 
 
 John Dilworth. . 
 George Codman . 
 
 W. Jackson 
 
 A. Gillispie 
 
 John Sutherland 
 H. Bellenger. . . . 
 William Moss. . , 
 M. Owens 
 
 HighBlufiF. 
 
 tt tt 
 
 tt tt 
 
 Greenwood 
 
 Kildonan 
 
 Cumberland Hse.lat.54° 
 High Bluff 
 
 50 
 48 
 48 
 50 
 62 
 56 
 50 
 50 
 
218 
 
 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 
 YIELD PER ACRE. 
 
 
 1877. 
 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 65 
 
 — 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 65 
 
 50 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 40 
 
 35 
 
 45 
 
 35 
 
 £i3 
 
 47 
 
 43 
 
 50 
 
 3S 
 
 38 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 4S 
 
 40 
 
 4S 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 55 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 33 
 
 36 
 
 30 
 
 52 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 
 28 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 75 
 
 40 
 
 48 
 
 60 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 34 
 
 31 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 36 
 
 42 
 
 50 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 60 
 
 50 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 42 
 
 39 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 50 
 
 Av'age 
 weight 
 
 per 
 bushel. 
 
 John Ferguson... 
 
 James Airth 
 
 J. W. Adshead. . 
 
 J. Armson 
 
 John Brydons. . . 
 
 A. J. Moore. 
 
 A. Macdonald . . . 
 A. P. Stevenson. 
 Max. Wilton. . . . 
 A. J. Hinker 
 
 F. Ogletree 
 
 A. V. Beckstead 
 Charles Begg . . . . 
 
 G. Granby 
 
 Alex. Poison, Jr. 
 George Tidshury. 
 T. B. Robinson.. 
 Thomas Sigsons.. 
 James Mnnroe... 
 
 John Fraser 
 
 Alex. Adams. . .. 
 John Hourie. . . . 
 W. A. Farmer. . , 
 James Whimster, 
 James Stewart. . , 
 J. W. Carleton.. 
 Matthew Owens. 
 Nelson Brown. . . 
 John MoKinnon. 
 
 High Bluff 
 
 Stonewall 
 
 St. Charles 
 
 High Bluff 
 
 Portage La Pr.-n'i ' 
 
 Nelsonville , 
 
 Gladstone 
 
 Nelsonville 
 
 Hi-h Bluff. 
 
 Green Ridge 
 
 Portage La Prairie 
 
 Emerson 
 
 Stone Fort 
 
 High Bluff. 
 
 Kildonan 
 
 High Bluff. 
 
 Rockwood 
 
 Portage La Prairie, 
 
 Kildonan 
 
 it 
 
 Clear Springs 
 
 St. Anne , 
 
 Headingly 
 
 High Bluff. 
 
 Clear Springs 
 
 High Bluff 
 
 Portage La Prairie 
 
 50 
 56 
 50 
 48 
 50 
 50 
 50 
 50 
 52 
 57 
 50 
 50 
 50 
 52 
 62 
 50 
 50 
 50 
 50 
 50 
 50 
 52 
 51 
 52 
 50 
 50 
 50 
 48 
 50 
 
 Average yields according to the above, and many other 
 instances for 1877 were 43, 1878, 38, 1879 39 and 1880, 
 41 bushels per acre. 
 
 The following statement tells its own tale : — 
 
 Canadian North-West, say 40 bushels per acre. 
 
 Minnesota 25 " " •' 
 
 Iowa 22 " " '• 
 
 Wisconsin 20 " " " 
 
 Ohio 19 " " " 
 
 Indiana 19 " " " 
 
 Illinois 17 " " " 
 
 Throughout the North-West Territories barley is a sure 
 crop, and the farther you proceed to the northwest, the 
 plumper the grain and the greater the yield. For malting 
 purposes no finer barley can be found in the world. 
 
 Oats produce enormously, and are very plump. Their 
 
CROPS, HARVESTS. AND ROADS. 
 
 219 
 
 straw and that of wheat and barley ia wonderfully bright, 
 tall, and stout. A look over a field of growing grain is all 
 that is necessary to tell the practical man that here is a 
 land with untold wealth in its soil, and as the life giving 
 breeze fans his cheek, he feels that here life means an un- 
 ending pleasure. The blood courses through his veins as it 
 did when he was a boy, and he is young again in spirit if 
 not in years. The sensation is irresistible, and all men feel 
 never to be forgotten pleasures as they gaze on the waving 
 fields of grain and prairie grass. It is not too much to say 
 that everything is instinct with life. The following table 
 will show that oats at any rate are very prolific : — 
 Average Yield for four Years. 
 
 AVEEAQE PER ACEE. 
 
 1877. 1S78. 1879. 1880 
 
 Aver'ge 
 weight 
 perbsh. 
 
 John Dilworth.. . 
 W. JackBon. . . . 
 
 W.Eagles 
 
 S. C. Higginson. . 
 John Sutherland 
 
 E. E. Mitchell. . 
 Wm. Mobs. . .. 
 
 M. Owens 
 
 John FergviBon. . 
 
 B.Fisher 
 
 J. W. Adshead. . 
 
 Robt. Black 
 
 JameB AimiBon. . 
 Wm. Corbett. . . 
 
 J. G. Rent 
 
 John Brydon . . . 
 A. J. Moore ... . 
 
 J. G-eddes 
 
 A. McDonald.. . 
 D. Gillespie .... 
 A. P. Stevenson. . 
 James Stewart . . . 
 
 Ed. Scott 
 
 P. Furgiison 
 
 F. Ogletree 
 
 T. H. Brown. . 
 
 G. A. Tucker.... 
 A. V. Becksted , 
 A. J. Nugent. . . . 
 
 H.B Hall 
 
 G. Granby 
 
 Alex. Poison, Jr. , 
 Thomas Sigsons. 
 James Munroe 
 
 High Bluff. 
 
 Stonewall. . . . 
 
 Oakland 
 
 Kildonan 
 
 Cook's Creek. 
 High Bluff.. 
 
 Stonewall 
 
 St. Charles .... 
 
 Birds Hill 
 
 High Bluff 
 
 Springfield 
 
 Cook's Creek 
 
 Portage la Prairie . . 
 
 Nelsonville 
 
 Kildonan 
 
 Gladstone 
 
 Plympton 
 
 Nelsonville 
 
 Cook's Creek 
 
 Portage la Prairie . . 
 
 Gladstone 
 
 Portage la Prairie . . 
 
 Poplar Point 
 
 Portage la Prairie . . 
 
 Emerson 
 
 West Lynne 
 
 Headingly 
 
 High Bluff 
 
 Kildonan 
 
 Portage la Prairie . . 
 Kildonan 
 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 40 
 
 55 
 
 54 
 
 30 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 62J 
 100 
 
 52 
 
 80 
 
 75 
 
 30 
 
 75 
 
 60 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 15 
 100 
 
 37 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 50 
 
 80 
 
 65 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 90 
 
 75 
 75 
 35 
 50 
 57 
 35 
 60 
 60 
 70 
 45 
 
 45 
 85 
 60 
 30 
 80 
 56 
 35 
 40 
 60 
 
 100 
 37 
 55 
 70 
 60 
 40 
 40 
 
 100 
 50 
 80 
 70 
 50 
 62 
 75 
 
 60 
 80 
 35 
 60 
 58 
 50 
 60 
 60 
 65 
 45 
 85 
 60 
 75 
 65 
 55 
 68 
 60 
 40 
 40 
 80 
 80 
 40 
 60 
 90 
 60 
 40 
 50 
 90 
 60 
 80 
 73 
 50 
 52 
 
 70 
 60 
 40 
 60 
 50 
 60 
 70 
 57 
 65 
 50 
 80 
 65 
 75 
 65 
 40 
 70 
 50 
 40 
 40 
 60 
 75 
 50 
 65 
 75 
 50 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 100 
 65 
 50 
 65 
 60 
 
 40 
 35 
 35 
 39 
 38 
 38 
 36 
 42 
 36 
 38 
 33 
 42 
 42 
 38 
 38 
 38 
 36 
 34 
 36 
 40 
 40 
 40 
 35 
 36 
 38 
 34 
 37 
 40 
 34 
 40 
 38 
 38 
 38 
 40 
 
220 
 
 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT N0RTH-WES1 
 
 
 ADDRESS. 
 
 ATERAQE 
 
 PEE ACHE. 
 
 Aver'ge 
 weight 
 per bsh. 
 
 
 1877. 
 
 1878, 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 John. Taylor 
 
 Headingly 
 
 25J 
 
 95 
 
 60 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 70 
 
 52 
 
 65 
 
 75 
 
 54 
 
 50 
 
 35 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 60 
 
 50 
 
 85 
 
 30 
 80 
 80 
 
 '!^ 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 51 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 50 
 
 45 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 80 
 
 80 
 
 50 
 
 80 
 
 25 
 75 
 75 
 65 
 40 
 60 
 50 
 75 
 75 
 50 
 50 
 45 
 60 
 60 
 90 
 50 
 85 
 
 30 
 80 
 80 
 70 
 40 
 20 
 60 
 75 
 75 
 55 
 40 
 35 
 57 
 50 
 70 
 60 
 80 
 
 35 
 
 Thomas Dalzell 
 
 High Bluff 
 
 40J 
 
 J. Davidson . . 
 
 « 
 
 36 
 
 Alex. Adams 
 
 Clear Springs 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 W. A. Farmer 
 
 Headingly 
 
 Hie-h Bluff 
 
 40 
 
 J. Stewart . , 
 
 41 
 
 Kobt. Bell 
 
 Bumside 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 M. Ferris . . . 
 
 Burnside 
 
 40 
 
 J. W. Carlton 
 
 
 36 
 
 TMT, OwPTiR 
 
 High Bluff 
 
 42 
 
 
 u 
 
 34 
 
 K. P. Bradley 
 
 St Pie 
 
 40 
 
 John McKirmon 
 
 John Winster . . 
 
 Portage la Prairie 
 
 High Bluff 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 
 The average yield for the four years ranges from 58 to 
 62 bushels per acre. The comparison between the Cana- 
 dian North-West and some of the American States as res- 
 pects the yield of oats is as follows : — 
 
 Canadian North-West, say average 60 bushels per acre. 
 
 Minnesota 37 „ 
 
 Iowa 28 „ 
 
 Ohio 23 „ 
 
 The oats grown are very superior in qual.ty, being plump 
 and heavy, averaging in weight about 381bs. to the bushel. 
 The yield per acre is simply enormous, an average of over 
 eight}^ bushels to the acre being no uncommon thing, and in 
 a few exceptional cases even one hundred bushels have been 
 realized. For newly broken ground, I am of opinion that 
 oats will be found the most remunerative crop, and there is 
 alwaj^s a ready home market for all that can be raised. 
 
 Evidence is at hand to show the enormous crops of pota- 
 toes that are raised. Some specimens have been obtained 
 weighing over five pounds each, and it is no unfrequent 
 occurrence to have 600 bushels to the acre. When it is con- 
 sidered that potatoes range in price from 80 cents to $1.50 
 per bushel, it is no exaggeration for a Manitoba farmer to 
 say that he could make more with a potato patch in the 
 
CROPS, HARVESTS, AND ROADS. 221 
 
 North-West than he could with a large farm in Ontario. 
 The average yield of over 100 instances for 1877-80 inclu- 
 sive was 318 bushels to the acre. 
 
 Potatoes in every part of the country are a sure crop, 
 growing along the shores of Hudson's Bay, and producing a 
 fair average at Fort Good Hope, on the Mackenzie River, 
 north of the Arctic Circle. In my travels up and down the 
 country I never saw a rotten one, and never came on a tract 
 where they would not succeed. In the forest country north 
 of the Saskatchewan, the Chipweyans locate themselves on 
 the banks of the various rivers and lakes, erect houses, put 
 in a small patch of potatoes, carrots, and turnips, and during 
 the latter part of the summer and fall, revel in luxuries, 
 having the finest whitefish for the taking and lovely pota- 
 toes for the gathering. Everywhere it is the same, and 
 whether the soil is clay, loam, or sand, crops beyond descrip- 
 tion are taken off without costing the cultivator one tithe 
 of the labor required in the east. 
 
 In 1879, while at Hay Lakes, 800 miles west of Winni- 
 peg, I went into a potato field and measured two specimens 
 of two varieties. The white variety measured on an 
 average 17J inches and the purple variety 15| inches, in 
 circumference. Two measurements were taken in each case, 
 and the length was only an inch greater than the breadth. 
 This was on the 26th September and many of the leaves 
 were still green. At Isle La Crosse Lake, in lat. 57° north, 
 I found potatoes still growing on September 22nd, 1875, 
 and I had the pleasure of eating new potatoes in the shadow 
 of the Rocky Mountains, in lat. 56° 12' north, on the 21st 
 of June of the same year. 
 
 Feeding stock with roots will be an easy matter, as the 
 crops of turnips and carrots are simply amazing. These 
 grow everywhere in the north, and always give large re- 
 turns. Governor Morris told me that he saw fine pumpkins 
 and melons growing at the north end of Lake Winnipeg. 
 
& 
 
 222 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST, 
 
 I found quantities of ripe cucumbers at Little Red River, 
 grown from English seed, in lat. 58° 30', on the 14th August, 
 187-5. At Fort Simpson, Mr. Hardisty informed me that 
 they grew melons every year, and had no difficulty with 
 them when started under glass. This Fort is situated at 
 the confluence of the Liard and Mackenzie Rivers, north 
 of Great Slave Lake, and is situated in lat. 62°, or two 
 degrees further north than St. Petersburg. The great 
 extent of country under discussion may be realized when I 
 state that the above locality (Fort Simpson) is over 1200 
 miles, as the crow flies, northwesterly from Winnipeg, and 
 is due north of the American boundary over 900 miles. It 
 is extremely difficult for one unacquainted with the subject 
 to grasp the extent and capacity of the country. It is 
 practically boundless as far as this generation is concerned, 
 and long after our bones are mouldered into dust there will 
 still be millions of acres untrodden by the foot of the hus- 
 bandman. Pages could l^e written at this point filled with 
 what would seem highly-colored and extravagant adjectives, 
 and yet these would not reach the reality. The potential 
 powers of the soil can be best illustrated by letting the 
 residents speak for themselves : — 
 
 W. H. J. Swain, of Morris, 
 
 Has produced 800 to 1000 bushels of turnips to the acre, and sixty bushels 
 of beans have also been raised 1 >y him per acre. 
 
 S. C. Higginson, of Oakland, 
 
 Has produced cabbages weighing 17 J, lbs. each. 
 
 Allan Bell, of Portage la Prairie, 
 
 Has had cabbages forty-five inches in circumference, and turnips weighing 
 25 lbs. each. 
 
 Thomas B. Patterson, 
 
 Has realized forty tons of turnips to the acre, some of them weighing as 
 much as 20 lbs. each. 
 
 Robert E. Mitchell, of Cook's Creek, 
 
 Raised a squash of six weeks growth, measuring five feet six inches around 
 the centre. 
 
CROPS, HARVESTS, AND ROADS. 223 
 
 William Moss, of High Blufc, 
 
 Has produced carrots -weighing ] 1 lbs. eacli, and turnips measuring tliirty- 
 six inches in circumference. 
 
 James Airth, of Stonewall, 
 
 states that the common weight of tuinii)S is 1 2 lbs. each, and some of them 
 have gone as high as 32J lbs. 
 
 Isaac Casson, of Green Ridge, 
 
 Has raised 270 bushels of onions to the aero. 
 
 John Geddis, of Kildonan, 
 
 states he has raised 300 bushels of carrots and 800 bushels of turnips per acre. 
 
 John Kelly, of Morris, 
 
 Has produced 800 to 1000 bushels of turnips to the acre. 
 
 Joshua Appleyard, of Stonewall, 
 
 Also states his crop of turnips to have been 1000 bushels per acre, the com- 
 mon weight being 12 lbs. each. 
 
 Edward Scott, of Portage la Prairie, 
 
 Raised 400 bushels of turnips from half an acre of land. 
 
 W. H. J. Swain, of Morris, 
 
 Had citrons weighing 18 lbs. each. 
 
 Francis Ogletree, of Portage la Prairie, 
 
 Produced onions measuring 4| inches through the centre. 
 
 A. V. Beckstead, of Emerson, 
 
 Gives his experience as follows: — Mangle Wurzels weighing 27 lbs. each. 
 Beets 23 lbs., Cabbages 49 lbs., Onions each IJ lbs. in weight. 
 
 W. B. Hall, of Headingly, 
 
 Has raised carrots three inches in diameter, beets weighing 20 lbs. each, and 
 gives the weight of his turnips generally at 1 2 lbs. each. 
 
 Philip McKay, of Portage la Prairie, 
 
 Took 200 bushels of turnips from one quarter of an acre of land, some of 
 them weighing 25 lbs. each. He has produced carrots four inches in diameter 
 and fourteen inches long, has had cabbages measuring twenty-six inches in 
 diameter, solid head, and four feet with the leaves on. His onions have meas- 
 ured 16 inches in circumference, and cauliflower heads nineteen inches in 
 diameter. 
 
 James Laurie & Bro., of Morris, 
 
 Have produced turnips thirty inches in circumference, onions fourteen inches 
 and melons thirty inches. He had one squash which measured about the 
 same size as an ordinary flour barrel. 
 
 James Owens, of Point du Ch^ne, 
 
 Had turnips 30 lbs. each, onions fourteen inches around, and cuctunbers 
 eighteen inches long. 
 
224 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Neil Henderson, of Cook's Creek, 
 
 Has raised 1000 bushels of turnips to the acre, carrots five inches in diameter 
 and eighteen inches long, while his onions have frequently measured five 
 inches through . 
 
 James Bedford, of Emerson, 
 
 Has raised 1000 hushels of turnips to the acre. 
 
 It must be remembered, that none of the farmers men- 
 tioned above used any special cultivation to produce the 
 results described, and out of nearly 200 reports which we 
 have received from settlers concerning the growth of roots 
 and vegetables in the North-West, not one has been unfa- 
 vorable. 
 
 Timothy has been grown for many years by farmers in 
 the older settled parts of the country, and all with one 
 accord speak highly of it as a crop. Thomas Dalzell, of 
 High Bluff, has grown timothy for eight years, and says he 
 has had from two to three tons to the acre. It is often seen 
 growing alongside the track on the prairie, and unlike the 
 wild grasses the root leaves are always green. In the fall 
 of 1880 this was notably so between Rat Creek and Portage 
 la Prairie, where cattle were out on the timothy stubble 
 eating the green leaves in the beginning of November. In 
 the latter part of the same month, the preceding year, white 
 clover and timothy were quite green along the roadside east 
 of Portage la Prairie. Red clover must produce enormously, 
 as many species of plants closely related to it grow every- 
 where in the country. 
 
 "Wild hops are known to produce large quantities, said to 
 be equal if not superior to any seen in cultivation. Flax 
 and hemp were formerly cultivated, and produced large 
 crops. Hemp has been grown twelve feet high. In the 
 future, large areas will be sown with these plants, as their 
 fibre will be utilized for many purposes, and flax seed will 
 be required for making oilcake for fattening stock. 
 
 The reason why all manner of vegetables succeed in the 
 North-AVest is not far to seek. As has been shown in the 
 
CROPS, HAEVESTS, AND KOADS 225 
 
 preceding chapter, the soil is the best in the world. The 
 light rainfall prevents the land from becoming sour, and 
 the severe and continued frost pulverizes the soil deeper 
 than any other subsoiling process could possibly do. A 
 rich soil, an unequalled seed-bed, a superior seed time, 
 plenty of rain in the growing season, long sunny days, and 
 clear dewy nights combine to produce crops of all sorts that 
 cannot be equalled. 
 
 Southern Russia has long been noted for the richness of 
 its soil and its extraordinary crops of wheat. Our North- 
 West is under the same parallels of latitude, is known to 
 be a country of summer rains, and to have every peculiar- 
 ity of the Russian Plain. Russia in past years has been 
 famous for its wheat, shipped from Odessa. Riga is the 
 port from which hides and tallow, hemp, flax, oilcake, lin- 
 seed oil, and many other products have come, and it is not 
 claiming too much to expect that our North-West will 
 supply all these in coming years We have all the natural 
 facilities, but we want men to till the soil. 
 
 The questions put to people acquainted with the country 
 are — When does spring commence ? When does winter set 
 in ? When do you sow your seed ? What time does harvest 
 commence ? When do you take up your roots ? 
 
 From Winnipeg to Peace River, points fully 1300 miles 
 apart, spring commences about the same time. Taking one 
 year with another, the first spring flowers make their, ap- 
 pearance about April 15th. Captain Butler found the whole 
 hillside covered with beautiful Anemones {Anemone patens) 
 on April 22nd, in lat 56" north. The same year spring 
 commenced in the neighborhood of Winnipeg at the same 
 date. Red River, in lat. 48°, does not break up earlier than 
 the middle of April, and Peace Rivpr, eight degrees further 
 north, is not later. 
 
 Winter sets in, as far as the closing of Red River is con- 
 cerned, some time during the first ten days of November. 
 15 
 
22G MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Peace River closes much later, as it is only at this date that 
 the livst ice is seen in the river. Often very cold weather 
 conies in October, and snow lies on the ground for eight or 
 ten days, but it passes away and usually a beautiful season 
 commences which lasts far into December. At this time 
 the nights are more or less frosty, with clear, calm and most 
 delightful days. The latter part of December aud January 
 are generally very cold, and during this period the ther- 
 mometer falls very low. 
 
 Seed time in the North-West continues from the first of 
 April to the middle of June, that is from the very earliest 
 time when seeding can take place to the latest period when 
 it is wise to sow At Battleford seeding has been done in 
 March, but this is so exceptional that it should only be 
 noticed. After talking Avith many fiirmers, I found that 
 M;i,y is the general time for all spring work, but that wheat 
 sowed as late as June lOtli generally escapes the frost, and 
 til at barley will produce a crop ten days later. All good 
 farmers say that grain should not be sown later than June 
 first, On Peace Pdver, in lat 50", work commences about 
 April 20th, and after this time potatoes are planted, and 
 grain sown. Still farther north, at Vermilion, there is little 
 gardening until after the first of May. At Fort Chipweyan, 
 on Lake Athabasca, scarcely anything is done until May 
 10th. About 90 days are required on Peace River to ripen 
 barley, but earl}' sown weed takes less time. 
 
 Harvest depends altogether on the time of .sowing Early 
 sown gram ripens in fewer daj's than late sown, as it has all 
 the hot weather to juature in. A great and permanent fall 
 of temperature alvyays takes place about the middle of 
 August, and after this grain is slow to ripen. 
 
 Throughout the whole valley of the Qu'Appelle. spring 
 lime and harvest time are earlier than in Manitoba. This 
 is partly caused hy the -^varmcr soil and drier atmosphere 
 of that region. In 1879 strawberries were in abundance 
 
 "O-^ 
 
CROPS, HARYESTS, AND ROADS. 227 
 
 by the middle of June at Fort Ellice. The spring was 
 fully ten days earlier than at Winnipeg. At Qu'Appelle 
 130 miles west of Port Ellice, Mr. Marcus Smith, C. E., found 
 "barley cut and stored by July 27th" in the same year. 
 Prom time immemorial Indian corn has been grown in the 
 valley, and all kinds of garden vegetables are cultivated by 
 the Missionaries. Mr. Sette the English Church Missionary 
 on the Little Touchwood Hills, says that in that section 
 crops are always cut early and never injured by frost. At 
 Prince Albert, wheat ripened the same year about the mid- 
 dle of August, and at Battleford a few days earlier. Edmon- 
 ton was later, and it seems a settled matter that there are 
 from twelve to twenty days difference in the ripening of 
 grain between the valley of the Qu'Appelle and that of the 
 Saskatchewan. 
 
 Potatoes are stored by careful people before the 10th 
 October, as after this date there may come a few days of 
 hard frost, and do much injury to them. Beets require 
 to be cared for at the same time, but carrots and turnips 
 can be left till November. Root cellars are easily cons- 
 tructed and there is no difficulty in saving all kinds of 
 roots. Many farmers in the west take up their potatoes in 
 the latter part of September, and experience shows that 
 this is the safest plan. I subjoin a few statements from 
 settlers regarding seed time and harvest. These all refer 
 to Manitoba. 
 
 John McKinnon, Three Creeks, Portage la Prairie, says : — 
 
 " The usual time of sowing wheat, oats, and peas is from the beginning- of 
 April to the middle of May, barley from middle of May till the beginning of 
 June. The weather during seeding and harvest is generally dry. The usual 
 time to harvest is from the middle of August till September." 
 
 John W. Carlton, of Clear Springs, says : — 
 
 " Land ought to be ploughed in the fall, and sown as early as possible in the 
 spring. Seeding is from 1 tli to 1 5th of April, and harvest from 1 0th of August 
 to 15th Sejjtember. The Mennonites here grow all their tobacco, and it stands 
 about four feet high." 
 
228 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 James Sinclair, of Greenwood, says: — 
 
 " The month of May is generally fair ; June wet, August and September 
 fair weather. All kinds of roots and vegetables should be sown as early as 
 the ground is in iit condition, and will be fit for gathering about the middle 
 of October." 
 
 Henry West, of Clear Springs, says : — 
 
 " I have been in the country six years, and have found the driest summers 
 to give the best crops, even though there was no rain except an odd thunder 
 storm." 
 
 H. C. Graham, of Stonewall, says : — 
 
 " Spring weather, at time of seeding, is generally bright, with some warm 
 showers of rain. In harvesting we rarely have rain ; usually clear fine days." 
 
 Arthur J. Moore, of Nelsonville, says : — 
 
 " The weather in April and May is usually dry and clear. A good deal 
 of rain in June, is followed by a very dry and fine harvest, which usually 
 commences in the second week in August. Have grown buckwheat success- 
 fully. Have seen good crops of flax amongst the Mermonites. Timothy and 
 clover d® well. Planted twenty apple trees two years ago which are doing 
 well." 
 
 F. T. Bradley, of Emerson, sa}^s : — 
 
 "I cultivate wheat, seldom raising other grain. This season (1880) I 
 commenced seeding April icth, SLiison being backward did not finish seeding 
 till 5th of May, and then had eighty acres under crop; Commenced harvest 
 on August 9th, expect an average of thirty bushels to the acre." 
 
 Thomas Henry Brown, of Poplar Point, says : — 
 
 " Plough as much land as you can in the fall, and sow as early as the frost 
 is out of the ground, just enough for the harrow to cover the seed. As far as 
 my experience goes the ordinary vegetables, such as turnips, carrots, cabbage, 
 onions, beets, peas, beans, &c., grow well here. I have raised as good vegeta,bles 
 since I have been here, with comparatively but little cultivation, as I have 
 seen raised in my native place. County Kent, England, where market gardening 
 is carried on to perfection." 
 
 Questions are constantly asked about roads, and most 
 writers speak of the roads in anything but complimentary 
 terms. The truth is there are no roads in the country. 
 What are familiarly called roads are merely the trails used 
 by buffalo hunters and Hudson's Bay Company's employes 
 when traversing the country from point to point. As settlers 
 came into the country they used these trails and began to 
 locate in their vicinity. While the prairie remained un- 
 
CROPS, HARVESTS, AND ROADS. 229 
 
 inclosed the roads were excellent except at a creek crossing 
 or a low marshy spot, in the language of the country termed 
 a " Slough" or " Slew." The brigades of Red Eiver carts, 
 often one hundred in number, travel in single file, each cart 
 drawn by one horse or ox, and carrying from eight to ten 
 hundred weight. A road, then, originally consisted of two 
 rut-marks on the prairie sod and a path between. As traffic 
 increased these ruts would wear deep into the soil and one 
 or more new ruts would be formed by keeping one wheel 
 in the former track. On the main trail to Battleford and 
 Edmonton twenty such ruts can now be counted running 
 parallel to each other. 
 
 Within the settlements, road allowances are now more or 
 less inclosed, and by constant travel the prairie sod has been 
 cut completely away, This makes the roads almost impass- 
 able in the wet weather in June and July. Some attempts 
 have been made to improve them by building bridges over 
 the creeks and in some cases making a " turnpike" by dig- 
 ging a ditch on either side of the road and throwing the 
 earth into the centre. This, when levelled, makes a 
 capital road in dry weather, but when rain falls it is simply 
 indescribable. Outside of Manitoba no attempts whatever 
 have been made to either bridge a creek or drain a slough 
 so that each traveller does the best he can. 
 
 Travellers seem to delight in recording their difficulties 
 and give astounding details of how many times they got 
 "stuck" in a quagmire or floundered through a creek, and 
 relate these incidents with great unction. To an ex- 
 perienced traveller all this is merely a record of their own 
 ignorance and inexperience, for the man who has his wits 
 about him never gets " stuck" in these places but avoids 
 them by not trying to pass one without examination. We, 
 who are accustomed to prairie travelling, laugh at the woe- 
 begone looks of the green horns who get into a " slew" and 
 spend hours getting out again. The proper way to pass one 
 
230 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 of these places, in tlie wet season, is to get to one side of the 
 usual trail and have a man to lead the horse through with 
 his feet on the broken grass and uncut sod and at least 
 one wheel on a new track. Should the first horse break 
 through a little grass thrown into his tracks will carry the 
 next one across. Besides the man leading the horse 
 another should be on each side of the cart ready to assist. 
 Having travelled many thousand miles on the prairie hy 
 compass and passed every obstruction, even rivers nearly 
 half a mile wide without any assistance other than our own 
 ingenuity, I can say that prairie travelling is an exceed- 
 ingly simple matter when a few grains of common sense 
 are included in the process. 
 
 Ten years ago there were very few trails in the country 
 other than those made by the Indians. The main trail for 
 the west started from Winnipeg and at Portage la Prairie 
 forked. One branch went by the White Mud past West- 
 bourne, Palestine, Gladstone, and Odanah and met the other 
 a few miles east of Salt Lake. The other road, called 
 the South Trail, continued to the west, crossed Rat Creek 
 and McKinnon's, and passed on to the " Big Plain " beyond 
 Pine Creek. Here a branch left the trail and going still 
 farther south crossed tlie Assiniboine at Brandon and passed 
 up the right bank of the river to Fort Ellice. At Brandon a 
 branch went still farther south and lost itself on the Souris 
 Plain. From the " Big Plain" the road continued westward 
 joining the north trail at the above mentioned point. Passing 
 Shoal Lake and Birtle it struck the Assiniboine above the 
 mouth of the Qu'Appelle. Crossing the river it continued 
 on northwesterly to the Touchwood Hills and thence to the 
 South Saskatchewan. Crossing it at Batoche's ferry, the 
 trail passed by Duck Lake to Carlton. Here it again forked, 
 and one branch crossed the north Saskatchewan and con- 
 tinued up to Edmonton. The other passed in the direction 
 of Battleford and on to Edmonton. This southern road was 
 
CROPS, HARVESTS, AND ROADS. 231 
 
 seldom travelled ten years ago, as fears were entertained 
 of Indian raids. From Edmonton the trail continued 90 
 miles farther to Fort Assiniboine on the Athabasca River. 
 
 Fort Ellice was a central point, and trails passed from 
 it to every point. One went up the right bank of the 
 Assiniboine to Fort Pelly, 140 miles to the north. Another 
 passed to the west and threw off a branch when opposite 
 Qu'Appelle, which passed through Qu'Apppelle and north 
 to the Touchwood Hills. The main trail passed westward 
 to Moose Jaw Creek and from thence to the Cypress Hills 
 where it ceased or merged into another which followed the 
 right bank of the South Saskatchewan from Batoche's ferry 
 to the country on the Milk River. From Fort Ellice 
 another led to the southwest, by Moose Mountain to Wood 
 Mountain, and was the usvial route taken by the Half-breeds 
 when going out to hunt the buffalo. Of late years many 
 cross trails have been added to these, but with the exception 
 of the above, and a trail leading south from each of the 
 Hudson's Bay Company's forts on the Saskatchewan to the 
 buffalo plains, scarcely any others existed. 
 
 These trails were seldom direct. Travellers had to mean- 
 der from side to side according as wood and water could be 
 found. Indian trails on the contrary led from hill top to hill 
 top and anywhere on the buffalo plains a high hill has an 
 Indian trail passing over or near it. Often, when travelling 
 without a trail, we have been able to strike one almost par- 
 allel to our line by studying the topography of the country, 
 and deducing the direction in which they should run. 
 
 On the prairie west of the Red River Valley, roads such 
 as we have in Ontario will never be needed as the soil is 
 naturally dry and only during the month of June is the 
 rainfall great. In the fall, winter, and spring, all roads are 
 in good order and will remain so when the mud holes are 
 ditched and drained. The future traffic roads are iron ones 
 and all others will be built with local labor as the country 
 roads of Ontario are constructed 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Grasses of the Plains, Forests, and Mountains. 
 
 Pastures of the Prairies — Their Value in Various Sections — Design of the Chapter — List 
 of Grasses, their Habitats — List of Cyperaces, their Habitats — List of Rushes — List 
 of Leguminosse (Pea Family) — Why Certain Grasses have Various Names — Effects of 
 Burning the Grass — "Wild Oat" of Southwestern Manitoba a Bugbear — Sheep 
 Killing by its Awns a Myth — Description of the Grass — How it Injures Man or 
 Beast — Hay made of this Grass — Its Effects on Horses — Really the best Grass on the 
 Plains — Hay Grasses — Manitoba Hay — Practical Remarks on Manitoba Hay — Testi- 
 mony of Residents Regarding the Hay Crop — Sand Hill Grasses — Bunch Grasses — ■ 
 Buffalo Grasses — "Grama-grass" — Grasses of the Alkali Lands — Valuable Grasses — 
 Grasses of the Bow River Country — Spring Food of Horses — Summer Food — Winter 
 Grass of the Prairie — Winter Pasture in the'Forost — Only one Poor Grass' in ISTinety- 
 six — Value of the Pea Family — Artemisia Frigida as a Forage Plant — Eurota lanata — 
 Analyses of Grasses. 
 
 All the prairie is pasture land, but all is not equally 
 good pasture. The pastures that are exceptionally good 
 this year will be poor the next. The pasture on burnt 
 prairie is good all summer. But this cannot be said of tha 
 which is unburnt. The same species of grass extend through 
 20° of longitude and sometimes 10° of latitude, and a grass 
 spoken of very highly in one locality may be condemned in 
 another. The pastures of Bow River are highly praised 
 while those farther east with the same specie^ are 
 despised, because public opinion has not been roused in 
 their favor. I purpose in the following list to give all the 
 grasses of the plains, so that Both scientific and practical 
 men may recognize the value of those wonderful pastures, 
 extending for nearly 1,000 miles from east to west. Follow- 
 ing the true grasses I shall give the Cyperaceas or sedges 
 which constitute much of the hay and the greater part of 
 the vegetation of the ponds, and lastly a list of the 
 LeguminosaB, which include the vetches, peas, and all 
 other plants of the order looked upon in all lands as 
 of the most nutritious character. As so little is known 
 
GRASSES OF THE PLAINS, FORESTS, AND MOUNTAINS. 233 
 
 of the real value of the grasses and other plants of the 
 region I shall collect analyses of a number of the grasses 
 and show their comparative value for feeding purposes. If 
 space permit, either in this chapter or those devoted to 
 stock-raising, I shall more particularly describe a few of 
 the prominent grasses. 
 
 Table I. List of Orasses. 
 
 BOTANICAL NAME. 
 
 Leersia oryzoides. 
 Zizania aquatica. 
 Alopecurus aristulatus . 
 Phleum alpinum. 
 Vilfa cuspidata. 
 Sporobolus lieterolepis. 
 " cryptandrus . 
 
 " asperifolus. 
 
 Agrostis scabra. 
 Cinna arundinacea. 
 Muhlenbergia glomerata. 
 
 " sylvatica. 
 
 Calamagros tis striata. 
 " lojigifolia. 
 
 " Canadensis. 
 
 " Langsdorfifii. 
 
 " sylvatica. 
 
 " Porteri. 
 
 Ericoma cuspidata. 
 Oryzopsis Canadensis. 
 " asperifolia. 
 Stipa spartea. 
 " viridula. 
 " Richardsonii. 
 " comata. 
 Spartina gracilis. 
 " glabra. 
 " cynosuroides. 
 Bouteloua oligostachya. 
 Graphephorum melicoides. 
 
 " festuoaceum. 
 
 Koeleria cristata. 
 Eatonia obtusata. 
 
 " Pennsylvanica. 
 MelicaHallii. 
 Glyceria airoides. 
 " tenuiflora, 
 
 COMMON NAME. 
 
 Rice Grass. 
 Wild Rice. 
 Wild Water Foxtail. 
 Wild Timothy. 
 Rush Grass. 
 Brop-seed Grass. 
 Hidden Drop-seed. 
 Rough Leaved Drop-seed. 
 Tickle Grass. 
 Wood Reed Grass. 
 Drop-seed Grass. 
 Sylvan Muhlenbergia. 
 Reed Bent Grass. 
 
 Blue Joint Grass. 
 
 Canada Rice Grass. 
 Rough Leaved Rice Grass. 
 " Wild Oat," Buffalo Grass, 
 Feather Grass. 
 
 Graceful Salt Marsh Grass. 
 Salt Marsh Grass. 
 Fresh Water Cord Grass. 
 Buffalo Grass. 
 
 Hall's Melic Grass. 
 Narrow Leaved Spear Grass. 
 Meadow Spear Grass. 
 
 PLACE or GROWTH. 
 
 Wet places, eastward. 
 
 Lake of the M'^oods. 
 
 In wet places near ponds. 
 
 Cypr. and Porcupine Hills. 
 
 Damp prairies. 
 
 Abundant eastward. 
 
 Sand hills. 
 
 Rich dry soil. 
 
 River banks. 
 
 Cool moist woods. 
 
 Boggy and rich soil. 
 
 Eastern Manitoba. 
 
 Very common, moist ground. 
 
 Sandy soil. 
 
 Water pools and forest. 
 
 Forest marshes. 
 
 Rocky Mountains. 
 
 Rocky Mountains. 
 
 Sand hills, in bunches. 
 
 Cypress Hills. 
 
 Northern forest. 
 
 Very abundant. 
 
 Very common. 
 
 Foot Hills, Rocky Mount. 
 
 Rather scarce. 
 
 Abundant, salt marshes. 
 
 Rare, western plains. 
 
 Manitoba, very common. 
 
 Southern or dry plains. 
 
 Cypress Hills. 
 
 Fresh water pools. 
 
 Dry hills and river banks. 
 
 By pools. 
 
 Moist woods. 
 
 Brandon and westward. 
 
 Salt marshes. 
 
 Salt marshes. 
 
234 
 
 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOETH-AVEST. 
 
 BOTANIl'AL NAMK. 
 
 Glyoeria iiervata. 
 ** aquatica. 
 " fluitans. 
 " distans. 
 " paucifiora. 
 Brizopyi'um spicatum. 
 Catabrosa aquatica. 
 Munroa squarrosa. 
 Poa annua. 
 " pratensis. 
 " tenuifolia. 
 " alpina 
 " serotina. 
 " laxa. 
 " Andina, 
 " ccBsia . 
 " nemoralis. 
 " Eatoni. 
 Festuoa ovina. 
 " Thurberi. 
 " tenella. 
 Bronius ciliatiis. 
 " Kalmii. 
 " brevi-aristatus. 
 Phragmites communis. 
 LopturiLS punieulatus. 
 Triticimi rcpuns, 
 
 " dasystachyum. 
 " violaceum. 
 " caniniim. 
 " strigosnm. 
 Hordeiim jxibatum. 
 " pratense. 
 Elymus Canadensis. 
 " Sibiricus. 
 " mollis. 
 " condensatns. 
 " striatns. 
 " Tirgiuic-us, 
 " dasy^tachgum. 
 " parviflorum. 
 Dantlionia spicata. 
 '• intermedia. 
 
 " Californica. 
 
 " sericea. 
 
 Aira ca3spitosa, 
 Avena striata. 
 Avena pratensis. 
 
 CO-MJtON NAME. 
 
 Water Spear Grass. 
 Common Manna Grass. 
 
 Spike Grass. 
 
 Annual Spear Grass. 
 June Grass. 
 Slender leaved Poa. 
 
 B'oul Meadow, 
 Wavy Meadow Grass. 
 
 Wood Meadow Grass. 
 
 Sheep's Fescue. 
 Tliurber's Fescue. 
 Small Fescue Grass, 
 Fringed Brome Grass. 
 Wild Chest, 
 
 Common Reed Grass. 
 
 Couch Grass, 
 Soft Wheat Grass, 
 
 Squirrel Tail Grass. 
 
 Canadian Lyme Grass. 
 Siberian Lyme Grass. 
 Smooth Lyme Grass. 
 
 Slender Hairy Lyme. 
 Lyme Grass. 
 Soft Lyme Grass. 
 
 Wild Oat Grass. 
 Prairie Oat Grass. 
 Californian Oat Grass, 
 Silky Oat Grass. 
 Hassock Grass, 
 Wood Oat Grass. 
 Meadow Oat Grass. 
 
 PLACE OP GROWTH. 
 
 Damp pastures and pools. 
 In pools. 
 
 In standing water. 
 Salt marshes. 
 Northern river bottoms. 
 Salt marshes. 
 In spring rivulets. 
 Red Deer Valley. 
 Near Winnipeg. 
 Very common. 
 Fine pasture grass. 
 Cypress Hills, 
 Abundant in w'et places. 
 Manitoba prairies. 
 Western prairies. 
 Prairies, many forms. 
 Cypreiss Hills. 
 
 a il 
 
 Sandy soil, 
 
 Brandon and westward. 
 
 Cyioress Plills. 
 
 Damp prairies and thickets. 
 
 Thicket and prairie. 
 
 Cypress Hills. 
 
 Bogs and Marshes. 
 
 Dry hillsides. 
 
 Salt mar.shes. 
 
 Forest openings 
 
 Manitoba plain 
 
 Thickets, river iianks. 
 
 Cypress Hills 
 
 Salt marshes. 
 
 Salt marshes, rare, 
 
 Plivcr banks and tliickete. 
 
 Cypress Hills, 
 
 Lake Winnipegoosis. 
 
 Southern Plains, 
 
 Thickets. 
 
 Moist river liottoms. 
 
 Mountain Woods. 
 
 Rich prairies. 
 
 Forest openings. 
 
 Rich prairies. 
 
 Cypress Hills. 
 
 Bow River. 
 
 River banks. 
 
 Thickets, 
 
 Brandon and wes.v.-ard. 
 
GRASSES OF THE PLAINS, FORESTS, AND MOUNTAINS. 235 
 
 BOTANICAL NAME. 
 
 Trisetum Biibspioatum. 
 Hierochloa borealis. 
 Phalaris aruudinacea. 
 Beckmannia erucEeformis. 
 Panicmn virgatum. 
 
 " xanthophysum. 
 
 " depauperatmn. 
 
 " dichotommn. 
 
 " pauciflormn. 
 Andropogon furcatus. 
 " Bcoparius. 
 
 COMMON NAME. 
 
 Seneca G-raes. 
 Reed Canary Grass. 
 Beckmann's Grass. 
 Tall Smooth Panic. 
 
 Finger Spiked WoodUYaBB, 
 Purple "Wood Grass. 
 
 PLACE OP GROWTH. 
 
 Rocky Mountains. 
 Prairies, very common. 
 BogB and marshes. 
 Wet places, northward. 
 Sand Hills. 
 Thickets. 
 Manitoba prairies. 
 I' II 
 
 South-Western Manitoba. 
 River valleys northward. 
 Rich or sandy slopes. 
 
 Tahle II. Oyperacece 
 
 BOTANICAL NAME. 
 
 Cyperus Bchweinitzii. 
 Eleocharis palustris. 
 '• acicularis. 
 
 " tennuis. 
 Sciripus cfespitosus 
 
 " pauciflorus. 
 
 " maritimus. 
 
 " pungens. 
 
 " atrovirens. 
 
 " validus. 
 
 " fluviatilis. 
 
 " microcarpus. 
 Eriophorum alpinum. 
 " vaginatum. 
 
 " polystachyon. 
 
 " gracile. 
 
 Carex adusta. 
 
 « aperta. 
 
 " alpina. 
 
 « aquatilis. 
 
 " arctata. 
 
 " arida, 
 
 « aristata. 
 
 '■ aurea. 
 
 « Backii. 
 
 " canescens. 
 
 « capillaris. 
 
 « concinna. 
 
 " Crawei. 
 
 " debilis. 
 
 " cristata. 
 
 « Deweyana. 
 
 COMMON NAME. 
 
 Schweintiz's Gallingall. 
 Common Spike Rush. 
 Hair Club Rush. 
 Slender Club Rush. 
 Scaby stalked Club Rush. 
 
 Sea Bulrush. 
 Chair Bottom Rush. 
 
 Bulrush. 
 
 River Rush. 
 
 Wood Rush. 
 
 Cotton Grass. 
 
 Harestail. 
 
 Broad leaved Cotton Grass. 
 
 Narrow leaved Cotton Grass. 
 
 Alpine Sedge. 
 
 Water Sedge. 
 
 Short beaked Wood Sedge. 
 
 Dry Sedge. 
 
 Awned Sedge. 
 
 Golden-fruited Sedge. 
 
 Back's Sedge. 
 
 White Ci-.rex. 
 
 Hair-like Sedge. 
 
 Crawe's Sedge. 
 Weak Sedge. 
 Crested Sedge. 
 Dewey's Sedge. 
 
 PLACE OF GROWTH. 
 
 Sand Hills. 
 Marshes. 
 
 Soft boggy ground. 
 Shores of lakes. 
 Peat bogs, northward. 
 Shores of lakes. 
 Salt lakes. 
 Lake shores. 
 Stream valleys. 
 Bogs and marshes. 
 Water marshes, north. 
 Streams and creeks 
 Peat bogs, north. 
 
 II II CI 
 
 Grass marshes. 
 
 II .. 
 
 Thickets. 
 Manitoba. 
 North woods. 
 Borders of marshes. 
 Woods, eastward. 
 Manitoba i^rairie. 
 Common in marshes 
 Boggy ground. 
 Dry thickets. 
 Damp woods, north. 
 II II II 
 
 Dry woods. 
 
 Lake shores. 
 
 Thickets. 
 
 Prairies. 
 
 Thickets and prairies. 
 
236 
 
 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 BOTAinOAL NAME. 
 
 Carex disticha. 
 " Douglasii. 
 " ebumea. 
 " feetiva. 
 « filifolia 
 " filiformis. 
 
 " granulans. 
 " gynocrates: 
 " Houghtouii. 
 " irrigua. 
 " lanuginosa. 
 " laxiflora. 
 " Liddoni. 
 " limosa. 
 « pulla. 
 " livida. 
 " longirostriB. 
 
 marcida. 
 
 monile. 
 
 Meadii. 
 
 Novse-Angliffi. 
 
 (Ederi. 
 
 oligosperma. 
 
 obtusata. 
 
 panicea. 
 
 Pariyana. 
 
 Pennsylvanica. 
 
 polytrichoides. 
 
 prairea. 
 
 retrorsa. 
 
 Richardsonii. 
 
 riparia. 
 
 scirpoid«a. 
 
 scoparia. 
 
 siccata. 
 
 stellulata. 
 
 stipata. 
 
 straminea. 
 
 stenophylla. 
 
 sychnocephala. 
 
 tenella. 
 
 tenuiflora 
 
 trispei-ma. 
 
 teretiuscula. 
 
 Torreyi. 
 
 utriculata. 
 
 COlfHON NAUE. 
 
 Douglas' Sedge. 
 Bristle-leaved White Sedge. 
 
 Slender Sedge. 
 Slender-leaved Sedge. 
 
 Granular Spiked Sedge. 
 
 Houghton's Sedge. 
 Spring Sedge. 
 Woolly-fruited Sedge. 
 Loose-flowered Sedge. 
 Liddou's Sedge. 
 Mud Sedge. 
 
 Livid Sedge. 
 Long-beaked Sedge. 
 
 Mead's Sedge. 
 New England Sedge. 
 CEder's Sedge. 
 Few-fruited Sedge. 
 
 Parry's Sedge. 
 Pennsylvania Sedge. 
 Bristle Stalked Sedge. 
 Prairie Sedge. 
 Late-fruited Sedge. 
 Richardson's Sedge. 
 Lake Sedge. 
 
 Brown-spike Sedge. 
 Dry-spiked Sedge. 
 Little Prickley Sedge. 
 Awl-fruited Sedge. 
 Straw-colored Sedge. 
 
 Two-seeded Sedge. 
 Slender cluster Spike Sedge. 
 Three-seeded Sedge. 
 Lesser-panicled Sedge. 
 Torrey's Sedge. 
 Bladder-fruited Sedge. 
 
 PLACE OF GEOWTH. 
 
 Marshy meadows. 
 Dry gravel hills. 
 River banks. 
 Rich damp slopes. 
 Dry gravel prairie. 
 Peat bogs. 
 Manitoba prairie. 
 Boggy prairie. 
 Peat bogs, north. 
 Sandy woods. 
 Peat bogs. 
 Damp prairies. 
 Damp woods. 
 Gravelly ridges. 
 Peat bogs. 
 Bow River Valley. 
 Peat bogs. 
 Thickets. 
 Open prairies. 
 River margins. 
 Damp prairie. 
 Rocky woods. 
 Lake margins. 
 Peat bogs. 
 Dry prairies. 
 Damp prairies. 
 
 il u 
 
 Dry thickets. 
 
 Wet woods. 
 
 Marshy prairie. 
 
 Wet woods. 
 
 Dry thickets. 
 
 Marshes. 
 
 Damp prairies 
 
 Dry prairie. 
 
 Dry sandy thickets. 
 
 Wet woods and marshes. 
 
 Wet woods. 
 
 Dry prairies. 
 
 Dry gravel ridges. 
 
 Alluvial soil. 
 
 Wet woods. 
 
 Marshes. 
 Wet prairies. 
 Marshes. 
 
GRASSES OF THE PLAINS, FORESTS, AND MOUNTAINS. 237 
 
 BOTANICAL NAMK. 
 
 COMMON NAME. 
 
 
 I'LACE or GKOWTH. 
 
 Carex vaginata. 
 
 
 
 Wet -woods. 
 
 " varia. 
 
 
 
 Dry ravines. 
 
 " vulgaris. 
 
 
 
 Nortborn meadows. 
 
 " vulpinoidea. 
 
 Fox Sedge. 
 
 
 Eastern' prairie. 
 
 " Willdenovii. 
 
 Willdenow's Sedge. 
 
 
 Lake of tho Woods. 
 
 » vesicaria. 
 
 
 
 Bow River. 
 
 « ampuUacea. 
 
 
 
 Ponds in the south. 
 
 Table III. List of Rushes. 
 
 BOTANICAL NAME. 
 
 COMMON NAME. 
 
 
 PLACE OF GEOWTH. 
 
 Lnzula paiviflora. 
 
 Small-flowered Wood Eush. 
 
 Rocky Mountains. 
 
 Juncus alpimis. 
 
 Alpine Rush. 
 
 
 River margins. 
 
 « Balticus. 
 
 Baltic Rush. 
 
 
 Common on prairie. 
 
 « bufonius. 
 
 Toad Rush. 
 
 
 Muddy places. 
 
 " Canadensis. 
 
 Canadian Rush. 
 
 
 Low places. 
 
 " filiformis. 
 
 Slender Rush. 
 
 
 North woods. 
 
 " longistylis. 
 
 Long-styled Rush. 
 
 
 Moist ravines. 
 
 « nodosus. 
 
 Eound-headed Rush. 
 
 
 Marshes and Springs. 
 
 " tenuis. 
 
 Slender Rush. 
 
 
 Open prairie. 
 
 « xipMoides. 
 
 
 
 Western prairie. 
 
 « Vaseyi. 
 
 Vasey's Rush. 
 
 
 Manitoba prairie. 
 
 Table IV. 
 
 LeguminosoB. 
 
 [Pea Family.) 
 
 BOTANICAL NAME. 
 
 COMMON NAME. 
 
 
 PLACE OP GEOWTH- 
 
 LnpinuB argenteus. 
 
 SUvery Lupine 
 
 
 Cypress Hills. 
 
 " Kingii. 
 
 King's Lupine. 
 
 
 Sand Hills. 
 
 Psoralea argophylla. 
 
 Silvery Psoralea. 
 
 
 Prairies. 
 
 " esculenta. 
 
 Cree Potato. 
 
 
 Sandy Prairies. 
 
 « lanceolata. 
 
 
 
 Sand Hills. 
 
 Petalostomum violaceus. 
 
 Purple Prairie Glovei 
 
 
 Prairies. 
 
 " candidus. 
 
 White Prairie Clover, 
 
 
 Gravelly Soil. 
 
 Amorpha canescens. 
 
 Lead Plant. 
 
 
 Manitoba Prairie. 
 
 " microphylla. 
 
 Small-leaved Indigo 
 
 Plant 
 
 . Assiniboine River, 
 
 Astragalus caryocarpus. 
 
 Ground Plum. 
 
 
 Prairies. 
 
 « Canadensis. 
 
 
 
 Woods and thickets. 
 
 « hypoglottis. 
 
 
 
 Damp prairies. 
 
 « pectinatus. 
 
 
 
 Dry prairies. 
 
 « adsurgens. 
 
 g 
 
 
 u it 
 
 " aboriginum. 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 Gravelly Hills. 
 
 « triphyllus. 
 
 g" 
 
 
 Dry prairies. 
 
 " pauciflorus. 
 
 1 
 
 
 Cypress Hills. 
 
 « flexuosus. 
 
 P 
 
 
 Prairies. 
 
 " frigiduB. 
 
 
 
 Rocky Mountains. 
 
 « microcystis 
 
 
 
 North Woods. 
 
 Astragalus bisulcatus 
 
 
 
 Prairies. 
 
238 
 
 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 EOTAKICAL NAME. 
 
 COMMON NAME. 
 
 PLACE OF OROWTH. 
 
 Astragalus multiflorus. 
 
 
 
 Prairies. 
 
 « Drummondii. 
 
 
 
 Dry Prairies. 
 
 " racemosus. 
 
 
 g 
 
 (( a 
 
 « Missouriensis. 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 Alkaline soil. 
 
 " Kentrophyta. 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 Dry sand. 
 
 Oxytropus campestris. 
 
 
 
 Rich prairies. 
 
 " Lamberti. 
 
 
 a> 
 
 U il 
 
 « deflexa. 
 
 
 
 t£ a 
 
 " splendens. 
 
 
 
 Dry knolls. 
 
 " podocarpa. 
 
 
 
 Rocky Mountains 
 
 Glycynhiza lepidota. 
 
 Wild Liquorice. 
 
 Rich soil. 
 
 Hedysarum Mackenzii. 
 
 
 
 Dry slopes. 
 
 " borealu. 
 
 
 
 Ricli prairie. 
 
 Vicia Americana. 
 
 AVild Vetcli. 
 
 Woods and thickets. 
 
 Lathyras venosus. 
 
 Prairie Pea 
 
 
 a u 
 
 " ochroleucus. 
 
 
 
 ti u 
 
 " palustris. 
 
 Marsh Vetchling. 
 
 Wet meadows. 
 
 " maritimiTS. 
 
 Beacli Pea. 
 
 
 Lake shores. 
 
 Thermopsis rhombifolia. 
 
 Wild Bean. 
 
 
 Rich prairies. 
 
 Amphicarpoea monoica. 
 
 Hog Pea Nut. 
 
 Thickets. 
 
 In Table 1 I have enumerated 96 species of true grasses 
 found by myself growing wild in the North-West. These 
 include many species which are of little value as pasture 
 grasses on our prairies, yet in other lands are highly prized. 
 Numerous species which on our prairies become tall enough 
 to be cut for hay, in the drier country south of the boun- 
 dary, seldom attain the height of a few inches. 
 
 Indians in past time burnt the grass over wide areas every 
 fall, so that the young and tender grass of the burnt dis- 
 tricts might tempt the buffalo to migrate. On the dry 
 southern plain few of the grasses bear seed the year after a 
 fire, as the surface of the ground being bare of any covering 
 to act as a mulch, the Avarm sun begins to change the grass 
 to hay before seed has been formed. Where the rainfall is 
 greater this is not noticed and heavy crops of grass loaded 
 with seed may be seen every year. Hence certain grasses 
 obtain local names. A grass may be cut for hay in one 
 locality, in another it may bear no seed and be merely 
 short pasture. By burning the gj:ass, good pasture for the 
 
GRASSES OF THE PLAINS, FORESTS, AND MOUNTAINS. 239 
 
 season is assured, but this should always be done in spring 
 after the cattle have roamed over it all winter. Should the 
 grass not be burned the young shoots grow up amongst the 
 old grass, and cattle and horses wander off to where there is 
 less of this mixture. 
 
 In Southern Manitoba many people speak against Stipa 
 spartea, and call it " Wild Oat." Terrible stories are told 
 of its effects on cattle, sheep, and horses, and even on men, 
 but most of the tales are exaggerations or without one grain 
 of truth. Further to the west, this grass, where the soil is 
 dry and parched, scarcely ever produces more than five or 
 six seeds in a season. Owing to the dryness of the climate 
 it here has a tendency to form tufts, and is called " buffalo 
 grass." This is the famous grass of the hills in the Bow 
 Kiver country, and forms the bulk of the winter pasture of 
 the great plains. I speak from a thorough knowledge of 
 both the grass and its distribution, and do not fear contra- 
 diction. 
 
 An illustration of the stories told about this grass may 
 be of interest. In conversation with a gentleman last win- 
 ter, he said, that no sheep could live a summer in Southern 
 Manitoba owing to the " wild oat," and in proof he related 
 the following anecdote : Many years ago the Hudson's Bay 
 Company brought up a large number of sheep from St. Cloud, 
 and pastured them on the plains. During the summer the 
 sheep began to die, and an examination being made of two of 
 them, their livers were found filled with the seeds and long 
 awns of this grass. I asked him if any had been found in 
 any other part of the sheep's body, and he said they had 
 not. I asked him if he believed such nonsense and he at 
 once answered, yes. I hinted that witches might have had 
 a hand in the death of the sheep, as it was by filling the 
 livers of their victims with pins and needles, in the good 
 level old times, that they compassed their death. He became 
 indignant and the conversation dropped. Sheep, horses, 
 
240 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 and cattle fatten on these pastures. After a few years prac- 
 tical experience those myths will pass into oblivion. 
 
 The genus of grasses to which Stipa spartea belongs is 
 represented on our plains by four species. All these species 
 have remarkably awned seeds, and the one in question has 
 one often seven inches long. It is not the awn, however, in 
 this case, which does the mischief. The spikelets are one- 
 flowered, and the seed always falls away at maturity. At 
 the base of the seed is a callus (a hard and extremely sharp 
 point) which will penetrate anything it is pushed against. 
 This point is much smaller than the seed, and is no part of it. 
 
 All travellers on the plains in July are tormented with 
 these seeds penetrating their moccasins, or entering their 
 socks, or forming a fringe around their ankles, and even the 
 callus getting into their shirts, but no ill efiects other than the 
 above are ever noticed. In the seven years I have travelled 
 the plains, I never knew a horse to be injured by this grass, 
 nor did I ever see a horse which did not prefer it to every 
 other. Colonel Irvine, Commissioner of the North-West 
 Mounted Police, told me when at Fort Walsh in 1880, that 
 this grass, cut m a green state and dried for hay, was rather 
 dangerous. While in charge of Wood Mountain a quantity of 
 it had been cut for hay, and the horses got the seeds fast- 
 ened in their mouths, so that after eating it their mouths 
 had to be examined. After a time the horses began to eat 
 it without injury to their mouths, and no other injurious 
 results were observed. 
 
 This is the only grass against which an outcry has been 
 raised, but in reality it is the one most highly spoken of, and 
 deservedly so. It is the most plentiful and widely distribu- 
 ted grass on the plains, and is always found on soil which is 
 comparatively dry. Owing to its preference for dry soils 
 it is seldom tall enough for hay, and as its seeds ripen early 
 and fall away amongst the grass, the ill effects if any 
 arising from it will be short lived. 
 
GRASSES OF THE PLAINS, FORESTS, AND MOUNTAINS. 241 
 
 The grasses naturally fall into groups as regarjds their 
 habitats, some preferring one place and some another. Those 
 of the thickets, forest glades or prairies, stream valleys, 
 coulees or ravines are hay grasses. Mixing with these in 
 the vicinity of wood, are wild peas and vetches, and various 
 species of Rosacese and Compositge that make excellent hay. 
 Approaching the marshy spots or growing in the water in 
 June and July, are various Carices and other sedges, and 
 amongst these in great quantities Juncus Balticus. 
 
 It will be seen that hay varies with the locality, and 
 while one farmer may have a coarse poor hay his next 
 neighbor may have a superior article. In that part of Mani- 
 toba northwest from Portage la Prairie the hay is very 
 coarse, containing large quantities of Fresh Water Cord-Grass, 
 mixed with Blue Joint and Foul Meadow. A western horse 
 accustomed to a finer quality of hay will scarcely touch this, 
 while the ponies of the neighborhood eat it with avidity. 
 On the drier prairie this kind of hay is not seen, and all 
 other varieties are abundant. Where there are many ponds 
 much of the hay will be composed of various sedges and 
 certain Poas and Calamagrostis. If the soil be rich and not 
 too moist, the Carices disappear, and besides the above 
 grasses species of Danthonia, Bromus, Triticum, Elymus, 
 Hierochloa and Vilfa, with numerous Rosacese and Legumi- 
 nosse appear in great profusion. Should the hay be cut in a 
 river valley it is almost wholly composed of Garex aristata 
 Foul Meadow, and Blue Joint. This is the hay of the 
 mixed forest and prairie country. Men accustomed to see 
 the finer kinds of cultivated hay would be apt to say that 
 this coarse stuff could have very little fattening power, but 
 I reply by stating that owing to the extraordinary richness 
 of the soil all grasses are nutritive, but all are not alike pala- 
 table. Manitoba horses fatten on their hay. A horse brought 
 from west of Fort Ellice would hardly live upon it. The 
 one has been accustomed to a superior article as regards taste, 
 16 
 
242 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOKTH-WEST. 
 
 the other kno^s no difference. When I speak of Manitoba in 
 this connection I mean that part which lies east of Pembina 
 Mountain. 
 
 A late writer speaking of western or Manitoba hay makes 
 the following practical remarks : " The first point a farmer 
 would note about them is the abundance of the foliage of 
 nearly all the species, while the grasses of Eastern Canada 
 are nearly all culm or stem, having most of them only one, 
 two, or three leaves ; most of the North-Western grasses 
 have ten or twenty leaves. Of course this is an extremely 
 valuable feature in grass, as the leaves are more easily di- 
 gested than the culms. 
 
 " The calms are esceediiigly fine in the prairie grass, and 
 this again would strike a farmer as indicating a good quality 
 of grass, add to this that there are in some species such an 
 abundance of seeds as to make the fodder partake of the na- 
 ture of a feed of grain, and it will be seen that the tales 
 about the readiness with which stock will fatten on prairie 
 hay are not overdrawn." 
 
 The testimony of residents regarding the hay crop in the 
 older settlements will be of interest, as these men speak 
 from actual experience. The assertion that the native hay 
 is superior to that made from cultivated species, should be 
 taken as a doubtful one. It is not on account of the species, 
 but on account of soil and climate, that the hay is so good. 
 Why every fruit and succulent stem should be so sweet, I 
 cannot say, but that they are so I know by experience. To 
 the causes which produce this result we must ascribe 
 the fat tening powers of the hay, and not to the species 
 themselves. 
 
 Testimony of Settlers regarding Grasses and Hay. Only 
 t. a few are given. 
 
 NAME. POST OFPICB. EEMAEKS. 
 
 B. Hartley. St Charles Hay plentiful almost equal to Timothy. 
 
 J. W. Adshead " I have hay in any quantity. 
 
GRASSES OF THE PLAINS, FORESTS, AND MOUNTAINS. 243 
 
 NAME POST OFFICE. REUABE8 
 
 Jas Sturton Nelsonville I have 20 acres which will yield 20 tons. 
 
 A. J. Moore " I have plenty of good hay. Fifty hun- 
 
 dred weight to the acre. 
 
 Geo Tidsberry . . , High Bluff. Hay is plentiful. Very best quality. 
 
 Eoht Adams. " There is plenty of hay on my farm. 
 
 Eev. Thomas Cook Westboume There is any amount of good hay. 
 
 Jno. Smith " I have abundance of hay of differen 
 
 kinds. 
 
 Jas. FuUerton Cook's Creek Best quality of ravine hay. 
 
 W. E. Mitchell " Large quantities of hay Quality good. 
 
 Jas Airth Stonewall I have thousands of tons of the best hay. 
 
 A. McDonald " I have plenty of good hay. 
 
 T. H. Brown Poplar Point There is abundance of hay. Quality good. 
 
 A. C. Harvey Poplar Point Therels abundance of hay. Quality good. 
 
 W. B. Hall Headingly I can get any quantity f good hay. 
 
 W. A. Farmer " There is more wild hay than we need. 
 
 Jas. MathewBon Emerson There is plenty of the best of hay. 
 
 Louis Dinsing " Hay is plentiful, and very good. 
 
 Wm. A. Mann Bird's Hill Have more hay than I can cut. 
 
 E. Black " I have hay of the best quality. 
 
 Wm. Corbett ... Springfield Hay is in abundance. Quality good. 
 
 S. J. Parsons " Hay is in abundance. Quality good. 
 
 Eobt. Bell; Bumside We can get good hay close to us. 
 
 Another group prefers the sand hills and dry arid soils. 
 These are highly spoken of in the United States, and con- 
 stitute most of their pasture grasses. 
 
 Group of Sandhill Orasses. 
 
 Sporobolus cryptandrus. 
 Calamagrostis longifolia. 
 Festuca ovina. 
 Panicum virgatnm. 
 Andropogon scoparins. 
 Koeleria cristata. 
 
 These are the inhabitants of the sands, though other 
 species may be frequently seen in company with them. 
 Ericoma cuspidata is a most lovely grass, growing in bunches 
 on almost pure sand, and down in Arizona is considered a 
 valuable pasture grass. The greater number of these grow 
 in bunches and are hence called " bunch grass," but this is 
 true of all species which grow on dry ground or Avhere the 
 rainfall is light, except they have running root stocks. Fes- 
 
244 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 tuca, Andropogon, and Koeleria are all valuable grasses, and 
 owing to their great production of leaves make excellent 
 and continuous pasture. 
 
 It is the " Buffalo Grasses," however, that attract the 
 attention of most people, and of these we may say a few 
 words. The true Buffalo Grass is unknown on our prairies, 
 but is common in Kansas and Colorado. Its name is BucJiloe 
 dactyloides. In habit it is quite different from any species 
 we have, as it throws out runners, like those of the straw- 
 berry, which take root and so form new plants. Our buffalo 
 grasses are two in number. One of which {Bouteloua oligos- 
 tacliya) I call the southern buffalo grass. The other {Stipa 
 spartea) is the northern one Of the latter I have spoken 
 at some length, and shall now call attention to its distri- 
 bution. This species is co-extensive with the prairies in 
 the North-West and is most abundant on the " Buffalo 
 Plains," the old winter haunts of the buffalo. 
 
 The former is our representative of the "Grama grasses'^ 
 of the United States. These constitute the bulk of the pas- 
 tures in the southwestern states. The latter is represented 
 by numerous species of the same genus farther to the south^ 
 and are all considered excellent pasture grasses. It is note- 
 worthy that within the limits of these two species the 
 buffalo has had its home from time immemorial, and on our 
 central plains the latter has its greatest development, and 
 here in former times millions of buffalo found food in the 
 winte 
 
 Another valuable group which gives us many species, 
 suited, both for pasture and hay, is found aiound salt ponds 
 and in alkaline flats. Of this group the more prominent 
 species are : — 
 
 Spartina gracilis. 
 
 „ glabra. 
 Glyceria airoides. 
 
 „ distans. 
 
 ,, tenuiflora. 
 
GRASSES OF THE PLAINS, FORESTS, AND MOUNTAINS. 245 
 
 Biizopymm spicatum. 
 Triticum repens (many forms). 
 Hordeum jubatum. 
 „ pratense. 
 Poa tenuifolia. 
 
 The most valuable of these are Poa, Triticum, and Spar- 
 dna. These four grasses are valuable, and are greedily 
 eaten by both horses and oxen wherever found. In my 
 opinion no pastures are more valuable in summer than those 
 of the salt marshes. Every summer when travelling on the 
 plains our horses, when let out of harness, make straight for 
 the salt marsh, if there is one in the neighborhood. At 
 Morleyville in the Bow River country I noticed that wher- 
 ever there was a patch of salt marsh plants these were 
 cropped to the ground and tall grasses left standing. Many 
 condemn the salt marshes as being sterile, but to my own 
 knowledge they are preferred both by horses and cows to the 
 pastures of the uplands. Almost all maritime countries have 
 extensive marshes along their coasts, reclaimed from the sea, 
 which are accounted valuable both for hay and pasture. In 
 fact they are noted for their value. In our North-West we 
 have narrow tracts which contain much saline or alkaline 
 matter, and these are condemned as worthless by the same 
 individuals who praise the others. 
 
 In early spring horses eat indiscriminately on the prairie. 
 As the grasses harden they begin to show a preference and 
 now repair to the salt marsh or the pond. Here they find 
 Triticum repens (Quick or Quack grass), which is an invalu- 
 able grass on all clay and alkaline soils. Should the camp 
 be pitched where this grass is abundant the horses begin to 
 gain flesh at once, and three days will set them up. When 
 this grass is old or not to be had horses repair to the round 
 depressions in the prairie, where water stands nearly all 
 summer, and crop the succulent tops of Garex aristata which 
 produces very little seed, but abundance of stems and leaves. 
 This species is preferred until the first severe frost, when 
 
246 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 they abandon the marsh and take to the hill top. Their 
 food now is the Buffalo grass, which during the month of 
 August had passed from grass into well cured hay, with 
 still a little green grass amongst it. 
 
 As hay it is equally as good as grass, and having produced 
 next to no seed, the whole of the nutriment is laid up in 
 the leaves. It is not true of our Buffalo grass that the 
 seed is among the leaves as it is in Kansas. Owing 
 to the annual fires, it matures little seed but a profusion of 
 leaves, which contain all the nutriment of seeds. It is this 
 ripening of the leaves by the great heat of August, and the 
 light rainfall afterwards which does not rot the leaves, that 
 cause our prairie pastures to be so fattening in winter. 
 The winter pastures of the forest are quite different. In 
 early summer and even often as late as July the ponds in 
 the forest and the alluvial valleys of rivers are covered with 
 water, which prevents rapid growth. The principal vege- 
 tation of these ponds and flats are Carices, Poas, and Blue 
 Joint. These all produce many leaves, but scarcely any 
 seed, and are quite green when tlie fi'ost comes. This kills 
 their upper leaves, but does not injure what is below, and 
 in a few of these ponds or marshes a band of horses will find 
 food for the whole winter. Should thu snow be ever so deep 
 the ponies will paw it away and get all the food they need 
 but if a crust should come and not a pea vine or vetch to be 
 had, they would necessarily succumb. A thaw in the North. 
 West, that does not clear the ground of snow, is more to be 
 dreaded than a temperature of 50° below zero. 
 
 In the enumeration of species at the beginning of this 
 chapter I gave ninety -six as growing wild on the plains and 
 in the woods. Of this number forty-four sjoecies are made 
 into hay, and only one accounted injurious — Brizopyrum 
 gpicatum The Cyperaceae number eighty-five species, and 
 of these not one is accounted injurious, though many are of 
 little use for either pasture or hay. Still, of these I know 
 
GRASSES OF THE PLAINS, FORESTS, AND MOUNTAINS. 247 
 
 that forty -six species are either cut for hay or eaten as green 
 pasture. All writers speak of the pea pine and vetch, and 
 know the value of clover and the Leguminosae generally, but 
 few are prepared to hear that in Ontario we have only 
 twenty-six species of this order, while in the North-West 
 we have forty-two. So numerous are some species in indi- 
 viduals that they completely obscure the ground and prevent 
 any other species from competing with them. 
 
 Another fodder plant, " Pasture Sage," of Nevada {Arte- 
 misia frigida), is worthy of mention. In many of the states, 
 notably in Nevada and Utah, this species is almost wholly 
 the winter pasture. After passing on to the treeless plains 
 of the south this species becomes quite common, and in many 
 localities is fully one-third of the vegetation. Not being 
 recognized by our people as a forage plant, I mention it so 
 that attention may be drawn to it as the best of winter 
 pasture. It is this species that grows in such quantities at 
 Ashcroft and other places in British Columbia, and always 
 takes the place of bunch grass when the latter is destroyed 
 by cattle. In general appearance it is extremely like 
 wormwood, and I am sure that much of its value depends 
 on the bitter principle it contains in common with all the 
 Artemisias. 
 
 Another plant well worthy of mention is the White Sage 
 {Eurota lanata), which is found abundantly on the tops of 
 the dry hills on the southern plain. Dr. Rothrock in the 
 botany of the 100th meridian says of this plant : — " White 
 Sage is widely diffused throughout the Western territories, 
 and held m high respect as a winter forage ; stock feeding 
 on it actually gaining flesh when living on this plant, so 
 unpromising in its appearance It is noteworthy that most 
 animals do not eat it from choice." 
 
 I give the analysis of a few of the native western grasses 
 taken from the Report of the United States Commissioner of 
 Agriculture, in 1879. By placing the well known Timothy 
 
:^48 
 
 .MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-ATEST. 
 
 (Phleum j)f'<tieiisis) at their liead, Ontario farmers will 
 know how near the Avild grasses come to it in value as 
 fodder. 
 
 Phlcma pnitensi.s. (Timotliy.) 
 
 Audropogou Buoparius 
 
 Poa pratensi.s (June Grass.). 
 
 Poa Keiotiua. (Fcml Meadow.) 
 
 P.-micum virgatum. (Fall Panic Gras.s.),... 
 Hicrochloa borealis. (Sweet scented Grass.. 
 Festuca ovina. (Feseuv Grass.) 
 
 1^ J: 
 
 u 
 
 3G 
 
 16 
 
 21 
 
 11 
 
 r,-i 
 
 8.91 
 
 5 
 
 01 
 
 14 
 
 ';i 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 O.O'J 
 
 1.59 
 2,SG 
 3,48 
 l.TO 
 4.12 
 3.34 
 
 
 53.35 
 33.72 
 40 09 
 42.44 
 47.80 
 41.43 
 40.43 
 
 > -2 <! 
 
 31.74 
 50.48 
 44.91 
 45.1 7 
 45 49 
 40.14 
 44.13 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 Stock Raising. 
 
 Method of the Chapter — Cypress Hills — General Description, Altitude, Wood, Water, 
 Grass — Value for Summer Pasture — Winter Pasture North of the Hills — Shel- 
 ter in the Coulies — Plain North of the HiUs — Its Description and Character — 
 Bow Eiver and Cypress Hills Compared — Summer Pasture Everywhere — Enumera- 
 tion of Localities — All Equally Valuable — Ponies can Winter Anywhere — The Reason 
 of This — Prairie Grass real Hay in Winter — Why Canadian Horses Die — How to 
 Eemedy This — Mr. Mackenzie's Opinion — Canadian Horses must be Fed — Cattle 
 Succeed Well as they are always Grass Fed — Ponies use the Hoof ; Cattle the Nose 
 to Procure their Food in Winter — When Cattle must be Fed — Incidents on the 
 Prairie in Winter — Mr. Selwyn's Testimony — Dr. Dawson's Testimony — Wild Cattle 
 Winter out — Winter Shelter a Necessity — Other Locations as Good as Bow 
 Eiver — Country West of Cypress Hills — Hand Hills as They are Now — Descrip- 
 tion of the Hills — The "Store" — Country West of Sounding Lake — Tail Creek — 
 Eemains of Former Fights — Bow Eiver Country — Natural Hay — Country Better 
 Suited for Pasture than Farming — Description of the District — Eoot Crops easily 
 Eaised for Cattle Feed — Winter Storms Never do Harm if Food is Abundant — Sheep 
 Eaising — Keeping Hogs, easily Fattened — Animals easily Fattened in the North — 
 Illustrations of this Fact — Eiga Exports Hides and Tallow — Our Plains of same 
 Character as Eussian Ones — Food Abundant Everywhere — An Irish Delegate's Views 
 on Stock Eaising — Mr. Spence's Opinions Regarding the same Matter — Testimony of 
 Settlers Eegarding Cold. 
 
 Stock raising being one of the principal occupations of 
 future settlers in the southwestern part of the territories, 
 I shall introduce the subject by describing the country in 
 detail in that connection. No other place possesses so 
 many advantages as the Cypress Hills, and these I will 
 describe first. 
 
 CYPRESS HILLS. 
 
 The Cypress Hills may be described as a plateau, or a 
 series of plateaux, extending about 100 miles from east to 
 west. At the eastern end they rise abruptly from the 
 plain to the height of 400 feet, but at the northwestern 
 extremity they were found 2,000 feet above the plain north 
 of Fort Walsh, At the "Head of the Mountain," the 
 
250 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 western end of the hills, they are at least 1,500 feet higher 
 than at the eastern end. By the readings of my aneroid 
 they fall off from 1,500 to 2,000 feet in less than ten miles, 
 by going north from any point of the western half of the 
 hills. They are at most twenty-five miles wide at the 
 eastern end, and beyond Port Walsh they become so narrow 
 that often the plateau is little over a mile in width. On the 
 south, instead of abruptly falling off towards the plain, they 
 gradually merge into it, so that it was only by sending 
 a man fifteen miles to the south that I was sure we were 
 on the southern edge of the hills, thirty miles east of Fort 
 Walsh. The aneroid reading showed an elevation at their 
 base of fifty feet more than the altitude of their eastern 
 end. 
 
 The top of the hills may be characterized as a series of 
 pla,teaux, gradually becoming more elevated as you proceed 
 Avestward, and the coulees or narrow valleys separating 
 these plateaux becoming correspondingly deeper. These 
 latter are the sources of the streams which flow into the 
 Saskatchewan on the one hand, and into the Missouri on the 
 other. It was no uncommon occurrence to find water 
 less than 100 yards apa,rt in these coulees flowing in oppo- 
 site directions. 
 
 Wood is abundant in all the coulees, which penetrate 
 the hills on the east, north, and west sides, bat only west 
 of Fort Walsh that is it found inside the margin of the 
 plateau itself. On the south, as far as my observation ex- 
 tended, wood is scarce, and it is only in the deeper recesses 
 of the liills that any is to be seen. Along the eastern 
 and northern slopes no wood was met with, except poplar 
 of two species, small birch, and ash-leaved maple. On 
 the southeast side, near East End Post, a few coulees were 
 seen filled with fine groves of spruce, and amongst these 
 the usual plants of the cedar-swamp were abundant. 
 Twelve miles west of the eastern end we came on a deep 
 
STOCK RAISING. 251 
 
 couUe with many ramifying branches in which we found 
 groves of spruce and poplar, and two fine creeks issuing from 
 the western side of the valley, on each side of a marshy 
 tract, less than 100 yards in extent, and flowing in opposite 
 directions. Every few miles transverse valleys are seen 
 sending their waters in both directions, and these con- 
 stantly becoming deeper until the last one is reached at Fort 
 "Walsh, where the depression is 600 feet below the level of 
 the plateau, and the stream heads to the north of the central 
 or highest land and, therefore, drains the whole of the 
 higher plateau. Cottonwood or Six Mile Coulee, farther 
 east, and Medicine CouMe or Creek, the most northern 
 tributary of the Missouri, do the same. Strong Current 
 Creek drains the northeastern part, and the drainage of the 
 northwestern is carried to the Saskatchewan by Maple 
 Creek, a torrent which carries off the spring floods, but 
 which was wholly without flowing water in August when we 
 were on it. Twenty -five miles east of Fort Walsh spruce and 
 pine {Pinus contorta) become prominent features, the latter 
 always being found along the upper margin of the valley. 
 West of Fort Tfalsh and near the " Head of the Mountain " 
 this pine forms groves of many acres in extent, the trees 
 ranging from four to twenty-four inches in diameter, those 
 from six to twelve inches being the most abundant. This 
 is the pine known in British Columbia as black or sugar 
 pine, and is of little value for timber, although it is tall and 
 straight. 
 
 Water, issuing from the hill sides in the form of brooks 
 or springs, is very abundant and of the best quality, but 
 ponds are scarcely ever met with on the plateau itself. Fish 
 were seen in all the small brooks, but no trout were observed 
 anywhere in the hills. Numerous bones of large fish were 
 seen along the margin of a lake which extends many miles 
 along the southern side of the hills, and which is the head 
 of White Mud River, a tributary of the Milk River. 
 
252 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 A careful examination of the flora causes me to conclude 
 that the climate of the Cypress Hills is nowhere suited for 
 the growth of cereals, except that of the eastern end for 
 about twenty miles. The best soil was usually a black or 
 reddish sandy loam, with a mixture of sand or quartzite 
 gravel. Quartzite gravel is a very marked feature in the 
 hills and on the plains extending south frOm them, g-nd 
 occurs very frequently both to the south and north of Fort 
 "Walsh, and also along the secondary slopes on the north side 
 of the hills. All the land where it predominates is useless 
 for agriculture, and makes poor pasture as regards quantity, 
 but is of excellent quality. The southern plain extending 
 from the hills as far as seen is very inferior in every sense, 
 but being very much parched at this time (August 8th) may 
 have appeared worse than it really is. This observation 
 only applies to the tract having good soil, as those covered 
 with gravel are useless. 
 
 The plateau west of Fort Walsh is almost a dead level, 
 with generally a very fine soil, but so elevated and ex- 
 posed to the cold winds from every quarter that the majority 
 of the plants found there were identical with those of the 
 Rocky Mountains, near Morleyville, over 4,000 feet above 
 the sea. 
 
 The grasses and other forage plants of the hills were those 
 peculiar to coolness and altitude, but were all highly nutri- 
 tious, and almost identical with those found on the higher 
 plateaux at Morleyville. In all the valleys and on the rich 
 soils of the higher grounds the grass was tall enough for 
 hay. No better summer pasture is to be found in all the 
 wide North-West than exists on these hills, as the grass is 
 always green, water of the best quality always abundant, 
 and shelter from autumnal and winter storms always at 
 hand. Wood in abundance for both house-building and fuel, 
 and" immense quantities of coal, near East End Post and g»n 
 Medicine Coulee, at the western end. show that the future 
 
STOCK RAISING. 253 
 
 of the country in these respects is provided for. The only 
 drawback is the fact that owing to the greenness of the 
 grass when the frost occurs, it becomes useless for winter 
 pasture, even if the snow were not too deep. No person 
 intending to keep cattle should leave out of his calculations 
 the necessity of procuring hay for the winter. In the past, 
 buffalo constantly wintered between the Cypress Hills and 
 the South Saskatchewan, but never on the hills themselves, 
 and from this fact and my own observations while crossing 
 that region, I am under the impression that cattle can winter 
 out north of the hills without food being provided for them. 
 There will be no difficulty as regards storms, as many 
 ravines and coulees with high, exposed hills extend through- 
 out the plains. No wood, however, can be obtained north 
 of the base of the hills. The pasturage of this region is 
 identical with that on Bow River, and the climate seems 
 just as dry, and I was informed that it felt the influence of 
 the winter chinooks to some extent likewise. 
 
 The great plain lying north of the Cypress Hills and south 
 of the Saskatchewan and between the two " Elbows " of that 
 river, has a breadth at its widest part of about 80 miles, and 
 from east to west of 140 miles. West of the trail leading from 
 Fort Walsh to Battleford the country is very broken, rising 
 into high hills either separated by coulees, in which there 
 are dry water-courses or regular stream valleys, which con- 
 nect with the main valley that extends east and west. All 
 the streams coming from the hills to the west send their 
 waters to the Saskatchewan by Maple Creek, a stream at this 
 season with a wide bed but containing very little water. 
 The streams entering the eastern end of the valley collect 
 together and flow north into Island Lake, through a valley 
 about three miles wide, covered with cactus, artemisia and 
 various saline plants The soil of the hills and slopes, west 
 of the trail is^excellent, but occasionally covered with quartz- 
 ite gravel. That of the valleys is generally a whiteish clay 
 
254 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOBTH-WEST. 
 
 which becomes the stickiest of mud when wet. Although 
 the soil is good, owing to the uneven surface, little of this 
 land could be called agricultural. All the valleys were 
 covered with good hay grass, but much of that on the hills 
 was very short and stunted. 
 
 After crossing the Battleford trail and the cactus plain the 
 character of the soil and country changed at once. The for- 
 mer now contained much sand, and at times passed into 
 isolated patches of blown sand without any vegetation what- 
 ever upon them. In this sandy country water was very 
 scarce, and one salt lake was met with where the water stank 
 so that the horses would not drink it, although they had 
 been nearly fourteen hours without any. This lake was 
 over ten miles in length, and lay in a depression which con- 
 nected at its northern end with Island Lake, and seemed to 
 extend out to the base of the Cypress Hills at the south. 
 Around the northern end we passed, and for about thirt}- 
 miles travelled over a very dry region with scarcely any 
 good water, and very little of any kind. The soil was un- 
 varying sandy loam — never pure sand — with boulders often 
 on the hill tops. 
 
 After a careful perusal of the above it will be seen that 
 these hills ojQFer advantages equal, if not superior, to those 
 found in the Bow River country. Fine rich grass, pure 
 spring water, elevation in the heat, and absence of flies are 
 assured for summer. In the winter there are shelter from 
 storms, and abundance of hay and fine pasture on the exposed 
 hills, where the buffalo has wintered from time immemorial. 
 
 Every part of the North-West produces excellent pasture 
 for summer, but only certain sections are suited for the win- 
 tering of stock wholly or partly without hay. In winter 
 there must be a combination of advantages, and although 
 in places where buffalo wintered in the past, cattle can do 
 the same now, still shelter is necessary and this cannot be 
 obtained without wood. The best pastures therefore are 
 
STOCK RAISING. 255 
 
 those near Turtle Mountain, Moose Mountain, "Wood Moun- 
 tain, the Cypress Hills, the valley of the South Saskatche- 
 wan and its tributaries. Tail Creek, and along the eastern 
 base of the mountains for forty miles north of Bow River. 
 Without entering into details regarding these localities, I 
 may state that, as I have shown when speaking of the 
 grasses, all have nearly the same species and consequentlj'' 
 are equally valuable as pasture. 
 
 Ponies can winter out without difficulty on any part of 
 the prairie, or mixed forest and prairie, between Winnipeg 
 and the Eocky Mountains. These animals use their feet and 
 scrape away the snow even if it be two feet deep, and get all 
 the food they require. The heats of August and the light 
 rainfall of the autumn, taken in connection with the small 
 amount of snow, which seldom Hhaws but evaporates under 
 the action of the wintry sun even at a temperature below 
 zero, produce every season, an immense amount of fodder 
 equal to hay, over an area not less than 300,000 square miles 
 in extent. It is the light rainfall of the autumn and the 
 setting in of winter without it, which gives the nutritious 
 hay-grass that cattle and horses eat on the plains all winter. 
 This is the reason that accounts for these animals coming in 
 fat from the plains in spring. Cattle, fed when the snow gets 
 a crust on it in March, would winter just as well as horses. 
 All that has been said and written about the nutritious 
 grasses of the North- West resolves itself into this — the frosts 
 and suns of October dry the grass ; while the November 
 snows cover it to a depth of a few inches, and so it remains 
 till spring, if not eaten in the meantime. 
 
 In summer ponies eat great quantities of grass, and never 
 having tasted oats do not look for such luxuries. Canadian 
 horses, on the otheT hand, when turned out of harness eat 
 the grass for a short time and then return to camp for oats. 
 Should they get none they hang around the camp, and are 
 often put in harness still hungry. A very few weeks settle 
 
256 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOETH-WEST. 
 
 the question. They either take to the grass or they die, 
 like many others, from over work with insufficient food. 
 In the winter they cannot get their food as they never use 
 their feet to paw away the snow. Put them on native hay, 
 and you are met by the same difficulty as in summer, — 
 they will not eat enough. Farmers know that horses fed 
 on grass have necessarily a large paunch, while those fed on 
 hay and oats have a small one, hence the majority of Cana- 
 dian horses die in a year or two if they are not properly 
 fed. It is not the climate that kills Canadian horses but 
 insufficient food. 
 
 Mr. Kenneth Mackenzie, who has been in the country for 
 over ten years, says " that twenty per cent, of the horses die 
 or are useless the two first years after being in Manitoba," 
 and advises they should not be brought thither until more 
 timothy and oats are raised in the country. This advice 
 was given six years ago, but its force remains the same, as 
 imported stock must be fed. Ponies can live anywhere in 
 the north, and so can Canadian horses as regards climate, but 
 the latter must get oats if they are expected to live and 
 thrive. 
 
 Cattle, whether native or imported, as long as they are 
 grass raised ones, will succeed Avell in the country in any 
 part, and not be injured by climate nor by the food obtained 
 by themselves. As cattle use the nose instead of the hoof 
 to clear away the snow, they cannot Support themselves 
 when the snow gets too deep or covered wi;h a crust, as it 
 sometimes does in the Saskatchewan country. It then be- 
 comes imperative to lay up at least a partial supply of hay 
 in most if not all sections of the country, to protect the cat- 
 tle from either of the above contingencies. I wish to be 
 clearly understood on this point, and therefore repeat that 
 cold does not cause the death of either horses or cattle, 
 but all deaths arise from either being over worked or 
 under fed, or both. 
 
STOCK RAISING. 257 
 
 WMle on the plains, in the winter of 1875, we were 
 caught in a severe snowstorm, and many of our horses gave 
 out, and one died. One night when the thermometer sank 
 below zero a mare dropped a j3olt, and the next morning I 
 drove it and its mother into camp. The mare was harnessed 
 in the cart and the colt put inside, and we travelled on. 
 Three days afterwards we left both at Rat Creek alive and 
 well. 
 
 In 1874 A. R. C. Selwyn, F.R.S., Director of the Geological 
 Survey, examined the country, and in his report of the 
 following year wrote of the Saskatchewan district : — " At 
 present there are comparatively few cattle in the country, 
 and it is customary to house and feed them on hay during 
 the winter, the prevailing opinion being that they cannot 
 otherwise survive. There is, however, every reason to 
 believe that this is a mistake, and that if a hardy race of 
 cattle suitable to the climate we're introduced, they would 
 speedily become acclimated, and not only be able to survive, 
 but would thrive through the winter without the aid of ar- 
 tificial feeding and shelter ; and if so, vast herds might soon 
 be reared on these rich and boundless pastures, reanimating 
 the now deserted feeding grounds of the buffalo, and be- 
 coming a source of large profit to the settler, as well as 
 affording a ready and cheap means of providing for the In- 
 dians, who are now frequently reduced to the verge of 
 starvation, owing to the annually increasing scarcity of 
 buffalo, upon which they are at present entirely dependent. 
 I took some trouble to inquire into this subject, and though 
 I found the prevalent belief to be as I have stated, yet I 
 was informed of several instances of cattle having been lost 
 in the fall, and in every case they had not only survived 
 but had been recovered in excellent condition in the follow- 
 ing spring." Dr. George M. Dawson, in his Report of 1874, 
 gays : — " In July of last summer I saw a band of cattle in 
 the vicinity of the Line, south of Wood Mountain, which 
 17 
 
258 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 had strayed from one of the United State's forts to the 
 south. They were quite wild, and almost as difiicult to 
 approach as the buffalo ; and notwithstanding the fact that 
 they had originally come from Texas, and were unaccus- 
 tomed to frost and snow, they had passed through the win- 
 ter, and were in capital condition." 
 
 All the requirements for stock-raising are found wher- 
 ever there is a sufficiency of shelter in the winter, as all the 
 prairie affords good pasture in the summer. Winter pasture 
 is surest wherever there are high rolling or sharp hills, but 
 the snowfall is generally so light that cattle and horses 
 can pasture almost anywhere south of lat, 52° west of the 
 106th meridian. Although all eyes are turned at present 
 to the Bow River country, there are just as fine locations in 
 other parts of the territory. I have described the Cypress 
 Hills, cited Wood Mountain and other points, and will now 
 give a general review of the more salient points in connec- 
 tion with the other portions of the region m question. 
 
 Westward of the Cypress Hills and extending towards 
 Fort Macleod, the country is very much cut up with coulees 
 (ravines) and gravel hills with intervening spaces of rich 
 pasture land, which by reason of wood being very scarce is 
 not a desirable country in winter. Northwest from the hills 
 the Saskatchewan divides into the Red Deer, Bow, and Belly 
 Rivers. The valleys of these streams being from 200 to 
 500 feet in depth, with abundance of brush and groves of 
 trees with many branching coulees opening into them, will 
 give shelter to many thousand head of cattle during the se- 
 verest storms of winter, while in mild weather they can find 
 abundance of pasture on the hills outside the river valleys. 
 
 The Hand Hills district on the Red Deer River southwest 
 from Battleford, in former years was noted for its rich pas- 
 tures and for the enormous herds of buffalo wintering in its 
 neighborhood. At present the buffalo are all gone, the In- 
 dians have disappeared with them, the whole region is with- 
 
STOCK RAISING 259 
 
 out inhabitant, and nothing is left but the waving grass on 
 the hillsides and the water fowl in the marshy flats. This 
 region is thus described by Captain Palliser twenty-five 
 years ago, when the land was eaten bare by vast herds of 
 buffalo : — " The plain all around the base of these hills is 
 bare and arid, but the high level of the hills bears a very 
 fair and almost rich pasture, being 680 feet higher than the 
 plain, and 3,400 feet above the sea- it also contains lakes of 
 pure fresh water, and gullies with small groves of poplar." 
 While exploring the hills in 1879 I was much impress- 
 ed with the value of this region as a fine country for stock 
 of all kinds, It may be described as a land of brooks, small 
 lakes and ponds, grass marshes, and rich bottoms lying be- 
 tween rolling or sharp, rounded hills, which are covered with 
 nutritive grass in summer, and in winter with the same 
 grass but now converted into excellent hay. Standing on 
 a hill-top and looking over a wide area of grass-covered hills 
 and valleys which stretched out to the horizon on every 
 hand, and which could be extended almost indefinitely in 
 any direction, is it too much to say that here was room 
 for millions of cattle to roam at will and get fat on the very 
 richest grass ? No man looking over such a country could 
 doubt its value, for were the grass of the hills to become too 
 dry the succulent pasture along the lake or pond was close 
 at hand, and if that of the salt marsh was preferred it was 
 there also. On the south side of the hills and about 400 feet 
 above the plain is a fine spring of clear crystal water about 
 twenty yards across. This was the favorite camping ground 
 of the Crees, and between it and Red Deer Eiver extended a 
 plain, broken into low hills with intervening ponds and 
 meadows. In the Cree language this plain was called the 
 " Store," as buffalo in the palmy days of the past were never 
 wanting from it. In those days he would walk out of his 
 tent and look over the plain to where the herds were graz- 
 ing, mount his pony, go out and shoot a fat cow, and return 
 
260 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 witli his meat to camp. It requires no stretch of imagina- 
 tion to see all this a reality again, but instead of the Indian 
 and buffalo it will be the white man and his flocks and 
 herds. 
 
 Lying west from Sounding Lake and the Hand Hills a 
 magnificent pastoral country extends to and beyond Tail 
 Creek, the outlet of Buffalo Lake. Timber in groves is 
 found north of lat. 52°, and the whole region is unequalled 
 for its pasturage, water, and its shelter. For many years Tail 
 Creek was a favorite wintering ground for the Half-breeds 
 when the buffalo roamed in countless thousands around 
 them, but with the disappearance of the latter the former also 
 passed away. Their houses in many cases have been burned 
 down, and nothing is left but the mud chimney to tell the 
 story of man's occupation. On many parts of the exposed 
 plain the stone circles indicate where the tepees of the In- 
 dians have stood, and often the larger circle will show where 
 the chief's tent was pitched, with his warriors close to him. 
 One day, in 1879, we came upon the remains of a former 
 camp, indicated by the stone circles, and here were the 
 ghastly sights of a past massacre or battle, sculls and jaw 
 bones being nearly perfect, all the other bones having either 
 disappeared altogether or been much gnawed by wolves or 
 
 The Bow River country is only a part of a great whole 
 that extends from the Boundary northward for 200 miles, 
 and eastward from the base of the Rockies for at least 150 
 miles. In altitude this region is from 3,000 to 4,000 feet 
 above the sea, and principally consists of rolling hills and 
 rich valleys or river bottoms. The soil of these valleys is 
 generally very rich and much natural hay grows luxuri- 
 antly in the bottoms and along the sides, while the upper 
 slopes when not covered with wood are very often 
 strewed over with shingle (quartzite drift) to the depth of a 
 few inches or many feet. Although grain can be and is raised 
 
STOCK RAISING. 261 
 
 in many localities in this area, and the soil is exception- 
 ally good, yet, owing to its general altitude and proximity 
 to the mountains, it cannot be highly recommended as a 
 farming country. I know that many parties will be found 
 to contradict the above statement and aver that it is gener- 
 ally an excellent farming country, and MorleyviUe will be 
 cited as an instance, but I can say I have seen MorleyviUe 
 and the vicinity, and while I bear testimony to its value 
 from an agricultural standpoint, I still affirm that its natu- 
 ral advantages make it more of a pastoral country. 
 
 Leaving out the climate, which is spoken of in another 
 chapter, we may describe this country as a region of clear 
 mountain streams, spring brooks, and large rivers flowing 
 over beds of sand or gravel and literally filled with the 
 finest trout. As the larger streams debouch on the plain 
 they lose their limpid character and become milky from the 
 wearing away of the clays along their banks. When the 
 water begins to change, trout become scarce and soon disap- 
 pear, but now pike (jack -fish) and gold eyes take their place. 
 In the valleys and along the streams natural hay can be 
 procured in abundance, while the drier uplands will be cov- 
 ered all summer long with rich green grass, owing to the 
 frequent showers and heavy dews. Where the timber has 
 been lately burnt ofi" pea-vine and vetch, with other tall 
 growing plants, grow so thick that it is extremely difficult 
 to walk through them, and cattle, either in summer or win- 
 ter, find abundant and agreeable food. Owing to the warm 
 winds which frequently prevail m winter, little hay is 
 needed, but if it were, enough could be procured with very 
 little effort. 
 
 All farmers, in every section of the country, say that 
 perhaps in no other part of the American continent do root 
 crops come to such excellence as they do in the North-West. 
 Turnips and carrots grow to a fabulous size, and potatoes 
 surpass anything ever seen by an Irishman in his own coun- 
 
262 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 try. The rich river bottoms are just the places to raise these, 
 and every ranche (cattle farm) will eventually have its 
 thousands of bushels of roots raised at a nominal cost to sup- 
 plement the hay or grass of the hill pastures. 
 
 Although I have mentioned many points as being well- 
 suited for stock farming on a large scale, it does not follow 
 that these are the only locations. Wherever settlements 
 are formed in the future there will always be abundance of 
 stock, as farmers soon learn that cattle and their products 
 are a source of constant income m any country. Experi- 
 ence has taught farmers already that severe cold never 
 injures their stock if they are regularly supplied with food 
 when they cannot obtain it themselves. Intense cold is 
 generally accompanied with clear skies and little wind, and 
 neither horses nor cattle seem to care for it. Sleety storms, 
 such as often take place in Ontario are unknown, and during 
 the winter cattle are seldom if ever wet. Extreme cold is 
 never accompanied with chilliness in the west, and as nature 
 provides a thicker and therefore a warm:r coat, no fears 
 need be entertained of stock suffering from this cause. In- 
 sufficient food — and this alone — causes tho death of horses 
 and cattle throughout the west. A mild winter and deep 
 snow cause many deaths, while a severe winter and light 
 snowfall have scarcely any death record. It is after a win- 
 ter of this kind that the " animals come out fat " in the 
 spring. 
 
 Many believe that sheep-raising will not pay owing to 
 the "wild oat" (tStipa spartea), but that idea has been 
 exploded within the last few years. The objection may 
 have some force in it, but I confess that I am sceptical on 
 the point. A late writer says that lambs are dropped too 
 soon, and owing to the length of the winter this cannot be 
 prevented. Winter certainly does not set in earlier than 
 November and it ends as early as it does in Ontario, yet I 
 have never heard such a complaint made in Ontario, except 
 
STOCK RAISING. 263 
 
 by a shiftless person. Residents know that in March and 
 April hardly any rain or snow falls in the North-West, and 
 I fail to see where the injurious effects of the weather comes 
 in. 
 
 Barley and peas are the usual food for hogs, and Mr. Yeo- 
 mans, of Burnside, told me he found no difficulty in fattening 
 them, nor in keeping them over. His Berkshires were as 
 fine in the last of October as they would be in Ontario at 
 the same time. 
 
 Naturalists are well aware that animals put on more fat 
 in cold countries than they do in warm ones. In fact to be 
 fat is the normal condition of all northern animals when in 
 health. With this fact before us let us consider why thfere 
 should be any doubt of the fattening power of the northern 
 grasses. On other occasions I have proved that climate, 
 besides thickening the coat, actually fattened the animal, 
 and this has been borne out by the importation of Texas 
 cattle into Montana. These cattle actually become fatter on 
 the Montana plains in winter than on their own native plains 
 in summer. Grass-fattened cattle in the north make just as 
 fine beef as the stall fed ones of the south ; and the ex- 
 ports of Riga show that Russia for many years has derived 
 a large income from the export of her hides and tallow, the 
 grass fed products of her interior plains. It is surely time 
 that the cloud which has hung so long over our great interior 
 plains should be lifted, and the world at large know of their 
 great value as food producers. Let a man settle where he may, 
 between Winnipeg on the east and the Rocky Mountains 
 on the west, and the International Boundary on the south 
 and the parallel of 60° north, and he will find no difficulty 
 in procuring food. Should the soil give no returns the lakes 
 and rivers teem with fish, and every marsh and pool swarms 
 with water fowl. If he prefers the south he can raise fat 
 cattle without an hour's labor, and if he tries the middle 
 region a prolific soil will more than supply his wants. Here 
 
264 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 on an area of 350,000 square miles is everything to supply a 
 vast population, and all that is needed is a mere scratching 
 of the soil or the placing of a net in the water to supply a 
 household with food. Want, either present or future, is not 
 to be feared, and man living in a healthy and soul invigo- 
 rating atmosphere will attain his highest development, and a 
 nation will yet arise on these plains that will have no supe- 
 rior on the American continent. 
 
 In conclusion I will add a few extracts from reports of 
 gentlemen of experience who travelled extensively in the 
 country a few years since. The following extract is taken 
 from the report of Mr. R. H. B. P Anderson, of Listowel, 
 County Kerry, Ireland: — 
 
 " Cattle, sheep, and horses thrive well, and in spite of the 
 long winter during which they must be housed. Stock- 
 raising is found very profitable, hay can be had in abundance, 
 and cattle keep their condition well on it. I see no reason 
 why they could not be shipped to England from Manitoba 
 when the Canadian Pacific Railway is finished. At present 
 there are not many well-bred cattle or sheep in the country, 
 but the number is increasing rapidly year by year. I made 
 searching inquiries regarding the danger of spear-grass (Stipa 
 spartea) to sheep, and found it was very much exaggerated ; 
 it IS only to the careless or lazy farmer it presents any diffi- 
 culty ; it IS by no means common, and in the districts where 
 it grows it can be I'endered harmless by eating it down early, 
 or by running a mowing machine over the patches of ground 
 covered by it I heard some complaints about the difficulty 
 of keeping horses in Manitoba. In my opinion, and I judge 
 by what I saw, it would be entirely obviated by supplying 
 plenty of good hay and oats. Horses cannot live on the 
 prairie grass. Mules are extremely good, some of them 
 magnificent brutes, standing seventeen hands high ; they 
 seemed to grow fat on the grass, and are altogether hardier 
 and more adapted to the country in its present state (till 
 
STOCK RAISING. 265 
 
 more timothy and oats are grown) than the horse, but they 
 are much dearer. Oxen, however, are the mainstay of the 
 farmer in cultivating his farm, in fact, in breaking the prairie 
 he could scarcely do without them, they are powerful brutes, 
 and for oxen are wonderfully active ; they cost nothing for 
 keep, and also have the advantage of being cheaper than 
 either horses or mules. An ox costs about £14, a horse 
 about £25, and a mule about £35. Good milch cows can be 
 had for about £8, sheep 12s. to 18s. each. I forgot to say 
 that the pig seems to be at home here as everywhere else. I 
 saw some prize Berkshires eighty miles from Winnipeg, that 
 had been brought from Ontario, and seemed happy in their 
 new quarters. The ordinary diseases to which stock are 
 liable in Ireland are unknown in any part of Canada, 
 nor is there any, that I have heard of, peculiar to the 
 country." • 
 
 Mr. Thomas Spence, Clerk in the Legislative Assembly 
 of Manitoba, in an article published last year says while 
 speaking of stock-raising : — " The experience of many years 
 shows that no physical impediment arising from climate 
 or soil exists to prevent the prairies of our North-West 
 becoming one of the best grazing countries in the world, and 
 with the introduction of immigration, in a few years, the 
 beautiful prairies of the North-West will be enlivened by 
 numerous flocks and herds, and the cattle trade already 
 springing into importance will rapidly increase, or, without 
 much difficulty, be diverted into a southern channel. For 
 raising cattle and horses this country is equal to the State of 
 Illinois, and for sheep-raising it is far superior. The quality 
 of the beef and mutton raised upon our northern grasses has 
 been pronounced of f;;aperior excellence. Among the pecu- 
 liar advantages of Manitoba for stock-raising and wool 
 growing, the most prominent are : — 1st. The richness and 
 luxuriance of the native grasses. The grass is mainly cut 
 on the swamps and meadows, which chequer the prairies or 
 
266 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 fringe tlie streams and lakes ; 2nd. The great extent of un- 
 occupied land, affording for many years to come a wide range 
 of free pasturage ; 3rd. The remarkable dryness and health- 
 fulness of the winter. The cold dry air sharpens the appe- 
 tite and promotes a rapid secretion of fat and a vigorous mus- 
 cular development. All these point to stock-raising as one of 
 the most important and promising of the diversified channels 
 into which the industry of the immigrant and capitalist is 
 to be directed. Notwithstanding the expensiveness and 
 difficulty of stocking farms in a new country like this, where 
 animals must be procured at a distance of hundreds of miles, 
 the progress already made in this direction affords a gratify- 
 ing proof of the rapid growth of this important interest. 
 
 SHEEP AND WOOL GROWING. 
 
 There is not room in this guide to give the subject of wool- 
 growing the attention which its importance deserves. The 
 experience of forty years, and of some who have been en- 
 gaged in the business in Australia, established beyond a 
 reasonable doubt the following conclusions : — 1. That from 
 the nature of our climate and the general undulating char- 
 acter of the prairies, the richness of the grasses, and the 
 purity of the waters, this country is adapted in an eminent 
 degree to the healthful and profitable breeding of sheep; 
 2. That sheep are entirely free from the diseases which cut 
 them off so largely in more southern climates ; 3. That the 
 characteristic dryness of our winters, not only protect them 
 from the casualties to which they are exposed in moister win- 
 ter climates, but stimulates them to a more healthy and vig- 
 orous growth ; 4. That the naturalization of sheep impor- 
 ted from Illinois, Ohio, and other middle States of America, 
 improves the quality of their wool ; 5, That it is by far the 
 most profitable branch of industry in 'which the settler with 
 capital can engage, especially in connection with stock-raising. 
 The average product of wool is not subject to fluctuation. 
 
STOCK RAISING. 267 
 
 and the price also is far steadier than that of breadstuflfs. 
 Well-fed ewes produce fleeces from three to three and a half 
 pounds. Wethers produce fleeces from six to eight pounds, 
 the wool being of a good quality. All breeds stand the win- 
 ter cold well, but the Cotswold the best. An instance came 
 to the knowledge of the writer where a flock of about 
 twenty strayed away in the beginning of winter, and were 
 found in the spring fat, and none missing, but an addition 
 to the flock in lambs. An experienced settler writes as 
 follows : — I believe this to be equal to any country for 
 sheep growing. I prefer the Cotswold breed to any other 
 for this country, as they are good shearers, prolific breeders, 
 and good for mutton. My sheep have been troubled with 
 no disease, but the dogs have killed and wounded some. 
 I believe that in this branch of husbandry this country has 
 few equals, and no superiors m any country on the globe." 
 
 Having shown the great natural advantages of the North- 
 West as a stock-raising district, it may be asked how all 
 those cattle are to reach a market. To many of the ranche- 
 men along the base of the mountains this question will soon 
 be of paramount importance. In two years the Canadian 
 Pacific Eailway will reach the base of the Rocky Mountains, 
 and the surplus cattle will begin to come eastward. 
 
 For many years cattle shippers have felt that a great 
 wrong was done by the promiscuous shipping of cattle in 
 badly constructed cars. Inventors set to work and numbers 
 of cars were constucted, but none seemed to meet the approval 
 of both railway men and shippers, as they were generally 
 far too expensive. The large amount of capital invested in 
 the business, from $25,000,000 to $30,000,000 annually, and 
 the great yearly loss by death and disease from torture and 
 abuse, caused by the ordinary mode of transmission, not 
 taking into consideration the amount of unhealthy meat 
 consumed, stimulated those who fully realized the impor- 
 tance of the matter to provide a remedy. This has been 
 
268 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 found in the " Hunter Cattle Car," which now carries cattle 
 from Chicago to Boston, Halilax, and other Eastern porta 
 with a great saving of shrinkage in weight and of time, as 
 owing to its peculiar construction the cattle can lie down or 
 stand up at will The Grand Trunk authorities are so well 
 satisfied of its merits, that they are fitting up a number of 
 these cars to test their practicability, and it is believed that 
 this style of car will soon come into general use. Should 
 this be so our stock-raisers need have no fear for the success 
 of their business, as they are assured of at least ten per cent, 
 increase on the value of their stock. Shippers can calculate 
 to a certainty on their probable loss, and hence will be able 
 to give better prices. From a humanitarian aspect this 
 improvement in the transportation of cattle must be greatly 
 appreciated. 
 
 Testhnony of Settlers regarding the effect of Gold on Cattle. 
 
 Benjamin Hartley St. Charles Animals do not suffer so much here as 
 
 in England. 
 
 A. Gillespie Greenwood Animals do well here in winter. 
 
 S. C. Higginson Oakland The winters are dry ; animals do not 
 
 suffer from cold. 
 James Sturton Nelsonville Climate being drier, animals stand cold 
 
 better than in Ontario. 
 S. Ballantyne West Lynne Although last winter was very cold 
 
 stock wintered well. 
 John Begg Morris I have known young cattle to winter at 
 
 the straw pile. 
 Thomas Sigsons Portage la Prairie . . The winters being dry and frosty are 
 
 favorable to cattle. 
 
 Thomas Dalzell High Bluff The winter is not hard on cattle here. 
 
 John Erazer Kildonan The winter though cold is uniform. 
 
 W. A. Farmer Headingly The winter is not severe on animals, 
 
 they are very healthy. 
 W. A. Mann Bird's Hill Cattle do better here in a cold steady 
 
 winter than in a mild one. 
 M. Owens High Bluff The winters here are less severe on 
 
 cattle than in Ontario. 
 Nelson Brown High Bluff The winters here have the same effect 
 
 on animals as in Ontario. 
 H. C. Graham Stonewall The dryness of the atmosphere neutral- 
 izes the cold. 
 Matthew Fenis Burnside The winter not much severer here than 
 
 in Ontario, 
 
CHAPTEK XVI 
 
 Stock Raising m the Bow River District compared with 
 
 Montana. 
 
 [This Chaptee was Weitten by Alex. Beoo, Esq.] 
 American Writers Ignore our North-West, or Speak of its Sterility — Bow Biver District 
 Defined — Montana Stock-raisers Testify to the Superiority of the Bow River District 
 — Description of North-Westem Montana — It Improves as We Go North — Cattle 
 now in the Bow Eiver Country — No Loss from Winter Storms — Renting Grazing 
 Lands — Statistics of Stock in Montana — Chinook Winds — Description of the Rocky 
 Mountains — How to Stock a, Eanche — Sort of Cattle to Choose — Comparison of 
 Varieties of Stock — Capital Necessary to Establish a Ranche — Size of a Ranche — The 
 Bate of Increase — Profits on the Investment — Will There be a Market ? — Another 
 Estimate of Cost and Profit — Is it Wise to Lay in Some Hay — Sort of Men for Herds- 
 men — Men and Cattle Should be Comfortable — The C P. R. to cross the Bow River 
 District — Sheep-ferming as a Future Business — Every Requirement in the Region in 
 Question — A Perfect Sheep's Paradise — No Sheep Ever Lost by Severe Weather in 
 Montana — Little Disease among Sheep — Profit from Sheep Farming in Colorado — 
 Equally as Good in Bow Eiver Country — Breeding and Bearing Horses — Conclusion. 
 
 In a United States work on Stock-raising, published in 
 1881, the author says : — " There are but five great national 
 grazing grounds in the whole world, viz., in Central Asia, 
 South Africa, South America, and the Plains of North 
 America. The first is larger in extent than all Europe, 
 the second is as great, the third half as much, the fourth is 
 as large as South America, and the fifth the boundless 
 Plains of the United States, containing 1,650,000 square 
 miles, with over a billion of acres." 
 
 The writer referred to does not include in his estimate 
 the vast provinces of British North America, with the fertile 
 slopes and sheltered foot hills east of the Rocky Mountains, 
 embracing a larger, richer, and more valuable area of grazing 
 lands than those of the neighboring territories to the south. 
 The whole of the northern country is ignored ; as speaking 
 of Montana, he says, " it has for its boundary on the north 
 the bleak and almost limitless British possessions." True, 
 they are almost limitless^ but not so bleak as the greater 
 
270 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 part of Montana, which he represents as the best grazing 
 district of the United States. 
 
 The best pasturage lands belonging to the Dominion of 
 Canada, are, as far as yet ascertained, to be found in what 
 is generally known as the Bow River District. It lies east 
 of the Rocky Mountains, commencing at the base of " The 
 Rockies," near where the 114th degree of longitude, west of 
 Greenwich, or the fifth principal meridian of the North-West 
 surveys, intersects the international boundary line, which 
 conventionally separates the district from Montana territory. 
 
 Those grazing lands extend, in more or less perfection, 
 eastward along the boundary line for over a hundred miles, 
 as far as the Cypress Hills, and northwards parallel to the 
 Rocky Mountani range, across the head waters and along 
 the valleys of the North Saskatchewan, Athabasca, Peace, 
 and the Mackenzie Rivers. This vast region, especially along 
 Peace River, although not fully explored, is on account of 
 isothermal lines, reported to be milder than Montana in 
 winter, less subject to summer frost, as rich as the lands on 
 the head waters of the South Saskatchewan and Bow River, 
 if not richer, and well adapted for stock-raising and farming. 
 
 As a stock-raising country the Bow River district is the 
 best in America. I say this advisedly, as I journeyed 
 through a large portion of Montana and through the Bow 
 River district, as far north as Edmonton (about 500 miles 
 north of Fort Benton), in August, September, and October, 
 1881, and closely observed the capabilities of each section 
 along the route. Cattle owners from Montana and Texas, 
 who have resided in the Bow River district for the past six 
 or eight years, and raised stock west of Fort McLeod and 
 north towards Calgarry, testified freely to the superior 
 grazing properties of the country ; whilst the excellent con- 
 dition of the cattle which had all wintered out in the severe 
 winter of 1880-1, was ocular demonstration of the truth of 
 their statements. 
 
STOCK RAISING. 271 
 
 STOCK RAISING IN THE BOW RIVER DISTRICT. 
 
 Bordering on the Missouri River as far as Port Benton, 
 which is more than halfway west through Montana, the coun- 
 try is almost destitute of running streams. The grass, when 
 I passed through in August, was stunted, crisp, and dried up. 
 The soil is chiefly a close, retentive adob6 clay, which be- 
 comes exceedingly soft when wet, but when dry bakes like 
 brick. The consequence is that on many of the upper pla- 
 teaux during fall and spring small pools are formed, which 
 dry up in early summer, leaving the surface almost bare of 
 vegetation. Cactus and sage brush abound. Hundreds of 
 thousands of acres of what is denominated "bad lands" are 
 bare, and large tracts of the " better lands " are only about 
 one-quarter covered with grass. 
 
 From Fort Benton northward, nearly to the boundary 
 line, there is not much improvement in the general pastur- 
 age qualities of the country, except along the narrow valleys 
 of the Teton and Marias rivers, where there are some small 
 ranches. 
 
 Near the international boundary line there is a percep- 
 tible change for the better, more especially after leaving the 
 " alkali flats " and reaching the plateau above the " rocky 
 springs," which extends to and beyond Milk Eiver. 
 
 Farther north and westerly the land improves, and nearer 
 the foot hills of the Eocky Mountains the whole country is 
 better watered, and is more moist. The grass is more closely 
 rooted and greener all the year round. 
 
 Stock-raising in this region is only in its infancy. Up to 
 April, 1881, the number of cattle in the Bow River district 
 only amounted to about 3,000 ; since then, up to spring 
 1882, they have increased by importation and the formation 
 of new ranches to nearly 15,000. By the spring 1883,it is ex- 
 pected the numbers will reach 75,000. 300 breeding mares 
 were imported by " The Cochrane Ranch Co." in 1881. 
 
272 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 This progress is considered satisfactory. The caittle have 
 so far wintered out remarkably well. None were lost 
 through severe weather during the "winter 1880-1 in the 
 Bow Eiver district, although many perished in Montana and 
 farther south.. Reports for 1881-2 are favorable — not much 
 snow, and stock in excellent condition. 
 
 Provision is now made by the Dominion Government to 
 lease sections of grazing lands as ranches for a term of twenty- 
 one years, at the very moderate rent of one cent per acre. 
 Ten acres are allowed to each bead of cattle, to be placed on 
 the ground leased within three years of the granting of the 
 lease. A large number of applications have been made for 
 ranches, and as stock of all kinds for breeding purposes are 
 admitted free of duty, the increase during the next few 
 years will be very large. 
 
 In Montana the business of stock-raising has increased to 
 a large extent, and has been profitable to those engaged in 
 the trade. A return by the assessors of the territory gave 
 the following as the number and the value of live stock in 
 Montana in the year 1877, viz. : — 
 
 
 NDMBER. 
 
 VALUE. 
 
 Cattle . . . . 
 
 .. 160,647 
 
 . ... $1,812,920 
 
 HorBes . . 
 
 . . 26,496 
 
 851,674 
 
 Mules . . . . 
 
 1,688 
 
 105,648 
 
 Sheep . . . 
 
 .. 51,558 . 
 
 148,894 
 
 Hogs 
 
 4,642 . 
 
 20,598 
 
 245,031 $2,939,734 
 
 Since then the stock there has been doubled. There is 
 nothing to hinder equal progress in the Canadian North- 
 West. The natural features of the country are most favor- 
 able. Nutritious grasses in the greatest abundance, up to the 
 base of the snow-capped " Rockies," penetrate gorges which 
 frequently open into valleys walled in by perpendicular 
 cliffs, or grow in lovely glades amongst evergreen spruce 
 and other trees w-hich clothe their lofty sides. Sheltered 
 coulees and ravines leading from the bottom lands or valleys 
 
STOCK RAISING. 273 
 
 of creeks and rivers, to the higher levels of the prairie, afford 
 ample protection from storms when, they occur " Chinook 
 winds " from the Pacific coast rush through the Kootanie, 
 Crow's Nest, Bow River, and numerous other passes, aloTig 
 the head waters of hundreds of crystal streams and around 
 the, ends of longitudinal ridges, which divide the mountain 
 ranges, forming channels or conductors for those warm winds 
 to increase the temperature and dissolve the snow as if by 
 magic. 
 
 From Chief Mountain, which rises like a huge pyramid 
 near the international boundary, the serrated crest line of 
 the "Rockies" continues in picturesque and Alpine grandeur 
 to Mount Hooker, which is 15,500 feet high, where the head 
 waters of the North Saskatchewan have their rise, and 
 some distance farther north, at Mount Brown, 15,990 
 feet high, is the feeder of the river Athabasca. Beyond this 
 point the crest gradually declines in level to the Arctic 
 ocean. In lat. 62° its height is estimated at between 3,000 
 and 4,000 feet Northward of lat. 55" the main eastern 
 range ceases to be the water shed of the drainage of the 
 country between Hudson's Bay, the Arctic, and the Pacific. 
 Peace and Mackenzie rivers cleave this great chain and have 
 their sources in ranges farther west. This seems to account 
 for the geniality of the climate in the neighborhood of those 
 rivers, although so far north. 
 
 In reference to the best way of proceeding to stock a 
 ranch in the North-West, I cannot do better than quote from 
 a lecture delivered by Professor W. Brown, of the Ontario 
 Agricultural College, Guelph, before the Farmers' Club at 
 Markham, Ontario, 6th December, 1881. Mr. Brown had 
 given considerable attention to the subject, as parties had 
 been in correspondence with him as to the character and 
 standing of the entirely new line of cattle grazing opening 
 in the North-West territory. After preliminary remarks 
 he said : — " I would recommend the agreement of three 
 18 
 
274 jMANitoba and the great north-west. 
 
 young practical stockmen, in possession, let us say, of $5,000 
 each, making a joint purse of $15,000. Having chosen by 
 actual inspection the particular district, in view of (1) future 
 railway communication, (2) shelter, (3) water supply, (4) 
 rich, enduring grasses, (5) the necessity, ultimately, of fen- 
 cing cheaply by utilizing any natural advantages, such as 
 rivers, (6) the very model of a choice home cattle station, 
 and (7) the easy extension of the ranch, should everything 
 smile — we should then consider a sutiable breeding stock." 
 
 Speaking of suitable cattle for the plains, Mr. Brown said, 
 " the selection of cows and heifers must necessarily be 
 confined to what can be had in the United States, and 
 Canada — from among those grades or native stock, that by 
 their whole stamp as regards roominess, form and disposition 
 would throw the best possible grazer by the use of some 
 thoroughbred bull The character of such a cow, otherwise, 
 should be a good ranger, that is action in searching for the 
 best patches of grass; a good nurse, able to defend herself 
 and her charge; not a wanderer; a home-comer when re- 
 quired ; hardy as regards changes of climate, and keeping up 
 well on indifferent pasture if necessary. Such are plentiful 
 all over the continent at prices ranging from $25 to $40 per 
 head. No difficulty exists, therefore, in knowing what kind 
 of cows to use ; the trouble, if any, lies in telling exactly 
 what breed of bulls will clearly give us what we want from 
 such cows and their offspring." 
 
 A table was submitted by the Professor, showing the 
 maximum value of points of the Hereford, Aberdeen Poll, 
 Short Horn, and Galloway bulls, taken at 100, as respects 
 their reliability as breeders, impression power, giving early 
 maturity, giving weight, grazing disposition, hardiness, least 
 'offal, quality of flesh, and permanency of character. Their 
 vests stood — Hereford 87, Aberdeen Poll 87, Short Horn 83, 
 Galloway 82. He was much in favor of Herefords, and 
 said — " We find that while back somewhat in early 
 
STOCK RAISING. 275 
 
 maturing, and considerably so in weight, this breed, which has 
 * breadth and depth without height ' is, after all, second to 
 none in view of the probabilities of our North-West graz- 
 ings ; they are so strong and impressive in power, hardiness, 
 and especially in making flesh upon grass, that I am strongly 
 of opinion we should look to them to lead in this great 
 enterprise." 
 
 The capital required for establishing a ranch and carrying 
 it on for two years was next considered. It included all set- 
 tling down, house building, fencing of cattle station, enclosing 
 corrals, in addition to the necessary number and variety of 
 live stock, household maintenance, and some implements for 
 ordinary cultivation. After this two year period some reve- 
 nue should be accruing, though not necessarily so much as 
 the annual average to be afterwards expected; because in 
 place of selling all heifers along with the steers, the greater 
 number would be retained to increase the breeding stock. 
 The following is his estimate : — 
 
 Personal expenses of one examining ground and securing lease. ... $ 400 
 
 Price of four yearling bulls 1,600 
 
 Price of three thoroughbred heifers 900 
 
 Price of 250 cows and heifers at $25 6,250 
 
 Price of two yoke of oxen , 300 
 
 Twelve saddle horses (natives) 600 
 
 Total for live stock 10,050 
 
 Cost of dwelling house, stables, and shed 600 
 
 Fencing 100 acres as cattle station, the home property 500 
 
 Enclosing two corrals 1 50 
 
 Agricultural implements, tools, saddles, &o 1,000 
 
 Uuenumerated 300 
 
 Total for building, fencing, &c . . 2,550 
 
 Household maintenance and personal expenses of three principals 
 
 during two years ''50 
 
 Wages and keep of two lads two years ; 2,000 
 
 Incidental expenses 250 
 
 3,000 
 
 Kent of 2,000 acres 40 
 
 Price of 100 anres cattle station 125 
 
 165 
 
 Total capital required $15,766 
 
276 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 In naming 2,000 acres as the size of the ranch, Mr. Brown 
 said, " it will be evident we are calculating circumspectly 
 pro tern, whatever the future may bring about. Until graz- 
 ing locations become as regular as Ontario farms are to each 
 other, our 2,000 acres may be 20,000 so long as neighbors 
 don't push or out feed us in the number of stock." 
 
 But the most important part of this grazing question is the 
 estimate of annual revenue after the first two years. In 
 doing this we will assume the non-necessity of much winter 
 keep to breeding stock, all required being an occasional bite 
 of hay at more severe times, — the absence of any sweeping 
 epidemic or extensive stealing, but allowing for ordinary 
 proportion of deaths. Entering upon possession in, say early 
 spring of 1881, the 250 breeding cows and heifers, less deaths 
 and non-breeding, will have dropped 550 calves by August, 
 1883, one half of which will be two and a half years old, 
 and their disposal then best as stores, the other half being 
 yearlings and calves to be retained for another season's cul- 
 ling. Of these 275 head twenty-five heifers would be kept 
 for filling up blanks among breeders, and 250 to be sold. In 
 taking stock, therefore, on 1st September 1883, there should 
 be about — 
 
 250 breeding cows and heifers. 
 
 275 yearling calves, steers, and heifers. 
 
 250 two-year-olds for sale. 
 
 775 head in all. 
 
 Estimate of increased value at the end of two-and-a-half years. 
 
 First draft of two-year-old steers and heifers, averaging 950 lbs. ; 
 
 250 head at $23, delivered at railway $5,750 
 
 Value of 2 75 yearlings and calves retained, at $1 2 3,300 
 
 Value of seven additional thoroughbred bulls and heifers 1,500 
 
 Gross increase from live stock. $10,550 
 Depreciation in value of older breeding cows and bulls, none over 
 
 five years old % 400 
 
 Depreciation in value of horses, oxen, implements &c 300 
 
 Miscellaneous debits 300 
 
 l,00f 
 
 Net increase dining 2 J years $9,550 
 
STOCK RAISING. 277 
 
 Professor Brown concluded his lecture by saying — " Does 
 any one doubt the existence of a market for all the flesh that 
 this continent can produce ? Speaking for ourselves and on 
 the supposition that we do our very best with these north- 
 western grazings, even to fitting the animals for the butcher, 
 the 50,000,000 acres of reliable area which we have should 
 give us 5,000,000 head of cattle yearly, which is about four 
 billion pounds of saleable dead beef. Why this would give 
 every Briton only 100 pounds a piece per annum. With all 
 her apparently enormous importations of food for her 
 35,000,000 of souls, the United Kingdom last year could 
 only get $140,000,000 worth of flesh (alive, dead, fresh, and 
 salted), which distributed gave the pittance of fi.fteen pounds 
 a piece. You cannot possibly overstock that market for 
 some time." 
 
 I have also before me another estimate of the cost of es- 
 tablishing a ranch commencing with 250 cows for two years. 
 The estimated capital required is put at $13,150. Gross 
 increase from live stock given at $15,160, and the net in- 
 crease during two and a half years $9,625. 
 
 Another estimate for five years, taking as a basis the same 
 number of cows, but only selling steers and retaining heifers 
 for breeding purposes, shows that the proceeds of the sales 
 of steers is sufiicient to pay working expenses after the 
 second year ; pay rent and six per cent interest annually on 
 the capital invested, and leave a handsome balance m hand 
 the end of the fifth year, when the live stock, which at 
 the commencement was worth only about $5,000, then rep- 
 resented $55,000 in value. 
 
 Larger ranches will undoubtedly yield a greater revenue 
 in proportion to the stock invested. A Montana stock-man 
 writes : If $250,000 were invested in ten ranches and ranges, 
 placing 2,000 head on each range, by selling the beeves as 
 fast as they mature and all the cows as soon as they are too 
 old to breed well and investing the receipts in young cattle. 
 
278 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 at the end of five years there would be at least 45,000 head 
 on the ten ranges, worth at least $18 per head or $810,000. 
 
 As regards the care and management of stock, we have the 
 experience of our southern neighbors to guide us in a meas- 
 ure. On this subject a practical stock-raiser in Montana 
 says — It is the custom in the west not to put up hay or build 
 shelter for stock in winter, but I do not believe in this. 
 Cattle can generally be grazed out all winter, but there are 
 winters very severe, and not unfrequently dreadful storms, 
 during which cattle die. The loss from one storm would be 
 more then it would cost to cut hay for ten years. Besides 
 my idea of a ranch is "home for man and beast," and I 
 would rather be at some expense than hear that the cattle 
 suffer. 
 
 This view is sensible and humane. Herders and caretakers 
 should be comfortably housed, and should as much as possible 
 be men of families. They should each have some land under 
 cultivation, which would occupy spare time besides being 
 profitable. A race of " ranch patriarchs " would thus be in- 
 troduced into the pastoral regions of the North-West, with 
 hU the refinements and enjoyments of the family circle. 
 
 Instead of remaining remote and isolated as it now is, the 
 Bow Eiver district will, in a year or two, have the advan- 
 tage of being crossed by the main line of the Canadian 
 Pacific Railway, which will open a highway, first to Eastern 
 Canada, the Atlantic and European Markets, and soon there- 
 after a highway to British Columbia and the balmy shores of 
 the Pacific Ocean. Every small ranch requires two or three 
 employes, whose residences should form the centre of a 
 village where dairying and other industries could be profit- 
 ably carried on. 
 
 Sheep farming has not as yet been tried in. the Bow River 
 district, but there is no reason why it should not be as suc- 
 ■jessful as in Montana, where an investment of $15,000 in 
 sheep pays thirty-five per cent, the first year, forty-seven 
 
STOCK RAISING. 279 
 
 per cent, the second year, and sixty per cent, the third year. 
 Our mountain spurs and ridges, with their fine succulent 
 grasses, pure water, gravelly creeks, and dry atmosphere, 
 are peculiarly adapted to sheep husbandry, and under those 
 conditions a healthier stock and better wool is obtained than 
 the soil and climate of lower lands can produce. 
 
 The principal conditions of a sheep ranch is shelter, 
 water, and dry grazing grounds. Sheep love a dry climate, 
 and the higher and drier the soil the better it is for them. 
 Describing a sheep ranch farther south a writer says — " This 
 is a natural sheep range. The round mounds of which there 
 are thousands in all directions are covered with buffalo and 
 gramma grass. The pebbles in the brook clean the sheep's 
 feet, and in winter when storms beat, the ravines and tim- 
 ber give their natural shelter. The snow no sooner falls 
 than the winds blow it off the mounds, and no matter how 
 deep it may be in the valley, by going up 200 feet the ani- 
 mals can get all the grass they want. There is plenty of 
 timber, and, taken altogether, this is a perfect sheep para- 
 dise." The mounds correspond with our ridges, and amongst 
 the foot hills and in the valleys there is excellent shelter. 
 
 In Montana, where there is no natural shelter, a sheep 
 farmer says — " We put up walls of logs and cover them with 
 poles and hay which are a sufficient protection against all 
 storms in winter. We have never lost any sheep from severe 
 weather in Montana. The only disease to which sheep is 
 subject is scab, which is easily cured by an application of 
 tremlock dip and tobacco juice. Sheep, when cured, remain 
 safe unless they come in contact with diseased animals." 
 
 A sheep owner near Colorado Springs says — " At present 
 I have about 3,000 sheep, a cross between the Mexican and 
 the Merinos, about two-thirds of the flock being ewes. The 
 cost of these is |2 each, and the Merino bucks $30 each. I 
 keep two bucks to every 100 ewes. My average clip is 31bs. 
 per head a year, and I estimate the value of the clip at 
 
280 ilANlT./BA AND THE GREAT NOKTH-TVEST 
 
 thirty-five to forty cents per lb. It required only one man 
 to herd the flock, and I pay him $45 per month, including 
 board. The bucks I keep in an inclosed pasture, commenc- 
 ing May 1st, and to be continued to December 1st of each 
 year. I divide my herd, putting the breedii:g ewes in a 
 separate flock from the wethers and lambs, requiring two 
 herders, one for each flock ; but I think it pays to incur the 
 additional expense, and I shall keep it up in future. My 
 average increase is about seventy -five per cent, for the ewes, 
 or fifty per cent, for the whole flock per annum. In five 
 years' experience I have never fed any hay or grain to my 
 stock, and depend entirely on the native grasses, with a 
 few exceptions, as in cases of sickness or some fine blooded 
 bucks or ewes." 
 
 Wool has been carried by railroad from San Francisco for 
 $1.10 per 100 lbs Double-decked sheep cars, carrying 200 
 sheep, can be had from the base of the Mountains to Chicago 
 markets for $150, thereby putting fat wethers in market at 
 seventy-five cents per head. Dressed mutton carcases are 
 delivered from the Rock}^ Mountains to New York at $1.75 
 per 100 lbs., carload rates. 
 
 As soon as stock is ready to be sent from Bow River 
 district, equal facilities, if not better, will be furnished to 
 all eastern markets by the Canadian Pacific Railway. 
 
 Oregon ewes and Spanish Merino and Cotswolds would 
 doubtless thrive in the Bow River district. Their clip in 
 Montana is given at from four to six pounds, according to 
 the grade with Cotswold thoroughbred rams. 
 
 There is no question about horse raising proving a very 
 profitable enterprise in the North-West. Native horses 
 always winter out and keep in excellent condition. A few 
 m.are.s and thoroughbred stallions have already been imported. 
 This season a large importation is expected from Oregon, 
 Montana, and British Columbia. Horses raised in this country 
 suit better for all sorts of work than those imported. 
 
STOCK RAISING. 
 
 281 
 
 The Canadian North-West from its situation and advan- 
 tages, it is evident, is destined to become the chief stock- 
 raising country in America. In a few years it will be 
 difficult to find a vacant range in Wyoming, Nebraska, or 
 Montana suitable or capable of sustaining 5,000 head of 
 cattle. The Dominion of Canada, on the other, hand has 
 " limitless" ranges waiting to be taken up and occupied. 
 
CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 Water Supply. 
 
 Supposed Insufficient Rainfall — Souris Plain Thought to be a Desert — Settlement 
 Proves the Contrary — Brackish and Pure Water — Where Saline Lakes and Ponds are 
 Situated — Want of Running Streams Accounted for — Rainfall quite Sufficient — 
 Prairie Fires the Cause of Apparent Scarcity — Surface Water Scarce in many Locali- 
 ties — Brackish Water always Preferred by Horses and Cattle — lloderately deep Wells 
 Supply good Water — Cause of Poor Water on the Manitoba or Red River Prairie — 
 Artesian Wells a Success at Winnipeg — How to Obtain good Water in any Part of 
 the Country — Statements of Actual Settlers Regarding the Water Supply. 
 
 It is extremely difficult to give in a small space a com- 
 prehensive picture of a most important and practical mat- 
 ter, such as all conversant with the North-West must con- 
 sider the water supply to be. Writers who only consider 
 the average rainfall say without hesitation that the rainfall 
 is insufficient. Why ? Because there is less rainfall than 
 in Ontario and other places where the country often suffers 
 from drought. Others who visit the country in June and 
 July, or even any time during the summer of the last two 
 years, say there is too much. Formerly it was the fashion 
 to say the country was a desert, and Palliser in writing of 
 the Souris Plain, South-Western Manitoba, says : — " This 
 central desert extends, however, but a short distance into 
 the British territory, forming a triangle, having for its base 
 the 49th parallel from long. 100° to 114° west, with its apex 
 reaching to the 52nd parallel." Following Palliser, other 
 writers reiterated his statements, until it became an article 
 of belief that this country was a desert caused by insuffi- 
 cient rainfall. 
 
 Advance of settlement westward from Emerson showed 
 that these condemned plains were exceptionally fertile, and 
 to-day no lands are so highly spoken of. During the sum- 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 285 
 
 mers of 1879 and 1880 I was sent to the southern prairiea 
 to explore, and at the same time examine into the various 
 meteorological phenomena of the region in question. My 
 reports were favorable and showed millions of acres of fer- 
 tile land in a region regarded by public opinion as a desert. 
 Last year the " Syndicate " decided on running the C.P.R. 
 through this very region, and the Government sent in 
 scores of surveyors to lay out the land, whose reports are 
 now before the Government, and these without exception 
 are favorable as regards the fertility of the soil and the 
 richness of the prairie vegetation. Concerning the water 
 supply there is much diversity of opinion, owing to the 
 want of running streams in the greater part of the country. 
 Many of the pools late in the season become brackish, 
 and others dry up, leaving wide stretches without a drop of 
 good water on the surface. Actual settlement alone will 
 decide this question, and as settlers increase the scarcity of 
 good water will decrease, because every man will dig his 
 own well and get his own supply. 
 
 For years the water supply has been a prominent 
 thought, and during my frequent journeys I paid attention 
 to every matter connected with it. Salt or brackish water 
 was found in close proximity to fresh water, and caused 
 many conjectures to be expressed regarding its occurrence.^ 
 Every salt lake, from the Riding Mountains westward, was 
 found to have a hard gravelly bottom, and a careful examina- 
 tion revealed the fact that all were on depressions in the 
 drift with their bottoms in Cretaceous clay, which is known 
 to underlie the whole country. These lakes are fed partly 
 by water running on the surface, but principally by springs 
 issuing from Cretaceous clay close to the water. All the 
 lines of salt lakes throughout the country will be found 
 resting on these clays. Salt Lake, ten miles east of Shoal 
 Lake, is a case in point. On one side of the road is the 
 lake surrounded by a pebbly beach, on the other side^ 
 
284 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 higher up, is a fresh water pool, from which all travellers 
 get their supply. Now it may be set down as an axiom that 
 all water in pools surrounded by mud is fit to drink ; but 
 that, at certain seasons, those ponds, with a bare gravelly 
 margin, should be shunned. Good water can be obtained, 
 in my opinion, anywhere in tho drift ; but as soon as the 
 Cretaceous clay either crops out or is reached by digging, 
 poor, if not very bad, water will be found. This accounts 
 for McKernan getting bad water at Hay Lakes, when he 
 sank through the drift and penetrated into the Cretaceous 
 clay, i am aware it has been said that the frequent fires 
 burning the vegetation, and the rains washing the liberated 
 salts into the hollows, cause these accumulations of saline 
 matter. I know that terrestrial plants produce potash 
 when burned, but not the salts which are found in the soils. 
 
 The dry, arid tract, around the Hand Hills, has more 
 creeks, with flowing water,'_than are to be found in the much 
 larger area of the Great Plain, where the soil is of a dif- 
 ferent character. 
 
 Here, near the Hand Hills, flowing water and cactus, 
 with dried-up grass, and poor soil, gave another proof that 
 the Cretaceous clay was a factor in more problems than one. 
 It had been a question for a long time unanswered, why 
 there were no creeks in the country farther to the eastward 
 where the rainfall was greater. Here, where the rainfall 
 is light, were numerous creeks, and the answer came at 
 once ; the impervious clay would not allow the rain to 
 enter the earth, which therefore made its way to the creek 
 and so to the river. In no other section of the country did 
 we ever find the water running in streams on the surface after 
 a storm, except in this localit3^ I account for the absence 
 of creeks by the fact that the winter frost exerts a surprising 
 pulverizing efiect on friable soil, which permits both roots 
 and rain to penetrate to a great depth. 
 
 Scarcely any running water, and little of what could be 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 285 
 
 called pure, is found on the Great Plain ; but many ponds 
 remain throughout the season, giving evidence that they 
 are supplied from springs. Those that retain water all sum- 
 mer are easily known by their vegetation, River Weed 
 [Potamogeton gramineus), Bladder Wort ( Utricularia vul- 
 garis), and a few other species being found in most of them. 
 The level country on the other hand retains no moisture on its 
 surface, except as marshes, the slightly undulating having 
 possibly abundance in the early summer in wide depressions, 
 yet by the middle of August, this disappearing to a great 
 extent. It was on the gently rolling country, with a more 
 or less clay surface soil, that difficulty was experienced in 
 finding water. On rolling prairies or rolling hills, water was 
 always abundant throughout the season, and the higher the 
 knoll, the more certain we were that water in a deep pool 
 lay at its base. 
 
 The rainfall, as I have stated in another place, is quite 
 sufficient for all purposes, and pure water has been obtained 
 without any difficulty wherever a settlement has been 
 formed on the Second Prairie Steppe. Although we would 
 travel sometimes one hundred miles without seeing flowing 
 water, and often ten miles without seeing a drop of any kind, 
 this was no proof of its scarcity. From Pine Creek to Boggy 
 Creek, there are sixteen miles of prairie. Upon this prairie 
 there was not a drop of surface water, when we crossed in 
 1875. Now, settlers are on every part of it, and abundance 
 of water has been found at an average depth of fourteen 
 
 feet. 
 
 To the question why, in a country which I assert to have a 
 sufficient rainfall, there are no running brooks ? I answer, 
 that so long as the face of the land is covered with tall, or 
 close matted grass or thick sward, the water cannot run off, 
 and no brooks or stream valleys can be formed. The rain- 
 fall, taking place only in summer, is almost immediately 
 absorbed into the soil and disappears. It was a noticeable 
 
286 MANITOBA AND TUE GREAT N0RTH-WES7. 
 
 fact that Big Cut Arm Creek was very little affected by the 
 almost continuous raias of June, and yet all the ponds and 
 marshes were full, on the prairie, 200 feet above the bed of 
 the creek. When we returned again, in the latter part of 
 October, most of the ponds were without water, but the 
 creek was nearly as high as in June. The water being 
 absorbed by the soil remains in it, as it would in the finely 
 pulverized earth of a flower pot, and is either taken up by the 
 roots, which penetrate to a very great depth, or passes down 
 into the sub-soil No one, who has not lived on the plains, 
 can properly appreciate the pulverizing effect of frost on the 
 western prairies, where the snowfall is so light and the 
 penetrating power of frost so great. 
 
 Let the sward be taken off by fire, or any other means, 
 and instead of rain penetrating into the soil, it will run off 
 into the hollows, and the land without grass will become 
 ■drier. Clay soil that bakes without cracking, and land 
 without swardj will necessarily allow the rain water to run 
 off, and small streams will be found in the hollows, and 
 eventually stream valleys will be the consequence. These 
 we found at the Hand Hills, under the above conditions. 
 
 To receive the water, then, the surface must either be 
 broken up or covered with a thick carpet of grass, which 
 would act as a mulch ; this mulch the soil finds in the old 
 grass. It is quite true that horses prefer the young grass to 
 the old and young mixed together, but it is just as true that 
 fires passing over the country, where the rainfall is light, pre- 
 vent nearly all the grass from seeding that year, and it is only 
 the second year after a fire that seed in any quantity can be 
 obtained. When collecting grasses and carices, I always 
 obtained my specimens on the unburnt ground. It is 
 quite possible that the plain appears less arid now than 
 when Palliser crossed it, as owing to the absence of the 
 enormous herds of buffalo, the grass now remains from year 
 to year, if not burnt off. The term, " short, crisp grass of 
 
WATER SUPPLT. 287 
 
 the prairie," which has become a household phrase, will not 
 be applicable as soon as the fires cease, and where the water 
 runs off now, it will pass into the soil through the old grass 
 (or mulch). Three years without fires would change the 
 growth of grass so much that many would think the rain- 
 fall had increased, when it was only retained by nature's 
 own covering. On the prairie east of Long Lake, where the 
 fire had not been, the grass was twice as long (July 4th) 
 as where it had been burnt over; but the horses always 
 went to the new grass, although quite short in comparison 
 to the other. Here, the frequent fires had gradually less- 
 ened the surface loam and exposed many of the little pebbles 
 scattered through it, and had we not dug into the soiF we 
 would have done as others did before us, classified the soil 
 as gravelly, whereas it contains very little gravel. 
 
 Wherever the grass was long the ground was soft, but the 
 reverse was the case where the grass was short from what- 
 ever cause. Mulching, then, is what the country wants, 
 and it can never get this until stringent steps are taken to 
 prevent prairie fires. 
 
 Salt lakes, ponds, and marshes are a characteristic feature 
 of the country, but they attain their highest development 
 on the Third Prairie Steppe. Many of these ponds, and 
 even a few of the lakes, are fresh in the Spring, but after 
 the middle of Summer they become brackish. Except the 
 brackish water of the Touchwood Hills, of which I do not 
 know enough to speak with certainty, all other was found in 
 the deepest depressions. In no coul6e was pure water obtain- 
 ed, except from a spring along its face. All other water in the 
 coulees was more or less saline. Lines of salt ponds or lakes, 
 sometimes of large dimensions, lay in the deep valleys, 
 separating the ranges of hills on the high plains, and they 
 were always to be found, whether the ground was high or 
 low, where the Cretaceous clay came to the surface. Tra- 
 vellers too often descend into valleys for water, whereas 
 
288 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH--WEST. 
 
 my experience shows that they should go out of them into 
 the hills. The conclusion formed regarding the salt lakes 
 and marshes is, that they rest on the Cretaceous clay which 
 evidently contains salt, as I invariably found plants peculiar 
 to a saline soil where this clay cropped out, and water oozed 
 from it. In speaking of the brackish nature of the water 
 oozing from these Cretaceous clays, I may remark that in ex- 
 amining the soil small crystals of selenite, pyrites, and other 
 sulphurous minerals are almost always to be found, showing 
 that it is to the presence of these deleterious ingredients 
 that the water obtains its brackish character and must of 
 necessity always be so. There is not a river or creek valley 
 throughout the whole interior that lies 150 feet below the 
 level of the prairie, along which you will not get salt marsh 
 plants, if water in the form of springs, oozes out of this clay, 
 which, as far as my observations go, is always there, though 
 its presence is only detected by the salt marsh plants. 
 Various species of grass were abundant on the marshy spots 
 of which Brizopijru'm spicatum and Spartina gracilis were 
 the most prominent. The former is the only grass on the 
 plains which is really deleterious, and no horse will touch 
 it except he is forced by hunger. Often it may be seen in 
 company with Arrow Grass, {Driglochin maritimum) growing 
 in salt marshes and covered with a white crust left by the 
 evaporating waters. 
 
 Salt lakes and marshes are of frequent occurrence where 
 sand hills join the plain, and salt depressions, either with 
 or without water, are always found in this connection. 
 "Within the line of sand, however, good water is sure to be 
 obtained in all cases. A little experience only is necessary 
 to detect brackish water by inspection of the vegetation. 
 None of the salt lakes or ponds have a marshy or black 
 muck border, or contain any sedges, except Scripus mariii- 
 mus and pungens. On the other hand, all the fresh water 
 ponds have rich black soil around their margins, or are filled 
 
wAraR SUPPLY. 289 
 
 in every part with grass and various species of Garex, of 
 which Carex aristata is the most prominent, and the one 
 constantly eaten by the horses in Summer. Between the 
 Little Touchwood Hills and the more western range, many 
 ponds of water that are good in Summer are bad in October, 
 owing to evaporation. Good water may always be known 
 here, by the sedge in the ponds remaining green, close to 
 and in the water ; while, if the pool has become brackish 
 the sedges in the centre of it rot and apparently die. 
 
 Wells sunk to a moderate depth anywhere in the drift 
 which covers the whole country, except in the baked clay 
 flats and deep valleys between ranges of hills, will contain 
 good water. All wells sunk through the drift into the Cre- 
 taceous clay will likely be more or less brackish. Hence 
 I advise all settlers to do as I advised Mr. McKenian, at Hay 
 Lakes, when he obtained bad water by sinking a deep well, 
 that he was to dig in the drift and never go through it, and 
 good water would always be obtained. McKernan's well 
 was fourteen feet deep, and the water unfit for use, while 
 by digging a well about fifty yards to one side of the other,^ 
 and only five or six feet in depth, he found good water (this 
 well was dug 28th September, at the close of the dry 
 season). All the country around Hay Lakes seemed to 
 have but a thin coating of drift, yet the land was remark- 
 ably fertile and contained abundance of water on or near the 
 surface. I consider the absence of water a good sign on the 
 prairie. It shows that the soil is well suited for farming 
 purposes, but it is no proof that water cannot be had by 
 digging. 
 
 On the Lignite Tertiary Plateau, or Third Prairie Steppe, 
 water, in many places south of the South Saskatchewan, at 
 present is very scarce on the surface. Many brackish lakes 
 are scattered over the country, but only one is known to the 
 writer from which horses would not drink. A number of 
 lakes are marked on our maps as " Stinking Lakes," which 
 19 
 
290 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-"WEST. 
 
 are doubtless of this character. No water is known that is 
 considered injurious to horses and cattle. Our animals 
 seemed always to prefer the brackish marshes and their 
 grasses to those where the water was sweet and good. Na- 
 tive horses never make a mistake in food and drink, and 
 are always sure to find a supply of both, such as will prove 
 best adapted to their wants. 
 
 On the Second Plateau or Steppe, good water, where not 
 in pools on the plain or in the hills, can always be obtained 
 by sinking less than twenty feet. Although salt marshes 
 and pools are frequently seen, yet all wells already dug 
 contain good water. The Red River Prairie has less good 
 water than any other section, and a word of explanation is 
 necessary to show the cause and indicate the remedy. 
 
 As far as is known, the surface soil of the Red River 
 Prairie consists of silt or alluvium charged in nearly every 
 part with salts of sodium and potassium. In the vicinity 
 of Winnipeg these salts prevail to such an extent that com- 
 mon seaside plants, such as Salicornia herhacea and Ghenopo- 
 dina maritima are quite common in little hollows where 
 water lies in the Spring. In 1872, 1 picked these up in the 
 very centre of the main street of the City, where the 
 Hudson's Bay Company's mammoth store now stands. All 
 wells sunk into this silt or clay give bad or rather poor 
 water, for the reason given above. On the undulations 
 which are generally found in the plain, good water is always 
 obtained. In these cases, the wells are sunk through the 
 clay into the gravel which is always found beneath. The 
 gravel is identical with that found along the shore of Lake 
 Manitoba — a whitish limestone gravel derived from Devo- 
 nian or Silurian rocks. In the neighborhood of Winnipeg, 
 the clay is so deep that no well, up to last year, penetrated 
 balow it. As a matter of course, all water became bad after 
 standing for a time in the well, and water for all household 
 purposes had to be brought from the Red or Assiniboine 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 291 
 
 Rivers. Last Summer, two or three artesian wells were 
 sunk, and in each case first class water was obtained below 
 the clay. About the middle of October last year, General 
 Hammond, General Superintendent of the South Western 
 Railway, had one sunk, and water was reached while I was 
 there. If I remember aright, the well was a flowing one, 
 but whether it was so or not the water was good. 
 
 It will be seen then that although there is little flowing 
 water in the country there is abundance in pools in most local- 
 ities, especially in the mixed prairie and forest region. On 
 the First Prairie Steppe, the gravel will generally have to be 
 entered before good water is obtained ; while, on the next 
 plateau, digging until water is reached is all tliat is neces. 
 sary. Good water on the next Plateau, especially in the 
 south, will not always be obtainable, except care be taken 
 in selecting the location and intelligence be exercised in 
 noting the character of the soil penetrated. Should the 
 drift be passed through, the chances are that a failure will 
 be the result. In this case I would recommend another 
 trial, as only a few rods away excellent water may be 
 found. Any pool that in an ordinary year contains good 
 water late in September or October may be considered a 
 spring, and here, were I the settler, I would locate my 
 house. "What is generally called bad water has a sweetish 
 taste and may be considered a weak solution of Epsom salts. 
 
 The following statements of actual settlers wUl give some 
 idea of the means used by them for obtaining a supply of 
 water. I omit all who get their water from river, lake, or 
 marsh, and only mention those who have dug for it. I 
 omit the names of over thirty farmers who got their supply 
 from the surface : — 
 
 TS/MK. ADDEBSS. 
 
 B. Hartly St. Charles I have a clear water spring. 
 
 John Dil worth High Bluff There is a good supply of water by dig- 
 ging twelve feet. 
 
 George Cadman High Bluff A good supply of water by digging six- 
 
 teen feet. 
 
292 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOKTH-'WEST. 
 
 W. Jackson High Bluff A good supply of water by digging 
 
 twelve feet. 
 Wm. Eagles Stonewall By drilling the rock we obtained good 
 
 water. 
 A. Gillespie Greenwood I have sunk two wells twenty-two feet 
 
 deep and have plenty of water. 
 S. C. Higgenson Oakland I got the very best of water by digging 
 
 seven feet. 
 Allan Bell Portage la Prairie.. Excellent water can be obtained by dig- 
 ging fourteen feet. 
 Jas. Stirton Nelsonville A spring creek runs through my land. 
 
 Plenty of water at fourteen feet. 
 R. E. Mitchell Cook' s Creek .... The water supply is good. I dig to the 
 
 depth of iifteen feet. 
 A. J. Hunker Green Ridge I get very good drinking water from a 
 
 well twelve feet deep. 
 
 F. Ogletree Portage la Prairie.. I can get plenty of good water by dig- 
 
 ging fifteen feet. 
 Geo. G. Tucker Portage la Prairie.. I have to dig from twelve to eighteen 
 
 feet. My water is good. 
 A V Beckstead Emerson I have good water from a well eighteen 
 
 feet deep. 
 A. C. Hervey Poplar Point A good supply of water can be had at 
 
 from twenty to forty feet. 
 Philip McKay Portage la Prairie .. I have a good supply of water from a 
 
 well fourteen feet deep. 
 Angus Poison Kildonan I have a good supply of water by boring 
 
 twenty feet. 
 
 Geo. Tidsbury High Bluff Good water can be got at the depth of 
 
 fourteen feet from a well. 
 
 Thos. Sigsons Portage la Prairie... I get good water by digging twelve feet. 
 
 Thos. Dalzell High Bluff. Splendid water can be got from a depth 
 
 of from twelve to fourteen feet. 
 
 Amb. Wilson. Stonewall Splendid water can be got from a depth 
 
 of from fifteen to twenty feet 
 
 E. Sutherland Portage la Prairie.. We get plenty of water from twelve to 
 
 fifteen feet deep . 
 
 G. Stranger Poplar Point We get plenty of good water at a depth 
 
 of twelve feet. 
 Wm. Hill Woodlands I have good spring water at a depth of 
 
 eight feet. 
 Niel McLeod Victoria I have a well of good water at a depth 
 
 of si.^teen feet. 
 
 A, Aylmer St. Leon Water can be got from the depth of ten 
 
 feet. 
 
 B. Bell Rockwood We dug seventeen feet and struck rock. 
 
 The water is plentiful and good. 
 
"^7ATER SUPPLY. 293 
 
 NAMK. ADDRESS. 
 
 Jae. "Whimster High Bluff. , I have plenty of good water from a well 
 
 twelve to fourteen feet deep. 
 Jas. Stewart High Bluff. I have plenty of water from a well ten 
 
 to twelve feet deep. 
 
 Wm. Moss High Bluff. I have a never failing supply of water 
 
 at a depth of fourteen feet. 
 M. Owens High Bluff. I have found good water at a depth of 
 
 ten feet. 
 
 James Stewart Meadow Lea I have found good water at a depth of 
 
 sixteen feet. 
 Jas. Ferguson Higli Bluff. I have found good water at a depth of 
 
 twelve feet. 
 Jas. Airth . . , . : Stonewall. I have a good supply of water, after dig- 
 ging and blasting twenty-four feet. 
 
 B W. Johnston.. Springfield I have good surface water, standing six 
 
 or eight feet deep, and spring water at 
 twenty-five feet. 
 
 (i. Taylor Poplar Point Good water can he had at a depth of ten 
 
 feet. 
 
 Walter Grierson Meadow Lea Good water can be had at a depth of 
 
 sixteen feet. 
 J. Brydon Portage la Prairie . . An abundance of water at a depth of 
 
 ten feet. 
 
 A. Macdonald Stonewall An abundance of water at a depth of 
 
 ten feet, 
 A. J. Moore Nelsonville Good water can be got from wells at a 
 
 depth of fourteen feet, 
 
 ^. Ballantyne West Lynne Good water can be got at a depth of 
 
 ten to fifteen feet. 
 
 J. Appleyard Stonewall I can get plenty of water at twenty feet. 
 
 Edward Scott Portage la Prairie. . I have good water in a well seven feet 
 
 deep. 
 0. F. Knight Ridgeville Plenty of good water can be got from 
 
 ten to fifteen feet. 
 C. Logan Portage la Prairie. I obtain good water at a depth of fifteen 
 
 feet. 
 Max. Wilson High Bluff. I obtain good water at a depth of nine 
 
 feet. 
 John Troop Portage la Prairie.. I obtain good water at a depth of ten 
 
 feet. 
 A. Nelson, Jr Nelsonville I got very good water from a well four- 
 
 teen feet deep. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 Fxvel Supplies. 
 
 Scarcity of Fuel not Real — Views of the Canadian, the Englishman, and the Yankee — 
 Supply of Southwestern Manitoba — Turtle Mountain — Moose Mountain a Source 
 of Supply— Scarcity of Wood West of This— Cypress Hills— Government Keserves 
 Fuel —Fuel Generally Sufficient in Manitoba— Supply for Pheasant Plain— Scarcity 
 of V\ oodWest of Touchwood Hills— Eagle HiUs Supply —Fuel Abundant North of the 
 Prairie— Peat Deposits Abundant — Their Distribution — Peat on nearly all Farms 
 now — Mineral Fuels near the Boundary— Analyses of Coals — "Value of the Lignites — 
 St. Mary's River Coal — ^Analyses of Coals by Prof. Haanel — Souris Coal Field — Coal 
 at Cypress HiUs — Coal on Bow River — Its Value as Fuel — Red Deer River Coals — 
 Crawling Valley Coal — Saskatchewan Coal — Eighteen feet Seam above Edmonton — 
 Analyses of these Coals — 211 Miles of Coal Exposures on the Saskatchewan — 25,000 
 Square Miles of a Coal Field — Edmonton the Centre of this Coal Field — Coal on the 
 Pembina River — Peace River Coal — Coal at the Arctic Sea — Extent of Coal Field — 
 No want of Fuel in the Future. 
 
 One of the chief obstacles to settlement in any country- 
 is the absence or scarcity of fuel. This objection has been 
 urged with truth against settling on the Great Souris 
 Plain, yet when fairly examined the objection loses nearly 
 all its force. By many the absence of forests is considered 
 an element of success. Each individual reasons from his 
 own stand point. The dweller in Ontario feels that to be 
 out of sight of woods is a calamity. He also believes 
 that land covered with forest is new and therefore richer 
 than the prairie, and rejects the latter and takes to brush and 
 forest. An old countryman looks to the picturesque, and 
 prefers some locality pleasing to the eye regardless of any 
 other considerations. A practical Yankee will take a farm 
 where experience tells him he can raise the greatest amount 
 of wheat with the least possible expenditure of labor. 
 He knows this to be on the open prairie, where there is no 
 brush, very little water, and a gently rolling surface. 
 
 Perhaps twenty miles or more from his location is the 
 
FUEL SUPPLIES. 295 
 
 • 
 
 source of his fuel supply, and he knows right well that the 
 extra labor required to bring this to his home is more than 
 saved by the ease with which he gets his land ready for the 
 seed and the enhanced value of the crops he raises. Should 
 a railway pass within twenty miles of him he gets his fuel 
 by means of it and feels content. But there is no necessity 
 for any person to be so far away from wood or a railway in the 
 Canadian North-West, and, therefore, the fuel objection 
 can be set aside, though I would impress on every settler 
 the absolute necessity of knowing the exact position of his 
 fuel supply before he locates. 
 
 Settlers in Southwestern Manitoba will get their fuel for 
 many years to come from Turtle Mountain. Here there is 
 not less than 300 square miles of woodland north of the 
 boundary. The wood is chiefly poplar (aspen and balsam). 
 Oak occurs abundantly on the flanks of the ■' mountain," 
 and in many protected localities throughout the country. 
 
 Crossing the Souris Plain, the most wooded section, other 
 than the valley of the Souris and its tributaries, is Moose 
 Mountain, where there is abundance of fuel for a very large 
 settlement for years to come. Like that on Turtle Moun- 
 tain it is principally aspen and balsam poplar, with occa- 
 sional oak, ash, and ash-leaved maple along the slopes. 
 
 In the Valley of Pipestone Creek, and on the "Weedy, 
 "Wolf, and Squirrel Hills, there is sufficient aspen of small 
 size to answer all purposes for fuel, "West from this to the 
 Rocky Mountains all large settlements must be supplied 
 with coal until sufficient wood is grown by the settlers them- 
 selves. In the ravines along the east, north and west sides 
 of the Cypress Hills there are very fine groves, which, with 
 care, will serve that section for a long time, but here wood 
 is not a necessity, as coal in inexhaustible quantities can 
 easily be obtained. 
 
 There are very few sections of Manitoba far away from 
 fuel. "Where there are large open prairies, only a few 
 
296 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 miles off, the Government has reserved wood for fuel for 
 the settlers on these lands. Twenty acres of woodland 
 is sold to each person settling on a prairie quarter sec- 
 tion. All the country north of the Assiniboine, west of 
 Portage la Prairie, has a sufficiency of wood, and this remark 
 applies to the Little Saskatchewan, Bird Tail Creek, and 
 Shell River River districts. 
 
 West of the Assiniboine and up the Qu'Appelle Valley as 
 far as the Fishing Lakes, there is enough for present use, 
 but tlie Plieasant Plain, which for twenty-five miles on the 
 Carlton trail is without a twig, must draw its supplies from 
 the Pheasant atid File Hills, which are densely wooded with 
 aspen and balsam poplar. 
 
 Lying west and southwest of the Touchwood Hills an 
 immense tract without a bush extends to the source of the 
 Qu'Appelle by \v;\,y of Lmig Lake, and westerly to the South 
 Saskatchewan. Wood procured on the Touchwood Hills 
 must supply this district until coal is brought down the 
 South Saskatchewan from above the mouth of Red Deer 
 River. Except the little wood found in the valley of the 
 Saskatchewan, no more, south of lat. 52°, is seen until we 
 reach the foot hills of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 Much fine aspen and balsam poplar are found on the Eagle 
 Hills, which extend from Eagle Creek to and beyon^ Battle- 
 ford. In these hills all the fuel needed on the great plain 
 south of Battleford can be obtained. Southwesterly on 
 Beaver Dam Creek, an affluent of Battle River, there are 
 fine outcrops of coal. 
 
 Settlers north of the districts which have been par- 
 ticularly mentioned will never experience a scarcity of 
 fuel. Settlement will cause the fires to cease, and the groves 
 of young wood scattered everj'where over the country will 
 soon become of great value for fuel and fencing. 
 
 Peat in inexhaustible quantities is found in all muskegs, 
 and one source from which Winnipeg must draw her future 
 
FUEL SUPPLIES. 297 
 
 supplies of fuel, will be the immense peat beds along the 
 Canadian Pacific Railway east of Selkirk. All the true mus- 
 kegs are formed out of the same material as the peat mosses 
 t)f Ireland and Scotland. Peat moss {^Sphagnum acutifolium 
 et cymbi/olium) is the basis, and Ericaceous shrubs and other 
 bog plants make up the balance. Throughout the district be- 
 tween Lake Superior and Lake Winnipeg these bogs cover 
 large portions of the hollows which are not now filled with 
 water. West of Lake Winnipeg large tracts along the base 
 of the Duck, Porcupine, and Pas Mountains are either quak- 
 ing bogs or muskegs, and therefore all peat deposits. On all 
 the watersheds lying to the northwest of the Saskatchewan, 
 and extending to the extreme north down Peace river, peat 
 bogs under the " generic " title of muskeg, are to be found. 
 This source of supply is of more importance at the present 
 time than many seem to believe. Many farmers living on 
 prairie farms could at the present time supply themselves 
 with excellent fuel by cutting and drying the black muck 
 of the marshy spots on their lots, as it is a fact that few 
 farms are without more or less marsh, and when the country 
 was forest this was almost certainly bog. 
 
 In this connection I purpose reproducing an "article on the 
 coal deposits of the North-West from the pen of Dr. George 
 M. Dawson, which, besides giving analyses of the coals of 
 the Souris District, discusses the coal question in such an ex- 
 haustive manner that I give it almost entire : 
 
 " The mineral fuels met with in the neighborhood of the 
 Line, fall naturally into two distinct categories. The first, 
 including all except one, must be called lignites ; the second, 
 represented by a single example only, is a true bituminous 
 coal. The first class includes not only, therefore, the great 
 majority of the fuels met with in the vicinity of the forty- 
 ninth parallel, but also almost all known in the interior 
 region of the continent, both north and south of this line. 
 They are emphatically lignites or hrown coals, and though 
 
298 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 they may be designated by the name lignite coal, insomuch, 
 as they come under the generic class of coals; they certainly 
 cannot properly be named by the latter word alone, as by it 
 an entirely different kind of material is generally under- 
 stood. The vast area and great importance of these beds of 
 fuel should not be allowed to weigh in changing the name 
 which would without any hesitation be applied to them, 
 were their occurrence on a more limited scale. The word 
 lignite has attached to it a definite mineralogical significance, 
 and must be employed when it is desired to define the posi- 
 tion of these fuels in the scale of combustible materials. 
 Lignites are found in connection with many of the later 
 geological formations, and differ from true coals in contain- 
 ing a larger percentage of water, hygroscopic and combined, 
 a greater proportion of hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, and 
 less carbon. They also invariably give a brown streak or 
 powder, yield easily a brown solution with caustic potash, 
 and sometimes even to water, and, according to Fremy, may 
 also be distinguished from coal and peat by their complete 
 solubility in nitric acid and hypochlorites. The better kind 
 oi Tertiary lignites of the region now in question, diflfers 
 from many foreign fuels of the same class in their small per- 
 centage of ash, but show for the most part distinct evidence 
 of having been produced from wood, and would therefore 
 even be classed as lignites under the most restricted mean- 
 ing of that term. The wood, from its microscopic structure, 
 has been coniferous, and may have belonged to the same 
 species of Thuija, Sequoia, etc., represented by leaves in the 
 associated clays." 
 
 " The lignites of the forty-ninth parallel appear to admit 
 of classification under three leading types. 
 
 "First — Compact, homogeneous lignite without very evi- 
 dent traces of deposition planes. The Avoody structure often 
 plainly apparent. Disintegration proceeding irregularly, or 
 with reference to the structure of the wood. Generally 
 
FUEL SUPPLIES. 
 
 299 
 
 tough under the pick. This is the typical and most abun- 
 dant variety, and includes many of the most promising beds. 
 
 Results of Assays of Lignites, water being estimated at an 
 average of twelve per cent. 
 
 LOCALITY. 
 
 Cm 
 O , 
 
 ^« 
 II 
 
 Cm 
 
 O 
 
 r 
 
 
 g 
 
 1 
 
 is 
 
 
 Remarks on Aeh- 
 
 Souris Valley. 
 
 255 
 263 
 263 
 263 
 263 
 262 
 263 
 308 
 344 
 344 
 344 
 346 
 390 
 390 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 2 " 3 
 
 3 " 2 
 1 " 5 
 1 " 
 
 6 " 6 
 
 7 " 3 
 
 a, few in. 
 5 " 
 
 3 " 
 
 4 "0 
 18 « 
 18 " 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 45.48 
 46 18 
 31.,-.1 
 38.08 
 34.82 
 43 72 
 49.31 
 48.93 
 38.65 
 48.61 
 36.93 
 38.63 
 46 20 
 36.33 
 45.22 
 
 39 77 
 35.90 
 50 02 
 44 57 
 48.30 
 42 40 
 33.98 
 31.61 
 43.02 
 
 34 90 
 44 95 
 44 48 
 
 35 14 
 39.97 
 35 08 
 
 2 76 
 5.92 
 6.47 
 5 35 
 4.88 
 2.88 
 4.71 
 7.46 
 5.43 
 4.49 
 6)3 
 4.S9 
 6.GG 
 11.70 
 7.70 
 
 Reddish White 
 
 u 
 It 
 
 Yellowish 
 Light Yellowish 
 Greyish-white 
 Yellow 
 
 (( 
 
 11 
 
 u ......... 
 
 Traders' Road 
 
 Great Valley 
 
 11 
 
 YellowishWhite 
 
 Reddish 
 
 Grey 
 
 Grey 
 
 White 
 
 YellowlEh White 
 
 it 
 
 Porcupine "» Upper part 
 Creek /Lower part 
 
 Light Grey 
 White 
 Yellowish Grey 
 
 
 "Second — Lignite more or less distinctly horizontally lami- 
 nated, showing little apparent woody structure, but some- 
 times a not inconsiderable quantity of mineral charcoal. 
 Not very tough under the pick, and on weathering breaking 
 up along the planes. This form is probably also in almost 
 all cases composed of wood, but the material has undergone 
 more thorough decay before the deposit of the next highest 
 beds 
 
 " Third — Soft and friable ; often with much mineral charcoal, 
 but frequently brownish and containing harder masses in 
 some places. This variety no doubt often results from the 
 thorough decomposition by the weather of either of the 
 others, and beds with this appearance would probably change 
 their character for the better, more or less completely, if 
 penetrated beyond the outcrop. There appear, however, 
 to be some beds of this nature throughout, and these have 
 
300 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 been formed from peaty accumulations, with little wood. 
 This class it is which is most apt to contain much ash, and 
 the beds under it sometimes do not show clear lines of junc- 
 tion with the enclosing clays, but graduate into them. 
 
 " In the assays above given it has not been thought neces- 
 sary to restrict the examination of those beds which are of 
 workable thickness, as a general comparison of the various 
 seams, thick or thin, is of more value in giving an idea of 
 the average quality of the lignites of the formation now 
 known, and those which future exploration may bring to 
 light in the same region. The analyses, therefore, include 
 A collection from the various sections, and several beds of 
 good quality and thickness, with many of an inferior char- 
 acter, are unrepresented. 
 
 " Though giving the actual amount of hygroscopic and 
 combined water, as found by analysis, it must be premised 
 that it depends entirely on the conditions to which the lig- 
 nites have previously been subjected, and that, by prolonged 
 exposure to dry air, it might have been in many cases very 
 •considerably reduced. It has, therefore, been advisable in an- 
 other place to reduce the results of all analyses to correspond 
 to a certain percentage of moisture, that they may be better 
 compared with each other and with foreign lignites. The 
 water content has been taken in the table at twelve per 
 ■cent., which has been adopted as the probable practical limit 
 of dessication by dr}^ air, under ordinary circumstances, of 
 most of the samples. The lignites, it will be observed, are 
 on the whole uniform in composition, and contain an average 
 of over forty per cent, of fixed carbon when the water is 
 estimated at twelve per cent. They thus fall somewhat 
 behind the lignites found in the vicinity of the Union 
 Pacific Railway, but it must be remembered that these only 
 represent those seams which have been selected as workable 
 from their good quality and thielcness ; and also that many 
 of them belong to the extreme western part of the interior 
 
FUEL SUPPLIES. 301 
 
 continental region, and to the better class of lignites found 
 in the vicinity of the Rocky Mountains, which are but 
 slenderly represented in my collections. None of the lig- 
 nites yield a proper cokfe. They merely shrink somewhat 
 in size during the expulsion of the volatile combustible 
 matter, and turn out of the crucible in a dry incoherent 
 powder. The whole volatile matter is as might be expected, 
 comparativel}- poor in luminous gases, and the lignites 
 would, consequently, be of little use in the ipianufacture of 
 illuminating gas. 
 
 " The ash is generally of pale colors, grey and white, 
 passing into yellowish-white, being the < prevailing shades. 
 One or two only yield a deeply-colored ash, which is then 
 brick-red. It is small in amount in most of the specimens, 
 and does not usually appear of a nature to form troublesome 
 clinkers. The lignites when burning yield a peculiar em- 
 pyrumatic odor, but no smell of sulphur, and indeed, as 
 might be foreseen from the nature of the ash, the quantity 
 of sulphur present is very small. 
 
 " The proximate analyses give in a general way the means 
 of estimating the value of the lignites as fuels, but there 
 are many other considerations which require attention. 
 The ash is not greater, and in many cases less, than that 
 contained in most ordinary coals, and cannot therefore be 
 supposed to detract specially froni the quality of the lignites. 
 The amount of water present is, however, the most serious 
 drawback, as it not only counts as so much combustible ma- 
 terial, being already oxidized, but absorbs and renders 
 latent a considerable quantity of heat which is necessary to 
 convert it into the form of steam. Thus not only the total 
 thermal effect of the fuel suffers, but the pyrometric intensity 
 is reduced, which is a matter of special importance in meta- 
 lurgical operations, and in the use of a fuel for raising steam, 
 when the space allotted to the combustion is limited Be- 
 sides the quantity of oxygen present in these fuels, already 
 
302 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 in combination with hydrogen to form water, there is an 
 additional quantity, — not inconsiderable in amount and pro- 
 bably in the form of various bituminous compounds with 
 carbon and hydrogen, — which as soon as combustion begins, 
 combines also with the latter to form water. The weight 
 of this oxygen, and the hydrogen necessary for its satu- 
 ration, must thus also be deducted, together with the nitro- 
 gen, which is usually present in greater quantity than in 
 true coals. We have then remaining a proportion of carbon 
 and hydrogen which may be counted, on for the useful pro- 
 duction of heat, considerably less than that found in the 
 same way for most true coals, but much in excess of that 
 for wood or peat. 
 
 " By taking into account all these circumstances, with 
 others of less importance, and applying the knowledge to 
 the examination of the results of ultimate analyses of fuels, 
 very exact estimates of their capabilities may be formed. 
 Of the lignites of the interior regions of this continent, un- 
 fortunately but few reliable ultimate analyses are to be 
 found, and of these only two apply to those of British North 
 America. I had hoped to have added such analyses of some 
 of the more important lignites of the forty -ninth parallel to 
 this Report, but the time at my disposal has not sufficed. 
 The analyses referred to are from specimens collected by 
 Dr. Hector, and are as follows : — 
 
 1. II. 
 
 Carbon 56.50 50.60 
 
 Hydrogen 3.65 3.24 
 
 Oxygen 18.91 14.41 
 
 Nitrogen 0.80 0.90 
 
 Sulphur 0.60 0.42 
 
 Ash 5.62 15.93 
 
 Water (hygroscopic) 13.92 14 50 
 
 100.00 100.00 
 
 " No. I. From the Souris River, near La Roche Perc6e. 
 No. II. From a six-foot seam occurring near Fort Edmonton, 
 on the north Saskatchewan. The calorific power of these 
 
FUEL SUPPLIES. 303 
 
 two lignites, as compared with that of pure carbon taken at 
 100, is fifty-nine and fifty-three per cent, respectively. 
 
 " One of the most important practical difficulties which 
 has arisen in connection with the use of the lignites of the 
 Western States, has been the cracking up of the material, 
 on parting with its water, and its speedy reduction to frag- 
 ments when exposed to the weather. It has, therefore, 
 been found preferable to use the lignites, as soon as possible, 
 after their extraction from the mine, even at the expense 
 of an additional quantity of heat, lost in evaporating hy- 
 groscopic water. As the lignites do not form a coherent 
 coke, this cannot be remedied, as it might be with most 
 bituminous coals ; lignite charcoals might, however, be pro- 
 duced; and though in most cases, these are found to be 
 friable, many of the compact western lignites would prob- 
 ably give a good result. The lignites are, however, now 
 extensively employed for locomotive engines, and other 
 steam-raising purposes, and though not directly applicable 
 to most metallurgical processes, must be used in the form 
 of charcoal, and perhaps more profitably in gas furnaces 
 after the pattern of those of Mr. Siemens ; and, as settle- 
 ment spreads westward, and these fuels are more in demand, 
 many new methods will no dcabt be found for their applica- 
 tion. When they exist in the vicinity of land capable of 
 agricultural settlement, they will be of great value, not 
 only for domestic uses, but for the manufacture of bricks, 
 tiles, and pottery, for which many of the enclosing clay 
 and sand beds are very suitable. 
 
 " The St. Mary River coal, though unimportant in itself, 
 from the thinness of the bed, is yet of great interest, as 
 showing that there is a region toward the base of the 
 mountains on the forty-ninth parellel, where fuel, better in 
 quality than any heretofore found in the interior con- 
 tinental region, may be looked for. It is highly probable 
 that important seams of similar coal exist even near the 
 
304 
 
 .MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-TVEST. 
 
 Line ; and I have heard of the occurrence of similar beds 
 on the Belly River to the north. Some traders, indeed ,^ 
 brought a sample of coal to one of the Depot Camps on the 
 Line, which being handed to the blacksmith, was before I 
 returned to the place entirely consumed, it being well 
 suited to smithy work, and thus differing from the lignites. 
 I was unable to visit the locality from which this specimen 
 came, but was informed that it lay about fifty miles north- 
 ward, at the junction of the Waterton and St. Mary Rivers^ 
 that the bod lay nearly flat, and that what appeared to be 
 the same seam was found on both rivers, being about five 
 feet thick on the former and six on the latter. It would 
 seem that the conditions of deposit and materials forming 
 these coals and higher class lignites in the vicinity of the 
 mountains, must have difiered from those of the lignites 
 further east. Metamorphism accompanying and caused by 
 the folding of the formation, would probably convert a lig- 
 nite into an anthracite, without allowing it to pass through 
 the intermediate condition of a bituminous coal, and the bed 
 last referred to and others of somewhat similar quality else- 
 where, are found in a nearly horizontal position. 
 
 " Four analyses of fuels obtained by the Rev. L. Taylor, and 
 examined by Professor Haanel, of Victoria College, Coburg, 
 have a very direct bearing on the question of the nature of 
 the coals which may be expected to occur along the base of 
 the mountains. The analyses appeared in the Toronto 
 " Globe," in February, 1874, and their results may be thus 
 summarized : — 
 
 
 Sp. Gr, 
 
 Moisture given 
 
 Volatile 
 Matter. 
 
 Fixed Carbon. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 I 
 
 i..tt:i 
 i..;Tr, 
 
 1.340 
 1.337 
 
 11.88 
 
 11.41 
 
 i;.69 
 
 G.8D 
 
 28.6G 
 
 •io.n" 
 
 33.70 
 33.57 
 
 ,'37.25 
 56.94 
 53.25 
 50.90 
 
 2.21 
 
 II 
 
 2.58 
 
 Ill 
 
 6.3S 
 
 IV 
 
 8.64 
 
FUEL SUPPLIES. 305 
 
 " No. I. From the North Pembina River 100 miles north- 
 west from Fort Edmonton. No. II. From near Belly River. 
 No. III. From Belly River. No. IV. From the Saskatche- 
 wan River near Fort Edmonton. Professor Haanel thue 
 describes the specimens : — ' I and II are bituminous coals of 
 bright lustre, irregular fracture, showing, to judge from the 
 small specimens sent, no distinct lamination ; of a high spe- 
 cific gravity, comparatively free from sulphur, and giving 
 out little tarry matter upon coking. No. Ill and IV are 
 also bituminous of a less specific gravity, lustre dull, distinct 
 lamination ; fracture at right angles to lamination, irregular 
 with bright surfaces. Parallel to the place of lamination 
 the slabs separated are dull, and give out considerable tarry 
 matter upon coking.' It is stated that the two first do not 
 form a coherent coke, and it is to be inferred from what 
 Professor Haanel says, that the others do. Nos. Ill and IV 
 much resemble the St. Mary River coal in composition, and 
 come from the vicinity of the coal bed described to me as 
 occurring at the junction of that stream with Waterton 
 River." 
 
 The " Souris Coal Field " although the most spoken of 
 is really as far as known the least in extent. In the summer 
 of 1880 A. R. C. Selwyn,F.R.S., the Director of the Geological 
 Survey, instituted a series of borings m the district, and struck 
 a six foot seam at a depth of over 200 feet. In the same year 
 I was exploring m the Cypress Hills and four miles south 
 from the " Head of the Mountain," I examined an ex- 
 posure which varied from six to fifteen feet in depth The 
 same coal was observed on the north side in Medicine 
 Coulee, and was of the same character. Drift coal was like- 
 wise found in Battle Creek, near Fort Walsh, and it is 
 reported from the eastern end near East End Post. 
 
 Besides the coal exposures referred to by Dr. George M. 
 Dawson along the International Boundary, there are num- 
 bers of others on the St. Mary Rivei. On Belly River coal is 
 20 
 
306 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 extremely abundant. Above Fort McLeod a settler, named 
 Nicholas Sheran, works a mine in the river bank. This 
 coal is considered a much better article than that obtained 
 in Montana, and is taken to Benton for black-smithing pur- 
 poses. Large quantities of it are burned at Port McLeod 
 in self-feeding stoves. 
 
 At and near the Black Foot Crossing seams of excellent coal 
 crop out on many points of Bow River. A gentleman named 
 French had burnt it in stoves for two years prior to 1879 
 and spoke very highly of its heating powers. About six 
 miles north of the crossing I found a six foot seam in Crow- 
 foot Creek. The lower part of the seam was below the bed 
 of the stream, and may have been much thicker. I brought 
 an armful of it to camp and found it an excellent article. 
 We cooked our supper with it on the open prairie and it burned 
 with a clear flame. In the morning though covered with 
 ashes it was still aglow We heaped a few pieces on the coals 
 and they kept alive all day. The ash was quite white and 
 no cinders were left. That obtained at the Cypress Hills 
 burned just as well but the ashes were yellow. 
 
 While exploring in Red Deer River valley, south of the 
 Hand Hills I carefully examined the rock exposures. Seeing 
 a bold escarpment topping the bank at a particular point I went 
 there and found a fine exposure of sandstone. The beds 
 got harder as I approached the top, and for a few yards the 
 rock on its upper surface was laid bare by the washing away 
 of a seam of soft shaly lignite which lay immediately above 
 it. The seam was about four feet m depth, and above it was 
 a layer of quartzite gravel followed by the usual prairie 
 drift. Scarcely a mile away I discovered a very fine outcrop of 
 a first class lignite, at least five feet thick, in a small coulee 
 opening into the " Crawling Valley." The beds at this point 
 agree m no particular with those seen by Dr. Hector farther 
 up the river He states that the lignite observed by him was 
 nearly on a level with the water, whereas this is close to the 
 
FUEL SUPPLIES. 307 
 
 surface. I believe these strata are referable to the same 
 beds as those occurring at Porcupine Creek on the Boun- 
 dary. 
 
 Many exposures of coal are to be seen on Red Deer River 
 all the way from the Hand Hills to Tail Creek, where the 
 exposures are very fine. On Battle river west of the Nose 
 are numerous outcrops, which are best seen in the ravines 
 leading into the river valley from the south. Proceeding 
 west to the Saskatchewan between the Rocky Mountain 
 House and Edmonton we again meet with numerous out- 
 crops. These are described by Dr. Selwyn, Director of the 
 Geological Survey, in the following paragraphs : — 
 
 " At one place on the right bank of the river, about forty 
 miles below the confluence of Brazeau River, I found a 
 seam of jet black coal, which measured from eighteen to 
 twenty feet thick. It occurred of equal thickness in two 
 exposures rather more than four miles apart. In the first 
 exposure, which extends some fifty or sixty yards in length, 
 but which, owing to the swiftness of the current running at 
 its base, is not easily examined, the seam is almost flat, and 
 rises from the water in a nearly vertical cliff, exposing 
 eighteen feet of apparently excellent coal. The bottom of 
 the seam here was beneath the water, and could not be 
 examined ; above it the clifi" was not accessible, and the 
 rocks were concealed by slides of earth and other debris. 
 The second exposure, which is no doubt on the continuation 
 of the same seam, occurs in an arched form, and shows 
 eighteen feet of coal, with one, two to three inch partings 
 of shale. The specimens of the seam which I collected, 
 were all taken from the surface, and it is not unlikely that 
 beyond the influence of atmospheric action the coal will 
 prove of better quality than is indicated by these specimens. 
 In the accompanying analyses, Nos. 2, 3, and 4, are of 
 samples from the eighteen feet seam. 
 
 " No, 2 This specimen differed m appearance from all the 
 
308 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 others, having a some-what greasy lustre, and breaking with 
 a conchoidal fracture. It contained : — 
 
 SLOW COKING. FAST OOKINO. 
 
 Water 11.81 11.81 
 
 Volatile combustible matter. 32 75 36.58 
 
 Fixed Carbon 53.36 49.40 
 
 Ash 2.08 2.21 
 
 100 00 100.00 
 
 The powder was not at all fritted. Ash, bright brick red. 
 
 " No. 3. A dull black coal, with marked planes of bedding 
 and cleat, and containing much mineral charcoal Two 
 analyses gave : — 
 
 SLOW COKING B'AST COKING 
 
 Water 10.90 10 90 
 
 Volatile combustible matter. 28,69 36.22 
 
 Fixed Carbon 54,96 47.84 
 
 Ash 5 45 5,04 
 
 100.00 100.00 
 
 " On exposure this coal cracks and falls to pieces. The 
 powder was not fritted by either slow or fast coking. Ash, 
 brownish grey. 
 
 " No. 4 Similar in appearance to No. 3, and containing : — 
 
 SLOW COKING, FAST COKING 
 
 Water 12 93 12,93 
 
 Volatile combustible matter , 26.80 34 12 
 
 Fixed Carbon 52 28 44 95 
 
 Ash 7.99 8 00 
 
 100.00 100 00 
 
 ~ " At intervals, the whole distance from Eocky Mountain 
 House to Edmonton, 135 miles, and thence to Victoria, 
 seventy-six miles farther along the course of the river, 
 similar rocks with coal seams and nodular ironstone layers, 
 were observed. 
 
 " Dr, Hector has separated the Edmonton coal rocks from 
 those in the vicinity of the Mountain House, by an inter- 
 vening area which he considered to be occupied by a some- 
 what higher section or division of the Cretaceous series. 
 
FUEL SUPPLIES. 309 
 
 He did not apparently see the thick seam of coal which I 
 found, as above stated, below the Brazeau River, about 
 eighty -six miles from Rocky Mountain House ; and another 
 seam of five feet six inches thick, which I found at a point 
 some fifteen miles higher up the river, as well as the num- 
 erous indications of seams which occur between the out-crop 
 of the eighteen feet seam and Edmonton, probably also es- 
 caped his notice, as he travelled partly during the night, 
 and in the winter, on the ice, when many of the exposures 
 along the banks must have been concealed by snow. The 
 observations which I was able to make descending the river 
 do not enable me to say whether the seams retain their 
 thicknesses or are connected for long distances, or whether 
 the very numerous exposures and indications seen in the 
 cliff sections represent more or less lenticular shaped and 
 isolated patches, repeated at different horizons and over 
 large areas. Dr. Hector appears to incline to the latter 
 idea, and, in a note referring to the seams at Rocky Moun- 
 tain House, he states : ' The coal beds are not continuous 
 for long distances.' "Whether this is actually the case or 
 not, there can be no question that in the region v/^est of 
 Edmonton, bounded on the north by the Athabasca River 
 and on the south by the.Red Deer River, there exists a vast 
 cold field covering an area of not less than 25,000 square 
 miles ; and beneath a large portion of this area we may ex- 
 pect to find workable seams of coal at depths seldom exceed- 
 ing 300 feet, and often, as in the case of the thick seams 
 above described, very favorably situated for working by 
 levels from the surface. 
 
 " Coal seams have been seen on the Pembina River, a tri- 
 butary of the Athabasca, 20 feet thick. It is also found on 
 the McLeod, another tributary of the same river, and at 
 Coal Creek, near the entrance to the Jasper Valley In 
 the elevated country, south of Little Slave Lake, many fine 
 seams have been seen, and its occurrence on Peace River is 
 
310 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-'WEST. 
 
 well known. Northward, the coal fields extend to the 
 Arctic coast, and although many parts are so covered by 
 drift that the existence of coal has not been verified from 
 the extreme north to the southern boundary, yet enough is 
 known to justify the belief that it does exist." 
 
 No person need fear the future as regards fuel, for if all 
 the wood was gone, the stores of peat in the north and west 
 would supply the demand, of 50,000,000 of people. 
 
CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 Timber Supply. 
 
 Minnesota Considered — Lake of the Woods — Line of the C. P. E. — Varieties of Timber — 
 "Where Located — Bereu's River — No Pine West of Lake Winnipeg — Distribution of 
 Wliite SpiTice — Black Spruce — Scrab Pine — " Cypress " — Balsam Poplar — Aspen 
 Poplar — Cottonwood— Oak — Elm — Ash — "Sugar Maple" — Birch, Tamarac and 
 Black Willow — Timber on Winnipegoosis — Supply for Rapid City, Minnedosa, 
 Odanah, Birtle — Eidiug Mountain — Duck and Porcupine Mountains — Timber North 
 of the Saskatchewan— Athabasca Valley — At Edmonton — On Turtle Mountain — 
 Cypress Hills — St. Mary's Eiver — Timber in Bow Eiver Country — Pheasant, File, 
 and Touchwood Hills — Eagle Hills — Battle River — Red Deer River — Tributaries of 
 South Saskatchewan — Conclusion . 
 
 The timber supply for the North-West engages at 
 present the attention of many thoughtful men. It is, 
 therefore, necessary to collect in a small space al' the in- 
 formation possible on the subject. 
 
 At present, Northern Minnesota sends a supply to the 
 Red River Valley, but this in a few years will be exhausted, 
 and our own country must be depended on for the enormou 
 quantity that will be required. On the Lake of the Woods, 
 Rainy River and its tributaries, and along Winnipeg 
 River, there are large areas of forest where much fine 
 timber is still to be had, but in no sense can these areas 
 be called pineries. 
 
 Tamarac, White Spruce, Banksian or Scrub Pine, Nor- 
 way Pine, White Pine, and White Cedar are met with in 
 greater or lesser quantities. For such purposes as house- 
 building, fence posts, railroad ties, or bridge building, there 
 is an ample supply along the line of the C. P. R. It 
 is true much of it is small, but it is sound and good, 
 and scarcity enhances the value. When lumber of any 
 kind, brings $20 per thousand, small size and presence of 
 knots will never condemn the material. The various 
 
TIMBER SUPPLY. 313 
 
 species of Pine are on the sandy ridges dividing the 
 swamps, while the Tamarac and Black Spruce are found 
 in the swamps. At Rat Portage and Eagle River are 
 sawmills which manufacture large quantities of material 
 used on the C. P. R., and much that is distributed over the 
 country, as far west as Portage la Prairie. Rat Portage has 
 the finest water power in the world and here in the future 
 immense quantities of flour will be ground for the eastern 
 markets. 
 
 Beren's River, about half-way up the east shore of Lake 
 Winnipeg, drains a large district of country, and along its 
 banks there are known to exist considerable areas of Pine 
 lands, but whether Banksian or Red Pine is the prevailing 
 species, our limited knowledge prevents us from ascer- 
 taining. 
 
 No matter what interested or other persons may state, 
 Red and White Pine cease on the east side of Lake Winni- 
 peg, and the only species found west of that is the Banksian 
 Pine (^Pinus Bankstana). White Cedar { Thuja occiden- 
 ialis) is found in small quantity on the shores of Cedar 
 Lake, north of the head of Winiiipegoosis, but no further 
 west. The following list of the trees of the plains and the 
 northern forests may be relied on as absolutely correct. 
 4 White Spruce {Ahies alba) may be considered the most 
 important tree throughout the North-West. Neither its 
 habit nor habitat are in accord with eastern ideas. In its 
 northern home it is a stately treer ising, with little dimi- 
 nution in size, to the height of 100 feet, and often having a 
 diameter of nearly four feet. It is no uncommon occurrence 
 to see fifty trees to an acre, averaging thirty inches in di- 
 ameter. Its habitat, instead of being on sand or in wet 
 swamps, is always on the mossy sloping-bank or side-hill 
 or on the alluvial flats along a river. 
 
 Black Spruce {AUes nigra) is an important tree, north 
 of lat. 54°. It is a curious fact that the writer never saw 
 
314 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 this species a foot in diameter in any part of Ontario, but 
 after passing north of lat. 54°, it was found nearly three 
 feet in diameter south of Green Lake. As this is cer- 
 tainly the most northern species of fir, it is probable that the 
 spruce forests, north of lat. 57°, may be composed exclus- 
 ively of this tree. In Ontario, it loves the deep, cool, 
 peaty swamps, but west of Prince Albert it leaves the bogs 
 and is found on dry but mossy ground. 
 
 Banksian Pine [Pinus BanJcsiana) has often been con- 
 founded with Norway or Red Pine. It and Pinus contorta 
 are the " Cypre " of the Half-breeds. The Cypress Hills 
 get their name from the groves of the latter species at 
 their western extremity. The former loves almost pure 
 sand for a habitat, and hence, wherever ^there is a barren 
 or sandy tract in the forest region of the North-West, this 
 species is sure to be there. It is seen at Point aux Pins, 
 west of Sault Ste. Marie, and attains a large size in many 
 places along the Dawson Route, west of Lake Superior, and 
 along the Thunder Bay Branch of the C. P. R., to and 
 beyond Rat Portage. It is common between Duck Lake 
 and Prince Albert, and near Fort a la Corne and in all 
 the sandy country west and north of the Saskatchewan 
 River. 
 
 Cypress, Sugar Pine, Black Pine or Twisted Pine {Pirvm 
 contorta) grows in fine and extensive groves on the western 
 end of the Cypress Hills, but disappears about 500 feet 
 below the summit, or 3,500 feet above the sea. About the 
 same altitude, on suitable soil (it delights in poor soil), it 
 is found along the eastern base of the Rockies, as far north 
 as lat. 56°. In northern British Columbia, it is the most 
 abundant forest tree. Neither of the last two species ever 
 attain a large size, being seldom over 18 inches in diameter. 
 
 Balsam Poplar (Popidus balsamifera) is a very important 
 tree, both as regards its size and distribution. In the 
 forest region where tlie soil is permanently damp or sub- 
 
TIMBER SUPPLY. 315 
 
 ject to overflow at certain seasons of the year it takes 
 the place of the Aspen. In all river valleys it is the most 
 valuable tree, as it attains a large size and makes excellent 
 lumber. Large quantities of boards were manufactured 
 from logs cut in the Assiniboine Valley, above Portage la 
 Prairie, in 1879. It is on Peace River, the Liard and the 
 Mackenzie, where this tree assumes those dimensions which 
 cause it to be reckoned the king of the northern forests. 
 Here, a diameter of from six to eight feet is not uncommon, 
 and trees from 60 to 100 feet in height without a branch are 
 found in groves. It is a curious fact that this tree delights 
 in the alluvial flats along the northern rivers, and not one 
 aspen is ever found in this situation. It was only when 
 we saw the aspen that we knew we were on the old bank 
 of the Peace and Athabasca, when traversing the deltas of 
 these rivers. Trees of this species are larger on the Liard 
 in lat. 61° than anywhere else, and fine forests of it grow 
 down the Mackenzie, north of the Arctic Circle, at Fort 
 Good Hope. 
 
 Aspen Poplar {Populus tremuloides) may be called the 
 characteristic tree of the plains. Wherever there is dry 
 soil, not too sandy, outside of alluvium, there is aspen. 
 I have passed repeatedly from aspen " bluffs" on the prai- 
 ries, not twenty feet high, and with the trees not thicker 
 than a walking stick, to continuous forests of stately trees, 
 with their white trunks towering to the skies. Each time 
 I have noticed that the forest was only kept in check by 
 the annual fires. Until the willow and aspen roots had 
 lost their vitality, they persisted in sending up crop after 
 crop of stems ever increasing in number, until death by 
 exhaustion took place and permanent prairie was formed. 
 It has been frequently stated that aspen seeds remain 
 in the soil, but this is not so. The reason it reclothes the 
 ground so many times after being swept ofi" by fire, is the 
 fact that it throws up shoots from every root after a fire 
 
316 MANITOBA AND THE GEEAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 lias killed the stem. It possesses this quality, in common 
 with all members of the Willow family, which it is well- 
 known grow indiscriminately from either roots or planted 
 stems, and very seldom from seeds. This provision seems 
 necessary to this order {Salicacece), as in all cases the 
 flowers are dioecious and two trees in close proximity are 
 necessary to perfect the seed. Two notable instances of 
 this are found in the White Poplar {Populus alba) and 
 Lombardy Poplar, which produce no fertile seed in the 
 absence of the staminate tree. 
 
 The Cottonwood {Populus monilifera) is found in the 
 deep river valleys of the " Great Plains," and occasionally 
 amongst sand hills, but in no place is it so abundant as to 
 deserve particular notice for its economic importance, 
 though, when found, it is usually of large size. It is the 
 last remnant of the former forests of the south. Its thick 
 ■coarse bark, like that of the Oak, preserves it from the 
 repeated assaults of the annual fires, and enables it to 
 escape when thin-barked trees succumb. 
 
 The Oak ( Quercus macrocarpa var.) grows to a large size 
 in many parts of Manitoba, but is unknown to the west of 
 it. In that part of Manitoba, south of the Assiniboine and 
 west of the Pembina Mountain, there are numerous groves 
 of fine trees and much of the timber is valuable for a varie- 
 ty of purposes. It is also common on the White Mud River, 
 and is frequently seen in groves along Lake Manitoba. 
 
 Elm ( Ulmus Americana) is never found outside of river 
 Dottoms, except along Lakes Manitoba and Winnipegoosis. 
 It grows to a very large size in the valleys of the Red and 
 Assiniboine Rivers, and often forms groves of large extent. 
 In lat. 53°, along the Red Deer River which empties into 
 the northern end of Lake Winnipegoosis, are large groves 
 of very fine elms often four feet in diameter. It is found 
 in some abundance on Carrot River and the Saskatchewan, 
 but is confined to low alluvial flats. 
 
TIMBER SUPPLY, 31 T 
 
 Ash {Fraxiniis puhescens) grows in the valleys of the 
 Assiniboine and Ked Rivers, often forming groves, but the 
 timber, though frequently tall, never attains a large size. 
 It is scattered throughout all the prairie country, and is 
 found as a small tree in the river valleys and along the 
 broken face of the Coteau and Cypress Hills. It is of no 
 value for timber, but makes excellent firewood even when 
 green. 
 
 "Sugar Maple," or Ash Leaved Maple {Negundo ace- 
 raides) is found in more or less abundance in all the river 
 valleys, as far west as the 110th Meridian, and probably 
 farther. When dry, it makes good firewood, but the fact 
 that it becomes very crooked with age, in the wild state, 
 prevents it from being of any value as a timber tree, even if 
 it should attain the dimensions of one. Indians frequently 
 make sugar from its sap, but the amount made is of little 
 account, as groves of this tree are infrequent in most locali- 
 ties. In St. Paul it has been largely planted as a shade tree 
 and grows very rapidly. It has a very handsome appear- 
 ance, forms a fine head and has abundance of leaves. Within 
 the last four years, these trees have been planted along, 
 many of the streets of Winnipeg. I would recommend 
 every settler to sow a bushel of the seed of this tree the 
 very first fall he arrives on the ground, as this is the tree 
 of the future in Manitoba. It produces large quantities 
 of seed which can be easily collected, and four years after 
 it is sown, the trees are large enough to be planted out. 
 The trees, not needed by the settler himself, can be read- 
 ily sold to his less thoughtful neighbors. 
 
 In the foregoing synopsis, all species peculiar to the 
 plains have been noticed, except Tamarac {Larix Amerin 
 cana) and Black Willow {Salix nigra). The latter fre- 
 quently becomes a tree in the river valleys, but is scarce 
 and of no value as wood, for it rots in the centre long be- 
 fore it shows signs of decay on the outside. The Tamarac 
 
318 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 forms fine groves of tall, straight trees in many parts, 
 especially on the watersheds, and in basin-like depressions 
 found in the northern forests. In the swamps the trees 
 a,re generally small, but on the dryer margins and mixing 
 with the White Spruce on the hillsides or in river valleys 
 are numerous fine trees often forming groves of many acres 
 in extent. Birch [Betula jpapyracea) is frequent in the 
 north, and a very excellent syrup is made from its sap by 
 the northern Indians in spring. 
 
 Along the rivers flowing into Lake Winnipegoosis, on 
 islands in that lake, on the Fairford River, and at Ebb and 
 Flow Lake are numerous groves of fine Spruce which, up 
 to the present, are untouched, except the little taken out 
 on the Fairford River and at Ebb and Flow Lake by 
 Mr. Pratt, who owns a sawmill at Totogon. Enough Spruce 
 grows in the neighborhood of these lakes to supply the 
 country to the south for many years. Were sawmills erect- " 
 ed at Lake Francis, the southern end of Lake Manitoba, 
 and a tramway built thence to the C. P. R. — less than 
 eight miles — a never-failing source of supply to the whole 
 country would be opened up. Besides the above, very 
 valuable timber, — Spruce, Aspen, Tamarac, and Balsam 
 Poplar, — grows continuously along the eastern face of the 
 Riding and Duck Mountains. All this timber can be drawn 
 to the before-mentioned lakes, and so reach a market with- 
 out difficulty. 
 
 Rapid City, Minnedosa, and Odanah will receive their 
 supply from the Riding Mountain by the Little Saskat- 
 chewan, while Birtle and the adjoining country will 
 obtain theirs from the same region, by means of Bird Tail 
 Creek, on which there is a sawmill at present. Shell 
 River penetrates the Duck Mountain, and fine Spruce was 
 floated down this river and the Assiniboine to Brandon 
 last Fall, where it is now being sawn into lumber for 
 the use of settlers. On the head waters of the Assiniboine, 
 
TIMBER SUPPLY. 319 
 
 there are groves of great extent in which, besides 
 Spruce and Tamarac, both species of Poplar attain a large 
 size. 
 
 My own observations and all the knowledge I could pick 
 up from other sources, lead me to believe that valuable 
 Spruce and Poplar forests are found around every points of 
 the Porcupine Mountain. I know that the eastern and 
 northern sides are continuous Spruce forests, along the 
 base and far up the slopes. At the southern end T penetrated 
 the hills, and found fine Spruce in groves of very consid- 
 erable size occupying the slopes of the hilly or undulating 
 country where I was, and forests crowning their summits. 
 
 Dr. Bell's assistant reached the top of the range at the 
 head of Salt River, and reported Spruce trees 42 inches in 
 diameter. Dr. Smith, who explored here in 1879, says : — 
 " Careful exploration of the country north of the Reserve, 
 for 12 miles, revealed a magnificent district, land excellent 
 and much large Poplar, 24 to 30 inches in diameter. This 
 was the character of all the region from the junction of 
 Thunder River with Woody River and far northward, 
 while southward, there was a stretch of rich but wet land, 
 extending to Swan River. Westward of the Reserve, the 
 country was heavily wooded with very fine timber, Poplar, 
 Spruce, and Tamarac." The country spoken of above was 
 that to the north and west of Thunder Hill on Swan River. 
 
 From a point, a little east of Fort k la Come, and north- 
 wards, toward Green Lake, valuable Spruce, Tamarac, and 
 Poplar forests, without a break, extend westward to near 
 Lac la Biche. Northeast of Carlton and north of Prince 
 Albert are fine forests which are easy of access at present, 
 and on that account more valuable than those farther north. 
 
 Much fine Spruce exists in the valley of the Athabasca 
 and on its upper tributaries, but, without the aid of a 
 railway, as the river flows to the north it will be of little 
 value for commercial purposes. 
 
320 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Above Edmonton, on the Brazeau and all the upper trib- 
 utaries of it and the north Saskatchewan, are fine forests 
 of Spruce, Tamarac, and Balsam Poplar. Here a large area 
 will be found, well suited for lumbering purposes, as it is 
 protected from fire by numerous marshes, and up to the 
 present has remained in a primitive state. 
 
 Returning to the south, we find wood of considerable 
 value in many parts of Southwestern Manitoba ; as much 
 of this has fallen into private hands, it will be well pre- 
 served and become invaluable in the course of a few years. 
 Oak and Poplar are the principal trees. On Little Cypress 
 River, which flows into the Assiniboine, there is some 
 Spruce. At Milford, on Cypress river, a sawmill has been 
 built, which is a great boon to the settlers in the vicinity. 
 
 On Turtle Mountain and Moose Mountain, Aspen and 
 Balsam Poplar, large enough to be sawn into boards, are to 
 be found in considerable quantity, and most probably some 
 enterprising individual will start a " city" by building a 
 sawmill at one of those points. 
 
 As I have remarked in another place, there is a large 
 quantity of " Cypre " {Pinus contorta) between Fort Walsh 
 and the western end of the Cypress Hills, but more espec- 
 ially within the Assiniboine Reserve, at the " Head of the 
 Mountain." The trees are all tall and straight, but the 
 greater portion does not average above a foot in diameter, 
 although many reach eighteen inches. "With care, this 
 tree could be made available for many years for the stock- 
 men and others coming into the country. 
 
 On the St. Mary's River, close to the boundary, Dr. G. M. 
 Dawson saw Pinus contorta in some abundance, but not of 
 large size. He says, in speaking of the Rocky Mountains 
 that, " For this part of the country, the mountains form an 
 inexhaustible source of wood for fuel and constructions, 
 though extensive areas are known to be underlaid by coal. 
 The timber in the mountains is chiefly coniferous and not 
 
TIMBER SUPPLY. 321 
 
 of large size, except in certain secluded valleys. The 
 Douglas Pine (Abies Douglasii) occurs on both sides of the 
 watershed but is generally small. The largest timber 
 observed was in some of the higher and more secluded 
 valleys. The trees resembled the Black Spruce, but were 
 probably Abies JEngelmanni." Toward the heads of other 
 branches of Belly Eiver, Col. McLeod says, " good Pine 
 is found on the slopes of the mountains and for some dis- 
 tance from their base, while Cottonwood trees of good size 
 grow along the river bottoms." 
 
 "While in the mountains at Bow River in 1879, I made 
 a careful examination of the timber in the valley, as far as 
 time would permit. The principal species were Douglas 
 Pine and beautiful Spruce, — the latter growing tall and 
 straight and forming groves on the flats. The other 
 species preferred the rocky slopes, and were often of a large 
 size, numbers being seen three feet in diameter. Fine 
 groves of timber were observed on the south side of the Bow 
 River, from the mouth of the Kananaskis up its pass and 
 over the mountains between the two rivers. From the sit- 
 uation of the timber, I believe it to be principally Douglas 
 Pine. I was informed that much finer timber could be 
 seen higher up the river. By being carefully husbanded, 
 there is enough timber on this river and its tributaries to 
 supply all the prairie country as far as the Elbow of the 
 South Saskatchewan. All the water-power necessary to 
 convert it into lumber exists close to Morleyville. The 
 river is so placid for its whole length that the lumber 
 could be rafted to any point without loss. 
 
 In the Pheasant and File Hills, and throughout the Touch- 
 wood Hills, as also a tract of country lying east of Hum- 
 boldt, there is abundance of wood for the prairie settlers for 
 many miles on all sides of the hills. This wood is poplar 
 of two species, and can be used in house building for walls, 
 roofs, and floors. 
 21 
 
322 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 West of the Saskatchewan, the Eagle Hills will furnish 
 a supply for the northern part of the Great Plain. Battle 
 River, throughout its entire length, will supply wood for 
 all purposes to the country on both sides of it. Spruce, in 
 some abundance, can be obtained on its upper waters and 
 floated down to any required point. Red Deer River passes 
 through a country more or less covered with forest, as far 
 south as lat. 52°, but, after that, to its confluence with 
 Bow River the only wood in the country it passes through 
 is found in its own valley, or its bordering coulees. This 
 is so small in quantity, in comparison to the district to 
 be supplied, that it need merely be mentioned, but not 
 taken into account. No doubt large quantities of Spruce 
 ■exist on the upper waters of the river, and can be floated 
 down to any point on the stream. There are no obstructions 
 of any kind anywhere in the river, but on the lower part of 
 its course it would be extremely difficult to get loaded wag- 
 ons out of the valley which is not less than 500 feet deep. 
 
 Bow River, on the other hand, does not flow through 
 forest on any part of its course east of the mountains, yet 
 it contains many fine groves of Poplar from a few miles 
 below the ^lackfoot Crossing to the mountains, both in its 
 valley and the coulees opening into it. Balsam Poplar and 
 Cottonwood {Populus monili/era) are found of a large size 
 at the Blackfoot Crossing, and numerous groves of Spruce 
 are seen above Calgarry. The whole country, on both 
 sides of the river, is absolutely without wood, except in 
 the tributary valleys, on the south of the main stream. 
 Quantities of very good Spruce and Douglas Pine can be 
 obtained on Dead Man's River on the north, on the Kan- 
 anaskis on the south, and up the valley of the main stream 
 for at least sixty miles above Morleyville. No difficulty 
 will be experienced in floating down either logs or boards, 
 as the river for many miles into the Rocky Mountains is 
 free from dangerous rapids. 
 
TIMBER SUPPLY. 323 
 
 It will be seen by the foregoing remarks that wood is 
 scarce in the southern part of the prairie section, but this 
 is in some degree compensated for by the immense deposits 
 of lignite or bituminous coal known to exist. On St. Mary's, 
 Belly, Bow, Red Deer, and Battle Eivers, these crop out in 
 many places, and specimens burnt on the ground, and others 
 brought home, testify to their value for fuel. As men- 
 tioned on another page, a trader and farmer named French 
 has burned coal, taken from a six-foot seam at the Black- 
 foot Crossing, for two years. lie finds it burn well in 
 self-feeding (base burners) coal stoves, ol' which he has 
 two. While travelling in the country we used it in our 
 camp and found it to burn equally well and for a long time 
 on an open fire. 
 
CHAPTER XX. 
 
 Mammals of the North- West. 
 
 Introduction — Enumeration of the Caniivora, of the XJngulata, of the Chiroptera, of the 
 Ineectivora, of the Rodentia — The American Panther, its General Appearance and 
 Range — The Canadian Lynx, its Description and Distribution — Hunting on Peace 
 Eiver — Foxes, Anecdotes Respecting them — "Wolves — The Coyote — The Grey Wolf, 
 his Habits — Occurrence on the Plains — AVhen easily Taken — Aneciiotes Illustrative of 
 their Cunning and Tenacity of Life — Pine Marten and Fisher — Wolverines, the 
 Enemies of the Trappers — Anecdotes of the Wolverine — Mink and Otter — Skunks — 
 Eaten by Hunters — Badgers and their Habits — Danger of Biding on Horseback — 
 Mode of Killing Badgers — Notes on the Black Bear — Their Habits — The Terrible 
 Grizzly — Fears of the Indians on Peace River — Nearly all Carry Scars Inflicted by Bears 
 — Description of One Killed at the Hand Hills — Indian Woman Killed by a Gmzly — 
 The Cabree or Prong-Homed Antelope — Black Tailed Deer — Wapiti or American Elk, 
 its Distribution — The Moose — Hunting Moose an Art — Starvation on Peace River in 
 1875 — Caribou Found in the North — Hunting on the Barren Grounds — The Rocky 
 Mountain Goat — Description of It — Hunting in Bow River Pass — The Big Horn or 
 Rocky Mountain Sheep — Measurement of their Horns — Musk Ox of the Barren 
 Grounds — Its general Appearance and Habits — Warmth of its Covering — The Buffalo, 
 its Distribution — Wood Buffalo on the Athabasca — Their Present Scarcity — Buffalo 
 Hunting in the Past — Mode of Camping in the Indian Country — Mode of Ptunning 
 Buffalo — Exciting Scenes — The Charge, Conflict and Pursuit — The Buffalo Pound in 
 Former Days — How the Indians Slaughtered the Buffalo — Doctor Hector's Account — 
 Moles and Shrews, Rich Soil where theyAi-e — Gophers and Prairie Dogs, their Habits 
 — Mode of Catching Prairie Dogs — Beaver — Stories Related of their Instinct— Con- 
 struction of their Dams — Beaver Houses — Their Construction — Muskrats, their Num- 
 bers and Habits — Character of Country they Inhabit — Muskrats as Weather Prophets 
 — The Foolishness of the Prophets — How the Muskrat Builds his House — -Pouched 
 Gopher and Jumping Mice — Porcupines and their Habits — The Prairie and Woodland 
 Hares — Great Numbers of the Latter — Rocky Mountain Hare. 
 
 Owing to our limited space very little more than a bare 
 enumeration of species can be attempted, yet it is to be 
 hoped that the few notes thus hastily thrown together may 
 be of such interest as to cause many with an inclination for 
 natural history to take up the work with zest and add 
 much to our future knowledge. In the three following 
 chapters will be found all the mammals, birds, reptiles, and 
 fishes, with a few of the insects found in the North-West. 
 
MAMMALS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 
 
 325 
 
 To any one desirous of getting a full and complete account 
 of the natural history of the country, I would refer him to 
 Sir John Richardson's Fauna Boreali Americana, or the 
 voluminous reports of the United States Zoologists. In the 
 following epitome, however, I shall endeavor to give any 
 person unacquainted with the subject a fair knowledge of 
 the species with their distribution in the country, and occa- 
 sional notes regarding their habits and peculiarities. 
 
 SYNOPSIS OF THE MAMMALS. 
 
 Orders. 
 
 Families. 
 
 Genera. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Camivora (Flesh Eaters^ 
 
 
 11 
 8 
 2 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 26 
 
 TTnPTilata ^Moofed Mammals^ 
 
 10 
 
 OTiiro-ntpTft (the Bats^ 
 
 2 
 
 Tntjppfi vora (Insect Eaters^ ....• 
 
 5 
 
 
 82 
 
 
 
 Total 6 
 
 14 
 
 39 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 LIST OF THE SPECIES. 
 /. Order Camivora. {Flesh Eaters.) 
 
 Family I. Felidse. {the Cats.) 
 
 1. Felis concolorr, L. (Conger or American Panther.) 
 
 2. Lynx rufus, Eaf. (Wild Cat.) 
 
 3. " Canadensis, Raf. (Canada Lynx.) 
 
 Family II. Canidsn (t/i/>. Duc/s.) 
 
 4. Vulpes fulvus var. fulvus. (Eed Fox.) 
 
 6. II '! " decussatue. (Cross Fox.) 
 
 6. ■ '■ " argenteus. (Silver and Black Fox.) 
 
 7. " macrourus, Baird. (Prairie Fox.) 
 
 8. " velox, And. and Bach. (Kit Fox.) 
 
 9. " lagopus, Eich. (Arctic Fox.) 
 
 10. Canis lupus, L. (White and Gray Wolf.) 
 
 11. « latrans. Say. (Coyote or Prairie Wolf.) 
 
 Family III Mustelid<e. (The. TTeosefa.) 
 
 12. Mustela Pennantii, ErxL (Fisher, Black Cat.) 
 
 13. " Americana, Turton. (Pine Marten, American Sable.) 
 
 14. Putorius pusillus, Aud k Bach. (Least Weasel.) 
 
 15. 1 Cicognanii, Baird. (Small Brown Weasel.) 
 
 16. Eichardsonii, Bon. (Little Ermine.) 
 
326 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 17. Putorius longicauda, Rich. (Long-tailed Weasel.) 
 
 18. " vison. Rich, (Brown Mink.) 
 
 19. Gulo luscus, Sabine. (Wolverine.) 
 
 20. Lutra Canadensis, Sabine. (American Otter.) 
 
 21. Mephitis mephitica, Baird. (Common Skunk.) 
 
 22. Taxidea Americana, Baird. (Missouri Badger.) 
 
 Family IV. Urudce. {I'he Bearx.\ 
 
 23. Ursus lioribilis, Ord. (Grizzly Bear.) 
 
 24. " Amcricanup, Pallas. (Black Bear.) 
 
 25. '■ t.innamonous, Aud. & Bach. (Cinnamon Bear.) 
 3G. " m.iritimus, Linn. (White or Polar Bear.) 
 
 II. Order Ungulata. (TJie Hoofed Mammals.). 
 
 Family V. Cervidtx. [TJie J Jeer.) 
 2t. Alee Americanus, Jardine. (American Moose.) 
 
 28. r^angifcr Groenlandicus, Baird. (Barren Ground flaribou.) 
 
 29. Cervus Canadensi.'', ErxL (American Elk.) 
 
 30. " Virginianus, Bod. (Common Deer.) 
 
 31. '' Columbianus, Rich. (Black-tailed Deer.; 
 
 32. Antilocapra Americana, Ord. (Antelope, Cabree.) 
 
 33. Aplocems montanus, Rich. (Mountain Goat.) 
 
 34. Ovis montana, Cu. (Mountain Sheep. Big-horn.) 
 
 35. Ovibos, moschatus, Elains. (Musk Ox.) 
 
 36. Bos Americanus, Gmelin. (American Buffalo.) 
 
 Order III. Gliiroptera. {The Bats.) 
 
 Family VI- Vespertilionidoe. {Common Bats.') 
 
 37. Vespertilio "ubulatus. Say. (Little Brown Bat.) 
 
 38. Atalapha cinereu.?, Couef. (Hoary Bats.) 
 
 Order IV. Insectivora. (77ie Bats.) 
 
 Family VTI. Soricidce. {The Shrew.'!.) 
 
 39. Sorex pachyurup, Baird. (Thick tailed Shrew.) 
 
 40. " Forsteri, Rich. (Porster's Shrew.) 
 
 11, " Richardsonii, Bachm. (Richardson's Shrew.) 
 
 42. '' palustris, Rich. (Marsh Shrew.) 
 
 43. '' parvus, Say. (Least Shrew.) 
 
 Order V. Rodentia. (^The Rodents.) 
 
 Family VIII. Sciuridce. (The Squirreli.) 
 
 44. Sciurus Hudsonius, Pall. (Bed Squirrel.) 
 
 45. " Richardsonii, Bach. (Richardson's Squirrel.) 
 
 46. Pteromys alpinus, Rich. (Rocky Mountain Flying Squirrel.) 
 i1. Tamias quadrivittatus, Rich. (Missouri Striped Squirrel.) 
 
 48. Spermophilus Franklini, Rich. (Gray Gopher.) 
 
 49. " Richardsonii, Baird. (Yellow Gopher.) 
 
 60- " tridecem-lineatus, Aud Bach. (Striped Gopher.) 
 
MAMMALS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 327 
 
 61. Cynomys ludoviciaaus, Baird. (Prairie Dog.) 
 
 52. Arctomye flaviventer, Bachm. (Yellow-footed Marmot.) 
 
 53. " lateralis, Ricli. (Say's Sqiiirrel.) 
 
 5*. " priuinosus, Gmelin. (Hoary Marmot.) 
 
 Family IX. Castoridse. {The Beavers.-) 
 65. Castor Canadensis, Kuhl. (American Beaver.) 
 
 Family X. Geomyidse. {Tlie Pouched Gophers.) 
 56. Geomys bursarius, Rich. (Pocket Gopher.) 
 67, Thomomys talpoides, Giibel. (Mole Gopher.) 
 
 Family X'l. Zapodidte. (Jumping Mice.) 
 
 58. Zapus Hudsonius, Coues (Jumping Mouse.) 
 
 Family XII. Muridce. (The Mice.) 
 
 59. Hesperomys leucopus, Raf. (White footed Mouse.) 
 ''" " Michiganensis, Wag. (Prairie Mouse.) 
 61- " leucogaster, Baird. (Missouri Mouse.) 
 
 62. Neotoma cinerea, Baird. (Rocky Mountain Rat.) 
 
 63. Arvicola gapperi, Vigors. (Red-Backed Mouse.) 
 
 64. " cinnamonea, Baird. (Ciimamon colored Mouse.) 
 
 65. " borealis, Rich. (Northern Field Mouse.) 
 C- •' Drummondii, And. (Rocky M. F. Mouse.) 
 6". '■' Richardsonii, Dekay. (Richardson's Mouse.) 
 "*'■ " .vanthognathus, Leach. (Hudson Bay Mouse.) 
 <:o. Fiber zibethicus, Cut. (Musk Rat.) 
 
 Family XIII. Spalacopodidee. (The Porcupines.) 
 70. Erethizon dorsatus, F. Cuv. (White haired Porcupine.) 
 "1- " epixanthus, Brandt. (Yellow-haired Porcupine.) 
 
 Family XIV. Leporidie. (The Hnres.) 
 I'l. Lepus campestris, Bach. (Prairie Hare.) 
 VS. " sylvaticus, Bach. (Grey Rabbit.) 
 
 74. " Americanus, Erxl. (Northern Rabbit.) 
 
 75, Lagomys princeps, Rich. (Little Chief Moimtain Hare.j 
 
 In the preceding list will be found the greater number 
 of the animals inhabiting the plains and the forests as far 
 north as the Arctic Circle. A few notes on the distribution 
 and habits of a few of the species may not be unacceptable 
 to our readers, and therefore we will only attempt to describe 
 the animals by a very few prominent features. 
 
 The American Panther or Couger is the second in size 
 of the North American cats, and is only exceeded by the 
 jaguar. It is considerably larger than the largest dogs, the 
 weight according to Audubon amounting sometimes to 150 
 
32& MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 lbs. The hair is throughout short and compact, close-pressed 
 to the skin, but not very glossy ; it is longest on the belly. 
 The head is small, and the ears are large and rounded above. 
 The paws are very large and with pads, as is found in other 
 cats. In color this species is not dissimilar, when seen from 
 a distance, to the common or Virginian deer. 
 
 Sir John Richardson gives its range as far north as lat. 60° 
 in the Rocky Mountains, but it must be very scarce as none 
 of the late exploring parties seem to have met with it. 
 Should it be sought for it will likely be found in the Rocky 
 Mountains, close to the boundary, and west of that range on 
 the Columbia river. 
 
 The Canadian Lynx is about the size of a large setter 
 dog. It is light bodied with long and thick legs, and the 
 paws enormously large with long and sharp claws. In color 
 it is generally grey with a light tinge of rufous. The ears 
 are prominent and tipped with a pencil of very long hairs. 
 Its large feet, prominent ears, and broad head distinguish it 
 from all other cats. 
 
 This species is very common in the country bordering on 
 Peace river, but, unlike the character it gets in Canada, it is 
 here considered a harmless animal. Many thousands are 
 killed every year, and their flesh is considered excellent 
 food by the hunter. While descending Peace river, in 1875, 
 we frequently noticed this animal on the banks. One eve- 
 ning we saw something swimming in the river and gave 
 chase. It turned out to be a lynx swimming from one side 
 to the other. At the point where it was crossing the river 
 was fully 800 yards wide, and having nearly crossed it 
 gave us some trouble to come up with it. A well directed 
 shot laid it out on the water as if dead, when I immediately 
 caught it and with some difficulty hauled it into the boat. 
 As it came over the side it gave a kick, and one claw 
 catching between two of my fingers left a scratch over three 
 inches long up my arm above the wrist. This was the death 
 
MAMMALS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 329 
 
 struggle, and I was thankful, as its claws were very serious 
 weapons. 
 
 Foxes are abundant everywhere, and the several varie- 
 ties are often found together. The common red fox is con- 
 sidered of little value, but the cross and silver foxes are 
 highly prized, especially the latter. On the plains, foxes are 
 vei'y common and live in communities, or those of various 
 ages live together. Often when camped for the night, young 
 foxes would be seen playing around the holes which are 
 generally understood to be " badger holes." In the early 
 morning the old ones were often detected hunting for mice 
 and gophers, and their stealthiness was only equalled by a 
 cat trying to catch a bird. Half breeds when travelling 
 on the plains often set traps for these animals at night after 
 they camp. In the fall of 1875 half a dozen fine skins were 
 obtained in this way on the trip from Carlton. 
 
 The Prairie Wolf or Coyote is often seen in groups on a 
 distant hill top or heard around the camp at night, but is 
 not considered dangerous, as it is of small size and noted for 
 its cowardly habits. When buffalo were in immense num- 
 bers on the plains, these animals hung around the outskirts 
 of the herds and picked up the refuse of the hunters, and 
 with their almost constant noises kept the camp awake. 
 
 The Great Grey Wolf, however, is not to be despised, as 
 it is a strong and powerful animal. While travelling in the 
 Saskatchewan country the wolves would be seen dodging 
 around the willow thickets and following the train as it 
 passed along. Horses are very much afraid of them, and 
 when one strays from the others, he keeps up a constant 
 neighing until he finds his mates. In the bushy country 
 between Calgarry and Edmonton, wolves were often seen 
 lying in the grass and cautiously raising their heads as the 
 train moved past. South of Battleford, on the Buffalo 
 plains, two stray horses were encountered in 1879, and 
 each was badly hamstrung by wolves. They stayed with 
 
330 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 US as long as they could keep up, but soon fell behind and 
 possibly died that night. On the open prairies the large 
 wolves are seldom seen, but as the forest is approached 
 they become quite common, and cause some loss in the 
 northern settlements every winter. Numbers of them are 
 killed in March, when the snow is deep and a crust forms at 
 night. The hunters start out on snow shoes, and soon bring 
 them to bay in their haunts around the outlying settlemente. 
 In all my travels I never saw them attempt to attack or even 
 face a man, yet they strike terror into the fiercest dog. 
 
 Archbishop Tach6, in his sketch of the North-West, relates 
 the following anecdotes as illustrative of their cunning 
 and tenacity of life : — 
 
 "A fisherman was in the habit of entrusting fish to one of 
 his dogs for his master. To prevent, the dog being attacked 
 by wolves, the man attached bells to the animal. The dog 
 performed his duty daily for several consecutive winters ; 
 but, on one occasion, the bells being forgotten, the poor 
 animal was eaten up, and the splendid fish that the delicate 
 attentions of a poor servant intended for the chief of a post, 
 became, with their carrier, a feast for wolves. While I was 
 staying at Isle k la Crosse, three large wolves, one black 
 and two grey, made havoc amongst our train dogs, eating 
 several of them. Their cunning in avoiding traps enabling 
 them to escape the death planned for them, a price was set 
 upon their heads. An old Canadian, of the name of Morin, 
 made a great effort to gain the reward, and the skins. A 
 skilled trapper, made use of all his experience in setting his 
 best spring traps, which, as usual, he fastened by a chain to 
 a very large piece of wood. All the dogs were carefully 
 locked up, and every other precaution adopted to make the 
 three troublesome visitors hungry. Morin visited his traps 
 daily, and everybody was in the habit of going to meet him 
 on his return to learn the result of his expedition. The 
 subject was the theme of the day. There came a furious 
 
MAMMALS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 331 
 
 storm during which the trapper remained at home. Calm 
 weather followed, and the old Canadian went to visit his 
 traps; in the distance he saw snow covering one of the 
 three thieves that had been caught ; a second trap had been 
 set off unsuccessfully, and the third had disappeared ; dis- 
 order reigned in the pack of wolves ; the others never 
 appeared again. Morin, after long and vain searching, was 
 regretting the loss of his trap when, a month having elapsed, 
 the people of Green Lake, about ninety miles from Isle a 
 la Crosse, saw a wolf walking on one of their lakes, appar- 
 ently with difficulty. Several dogs were sent after him, 
 he was caught and killed. He was no other than one of 
 the rogues from Isle a la Crosse, for the trap was still attached 
 to his leg. The chain and log of wood were detached at 
 the time of his companion's death ; he had wandered in 
 every direction through the forest for a whole month, 
 dragging this heavy and cruel encumbrance in the midst of 
 the most intense cold. This wolf was reduced to a mere 
 walking skeleton, but the occurrence indicates a power and 
 tenacity of life in the animal, difficult to understand." 
 
 The Fisher and Pine Marten are both highly prized on 
 account of their furs. In the valleys of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains and on Peace River in British Columbia, there are 
 large numbers of the latter, which are here called Sable. 
 While in the mountains, in the winter of 1872, 1 frequently 
 accompanied the trappers when on their rounds looking 
 after their traps. Their traps (dead falls) were baited with 
 dried fish, and were so arranged that a man could visit them 
 all without retracing his steps. Peter Toy, the great trapper 
 of the Parsnip or Upper Peace River, told me that his line 
 of traps took him a week to examine, and that the only 
 enemy he had to contend with was the wolverine, which 
 would frequently follow him and knock down all his traps. 
 
 Wolverines got a bad name from every trapper, but I 
 believe they should rather be praised for their intelligence. 
 
332 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 The only one I ever saw paid the penalty of its inqui- 
 sitiveness. Myself and a number of Indians were ascending 
 Peace Kiver with two canoes, when, suddenly, a head with 
 two bright eyes appeared above a log. The animal was 
 detected by an Indian who, at once, got his gun and fired, but 
 missed it. It ran only a few yards and hid itself oc- 
 casionally raising its head to see what we were about. Its 
 curiosity caused its death. A well-directed shot put an end 
 to its life, and another trophy was added to the Indian's 
 credit. 
 
 Archbishop Tache, in his sketch of the North-West, relates 
 the following as his contribution to the biography of the 
 animal : " This animal, as if to make up for the torpor 
 of others of the family, is endowed with a feverish 
 and very extraordinary activity, particularly in winter; 
 yet it cannot run quickly, its progress is not even easy, ex- 
 cept on well beaten pathways. About as big as a dog of 
 only average size, it is able to commit depredations requir- 
 ing strength and skill that often appear fabulous. It steals 
 all kinds of things, not only food, but utensils, and even 
 the long, heavy country saws, and hides them in the snow or 
 elsewhere. I once witnessed one of these tricky perform- 
 ances of the wolverine. My fellow-travellers, coming to 
 meet me, had left behind them in store, a double-barrelled 
 gun, and a bag of provisions to be used on our return. 
 Knowing the risk there was of losing these things, it ap- 
 pears they secured them. The gun was forced between 
 the trunks of two trees that grew very close to one another ; 
 the bag of provisions was hung by a cord from the centre 
 of a long pole resting on two trees at some distance from 
 one another. On our return, we were surprised to find how 
 a wolverine had treated us. Not only. had he climbed one 
 of the trees, but had even walked along the weak and flex- 
 ible pole that appeared to be unequal to his weight, and 
 gnawed through the cord by which the bag of provisions 
 
MAMMALS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 333 
 
 had been hung up. The food he had eaten, scattered, or 
 buried, and the gun had disappeared. After a long search, 
 we first found the leathern gun case, which had been taken 
 oflf the gun, for it had been carefully put on to protect and 
 conceal the piece. Then, in another direction and farther 
 away, we found the gun under the trunk of a tree ; leaves 
 had been thrown over it, and scattered for some distance 
 around as if to conceal the tracks of the thief. We should 
 certainly have concluded that a man had been at work, had 
 not the deep solitude of the forest obliged us to recognize 
 the acts of a wolverine, of which traces were everywhere 
 visible in the neighborhood. If the skillfulness of the 
 wolverine sometimes insures him success, here is an incident 
 that proves his mischief frequently brings punishment. 
 An Indian had left his lodge without any one to look after 
 it A wolverine presently entered the deserted habitation, 
 brought out, one by one, all the things he found inside, and 
 hid them here and there, and even far away from the lodge. 
 There remained only a bag of gunpowder. This the animal 
 seized between his teeth, and concealed amongst the cinders 
 m the fireplace. Some fuel still unextinguished soon burnt 
 the bag, and caused an explosion of which the roguish 
 wolverine was the first victim, for it stretched him dead on 
 the spot, scattering the brains of the thief right and left." 
 
 Mink and Otter are frequently met with along river 
 banks, but the latter more particularly at a bend where 
 there is a short rapid, and their food more easily pro- 
 cured. Their slides (they can scarcely be called paths) 
 down the river bank, are more like what seals would make 
 than what would be expected from an animal that had four 
 legs. On Peace River they are still abundant, and here are 
 to be procured the best furs of that species. 
 
 On the prairie, Skunks are very common, and seem to 
 live in communities, as they are frequently met with in 
 numbers on little hillocks which they have perforated in 
 
334 MANITOBA AND THE GEEAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 every direction. When descending the Assiniboine, last 
 September, we saw numbers of them playing around with- 
 out any signs of fear, and exposing themselves to instant 
 death had we been so inclined. The Half-Breeds loose no 
 chance of shooting them, and say they are excellent 
 eating. When in my company, I noticed they took off the 
 skin and the body was then hung under a cart for four 
 or five days, and allowed to swing in the wind, before 
 being cooked. 
 
 Archbishop Tache says : " When the animal (the Skunk) 
 is carefully skinned, its flesh is far from being unpalatable. 
 I have enjoyed a meal of it, and shall eat of it again when- 
 ever I shall have opportunity." It is curious that Chicago 
 should literally mean the Land of Skunks. It is said to 
 come from chicak of the Crees meaning Skunk. 
 
 Badgers were formerly very common on the plains, but 
 of late years, they are far from common. On some parts of 
 the southern plain it is extremely dangerous to ride on 
 horseback at a rapid rate, owing to the multiplicity of bad- 
 ger-holes which dot the plain and are often concealed by 
 the long grass Ponies are so accustomed to these holes 
 that if they are allowed to choose their own step, few mis- 
 haps occur. But when a gallant rider from the east mounts 
 an eastern horse or a pony, and affects to guide him in 
 eastern style, laughable scenes often occur. I once crossed 
 the plain with a company of gentlemen, and not a day 
 elapsed but some one was in trouble. Usually the horse 
 would put his forefoot in a badger-hole as he trotted along, 
 and the rider would float over his head. When he reached 
 the grass, he would scramble for some distance on his hands 
 and feet, dreading the hoofs of the horse which never fol- 
 lowed him. As soon as the horse was relieved of his rider, 
 he galloped off to join the band of loose horses that were 
 driven with the party. No persuasion would entice the 
 horse to give himself up, and it was only by the use of the 
 
MAMMALS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 335 
 
 lariat (lasso) that he could be caught, and the gentleman 
 remounted. One day, near the Hand Hills, my Gliief of 
 Staff was chasing a horse on foot, and the horse was gallop- 
 ing round with his eye on the man. While going at great 
 speed, he put his foot in a badger-hole and turned a com- 
 plete somersault. When he rose to his feet, he walked 
 up to the man and gave himself up, looking quite crest- 
 fallen. 
 
 Badgers are shy, and as soon as they see a traveller, take 
 to their hole. After descending to the bottom, the animal at 
 once comes up to the surface and peeps about to see what 
 was the cause of his fright. Taking advantage of this, 
 the Half-breeds run up to the hole and wait with the muzzle 
 of the gun ready, so as to shoot him on his return. If he 
 is not killed outright, it is almost impossible to get him 
 out of the hole, he has such power in his hind legs. 
 
 Although Bears are quite plentiful in many parts of the 
 country, they are seldom seen, except by hunters who go 
 specially to look for them. They are ever on the alert, 
 and on the least noise retreat into the nearest thicket 
 with great alacrity. Black Bears are perfectly harmless, 
 and are never known to attack human beings, although 
 they would steal a young pig without any hesitation. 
 Their food consists principally of berries and larvae of ants 
 and other insects, which they get by breaking in pieces or 
 turning over the rotten logs strewed about in the woods. 
 .Scarcely a rotten log or billet of wood can be seen that has 
 not the marks of a bear's claws upon it. Nor even a clump 
 of berry bushes that have not been denuded of their fruit 
 by them, yet in all last summer's explorations only one 
 was seen, although we knew they were quite common in 
 the bushes that filled the river valley. The fruit of the 
 " Harouge " or Dog Wood (^Cornus stolonifera) was their 
 principal food in the valleys of the Swan and Assiniboine 
 rivers. 
 
336 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Peace Eiver is, however, the home of the bear, as within 
 the Rocky Mountains the terrible grizzly makes his habita- 
 tion, and often comes down to the plain and strikes terror 
 into the hearts of the hunters. One night, in October 1872, 
 I slept with an old Indian Chief on the bank of the Peace 
 River, at Hudson's Hope, and it was only by the most elo- 
 quent appeals that I could prevail on him to stay with me 
 and guard the provisions. All the other men crossed the 
 river to the Hudson's Bay Company's post, to be safe from the 
 bears. Next evening, I rode over the Portage, a distance 
 of twelve miles, with Charette who had charge of the post. 
 While crossing, darkness settled down on the woods, and 
 to protect us from the bears, dogs were sent ahead and 
 others kept behind, so as to give us notice of their prox- 
 imity. I could not learn that they ever came up to attack 
 a man, but it was certain they never left his path, and if 
 met at any time a fight ensued, unless the man retreated. 
 
 Grizzlys were never hunted by the Beaver Indians, 
 except in revenge for the death or maiming of a friend, 
 and then it was done as a matter of duty. The size of their 
 feet and the length of their claws make them terrible to 
 encounter, as one blow from such an animal would tear a man 
 almost to pieces. I have often seen claws six inches in 
 length, worn as necklaces by the Indian girls, and con- 
 sidered as valuable medicine. 
 
 Many stories have been related about the terrible encoun- 
 ters which have taken place between this animal and the 
 Indians. Scarcely a Beaver Indian could be found who 
 had not scars on some part of the body, received in encoun- 
 ters with him. Instances have been related where Indian 
 women out gathering berries have been carried off and 
 afterwards escaped by simulating death. One bear killed at 
 the Hand Hills in 1877 required eight shots before he was dis- 
 abled. His feet were eight inches across, and were armed 
 with claws five inches long. He was caught in the act of 
 
MAMMALS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 337 
 
 killing a buffalo cow, and had just cracked her spine when 
 he received the first shot. When stretched, his hide was as 
 large as a buffalo bull, and when seen by me was used as a 
 cart cover. The skull was brought away, and is now in the 
 museum of Toronto University. Scarcely a tooth was found 
 in his head which had not been broken, but the breadth of 
 their bases told of their power unimpaired. The whole hide 
 was covered with old wounds, and his general appearance 
 led to the belief that he was very old. Besides the balls 
 shot into him by his slayer, a number of others were found 
 imbedded in his flesh. While Captain Palliser was in this 
 section, in 1859, he relates a fearful occurrence which took 
 place at that time about where the line of the Canadian 
 Pacific Eailway crosses the Bow Eiver : — 
 
 " Several Indians from the Blood Indian camp came up 
 where we had crossed to the south side and invited us to 
 their camp. At about eight miles distance on our way there, 
 we met a number of young men riding at full speed up the 
 river to a point where a fearful accident was jiist reported 
 to have occurred. Some women had been gathering berries 
 there and came upon a bear. He at once seized one of them 
 and dragged her into the bushes, one of the women having 
 jumped upon a horse returned to camp with the news. The 
 young men succeeded in killing the bear, but reported the 
 woman not only dead but frightfully mangled." 
 
 The Cabree, a Prong-horned Antelope, was formerly abun- 
 dant on the great buffalo plains, but within the last few 
 years nearly all have been killed by the starving Indians. 
 South of Battleford, in 1879, they were in droves of ten to 
 fifteen, but last year they had nearly all disappeared. Its 
 erect carriage, beautiful mild eyes, and energetic motions 
 give it a very pleasing appearance whether in motion or at 
 rest. It is wonderfully fleet and can easily outrun a horse, 
 but after running some time it will suddenly stop, and if the 
 hunter hides, it will return and fall an easy prey. In the 
 22 
 
338 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 rutting season it is still more inquisitive, and should it see 
 a traveller or a hunter, will approach quite close and exam- 
 ine objects without fear. 
 
 In the south west, but more particularly in the bushy 
 country, the Black-tailed or Mule Deer is occasionally met 
 with. The Wapiti, or American Elk, was formerly very 
 abundant on the prairie in the neighborhood of clumps of 
 wood, but is fast disappearing with the advance of civiliza- 
 tion. Moose Mountain and the ravines along the Coteau 
 and Cypres Hills still shelter a few, but like the buffalo 
 they will very soon pass from the prairie forever. Their 
 numbers are rapidly decreasing both in the forest and along 
 the base of the mountains, and a whole season ma}'^ be pass- 
 ed without encountering one. A finer sight is seldom seen 
 than a number of these animals careering over the plains. 
 They stand about five feet high aud are over eight feet 
 long. Their horns are a grand object, being very symmet- 
 rical and altogether unlike the clumsy head of the moose. 
 
 On the Peace River plains and within the Rocky Moun- 
 tains, the Moose is very abundant, and forms the staff of 
 life for the greater number of inhabitants on that river. 
 This is the largest species of deer and stands higher than a 
 horse, but is much shorter. Its flesh to my palate is equal 
 to that of the buffalo, and pemmican made from it is equally 
 as good. Hunting moose is quite an art, as the animal is 
 furnished with a long nose and large ears, which give very 
 acute powers of hearing and a very fine sense of smelling. 
 At all the Hudson's Bay Company's posts on Peace river, 
 one or more hunters re constantly employed supplying the 
 residents with meat. 
 
 Sometimes animals are not easily obtained or the hunters 
 are lazy. At such times food becomes very scarce and the 
 post mc-ster and his family are reduced to great straits. In 
 the spring of 1875 the hunters failed to procure food, and 
 Mr. McAuley, who had charge of the post on Battle river 
 
MAMMALS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 339 
 
 (a branch of the Peace), and his whole family, were reduced 
 to the very verge of starvation. After eating up every 
 scrap of what we generally call food, the children roasted 
 sinew and green hide and lived- on them for days. When 
 they were at the last extremity a moose was killed, and 
 they at once passed from starvation to feasting. In August 
 when I saw them they had all regained their flesh, and 
 could laugh over their former distress. Many think that 
 with the woods full of game it is not possible to starve, but 
 it is just as well to remember that trained hunters are not 
 always safe, then how about amateurs ? 
 
 Passing to the northward we enter the region of the 
 Caribou. What is usually called the Barren Grounds is 
 their summer resort, and here they live in herds that aggre- 
 gate many thousands. In spring and fall, as they pass and 
 repass to their feeding grounds, they are met by the hunters 
 and slaughtered in thousands. Should the fall hunt be a 
 failure, as it is sometimes, all the Hudson's Bay Company's 
 posts in the Mackenzie River District are in danger of starva- 
 tion, and the fisheries are then their chief dependence. 
 Caribou flesh is not so nourishing as moose, but still it is 
 very good when not too lean. Its tongue is considered a 
 great dainty, and is much relished by the natives and others. 
 
 The Mountain Goat is common on the Rocky Mountains 
 above the tree line, but descends much lower when the cold 
 of winter sets in. In general appearance it is exactly like 
 the domestic goat, having a flowing beard, a full neck, and 
 slightly curving dark-colored horns. The goat nearly 
 equals the sheep in size. Its long white wool is silky and 
 beautiful, and would certainly make fine and substantial 
 cloth. While ascending Mount Selwyn, in the Peace 
 River Pass, we collected a large quantity of this wool from 
 the bushes as we passed upwards along their path. By 
 throwing large stones over the precipices we caused them to 
 run out from their hiding places, and their agility as they 
 
340 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOKTH-WEST 
 
 jumped from crag to crag was very remarkable. , In Bow 
 River Pass they are very common, and with a glass may be 
 seen almost any day eating on the mountain tops. 
 
 While encamped in the Pass in the Autumn of 1879, 
 almost immediately under Grotto Mountain, a number of 
 Stonies joined us. Shortly after one of their number pointed 
 out three goats descending from the summit and eating as 
 they came. A hurried consultation was held, and a few of 
 the younger men started off to try and obtain the animals. 
 In the course of an hour one of the hunters was observed 
 crawling stealthily along a ledge almost on a level with the 
 goats, which by this time had descended the mountain for 
 a considerable distance. As we sat and watched him a puff 
 of smoke, followed by the fall of one of the goats, told that 
 he had got within range. In an instant the wounded ani- 
 mal was on its feet, and on three legs followed the others 
 up the mountain. A number of shots fired in quick succes- 
 sion brought down another, and the wounded one fell dead 
 at the eighth shot. The Indian like many of his tribe was 
 armed with a Winchester rifle, and therefore fired very 
 rapidly. 
 
 Laying aside his gun the Indian crawled carefully along 
 a narrow ledge, and seizing one of the goats he threw it over 
 the precipice, and we saw it roll over and over as it descend- 
 ed the mountain. The other quickly followed and going 
 back for his gun he soon disappeared. Up to this time the 
 other hunters had not been seen, but now one of them wear- 
 ing a red shirt, made his way along the face of a precipice, 
 and reaching the goats where they had lodged rolled them, 
 over the brink, and they shortly disappeared down a grassy 
 slope. Half an hour had scarcely elapsed before our hunters 
 returned and were publicly thanked for the moving panor- 
 ama to which they had treated us. We tried the flesh but 
 found it anything but palatable, as a disagreeable flavor per- 
 vaded every part of it. 
 
MAMMALS OF THE NORTH-"WEST. 341 
 
 The Big Horn or Rocky Mountain Sheep seems to prefer 
 the wooded slopes and does not ascend to such elevations as 
 the goat. Although its horns look like those of an enor- 
 mous ram, its body and coat are those of the elk. Its flesh 
 is very highly prized as it is certainly delicious Its horns 
 are very large, often weighing, with the head, over 50 lbs. 
 
 Prolessor Baird in his Report on the Mammals of the 
 United States, speaks of certain heads, which he measured in 
 the succeeding sentences : — " In an old animal the horns are 
 nineteen inches apart at the tip, they measured fifteen and 
 a half inches in circumference at the base, and twenty -eight 
 inches in length around the curve. They weigh eighteen 
 and a half pounds with the perfectly clean skull, lacking the 
 end of the nose and the lower jaw. In the specimen brought 
 by Captain Stansbury from the Rocky Mountains, however, 
 the horns are eighteen inches in circumference at the base, 
 the horn along the convexity measures thirty -six and a half 
 inches, and the tips are eighteen inches apart." 
 
 Closely related to the Mountain Sheep is the Musk Ox of 
 the Barren Grounds. This animal is often spoken of by 
 Arctic travellers, but is almost unknown to the generality 
 of readers. Archbishop Tache says : — " This animal is limit- 
 ed to the northernmost part of the continent, and is to be met 
 on our most icy deserts. It is of the size of a small ox, and 
 has most remarkable horns ; these are very large and come 
 so close together, at least in the male, as to unite into one 
 horn at the base. I have seen plates a foot in diameter 
 made of Musk-Ox horn. This ruminant, like all others in 
 this department having heavy horns, is almost tailless. Its 
 short legs do not prevent it from being very fleet ; it des- 
 cends very abrupt declivities wjih astonishing agility, and 
 climbs them too with very great ease. The rocky charactei 
 of some of the plains on which it lives does not interfere 
 with its walking or even running. Like the Caribou it feeds 
 on herbs and lichens. Providence, who placed this animal 
 
342 MANITOBA AND THE GKlilAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 in the polar regions and on perfectly woodless plains, has 
 clothed it with the very warmest of coats. The Musk-Ox 
 is covered with a double fleece. Long surface hair gives it 
 the appearance of a buffalo, but its coat is longer and more 
 silky, and on its back there is a light-colored covering. The 
 under hair is close and fine wool, and protects the animal 
 against the severity of the climate. Were this wool manu- 
 factured it would make very excellent cloth. As a robe 
 nothing can be preferable to the Musk-Ox hide. I am in- 
 debted to a noble friend for one of these robes, made for my 
 sleigh ; it is made of four skins ; it not only protects me 
 against cold, but I should have regarded it as too luxurious 
 had it not been given to me as it was." 
 
 The Bison or Buffalo, in former times, covered the great 
 plains, both in summer and winter, and, to-day, their bones 
 lie bleaching on the prairies from Pembina to the Rocky 
 Mountains, and from the International Boundary to Peace 
 River. It is doubtful whether the great herds passed con- 
 stantly from the Saskatchewan to Peace River, but this, at 
 any rate, is certain their bones lie on those northern prai- 
 ries, and their paths yet seam the foot hills of the Rocky 
 Mountains. In the winter of 1870, the last buffalo were 
 killed north of Peace River, but in 1875, about 1000 head 
 were still in existence between the Athabasca and Peace 
 Rivers, north of Little Slave Lake. These are called Wood 
 Buffalo by the hunters, but differ only in size from those of 
 the plain. During the last three years, the great herds 
 have been kept south of our Boundary, and as the result of 
 this, our Indians have been on the verge of starvation. 
 Where the hills were covered with countless thousands in 
 1877, the Blackfeet were dying of starvation in 1879. A few 
 returned last fall, but they are only the remnants of the 
 former myriads, and soon these will disappear never to re- 
 turn. While on the plains with the Half-breeds, many a 
 spot has been pointed out where they had a splendid " run." 
 
MAMMALS OF TUR NOKTII-WEST. 343 
 
 As they related the incidents of cmifiict their eyes would 
 glow and their whole demeanor would change, so that they 
 appeared different beings from what they were a few 
 minutes before. 
 
 Buffalo hunting in former days', was peculiarly exciting 
 and gave a zest to prairie life that was most bewitching to 
 the young and adventurous. Twice a year, hundreds of 
 families would assemble on the Red River plains, and 
 pladng themselves under the leadership of tried hunters 
 and fearless Indian traders, start for the buffalo plains. 
 When they entered the Indian country they coralled their 
 animals every night, and set regular watches like soldiers 
 in an enemy's country. Often, five or six hundred carts 
 would be in the tram, and every evening when they 
 stopped for the night, these carts would be formed in a 
 circle with their shafts inwards. After the horses had fed, 
 they were brought within the circle and the watch was set. 
 All men in the party were amenable to the same laws and 
 assisted at the making of them, so that a Half-breed en- 
 campment was a small military republic. 
 
 When the party struck buffalo a permanent camp was 
 j)itched, and the " buffalo runners " (horses trained to hunt 
 buffalo) were caught and examined. Scouts were sent out 
 to locate a herd, and on their return, all the men intending 
 to take part in the "run " presented themselves mounted, 
 with gun on arm and whip in hand or rather hung by a 
 thong to the wrist. Under direction of their Captain, they 
 quietly separate in skirmishing order, and advancing under 
 cover of the swells, almost if not altogether surround the 
 herd. At a given signal all dash forward, as they charge, 
 the light of battle shines in their faces, and their very 
 steeds quiver with excitement. 
 
 Hurrying to the top of a hill, a non-combatant sees a wide 
 and almost circular plain filled with horsemen and wild 
 terror-stricken animals, dashing hither and thither, and 
 
344 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 oVer all ,tlie confused tumult, the bellowing of bulls, and the 
 sharp crack of the rifles are heard. Apparently the horses are 
 moving without guidance. See that beautiful black dash up 
 to a fat cow and almost halt, while his rider sends the death 
 dealing bullet. Like a flash, the buflfalo turns and charges 
 the horse, but a slight pressure of the knee causes him like- 
 wise to swerve, and the buffalo dashes past. In another 
 instant, the horse is again alongside, and another shot rolls 
 her over dead . While we have been watching this episode 
 a number of old bulls have led the way over the rise, and 
 few minutes elapse before the grassy plain is left untenanted, 
 except by the dead and dying. The women now come oh 
 the scene and set to work, each apparently knowing those 
 killed by her friends. On the return of the hunters it is 
 found that over two hundred animals have fallen, and by 
 the camp fires that night enough anecdotes of former ' runs ' 
 and reminiscences of Indian fights are told to fill a volume. 
 After witnessing one buffalo hunt I cannot blame the Half- 
 breed and the Indian for leaving the farm, and wildly 
 making for the plains when it is rejaorted that buffalo have 
 crossed " the border." 
 
 Doctor Hector gives the following account of what he saw 
 on the morning of the 26th December, 1857, about sixty 
 miles to the west of Fort Pitt, in the valley of the Vermilion 
 River : — " This morning we were off by 4.30 a.m., and had 
 gone a considerable distance when we saw fresh traces of 
 Indians, and soon heard the bawling and screaming of an 
 immense catup, all m a high state of excitement. Diverging 
 from our path to pay them a visit, we found that they had 
 succeeded in driving a large band of buffaloes into their 
 " pound " during the night, and were now engaged in 
 slaughtering them The scene was more repulsive than 
 pleasant or exciting The pound is a circular strong fencing 
 about fifty yiivds m diameter, made of stakes with boughs 
 interlaced, and into this place were crammed more than 100 
 
MAMMALS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 345 
 
 buffaloes, bulls, cows, and calves. A great number were al- 
 ready killed, and the live ones were tumbhng about furious- 
 ly over the dead bodies of their companions, and I hardly 
 think the space would have held them all alive without some 
 being on the top of the others, and, in addition, the bottom 
 of the pound was strewn with fragments of carcasses left 
 from former slaughters in the same place. It was on a slope, 
 and the upper part of the fencing was increased in height 
 by skins stretched on poles, for the purpose of frightening 
 the buffaloes from jumping out. This is not needed at the 
 lower part of the enclosure, as the animals always endeavor 
 to jump up hill. The entrance to the enclosure is by an 
 inclined plane made of rough logs leading to a gap, through 
 which the buffaloes suddenly jump about six feet into the 
 ring, and then they cannot return. To this entrance con- 
 verge lines of little heaps of buffaloes' dung or brush for 
 several miles into the prairie which surrounds the clump of 
 wood in which the pound is concealed. These lines serve 
 to lead the buffalo in the required direction when they have 
 been driven into the neighborhood. When first captured 
 and driven into the pound, which difiicult matter is effected 
 by strategy, the buffaloes run round and round violently, 
 and the Indians affirm, always with the sun. Crouching on 
 the fencing were the Indians, even mere boys and young 
 girls, all busy plying bows and arrows, guns and spears, and 
 even knives to accomplish the destruction of the buffaloes. 
 After firing their arrows they generally succeeded in extract- 
 ing them again by a noose on the end of a pole, and some had 
 even the pluck to jump into the area and pull them out 
 with their hands ; but if an old bull or a cow happened to 
 observe them they had to be very active in getting out again. 
 The scene was a busy but a bloody one, and had to be car- 
 ried on until every animal was killed, to enable tham to get 
 the meat. I helped by trying the penetrating power of 
 rifle balls on the shaggy skulls of the animals with invari- 
 
346 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 able success ; and it is the least cruel way of killing them^ 
 as they drop at once. There are many superstitions con- 
 nected with the whole business, and the Indians always 
 consider their success in procuring buffaloes in this manner 
 depends on the pleasure of the Manito, to whom they al- 
 ways make offerings, which they place under the entrance 
 of the pound where I saw a collection of Indian valuables, 
 among which were bridles, powder horns, tobacco, beads, 
 and the like, placed there by the believing Indians, only to 
 be stolen by the first scamp in the camp who could manage 
 the theft adroitly. In the centre of the pound, also, there 
 is a tall pole on which they hang offerings, to which piece 
 of idolatry I was m a manner an accessory by giving them 
 my pocket handkerchief to convert into a flag." 
 
 Moles and Shrews are very plentiful in many parts of the 
 country. Wherever the soil is a rich, black, loose mould 
 their mounds are in thousands, and it is very unpleasant to 
 take a loaded cart over the surface. They are seldom seen 
 as their lives are passed underground, and it is presumed 
 that as the frost increases in depth in winter they are en- 
 abled to get below it. Any person prospecting for land can 
 be assured of a great depth of rich and well-drained black 
 mould wherever he sees their colonies. Where badger holes 
 are, a dry and not porous subsoil is always found. Badgers 
 never burrow in sand. 
 
 Gophers and Prairie dogs are very common in some locali- 
 ties, and cause much trouble to farmers, especially in the 
 interior. The Striped Gopher is particularly abundant in 
 the vicinity of Battleford and along the North Saskatche- 
 wan. On the buffalo plains and the open prairie generally 
 the Prairie Dog {Cynomys ludovicianus) is very common. 
 As the traveller passes along he is seen sitting in front of 
 his house but when approached too near he dives into it like 
 a flash. They are wonderfully inquisitive, and are hardly 
 down until their heads are up again to see what is trans- 
 
MAMMALS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 34 T 
 
 piring. "While lying in camp one Sunday with a number 
 of Half-breeds we were much amused at the method adopt- 
 ed to capture the little fellows. Their holes are seldom 
 more than three inches across, and when one was seen sit- 
 ting on the edge of his hole he was approached, and of course 
 immediately disappeared. A loop made of soft string was 
 now put over the hole and the end held in the hand of a 
 boy some distance away. Very soon the head appeared 
 above the hole, the string was pulled, and as he felt the 
 tightening cord he sank back into the hole only to make 
 hinself more securely looped. By this simple means half a 
 dozen were caught in a short time, and another means of 
 averting famine when without means of procuring other 
 food was discovered I have learned since that very fre- 
 quently little boys and girls supply themselves with food 
 for weeks together by this simple method. 
 
 Amongst the Rodents there is no animal of more value 
 than the Beaver, and no one about which so much has been 
 written. Much of it too is very far-fetched and greatly 
 exaggerated. I remember reading in a school-book that 
 they were just like choppers, and could fall a tree in any 
 direction they choose. Now, this statement wants just one 
 element — that is truth. Generally trees are cut on the 
 slope of the river bank, and as this is always towards 
 the water, when cut, they fall in that direction. It is differ- 
 ent, however, if the tree is cut on the level, as it then falls 
 the way the top leans, which is not always towards the water 
 and just as frequently away from the river as towards it. 
 While cutting, the beaver evidently sits on his hinder parts,. 
 and if the ground is level, the cut is at the same elevation all 
 the way round. It is made precisely like the body of a sand 
 glass, and frequently poplar trees eighteen inches in diameter 
 are felled in this way. In constructing their dams in rivers, 
 they take advantage of a fallen tree across the stream, and 
 perhaps the lodgement of some driftwood against it. They 
 
348 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST 
 
 then set to work, and float down branches, roots, leaves, and 
 twigs, and work them up with clay into almost a solid mass. 
 On brooks, they cut willows and alders, and build a dam 
 over which I have often taken horses It is the dams across 
 small brooks that cause so much flooding in the Peace River 
 -country, and other sections where the banks are not high. 
 In very large rivers their houses are always in a drift pile, 
 and here they often congregate by the hundred. 
 
 Having spent last summer where the beaver were very 
 numerous, I had ample opportunity to study their habits, and 
 probably broke up fifty of their dams in our passage up the 
 various branches of Red Deer River. In September, they 
 were laying in their supply of winter food. All the small 
 trees and branches were cut up into lengths averaging about 
 three feet, and carried or hauled to the water's edge when 
 they were floated down to their store houses. In one place, 
 I found a small dam in a brook close to the river, and fol- 
 lowing it up for more than a quarter of a mile, found that a 
 colony of beavers used this as a canal down which they 
 floated their food to the river, below the small dam. 
 
 On the borders of lakes or in still or slow flowing streams, 
 beavers show their greatest ability. Here they build houses 
 many feet in diameter, are so solidly put together that 
 it is a matter of great labor to break them up. An eminent 
 author who had ample opportunity to study their habits, 
 speaking of their constructive powers, says : " "Whole tribes 
 unite to build villages. Houses, invariably of two floors, 
 bear witness to the uniform genius of these architects. 
 The pantry occupies the ground floor, while the leisure hours, 
 amusements, and sleeping places of the family are reserved 
 for the first floor. The walls and upper part are remarkably 
 thick, sometimes measuring several feet. Then at the com- 
 mencement of hard frost, the exterior is coated with a thick 
 layer of mud, which immediately freezes and has the double 
 advantage of perfectly shutting out the cold air, and of 
 
MAMMALS OF THE NORTH-WEST 349 
 
 guarding against the attack of wolverines. The sagacity 
 of the beaver is also seen m the care it takes, not only to 
 lay in provisions in advance, hut also in arranging creep- 
 holes to insure its retreat in case of surprise and for its sub- 
 sistence in a day of need The most extraordinary works of 
 beavers are the dams they throw across rivers and along the 
 shores of lakes. In this matter one could not hesitate to 
 grant them an engineer's diploma. Two points in their work 
 attract attention : the skill and strength displayed in the 
 construction are perfection in themselves ; and even engin- 
 eers with the same materials — branches and mud — have not 
 been able to make such good roads as are made by beavers. 
 He who looks at a beaver dam, or assists in taking one to 
 pieces, must be struck with the remarkable simplicity of the 
 construction, against which angry waves and floods of rapid 
 streams dash themselves without effect. One wonders how 
 the mud kneaded and applied by the beaver's paws, uu' 
 assisted by even the trowel-shaped tail, becomes a hydraulic 
 cement that time hardens instead of dissolving. How 
 many are the secrets that nature conceals from science ? 
 The extent of these works is as surprising as their perfec- 
 tion Some of them are really colossal, and several chains 
 m length. Artificial lakes, of very considerable size, owe 
 their origin to these dams. The extent of the dams is the 
 most striking proof of the social habits of the beaver, for 
 several families must have combined to carry them out, and 
 if individual instinct produces the result of a general govern- 
 ment amongst these laborers, they must necessarily be in- 
 fluenced by a sense of common interest " 
 
 Beaver and muskrat are widely different m their habits,, 
 and it is extremely easy to tell the character of a region of 
 country by the number of these animals produced Where 
 beavers are numerous, the surface of the country is undulat- 
 ing and intersected by brooks and rivers, and covered with 
 abundance of poplar, the bark of which is their principal 
 
550 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 food. On the other hand, the muskrat is a marsh animal, 
 and IS found in multitudes in all marshy districts. Often 
 as many as 20,000 rat skins are sent from Cumberland 
 House alone, and, last year, fully 50,000 were taken from 
 the country bordering on Lakes Manitoba and Winnipeg- 
 oosis On Little Slave Lake, as many as 8,000 beaver skins 
 have been collected in one year, showing the difference in 
 the character of the two districts. 
 
 Muskrats are very common in all the pools and grass 
 marshes along the line of brushy country, between the 
 prairie and the forest. Here, their habits can be studied 
 .and theu' habitations examined. Weather prophets are m 
 the habit of foretelling the winter by the Muskrat house, 
 but like other guessers they know little of what they speak. 
 Muskrats build their houses on the margins of ponds, and 
 naturally one story of the house must be above the water. 
 Should the autumn be dry, the pond lowers and the rat does 
 little to his house ; but if wet, he must add to its height, so 
 as to lift it above the water, and when these weather-wise 
 men look at the fresh built structure, they sagely shake 
 their heads and foretell a severe winter, and vice versa if no 
 xidditions have been made. Nearly all these wise sayings 
 become mythical when looked at intelligently, and a more 
 careful study of the habits of our wild animals will throw a 
 flood of light on many peculiarities which, to-day, are 
 remarkable if not mysterious. 
 
 I quote again from Archbishop Tach^'s book, as I find in it 
 more accurate and truthful notices of the various animals of 
 the North-West than I find elsewhere. I might give 
 more of my own observations, but prefer to mix the in- 
 gredients so as to make the notices of these animals both 
 entertaining and truthful : — 
 
 " The muskrat builds a house somewhat like the beaver's; 
 being a weaker animal, it cannot transport heavy material ; 
 it makes use of the materials on the spot for its foundations 
 
MAMMALS OF THi. NORTH-WEST. 351 
 
 and walls ; it uses the long grass or rushes of small lakes 
 and marshes, in building its spherical dwelling ; it does not 
 pull up the grass, but merely binds it together with badly 
 kneaded earth. While the robust beaver is satisfied with a 
 rough flooring of branches, his little brother, the muskrat. 
 makes a bed of straw for his delicate limbs ; this is always 
 placed above water level, although there is neither sub- 
 structure nor gallery in the habitation. 
 
 " The pond is the rat's exercising ground and its store ; it 
 keeps breathing-holes in the ice, and to prevent these freez- 
 ing up it stops them with a ball of clay or moss, visiting 
 them from time to time to smell the pure outside air, or to 
 breathe it at leisure. In summer, it digs holes in the banks 
 of rivers, and in there it nestles its young thrice in a season. 
 Its fecundity prevents its race from extinction. Its great 
 losses are not due to the fortune of war alone ; inundations, 
 exceptionally severe winters, and accidents of which the 
 origins are unknown, often carry desolation into the army 
 of muskrats — fortunately the only kind of rat we have here. 
 Our water-rats require water, and when they have none, 
 which happens if the small lakes they have chosen in 
 autumn for their abodes freeze up, they die of starvation, or 
 pressed by hunger they eat one another. If for one reason 
 they require water, for another they may have too much, 
 for now and again they must land, which they cannot 
 do when the country is flooded. They die, too, when, in 
 spite of their skill and watchfulness, frost is so intense as to 
 close up their breathing holes." 
 
 The Pouched Gopher {^Tlioniomys taljpoides) and the 
 Jumping Mouse {Zapus Hudsonius) are great pests, being 
 in thousands in many parts of the country, and causing 
 great loss by their depredations. The former resembles 
 .a mole, but does not eat insects. I have known them to be 
 so thick in potato patches that they undermined the soil, so 
 that in walking over it 3fou would sink up to the ankles. 
 
352 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST 
 
 As there are no rats yet in the country, it will not be diffi- 
 cult, as settlements increase, to get rid of this and all other 
 native pests, as none of these can increase in the face of the 
 breaking up of the soil. 
 
 In the sandy districts Porcupines are generally met with, 
 but being rather slow in their movements are easily taken. 
 They are generally found under pines, as they seem to prefer 
 localities where they grow. In 1875, while with Dr. Selwyn, 
 Director of the Geological Survey, on the Portage east of 
 Peace River Pass, we noticed the dusting place of some 
 animal under a bank. In the evening, Mr. Selwyn took up 
 a gun, and very shortly after brought back a fine Porcupine. 
 Its flesh was found to be very tender and juicy, and made 
 excellent soup. The Indian and Half-breed women dye 
 Porcupine quills of various colors, and work them into beauti- 
 ful patterns when making certain kinds of embroidery for 
 which they are noted. 
 
 Hares are abundant in the mixed prairie and poplar forest 
 that extends all the way across from Winnipeg to the Rocky 
 Mountains. Some years the country seems alive with them, 
 while other years scarcely one is seen. In 1872 the country 
 in northern British Columbia was full of them. About the 
 middle of November of that year a party left Fort St. James 
 on Stewart's Lake for the purpose of having an afternoon's 
 hunting. Over sixty were shot in three hours, and the 
 hunters claimed to be disappointed because they did not 
 kill a hundred. During the month of September, 1875, 
 while ascending the Clear "Water River north of Portage la 
 Loche, our provisions ran short, and for some days the men 
 snared almost enough to supply us with food The 
 evening we reached the Portage we were altogether with- 
 out eatables, and would have gone to bed vpithout our din- 
 ners, had not a couple of squaws gone to the woods and 
 brought us, in a few minutes, thirteen very fine hares. 
 That same Autumn every little thicket was full of them, 
 but I have not seen a dozen since. 
 
MAMMALS OF THE NOKTH-WEST. 363 
 
 The Prairie Hare is quite a large animal, often weighing 
 ten pounds, and making a most delicious soup. Very few- 
 were met with in our wanderings, so that this species may 
 be considered a scarce animal. A very small species of hare 
 was met with in the Bow River Pass in 1879. This is the 
 Little Chief Mountain Hare (^Lagomys principes), and one 
 never seen away from the Rocky mountains. It lives 
 amongst the rocks and makes its fona without burrowing, 
 so that like the others it is a true hare. Its length is only 
 about six or seven inches, whereas the Prairie Hare is often 
 over twenty-four, and when running often looks like a 
 Cabree, owing to the mirage that so frequently changes the 
 size and relative distance of objects on the great prairies. 
 
CHAPTEE XXI. 
 
 Birfls of the Norih-West. 
 
 Large Numbers lireni in the Country — Euumeratioii of Singing Birds — Notes on the 
 Thrushes, Warblers, Swallows, Finches — Prairie Birds — Peculiarities of the Cow-bird 
 — Blackbirds a Great Nuisance — The Fly-catchers, Enumeration of the Species — 
 Night Hawks, Humming Birds, and Woodpeckers — All these are Forest Species — 
 Range of the Humming Birds — Hawks and Owls — The Owl of the Prairie — Hawks 
 very Beauttful and Abundant — Their Habits — The Wild Pigeon — Prairie Chicken, 
 Ptarmigan and Grouse — Enumeration of the Waders — Numerous both in Species and 
 Numbers — Plover — Avocets — Godwits — Sandpipers and Snipe in Myriads — Bitterns 
 and Cranes often Numerous — Enumeration of the Ducks, Geese, and Swans — Their 
 Breeding Places — Notes on the Eiver Ducks — Countless Myriads in the Fall — Game 
 Birds Around or in a Pond — A Common Sight — How to Procure a Supper — The Mer- 
 gansers or Sheldrakes — Pelicans, their Habits and Breeding Places — Their Modes of 
 Fishing — Gulls and Terns — Vei-y Abundant on the larger Lakes — Their Summer 
 Haunts — Loons, Grebe and Dab-chicks — Habits of the Grebe — The Great Western 
 Grebe — Synoptical Table of the Birds — Notes on the Prairie Birds — Birds near Bran- 
 don in 1880 — At Flat Creek — At Moose Moujitain — Souris Plain — ^Around Salt 
 Ponds — Multitudes of Ducks and Prairie Chickens — Taking to the Stubble Fields — 
 Notes on the Hawks — On the Owls — On the Gulls. 
 
 Birds are a most impoi'tant element in the present and 
 future of the North-West Having watched their habits 
 and obtained their skins I am enabled to speak wfth cer- 
 tainty of many birds hitherto unknown in the interior. 
 As they are better known by their families I shall intro- 
 duce them in that way and take the highest order first. 
 
 Order I. Passer es. 
 
 This order is divided into two sub-orders, the Oscines and 
 Clamatores. 
 
 The sub-order Oscines, or Singing-birds, is composed 
 of nineteen Families, sixty Genera and ninety-five Species 
 enumerated below : — 
 
 Robin, Turdus, migratorius, L. 
 
 Varied Thrush, Turdus, nsevius, Hon. 
 
 Hermit Thrush. Turdim, rnHnm, Cnh. 
 
BIRDS OF THE NORT]I-^\^EST. 
 
 355 
 
 Olive-backed Thrash, 
 
 Veery. WilBon's Thrush, 
 
 Brown Thrush, 
 
 Catbird, 
 
 Arctic Blue Bird. 
 
 Water Ouzel, 
 
 Ruby Crowned Kinglet, 
 
 Chick-a-dee, 
 
 Hudsouian Chick-a^dee 
 
 House Wren, 
 
 Winter-Wren, 
 
 Long-billed Marsh Wren, 
 
 Homed Lark, 
 
 Wagtail, 
 
 Missouri Skylark, 
 
 Black and White Creeper, 
 
 Nashville Warbler, 
 
 Orange-crowned Warbler, 
 
 Tennessee Warbler, 
 
 Summer Yellow Bird, 
 
 Yellow-rumped Warbler, 
 
 Black and Yellow Warbler, 
 
 Black Poll Warbler, 
 
 Orange-throated Warbler, 
 
 Yellow Red-Poll Warbler, 
 
 Golden-crowned Thrush, 
 
 Water Thrush, 
 
 Maryland Yellow Throat, 
 
 Mourning Warbler, 
 
 Green Black-capped Fly-Catching Warbler, 
 
 Canada Fly-Catching Warbler, 
 
 Redstart, 
 
 Barn Swallow, 
 
 White-bellied Swallow, 
 
 Cliff Swallow, 
 
 Bank Swallow, 
 
 Purple Martin, 
 
 Bohemian Chatterer, 
 
 Cedar Bird, 
 
 Red Eyed Tireo, 
 
 Brotherly Love Vireo, 
 
 Butcher Bird, 
 
 White-rumped Shrike, 
 
 Evening Grosbeak, 
 
 Pine Grosbeak, 
 
 Purple Finch, 
 
 American Red Crossbill, 
 
 White Winged Crossbill, 
 
 Gray Crowned Finch, 
 
 Turdus Swainsonii, Baird. 
 Turdus fuscescens, Baird. 
 Harporhynchus rufus, Cab 
 Mimus CaroliTiensis, Gray. 
 Siaha arctica, Sivains. 
 Cmclus Mexicanus, Swains. 
 Regulus calendula^ Licht 
 Parus atricapillus, L 
 Parus pfudsonicus, Forsier. 
 Troglodytes ledon, Vieill 
 Anorthura troglodytes, Coues. 
 Cistothorus paliistris, Baird. 
 Eremophila alpestris, Bote. 
 Anikus ludovicianus, Licht 
 ^eocoi-ys Spragiici, Sel, 
 Mniotilta varia, Vieill 
 Helminthophaga rujicapillay Btnird. 
 " celata, Baird. 
 
 " peregrina, Cab. 
 
 Bendraica iestiva, Baird. 
 
 " coronata, Gray. 
 
 " maculosa, Baird. 
 
 " striata, Baird. 
 
 " Blackbumice, Baird. 
 
 " palmarum, Baird. 
 Siurus auricapillus, Swains. 
 
 " nsevius, Coues. 
 Geothlypis trickas, Cab. 
 
 " Philadelphia, Baird. 
 Myiodioctes Canadensis, Aud. 
 
 " piisillus, Bon. 
 
 Seiophaga ruticilla. Swains. 
 Hirundo horreorum. Barton. 
 Tachycineta bicolor, Cab. 
 Petrochelidon lunifrons, Cab. 
 Cotyle riparia, Boie. 
 Progne purpurea, Boie. 
 Ampelis garrulus, L. 
 
 " cedrorum, Baird. 
 Vireo olivacea, Bon. 
 
 " Philadelphica, Cass 
 Lanius borealis, Vieill. 
 
 " excubiloroides. Swains. 
 Hesperiphona vespertina, Boie. 
 Pinicola enculeator. Cab. 
 Carpodacus purpureus, Boie. 
 Loxia curvirosira, L. 
 
 " leucoptera, Omel. 
 Leucosticte tephroctis, Sw. 
 
}5G 
 
 MANITOBA AND THK GREAT NORTH- M'EST. 
 
 Red Poll Linnet. 
 Mealy Red Poll, 
 Yellow Bird, "Caimry." 
 Snow Bunting, 
 Lapland Longspur. 
 Painted Lark Uuntingj 
 Chestnut Collared Bunting, 
 Baird'H Sparrow, 
 Savanna Sparro'n-. 
 Grass Bird, 
 Lcconte's Sparrow, 
 r.inroln's Sparrow. 
 Swamp Sparrow, 
 Song Sparrow, 
 Snow Bird, 
 Oregon Snow Bird, 
 Tree Sparrow, 
 Chipping Sparrow, 
 Field Sparrow, 
 Clay-colored Sparrow, 
 ^Vbite-throafccd Sparrow, 
 Wliitc-rrowned Spari'OWj 
 Blark-throated SpaiTow, 
 Kn\-(jolored Sparrow, 
 '\V}iit<-winged Blackbirtl, 
 J^jse-breasted Grosbeak, 
 Ai-.;t ie-spotted Towbc<'.. 
 Bob-o-Link, 
 ' 'env-hird, 
 
 Red-winged Blackbird, 
 Vellow-headed Blackbird. 
 Meadow Lark, 
 Western Meadow Lfirk, 
 Baltimore Uriolt.;, 
 Rusty Grackle, 
 Blue-hfadfid Orarklc. 
 Crow BL'ukbird, 
 Rii vr-n. Barking C.'rnw. 
 ("'omnion Crow, 
 American Nut Cracker, 
 American Magi)if^. 
 Blue Jay, 
 Whiskey Jack, 
 
 -'Kf/iothii!i li/iarii/.-f, f 'ah. 
 
 " conrRcens, Gould. 
 
 ChTysomitris trisiis, JJonap. 
 Plectrojyhanes nivalis, Meyer, 
 • LapponiaiSi Set. 
 
 pirtusj Strains. 
 ornaiuSj Towns 
 Ce7i(ro?ii/j) fia/rdiij Don. 
 PassercAdux Saravna, /Jo/i. 
 Po^cufes fframmfvSf Uaird. 
 ('oiurnirv/?i.-i L''roitteJ, Bon 
 \ffIos-jji~a hntrnlni, J Ion. 
 pali/.xb'tK, JJaird. 
 in/'hdla, BnJrd. 
 ■ hinco /u/i'.?na//.'i, iSV/. 
 " Oref/o>m.<^, Sr/. 
 >>l>izcl(<i mondcola^ Baird 
 "■■nria/i", lion. 
 p?/-n/la, Bon. 
 pallida, Bon. 
 Zoiiolrichln. alhicolliiij Bon 
 
 fpurnjilinj^^ St r, tins, 
 ytjf'n'/a,, 0am 
 ['n.'^scrrll'i iliavn, S/r,/ 'ujs 
 f'alanio-yi/i't hirulor. Bon. 
 froii'iii'hrii fjiidfivinana, Dnn-d. 
 Pipilo nri'lini. S/iurins. 
 nol/choiii/x or-i/ztnorns; Sfva./i-w 
 Molothrti.-^ p/rnrtiH^ Svains. 
 If^ehras phoi'incpiifi. 1 'k'HI. 
 Xanihnrciihiilnfi h-ieritcfphnlu-:, }iai, 
 '<'iirni'II<i ni-ayna, /laird 
 " iif'f/lrrlft. Ai/d. 
 
 Jntf'ri'.'i /Ja/timnrf, Hand. 
 Srolrc'i/>/tay>/.-iJ''Trt/f/f/if'i/.s, Swain. 
 " •'tianocephaLv-% Cah. 
 
 <^hii}irulax pt/rp'/rt'as, Lickt. 
 I 'nrvns car7iivoru:i, Bert. 
 
 ,, .imfricanus., Atid. 
 Pinir.orvtis Columhianus, B<>n. 
 Pica Hud.'innica. Covets. 
 t'l/a 7111 r }/.•,- cr/.ttalfi.Sj .'^wain.s 
 pp.Tt^ormiH ' ''//;«r/e;i.sv'K Bnn. 
 
 It is not ueceSBary to enter into details regiirding the 
 species singly, but a few remarks on the various groups may 
 be interesting to not a few. 
 
 The Thrushes are represented by seven species^ whict 
 
BIRDS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 357 
 
 have their homes either in the thick forest or in the thick- 
 ets bordering on the prairie. The Catbird, Robin, and 
 Hermit Thrush are very common and are found everywhere. 
 The Shore Lark and Lapland Longspur are very common 
 on the prairies in September and October, and are frequently 
 taken for Snow Buntings. While passing along the trail 
 the traveller will see these birds running before him in the 
 ruts, and when he approaches too near they rise up and fly 
 some distance ahead, keeping this up for miles. 
 
 Of the seventeen warblers none belong exclusively to the 
 prairie All are birds of the thickets, and being very shy 
 are not often seen except by the collector, who follows them 
 to their haunts and occasionally gets a glimpse of their 
 bright colors as they retire to the thickest coverts on his 
 approach. 
 
 When going up or down a river the Bank and Cliff 
 Swallows are often seen in myriads circling around. The 
 former, where the bank xs alluvium often perforates it to 
 the depth of two or three feet, while the latter will cover 
 the hard face of a clay cliff with thousands of nests, and as 
 you glide past, from every nest one or more heads are pro- 
 truded to gaze on the passing stranger. The Red Eyed 
 Vireo fills the forest with its song, and were it not carefully 
 watched would be taken for a variety of birds, as it has 
 quite a variety of notes in its song. 
 
 The Pinches as usual are well represented both by forest 
 and prairie species. Many of these birds are very beautiful, 
 especially the Evening and Rose-breasted Grosbeaks. These 
 birds live in the thick forests, and the song of the latter is 
 often heard answering that of the Baltimore Oriole, which 
 breeds m the same localities. On the plains near Old Wives 
 Lakes the White Winged Blackbird and the Missouri 
 Skylark are common, and will at once attract the attention. 
 The former by its uncommon plumage, and the latter by its 
 peculiar flight which might be correctly termed luidulating . 
 
358 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Of all the birds on the prairie none will attract more 
 attention than the Cow-birds. As they build no nests they 
 are great travellers, often keeping with a train of carts 
 crossing the trackless plains for weeks together. Both in 
 1879 and 1880, while travelling without a trail, these birds 
 have kept with us for weeks. When on the march they 
 would fly alongside the carts and light in the grass, and 
 immediatel}^ pounce on any grasshopper which lit near them. 
 In July when Bull-dogs (^Qad-flies) were troublesome these 
 birds would sit on the horses' backs and pick them off. Often 
 one would take up its position on the horse's rump and catch 
 every fly that dared approach. At night they would some- 
 times sit in the grass, on the carts, or even perch on the 
 horses, if no bushes were in the vicinity. 
 
 No birds to-day, are such nuisances in the North-West 
 as the various species of Blackbirds. These birds, in many 
 parts of Manitoba, are a heavy tax at present on farmers, 
 but as settlements increase, their power to injure will de- 
 crease, as they w ill have more fields to attack and possibly be 
 fewer in number. Meadow Larks and Bob-o-Links are very 
 beautiful birds, and are found on almost everj^ part of the 
 prairie. The Magpie is very common to the west of the 
 Touchwood Hills, but seems never to come east of the As- 
 siniboine River, at Fort Ellice. The Whiskey Jack or 
 Canada Jay is the first to greet the lonely traveller, when 
 he stops for the night in any part of the forest, and in the 
 morning, it salutes him with the first streak of dawn, and bids 
 him good-bye Avhen he leaves. The Cow-bird, the Whiskey 
 •Tack, and the Indian are all alike sociable, and wherever 
 the white man stops, there these congregate — for food. 
 
 The next sub-order is the Clannitores, or Flycatchers. 
 They are represented by one Family, five Genera, and 
 eight Species enumerated below : — 
 
 Kingbird, Ti/raiinii^s Carolmenj^ia, TcTm. 
 Arkansas Fly-catcher. " verlicahis, Say. 
 
 Say's Fly-catclier, Saiioriiiis Suyus, Buird. 
 Phebe Bird, " fiisciix, linird. 
 
BIRDS OF THE NORTH-WEST 359 
 
 Olive-eided Fly-catcher, Conoiopus borealis, JSaird. 
 "Western Wood Pewee, " Richardsoni, Baird. 
 
 Traill's Fly-catcher, Empidonax TraiUii, Baird. 
 Least Fly-catcher, " minimus, Baird. 
 
 The Kingbird is common throughout the territory, and 
 well deserves his name of "tyrant," as he guards carefully 
 his own domain, and chases away every bird that would in- 
 jure either his mate or her young. On and around the 
 Cypress Hills, the Arkansas Fly-catcher is quite common^ 
 but seems to extend no farther north. The Least Fly- 
 catcher is very abundant in the damp northern forest, and 
 often in a tall tree is indistinguishable from the Red-Eyed 
 Vireo, which, however, is a much larger bird. 
 
 Order II. Picurin'. 
 This order has few representatives in the North-West, 
 but they are interesting though few. In our limits, it is 
 represented by six Families, eleven Genersi, and fourteen 
 Species, as follows : — 
 
 Whip-poor-Will, Antrosiomiis vocifervs, Bon. 
 
 Night Hawk, Chonleiles Viryinianiis, Bon 
 
 Chimney Swift, Chalvrapelagicu, Baird 
 
 Humming Bird, Trochilus eoluhrin, L. 
 
 Kingfisher, Ceryle Aicyoii, Bon. 
 
 Black-billed Cuckoo, Coccygim erythrojihthalmus, Bon. 
 
 Pileated Woodpecker Hylotoimis pikatus, Baird. 
 
 Hairy Woodpecker, Pjc ws villosus, L 
 
 Downy Woodpecker, „ .jnibescens, L 
 
 Three-toed Woodpecker, Picoides arcticus, Gray. 
 
 Banded Three-toed Woodpecker, „ Amfricamis, Breh. 
 
 Yellow-hilled Woodpecker, Sphyrapicus varius, Baird. 
 
 Brown-headed Woodpecker, " thyroideus, Baird. 
 
 High-holder, Colaptes auraius, Swains. 
 
 All of these are birds of the thicket or forest, though they 
 may be seen on the prairie when in pursuit of food. I have 
 noticed the Humming bird as far north as lat. 59°, in the 
 vicinity of Lake Athabasca. Sir John Richardson places its 
 northern limit in lat. 57° All the Wood-peckers, as their 
 name indicates, live in the woods. None were observed in 
 the south, except the Hairy Wood-pecker and High-holdtr, 
 which were met with on the Cypress Hills. 
 
360 
 
 MANITOIiA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Order III. Raptores. 
 
 Numerous species of this order have their homes on the 
 plains or m the forests, and live on mice, moles, frogs, and 
 birds. It is principally represented by the two Familes the 
 Strigidoe or Owls, and the Falconidce or Hawks. Of the 
 three Families, we have eighteen Genera and twenty-four 
 Species which are as below : — 
 
 Great Horned Owl, 
 Arctic Owl, 
 Screech Owl, 
 Long-eared Owl, 
 Short-eared Ow], 
 Great Grey Owl, 
 Great While or Snowy Owl, 
 Hawk Owl, 
 Richardson's Owl, 
 Marsh Harrier, 
 Sharp-iihinned Hawk, 
 Gos Hawk, 
 Peregrine Falcon, 
 Pigeon Hawk, 
 American Merlin. 
 Sparrow Hawk, 
 Red-tailed Hawk, 
 Swainfion's Buzzard, 
 Kough-legffed Hawk. 
 C.ilifomian Squirrel Hawk, 
 Fish Hawk Osprev, 
 (Jolden Eaglf. 
 Bald EaglK. 
 Turkey Buzzard. 
 
 Bubo Virginianus, Bon 
 
 " arcticus, Swains 
 Scops asio, Bon. 
 Otus Wilsonianus, Les>i 
 Brachyolus palustris, Gould. 
 Symium cmereum^ Aud 
 Nyciea Scandiaca, Newi 
 Sumia ulula, Bon 
 Nyctale Richardsoni, Bon 
 Circus Hudsonius, Vieill 
 AccipUer fiucus, Oray 
 Astur atricapillus, JarJ 
 Falco anatum, Bon 
 
 " columbarius, L 
 
 '' Ricliardsoni, Ridtj 
 
 " sparverius, L. 
 Buteo boTealis, Gond. 
 
 " Swain.soni, Bon. 
 Archibuteo Sancti-Johanms, Gond 
 
 " ferrugiTieus, Ch-ay 
 Pand.ion haMcctus, Cab 
 Aquila chryssetus, L 
 Halicetus leucocephalus, Sav. 
 CatJiaries aura. Jll 
 
 The only Owl observed on the plains is the Marsh Owl, 
 which has been noticed to make many short flights by day. 
 All the other Owls are found in the thickets or forests bor- 
 dering the great plains. Four species of the smaller falcons 
 are found m the river bottoms throughout the jirairie. 
 Owing to the different color of the plumage at various ages, 
 i\iey are hard to distinguish, except by comparing a large 
 number of skins. These hawks are all very beautiful, 
 but the Sparrow Hawk in full or adult plumage is the 
 most beautiful 
 
BIRDS (IF TJIE NORTll-WKST 361 
 
 No hawk is more abundant than the Marsh Harrier, which 
 is conptantly on the move, gliding over the marshes or the 
 prairie, looking for mice or small birds. Swainson's Hawks 
 are generally seen follownig each otluT, in quick succession 
 along the top of the high bluffs Avliich shut in a river val- 
 ley. Or, at another time, they ni&y be seen sitting on the 
 \evy edge of a " cut bank," gazing down into the valley, or 
 perched on the top of a knoll, watching the train as it moves 
 past Eagles are seldom seen away from the moun- 
 tains or the rocky shores of the interior lakes. It is seldom 
 that the Turkey Buzzard is seen, except in the spring, when 
 it comes to finish what the Raven has left of the winter's 
 dead 
 
 Order IV. (Johvmhidce. 
 
 This order is represented by only one species, the Wild 
 Pigeon {Ectopistes migratoria) of Swains. Few pigeons are 
 seen on the plains, but m the latter part of August and the 
 first half of September, they are abundant in the northern 
 river valleys, feeding on the berries of the Wild Cornel 
 {Corniis stolonifera). 
 
 Order Y. Oaliinoe. 
 The Gallinaceous birds, though few in number as regards 
 species, are of great value on account of their size. All 
 being winter residents, they furnish many a meal to the 
 starving Indian or other wanderer, when other game is not 
 to be had. In the following enumeration I include all the 
 species of Ptarmigan, although some of them live most of 
 the time very far north : — 
 
 Spruce Partridg •, Telrao Canadensis, J, 
 
 Franklin's Grousi " Franklini, Doiii/I 
 
 Blue or Dusky Grouse, " obscurus, Say 
 
 Black-tailed Grouse, " Ricluirdsoni, Couex 
 
 Sage Cock Centrocerciis urophasianui, Ln 
 
 Sharp-tailed Grouse, T'ediceceles phasianellus, Kll 
 
 Prairie Hen. Cupidonia cupido, Baird. 
 
 ■*' Partridge " Jionana vmbelhiK, Sleph 
 
 <3jey-;-uffed Gn.use, " umbelloides, Dougl. 
 
362 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH--WEST. 
 
 White Tailed Ptarmigan, Lagopus leucurus, Swaint. 
 
 White Ptarmigan, " albtis, Aud. 
 
 Book Grouse, '• rupestris, Leack. 
 
 Of the above twelve species all belong to the forest, ex- 
 cept three : Sage Cock, Prairie Hen, and Sharp-tailed Grouse 
 or " Prairie Chicken." The two first are only found along a 
 part of the southern boundary, so that the Prairie Chicken 
 is really the only Gallinaceous bird found on the prairie 
 In the woods and thickets we have the Partridge or Ruffed 
 Grouse, and the Spruce Partridge. These birds are very 
 numerous m the poplar woods to the north of Fort Pelly. 
 During the past season, while they were feeding on the 
 black currants which abounded in the low woods, I shot large 
 numbers of them, and supplied ourselves with fresh pro- 
 visions when our stock was running low. All the other 
 species, except the last two, which have their home to the 
 north, are natives of the rocky mountains. The Black- 
 tailed Grouse is a fine large bird, and frequents the timber 
 on the higher slopes of the mountains. 
 
 Order VI. Grallatores, or Waders. 
 
 This order is represented by three sub-orders, and numer- 
 ous species. For the sake of brevity, I shall give the species 
 of the three in succession, and only introduce those in this 
 and the succeeding orders which, at some time of the year, 
 are found on the great prairie or the forests along its 
 border : — 
 
 /. Sub-Order. Limicolce [VieilV) 
 Black-billed Plover, Squatarola Helvetica, Vieill. 
 
 Golden Plover, Charadriiis marmoratus, Wag 
 
 Kill-deer Plover, Aegialiiis vocifera, Bon 
 
 Semipalmated Plover, " semipalmatus, Cab 
 
 Piping Plover, " Tnelodia, Coues. 
 
 American Avocet, Recurmrostra Americana, Om. 
 
 Wilson's Phalarope, Sieganopsus Wilsoni, Couei 
 
 Northern Phalarope, Lobipes hyperboreus, Cuv. 
 
 American Snipe, Gallinago Wilsoni, Bon. 
 
 Red-breasted Snipe, Macrorhumpkus griseus, I/each. 
 
 Stilt Sandpiper, Micropalama himaniopus, Bd. 
 
BIRDS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 
 
 363 
 
 Semipalmated Sandpiper, 
 Ijeaet Sandpiper, 
 Baird's Sandpiper, 
 Jack Snipe, 
 
 White-mmped Sandpiper, 
 Sanderling, 
 
 Great Marbled Godwit, 
 Black-tailed Godwit, 
 Semipalmated Tattler, 
 Greater Yellow Shanks, 
 Lesser Yellow Shanks, 
 Solitary Tattler, 
 Spotted Sandpiper, 
 Prairie Plover, 
 Long-billed Curlew, 
 Hudsonian Curlew, 
 Esquimaux Curlew, 
 
 Ereunetes pmillus, Cass. 
 Tringa minulilla, Vieill. 
 " Bairdii. Co-uet. 
 " maculata, Vieill. 
 " fuscicollis, Vieill. 
 Calidris arenaria, III. 
 LiTnosafedoa, Ord. 
 
 " Hudsonica, Swains. 
 Tolanus aemipalmatus, T. 
 " melanoleucus, Vieill. 
 '' flavipes, Vieill. 
 " solitarius, And 
 Tnngoides maculariua, Gray. 
 Actiturus Bartramius, Bon. 
 Numenms longirostris, Wils. 
 " Hudsonicus, Lath. 
 " borealis, Lath. 
 
 Great Blue Heron, 
 Green Heron, 
 Bittern, 
 
 //. Sub-Order. Herodiones. 
 
 Ardea herodias, L. 
 " virescens, L. 
 Botaurus minor, Bote. 
 
 III. Sub-Order. Alectorides. 
 
 White or Whooping Crane, 
 Sandhill or Brown Crane, 
 Virginia Rail, 
 Carolina Rail, 
 Coot Mud Hen, 
 
 Grus Americana, Tern. 
 Grus Canadensis, Tern. 
 Rallus Virginianus, L. 
 Porzana Carolina, Cab. 
 Fulica Americana, 0ms. 
 
 The Plover first come to our notice. Late or early in 
 September, the Golden Plover descend to the plains, and 
 here they may be seen in large flocks, feeding on the open 
 prairie or along the borders of a marsh. Killdeer and 
 Semipalmated Plover breed in the country, and can be shot 
 at any time. On the borders of brackish ponds or wading 
 in the shallow water, the beautiful Avocet and Great 
 Marbled Godwit may be found all summer. Around every 
 pond and on every saline marsh are various species of Sand- 
 piper and Snipe. As the month of August draws to a close, 
 these appear in countless numbers and fill the air with their 
 various calls, and a sportsman, if no better game were near, 
 'Would consider himself in paradise. 
 
364 
 
 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Bitterns are very common in the grass marshes at all 
 seasons. The Great Blue Heron frequents river margins, 
 and often surprises the belated voyager when seen standing 
 on the upper limbs of a dead tree, peering down at him as 
 he silently glides underneath. Cranes are seldom seen in 
 flocks, except in September, when they congregate prior to 
 their southern flight. They are always the first to migrate, 
 and long lines of them will be seen high up moving south- 
 ward in the latter part of September. 
 
 Order VII. Lamellirostres . 
 
 Trumpeter Swan, 
 Whistling Swan, 
 Snow Goose Wavy, 
 Canada Goose, 
 Mallard or Stock Duck, 
 Pintail Duck, 
 Gadwell. Grey Duck, 
 American Widgeon, 
 Green Winged Teal. 
 Blue Winged Teal, 
 Cinnamon Te^al, 
 Shoveller. Spoon Bill, 
 Wood Duck, 
 Blue Bill, Broad Bill, 
 Little Black Head, 
 Eing Necked Duck, 
 Ked Head, 
 Canvass-back Duck. 
 Golden Eye, 
 Barrow's Golden Eye, 
 Buffle-head, Spirit Duck, 
 American Scoter, 
 Euddy Duck, 
 Merganser, Sheldrake, 
 Ked Breasted Merganser, 
 Hooded Merganser. 
 
 Cygnus buccinator, Hick. 
 
 " Americanus, Sharp 
 Anser hyperboreus, F'all. 
 Branta Canadensis,' Gray. 
 Anas boschas, L. 
 Dafila acuta, L. 
 Ckaulelasmus streperus, Gray. 
 Mereca Americana, Steph. 
 Querquedula Carolinensis, St. 
 " discors, Steph. 
 
 " cyanoptera, Cass 
 
 Spatula clypeata, Boie. 
 Aix sponsa, Boie. 
 Fuligula marila, Steph. 
 
 '■ affinis, Eyton. 
 
 '' coUaris, Bon. 
 
 '• ferina, Bon. 
 
 " vallisneria. Step. 
 Bucephala clangula, Coues, 
 
 " Islandica, Baird. 
 
 " aZbeola, Baird. 
 
 Anas nigra, Wilson. 
 Erismatura rubida, Bon. 
 Mergus Merganser, L 
 " serrator, L. 
 " cucullatus, L. 
 
 In the foregoing list, I have included no species which I 
 have not seen in the North-West, and have no doubt but 
 that many of the " Sea Ducks," not enumerated here, will 
 be shot by others. Both the Swans and the Wavy breed 
 in the north, and are only seen in the migrations. The 
 
BIRDS OF THE NORTH-WEST. SSo- 
 
 Canada Goose still breeds around the larger lakes, and on 
 islands in them. So late as June, 1879, I have seen the 
 Canada Goose and a flock of young ones on the Assiniboine 
 where the town of Brandon now stands, and at present they 
 still breed on the river, above Port Ellice. 
 
 Of all the prairie ducks none is more plentiful than the 
 Mallard. This species is always found in the grass marshes, 
 and during the month of September, their loud " quack- 
 quack" is heard continually rising from them. It is true 
 sport to obtain them, as they always lie close amongst the 
 grass and have to be taken on the wing. I have never 
 noticed the Black Duck in any part of the North-West, nor 
 do I know that others have. Teal are in great numbers, 
 and these with the Spoon-bill make up the greater part of 
 the ducks, south of the Touchwood Hills, prior to the migra- 
 tions. It is scarcely credible the myriads of ducks that fill 
 every pond and marsh in September and October, and no 
 description could give an adequate picture of the astonishing 
 sight. On the margin of a pond, the Tattlers are running 
 backwards and forwards, making all manner of discordant 
 noises. Killdeer Plover, Ring-necked Plover, and eight 
 or ten species of Sandpipers are just as busy. Red-breasted 
 Snipe are in hundreds, and very busy thrusting their long 
 bills into the mud. Outside the line of waders are the 
 Spoonbills and Teal, and still farther out, the Widgeon and 
 Butter Ball, but we want none of these — they are too small 
 and not worth shooting for food. Behind a tuft of sedges, 
 we hear the " Quack " of the Mallard, and we still lie close 
 though sorely tempted. Sailing majestically from behind 
 the sedge, comes a fine drake, followed by three ducks. 
 They are in line, and a good shot will fetch them all. Aim- 
 ing ^at their heads, the gun is fired, and with loud cries all 
 the life of the pond rises with a roar like thunder, and 
 darkens the air with their numbers. Four ducks, each 
 larger than a very fine tame duck, are struggling in the 
 
36G MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 pond, they are picked up, and a supper for six is soon in the 
 little camp behind the ridge. 
 
 The Mergansers, or, as we call them, " Saw-bills," are 
 river ducks, and often during the month of August, will 
 keep before a boat for days, as it passes up or dowu a river. 
 They are beautiful ducks Ijut poor food, except men are on 
 short allowance, when they are considered valuable. By 
 their aid, I was enabled, lust summer, to accomplish my 
 work when food grew scarce, and it was only when full 
 supplies of food were ol)tained that we discovered they were 
 
 _ii-^litj. 
 
 Order Vni. Steganopodes . 
 
 White Felicaii, Pelecanvs irachyrhynchus. Lulh. 
 
 Itouljle-crested Cormorant, Gracuhis dilophux. Oray. 
 
 Pelicans are numerous on Long Lake, Old Wives Lakes, 
 ■and Gull Lake, north of Cypress Hills. These are their 
 breeding places on the plains. They are very abundant, as 
 well as the Cormorants on Lake Winnipegoosis, and doubt- 
 less many of the large northern lakes. On many of the 
 rivers are Pelican Rapids, because here, they sit on the 
 boulders, watching for the fish which are ascending the 
 rapids. In 1875, when ascending Beaver River, we came 
 to the Pelican Rapids on that river. Numerous Pelicans 
 were sitting on the large boulders in mid stream, and all 
 but one flew at our approach. At first, I was amused at 
 the contortions this one was making, but it was only when 
 the bow Indian seized a pole, and the others put all their 
 energy in the paddle, that I realized that the bird could not 
 rise. When we were almost within striking distance he 
 made a greater effort than before, heaved his load of fish 
 into the river, and sailed away. We only remembered the 
 guns when the shooting was out of our power. Lying be- 
 side me, as I write, is a Pelican's pouch, sixteen inches long 
 and nine inches deep, so it can easily be seen that they 
 have space for a considerable load. 
 
BIRDS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 
 
 367 
 
 Order IX. Longipennes. 
 
 Herring Gull, 
 Ring-billed Gull, 
 American Mew Gull, 
 Franklin's Rosy Gull, 
 Bonaparte's Gull, 
 Forster's Tern, 
 Common Tern, 
 Black Tern, 
 White-Winged Black Tern, 
 
 Larus argentatus, Bniiin. 
 
 " Delawarensis, Ord. 
 
 " brachyrhynchus, Rich. 
 
 " FranhUniy Rich. 
 
 " Philadelphia, Gray. 
 Sterna Forsteri, Null. 
 
 *' JTirundo, Auct. 
 Ilydroclielidon lariformis, Cuues. 
 " nigra, Gray. 
 
 All the gulls and terns, except the last one, are abundant 
 on Lakes Manitoba and Winnipegoosis. On the lakes of 
 the prauie, Franklin's Gull, Bonaparte's Gull, and the 
 Ring-billed Gull are quite common. As they vary much 
 in immature states, an amateur may be led to believe he 
 has many species when he has only three. The Black Tern 
 is very common in all marshy tracts on the prairie, and 
 seems more like a large species of Swallow than a Tern. 
 On a small lake, at the head of Swan River, a few of the 
 White-Winged Black Tern were observed, and one was 
 shot This is an extremely rare bird. Forster's and the 
 Common Tern are very plentiful on the larger lakes in the 
 forest country, and enliven many a sand bar and group of 
 bare rocks heaped up by ice in the shallow of a northern 
 lake. 
 
 Order X. Pygopodes. 
 
 Colymbus torquatus, Briinn. 
 
 " sepientrionalis, L. 
 
 Podiceps occidetitalisj Coues. 
 
 " cristatus, Lath. 
 
 " rubricoUis, Bon. 
 
 " comutus, Lath. 
 
 " auritus, Nutt. 
 Podilynibus podiceps, Lawr. 
 
 Great Northern Diver, Loon, 
 Red Throated Diver, 
 Western Grebe, 
 Crested Grebe, 
 Red-necked Grebe, 
 Homed Grebe, 
 American Eared Grebe, 
 Dab-Chick, 
 
 The two latter aie quite common on the deep pools which 
 are found on some parts of the prairie, and occasionally a 
 loon may be seen in the larger bodies of water. On Water 
 Hen River and Lake, the Western and Red-necked Grebe 
 breed in great numbers. Their nests are built on the old 
 
368 
 
 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Hedges, and rise and fall with the water. Here, the In- 
 dians collect large numbers of eggs in the proper season, and 
 one old fellow, last season, astonished me by the remark 
 that he cmild have fresh eggs all summer. On enquiry, I 
 learned that he went regularly' to the same nests, and never 
 took all the eggs, so that- he kept the poor bird laying all 
 summer. The various species of Grebe, the Coot, and Bittern 
 are all called W;iter Hens hy Indians, but more especially 
 the ^a'st mentioiied . The Western Grebe is a very beautiful 
 and graceful bird. Its length averages nearly thirty inches, 
 including the bill which is very narrow and sharp-pointed. 
 Underneath it is a pure glussj^ white, from the base of the 
 hill to its other extremitj'. The upper part of tlie head and 
 neck are .sooty black, back and wing coverts greyish-black 
 becoming lighter nn the lower part of the back. This bird 
 seems to ho altogether miknowii in tlie interior, and yet it 
 has brud in tliousands, at Water Hen River, from time im- 
 memorial, l^p to the present, it has oidv \>vn known From 
 the Pacific Coast. 
 
 I place the whol<.' scries of birds in tlie ff)llowing table, 
 merely giviua', ]i()we\-ei'. the Orders. Families. Genera. ari<l 
 S]iecii's : — 
 
 i'Sj/iKij^iti'yll Tiihli . 
 
 OltDER , 
 
 I-'AMIM 
 
 ! (!1-\P,H \ 
 
 sr'KCIKS 
 
 Passin'CF 
 
 Turdiila. 
 
 Saxicolida! 
 
 Cinclidai. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sylviida? 
 
 Paridic , 
 
 Troqlodytid.T 
 
 1 
 
 . 
 
 
 Alaudid.'e 
 
 Mofacillida^ 
 
 Sylvicolidar^ 
 
 Hinindinid;c 
 
 Ampclida; 
 
 VireonidfE 
 
 I>aniiida5 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 IT 
 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 Friiiffillidai 
 
 IrturidiH 
 
 Coi-vida^. ... 
 Tymiiiiiida' 
 
 ■_'l) 
 1 
 
 .,., 
 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
BIRDS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 
 
 369 
 
 ORDER. 
 
 FAMILY. 
 
 SENERA. 
 
 SPECIES. 
 
 Ficariae 
 
 Cypselidag 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 5 
 8 
 9 
 1 
 
 1 
 6 
 3 
 1 
 2 
 
 11 
 2 
 1 
 3 
 
 14 
 1 
 1 
 3 
 1 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 Caprimuligidas .... 
 
 2 
 
 
 Trochilidie 
 
 1 
 
 
 Alcedinid^e 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Picidse 
 
 8 
 
 Raptores 
 
 it 
 
 StrigidsB 
 
 9 
 
 FaloonidsB 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 Cathartidse 
 
 1 
 
 ColumbEe 
 
 Columbidffi 
 
 Tetraonidae 
 
 1 
 12 
 
 Grallatores.. 
 
 Charadriidae 
 
 5 
 
 II 
 
 
 1 
 
 li 
 
 Phalaropodidas 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 Scolopacidae 
 
 20 
 
 u 
 
 ArdeidsB 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 Eallidas 
 
 3 
 
 TiATTipl HrnstrfiR 
 
 Anatidse 
 
 "6 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 u 
 
 Phalacrocoracidaa 
 
 ] 
 
 
 
 
 
 CoIymbidEe 
 
 2 
 
 H 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 OEDEES. 
 
 PassereE 
 
 Picariae 
 
 Recapitulation. 
 
 FAMILIES. 
 
 1 17 
 
 1 6 
 
 1 3 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 7 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 2 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 2 
 
 GENEHA 
 65 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 23 
 U 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 SI 
 
 >ECIES- 
 
 103 
 14 
 24 
 
 Columbae 
 
 GallinEe 
 
 Giallatores 
 
 Steganopodes 
 
 LongipenneB 
 
 Pygopodes 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 36 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 41 
 
 146 
 
 235 
 
 I have been careful to introduce no species into the fore- 
 going catalogue of which I had not seen specimens east of 
 the Rocky Mountains and west of Winnipeg. "When a 
 better knowledge is obtained of the country a few species 
 will be added, so that we may say the Avi-fauna of the 
 territory, leaving out the Arctic birds, is about 250 species. 
 The few notes appended will be read with interest by many 
 parties settling in the country, as they were written on the 
 ground. 
 
 24 
 
370 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 While encamped at Grand Valley (now Brandon) on the 
 Assiniboine, numerous birds, common in Ontario, were ob- 
 served, such as Meadow Larks, Robins, Blackbirds, Cow 
 Birds, Bob-o-links, Bitterns, and numerous finches, which 
 were breeding either on the prairie or in the bush along the 
 river. On the prairie the Kill Deer Plover was noticed, and 
 on the drier upland the " Prairie Plover" or Bartram's Tatt- 
 ler was occasionally seen. Farther west these birds were quite 
 common, the latter on the prairie and the former along the 
 lakes or ponds throughout the country. One evening in July 
 we pitched our camp close to the nest of a Kill Deer Plover, 
 at this time one little bird being hatched out and the other 
 emerging from the shell. In our presence she assisted the 
 chick out of the shell, and as soon as both were able to stand 
 she coaxed them away from the nest, and before dark had 
 them safely hidden away in the sedges bordering the pond 
 from which we obtained our water. 
 
 On the sand hills at Flat Creek two fine specimens of the 
 Long Billed Curlew were obtained. One or two others were 
 shot near the Cypress Hills, but it was a very rare bird and 
 seldom seen. In the marshes east of Moose Mountain both 
 the Sand Hill Crane and the White Crane were breeding, 
 together with the Phalaropes. These beautiful and interest- 
 ing birds were quite numerous near Moose Mountain. The 
 Shoveller or Spoonbill Duck, the American Widgeon, the 
 Green Winged Teal, the Blue Winged Teal, and the Mal- 
 lard were breeding in or near the marshes, and their eggs 
 were occasionally obtained. Skimming over these eastern 
 marshes, and occasionally darting down to the surface, was 
 the beautiful Black Tern. 
 
 On the great plain west of Moose Mountain few birds 
 were met with, but on the eastern side flocks of the Yellow 
 Headed Blackbirds were seen around ponds, and on the 
 western part near Moose Jaw Creek, the rare and interest- 
 ing White Winged Blackbird was met with. The common- 
 
BIRDS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 371 
 
 est bird on this prairie was the Chestnut Collared Bunting, 
 although never recognized after this. 
 
 In the vicinity of the Coteau we reached a few salt water 
 ponds, and here obtained numerous specimens of the beauti- 
 ful Avocet, which were very plentiful around all the salt 
 lakes on the western plains, and so fearless that we had no 
 difficulty in shooting all the specimens we desired. On the 
 same pools were the Marbled Godwit and the Willet or Stone 
 Snipe, both large and beautiful birds. Numerous sand- 
 pipers and many of the smaller snipe were abundant, and 
 during the months of August and September could have 
 been shot by the hundred as they waded or swam in the 
 various pools or lakes we passed. 
 
 After the middle of August we began to shoot ducks, and 
 besides the species mentioned above, the Gadwell or Grey 
 Duck and Red-breasted Merganser bred in numbers on the 
 plains. Coots or Mud IJens and Pied Billed Grebe were in 
 great numbers, and afforded fine sport, as we had to wade 
 almost up to our neck to obtain our specimens, as they were 
 very difficult to kill owing to their diving power. 
 
 After the middle of September the sea ducks began to 
 arrive, and it is no figure of speech to say that the ponds 
 and lakelets were alive with them. For the following six 
 weeks feathered game of every kind were so abundant that 
 any person in a week could have shot enough ducks and 
 geese to have lasted a family all winter. The abundance of 
 water fowl in the interior is of such importance at this time 
 when Indians are being fed by the Government, that they 
 should be compelled to lay in a stock of food for themselves 
 during the winter. To see hunters perishing of hunger, or 
 living on supplies furnished by the Government, and at the 
 same time surrounded by millions of birds is, a paradox ; but 
 these men carry rifles, and bird shooting to them is a small 
 business after buffalo hunting. Within a day's journey of 
 the Cree Reserve on the north side of the Cypress Hills, is 
 
i>iZ MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 a large lake named by me Gull Lake, which during the last 
 da}'s of August was literallj' alive with birds, and when one 
 siiot was enough to supply six of us with a dinner, yet these 
 Indians were largely depending on the Government rations 
 at this time, and Colonel McDonald could scarcely persuade 
 some young men to go and kill a few ducks by liberal offers 
 of powder and shot. At the Assinilwine Reserve it was 
 just the same, plenty of birds in the neighborhood but 
 scarce!}' any attempt made to shoot them, as the men pre- 
 ferred Government rations to independence. Rifles to-day 
 are of little value to the plain Indians, and they should be 
 equired to exchange these for shot guns at an early da}'. 
 
 Geese, ducks, and prairie chickens are taking to the stubble 
 fields in the fall, so that no difficulty will be found by in- 
 coming settlers to lay up a supply of fat fowl for the winter. 
 About forty species of game birds were either shot or seen 
 on the prairie, and it is vciy proljabie that many species 
 A\'e-re not observed as we were far east of the main migrating 
 lines. All birds shot were fat, and soup made from the 
 various species of snipe and plover was considered a great 
 dainty. Tlie value of the bird crop after the railroad is 
 built will be enormous, but the destruction of eggs in the 
 spring by Indians must cense . None but those who reside 
 in the interior or have been there in the autumn can realiz'' 
 the number of birds living there or passing through at thar, 
 season. 
 
 Hawks were numei'ous, and various species were shot both 
 on the prairie and in the ri\'er valleys. The sparrow hawk 
 was always found in tlie vicinity of wood, and frequented 
 all the stream valleys throu<;h()ut the country Along the 
 prairie and over ponds and marshes tlie Marsh Harrier was 
 constantly gliding, and frequently paid the death penalty 
 for his inquisltiveness. Many fine specimens of Swainsou's 
 Hawk were shot, and it was only liy obtaining the skins 
 that we were able to decide on tiie species, owing to the 
 
BIRDS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 373 
 
 daxk color of the plumage. This hawk delighted to sail 
 close along the top of the cliffs bordering a stream, and pick 
 up any living thing observed. Occasional specimens of the 
 Rough Legged Hawk were obtained, but it was very wary, 
 and always soared at a great height. Other species were in 
 more or less abundance, and one young specimen of the 
 Bald Headed Eagle was obtained where it was evidently 
 catching snakes at the margin of a lake. 
 
 Owls were not common on the prairie, and only one species 
 the Short Eared or Marsh Owl, was seen with any degree of 
 frequency. Along the margin of the woods the Greater 
 Horned Owl and the Lesser Horned Owl were occasionally 
 noticed but were apparently rare. 
 
 Of the Gull family many fine specimens were obtained at 
 some of the larger lakes. On the 28th August five species 
 were shot on Gull Lake, a large sheet of water north of the 
 Cypress Hills. Franklin's Rosy Gull was secured in fine 
 plumage, and many of the others in various states and 
 different ages, so that in twenty specimens one would be 
 led to believe there were at least ten species. 
 
CHATTER XXII. 
 
 Notes on Reptiles, Fishes, and Iiisects. 
 
 List of RcptilcK — Snaki's in Hpriug and Autumn — Gathering of Snakes at Livingstone — 
 
 SnakoK in BuUrusli Lake — Fisliing for Hiredons — Rattlesnakes — Lizardfc Toads 
 
 and FrogR — List of Fishes — Tlie Perclies — The " Dore " — Carp Family — The\> .jlreat 
 Numbers — Not Considered Good Food — Dried for Dogs and Bait — The Pike or Jaick 
 Fish — Its Habits — The Cat Fish — Salmon Family — Arctic Salmon — Mountain Trout 
 — Arctic Trout — Anecdotes — Bow River Trout — White Fish — Their gre^t Value — 
 White Fish in the Pi-airie Region — In the Forest Region — West of the Mountains — 
 The little White Fish or HeiTing — Th(^ Gold-eye — Fishing for Gold-eyes in the 
 -Rivers of the Prairie — Western Pickerel — Its Value — The Loclie or Biu-bot — The 
 Sturgeon — Fish Supply of the Saskatchewan Valley and Prairie Country — Qu'Appclle 
 and Long Lake Fisheries — Notes on Insects — Butterflies of the Prairie — Myriads in 
 June — Absence of Moths — Coleoptera or Beetles — Grasshoppers and their Allies — 
 Grasshopper Plague — Its Causes and Prevention — Conclusion. 
 
 Reptiles are far from numerous in the North- West, yet 
 wonderful stories are told of the immense numbers of 
 Garter Snakes {Eutcenia slrtalis) in some localities. At 
 Stony Mountain, sixteen miles from Winnipeg, they are 
 seen in myriads in early spring and in September. During 
 these periods they lie in the sun and coil into terrible look- 
 ing objects, but are perfectly harmless. 
 
 Last autumn they were gathering for their winter sleep 
 when T was at Livingstone (Swan River Barracks), and as 
 they were said to be numerous I went to see them. All 
 accounts I had ever read fell far short of the reality. They 
 were congregated in and around three basin shaped hol- 
 lows, which were partly filled with very large boulders, 
 ;ind bordered by a few clumps of bushes. The grass for 
 rods around was filled with them, and the stones completely 
 covered. As we approached, a hiss that caused a shudder 
 to pass through me, greeted us from all sides. A few 
 hurried steps and Inspector Griesbach, of the Mounted 
 Police and I, stood on the great boulder, in the centre 
 
NOTES ON REPTILES, FISHES, AND INSECTS. 375 
 
 of the hollow, from which the snakes slid as we took pos- 
 session. As soon as my excited nerves allowed me to look 
 intelligently around, I saw a sight never to be forgotten. 
 Coiled on every bush and forming cables from the size of a 
 hawser up to writhing masses three feet in diameter, were 
 snakes from one to five feet in length. Around the 
 hollow, but more particularly on the sunny side, they 
 lay in great heaps, so closely packed together that 
 nothing but heads could be seen. It was terrible to look 
 upon the glittering eyes that were fixed upon us by thou- 
 sands, and see the forked tongues thrust out and withdrawn 
 as the perpetual hiss unceasingly fell upon our ears. After 
 a few minutes we became more accustomed to each other's 
 society, and now instead of being disgusted with the writh- 
 ing masses, we saw beauty in every fold. The rays of the 
 western sun falling on their bodies at every angle, caused 
 a mingling of color that none but a master pen could depict. 
 
 At Bullrush Lake, on the prairie west of Old Wives 
 Lakes, during the month of July, Bald Headed Eagles and 
 Eough Legged Hawks were feasting on snakes. The snakes 
 were catching their food in the lake. I cut one open and 
 discovered the remains of an animal like a lizard. Having 
 abundance of fishing lines with us, we set some lines baited 
 with pork, and next morning hauled out a strange looking 
 animal. Having seen the Menobranchus {Necturus lateralis) 
 of the Great Lakes, I took this animal to be a species of 
 Siredon, possibly Siredon lichenodes, which has been ob- 
 tained south of the boundary. The specimen looked very 
 much like an overgrown lizard, but the prominent gills 
 showed it to be a denizen of the water. It is extremely 
 probable that many, if not all the Lizard Lakes in the 
 North-West, get their names from this animal. 
 
 Between the Forks of the Bow and Red Deer Rivers, 
 a species of rattle snake is said to find a home, but I have 
 never seen it. 
 
376 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 I have heard many stories about the number of lizards 
 ill certain localities, but must confess to a disbelief in the 
 number. While passing through the Touchwood Hills witlt 
 Half-breeds, I have always heard of multitudes of lizards, 
 but never saw one. During the many summers I have 
 spent on the. prairies. I have observed not more than half a 
 dozen, and these were very small, seldom attaining a length. 
 of six inches. Archbishop Tache, in his work on the North- 
 West, speaking of lizards, says : — 
 
 ■' Our lizards are of two species— one, rather larger thaji. 
 the other, is marked with green ; the other is altogether 
 grey. These animals are very harmless, and are chiefly 
 found in the centre of the prairie region. They are most 
 numerous in the small lakes, and in the neighborhood of 
 the Touchwood Hills. Their only unpleasant points ai'e 
 their appearance, and desire to approach travellers. Wheii 
 camping, at certain seasons of the year, it is necessary to 
 surround one's tent with a small ditch, of which the inner 
 side is cut vertically, as these lizards climb up only gentle 
 slopes. Unless this precaution is taken, they come into the 
 tents in every direction ; and there are many who would 
 dislike to be either awake, or asleep, on a bed covered with 
 lizards." 
 
 Toads and frogs a)-e aljundant, (^specially the latter. it 
 is probable that there are at least half a dozen species 
 of small frogs on the southern prairies. Man\- of them 
 are very beautiful, and their bright colors were much ad- 
 mired as we marched across the monotonous plains of the 
 south. A large frog was seldom seen, except in the woods 
 or along the rivers of the plains. 
 
 The only troublesome animal met with is the leach, 
 which infests all running streams and most of the lakes. 
 They are of two species, — one from three to four inches, 
 the other quite small. While wading around in the ponds, 
 collecting aquatic plants, my legs havc^ often been covered 
 
NOTES ON REPTILES, FISHES, AND INSECTS. 377 
 
 with the smaller species, but these were easily taken oflF 
 by scraping with a knife. Last season, when ascending 
 Red Deer River, the men were much troubled with the 
 larger species, which infested the mud and other debris 
 found in the river bed. Usually, the men wore old shoes, 
 without socks, and the leeches would get into the shoes, 
 and then attach themselves to the ankles or feet. Often 
 they crawled between the toes, and caused great incon- 
 venience, as it was extremely difficult to get them off. 
 When taken off, the blood would flow freely for some time, 
 but no ill effects followed. 
 
 In the enumeration of the fishes, I shall be as accurate 
 as possible, where no authorities on the subject are attainable, 
 Richardson's work being so rare, that it is practically beyond 
 my reach. The value of the fishes of the northern rivers 
 and lakes is so little known to the world, that some of the 
 statements regarding their numbers may be looked upoa 
 with suspicion. 
 
 CATAL©GUE OF WESTERN FISHES. 
 Order. Teleocephali. (The Typical Fishes.) 
 
 I. Sub-Order. Acanthopteri. (The Spiny-rayed Fishes.) 
 
 family I. Percidse. {Tlie Perches.) 
 
 \ . Perca Americana, Schrank. (Common Yellow Perch.) 
 
 2. Stizostethium vitreum, Jorden & Copeland. (Wall-eyed Pike. Dory Pickerel.) 
 
 Family II. Centrarchidse. {The Sun Fishes.) 
 
 :;. Eupomotis, Gill & .Jordon, (Common Sun Fish.) 
 
 Family III. Sciamidie. (The Maigres.) 
 
 4. Haploidonotue grannlens, Eaf. (Bubblers. Drum. White Perch.) 
 
 Family IV. C'ottidie. (The Scidpins.) 
 
 5. Cottus cognatus, Rich. (Northern Sculpin.) 
 
 //. Sub-Order. Anacanthini. {The Jugular Fishes.) 
 
 Family V. Oadidse. (The Cod Fishes.) 
 
 6. Lota maculosus, Less. (Methy Burbot.) 
 
 7. " compressa, Less. (Ling or Eel-Pout.) 
 
378 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 ///. Sub-Order. Hemibranchi. {The Half-Gilled Fishes.) 
 
 Family VI. Gasierosteidsc. (The Sticklebacks.) 
 
 8. Gasterosteus concinnus, Rich. (The Stickleback.) 
 
 IV. Siib-Order. Haplovii. (The Toothed Minnoios.) 
 
 Family VII. Escoidcc. {The Pikes.) 
 
 9. Esox nobilior, Thomp. (Muskalhinge. ) 
 
 10. " lucius, Linn. (Pike or Jack-Fish.) 
 
 F. Sub-Order. Isospondyli. {The Trout-like Fishes.) 
 
 Family VIII. Salmonidsc. (The Trout.) 
 
 1 1 . Halmo salar, L. (Great Sea Salmon.) 
 
 12. " quinnat, Rich. (The Columbia River Salmon.) 
 
 13. " Scouleri, Rich. (The Ekewan or British Columbia Salmon.) 
 
 14. ■' Rossii, Rich. (Roes'b Arctic Salmon.) 
 
 15. " Hearnii, Rich. (Coppermine River Salmon.) 
 
 16. •' namaycush, Block. (Great Lake Trout. ) 
 
 1 7. siscowet, Agassiz. (Lake Superior Trout.) 
 
 18. Mackenzii, Rich. (The Inconnu.) 
 
 in. Lewisi, Grd. (Large Rocky Mountain Tmul.) 
 
 30. " tsuppitch, Rich. (Western Salmon Trout.) 
 
 'il. " Gairdneri, Rich. (Columbia River Trout.; 
 
 22. Clarkii, Rich. (Clark's Western Trout.) 
 
 23. ' fontinalis, Mitchell. (Common Brook TroiiL; 
 
 24. " etellatus, Grd. (Reeky Mountain Brook Tniut.) 
 3.5. " Hoodii, Rich. (Hood's Northern Trout.) 
 
 26. Thymallus signifer. Rich. (Bach's Grayling.) 
 
 37. " thymalloides. Rich. (Lesser Grayling.) 
 
 28. Coregonus albus, Le Seur. (White Pish.) 
 
 39. " Couesii, Milner. (Chief Mountain White Fish.) 
 
 30. " quadrilateralis, Rich. (Round Fish.) 
 
 .^1. " lucidus, Rich. (Bear Lake White Fish.) 
 
 32. " artedi, Le Seur. (Lake Herring.) 
 
 Family IX. Hyodontidx. (The M'hiii Ey<.) 
 :;:; Hyodon chrysopsis, Rich. (Golden Eye.) 
 3-1. " tergisus, Le Seur. (Silver Bas.s. Mijon Eye > 
 
 (T. Sab-Order. Eventognathi. {The Carp-like Fishe-s.) 
 
 Family X. Cyprinidse. (The Minnows.) 
 
 35. Lii.xiliis cornutus, Jordon. (Common Shiner.) 
 
 36. Xui nmis biguttatus, Kirt. (Horned Chub.) 
 
 Family XI. Catoslomidse. (The Suckers.) 
 
 37. Catostorms longirostrum, Le Seur. (Red Sucking Carp.) 
 
 38. " Forstcrianus, Agas. (Grey Sucking Carp.) 
 
 19. ' Sueurii, Rich. (Le Scur's Carp.) 
 
NOTES ON REPTILES, FISHES, AND INSECTS. 379 
 
 Order. Neinatognathi. ( The Sheat FisJies. ) 
 
 Family XII. SiluridK. 
 4e. Sllurus borealis, Rich. (Large Cat-Fish.) 
 
 Order. Ghondrostel. {The Cartilaginous Ganoids.) 
 
 Family XIII. Acipenseridse. ( The Sturgeons.) 
 il. Aiipenser rubicuuduB, Le yuer. (Lake Sturgeon.) 
 42. " Rupertianiis, Rich. (Western Sturgeon.) 
 
 In the preceding catalogue I have enumerated only those 
 species which I have been able to identify from the writings 
 of various travellers and my own observations. The com- 
 mon Yellow Perch seems to be abundant in all the large 
 lakes, but is seldom caught, as few fish with a hook and line, 
 and the nets in use have too large meshes. I obtained this 
 fish last summer in Lake Winnipegoosis, Swan Lake, and in 
 small lakes at the head of Red Deer River. 
 
 The Pickerel stands next to the white fish as food 
 and is much valued by the Indians who live on Lakes 
 Winnipeg, Manitoba, and Winnipegoosis. During the sum- 
 mer the White Fish seems to retire into deep water, and at 
 this season the Pickerel is taken in great numbers, either 
 with the hook and line or by means of short nets set on the 
 shallows or bars in the lakes. Last summer while exploring 
 these lakes and Red Deer River, we scarcely ever failed to 
 catch all the fish we wanted by setting our net on a shoal 
 in the lake or across an eddy in the river. 
 
 The Ling or Burbot is common in all the lakes on both 
 sides of the mountains, but is seldom if ever used for food. 
 Sir John Richardson refers to this fish in the following 
 words : — " The Methy Lake and Portage are named from 
 the Cree designation of the Burbot {Lota maculosa— La 
 loche of the Canadians), which abounds in these waters, and 
 often supplies a poor and watery food to voyageurs whose 
 provisions are exhausted. Though the fish is less prized 
 than any other in the country, its roe is one of the best, and 
 with a small addition of flour, makes a palatable and very 
 
380 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 nourishing bread." Another writer says of it : — " Gorged 
 with food or full of roe its naturally short body becomes in- 
 ordinately enlarged ; and its tail, very much like an eel, 
 matches very badly with the thick body. The Methy has 
 scales, but they are so small and so deeply imbedded in 
 gelatinous epidermis that they can barely be distinguished 
 in very many specimens. This fish is a cause of a great 
 annoyance to fishermen in winter ; it fixes itself with fishing 
 lines in the most wonderful way. and entangles them most 
 jierfectly. When taken out of the wn.ter it alternately 
 wrisiales and .straiahtens itself so as to make it a difficult 
 task to unhook. Its smooth and sticky skin is so much 
 colder than that of other inhabitants of the water, that the 
 fisherman who shivers for hours together in the intensest 
 cold on the lakes, is not very happy when he finds a Methy 
 on the line he draws from under the ice. They are gener- 
 ally thrown away to feed crows ; only the roe and liver are 
 retained. At the posts in the interior, the roe is pounded 
 and made into a kind of biscuit, to which whatever name 
 strikes the fancy is given. The liver, which is rich and 
 delicate, is also made into food, unless it becomes necessary 
 to extract the oil for use in lamjjs, by which one can only 
 half see. and which have, besides, anything but an agreeable 
 ,'5mell."' 
 
 While at Fort McLeod, in the northern part of British 
 Columbia, in November, 1S72, numbers of these fishes were 
 caught in a large wicker basket placed in the stream. In 
 almost every case, they were found with the small western 
 white-fish in their mouth and stomach, the tail only being- 
 visible. It is possible that they gorged themselves when 
 caught in the trap with the others. 
 
 Carp are taken in great numbers in every part of the 
 North-West, but in all cases, they are looked upon as the 
 next step to actual starvation. Wherever I have been, I 
 have noticed that they are always selected for the dogs, 
 
NOTES ON REPTILES, FISHES, AND INSECTS. 381 
 
 and never eaten by the Indians or Half-breeds, except in 
 cases of actual hunger. In the fall, these fish are dried by 
 themselves, and kept for bait for Marten traps or for the 
 dogs. Last year, we caught great numbers of the Red 
 Finned Sucker, but after the first attempt at eating them, 
 we always let them go again, as their flesh was far from 
 being pleasant to the taste, after eating Pickerel and Jack- 
 fish. All the streams are filled with them in spring, and 
 some of the smaller brooks are apparently blocked with 
 them. 
 
 Archbishop Tache, who has travelled so extensively in 
 the west, thus writes of them :— " At the mentioia of Carp, 
 the people of other countries figure to themselves a good 
 and fine fish, but here the impression is quite of another 
 character. When I first came into the country, I talked 
 with gusto, about ' Soupe a la Carpe.' An old man, who 
 had never tasted ' Soupe a la Carpe,' but who considered he 
 had, m his time, eaten rather too much of the fish, could 
 not agree with me, and said significantly : " It is useless to 
 talk about it ; carp is but carp.' I did not at first under- 
 stand the reason for his dislike ; later, I had the opportunity 
 and leisure to appreciate the correctness of his opinion. 
 When one has but one kind of food to eat, when, for ex- 
 ample, it is necessary to be satisfied with carp, — boiled, 
 perhaps, in the water it was born in, without sauce or salt, 
 or addition of any kind, — one quickly tires of the fish, and 
 when this is frequently repeated, the simple name of the 
 animal suffices to excite repulsion. The head of the carp 
 is, beyond comj)arison, preferable to the body ; but many 
 heads would be required to satisfy an appetite excited by 
 work and fatigue, and one soon tires of sucking these small 
 bones. All the species abound in this country, and par- 
 ticularly the Red and Grey Suckers. This fish spawns in 
 the month of June, and, several weeks previous, they are 
 seen and killed m great numbers. When spawning is over. 
 
382 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 particularly in shallows or stony river beds, they assemble 
 in such numbers that their crowded dorsal fins, showing 
 above the water, make it appear as if all the fish were 
 artificially attached to one another, and they can then be 
 killed with a stick. It is easy to understand that, in such 
 circumstances as these, Indians cannot absolutely starve, 
 but they invariably look upon the necessity for feeding on 
 Carp as starvation. The vitality of the Carp is so great, 
 that many true tales about it would be regarded as fabulous. 
 A Carp may be frozen, thawed and then decapitated, and 
 yet not die immediately ; and they are seen to strike with 
 their tails, and jump about for a long time after they have 
 suffered such mutilation as would be apparently most likely 
 to quiet them, and to cause immediate death." 
 
 Pike or Jack Fish are found in every river and small 
 stream throughout the country, and although not par- 
 ticularly disliked by the Indians and Half-breeds, yet 
 are considered only second rate food. When fresh caught 
 and cooked until they are crisp, they are, in my opinion, 
 excellent food. Last summer, we ate them almost every 
 day, and relished them. No difficulty was experienced in 
 catching them upon a hook baited with a small bit of pork. 
 When in camp, at Fort Calgarry, in 1879, numbers were 
 caught in Bow River by merely throwing the trawl into 
 the river and drawing it out again. For a couple of days, 
 we fed two families of Sarcies by means of one line, yet when 
 we gave the line to them, they could not catch a fish. Small 
 Pike, eight or ten inches long, were noticed in all the small 
 brooks crossed on the plains, and in many marshes they were 
 frequently observed amongst the grass. 
 
 It is a curious fact that certain fish are caught in nets at 
 one time of the day, and other species are caught at other 
 times, in the same place. During the six days I was in 
 camp on Swan Lake, last summer, I paid particular attention 
 to the fisheries. The Indians and Half-breeds had many 
 
NOTES ON REPTILES, PISHES, AND INSECTS. 383' 
 
 nets set in the lake, which they examined night and 
 morning. The nets were quite short, and set with one end 
 towards the beach and the other towards the lake. Stakes 
 were driven into the gravel, never in more than eight feet 
 of water, and to these the nets were attached. Stones were 
 employed for sinkers, and pieces of spruce for floats. Every 
 evening, large numbers of Pike were found in the nets, but 
 not another fish of any kind. In the morning, Gold Eyes, 
 Carp, and occasionally White-fish were found, but no Pike. 
 Seeing this occur day after day, I was led to watch the 
 habits of the lake fish, and found that Pike, and the various 
 species of Trout were day feeders, and retired to the depths 
 at night, while the other fish came into the shallows at that 
 time. By this, it would appear that carnivorous fish, un- 
 like carnivorous mammals, feed in the day time, while the 
 other and less voracious fish come out at night. If all fed 
 at the same time, in a very few years the largest carnivor- 
 ous species would utterly devour the smaller. 
 
 During certain seasons, great numbers of Pike are caught 
 in Lake Winnipeg. Many have been taken which weighed 
 over thirty pounds, but the usual weight is between six and 
 ten pounds. They vary much in color, but those obtained 
 in Peace River seemed to be exactly the same species as those 
 drawn from the rivers of the plain. In the northern lakes 
 they are particularly abundant, and from the number of lakes 
 named after this fish, I am quite sure that it is the predom- 
 inant species. 
 
 The Catfish is found in some abundance in the Saskatch- 
 ewan, below the forks, but is not common in the upper part 
 of the stream. It is quite common in Lake Winnipeg, and 
 the smaller lakes connected with it, but is seldom caught 
 except by lines set at night. 
 
 It is the Salmon Family, however, that are most highly 
 valued by the natives of the interior. I am well aware that 
 there are species in many of the lakes, which have never 
 
384 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 been described. By casting the eye over any map of the 
 country north of the prairie region, it will be seen that 
 lakes are a very marked feature of the surface. Now, if it 
 be understood that there is scarcely a lake throughout the 
 vast interior, far north of the Arctic Circle, which does not 
 teem with White-fish, a proximate idea may be formed of 
 the vast food resources of the country. I have never seen 
 a lake in tlie forest regif)n that did not teem with magnifi- 
 cent fish, and of .such excellent flavcjr that they are never 
 distasteful to the appetite. In the \'alley of Qu'Appelle, 
 are the four Fi.sliing Lakes. Crooked Lake, and E,ound Lake, 
 making in all a continuous lake over thirty miles Imig and 
 nearly a mile wide, with water in many places over fifty 
 feet deep. Long Lake, forty miles long, and averaging one 
 and a half miles in width, may be said to be part of the 
 same i'i\an\ These seven lakes are filled with White-fish 
 of the very best quality, and are taken, in the latter lake, 
 in great numbers by the Touchwood Indians, every fall. 
 In 1879, I picked up fish skeletons on the shores of Long 
 Lake, that measured seven and three-fourths inches across 
 the eyes, and nine and a half inches from the intersection 
 of the neck to the end of the jaw. 
 
 At various times, I have seen multitudes caught in Lakes 
 Manitoba, Winnipegoosis, Little Slave Lake, Lake St. Ann's, 
 Lac la Biche, Green Lake, Isle la Crosse Lake, Clear Water 
 Lake, Buffalo Lake, Methy Lake, Lake Athabasca, and 
 many other small lakes. I have seen Methy River so full 
 of White-fish, that we killed them with common poles, and, 
 finally^ I may say I never heard of a lake, in- the forest 
 region, which did not contain them in myriads. Others 
 have spoken of them in connection with their explorations, 
 and these I will quote as confirmatory of my statements. 
 
 H. J. Cambio. C. E,, when speaking of the fish at Little 
 Slave Lake, says : "We were presented with a supply of White 
 Fish, weighing from three to four pounds each, similar in 
 
NOTES ON REPTILES, FISHES, AND INSECTS. 385 
 
 CTery respect to those found in the great North American 
 Lakes." At Moberly Lake, in lat. 46°, close to the Rocky 
 Mountains he found the White Fish very abundant in Sep- 
 tember, 1879. They varied from four to six pounds each in 
 weight, were very fat and seemed quite equal to the far- 
 famed White Fish of Lake Huron. 
 
 Archbishop Tach^, so often quoted, speaking of this fish 
 says : " Without exception, it is incontestably the most pala- 
 table of all our fishes, and is the only one which is tolerable 
 as a sole food. The Attihawmeg is found throughout the 
 country ; the lakes, large and small, are nearly all frequent- 
 ed by them, and they providentially swarm in some of the 
 little lakes, otherwise, without this resource, many parts of 
 the country would be uninhabitable. I am entitled to speak 
 on the subject, for I have lived for whole years on White 
 Fish as a principal food, and frequently the only one. It is 
 not to be understood that living wholly upon one kind of 
 food is not tiring, but this particular fish does not pall, nor 
 does it excite the aversion generally caused by all other 
 kinds. 
 
 " The White Fish generally weighs only three or four 
 pounds ; but they are occasionally caught weighing as much 
 as fourteen pounds, and in this case their flesh would delight 
 the most experienced judges of this kind of food. Without 
 dressing or sauce of any kind, these fine fish are much 
 superior to any I have tasted elsewhere, even when most 
 artistically cooked. The White Fish spawns in autumn, and 
 this is also the season for great fishing expeditions, although 
 the fish is in its worst condition. The Attihawmeg, caught 
 in autumn, are preserved in a very peculiar but simple man- 
 ner : a frame work is set up, and on its top strong poles are 
 laid three feet apart. Small rods, rather longer than the 
 space intervening between the poles, are next prepared. 
 As the fish are thrown on to the bank, a hole is cut through 
 their tail-ends, and using this, ten are threaded on to each 
 25 
 
386 MANITOBA AKD THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 rod, thus forming what is called a broche (a sj)it) the ends of 
 which are placed on two of the poles. The fish, now hang- 
 ing head downwards, have their throats cut with a slash of 
 a knife, to free the blood, and to allow water to escape 
 readily. 
 
 " The sharp nights at the end of October, assist to harden 
 the fish, and to preserve them. When the season is not ex- 
 ceptionally warm, hung fish (a la pente) is excellent. Of 
 course the flavor is injured by prolonged heat, and naturally 
 it is only in autumn that this process can be adopted." 
 
 Sir John Richardson thus describes the mode of fishing 
 practised by the Northern Indians : 
 
 " The nets, formed like those used in the herring fishery, 
 measure, before mounting, one hundred and twenty yards 
 in length, but are gathered in to eighty yards by the intro- 
 duction of the backing-line along the upper edge. The 
 depth of the net varies with that of the waters in which it 
 is to be employed, from two to four yards. For the capture 
 of White Fish, of the ordinary size of three or four pounds, 
 the mesh is five and a half inches long, and where these fish 
 are very large it is increased to six. For taking the Bear 
 Lake herring, and the small coregoni of other localities, the 
 meshes vary from two inches to two and three-quarters. 
 In open waters the nets are short, as in the herring fishery; 
 the upper margin being buoyed with cedar or fir floats, and 
 the lower one depressed by stones. The fish hang them- 
 selves in the meshes, being unable, from the form of the 
 gill-plates, to withdraw their heads after having once passed 
 them through. Trout of 15 lbs. weight may be taken in ^ 
 the White Fish nets, and also inconnu {Salmo mackenzii) 
 weighing 20 lbs. ; but the meshes will not admit the heads 
 of the larger trouts (namay-cush), which weigh from 30 
 to 50 lbs. These are caught with Cod-hooks. 
 
 " In winter the nets are set under the ice. The first step 
 is to make a series of holes, about fifteen feet apart. A pole 
 
NOTES ON REPTILES, FISHES, AND INSECTS. 387 
 
 is then introduced, and conducted along the surface of the 
 water from hole to hole, carrying with it a line, which serves 
 to haul in a string of nets, properly buoyed and loaded 
 but seldom exceeding five in number. The rope is then 
 detached, and each end of the net is fastened to a piece of 
 wood, laid across its respective hole, or to a stake driven into 
 the ice. On visiting the nets next day only the extreme 
 holes are opened, the rope is attached anew at one end, and 
 is veered away as the nets are withdrawn by the opposite 
 hole. The fish that have been caught being removed, the 
 nets are drawn back to their places by the line. A line of 
 nets reaches about 400 yards, and the fisherman generally 
 endeavors to carry it entirely across a strait or pass in the 
 lake which fish are known to frequent. 
 
 " Every second or third day, fishermen who are careful take 
 their nets out of the water to dry and repair them. If this 
 be not attended to, the threads swell and rot and few fish 
 enter the meshes ; the floats also become water-logged if not 
 often dried. In severe weather, the fisherman erects a 
 canvas or skin screen to windward, to shelter him while he 
 overhauls his nets. Esquimo snow barricades are much more 
 effective, but pride will not permit the Orkney or Canadian 
 fisherman to turn the useful expedients of the Esquimaux 
 to account." 
 
 On the west side of the Rocky Mountains, families of 
 Indians may be found, both in winter and summer, living 
 where a small stream leaves or enters a lake. They use 
 no nets. The stream is staked from both sides towards the 
 centre, sloping with the water. 
 
 In the centre is placed a wicker basket, which is often of 
 a large size. One that was placed in the river, at Port 
 Macleod, was oblong in form, eight feet long and four 
 feet in diameter. The open end was placed down stream, 
 as the fish were now (November) running up stream. From 
 the rim of the open end, a cone of wicker work extended 
 
388 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 inwards about four feet This cone tapered to an opening 
 about six inches in diameter, and through this the fish passed 
 into the basket. There being no egress, but by the way 
 they came, they remain in the basket. When the basket is 
 lifted into a boat or taken on shore, a lid is opened in the 
 top, and the fish turned out. The proceeds of one day and 
 night were 177 very nice fish, and although none of them 
 were large, the majority were fit for the table. Fresh water 
 Herring were most numerous, then Suckers, three or four 
 Chub, and one Ling or Burbot. Later in the season, the 
 large fish were caught. In summer, Trout were the principal 
 fish ; at this time, they were always running down stream. 
 
 East of the mountains I have never seen the basket used, 
 but fish wiers are common. Last season, two families of 
 Indians were catching large numbers of Pike and other 
 fish, at the forks of the Red Deer and Etoimomi Rivers, by 
 means of one. They had constructed a dam about three 
 feet high, all the way across the river, except in one 
 spot. Below this opening, they had hammered in sharp- 
 ened stakes and woven willows around them, so that a 
 complete paddock was formed. At pleasure, they could run 
 the water off and take out the fish. 
 
 After White-fish, Trout are reckoned the best, and, cer- 
 tainly, they are the most sought after. Both east and west 
 of the Rocky Mountains, they are in great numbers, and are 
 easily caught by the fly or a piece of pork on a common 
 hook. In northern British Columbia, they are in multi- 
 tudes in every stream, are fine flavored and quite large. 
 Their flesh is generally salmon-colored and very firm. 
 Within the Rocky Mountains, we caught numbers of a beau- 
 tiful trout, which was called by the Half-breeds, the " Arctic 
 Trout." Its flesh, however, was white and soft, and far 
 inferior to the commoner species. 
 
 In all the mountain streams, which unite to form the 
 South Saskatchewan, there are multitudes of beautiful trout 
 
NOTES ON KEPTILES, FISHES, AND INSECTS. 389 
 
 Three species are very common, and easily taken by means 
 of a small piece of pork on a hook. One species is very 
 common in the small brooks, and may be regarded as a large 
 sized brook trout. Another species, rather larger, has soft 
 white flesh, and is not so palatable as the other. In the 
 larger streams, and in the mountain lakes and tarns is a 
 third species, which may be looked upon as the Mountain 
 salmon, on account of its size and flesh, and the sport it 
 gives the angler before its capture. This is the fish for 
 sportsmen, as its size and agility make it a difficult fish 
 to capture, and as it is from five to thirty pounds in weight, 
 it requires more than common ability in the angler to land it. 
 
 Our mode of catching these, in Bow River, was to wade 
 into the stream and fish for them in the rapids. When one 
 was hooked, it required all our dexterity to land it, and 
 very often, a souse in the water, on account of the slippery 
 stones, was all we received for our arduous labor. On one 
 occasion, one of the men was standing on a log close to the 
 margin of the river, when an enormous fish took the hook, 
 and before he was aware of it, he was sprawling in the 
 water. He had been using the trawling line which we use 
 for pike, and although he was considerably startled by the 
 plunge in the ice cold water, he held on to the line, and 
 three of us shortly after landed a noble fish about twenty- 
 five pounds weight. 
 
 To the sportsman, and the lover of picturesque and sub- 
 lime scenery, there is no place on the American Continent 
 that holds out inducements equal to those to be found in 
 the Bow River country. Hunting or fishing, as he turns his 
 gaze to the west, he will see towering up to the skies, peak 
 over peak, the everlasting hills. If he watch the clouds 
 forming around the snowy peaks, and dispersing as they 
 float towards the plain, he will see beautifully exemplified 
 the great laws of condensation and evaporation. Should he 
 be an artist, the various bits of color, as the clouds come and 
 
390 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 go, will fill his heart with delight, and he will desire to live 
 under their shadows for ever. And should the mountains 
 become tiresome, he has only to turn to the east, and look 
 over the swelling prairie, until in the distance the grassy 
 mounds melt into the limitless horizon. Still looking east- 
 ward, the hum of the busy multitude 1,000 miles away, will 
 fall upon the ear of the mind, and the dreamer can spend 
 hours, thinking of the time when all the intervening plains 
 will be alive with teeming millions, and the mountain 
 barrier at his back be the gateway to the " Golden West." 
 
 Within the mountains besides fishing, hunting the Big 
 Horn and the Rocky Mountain Goat will give exciting sport. 
 Should the student of nature desire to examine the recesses 
 of the mountains he can easily do so, as any of the beds of 
 shingle will lead him into narrow canyons or beside tiny 
 waterfalls, which come from giddy heights or far up the 
 slopes where he will see the power' that frost and rain exert 
 in pulling down the mountains. A few short years and 
 this hitherto unknown region will be the shrine to which 
 many weary pilgrims will turn their faces and gain that 
 health and vigor denied to many of the devotees of the more 
 fashionable resorts of the East. When the iron horse goes 
 snorting up the Pass, much of the wildness of the present 
 will have passed away for ever, but the ever varying beauty 
 of the mountains will remain, and the heart will be cold 
 indeed that does not glow with pleasure as the eye roams 
 over the unrivalled beauty of the ever changing panorama. 
 
 The Gold Eye is a beautiful fish, and if other and better 
 fish could not be obtained it would be more highly prized 
 than it is. It is generally about fourteen inches long, 
 rather flattened and with white and delicate flesh. Its 
 large and shining scales give it a silvered appearance, and 
 its extremely large eye, with a yellow iris has won its 
 English name "Gold Eye." This fish is abundant in all 
 the rivers of the plains and was the only fish taken with 
 
NOTES ON REPTILES, FISHES, AND INSECTS. 391 
 
 bait except the Pike. No matter how muddy the water we 
 could always reckon on Gold Eyes. 
 
 Sturgeon are often caught in great numbers in the Sas- 
 katchewan, Red, and Assiniboine Rivers. There are two 
 species of this fish in the Saskatchewan. Sir John 
 Richardson places its northern limit in about 54^ degrees 
 north latitude. The smaller species {Accipenser Rupertianus) 
 has a tapering snout. It seldom exceeds ten or fifteen 
 pounds weight. The other is the Nameyu of the Crees, 
 and often weighs ninety pounds and sometimes even attains 
 the weight of one hundred and thirty. Its snout is short 
 and blunt, being only one third as long as the entire 
 head. This species ascends the Winnipeg River and enters 
 the Lake of the Woods and sometimes ascends Rainy River 
 to Fort Francis. Many fine sturgeon are speared in the 
 Assiniboine and Red Rivers by Indians but there is no 
 systematic attempt made to make a business of their 
 capture. I append Archbishop Tache's account of this 
 fish :— 
 
 " There are Sturgeon in North America as well as in 
 Northern Asia. Not only does the Pacific Ocean send them 
 in crowded shoals into the rivers flowing from this country, 
 but our lakes are not without them. This large fish delights 
 in a part of this territory ; it willingly frequents Lake Win- 
 nipeg, and nearly all the important rivers flowing into and 
 out of it ; there are some in the lower part of English 
 River, but they do not ascend beyond the fall at Frog Port- 
 age, and they try in vain to get over Carp Rapids in Rapid 
 River, a tributary of the Saskatchewan ; so that the neigh- 
 borhood of Frog Portage is the northern limit to which they 
 reach in the interior of the country. Nor are they found 
 to the west of this point in the same latitude ; but to the 
 south and east they are generally distributed. In our great 
 central basin they are found in abundance. There are very 
 fine sturgeon in Lake Winnipeg; I have seen them seven 
 
392 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH--WEST. 
 
 feet long and one hundred and fifty pounds in weight. 
 The fish is excellent to eat ; it furnishes a great deal of oil, 
 and its air-bladder, simply dried, supplies the very useful 
 isinglass of commerce. 
 
 " Salt provisions are as yet not much used here, and salt is 
 so dear that salting Sturgeon has not hitherto been thought 
 of; but such a method of preserving them would be more 
 profitable than the plan adopted by the Indians of merely 
 drying some pieces.' ' 
 
 In the future the fisheries of Lake Winnipeg, Manitoba 
 and Winnipegoosis will be developed to such an extent that 
 fish will be a large article of diet and pay a remunerative 
 price to the regular fishermen. The communities settled 
 in the vicinity of the Qu' Appelle and Long Lakes will have 
 abundance of the finest White Fish at their doors, and should 
 their lakes become exhausted, they can very easily be 
 restocked as the artificial breeding of fish in the Dominion 
 has become a regular branch of business. 
 
 Dr. G. M. Dawson when naturalist to the Boundary Sur- 
 vey collected twenty-two species of butterflies, many of 
 which were very beautiful and sometimes in great numbers. 
 During the month of June in the partially wooded country, 
 small blue butterflies are very common and at the same 
 time many of the commoner species of Ontario are seen 
 flitting about in myriads. Later in the season numerous 
 active species of small size are seen on the prairie sucking 
 the nectar of the various Compositae which cover the plain 
 with their showy flowers. Towards the end of October large 
 numbers of a species of Golias congregate on the damp mud 
 along the trail or are seen lazily sitting on the late flower- 
 ing Astus Scarcely any moths were noticed at any time 
 and during all the summers spent on the plains a large one 
 was never seen. It is true that owing to the attacks of the 
 mosquitoes we were seldom out of our tents after sundown 
 and may not have been abroad when they flew. 
 
NOTES ON REPTILES, FISHES, AND INSECTS. 393 
 
 Many species of beautiful Coleoptera were obtained on the 
 " Great Plains" which on investigation proved to be a part 
 of the insect fauna of the South-Western States. It is a 
 curious fact that in both fauna and flora the south-western 
 part of the North-West Territories contains many species 
 common in California, and further investigations will likely 
 add many other species as every year new forms are being 
 added to the list. This fact is one more link in the chain 
 of proof regarding the source of the warm winds of the 
 South-West and tends to show the permanency of the mild 
 climate. 
 
 In the past the plague of grasshoppers has been on the 
 land more than once and in the future may reasonably be 
 expected again. Dr. G. M. Dawson, from whom I have 
 quoted so often, has paid a great deal of attention to this 
 subject and thus deals with it in his Keport on the Interna- 
 tional Boundary Survey : — " The grasshoppers forming des- 
 tructive swarms in the region of the plains east of the 
 Rocky Mountains, appear to belong to a single species, which 
 has been called Galoptenus spretus. This insect much resem- 
 bles the Galoptenus femuir-^uhrvm, or red-legged grasshopper, 
 which an exceptional years has been destructive to crops in 
 various parts of the Eastern States. Spretus differs, how- 
 ever, from femur^ubrvm specifically, and can not only be 
 distinguished from it in form, but possesses a far higher 
 degree of instinct and power of migration, circumstances 
 suiting it to the almost boundless plains which it inhabits. 
 
 " Locusts are not natives of the eastern region of the 
 plains, where their devastations are most severely felt. 
 They come from the far west as a winged swarm, and where 
 they happen to be when they are mature, their eggs are 
 deposited. From these eggs, in the ensuing spring, the 
 young come forth, and cause often more complete des- 
 truction of crops than the wuiged adults ; for they attack 
 the young grain, eatmg it down as fast as it grows. The 
 
394 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 young so produced, however, appear not to have so much 
 vitality as those coming fresh from the west. A great part 
 of them may reach maturity and migrate some distance, but 
 their progeny in the third season seems rarely to give much 
 trouble. 
 
 " The range of the insect (meaning by that term not only 
 their chief breeding places, but the whole area known at 
 one time or other to be overrun by them) is not bounded to 
 the west by the Rocky Mountains, except where these con- 
 stitute, as in British America, the unbroken front of the 
 western region of forest. They spread across the watershed 
 in Colorado and Utah, and appear to have been observed by 
 Mr. Byers, in the valley of the South Pork of the Columbia 
 River, near Fort Hall. Southward, according to Prof. 
 Thomas, they extend as far as the Raton Mountains and 
 into Texas; while to the east they have spread to the 
 prairie country of the Mississippi, and have been known, on 
 more than one occasion, to penetrate far into Iowa. The 
 entire Province of Manitoba is liable to their incursions, 
 and they have penetrated in swarms as far east as the Lake 
 of the Woods. Northward, they are probably only limited by 
 the line of the coniferous forest, which approximately fol- 
 low the North Saskatchewan River. 
 
 " The eggs of the Locust are not deposited promiscuously, 
 or uniformly distributed over the surface ; whether in their 
 native breeding places or in their eastern colonies. High 
 and dry situations, with hard soil, are preferred. Thus, 
 when the young are hatched, from this original deposition 
 of the eggs — and no doubt also from a natural gregarious 
 tendency — they form colonies, which are often widely sep- 
 arated. These I have seen on the third prairie plateau in 
 1874, and the young insects are also noticed to be thus dis- 
 tributed in the Red River Country this year, and elsewhere, 
 wherever they have been carefully observed. The insects 
 do not seem to travel far from their hatching place for some 
 
KOTES ON REPTILES, FISHES, AND INSECTS. 895 
 
 days ; but when they have increased somewhat in size, they 
 begin to move forward together, and in a determinate direc- 
 tion, though not by any means invariably from northwest to 
 southeast. Prof, Studley of Kansas, has experimented on 
 the unfledged grasshoppers, by sifting flour on them in the 
 morning, and measuring the distance travelled over by the 
 insects so marked at night, and finds that their rate of prog- 
 ress is from one-fourth to one-half mile per diem. In the 
 last week of July, 1873, I met the grasshoppers hatched 
 out in the northern part of the Red River Country, travel- 
 ling southward down the valley. They were in the pupa 
 stage, and appeared to be advancing more rapidly than the 
 above measurement would indicate. Their fixed determina- 
 tion to travel southward was remarkable. 
 
 " On obtaining their wings, the grasshoppers prepare for 
 flight, and only wait the advent of a favoring breeze, to set 
 out in the direction which their instinct leads them to pursue. 
 On July 12th of last year, I observed swarms ready for 
 flight on the high plains of the third plateau, west of White 
 Mud River (long. 107° 35). The day was hot and calm,, 
 and though many of the insects were on the wing at all 
 altitudes in the atmosphere, they were following no de- 
 terminate direction, but sailing in circles, and crossing each 
 other in flight. The greater number were hovering over 
 the swamps and spots of luxuriant grass, or resting on the 
 prairie. A slight breath of air would induce them all to 
 take wing, causing a noise like that of the distant sound 
 . of surf, or a gentle breeze among pine trees. They appeared 
 ill at ease, and anxiously waiting a favorable wind. 
 
 " The grasshopper has not intrinsic powers of swift flight. 
 It can bear itself upon the wing for a long time, but depends 
 chiefly on the wind for propulsion, and travels fast or slow 
 according to its motion. It flies only in the sunlight and 
 during the warmer hours of the day, coming to the ground 
 about 4 p.m., if the day be fine ; or at any time when a 
 
396 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 heavy cloud covers the sun, or on the approach of a storm. 
 Nor does it fly in any direction the wind may happen to 
 blow, but has the extraordinary instinct to travel only on 
 those days when the wind may favor it in its appointed 
 course. This, as already mentioned, is generally south-east- 
 ward, from its high-land breeding grounds to the lower and 
 more fertile eastern regions. It is not by any means in- 
 variably so, however ; and some of the broods hatched this 
 spring are already showing a similar persistent desire to 
 move northward, while in their full strength and vigor. 
 When the locust reaches nearly its eastern or southern limit, 
 the organization of the swarms appears in great measure to 
 fail, they move in almost any direction with the wind, or 
 remain long on the ground where food is abundant. After 
 the deposit of eggs, which in the normal sequence of events 
 next happens, the insects are much exhausted, and soon 
 die, though often making a short fickle flight. 
 
 " Such is the life-history of the insect. The causes which 
 fortunately prevent its increase and continued abode in the 
 eastern prairie region, appear to be chiefly climatic. It 
 would seem that the locust requires, to bring it to healthy 
 maturity, the dry warm climate of the higher plains. In 
 the eastern colonies the young are sometimes hatched in 
 considerable numbers by a mild autumn, and perish in the 
 succeeding winter. A relapse of cold and damp weather 
 after their hatching in spring, causes the death of great 
 numbers. The eastern brood is a weaker one, and is ac- 
 cordingly more subject to the attacks of diseases, and para- 
 sites. Mr. Riley catalogues four of the latter. The two 
 first ( Tromhidium sericeum and Astoma gryllaria) are mites ; 
 the two latter {Tachina anonyma and Sarcophaga carnovria) 
 flies, the larvae of which feed on the grasshopper and live 
 within it. All these seem to have appeared in connection 
 with the swarm of 1874, and their progeny of this spring, 
 in Manitoba. The Tromhidium, or silky white, attacks the 
 
NOTES OK REPTILES, FISHES AND INSECTS. 39V 
 
 egg. The Astoma attaches itself to the mature insect, 
 generally under the wings. 
 
 The first appearance of the locusts in formidable numbers 
 in the Red River Valley, seems to have been in the year 
 1818, six years after the foundation of Lord Selkirk's 
 colony. They then arrived on the wing in the last week 
 of July, and destroyed nearly everything but the wheat 
 crop, which partly escaped, being nearly ripe. Eggs were 
 deposited, and in the following spring, the wheat and all 
 other crops were destroyed as fast as they appeared above 
 ground. Eggs seem again to have been deposited in 1819, 
 and in 1820 the crops are said once more to have suffered 
 greatly. The next recorded incursion is that of 1857, from 
 which it would seem that for 36 years the insect had not 
 appeared. In 1857, the crops are said to have been so far 
 advanced as to escape great damage, but eggs were deposited, 
 and in 1858 all the young grain was devoured. In 1864, 
 they again appeared, and left their eggs, but neither the 
 adults, nor the young of 1865 were sufficiently numerous or 
 wide-spread to do much damage. In 1867, numerous swarms 
 poured in, but did little injury, the crops being too far ad- 
 vanced; their progeny in the ensuing Spring, however, 
 devoured everything, causing a famine. They again ap- 
 peared in 1869, the young in 1870 doing much harm. In 
 1872, fresh swarms arrived, but as usual, too late to do much 
 damage to wheat. Eggs were left in abundance in the 
 northern part of the Province, and in the following Spring 
 the farmers over considerable districts did not sow. In 
 1874, winged swarms came in from the west, arriving earlier 
 than usual, and inflicting great injury on the crops in some 
 districts. Eggs were deposited in almost all parts of the 
 Province, and the result has yet to be seen." 
 
 During the fall and winter of 1875 they all died, and 
 since then Manitoba and the North-West have not been 
 visited by them. 
 
398 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Mosquitoes are a real plague and cause more irritation to 
 man and beast than all other plagues together. Little need 
 be written about them as like the summer's heat and winter's 
 cold they are of periodic occurrence. Another insect, named 
 by the Half-breed the " Bull-dog," is a terrible pest during 
 ihe month of July. He is only troublesome however about 
 the middle of the day and seldom remains more than a few 
 days at a time. Flying ants are troublesome in August 
 but they seldom remain many days, and only fly when the 
 day is very warm and sultry. 
 
CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 Minerals of the North- West. 
 
 Boundary of the Laurentian Series— Lower Silurian Rooks— Limestone at the Stone 
 Fort near Winnipeg— Building Stone of Winnipeg— Devonian Series along Lakes 
 Manitoba and Winnipegoosis— Salt Deposits in these Rocks— Pure Salt Collected in 
 1881 — Description of the Manufacture of Salt on Lake Winnipegoosis — Devonian 
 
 Rocks on Peace River — Gypsum, Salt, and Petroleum — Gypsum on Peace River 
 
 Salt Springs of Salt River — Tar Springs on the Athabasca — Cretaceous Series — Its 
 
 Extension — Limestone and other Boulders — Gravel and Sand— Niobrara Limestone 
 
 Souris Coal Field— Coal in the Peace River Country— Lignite Tertiary— Its Probable 
 Extension — Coal Deposits of Immense Extent — Pure Hematite in connection with 
 
 the Coal — In the Saskatchewan Country — At Edmonton — Along Peace River Its 
 
 Probable Value — Gold on the Saskatchewan — On Peace River — Gold Washing Seldom 
 Remunerative — Brick Clays — Their Great Value and Probable Extent — Concluding 
 Remark*:. 
 
 Geological Formations represented in the North-West 
 are very few, and a glance at a map will suffice to explain 
 fully the following notes. On the east side of Lake "Winni- 
 peg, the Laurentian series extend from the shore line, for 
 the greater part of the length of the lake. Striking north- 
 westerly from the head of the Lake they appear at the 
 western end of Lake Athabasca as a series of glaciated rocks, 
 glistening in the sunlight like polished silver. Along the 
 northwest shore of Lake Winnipeg, the rock exposures are 
 Lower Silurian and those at the stone Fort are described as 
 the Hudson Eiver Group of the same series. On Pine Island 
 Lake near Cumberland House, and at the Grand Rapids of 
 the Saskatchewan are many fine exposures of the Silurian 
 series. 
 
 The rocks of the Hudson River Group furnish the build- 
 ing stone for the "Stone Fort," Fort Garry, all the old 
 churches in the vicinity of Winnipeg, and all the stone for 
 the foundations of the massive structures which have been 
 and are now being erected in Winnipeg. Stoney Mountain 
 will be a mine of wealth to future speculators, from which 
 
400 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 lime, stone, and gravel will be procured for the wants of the 
 city. 
 
 Lying farther south and possibly underlying the greater 
 part of the western side of the Manitoba Plain are the 
 Devonian Series. These rocks are known to be largely 
 developed on both sides of Lakes Manitoba and Winni- 
 pegoosis. Numerous salt springs are found in connection 
 with them, and during the last summer the writer saw salt 
 springs and brooks of strong brine flowing from them in 
 various localities at the head of Lake Winnipegoosis. The 
 subjoined list of salt springs known to occur on Lakes Man- 
 itoba and Winnipegoosis may tend to excite interest in 
 these extensive deposits: — 
 
 1. Crane River, Lake Manitoba. 
 
 2. Water Hen River, Dickson's Landing. 
 
 3. Salt Point, east side of Lake Winnipegoosis. 
 
 4. Salt Springs, ) 
 
 5. Pine River, v Winnipegoosis. 
 
 6. Rivers near Duck Bay, ) 
 
 7. Turtle River, Lake Dauphin. 
 
 8. Swan or Shoal, two localities. 
 
 9. Salt River flowing into Dawson's Bay. 
 
 10. Numerous salt springs and bare saturated tracts of 
 many acres in extent on Red Deer River, which flows into 
 the head of Dawson Bay, Lake Winnipegoosis. For ten 
 miles up this river salt springs are quite frequent, and excel- 
 lent salt was collected in three places where it formed a 
 crust on the surface of the ground. Some springs were ex- 
 amined where a respectable rivulet of strong brine issued 
 from them clear as crystal and evidently quite pure. All 
 the springs and marshes seen were bordered with seaside 
 plants, and one of them, which has never been found from 
 the sea coast before in America, was found in abundance. 
 The plant referred to is Sea Side Plan tarn {Plantago 
 Maritima.) 
 
MINERALS OF THE UTORTH-WEST. 401 
 
 From time immemorial, salt has been manufactured along 
 the west sides of Lakes Manitoba and Winnipegoosis, and at 
 Salt Springs the manufacture was carried on by John Monk- 
 man, in 1859, when the works were visited by Professor 
 Henry Y. Hind. The manufacture had been carried on for 
 forty years prior to that time by Jas. Monkman, his father. 
 Professor Hind thus describes the springs and the manufac- 
 ture of salt at the time of his visit : — 
 
 " The soil at the Salt Springs is a very retentive yellow- 
 ish-white clay, containing small limestone boulders and 
 pebbles, with boulders of the unfossiliferous rocks. The 
 wells, for obtaining a supply of brine, are sunk wherever a 
 small bubbling spring is observed to issue from this reten- 
 tive clay. The springs are constantly changing their 
 povsition, and as the wells become exhausted from time to 
 time, a fresh excavation is made where a new spring is 
 observed to issue. No doubt boring, or deeper wells, would 
 prevent these changes, and not only secure a larger flow of 
 brine, but insure its permanency. The wells at present 
 are twenty -five in number; but some of them appear to 
 have been lately abandoned, and others have long since 
 ceased to yield brine. They are situated four hundred yards 
 from the lake shore, and were first worked forty years 
 since, by James Monkman. He has made salt at both Swan 
 and Duck Rivers. The manufacture is now carried on 
 with profit for the Hudson's Bay Company, at Swan River, 
 and at Winnipegoosis Lake by Monkman' s sons. 
 
 " At the ' Works ' there are two small log-houses and 
 three evaporating furnaces. The kettles of English con- 
 struction, are well-made rectangular vessels of iron, five 
 feet long, two feet broad, and one foot deep. They are 
 laid upon two rough stone walls, about twenty inches apart, 
 which form the furnace. At one extremity is a low 
 chimney. The whole construction is of the rudest descrip- 
 tion ; and at the close of the season the kettles are removed, 
 26 
 
402 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 turned over, and the furnace permitted to go to ruin, to 
 be rebuilt the following spring. 
 
 " The process of making salt is as follows . When a 
 pring is found a well five feet broad and five feet deep is 
 excavated, and near this an evaporating furnace is erected. 
 The brine from the wells is ladled into the kettles, and 
 the salt scooped out as it forms, and allowed to remain for 
 a short time to drain, before it is packed in birch bark 
 roggins for transportation to Eed River, where it commands 
 twelve shillings sterling a bushel, or one hundred weight 
 of flour, or a corresponding quantity of fish, pemican, or 
 buffalo meat, according to circumstances." 
 
 While on the subject of salt I cannot do better than 
 speak of that which is obtained on Salt River, an affluent 
 of Slave River. Salt obtained here is used throughout 
 the north. In September, 1875, during my visit to Fort 
 Chipweyan at the western end of Lake Athabasca, a boat 
 load of excellent salt was brought up from Salt River. It 
 differed from common coarse salt in consisting of large 
 cubical crystals, which were very hard when placed under 
 the teeth. 
 
 Sir John Richardson, in his narrative of the Arctic Search- 
 ing Expedition under his command, thus speaks of the salt 
 deposits on Salt River: — "In 1820, I ascended the very 
 tortuous Salt River, for twenty miles, for the purpose of 
 visiting the salt springs, which give it its name. Seven 
 or eight copious springs issue from the base of a long even 
 ridge, some hundreds of feet high, and, spreading their 
 waters over a clayey plain, deposit much pure common salt 
 in large cubical crystals. The mother water, flowing off in 
 small rivulets into the Salt River, communicates to it a 
 very bitter taste ; but before the united streams join the 
 Slave River, the accession of various fresh-water rivulets 
 dilutes the water so much that it remains only slightly 
 brackish. A few slabs of greyish compact gypsum protrude 
 
MINERALS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 403 
 
 from the side of the ridge above mentioned, and a pure 
 white gypsum is said to be found at Peace Point on Peace 
 River, distant about sixty or seventy miles in a southwest 
 direction, whence we may conjecture that these springs 
 may belong to the Onondago salt group of the Helderberg 
 division of the New York system. The Athabasca and 
 Mackenzie River districts are supplied from hence -with 
 abundance of good salt. We obtained some bags of this 
 useful article from Beaulieu, who was guide and hunter to 
 Sir John Franklin on his second overland journey, and who 
 has built a house at the mouth of Salt River. This is a 
 well chosen locality for his residence. His sons procure 
 abundance of deer and bison meat on the salt plains, which 
 these animals frequent in numbers, from their predilection 
 for that mineral ; and Slave River yields plenty of good fish 
 at certain seasons." 
 
 The Devonian rocks crop out on Peace River, below Fort 
 Vermillion, and show very fine sections at the falls on Peace 
 River near Little Red River, and at ether points. All the 
 rock at the falls is a blueish limestone, which, when fully 
 exposed to the influence of the weather, breaks up into thin 
 layers. On the right bank, immediately below the falls, it 
 forms cliffs from twenty to thirty feet high. The River at 
 this point is nearly a mile wide, and presents a series of 
 little falls all the way across. The many small rocky islands 
 and isolated rocks that rise out of the river, and on the 
 brink of the fall, all the way to the other side, form a beau- 
 tiful panorama of rushing and falling water, with wooded 
 or rocky islets, succeeded below the falls by placid river 
 and sylvan scene. At present (August 15) the fall is about 
 fifteen feet, but at high water it cannot be half as much. 
 A couple of fossils were obtained here, which were identical 
 with others collected from a different locality. The islands 
 in the river below the falls are rocky ; rocks are also ex- 
 posed on the right bank for about two miles, and are then 
 
404 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 concealed. About three miles below the falls Little Red 
 River comes in on the right bank, and, at its outlet, a dif- 
 ferent rock formation presents itself The beds are composed 
 almost altogether of many species of corals. There is a 
 good exposure, and, as we took a day here to rest, I made a 
 large collection. The lower layers are of fine texture, thin 
 bedded, and without fossils. These are followed by beds 
 almost wholly made up of those branching corals {Alveolites) 
 so common in Devonian rocks, intermixed with a species of 
 Zaplirentis in great abundance, some of the higher strata 
 being largely made up of these, but occasionally associated 
 with others of a rounded form. Above the latter there are, 
 at least, six feet of rock holding large corals, in which the 
 fine structure was nearly obliterated by the crystallization 
 of the mass. Others were observed in concentric layers ; < 
 and some, when broken, fell apart as if formed in successive 
 laminae. 
 
 Another outcrop occurs about a quarter of a mile up 
 Red River. No fossils were observed here, but the rock, 
 which is heavy -bedded and in a nearly horizontal position, 
 appears to overlie those just described, and adds a few feet 
 to the total thickness exposed. The rock at this point seems 
 to overlie that at the chuttes. 
 
 Approaching " Rapid Bouille " the banks of the river 
 begin to attain some elevation, but no rocks are exposed 
 until the head of the rapid is passed ; then limestone crops 
 out, but so much broken and contorted that its dip is 
 not apparent. Many fossils were found at this point, both 
 loose and in the rock. A few yards below this, fine white 
 gypsum crops out, and continues as the lowest rock in the 
 section for the next twenty miles. This is overlaid by a 
 light grey granular rock, largely made up of gypsum ; perhaps 
 a limestone was observed in it, but there were no fossils. 
 
 Descending the rapid the rock rises higher and higher 
 along the shore, and by the time the lower end is reached. 
 
MINERALS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 405 
 
 it has attained a height of at least fifty feet above the 
 water. At the foot of the rapid the river is divided into 
 two channels by a high rocky island, which stands almost m 
 the centre of the river. In many places the gypsum attains 
 a thickness of from ten to fifteen feet, and is as clear and 
 white as snow. The banks of the river and the islands 
 from here to Peace Point, a distance of fifteen miles, show 
 this rock generally much contorted, but seldom broken. 
 At one point on the high bank the beds have been upheaved 
 without being broken, to the height of at least forty feet, 
 and show a very fine example of curved strata. 
 
 On the Athabasca there are large deposits of bituminous 
 shale, which are the source of the petroleum or mineral tar 
 so frequently spoken of in connection with that river. I 
 passed up the river in September^ 1875, and noted down 
 what I saw. After entering the river from Lake Athabasca 
 we gradually passed from mud to sand, but we went fully 
 fifty miles before we saw anything like a pebble . The first 
 indications of "tar" were in the shape of pebbles composed 
 of sand and tar, formed above and carried down by ice 
 
 About two miles below Echo's home we came upon the 
 first gravel beach, and at Echo's the true bank showed for 
 the first time on the left, but it was noticed about a mile 
 above Embarras River on the right, and many times after- 
 wards, showing that the river was eroding its right bank, 
 while forming new land on the left. At this point the soil 
 on both sides of the river is good, and the banks have the 
 reddish tinge observed at Vermillion. Later in the day 
 Birch Mountain showed blue in the distance, bearing about 
 southwest. 
 
 As we ascended, the river banks kept increasing in 
 height, and the country began to assume the appearance of 
 a good agricultural region. No rock was seen, but the 
 " tar conglomerate " became very abundant, often being in 
 beds two feet thick. Early on the afternoon of September 
 
406 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 7th we came upon the shale beds which produce the tarry 
 matter. After passing along them for about two miles, we 
 stopped to trade for some dried meat, when I had an oppor- 
 tunity of examining them. I found below a light grey sand- 
 stone, partly saturated with tar, and overlying this there 
 was at least fifteen feet of it completely saturated, and over 
 this again shaleJargely charged with alkaline matter. This 
 was the sequence all the way, although at times there was 
 much more exposed. Where we landed, the ooze from the 
 bank had flowed down the slope into the water and formed 
 a tarred surface extending along the beach over one hun- 
 dred yards, and as hard as iron ; but in bright sunshine the 
 surface is quite soft, and the men when tracking along shore 
 often sink in it up to their ankles. During the remain- 
 der of the afternoon we sailed past other rock exposures, 
 but observed no change in their aspect or mode of occur- 
 rence, though very often they were much higher. Next 
 morning we had travelled about two hours when we 
 stopped at a tar spring to procure the tar which was 
 obtained last winter. The rock here was just the same as 
 that seen yesterday. Instead of getting the tar on the 
 beach, as I expected, I was led up the hill until we attained 
 the height of forty feet ; here we found a small pool of 
 water, and underneath it the pure tar. I noticed a little 
 stream of water flowing into the pool, which was coated 
 with an oily scum, and under the stream there was an 
 abundance of tar. Along the beach it was seen oozing out 
 in many places, and by gathering and washing the sand 
 saturated with it, we obtained just as '"ure tar as we 
 brought from the spring on the hill-side. 
 
 Bluish concretionary limestone, in appearance like that 
 at Little Red River, crops out on both sides of the river 
 at Point of Rocks, forming cliffs twenty-five feet high. 
 The upper beds are thick and withstand the weather, but 
 about six feet from the top, these gave place to rock which 
 
MINERALS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 407 
 
 crumbles exactly like that containing the large corals at 
 Red River. For more than twenty miles this rock was 
 observed, and it was from it that the fossils were obtained, 
 labelled " thirty miles below the forks." After about 
 twenty miles, we again came on the tar shale, and passed 
 the place where the Hudson's Bay Company get their sup- 
 ply for the boats. All the limestone passed to-day was 
 cream colored or light grey, and was heavily bedded on 
 top, but had much the appearance of shale below. The 
 frost disintegrates the latter, and it separates into fragments 
 suitable for road-making. Nearly all the strata show 
 graceful curves, the folds never rising higher than ten feet. 
 The dip is about north and south, the strike crossing the 
 river at nearly right angles. 
 
 Within ten miles of the forks, a very fine section of the 
 rock is exposed, showing the limestone, and then about ten 
 feet of yellowish cla.y, followed by at least 100 feet of 
 black shale, which looked like sandstone, and in the dis- 
 tance resembled the shale between Dunvegan and Smoky 
 River. Alkaline springs were observed oozing out of these 
 strata, but there was no tar. 
 
 I have no doubt but that the shale, out of which the tar 
 comes, overlies the coral formation observed at Red River. 
 Exactly at the forks, the latter rises out of the water, capped 
 by at least 150 feet of black shale, from which the tar 
 oozes, and these are surmounted by a few beds producing an 
 alkaline efflorescence. Mr. Moberly told me that the tar 
 beds extended up the Athabasca to near the mouth of Lac 
 la Biche River, and I found that they still continued up the 
 Clearwater, but eventually sank beneath the soil. About ten 
 miles up the Clearwater, the men pointed out a tar spring 
 in the stream, from which tar was very often obtained. 
 
 Before passing the Pembina River, we came upon sand- 
 stone which is suitable for making grindstones. This rock 
 was occasionally seen for about two miles, when signs of' 
 
408 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH--WEST. 
 
 tar again appeared. These passed away, and limestone 
 was occasionally seen, and towards evening, I procured 
 those fine fossils which were so much admired. For nearly 
 a day after this, no rock exposures appeared, but when we 
 came upon the rocks again, they differed from any I had yet 
 observed. They were cream-colored, shaly, non-fossilif- 
 erous limestones. After passing these, we came to the 
 sulphur springs. Pour little creeks discharge these springs. 
 They are said to be very bitter, and their margins are 
 lined with sulphur. Sir John Robinson, in his narrative, 
 says : " At eight, we came to a sulphurous spring, which 
 issues from the limestone on the bank of the river. Its 
 channel is lined with a snow-white incrustation, the taste 
 of the water is moderately saline and sulphurous, and, 
 from its coolness, rather agreeable than otherwise. It has 
 a slight odor of sulphurated hydrogen." 
 
 Speaking of the bitumen. Sir John says : " About thirty 
 miles below the Clearwater River, the limestone beds are 
 covered by a bituminous deposit upwards of one hundred 
 feet thick, whose lower member is a conglomerate, having 
 an earthy basis much stained with iron, and colored by 
 bitumen. Many small grains and angular fragments of 
 transparent and translucent quartz compose a large part of 
 the conglomerate, which also contains water-worn pebbles 
 of white, green, and otherwise colored quartz, from a 
 minute size up to that of a hen's egg or larger. Pieces of 
 green-stone and nodules of clay-ironstone also enter into 
 the composition of this rock, which, in some places, is 
 rather friable, and in others, possesses much hardness and 
 tenacity. Some of the beds above this stone are nearly 
 plastic, from the quantity of the mineral pitch they con- 
 tain. Roots of living trees and herbaceous plants push 
 themselves deep into beds highly impregnated with bit- 
 umen ; and the forest where that mineral is most abundant 
 does not suffer in its growth. 
 
MINERALS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 409 
 
 The shale banks are discontinued for a space, in the 
 neighborhood of Beren's House, where thin beds of lime- 
 stone come to the surface, and form cliffs twenty or thirty 
 feet high at the water's edge. 
 
 Still farther down the river, or about three miles below 
 the Red River, where there was once a trading establish- 
 ment, now remembered as Le vieux Fort cle la Rimere 
 Rouge, a copious spring of mineral pitch issues from a cre- 
 vice in a cliff composed of sand and bitumen. It lies a 
 few hundred yards back from the river, in the middle of a 
 thick wood. Several small birds were found suffocated in 
 the pitch. 
 
 At the deserted post, named Pierre au Gal/met, cream- 
 colored and white limestone cliffs are covered by thick beds 
 of bituminous sand. Below this, there is a bituminous 
 cliff, in the middle of which lies a thick bed of the same 
 white earth, which I had seen higher up the river in con- 
 tact with the limestone, and following the undulations of 
 its surface. 
 
 A few miles farther on, the cliffs for some distance are 
 sandy, and the different beds contain variable quantities of 
 bitumen. Some of the lower layers were so full of that 
 mineral as to soften in the hand, while the upper strata, 
 containing less, were so cemented by iron as to form a .firm 
 dark-brown sandstone of much hardness. The cliff is, in 
 most places, capped by sand containing boulders of lime- 
 stone. Every bituminous bed, carefully examined with 
 the microscope, was found to consist, in addition to the 
 bitumen, of small grains of transparent quartz, unmixed 
 with other rock, but enclosing a few minute fragments of 
 the pearly lining of a shell. A similar bed in another 
 locality contained, besides the quartz, many scales of mica. 
 The whole country, for many miles, is so full of bitumen 
 that it flows readily into a pit dug a few feet below the 
 surface. 
 
410 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Dr. George M. Dawson, Assistant Director of the Geolog- 
 ical Survey of Canada, in his report on the geology of the 
 49th parallel, thus speaks of the distribution of the Creta- 
 ceous Rocks in the North-West Territories : — 
 
 " The Cretaceous rocks, corresponding in age with the 
 great chalk formations of Europe, though very different 
 from them in mineral character, are those which spread 
 over by far the greatest surface. Except in a few localities, 
 and those chiefly in proximity to the Rocky Mountain 
 region of uplift, they are still almost as perfectly horizontal 
 as when originally deposited. The eastern edge of this 
 formation partly overlaps the underlying Silurian and 
 Devonian beds, and runs nearly parallel with the base of 
 the Laurentian range, at a distance of about one hundred 
 and thirty miles, from the fifty-third to the fiftieth parallel 
 of latitude. Southward, it tends to the east, and probably 
 crosses the forty -ninth parallel east of Red River ; while in 
 south-western Minnesota, Cretaceous rocks repose directly 
 in some places on granites, which are no doubt Laurentian. 
 
 " The general course of the eastern outcrop is consequently 
 about north-north-east ; and it is marked broadly, by a 
 series of escarpments and elevations, including — from south 
 to north — Pembina, Riding, Duck, Porcupine, and Basquia 
 Mountains. All these appear to be composed for the most 
 part, if not entirely, of Cretaceous rocks, though the ex- 
 treme edge of the formation may often stretch beyond 
 them. These so-called " mountains " are, more correctly 
 speaking, — as already shown — salient points of the edge of 
 the second plateau, and the generally horizontal position 
 of the beds thus suddenly cut off to the east, attests the 
 immense denudation which must have taken place in com- 
 paratively modern times. 
 
 " North of the Basquia Mountain, from the very scanty 
 information we at present possess, the edge of the Cretaceous 
 would appear to run westward, and cross the Saskatchewan 
 
MINERALS OF THE NOKTll-WEST. 411 
 
 River, near Fort a la Come, where at Cole's Falls a dark- 
 colored shale which has been referred to the lowest mem- 
 ber of the series, occurh. It may very probably be nearly 
 conterminous with the edge of the second plateau, which, 
 according to Dr. Selwyn, crosses the river forty-five miles 
 below the Fort. The western border of the Cretaceous 
 seems, in some places, to follow closely along the base of 
 the Rocky Mountain Range, but many circumstances arise 
 to complicate the question in that region, and it will only 
 be after the accumulation of much more information than 
 is at present in our possession, that the line can be laid 
 down with any accuracy. In some parts of the range, Cre- 
 taceous rocks have been included among the mountains 
 themselves, and considerably altered ; but the greater part 
 of the newer strata, which must have covered the palae- 
 ozoic rocks of this region when the uplift first took place, 
 have been removed by denudation. 
 
 " The Cretaceous rocks thus defined in breadth, north of 
 the boundary line, have been noted by Professor Hind, 
 Dr. Hector, Dr. Selwyn, and Prof. Bell, in many localities 
 on the second prairie level, some of which are more par- 
 ticularly referred to in the sequel, and are known to 
 extend in a broad zone from the North Saskatchewan to 
 the Mexican frontier and southward. 
 
 " Our knowledge of the Cretaceous beds ueyond the 
 North Saskatchewan, is as yet very limited, and depends 
 almost entirely on the observations of Sir J. Richardson, 
 aided by chance notes of other explorers not professed geol- 
 ogists. It IS likely, however, that a trough or series of 
 more or less isolated basins of lignite and coal-bearing 
 strata, follows near the eastern base of the mountains the 
 whole way to the Arctic Sea. A part of these beds is 
 known to represent the Lignite Tertiary of the south, but 
 judging from their association elsewhere, they will probably 
 be found to rest on Cretaceous rocks throughout. Indeed, 
 
412 MANITOBA AND THE GKEAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 from the fragmentary nature of the information concerning 
 the great northern region, and the unsettled questions with 
 regard to the age of the coal series of the analogous region, 
 near the mountains and south of the North Saskatche- 
 wan, it is impossible to decide whether some of the coals 
 and lignites described, may not belong to the Cretaceous 
 formation itself. The existence of Cretaceous beds has, 
 however, only been determined with certainty at a single 
 locality, on the Bear Lake River, near its junction with 
 the Mackenzie. Sir J. Richardson, here, discovered an 
 Ammonite among sandstones and shales which he states 
 resembles those of the coal measures." 
 
 The subdivision of the Cretaceous, as it occurs in Mani- 
 toba and the North-West Territories, will require dis- 
 cussion after the systematic description of the localities in 
 which it has been examined. From its close general re- 
 semblance, however, to that which has been studied in the 
 western part of the United States, it will be useful to have 
 the Upper Missouri Section of Meek and Hayden, which 
 has now become typical, as a standard of comparison. The 
 formation is there composed as follows in descending 
 order : — 
 
 Later Cretaceous. 
 
 No 5. Fox Hill Beds. —Grey, ferruginous and yellowish sanastones and 
 
 arenaceous clays. Marine Shells 500 feet 
 
 No. 4 Fort Pieree Gkodp. — Dark grey and blueish plastic clays Marine 
 
 shells, gypsum and fish remains 700 feet 
 
 Earlier Cretaceous. 
 
 No. 3. NioBRARi Geohp. — Calcareous marls, Marine shells, fieli remains, For- 
 
 aminifera, &c 200 feet. 
 
 No. 2. Fort Benton Group. — Dark grey laminated clays with some limestone. 
 
 Marine shells 800 feet. 
 
 No. 1 , Dakota Group. — Yellowish, reddish, and whitish sandstones, and clay, 
 with occasional lignites. Marine and some fresh water shells and 
 Angiospermous leaves 400 feet 
 
 Giving as an approximate thickness of the formation in 
 that region, 2600 feet. 
 
MINERALS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 413- 
 
 The Lignite Tertiary rocks north of the line are not 
 bounded by any great physical features of the country, but 
 adhere closely to the upper members of the Cretaceous, 
 and behave as an upper member of that formation might 
 be expected to do. Though no doubt originally deposited 
 in extensive basin-like depressions of the Cretaceous strata, 
 these are now generally found forming slightly elevated 
 plateaux. Denudation must have acted on these rocks on 
 a vast scale, but they still cover an immense area and con- 
 tain the greatest stores of mineral fuel known to occur in 
 the vicinity of the forty-ninth parallel. The line of 
 their eastern edge crosses the parallel near the 102nd 
 meridian, and thence appears to pursue a northwestward 
 course, remaining for some distance nearly parallel with 
 the edge of the third plateau. Beyond the Elbow of the 
 South Saskatchewan, though the same physical feature 
 continues to the north, it is not known what relation it 
 may bear to the outcrop of this formation, nor has its 
 northern limit been ascertained. Between the North and 
 South branches of the Saskatchewan River there is a great 
 tract of country, the geological features of which are still 
 very imperfectly known, but where it is highly probable, 
 outlyers, if not direct extensions of this Lignite formation 
 will be met with. To the west, it appears to extend,, 
 at least in some places, nearly to the base of the Rocky 
 Mountains. 
 
 " A thick mantle of sands and clays, referable to the 
 glacial period, and to former great lakes, covers almost the 
 entire surface of the plains. A geologist may often travel a 
 hundred miles without once being able to observe a section 
 of the underlying Creatceous or Tertiary rocks, and but for 
 their great uniformity and simplicity of structure, it would 
 be a very difficult task to unravel the geology of so vast a 
 region. The very monotony of the plains is, however, tO' 
 a great extent, a corollary of the attitude of the strata 
 
414 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 between them, and of their unconsolidated and homogeneous 
 character." 
 
 In many parts of the country particularly along the 
 upper slopes of the coulees and river banks there are 
 numerous boulders of various kinds of rock. About one- 
 third are white limestone and the remainder various kinds 
 of metamorphic rocks particularly gniess. Lines of bould- 
 ers are to be found along the Little Saskatchewan in the 
 vicinity of Rapid City, and much of the land is very seri- 
 ously encumbered by them. The same complaint is made 
 at Birtle on Bird Tail Creek and westward in the direction 
 of Fort Ellice. Brandon has its share, and when the excite- 
 ment, which is now at fever heat, begins to die out many 
 will complain of the multitudes of stones which encumber 
 their lots. Port Ellice and almost every town or village 
 laid out on the bank of a river is in the same category. 
 
 Boulders are found in ridges on many parts of the Second 
 Prairie Steppe and often extend for miles in almost straight 
 lines. When the country is more thoroughly examined 
 these ridges will be found to indicate the margins of great 
 depressions, possibly of lake basins of a former period. In 
 the valley that stretches from the source of the Qu' Appelle 
 to the South Saskatchewan there are multitudes of en- 
 ormous boulders. One of these was measured by Prof. 
 Hind, and was found to be 78 feet in circumference and at 
 least 14 feet in altitude. The next largest was one of 
 limestone, seen on the prairie below the Moose Woods. It 
 is about 16 feet high and at least 60 feet in circumference. 
 In the valley of the Souris near the boundary they are in 
 immense numbers and all appear to lie on the surface. At 
 Livingstone, Swan River, and Banicks they lie so close that 
 no cultivation of the soil could be effected. Scores of places 
 might be enumerated where they lie thickly on the ground 
 and extensive tracts where not one can be seen in a day's 
 journey. 
 
MINERALS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 415 
 
 All the interior lakes be they large or small are margined 
 by a wall of boulders which are pressed into position as 
 perfectly as if they had been placed there by man. Ice is 
 certainly the cause of this in every case and a careful 
 observer cannot fail to be struck with the uniformity with 
 which it acts. While encamped on the shores of Long 
 Lake in July, 1879, my attention was called to a point of 
 rocks which extended into the Lake near its northern end. 
 Two large boulders lay at the base of the heap and between 
 them and the lake were two deep grooves which they had 
 made in the spring when being shoved out of the Lake by 
 ice. Each stone had been forced by ice out of the depths 
 of the lake and left its record behind A careful measure- 
 ment was made, and it was found that the stones had been 
 shoved 47 yards or more. We traced the drove into water 
 three feet in depth but how much farther it extended we 
 could not determine. 
 
 Gravel and sand are not wanting in any part of the 
 country, although there are wide areas where none appears 
 on the surface. All water obtained from gravel is excellent, 
 and many ponds fed by springs are found where gravel 
 mounds predominate. Nearly all the gravel on the Second 
 Prairie Steppe is coated with carbonate of lime, but on the 
 Third Plateau the character of the gravel changes and is a 
 quartzite with the pebbles so smooth that it seems but as 
 yesterday when it was an old sea beach. In many places, 
 notably the Cypress Hills and elevations over 2000 feet 
 above the sea, along the eastern base of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains, this gravel is spread as a thin sheet over the surface. 
 I have often noticed it less than three inches in depth, and 
 covering the surface conformably to the undulations. This 
 is the gravel that prevents much of the land south of lat. 50° 
 and in the Bow River District from being fit for agriculture. 
 
 Sand is another feature of the plains, and may be said to 
 be a characteristic of the whole country west of Red River 
 
416 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Plain. Sand dunes are found in front of the Second Prraiie 
 Steppe, between the Pembina Mountain and Riding Moun- 
 tain, and are well developed on the line of the Canadian 
 Pacific Railway east of De Winton. By means of these 
 dunes the Railway is carried from the lower to the upper 
 plain, and all travellers must notice the striking resemblance 
 that these hills bear to those along our great lakes on the 
 Ocean itself. 
 
 Along the Souris, especially southwest of Brandon, there 
 are numerous sand hills which in many places are little else 
 than moving masses of sand. At Flat Creek, on the line 
 of the Canadian Pacific Railway and southwesterly in the 
 direction of Oak Lake, sand hills are largely developed and 
 are a characteristic feature of the country. At the head of 
 the Qu'Appelle are three groups of sand hills which are 
 gradually shifting eastward by the action of the wind- 
 Along the east and northern faces of the group on the north 
 side of the Qu'Appelle are a series of shallow pools or salt 
 lakes which are dry or nearly so in summer, and from which 
 when the wind blows the saline encrustations rise like smoke 
 and disappoint the weary traveller as he looks anxiously 
 around for a pool of good water. Enticed by the vapor he 
 hastens on, and instead of a camp fire by a pool of refreshing 
 water, he finds a dried up lake and its surface covered with 
 saline crystals. My party became entangled in these sandy 
 wastes on the 11th July, 1879, and before we could extricate 
 ourselves and find water both men and horses suffered 
 severely. 
 
 Inside the line of ponds spoken of above the sand begins 
 to rise into hills, which are being constantly blown away to 
 form others. The movement is constantly from west to 
 east, and the hollows and little hills with their trees and 
 bushes are being continually filled up by the eastward move- 
 ment of the sand. The second group of hills crosses the 
 South Saskatchewan about three miles south of the Elbow, 
 
MINERALS OP THE NORTH-WEST. 417 
 
 and shortly after develops into an extensive sandy tract 
 with sand hills 100 feet high towering up on every hand. 
 The hills were without a partical of vegetation, and were 
 very steep except on the western face where they were 
 furrowed by the wind. Another extensive group lies north 
 of the Cypress Hills near Gull Lake, and are of the same 
 general character. On their southern side surrounded by 
 sand, and in many cases standing in it is a grove of large 
 Cottonwood trees These are probably the last remains of 
 the former forrest, yet at present neither tree nor shrub 
 exists within many miles of them. Other groups of sand 
 hills are to be met with, but in general they are all 
 alike, and seem to have been produced by the same cause — 
 currents and eddies when the land was submerged after 
 the close of the glacial period. The sandy country in all 
 cases is above the general level of the district where they 
 exist. 
 
 About twenty-five miles north of the Boundary, where 
 the Boyne Kiver cuts through the Pembina escarpment, 
 limestone beds are seen, which Dr. G. M. Dawson refers to 
 is the Niobrara division of the cretaceous rocks. The rock 
 a cream-colored or nearly white limestone, breaking easily 
 along horizontal planes, parallel to the surfaces of the shells 
 of Ostrea and Inocerarmts, of which it is in great part com- 
 posed. The same rock seems to crop out on the Assiniboine, 
 about ten miles below the mouth of the Souris, where it 
 shows fine exposures of nearly horizontal strata. Above 
 Brandon, beds of apparently the same character have been 
 observed, but owing to slides in the river bank, the ex- 
 posures cannot be properly examined. 
 
 In the chapter on fuel, will be found a full account of 
 the coal as it occurs in the North-West, and, therefore, we 
 will only give in this place the extent of the Lignite 
 Tertiary, as shown by Dr. Dawson, in his exhaustive 
 report. 
 
 27 
 
418 MANITOBA AND THE GKEAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 " The total area of the western part of the Prairie region, 
 between the forty-ninth and fifty-fourth parallels, now 
 known by more or less connected lines of observation, to 
 be underlaid by the lignite and coal-bearing formation or 
 formations, does not fall short of 80,000 square miles ; and 
 should future investigation result iu affixing some of the 
 fuels to the lower cretaceous, it must be much greater. 
 The importance of these great deposits of fuel, in a country 
 naturally so destitute of wood over great areas, cannot be 
 exaggerated." 
 
 Since this was written, our knowledge has increased, 
 borings have been made in the Souris Coal Field, and work- 
 able seams are now known to exist there. Peace River 
 has been further explored, and here, likewise, excellent 
 coal has been obtained. In both cases, these coals belong 
 to the lower cretaceous, and hence the remark in the pre- 
 ceding paragraph, about the extension of the coal fields, is 
 more than carried out, and it is now probable that the area 
 will be nearly doubled. 
 
 Brown hematite, in more or less abundance, is known to 
 exist over a very wide extent of the prairie section, and 
 has been observed by myself cropping out in many places 
 on the Saskatchewan and its tributaries, and in numerous 
 places on Peace River It is generally in thin layers or 
 slightly connected nodular masses, and from the appended 
 analyses, it may be considered a valuable and rich ore. 
 Dr. Dawson thus speaks of its occurrence and value : — • 
 
 '' The ironstones of the Lignite Tertiary formation, to 
 which frequent reference has been made, though occurring 
 very often in the same sections and in close proximity tu 
 the lignites, have not been observed in any part of the area 
 examined to occur in considerable thickness. They gener- 
 ally appear in nodular sheets or scattered nodules, follow- 
 ing certain horizons in the clays and argillaceous sands, 
 and are found in greater or less abundance in nearly all the 
 
MIKERALS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 419 
 
 sections examined. Externally they weather to various 
 shades of chocolate-brown and reddish-brown, but are hard 
 and compact in structure, and within preserve their bluish- 
 grey or yellowish-grey color. 
 
 " The subjoined partial analyses of specimens collected in 
 1873, were published in the "Report of Progress" for that 
 year. I regret that the time at my disposal prevents the 
 examination of other specimens subsequently obtained : — 
 
 /. Glay Ironstone. (Souris Valley.) 
 
 Protoxide of Iron 49.00 
 
 Water lost at 115° C 121 
 
 Carbonic Acid lost on ignition 28.57 
 
 Siliceous matter insol. in H. CI 1 7.04 
 
 Phosphorus Trace. 
 
 Uetallic Iron per cent, in raw ore 30 11 
 
 Metallic Iron, in calcined ore 54.27 
 
 //. Clay Ironstone. (Great Valley.) 
 
 Protoxide of Iron 46.72 
 
 Water lost at 115° C 3 57 
 
 Carbonic Acid lost on ignition 21.23 
 
 Siliceous matter insol. in H. CI 8 72 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 0.30 
 
 Phosphorus 0.03 
 
 Metallic Iron, in raw ore 36.34 
 
 Metallic Iron, in calcined ore 49.90 
 
 " A small quantity of iron is present as peroxide, in each 
 ore, but I have not thought it necessary to make a separate 
 estimation of this. 
 
 " It would appear that the iron ores of this formation 
 rank high in the class to which they belong, and that if 
 occurring in sufficient quantity, they might eventually be- 
 come of great economic importance. I have not seen, 
 however, in the vicinity of the Line, any place in which 
 they are so abundant as to warrant the hope of the profit- 
 able production of iron. In some localities, great surfaces 
 are more or less thickly covered with nodules which have 
 
420 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 "been left behind by the erosion of the containing rocks ;. 
 and it is, of course, possible that further search may lead to 
 the discovery of sections in which so many bands occur, as 
 to render it profitable to work over the entire bank for 
 their extraction. 
 
 If the manufacture of iron is ever to be carried on on a 
 large scale, for the supply of the interior region of the conti- 
 nent, it will naturally be conducted towards the base of the 
 Rocky Mountains. There the fuels are better suited for this 
 purpose, and ironstone probably occurs quite as abundantly 
 in the formation. There, too, it may be confidently ex- 
 pected that search will bring to light deposits of the richer 
 classes of ores, among the palaeozoic rocks of the mountains. 
 
 Gold, in small quantities, has been obtained, both above 
 and below Edmonton, on the North Saskatchewan. It is 
 found amongst the sand and gravel of the river bed, at the 
 lowest stage of the water. Experienced miners make fair 
 wages for a few weeks, before the setting in of winter, but, 
 in no case, has a sufiicient amount been realized to warrant 
 the belief that large deposits exist. The gold is exceed- 
 ingly fine, and seems to be deposited every season, as the 
 same bars will produce a small quantity of it each year. 
 That found on Peace River is of the same character, and 
 occurs in the same situations, but in much greater quantities. 
 This remark applies only to that part of the river west of 
 the Rocky Mountains. Without gold in greater quantities 
 and in more accessible situations can be obtained by those 
 who seek for it, this industry will never be profitable in 
 the North- West. 
 
 Up to 1873 brickiuaking was never attempted in Manitoba. 
 During the summer of that year a beginning was made to 
 manufacture them, but the success of the experiment was 
 very indifferent and many prophesied the failure of the 
 enterprise. Other attempts were made next year with the 
 most gratifying success, and since then no difficulty has been 
 
MINERALS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 421 
 
 experienced in producing not only a good but very superior 
 article. At Emerson, Portage la Prairie, Rapid City, and 
 all other points good brick have been produced, and now it 
 is a well ascertained fact that in every district brick clays 
 abound. 
 
 Besides its superior soil the North-West contains enor- 
 mous deposits of coal underlying at least 150,000 square 
 miles of surface. Immense deposits of salt exist on Lakes 
 Manitoba and Winnipegoosis, and on Salt River in the 
 vicinity of Great Slave Lake. Numerous petroleum springs 
 are seen for many miles along the Athabasca ; and gold and 
 iron in some abundance in certain parts of the country, so 
 that, altogether, we are safe in saying that our vast interior 
 is rich in those minerals which add most to the comfort and 
 •wealth of civilized man. 
 
CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 Hiiiory of the Norfli -West, from tlie discorery of Ameri/ia 
 /o tlie year 1821. 
 
 First Voyage of Jacques Cartier — What he Intended Doing— Second Voyage — The Dis- 
 f oveiy of the St. Lawrence — Montreal Reached— Roberval's Attempt at Settlement — 
 His ^^'ant of Success — Champlain Founds Quebec, in 1608 — Interferes in Indian 
 Qu.arrels — Lake Superior heard of, in lfil5 — Missionaries Traverse its Shores, 1641 — 
 Frejir.hmen Cross hy the Dawson Route and Lake Winnipeg to Hudson Bay, in 1666— 
 Offers of Service to the Quebec Merchants, Renewed in Pans, Accepted in liiigland — 
 Gillam's Voyage — Formation of Hudson's Bay Company, in 1670 — Establishment of 
 Forts on the Bay — Quarrels with the French — English Left in Possession of the Bay- 
 French Trade Extended Westward — Duluth on Lake Superior — Bed River Reached 
 and Forts Erected, 1732 — Fort a la Corne Reached, before 1763 — Cession of the Coun- 
 try — Canadian Traders in the West — Hudson's Bay Company move Inland, in 1774 — 
 Canadians in the Interior Nearly 100 years Before them — The Athabasca Reached by 
 the Canadians — Hudson's Bay Company Beach E,ed Eiver, in 1793 — The Trade open to 
 all Parties — Formation of the North- West Company, 1783 — Fort William, on Lake 
 .Superior, their Head-quarters — Quarrels with the Hudson's Bay Company — Lord Sel- 
 kirk Buys Shares, gets Control of the Concern, Obtains a Grant of Land, and Attempts 
 Settlement — The North-West Company Deny his Right to the Land, and Claim Prior 
 Rights — They publicly state their Determination to Fight — Counter Preparations by 
 the Hudson's Bay Company — Settlers Leave for Canada, in 1S15 — Arrival of Governor 
 Semple — Preparations to Expel the North-West Company — Both Sides Prepare for War 
 — Forts Gibraltar and Pembina Taken by .Semple — North-West Property Confiscated 
 — Red River Blockaded — Attempt to Provision the Boats — Governor Semple Interferes 
 and Loses his Life — Hudson's Bay Company Account of the Fight — Opposite Account — 
 Apathy of the British Government before the Fight — Warned Repeatedly by the North- 
 Westers — Lord .Selkirk's Preparations — Takes Possession of Fort William — The Colony 
 Re-established m 1817 — Troubles with tlie Grasshoppers — Union of the Companies, 
 in 1821. 
 
 In the spring of 1534 Jacques Cartier, an able and 
 experienced seaman of St. Malo, wa.s sent out by Francis I 
 of France to explore the northeast coast of America, and if 
 possible find a route to India, which at that time attracted 
 the attention of the mercantile world. In the latter part of 
 the preceeding century Columbus and Cabot had made their 
 celebrated voyages, and Spanish adventurers were now 
 engaged in overthrowing the old empires of the southern 
 
HISTORY OF THE NORTH-WEST, TO 1821. 423 
 
 part of the continent. Unlike the Spanish, the English 
 made no attempt to follow up the discoveries of Cabot, and 
 at the time of Cartier's voyage still reposed on their laurels 
 as the discoverers of the American continent. Prior to his 
 voyage, in the year 1534, he had sailed along the coast from 
 Carolina to the northern part of Nova Scotia. 
 
 Cartier's intention seems to have been either to strike the 
 coast north of this, or find the passage so anxiously sought 
 for. Entermg the Gulf of St. Lawrence he passed between 
 the Magdalen Isles and crossed to the Bay of Chaleurs. 
 Landing on its shores he took possession of the surrounding 
 country in the name of the King of France. While at 
 Gasp^ he took on board two Indians and sailed for France. 
 Although close to the entrance of the St. Lawrence he does 
 not seem to have recognized the existence of the river, but 
 learned it from the Indians he carried away. 
 
 In May, 1535, he again set sail and crossed the Gulf of St 
 Lawrence, piloted by natives of the country, possibly those 
 he had taken away the proceeding year. After a voyage of 
 some length he reached the Island of Orleans, where he got 
 supplies of Indian corn, fish, and fruits He next visited 
 Stadicona (now Quebec), and pushed on with part of his men 
 to Hochelaga, on the same island where Montreal now 
 stands. After ascending to the summit of the mountain on 
 the island, and viewing thence a great extent of country, 
 he gave the hill the nanie of Mount Royal, which has now 
 become Montreal. Returning to the mouth of the St. 
 Charles, where he had left his men, he prepared to winter 
 at that point During the winter, scurvy in its most malig- 
 nant form broke out amongst them, and one-quarter of his 
 ships' companies died. On the return of spring Cartier 
 sailed for France, taking with him Danacona the king of the 
 country. 
 
 The Sieur de Roberval, a nobleman of Picardy, having 
 obtained a commission from the king and liberty to establish 
 
424 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 a permanent colony in the country, sent out Cartier with 
 the colonists in 1541. He attempted to get up the Lachine 
 Rapids, but failed, and then turned his attention to wintering 
 in the country. In the spring he embarked his colonists for 
 France, and meeting Roberval coming out with a larger 
 band the two disagreed, Cartier going on to France and 
 Roberval proceeding on his voyage. Various causes pre- 
 vented the complete establishment of the colony, and 
 Canada seems to have been almost forgotten for over fifty 
 years. 
 
 Acadia (Nova Scotia) had been attracting some attention 
 during this time, but in the year 1607 the Sieur de Monts 
 abandoned Acadia and turned his attention to Canada. The 
 next year his Lieutenant, Champlain, laid the foundation of 
 Quebec and the first permanent settlement was formed. At 
 this time the Algonquins were engaged in a deadly struggle 
 with the Iroquois confederacy. The former applied to 
 Champlain for assistance, which was readily granted, and in 
 1609 the French and their allies had their first fight with 
 the Iroquois. Firearms settled the question, and the red man 
 fell before the murderous weapon. This one act of Cham- 
 plain brought untold woes upon the French colonists in 
 future years 
 
 During the summer of 1615 Champlain ascended the 
 Ottawa and crossing to Lake Nipissing, passed down French 
 River to Lake Huron. While on this expedition he heard 
 of Lake Superior ; but it was twenty-six years after this 
 before a Frenchman launched his canoe on the Great Lake. 
 Twv^' missionaries of the Society of Jesus reached the lake in 
 1641, or just 100 years after the first attempt at settlement 
 
 Twenty-five years later, or in 1666, two French gentle- 
 men, De Grosselier and Raddison, passed around Lake 
 Superior, ascended the Kaministiqua, and crossed to the 
 waters of Rainy River, down which they floated to the Lake 
 of the Woods Following Winnipeg river to its outlet ia 
 
HISTORY OF THE NORTH-WEST, TO 1821. 425 
 
 the lake of the same name, they turned north and 
 descending the Nelson from Lake Winnipeg to Hudson's 
 Bay, demonstrated the existence of a water route from Lake 
 Superior to Hudson's Bay. Before this there is no doubt 
 but that traders had penetrated far to the north by the 
 Ottawa and other streams, and possibly had reached the 
 Bay. The Assiniboines seem to have been well acquainted 
 with the route, for history informs us that they conducted 
 >these gentlemen from Lake Superior to the sea, and brought 
 them back in safety. 
 
 On their return to Quebec they offered to conduct ships 
 into Hudson's Bay, and by this means reach the heart of the 
 " Pur Countries" by water, and save the canoe route by 
 Lake Superior. Their proposal was rejected, and a subse- 
 quent one to the French Government met the same fate. 
 While in Paris they met the British Ambassador, who 
 advised them to go to London. Here they were favorably 
 received Vjy a number of merchants and persons of standing, 
 and a Mr. Gillam, connected with the Newfoundland trade, 
 was commissioned to prosecute the discovery 
 
 Mr. Gillam sailed in the Nonsiich, ketch, in 1667, into 
 Baffin's Bay, to the height of 75° north, and from thence 
 southward to 51", whence he entered a river, to which he 
 gave the name of Prince Rupert's, and, finding the Indians 
 friendly, he erected a small fort. The persons interested in 
 this vessel, upon the return of Gillam, applied to Charles 
 Second for a Patent, who granted them the Hudson's Bay 
 Company's Charter, dated the 2nd May, 1670. 
 
 In the same year a Mr. Bailey was sent out as Governor and 
 established Forts Rupert and Nelson. By the year 1686 the 
 Hudson's Bay Company had increased their establishments 
 to five, viz., Albany, Moose, Rupert, Nelson, and Severn. 
 Already the French disputed their claim to sovereignty. In 
 1682 the Hudson's Bay Company took possession of Nelson 
 River, and shortly after the French reached St. Therese 
 
426 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 or Hayes River. During the next four years there were 
 constant disputes, and in 1686 the Chevalier de Troyes, in 
 time of peace, took possession of the forts on James' Ba}' 
 viz., Rupert, Moose, and Albany Factories. All the forts 
 were captured and retaken in succeeding years. 
 
 The treaty of Ryswick was signed in 1697, and left 
 the French in possession of all forts on James' Bay, 
 except Albany. During the next seventeen years an 
 inconsiderable trade was carried on by the English. By 
 the Treaty of Utrecht all the territories on the Bay were 
 ceded to them. The tenth article of the treaty ceded all the 
 lands and forts on the Bay to Queen Anne, but expressly sti- 
 pulated that the " Company of Quebec and all other subjects 
 of the Most Christian King whatsoever, could go by land or 
 by sea, whithersoever they pleased." A wooden fort was 
 erected at the mouth of the Churchill in 1718, and named 
 Fort Prince of Wales Twenty-four years later we find 
 the English ascending the Albany River and building a trad- 
 ing post 150 miles from the coast to serve as a check to the 
 Indians who were in the habit of ascending that river to 
 meet the French traders. 
 
 Daniel Greysolon du Luth, in the year 1678, built a small 
 house at the mouth of the Kaministiqua and traded with both 
 the Dacotahs and Assiniboines, and deservedly the first city 
 at the head of the lake was named in his honor. Some 
 Montreal merchants formed a company in the year 1731 and 
 sent M. Verendrys and P^re Messager as their agents to 
 Lake Superior. They were instructed to explore the coun- 
 try, and try if possible to connect Canada with Louisiana by 
 the Mississippi route. Pushing west by what we now call 
 the Dawson route we find them building Fort St. Charles on 
 the Lake of the Woods in 1732. Following down the 
 Winnipeg River they erected Fort Maurepas on that stream 
 in 1734, and Fort Rouge at the forks of the Assiniboine and • 
 Red Rivers. They now ascended the Assiniboine River to 
 
HISTORY OF THE NORTH-WEST, TO 1821. 42T 
 
 Portage la Prairie and crossed over to Lake Manitoba, where 
 they erected two forts, Fort Dauphin at the head of Lake 
 Manitoba and Fort de la Reine at its foot. Proceeding west- 
 ward they discovered the Swan and Red Deer Rivers, and 
 erected a fort at the head of Cedar Lake, which they named 
 Fort Bourbon. They now entered the Saskatchewan and 
 proceeded up the River to the forks, below which they built 
 their last fort, which they named Fort a la Corne. This was 
 the most western point reached by the French prior to 1763. 
 
 Four years after the cession of Canada to England, numbers 
 of British born subjects entered into the fur trade, and estab- 
 lished their headquarters at the mouth of Pigeon River on 
 Lake Superior. Thomas Currie wintered at the west end of 
 Cedar Lake, in 1767-68. In 1775, Mr. Frobisher, by pushing 
 north from Cumberland House, intercepted the Indians on 
 their way to Churchill to trade with the Hudson's Bay Com- 
 pany, and obtained all their furs, by the one venture clearing 
 $50,000. Next year, his brother penetrated to Isle la Crosse, 
 and met the Indians still nearer their winter quarters. In 
 the spring of 1778, a number of the Saskatchewan traders put 
 their goods into a common stock, and placed Mr. Peter Pond 
 in charge of them, directing him to proceed to the Atha- 
 basca and trade with the Indians He took the present 
 Hudson's Bay Company's route, by Cumberland House, Frog 
 Portage, Isle la Crosse, and on to the Methy Portage and 
 down the Clearwater River to the Forks of the Athabasca. 
 Here he built a house, and in the spring of 1779, planted 
 garden seeds. Ninety-six years after, I visited the same 
 neighborhood, and Pond's location was pointed out to me. 
 
 As soon as the Hudson's Bay Company found that the Cana- 
 dians were cutting off their trade from Churchill, they set 
 about to restore it. They were compelled to carry the 
 goods to the Indians, instead of seeing the Indians coming to 
 the goods In 1774, Mr. Heme, the discoverer of the Copper- 
 naine River, was sent inland to establish a trade with the 
 
428 MANITOBA ANU THE GKEAT NORTH-WKST. 
 
 Indians. lie located on Pine I.sland Lake and built Cumber- 
 land House, from Avhicli point all supplies were passed into 
 the north for the next hundred years. It was only in 179P> 
 that the Hudson's Bay Company's servants reached Red 
 River. Pushing up the Assiniboine, they built their first 
 'brt at the mouth of the Souris. 
 
 After the cession of the country, in the year 1763, large 
 ibrtinies were made by individuals, who penetrated the In- 
 \lian country for the purpose of trade. Large number.s 
 engaged in the traffic, and their mutual bickerings caused so 
 much ill feeling, that many of the leading merchants refused 
 to supply any more goods. During the winter of 1783-84, 
 Lhese merchants formed a company under the name of the 
 North -West Company. One of the leading articles of the 
 agreement was, that the small capital of each should be 
 thrown into a common fund, and each should share the pro- 
 tit,« according to the amount invested. After a few years, a 
 large number of traders .receded from the North-West Com- 
 jiany, and formed a new one, known in Canada as the X. Y. 
 Company. In the year 1805, a coalition was formed, and 
 these two became one strong Company. It was now divided 
 into 100 shares, partly held by capitalists in Montreal and 
 London, and partly by men in the trade, called " Wintering 
 Partners." Fort William, near Thunder Bay, was considered 
 th(,^ seat of power, and here the partners met every year to 
 consider the affairs of the Company. 
 
 Atter the formation of the new Company, the trouble be- 
 tween them and the Hudson's Ba}'' Company broke out into 
 open violence, and murder and robbery were of frequent 
 occurrence. At this time. Lord Selkirk visited Montreal, 
 and there learned enough to satisfy him, that rich and fertile 
 lands existed on the banks of the Red River. On his return 
 to England, he had some conversation with Sir Alexander 
 Mackenzie, and they both decided to buy Hudson's Bay 
 Company's stock, which had fallen from 250 to about 60. 
 
HISTORY OF THE NOETH-WEST, TO 1821. 429 
 
 No dividend had been paid for a number of years, and every- 
 thing was falling into decay. Shortly after this, Lord 
 Selkirk bought out Sir Alexander, and thus became possessed 
 of forty per cent, of the stock. The next step was the 
 placing of a number of Lord Selkirk's friends on the Direc- 
 torate. In May, 1811, a " General Court " was convened 
 by public notice, aiid the " Proprietors were informed that 
 the Governor and Committee considered it beneficial to their 
 interests to grant in fee simple, about 116,000 square miles 
 of what was supposed to be their territory, on condition that 
 he should establish a colony on the grant." All present, 
 except Lord Selkirk and the Committee, objected to this 
 and signed a protest, but notwithstanding the grant was 
 confirmed, and Lord Selkirk became the " ideal proprietor " 
 of an immense territory. 
 
 The North-West Company promptly " denied the right, 
 either of the Hudson's Bay Company or Lord Selkirk, to any 
 part of the territory ceded to him," claiming that they and 
 their predecessors had been in occupancy for at least a cen- 
 tury. This claim is undoubtedly true, as it was a well 
 ascertained fact that the French colonists formed the " Beaver 
 Company," in 1630 and traded in the country before the 
 grant was made by Charles II, in 1670. Even the terms 
 of the grant denied the pretensions now set up, for it ex- 
 plicitly stated that : — " The grant only applied to countries 
 not occupied or discovered by the subjects of any other 
 Christian Prince or State." The Canadians to a man were 
 opposed to the grant, on the ground of its illegality as a 
 matter of law, and further, that the Grantors could not give 
 what they did not possess. To us, at this date, it is simply 
 ridiculous to read that the land granted extended from the 
 southern end of Lake Winnipeg, as far south as lat. 46°, fully 
 200 miles into the United States. Furthermore, the North- 
 .West Company stated that they would not recognize in any 
 sense the exclusive right of trade, or jurisdiction claimed 
 
430 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 by the Hudson's Bay Company, and that they would resist 
 all attempts to seize either their persons or property, or to 
 dispossess them of their trade. 
 
 Lord Selkirk was not to be deterred by these threats, but 
 in the spring of 1811 the first instalment of twenty-five 
 families was sent out in the Hudson's Bay Company's ships. 
 This company passed the winter at York Factory and in the 
 spring of 1812 started for Red River, which they reached 
 too late in the season to do much. In the spring of the next 
 year some farming was attempted, but seed was scarce and 
 little was raised. Early in the winter, a large accession 
 oi' immigrants arrived and the prospects of the settlement 
 began to brighten. Other settlers came in during the summer 
 of 1814 and Mr. Miles Macdonell, Lord Selkirk's deputy, 
 who had previously trained his men to the use of arms, 
 issued the following proclamation. — : 
 
 •' District of Ossiniboia. 
 
 To Mr. DunfMu Cameron, acting for the North-West Company 
 at the Forks of Red River. 
 
 Take notice, that by the authority and on behalf of 
 your landlord, the Right Honorable Thomas, Earl of Selkirk, 
 I do hereby warn you, and all your associates of the Nortii- 
 West Company, to quit the post and premises you now occupy- 
 at the Porks of Red River, within six calendar months from 
 date hereof. 
 
 Given under my hand at Red R,iver Settlement, this 
 twenty-first day of October, 1814. 
 
 (Signed) Miles Macdonell." 
 
 Proclamations similar to the above were posted throughout 
 the country, and it became abundantly evident that the 
 Hudson's Bay Company were in earnest During the 
 winter dissatisfaction began to show itself in the colony 
 and numbers of settlers applied to the North-West Company 
 
HISTORY OF THE NORTH-WEST, TO 1821. 431 
 
 for assistance to leave the country . It is extremely probable, 
 that Mr. Cameron, if not the originator of this movement, 
 assisted the malcontents very much. In the spring of 1814 
 a large quantity of provisions had been taken by force from 
 a fort of the North-West Company at the mouth of the 
 Souris, and for this a warrant was issued against Messrs. 
 Macdonell and Spencer his Sheriff. The one was indicted 
 for issuing a warrant and the other for executing it. Mr. 
 Spencer was arrested early in the winter and sent to Rainy 
 Lake. 
 
 On the approach of spring, 1815, the settlers took refuge 
 in the North-West Company's Fort, taking with them the 
 cannon and ammunition of the Hudson's Bay Company at 
 the same time. The " Free Canadians " and Half-breeds 
 were now aroused, and Mr. Macdonell quietly gave himself 
 up. After the surrender of Mr. Macdonell the settlers came 
 in a body to Mr. Cameron and asked to be taken out of the 
 country. He acceded to their wishes, and fifty families 
 were brought to Little York (Toronto). About two-thirds 
 of the settlers having left for Canada, the other third left 
 the Forks and proceeded north to Lake Winnipeg for the 
 purpose of leaving the country by Hudson's Bay. 
 
 During the preceding winter (1814-15), Lord Selkirk 
 had not been idle and had sent out two expeditions, one by 
 way of Montreal, and the other under Governor Semple by 
 Hudson's Bay. Mr. Robertson, who came by Montreal, 
 arrived first at Red River and remained with the settlers 
 whom he found near Lake Winnipeg. Mr. Semple, with 
 another contingent of settlers, arrived at Red River in 
 September, 1815, and re-established the colony. 
 
 In order to force the North-West Company to leave 
 the country, or acknowledge Lord Selkirk's supremacy, a 
 regular attack by armed men was made on Fort Gibraltar 
 on the night of the 17th of March, 1816. The fort was 
 taken, and Mr. Cameron and his people were made pri- 
 
i'-j'I MANITOBA AND THE GEEAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 soners. Three days after, the fort at the mouth of the 
 Pembina was attacked and taken, and all the occupants made 
 prisoners. Every thing in the shape of goods, furs, papers, 
 and ammunition was confiscated for the use of Lord Selkirk. 
 The two forts were levelled to the ground. 
 
 An attack was made on Fort Qu'Appelle near where Fort 
 Ellice now stands, which proved unsuccessful, Mr. Alex- 
 ander Mackenzie, the gentleman in charge, beating off ttie 
 attacking party. A large stock of provisions was laid up 
 here for the use of the North canoes, and had these fallen 
 into Governor Semple's hands, tlic North-West Gompav / 
 would have been starved out. As tJie North canoes '. jre 
 daily expected, iMv. Scuiplc took measun^s to prever.t them 
 fuscending R.('d River l)y building batteries on the ■ .mks and 
 stationing a small gunboat on Lalce Winnipe,"- 
 
 The North-Westers had not been idle, I)u' liad retaliated 
 wlien they had oppoi'tunity. An attempt was made to 
 carry provisions from Fort Qu'Appelle to Lake Winnipeg, 
 and an escort of (ll'ty Indiana and Half-breeds was sent with 
 the provi,sious. Tliey were instructed to keep away on the 
 prairie so as to pass Mr. Semple's Fort (Fort Douglas), with- 
 out being seen, Ai"ter they had passed the Fort, Gover- 
 nor Semple, seeing, l)y means of a telescope from a lookout 
 on the top of his fort, the circuit made by the Indians and 
 Half-breeds, determined to intercept them. 
 
 The following is Mr. Pritchard's account oj" the tight, and 
 it may be considered the Hudson'.s Bay Company's version ; — 
 
 '' On the afternoon of the 19th .Tune, a man in the watch- 
 house, called out that the Half-breeds were coming. The 
 Governor, some gentlemen, and myself looked through spy- 
 glasses and saw distinctly some armed people passing along 
 the plains. A man then called out, " they " (meaning the 
 Half-breeds), ''are making for the settlers;" on which the 
 Governor said, " we must go out and meet these people, let 
 twenty men follow me." We proceeded by the old road 
 
HISTORY OF THE NORTH-'WEST, TO 1821. 433 
 
 leading down to the settlement. As we were going along 
 we met many of the settlers running to the fort, crying 
 " the Half-breeds, the Half-breeds." When we were ad- 
 vanced about three quarters of a mile along the settlement, 
 we saw some people on horseback behind a point of woods. 
 On a nearer approach the party appeared to be more numer- 
 ous, on which the Governor made a halt and sent for a field 
 piece, which, delaying to arrive, he ordered us to advance. 
 We had not proceeded far before the Half-breeds on horse- 
 back, with their faces painted in the most hideous manner, 
 and in the dress of Indian warriors, came forward and sur- 
 rounded us in the form of a half-moon. We then extended 
 our line and moved more into the plain, and as they advanced, 
 we retreated a few steps backwards and then saw a Canadian 
 named Bouchier ride up to us waving his hand, and calling 
 out, " What do you want ? " The Governor replied, " What 
 do you want ? ' ' To which Bouchier answered, " We want 
 our Fort," to which the Governor said, " Go to your Fort." 
 They were by this time near each other and consequently 
 spoke too low for me to hear. Being at some little distance 
 to the right of the Governor, I saw him take hold of 
 Bouchier' s gun and in a moment a discharge of fire-arms 
 took place ; but whether it bi'^^an on our side or by the 
 enemy it was impossible to distinguish. My attention was 
 then directed towards my personal defence. In a few 
 moments, almost all our people were killed or wounded. 
 Captain Rogers having fallen, rose up again and came 
 towards me, when, not seeing one of our party that was not 
 either killed or wounded, I called to him, " For God's sake 
 give yourself up." He ran towards the enemy for that pur- 
 pose, myself following him. He raised up his hands, and 
 in English and broken- French, called out for mercy ; a Half- 
 breed, son of Colonel William McKay, shot him through the 
 head, and another ripped open his belly with a knife while 
 uttering the most horrid imprecations. Fortunately for me, 
 28 
 
434 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 A Canadian named Lavigne joined his entreaties with mine 
 and saved me, though with the greatest difficulty, from 
 sharing the fate of my friend at that moment. I was 
 rescued from death, in the most providential manner, no less 
 than six times, on my road to and at the Frog Plain, the 
 head-quarters of these cruel murderers. No quarter was 
 given to any of the party, except to myself. The knife, 
 the axe, or the ball put a period to the existence of the 
 wounded ; and such horrible barbarities were practiced on 
 the bodies of the dead as characterize the inhuman heart 
 of the savage. The mild and amiable Mr. Semple, lying on 
 his side, his thigh broken, and supporting his head on his 
 hand, addressed the chief commander of our enemies by in- 
 quiring if he was Mr, Grant, and being answered in the 
 affirmative, said, " I am not mortally wounded, and if you 
 could get me conveyed to the Port, I think I would live." 
 Grant promised to do so ; and immediately left him in the 
 care of a Canadian, who afterwards told me that an Indian 
 of their party came up and shot Mr. Semple in the breast. 
 I entreated Mr. Grant to procure for me Mr. Semple's watch 
 or seal for the purpose of transmitting them to his friends, 
 but I did not succeed. 
 
 " Our force amounted to twenty -eight men, of whom twen- 
 ty-one were killed and one wounded. These were Governor 
 Semple, Captain Rogers, Mr. James White, Surgeon ; Mr. 
 Wilkinson, private Secretary to the Governor ; Lieutenant 
 Holt, of the Swedish navy, and Mr. Alexander McLean, a 
 settler, with fifteen laboring men. J. J. Bourke was wound- 
 ed in his retreat to the Fort. The enemy, I am told, were 
 sixty-two in number, the greater part of Avhom were the 
 regularly engaged clerks and servants of the North- West 
 Company. They had one man killed and another wounded. 
 On the field I saw six of the North-West Company's Cana- 
 dian servants, viz. : Bouchier, Morin, Deschamp, Joseph 
 Hesse, Magian, and Lavigne." 
 
HISTORY OF THE NORTH-WEST, TO 1821. 435 
 
 We shall now give the North-West Company 'a version of 
 the affair at the Seven Oaks, which is corroborated in almost 
 every particular by the settlers who were in the colony at 
 the time. This version states, that on meeting the Hud- 
 son's Bay men, the Half-breeds sent one of their number, a 
 Canadian named Bouchier, who spoke English, to enquire of 
 the Governor, his object in pursuing them in a hostile man- 
 ner. Bouchier rode up to the Governor, and some words 
 passed between them, upon which Mr. Semple took hold of 
 Bouchier' s horse by the bridle, disarmed him and ordered 
 him to be taken prisoner. Bouchier attempting to es- 
 cape, the Governor ordered his men to fire immediately at 
 him ; and when his people hesitated, because of the danger 
 they would inchr in such a conflict, he was more peremptory 
 in his commands, accusing them of cowardice for not imme- 
 diately obeying him. His orders were at last obeyed by 
 some of his party, and of the shots fired, one grazed Bouchier's 
 ear in his flight, and another passed through the blanket 
 of an Indian advancing in the attitude and with the lan- 
 guage of friendship. Seeing himself thus treacherously 
 assaulted, the Indian levelled his guu and fired in return, 
 which example his party followed, and the melancholy 
 result of the conflict was that the Indians rushing in, 
 Mr. Semple and about twenty of his people lost their lives. 
 One Haljf-breed and an Indian were killed on the other side. 
 
 Both parties seemed to feel that a crisis was approaching 
 in 1816. Lord Selkirk arrived in Montreal, in the fall of 
 1815, and at once commenced to enlist men for service in 
 the interior, but to the world generally he referred to them 
 as settlers on his Red River Lands. The war had ended 
 between the United States and England, and the two .regi- 
 ments, De Meuron's and De Watteville's, were disbanded. 
 A-bout 140 men belonging to these regiments were enlisted, 
 and with all the pomp and circumstance of war they started 
 in canoes from Lachine. 
 
436 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 During the winter, the North-West Company oiFered to 
 enter into terms of union with Lord Selkirk, but he paid no 
 attention to them. Feeling assured that his intention 
 was to crush them, they appealed to the Government, and 
 in a letter written to the Secretary of State, on February 
 1st, 1816, occurs this passage : — 
 
 " We do not presume to point out the particular proceed- 
 ing which, in this case, would be satisfactory to ourselves. 
 Our sole object is to put an end to violence and bloodshed, 
 and we are perfectly satisfied that, in the discussion to which 
 such proceedings must give rise, the interests of His Majes- 
 ty's Canadian subjects will, at least, meet with as favorable 
 consideration as those of their opponents." 
 
 Again we find them applying to the same official, in a 
 letter dated March 1st, 1816, in which they say : — 
 
 " We do not venture to suggest the remedy it may be in 
 their power, or may appear eligible to His Majesty's Gov- 
 ernment to provide in this case, but we are certain if some 
 measure be not adopted to define, without delay, the limits, 
 power, and authority of the Hudson's Bay Company, a con- 
 test will ensue in the interior, the results of which will be 
 dreadful with respect to loss of lives and property." 
 
 They also enclosed the correspondence which passed the 
 preceeding winter between their agents and Lord Selkirk. 
 The Government were slow to act, and paid no heed to 
 their appeals. In the meantime, his Lordship had got 
 himself appointed a Justice of the Peace for the Indian Ter- 
 ritories and Upper Canada. A military escort, under the 
 name of a body-guard, consisting of a Sergeant and detach- 
 ment of the 37th Regiment, were also given him. In the 
 instructions to this guard, it was distinctly stated that they 
 were to interfere with neither party in their quarrels, as 
 both parties had equal rights in the country. 
 
 After a careful examination of all the material at hand, I 
 can only come to the conclusion — that both parties were 
 
HISTORY OF THE NORTH-WEST, TO 1821. 437 
 
 lawless, that each of them was deteripined to wipe out the 
 other, and that each was willing to use the Indians and 
 Half-breeds to carry out its purposes. Lord Selkirk, who 
 was not a fur-trader, wished to settle the country and en- 
 courage agriculture, while the North-West Company desired 
 to preserve the fur-trade. 
 
 Miles Macdonell, who had gone up to Red River in the 
 spring, reached there a few days after the fight, and at once 
 returned with the news to Lord Selkirk, whom he met at 
 the entrance to Lake Superior. On receipt of the news, 
 Lord Selkirk immediately headed for Fort "William, the 
 headquarters of the North-West Company, where he seized 
 everything in the Fort, and converted it to his own use. 
 Besides appropriating the goods, he took all the officers pri- 
 soners, and in every way conducted himself as a conqueror. 
 During the winter the Fort, on Point Douglas, was sur- 
 prised, and again Lord Selkirk reigned at Red River 
 
 After the fight, in June, the settlers retreated to Jack 
 River at the foot of Lake Winnipeg. They remained there 
 until the spring of 1817, when an express arrived with the 
 news that the fort was taken and they were invited to return. 
 In hopes that peace might finally be established, they retraced 
 their steps and commenced work anew, but there was not a 
 plough in the colony, and all the work had to be done with 
 the hoe. 
 
 His Lordship now set to work to consolidate the colony, 
 and in August, 1817, each of the settlers obtained his land. 
 The settlement was named Kildonan, after their old parish 
 in Scotland. Peace had now been ratified by the Imperial 
 Commissioners, and the people thought their troubles at 
 an end ; but on the 18th of July, 1818, clouds of grasshoppers 
 settled down on the colony and ate up every green thing. 
 Again they had to retreat to Pembina where they had 
 lived^ the proceeding winter, and to hunt the buffalo for 
 their subsistence. Farming was tried in the spring of 1819. 
 
438 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 but again the crops were eaten up by grasshoppers. Many 
 of the young men had now become good hunters, and no 
 fears were felt when they saw their hopes blasted for 
 another season. Retreating once more to Pembina, they 
 subsisted by the chase all winter and laid up a store of food 
 for the coming summer. The country still being alive with 
 grasshoppers no land was cultivated in 1820, and all lived on 
 the products of the chase, or upon fish caught in the rivers 
 or lakes. In February 1821, a party started for Prairie du 
 Chien, under the command of a Mr. Laidlaw, and purchased 
 250 bushels of wheat. This they loaded on fiat boats, and 
 when the ice left the Red River in spring, floated it down 
 to the colony. This was sown and a good crop followed, 
 and the food troubles of the Red River settlements were at 
 an end. 
 
 Both parties now began to see the error of their ways, and 
 negotiations were entered into which terminated with the 
 amalgamation of the two companies in the year 1821. Up 
 to the time of the union the greater part of the exploring 
 and mapping out of the country was done by the North- 
 West Company, and no matter what may be said to the con- 
 trary, the honor of exploring this country to the Pacific 
 belongs to Canadians. Thompson, the geographer of the 
 Company, named and laid down many rivers, and gave as 
 our first knowledge of British Columbia. Others navigated 
 the Fraser and Columbia, established posts on both rivers, 
 traded with Japan and China, and sent vessels round Cape 
 Horn. 
 
 By the co-partnership entered into (March 26th, 1821,) 
 it was agreed that forty shares of the one hundred, into 
 which the company was divided, should belong to the North- 
 West Company, and sixty to the Hudson's Bay Company. 
 This agreement was to continue for twenty -one years. In 
 1834 this agreement was re-affirmed and it was decided to 
 continue it for an unlimited period. 
 
CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 History from 1821 to 1870. 
 
 Arrival of the Swisu— Settlement of the old Hudson's Bay Company's Servants— Terri- 
 ble Winter of 1825— Disastrous Flood of 1826— Emigration of the Swiss— Red River 
 Colony Prosperous — Sir George Simpson's Policy — Attempts at Various Industries — 
 Sheep Farming— Cause of Failure— Lord Selkirk's Title to the Land Reverts to the 
 Hudson's Bay Company— Farming Tried on a large Scale— Schools Established- 
 Everything Done to Prevent Successful Farming— Half-breeds Frighten the Com- 
 pany — The Council of Assiniboia Formed — Duty Imposed on Imports and Exports 
 
 Regulars Sent into the Colony— People Petition for then- Rights— They take the Law 
 into their Own Hands and Trade becomes Free- Red River Flood of 1852 — Captain 
 
 Palliser's Expedition — Expedition under Dawson and Hind — Arrival of Dr. Schultz 
 
 The i^'br- Wester Established — Hudson's Bay Company's Opposition — The Dominion 
 Established — A Demand made for the North-West Territories — Country Systemati- 
 cally Be-littled — Bishop Tache's Book — He sees no Good in the Country — Purchase 
 of the Territory — Steamboat on Red River — Dr. Schultz Imprisoned — The Power of 
 the Company Broken — Portage la Prairie — Grasshopper Plagues — Canada Takes Steps 
 to Acquire Possession of the Country — Conflicting Interests — Mutteringsof the Stoi-m 
 in the Fall of 1869— The Claims of the French Half-breeds — Sui-veyors Stopped by 
 Louis Riel — Hudson's Bay Company and Roman Catholic Fathers Decline to Interfere 
 — An attempt at Independence — Fort Garry given up to Riel — Governor McTavish's 
 Explanation — His Evident Complicity with the Rebels Almost Admitted — His Child- 
 like Simplicity — O'Donohue Joins the Rebels — He Introduces the Fenian Element — 
 His Letter to the Canadian Government — Bill of Rights drawn Up — The Movement is 
 seen in its proper Aspect — Canadians Attempt to break Riel's Power — Their Imprison- 
 ment — Murder of Scott — Arrival of Bishop Tache — Riel changes from a Wolf to a 
 Lamb — Fenian Flag Pulled Down — Arrival of Colonel Wolseley with his Troops, and 
 Flight of Riel and Lepiue — Conclusion. 
 
 A NUMBER of poor Swiss were brought to the colony in 
 the fall of 1821, but these being altogether unacquainted 
 with manual labor sujffered severely. Before they reached 
 the colony winter had set in and they suffered frightful hard- 
 ships while on Lake Winnipeg. When they arrived food 
 was very scarce, and in December a move was made to 
 join the hunter's camp beyond Pembina. Being without 
 either horses or dogs they harnessed themselves to the 
 sleds and drew their children and household effects the 
 whole distance. Spring found all at work and a larger 
 
442 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 area "was planted than ever before. Good crops followed 
 and all had abundance of food. 
 
 After the union of the two companies a number of the 
 old servants either left the service or were dismissed. 
 Most of these men had wives and families, and therefore 
 resolved to settle in the country. A survey of the " River 
 Lots " had been made in 1822 by a Mr. Kemp, and at this 
 time all lots were reduced to eight chains frontage and 
 extended back 160 chains to the rear, each lot containing 
 128 acres. Laborers were entitled to one lot each, and other 
 servants according to their standing. By this influx of 
 settlers the colony was more than doubled and the area of 
 the settlements widely extended. 
 
 " The Swiss, in 1821, settled among the De Meurons, on 
 the Riviere la Seine, which takes its rise in the forests to 
 the east, and falls into the Red River about a mile below 
 the confluence of the Assiniboine River with the latter. 
 Others of the Swiss had settled on the Red River above 
 the Forks. The refugees from Pembina squatted down 
 near the Swiss. The Scotch occupied what is now divided 
 into the Parishes of St. John and Kildonan. The Protes- 
 tants arriving in the settlement extended down along the 
 Red River, and occupied the Parishes of St. Paul and St. 
 Andrew" * As time passed the French Half-breeds came 
 in from the Saskatchewan, and settled on the Lower Red 
 River and at White Horse Plains. 
 
 The fall of 1825 was ushered in by a cold and wet Sep- 
 tember, followed in October by heavy snow, which covered 
 the plains to a great depth. In December a terrible snow 
 storm came on, which lasted three days and four nights, 
 and drove the buffalo far to the south. The plain hunters 
 prior to this had been in great distress, owing to the depth 
 of snow and the weakness of their horses. This storm 
 deprived them of food, and they at once commenced to 
 make their way to Pembina. Rumors reached the post 
 
 * Guim's History. 
 
HISTORY FROM 1821 TO 1870. 443 
 
 that the hunters were starving, and steps were immediate- 
 ly taken to render assistance. Men were despatched with 
 provisions over the snow covered plains, and many were 
 rescued when at the last extremity. Before assistance 
 could be rendered to all, not less than thirty men, women,, 
 and children perished in the snow from hunger and cold. 
 
 As soon as the weather turned warm, the river began to 
 rise, and by the 2nd of May, the accumulated waters had 
 overflowed the banks and began to submerge the surround- 
 ing country. Before the day closed, the entire district 
 was changed into a huge lake, and most of the settlers had 
 deserted their homes. At the Forks of the Assiniboine 
 and Red River (Fort Garry), the river rose nine feet in 
 twenty-four hours. By the 21st of May, the waters were 
 sixteen feet above high water mark, and the Red River 
 Plain was a vast lake. The flood, after this date, began to 
 subside, and by the middle of the month of June, the 
 waters had left the land, and the inhabitants returned to 
 their desolated homes. In too many instances the sites 
 only remained, as the houses had disappeared in the flood. 
 Scarcely allowing the land to dry, the settlers went to work 
 with a will, and sowed wheat and barley, and planted 
 potatoes, all of which came to maturity, though planted 
 after the 20th of June. 
 
 The Swiss and De Meurons, having become disgusted with 
 the country, determined to go to Fort Snelling, in the 
 United States. On the 24th of June, the emigrating party 
 to the number of 243 started on their arduous journey. 
 They reached their destination in safety, and the Swiss set- 
 tled down on the Upper Mississippi and became prosperous. 
 
 The Red River Colony prospered during the next few 
 years, and far more grain was produced than was required 
 in the country. Up to 1832, the Hudson's Bay Company 
 brought in all the goods, but about this time, a few private 
 gentlemen began to bring in goods, which they sold to the 
 
444 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 settlers at a handsome profit. Seeing this, the Company 
 changed their tactics and encouraged agriculture, promising 
 a market for everything produced. At first, land was sold 
 for five shillings per acre, but now it was increased to seven 
 shillings and six pence, and was difficult to obtain. In a 
 short time, the settlers had a large surplus on hand, and Sir 
 George Simpson saw it was time to put a price on farm 
 produce. Convening a mercenary and subservient Council, 
 he had his regulations passed, and at one sweep prices fell 
 from 100 to 300 per cent. All the articles required by the 
 settlers remained as they were, and the people grumbled 
 long and loudly over the change, but had to acquiesce. 
 
 Various attempts were made to establish industries other 
 than farming, but from one cause or another they failed. 
 The growing of flax and hemp was tried and succeeded re- 
 markably well, but the settlers being ignorant of its after 
 management very little of it was utilized. A cattle farm 
 on a large scale was next attempted, but this too proved a 
 failure, as the severe weather, want of proper care, but prin- 
 cipally the wolves, which then abounded, decimated the 
 herd, and that business was given up. Sheep farming on an 
 extensive scale was next attempted, and as the experiment is 
 one that has been spoken of to prove the unsuitableness of 
 the country for such occupations, I give it in the words of a 
 late author. The sheep were purchased in Kentucky, and 
 what follows took place on their way to the Red River 
 Settlement. It will be seen that the reference to the grass 
 with " barbed spines" wholly refers to Dakota, as it was in 
 passing through that State the sheep died. The story with 
 many embellshments has been transferred to our North- 
 West, and is used by many as a reason why sheep farming 
 will not pay. It is quite evident that the grass was made to 
 do duty to cover the brutality of the parties in charge who 
 condemned every sheep to death when it showed any signs 
 of exhaustion. 
 
HISTORY FROM 1821 TO 1870. 445 
 
 " After a variety of adventures and loss of time the party 
 reached Kentucky, and found that the price of sheep there 
 differed very little from what they could have bought them 
 at in Missouri, being from five shillings to seven shillings 
 a head. Here the number acquired were, 1,475, but on 
 the way back they began to meet with the difficulties that 
 the sagacious Bourke foresaw and foretold. They had to 
 pay for pasture every night and whenever they halted 
 during the day, besides many sheep died from the effects of 
 hard driving. On their way up the Mississippi they gave 
 another instance of the wisdom of their management ; they 
 saw that the sheep were suffering from the burden and 
 heat of their fleeces, and at a certain place they halted to 
 clip them, and agreed with a certain individual to let him 
 have all the wool at a fixed price. The following day the 
 wool was to be delivered and the money paid, but the indi- 
 vidual not being able to raise the full amount, could not get 
 wool to the value of the cash he had. At the same time a 
 number of poor people had collected about the place and 
 made several offers, according to their means, for portions 
 of the wool ; but their united offers falling short of the 
 original valuation they were rejected with contempt, and 
 the wool was ordered to be burnt on the spot, which indi- 
 cated neither wisdom nor humanity. The former would 
 say, sell the wool for what the people are able to give for it, 
 which in all probability would have amounted to a few 
 hundred dollars ; the latter would say, if the people be too 
 poor to buy, better that it should clothe the needy than that 
 it should be burnt. Giving it away might answer a good 
 object; it could not fail to enlist in their behalf the friend- 
 ship of those among whom they were travelling, which, no 
 doubt, would be of some value. Had the sheep been pur- 
 chased in Missouri they might have been in Red River 
 before the excessive heats of July and August had come on, 
 and before the tall coarse grass on the plains had come to 
 its full height. 
 
446 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOETH-WEST. 
 
 " Many localities on those plains produce a species of plant 
 which, in its native state, is armed with sharp barbed spines, 
 which penetrated the sheeps' skins as they walked through 
 the grass, and finally caused death, which with over-driving 
 killed the helpless creatures by tens and by twenties every 
 day. It was currently reported and believed that 1,200 
 of these over-driven and helpless animals perished from the 
 cause already referred to, or by the knife, between St. 
 Peter's and Pembina. It is distressing to relate that every 
 sheep that failed to keep up with the flock was doomed to 
 have its throat cut by order of the men who had so un- 
 fortunately been trusted with their safety. The agents in 
 these butcheries did not hesitate to inform the writer that 
 in one morning only, while at breakfast, the bloody knife 
 deprived no less a number than forty-four of life. The 
 leaders, as became men in their positions, rode in advance 
 of their chai-ge, and every now and then the men would 
 have to ride up to them with the news that so many of 
 the sheep could not be made to move on. ' Cut their 
 throats and drive on,' was the invariable order. A few 
 days' rest, say one iu seven, would have enabled these worn 
 out animals to recruit their strength, or even a few hours 
 each alternate day allowed them to rest and feed, might 
 have enabled many of those whose lives had been cut short 
 by the knife to perform the journey. On their arrival at 
 the top waters of Red River they came to a camp of Sioux, 
 or met with a party of that nation, who received them 
 kindly. These Indians were headed by the great war chief 
 Wanata, who, with a number of his braves, escorted them 
 and hunted for theJn until they arrived at Pembina; yet 
 such was the intensity of their longing for home that even 
 while protected and provided for by the Great Chief, they 
 drove on without stop or stay, heedless of the wanton and 
 barbarous butchery of many of their charge every day, 
 which so disgusted the drivers that they refused to use the 
 
HISTORY FROM 1821 TO 1870. 447 
 
 knife any longer in shedding innocent blood, leaving the 
 business in the hands of their superiors. However, they 
 arrived in the settlement in the latter end of September, 
 with 251 sheep, a few of which died afterwards in con- 
 sequence of the hardships they had undergone by the 
 way." 
 
 In 1835, the Hudson's Bay Company purchased, from the 
 young Earl of Selkirk, all right and title to the grant made 
 to Thomas, Earl of Selkirk, in 1811, for the sum of =684,000. 
 This was done to give the Companj' undivided control 
 01 the land and government of the country. Not satisfied 
 with their repeated failures, the Company, in the year 1836, 
 made another attempt at farming and this year imported a 
 tew lamilies from the Old Country. Wonders were now to 
 be performed, and in the spring of 1838, about twenty acres 
 were ploughed and put under crop, but from this little more 
 was reaped than fed the experimenters. The home market 
 still remained open, and farmers had the privilege of selling 
 eight bushels a year to the Company, if they had no other 
 way of earning a shilling. " Hunters and trip men were 
 tavored with a market for four bushels from each, at three and 
 six pence per bushel. Importers and mechanics could sell no 
 grain at the Company's stores, which state of things shows 
 conclusively that the settlers raised abundance of grain for 
 their own use, and in the aggregate ten times more than 
 the market demanded. Yet, as soon as Chief Factor 
 McMillan had left his establishment. Captain Gary was on 
 nis way to form another — and all for the benefit of the 
 Colony." 
 
 " We may ask here, was such a project calculated to 
 benefit the settlers ? We do not hesitate to say that it was 
 not ; but that its success would have closed against them 
 the limited market that they had hitherto, and might have 
 been the means of sending numbers of industrious men to 
 seek homes in other lands. 
 
448 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 " The Company, we believe, was favorable to the Colony. 
 while it existed on a small scale, as it supplied that body 
 with provisions and men in the heart of their trading dis- 
 tricts, and helped to give a tone to its proceedings at home, 
 which edat that politic body knew well how to turn to 
 serve its own purposes, as is to be seen by the reports sub- 
 mitted to the Colonial Office, in 1836 and 1837, by Gover- 
 nors Simpson and Pelly, when soliciting the renewal of 
 license. These gentlemen did not scruple to claim the 
 merit of having some Catholic and two Protestant Mission- 
 aries, with thirteen schools in Red River. We know that 
 the late Bishop of Juliopolis received a salary from the 
 Company, and so did, as we have said, the two Missionaries 
 of the Church of England. The High School at St. John's 
 was patronized by the wintering partners, whose children 
 were the only pupils that were admitted, and on it the fur 
 trade Council bestowed an annual grant of .£100 ; but the 
 unfortunate twelve schools, where the plebeian multitude 
 received all the education that fell to their lot, were unen- 
 dowed, and even unknown to the nabobs of the fur trade ; 
 yet, the two Governors dragged them in to do duty on the 
 above occasion, as well as the experimental farms." 
 
 During the year 1835, the Half-breeds, on account of one 
 of their friends being ill-treated, made a demonstration 
 against the Hudson's Bay Company, and so frightened the 
 Officers that they yielded to most of their demands, and 
 as a consequence, they became more over-bearing than 
 ever. 
 
 " In the following spring, another physical demonstration 
 took place before the gates of the Fort. A number of 
 demands were made, as follows : 1st. The prices of pro- 
 visions were to be raised. 2nd. An export was demanded 
 for tallow, robes, and other articles procured by the chase. 
 
 " They loudly protested against any import duty being 
 levied on goods imported from the United States, for many 
 
HISTORY FROM 1821 TO 1870. 449 
 
 French Canadians and Half-breeds, both French and Eng- 
 lish, had already made several trips to the Mississippi, 
 exporting horned-cattle, horses, furs, and some articles of 
 Colonial industry, and, on their return, bringing home 
 cotton goods, groceries, ammunition, tobacco, etc., etc. 
 
 " These bold adventurers considered themselves entitled 
 to exemption from import duty on two grounds : 1st. On 
 account of their having established commercial intercourse 
 with the neighboring States. 2nd. On account of the great 
 danger incurred on their journey to and fro. Their demand 
 fell on deaf ears, the Colonial Governor and his Council 
 were exclusionists and all interested to defeat every at- 
 tempt to export the produce of the country, or to introduce 
 foreign manufactured goods, except via Hudson's Bay. Yet 
 these hostile demonstrations and demands were not unpro- 
 ductive of some advantage, especially to intending settlers, 
 as the salutary fear which they impressed on our men in 
 power, was the cause of reducing the price of land from 
 twelve shillings and sixpence to seven shillings and six- 
 pence. And at the same time, to please the native youth, 
 it was decided by the land agents, that each young man on 
 settling on land should receive twenty-five acres gratis." 
 
 The population of the country had increased so much at 
 this time, that Sir George Simpson, who was then Governor, 
 decided on forming a Council of the leading men of the 
 settlement. None were chosen except those who were 
 either in the pay of the Hudson's Bay Company or had been 
 at some time connected with them. This circumstance 
 caused the settlers to look upon it, if not with suspicion, 
 with very little confidence. At this meeting, it was de- 
 cided to raise a volunteer force, to divide the country into 
 districts, tO appoint Magistrates, to organize Civil and 
 Criminal Courts, and to erect public buildings. At the close 
 of the session. Sir George Simpson announced the grant of 
 £300 by the Company, in aid of public works at Red River. 
 29 
 
450 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 This gift came at a very opportune time, as it enabled 
 the authorities to build a Court House and Goal. 
 
 It was also decided to charge a duty of Tg per cent on all 
 goods of foreign manufacture imported into the Colony 
 whether for sale or for use, and still worse they decided to 
 charge an export duty of Yg per cent on all goods, provisions 
 or live stock, being the growth, produce, or manufacture of 
 the Red Eiver Colony. The impartial reader at this date 
 sees in whose interests these laws were made and the ardent 
 desire the Company had to encourage home production. 
 Before this time (1836) considerable trade had taken place 
 between St. Paul in Minnesota and the Red River colonists, 
 and they saw or thought they saw the destruction of their 
 trade aimed at by the late enactments. The French Half- 
 breeds and Canadians had never taken kindly to the rights or 
 assumptions of the H. B. Co'y, and they writhed under the 
 export duty and took every opportunity of evading it. 
 Fearing that an outbreak might take place a large force of 
 regulars was sent out and quartered in the colony in the 
 Autumn of 1864. After remaining two years they were 
 ordered home and 140 pensioners sent up to take their place. 
 The coming of the soldiers gave new life to the colony and 
 almost for the first time money circulated in the neighbor- 
 hood of the future Winnipeg. 
 
 Mr. Isbester of London, who was a native of the colony 
 commenced at this time an agitation in favor of the country 
 and interested a large number of the British House of Com- 
 mons in its favor. Petition after petition had been sent 
 home craving the right of trading with the Indians, but no 
 redress could be obtained. Tired of quiet submission they 
 waited for a chance of asserting their rights by force and it 
 came, and, as in 1816, the Company and the Government 
 awoke. 
 
 "In the spring of 1849 William Say re, a French Half- 
 breed, had been arrested and imprisoned for trading furs. 
 
HISTOEY FROM 1821 TO 1870. 451 
 
 Three other Metis — McGinnis, Laronde and Guillette — had 
 been arrested on the same charge, but held to bail to stand 
 their trial at the first criminal court. The charge against 
 them, namely, their accepting furs from the Indians in ex- 
 change for goods, was considered as contrary to the rules of 
 the Company's charter, wherein it is stated the Hudson's Bay 
 Company shall have the sole trade and commerce of all the 
 territories within Rupert's Land. For some time it had 
 been rumored that the party to which the culprits in 
 question belonged were preparing to resist any attempt at 
 the punishment of these men by an armed force, and on the 
 17th May, on the day appointed to sit upon this celebrated 
 case, the Metis were seen collecting in armed bands from all 
 parts of the country. This movement took place about 
 half-past ten o'clock. Those in command of these armed 
 parties simply stated the object of the gathering to be to 
 resist the infliction of any punishment, whether fine or 
 imprisonment, upon the offenders. They conducted them- 
 selves in the most orderly manner, merely surrounding the 
 Court House, and by their presence showing their intentions. 
 It is to be noticed that there was no attempt on their part 
 to interfere with the trial, now about to be in progress; 
 nor was there any attempt made to rescue the prisoners from 
 the hands of the Authorities. When the trial proceeded, 
 Sayre confessed that he had traded furs with the Indians. 
 A verdict of "Guilty" was found against him, and there- 
 upon Sayre proved that one of the ofl&cers of the Hudson's 
 Bay Company had given him permission to trafi&c ; and on 
 this pretext he was discharged. The cases of McGinnis, 
 Laronde, and Guillette were not proceeded with and they all 
 left the court together, greeted with great applause. 
 
 " It was perfectly patent to the Half-breeds who were 
 directly interested in the trial of this suit, as well as the 
 white settlers, who looked with very considerable interest 
 upon it, that the Hudson's Bay Company fearing to provoke 
 
452 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 a collision, which they knew must inevitably occur, had made 
 use of a subterfuge to quietly get Sayre out of the scrape, 
 with at least the semblance of the dignity of the law ; and 
 so firmly were all convinced that at least this arbitrary in- 
 justice of right was forever broken that the cries of " Vive 
 la liberte" and "Trade is free " were heard from all sides. 
 Guns were discharged, hands were shaken, and three volleys 
 given in testimony of the victory." 
 
 In 1851 Governor Ramsey, of Minnesota, visited Pembina 
 and made a treaty with the Sioux for the extinction of 
 their claims to the land. On his return to St. Paul he re- 
 ported that the Red River settlers were raising so much and 
 had such a limited market that they were metaphorically 
 speaking " smothering in their own fat." 
 
 The year 1852 was another black-letter year. Early in 
 May the river began to rise and by the 7th it was eight feet 
 above the usual high-water mark. It continued to rise 
 until the 22nd when it reached within eighteen inches of 
 the flood of 1826. Again the people had to leave their 
 homes and wide-spread ruin met them on every hand, but 
 by the 12th of June many were back to their fields and at 
 work putting in a little crop. By the end of the year it 
 had almost passed from the minds of the people and all 
 things went on as usual. 
 
 A census of the colony was taken in 1849, which showed 
 it to contain 5,391 inhabitants of all ages and nationalities. 
 Of live stock there was 2,085 horses and mares, 6,014 
 cattle of all ages, 1,565 pigs, and 3,096 sheep. There were 
 likewise 6,329 acres of land under cultivation. These 
 figures show that the colony had made very material pro- 
 gress, and was not as many yet believe, a land where live 
 stock could not thrive owing to the severity of its Arctic 
 winters. Although 3,000 sheep were in the colony thirty- 
 two years ago, many say in our day that the country is un- 
 guited for them, and they cannot survive the long winters. 
 
HISTORY FROM 1821 TO 1870. 453 
 
 The fullness of time arrived in 1857, and the Imperial 
 Government sent out an expedition under Captain Palliser, 
 which explored the greater part of the interior, and during 
 three years gathered sufficient material to warrant him 
 to report favourably on the country, and through his as- 
 sistants Doctor Hector and Mons Bourgeau to give the 
 outside world a knowledge of its geology and botany. He 
 reported highly on the Saskatchewan country, and since his 
 day it has been called the " Fertile Belt." 
 
 In the same year (1857) the Legislature of Canada fitted 
 out an expedition, and placed it under the command of S. J. 
 Dawson, C.E., and Professor Henry Y. Hind. During the 
 succeeding two years these gentlemen examined the country 
 between Lake Superior and the South Saskatchewan. Their 
 report, which was published in^ 1859, -attracted much atten- 
 tion, and a number of Canadians were induced to settle in 
 the country. Among others who went there at this time 
 was Dr. Schultz, then a student of Queen's College, 
 Kingston. Being at that time under the tuition of Dr. 
 George Lawson, now of Dalhousie College, Nova Scotia, he 
 had imbibed an ardent love of botany, which was the 
 favorite pursuit of that gentleman. While crossing the, 
 plains from Crow Wing to Pembina he made a collection of 
 plants which attracted my attention and led me to study 
 the geographical distribution of plants. The result of this 
 investigation showed me that the summer climate of the 
 Red River country was suitable for the growth of all cereals. 
 In after years I had the opportunity of proving this. 
 
 The same year that Dr. Schultz came to Red River two 
 Canadians — Mr. W. Buckingham and Mr. Caldwell — brought 
 in a printing press. The end was now approaching rapidly, 
 and the ever astute Hudson's Bay Company saw it, and at 
 once set to work to counteract the effects of d newspaper. 
 Efforts were made to induce the people not to patronize the 
 " Nor' -Wester," the name given to the newspaper, but 
 
454 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOETH--WEST. 
 
 these failed. While the printing press was doing its work 
 another power was rising which soon swept down the bar- 
 riers that interest and ignorance had raised against a better 
 acquaintance with the west. In 1867 Canadian patriots 
 established the Dominion of Canada, and at once a cry was 
 raised for our rights in the west. A determined stand was 
 now made, and most extraordinary stories were told in 
 England before a Committee of the House of Commons,^ 
 showing that the country was little better than an iceberg. 
 In 1868 Bishop Tach6 published his sketch of the North- 
 West, and he, too, like the Hudson's Bay Company, looked 
 upon the country as scarcely suited for civilized man. Its 
 rivers were unsuited for navigation, and its climate hyper- 
 borean. Not one section is spoken of as being suited to a 
 farming community. Indeed on page sixty-three, when 
 discussing the probabilities as to who the future owners of the 
 country would be, he says : — " For my own part, as there 
 are extremely great difficulties in the way of colonizing 
 the few points in this vast territory capable of cultivation, I 
 acknowledge frankly that I would as soon — perhaps prefer- 
 ably — see the country remain as it is as see it change, if the 
 changes are to be such, as it appears to me, they would 
 inevitably be." The italics are mine. 
 
 The Bishop had lived many years in the country, had seen 
 more of it than any other man, and in 1868 he writes as above, 
 yet he had read Lord Selkirk's statement made fifty-five 
 years before that the country was capable of supporting 
 30,000,000 of people. Neither the avowed desire of the 
 Bishop nor the representations of the Hudson's Bay Company 
 could prevail on Canadians to relinquish the desire to obtain 
 this useless region, so the Imperial Government took the 
 matter up, and the Hudson's Bay Company's rights were 
 purchased for £300,000 sterling. Although the country was 
 of no value for farming purposes, according to their own 
 showing, they took care to reserve one twentieth of the 
 
HISTORY FROM 1821 TO 1870. 455 
 
 " Fertile Belt," when they disposed of the remaining terri- 
 tory, and now advertise 7,000,000 acres of land for sale as 
 their share of it. 
 
 But to resume, the advent of a few Canadians and the 
 establishment of a newspaper began to work wonders. In 
 1862 a light draft steamboat was placed upon the river, but 
 the Sioux massacre taking place a little later so unsettled 
 everything that it was not a success as a commercial venture. 
 Public opinion was constantly becoming more opposed to the 
 rule of the Hudson's Bay Company, and measures had to be 
 adopted to counteract this. Dr. Schultz having got control 
 of the " Nor' -Wester," became very out-spoken against the 
 monopoly, and measures at once were taken to silence him. 
 
 In February of the year 1866 he was brought before 
 the Quarterly Court on an action of indebtedness for £300 
 sterling, but in the absence of the prosecution the case was 
 deferred. The case was brought on again in May, but Dr. 
 Schultz desiring to plead his own cause, and the court not 
 allowing it, judgment was given against him without trial. 
 In the spring of 1867 a large and influential petition was 
 sent in to the Hudson's Bay Company's authorities asking to 
 have Dr. Schultz appointed on the Council instead of Mr. 
 Caairs, a councillor lately deceased. " So strong was the 
 petition in question that it was felt that this man must be 
 got rid of in some way or another." History is said to re- 
 peat itself, and now after a lapse of fifty years the l^orth- 
 West Company (Canada), as represented by Dr. Schultz, 
 stands face to face with the Hudson's Bay Company. 
 
 The sheriff, with a posse, proceeded to the trading post of 
 Dr. Schultz in February, 1868, for the purpose of putting in 
 force the judgment of the court recorded against him in May, 
 1867. A scuffle ensued and the sheriff and his men were 
 ejected, but shortly after the Doctor gave himself up, and 
 asked to be tried by the authorities. Tuttle, in his history of 
 Manitoba, thus describes the sequel : — 
 
456 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOKTH-WEST. 
 
 " The authorities, believing him'to be a dangerous subject, 
 bound him securely with ropes and conveyed him in a cari- 
 ole to the Hudson's Bay Justice of the Peace, before whom 
 he was charged with having assaulted the sheriff in the dis- 
 charge of his duty. He admitted that he had defended his 
 property in the absence of any legal method of protection 
 to resist the judgment of the court given against him with- 
 out the intervention of a jury, and in which he had no 
 opportunity to plead his case ; and stated that he was willing 
 to abide by the result of a new trial, if a new trial before a 
 jury of the inhabitants was granted. The Hudson's Bay 
 Company, however, finding their dangerous enemy in their 
 power, forthwith consigned him to prison. This occurred 
 early in the day, and before night the inhabitants in the 
 neighborhood, to whom Dr. Schultz had been endeared by 
 his steadfast advocacy of their rights, and his intrepid con- 
 duct under oppression, immediately collected, and after an 
 imprisonment of four hours he was released by them, after 
 they had torn down the jail walls and battered in the prison 
 door. The large number who had collected for this purpose 
 were thoroughljf excited, and proposed to visit in a body 
 the Hudson's Bay Company authorities, who, from the walls 
 of their fort had witnessed the breaking in of the jail, which 
 was only a few yards distant. The Doctor, however, calmed 
 their feeling by proposing to go alone and unattended, to 
 visit within the fort walls the magistrate who had submitted 
 him to such ignominious procedure. This he did, and stated 
 distinctly that he was still willing to undergo a trial on the 
 charge brought against him, and to give bonds for the pay- 
 ment of the amount if judgment should be rendered against 
 him. No attempt was made to recapture him or any of his 
 friends on this occasion, but later, in the month of January, 
 the General Council was held to consider the critical position 
 of the Hudson's Bay Company's rule in the country ; a reso- 
 lution was arrived at to embody a force of 100 special con- 
 
HISTORY FROM 1821 TO 1870. 457 
 
 stables, to be organized into a permanent force. Once raised, 
 however, the authorities felt that public opinion was so 
 strong against them in the Schultz matter, that they re- 
 frained from using their newly acquired power, and on the 
 10th of the following month, thought it better to accede to 
 the Doctor's request and grant him a new trial. At this 
 trial, which was conducted in the ordinary form of jury 
 trials, he was allowed to plead his own case, and received, 
 amidst the unanimous acclamations of the spectators, a ver- 
 dict in his favor without one dissenting voice ; it having 
 been distinctly proven that the claim made of £300 against 
 him was entirely without foundation." 
 
 Assiniboia, as it was called, extended in every direction 
 for fifty miles from Fort Garry. Outside of this limit, the 
 settlement of Portage la Prairie had been formed by the 
 Venerable Archdeacon Cochrane, who objected to the rule 
 of the Hudson's Bay Company. Matters went well for a 
 while, but disturbances taking place, it was thought ad- 
 visable to set up a government of their own, which was 
 organized by Mr. Thomas Spence. No other end was sought 
 in this organization than mutual protection. As soon as the 
 Imperial Government was made aware of what the people 
 had done, it notified Mr. Spence how far he could go without 
 breaking the law. The people now demanded with one voice 
 the privilege of electing Councillors to fill the vacancies 
 caused by death or resignation in the Council of Assiniboia. 
 
 For two or three years, grasshoppers had ravaged the 
 Colony, but m 1868, they entirely destroyed the crop, and 
 starvation stared the inhabitants in the face. An appeal 
 was made to the outside world for aid, England sending 
 £3,000, Canada, £3,600, and the United States, £900 
 Wheat and flour were brought on sleds from St. Paul, Min- 
 nesota, and death from starvation averted. 
 
 Late in the autumn, the Canadian Government sent out 
 engineers and surveyors to commence the construction of 
 
458 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 the road between the Red River Settlement and the Lake 
 of the Woods. This undertaking was looked upon by the 
 Hudson's Bay Company and other parties in the Colony, as 
 the beginning of the end, and during this winter, the sub- 
 ject was much discussed, both in Canada and the Red River 
 Colony. 
 
 As usual, at this time, there were many in Canada, who 
 thought we were unable to purchase such a vast domain as 
 the Hudson's Bay Territories, and many elaborate calcula- 
 tions were made to show the foolishness of such a step. 
 After along discussion, the Resolutions introduced into the 
 Dominion Parliament by the Hon. W. Macdougall, were car- 
 ried by a large majority. Dire results were to follow, as the 
 land was considered by those gentlemen to be dear at any 
 price. 
 
 In October, 1868, the Canadian Commissioners sailed for 
 England, but it was not until March 9th, 1869, that the 
 negotiations between the Canadian Commissioners and the 
 Hudson's Bay Company terminated by the former agreeing 
 that the Dominion Government would pay the Hudson's 
 Bay Company £300,000 on the surrender of their rights to 
 the Imperial Government, and that the Imperial Govern- 
 ment should, within one month of such transfer, re-transfer 
 the same to Canada. 
 
 Early in 1869, an Act was passed by the Dominion Par- 
 'liament, providing a Territorial Government for the country 
 to be acquired from the Hudson's Bay Company. All the 
 preliminaries being arranged, a number of surveyors were 
 sent up in the summer for the purpose of inaugurating the 
 survey of the Red River Valley. 
 
 Many conflicting interests were at work at this time. 
 The French party desired to be left as they were, or if an- 
 nexation had to take place, let it be with the United States. 
 It was evident to their leaders that few years would inter- 
 vene before they would be only a mere handfull, and their 
 
HISTORY FROM 1821 TO 1870 459 
 
 power gone forever. The Hudson's Bay Company's officers 
 knew that the English partners dared little for them and 
 less for the country, so long as they could make a profit on 
 their investments. They received $1,500,000 for their 
 rights in the country, one-twentieth of the land and the fur 
 trade remaining practically as it was. The change benefitted 
 the English partners, but would it help the traders ? The 
 few Canadians in the country certainly did not keep still, 
 but talked much of what was coming, and long before win- 
 ter set in, threatenings were heard of what might take 
 place. 
 
 It will be remembered that in the early stages of the 
 settlement, the French Half-breeds lived entirely by hunt- 
 ing, and had their headquarters at Pembina. Gradually 
 they settled down in various parts of the Red River and 
 Assiniboine valleys, and all apparently as squatters. In 
 1861, Governor Ramsey, of Minnesota, bought the land in 
 the vicinity of Pembina from the Sioux, and never paid any 
 attention to the claims of the residents. Our people com- 
 menced to survey the very lands these people claimed as 
 their own, and when Colonel Dennis intimated that some 
 arrangement should be made with the Half-breeds, his 
 report was laid aside, and he was ordered to commence 
 work. Mr. Macdougall does not appear to have considered 
 seriously the probability of trouble referred to in Colonel 
 Dennis' report, and never submitted his letters on the sub- 
 ject to the Council with any recommendation. 
 
 On the 11th October, a survey party, under Mr. Webb, 
 was stopped by a party of French Half-breeds, under Louis 
 Kiel. No violence was used, Riel and some of his followers 
 simply stepping on the chain, and ordering Mr. Webb to 
 cease work. The reason he gave was that the land be- 
 longed to the French Half-breeds, and they would not allow 
 it to be surveyed, until some arrangement was made with 
 them. No arms were seen on any of the party, and only 
 
460 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 threats were used, but Mr. Webb thought it most prudent 
 to retire as ordered. 
 
 A meeting was shortly after held by the disaffected 
 French Half-breeds, at the house of one of their number, 
 when it was determined to resist the entrance of Mr. Mac- 
 dougall into the country, by force if necessary. Colonel 
 Dennis now applied to the Hudson's Bay authorities, and 
 Governor McTavish and Dr. Cowan had interviews with 
 Riel, and pointed out the irnpyopriety of his conduct. Riel 
 answered, as usual, the French Half-breeds should have 
 been consulted with first. Application was now made to 
 the Church, but Father Superior Lestang, who was in charge 
 of the Diocese during the absence of Bishop Tache at Rome, 
 declined to interfere, on the ground that he might lessen 
 his influence with his people in so doing. 
 
 The Half-breeds were not slow to see that the authorities 
 in the country were at one with them or would not inter- 
 fere, so their next step was to take up arms, and stop 
 further proceedings by force. Mr. Macdougall was ordered 
 to leave the North- West Territories in twenty-four hours, 
 and was compelled to do so by a party of armed men. 
 
 It now became apparent that what had been talked of for 
 some time was about to be attempted, and that an indepen- 
 dent organization was about to be established. In 1868 
 Bishop Tach^ in his sketch of the North-West hinted broadly 
 what the people — his people — wanted. He felt that were 
 Canadians allowed to come in like a flood, there was no hope 
 for his people, and he naturally underrated the country for 
 the purpose of deterring them. His hints had not been 
 understood, and now the country was transferred and his 
 people turned over to new governors without any guarantee 
 that they would be honestly dealt with. We ask not who 
 advised the rebellion, but this we do say that from their 
 experience of the dealings of the Hudson's Bay Company 
 with them the Half-breeds acted wisely from. their stand- 
 
HISTORY FROM 1821 TO 1870. 461 
 
 point. They lost their lands at Pembina in 1851 ; in the 
 late transfer their rights were never recognized, and now 
 as free men they decided to look out for themselves. In 
 conversation with a Canadian two years after the event he 
 told me that it was sending up a " cut and dried " Govern- 
 ment from Canada, before explaining to the people, that 
 caused all the difficulty. It may have been the excuse for 
 the rising, but the apathy or something worse of the Hud- 
 son's Bay Company and the plain advice of Bishop Tach6, 
 were evidences of a something which lay deeper than that. 
 "Warning after warning having been given to the Hudson's 
 Bay Company that Fort Garry would be taken possession of, 
 they paid no heed to them but just went on as before. As 
 it is not my purpose to write a detailed account of the 
 " Rebellion," but merely to show the causes that led to it. 
 I will give in the words of a late writer the taking of Fort 
 Garry hy the rebels, and Governor McTavish's explanation 
 regarding it. 
 
 " About the same time that Hon. Mr. Macdougall was 
 driven back to Pembina by Riel and his followers, it began 
 to be rumored that the insurgents intended to take possession 
 of the Fort, and the authorities were duly informed of the 
 fact in ample time to have made preparations for its defence, 
 had they felt so disposed, but they paid no attention to the 
 warning. Sergeant James Mulligan, at the time chief of 
 police at Fort Garry, states in an afl&davit taken subse- 
 quently, that he ' urged upon Dr. Cowan, the chief factor in 
 charge of Fort Garry, the danger in which the Fort stood, 
 from the intention of the insurgents to seize it ; and re- 
 quested him to call upon a portion of the 300 special con- 
 stables and the pensioners to defend it.' Fort Garry was a 
 strong stone fort, bastioned and defended by thirteen six- 
 pounder guns, was amply supplied with ammunition and 
 provisions, and had in it also 390 Enfield rifles, so that if 
 Governor McTavish had only closed the gates, he could, at 
 
462 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 least, have held the place against any force that the insur- 
 gents could possibly have brought against him, if he was 
 afraid to do more ; but even this he failed to do, although 
 he and Dr. Cowan were warned by other parties than 
 Mulligan that the place would be taken possession of. Not 
 the slightest precaution was taken, the gates were not closed, 
 cannon were not in position, and yet the Governor and chief 
 factor knew that a body of men had been in possession of 
 the Pembina Road for ten days, and had threatened to occupy 
 the Fort. On the afternoon of the second of November, 
 Riel, with about 100 men, came down the road from Riviere 
 Sal, entered the open gates, and immediately proceeded 
 to billet themselves in the various houses within. Dr. 
 Cowan, the officer in charge of the Fort said ' What do 
 you want here with all these armed men ? ' Riel replied, 
 •' We have come to guard the Fort.' ' Against whom ? ' asked 
 Dr. Cowan. ' Against a danger,' Riel answered. This was 
 all the explanation given, and seemed to satisfy the chief 
 factor ; and Riel and his followers were left in unconditional 
 possession. 
 
 " The force being housed, next fed, proceeded to arm 
 themselves with Enfield rifles in place of their own shot 
 guns, closed the gates, set a guard, placed the cannon in 
 position, and for the first time since its inception the re- 
 bellion became formidable. The insurgents had now pos- 
 session of nearly all the cannon in the settlement ; were 
 abundantly supplied with small arms and ammunition ; had 
 all the provisions and other stores of the Hudson's Bay 
 Company, more than enough to last them all winter, and it 
 became evident that if they pleased to hold possession of the 
 Fort until spring they could do so, for there was no force m 
 the settlement able to dislodge them, and it would be 
 summer or perhaps later before any force could arrive from 
 Canada. In short, the insurgents were now 'masters of 
 the situation,' and held the position which ought to have 
 
HISTORY FROM 1821 TO 1870 403 
 
 been occupied by the loyal party, and which they would 
 have occupied but for the supineness — to use no harder 
 term — of the officers of the Hudson's Bay Company. 
 Governor McTavish's explanation of the capture of Fort 
 Garry, as conveyed to the Hon. Mr. Macdougall in a letter 
 dated 9th November, is certainly a remarkable production 
 when we consider that the Hudson's Bay Company was still 
 the de facto government, and that he, as the chief officer, 
 was supposed to protect the property of the Company if 
 nothing more. He says: 'Excepting in one respect — but 
 that, I am sorry to say, a serious if not in a formidable 
 sense — little change as far as we can learn has, since my 
 last, come over the arrangements or the spirit of these 
 people. * * * "jiie occurrence to which I have alluded 
 in the preceding paragraph is this, that on the afternoon of 
 Tuesday, the 2nd inst., a number of these daring people 
 suddenly, and without the least intimation of their inten- 
 tion to make such a move, took possession of the gates of 
 Fort Garry, where they placed themselves inside and out- 
 side the gates, to the number in all of about one hundred 
 and twenty, and where, night and day, they have con- 
 stantly kept a pretty strong armed guard. Oii being asked 
 what they meant by such a movement upon the Fort, they 
 said their object was to protect it. Protect it from what ? 
 they were asked. Their answer was — danger. Against 
 what danger ? they were asked. To this question, they 
 replied that they could not specify the danger, but that 
 they would do so hereafter, and obstinately took up the 
 positions they have since kept, in spite of all our protests 
 and remonstrances at such a bold and high-handed proceed- 
 ing. On coming into the Fort, they earnestly disclaimed 
 all inter tion of injuring either person or property within 
 it, and must be allowed that in that respect they have 
 kept their word ; but it is an inconvenience and a danger 
 .aext to intolerable, to have a body of armed men, even 
 
464 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH--WEST. 
 
 with professions of peace towards ourselves, forcibly billeted 
 upon an establishment such as this. Their intentions in 
 coming to the Fort they have never definitely expressed, 
 nor have they yet specified the danger from which their 
 presence was meant to protect the place. We are, there- 
 fore, left in some measure to conjectures, and by these we 
 are strongly led to believe that you were expected to come 
 to the Fort, and that by thus having previous possession of 
 the gates, they felt that they would be sure of keeping you 
 out.' The extreme simplicity of the Governor of Hudson's 
 Bay Company in being led to believe that the object of 
 Riel, in taking possession of the Fort, was to keep Mr. 
 Macdougall out, is certainly refreshing — especially as he 
 had been informed ten days before, that the capture of the 
 Fort was intended for that very purpose." 
 
 Shortly after this letter was written, W- B. O'Donohue, 
 an Irishman, joined the movement and assumed the duties 
 of Treasurer, collecting the import duty of four per cent, on 
 all merchandise not imported by the Hudson's Bay Com- 
 pany. This man, after the rebellion was crushed, being 
 banished from the country, wrote the following letter to the 
 Speaker of the Dominion Parliament, on the 26th February, 
 1875. What gives point to his statements is the fact that 
 he was private tutor to Governor McTavish's children, and, 
 therefore, intimate with him. He writes : " I make the 
 following statement of facts, which I can prove most con- 
 clusively : — 
 
 " The insurrection was advised by Governor McTavish, 
 who, with other ofiicers of the Hudson's Bay Company, 
 also aided and abetted it from its inception up to the very 
 hour it ceased to exist. That Riel was in constant com- 
 munication with Governor McTavish, and on many occa- 
 sions under his instructions. That he. Governor McTavish, 
 fully recognized the Provisional Government. That Donald 
 A. Smith, on arriving at Fort Garry, recognized the Gov- 
 
HISTORY FROM 1821 TO 1870. 465 
 
 ernment also in my own hearing, and, with Governor 
 McTavish, was Kiel's adviser during his stay at the Fort, 
 and after the departure of both of these from the couutiy, 
 Kiel continued to hold counsel with John McTavish, who 
 then represented the Hudson's Bay Company." 
 
 After December 1st, " The Bill of Rights " was drawn up 
 smd sanctioned by the French party and their adherents. 
 This Bill was evidently what Bishop Tach6 had in his 
 mind before the trouble commenced, and when too late, the 
 Hudson's Bay Company saw they were playing into the hands 
 of men opposed to their pretensions as well as to those of 
 the Canadians. "When the " Bill of Rights " was passed, it 
 became apparent to the most oblivious that wiser heads than 
 a few French Half-breeds were guiding the movement, and 
 the people of Canada woke up to a right understanding of 
 the matter. 
 
 During the winter Riel carried matters with a high hand, 
 and attempts were made to break or modify his power, but 
 without avail. The Canadians were taken prisoners and 
 lodged in Fort Garry, the Fenian flag was hoisted, and all 
 connection with Canada declared at an end. The few 
 Americans in the country used their influence to have an 
 annexation movement begun, and a newspaper was started 
 to promulgate these views. In the meantime Bishop Tach6 
 was on his way from Rome, and strong hopes were enter- 
 tained that on his arrival quietness would reign. One of 
 the Canadians named Thomas Scott had made himself ob- 
 noxious to Riel by his outspoken loyalty, and this man Riel 
 determined to put to death. Without a show of a trial he 
 was condemned to be shot, and on the 4th of March at noon 
 he was taken outside of the Fort and brutally murdered. 
 On the 9th of March Bishop Tach6 reached Fort Garry, and 
 at once poured oil on the troubled waters. Riel offered to 
 give up all the Hudson's Bay Company's property on the 
 28th of the same month, and about that date the annexation 
 30 
 
466 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 sheet ceased to appear. Acting under Bishop Tach^'s advice 
 the "Fenian Flag" was hauled down and the Union Jack 
 was hoisted in its stead. Riel now became very loyal, and 
 " God save the Queen" was played by his band 
 
 The regulars and Canadian militia were now mustering 
 on the west end of Lake Superior, and shortly after started 
 on their long and arduous expedition through the wilderness. 
 On the 24th of August Colonel Wolseley's troops arrived at 
 Port Garry, and the same morning Riel and his valiant 
 band disappeared. 
 
CHAPTER XXYI. 
 
 Ten Years Remmis(^ences and Notes on the Various 
 Settlements and Villages. 
 
 Purport of the Chapter — Manitoba and Winnipeg as They Were in 1872 — Grasshopper 
 Plague^Crop of 1875 — Stage Bide in the Winter of 1875 — Disappearance of the 
 GraBshoppers — Settlements Extend to the Second Plateau — Nelsonville Founded — 
 Wet Seasons Conunence — Many Observers Condemn the Country — Bapid City Com- 
 menced in 1878 — Land in the Neighborhood Rapidly Settled — The Assiniboine 
 Ascended to Fort Ellice in May, 1879 — Crowds enter the Country East of Fort 
 Ellice — Birtle Founded — Bock Lake Settlement — Winter of 1879-80 — Odanah and 
 Minnedosa the Bage In the Spring of 1880 — Grand Valley Comes into Notice — 
 Stiff-necked and Soft-hearted Immigrants — Mosquitoes Prove too Much for Them 
 — English Ideas of Canadian Kindness — Canadian Notions Begarding Englishmen's 
 Inability to Fall in with the Ways of the Country — No Stealing on the Plains 
 — Settlements North of Birtle — Formation of the "Syndicate" — The "Boom" at 
 Portage la Prairie — ^Winnipeg and Emerson take the Fever — Boute of the C.P.B. 
 Changed in the Spring of 1881 — Brandon Founded on the Assiniboine — Vigor of 
 the Syndicate — Railway Opened to Brandon — Speculation at Fever Heat — Conflict- 
 ing Statements Regarding the Country — Short Notices of Selkirk, Emerson, Portage 
 la Prairie, Morris, Brandon, Bapid City, Minnedosa, Odanah, Birtle, etc., etc. 
 
 It is not the purpose of this Chapter to give a history of 
 the last ten years, but merely to indicate the successive 
 steps by which the country was opened up and the various 
 villages laid out. In the chapters on the History and Pro- 
 gress of Winnipeg, Education and Religion, Steamboats and 
 Navigation, Railways and their development much of the 
 history will be introduced, so that this chapter will be 
 merely complimentary to them. 
 
 During 1872 numerous settlers came to the country by 
 the Dawson route via Lake Superior, while others came on 
 the Northern Pacific to Fargo and either descended the 
 Red River in boats or drove their own horses over the 
 prairie to Manitoba. The preceding year the smallpox 
 had raged on the plains and many Indians had died near 
 Edmonton of th«^ disease. Captain Butler had just pub- 
 
468 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 lished his " Great Lone Land" and with the volume in my 
 hand I entered for the first time the portals of the great 
 plains. Winnipeg was a small village near Point Douglas 
 and half a mile of prairie intervened between it and Fort 
 Garry. Eastern Portage la Prairie consisted of one house 
 and the western end could boast of one or two small 
 houses around the Hudson's Bay Company's store. Grant 
 and Mackenzie had settled on Eat Creek, nine miles to the 
 west, but no settler had crossed the creek except the former. 
 This season a few settlers took the road to the White Mud 
 and laid the foundation of the settlements that sprang up 
 there during the next year or two. 
 
 For the next three years the grasshopper plague was 
 upon the whole province and no wheat or next to none was 
 raised in 1875. Many got a crop of potatoes, but the 
 country was on the verge of starvation, and all the seed 
 wheat had to be brought from Minnesota. DufFerin had 
 been laid out on the boundary in 1873, but no progress 
 was made. West Lynne on the west side of the Red 
 River was a place of some importance as the high road to 
 St. Paul passed near it. Stage-coaches were not infrequent 
 in their transit through the village carrying their loads 
 of shivering passengers to or from the bleak prairies of 
 Dakota. A winter stage-coach ride of fifty-eight conse- 
 cutive hours from Winnipeg to Fargo made the most 
 lasting impression. Night and day we kept on, and enjoy- 
 ing a nap in a stage coach with the temperature at zero was 
 the greatest luxury we had. Our waking moments were 
 full of torture, but sleep, such as it was, made us oblivious 
 to suffering. The very marrow in our bones seemed to 
 freeze, and as I write I shudder at the recollection. 
 
 A new era dawned in 1876. The grasshoppers disap- 
 peared, a large immigration took place, heavy crops were 
 produced and the land rejoiced. This year settlement 
 extended beyond the Pembina Mountains, Nelsonville was 
 
TEN years' reminiscences AND NOTES. 469 
 
 founded, the people learned that the upper plain was as 
 fertile as the .lower, and the land along the boundary be- 
 came thickly settled. A series of wet years now set in. 
 Man J- parts of Manitoba were little better than a bog or a 
 lake and numerous individuals, who had gone out to take 
 up land, returned with evil reports. In 1877, settlement 
 reached the " Big Plain" beyond Pine Creek, and the next 
 year Rapid City, on the Little Saskatchewan, was founded 
 by J. C. Whqlhems. 
 
 The summer of 1878 saw a large immigration to the 
 country around Rapid City, and to meet the demands of 
 trade an attempt was made to ascend the Assiniboine to a 
 point whence goods could be taken to the settlements on both 
 sides of the river. The boats ascended without difficulty to 
 a point about eight miles above the mouth of the Souris and 
 discharged their cargoes at the foot of the " Rapid." This 
 location obtained the name of " Rapid City Landing" as all 
 goods destined for that point were landed here. 
 
 Captain Webber, of the steamboat " Manitoba," examined 
 the " Rapid," and pronounced his determiuation of taking 
 freight and passengers to Fort Ellice. This was in May, 
 1879. His attempt was successful, although the wise ones 
 at once condemned the whole undertaking. "While he was 
 getting his cargo I reached "Winnipeg, and learned that the 
 roads were in a terrible state for at least 150 miles. He 
 promised to wait a day for me, and in the meantime I 
 bought all my outfit for the plains, and we started at the 
 appointed time. We reached Fort Ellice all right, and a high- 
 way was opened to the interior. The attention of both specu- 
 lators and farmers was now turned to the river, and a large 
 number settled a little east of Port Ellice, and Birtle was 
 founded by a gentleman, named Chambers, from St. 
 Catherines. The Souris Plain was a great point of attrac- 
 tion, and many settlers took up claims and began farming 
 around Rock Lake. 
 
470 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 During the winter of 1879-80, interested parties got up 
 some excitement about Odanah and Minnedosa, two embryo 
 cities, located where the " North Trail " crosses the Little 
 Saskatchewan. In the spring, a rush took place, and the 
 boats on the Assiniboine River were loaded with freight 
 and crowded with passengers, destined for those two 
 " cities." Instead of using " Rapid City Landing," as in 
 the spring of the preceding year, the boats now ascended 
 the river to " Grand Valley," six miles above the rapid, and 
 here the nucleus of a new city was established. Hundreds 
 of tons of freight came up the river in t'le spring of 1880,, 
 numerous immigrants arrived, and things looked lively. 
 
 While in camp a week, at the " Grand Valley," I had 
 ample opportunity of studying the peculiarities of the 
 people. Camped by themselves were a number of English 
 families, the members of which kept themselves apart from 
 all others, and seemed to court seclusion. No attempt was 
 made to gain information, and as a natural result, none was 
 proffered. One day, two young men with their outfit started 
 off for Rapid City. Owing to the heavy rain which had 
 been falling for some days, the trail {Boad) was very bad 
 in many places. Lacking experience, and being unaccus- 
 tomed either to ask or take advice, they made little pro- 
 gress and camped less than a mile from the " Landing," 
 after having loaded and unloaded their waggon four times. 
 Scarcely any progress was made the next day, and the 
 second night they camped at a water-hole in a little hollow. 
 A Canadian passing by told them to pitch their tent on an 
 adjoining hill, as the mosquitoes would be bad that night. 
 In response he was informed that they knew their own 
 business. How they passed the night is not known, but 
 early the next forenoon they reached the "Landing" 
 again, sold their outfit for what they could get and were off 
 for more congenial companionship in Winnipeg. On the 
 same boat which took them back we cheered a number of 
 
TEN years' REMriTISCENCES AND NOTES. 471 
 
 others who, through ignorance, self-will or cowardice, had 
 given up the attempt at settlement and had left in disgust. 
 
 My camp was on the south side of the river and late one 
 evening three young Englishmen crossed the river with two 
 heavy loads of goods in two poor carts. While we were 
 remarking on their foolishness for starting so late they passed 
 us without a word and proceeded on their way towards the 
 Brandon Hills to which they were bound. They had not 
 gone two hundred yards when an axle broke and their load 
 fell to the ground. We went up to see what was the matter, 
 and as soon as I learned the nature of the accident I offered 
 to lend them a cart and had my met assist them to load up, 
 but advised them either to stop all night where they were 
 or leave part of their loads. The leader of the party now 
 asked me my charge for the cart and assistance, and as I only 
 laughed at him, he said they had been told before they left 
 England to hold no communication with Canadians as they 
 would charge an exhorbitant price for everything they sold 
 and do nothing without pay. 
 
 We became more confidential, and 1 told him what we 
 thought of them and how we looked on their proceedings. 
 As I advised him to leave potatoes and flour, and a large 
 trunk in his broken cart till the next day, he asked, would it 
 not be stolen ? I informed him that only white men stole, 
 and that Indians and Half-breeds, no matter what was said 
 to the contrary, were strictly honest and as a matter of 
 principle did not appropriate anything found on the prairie. 
 
 I relate the above incidents as specimens of certain classes 
 of occurrences that are constantly taking place, and a little 
 less reserve on the one hand and much less contemptuous 
 criticism on the other, would wonderfully assist in smoothing 
 over the difficulties and privations incidental to settling in 
 a new country. Acting on advice given by me, many 
 Englishmen settled to the northwest of " Grand Valley " 
 in the spring of 1880. Owing to the surveys that were now 
 
472 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 being prosecuted with vigor, many settlers "went northwest 
 from Birtle to Shell River and located there. 
 
 In the summer of 1880 Sir John Macdonald went to 
 England with the avowed purpose of making arrangements 
 with capitalists for the building of the Canada Pacifi<i 
 Railway. On his return in the autumn he announced his 
 success, and in the early part of the winter the Canadian 
 Parliament ratified the bargain. During the winter indica- 
 tions were seen of an advance in real estate throughout the 
 country. Sir Charles Tupper in November had informed 
 the people of Portage la Prairie that the Railway would be 
 located close to the village. In response to this the value 
 of real estate almost doubled at a bound, and the excitement 
 spreading to Winnipeg the people there were at fever heat 
 before spring. Emerson followed suit, and every little 
 village throughout the South-west grew into a city. 
 
 As spring advanced speculators and actual settlers poured 
 into the country, and as the cars were now running to Portage 
 la Prairie there was no difficulty in reaching the centre of 
 the new movement. The " Syndicate " decided to change 
 the location of the road, and at once all eyes turned to 
 "Grand Valley" as a possible point for profitable invest- 
 ment. McVicars, who owned the land at the " Grand 
 Valley," refused to sell except at an extravagant price, and 
 the "Syndicate" decided to build their town one and a 
 half miles farther up stream, and in a few days the new citv 
 of Brandon, 145 miles west of Winnipeg, was in the market. 
 
 The works on the Canada Pacific Railway Avere pushed 
 on with great vigor, and the public were informed that the 
 cars would be running south of the Assiniboine before 
 August. People poured in by the hundred. All the land 
 south of the Assiniboine along the line of railway was taken 
 up, and hundreds of lots sold in Brandon at fabulous prices. 
 Stores, hotels, dwelling-houses, and other buildings were run 
 up as if by magic, and Avhere nothing l)ut prairie was seen 
 
TEX years' reminiscences AND NOTES. 473 
 
 in the spring the nucleus of a thriving city with all civil- 
 ized appliances appeared before the short summer was passed. 
 In September, regular railway communication was opened 
 between Winnipeg and Brandon, and 145 miles of easy 
 transit into the interior established. South of the Assini- 
 boine the whole plain was prospected, and many locations 
 were taken up by speculators and others. New railroads • 
 tvere projected, cities were laid out on paper, others which 
 had better claims were thrown on the market, and a period 
 of feverish activity set in which still continues and seems 
 to become intensified every day. 
 
 Like all new countries many conflicting accounts were 
 given of Manitoba and the North-West. Travellers and 
 others whose names, out of deference to their standing in 
 society, I shall not mention, wrote strange stories about the 
 country. Manitoba was declared to be little else than a bog 
 or marsh. The Souris Plain was shown conclusively to be a 
 desert — a sandy barren waste condemned as sterile by these 
 men, but still rich by nature. Because I refuted this fallacy, 
 one gentleman in Nova Scotia, who has not looked on the 
 country for twenty -four years, and does not know that south- 
 western Manitoba is at present considered the garden of the 
 West, said in a newspaper article last summer that the 
 Government paid me for writing falsehoods regarding it. 
 Others passing hurriedly over its various trails, and seeing 
 sand or gravel in the ruts or around badger holes, write: 
 " The whole region passed over to-day possesses a sandy or 
 gravelly soil and an arid climate, and is worthless for agri- 
 cultural purposes." The writer and the lands are both in 
 existence. The former still writes as intelligently about 
 other matters. In the hands of practical farmers the latter 
 has so changed its appearance that another class of writers 
 say it is unequalled for farming purposes in the North-West. 
 
 My work in the past has been to refute false statements 
 regarding the country, its climate, soil, capabilities and re- 
 
474 MANITOBA AND THE GEE AT NORTH-'WEST. 
 
 sources. By whomsoever a false statement has been made, 
 I have met it with prompt denial and have always given my 
 reasons for so doing. There is one class of speakers, how- 
 ever, to whom I have made no answer. This class are 
 representatives of the people, and if they make statements 
 at variance with known facts, it is not my province to dis- 
 pute them. 
 
 Previous to 1874, the site of the present city of Emerson 
 was merely a prairie with small cultivated patches here 
 and there, and no indications of a city in the future were 
 apparent. The nearest point at which any signs of a settle- 
 ment were visible was where the old Hudson's Bay Com- 
 pany's post existed, just across the boundary line, while 
 three miles distant, on the American side also, was the 
 hamlet of Pembina, and the united settlers at both places, 
 at the beginning of the year we have mentioned, did not 
 exceed 150 persons. 
 
 In the spring of this year, Messrs. Thomas Carney and 
 W. N. Fairbanks had 640 acres of the present city site laid 
 out into lots, and the same summer Mr. F. T. Bradley and 
 Captain Ash laid out 200 acres more. Thus the original 
 town plot of the city included 840 acres, an extent un- 
 usually large and certainly indicative of great faith on the 
 part of the founders of the city. People in other portions 
 of the North-West began to believe that it was possible for 
 a town to exist here, and before the winter of 1874 had 
 set in quite a few business institutions of various descrip- 
 tions were permanently located in the village. 
 
 The proprietors of the town site of Emerson acted with a 
 spirit of great liberality in those days. They sold their lots 
 quite cheap, and assisted in the establishment of a school 
 and the regular ordinances of religion. In the summer of 
 1875 the population was about 100 all told. During 1879 
 the growth of the village was very rapid. The opening of 
 the railway between it and St. Paul in the spring had given 
 
TEN years' reminiscences AND NOTES. 475 
 
 a great impetus to immigration, and Emerson and the sur- 
 rounding country received great additions to their numbers. 
 The close of the year found Emerson with a population of 
 over 800, and that steady stream of prosperity now set in 
 which has continued ever since. 
 
 Early in the spring of 1880 Emerson was incorporated as 
 a city, and at once the inhabitants taxed themselves to build 
 a bridge across the Red River, so that farmers living on the 
 west side of the river might bring the produce of their farms 
 to the city. A steam planing mill and steam flouring mill 
 were now in operation, and numerous other manufacturing 
 industries were established. The summer and autumn of 
 1880 were busy times in Emerson, several brick blocks were 
 erected, 'and churches began to rise in various parts of the 
 city. The close of the year saw a population of almost 1,400 
 in Emerson, while her business places numbered not less 
 than seventy-five, the trade operations extending for 200 
 miles to the westward. 
 
 Last year (1881) the progress of the city was remarkable. 
 Many fine buildings were erected, lumber mills were es- 
 tablished, and the Emerson Agricultural Works were put 
 in operation. At the close of the year her population had 
 increased to fully 2,500, and six denominations of Christians 
 were holding weekly services, while her public school was 
 attended by nearly 200 pupils and taught by three teachers. 
 That Emerson is destined to be a city of considerable im- 
 portance can be seen at a glance over any of the late maps,, 
 and the possibilities are thus set forth by a recent writer : 
 " The Gate City is practically the southern key to all the 
 Canada Pacific Railway Company's lines, and from it two 
 trains are run daily direct to Winnipeg, and directly through 
 to Portage la Prairie and Brandon. That Emerson will long 
 remain this Company's base of operations is evident from 
 the commodious depot arrangements which they have made 
 here. Their freight and passenger arrangements are not 
 
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TEN years' reminiscences AND NOTES. 477 
 
 those of a wayside station, but are as extensive as any in 
 Manitoba. Such are the present advantages conferred by 
 this railway on the Gate City, but these are small compared 
 with those which will arise from the extension to be made 
 in the near future. By the close of 1882 the Pembina 
 branch will be extended into the city and westward there- 
 from through the Turtle Mountain and Rock Lake Districts, 
 and thereafter onward to the Souris Valley coal fields. 
 This extension will open up the richest district of the 
 North-West, and will make Emerson the point of entry from 
 which emigration will flow westward into the same. It will 
 lay the whole country open commercially to the merchants 
 of Emerson, and lay the coals of the Souris Valley down in 
 the city, to assist in building up her manufactures. In short 
 it will make the Gate City a main point of distribution in 
 the work of settling up and developing the great North- 
 West." 
 
 The business of Emerson has increased even faster than 
 its population, and during the last year it attained great di- 
 mensions. As would be expected in a western city the real 
 estate business is a leading and profitable one. The manu- 
 facturing establishments are still in their infancy, but 
 they turned out work worth $607,200 last year. The build- 
 ing trade alone reached the neighborhood of |200,000, and 
 in the coming year it will more than double. The country 
 commercially tributary to Emerson extends over 300 miles 
 west, and many houses in the city have an extensive trade 
 over the intervening country. Within the city limits there 
 are fifty -eight houses engaged in trade, some of which are 
 doing a very extensive business. The total value of the 
 sales of those fifty-eight houses during the past year 
 amounts to $1,399,400, besides giving employment to 170 
 hands. The total value of the business done in the city by 
 all parties in the year ending February 28th, 1882, was 
 $2,549,400. Eight years before, this same locality was with- 
 
478 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST, 
 
 out a house ; now it is a busy hive of ambitious pushing 
 men who are laying the foundations of a future commercial 
 centre. 
 
 Next in importance to Emerson is Portage la Prairie, 
 situated on the neck of land between the Assiniboine and 
 Lake Manitoba. It is rather more than fifty miles west of 
 Winnipeg on the main line of the Canada Pacific Railway. 
 As early as 1855 Archdeacon Cochrane had built a church 
 in the neighborhood, but with this exception little was done 
 until 1861, when the Hudson's Bay Campany started a store 
 at the west end of the present town. Ten years more pass 
 away and in the meantime the country is transferred to the 
 Dominion, Kiel's rebellion has blown over, and people are 
 settling down to the actual business of life. The lands in 
 the vicinity are taken up, stores and other places of busi- 
 ness are established, and a regular stage is put on the route 
 between Winnipeg and the Portage by Mr. Michael Blake, so 
 that by 1875 Portage la Prairie was considered a place of some 
 importance. In 1876 the Prince Rupert, a steamboat of 120 
 tons burden, ascended the river Assiniboine from Winnipeg, 
 and communication by river was established. The places of 
 business in the fall of this year numbered about twenty, and 
 included a few very extensive " concerns " for a frontier 
 village. At this time two regular church organizations 
 were at work in the village, a well-managed school was in 
 operation, and the population of the place Avas a little under 
 300 people. Next year two large flouring mills were in 
 operation with a capacity of nearly 200 barrels in twenty- 
 four hours. During the greater part of the year their 
 powers were tested to the utmost in supplying the imme- 
 diate neighborhood and the far interior with flour. 
 
 After many vexatious delays the Canada Pacific Rail- 
 way reached the village in the early part of the winter of 
 1880. At once a general advance in real estate commenced, 
 which has continued ever since. At the close of this 
 
TEN teaks' reminiscences AND NOTES. 479 
 
 year the population was about 800, and was increasing 
 'wonderfully. There were almost sixty business places, in- 
 cluding two banks ; two lumber and two flour mills, all run 
 with steam power ; one brick and various other smaller 
 manufacturing establishments. A recent writer, describing 
 the wonderful growth of the place, says i — 
 
 " With the opening of the spring of 1881 the rapid growth 
 of Portage la Prairie commenced. When it became known 
 in May that the Canada Pacific had passed into the hands 
 of a syndicate, who would loose no time in pushing the work 
 to completion. Portage la Prairie became a point where a 
 great amount of speculative attention was centred. Its 
 location on the narrow strip of land between the Assini- 
 boine River and Lake Manitoba, across which all railway 
 lines from the lower Red River Valley, whose objective 
 points are in the great North- West, must pass, gave it im- 
 mense advantages geographically, and the fact that around 
 no other town in Manitoba can a richer agricultural country 
 be found, settled the question of its becoming a city of im- 
 portance in the near future. That the Canadian Pacific 
 Railway Syndicate recognized their advantages may be 
 inferred by the rapidity with which they constructed the 
 Air Line between this city and Winnipeg, thus materially 
 shortening the route between the two cities, and making a 
 track as proof against snowblocks as engineering skill can 
 secure. Their energy in extending westward from the city, 
 reaching Brandon, a distance of seventy-eight miles, by 
 August, and the amount of other grading done before the 
 close of the year convinced the most incredulous that Portage 
 la Prairie was in a few years to become a prominent city 
 on the great main line of railway which will connect the 
 Atlantic and Pacific provinces of the Canadian Dominion. 
 
 " In May, 1881, a third bank was established in Portage, 
 and business institutions of every class multiplied with a 
 magic rapidity, and were only limited by the building re- 
 
480 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Bources of the city. In August the " Tribune," a second 
 newspaper, was established, and has since made its appearance 
 weekly. Landed property of every description, in and around 
 the city, has since the spring of 1881 risen rapidly in price, 
 and many old settlers, who had for many years struggled 
 along at farming, suddenly found their lands becoming of 
 great value, and themselves lifted from comparative poverty 
 to opulence. The limits of the town increased with its 
 business growth, and its wide streets are giving evidences of 
 soon becoming busy thoroughfares. 
 
 " During all this rapid advance in business and the value 
 of property, the population of the Portage has been making 
 equally rapid strides. By the close of 1881 over 2,700 souls 
 resided within the city limits, and now, with the opening of 
 the spring of 1882, the number cannot be under 3,500." 
 
 When we consider that the " Portage " has more than 
 trebled its population in one year, and that there are indica- 
 tions of its being doubled again the present year, we are 
 not the least surprised at the enthusiasm of its inhabitants 
 and the prophecies we hear regarding its future greatness. 
 
 The Portage, Westbourne and North-Western Railway 
 Company are pushing on their road to the west and have at 
 the present writing 36 miles of tho road graded and purpose 
 having trains running to Odanah ai^d Minnedosa at the cross- 
 ing of the Little Saskatchewan by the first of September, 
 1882. By the terms of their charter this Company have a 
 land grant of 6400 acres for every mile of road they shall 
 have constructed within a certain date, and as their survey 
 runs through one of the richest belts of land to be found in 
 Manitoba, the lands at their disposal will offer the very 
 best attractions for settlers of the farming class. Other 
 roads are projected and from the situation of the "city" 
 there is no doubt of its becoming a railway centre in the 
 near future. 
 
 The town of Selkirk has an excellent situation on the 
 
TEN tears' EEMINISCENCES AND NOTES. 481 
 
 west side of the Red River, twenty-four miles from the 
 city of Winnipeg. Its origin dates from the year 1875. In 
 that year the offices of the Canada Pacific Railway were 
 located on the west bank and about the same time the first 
 store (then called the "Warehouse") was built by J. & 
 F. W. Colcleugh. Selkirk, being directly on the main line 
 of the Canada Pacific Railway and at the point where that 
 Railway was to cross the Red River, speedily attracted atten- 
 tion. In the following year (1876) many other stores as 
 well as hotels were erected and Selkirk's future was brighter 
 than any other place in the then comparatively unknown 
 province of Manitoba. The most determined opposition, 
 however, was raised by the people of Winnipeg who, aware 
 of the manifold advantages of Selkirk, did all in their 
 power to retard its progress and build up their own city at 
 its expense. 
 
 When the change of Government occurred in 1878 and it 
 was decided to make use of the Railway bridge about to be 
 built at Winnipeg, and to run a line west from that city, a 
 severe blow was struck at the future prospects of the town 
 under notice. Those interested in the town, however, did 
 not despair of its ultimate progress, and early in the present 
 year a by-law granting a bonus of $70,000 to the C. P. R. 
 Syndicate for the purpose of building a. line of railway along 
 the west bank of the Red River to Winnipeg was submitted 
 to the Municipality of St. Andrews and passed. A Company 
 to build a railroad west to Poplar Point and Portage la 
 Prairie was also formed, and the charter will be applied 
 for at the present session of the Local Legislature. 
 
 Among the many natural advantages possessed by Selkirk 
 are two harbors of great depth, caused by " sloughs" running 
 back on each side of the river sufiicient to accommodate 
 vessels of any size. The town is practically at the head of 
 deep water navigation on the Red River, owing to the 
 rapids at St. Andrews, a few miles south. The lumber trade 
 31 
 
482 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 of Lake Winnipeg is growing in importance, and Selkirk 
 without doubt will become the shipping point for the western 
 country. The district around Selkirk will furnish an in- 
 exhaustable supply of cordwood, while in the immediate 
 neighborhood are several excellent freestone quarries and 
 gravel pits. It is also in the centre of a first class agri- 
 cultural country. 
 
 One great advantage, possessed by Selkirk over almost 
 every other place on the E,ed River, is its situation on a high 
 ridge of land, which commences twelve miles to the south 
 and runs as many miles to the north. This ridge was almost 
 the only part left imcovered by the floods of 1826 and 1852, 
 when the site of the present city of Winnipeg was com- 
 pletely submerged. This spring the height reached by the 
 water was such as had not been attained for many years. 
 The high water level at Selkirk was sixteen inches above 
 that made during the flood of 1852. The town was then 
 found by measurement to be fourteen feet above the water. 
 
 At the present time Selkirk contains, besides a large 
 number of dwelling-houses, five general stores, one drug 
 store and telegraj^h office, and numerous other businesses. 
 Besides these there are four churches and schools suitable 
 for the population. It is scarcel}^ wise in a matter of fact 
 man like myself to become a prophet, but I may state that 
 I see so far into the future as to say that, about the middle 
 of the coming summer, the iron horse will reach Selkirk on 
 its way to the west, and as it turns south its drivers, who 
 will be many and very strong, will be asked why turn ye 
 away from the river, and they will answer, like the men of 
 old, because there is no passage for our steed and the train 
 that follows it. Then a very learned man shal 1 stand forth 
 and say, listen unto me, ye men of might who drive the iron 
 horse, behold a straight line is the shortest way between 
 two points. They will be astonished at this and take down 
 their measuring instruments, and behold the scales will fall 
 
TEN tears' reminiscences AND NOTES. 483 
 
 from their eyes, and they will see that it is so, and a passage 
 for their steed will be built, and it will go on its way to 
 the west without turning either to the right hand or to the 
 left. Then will the head of the Selkirk be lifted up, and 
 she will stand on her feet and be much talked of among the 
 people, because there will be a loom there. Behold this 
 must come to pass because it is written on the tablets of the 
 future. 
 
 Rapid City was the next village which came into exis- 
 tence. An English company had obtained a few townships 
 from the Government on certain conditions of settlement, 
 and in accordance therewith a village or town plot was sur- 
 veyed in 1877, and settlers were brought out from England 
 and located on the lands. Being beautifully situated on the 
 Little Saskatchewan, about 150 miles west of Winnipeg, and 
 on the "high road" to the interior, it quickly attracted 
 attention, and the country in the vicinity was soon in the 
 hands of industrious settlers. Through the energy of Mr. 
 Whelhems, who had charge of the colony, it was established 
 on a secure basis, and during the summer of 1879 was with- 
 out a rival in the estimation of western people. At present 
 four railroads are projected either to pass through it or to 
 start from it, and its future promises to be a prosperous one. 
 
 In the spring of 1879 the Assiniboine was ascended to 
 Port Ellice, a distance of 210 miles west of Winnipeg, and 
 many settlers came to that neighborhood. The point where 
 the main trail to the west crosses Bird Tail Creek, twelve 
 miles east of Fort Ellice, was selected as a site for a village 
 by a gentleman named Chambers, and a number of houses 
 were erected. The selection was a good one, and now the 
 village is erected into a town under the name of Birtle. On ac- 
 count of the supplies of timber in the Riding Mountain, which 
 are being utilized by the people of the neighborhood in the 
 erection of buildings at the present time, this section of 
 country will or ought to be always attractive. In the sum- 
 
484 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 mer of 1880 a steam saw and grist mill was put in operation^ 
 which at present supplies all the wants of the settlers in 
 both lines. Railroad communication will develop this dis- 
 trict of country in a short time. 
 
 Rumours that the Canada Pacific Railway was to cross the 
 Little Saskatchewan, about twenty miles north of Rapid 
 City were industriously spread during the winter of 1879, 
 and in the following spring, two cities appeared on paper, 
 named respectively Odanah and Minnedosa, the former 
 being on the east side of the stream and the latter on the 
 west. As a matter of course a rush took place, and a steady 
 stream of people flowed in all that summer. Owing to the 
 certainty of the Portage la Prairie and Westbourne Railway 
 passing through these villages their future prosperity is 
 secured. 
 
 The formation of the " Syndicate " in the autumn of 1880, 
 and the transference of the Canada Pacific Railway to it 
 in the spring, upset the speculations of many site seekers, 
 and turned their attention to the more southern district. 
 The announcement that the " Syndicate " was about to take 
 the southern route was soon followed by the selection of 
 Brandon as the site for a future city. Mr. Sandford Fleming 
 in his Railway Report for 1880, advised the Government to 
 adopt this route, and to found a city at this very point. The 
 following extract is taken from page 248 of the report : — 
 
 " I have carefully examined all the data at command, and 
 I think that a modification of the latter line points to a 
 scheme worthy the consideration of the Government. If 
 the railway be carried to a point in the valley of the As- 
 siniboine, near the mouth of the Little Saskatchewan, where 
 the land remains unsurveyed and ungranted, there might 
 here be established the site of a city which would shortly 
 become important." 
 
 After giving various reasons in favor of this scheme, he 
 Bays, on page 240 : — 
 
TEN years' reminiscences AND NOTES. 485 
 
 " The adoption of the lines to the point I have indicated 
 in the valley of the Assiniboine near the mouth of the Little 
 Saskatchewan, would provide 150 miles of an excellent trunk 
 line leading from Winnipeg and Selkirk to the coal deposits, 
 and would to that extent make provision for the supply of 
 fuel, where no timber exists, and thus anticipate a want 
 sorely felt in many quarters. The laying out of a city at 
 the point mentioned, and the location of stations at regular 
 intervals on other ungranted lands along the line, would 
 secure to the Government all the benefit arising from the 
 enhanced value which would be given to the land, to assist 
 in meeting the cost of the railway." 
 
 It will be seen by the foregoing extracts that both the 
 Government and its officials were aware of the importance 
 of Brandon as a railway centre, and had the Government 
 held control of the road, they would most undoubtedly have 
 carried out the above suggestions. It will be seen then that 
 Brandon is not a speculative point, but one where naturally 
 a large city would spring up. In the spring of last year the 
 town plot was laid out on the south side of the Assiniboine 
 and in a few days houses began to rise as if by magic. All 
 through the summer the excitement kept up and with the 
 setting in of winter there was no cessation. Last September 
 North Brandon was surveyed and many other additions have 
 since been made on both sides of the river, so that specula- 
 tion has created, on paper at least, a city of extraordinary 
 dimensions where nature intended there should be at least 
 a very important one. The situation of Brandon is very 
 fine and with the picturesque hills on both sides of the river 
 presents, even now, a fine appearance from any point of ap- 
 proach. The site is well chosen in every respect and unlike 
 Winnipeg is secure from floods, commands any quantity of 
 excellent water and will always prove healthy as drainage is 
 quite practicable. Taken as a whole the situation of Brandon 
 is a favorable one in every respect, and there cannot be the 
 
486 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 slightest doubt regarding its future importance both as a 
 railway centre and the emporium of a fine farming country 
 in the immediate neighborhood. At present writing it 
 contains 1500 houses. 
 
 Many other " cities," towns and villages have sprung up 
 in various parts of Manitoba, and their promoters speak in 
 high terms of their future prospects. I shall mention no 
 names and hence make no comparisons, but just state two 
 elements necessary to the wellbeing of every city. I refer 
 to water and drainage. It would be as well for parties 
 purchasii.g lots in these embryo cities to consider these two 
 requirements, as no great city can exist without them. The 
 planting of a town or city, on an open prairie without a run- 
 ning stream means death to the inhabitants by disease or 
 the destruction of the place by fire should one occur. 
 
CHAPTER XXVII. ' - 
 
 Description and History of Winnipeg. 
 
 [A Chapter ■Weitten by J. C. McLaqan, Esq.] 
 
 ■■- I -"(.' '^ ' ^ ■ ■'■' , 
 
 Poeition ofWinnipeg — Fort Rouge — Fort Selkirk — The Founders of >'Vyinnipeg'T7^imii- 
 peg in 1870 — Railway Surveys — Pembina Branch — Winnipeg ±he Outlet of the Jnter- 
 lor Trade — The "Boom " in 1881— 'Statistics of the Trade of Winaipeg—Enumeratioa 
 •* the Chief Buildings — Present Area of th« City^The Business Corporations-r-City 
 Schools — Former . Trade with Winnipeg — Klontrasted with the . Present — Railway 
 Grounds and Offices — Postal Facilities Past and Present — Leading Societies — The 
 Press of Winnipeg — Agricultural Society — ^Extracts From Lord Dufferin's Speeches — 
 ..Geographical Position — Rivers and. Lakes of Canada — Mennonites and Icelanders — 
 The Future of the City — ^Appearance of Winnipeg to a New- Comer — Hoiy .Business 
 is Transacted — Preponderance of Males — Occupation <rf the People — Their Steady 
 Habits. 
 
 The City of Winnipeg is situated nearly in longitude 97° 
 west, and latitude 50° iiortli, at the confluence of the Red 
 and Assiniboine rivers, which at present form the eastern 
 and southern boundaries of the city. At the southern ex- 
 tremity of Main street is Fort Garry, for many years the 
 most important trading post occupied by the Hudson's Bay 
 Company. The old fort yet stands, and although to some 
 extent dismantled, yet is an object of much attention and 
 interest to the many strangers and travellers who visit the 
 city and the great " Lone Land " of the far West. The 
 old residence of Governor of the Hudson's Bay Company 
 has been occupied as " Government House," and in it the 
 occupant of the gubernatorial chair has resided since 
 Canada acquired the country. A new and more preten- 
 tious building is being erected for His Honor. Fort Garry 
 ere long will then pass out of existence, a step rendered 
 necessary in consequence of the site being needed for a 
 continuation of Main Street to the Assiniboine bridge, and 
 for the erection of buildings more suitable to the valu- 
 able site it occupies. The fort and the many stirring 
 
488 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 and interesting events which have taken place around 
 its wooden palisades, are so closely identified with the 
 history of the country in its early days, that to write 
 a complete record thereof would occupy more space than 
 the limits of this chapter will permit. Suffice it to say, 
 however, that the history of Port Garry is almost that of 
 the North- West. 
 
 Previous to Lord Selkirk's occupancy of the country, a 
 party of adventurers in the year 1734 established a fort 
 known as Fort Rouge, at the angle of the Red and Assi- 
 niboine rivers. This is now the property of Stewart Mul- 
 vey, Esq., and forms part of the parish of West St. Boniface, 
 one of the rising suburbs of Winnipeg. 
 
 The first fort, or trading post, established by the Hudson's 
 Bay Company was at Point Douglas, and then known a« 
 Port Selkirk. During the conflict between the Company's 
 forces and those of the North- West Fur Company at Seven 
 Oaks, in the Parish of Kildonan, this post was destroyed. 
 Another was built in the year 1817 at the angle of the 
 Red and Assiniboine rivers, where the grist mill at present 
 stands. The famed Fort Garry was completed and occupied 
 by the Company in 1835, and was then considered the 
 greatest wonder of the western plains. 
 
 The site for the future Metropolis of the North- 
 West Country was wisely chosen by the early traders and 
 founders of the present Winnipeg. The country surround- 
 ing it for many miles is perfectly level, yet sufficiently 
 elevated above the rivers already named to admit of easy 
 drainage. Few places possessed the natural advantages 
 that did the site adjoining Fort Garry, for it had rivers 
 navigable from south to north many hundreds of miles, and 
 from east to west far into the interior of the great " fertile 
 belt." These streams formed part of a chain of navigable 
 waters, extending from the centre of Minnesota to the base 
 of the Rocky Mountains, and from Winnipeg to Fort Pelly, 
 
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF WINNIPEG. 489 
 
 embracing Lake Winnipeg and Lake of the Woods and the 
 many streams tributary thereto. 
 
 The Red River channel at Winnipeg is very different 
 now to what it was when the first settlers came in. The 
 soil is alluvial and the continual action of the water 
 on the banks is having the effect of increasing the width of 
 the water-way. It is said that the lately deceased Mr. 
 McDermot first crossed the stream on a small oak tree that 
 had fallen into the channel. To-day several trees would 
 be necessary to span the river for the width is about three 
 hundred yards on an average. 
 
 It is equally certain that the same gentleman kept a 
 small skiff in readiness for any emergency that might arise 
 during the spring and summer freshets. He had seen the 
 entire country surrounding Winnipeg inundated twice, and 
 determined to be prepared should such a calamity occur 
 again. 
 
 The license giving the Hudson's Bay Company exclusive 
 control of the trade of the country expired in 1859. Shortly 
 thereafter several enterprising, intrepid pioneers and 
 traders, knowing that the trade of the Company was very 
 profitable, entered into competition with that powerful mon- 
 opoly for a share of the vast fur trade. These men termed 
 themselves " free traders." Following these, a few settlers 
 came and took up land and began its cultivation. The 
 traders erected stores in close proximity to the Fort. 
 Many of them are still residents in the city, occupying 
 leading and responsible positions as merchants, professional 
 men, and citizens. They Avere the founders of Winnipeg. 
 The stores they had erected around the Fort formed the 
 nucleus of a small village, which in 1862 began to increase. 
 Tear by year — though far remote from the centres of trade 
 and the outer world — the embryo village spread its limits; 
 slowly, it is true, but always holding its own, until the 
 transfer of the country was made to Canada in 1870. At 
 
490 
 
 MANITOBA AND Till; GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 that time there were about thirty buildings outside the 
 Fort, embracing eight stores, two saloons, two hotels, a mill, 
 and a church; the total population being 215 souls. Then 
 the great " Lone Land," which, according to Lord Beacons- 
 field, is a land of " illimitable possibilities," became part of 
 the Canadian Confederation. About this time the Fort and 
 its neighbourhood was the scene of the troublous events of 
 the Bed River rebellion, the movement being headed by 
 Louis Kiel and others. This was a critical period for the 
 little colony on the banks of the Red River. 
 
 In consequence of its very isolated position, Winni- 
 peg, or Fort Garry, was at all times a difficult point 
 to reach. From the south the route was entirely through 
 foreign territory. To the north there was a route via 
 Hudson's Bay and the Nelson River to Lake Winnipeg, 
 thence to Fort Garry by the Red River. A voyage from 
 the motherland by this route occupied a whole season. 
 The numerous portages to be encountered rendered it 
 all but impracticable. To the west, for thousands of 
 miles, stretched vast prairies, — the Rocky Mountains, and 
 Selkirk and Coast Ranges on the Pacific, forming natural 
 barriers over which no transportation could possibly take 
 place. From the east an attempt had been made to enter 
 the country by way of Lake Superior, and thence across 
 intervening water stretches and portages. This route 
 was the one adopted by the military authorities when they 
 sent troops to quell the rebellion. On the 14th of May, 
 1870, Companies "One" and "Four" of the Ontario 
 Battalion, under command of Col. Boulton, sailed from Col- 
 lingwood en route for Fort Garry. On the 21st of the same 
 month Company G of the 60th Rifles, under command of 
 Col. Wolseley (now Adjutant-General Sir Garnet Wolseley, 
 K.C.M.G.), embarked at the same point. After encounter- 
 ing many difficulties west of Lake Superior, the scene 
 of trouble at the embryo city was reached on the 23rd 
 
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF WINNIPEG. 491. 
 
 of August. The waving of the " meteor flag " of Old 
 England from Fort Garry restored quietness. Confidence 
 took the place of doubt and uncertainty, and an era of 
 unrivalled prosperity was at once entered upon. 
 
 The Federal Government had acquired a vast extent 
 of exceedingly fertile land, extending from the Inter- 
 national boundary on the south to the unexplored regions 
 on the north ; from the Ontario boundary on the East to 
 the British Columbia line on the West, embracing a terri- 
 tory with from 250,000,000 to 300,000,000 acres of generally 
 fertile and ]^^ reductive land. Negotiations for the sur- 
 render to the Imperial Government, by the Hudson's 
 Bay Company of what the}'^ claimed as vested rights, had 
 been carried on for a number of years. The terms for sur- 
 render were finally agreed to on the 9th March, 1869. 
 The Dominion Government, through the Imperial Govern- 
 ment, agreed to pay the Hudson's Bay Company the sum of 
 £300,000 sterling ; and to allow them reservations of lands 
 in the neighborhood of their forts and trading posts, where 
 under cultivation, and two sections in each surveyed town- 
 ship. In the fertile belt alone the Company owns about seven 
 million acres, which are of great value in consequence of 
 the immense increase in the price of lands all over the 
 country. 
 
 The construction ol a trans-continental railway formed 
 part of the basis of union between the Dominion of Canada 
 and British Columbia. The admission of that Province 
 took place in July, 1871. Steps were at once taken to 
 make a survey of the proposed line. Exploratory parties 
 were sent to the Pacific coast, the North-West Territory, 
 and to the north of Lake Superior, Winnipeg becoming 
 the headquarters for supplies to the corps of engineers in 
 Manitoba and the North-West Territory. 
 
 The Pembina branch of the C. P. R., extending from 
 Selkirk to St. Vincent — where connection was to be made 
 
494 
 
 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-"WEST. 
 
 mote Saskatchewan country brought within a few days sail of 
 the Western Metropolis. The Assiniboine will likewise carrj 
 on its bosom, for hundreds of miles inland, vessels of medium 
 draught loaded with valuable freight. "While away to the 
 south, to the head waters of the Red River, far into Minnesota 
 and Dakota, this great natural waterway will be the med- 
 ium to carry traffic to Winnipeg. A net work of railways 
 will concentrate in Winnipeg as in Chicago. Each new 
 project — whether for new lines or extensions of those 
 established — will point to Winnipeg as the haven which 
 it desires to reach. Winnipeg must become a great dis- 
 tributing emporium for an area sufficient to grow as much 
 wheat as is now raised in the United States and Canada com- 
 bined — a country entitled to be named the " granary of the 
 world." 
 
 With these increased facilities for transportation it is safe 
 to say that the position of Winnipeg will not be excelled by 
 that of any other city in the country. Her population is 
 already increasing at an enormously rapid rate. Though 
 but an infant in years her trade already is of gigantic pro- 
 portions. Large blocks of buildings specially adapted for 
 wholesale purposes are being erected. These are rented 
 ere the contract is awarded. Business premises are not to 
 be obtained at any reasonable cost. Dwelling houses are 
 rented at figures that amaze ordinary Eastern people. In 
 short the supply is totally inadequate to the demand. 
 
 The excitement during the fall of 1881 amongst real estate 
 owners was intense. Nothing to equal it had ever before 
 occurred on Canadian or British soil. Thousands of dollars 
 were made by operators in a few minutes. Vast for- 
 tunes were secured in a day. The excitement spread 
 like wild fire all over the country. Cool-headed profession- 
 al and business men, clerical as well as lay, left their callinp-s 
 in other parts of the country for the scene of the modern 
 Canadian El Dorado. Real estate agents became as numerous 
 
496 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 as the sands on the sea shore. The educated and refined, 
 as well as the illiterate, took part in land transactions. No 
 regard was paid as to whether the vendor had a right to 
 sell or not. Everything was taken for granted. At the 
 time we write the " boom" still rages, though in a some- 
 what abated form. 
 
 In no better way can the progress of any city, town, or 
 country be judged than by statistics. The case of Winnipeg 
 is one of which her citizens have a right to feel proud. 
 Beginning her career in the sisterhood of cities in 1874 
 with a population of 2,000, the census of 1878 gave her 
 7,000, and this in 1880 had increased to 10,000. At the 
 time we write the number must be 18,000. The assessed 
 value of the rateable property of the city in 1874 was 
 $2,676,018; 1879, |3,415,065 ; 1881, $9,230,435. It is 
 supposed the assessment of 1882 will run close upon 
 $22,000,000. These figures are exclusive of the exempted 
 property which embraces churches, Government, Canada 
 Pacific Railway, and Corporation buildings. 
 
 Notwithstanding the vast amount of public improve- 
 ments carried on by the corporation, the erection of bridges, 
 Kchools, and a bonus of $200,000 to the Canadian Pacific 
 Railway, the debt of the city is but $620,000— a 
 bagatelle as compared with its resources. Representing 
 this debt as an asset, the City has her City Hall and 
 Market Square, the Central and Ward Schools, the Louise 
 Iron Bridge, one hundred miles of the Canadian Pacific 
 Railway towards the Pembina Mountain country and the 
 workshops connected therewith. Hitherto the rate levied 
 has not exceeded one cent on the dollar of the assessed 
 value, and this covered school as well as municipal purposes. 
 
 During the presBnt year it is intended to pave part of 
 Main Street with block cedar, and to enlarge the City Hall. 
 Other improvements are likewise certain to follow. 
 
 The City is prepared to deal liberally with any person or 
 
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF WINNIPEG. 
 
 497 
 
 persons who may establish manufactories in the City. 
 Already the Ogilvie Milling Company's handsome flouring 
 mills grace Point Douglas, and are by by-law exempt from 
 taxation for a period of thirty years These mills are to 
 be fitted up with machinery to grind the Manitoba hard 
 wheat under the new Hungarian process which is by rollers 
 instead of by stones. The flour made under this process is 
 a very superior article and commands the highest price in 
 the market. 
 
 An equally satisfactory exhibit is to be found in the 
 figures kindly supplied us by the Custom House officials 
 which are as follows : 
 
 Goods entered for 
 
 Year. Foreign. 
 
 1872 $1,002,092 
 
 1873 1,028,597 
 
 1874 1,853,664 
 
 1875 1,227,294 
 
 1876 1,735,421 
 
 1677 1,214,833 
 
 1878 1,171,105 
 
 1879 . . .. 1,196,287 
 
 1880 1,238,157 
 
 Gonsumptioti and Export at thi 
 
 3 Port q 
 
 Wmnijpeg. 
 
 
 
 Duty. 
 
 Canadian. 
 
 EWORTS. 
 
 Total 
 
 $46,839 
 
 $150,000 
 
 $180,000 
 
 $1,332,092 
 
 48,074 
 
 250,000 
 
 350,000 
 
 1,628,597 
 
 67,471 
 
 500,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 3,363,664 
 
 171,430 
 
 638,674 
 
 850,000 
 
 2,715,968 
 
 253,045 
 
 960,557 
 
 1,100,000 
 
 3,795,978 
 
 192,480 
 
 1,018,166 
 
 950,000 
 
 3,183,000 
 
 223,530 
 
 1,374,311 
 
 1,050,000 
 
 3,595,416 
 
 274,235 
 
 2,266,085 
 
 760,000 
 
 4,272,372 
 
 297,769 
 
 3,599,980 
 
 562,714 
 
 5,698,620 
 
 And for the year ending December 31st, 1881, the value 
 of foreign imports and duties collected for the several months 
 
 were 
 
 Value Imports 
 
 January $70,021 
 
 February 49,649 
 
 March 174,266 
 
 April 183,137 
 
 May 384,596 
 
 June . 
 
 July 
 
 August . . . 
 September . 
 October 
 November 
 December . 
 
 466,344 
 200,272 
 292,756 
 300,695 
 355,022 
 284,726 
 233,354 
 
 Duty. 
 
 $14,446.88 
 10,384.43 
 39,362.99 
 40,649.65 
 86,264 22 
 
 114,221.33 
 49,257.91 
 52,391.81 
 70,706.02 
 62,508.07 
 60,985 86 
 51,719 11 
 
 $652,898.28 
 
 The increase in duties 
 paid in the last six 
 months of the year 
 being : — 
 
 $20,507 46 
 29,979 44 
 51,306.69 
 37,298.36 
 42,517 18 
 31,111.27 
 
 Total. . ...$2,994,838 
 
 The increase m duties collected for the month of January, 
 32 
 
'498 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 1882, over January, 1881, amounted to $28,790 70, the 
 figures being ; 
 
 January, 1882 $43,246.58 
 
 « 1881 14,446.88 $28,790.70 
 
 A corresponding increase in the general volume of busi- 
 ness transacted in the city has likewise taken place; the 
 trade with interior towns being a large and profitable one 
 The failures were of a minor nature, involving no large sums 
 aiid were but few m number. 
 
 Mr. Stewart Mulvey, Collector of Inland Revenue for 
 Manitoba and the North-West Territory, has supplied us 
 with the following comparative statements of malt used and 
 beer manufactured for the respective years named 
 
 Ykak. Malt used. Beer made, 
 
 lbs- galls. 
 
 1873-74 97,690 33,584 
 
 1875-76 104,066 41,289 
 
 1877-78 177,734 62,614 
 
 1879-80 337,739 116,672 
 
 Spirits ex-warehoused for consumption, for 
 
 Yeah. Proof G-allons. Duty. 
 
 1873-74 4,044 60 $2,548.10 
 
 1875-76 13,066 45 11,758.15 
 
 1877-78 17,685 06 .. 15,913.10 
 
 1879-80 53,00172 53,00172 
 
 Tobacco ex-warehoused for consumption, for 
 
 Ybab. lbs. Duty. 
 
 1874-75 1,840 <5i2S.00 
 
 1875-76 .... 33,987i 6,797.50 
 
 1877-78 90,848| 18,169 70 
 
 1879-80 262,366 52,473.20 
 
 In 1868 there were not more than thirty buildings outside 
 the Fort. Instead of regular streets, there were only 
 " trails." About this date it was deemed expedient to lay 
 out a town plot. A wise precaution was adopted by the 
 founders of the city, in making Mam Street and Portage 
 Avenue wide thoroughfares. Both of these streets have 
 an average width of 132 feet. The forme'r runs from 
 the Assiniboine, parallel with the Red River, towards 
 Kildonan, a distance of threa miles. It is as level as 
 a board the entire distance. This street is the main 
 
500 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 thoroughfare of the city and will remain so for many years 
 to come. Beginning near the Fort are to be found the 
 Land and other Offices of the Canadian Pacific Railway Com- 
 pany ; the Pacific Hotel ; the Customs House and Inland 
 Revenue Office ; the Dominion Lands Office ; the Emigra- 
 tion Office ; all of them handsome white brick structures. 
 By all odds the handsomest building in the city is the new 
 warehouse and stores of the Hudson's Bay Company 
 Another fine structure is being erected by Governor Cauchon, 
 immediately opposite The Post Office and City Hall are 
 likewise on Main street, also the Bank of Montreal, the 
 Ontario Bank, Merchants' Bank, the Imperial Bank, the 
 Dominion Savings Bank, as well as many private banking 
 institutions, and the offices of Loaning and Investment Socie- 
 ties, and of several Insurance Companies. Every branch of 
 trade is represented by the mercantile firms on this street. 
 Many of the stores are palatial in appearance internally 
 and externally Wooden structures are giving way to 
 elegant edifices, embracing all modern conveniences In 
 a few years Mam street will be to Winnipeg what 
 Broadway is to New York. Portage Avenue, running from 
 the Red River in a westerly direction parallel with the 
 Assiniboine, is also a very fine street, and certain to be one 
 of the most important in the city. Already it boasts of 
 several handsome buildings. Next are Notre Dame and 
 Princess streets, both coming prominently to the front as 
 business streets. Broadway is destined to be the Fifth 
 Avenue of Winnipeg, and will be the fashionable quarter 
 of the city. Everywhere buildings are in process of erec- 
 tion. The sound of the hammer and trowel are to be heard 
 from dawn to darkness. On every side the hum of activity 
 greets the ear. In 1880, over 400 buildings were erected, 
 at a cost of about $1,000,000. In 1881, 700 were built, in- 
 volving an expenditure of $2,100,000. For the present year 
 the sum to be expended will probably exceed $5,000,000. 
 
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF WINNIPEG. 501 
 
 The present area of the city covers nearly three square 
 miles. It is bounded on the South and East by the Assini- 
 boine and Red Rivers; on the West by Boundary and 
 McPhillips streets, and on the North by the Parish of St. 
 Johns. These limits must be enlarged ere long, to embrace 
 South and West St. Boniface, part of the parishes of St. 
 James, St. Johns, and Kildonan. A comprehensive system 
 of drainage will then be inaugurated; streets laid out and 
 sidewalks constructed, and improvements in boulevarding 
 and tree-planting will be carried forward from year to year, 
 until Winnipeg becomes a forest or garden city, as well as 
 the great city of the prairies. 
 
 Already there are a large number of companies and 
 corporate bodies within her borders. A Gas Light Com- 
 pany has its works already erected, pipes and mains laid, 
 and services to houses supplied. A Water Works Company 
 is equally far advanced. The Street Railway Company 
 expects to have cars in operation in a feiv months. 
 The North-West Omnibus and Transfer Company has been 
 carrying on business for some time. Most of the business 
 houses are connected by telephone. Electric lights and fire 
 alarms are to be erected in different parts of the city. 
 Bridge Companies are throwing structures across the rivers 
 at different points. 
 
 As the city increased in size, population, and influence, 
 her educational facilities were not allowed to fall behind. 
 The city now boasts of a large Central School Building and a 
 number of ward schools, which are all well attended. The 
 first school was opened on Monday, 30th October, 1871, in a 
 small wooden building 16x20, with a thatched roof. The 
 school population then was fifty, and the average attendance 
 twenty-five Mr. W. F. Buxton was the first regularly 
 appointed teacher by a board of trustees. 
 
 Equally great is the contrast between the means of 
 transportation in 1878 and 1882 For some years previous 
 
502 
 
 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 to 1870, the Hudson's Bay Company had a small steamer 
 by which they conveyed their merchandise from George- 
 town to Fort Garry. So tedious was the journey that but 
 two trips each way were made in a season. Traders out- 
 side the Company were compelled to freight their goods 
 by ox carts over the prairies from St. Cloud, the Com- 
 pany declining to convey freight for others on any con- 
 dition. Frequently the supplies of the "free-traders" ran 
 short, and no means were afforded them to supplement 
 their stock. In short they were at the mercy of their 
 powerful opponents. In 1871, the firm of Hill, Griggs & 
 Co., of St. Paul — the senior of whom, James J. Hill, was 
 a Canadian from the County of Wellington, in Ontario, 
 and now a member of the Canadian Pacific Syndicate — put 
 an opposition steamer on the river to ply between Moore- 
 head and Winnipeg. As the traffic increased the fleet was 
 enlarged until at present over twenty steamers and barges 
 are engaged in the river trade. 
 
 The North-Western Navigation Company have steamers 
 now plying between Winnipeg and Edmonton, by way of 
 Lake Winnipeg and the Saskatchewan River. Boats can 
 be taken on the South branch of that great stream as far 
 as the point at which it is to be crossed by the Canadian 
 Pacific Railway. For years past the Hudson's Bay Company 
 have had boats on these waters. Rates for passengers and 
 freight were, however, very high. Few emigrants could 
 afford to pay the prices charged, and the overland route had 
 to be taken. The Winnipeg and Western Transportation 
 Company, likewise, have a fine fleet plying the waters of 
 the Assiniboine, Red River, and Lake Winnipeg. Compe- 
 tition will have the effect of keeping down rates ; giving 
 the travelling and trading public the advantages of cheap 
 transportation, and securing a greater amount of traffic to 
 their own lines. 
 
 Winnipeg is the headquarters of the General Manager, 
 
5U4 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Land Commissioner, Chief Engineer, Superintendent, and 
 other officials of the Canadian Pacific Railway Companj. 
 Buildings of a substantial character, commensurate with 
 the Company's position in the country, will be erected at 
 an early day. A large reservation has been granted for 
 such purposes as yards, switching grounds, and work shops, 
 in a central localit;y'. 
 
 The Manitoba and South-Western Colonization and Rail- 
 way Company have also their chief offices in this city. 
 Their grounds adjoin those of the Canadian Pacific Company. 
 It is generally understood that this line is now controlled 
 by the Oregon and Transcontinental Railway and Naviga- 
 tion Company, of which Henry Villard, of New York, Presi- 
 dent of the Northern Pacific Railway Company, is the 
 largest shareholder. This company is wealthy, and ere long 
 will have a heavy traffic over their road, as it is constructed 
 through the most fertile part of the Province. 
 
 As may be supposed the postal facilities of Winnipeg 
 and the North-West were for a long time limited. Long 
 ago the inhabitants had to be content with a mail 
 twice a year, one in summer i)y way of Hudson Bay 
 and York Factory, the other overland by dog train, during 
 the winter. As the railways in the United States ap- 
 proached nearer the boundary line, in 1869 and 1870, a 
 weekly mail was received via Pembina. In 1871 a stage 
 line was established between Moorehead and Winnipeg, 
 when a tri-weekly mail was received, which in the year fol- 
 lowing increased to a daily one. This continued until the 
 opening of the Pembina Branch, when the mails were re- 
 ceived by rail . Since that time the business of the Winnipeg 
 Post-Office has rapidly increased, doubling every year, until 
 last year, when, it almost trebled that of the previous twelve 
 n^onths. The post office accommodation proved altogether 
 inadequate for the amount of business, and a large tem- 
 porary addition was made. This did much to facilitate 
 
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF WINNIPEG. 
 
 505 
 
 business. Still the accommodation is altogether insufficient, 
 and it is expected that shortly the Government will erect 
 a new building. 
 
 The leading Secret Societies are fully represented in Win- 
 nipeg. The first lodge of Free Masons called the " Northern 
 Light Lodge," was established in 1864. Odd-Fellows, Forest- 
 ers and Orange Societies are also strong. The Grand Lodges 
 of all these institutions meet in Winnipeg. 
 
 The national societies of St. George, St. Andrew, and 
 St. Patrick are also flourishing institutions. They all 
 have excellent rooms, where the members meet and where 
 fellow-countrymen are made welcome. These Societies 
 have been of great benefit in imparting information to 
 those coming to settle in the country, and in relieving the 
 distressed. 
 
 A Sanitary Association has been formed, having for its 
 object the proper drainage of the city. The Hudson's 
 Bay Company have made a grant of |500 to the Associa- 
 tion, and it is proposed to engage the services of a compe- 
 tent Sanitary Engineer to report on the necessities of the 
 place. 
 
 There are two excellent clubs in the city. The Manitoba 
 Club, established in 1874, is a non-political institution, with 
 a membership of over 150. It has recently removed to a 
 handsome new building on Garry street, which, with furni- 
 ture, cost about $20,000. The Selkirk Club (Conservar 
 tive) was organized in 1880, and is in a prosperous condi- 
 tion. They occupy premises on Thistle street, but steps 
 are being taken for the erection of a building. 
 
 The Press of Winnipeg is a credit to the city. The 
 " Free Press," is a large and influential morning paper, ably 
 conducted by Messrs. Kenny and Luxton. It is the organ of 
 the Liberal party, and was established in 1872. The 
 " Times," the organ for the Conservative party, established 
 in 1878, has been under the present management of 
 
506 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOETH-WEST. 
 
 Messrs. Rowe & Co., since 1880, and is an excellent journal. 
 Tlie "Sun," an evening paper, has been only a few months in 
 existence, but has every prospect of a prosperous career. The 
 two first mentioned publish weekly editions as well. The 
 two pioneers in journalism in the North-West were Messrs. 
 Wm. Buckingham and Wm. Caldwell. The former is well- 
 known to the public, from having, during Mr. Mackenzie's 
 Administration, occupied the position of Private Secretary 
 to the Premier. The latter is still a resident of Winnipeg, 
 and has been more or less connected with various news- 
 paper ventures. In 1859 these gentlemen arrived in Win- 
 nipeg, having brought their printing press and material 
 in ox carts all the way from St. Paul, across the prairie. 
 Their paper was called the " Nor- Wester." It continued to 
 exist for a number of years, changing proprietors several 
 times. Other ventures on the journalistic sea have been 
 made, some of which lived for years, while others were 
 ephemeral. Besides the newspaper ofl&ces, there are several 
 well organized job offices in the city. 
 
 The Provincial Agricultural Society has its head-quarters 
 in Winnipeg. It dates its establishment as far back as 1871, 
 and is now a very prosperous institution. The Society re- 
 ceives an annual grant from the Government of $2,000 ; this, 
 with members' subscriptions and generouw donations from 
 private parties, enables it to offer liberal prizes. The exhi- 
 bition is held at different points in the Province. Cor- 
 respondence is kept up with the various Electoral Division 
 Societies, whose exhibitions they encourage by offering 
 special prizes and diplomas. The Society also offers 
 prizes from time to time for essays on subjects pertinent 
 to Agriculture. This is a feature which might well be imi- 
 tated by societies in the older Provinces of the Dominion. 
 The Government has promised to the society a grant of 
 twenty-five acres of land in the city, on which it is proposed 
 to erect permanent buildings for exhibition purposes. The 
 
508 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 energetic Secretary of the Society is Mr. C. Acton Burrows. 
 Nothing need be said here with reference to the Church 
 and the higher education of Winnipeg and the country, as 
 an appendix is to be devoted to these subjects. 
 
 As it may prove of interest to the reader we cannot close 
 this chapter without quoting some of the remarks made by 
 Lord Dufferin, Governor- General of Canada, during his visit 
 to the city in August, 1877. In answer to the civic address 
 presented by the city, he said : — 
 
 " I beg to thank you most warmly for the kind and 
 hearty welcome you have extended to me, on my arrival 
 in your flourishing city, which you rightly designate the 
 metropolis of the North-West, the living centre which is 
 destined to animate with its vital energies the rich alluvial 
 region whose only limit seems to be an ever-receding hori- 
 zon I am not by any means unacquainted with the 
 
 record of your achievements; indeed, it is probable that 
 there is no Province in the Dominion with whose situation 
 I am better acquainted, so far as information in such res- 
 pects can be obtained from books and Parliamentary pa- 
 pers; and it is to perfect verify, and extend that knowledge 
 by personal intercourse with your leading citizens, and by 
 an inspection of the richness of your territory, that I have 
 
 come amongst you I have no doubt that this city and 
 
 Province generally, nay, the whole territory of the North- 
 West, IS now illuminated by the dawn of a great advance- 
 ment. Although it may not be my good fortune personally 
 to preside much longer over your destinies, I need not 
 assure you that your future will always command my 
 warmest sympathies and continue to attract my closest 
 attention ; and I trust that, though at a distance, I may 
 live to see the fulfilment of many of your aspirations." 
 
 On the occasion of the vice-regal visit drawing to a close, 
 the citizens of Winnipeg invited His Excellency to a public 
 banquet, at which he made a speech in review of his per- 
 
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF WINNIPEG. 609 
 
 sonal observations of the country, and the facts he had 
 gathered, from which the following are extracts : 
 
 " From its geographical position, and its peculiar charac- 
 teristics, Manitoba may be regarded as the keystone of that 
 mighty arch of sister Provinces which spans the continent 
 from the Atlantic to the Pacific. It was here that Canada, 
 emerging from her woods and forests, first gazed upon her 
 rolling prairies and unexplored North-West, and learnt as 
 by an unexpected revelation that her historical territories 
 of the Canadas, her eastern seaboards of New Brunswick, 
 Labrador, and Nova Scotia, her Laurentian lakes and val- 
 leys, corn lands and pastures, though themselves more 
 extensive than half a dozen European kingdoms, were but 
 the vestibules and antechambers to that till then undreamt 
 of Dominion,whose illimitable dimensions alike confound the 
 arithmetic of the surveyor and verification of the explorer. 
 
 " It was here that, counting her past achievements as 
 but the preface and prelude to her future exertions and 
 expanding destinies, she took a fresh departure, received 
 the afflatus of a more imperial inspiration, and felt herself 
 no longer a mere settler along the banks of a single river, 
 but the owner of half a continent, and in the magnitude of 
 her possessions, in the wealth of her resources, in the sinews 
 of her material might, the peer of any power on the earth. 
 
 " In a recent remarkably witty speech, the Marquis of 
 Salisbury alluded to the geographical misconceptions often 
 engendered by the smallness of the maps upon which the 
 figure of the world is depicted. To this cause is probably 
 to be attributed the inadequate idea entertained by the 
 best educated persons of the extent of Her Majesty's North 
 American possessions. Perhaps the best way of correcting 
 such a universal misapprehension would be a summary of 
 the rivers which flow through them, for we know that as a 
 poor man cannot afford to live in a big house, so a small 
 country cannot support a big river. Now, to an English- 
 
■510 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 man or a Frenchman, the Severn or the Thames, the Seine 
 or the Rhone, would appear considerable streams, but in 
 the Ottawa, a mere affluent of the St. Lawrence, an affluent, 
 moreover, which reaches the parent stream six hundred 
 miles from its mouth, we have a river nearly five hundred 
 and fifty miles long, and three or four times as big as any 
 of them. 
 
 " But, even after having ascended the St. Lawrence itself 
 to Lake Ontario, and pursued it across Lake Huron, the 
 Niagara, the St. Clair, and Lake Superior to Thunder Bay, 
 a distance of one thousand nine hundred miles, where are 
 we ? In the estimation of the person who has made the 
 journey, at the end of all things ; but to us who know 
 better, scarcely at the commencement of the great fluvial 
 system? of the Dominion ; for, from that spot — that is to 
 say, fruni Thunder Bay — we are able at once to ship 
 our astonished traveller on to the Kaministiquia, a river of 
 some hundred miles long. Thence, almost in a straight line, 
 we launch him on to Lake Shebandowan and Rainy Lake 
 and River — whose proper name by-the-by is " R6n6," after 
 the man who discovered it — a magnificent stream three 
 hundred yards broad, and a couple of hundred miles long, 
 down whose tranquil bosom he floats into the Lake of the 
 Woods, where he finds himself on a sheet of water which, 
 though diminutive as compared with the inland seas he has 
 left behind him, will probably be found sufficiently exten- 
 sive to render him fearfully sea-sick during his passage 
 across it. For the last eighty miles of his voyage, how- 
 ever, he will be consoled by sailing through a succession of 
 land-locked channels, the beauty of whose scenery, while it 
 resembles, certainly excels the far-famed Thousand Islands 
 of the St. Lawrence. 
 
 " From this lacustrian paradise of sylvan beauty, we are 
 able at once to transfer our friend to the Winnipeg, a river 
 whose existence in the very heart and centre of the conti- 
 
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF WINNIPEG. 51/1 
 
 nent is in itself one of nature's most delightful miracles, so 
 beautiful and varied are its rocky banks, its tufted islands'; 
 so broad, so deep, so fervid is the volume of its waters, the 
 extent of their lake-like expansions, and the tremendous 
 power of their rapids. 
 
 " At last let us suppose we have landed our traveller at 
 the town of Winnipeg, the half-way house of the continent, 
 the capital of the Prairie Province, and I trust the future 
 " umbilicus " of the Dominion. Having had so much of 
 water, having now reached the home of the buffalo, like the 
 attenuated Palstaff, he naturally " babbles of green fields " 
 and careers in imagination over the primeval grasses of the 
 prairie. Not at all. Escorted by Mr. Mayor and the Town 
 Council, we take him down to your quay, and ask him which 
 he will ascend first, the Ked River or the Assiniboine, two 
 streams, the one five hundred miles long, the other four 
 hundred and eighty, which so happily mingle their waters 
 within your city limits. 
 
 " After having given him a preliminary canter upon 
 these respective rivers, we take him off to Lake Winnipeg, 
 an inland sea three hundred miles long and upward of sixty 
 broad, during the navigation of which for many a weary 
 hour he will find himself out of sight of land, and probably 
 a good deal more indisposed than ever he was on the Lake 
 of the Woods, or even the Atlantic. 
 
 " At the northwest angle of Lake Winnipeg he hits upon 
 the mouth of the Saskatchewan, the gateway and high road 
 to the North-West, and the starting point to another one 
 thousand five hundred miles of navigable water flowing 
 nearly due east and west between its alluvial banks. 
 
 " Having now reached the foot of the Rocky Mountains 
 our " Ancient Mariner" — for by this time he will be quite 
 entitled to such an appellation — knowing that water cannot 
 run up hill feels certain his aquatic experiences are con- 
 cluded. He was never more mistaken. We immediately 
 
512 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 launch him upon the Athabasca and Mackenzie Rivers, and 
 start him on a longer trip than he has yet undertaken — the 
 navigation of the Mackenzie River alone exceeding two 
 thousand five hundred miles. If he survives this last 
 experience, we wind up his peregrinations by a concluding 
 voyage of one thousand four hundred miles down the Fraser 
 River ; or, if he prefers it, the Thompson River to Vic- 
 toria, in Vancouver, whence, having previously provided 
 him with a first-class return ticket for that purpose, he will 
 probably prefer getting home via the Canadian Pacific. 
 
 " Now, in this enumeration, those who are acquainted 
 with the country are aware that for the sake of brevity I 
 have omitted thousands of miles of other lakes and rivers 
 which water various regions of the North-West — the 
 Qu'Appelle River, Belly River, Lake Manitoba, the Winni- 
 pegosis. Shoal Lake, etc., etc., along which I might have 
 dragged and finally exterminated our way-worn guest — but 
 the sketch I have given is more than sufficient for my pur- 
 pose ; and when it is further remembered that the most of 
 these streams flow for their entire length through alluvial 
 plains of the richest description, where year after year 
 wheat can be raised without manure, or any sensible dimi- 
 nution in its yield, and where the soil everywhere presents 
 the appearance of a highly-cultivated suburban kitchen 
 garden in England, enough has been said to display the 
 agricultural richness of the territories I have referred to, 
 and the capabilities they possess of affording happy and 
 prosperous homes to millions of the human race. 
 
 " But in contemplating the vistas thus opened to our 
 imagination, we must not forget that there ensues a cor- 
 responding expansion of our obligations. For instance, 
 unless great care is taken we shall find, as we move west- 
 wards, that the exigencies of civilization may clash injuri- 
 ously with the prejudices and traditional habits of our 
 Indian fellow-subjects. 
 
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF WINNIPEG. 513 
 
 " Happily in no part of Her Majesty's dominions are the 
 relations existing between the white settlers and the origi- 
 nal natives and masters of the land so well understood or so 
 generously and humanely interpreted as in Canada, and, as 
 a consequence, instead of being a cause of anxiety and dis- 
 turbance, the Indian tribes of the Dominion are regarded as 
 a valuable adjunct to our strength and industry. 
 
 " Wherever I have gone in the Province — and since I 
 have been here, I have travelled nearly a thousand miles 
 within your borders — I have found the Indians upon their 
 several reserves, pretermitting a few petty grievances of a 
 local character they thought themselves justified in prefer- 
 ring — contented and satisfied, upon the most friendly terms 
 with their white neighbors, and implicitly confiding in the 
 good faith and paternal solicitude of the Government. 
 
 " There is no doubt that a great deal of the good feeling 
 thus subsisting between the red men and ourselves is due to 
 the influence and interposition of that invaluable class of men, 
 the Half-breed settlers and pioneers of Manitoba, who, com- 
 bining as they do the hardihood, the endurance, and love 
 of enterprise generated by the strain of Indian blood within 
 their veins, with the civilization, the instruction, and intel- 
 lectual power derived from their fathers have preached the 
 Gospel of peace and good-will, and mutual respect, with 
 equally beneficent results to the Indian chieftain in his 
 lodge and to the British settler in his shanty. 
 
 " Nor can I pass by the humane, kindly, and considerate 
 attention which has ever distinguished the Hudson's Bay 
 Company in its dealings with the native population. But 
 though giving due credit to these fortunate influences 
 amongst the causes which are conducing to produce and pre- 
 serve this fortunate result, the place of honor must be 
 adjudged to that honorable and generous policy which has 
 been pursued by successive Governments towards the 
 Indians of Canada, and which at this moment is being 
 ^ 33 
 
51:4 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 superintended and carried out with so much tact, discretion 
 and ability by your present Lieutenant-Governor, under 
 which the extinction of the Indian title upon liberal terms 
 has invariably been recognized as a necessary preliminary 
 to the occupation of a single square yard of native territory. 
 
 " But our Indian friends and neighbors are by no means 
 the only alien communities in Manitoba which demand the 
 solicitude of the Government and excite our sympathies and 
 curiosity. 
 
 " In close proximity to Winnipeg two other communities 
 — the Mennonites and Icelanders — starting from opposite, 
 ends of Europe, without either concert or communication, 
 have sought fresh homes within our territory ; the one of 
 Russian extraction, though German race, moved by a desire 
 to escape from the obligations of a law which was repulsive 
 to their conscience — the other, bred amid the snows and 
 ashes of an Arctic volcano, by the hope of bettering their 
 material condition. 
 
 " Although I have witnessed many sights to cause me 
 pleasure during my various progresses through the Domin- 
 ion, seldom have I beheld any spectacle more pregnant 
 with prophecy, more fraught with promise of a successful 
 future, than the Mennonite settlement. When I visited 
 these interesting people they had only been two years in 
 the Province, and yet in a long ride I took across many 
 miles of prairie, which but yesterday was absolutely bare, 
 desolate and untenanted, the home of the wolf, the badger 
 and the eagle, I passed village after village, homestead 
 after homestead furnished with all the conveniences and 
 incidents of European comfort and a scientific agriculture, 
 while on either side the road corn-fields already ripe for 
 harvest and pastures populous with herds of cattle stretched 
 away to the horizon. 
 
 " Even on this continent — the peculiar theatre of rapid 
 change and progress — there has nowhere, I imagine, ta.ken 
 
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF WINNIPEG. 515 
 
 place so marvellous a transformation; and yet, w^en in 
 your name, and m the name of the Queen of England, I 
 bade these people welcome to their new homes, it was not 
 the improvement in their material fortunes that pre-opcu- 
 pied my thoughts. Glad as 1 was of having the power of 
 allotting them so ample a portion of our teeming soil — a 
 soil which seems to blossom at a touch, and which they were 
 cultivating to such manifest advantage — I felt infinitely 
 prouder in being able to throw over them the aegis of the 
 British Constitution, and in bidding them freely share with 
 us our unrivalled political institutions, and our untram- 
 melled personal liberty. 
 
 " We ourselves are so accustomed to breathe the atmos- 
 phere of freedom that it scarcely occurs to us to consider and 
 appreciate our advantages in this respect. It is only when 
 we are reminded, by such incidents as that to which I refer, 
 of the small extent of the world's surface over which the 
 principles of Parliamentary Government can be said to 
 work smoothly and harmoniously, that we are led to con- 
 sider the exceptional happiness of our position. 
 
 " Nor was my visit to the Icelandic community less satis- 
 factory than that to our Mennonite fellow-subjects. Prom 
 accidental circumstances I have been long since led to take 
 an interest in the history and literature of the Scandinavian 
 race, and the kindness I once received at the hands of the 
 Icelandic people in their own island, naturally induced me 
 to take a deep interest in the welfare of this new immi- 
 gration. 
 
 " When we take into account the secluded position of the 
 Icelandic nation for the last thousand years, the unfavor- 
 able conditions of their climate and geographical situation, 
 it would be unreasonable to expect that a colony from thence 
 should exhibit the same aptitudes for agricultural enterprise 
 and settlement as would be possessed by a people fresh from 
 intimate contact with the higher civilization of Europe. 
 
516 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOKTH-WEST. 
 
 " In Iceland there are neither trees, nor cornfields, nor 
 highways. You cannot, therefore, expect an Icelander to 
 exhibit an inspired proficiency in felling timber, ploughing 
 land, or making roads, yet unfortunately these are the three 
 accomplishments most necessary to a colonist in Canada. 
 But though starting at a disadvantage in these respects, you 
 must not underrate the capacity of your new fellow-country- 
 men. They are endowed with a great deal of intellectual 
 ability, and a quick intelligence. They are well educated. 
 I scarcely entered a hovel at Gimli which did not possess a 
 library. 
 
 " They are well-conducted, religious and peaceable. 
 Above all they are docile and anxious to learn. Nor, con- 
 sidering the difficulty which prevails in this country in 
 procuring women servants, will the accession of some 
 hundreds of bright, good-humoured, though perhaps inex- 
 perienced, yet willing, Icelandic girls, anxious for employ- 
 ment, be found a disadvantage by the resident ladies of the 
 country. Should the dispersion of these young people lead, 
 in course of time, to the formation of more intimate and 
 tenderer ties than those of mere neighbourhood between the 
 Canadian population and the Icelandic colony, I am safe in 
 predicting that it will not prove a matter of regret on the 
 one side or the other. 
 
 " And, gentlemen, in reference to this point, I cannot 
 help remarking with satisfaction on the extent to which a 
 community of interests, the sense of being engaged in a 
 common undertaking, the obvious degree in which the pros- 
 perity of any one man is a gain to his neighbours, has amal- 
 gamated the various sections of the population of this Pro- 
 vince, originally so diverse in race, origin, and religion, 
 into a patriotic, closely- welded, and united whole. 
 
 " In no part of Canada have I found a better feeling pre- 
 vailing between all classes and sections of the community. 
 It is in a great measure owing to this widespread sentiment 
 
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF WINNIPEG 617 
 
 of brotherhood that on a recent occasion great troubles have 
 been averted, while at the present moment it is finding itn 
 crowning and most triumphant expression m the establish- 
 ment of a University under conditions which have been found 
 impossible of application in any other Province of Canada — 
 I may say in any other country in the world — for nowhere 
 else, either in Europe or on this continent, as far as I am 
 aware, have the bishops and heads of the various religious 
 communities into which the Christian world is unhappily 
 divided, combined to erect an Alma Mater to which all the 
 denominational colleges of the Province are to be afiiliated 
 and whose statutes and degrees are to be regulated and dis- 
 pensed under the joint auspices of a governing body in which 
 all the churches of the land will be represented. 
 
 " An achievement of this kind speaks volumes in favour 
 of the wisdom, liberality, and Christian charity of those de- 
 voted men by whom in this distant land the consciences of 
 the population are led and enlightened, and long may they 
 be spared to see the efforts of their exertions and magnani- 
 mous sacrifices in the good conduct and grateful devotion of 
 their respective flocks. Nor, I an, happy to think, is this 
 good fellowship, upon which I have so much cause to congrat- 
 ulate you, confined either within the limits of the Province 
 or even within those of the Dominion. 
 
 " In a word, apart, secluded from all extraneous influences, 
 nestling at the feet of her majestic mother, Canada dreams 
 her dream, and forbodes her destiny — a dream of ever- 
 broadening harvests, multiplying towns and villages, and 
 expanding pastures ; of page after page of honorable history 
 added as her contribution to the annals of the Mother 
 Country and to the glories of the British race ; of a perpet- 
 uation for all time upon this continent of that temperate 
 and well-balanced system of Government which combines 
 in one mighty whole, as the eternal possession of all English- 
 men, the brilliant history and the traditions of the past, 
 
518 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 with the freest and most untrammelled liberty of action in 
 the future. 
 
 " Most heartily do I congratulate you upon all that you 
 are doing, and upon the glorious prospect which is opening 
 out on every side of you. Though elsewhere in the Domin- 
 ion stagnation of trade and commerce has checked for a year 
 or two the general advance of Canada, here at least you 
 have escaped the effects of such sinister incidents, for your 
 welfare being based upon the most solid of all foundations, 
 the cultivation of the soil, you are in a position to pursue 
 the even tenor of your way untroubled by those alterna- 
 tions of fortune which disturb the world of trade and manu- 
 facture. You have been blessed with an abundant harvest, 
 and soon, I trust, will a railway come to carry to those who 
 need it the surplus of your produce, now, as my own eyes 
 have witnessed, imprisoned in your storehouses for want of 
 the means of transport. May the expanding finances of the 
 country soon place the Government in a position to gratify 
 your just and natural expectations." 
 
 The Winnipeg of to day — as is well evidenced by what 
 we have already said cf its rise and progress — forms a 
 marked contrast to that of a few years ago. Its progress 
 has been such as scarcely to be credited by those who have 
 not been actual witnesses of its wonderful growth. 
 
 To the new-comer, from the older Provinces of the 
 Dominion, or the old countries of Europe, for the first 
 time setting foot in this metropolis of the great North- 
 West, the appearance of the city, the scenes witnessed on 
 its crowded thoroughfares, and in its still more crowded 
 hotels and places of resort and business, are striking and 
 novel. Stepping from the crowded train at the railway 
 station, or from the steamer at the landing, a short walk 
 brings the traveller to the principal thoroughfare of the 
 city. At the places of debarkation, on the arrival of train 
 or boat, all is bustle and excitement. Cabmen and " bus " 
 
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF WINNIPEG. 519 
 
 drirers ply their vocation with lungs as lusty, and with 
 as much assiduity as in the older cities. Immense piles of 
 baggage almost block up every available space. Speculators 
 with long purses rub shoulder to shoulder, amid the jostling 
 throng upon the crowded platform, with those in less 
 independent circumstances, who have come to carve out a 
 home by the labor of their hands and the sweat of their brow. 
 If the traveller arrive during the winter season — and if the 
 weather be favorable — he will find the fine wide streets of 
 the city crowded with conveyances of all descriptions — 
 magnificent turnouts with coachmen and footmen fully 
 equipped ; less pretentious rigs, not so gi-and as those of the 
 nabobs, but the very essence of comfort withal; farmers 
 from the adjacent country with spanking teams, in many 
 cases brought with them from the east ; natives with a pro- 
 cession of ox-sleds, laden with wood or produce, going to or 
 returning from market. The sleds are as a rule drawn by a 
 single member of the bovine race, but harnessed in "shaga- 
 uappi" and altogether in a more comfortable way equipped 
 for draft than with the old fashioned wooden yoke of by-gone 
 days. Shaganappi, it might be well to explain here, is the 
 name given to the raw buffalo hide from which the ox 
 harness is made. Now and then dog trains, either starting 
 out or returning from long trips to the far west, pass by at 
 a rapid rate. There are usually from six to eight dogs 
 attached to a toboggan; and their continual yelping, together 
 with the shouting of the Indian or Half-breed driver, make 
 up a scene at once novel and picturesque. 
 
 On the sidewalks the excitement that generally pre- 
 vails attracts attention, and the student of human nature 
 finds ample scope for the exercise of his penchant. Men, old 
 and young, hurry along with anxious look — eagerly intent 
 on business — and, as a rule, a roll of plans under the arm 
 or a note book in the hand may be detected. Some who 
 may have done a good day's business and added a few 
 
520 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH--WEST. 
 
 thousands to their capital, have a satisfied appearance, while 
 others, whose properties may be a little slow in moving, ap- 
 pear in a corresponding degree despondent. The real estate 
 offices — of which the number is legion — are thronged from 
 early morn till late in the night. The maps and plans 
 displayed to view are a constant subject of study, and trans- 
 actions involving thousands of dollars are made and settled 
 up with a promptness and rapidity that would surprise 
 the more slowgoing and cautious people of other and 
 older countries. In this great turmoil of business, men of 
 all nationalities meet — for what country or clime is not 
 represented in this grand gathering of the nations in this 
 new country ? 
 
 A noticeable feature on the streets, and it is even more 
 discernible in the churches, is the large preponderance of 
 the male population. At the time of writing it is cal- 
 culated that two-thirds of the population of the city are 
 males. This is, of course, accounted for by the fact that the 
 recent influx of immigration has consisted very largely of 
 young unmarried men, who have come here to seek their 
 fortune before entering into matrimonial bonds. There are 
 also many who have left their families in Ontario or else- 
 where until spring, by which time they expect to become 
 permanently settled. To attend one of the large churches 
 of the city is to witness a sight not to be seen out of Winni- 
 peg. They are crowded to the door — and the vast con- 
 gregation is composed of the very bone and sinew of other 
 lands — strong men with will and determination stamped 
 upon every feature, and in the majority of cases comfor- 
 tably situated financially. Such audiences must inspire any 
 man who rises to address them. The people of Winnipeg 
 are eminently a church-going community. On the Sabbath 
 morn, except when the bells in the church towers call the 
 citizens forth to worship, the streets are very quiet, and 
 from then until the hour of dismissal the same quiet prevails. 
 
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF WINNIPEG. 521 
 
 There are other novel features in this wonderful city. 
 The old aborigines are not by any means extinct, and now 
 and then one meets an Indian mother — a representative of 
 a fast departing race — her papoose strapped tightly on her 
 back, and covered with a blanket, the little urchin as a rule 
 indicating very unmistakable objections to such close con- 
 finement by violent protestations audible from underneath 
 its woollen protection. 
 
 The almost entire absence of pauperism, or anything 
 approaching to squalor, is a noticeable feature of life in 
 Winnipeg. Every one from the laboring man up is well and 
 comfortably clad, and seems to be perfectly satisfied with the 
 country in which his lot has been cast. This statement is 
 corroborated by the fact that during the past year the City 
 Council were required to expend less tha-n $150 for chari- 
 table purposes. 
 
 In the evening after the stores and other places of busi- 
 ness are closed, the hotels and real estate auction rooms are 
 the centres around which the great mass of the people con- 
 gregate. Every large hotel has a real estate office in con- 
 nection with it. The excitement then is even more intense 
 than during the day — and many of the largest transactions 
 then take place. The auction rooms are generally crowded, 
 and the amount of property sometimes disposed of is very 
 large. There mechanics and workingmen, whose time is 
 otherwise occupied during the day, mingle with those whose 
 only business is to speculate, and venture a portion of their 
 hard earned savings in a piece of Manitoba earth, which often 
 in the course of a few days realizes the purchaser a hand- 
 some profit. The whole community seems to be permeated 
 with a desire for speculation. Scarcely one in the city but has 
 benefitted somewhat by the " boom " that has existed, 
 and in many cases a very satisfactory nucleus for a future 
 competence, has accrued to the fortunate investor. All who 
 come are satisfied that the prospects are great, and many 
 
522 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOKTH-WEST. 
 
 doubting Thomases who came to see, remained to buy. 
 In a week or two they are deep in the maelstrom of land 
 speculation. 
 
 Socially, Winnipeg may be said to be as near what it 
 ought to be as any city in existence. People of all classes 
 and creeds, natives and foreigners, alike work together in 
 perfect accord, with a single aim to further the resources of 
 the great country tributary to it. 
 
 And thus are Winnipeg and the North-West working 
 out their manifest destiny. 
 
CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 Churches and Schools in tlie North-West. 
 
 fA Chaptkr Wkittkn by G. M. Grant, D.D., Pkinoipal of Quben's Universitt, 
 Kingston, Ont.] 
 
 First Settlers in Manitoba Presbyterians — Their Piety — Attachment to the Chiirch 
 of their Fathers — First Anglican Missionaries — Their Zeal and Prudence — High- 
 land Tenacity — Arrival of Rev. John Black — Kildonan Church — Boman Catho- 
 lic Missions — Establishment of Churches and Schools by Missionaries from the 
 Church of England — Rupert's Land Divided into Four Dioceses — One Episcopal 
 Church for Canada — Methodist Missionaries — Rev. George Macdougal — Rev. 
 Greorge Toung — Methodist Churches in Winnipeg — Missions of the Presbyterian 
 Church — Knox and St. Andrew's Churches — A Common Mission Board for the 
 'Protestant Churches Required — First School Act — Its Provisions and Amendments 
 on it — Educational Development — Difficulties Caused by Sparse Settlement — High 
 School Work — Colleges — St. Boniface— St. John's — Manitoba College — Manitoba 
 tTniversity — ^Harmonious Co-operation in it of all Churches and Colleges — Happy 
 Solntion of Dif&culties Considered Insuperable Elsewhere — Omens for the Future. 
 
 Roman Catholic Missions, by Archbishop Tache's Secretary — Missions of St. Boniface — 
 East St Boniface — Colleges — Charitable Institutions. 
 
 The celebrated book on snakes in Ireland commenced 
 with the words " There are no Snakes in Ireland." Had 
 a chapter on churches and schools in the North West been 
 written half a century ago it would have opened in much the 
 same way. But now, with regard to churches and schools, 
 Manitoba styles herself the " Banner Province of the Do- 
 minion." Our young sister in the North-West has not had to 
 pass through the initial era of social chaos, that character- 
 ised the history of many of the Western States. Her immi- 
 grants at the first were a God-fearing people, and so in the 
 main they have always been and still are. Avoiding oppo- 
 site fanaticisms in education, she has escaped the Scylla of 
 sectarianism, and the Charybdis of anti-sectarianism. The 
 settler is not expected to come without a live coal from his 
 own venerated altar-fires, and he and his neighbors may 
 well build school-houses, for one-eighteenth of the land has 
 been set apart as an endowment for the schoolmaster. 
 
524 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 The Highlanders, whom the Lowland Earl of Selkirk 
 brought from Scotland in 1812 and 1816, were •Presby- 
 terians. Religion was the principle of their lives, and their 
 religion was inextricably bound up with the simple forms 
 of the Church of their fathers. They would not have left 
 their mountains and glens for the prairies that, Lork Selkirk 
 told them, were ready for the plough in the heart of an 
 unknown continent, had he not promised that a minister of 
 their chuch would accompany them to their new home. 
 His Lordship arranged that the son of the parish minister 
 of Resolis should go with them. At the last moment the 
 young licentiate drew back, and the colonists had to set out 
 with a lay catechist, one of the class emphatically styled 
 '•' the men," as their spiritual guide. This lay missionary, 
 James Sutherland by name, did his duty faithfully while 
 with them, but the hostile influences of the North-west 
 Company secured his removal after a few years, and the 
 pious Highlanders were left with no man to care for their 
 souls. They had, however, resources within themselves, 
 and these did not fail them. They had their Gaelic Bibles, 
 and could read them. Family worship was observed as 
 regularly as the sun rose and set. They sang the psalms 
 of David in G^lic to those plaintive tunes that reach to the 
 very marrow of the Highland nature, and prayed as men 
 pray who believe that the living God can be moved by 
 prayer. It might be supposed that men who could pray in 
 public extempore, and exhort with an amazing combination 
 of doctrinal knowledge and emotional fervor, would come to 
 feel themselves independent of ministers of religion. Not 
 at all. No men revere the ministerial office more than 
 Highlanders. Consequently, as no minister of their own 
 persuasion came to the distant Eed River of the North, the 
 settlers gave a hearty welcome to the missionaries of the 
 Church of England. The Rev. John West, who arrived in 
 1820, was the first of these. He was succeeded by the Rev. 
 
CHURCHES AND SCHOOLS IN THE NOETH-WEST. 525 
 
 D. T. Jones. These men, and those who followed, did all 
 that could be done to attach the Scotchmen to Anglican 
 forms. They used Rouse's version of the Psalms, and held 
 one of the services in the church on the Lord's Day according 
 to the Presbyterian form. In 1846, the Bishopric of 
 Rupert's Land, embracing the vast area from the Coast of 
 Labrador to the Rocky Mountains, was founded, and the 
 Reverend Mr. Anderson, a Scotchman, was its first bishop. 
 He resigned in 1864, and another Scotchman, Bishop 
 Machray, succeeded him. But, though the Highlanders 
 attended their ministrations, and were married and had 
 their children baptized according to the Anglican mode, 
 they clung to the memory of the Church of their Fatherland. 
 Those simple forms styled bald and cold by gesthetical 
 religionists had a singular charm for those spiritually 
 minded men, and they clung with extraordinary tenacity to 
 the hope of some day seeing among them a minister of their 
 own Church. I know nothing of the kind in recent Church 
 History more touching than this fidelity, that no neglect and 
 no disappointments could chill. Here are the words, taken 
 from an affidavit made by them, in which they state how 
 bootless all their efibrts had been : — " Over and over again 
 have we applied to every governor in the colony since its 
 commencement, to Mr. Halkett, also to his lordship's kins- 
 man, and to the Governor-in-Chief of Rupert's Land ; and 
 time after time petitioned the men in power among us; but 
 all to no effect." The Church of England had done more than 
 its duty, but the Church of Scotland seemed deaf. At length, 
 the Canada Presbyterian Church heard their cry, and in 1852 
 sent the Rev. John Black to minister to them. We travel 
 from Toronto to Winnipeg in two or three days. Thirty 
 years ago, it took Mr. Black eight weeks to make the journey. 
 And, had it not been for the aid of Governor Ramsay of 
 Minnesota, the young minister would have been longer 
 on the road. Illinois mud was as bad as Manitoba mud is now. 
 
526 MANITOBA AND THiS GtlEAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 The Highlanders welcomed Mr. Black with a Highland 
 welcome. Their eyes saw the teacher they had longed to 
 see. In one day, three hundred left the Episcopal Church, 
 without reproach on the part of the Bishop, and with no feel- 
 ings in their hearts for him save gratitude and respect. Soon, 
 manse and school-house and the stone church of Kildonan 
 were built. The steeple rose into the air, a sign seen 
 from afar on the level prairie ever since. " There ! " 
 exclaimed the mason as he gazed on the solid structure with 
 loving eyes, "keep pouther and ill hands aff her, and she 
 '11 stand for a hunner years and mair !" 
 
 During the next fifteen years nothing more was done by 
 the Presbyterian Churches for the religious development of 
 the North-west. Mr. Black was Presbyter and Bishop. 
 He alone represented the cause of the old blue banner and 
 he did it in a way that secured for him the affection and 
 respect of all men. His congregation dwelt on the banks 
 of the Red River, from Fort Garry downwards. Ribands 
 of land extending from the river away into the prairie, " as 
 far distant as could be seen from under a horse's belly," had 
 been given to the immigrants. This distance was supposed 
 to be two miles, but two miles more were claimed as a 
 reserve for hay, and the claim was subsequently allowed. 
 Each immigrant had a river frontage, and the houses were 
 built along the river bank. This system of colonization, which 
 resembled the old French settlements on the St. Lawrence 
 and its tributaries, gave an appearance of dense population, 
 very different from that picture of loneliness now commonly 
 presented to the eye, of vast prairies dotted here and there 
 with small and mean-looking houses. It was admirably 
 adapted for the cultivation of good fellowship among neigh- 
 bors, but put good farming out of the question. A line of 
 block houses extended down the banks of the Red River. 
 Cultivated fields gradually broke in upon that undeviating 
 monotony which the virgin prairie had maintained for 
 
CHURCHES AND SCHOOLS IN THE NOETH-WEST. 527 
 
 countless centuries. Those same fields have raised wheat con- 
 tinuously ever since. Crofters, ejected by Highland lairds 
 who thought more of red deer and grouse than of the old 
 sons of the grand Scottish mountains, disbanded soldiers and 
 retired servants of the Hudson's Bay Company, joined them- 
 selves from year to year to their countrymen at Kildonan. 
 The settlement grew in importance, and in 1871 when the 
 Presbyterian Church of Canada decided that Manitoba re- 
 quired an institution that would be in itself both high school 
 and College, they erected the building not in AVinnipeg, 
 but beside the stone Kirk of Kildonan. 
 
 The honour of having cared for the religious interests of the 
 North-West in its early days must be assigned to the Roman 
 Catholic and Anglican Churches. The Methodist Church en- 
 tered the field next. Nothing need be said here concerning 
 the Roman Catholic Missions, as a special portion of this chap- 
 ter has been assigned to them. Too much praise can hardly 
 be given to the Church of England, especially when its zeal is 
 compared with the inactivity of the Scottish Church. True, 
 the Church of Scotland puts in the plea of ignorance as its 
 defence ; and the fact that the petition of the Kildonan 
 settlers for a minister, sent home through the Hudson's Bay 
 Company, came back a year or two after in a butter tub, 
 throws a significant light on the subject. At any rate, 
 Anglican missionaries did come, and they were good men. 
 Not confining themselves to the white population of the Red 
 River, they devoted their attention to the English-speaking 
 Half-breds wherever a nucleus of them was to be found, and 
 also to the Indians as far north as the forts on the frozen 
 shores of Hudson's Bay, and the unutterably lonely posts on 
 the distant Mackenzie River. They built churches and 
 schools, and formed congregations. Previous to the passing 
 of the School Law in 1871, almost all the schools that 
 existed within and beyond the province were and had been 
 from the first in connection with the Anglican Missions. 
 
&^ MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 They were supported, in whole or part, by the Church Mis- 
 sionary Society or by grants from the Diocesan Fund This 
 fund being small, grants could not be made in every case of 
 need. And, in not a few cases the clergymen, unable to get 
 assistance, voluntarily undertook the laborious duties of 
 school teaching, without remuneration, in addition to their 
 proper work. 
 
 On the resignation of Bishop Anderson, Bishop Machray 
 ruled episcopally over the whole North-west. His patriar- 
 chate is now divided into four dioceses, — Rupert's Land with 
 nearly thirty clergymen, at least one-third of these being 
 Missionaries to the Indians and Half-breeds ; and Moosonee, 
 Saskatchewan, and Athabasca, with about twenty clergymen 
 between them, all more or less engaged in similar mission 
 work. Bishop McLean of Saskatchewan has undergone 
 great labor in enlisting the sympathies of his Church, in 
 England and in Canada, on behalf of his diocese. 
 Preaching, lecturing, and collecting money wherever he 
 goes, he has raised an endowment for his bishopric, built 
 Emmanuel College at Prince Albert, in which several full- 
 blooded Crees are under training for the holy ministry, and 
 secured the salaries of several additional Missionaries and 
 Catechists for his diocese. What seems to be needed now is 
 that the dioceses of the North-west should be connected with 
 the Church in Canada. Such affiliation would not lead to the 
 withdrawal of the aid given by the English Missionary Socie- 
 tiesj while it would quicken the interest fe^ in the work 
 by Canadian Episcopalians. The people who go to the 
 North-west from our older provinces should feel that they 
 are going away neither from their own country nor their own 
 Church. In the interest of patriotism and religion it is desi- 
 rable that all the forces that mould the character of a people 
 to high issues should be brought to bear upon the immigrants 
 who are pouring into the North-west.- May we therefore 
 soon see one Episcopal Church of Canada, as one Presby- 
 
CHURCHES AND SCHOOLS IN THE NORTH-WEST. 529 
 
 terian and one Methodist Church now include the vast pro- 
 portion of the people known by these designations. Cer- 
 tainly, so far as the North-west is concerned, no other 
 Church has a better right than the Episcopal to claim an 
 inheritance in the land. 
 
 At present, the Methodist and Presbyterian Churches are 
 prosecuting religious work with wise liberality and fore- 
 thought. The former had its missioneries in the country 
 thirty years ago. Evans and Rundle, men of apostolic 
 character and labours, were the pioneers. None of their 
 successors have gone beyond the bounds to which they 
 penetrated. George Macdougal followed in their steps, and 
 established missions on and near the Saskatchewan at 
 Morleyville, where his son is now labouring under the res- 
 plendent lights and shadows reflected from the long silver- 
 tipped line of the Rocky Mountains, and at various other 
 points where Indians were in the habit of congregating. 
 He and Pere Lacombe had extraordinary influence with the 
 Indians, influence of which the Government availed itself on 
 diiferent occasions, and for the wise exercise of which the 
 country is greatly their debtor. To-day, the Methodist 
 Church has missions on the two Saskatchewans, all the way 
 up to the Rocky Mountains ; also, on the east side of Lake 
 Winnipeg at Beren's River and Poplar River, and on the 
 west side at Fisher River. At the northern end of the 
 Lake their headquarters are established at Norway House. 
 From that point, a chain of stations connected with Norway 
 House or Oxford House extends down the Nelson River. 
 Almost all the Indians in this part of the country are 
 nominally Christians. Keep whiskey from them, and they 
 are better Christians practically than average white men. 
 Five or six hundred Indian church members are connected 
 with Norway House and its stations. Sixty or seventy 
 miles north of the bend of the North Saskatchewan, an 
 important mission has been established at White-fish Lake. 
 34 
 
530 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Here, the clergyman, Rev. Mr. Steinhaur, is a full-blooded 
 Ojibbway, and his Cree flock are gradually abandoning their 
 nomadic habits and becoming farmers. A gratifying feature 
 of mission- work in the North-west is the fact that the diffe- 
 rent Protestant Churches do not interfere with each other. 
 They respect each other too much to compete for converts, 
 even when there is a temptation in the way. For instance, 
 last summer, a deputation of Indians from a district under 
 the care of the Church of England requested the Methodist 
 Superintendent to send them a minister. Inquiry was 
 made at the proper quarter into the cause, and it being 
 ascertained that the Indians had taken offence, because an 
 erring but popular Half-breed clergyman had been disciplin- 
 ed, their request was courteously declined. 
 
 The Methodist Church of Canada is preparing to follow 
 the stream of immigration with wonted energy. It has 
 taken a comprehensive view of the whole country, and 
 will send ministers to the most important points, and 
 wherever its people call for the ordinances of religion to be 
 dispensed to them according to the ritual to which they 
 have been accustomed. In 1868, Rev. George Young arrived 
 in Winnipeg, and made application to the H. B. Company 
 for a site for a church and mission house. The Company, in 
 accordance with its traditional policy of dealing liberally 
 with all Churches, allowed him to select an acre from its 
 reserve. He selected so judiciously that the site has now a 
 frontage of 420 feet on Main Street. A neat church was 
 erected, but a year or two ago the congregation, believing that 
 they could worship in a less valuable locality, rented the 
 church for worldly uses and built stores along side, which 
 bring in rent enough to maintain an Archbishop. The 
 congregation betook itself to the Drill-shed, and then to a 
 hall over the stores, until they should decide where to build 
 a Metropolitan church. They own land on Notre Dame 
 Street, but it also is becoming so valuable as a business site 
 
CHURCHES AND SCHOOLS IN THE NORTH-WEST. 531 
 
 that some think it a pity to waste it on a church. The 
 second Methodist church is near Point Douglas. A. valuable 
 farm in West St. Boniface has been bequeathed recently by 
 the Rev. D. Morrow, a minister of the Church, to enable it 
 to establish a Denominational College, when the time comes 
 for taking such a step. Both the Methodist and the M. E. 
 Churches have already secured the necessary charters for 
 Colleges. Everything indicates that the Methodist Church 
 will take as prominent a place in Manitoba as it occupies 
 in Ontario. 
 
 The Reverend Mr. Nesbit was the first missionary to the 
 Indians sent out by the Canada Presbyterian Church. He 
 established his headquarters at Prince Albert, on the North 
 Saskatchewan, in 1866, and did good work until he died at 
 his post in 1874. Prince Albert is destined to be an im- 
 portant centre, and the Church has therefore recently sent 
 Rev. Mr. Sieveright, who is building at various points in 
 the surrounding country with the zeal of a St. Boniface 
 or Columbanus. The Presbyterian Church is atoning for 
 past neglect by the energy which it has displayed in North- 
 west work since its union in 1875. Their congregation in 
 Winnipeg built, on Portage Avenue, Knox church, a beauti- 
 ful specimen of Gothic architecture, whose tall graceful spire 
 has ever since been the landmark of the city to travellers 
 far out on the prairie. Knox congregation became so large 
 that a number of its energetic young men determined to form 
 a second congregation, to be called St. Andrews. They did 
 so last year, parting from the parent congregation in the 
 most friendly spirit. Both parties were actuated by a 
 desire for the common good, and the mother congregation 
 determined therefore to move away from the centre of the 
 city to a site near Manitoba College, the better to divide 
 Winnipeg into two parishes. The trustees. Kirk-session and 
 congregation of Knox, instead of complaining of the loss 
 they would sustain by the formation of the second congre- 
 
532 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 gation, voted tlie ofFshoot $10,000 towards the erection of 
 their proposed new church, and subsequently when Knox 
 was sold for a larger sum than was expected, the gift 
 was increased to $25,000. They do big things in the 
 North-west. The size of the country may have its influence 
 on the minds of the people. For instance, the members of 
 Knox church contributed in 1881 between forty and fifty 
 thousand dollars for religious and charitable objects. And 
 in the first months of 1882, a new scheme for building 
 churches and manses having been proposed, they subscribed 
 towards it in a few days over $20,000. All this in a city 
 less than ten years old ! 
 
 In the summer of 1881, the Presbyterian Church had 
 thirty-eight ordained ministers and student catechists in the 
 North-west. In 1882 it intends to have fifty. Ten years 
 ago it had about a dozen preaching stations. Now it has over 
 one hundred and fifty. 
 
 There is room in the North-west for all the Churches and 
 for all that they can do. But where so much has to be done, 
 an understanding is most desirable, to prevent collisions 
 and cross firing. In Australia the Episcopal, Methodist, and 
 Presbyterian Churches economize their strength and give 
 practical proof of their underlying unity and brotherly spirit 
 by an agreement not to interfere with each other's work in 
 the Home mission field, and by the establishment of a board 
 that endeavors to harmonize the action of the respective 
 Churches. A joint committee that would organize a fair 
 distribution of missionaries in our North-west would be an 
 unspeakable blessing. Anyone who has had opportunities 
 of seeing what communities become where no ministers of 
 religion hold up a banner for God, morality and purity of 
 life, would gladly sacrifice all the shibboleths of his sect to 
 secure a resident clergyman in every settled township in 
 the North-west. The very existence of a church in a com- 
 munity is a witness of higher things than the material. The 
 
CHURCHES AND SCHOOLS IN THE NORTH-WEST. 533 
 
 presence of a minister of religion is a guarantee of social 
 order. The Presbyterian Church has recently taken a step 
 that not only renders its own administration more prompt 
 and effective, but facilitates the carrying out of a common 
 understanding between different Churches. It appointed 
 last year a Superintendent of missions for the whole North- 
 west, and the presbytery or court constitutionally charged 
 with the work that he has to do, far from viewing the new 
 office with suspicion as an encroachment on its own jurisdic- 
 tion, pressed for its creation. The Reverend James Robert- 
 son, pastor of Knox church, Winnipeg, was appointed Supe- 
 rintendent by the General Assembly. His capacity for 
 organization and his knowledge of the country, especially of 
 its religious and educational necessities, marked him out for 
 the post to which he was apppointed by unanimous consent. 
 
 Perhaps the most satisfactory chapter in the history of 
 Manitoba is its peaceful and harmonious educational develop- 
 ment. In every other province of the Dominion long and 
 angry wars have been waged over common schools, academies 
 and Colleges. Well may the province that has no history 
 in this respect be called happy. 
 
 During the first session of the first parliament of Manitoba 
 held in 1871, the act that is the basis of the present system 
 of common school education was passed. The act has been 
 amended from time to time, and there is now virtually a 
 general school system connected with the municipal code in- 
 troduced a year or two ago. A board of education, composed 
 of Roman Catholic and Protestant sections, was established 
 in 1871. The Reverend W. Cyprian Pinkham and Mr. Eli 
 Tass6 were appointed superintendents of the Protestant and 
 Roman Catholic schools respectively. The Educational law 
 from the first was based on the principle that the traditions, 
 creeds and wishes of the people should be respected as far 
 as could be done without impairing the efficiency of the 
 schools. Ample powers were conferred on the Board of Ed- 
 
534 MANITOBA AND THE GEEAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 ucation. To it were referred the examination and grading 
 of teachers, the granting of diplomas, the selection of school 
 books, and the control and discipline of the schools. The 
 Provincial Government gave a liberal annual grant for ed- 
 ucation, which was divided between the Roman Catholic 
 and Protestant sections, at first equally, and subsequently 
 according to the number of scholars that the annual census 
 showed to belong to each school. When settlers in any 
 part of the province have among them enough children 
 to make an average of ten, they, may on petition to the 
 Education Bureau be recognized as a school district. This 
 done, they obtain a Government grant of at least $200 a 
 year for a teacher ; and they can supplement this grant by 
 voluntary subscriptions or by assessment. The spirit of the 
 people has been shown by the general adoption of the prin- 
 ciple of assessment. They elect trustees for the district, and 
 these have power to erect a school-house, engage a teacher 
 and obtain all school requisites. A great difficulty con- 
 nected with both church and school attendance is the sparse 
 settlement of the country. Even in the few cases where all 
 the land in a township is owned by actual settlers, the land 
 hunger of the people made them secure farms for their 
 children as well as for themselves. The church and school 
 are consequently at a distance from all but two or three 
 families. Various plans are being tried to overcome this 
 great practical inconvenience, but it is found rather difficult 
 to eat your cake and have it. Notwithstanding the com- 
 parative poverty of immigrants and many other obstacles in 
 the way, however, there are already between one and two 
 hundred schools in Manitoba, where there were not a dozen 
 seven years ago. Religious exercises and instruction are 
 prominent features in the Roman Catholic schools. In all 
 others, portions of Holy Scripture are read, and prayers, 
 according to forms in the bylaws and regulations, are offered 
 at the daily opening and closing. 
 
536 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Neither High Schools nor Colleges have been established 
 under the School Law. All work of higher education has 
 been done by the Churches. Intermediate education at 
 any rate must soon be publicly cared for in Winnipeg and 
 other large towns, and ample provision can be made for it 
 and probably for Colleges too, out of the magnificent land en- 
 dowment wisely reserved by the Province, for Educational 
 purposes, at the outset. A few years ago the Board of 
 Education proposed to sell these lands at one dollar an acre. 
 Fortunately their ; roposals were overruled. The lands are 
 now worth from ft ir to ten dollars an acre. At present, 
 the three Denominational Colleges do High School work, 
 and two — St. Boniface and St. John's — have even Primary 
 departments, but of course such a primitive state of things 
 cannot be permanent. 
 
 St. John's College, in connection with which are St. 
 John's College School for Boys and St. John's College 
 Ladies' School, is under the auspices of the Episcopalian 
 denomination. These institutions are situated in the 
 Parish of St. John, one of the modern suburbs of the city. 
 St. John's School was established in 1820 and incorporated 
 as a College in 1871. It was commenced by the Rev. John 
 West, and rose to importance under the management of the 
 Rev. John Macallum, M.A. The College is governed by a 
 council under statutes given by the Bishop and sanctioned 
 by the Synod. The Ladies' School is an institution of 
 later date. A handsome new brick building erected for its 
 use has accommodation for thirty young ladies and also for 
 the matron and assistants required. The College and School 
 are well attended, boys coming to them from the posts on the 
 Mackenzie River, three thousand miles away. The Bishop 
 of Rupert's Land is at the head of these institutions, and is 
 indefatigable in his efforts to promote their welfare. 
 
 Manitoba College — in connection with the Presbyterian 
 Church in Canada — was established in 1871, in Kildonan 
 
CHURCHES AND SCHOOLS IN THE NORTH-WEST. 537 
 
 and was shortly afterwards removed to more suitable pre- 
 mises in the city of Winnipeg. These were disposed of in 
 1881, and handsome new buildings erected in the western 
 part of the city between Portage Avenue and Notre Dame 
 Street. The corner stone of the new College was laid by 
 the Governor-General, Lord Lome, in August last. The 
 structure is of brick, rock stone foundations, and three storeys 
 in height. Four acres and a quarter of land form the College 
 grounds. The cost, including furnishings, will be about 
 $40,000. The Board of Management consists of the follow- 
 ing : — Hon. A. G. B. Bannatyne, Chairman ; Prof. Bryce ; 
 Prof. Hart; Revs. Thos. McGuire, A. Matheson, James 
 Eobertson, Alex. Campbell, Allan Bell; Hon. D. A. Smith; 
 Hon. G. McMicken; H. McMillan, M.P.P. ; A. W. Ross, 
 M.P.P. ; Messrs. D. McArthur, and John Sutherland. The 
 faculty consists of: Rev. George Bryce, M.A., LL.B., Pro- 
 fessor of Science and Literature; Rev. Thomas Hart, M.A., 
 B.D., Professor of Classics and French ; Rev. R. Y. Thomp- 
 son, B.A., Lecturer in Science and Literature ; Mr. R. G. 
 MacBeth, University of Manitoba, Lecturer in Classics and 
 French ; Mr. R. W. Jameson, B.A., (Cantab.), Lecturer in 
 Higher Mathematics; Mr. A. M. Campbell, University of 
 Manitoba, Lecturer in Ordinary Mathematics. The Senate 
 consists of Rev. D. M. Gordon, B.D. ; Professor Hart ; Pro- 
 fessor Bryce, James Robertson, C. B. Pitblads, and Alex. 
 Campbell. The objects of the College are to give such higher 
 education as the requirements of the country may demand, 
 and to prepare students for the ministry under the super- 
 vision of the Presbytery of Manitoba. This College takes a 
 foremost place amo»g the educational institutions of the 
 country. 
 
 In 1877, the University of Manitoba was established with 
 its seat at "Winnipeg, " for the purpose," as set forth in the 
 preamble to the Act of Incorporation, "of raising the 
 standard of higher education in the Province, and enabling 
 
538 MANITOBA AND THE GEEAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 all denominations and classes to obtain academical degrees." 
 The three denominational Colleges are affiliated to the 
 University, and as the country develops, others will spring 
 into existence and take advantage of its privileges. The 
 University is governed by a Council consisting of a Chan- 
 cellor and Vice-Chancellor, of representatives for each of the 
 Colleges that may be affiliated, three representatives elected 
 by the Convention of Graduates, and two representatives of 
 the Board of Education. Degrees in Arts, Law, and Medi- 
 cine are conferred by the University, and power is given to 
 the several Colleges, with the consent of the religious bodies 
 with which they are connected, to establish separate faculties 
 in theology, and grant the Degrees of Bachelor of Divinity 
 and Doctor of Divinity. The Chancellor of the University 
 is the Bishop of Rupert's Land; the Vice-Chancellor, Hon. 
 Joseph Royal, M. P. ; Registrar, Thomas Bernier, Esq. ; 
 Board of Studies — Chairman, The Bishop of Rupert's Land ; 
 Secretary, Prof. Hart, M.A., B.D. 
 
 Manitoba has shown that it is possible to organize Univer- 
 sity education on a basis that does equal justice to denomi- 
 national and to non-denominational efforts. The harmonious 
 co-operation of the Colleges, and their willingness to make 
 changes in their respective ideals, are signal proofs of the 
 wisdom and catholic spirit of the men who govern them. 
 Thus, St. Boniface College introduced more mathematics and 
 more of physical and natural science into its curriculum than 
 the Archbishop thought desirable, in order to meet the views 
 of the other Colleges. Manitoba College, again, gave more 
 prominence to classics than it might otherwise have done. 
 The tolerant spirit of the council is also shown by its allowing 
 separate papers on logic, natural and moral philosophy, and 
 history to be set for the students of St. Boniface who come 
 up to the University examinations. Educational problems 
 considered insoluble in other countries and provinces have 
 thus been quickly solved in Manitoba. The evil spirit of 
 
CHURCHES AND SCHOOLS IN THE NORTH-WEST. 539 
 
 sectarianism has been exorcised, not by the ostrich like wis- 
 dom of ignoring sects, but by frankly acknowledging the 
 good work they have done, and securing their co-operation 
 in common objects. Justice is done to all, and in conse- 
 quence. Colleges with different histories, ideals and modes 
 of government gladly send their alumni to one centre to 
 be stamped with the common stamp of the University of 
 Manitoba. May the spirit that has presided over the Uni- 
 versity in the days of its poverty not desert its authorities 
 when through the development of the country it becomes 
 wealthy and powerful ! 
 
540 MANITOBA AND THE GEEaT NOETH-WEST. 
 
 Roman Catholic Missions of St. Boniface, Manitoba. 
 
 [This Article was Written by Aeoheishop Taohe's Secretary.] 
 
 It has been the scene of heroic efforts for general good 
 "which have brought about the most distinguished feature of 
 the locality, that of its religious, educational, and benevolent 
 Institutions. 
 
 Lord Selkirk, anxious to attract to his colony the French 
 Canadians dispersed throughout the country, took the ne- 
 cessary steps to secure the services of two priests. Bishop 
 Plessis, the then Bishop of Quebec, willingly acceded to the 
 request and proposed the important mission to the Reverend 
 J. N. Provencher, and the Reverend S. Dumoulin, who gen- 
 erously accepted it. The Reverend gentlemen travelled in 
 birch canoes and reached Point Douglas, now Winnipeg, on 
 the 16th of July, 1818. Shortly after they crossed the Red 
 River and began the settlement to which they gave the name 
 of St. Boniface, the Apostle of Germany, as a mark of regard 
 for the Catholic German soldiers who had accompanied 
 Lord Selkirk and who were located in the neighborhood. 
 
 The Reverend Mr. Dumoulin went to Pembina where 
 there was at the time a large settlement of French Canadians 
 and Half-breeds. 
 
 The Reverend Mr. Provencher was consecrated Bishop on 
 the 12th of May, 1822, and remained in St. Boniface until his 
 death which occurred on the 7th of June, 1853. Conse- 
 quently he had been thirty-seven years at the head of the 
 diocese of St. Boniface. He sent missionaries to the Saskatch- 
 ewan country, to Athabasca, to British Columbia and Oregon. 
 The establishment of St. Boniface may be justly considered as 
 the head-quarters of the immense field which extends to the 
 Pacific and Arctic Oceans. 
 
ROMAN CATHOLIC MISSIONS OF ST. BONIFACE. 541 
 
 The first Church in the country was erected by Bishop 
 Provencher, shortly after his arrival, in 1818. It was a. 
 modest wooden building and served at the same time as a 
 dwelling and school-house. Five years later the prelate 
 raised a more spacious construction, and in 1832 laid the 
 foundation stone of the handsome cathedral which was 
 destroyed by fire in 1860. 
 
 After having toiled during twenty-six years with a very 
 limited clergy, Bishop Provencher succeeded in securing for 
 his diocese the services of the Oblate Fathers. The Rever- 
 end Father Aubert, the first Oblate missionary of Red River, 
 arrived at St. Boniface on the 25th of August, 1845, in 
 company with a novice of the same order, then in his 22nd 
 year, consequently under age to be promoted to the priest- 
 hood. This novice was, by the leadings of Providence, to 
 become the immediate successor of the first Bishop of St. Boni- 
 face. In October, 1845, the Reverend Father Tach^ was 
 ordained priest and appointed to the remote mission of Isle 
 k la Crosse. The zeal and ability of the young missionary 
 could not fail to be noticed and the fast declining health of 
 Bishop Provencher rendering it necessary to obtain a 
 co-adjutor, the choice fell on the Reverend Father Tach^,, 
 then only twenty-six years of age. The elect received the 
 episcopal consecration in the Cathedral of Viviers (France) 
 on the 23rd of November, 1851. The new and exalted 
 dignity only served to invigorate the ardor of the 
 missionary-bishop for the salvation of souls. He speedily 
 returned to his mission of Isle a la Crosse. They only, who 
 have witnessed or experienced the like, can form an idea of 
 the fatigue and sufierings he endured while travelling, 
 especially during the long and severe winters of the far 
 north. Equally difficult would it be to enumerate the 
 privations endured in every shape. 
 
 After the death of Bishop Provencher, Bishop Tach6 suc- 
 ceeded to the see of St. Boniface. The diocese then compre- 
 
542 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 bended an immense extent of territory. It has been 
 divided since, and in 1871 Bishop Tach6 was named Arch- 
 bishop of a new ecclesiastical province, which includes the 
 Archdiocese of St. Boniface, the diocese of St. Albert, the 
 districts of Athabasca and Mackenzie and British Columbia. 
 
 Archbishop Tach6 has been in the country thirty-seven 
 years. Fire, floods, and famine have, in turn, spread 
 destruction and desolation, but at the same time served to 
 give striking proof of the energy and self denial of the 
 father of his flock and the friend of all. 
 
 As already stated the Cathedral of St. Boniface was con- 
 sumed by fire in 1860. Bishop Tach6 had it replaced by 
 a stone edifice of fine design to be entirely completed this 
 year. It possesses a splendid organ, the gift of the numerous 
 friends of the Archbishop in the province of Quebec, on the 
 occasion of the twenty -fifth anniversary of his election to 
 the episcopate in 1875. 
 
 East St. Boniface. 
 
 What Brooklyn is to New York, Birkenhead to Liver- 
 pool, and Oakland to San Francisco, East St. Boniface will be 
 to Winnipeg. Already a large number of fine private 
 residences and manufactories as well as business premises, 
 the property of citizens belonging to Winnipeg, have been 
 erected. The ground on which the rising city is to be 
 built is high, dry and particularly inviting for suburban 
 residences. A fine iron bridge has been constructed across 
 the Red River, connecting Broadway in Winnipeg, and 
 Provencher Avenue, in St. Boniface, in which it is expected 
 tramways will be in operation in a few months. St. Boni- 
 face, undoubtedly was one of the most interesting settle- 
 ments of Lord Selkirk in the Red River country. 
 
 The Archbishop's residence, which replaces that burnt 
 with the Cathedral in 1860, is a nice dwelling-house 
 built of stone, having in front walks planted with trees. 
 
ROMAN CATHOLIC MISSIONS OF ST. BONIFACE. 543 
 
 It is not only the abode of the Archbishop and his clergy, 
 but the hospitalities of the dwelling are also gladly proffered 
 to missionaries worn out by hardships and toil. 
 
 Residents: His Grace the Most Reverend A. Tach6, 
 Archbishop of St. Boniface ; Rev. Father J. Tissot, 0. M. I., 
 Vicar-General ; Rev. Father A. Maisonneuve, 0. M. I. ; 
 Rev. G. Dugast; Rev. Father J. McCarthy, 0. M. I., 
 Secretary. 
 
 Schools of St. Boniface. 
 
 From the beginning of the establishment of St. Boniface 
 peculiar advantages have been afforded for the instruction 
 and education of youth. 
 
 The College. 
 
 A portion of his residence was reserved by Bishop Pro- 
 vencher on his arrival in the country to begin the first 
 college of St. Boniface, and the devoted prelate all his life 
 time, added the teachiag of children to his other numerous 
 and important occupations. To his successor. Bishop Tache, 
 it was reserved to build the College still to be seen on the 
 banks of the Red River, and, within the two last years, the 
 magnificent edifice just completed, for the same purpose. 
 While the location, the construction, the playgrounds, and 
 everything connected with the new college are conducive to 
 health and comfort, nothing is spared, on the other hand, to 
 promote the mental advancement of the pupils. 
 
 The course of studies is all that is necessary to fit a young 
 man for commercial and scientific pursuits. It also includes 
 all the branches of science required by the University 
 programme for taking degrees, thus preparing the student 
 for the study of the liberal professions. 
 
 Members of the Corporation : His Grace the Most Rever- 
 end A. Tach6, Archbishop of St. Boniface; Rev. A. A. 
 Cherrier, B. S., Principal of the College ; Rev. G. Dugast ; 
 
544 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOETH-WEST. 
 
 Rev. J. T. Lavoie, 0. M. I., and Rev. J. McCarthy, 0. M. I.; 
 Staff: Rev. A. A. Cherrier, B. S., Professor of Divinity 
 and General Superintendent of Studies; Rev. G. Cloutier, 
 Professor of Mental and Moral Philosophy and High Mathe- 
 matics ; Rev. S. Moreau, Professor of Natural Science and 
 French Literature ; Rev. T. Quevillon and Rev. J. Dufresne^ 
 Professors of Classics and Modern Languages; Messrs. 
 Meloche and Morin, Professors of English Literature and 
 English Commercial Course. Assistant teachers : Messrs. 
 Rev. T. L. Ren6, J. Messier, J. 0. Barrett, and A. Berub6 ; 
 Prefect of Discipline ; Rev. N. Jutras. The musical depart- 
 ment is under the direction of the celebrated violinist, Mr. 
 F. Boucher ; Rev. J. Doucet is Bursar and Steward. His 
 Grace Archbishop Tach6, in addition to building the College, 
 has founded several scholarships in favor of promising stud- 
 ents. His Excellency the Governor General of Canada 
 yearly grants a medal of honor to the most successful student 
 in Greek. 
 
 The collegiate year embraces two terms. The first begin- 
 ning in August and the second in February. 
 
 Convent of St. Boniface. 
 
 Sisters Valade, Lagrave, Coutlee, and Lafrance, members 
 of the Grey Nunnery of Montreal came, at the call of the 
 first Bishop of St. Boniface, in 1844, to found a branch of 
 their Order in St. Boniface. The Convent generally known 
 as the General Hospital of St. Boniface is the mother house 
 of the establishments of Sisters in St. Frangois Xavier, St. 
 Vital, and St. Norbert. The Superior has also jurisdiction 
 over the Convents of St. Albert, Lac la Biche, Isle a la 
 Crosse, and MacKenzie River. There are at present in the 
 province of Manitoba 37 professed Sisters and 6 novices- 
 Principal officers : Sister Hamel, Superior ; Sister Lany, 
 Assistant and Mistress of Novices ; Sister Curran, Secretary ^ 
 and Sister St. Placide, Bursar. 
 
roman catholic missions of st. boniface. 545 
 
 St. Boniface Academy. 
 
 The chief object Bishop Provencher had in view when 
 inviting Sisters to his diocese was to afford means of in- 
 struction to youth. Upon their arrival, in 1844, the Sisters 
 opened their school, which has been largely attended ever 
 since, crowning their efforts with complete success. Besides 
 upwards of 40 boarding pupils there is an average attendance 
 of over 100 day scholars. The course of studies is made in 
 English and French, vocal and instrumental music, drawing, 
 and plain and fancy needlework are also taught. In a word, 
 everything that tends to form accomplished young ladies is 
 attended to. Sister Royal, Directress ; Teachers : Sisters 
 Dunn, McDougall, Desnoyers, Bourassa, Brouillet, and Tru- 
 teau. 
 
 Charitable Institutions. 
 
 Although the Sisters of Charity were called upon chiefly 
 for the instruction of youth, they have constantly exercised 
 corporal works of mercy, — taking care of the aged, infirm 
 and orphans, visiting and attending the sick. 
 
 The Hospital. — The Sisters of St. Boniface have their 
 hospital for curable patients, and its eleven beds are almost 
 constantly occupied by sick, irrespective of creed or nation- 
 alities. Sister Cleary, Directress ; Sister St. Ann and other 
 members of the Sisterhood assist when required. 
 
 Tlie Orphanage. — Prom 35 to 40 little girls of various na- 
 tions and tribes are the object of the most tender solicitude 
 of the Sisters in this ward. All the children of school age 
 attend the classes regularly. Sister Boire and Sister Derome. 
 
 The Refuge. — Seven infirm and helpless females are here 
 under the care of Sister Cusson. 
 
 Visitation of the Poor and Sick. — Many families are bene- 
 fitted by the ministrations of the Sisters of Charity. 
 
 35 
 
CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 ladiwiis of the Prairie (uitl the Forest. 
 
 The Intention of the Chapter — Extinction of Indian Titles — Enumeration of Different 
 Indian Treaties— Location of the Lands Ceded — General Terms of tlio Various Treat- 
 ies — Indian Characteristics — Former Habits — Horse Stealing no Crime — Considered a 
 Virtue and still Indulged in— How Conducted around the Cyjjress Hills in 1880 — How 
 I Saved my Horses — The Union Jack Versus the Stars and Stripes — Settlers need have 
 uo Fear — Indians and their Occupations on Lakes Manitoba and Winnipegoosis — Food, 
 Game, and Furs — Potatoes and Garden Vegetables— Indian Eeserve at Fort Pelly — 
 Cote's Medal — Reasons for Marrying more than one Wife — Minnesota Siouz — Gener- 
 ally Hard Vi''orkiug and Peaceable — Plain Crees — Their Feuds with the Blackfeet — 
 Extract from Palliser — Peace made Ten Years Ago — Big Bear — His Desire for Better 
 Terms — The Wood Crees — Quiet and Industrious — The Chipweyans as Farmers — Food 
 of the Indian Tribes — The Assiniboines — Anecdotes Regarding their Peculiarities — 
 Conclusion. 
 
 It is not my purpose to write an exhaustive treatise on 
 the Plain and Forest Indians, but merely to enumerate the 
 piincipal tribes, define as nearly as possible their present 
 locations, and relate a few anecdotes that may be interesting 
 and vsuggestive to my readers. At present it can scarcely 
 be said that any one tribe is still on its old hunting 
 grounds, and hence to arbitrarily define limits would re- 
 quire more space than I have for the subject. 
 
 When the Canadian Government obtained possession of 
 the North-West Terri tories by the extinction of the Hud- 
 son's Bay Company's title, they inaugurated their authoritv 
 by a solemn declaration that the rights of all should be 
 respected. As an earnest of this a large tract of land in 
 Manitoba was set apart for the Half-breeds and their chil- 
 dren. In 1870 the Indians of Manitoba, seeing a great 
 influx of white men into their country, asked that a treaty 
 should be made with them guaranteeing certain privileges. 
 The following enumeration of the Treaties will show the 
 successive steps taken by the Government to extinguish the 
 Indian titles to the North-West lands : — 
 
INDIANS OP THE PRAIRIE AND THE FOREST. 547 
 
 Treaty No. 1 was made at the Stone Fort on the 3rd 
 August, 1871, between the Canadian Commissioner "Wemyss 
 M. Simpson, Esq., of the one part and the Chippewa and 
 Swampy Cree Indians on the other. This treaty included 
 the Province of Manitoba and extended from the Lake of 
 the Woods on the east to the Assiniboine Rapids, near 
 Brandon, on the west, and from the International Boundary 
 on the south to a line drawn due west from the mouth of 
 the Winnipeg River on the north. 
 
 Treaty No. 2 was concluded the same year, August 21st, 
 1871, at Manitoba House on Lake Manitoba, by the Can- 
 adian Commissioner Wemyss M. Simpson, Esq., of the one 
 part and the Chippewa tribe of Indians of the other part. 
 The tract ceded at this time lay partly north and west of 
 Treaty No. 1. It commenced at the mouth of Winnipeg River 
 and passed north to Beren's River, thence west across Lake 
 Winnipeg to the mouth of the Little Saskatchewan, thence 
 up this stream. Lake Manitoba, Water Hen River and Lake, 
 thence west across Lake Winnipegoosis to the sources of Shell 
 River, thence down this stream and the Assiniboine to Fort 
 Ellice, and thence southwesterly to Moose Mountain, and 
 thence southwards to the International Boundary. This 
 tract included a large area, not being much less than 40,000 
 square miles. 
 
 The North-West Angle Treaty, or Treaty No. 3, was con- 
 cluded October Srd, 1873, and extinguished the Indian title 
 to all lands lying between Lake Superior and the eastern 
 limit of Treaty No. 1. This treaty was made by the 
 Saulteaux branch of the Chippewa nation and tied the 
 hands of a turbulent and exacting people. The number 
 of square miles included in this treaty were 55,000. 
 
 Treaty No. 4, or the Qu' Appelle Treaty, was concluded 
 after a great deal of difficulty on the 15th September, 1874. 
 By this treaty the Cree, Saulteaux and other Indians ceded 
 a large tract of valuable territory, and the basis for treaties 
 
548 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 with the oher plain Indians was laid down. The eastern 
 boundary of the district ceded, coincided with that of Treaty 
 No. 2. Its northern boundary passed through the middle 
 of Lake "Winnipegoosis to the mouth of Red Deer River 
 thence up this river to the source of its western branch. 
 From this point, it extended in a southerly direction to the 
 western extremity of the Cypress Hills, including all the 
 land drained by the northerly branch of the Qu' Appelle. The 
 remainder of the western boundary extended due south- 
 from the Cypress Hills to the International Boundary, which 
 formed the southern one. 
 
 This led the way for another treaty the succeeding year, 
 which was concluded at Beren's River and Norway House, 
 in the month of September, 1875. A very large extent of 
 territory lying east, north, and west of Lake Winnipeg, 
 was ceded at this time, and not less than 100,000 square 
 miles were added to the treaty limits. This last treaty in- 
 cluded the mouth of the Saskatchewan, and extended west- 
 wards as far as No. 4 Treaty. 
 
 The Treaties of Fort Pitt and Carlton are called Treaty 
 No. IV, and were concluded in the Autumn of 1876. By 
 these treaties the Plain and the Wood Cree Indians, and 
 all other Indians inhabiting the territory, resigned their 
 claims to the lands. Within the limits of this treaty are 
 included all the lands within the following limits, that is 
 to say : — 
 
 " Commencing at the mouth of the river emptying into the 
 northwest angle of Cumberland Lake, thence westerly up 
 the said river to the source, thence on a straight line in a 
 westerly direction to the head of Green Lake, thence 
 northwards to the elbow in the Beaver River, thence down 
 the said river northerly to a point twenty miles from the 
 said elbow ; thence in a westerly direction, keeping on a 
 line generally parallel with the said Beaver River (above 
 the elbow), and about twenty miles distance therefrom, to 
 
INDIANS OF THE PRAIRIE AND THE FOREST. 549 
 
 the source of the said river ; thence northerly to the north- 
 easterly point of the south shore of Red Deer Lake [Lac la 
 Biche), continuing westerly along the said shore to the 
 "western limit thereof, and thence due west to the Athabasca 
 River, thence up the said river, against the stream, to the 
 Jasper House, in the Rocky Mountains ; thence on a course 
 south-eastwards, following the easterly range of the Moun- 
 tains, to the source of the main branch of the Red Deer 
 River ; thence down the said river, with the stream, to the 
 junction therewith of the outlet of the river, being the out- 
 let of the Buffalo Lake ; thence due east, twenty miles ; 
 thence on a straight line south-eastwards to the mouth of 
 the said Red Deer River, on the south branch of the Sas- 
 katchewan River ; thence eastwardly and northwardly, fol- 
 lowing on the boundaries of the tracts conceded by the 
 several Treaties numbered Four and Five, to the place of 
 beginning ; 
 
 " And also all their rights, and privileges whatsoever, to 
 all other lands, wherever situated, in the North- West 
 Territories, or in any other Province or portion of Her 
 Majesty's Dominions, situated and being within the Dom- 
 inion of Canada ; 
 
 " The tract comprised within the lines above described, 
 embracing 121,000 square miles, be the same more or less; 
 
 " To have and to hold the same to Her Majesty the Queen 
 and her successors for ever." 
 
 The text of Treaty No. VII is given in the succeeding 
 chapter, and may be taken as a fair example of the text of 
 each. 
 
 The habits and mode of life of the various Indian tribes 
 vary with their locations and the character of the animals 
 on which they subsist. The Chippewas which inhabit the 
 shores of Lake Superior, and frequent the lakes and rivers 
 lying between it and Lake Winnipeg, differ in no particular 
 in their mode of life from the Swampy and Chipweyan 
 
550 MANITOBA AND TJIE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Indians found in the forest country stretching from Lake 
 Winnipeg to Portage la Loche. The chief article of diet 
 for all these Indians is fish, and their mode of cooking is 
 the same everywhere. During the summer they are found 
 encamped in small parties at the discharges of lakes or on 
 the shores of small bays where there are sandy or gravelly 
 shallows or at the foot of rapids or rivers. Here they set 
 their nets and draw from the water day by day their neces- 
 sary food. Excursions are frequently made for the purpose 
 of hunting, but their chief dependence is on fish. Cooking 
 amongst the Indian tribes is a very simple process, yet they 
 can roast a duck or other fowl to suit the taste of any gour- 
 mand. Should a little flour be obtained at a fishing station, 
 a number of fish are cut up and put in a pot with water and a 
 handful of flour, and boiled for a short time. The pot is then 
 taken oiF and all gather round, and the contents are eaten 
 with great gusto, and they drink the liquid with evident 
 relish. Seeing a family eating in this way after you have 
 had a hearty meal is certainly disgusting, but should you be 
 hungry you are altogether oblivious to the mode, as you see 
 only the food. In 1869 I saw the Indians at the Pic on the 
 northeast coast of Lake Superior eat fish as I have described 
 and considered their habits filthy in the extreme, ^et in 
 1875, when starving at Buffalo Lake, I considered boiled 
 fish and fish broth without flour a rich treat, and could see 
 nothing wrong except in its scarcity. 
 
 Very little dried fish seems to be eaten by the eastern 
 Indians, but those west of the Rocky Mountains dry enor- 
 mous quantities for winter use. As these fish are dried 
 without salt, and eaten without being cooked, I may say 
 that dried fish " straight" was the most unpalatable food I 
 ever ate. An old Frenchman at Fort St. James on Stewart's 
 Lake told me he had lived on dried fish for nearly forty 
 years, and showed how his teeth were worn chewing them. 
 His son and an Indian boy when travelling with us caught 
 
INDIANS or THE PRAIRIE AND THE FOREST. 551 
 
 fish for a few days, every evening and morning, for their 
 breakfast and supper, but when they found that these meals 
 came independently of the fish they ceased to catch them. 
 
 Indians know very little of being prepared for a scarcity-, 
 and they are therefore either in a state of affluence or in 
 want. Their work consists in procuring food, and if they 
 can beg it from a white man or get it from a relative, they 
 will lie around all day and make no effort to help them- 
 selves. In one sense Indians are not lazy as they will travel 
 immense distances for very little, but in these cases a proper 
 incentive was held out to them. As soon as Indians can be 
 awakened to a sense of individual rights in property, and 
 that lazy relatives must depend upon themselves, an im- 
 provement will take place. At present food seems to be 
 common property, and as long as it remains such little 
 attempt will be made by the majority to get out of their 
 periodic states of semi-starvation. Their apparent laziness 
 springs from precisely the same cause as that of a child 
 whose wants are all supplied by the parent. Cut off the 
 supply and nature asserts her wants and necessity causes 
 action. Indians, if incorporated with the whites as Negroes 
 have been, would work just as well, but being isolated and 
 partly supported by the Government, they seldom rise above 
 the level of dependents. A change of policy will cause a 
 change in their character, and when missionaries learn to 
 teach the young people to speak, and therefore think, in 
 English, much of the work will be performed. The present 
 system only perpetuates their misery, and the christianized 
 Indian who cannot speak English is apparently — if not 
 lower — as low in the scale as his pagan neighbors. Indians 
 can be raised in the social scale by teaching them English, 
 but I question very much the benefits arising from mere 
 preaching, without the civilizing influence of our language 
 and literature. There is no reason why an Indian child 
 should not read the same stories, see the same pictures, 
 
552 MANITOBA AKD THE GREAT NORTH-WEST., 
 
 have the same teaching, and, therefore, think the same 
 thoughts, as our own children. As a rule, Indian children 
 are more intelligent looking than those of the lower class of 
 Whites, and certainly they show a greater aptitude to 
 learn, but they get no chance, and hence, they remain as 
 their fathers were, or worse. The Indian language must 
 be dropped, and nothing spoken but English, and as a result, 
 in two years the Indian question would be settled. Through- 
 out the North-West, wherever I found an Indian could talk 
 English, I found one who wore white man's clothing, and 
 who tried to attach himself to the Whites. Should the 
 Government compel every Indian child, under sixteen, to 
 attend the schools, either established on the Reserves or 
 about to be established, the Indian question would settle 
 itself in the course of the next ten years ; but should their 
 education not be compulsory, very little change will be 
 effected, as Indian nature resembles human nature the world 
 over. Missionary enterprise must take a more practical 
 shape than it has hitherto done, before much permanent 
 good will be effected. I speak from a knowledge of Mission- 
 ary work from the Pacific to the Sault Ste. Marie, and I 
 write advisedly when I say that only earnest, wise, and prac- 
 tically good men should be sent into the Mission field. Good 
 men are very well in their place, but more than goodness is 
 wanted in a western Missionary. 
 
 Indians have been accused of having loose morals, as re- 
 gards the marriage relation, of being liars, of being thieves, 
 of being malicious cut-throats, of being lazy, and of being 
 drunkards. Before answering this question, I would say 
 that the majority of the Whites, having dealings with the 
 Indians in past years, were of this type. At present, when 
 an Indian is worse than his fellows, at whose door is the 
 fault laid ? Certainly not at that of the untutored savage, 
 but of the evil-minded white man who led him astray for 
 his own selfish ends. 
 
INDIANS OF THE PRAIRIE AND THE FOREST. 
 
 553 
 
 Marriage amongst the Indians has never been looked upon 
 by them in the same light as it has been by us. All 
 Indian women are slaves, and they know it and act ticcord- 
 ingly. The will of the man is supreme, and no woman 
 ever thinks of opposing him in the slightest. Men, as a 
 rule, take as many wives as they can feed, and too often, 
 when they axe tired of them, "throw them off." This is 
 the universal custom, and is practised from Lake Superior 
 to the Pacific. The husband hunts, and the women do all 
 the other work. Very often, one wife will be the favorite, 
 and the others will have to provide for themselves and 
 children. Last season, I saw one man who had five wives 
 and a very large number of children, and who, on this 
 account, was a rich man, as the Government paid him five 
 dollars ($5) a head for his wives and children. The woman 
 is little less than a beast of burden, and amongst converted 
 Indians, her condition is very little improved. As regards 
 the chastity of the Indian women, much could be said in 
 their favor. They, as well as the men, are modest, and if 
 their morals are not as elevated as ours, the fault is not 
 theirs, but the state of society in which they are compelled 
 by present circumstances to live. 
 
 In all my travels, I never found an uncivilized Indian 
 who could not be depended upon, but I have seen Indians, 
 who were deceived by white men, try to follow their ex- 
 ample. The northern Indians still retain their truthful- 
 ness, and Mr. Macfarlane, the Chief Factor in charge of the 
 Mackenzie River District, warned me to keep my promises 
 to the Indians, and I might depend on them doing the same 
 to me. The Hudson's Bay Company's ofl&cers have always 
 been particular in keeping faith with the Indians, and to- 
 day the Indians look up to them and trust them in every- 
 thing. It is a fact that no men are more particular about 
 paying their debts than the Indians, and those having deal- 
 ings with them, bjfore they learn the ways of the Whites, 
 
654 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 are unanimous in speaking of their promptness in paying 
 their debts. 
 
 I have travelled among the Indians on both sides of the 
 mountains, and have found them always honest. I have 
 gone into the Blackfeet camp, when they were dying of 
 starvation, and left my provisions in the carts, exposed to 
 the gaze of every person, and yet not a bit of anything 
 was touched. I have been for months on the prairie with 
 my provisions always in the carts, and although at times 
 surrounded by prowling bands of Indians, I have gone to 
 rest in peace and have risen to find signs of their presence, 
 but not an article touched. If an article were lost on the 
 prairie, it was almost sure to be returned in a day or two, 
 and a small present of tea would be accepted as ample 
 remuneration for their trouble. 
 
 Some parties reading the above paragraph will say that 
 their experience is altogether different from mine. I do 
 not doubt it, as Indians invariably treat others as they have 
 been treated. I went into their country as an employee of 
 the Government, and always carried a small Union Jack 
 on a pole on one of my carts, and although they did not 
 recognize me, they knew the flag and respected the em- 
 blem. Traders take advantage of the natives, and no 
 Indian should be blamed if he should treat them all as he 
 does the Americans. Ten years since, no white man, pass- 
 ing from Montana into our North-West Territories, was 
 safe ; but if he were travelling south, both himself and his 
 horses were respected. Just as long as our people treat the 
 Indians like men, and keep faith with them, just so long 
 will peace reign in the land ; but let justice cease to pre- 
 vail, and bitterly will our people rue the day they forgot 
 that in God's sight the Indian has equal rights with the 
 white man. 
 
 Formerly horse steal hig was looked upon by the plain 
 Indians as an essential part of their education. No young 
 
INDIANS OF THE PRAIRIE AND THE FOREST. 555 
 
 man was considered fit to take part in any matter which 
 came before the tribe, who could not show a brilliant record 
 in this line. War parties and horse stealing parties were 
 altogether different, and any traveller could tell the one 
 from the other at a glance. When a war party is organized 
 the braves are mounted on their best horses, they are daubed 
 all over with paint and depart with much ceremony. It is 
 not so with horse stealers. One or two or more start off 
 on foot, often without arms, furnished only with a lariat 
 wound round their loins. These men thus poorly equipped 
 will push into the heart of the enemies' country, lie around 
 a camp and take the horses tied at a lodge door from under 
 the very eyes of the guard. 
 
 While exploring in the summer of 1880 I came to a camp 
 of Assiniboins on the western end of the Cypress Hills. The 
 camp consisted of about 120 tents arranged in a circle. Each 
 chief had his own band near himself, but no opening was 
 over ten feet wide. Within the circle of tents the horses 
 were picketed every night, and during the day every hill 
 top had one or more sentries posted on them to watch the 
 herds and give notice of the approach of danger. One night 
 two Pagans who had been lying around for days approached 
 the camp, and one stripping himself naked crawled into the 
 midst of the enclosure and cut the picket rope of two of the 
 horses. All around him were the tents of his enemies, and 
 in the centre the soldiers tent (guard house) where they 
 were on watch. After cutting the ropes he moved off to one 
 side until the ropes tightened when he pulled gently. The 
 horses came towards him eating as they came, and by degrees 
 he brought them to the edge of the enclosure, when bound- 
 ing on the back of one and leading the other he dashed 
 away. This leat was performed by an unarmed Indian 
 before the very eyes of his deadly enemies, armed with 
 Winchester rifles, not merely for the sake of the horses, but 
 that he might be considered an honorable man in his tribe. 
 
556 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-"WEST. 
 
 I for one honor him for his pluck, and consider such heroism 
 just as worthy of being recorded as any of the doughty 
 deeds of our ancestors. 
 
 Two weeks before I reached Port Walsh the Pagans (as 
 was supposed) stole every horse in the valley belonging to 
 traders, but took none that belonged to the police. I was 
 advised to place a guard over my horses at night or I would 
 be left without any, but believing that I understood the 
 Indian character better than my informants, I merely indi- 
 cated by the Union Jack that I was no trader and my horses 
 remained unmolested. More than once we have observed 
 traces of Indians having been around us in the night, but 
 none ever attempted to take anything from us. One day ■ 
 in the month of September, 1880, we were suddenly sur- 
 rounded by Indians. Simultaneously every hill top was 
 instinct with life, and an Indian and his horse were picketed 
 on the summit. Without paying any attention to them we 
 kept on our way and stopped for dinner shortly after. I 
 took a shot gun and started for the nearest one, who when 
 he saw me approach mounted his horse and came towards 
 me. When he came up I saw by his dress he was one of 
 .Sitting Bull's Sioux and invited him to dinner. As soon as 
 we met the others disappeared and were seen no more. 
 Three days before this same party stole nearly all the 
 horses from Setter's Reserve at the north side of the Cypress 
 Hills. No attempt was made to molest us because they re- 
 spected our flag. 
 
 Settlers need have no fear on account of injury from 
 Indians. They respect the law everywhere better than the 
 white men, and good treatment will always be reciprocated. 
 Should the American doctrine be adopted that all Indians 
 are mere cumberers of the ground, and have no rights that a 
 white man is bound to respect, then will there be danger 
 from the aborigines 
 
 Food and clothing are the necessities of the Indians. 
 
INDIANS OF THE PRAIRIE AND THE FOREST. 55T 
 
 Supply them with these and they will pass through life 
 with scarcely an eflfort. For many generations they have 
 lived and died without any higher aim than the physical 
 promptings of nature. To eat, smoke, and sleep has 
 heen their sole end in life, and this it will be until, as 
 I have shown in another place, they are lifted into our civil- 
 ization. An Indian clothed as a white man is half civilized, 
 and when he acquires a good command of English he is ready 
 for work. 
 
 The Indians on Lakes Manitoba and Winnipegoosis may 
 be taken as a fair sample of the forest Indians all through 
 the north. As soon as spring comes and the rivers and lakes 
 are open, innumerable water fowl fill every pond and lakelet. 
 The Indian leaves the forest and pitches his tent near one of 
 these resorts, and a time of feasting sets in which lasts up to 
 the end of May. During June and the latter half of May 
 the marshes yield myriads of eggs, and these with white 
 fish are their principal, if not their sole food. The summer 
 is spent near a good fishing ground. A sufficiency of nets is 
 kept in the water to enable them to have a constant supply 
 of fresh fish of the very best quality. Should a family 
 make an excursion to any part of the lake a net, a tin pail or 
 two, and a few rolls of birch bark, complete their equipment. 
 On the approach of winter, they go to the regular fishing 
 grounds, and take white-fish in such numbers that, were any 
 one to give figures, it would seem fabulous. These are dried 
 and packed for winter use, and when the ponds are frozen, 
 each family retires to its winter hunting ground, and pro- 
 cures furs for the purpose of paying off their score with the 
 Hudson's Bay Company. In spring, the same round com- 
 ' mences again, and thus it has gone on for generations. The 
 cultivation of potatoes has been introduced of late years, 
 but the usual improvidence of Indians causes them, in too 
 many instances, to eat up their seed, so thai every spring, 
 a fresh supply has to be sent to them by the Government. 
 
668 MANITOBA AN"D THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Of late years, many Indian farms have been established, 
 and these are teaching the natives much more than many 
 cursory observers would believe. Living for a great part 
 of the year in the neighborhood of the farm, they soon 
 learn the white man's mode of doing things, and begin to 
 imitate him. Cote's Reserve, near Fort Pelly, is an instance 
 in point. About three miles from the Indian farm is Cote's 
 residence, and here he carries on farming in the most ap- 
 proved style. I visited his farm last autumn, and found an 
 excellent root-house in which to store his potatoes, turnips, 
 carrots, and other roots. His potatoes were well hoed, his 
 peas roded, his carrots and tmniips in drills, and properly 
 thinned, and all he had done was after the most approved 
 fashion. With evident pride he showed me over his 
 possessions, and chuckled in proper Indian style when I 
 praised what he had done. 
 
 When the Governor General was on his North-West 
 tour last year, he called together a large number of Indians, 
 and gave a beautiful silver medal to the best farmer amongst 
 them. Cote received the medal, and now he shows it to his 
 visitors with as much pride as any white man. Where 
 there is pride there is hope, and were the Indians on the 
 Reserves given a slight recognition for successful farming 
 each year, a wonderful improvement would be seen in a 
 .'^liort time. 
 
 At present, marriages are more frequent than formerl}', 
 and not a few Indians take more than one wife. One old 
 fellow, on Lake Winnipegoosis, had six wives, and when 
 questioned about it, admitted that they were a source of 
 profit. According to the terms of the Indian Treaties, all 
 members of an Indian's family are entitled to five dollars 
 per year each, and one with four or five wives and twenty 
 children or less, would draw a large sum from the Govern- 
 ment. Takins advanta£!;e of an Indian's natural desire fcjr 
 gain, much might be done by opening up sources of profit to 
 
INDIANS OF THE PRAIRIE AND THE FOREST. 559 
 
 Mm, which, in no way, would conflict with the white 
 laborer. No better herdsmen could be found, as their 
 powers of observation are far superior to those of a white- 
 man and their wants are extremely few. As farm laborers, 
 however, the present generation are, with few exceptions, 
 useless. 
 
 After the Minnesota massacre, in 1862, a large number 
 of Sioux came across the border, and since then have re- 
 mained on oiir side of the line. Many of these are now 
 settled on a Reserve, southeast of Fort Ellice, on the left 
 bank of the Assiniboine. They are generally industrious, 
 and are gradually becoming farmers. On our side of the 
 line, their character is completely changed, and they are 
 civil, peaceable citizens. 
 
 The Crees are divided by their place of abode into the 
 Plain and Wood Crees. Those who inhabit the plain 
 live chiefly on the bufialo, and disdain the use of a shot 
 gun, while their brothers in the north, having few horses, 
 little large game, and plenty of ducks and fish, prefer it 
 to the rifle. The Blackfeet were the hereditary enemies of 
 the Crees, and many a battle ground is pointed out where 
 these tribes met and killed each other. In former years, 
 when reading of Indian fights, I could not understand why 
 all the massacres took place in daylight. The cause arises 
 out of a superstition amongst the Indians, that any person 
 killed in the dark, does not pass to the happy hunting 
 grounds. It was not their enemies they cared for, but their 
 fear was for themselves. Battle River, the Eagle Hills, the 
 Hand Hills, and many other localities are noted for their 
 massacres in the past. Numerous instances of heroism and 
 undaunted courage are related by the Half-breeds, as they 
 sit around the camp-fire in one of those places, and 
 one almost thinks he hears the stealthy tread of the 
 savage, as he listens to the soul harrowing recital. Palliser 
 relates a characteristic anecdote of the nature of Indian 
 
560 MANITOBA AND THE GEEAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 fights, on page 53 of his Report, which illustrates more than 
 one point of Indian character : — 
 
 " The Doctor had slept in an adjacent Indian camp on the 
 Coteau, in one of the tents of which was suspended an 
 Indian scalp, and amongst other women the wife of the un- 
 fortunate Blackfoot, who had been murdered, was obliged 
 to dance round her husband's scalp. The whole of this fore- 
 noon was occupied in crossing over a succession of ridges or 
 prairie rolls, among which are a number of lakes. We then 
 met another Indian, who informed us that he was in pursuit 
 of his wife, with whom a young man had run away a few 
 days previously. There was also among the party who had 
 accompanied the Doctor an Indian who had been scalped not 
 very long before, when in an encounter with the Blackfeet 
 he lay wounded, and when insensible from loss of blood and 
 left for dead ; but after his enemies had departed and his 
 consciousness returned, he made his way back to his friends. 
 He wore a handkerchief bound tightly round his head, and 
 did not wish to show it to the Doctor, nor did he like that 
 his misfortune should ever be talked of. Nichiwa told us 
 that he was one of four young men who had escaped from a 
 massacre of his friends by the Blackfeet in a ravine near the 
 elbow of the south branch of the Saskatchewan last spring. 
 It appears that the Crees and Blackfeet had been at peace, 
 and were tenting together, but after the return of the former 
 twenty -five young Crees formed a horse-stealing party, and 
 having previously constructed rafts, succeeded in stealing 
 the Blackfoot horses, and by crossing themselves on the rafts 
 succeeded in leading off the horses, swimming in their wake. 
 When the Blackfeet missed their horses they set ofi" in pur- 
 suit, and following up the track came to the bank of the 
 river whence they had been taken across. While they were 
 still there one of the young Crees actually had the hardihood 
 to reveal their position by glancing a suiall looking-glass, 
 and as it were chaffing the Blackfeet. The season being so 
 
INDIANS OF THE PRAIRIK AND THE FOREST. 561 
 
 early (just after the breaking up of the ice), the water was 
 intensely cold and the river very high, wide, and rapid, so 
 that these young Crees never dreamt of the possibility of 
 the Blackfeet pursuing them without rafts across the South 
 Saskatchewan, and during the time consumed by the Black- 
 feet in the construction of these they thought they had 
 abundance of time to escape with their stolen horses far 
 beyond the fear of pursuit. The Blackfeet, however, turned 
 about and departed as if returning to their camp, and then 
 made a detour to a point higher up the river where, con- 
 cealed by a bend, they swam their horses across. At sunset 
 they fell upon the young Crees, surrounded them in the 
 coule^ in which the men encamped, and killed seventeen of 
 them on the spot with bows and arrows, and by rolling large 
 stones on them. A few got away wounded under cover of 
 the night, and only three or four ultimately recovered. 
 Several old Indians were still in mourning ; these were re- 
 lated to some of the young men whose fate I have recorded. 
 An old man who had thrown away almost the whole of his 
 attire, and was now only clad with a very old robe, and with 
 his head plastered with mud, implored me not to go farther 
 among " these wicked men." They also alarmed my men 
 considerably with various tales, more or less true, concerning 
 the prowess of the Blackfeet." 
 
 In 1871 a permanent peace was entered into between the 
 Crees and the Blackfeet, which, with the exception of a little 
 horse stealing, has been kept ever since. No man without 
 being fully acquainted with the country and people can at all 
 estimate the value of the police during the past eight years. 
 Indians and Whites estimate them at their real value, and 
 although many of the latter in the South-west complain of 
 them being one-sided in their dealings with them and the 
 Indians, they frankly admit that the police are men of peace. 
 
 One Cree chief — Big Bear — refused " to take the treaty," 
 and in the fall of 1878 caused some trouble by gathering to 
 36 
 
562 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 himself a band of discontented Indians and roaming over the 
 buffalo plains to the south of Battleford. Buffaloes dis- 
 appeared in 1879, and he threatened that he and his baud 
 were going to live on the whites, and that he would not 
 starve as long as things were to be had in the country. As 
 food became scarcer his men left him and joined other bands. 
 Last year he accepted the treaty, and now every Indian 
 from Manitoba to the Rocky Mountains admits he is amen- 
 able to the laws, and governs himself accordingly. At 
 present there is no more danger in travelling over the In- 
 dian country' than there is in passing through any part of 
 Ontario. Big Bear like many others thought a little bluster 
 would enable him to make better terms, but the disappear- 
 ance of the buffalo left him without resource, and like many 
 a hero of old he succumbed to starvation. 
 
 The Wood Crees living chiefly north of the Saskatchewan 
 are quiet and as a rule industrious. Except occasional trips 
 to the south in pursuit of buffalo they generally live in the 
 forest and subsist on fish, fowl, and the smaller game. For 
 many years they have cultivated the ground in the neigh- 
 borhood of the various missions, and raised potatoes and a 
 little barley. Still farther north, in the valley of the 
 Churchill or English River, the Chipweyans are found. 
 This people occupy the country along the lower Athabasca 
 and to the eastward of that river. They generally dwell 
 in houses, and seem to raise potatoes in every part of their 
 territory. Their chief food is White-fish, but they are ex- 
 cellent hunters and seldom know what it is to be in want. 
 
 While travelling in the country north of Isle la Crosse 
 Lake in 1875, I reached Chipweyan House, at the "Narrows" 
 that connect Buffalo Lake with Clearwater Lake. That 
 same evening I made the following entry in my journal : — 
 
 Chipweyan House is situated at the eastern end of the 
 " Narrows " and at the head of Clearwater Lake. Here the 
 Chipweyans have built themselves a number of houses. 
 
INDIANS OF THE PEAIRIE AND THE FOREST. 563 
 
 The evening we arrived one old fellow named Edward 
 Bigbelly was busy making a table, and appeared quite ex- 
 pert with plane and chisel. The Indians here live entirely 
 on fish and potatoes. I examined two large patches of 
 potatoes which showed the greatest growth of stalks I had 
 seen in the country. They had been badly nipped by frost 
 on the night of the 8th, but were still growing. 
 
 Our supper to-night was somewhat peculiar. I sat at a 
 table and ate fish and potatoes with a knife and fork. The 
 men sat on the floor and ate them with their fingers. Old 
 Edward Bigbelly and his wife sat in a corner eating pem- 
 mican, while all around on the floor were Indians smoking 
 and staring at the eaters. The Chipweyan women look 
 more like men than their husbands. They are very coarse 
 and masculine looking, while the men are the very opposite. 
 Of course the former do all the work, while the latter only 
 hunt, eat, and smoke. 
 
 The Chipweyans are the only Indians, east of the 
 mountains, who build houses and have fixed abodes. They 
 seem to appreciate the comforts of civilization, and probably 
 it would not be difficult to induce them to settle on the 
 land, and support themselves by agriculture. 
 
 All the plain Indians have, up to the present time, sub- 
 sisted entirely on the buffalo, and disdained the use of a 
 shot gun. 
 
 These are the tribes which are now dependent on the 
 Government for subsistence. The Mountain Stonies live 
 partly on the buffalo, but principally on the Mountain 
 Sheep and Goat. Wapati and Moose are occasionally ob- 
 tained, but these are very scarce at present. It has already 
 been mentioned that the Chipweyans and Wood Crees 
 subsist chiefly on birds, fish, and the smaller species oi 
 game. The Peace River Indians — Beavers — hunt the 
 moose and bear, and live on their flesh during the summer. 
 In winter, they trap many fine beaver, and during this 
 
564 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 season eat little else other than their flesh. Still farther to 
 the north, we find the tribes, between Lake Athabasca and 
 the Arctic Circle, subsisting almost entirely on Caribou 
 flesh. This animal, in its spring and autumn migrations, 
 passes in countless thousands over certain districts of coun- 
 try. At these times, the Indians congregate in the vicinity 
 and slausjliter them in thousands. Should the fall hunt be 
 a failure, the fisheries must supply the deficiency, and not 
 unfrequently famine and actual death from starvation 
 result. 
 
 Sir John Richardson, speaking of the Esquimaux, gives an 
 excellent picture of their mode of life, and shows plainly 
 why they lay up a store of provisions for the winter, and 
 why the 'Tinn^ (Chipweyans) do not. I reproduce the 
 description, as a fitting conclusion to the chapter : — 
 
 " Year after year sees these people occupied in a uniform 
 circle of pursuits. When the rivers open in spring, they 
 resort to rapids and falls, to spear the various kinds of fish 
 that ascend the streams at that period to spawn. At the 
 same date, or a little earlier, in more southern localities, 
 they hunt the rein-deer, which drop their young on the 
 coasts and islands while the snow is only partially melted. 
 
 "Vast multitudes of swans, geese, and ducks, resorting to 
 the same quarters to breed, aid in supplying the Esquimaux 
 with food, during their short but busy summer of two 
 months. In the beginning of September, the rein-deer 
 assemble in large bands and commence their march south- 
 wards, and then the Esquimaux reap a rich harvest by 
 way-laying them at established passes on the rivers or nar- 
 row places of a lake. On parts of the coast frequented by 
 whales, the month of August is devoted to the exciting pur- 
 suit of these animals, a successful chase ensuring a comfort- 
 able winter to a whole community. Throughout the sum- 
 mer, the families, associated by twos and threes, live in 
 tents of skins, and generally enjoy abundance of food, while 
 
INDIANS OF THE PRAIRIE AND THE FOREST. 565 
 
 they carefully lay up what they cannot consume for after 
 use. In this respect, they are more provident than the 
 Hare Indians, or Dog-Ribs, who seldom trouble themselves 
 with storing up provisions. This difference of the habits of 
 the two nations, which greatly influences their general 
 characters, has perhaps originated in the different circum- 
 stances in which they are placed. The Esquimaux, winter- 
 ing on the coast, are in darkness at mid-winter ; the rein- 
 deer and musk-oxen have then retreated into the 'Tinne 
 lands, and fish cannot at that season be procured in their 
 waters ; life, therefore, can only be maintained in an Es- 
 quimaux winter by stores provided in summer. 
 
 " In the country of the 'Tinn^, on the contrary, the win- 
 ter fishery is productive, and animals are by no means scarce 
 at that season, but they require to be followed in their 
 movements by the hunter and his family often to a great 
 distance. In such a case, any surplus of food that has been 
 procured must be placed en cache, as the term is, where it is 
 exposed to the depredations of wolverines, or the still more 
 irresistible attacks of their hungry fellow-countrymen, who 
 are wont to track up a successful hunter, in order to profit 
 by his labors. The 'Tinn^, therefore, have practically de- 
 cided that it is better for them to live profusely while they 
 have venison, and then to go in search of more. Were they 
 to be content with the product of their fisheries, they might 
 build villages, and live easily and well, so productive are 
 the boundless waters of the north ; but they like variety of 
 diet, and prefer the chase, with the hazard of occasional 
 starvation which follows in its train. 
 
 " The villages of the Esquimaux are, therefore, a feature 
 in their domestic economy in which they differ wholly 
 with their neighbors. The houses framed strongly of drift 
 timber, are covered thickly with earth, and are used only 
 in winter. They have no windows, and are entered by a 
 low side door, or, when they stand in situations where the 
 
566 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 drift-snow lies deep, by a trap-door in the roof. The floor 
 is laid with timber, and they have no fire-places ; but a 
 stone placed in the centre serves for a support to the lamp, 
 by which the little cooking that is required is performed. 
 For the site of a village, a bold point of the coast is gener- 
 ally chosen where the water is deep enough to float a whale ; 
 and to the eastward of Cape Parry, where we saw no whales, 
 we met with no villages, although solitary winter-houses 
 occur here and there on that coast. The association of a 
 number of families is necessary for the successful pursuit of 
 the whale. "When the villagers of the estuary of the 
 Mackenzie, or of Cape Bathurst, are fortunate enough to kill 
 one or more of these marine beasts, they revel in greasy 
 abundance during the dark months, and the ponds and the 
 soil around are saturated with the oil that escapes. 
 
 " In March the seals have their young, and soon after- 
 wards they become the principal objects of chase to the 
 Esquimaux, who greatly esteem their dark and unsightly 
 flesh, reckoning it as choice food. The seal, being a warm- 
 blooded animal, respiring air, requires a breathing-hole in 
 the ice, which it has the power of keeping open in the 
 severest frosts by constant gnawing. It is a watchful 
 creature, with acute senses of sight and hearing ; but it is 
 no match for the Esquimaux hunter, who has carefully 
 studied all its habits from his infancy. As the days lengthen 
 the villages are emptied of their inhabitants, who move 
 seaward on the ice to the seal hunt. Then comes into use 
 a marvellous system of architecture, unknown among the 
 rest of the American nations. The fine, pure snow has by 
 that time acquired, under the action of strong winds and 
 hard frosts, sufficient coherence to form an admirable light 
 building material, with which the Esquimaux master-mason 
 erects most comfortable dome-shaped houses. A circle is first 
 traced on the smooth surface of the snow, and the slabs for 
 raising the walls are cut from within so as to clear a space 
 
INDIANS OF THE PRAIRIE AND THE FOREST. 567 
 
 down to the ice, which is to form the floor of the dwelling, 
 and whose evenness was previously ascertained by probing. 
 The slabs requisite to complete the dome, after the interior 
 of the circle is exhausted, are cut from some neighboring 
 spot. Each slab is neatly fitted to its place by running a 
 flinching-knife along the joint, when it instantly freezes to 
 the wall, the cold atmosphere forming a most excellent, 
 cement. Crevices are plugged up and seams accurately 
 closed by throwing a few shovelfulls of loose snow over the 
 fabric. Two men generally work together in raising a 
 house, and the one who is stationed within cuts a low door 
 and creeps out when his task is over. The walls being only 
 three or four inches thick are sufficiently translucent to admit 
 a very agreeable light, which serves for ordinary domestic 
 purposes ; but if more be required a window is cut, and the 
 aperture fitted with a piece of transparent ice. The proper 
 thickness of the walls is of some importance. A few inches 
 excludes the wind yet keeps down the temperature so as to 
 prevent dripping from the interior. The furniture, such as 
 seats, tables, and sleeping-places is also formed of snow, and 
 a covering of folded reindeer skin or seal skin renders them 
 comfortable to the inmates. By means of antechambers and 
 porches in forms of long, low galleries, with their openings 
 turned to leeward, warmth is insured in the interior ; and 
 social intercourse is promoted by building the houses con- 
 tiguously, and cutting doors of communication between them 
 or by erecting covered passages. Storehouses, kitchens, and 
 other accessory buildings may be constructed in the same 
 manner, and a degree of convenience gained which would 
 be attempted in vain with a less plastic material. These 
 houses are durable, the wind has little efiect on them, and 
 they resist the thaw until the sun acquires very considerable 
 
 power. 
 
 " The success of the seal-hunt depends much on the state 
 of the ice, and should it fail, great misery results; the 
 
568 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-ATEST. 
 
 spring being, in fact, the time of the year in which the 
 Central Esquimaux incur the greatest risk of famine. When 
 the thaw lays the ground in the valleys bare, rein-deer and 
 wild-fowl return to the sea-coast, and plenty follows in their 
 train." 
 
CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 The Western Indians and (he North- West Mounted Police. 
 
 [This Chaptkk is Weitten bt Alexakdue Bkog, Esq.] 
 
 Indians Previous to 1874— The Blackfeet— Their Number— Report of Eev. C. ScoUen in 
 1876 — Whiskey Traffic Destroys Many- Small- Pox — Eesults of Illicit Liquor Busi- 
 ness — Mounted Police to the Rescue — Treaty in 1877 — Location of the Tribes — 
 Instructors in Agriculture and Stock-Eaising — Text of Treaty — Yearly Subsidies — 
 Ammunition — Salary of Teachers Paid — Supply of Tools, Stock, and Agricultural 
 Implements — Agreement on Part of Indians — Success of this Policy — Opinion of Lord 
 Lome — Conduct of Hudson Bay Company Eulogized — Also that of Mounted Police — 
 Increase of Latter to Five Hundred — Cost of Indians and of Police — Officers of the 
 Force — New Headquarters — Indian Question still a Delicate one — Extract from 
 Toronto Mail — Account of Distribution of Food — Contractors for Food Supply. 
 
 Up to the year 1874 the whole country adjacent to the 
 Rocky Mountains, or the eastern slope, was occupied by 
 Indian tribes. Buffalo and other large game had made 
 those beautiful plains and fertile slopes their chosen home 
 for unnumbered years, and had fattened and multiplied on 
 the succulent and nutritious grasses which grow there in 
 such luxuriance. Food was abundant; buffalo robes and 
 skins for clothing, tents and lodges were plentiful. The 
 aborigines were rich and happy after their own fashion, 
 until the introduction of the whiskey traffic from the 
 United States' territories bordering on the south. 
 
 The Indian tribes in this section of the Canadian North- 
 West are the Blackfeet, Bloods, and Piegans, all branches of 
 the same tribe ; the Stony Indians and the Sarcees, a 
 branch of the Peace River Indians, called Beavers. 
 
 In 1861 the Blackfeet, north of the international boun- 
 dary line, numbered about ten thousand. They are repre- 
 sented as being " then a proud, haughty people, having a 
 regular politico-religious organization, by which their thirst 
 for blood and their other barbarous passions were constantly 
 
570 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 fired to the highest pitch of frenzy. Since then their sys- 
 tem9,tic organizations have fallen into decay, and they have 
 been utterly demoralized as a people. 
 
 Their numbers at the last treaty payment in 1881, stood 
 as follows : — 
 
 Bloods 3,000 
 
 PieganB 960 
 
 Blackfeet 1,700 
 
 Sarcees 479 
 
 StonyB 610 
 
 The aggregate number of Blackfeet, Piegans and Bloods 
 it will be observed, was then only 5,660. 
 
 This great change and decadence are accounted for by the 
 Eev. C. Scollen, who had for many years labored amongst 
 the Blackfeet Indians as Roman Catholic missionary, and 
 consequently was well acquainted with their habits and 
 character. In a report which he made to Lieut.-Governor 
 Laird, in 1876, he says, it was brought about by two causes: 
 " First, about ten years ago the Americans crossed the line 
 and established themselves on Belly River, where they car- 
 ried on to an extraordinary extent the illicit traffic in 
 intoxicating liquor to the Blackfeet. The ' fire-water ' 
 flowed as freely, if I may use the metaphor, as the streams 
 running from the Rocky Mountains, and hundreds of the 
 poor Indians fell victims to the white man's craving for 
 money — some poisoned, some frozen to death while in a 
 state of intoxication, and many shot down by United States 
 bullets. Second, then in 1870 came that disease so fatal to 
 Indians, the small-pox, which told upon the Blackfeet 
 with terrible effect, destroying between six and eight 
 hundred of them. Surviving relatives went more for the 
 use of alcohol, they endeavored to drown their grief in the 
 poisonous beverage. They sold their robes and horses by 
 the hundred for it, and then began killing one another, 
 so that in a short time they were divided into small par- 
 ties, afraid to meet. 
 
THE -WESTERN INDIANS AND MOUNTED POLICE. 571 
 
 " Fortunately for them the Government were aware of 
 the state of affairs in the country and did not remain indif- 
 ferent to it. In the summer of 1874, I was travelling 
 amongst the Blackfeet. It was painful to me to see the 
 state of poverty to which they had been reduced. For- 
 merly they had been the most opulent Indians in the coun- 
 try, now they were clothed in rags, without horses and 
 without guns. But this was the year of their salvation. 
 That very summer the Mounted Police were struggling 
 against the difficulties of a long journey across the plains 
 to bring them help. The noble corps reached their desti- 
 nation that same fall, and with magic effect put an entire 
 stop to the abominable traffic of whiskey with the Indians. 
 Since that time the Blackfeet Indians are becoming more 
 prosperous. They are now well clothed and well furnished 
 with guns and horses. During the last two years I have 
 calculated that they have bought 2,000 horses to replace 
 those they had given for whiskey." 
 
 Treaty number seven was made at the " Blackfeet Cross- 
 ing," Bow River, on the 22nd September, 1877, and included 
 the Blackfeet, Blood, Piegan, Sarcee, Stony, and other 
 Indian inhabitants of the territory north of the United 
 States boundary line, east of the centre range of the Rocky 
 Mountains, and south and west of treaties numbers six and 
 four. 
 
 Those Indians have settled on their allotted Reserves — 
 the Bloods on Belly River, south of Fort McLeod; the 
 Piegans, on Old Man's River, west of McLeod ; the Black- 
 feet at " Blackfoot Crossing; " the Sarcees on Irish River; 
 and the Stonys at Morleyville, west of Calgarry, on Bow 
 River. The reserves assigned are of sufficient area to allow 
 one square mile for each family of five persons, or in that 
 proportion for larger and smaller families. Their title to 
 the balance of the country is extinguished by the treaty, 
 except " that they shall have right to pursue their voca- 
 
572 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-"WEST. 
 
 tions of hunting throughout the tract surrendered, subject 
 to such regulations as may be made by the Government, and 
 saving and excepting such tracts as may be required or taken 
 up from time to time for settlement, mining, trading, or other 
 purposes by the Goveriiment or by any of Her Majesty's 
 subjects duly authorized therefor by the Government of 
 Canada. 
 
 On each Reserve there is an instructor, with one or two 
 assistants, who are entrusted by the Government to impart 
 instruction to the Indians, in reference to cultivating their 
 Eeserves, and in Stock-raising. Since the buffalo disap- 
 peared from this section of the country recently, rations of 
 beef and flour are issued on Reserves to those who are un- 
 able to obtain supplies by hunting, or who have not raised 
 enough produce to furnish required food. On several Re- 
 serves farther east, sufficient grain, roots, etc., have been 
 grown to render the bands almost self-supporting. 
 
 The text of Treaty No. 7, which is somewhat similar to 
 that of the former Treaties with other tribes, is as follows : — 
 
 " In view of the satisfaction of Her Majesty with the 
 recent general good conduct of Her said Indians, and in 
 extinguishment of all their past claims, she hereby, through 
 the Commissioners, agrees to make them a present payment 
 of twelve dollars each, in cash, to each man, woman, and 
 child of the families here represented. 
 
 " Her Majesty agrees that next year, and annually after- 
 wards, forever, she will cause to be paid to the said Indians, 
 in cash, at suitable places and dates, of which the said In- 
 dians shall be duly notified, to each Chief, twenty-five dol- 
 lars, each minor Chief or Councillor (not exceeding fifteen 
 minor-chiefs to the Blackfeet and to the Stony Indians,) 
 fifteen dollars, and to every other Indian of whatever age, 
 five dollars ; the same, unless there be some exceptional 
 reason, to be paid to the heads of families for those be- 
 longing thereto. 
 
THE WESTERN INDIANS AND MOUNTED POLICE. 573 
 
 " Further, Her Majesty agrees that the sum of two 
 thousand dollars shall hereafter, every year, be expended 
 in the purchase of ammunition for distribution among the 
 said Indians ; provided, that if at any future time, ammuni- 
 tion become comparatively unnecessary for said Indians, 
 her Government, with the consent of said Indians, may ex- 
 pend the proportion due to such band otherwise for their 
 benefit. 
 
 " Further, Her Majesty agrees that each head-chief and 
 minor-chief, and each chief and councillor duly recognized 
 as such, shall, once in every three years, during their term 
 of office, receive a suitable suit of clothing ; and each head- 
 Chief and Stony Chief, in recognition of the closing of the 
 treaty, a suitable medal and flag ; and next year, or as soon 
 as convenient, each head-chief and minor-chief, and Stony 
 chief, shall receive a Winchester rifle. 
 
 " Further, Her Majesty agrees to pay the salary of such 
 teachers to instruct the children of said Indians, as to her 
 Government of Canada may seem advisable, when said 
 Indians are settled on their Reserves, and shall desire 
 teachers. 
 
 " Further, Her Majesty agrees to supply each head and 
 minor-chief, and each Stony chief, for the use of their, 
 bands, ten axes, five hand-saws, five augers, one grindstone,, 
 and the necessary whetstones. 
 
 " And, further. Her Majesty agrees that the said Indians 
 shall be supplied, as soon as convenient, after any band 
 shall make due application therefor, with the following 
 cattle for raising stock, that is to say : For every family of 
 five persons, and under, two cows ; for every family of over 
 five persons, and less than ten persons, three cows; for 
 every family of over ten persons, four cows; and every 
 head and minor chief, and every Stony chief, for the use of 
 their bands, one bull ; but if any band desire to cultivate 
 the soil, as well as raise stock, each family of such band 
 
574 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH--WEST. 
 
 shall receive one cow less than the above mentioned num- 
 ber, and in lieu thereof, when settled on their Reserves 
 and prepared to break up the soil, two hoes, one spade, one 
 scythe, and two hay-forks ; and for every three families, 
 one plough and one harrow ; and for each band, enough 
 potatoes, barley, oats, and wheat (if such seeds be suited 
 for the locality of their Reserves), to plant the land actually 
 broken up. All the aforesaid articles to be given, once for 
 all, for the encouragement of the practice of agriculture 
 among the Indians. 
 
 " And the undersigned Blackfeet, Blood, Piegans, and 
 Sarcee head chiefs and minor-chiefs, and Stony chiefs and 
 councillors, on their own behalf, and on behalf of all other 
 Indians inhabiting the tract within ceded, do hereby, 
 solemnly promise, and engage to strictly observe this treaty, 
 and also to conduct and behave themselves as good and 
 loyal subjects of Her Majesty the Queen. They promise 
 and engage that they will, in all respects, obey and abide 
 by the law ; that they will maintain peace and good order 
 between each other and between themselves and other 
 tribes of Indians, and between themselves and others of 
 Her Majesty's subjects, whether Indians, Half-breeds, or 
 Whites, now inhabiting, or hereafter to inhabit, any part of 
 the said ceded tract; and that they will not molest the 
 person or property of any inhabitant of such ceded tract, 
 or the property of Her Majesty the Queen, or interfere with 
 or trouble any person passing or travelling through the said 
 tract or any part thereof; and that they will assist the 
 Officers of Her Majesty, in bringing to justice and punish- 
 ment any Indian offending against the stipulations of the 
 treaty, or infringing the laws in force in the country so 
 ceded." 
 
 Hitherto the Dominion Government has been highly suc- 
 cessful in their dealings with the Indians. Their policy 
 has been conciliator}^ and patriarchal. By prudent arrange- 
 
THE WESTERN INDIANS AND MOUNTED POLICE. 575 
 
 ment peaceful possession has been obtained of the whole 
 territory. Wild and cruel savages have been brought under 
 the influences of civilization. Many tribes are abandoning 
 the precarious mode of living by the chase, for the more re- 
 liable returns from the cultivation of the soil and raising 
 domestic herds. 
 
 Lord Lome, Governor General of Canada, in his admir- 
 able speech delivered at Winnipeg on his return from a 
 round tour by the Kocky Mountains, in July, August, 
 September, and October, 1881, embracing a drive of nearly 
 1,500 miles across the western prairies, refers to the subject 
 as follows : — " Let me advert for one moment to some of the 
 causes which have enabled settlers to enjoy in such peace 
 the fruits of their industry. Chief amongst these must be 
 reckoned the policy of kindness and justice which was in- 
 augurated by the Hudson's Bay Company in their treatment 
 of the Indians. Theirs is one of the cases in which a 
 trader's association has upheld the maxim that ' honesty is 
 the best policy,' even when you are dealing with savages. 
 The wisdom and righteousness of their dealing on enlight- 
 ened principles, which are fully followed out by their 
 servants to-day, gave the cue to the Canadian Government. 
 The Dominion to-day through her Indian officers and her 
 mounted constabulary is showing herself the inheritress of 
 these traditions. She has been fortunate in organizing the 
 Mounted Police Force, a corps of whose services it would be 
 impossible to speak too highly. A mere handful in that vast 
 wilderness, they have at all times shown themselves ready 
 to go anywhere and do anything. They have often had 
 occasions demanding the combined individual pluck and 
 prudence rarely to be found amongst any soldiery ; and 
 there has not been a single occasion on which any member 
 of the force has lost his temper under trying circumstances, 
 or has not fulfilled his mission as a guardian of the peace. 
 Severe journeys in winter and difficult arrests have had to 
 
576 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 be effected in the centre of savage tribes, and not once has 
 the moral prestigte, which was in reality their only weapon, 
 been found insufficient to cope with difficulties which, in 
 America, have often baffled the efforts of whole columns of 
 armed men. I am glad of this opportunity to name these 
 men as well worthy of Canada's regard — as sons who have 
 well maintained her name and fame." 
 
 His Excellency paid a high and deserved compliment to 
 the Hudson's Bay Company, and one equally deserving to 
 the Mounted Police Force. But for them the country, at 
 least in the far west, would have yet been a terra incognita, 
 in a state of anarchy and demoralization. There would 
 have been no safety for either life or property. The officers 
 of the North-West Mounted Police are men of experience 
 and tact. Their prudence and courage have been proved 
 on many occasions. The names of the Commissioner, Col. 
 Irvine, Superintendent and Adjutant Cotton, and Superin- 
 tendent Crozier, have frequentl}' been mentioned in the 
 public press in connection with the meritorious discharge of 
 their duties. 
 
 In view of an expected large increase of population, and 
 a great importation of cattle, sheep, and horses, it has been 
 decided by the Government to increase the force to 500 
 men. To meet the cost of the consequent expenditure, 
 $90,000 have been placed in the supplementary estimate 
 for the year ending 30th June, 1882. The estimated ex- 
 pense of the management of the Indians in Manitoba and 
 the North-West Territories for the year ending 30th June, 
 1883, is set down at $830,500. The sum required for the 
 Mounted Police for the same year is $113,000. 
 
 The present officers of the North-West Mounted Police, 
 as gazetted January 28th, 1882, are as follows : — 
 
 Commissoner : Acheson Gosford Irvine, appointed 1st November, 1880. 
 Superintendents: James Murrow Walsh, 1st June, 1874 ; Lief N. Fitzroy Crozierj 
 11th September, 1874; William Macaully Herchmer, Isfc August, 1876; 
 Albert Shurtliff, 24th January, 1882; John Henry McIUrue, 26th January. 
 ^ 1882; Alexander McEenzie, 24th January, 1882. 
 
THE WESTERN INDIANS AND MOUNTED POLICE. 577 
 
 Superintendent and Adjutant, John Cotton, let January, 1882. 
 
 Senior Surgeon : Augustus Jukes, M.D., 24th January, 1882. 
 
 Assistant Surgeons : Robert Miller, M D., 20th October, 1875; George A. Ken- 
 nedy, M.D., 1st October, 1878. 
 
 Inspectors: John French, 30th March, 1874; Sevisro Gagnon, 3rd April, 1874; 
 Edmond Frechette, 11th September, 1874; Francis Jeffrey Dickens, 4th 
 November, 1874; Arthur Henry Griesbach, 1st June, 1875; William D. 
 Antrobus, 1st March, 1876 ; Percy Reginald Neale, 1st July, 1876 ; Samuel 
 B. Steele, 31st August, 1878 ; Alexander R. Macdonoll, 1st September, 1878 ; 
 Thomas Cowling, 15th September, 1878 ; Aylesford Bowen Perry, 24th 
 January, 1882 ; Henry Romeo Prevost, 25th January, 1882 ; Frank Norman, 
 24th Januai-y, 1882. 
 
 The distribution of the Force will be changed from time 
 to time, according to the movements of the Indians and 
 the tide of immigration. During the years 1882 and 1883, 
 the chief locations will be at Fort McLeod and at Fort 
 Calgary. Fort Walsh, the present headquarters, will be 
 reduced to a few men, if not abandoned altogether, as the 
 causes which necessitated its establishment, namely, the 
 arrival of refugee Indians from the United States, have 
 passed away. 
 
 The Indian question continues to be one of great delicacy. 
 The natives have to be dealt with like children. It will 
 require some years of careful, patient management to bring 
 them fairly within the pole of civilization. As yet the 
 Blackfeet, Bloods, and Piegans practise polygamy, and have 
 their annual " sun dance," when all their brave deeds are 
 recounted. 
 
 The correspondent of the " Toronto Mail," writing from 
 Fort McLeod, in September, 1881, says : " Farther down the 
 Old Man's Eiver, about twelve miles west of Fort McLeod, I 
 reached the Piegan Indian Reserve, where there are about 
 900 Indians, under the superintendence of Mr. Kettles. On 
 this Government farm there is a good crop this year, and a 
 few of the Indians on the Reserve have raised some oats, 
 potatoes, etc. They seem well disposed and willing to help 
 themselves, but it is no easy matter to get rid of their old 
 habits and fall into new. I happened to be present at one 
 37 
 
578 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOETH-WEST. 
 
 of the regular semi-weekly ration distributions. Four fat 
 cattle were killed on this occasion — two carcases were to be 
 kept over until next day. The butchering was speedily 
 performed by the Indians. A bullet fired at the head of each 
 of the cattle, produced instantaneous death. Mr. Kettles 
 brought down one by a bullet which struck direct in the 
 animal's forehead. Three Indians followed suit with their 
 rifles, and brought down the other three. In less than 
 two minutes, the work of skinning commenced. Three or 
 four Indians around each beast soon took the hide off, and 
 before the flesh had ceased to quiver, the entrails were out, 
 and divided amongst the hungry crowd. They seemed 
 very fond of tripe, and appropriated every solid particle, 
 except the horns and hoofs. Fires were kindled, and pieces 
 of meat partially cooked over the burning sticks, were eaten 
 with great relish. Choice portions were chewed raw 
 and considered a good treat. It took the greater portion 
 of the forenoon to apportion the rations of beef and flour 
 to each family, but the agent seemed quite at home in the 
 work." 
 
 The beef and flour for the different reserves, included in 
 treaty number seven, have hitherto been supplied under 
 contract by Messrs. I. G. Baker & Co., of Fort Benton, 
 Montana. 
 
CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 Steamboats and the Development of our River and Lake 
 
 Navigation. 
 
 First Steamboat on Red River — Attempts to Establish a Trade — "Want of Success — 
 Opening of the Northern Pacific — Regular Trade Established on Red River in 1872 — 
 In Three Years it Increases to 50,000 Tons — Doubts cast on the Navigation of the 
 Red and Saskatchewan Rivers in 1876 — Mr. Trow's Statement made in 1877 — Red 
 River Fleet in 1879 — Navigation of Lake Winnipeg — ^Aasiniboine Opened up — Its 
 Capacity and Present Facilities — The Qu'Appelle and Souris — The South Saskatche- 
 wan — North Saskatchewan — Steam Navigation on the Athabasca, on Peace River, 
 on the Mackenzie — Lake Athabasca and Great Slave Lake — Impediments to Naviga- 
 tion—The Future of the Lake and River Trade — Summary of Navigable Waters. 
 
 Up to the year 1859 no attempt had been made to put 
 steamboats on Red River, and not a few in the colony derided 
 the idea as preposterous, and maintained that the river was 
 too shallow, too crooked, and too full of snags. One morning 
 early in June of that year the colony was unexpectedly greet- 
 ed with the whistle of the steamboat, and the " Anson 
 Northrup " tied up at Fort Garry. This boat was brought 
 at great expense by the proprietors from the St. Peter's 
 River, and taking advantage of the spring floods reached the 
 Fort. Its arrival was treated as a great event. The can- 
 non of the fort thundered out a welcome, and bells pealed 
 forth a merry chime as a signal of rejoicing. 
 
 The arrival of the " Anson Northrup " inaugurated a new 
 era for the trade of the Red River Colony. When the 
 Hudson's Bay Company saw the success of this venture 
 they determined to try the river for their trade. With 
 this object in view they acquired some property opposite 
 River au Boeuf, 200 miles south of Fort Garry, and com- 
 menced a town which they named Georgetown, in honor 
 of Sir George Simpson. Messrs. Burbank & Co. of St. 
 Paul, established a stage line between Georgetown and 
 
580 HANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 St. Paul, and communicatiou was opened with the outside 
 world. 
 
 A few trips were made in 1860. During the next sea- 
 son the boat made regular trips between Georgetown and 
 Fort Garry. The stages continued to run to St. Paul, so that 
 the trip from Red River to Montreal could be made in 
 twelve days. 
 
 In the spring of 1862 the " International " was launched 
 at a cost of $20,000, and commenced to make regular trips. 
 Owing to the Sioux massacre and various other causes, the 
 navigation of the river was not a success, and little freight 
 offering, her trips almost ceased. Trade languished until 
 1872, when the Northern Pacific Railway reached Moore- 
 head from Duluth. As soon as the railway was opened the 
 trade on the river took a fresh start, and Kittson at once 
 took advantage of the new impulse given by the railway to 
 perfect arrangements for regular traffic. 
 
 During the year 1872 immigrants began to pour into 
 Manitoba, some going by the Dawson route, while others 
 came by railway to Fargo and thence down the Red River to 
 Winnipeg, which now began to be spoken of in connection 
 with the west. In 1875 trade had increased to such an 
 extent that Kittson, or the Red River Transportation 
 Company, carried no less than 50,000 tons of freight on Red 
 River that year. I heard him make the remark that on the 
 Red River, between Fargo and "Winnipeg, more merchandise 
 had been carried that season than on the Mississippi between 
 St. Paul and St. Louis. 
 
 So little did our own people know of our resources 
 and the capabilities of the country, that in February of the 
 next year, when delivering a public lecture in the City of 
 Ottawa, I was publicly contradicted for stating that the Red 
 River in Canadian territory was navigable the whole season. 
 In the fall of 1875 I happened to be at Carlton when the 
 " Northcote " reached that Fort with a heavy load of freight. 
 
KIVER AND LAKE NAVIGATION. 581 
 
 That same winter I was examined before a Committee of 
 thie House of Commons, and stated in answer to a question 
 regarding the navigation of the Saskatchewan, that in my 
 opinion, the navigation of that river was an accomplished 
 fact, with the exception of the Portage, at the Grand Rapid. 
 
 Again my statements were called in question, and one of 
 the Members from Manitoba, actually charged me with 
 falsehood in making the assertion. 
 
 In the summer of 1871, Mr. James Trow, M.P., Chairman 
 of the same Committee before which I had been examined 
 the preceding year, wrote as follows from Carlton, where I 
 had seen the boat two years ago : " The North Saskatch- 
 ewan is a much larger stream than the south branch. It is 
 between 400 and 500 yards broad at Carlton, from ten to 
 twenty feet in depth, and runs with a swift current. This 
 noble river is navigable from Lake Winnipeg, or from the 
 head of the Grand Rapids, far beyond Edmonton. The 
 Hudson's Bay Company's steamer " Northcote " made sev- 
 eral successful trips during the present season, and carried 
 immense cargoes to the various forts along the river to 
 Edmonton. This gives the Company a monopoly over 
 traders. Freight charges by land carriage from Winnipeg 
 to Carlton, are from five and a half to six cents per pound- 
 A barrel of flour that cost ten dollars, would readily sell 
 in Carlton for twenty-five dollars. Freight charges are 
 regulated at so much per pound, therefore a pound of nails 
 would cost precisely the same for freighting as a pound of 
 flour or pork. Mr. Clarke and others have informed me, 
 that with an expenditure of from $10,000 to $15,000, the 
 river could be made navigable for ordinary sized vessels, 
 from Grand Rapids to the foot of the Rocky Mountains. 
 The Hudson's Bay Company have, this season, constructed 
 a steel steamboat at Grand Rapids, 100 feet in length by 
 18 foot beam, for the carrying trade between Carlton and 
 Edmonton. This boat is of light draught, and was made by 
 
582 MANITOBA AND THE GEEAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 a firm in London, who are also engaged constructing similar 
 vessels for navigating the rivers of Central Africa and 
 Brazil. The Hudson's Bay Company have, during this 
 season, constructed a railway across the portage connecting 
 Lake Winnipeg with the Saskatchewan, above Grand 
 Rapids. These falls are a succession of rapids for several 
 miles. Tobin Falls, near Cedar Lake, and the falls at Fort 
 la Corne, consist of loose boulders which could easily be 
 blasted and removed. Some dredging would be requisite 
 at places where the waters of the river are subdivided by 
 islands, shoals, and sand-bars." 
 
 Scarcely another year passes, when a gentleman, residing 
 in St. Paul, takes up the subject, and in the winter of 1878 
 writes : " There are now in the waters of the Province 
 and its tributary trade, a fleet of seventeen steamers. 
 They are the " Manitoba," " Dakota," " Selkirk," " Min- 
 nesota," and fourteen barges of 1,800 tons capacity, of the 
 Kittson or Red River Transportation Company, which will 
 run from the Northern Pacific Railway, crossing the Red 
 River at Fargo, and from Fisher's Landing, on the Red 
 Lake River, the terminus of a branch of the St. Paul and 
 Pacific Railway, on that river, down the Red to Manitoba. 
 The steamer '' Grandin," an independent boat, is owned by 
 the Great Grandin Farm, on the Red River, thirty miles 
 below or north of Fargo. The above are American boats — 
 and the " Alpha " and " Cheyenne " of the Winnipeg and 
 Western Transportation Company, running in the Assini- 
 boine and lower Red River, together with the " Swallow," 
 " Prince Rupert," " Keewatin," " Ellen," and a new boat 
 just building, which will also run in the lower Red. These 
 are Canadian boats, while a boat is nearly finished to run 
 on Lake Manitoba." 
 
 The Hudson's Bay Company own the Propeller "Col- 
 ville," that runs up Lake Winnipeg to their various posts, 
 and forms a connection at the mouth of the Saskatchewan, 
 
RIYER AND LAKE NAVIGATION. 583 
 
 with their two river steamers, the " Northcote" and " Lilly," 
 the latter a steel hull. These two boats are the beginning 
 of a regular line up the latter river. Beside the above 
 named boats, two other boats have been built, one for the 
 Red River, called the " Maggie," now used as a barge, and 
 the " Chief Commissioner," for the lake trade ; the latter's 
 model being defective, she is now doing duty as a river 
 wharf boat. So that in all, there are and have been some 
 nineteen steamers in these waters. The regular passenger 
 steamers in these lines are models of beauty, speed, and 
 comfort, with ofl&cers who are gentlemen, as well as 
 thorough and experienced boatmen. 
 
 Early in the spring of 1879, the cars reached "Winnipeg, 
 and at once, the attention of steamboat owners was turned 
 to the Navigation of the Assiniboine. The preceding year. 
 Rapid City had been founded, and to supply the settlers 
 and carry up immigrants, boats were chartered for the foot 
 of the Assiniboine Rapid, eight miles above the mouth of 
 the Souris. Captain "Webber, of the steamer " Marquette," 
 examined the Rapid, and decided to ascend it the next trip, 
 if he could secure freight for Fort Ellice. On his return to 
 "Winnipeg, he stated what he believed he could do, and the 
 Hudson's Bay Company at once furnished the freight. His 
 trip was successfully accomplished, and on his second trip I 
 accompanied him. A few days after, the " Alpha " also as- 
 cended to Fort Ellice, and the navigation of the river was 
 an accomplished fact. 
 
 As is usual, with all new ventures many wise men ex- 
 pressed opinions in opposition to the success of the enter- 
 prise, but their wisdom was completely at fault. In their 
 estimation, the river was too narrow, too crooked, and too 
 shallow, but experiment once made set all these objections at 
 rest, and an immense trade was done during the summers of 
 1879-80-81. In September of the latter year, the Canadian 
 Pacific Railway was opened to Brandon, 145 miles west of 
 
584 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-"WEST. 
 
 Winnipeg, and six miles above the Assiniboine Rapid. 
 The steamer " Alpha " continued her trips between Brandon 
 and Fort Ellice, until winter set in, and now lies in the 
 river above Brandon. 
 
 Of the Assiniboine, above Fort Ellice, very little was 
 known other than that in general appearance it was like 
 that below Fort Ellice. Last July, during high water, the 
 "Manitoba" w,as taken up to Fort Pelly, a distance in a 
 direct line from Fort Ellice of 120 miles. Little difficulty 
 was experienced other than that occasioned by high water, 
 but owing to the extreme crookedness of the river above 
 the mouth of the White Sand, it is likely navigation will 
 cease fifteen miles south of Fort Pelly. 
 
 Many contrary opinions are expressed regarding the 
 navigation of this river, but, having descended it from Fort 
 Pelly to Winnipeg, I can state with perfect truth, that no 
 worse obstructions exist above Fort Ellice than are to be 
 found below Brandon. These have been overcome without 
 any attempt to remove the obstructions, and the same can 
 be said of those above. The upper rapids are composed 
 of sand and gravel, and no difficulty will be experienced 
 in making a good channel. During the last week in Sep- 
 tember of last year, the water on the rapids was swift, but 
 not broken, and neither danger nor difficulty was ex- 
 perienced in running them in a small canvas boat. 
 
 Current opinion makes the Souris navigable for a long 
 distance, even to the International Boundary. At its 
 mouth it is 135 feet wide, and over three feet deep in the 
 channel. Prof. H. Y. Hind, in his report on this and the 
 adjoining regions, says of this river : " At its mouth, the 
 Little Souris is 121 feet broad, three feet six inches deep 
 in the channel, with a mean sectional depth of two feet 
 four inches, and a current of half a mile an hour. Near 
 Snake Ilill, sixty-one miles from the outlet, the river val- 
 ley is only 110 yards broad, and sixty-six feet deep, with 
 
RIVER AND LAKE NAVIGATION. 585 
 
 open prairie on both sides. The river here is 100 feet 
 broad, and four feet deep in the channel. The length of 
 the Souris, within British territory, is 106 miles. At the 
 mouth of the Souris, the Assiniboine was found to be 230 
 feet broad, with a mean depth of six feet, and a current of 
 a mile and a quarter per hour." Palliser found it a con- 
 siderable stream, and in his Journal says : " It is a con- 
 siderable stream, being about 150 feet wide and about four 
 feet deep at the shallowest place (August 11th, 1857,) we 
 could find to ford it. We were obliged to skirt the river 
 for several miles before making this discovery, and even 
 then a portage was necessary before we could reach the 
 opjDOsite bank." From the foregoing it is obvious that in 
 general the river is quite deep enough for river steamers, 
 and should the rapids which are said to exist some distance 
 above its mouth be found passable, another 100 miles will 
 be added to the river navigation. 
 
 The Qu'Appelle region and river at present attract much 
 attention, and the feasibility of navigating this river is 
 likewise talked about. Of late years exploration has not 
 been directed to the waters of the country, so that in our 
 attempts to get at the truth regarding this and other 
 streams, we must call to our own aid the work of twenty- 
 five years since. In July, 1858, Mr. Dickinson descended 
 the river from Qu'Appelle, and carefully noted its mean 
 depth and breadth. "With the exception of a boulder rapid 
 at the foot of Round Lake, about fifty miles from Fort 
 EUice, no obstructions to navigation were noted. " For the 
 whole distance from the Fishery Lakes to the mouth of Big 
 Cut Arm Creek River was found to vary in breadth from 
 seventy to one hundred feet, with a depth of from four and 
 a half to two feet. The bed for the most part consisted of 
 soft mud and was quite free from boulders, as is the case the 
 whole way to the mouth, excepting the rapid below Round 
 Lake. About two and a half miles below the lake the river 
 
586 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 bed is filled, for about 100 yards, with large and small 
 granite boulders, rendering it quite impassable for the 
 smallest canoe when the water is low. From the mouth 
 of Big Cut Arm Creek, a distance of twenty miles, the river 
 varies in breadth from seventy to ninety feet, and is from 
 eight to twelve feet deep, with a current of about one and a 
 half miles per hour." 
 
 The Qu'Appelle Lakes, partly on account of their position 
 and value as fisheries in the future, are worthy of a passing 
 notice. It will be remembered that the Qu'Appelle valley 
 varies from a mile to a mile and a half in 1 )readth, and from 
 250 to 300 feet in depth. Less than fifty miles from the 
 mouth of the river is Round Lake, which varies from one 
 mile to half a mile in width, and about five miles in length. 
 Its mean depth is about twenty -eight feet. At its head are 
 sand banks, which are the resort of large numbers of water 
 fowl. Eight or ten miles higher up the river is Crooked 
 Lake — a most lovely spot but nearly all included in an 
 Indian Reserve. This lake is rather longer than the other 
 but scarcely so wide and much deeper, having a mean depth 
 of thirty -one feet, though some soundings give forty feet. 
 
 The Four Fishing Lakes are very beautiful, and as if it 
 were to enhance their value and add to their beauty, the Qu' 
 Appelle Mission and Hudson's Bay Company's Stores, the 
 Police Barracks, and many other buildings are placed 
 between the Second and Third Lakes. The consecutive 
 length of the four lakes is over twenty-four miles, with 
 the village nearly in the centre. The mean depth varies 
 from thirty-two feet in the second lake to fifty-two feet in 
 the first lake. In the future many fine residences will be 
 built along these lakes, and yachts and steamboats will be 
 seen gliding over their waters. 
 
 Unless a channel be cleared out in the rapid below Round 
 Lake, no steamboat can ascend higher than that point, which 
 as I said above, is fifty miles from the mouth of the river. 
 
RIVER AND LAKK NAVIGATION. 587 
 
 While exploring the great Buffalo Plains in 1879, I was 
 particular to make inquiries regarding the navigation of the 
 South Saskatchewan, and in my report to the Government 
 for that year made allusion to it in the following words : — 
 " "We pitched our camp on the hill-top, about a mile and a 
 half from the river, near a good spring in a coulee. Be- 
 neath us lay the mighty Saskatchewan, rolling its turbid 
 flood between banks 250 feet high, seeming altogether out 
 of place in this arid region. The river at our crossing was 
 770 yards wide, and the main channel over which our horses 
 had to swim was not less than 500 yards. Shoals and sand- 
 bars were numerous, with occasional islands, but nothing to 
 indicate that the river at this point was unsuited for navi- 
 gation." 
 
 Why the south branch should be tnought unfit for navi- 
 gation, I cannot understand. Mr. Hind who passed down the 
 river in August, 1858, never speaks of its depth as being less 
 than seven and a half feet ; and the current as never more 
 than three miles an hour, except when close to the North 
 Branch. 
 
 Palliser, who crossed the river about twenty miles above 
 me, on 28th September, 1857, states that the water in the 
 middle of the channel, where they lost their waggon, was 
 twenty feet deep. 
 
 While on the plains I never heard of the river being 
 fordable below the mouth of the Red Deer River. Palliser 
 crossed it on a raft, 22nd July, 1859, about sixty miles above 
 that point where the river was 250 yards wide, and from 
 five to eight feet deep. When at the Blackfoot Crossing of 
 the Bow River, a branch of the South Saskatchewan, 27th 
 August, 1879, I found that it was with the utmost difficulty 
 that horses could cross without swimming. No person ever 
 mentions a rapid being anywhere in the river below this, 
 so that I have come to the conclusion that there is nothing 
 to prevent all the supplies wanted for the southwest being 
 
588 MANITOBA AND THE GEEAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 sent up the South Saskatchewan. Coal is abundant in the 
 river banks at the Blackfoot Crossing and farther eastward, 
 so that there will be no difficulty as to fuel for steamers. 
 Should an attempt be made to navigate the river, it will be 
 found to have better water for a longer period of the year 
 than the North Saskatchewan, as its head waters drain a 
 greater extent of the mountains. 
 
 Further on in the same report I say : " In my Journal, I 
 showed why I believed the South Saskatchewan was navi- 
 gable, and I now reiterate the statement, after a careful 
 review of all said for and against it. When its navigation 
 is an accomplished fact, all supplies for the police and In- 
 dians can be taken to within less than thirty miles of Fort 
 Walsh at Cypress Hills, and those for Fort McLeod, landed 
 at the Forks of Bow and Belly Rivers within two short 
 days' journey of the Fort. Here (at the Fort) is abund- 
 ance of coal, so that there will be an ample supply of fuel 
 for all purposes. It is currently reported that all the settlers 
 in the vicinity of the Fort, burn this coal. Messrs. Patrick 
 and Nelson, two surveyors whom I met at Morley ville, told 
 me that they had discovered coal in numerous places south 
 of my line of exploration. In view of the difficulty of sup- 
 plying the Indians, and the importance of opening up the 
 country, I would suggest that an attempt be made, at an 
 early day, to solve the problem, by sending one of the 
 steamers now plying on the Assiniboine on that service. 
 That the ascent can be made without any more difficulty 
 than that experienced in ascending the North Saskatchewan, 
 I am quite sure, as I have had an opportunity of seeing both 
 rivers. Red Deer, Bow, and Belly Rivers, all issuing from 
 the mountains, must send more water into the main channel 
 late in the season, than the north Branch, and, therefore, 
 this river will be longer open for navigation every season. 
 If the coal deposits can be developed by this means, all the 
 prairie land seen by me will become, in the course of years. 
 
RIVER AND LAKE NAVIGATION. 589 
 
 thickly settled with a prosperous population, as there is no 
 physical defect in the country but the want of wood." 
 
 For five years past, an iron steamboat, named the " Lily," 
 has been running on the North Saskatchewan, and has been 
 generally successful. No survey of the river having ever 
 been made, it is a matter for congratulation that success, so 
 far, has crowned the efforts of the Hudson's Bay Company, 
 During the coming year, owing to the extension of settle- 
 ment and the increase of trade, a number of boats are to be 
 placed on the river above the Grand Rapid, part of which are 
 intended to run on the South Saskatchewan, and part on the 
 North Saskatchewan. 
 
 The Grand Rapid alluded to above is situated less than 
 three miles from Lake Winnipeg. Its total length is two 
 miles and three quarters, and the total descent forty-three 
 feet and a half The breadth of the river varies in the 
 rapid, being at the head about twenty chains, at the nar- 
 rowest part ten chains, and at the foot of the rapid twenty- 
 five chains. The above measurements are taken from the 
 Report of Mr. John Fleming, C. E., who thus relates his 
 experience in running the rapid : — 
 
 " In running the rapid, we followed, as closely as possible, 
 the instructions given to us by our old guide on the Plains 
 (John Spence), who had often piloted the old North-West 
 Company's " North " canoes down its entire length. In 
 attempting, according to his directions, to cross from the 
 north to the south side of the rapid, in order to get into 
 what was reported, to be the best channel for a small canoe, 
 such was the fierceness of the current, and the turbulence 
 of the great surges and breakers in the middle, that we 
 were nearly engulfed ; and although every nerve was strained, 
 we were swept down with impetuous velocity, and did not 
 get near the other side till we were about three quarters of 
 a mile below our starting point. We were then impelled 
 with astonishing swiftness along the south side of the tor- 
 
590 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 rent, often in dangerous proximity to the rugged wall of 
 rocks bounding the channel, and now and then whizzing 
 — almost grazing — sharp rocky points jutting out into the 
 river, against which the thundering waters seethed and 
 foamed in their fury. During the descent, the voyageurs 
 exerted themselves to the utmost of their strength, and 
 evinced an admirable degree of coolness and dexterity." 
 
 An approximate estimate of the number of cubic feet of 
 water passing down the South Branch, the North Branch, 
 and the Main Saskatchewan, made by Prof. H. Y. Hind, in 
 1858, gives the following result : — 
 
 CUBIC FEET PER HODft. 
 
 South Branch 123,425,616 
 
 North Branch 91,011,360 
 
 Main Saskatchewan, at Fort & la Come 214,441 ,290 
 
 " " near Bearing River 206,975,000 
 
 The Athabasca, like the Saskatchewan, is a first-class 
 river, and being without rapids, is far more suitable to 
 steamboat navigation than the latter. This river rises in 
 the Rocky Mountains, above Jasper House, and shortly 
 after issuing from the mountains, becomes an important 
 stream. At Fort Assiniboine, ninety miles northwest of 
 Port Edmonton, the Athabasca is a much larger stream 
 than the North Saskatchewan. Here it is not less than 
 300 yards wide, and so deep that our horses had to swim 
 from bank to bank. From here to Lake Athabasca, a dis- 
 tance of over 400 miles, there is not the slightest impedi- 
 ment to steamboat navigation, except a short rapid a little 
 north of Lake la Biche. 
 
 While at the Forks of the Athabasca and Clear Water, 
 in 1875, Mr. Moberly, who was in charge of Fort McMur- 
 ray at the Forks, informed me that he had sounded the 
 Athabasca, at the instance of the Hudson's Bay Company, 
 all the way from the Forks to the Lake, a distance of 
 180 miles. The soundings were made at the lowest stage 
 of water, and he reported that a steamboat drawing six 
 
KIVER AND LAKE NAVIGATION. 591 
 
 feet of water could run at any stage of the water. Below 
 the Forks it is a majestic stream, and flows with a quiet, 
 steady motion, with an average breadth of a quarter of a 
 mile. Its current is so slight that, in 1875, we sailed up 
 the river with three York boats belonging to the Hudson's 
 Bay Company. No difficulty, so says Mr. Moberly, will be 
 experienced in ascending the river far above Fort Assini- 
 boine, as the river is remarkably free from bars and other 
 obstructions. 
 
 The same steamboat could run from the forks of the 
 Athabasca and Clearwater, a distance of 180 miles, the 
 whole length of the Lake Athabasca, at least 250 miles, up 
 the Peace River to Little Red River as far as the rapids, in 
 all, not less than 700 miles of river navigation could be per- 
 formed without any difficulty by the same boat. When we 
 consider the development that would follow from the open- 
 ing up of the Athabasca we can easily conceive that this 
 matter will not be long delayed. Seven years since the 
 Hudson's Bay Company contemplated placing a boat on this 
 route, but it is presumed that the great and sudden develop- 
 ment of the eastern part of the country has left this section 
 in the background for the present. 
 
 Peace River, between Hudson's Hope and Little Red 
 River, a distance of 500 miles, is without an obstruction of 
 any kind except occasional short rapids or strong currents 
 caused by gravel bars in the river. These disappear about 
 100 miles east of Dunvegan, and until the Falls at Little 
 Red River are reached, the majestic stream is without the 
 slightest obstruction. It winds in graceful curves with 
 scarcely any current through a beautiful valley, and having 
 a lovely country on either hand. 
 
 The volume of Peace River is evidently greater than that 
 of the united Saskatchewan, and owing to its sources being 
 far west of the mountains and in a country with a greater 
 rainfall than that to the eastward, it ought to be less sub- 
 
592 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 ject to low water. That this is the case seems probable from 
 the fact that the water was so high in October, 1872, that the 
 Hudson's Bay Company's boats could not be taken above 
 Dunvegan, the bars being all covered with water. Having' 
 descended the river from the mountains to Lake Athabasca, 
 I can speak with certainty of its value as a navigable stream. 
 
 After passing the rapids on Slave River there seems to be 
 no further impediment between that point and the Arctic 
 sea, a distance of nearly 1000 miles, except the " Rapid " 
 which is north of the Arctic Circle. Much has been written 
 about the advantage to Siberia of the opening up of the 
 rivers Lena and Yenesei, yet the accessibility of the Mac- 
 kenzie from Behring's Straits has been strangely overlooked. 
 No Arctic explorer ever found any difficulty in bringing his 
 ships to the eastward of the mouth of the Mackenzie, and 
 there is no valid reason why steamships could not run 
 between Behring's Straits and the mouth of the river every 
 season. These vessels could ascend the river possibly 1000 
 miles and winter at Fort Simpson if necessary, or they could 
 spend the summer catching whales off the coast, and retreat 
 to the river before winter set in. Very few years will elapse 
 before some adventurous person will prove the ease with 
 which the voyage can be made, and the mists that have hung 
 for ages over this distant region will forever be dispelled. 
 
 Sir John Richardson writes of the navigation on the 
 rivers at the "Rapid" in the following words: — "In the 
 earlier part of the summer a steamboat could ascend the 
 rapid without difficulty, and this great river might be navi- 
 gated by vessels of considerable burden, from the Portage 
 of the Drowned in Slave River, down to its junction with 
 the sea, being a navigation of from 1,200 to 1,300 miles. 
 
 " In a dilatation of the river, about ten miles below the 
 rapid, bituminous shale lies horizontally in the hollows of 
 indulated beds of limestone. Having cooked supper at this 
 spot we embarked to drift for the remainder of the night. 
 
RIVER AND LAKE NAVIGATION. 593 
 
 " At five in the morning of the 28th we were at the com- 
 mencement of the Ramparts, where the river is hemmed in 
 to the width of from 400 to 800 yards, and has a strong 
 current. This is the " second rapid " of Mackenzie, who 
 states that it is fifty fathoms deep; but in obtaining such 
 soundings his lead must have fallen into a crevice or have 
 been carried down the channel of the stream by the strength 
 of the current ; for gentlemen of the Hudson's Bay Com- 
 pany ,who are well acquainted with the locality, informed me 
 that a bed of stone crosses the stream, and at the close of the 
 summer when the river is at the lowest, produces a fall, ex- 
 cept on the east side where there is a channel that boats can 
 ascend by towing." 
 
 Scarcely ten years have elapsed since steamboats began to 
 run regularly on Red River, and now there is a large fleet, 
 which is every year increasing and extending its lines of 
 trafl&c. The following summary of the lake and river navig- 
 able waters of the interior may be interesting if not instruc- 
 tive. At present the construction of railways, and the 
 activity imparted to many lines of business on that account, 
 will cause more attention to be paid to numerous rivers, which 
 have been scarcely thought of for the purpose of trade. 
 
 Summary of Navigable Waters. 
 
 MILKS. 
 
 Lake Winnipeg 300 
 
 Lakes Manitoba and Winnipegoosis 230 
 
 Bed Biver, (within Manitoba) 90 
 
 Assiniboine Eiver 350 
 
 Souris River (Probable) 120 
 
 Qu'Appelle Biver and Lakes 200 
 
 Long Lake 40 
 
 Main Saskatchewan 400 
 
 North Saskatchewan 800 
 
 South Saskatchewan 1000 
 
 Athabasca Biver and Lake 500 
 
 Peace River 700 
 
 Mackenzie River and Slave Lake 1500 
 
 Little Slave Lake 75 
 
 Total 6305 
 
 38 
 
594 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 As a fitting conclusion to this chapter, I give the follow- 
 ing extracts from the evidence of Prof. H. Y. Hind, before a 
 Committee of the House of Commons, in the year 1878. 
 The pamphlet from which they are taken is entitled : 
 " NavigiiLion of Hudson's Bay," and was published by 
 authority in Ottawa, in that year. The extracts are con- 
 densed, but the words are those of Prof. Hind, who cer- 
 tainly knows of what he speaks : — 
 
 Letter to Colonel Dennis. 
 
 "Dear Colonel Dennis, — Your very interesting letter of the 18th inst., is just re- 
 ceived, and I hasten to reply to the enquiry as to whether I have any information to 
 communicate, gathered on the Labrador coast or elsewhere, as to the facilities for effect- 
 ing commercial communication with the North-West Territories via Hudson's Bay. 
 
 "The subject is one to which I adverted in a paper read May, 18G4, or fourteen years 
 ago, before the Statistical Society, in London, a copy of which I now send. You will 
 find the reference at page 101. I still consider that York Factory will become the 
 ' Archangel of the West.' 
 
 " During the past three years, my views on the subject have undergone a progressive 
 change, all tending towards confirming the opinion of the adoption ultimately of the 
 Hudson's Bay route as a commercial highway between Central British America and 
 Europe. The facts which have led to this decided opinion are briefly, as follows : — 
 
 " 1st. The general and successive employment of large steamers properly constructed 
 for ice-encounter, by the Newfoundland, British, and Norwegian sealers. . The safety 
 of these vessels, and the experience required in the management of a steamer in 
 ice-encumbered seas. 
 
 " 2nd. The present cheapness and easy management, on board a steamer, of the 
 magneto-electric light, for use on such steamers, and for temporary powerful light- 
 house purposes. 
 
 " 3rd. The alleged discovery, on high authority, of lignite coal over wide areas, fi-oni 
 Cape Walsingham to Frobisher Bay, just north of Hudson's Straits, as well as on the 
 West Greenland Coast. 
 
 " 4th. The better knowledge now possessed of the proper mode and time for navi- 
 gating Davis' straits, in approaching Hudson's Straits. 
 
 " 5th. The great fishing resources of Davis' Straits, in and towards Frobisher Bay. 
 
 "6th. The sources of the ice drift on the Labrador coast, its coiu-se in Hudson's 
 Straits, and the mode of avoiding it in summer and autumn, or crossing it where it is 
 narrowest. 
 
 " 7th, From all I have gathered respecting the navigation of Hudson's Straits and its 
 approaches from the east, there appears to be no difficulty in navigating them, from July 
 to October, with a «eaZm^s(eamer, especially if provided with a magneto-electric light for 
 use in September and October. 
 
 " Wlien we consider that York Factory is actually nearer to Liverpool than New 
 York, it surely becomes a question of tlic greatest moment to determine how far exist- 
 ing information would warrant minute enquiry into this .very important subject. As 
 
HISTORY, AND FUTURE OF OUR RAILWAYS. 595 
 
 the result of a prolonged but desultory study of the question, I have no douht that con- 
 tinuous and safe navigation by steamers, constructed as sealing steamers are, can be 
 carried on between Port Nelson and Liverpool, for at least four months in the year — 
 that is, from Liverpool to Liverpool again, leaving three months, or perhaps a little more 
 for Hudson's Bay. 
 
 " Such a navigation, would, in effect, bring a. thousand miles of sea coast line, now 
 included in Ontario and Keewatin, into direct water communication with the outer world, 
 and develops new interests in the North-West, apart from the outlet it would afford to 
 its grain. The lignite coal, on the west side of Davis' Straits, is of importance in this 
 connection. 
 
 " I enclosed a tracing of a map, prepared some time since, showing the alleged posi- 
 tion of some of the coal beds, and the two routes to Liverpool. 
 
 " It is needless to say that the proper amplification of the points advanced in pre- 
 ceding paragraphs would occupy considerable time. I have marked in pencil Back's 
 drift in H. M. S. " Terror," imbedded in ice, from Cape Comfort, Southampton Island, 
 past Nottingham Island, and into Hudson's Straits, from the 1st September, 1836, to 
 July 17th, 1837. The literature on the physios of these waters is not condensed, and 
 must be collected and arranged ii-om many different but available sources. 
 
 " Tours, very sincerely, 
 
 (Signed,) HENRY T. HIND. 
 
 " Colonel Denhis, Surveyor-General, Ottawa. 
 
 « Question 2. — Where would be your point of departure in Hudson's Bay, and what 
 are the objects proposed to be gained by the route you contemplate ? 
 
 "Answer. — On the 15th August, 1612, Captain Thomas Button, seeking for a harbor 
 on the west coast of Hudson's Bay, in which he might repair damages incurred during 
 a severe storm, discovered the mouth of a large river which he designated Port Nelsoni 
 « from the name of the master of his ship, whom he buried there." 
 
 Port Nelson River, or as now termed Nelson Eiver, is 
 the outlet through which drains the whole of the rivers 
 and lakes included within the basin of Lake Winnipeg, 
 extending from the Rocky Mountains on the west to within 
 one hundred miles of the shores of Lake Superior on the 
 east, and covering a drainage area of about 360,000 square 
 miles. 
 
 Port Nelson is about eighty miles nearer to Liverpool, via 
 Hudson's Straits, than is New York. It is at the mouth of 
 a river of the first class, carrying a body of water double 
 that of the north and south branches of the Saskatchewan 
 combined, and it reaches the sea through a narrow de- 
 pression in the Laurentides, having a descent of about 
 twenty inches in a mile, or, in round numbers, seven hun- 
 
596 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 dred feet in a little more than four hundred statute miles 
 from the spot where it debouches from Lake Winnipeg. 
 
 Port Nelson, moreover, is about the same distance from 
 the edge of a vast fertile region in the North-West, exceed- 
 ing two hundred millions of acres in area, as Quebec is from 
 Toronto. 
 
 For more than two hundred years, from two to five sail- 
 ing vessels, on an average, frequently with war ships 
 conveying them, have sailed annually from Europe and 
 America to Port Nelson, or other ports in Hudson's Bay, 
 and returned with cargoes the same season, via the only 
 available route, Hudson's Straits. 
 
 In view of the growing interests of the North- West, 
 from whatever point these may be regarded, thi time for 
 enquiry has arrived, whether communication with the 
 Atlantic Ocean, with Port Nelson as a starting point, may 
 not be made safe, speedy, and economical. The enquiry 
 has become a natural consequence of the extended know- 
 ledge now made public respecting the vast area in the 
 North-West, suitable for grain-growing and for pasturage, 
 which the Government surveys have supplied. It is also 
 encouraged by the great changes which have taken place 
 during the last ten years, in the prosecution of the sealing 
 industry, which have established the fact that properly 
 constructed vessels of large capacity are, in skillful hands, 
 perfectly adapted to push their way through ice-encumbered 
 seas. It has been pressed forward by the new industry, so 
 rapidly rising into importance, which gives additional 
 wealth to the prairies of the west and southwest in the 
 United States, by the European demand for their live pro- 
 ducts as well as for their grain. 
 
 The establishment of a cheap and speedy means of com- 
 munication between the North-West and the open Atlantic, 
 via Hudson's Straits, would not only secure the rapid settle- 
 ment of Manitoba, but open to successful immigration a fertile 
 
HISTORY, AND FUTURE OF OUR RAILWAYS. 597 
 
 area twenty times as large as that province. The proximity 
 of this vast extent of country to its own seal oard would, 
 under such circumstances, also secure the carrying trade of 
 its own productions under one and the same flag. 
 
 The following abstract reviews in succession the leading 
 points in this enquiry, namely : — 
 
 I. The geography of Hudson's Straits. 
 II. The character of the navigation in Hudson's 
 Straits. 
 
 III. The ice in Hudson's Straits and Bay and on the 
 
 Labrador. 
 
 IV. Nelson River. 
 
 V. Port Nelson as an objective point. 
 VI. The natural marine resources of Hudson's Straits 
 and Bay. 
 
 The Geography of Hudson's Straits. 
 
 Commander Beecher states that the western entrance to 
 the Straits is not more than fifteen leagues, or forty-five 
 miles in width ; but this must include only the open water 
 between Cape Best and Button's Islands, which are at least 
 ten miles from the mainland of Labrador, making the entire 
 width of the main entrance to the Straits fifty-five miles. 
 Between Button's Islands and the mainland there is a group 
 of eleven islands, two of which are large, and the channels 
 between these are four in number. Cape Chidleigh or Chud- 
 leigh is represented to be on Chudleigh Island, and of the 
 nature of the passage between this Archipelago and the 
 coast of Labrador, no reliable information appears to be 
 published. 
 
 Cape Best, which forms the northern limit of the main 
 entrance to the Straits, is on Eesolution Island ; but be- 
 tween this Island and the mainland, or Terra Nivea, on the 
 north side of the Strait, there is a wide passage represented 
 on the chart to be about ten miles in breadth. There are, 
 
598 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 therefore, no less than three entrances into Hudson's Straits, 
 the first and the most northerly lying between Resolution 
 Island and the East Bluff, styled on Captain Beecher's chart, 
 " Gabriel Strait" (?), about ten miles in breadth ; the second 
 or the main entrance between Cape Best, forming the 
 southern extremity of Resolution Island and the Button 
 Islands, forty-five miles in breadth ; and lastly, the several 
 channels lying between the islands on the coast of Labrador, 
 of which four are marked within a breadth of ten miles. It 
 will be shown subsequently that the east entrance to the 
 Strait once passed, the navigation is coniiparatively easy to 
 the westward ; and as the difiiculty of efiecting an entrance 
 in the summer with sailing vessels arises from drifting floe 
 ice, the establishment of a signal station on Resolution 
 Island, and one on one of Button's Islands, to indicate the 
 position of the open channels, is of the first importance in 
 the navigation of these waters early in the season. Winds 
 may press the floe ice on the south or north shore, according 
 to their direction, and while the north passage may be 
 closed by westerly winds driving the ice on to the south- 
 easterly coast, the south or Labrador shore may be free 
 from ice, and open water may exist early in June. On the 
 other hand, northerly winds will drive the ice to the southern 
 or Labrador shore, and the channels on the north side, or 
 near Cape Best, or through Gabriel Straits, will be open. 
 Once within the entrance the navigation becomes compara- 
 tively easy. * * * 
 
 The Character of the Navigation in the Hudson's Straits. 
 
 In 1814 Lieutenant Edward Chappell, R.N., of H. M. S. 
 " Rosamond," visited Hudson's Bay, and in the narrative 
 of his voyage, published in 1817, he pointedly adverts to 
 the advisability of merchants sending a strongly-built brig 
 into Hudson's Straits early in the tnonth of June, so as to 
 reach Cape Saddleback before the Company's ships arrive^ 
 
HISTORY, AND FUTURE OF OUR RAILWAYS. 599 
 
 with a view to trade with the Esquimaux of those coasts. 
 He also states that a vessel intended for this trade should 
 not remain later than the beginning of October in the 
 Straits. The period included between " early in June " and 
 the " beginning of October " within the limits of Hudson's 
 Strait, sufficiently establishes the fact that, in the opinion 
 of Lieutenant Chappell, as derived from practical observation 
 in the " Rosamond," and a careful study of the subject, the 
 navigation of the straits is safe for a strong brig f jr a period 
 of about four months, or during June, July, August, and 
 September — say from the 10th June to the 5th October, or 
 four lunar months. If for a " strong brig " we substitute a 
 strong steamer, and fit her with modern and really inexpen- 
 sive magneto-electric lights for night work, the difficulties 
 Lieutenant Chappell encountered would be vastly diminished 
 and very probably an additional ten days added thereby to 
 the season for navigation in October, making the period ex- 
 ceed four calendar months, for Lieutenant Chappell states 
 that it is not to he expected that ships during their return to 
 Europe from Hudson's Bay will ever meet with loose ice ; 
 that is with floe or pan ice. He is writing of the Hudson's 
 Bay Company's ships, which are stated to start from York 
 Factory homewards by the 20th of September, and so exact 
 is he in his statements that ice is not to be expected to be 
 met with by sailing vessels on their homeward voyage, 
 that he enumerates the different kinds of work done on 
 arrival at York Factory, close to Port Nelson, in the follow- 
 ing words : — 
 
 " It is not to be expected that ships during their return to 
 Europe will ever meet with loose ice ; therefore as soon as our 
 ship anchored on York Flats, we undid all the preparations 
 which had been made for manoeuvreing while amongst the 
 ice ; such as re-stowing our anchors and putting below ice- 
 ropes, ice-anchors, ice-axes, &c., and we rejoiced in being rid 
 of them." 
 
600 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 This is a most important consideration in relation to the 
 navigation of the Hudson's Straits in the fall of the year. 
 In fact, it reduces ice precautions to the early or summer 
 voyages only, and besides conferring unexpected safety 
 upon the homeward voyage, it prolongs the season of nav- 
 igation, so that steamers may remain at York Factory or 
 Port Nelson, until the new ice begins to be formed about 
 the harbor or mouth of Nelson River. The use of the 
 magneto-electric light, on approaching either entrance to 
 the straits, or the establishment of land signal stations 
 there, provided with powerful magneto-electric lights, 
 would greatly assist in promoting safe and speedy naviga- 
 tion during the long nights of the fall of the year. In 
 June and part of July, there is little or no night. 
 
 Once within the eastern entrance, the Straits are seen to 
 expand into a broad open Bay, well-known as Ungava Bay. 
 Green Island lies about half-way between the North or 
 Terra Nivea shore and Akpatok Island, at the entrance to 
 Ungava Bay, the clear sea way, on either side of Green 
 Island, being about fifty miles in width. In traversing the 
 Straits, Ellis says : " If I have to give any directions for 
 avoiding the thickest of the ice in these Straits, it would 
 be to keep pretty near the North Shore, for we always 
 observed that side much the clearest, as not only the winds 
 blow mostly from thence, but currents too come out of most 
 of those large openings which are on that side. * * * 
 
 The Ice of Hudson's Bay and Straits, and on the Lahrador. 
 
 The extent to which ice forms in Hudson's Bay is not 
 known, but judging from the statements of Hearne, whose 
 opportunities for acquiring information were excellent, ten 
 miles from the shore may be the extreme limit in the 
 deeper and northwesterly portions. The southern part of 
 the bay, and the eastern portion probably freeze over a 
 much larger area than the northwest portion, where the 
 
GOl 
 
 water is not only deep, but there are excellent reasons for 
 supposing that a warm under-current comes to the surface 
 there, forming a polynia, as in some parts of the extreme 
 north, such as at the entrance to Smith's Sound, also in 
 Bellot's Straits, in the Spitzbergen Seas, and on the west 
 coast of Behring's Straits. The cause of these polynias will 
 be found in any of the recent Arctic explorations by sea. 
 
 Hearne states that in the northern part of Hudson's Bay 
 and Straits, " the sea is frozen over several miles from the 
 shore." He is referring to a statement of the ornithologist 
 Pennant, who, when describing the habits of the Black 
 GuUemots, or Sea Pigeons, remarks that these birds, " brave 
 the coldest winters in those parts by keeping at the edge 
 of the ice in the open water." This passage, as illustrating 
 a physical phenomenon of grea . importance in the naviga- 
 tion of Hudson's B^ in the early summer m nths, is of 
 especial interest, and may be citod at length. " Black 
 Gullemots, are known in Hudson's Bay by the name of Sea 
 Pigeon. Those birds frequent the shores of Hudson's Bay 
 and Straits in considerable numbers, but more particularly 
 the northern parts, where they fly in large flocks ; to the 
 southward they are only seen in pairs. # * * jyjy 
 friend, Mr. Pennant, says they brave the coldest winters 
 in those parts, by keeping at the edge of the ice, near the 
 open water ; but as the sea at that season is frozen over 
 several miles from the shore, I believe no one's curiosity 
 ever tempted him to confirm the truth of this, and it is 
 well known they never make their appearance near the 
 land after the frost becomes severe." Hearne had so many 
 opportunities at the Prince of Wales Port, near the mouth 
 of Churchill River, of making observations upon the ice in 
 the northwestern part of Hudson's Bay, that his statement 
 respecting the distance it is formed from the coast line, may 
 be accepted without fear of exaggeration one way or the 
 other. 
 
602 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 The objective point in Hudson's Straits, it is desirable to 
 attain at the earliest possible date in the summer, is North 
 Bluff, in the rear of the Upper Savage Islands, from which 
 place, as already stated, the Hudson's Bay Company's ships 
 generally take their departure across the Straits into Hud- 
 son's Bay. Baffin anchored here, in 1615. On Parry's 
 Chart, the Savage Islands are represented as a small group, 
 eleven in number, protecting the entrance to North Bay, 
 a deep opening in their rear. In his work is a sketch of 
 the largest island, which he examined and described, in 
 1821. The cliffs of the eastern island rise between four 
 and five hundred feet above the sea, and the highest portion 
 to which Parry ascended, is from six to eight hundred feet 
 above the ocean, hence the group is a conspicuous object, 
 and affords anchorage ground. Here, Parry took his ob- 
 servations on the tides, which shewed . them to rise, neaps 
 about thirty feet, as stated elsewhere. North Bay, in the 
 rear, was entirely free from ice. 
 
 The great rise and fall of the tides in such a narrow 
 strait, give color to the statement that ice never forms en- 
 tirely across it, for it is well known that no agent is so 
 powerful in preventing the formation of ice in northern 
 latitudes as strong and continual tidal currents. Hence the 
 suggestion of Lieutenants Chappell and Robson, that Hud- 
 son's Straits should be entered early in June, before the ice 
 breaks up in the Bay and is carried into the Straits, acquires 
 special importance in connection with the shelter afforded 
 by the Savage Islands and North Bay. Here, if necessary, 
 steamers might wait for the disruption of the ice in Hudson's 
 Bay, supposing that open water does not exist throughout 
 the winter or in the early spring between Mansfield and the 
 adjacent large island thirty miles distant. It is, however, 
 extremely improbable that at this entrance to Hudson's Bay, 
 where the water is deep, ice forms a continuous barrier at 
 any period. The statement of Hearne that in the northern 
 
HISTORY, AND FUTUEE OF OUR RAILWAYS. 603 
 
 parts ice forms only "several miles" from the shore is en- 
 tirely opposed to this view, and conjointly with the great 
 range of the tides it may reasonably be supposed Captain 
 Jnmes alleges that where he wintered, in the southern part 
 of James Bay, ice was formed as far as the eye could see. 
 This is very probable, for James Bay, though much farther 
 to the south, is very shallow, and its waters for miles from 
 the shore are brackish only. * * * 
 
 Danger Arising from Ice. 
 
 Sir Edward Parry states that " the effects to be appre- 
 hended from exposure to the swell of the main ocean consti- 
 tute the peculiar danger of first entering the ice about the 
 mouth of the Hudson's Straits, which is completely open to 
 the influence of the whole Atlantic. A very considerable 
 quantity of loose ice is sufficient to shelter a ship from the 
 sea, provided it be closely packed; but when the masses 
 are separated by wind and tide, so as to admit the swell, the 
 concussions soon become too violent for a ship, strengthened 
 in the ordinary way, to withstand for any length of time. 
 On this account it is prudent not to enter the ice without a 
 fair prospect of getting seven or eight leagues within the 
 margin. For the same reason also, when likely to be beset 
 near the sea, it is better to make a ship fast to small rather 
 than to large pieces, in order to avoid the heavier concus- 
 sions occasioned by the latter. 
 
 The Newfoundland, the Dundee, and the Norwegian seal- 
 ing steamers being properly protected, push their way into 
 the apparently illimitable fields of ice in March and April 
 in pursuit of seals, seeking the ice, for it is there only that 
 they can capture the seals. There are now five and twenty 
 sealing steamers of large size in Newfoundland waters, and 
 during th e past ten years they have nearly driven the sail- 
 ing sealing craft from this, formerly -styled, hazardous enter- 
 prise. It is not unreasonable to suppose that at the present 
 
604 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOETH-WEST. 
 
 day, when ice navigation is so thoroughly understood, not 
 only by the captains of sealing vessels but by steam whalers, 
 that the passage through Hudson' s Strait, successfully accom- 
 plished for 200 years by bulky and unwieldy sailing vessels 
 and vessels of war, should now become an easy problem. 
 Two and often three Hudson's Bay ships have for a period 
 of nearly two centuries annually passed through Hudson's 
 Straits and Bay, and for a considerable part of the time they 
 were conveyed by the cumbrous men of war of old times. 
 Numerous whaling vessels have also traversed these waters, 
 .and it is announced that this yet r an American house is about 
 to send again a whaler to that well-known ground north of 
 Churchill, Marble Island, and the coast towards Rowe's 
 Welcome, to seek for the reported remains of Sir John 
 Franklin. The French not unfrequently sent vessels of war 
 into Hudson's Bay, and once they destroyed the forts. All 
 these facts show that old-fashioned sailing craft successfullj- 
 axicomplished for nearly two centuries, for the purposes of a 
 limited trade, a supposed obstructed and hazardous navigation 
 which the interests of a country as large as the empire of 
 Germany now invite us to encounter with the modern pro- 
 tected steamer, the magneto-electric light, and the experience 
 of trained and skilled men. * * * * 
 
 It is doubtful whether the northern portion of the Bay 
 ever freezes more than " several miles " from the shore, and 
 it remains to be seen whether much or indeed any ice does 
 come out of Hudson's Bay. It is probable that the ice spoken 
 of as coming from the Bay really comes down Fox Channel, 
 as shown by the drift of H. M. S. "Terror," represented on 
 the accompanying Admiralty chart. There are two reasons 
 for supposing that very little ice comes from Hudson's Bay ; 
 the first is, it would imply the constant occurrence of strong 
 southerly winds and a considerable space of time to carry the 
 ice from so large a surface as Hudson's Bay through the con- 
 fined channels leading into Hudson's Straits, and experience 
 
HISTORY, AND FUTURE OF OUR RAILVATS. 605 
 
 teaches that ice is rarely met with after passing Charles 
 Island, except towards the centre of the Bay. Moreover, from 
 the description of the ice met in Hudson's Straits, it is largely 
 composed of hummocky or heavy arctic ice, which comes 
 down Fox Channel from the north. It is more probable that 
 the Hudson's Bay ice melts and disappears within the limits 
 of the Bay itself. The second reason is, that the early 
 opening of the ice on the west coast of the Bay, admitting 
 the salmon and caplin to the shores in the latter part of June, 
 even so far north as Churchill, and six weeks before the 
 Northern Labrador is free from coast ice, appears to show 
 that local dissolution is the chief if not the only cause of the 
 disappearance of the Bay ice, and its remnant is occasionally 
 found in the eddy near the centre of the Bay in July. If the 
 Bay ice found its way into Hudson's Straits, these would be 
 most liable to be blocked up between Mansfield and Digges 
 Islands, but this part is represented to be always clear. * * 
 
CHAPTEK XXXII. 
 
 The Past, Present, and Future of our Railway Systems. 
 
 Palliser's Expeditior — His Report on the Country and Mountain Passes — Canada acquires 
 tte Hudson's Bay Company's Territories — British Columbia unites with the Domin- 
 ion — Sandford Fleming appointed Chief Engineer — Yellow Head Pass — Trip of the 
 Chief Engineer — My trip to Peace River — "Ocean to Ocean " published — My report 
 on the Flora and Climate — Continuation of the Surveys — My second Report — Called 
 before a Committee of the House — My third Report considered Extravagant — Surveys 
 draw to a Close — Diverse Opinions regarding the Country — My views regarding Peace 
 River Confirmed — Exploration of the Buffalo Plains — Sir Charles Tupper Endorses my 
 Statements — A General Awakening as to the Value of the Country — Railway Commu- 
 nication Effected with Winnipeg — Formation of the "Syndicate" — Review of the 
 Surveys and their Results — Constnictiou of the Lake Superior Branch — Lines Sur- 
 veyed — Cost of Surveys — Increased value of the Country — " Syndicate " carry the 
 Road South — Brandon Located — Lines Located by the " Syndicate " — Lines in Opera- 
 tion — South "Western Colonization Railway Company — A net work of Railways 
 Contemplated — Only Two Outlets Calculated at Present — The Future Traffic — The 
 Kelson River Route — The Churchill and Saskatchewan Route — Prince Albert and 
 Peace River — The Great City of the Future. 
 
 Her Majesty's Government being anxious to obtain correct 
 information with respect to the facilities or difficulties of 
 communication between the Canadas and the country west 
 of Lake Superior, and north of the 49th parallel, sent out an 
 expedition under the command of Captain Palliser in the 
 summer of 1857, to explore the interior and see if any means 
 could be adopted to shorten the route to it, or if there were 
 any practicable passes in the Rocky Mountains by which 
 horses could cross to British Columbia. After spending the 
 summers of 1857, 1858, and 1859 in exploring the country, 
 he reported on his mission. His conclusions regarding the 
 passes through the mountains, were as accurate as his conclu- 
 sions regarding the lands. On page sixteen of his report is 
 this paragraph : " The connection therefore of the Saskatch- 
 ewan plains, east of the Rocky Mountains, with a known 
 route through British Columbia, has been effected by the ex- 
 
HISTORY, AND FUTURE OF OUR RAILWAYS. 607 
 
 pedition under my command, without our having been 
 under the necessity of passing through any portion of the 
 United States Territory. Still the knowledge of the country 
 on the whole would never lead me to advocate a line of com- 
 munication from Canada, across the continent to the Pacific, 
 exclusively through British Territory. The time has now 
 forever gone by for effecting such an object, and the unfor- 
 tunate choice of an astronomical boundary line has complete- 
 ly isolated the Central American possessions of Great Brit- 
 ain from Canada in the east, and also almost debarred them 
 from any eligible access from the Pacific coast on the west." 
 
 The years came and went. Canada acquired control of the 
 interior, united with British Columbia, and as a part of the 
 contract agreed to build a railroad through the mountain 
 barrier declared by Palliser impassable. Parties were or- 
 ganized in the month of June, 1871, for the purpose of 
 making an instrumental survey and gathering that knowl- 
 edge of the vast tract of little known country extending 
 from Ottawa to the Pacific, that would enable our engineers 
 to locate a railway line that would combine directness with 
 an easy grade from west to east. 
 
 Mr. Sandford Fleming, was appointed Chief Engineer, and 
 with characteristic energy, he set to work. Parties were at 
 once organized and the first detachment left by the River 
 Ottawa for the interior on the 10th June. Those for the 
 region north of Lake Superior left Collingwood on the 
 20th June. In the west, a portion of the staff left Victoria 
 for the mountains the very day that British Columbia 
 entered the Union, July 20th, 1871. Besides examining 
 the country generally, two of the Rocky Mountain Passes 
 were to be carefully explored; the Yellow Head Pass 
 entering the Mountains by the Athabasca River and Howe's 
 Pass, which is the source of the North Saskatchewan. 
 
 The discovery of a practicable and very favorable route 
 from the summit of the Rocky Mountains to Kamloops, in 
 
608 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 t 
 
 the interior of British Columbia, vid the Yellow Head Pass 
 and Tete Jaune Cache, caused the further examination of 
 House Pass to be abandoned, as it had been ascertained that 
 the approaches, on the west side, were of a very difficult 
 nature. The year 1871 closed with the knowledge that no 
 insuperable barrier prevented the union of British Columbia 
 with the east, by an iron road. The magnitude of the un- 
 dertaking now became apparent, and the insanity of build- 
 ing a road for 2,730 miles, through a hitherto almost wholly 
 unknown region, was laughed at in the United States, and 
 the project was looked upon as chimerical by the people of 
 the Mother country. 
 
 Early in the summer of 1872, the Chief Engineer decided 
 on crossing the continent himself, so that he might form 
 some idea of the general character of the country through 
 which the railroad was to pass. The Rev. G. M. Grant, M.A., 
 of Halifax, Nova Scotia (now Principal of Queen's College, 
 Kingston, Ontario), accompanied him as Secretary, or rather 
 took that title in his admirable work, " Ocean to Ocean," 
 which gave an account of the trip. I had the good fortune 
 to be attached to the party as botanist, and by a mere ac- 
 cident became an actor in the development of the North- 
 West. On our arrival at Edmonton the party separated, 
 and Mr. Charles Horetzki and myself were sent to explore 
 the country bordering on the Great Peace River, examine 
 its Pass, and reach the Pacific Coast by the best means in 
 our power. 
 
 Learning all we could about the country, at Edmonton, 
 we started for Peace River, and reached it after infinite 
 difficulty, on October 1st, near the mouth of Smoky River. 
 Another month of hardship found us west of the Rocky 
 Mountains, and instead of one Pass, we had found two — the 
 Peace River and Pine River Pass. 
 
 On his return the Rev. G. M. Grant published his work — 
 " Ocean to Ocean,"-;— and at once the eyes of the reading 
 
HISTORY, AND FUTURE OF OUR RAILWAYS. 609 
 
 public were turned to this wonderful country which he de- 
 scribed in such glowing terms. My report of what I saw was 
 published in 1874, and as I frequently stated what I believed 
 my report was much criticised, my statements and con- 
 clusions being at variance with popular opinion. In that 
 report I showed from the flora that the summer climate of 
 Peace River in lat. 56° north, was almost equal to, if not 
 better than, that of Belleville, Ontario, in lat. 44°. 
 
 Two years more passed away, line after line had been sur- 
 veyed, and knowledge had spread regarding the country. I 
 had been in British Columbia, had seen the Peace River 
 country in summer, and had gone down the mighty stream 
 to Lake Athabasca. Again, I reported on the country and 
 this time stronger than ever, showing at the same time the 
 products of the soil in testimony of my statements. In the 
 spring of 1876 I was called before a committee of the 
 Dominion Parliament to give evidence as to the character of 
 the country between Winnipeg and the Pacific, and although 
 held up to ridicule by some of the members for my extrava- 
 gant statements, Mr. James Trow, chairman of the committee, 
 endorsed the greater part of my extravagancies and next year 
 crossed the country to the Saskatchewan and saw for himself, 
 
 By the year 1877, the surveys were apparently drawing 
 to a close, and this year I was invited to write a report on 
 the whole country for the information of the Minister of 
 Public Works, and cautioned in plain words not to draw on 
 my imagination. In response to this I wrote as much truth 
 about the country as I dared for I saw that even yet my 
 best friends believed me rather wild on the " illimitable 
 possibilities " of the country. When summing up the various 
 areas I reached the enormous figures 200,000,000 acres, I 
 recoiled from their publication on the ground that their 
 very immensity would deny me that amount of credence I 
 desired, so as a salve to my conscience I kept to the large 
 number of 200,000,000 acres, but said that there were 
 39 
 
610 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 79,920,000 acres of arable land, and 120,400,000 acres of 
 pastures, swamps, and lakes. 
 
 At this time politics engrossed the minds of the people, the 
 surveys seemed endless, the expense was enormous, the 
 construction of the Lake Superior Branch was found to be 
 a slow and extremely costly undertaking, and many members 
 of the house and at least one leader became so conservative 
 that he considered British Columbia was bought at too high 
 a price. My statements were looked upon as those of an 
 honest but crack-brained enthusiast and little attention was 
 paid to them. The country was declared to be largely an 
 irreclaimable waste Where not too arid for the growth of 
 grain there would be extreme danger from frost, and the 
 severity of the winter and periodical visitations from grass- 
 hoppers were brought in to do duty in aid of the speaker, 
 who might oppose me. 
 
 A change of ministry took place and Sir Charles Tupper 
 at once called for a report on the state of our knowledge of 
 the country. It was seen to be extremely limited and as 
 my statements regarding the Peace River and the north 
 generally lacked corroboration, a number of parties were 
 sent north of the Saskatchewan and Doctor George M. 
 Dawson, Assistant Director of the Geological Survey was 
 instructed to report on the Peace River region. I was sent 
 to the prairie region with instructions to examine the Great 
 Buffalo Plains, lying between the Qu'Appelle and the Rocky 
 Mountains. During the summer myself and assistant travel- 
 led over 3,000 miles in making traverses through this 
 immense wilderness. Instead of it being an arid desert, as 
 Palliser had described it, we found it covered with tall rich 
 grass, with often a scarcity of water on the surface, and for 
 hundreds of miles an almost total absence of wood. Very 
 little observation was necessary to correct Palliser's mistake, 
 which at best was a hasty conclusion come to by the absence 
 of trees and scarcity of water. 
 
611 
 
 On my return to Winnipeg I announced the discoveries I 
 had made, and m the presence of nearly one thousand of her 
 citizens with the Chief Justice of Manitoba as chairman, fear- 
 lessly announced that the so called and country was one of un- 
 surpassed fertility and that it was literally the garden of the 
 country. I then called attention to the Qu' Appelle country 
 and showed that at least 12,000,000 acres of farming lands 
 were in one solid block on both sides of the river. During 
 the winter of 1879 all our reports were laid before the 
 Grovernment, and Dr. Dawson more than confirmed my 
 former report of the Peace River country. Sir Charles 
 Tupper, as Minister of Railways, formally acknowledged his 
 belief in my statements, and in his great speech on the 
 Pacific Railway in the spring of 1880 accepted my figures as 
 the basis of his calculations, but not before he had satisfied 
 himself that my statements were not the guesses of an ill- 
 informed enthusiast. A number of gentlemen had taken up 
 the Railway Route by Pine Pass in preference to that by 
 the Yellow Head Pass, and considered it their duty to 
 belittle my statements, and in one or two instances to make 
 counter ones. In my report of this year I classified the 
 lands on the basis of all the knowledge hitherto obtained, 
 and showed that there were 150,000,000 acres suitable for 
 pastures and wheat culture. 
 
 The country was now thoroughly aroused. Anaericans for 
 some years had cast longing eyes to the north, and the 
 citizens of Minneapolis and St. Paul had pushed a railway 
 up through Minnesota to the boundary, while our own people 
 completed the Pembina Branch, and in the spring of 1879 
 Railway communication with the east was opened up to 
 Winnipeg. In the fall of that year Manitoba wheat reached 
 Minneapolis and St. Paul and at once throughout the length 
 and breadth of the Union, the " New North -West " was pro- 
 claimed as the Eldorado from which the supply of wheat 
 for the manufacture of fine flour was to come. With the 
 
612 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 eye of prescience the directors of the St. Paul and Mani- 
 toba Eoad saw that the country, which Consul Taylor of 
 Winnipeg and many others, had pronounced the wheat 
 garden of the world, was about to become so in reality. 
 Without any delay they set to work and consolidated their 
 lines and as soon as the announcement was made by the 
 Government that they were going to ask for tenders for the 
 building of the whole road they were at the front with 
 their offer. It is needless to say that owing to political 
 necessity or a state of chronic obliviousness the discussions 
 on the Pacific Railway resolutions brought out the fact that 
 a large section of the House of Commons doubted, or affected 
 to doubt, my carefully compiled report on the extent and 
 fertility of the country. 
 
 As a proof of this I may state that in an interview I had 
 with the Premier in May, 1880, he said, " Mr. Macoun, I think 
 you are very enthusiastic regarding the country." I said, 
 " It may be so, Sir John, but my enthusiasm is bred of 
 belief." Both Mr. Mackenzie and Mr. Blake had showed that 
 the country was of little value in their speeches during the 
 session just closed. Sir John, I could see, scarcely allowed 
 himself to accept as fact that which was so ardently to be 
 desired, but Sir Charles Tupper entertained no doubts, but 
 encouraged me to do my duty and stick to what I conceived 
 to be the truth. 
 
 During the summer of 1880 I was sent still farther south, 
 and again I returned with increased faith in the value and 
 fertility of the country. In the meantime negotiations had 
 been opened with the "Syndicate" for the construction of 
 the road, and the parties entered into the arrangement with 
 every element in favor of the " Syndicate " making a good 
 bargain. Our own people had done their best to show that 
 the road would never pay running expenses when built, and 
 that the country through which it would pass was in many 
 places a howling wilderness and would remain so. With 
 
HISTORY, AND FUTURE OF OUR RAILWAYS. 613 
 
 these weapons in their hands, and in addition, with a knowl- 
 edge of the country, which when laid before them, one sec- 
 tion of our people had persistently rejected and refused to 
 believe, the " Syndicate" entered the fight. 
 
 Instead of being astonished at the liberal terms granted 
 the " Syndicate," we ought to feel the country came off well, 
 when we realize the amount of ignorance and misrepresenta- 
 tion, which combined to strengthen their hands when they 
 asked for the terms of the contract. By its terms they got 
 certain parts of the road which are now comph^ted, and other 
 sections, now under contract, wJien completed, 25,000,000 
 acres of land and |25,000,000 in cash. They agree to com- 
 plete and operate the road between Ottawa and the Pacific 
 within ten years, and afterwards operate it for ten years 
 longer under forfeiture of their charter. Thus after almost 
 ten years of constant anxiety to the Government, the great 
 undertaking passed from their control to that of a Syndicate, 
 consisting of men of known financial ability and business 
 habits. 
 
 So that the magnitude of the undertaking may be properly 
 estimated, we will give a review of what had been done 
 during the continuance of the surveys from their inception 
 to the close of 1879. In June, 1871, the country was still 
 in the state it had been in for ages. Annual fires crossed 
 the plains, periodical quarrels occurred amongst the Indian 
 tribes, the buffalo came and went, and the long cold winter 
 passed away, and was succeeded by the genial warmth of 
 spring. In 1873 the Boundary Commission commenced 
 operations at the Lake of the Woods, and in the two succeed- 
 ing years continued their work west to the Rocky Moun- 
 tains. Early in 1874 the Mounted Police were organized 
 and sent out, and law and order at once reigned on the plains. 
 
 The first money appropriated for the survey of the Cana- 
 dian Pacific Railway was in the session of 1871. Callander 
 Station, close to Nipissing, was the initial point fixed upon. 
 
614 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 From this point the line was projected to go north of Lake 
 Superior, and from thence passing the Lake of the Woods 
 reach Red River at Selkirk. As soon as the state of jfche 
 surveys permitted, work was commenced at the eastern end 
 of the Lake Superior branch, and immediately afterwards at 
 Selkirk the western end. Owing to the morasses, lakes, 
 rivers, and generally rocky character of the country immense 
 sums were sunk in the works and apparently little progress 
 was made, but in the end the eastern and western sections 
 were completed, and during the coming summer the whole 
 line from Thunder Bay on Lake Superior to Selkirk, a dis- 
 tance of 410 miles will be completed, and before the end of 
 the present season immigrants will travel all the way to 
 Winnipeg on our own highway. 
 
 West of Winnipeg on the prairie section the line was pro- 
 jected to cross the Narrows of Lake Manitoba, pass through 
 the low country along the base of Duck Mountain, up the 
 valley of Swan River, and westward from Livingstone 
 (Swan River Barracks) to the elbow of the North Saskatche- 
 wan, and from thence westward to Battleford, Hay Lakes 
 (Edmonton), and so on to the Rocky Mountains at Jasper's 
 House. Between Thunder Bay and Tete Jaune Cache the 
 actual measured distance is 1,452 miles or over 1,000 miles 
 west of Winnipeg. In the spring of 1879 other surveys 
 were made of the country south of Lake Manitoba for the 
 purpose of running the line south of the Riding and Duck 
 Mountains, and therefore through a region better suited for 
 settlement. Two summers were spent on these surveys, 
 and the line definitely located for two hundred miles and 
 one hundred of this placed under construction. 
 
 West of the Rocky Mountains the surveys were carried on 
 year after year for nine successive summers, and eventually 
 that known as the Burrard Inlet Route was adopted. This 
 line passes from Port Moody to Yale and thence by the 
 valleys of the Fraser and Thompson Rivers to Kamloops, 
 
HISTOKY, AND FUTURE OF OUE RAILWAYS. t)li> 
 
 and thence to T^te Jaune Cache at the summit of the Rocky 
 Mountains. In the spring of 1880, 127 miles of this section 
 wa3 placed under contract, and up to the present considerable 
 progress has been made. 
 
 By the route above given the distance from Lake Nipis- 
 sing to Burrard Inlet is 2,500 miles. In surveying the various 
 lines 12,000 miles were actually chained, and over 40,001) 
 miles of lines examined at a cost to the country of not less 
 than $3,000,000. The various reports form a small library 
 ia themselves, and the surveys although costing so much 
 leave a country which was purchased for $1,500,000 in 1869, 
 worth at least $250,000,000 in 1881. Had the Canadian 
 Pacific Railway never been mooted very little improvement 
 would have taken place, and to-day no American Railway 
 would be near the frontier. 
 
 The bargain with the " Syndicate " was scarcely con- 
 cluded, when they showed their determination to carry the 
 road still farther south. Acting on my report of the pre- 
 ceding year, they sent Engineers south of the Assiniboine, 
 and examined the country westward. Brandon was located, 
 and their examination of the country was so satisfactory, 
 that they sent engineers into the Rocky Mountains to ex- 
 amine the Bow River Pass, or as it is called in the reports, 
 the Kicking Horse Pass. These engineers have reported, 
 and it is believed that the road may be carried through the 
 mountains at that point. At present, the road is located 
 from Winnipeg to Moose Jaw Creek, a distance of 404 miles. 
 From this point they can go west to Calgarry, or turn to 
 the northwest in the direction of Battleford. 
 
 A branch extends southwesterly from Winnipeg, passing 
 to the vicinity of Turtle Mountain, and thence westward to 
 the Souris coal fields. This line is located 220 miles, and 
 construction is far advanced on eighty -nine miles. From 
 Brandon, another branch leads out southwesterly, for a dis- 
 tance of 195 miles. In all, since the Company got posses- 
 
616 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOETH-WEST. 
 
 sion, on the first of May, 1881, they have located 819 miles, 
 constructed about 300 miles, and have regular trains on 161 
 miles. During the coming summer, they are going to push 
 on the work still more rapidly, so that by the fall of 1883, 
 they may reach the base of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 As soon as the Syndicate obtained control, last spring, 
 they set to work with an energy which astonished many, 
 and before winter, had regular trains running from Winni- 
 peg to Brandon, a distance of 145 miles. This place had no 
 exist3nce last spring, and, at present, has a population of 
 over 1,000. Churches have been built, schools have been 
 organized, and all the machinery of civilization has been 
 put in force in the comparatively short space of six months. 
 Grading has been pushed on with great vigor beyond Bran- 
 don, and it is confidently expected that the line will be 
 opened to Qu'Appelle by the first of June, which point is at 
 least 200 miles west of Brandon, and in the heart of a rich 
 cultivated region. 
 
 With the opening of the Lake Superior Branch, and only 
 that part of their lines which are graded, this one Company 
 will have, before the end of next summer, not less than 
 1,000 miles of railway in operation in the Canadian North- 
 West. These lines are built in the very best manner, the 
 ties are nearly all larch (tamarac), the rails are all steel of 
 the best quality, and furnished with fish plates, bolts, and 
 spikes of superior make. 
 
 For some years, the South Western Railway Company 
 has held a charter, to build a road from Winnipeg to the 
 Souris coal field, southwest of Manitoba. Acting on their 
 charter, they built or assisted to build the magnificent Louisa 
 iron bridge, across the Red River, within the limits of the 
 city of Winnipeg. Over this bridge, the whole railway 
 traffic, both east and west, passes. It may be mentioned 
 here, that Winnipeg is on the left or west bank of the Red 
 River, and that St. Boniface is exactly opposite, on the east 
 
HISTOEY, AND FUTURE OF OUR RAILWAYS. 617 
 
 pr right bank. Owing to financial difl&culties, the road 
 made little progress until last summer, when it passed under 
 a new management, and this, with the aid of unlimited cash, 
 has pushed the grading of the road rapidly to the south. 
 
 Last spring, another railway was projected to run from 
 Portage la Prairie to the western boundary of Manitoba. 
 It was named the Westbourne and Rocky Mountain Rail- 
 way, and is intended to pass by Westbourne, Gladstone, 
 Odanah, and westward to Prince Albert, on the Saskatch- 
 ewan. Part of this line has been placed under construction, 
 and as the whole line for 600 miles has been projected 
 through a rich and, to my knowledge, fertile country, there 
 can be no doubt of its ultimate success. 
 
 In view of future possibilities, a charter was obtained, 
 two years since, to run a railway from Hudson's Bay to 
 Lake Winnipeg. This road is called the Nelson River 
 Railway, and explorations carried on last summer, show 
 that the road can be easily built. This is not the only pro- 
 jected road, as numerous others are chartered or will be 
 chartered this winter, and with the branch lines that the 
 Syndicate are permitted to build under their charter, the 
 country will be filled with a complete network of roads. 
 
 At present, there are only two outlets in contemplation : 
 one to the south leading to St. Paul, 480 miles distant from 
 Winnipeg ; the other to the east, which will be completed 
 during the present year, leading to Prince Arthur's Landing, 
 430 miles from Winnipeg. A charter was granted last year 
 by the Local Legislature of Manitoba, to a company to 
 build a road called the Winnipeg and South Eastern Rail- 
 way. The termini of this road are Winnipeg and Duluth. 
 As this road was altogether in the interests of the Amer- 
 icans, and intended to draw the trade of our North-West to 
 Chicago and New York, it was very properly disallowed by 
 the Governor in Council. Sooner or later this road will be 
 built, and not it alone, but others not yet thought of. If 
 
618 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-TVEST. 
 
 the trade of the interior is going to require so many branch 
 lines to fulfill its requirements, it follows, as a matter of 
 course, that two roads are not enough to carry the products 
 of the interior to eastern markets. There being no wood 
 nor very great manufacturing facilities in the North-West, 
 the western bound freight will be very nearly equal to 
 that going east, for many years to come. All manufactured 
 articles having to be brought into the country, would it not 
 be well for the people of Ontario to awake to this fact, and 
 make preparations to supply them? Ten years will not 
 elapse when the wheat, barley, and oats of the West, will 
 come pouring into this Province, and whether prepared or 
 unprepared, the farmers must take the consequences. Tariff 
 or no tariff, manufactured articles must be sent West, and 
 the sooner the Ontario people wake up to the fact that their 
 supremacy, as a farming people, is in danger of passing 
 away, the better it will be for them. While there is time, 
 then put more money in factories and other industries, and 
 be prepared to reap the golden harvest which is already at 
 your doors ! 
 
 The northern outlet, at present, engages the attention of 
 many far-seeing men, but, up to the present time, nothing 
 certain is known regarding the navigation of Hudson's Bay. 
 Dr. Robert Bell, of the Geological Survey, in his coming 
 report, is expected to throw considerable light on the sub- 
 ject, but the report not being published, it is not available 
 at present. In the preceding chapter will be found the 
 latest published notices of the navigation, and other mat- 
 ters pertaining to that great inland sea. Two years since, 
 a charter was obtained from the Dominion Government, 
 for the purpose of connecting the navigable waters of Hud- 
 son's Bay with those of Lake Winnipeg, by a railway up 
 the valley of the Nelson River. Careful examination has 
 shown that the route is practicable, but the harbor of Port 
 Nelson, at the mouth of the Nelson River, is far from being 
 
HISTORY, AND FUTURE OF OUR RAILWAYS. 619 
 
 as good as reported. The promoters of the route are still 
 sanguine of its ultimate success, but later explorations point 
 to the Churchill as the real outlet of the interior plains. 
 
 In view of the adoption of the Churchill route, a charter 
 has been obtained to run a railway from the mouth of that 
 river to some point on the Saskatchewan. From various 
 articles which have appeared from time to time, in our 
 leading papers, it seems that the intention is to strike the 
 Saskatchewan at some point east of' Cumberland House. 
 Should this be attempted, it will result in failure, as east 
 of that point, the country is very low on both sides of the 
 river for many miles. The true route is to ascend the 
 right bank of the Churchill to the mouth of the Little 
 Churchill, and then strike southwest almost in a straight 
 line to Fort k la Come. From information I have picked 
 up from various sources, there will be no diflficulty in find- 
 ing a suitable route, as there is a tract of rather sandy 
 country which stretches almost continuously from near 
 Fort k la Corne to the southern bend of the Churchill, on 
 the 100th Meridian. The proposed line would keep north 
 of the chain of lakes which form the Burntwood River, a 
 tributary of the Nelson. 
 
 A short distance above Fort a la Corne, there is an excel- 
 lent crossing of the Saskatchewan, to which many lines will 
 converge in the future, as no attempt will be made to 
 bridge the South Saskatchewan nearer than the Moose 
 "Woods, one hundred miles to the south. All roads intended 
 to pass to the northwest or north of the Saskatchewan, 
 must start from this point. This being the case, and I 
 speak from a full knowledge of the subject, the future dis- 
 tributing centre of the North-west, will be located below 
 the Forks of the Saskatchewan, close to or above Fort a la 
 Come. Granting the successful navigation of Hudson's 
 Bay, of which there can be no reasonable doubt, it follows^ 
 as a natural consequence, that the mouth of the Churchill 
 
.620 
 
 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 will be selected as the terminus for the railway which will 
 shortly follow. My other point, below the Forks of the 
 Saskatchewan, of necessity must be the next objective 
 as here the country is high and dry, and there is a good 
 crossing Of the main river. Many parties, who have only 
 a partial idea of the subject, point to Prince Albert as the 
 real objective point for the terminus on the Saskatchewan, 
 but its claims for this distinction pass away, when the sub- 
 ject is only partially understood. Prince Albert, being on 
 the North Saskatchewan, is cut off from all participation in 
 the eastern or southern railway trafl&c and the trade of the 
 ■South Saskatchewan. The more that is known of the country, 
 the greater will appear the engineering difficulties in regard 
 to river crossings west of the 106th Meridian, and fewer 
 will be the points selected by practical men for that purpose. 
 In conclusion, I desire to call the attention of thinking 
 men to the prospective future of our interior Plains. Skept- 
 icism regarding the capabilities of the country has nearly 
 passed away, and the future lines of trade are being studied 
 and examined with a critical eye. Englishmen are awaking 
 to an appreciation of the evident future of our country, and 
 it were well that amongst other less momentous matters, the 
 value of the North-west, as a store-house for meat and grain, 
 -obtain greater consideration. In case of a war between 
 England and Kussia, it is scarcely a remote possibility that 
 the United States might be tempted to stop the supply of Eng- 
 land with food, and in that event, two years would scarcely 
 be necessary to bring the people of the islands to the verge 
 of starvation. Such a contingency could not happen were 
 the Hudson's Bay proved to be navigable, as the whole of 
 the resources of our vast interior would be at the disposal of 
 Britain, and cattle and grain under convoy could be carried 
 -thither in a very few days. This is only a prospective matter, 
 but there is another that is a reality, and one which, in a 
 year or two, will attract much attention. Let any person 
 
HISTORY, AND FUTURE OF OUR RAILWAYS. 621 
 
 take a map of North America, and look at the situation of 
 San Francisco. By following the line of the Union Pacific 
 Railway eastward, he will see Ogden over 900 miles east of 
 San Francisco, and 1,000 miles farther east, Omaha, on the 
 Missouri. Chicago is about 2,500 miles by rail from San 
 Francisco, and five days continuous travel is necessary be- 
 tween the two points. This is the present short line to the 
 east, and when the Canada Pacific is opened, we know that it 
 will be much shorter, as it crosses the Meridians where they 
 have less breadth. The route of the future is much shorter. 
 From Ogden a branch line has been built northward and 
 has now reached Helena the capital of Montana, and is ex- 
 pected to reach Fort Benton during the coming year where 
 it will intersect the Northern Pacific. Between Benton and 
 the Canada Pacific Railway as now projected there is only 
 about 200 miles, which in a very few years will be open for 
 traffic. By keeping the Canada Pacific for over 100 miles 
 to the eastward and building a branch line from near Old 
 Wives Lakes to Fort k la Corne, direct communication will 
 be obtained with the line leading to Hudson's Bay, and by 
 the time a passenger or freight going east reaches Chicago 
 either one or the other going north will be close to Hudson's 
 Bay. The construction of the two short lines spoken of 
 will be extremely easy as there are no water courses to cross 
 nor hills to ascend. It is so self-evident that this is the 
 future line of traffic that nothing further need be said in its 
 favor except to note that this line will tap the Union Pacific^ 
 the Northern Pacific, and the Canada Pacific, and carry for 
 a certainty all freight destined for the European market. 
 "When this line is opened our stockmen -will kill their own 
 cattle and send the meat to Europe as the northern route 
 will be colder and the meat not subject to a high tempera- 
 ture in transit. The above is the main line of the future, 
 and Saskatchewan City will be the capital of the North- 
 west, and Fort Churchill the New Archangel of Canada. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 Admce to Immigrants both as Regards Reaching the Country 
 a/nd What to do when They get there. 
 
 Where Information can be Obtained — Fare to Canada — Articles Eequired on the 
 Voyage — From Whom to get Information — A Government Officer at each Ship- 
 ping Port — How to Label Bonded and other Goods — How to Act on Board Ship — 
 Articles Needed for the Voyage — Household Articles to be Bought — Mechanics' 
 Pools — Farmers Should bring no Furniture — Warm Clothing to be Brought — Routes 
 from Quebec to Manitoba — Agent at Duluth — Agents in Manitoba — Fare from 
 Quebec to Manitoba — Carrying Heavy Freight a Mistake — Agents' Duties — Dominion 
 Land Offices — Correspondence with Officials — How to Address Letters — Points to be 
 Noted — Cautions to Immigrants — No Purchase of Homestead Land Valid until Title is 
 Obtained — All Titles or Assignments should be Registered at Ottawa — Bounty War- 
 rants and Land Scrip — Duties of Homesteaders — Make Entry of Homestead as soon as 
 Possible — See that no One has any Claim to the Land Selected — Titles to all Lands 
 Purchased should be Examined into — Land Guides will Assist at Selections of Lands 
 — How to Select Good Land^How to get Good Sweet Water — Hay and Wood Secon- 
 dary to Good Soil and Water — Spring best Time to Emigrate — Good Crops Raised on 
 Spring Ploughing — New Plan of Sowing in Spring — Old Country People should fall 
 into the Ways of the Country — Deep Ploughing in Manitoba a Mistake — How to 
 Bring Money and Where to Place it —Illustrations of How much can be Saved in Five 
 Years — Success Depends on the Settler — Canadian North-west Compared with 
 Dakota and Minnesota — Opening of Canadian Pacific Railway — Statements of Settlers 
 Regarding Outfit — Mode of Proce lure — Prices — Amount of Money Necessary Success — 
 inFarming — Climate — Wintering Cattle, Oxen, and Horses — The Kind of Settlers 
 Needed. 
 
 How to reach the North-west is a question constantly 
 asked by emigrants, and one not easily answered in their 
 own country, but very easily answered in Canada. Should 
 the questioner live in Great Britain or Ireland the necessary 
 information can be obtained by writing to any one of the 
 following gentlemen, who are the accredited agents of the 
 Dominion Government in the mother countries : — 
 
 London. — Sir A. T. Galt, G. C. M. G., &c., High Commis- 
 sioner for the Dominion, 10 Victoria Chambers, London, S.W. 
 
 Mr. J. Colmer, Private Secretary (same address). 
 
 Liverpool. — Mr. John Dyke, 25 Water street. 
 
 Glasgow. — Mr. Thomas Grahame, 40 Enoch Square. 
 
ADVICE TO I.UMIGRANTS. 623 
 
 Belfast. — Mr. Charles Foy, 29 Victoria Plaoe. 
 
 Dublin. — Mr. Thomas Connolly, Northumberland House. 
 
 Reliable information having been obtained on the points 
 desired, the next step is to purchase a ticket if possible 
 before leaving home. Always take your ticket, if in sum- 
 mer, to Quebec or Montreal, not to Halifax, or St. John's, 
 and never to any point in the United States, because 
 should you do so you have a long railway route ahead 
 of you. The better plan if going to Manitoba direct is 
 to book right through, but never go faster thcvn your lug- 
 gage. 
 
 The greater part of the following instructions taken 
 from recently issued publications, may be relied on for their 
 accuracy : — 
 
 When it has been decided to go to Canada, one of the 
 Canadian steamship lines, whose advertisements can be 
 found in the newspapers, should be written to, so as to 
 secure a berth. There are vessels sailing from Liverpool, 
 London, Bristol, Glasgow, Londonderry, and Cork. 
 
 The fare from any of the places named to Quebec, 
 depends upon the class of passage taken. The saloon fare 
 ranges from ,£10 to £18 ; the intermediate is £8 8s. ; 
 and the ordinary steerage passage is £6 6s., but agricul- 
 turists and domestic servants have the benefit of a lower 
 rate. This can be ascertained from the steamship offices, 
 and they will also supply the necessary forms to be filled 
 up ; children under ten years are charged half fare, and 
 infants under one year a nominal sum. The fares include 
 a plentiful supply of food, and good sleeping accommoda- 
 tionon board. 
 
 To Manitoba through tickets are issued by the steamship 
 companies. The fare from London or Liverpool to Winni- 
 peg ranges from £9 5s. assisted steerage, to £28 the saloon 
 passage. Passengers are advised to take advantage of these 
 tickets. 
 
624 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 To secure a berth, in the steamer it is necessary to send a 
 deposit of <£5 for a saloon passage ; £1 for an intermediate 
 or a steerage passage. 
 
 Twenty culpic feet of luggage are allowed to each saloon 
 passenger, ten to each intermediate, and ten to each steerage. 
 
 Any information or advice as to the most useful things to 
 take to Canada, or upon any other subject, may be obtained 
 at the offices of the Steamship Companies, or at any of the 
 Canadian Government offices. 
 
 Steerage passengers have to provide bedding and certain 
 utensils for use on board, which are enumerated in the bills 
 of the Steamship Companies. They can be purchased at the 
 port of embarkation, or hired for the voyage, from some 
 lines — for a few shillings — leaving bed-covering only (a rug 
 or blanket) to be provided by the passenger. 
 
 Government agents are stationed at the principal places 
 in Canada, and they should be enquired for on arrival. They 
 will furnish information as to free grant and other lands 
 open for settlement in their respective provinces and dis- 
 tricts, farms for sale, demand for labor, rates of wages, route 
 to travel, distances, expenses of conveyance ; receive and 
 forward letters and remittances for settlers, and give any 
 other information that may be required. 
 
 Persons with capital should not be in a hurry to invest 
 their money. They can get good interest for it by deposit- 
 ing it in the banks, and can give themselves time to look 
 around before settling. There is good banking accommo- 
 dation in most of the towns, and letters of credit can be 
 obtained from any of the English banks. 
 
 An officer of the Canadian Government, at Liverpool, will 
 see the emigrants on board the ocean steamers in pondition to 
 ensure their comfort and safety during the passage to America 
 He will render them any advice and assistance in his power. 
 
 The name and address of this officer is — 
 John Dyke, 
 
 15, Water Street, Liverpool. 
 
ADVICE TO IMMIGRANTS. 625 
 
 This officer may be written to for any desired information 
 respecting removal to Canada. 
 
 Intending settlers in the Canadian North-west will be 
 met on their arrival, either at Quebec or Halifax, by a re- 
 gular authorized officer of the Dominion Government, who 
 will at once take them in charge, have their luggage properly 
 looked after, and will see them safely on board the railway 
 train for the West. 
 
 Settlers effects, in use, will be passed free through the 
 Custom House, and any necessary bonding arrangements 
 will be made which will thus prevent any delay, inconve- 
 nience, or loss occurring. Each passenger, before his de- 
 parture from the port in Great Britain, should be provided 
 with address cards as follows : — 
 
 Mr 
 
 of England, 
 
 Passenger to Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. 
 
 In Bond 
 
 and he should see that one is pasted on each of his packages 
 of luggage. 
 
 As soon as the passenger gets on board he should read the 
 rules he is expected to obey whilst at sea. He will find 
 them hung up in the steerage, and should do his best to 
 carry them out, and to be well-behaved and keep himself 
 clean, as this will add much to his own comfort and health, 
 as also to the comfort and health of others. 
 
 If he have any grievance or real cause of complaint during 
 the passage, he should go and make it known at once to the 
 Captain. The arrangements, are, however, now so perfect 
 for securing comfort and speed on the great ocean steam 
 lines, that complaints are seldom or never heard. 
 
 All boxes and luggage should be plainly marked with the 
 
 passenger's name and the place he is going to. They will 
 
 be stowed away in the hold of the vessel, so whatever is 
 
 wanted on the voyage should be put into a trunk, carpet 
 
 40 
 
626 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 bag, or small box, which the passenger will take with him 
 into his berth. 
 
 Emigrants are often induced to make a clean sweep and 
 part with everything they have before leaving the Old 
 Country, because it is said the charge;.; for extra luggage 
 are so large that they woiild come to more than the things 
 are worth. Now there are many little household necessaries 
 Avhich when sold would not bring much, but these same 
 things if kept would be exceedingly valuable in the new 
 country or the bush, and prove a great comfort to the family 
 as well. It is not, therefore, always advisable to leave them 
 behind ; they would not take up much room, and the cost of 
 freight would be little compared to the comfort they will 
 bring. The personal effects of emigrants are not liable to 
 custom duty in Canada. Extra luggage (unless very bulky) 
 is seldom charged for on the Canadian railways. 
 
 Lay in as good a stock of clothes before leaving home as you 
 possibly can. Woollen clothing and other kinds of wearing 
 apparel, blankets, household linen, etc., are cheaper in the 
 United Kingdom than in Canada. The emigrant's bedding, 
 if it is good, should be brought ; and if he has an old pea 
 jacket or great coat he should keei3 it by him, for he will 
 find it most useful on board ship. 
 
 Agricultural laborers need not bring their tools with 
 them, as these can be easily got in Canada, of the best des- 
 cription, and suited to the needs of the country. 
 
 Mechanics are advised to bring such tools as they have, 
 particularly if specially adapted to their trades. 
 
 Both classes must, however, bear in mind that there is no 
 difficulty in bujing any ordinary tools in the principal 
 towns at reasonable prices, and that it is better to have the 
 means of purchasing what they want after reaching their 
 destinations, than to be hampered with a heavy lot of lug- 
 gage on their journey through the countrj-. It must also 
 be borne in mind that the tools bought in Canada will likely 
 be specially adapted to the use of the country. 
 
ADVICE TO IMMIGRANTS. 627 
 
 Farmers and others with means, going out as saloon pas- 
 sengers, sometimes take with them the greater portion of 
 their household furniture, bedsteads, tables, pianos, and other 
 heavy and cumbersome articles. Nothing could be more 
 absurd than this. The cost is very great, the articles are 
 liable to be damaged on the voyage ; and even should they 
 reach Canada uninjured, many of them will be found to be 
 out of place and next to useless. All heavy household 
 furniture should be sold off; it is much better to make a 
 clean sweep of it and to go out, so to speak, " in high march- 
 ing order." Furniture of all kinds can be bought in Canada 
 as cheaply as in England. The pianos made in Canada are 
 second to none. Everything in the way of house furnishing 
 is to be had at reasonable prices, and much better suited to 
 the country than the English-made articles. 
 
 By following out the advice given above, one may go to 
 Canada with ease and comfort. The voyage is a short one, 
 from eight to ten days 5 the steamships are of the very best 
 class, and the wants and welfare of the passengers are care- 
 fully and constantly looked after. In fact it is little else 
 than a pleasure trip on a large scale. 
 
 It may be mentioned that there are two routes by which 
 an intending settler can reach Manitoba from Quebec, or 
 any other Canadian port, namely : the " all rail route," 
 via Detroit, Chicago, and St. Paul to Winnipeg, or by what 
 is called the Lake Route, that is by railway to Sarnia or 
 Collingwood on Lake Huron, thence by steamer to Duluth 
 on Lake Superior, and by rail from Duluth to Winnipeg. 
 The journey by the former route is quicker by about a day, 
 but the latter is more economical. By either of these routes 
 the settler will be met by the agents of American land and 
 railway companies, who will endeavor to persuade settle- 
 ment in the United States as preferable to Canada ; but the 
 settler is advised to proceed direct to his intended destina- 
 tion, and decide upon his location after personal inspection. 
 
628 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 In 1882, a line of railway will be completed from Thun- 
 der Bay (Lake Superior) to Winnipeg, and westward. It 
 will pass entirely through Canadian Territory, and its 
 benefits both to new and old settlers will be very great. 
 It may be added that most of the rivers and lakes in Man- 
 itoba and the North-west are navigable, and that steamers 
 now ply during the season on the River Saskatchewan, be- 
 tween Winnipeg and Edmonton, a distance by water of 
 about 1,200 miles, with passengers and freight, calling at 
 Prince Albert, Carlton, Battleford, and other places on the 
 way. Steamers also run regularly between Winnipeg, 
 St. Vincent, and other places on the Red River. There is 
 also steam communication on the river Assiniboine, between 
 Fort Ellice and Winnipeg. 
 
 At Duluth, during the season of navigation, a special 
 agent is placed, Mr. W. C. B. Grahame. He will be in at- 
 tendance on the arrival of all steamers, to assist emigrants 
 in the bonding of their baggage, and otherwise to give 
 them information. All emigrants should be implicitly 
 guided by his disinterested official advice, in preference to 
 listening to persons whom they do not know, who may 
 have interest to deceive them. 
 
 Agents in Manitoba. 
 
 Emerson J. E. Tetu 
 
 Winnipeg W. Hespeler. 
 
 These agents will give emigrants all possible information 
 and advice. 
 
 The emigrant, or second class fare, in 1880, from Quebec 
 to Winnipeg via Duluth was $25.50, and by the rail route 
 via Chicago and St. Paul, $30.50. Pirst-class tickets are from 
 152.00 to $59.25. Children under thirteen are taken at 
 half price, and 150 pounds of luggage is allowed to each 
 adult. There will probably be very little, if any, differ- 
 ence in the above rates, in 1882. In the case of a colony 
 going together, the settlers might hire a railway car for the 
 
ADVICE TO IMMIGRANTS. 629 
 
 carriage of their eflfects, other than their luggage, to the 
 point of the steamboat port, or continuously, and by this 
 means, get a cheaper rate of freight. Many of the settlers 
 from the older parts of Canada do this. 
 
 It is not recommended to the settler who is travelling to 
 Manitoba, to burden himself with heavy furniture and lug- 
 gage, as the freight of these would probably cost him aS 
 much as they are worth. As a rule, the emigrants should 
 be advised not to take with them either furniture or agri- 
 cultural implements. The latter particularly, specially 
 adapted to the country, can be cheaply purchased at Emer- 
 son or Winnipeg ; but a plentiful supply of clothing and 
 bedding should be taken, together with such articles of 
 general use as can be conveniently and easily packed. Of 
 course, artizans who go will take their own special tools 
 with them ; but they must remember that this may be 
 expensive if they are heavy. 
 
 The emigrants will be met at Winnipeg by Mr. Hespeler, 
 the Government Agent, who will give them every possible 
 information and assistance, and give them directions how to 
 proceed to their lands ; or if they take Emerson, as the 
 point in the Province from which they start, they will find 
 a shed at the Railway Station, and buildings at Dufferin 
 at which they can rest, while Mr. Tetu, the Government 
 agent, will give them information. 
 
 Dominion Lands Offices. 
 
 The following is a list of the official names of the Loca 
 Districts, together with the Post-Office address of the Local 
 Agent : 
 
 Wiimipeg Winnipeg. 
 
 Gladstone Gladstone. 
 
 Birtle Birtle. 
 
 Dufferin Nelsonville. 
 
 Turtle Mountain Turtle Mountain. 
 
 Souris Souris-Mouth. 
 
 Little Saskatchewan Odanah. 
 
 Prince Albert Prince Albert, N. W. T. 
 
630 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 The Head-Offices of the Dominion Lands is at "Winnipeg, 
 being a branch of the Department of the Interior. 
 
 Correspondence with Officials. 
 
 Observance of the following hints for conducting cor- 
 respondence with officers connected with the Department of 
 the Interior, will save time and trouble to the official staflf, 
 facilitate the submission of applications for decision, and, 
 consequently, tend to diminish the period in which replies 
 may be looked for : — 
 
 I. Address no letters on official business by name to the Minister, or any one else 
 connected with the department, .e letters to person illy addressed may be deemed private 
 coiTespcndence, and, in the poss.ble absence of the person to whom they are directed, 
 remain unopened till his return. 
 
 II. All letters to the Authorities at Ottawa on land matters should be addressed, in 
 a plain hand, to 
 
 The Hon. the Minister, 
 
 Department of the Interior, 
 Ottawa. 
 Dominion Land Branch. 
 No stamp is required for letters directed to the official head of the Department, such 
 communications being " free." 
 
 III. In correspondence with any of the local Officers, a letter should be addressed 
 
 as follows 
 
 Three-Cent 
 
 The Locai. Agent, Stamp. 
 
 Dominion Lands Office, 
 
 In this case the ordinary postage rules apply. 
 
 IV. Write in a concise and courteous manner, upon foolscap paper, on one side of 
 the paper only, leaving a margin of at least an inch on left-hand side. 
 
 V. In the right-hand top corner of the first page write distinctly the official name 
 of the post office to which a reply is to be addressed, together with the date of your 
 letter. If the matter occupies more than one page, see that the pages are numbered ; 
 and be sure that your signature is legible. 
 
 VI. Never deal with more than one subject in a single communication ; but write 
 a separate letter for each. 
 
 VII. On receiving a reply, if you respond to it, do not fail to quote the reference 
 number of the official file, which you will observe on the left-hand top comer of the 
 first page (i. c, at the head of your letter put In reply to No ) 
 
 VIII. Keep copies of all your correspondence with the Department or Local 
 Offices. 
 
 IX. All remittances to pay for Dominion Lands should be made in lawful money 
 of Canada, by registered letter. A Local Agent is not bound to accept any person's 
 cheque. 
 
ADYICE TO IMMIGRANTS. 631 
 
 Useful Hints to Emigrants. 
 
 Strangers going to the North-west, should be extremely 
 cautious in purchasing the abandonment of any one's home- 
 stead claim, as all assignments and transfers of the home- 
 stead right (until recommended for patent) are absolutely 
 invalid, though, so far as the party assigning is concerned, 
 such assignment may be deemed by the Dominion Lands 
 Authorities as evidence of voluntary abandonments. 
 
 Any person, however, whose homestead has been recom- 
 mended by the local Agent for letters patent (proofs of 
 fulfilment of conditions having, of course, been filed with ' 
 him) may legally convey, assign, and transfer his right 
 and title therein. There is a book kept in the Department 
 of the Interior for the registration, at the option of the 
 parties interested, on payment of a fee of $2.50, of any such 
 assignment of legally assignable rights (proof of which must 
 accompany the application to register), and the law holds 
 every assignment so registered as valid against any other 
 assignment unregistered or subsequently registered, even if 
 previously made. Every assignment must, for the purpose 
 of registration, be entirely unconditional. 
 
 Bounty Land Warrants, whether issued to men who have 
 served in the North-west Mounted Police or the Militia 
 force formerly performing duty in Manitoba, are accepted 
 in payment of all lands for the amount they represent, viz ; 
 160 acres ; but purchasers of warrants should be careful to 
 see that the assignment to themselves, as well as all pre- 
 vious assignments, are duly registered at Ottawa. It is 
 essential to its validity that the first assignment of a war- 
 rant should be endorsed on the document itself. 
 
 Land scrip, whether that issued to Half-breed heads of 
 families or of the kind granted to " old settlers " in the 
 Settlement Belts, to extinguish certain claims, is of the 
 same value as cash, to the hearer, in any purchase of Dom- 
 inion Lands, for the amount represented on its face. 
 
632 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOETH-"WEST. 
 
 Settlers who take up homesteads are required to become 
 actual residents and improvers of their claims, within six 
 months from date of entry. In the case, however, of im- 
 migrants applying to the Minister of the Interior for leave ' 
 to settle in a community, and showing good cause, the 
 Governor General in Council has power to extend the 
 period to twelve months. 
 
 It is important, in every case, to make a homestead entry 
 as soon as possible, because no patent can issue (as a free 
 grant) until three years from the date of entry have ex- 
 pired ; and it is essential to reside on the homestead and 
 cultivate the same continuously, in order that no delay may 
 be occasioned at the expiration of the above period. Fur- 
 ther, it is important, because, should circumstances require 
 the settler to reside elsewhere, a continuous fulfilment of 
 the homestead conditions for twelve months would give 
 him the right, ander a special clause of the Act, to purchase 
 such homestead at the current price of the adjacent Govern- 
 ment lands. The Department holds residence to have been 
 " continuous " in the legal sense, notwithstanding the 
 settler may have been absent from his homestead for a 
 period not exceeding six months altogether in any one year 
 of his occupation ; cultivation must, however, have been 
 carried on each season by himself or his representatives. 
 
 In the case, however, when a certain number of home- 
 stead settlers, embracing not less than twenty families, 
 with a view to greater convenience in the establishment of 
 schools, churches, &c., ask to be allowed to settle together 
 in a hamlet or village, the Minister may vary the require- 
 ment as to residence on, but not as to the cultivation of, 
 each separate quarter-section. 
 
 Immigrants will act wisely in making sure that the land 
 for which they propose to enter is not already claimed in any 
 way by a prior occupant. As a general rule, it will be found 
 safer to take up land to which no legal or equitable claim is 
 
ADVICE TO IMMIGRANTS. 633 
 
 likely to be asserted, than to go into disputed possession of 
 a superior location. In the one case, the settler can con- 
 fidently proceed with his improvements ; in the other, he 
 will be hindered by the delay and uncertainty involved in 
 obtaining a decision. 
 
 Purchasers of land in Manitoba and the North-west Ter- 
 ritories that has been already patented from the Crown, 
 should never pay any portion of the price agreed upon, 
 without first satisfying themselves, by obtaining an abstract 
 of title from the Registry Ofiice for the Registration Dis- 
 trict in which the lands are situated, that no agreements, 
 mortgages, judgments, or other incumbrances are recorded 
 against it; also, that no arrears of taxes are due upon such 
 property. It should also be remembered that, as the law 
 attaches the greatest possib.e importance to priority of 
 registration, no delay should be allowed to in. ervene be- 
 tween the signing of the deed and seeing that it is duly 
 registered. A Registrar's fee, in Manitoba, for registering 
 an ordinary conveyance is $2.20 ; he charges fifty cents for 
 a search, and for an abstract, according to the number of 
 the entries of documents affecting the property. 
 
 Persons travelling in the North-west are required to be 
 particularly careful to extinguish their camp-fires before 
 leaving them, so that the destructive consequences of a 
 prairie fire may be prevented. Both in Manitoba and the 
 Territories, legislation has provided adequate penalties for 
 the punishment of criminal negligence in this respect. 
 Should it happen, however, that a party of immigrants are 
 threatened by a prairie-fire approaching them, and no other 
 means of escape are available, the danger may be efiectually 
 overcome by setting fire to the prairie to leeward of the 
 party, and moving the travellers, with their outfit, into the 
 ground so burnt over. 
 
 When one or more persons have reached a district where 
 they purpose looking for land, the better plan is to go at 
 
634 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOETH-WEST. 
 
 once to the Agent and ask for the numbers of vacant sections 
 in the various townships. Attached to each agency is a 
 " Land Guide," whose duty is to take charge of strangers and 
 show them where the vacant lands are, and give them infor- 
 mation as to the quality of the soil, the presence of water, 
 and any other matter about which he may be questioned. 
 
 As most people prefer to select lands for themselves^ 
 advice on this point may seem out of place, still a few hints 
 may benefit some. The first requisite is a dry level or 
 gently rolling surface free from brush on at least two-thirds 
 of the lot. The next necessity is permanent and pure water. 
 Should there ue ponds on the lot an examination is abso- 
 lutely necessary, to see whether the water is pure or saline. 
 The best and simplest test is to wash with soap in the 
 water. If it forms a suds the water is good, if curds in the 
 dry season, the water is bad. I speak of ponds in this con- 
 nection, as brooks and rivers contain hard water in nearly 
 every case. Another test is the grass. Should grass in the 
 middle of a pond be green at the latter part of September 
 the water is permanently good, if rotted the water is unfit 
 for use at that time. 
 
 Wood and hay lands are really secondary objects, as it is 
 much better for a farmer to have a good wheat farm which he 
 can at once break up and from which he can begin to make 
 money, than to clear the land of brush and young wood, and 
 waste time in draining. As is shown in another place any 
 party taking a prairie lot is entitled to twenty acres of wood 
 land. Few lots are without hay lands, as all hollows con- 
 tain more or less hay. 
 
 Now, when railways are extending into the country, it is 
 much better to come out in early spring if a crop is desired 
 the first year. Any party reaching their land by the middle 
 of May can have potatoes, wheat, and garden vegetables that 
 same season. All that is necessary is to procure the laud, 
 pitch a tent, and set to work. 
 
ADVICK TO IMMIGRANTS. 635 
 
 Recently it has been discovered by successful experiments, 
 that seeds sown on the prairie grass and then ploughed 
 lightly, will yield good crops the same season. This is a 
 most important discovery, as it shows that an immigrant 
 arriving on his claim in the spring can begin to realize a 
 return from his labors almost as quickly as if the land had 
 already been cultivated and improved. The following is an 
 account of the experiments made in this respect, and they 
 will be found worthy the consideration of every farmer con- 
 templating the "breaking" of new lands. 
 
 An experiment in raising grain on fresh sod has been 
 tried in the vicinity of Big Stone Lake for the past two sea- 
 sons with such marked success, that it is worthy of exten- 
 sive trials. We are not informed who the first experimenter 
 was, but at any rate, in the vicinity of Big Stone City, 
 there are farmers so confident of success that they have put 
 in considerable quantities of small grain in the ficesh sod dur- 
 ing the past season, and in every case, so far as we could learn, 
 with the most beneficial result. The novelty of the operation 
 is that the grain is first sown on the prairie grass, and then 
 the "breaking" is done. A rather light sod is turned, and 
 the buried grain quickly finds its way through. In a few 
 weeks the sod is as rotten as need be, and can be kicked to 
 pieces easily with the foot. Now for an illustration : A 
 Mr. Daly, near Big Stone City, in the vicinity of Big Stone 
 Lake, sowed ten acres of oats this last year. He put two 
 bushels and a peck to the acre, and broke his land. Last 
 fall, from ten acres he harvested 420 bushels of oats which 
 were worth sufficient to pay for the breaking, and leave him 
 some seventy -five dollars besides. This year he sowed forty- 
 five acres in this way with equally good success, the yield, 
 according to estimate, as he had not threshed when we got 
 there, not being less than 1,000 bushels on the piece. An- 
 other gentleman near him sowed buckwheat in the latter 
 part of May in the same way, and he has every promise of 
 
636 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 a magnificent crop. Another tried corn, dropping a few ker- 
 nels in every fourth furrow. Wheat has not been tried, but 
 will be another year. It has been found that grain can be 
 sowed on the prairie early and the sod rotted as readily as 
 if sowed in June, as the growing crop shades it and but little 
 grass starts. This is a valuable discovery and will be worth 
 much to new beginners who, thus far, with the exception of 
 potatoes, have not expected anything before the second 
 year. It will be of value also to larger farmers who are 
 obliged to go to a heavy outlay each year for breaking, for 
 the oat crop not only pays for the labor, but leaves a good 
 margin besides. It is an experiment certainly worth a trial. 
 
 The immigrant settling in a new country will understand 
 the value of this discovery which will enable him to realize 
 sufficient for his expenses the first year, and perhaps will 
 enable him to place a sum of money aside for future use. 
 The new settler when he arrives in the country ought to 
 locate his farm with as little delay as possible, and then set 
 to work to break as much land as he can for the ensuing 
 year's seeding. If he should be in time to sow on the sod 
 as already described, by all means let him do so, but if not 
 he should break as much as possible for cultivation the 
 following year. He and his family can very well camp out 
 in tents during the summer, and in the fall there will be 
 plenty of time to erect a warm house and stables for the 
 winter. 
 
 It is of the greatest importance that old countrymen 
 should fall into the methods of old settlers on the prairie 
 Too often they allow their prejudices to lead them into 
 practices which the experience of practical men show to be 
 altogether unsuitable to a prairie country. 
 
 For instance, with respect to ploughing, or as it is called, 
 "breaking" the prairie, the method, in Manitoba, is quite 
 difierent from that in an old country. The prairie is cov- 
 ered with a rank vegetable growth, and the question is how 
 
ADVICE TO IMMIGRANTS. 637 
 
 to subdue this, and so make the land available for farming 
 purposes. Experience has proved that the best way is to 
 plough not deeper than two inches, and turn over a furrow 
 from twelve to sixteen inches wide. This is well done 
 during the months of June and July. It is found that the 
 sod is effectually killed when turned over during these two 
 months. It has happened that some farmers from older 
 countries, in love at home with deep ploughing, have de- 
 spised the methods of the country, and tried deep ploughing 
 in Manitoba. These men have come to learn wisdom from 
 practical disappointment, but this is an unnecessarih" ex- 
 pensive lesson. 
 
 We have already advised intending settlers to avoid bur- 
 dening themselves with an unnecessary amount of luggage. 
 We would, however, recommend them to bring with them 
 as much of their clothing as they conveniently can, as it 
 packs in small compass, and saves outlay in the new land. 
 
 Be sure, however, to bring your money, or that portion 
 of it which you will not require to use on the way, in the 
 form of a draft or bill-of-exchange. If you lose the draft 
 or bill, you can always have it replaced. If you bring gold, 
 silver, or bank notes, and lose it, you will probably never 
 recover your loss. There are four large banking institu- 
 tions in Winnipeg, any one of which will be able to cash 
 your draft or bill on your arrival. As soon as you reach 
 Winnipeg, by placing yourself in the hands of the Govern- 
 ment guides, you will be able to make your purchases at 
 reasonable prices, and will be secure from any imposition in 
 that respect. 
 
 The following figures may prove of interest to intending 
 settlers, as showing what can be done in the Canadian 
 North-west. Farms can be purchased at almost any price 
 from one dollar per acre upwards, and one hundred and 
 sixty acres can be secured as a homestead free, on payment 
 of ten dollars entry fee. We will, however, base our cal- 
 
638 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 culations on the Government price for pre-emptions of one 
 dollar, and we will illustrate a term of five years occupancy : 
 
 First Year. 
 
 Expenditure of settler with family of say five, for provisions, &c., 
 
 one year $250.00 
 
 One yoke of oxen 125.00 
 
 One cow 35.00 
 
 Breaking plough and harrow 35.00 
 
 Waggon 80.00 
 
 Implements, &o 25.00 
 
 Cook stove, &c., complete 25.00 
 
 Furniture 25.00 
 
 Tent 10.00 
 
 Sundries, say 50.00 
 
 Outlay for First Year $660.00 
 
 At the end of the year, he will have a comfortable log- 
 house, barn, &c., cattle implements, and say twenty acres of 
 land broken, ready for seed. 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 Will realize from twenty acres — 600 bushels of grain at 60c., which 
 
 is a low figure $360.00 
 
 Expenditure, say 300.00 
 
 To the good $60.00 
 
 And he will have an additional twenty acres of land 
 broken. 
 
 Third Year. 
 
 Forty acres will give him 1,200 bushels of grain, at 60c $720.00 
 
 Will pay for land $160.00 
 
 Expenditure, including additional stock and implements. . 600.00 
 
 660.00 
 
 To the good $60.00 
 
 And he will, with his increased stock and other facilities, 
 be able to break at least thirty acres. 
 
 Fourth Year. 
 
 Seventy acres will give him 2,700 bushels of grain, at 60c $1,260.00 
 
 Less expenditure for further stock, implements, and other neces- 
 saries 600.00 
 
 To the good $660,00 
 
 And another thirty acres broken. 
 
ADVICE TO IMMIGRANTS. 639 
 
 Fifth Year. 
 
 100 acres will give him 3,000 bushels of grain, at 60c $1,800.00 
 
 Less, same expenditure as previous year 600.00 
 
 To the good $1,200.00 
 
 At the end of the fifth year, he will stand as follows : — 
 
 Cash, or its equivalent on hand $1,980.00 
 
 160 acres of land increased in value to at least $5 per acre 800.00 
 
 House and barn, low appraisal 250.00 
 
 Stock, including cattle and horses 600.00 
 
 Machinery and farm implements, 50 per cent, of cost, say 200.00 
 
 Furniture, &e 150 00 
 
 $3,980.00 
 Less — outlay fii-st year , . . . : 660.00 
 
 To credit of ferm $3,320.00 
 
 In these calculations, we have endeavored to be as near the 
 truth as possible. We have increased the number of acres 
 broken during the three years, because with an increase 
 f>f stock and other facilities for breaking, the settler can 
 break more. This has been the experience of farmers here. 
 Then we have placed the expenditure high, while the price 
 \uoted for the grain is much lower than is paid at present 
 by buyers. We show a profit of $3,000, after paying for 
 everything, in five years ; but we can cite numerous cases 
 m which settlers have cleared more than $4,000 and $5,000 
 in the same time, and in which in many instances they had 
 not $100 to commence with. The whole success of the 
 new settler depends upon his economical management 
 perseverance, and untiring industry. If he pays more than 
 $1 per acre for his land, he may be sure it will rise corres- 
 pondingly in value as the country progresses. The intend- 
 ing settler, however, must never forget that he can always 
 obtain 160 acres of land free, from the Government, in 
 addition to that which he purchases. 
 
 There is one point we desire to impress upon intending 
 settlers, and that is the large yield of grain in the Canadian 
 
640 MANITOBA AND THE GEEAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 North-west. From this time, no immigrant need settle 
 at any great distance from railway communication unless he 
 desires to do so, so that he can always be within easy reach 
 of a steady market. We may safely place the average yield 
 per acre, at thirty bushels of wheat after the second year, 
 and can also safely say that grain will fetch as high prices 
 as in Minnesota or Dakota. In the Canadian North-west, 
 however, allowing prices to be equal, how does the settler 
 stand, as compared with those south of the boundary line. 
 
 Average yield, per acre, in the Canadian North-west, 30 bushels, 
 
 say at 80c $24.00 
 
 Average yield in Minnesota, 17 bushels, say at 80c 13.60 
 
 In favor of Canadian settler. . . $10.40 
 
 This is a considerable difference which is borne out by 
 facts, and when it is considered that the cost of living is 
 less than in the United States, the difference becomes still 
 greater. It simply resolves itself into this, that settlers in 
 the Canadian North-west can afford to sell their grain, 
 owing to their large returns at fully 50 per cent, lower 
 than those in the United States, and still be as well off, or 
 they can (prices being equal) realize the same percentage 
 more than their neighbors south of the boundary line. 
 The opening of the Canadian Pacific Railway to Lake 
 Superior, next year, will give the North-west equal ship- 
 ping facilities with the Western States. What more can 
 we say for the information of those who are looking for 
 new homes to guide them to this " Land of Promise," but 
 a simple word in conclusion. The Canadian Pacific Rail- 
 way is to be pushed forward at a rapid rate during the next 
 few years, and will give employment to thousands of men. 
 
 A very large amount of grain and other supplies will be 
 required to carry on the extensive public works of the 
 Canadian North-west, and farmers will be kept busy in 
 order to supply this home demand for years to come. 
 
ADVICE TO IMMIGRANTS. 641 
 
 In addition to this, immigrants will be able to find plenty 
 of work for themselves and their teams, during their spare 
 time, so that the sooner settlers make up their minds to 
 come here, the better it will be for themselves. The next 
 ten years in the Canadian North-west will assuredly be a 
 time of great progress and prosperity. 
 
 In conclusion, we submit the following evidence of set- 
 tlers on certain points connected with outfit and farming : 
 
 Statements of Actual Settlers. 
 
 Nelson Brown of High Bluflf, says : — 
 
 "In my opinion the month of September is the most favorable for settlers to 
 come here, and in no case should they come earlier than May. Let them bring 
 good medium-sized close-made horses with them. Have been here eight years 
 and know the requirements pretty well." 
 
 Henry "West of Clear Springs, says : — 
 
 "I have been in the country six years and have found the driest summer to 
 give the best crops, even though there was no rain except an odd thunder- 
 shower. New settlers should come in May and break their land till July, 
 then, after cutting and saving plenty of hay for all the cattle, they can pre- 
 pare their buildings for the winter." 
 
 James Stewart of High Bluff, says : — 
 
 " I would suggest that intending settlers in the North-west who come to 
 settle down on prairie land should break up an acre or two around where 
 they build, on the West, North and East and plant with maple seeds. Plant 
 in rows four feet apart, the seeds to be planted one foot apart ; they afterwards 
 can be turned out and transplanted. I have them 12 feet high from the seed 
 planted four years ago, and they will form a good shelter. I find, after a 
 residence of nine years, that this North-west country is well calculated for 
 raising the different kinds of grain sown by farmers. Market prices are very 
 good. Wheat, 85c. to $1.15 ; Oats, 50c. to 60c., and Barley, 60c." 
 
 James McEwan of Meadow Lea, says : — 
 
 " Farmers should have Canadian horses and get oxen and cows, and purchase 
 young cattle. By doing so they will double their money every year. I am in 
 the business and know by experience." 
 
 George Ferris of St. Agathe, says : — 
 
 " I would advise immigrants to fetch all the cash they can. They can suit 
 themselves better by buying here about as cheap, and they will only get just 
 what they need." 
 
 Jno. George of Nelsonville, says : — 
 
 " I consider this country the place to come to, providing any man wants to 
 make a home and knows something of &,rming, that has about $400 to $500 
 to begin with." 
 
 41 
 
642 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 John A. Lee of High Bluff, says : — 
 
 " Now that we have the locomotive, we shall be able to compare with 
 anything in the Dominion, and take the lead with roots-'and I defy the United 
 States for samples of grain of all kinds. They have only the start of us iu 
 fruits, hut we are progressing well in that respect. If folks would work four 
 months in the year they might be independent in this country. I came here 
 in 1873 with only thirty dollars in my pocket, ten of which I paid for my 
 homestead of 160 acres. It is going on two years since I began to cultivate 
 the place I am now living on, and have 74 acres under cultivation, with a 
 suitable house and other fixtures, and I could get $3,000 for one of my quarter 
 sections. Icaube found in High Bluff at any time with $50 to back my words." 
 
 Geo. C. Hall of Portage la Prairie, says : — 
 
 '■ My claim is situated on the banks of the Assiniboine and we therefore 
 enjoy direct steamboat communication with Winnipeg. The land is not fiat 
 but rolling prairie, no need of drainage, but still it is well watered by running 
 springs. All crops look well. I planted potatoes on 1st June, and In eight 
 weeks we had our first meal of them. 1 expect about 300 bushels to the acre. 
 The climate of the country is all that can be desired. Any man who wishes 
 to furnish a home for himself should try and locate in this country, and if he 
 be a man of any energy he will not be long in making a comfortable and 
 profitable home for himself and family. It was a happy day that I first lauded 
 on this soil." 
 
 D. H. Knight of Ridgeville, says : — 
 
 " I would recommend settlers to get oxen for breaking the sod. Horses 
 cost much more to keep as they require grain. Oxen can be worked on the 
 grass. I am more in the stock line, and I can say the country is well adapted 
 for stock-raising. The pasturage could not be better. Abundance of hay 
 can be had for the cutting, and with a little care cattle winter well, and come 
 through in good condition." 
 
 James D. Stewart of Cooks Creek, says :^— 
 
 " Would advise new settlers to buy oxen instead of horses as they can be fed 
 cheaper and will do more work if well treated and fed on grass and good hay." 
 
 Joshua Appleyard of Stonewall, says : — 
 
 "I would advise any young man with good heart and $300 to come to this 
 country, for in five years he can be independent." 
 
 Jno. Ferguson of High Bluff, says : — 
 
 "I would advise settlers in a general way to start with oxen as they are less 
 expensive in cost and keep the first year at a less risk than horses. 1 would 
 advise them not to bring any implements with them but procure the best of 
 all classes here, as they are especially adapted for this country." 
 
 Thos. H. Ellison of Scratching River, says : — 
 
 "Any man with a family of boys such as I have, that intends living by 
 farming and raising his boys to farm, is only fooling away his time in other 
 places when he can average a hundred per cent, more each year with his labor 
 here as I have done. I have farmed iu Europe, State of New York, and 
 Ontario, aud I can say tliis safely.'' 
 
ADVICE TO IMMIGRANTS. 643 
 
 Geo. Fidsbury of High Bluff", says : — 
 
 " I would not advise any man coming out here to farm to bring any more 
 luggage witli him tliau he can actually help. 1 have sometimes weighed roots 
 here and found them to surpass any I ever grew in Canada. I do not think 
 there is any use telling the immigrants the weights as they will hardly believe 
 it. It is enough for them to know that this coimtry can produce mare to the 
 acrt with less cultivation than any part of Canada." 
 
CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 Advice to Settlers and Travellers. 
 
 Protection against Sudden Storms in Winter — Thunder, Rain, or Wind Storms in Sum. 
 mer — How to Protect Horses and Cattle from Flies — Smudges — Keeping the Tent 
 Clear of Mosquitoes — Care of Horses when Travelling — How to Find Lost Horses — 
 Precautions to be Used — Where to Pitch a Camp in Summer — In Winter — How to Find 
 Water — How to Know Sweet Water — Protection against Prairie Fires — Saving Hay 
 and Fences — How to Travel Over the Prairie With or Without a Koad — White Mud 
 Swamps — Carelessness of Travellers as Regards their Personal Comfort — How to Pre- 
 vent a Prairie Fire — Penalty for Starting One — Crossing Streams with Bridges — How 
 to Cross, &c., &c. 
 
 Occasionally notices appear in the public prints of 
 travellers and others who have lost their lives by being 
 caught on an exposed prairie in a winter storm or blizzard. 
 Should old travellers be caught in one of these storms no 
 attempt is made to proceed to their destination, but an 
 immediate halt is called or an effort is made to reach the 
 nearest shelter. Should none be near, the nearest ravine 
 or vouleS is entered and the banks of snow made to do duty 
 for a house. Instances have been known where Half- 
 breeds have lain comfortably in the drifts for days and 
 saved themselves and horses, when if they had proceeded 
 they would have been frozen to death. In the win- 
 ter of 1875 I was travelling with a company of Half-breeds 
 when a terrible snow-storm came on accompanied with a 
 fierce gale, which drove the icy particles into our eyes 
 with such force that they scarcely left us the power to 
 see. We were sixteen miles from wood, and it was decided 
 to attempt to reach it. Failing in this, we were to make a 
 break wind of our carts, and camp in a favorable hollow. 
 Knowing what we intended to do we pushed on, our leader 
 merely taking the direction of the wind on his cheek! 
 Beaching the wood and penetrating it some distance we 
 
ADVICE TO SETTLERS AND TBAVELLERS. 645 
 
 discovered a little pond where we unharnessed our horses, 
 built a roaring fire and thawed the ice out of our beards 
 and hair. We now built booths of poles and willows, and 
 thatched them over with the long grass of the pond, and 
 for the next thirty-six hours enjoyed ourselves amazingly. 
 A few visits to the edge of the wood showed the storm 
 still raging on the prairie, and for two nights and a day we 
 were snow-bound. We obtained abundance of food for our 
 horses in the grassy glades, and scarcely gave a thought to 
 the blizzard that swept the prairie a quarter of a mile 
 away. 
 
 All travellers should carry matches summer and winter. 
 These should always be placed in an inner breast pocket so 
 as to be dry and handy. Inexperience says they are not 
 necessary, or, we know a friend who has them. Wisdom 
 says, carry them yourself. In winter, besides matches, 
 dried grass, or the outer bark of the canoe birch, should 
 always be carried so that not an instant need be lost in 
 lighting a fire if the necessity for it should arise. In the 
 winter of 1872 when travelling in Northern British 
 Columbia, the weather was intensely cold and the lakes 
 were frozen over, but in some places the rivers discharging 
 them were covered with only a thin film of ice. We 
 reached a small river, discharging Carrier Lake, which I 
 crossed in safety. An old Indian following me broke 
 through, and by the time he was out he was like an icicle. 
 In an instant every pack was on the ground, a fire was lit 
 and while he changed his clothes, a cup of hot tea was got 
 ready and scarcely fifteen minutes elapsed before we were 
 again on the way. 
 
 The cause of settlers and others losing their lives in win- 
 ter can always be shown to arise from their desire to reach 
 home or from persistently fighting the storm, until their 
 vitality and animal heat are so far exhausted that they sink 
 down and fall into a deep sleep and never awake. On the 
 
646 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 other hand, if a man lies down and gets cold when asleep, 
 he will surely wake up with a change of temperature. All 
 parties caught in a severe storm should conserve their 
 powers, instead of weakening them by persistent efforts, 
 and this can be done by at once fleeing to shelter, and if no 
 fire can be lighted, wrapping the body up in warm clothing, 
 and remaining passive until the storm ceases. During the 
 past winter, a number of individuals lost their lives by not 
 fully recognizing the danger they ran in exposing them- 
 selves on the prairie, when a severe wind storm (Blizzard) 
 was in progress. Owing to its force and the icy particles 
 that fill the air, it is next to impossible to make progress, 
 except before the wind, and too often this is in the wrong 
 direction. It is, therefore, absolutely necessary for all 
 parties travelling in a thinly settled part of the country, 
 any time after the beginning of October, to carry matches 
 with them, and if caught in a storm, to retreat at once to a 
 thicket, and build a fire and remain there quietly until the 
 storm is past. 
 
 Summer storms are often very severe, and frequently 
 accompanied by terrific thunder and wind. I consider a 
 prairie thunder storm as one of the most appalling occur- 
 rences which a traveller on the plain has to encounter, and 
 one which he has no means to escape. There are few days 
 in June and July, when thunder is not heard from some 
 point of the compass. Most of the storms are merely local, 
 and last but a short time. They generally take place after 
 three o'clock in the afternoon, and no matter how severe 
 the night storm may be, the air is clear and calm in the 
 morning. Should a series of storms take place, the tempera- 
 ture is considerably lowered, and a cloudy and windy day 
 will likely follow. 
 
 All travellers should have a strong cover for each waggon 
 or cart, and see that it is securely fastened every night 
 before retiring to his tent. Very frequently, the traveller 
 
ADVICE TO SETTLERS AND TRAVELLERS. 647 
 
 may retire to rest witli not a speck of cloud anywhere above 
 the horizon, and wake up a little after midnight, with 
 the incessant roll of thunder in his ears, ard his eyes 
 blinded with the vivid lightning. It is now that the un- 
 wary traveller pays the penalty for being ignorant. Care- 
 lessly pitched tents are blown down, or the rain pours 
 through, and everything is thoroughly soaked. Morning 
 breaks, and the goods are found injured by the rain, and to 
 complete the disaster, the horses have stampeded and are 
 nowhere to be found. Nearly all travellers relate such 
 occurrences as happening to themselves, and seem to see no 
 way of preventing the disaster. Prevention is very easy, 
 and the careful traveller is never caught unprepared. 
 
 When seeking a camping place for the night, any time 
 during the summer, an elevated spot, near a pool of water, 
 should be chosen, so that comparative freedom from mos- 
 quitoes may be secured if there should be a little wind. 
 Feed and shelter for the horses are absolutely necessary, as 
 both may be needed any night. All the conveyances 
 should be placed west of the tents, and each tent securely 
 tied to a cart by a guy rope passing over the end of the 
 ridge-pole. The rear of the tents should be next to the 
 carts, so that should a storm arise in the night, there would 
 be no danger of the tents being blown down. By taking 
 these precautions, no storm can do much damage, and men 
 fall into the habit of doing this as a matter of routine. 
 
 In the latter part of June, 1879, I encamped on the 
 prairie, just west of Qu'Appelle, but on the plateau above 
 the river valley. About three hundred yards distant, 
 another exploring party stopped for the night. We ar- 
 ranged our camp in our usual manner, and retired to rest. 
 About two o'clock, a.m., a terrific rain, thunder, and wind 
 storm broke over us, and for five hours we lay and listened 
 to the terrific uproar. After the rain ceased we attempted 
 to make a fire, but could not succeed for some time owing to 
 
648 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 the force of the wind and wetness of the wood. Our tents 
 had withstood the tempest's power and kept us perfectly 
 dry. Not so with our friends in the other camp. Their 
 tent had been blown down at the commencement of the 
 storm, and there was not a man in the camp that had a dry 
 rag. Of course, in letters to their friends, they omitted to 
 state that their wretchedness was the result of their own 
 carelessness. I visited their camp and found that the 
 storm was altogether unexpected and had caught them un- 
 prepared, and their tents tumbled^about their ears in a few 
 minutes. 
 
 Horses will not face a severe rain and wind storm on the 
 prairie, so that it is absolutely necessary to stop if the 
 storm is meeting you. On the approach of a thunder storm 
 in the day time, which may be of short duration, it is only 
 necessary to turn the horses heads away from the storm, 
 and they will stand perfectly quiet. The men can get 
 under the carts or stand out in the rain, as it suits them_ 
 Care must be taken that horses do not stampede in a storm, 
 as many travellers through the carelessness of their team- 
 sters lose much time through this cause. 
 
 All through the summer, mosquitoes are very trouble, 
 some at night, and often put the horses almost wild. Ever}' 
 evening, it is necessary to make a " smudge " to keep off 
 the flies and enable the horses to eat a little during the 
 night. It is made by lighting a fire with a little dry wood, 
 and then putting on green sticks and covering all up with 
 sods, so as to make a continuous smoke. When flies are 
 troublesome and a little wind stirring, horses always feed 
 head to wind, and it is necessary to note the direction of 
 the wind before retiring to rest, as it is nothing unusual to 
 find that the horses have gone off miles during the 
 night. By noting how the wind blows in the evening and 
 how it is in the morning, a man of some experience will 
 always go straight to the horses, even if they are miles 
 
ADVICES TO SETTLERS AND TRAYELLERS. 649 
 
 awaj. Many parties think it cruel to hobble horses every 
 night after having been in harness all day, but experience 
 proves that horses eat more and wander less by adopting 
 thia practice. My practice was always to make a smudge, 
 hobble my horses in good pasture, and trust to their being 
 all right in the morning. By following this practice I never 
 lost a horse, and during two summers, travelled 4,300 miles 
 up and down the prairie chiefly by compass. 
 
 Besides looking to the comfort of our horses, we should 
 "be careful of ourselves and always take pains to make our- 
 selves comfortable. The chief trouble of the North-West 
 is the mosquito, and to a sensitive person, they are a source 
 of constant torture. I have seen men so punished by them, 
 that their eyes were closed, their necks swollen, and they 
 suffered great agony. There -S no use in disguising the fact 
 of their constant presence, and of their being a : eal plague. 
 Settlers on the prairie must expect them for years to come, 
 but with the progress of settlement they will in a great 
 measure disappear. Tents can be kept clear of mosquitoes 
 only by closing every aperture by which they can enter, 
 as one small hole will often admit more flies than two 
 men can dispose of. They enter tents just in the same way 
 that bees enter a hive, and should one make its way in it 
 will be followed by hundreds in a short time. After closing 
 the tent so that none could enter, a man, with a lighted 
 candle, soon singed the wings of those within, and for the 
 evening and night we had immunity from their attacks. 
 
 On account of the flies the rule is to pitch the tent in 
 summer always on a knoll, but in winter or after the flies 
 have disappeared in a low sheltered spot. In the depth of 
 winter, tents are not used by travellers except they are 
 supplied with a small stove. A winter camping place is 
 chosen in a thicket or grove where wood is abundant. 
 Should the party be travelling where there is spruce or any 
 coniferous trees, one section of the party gets vsrood while 
 
650 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 the other clears away the snow from where the sleeping 
 place and fire are to be. Brush is strewn thickly for a bed 
 and in the direction of the wind it is piled up to make a 
 wind-break. The fire is built in front and along the back a 
 piece of canvas is stretched which keeps out the wind and 
 reflects the heat. Buffalo robes and blankets are now spread 
 on the boughs, and although the temperature of the air may 
 be far below zero, comfort and genuine pleasure reign in the 
 bivouac, and no thought of discomfort enters the mind of 
 any one. I have lain in such camps when the temperature 
 was very low, and never experienced any real discomfort. 
 White men always lie with their feet to the fire, but very 
 frequently the Indians lie with their side to it, and when 
 one side gets cold they get up, put on a fresh log, and lie 
 down in the opposite direction. 
 
 Some years since it was rather difficult to obtain good 
 water on many of the trails, and few ventured to leave 
 them in search of it. A Half-breed's plan of getting good 
 water is to taste it, and if it is no worse than a weak in- 
 fusion of Epsom salts he will pronounce it very good for tea. 
 After some experience and close observation I discovered 
 that where a certain species of sedge ( Garen aristata) grew 
 in profusion there I might look for good water at any season 
 if the grass remained green. Late in the fall many pools 
 that contained good water in the summer become brackish. 
 This was formerly the case in and around the Touchwood 
 Hills, and much difficulty was experienced in obtaining sweet 
 water. In the fall of 1879 I noticed every pond that con- 
 tained green sedge had sweet water. On the other hand 
 those where the sedge was rotting and apparently dying 
 invariably had brackish or very poor water. Since then I 
 have carefully noted the water pools, and in all cases the 
 sedge gave the same results. When the seasons become, 
 drier than they are at present many pools in Moose Moun- 
 tai and the Touchwood Hills and other localities, which at 
 
ADVICE TO SETTLERS AND TRAVELLERS. 651 
 
 present have comparatively pure water, become brackish in 
 the autumn. 
 
 Prairie fires are dangerous both to settlers and travellers, 
 but especially to the former. During the month of August 
 the grass begins to dry up owing to the great heat and the 
 dryness of the atmosphere. September completes what 
 August commenced, and by the first week in October all the 
 grass is dry, and for hundreds of miles a continuous hay 
 meadow extends without a break. At this time scarcely a 
 shower falls, and in the middle of the day it is very warm 
 and often the wind is strong. A party of travellers stop for 
 dinner, and without due precaution light a fire, or a smoker 
 throws down a lighted match. In an instant the grass is in 
 a blaze, and before a person has time to think the fire is 
 rods away and speeding over the prairie as fast as a horse 
 can gallop. Numerous fires started as above have been 
 known to run over 100 miles without stopping. Should the 
 fire reach a trail in the night it will scarcely ever cross it as 
 the ruts stop it most efiectually. A fire on our buffalo plains 
 is not the formidable affair that novelists and many travel- 
 lers make it. The grass is generally short, seldom over a 
 foot high, and on this account the fire never attains much 
 volume. 
 
 Although many times quite close to fires, in only one in- 
 stance did I have to protect myself from them. While lying 
 in camp on the plain nearly 100 miles southwest of Battle- 
 ford on the first Sabbath of October, 1879, my assistant 
 noticed huge volumes of smoke rising in the southwest, but 
 a great distance off". He and I were travelling alone, and 
 naturally felt some fear of the fire reaching us. Without 
 any hesitation he ran for the horses, and besides hobbling 
 them we fastened a long line to each of them and tied them 
 to the carts. We at once took down our tent and packed 
 everything up, putting all our stuff" in the carts. We saw 
 that the fire was coming straight for us, and that a very 
 
652 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 short time would elapse before it would be upon us. The 
 
 sun was setting and before dark we harnessed the horses 
 and placed them in the carts and moved to a small patch of 
 sandy ground where the grass was quite thin and waited for 
 the enemy. The lurid glare in the heavens kept increas- 
 ing as the shadows of evening fell, and darkness had not 
 settled over the prairie before we saw long tongues of flame 
 thrown up against the sky from a distant ridge ; these dis- 
 appeared and the bright glare only remained. A few min- 
 utes pass and a nearer ridge is reached and a long line of fire 
 is seen to cross it and disappear. Horses and men are now 
 aroused, and I try if the grass where we are will carry fire 
 and find it will not. We at once move to its outer edge and 
 securely fasten our horses, so that they may not break loose 
 and leave us. A few minutes more and the fire has passed 
 the last ridge, and with the speed of a fast horse it bears 
 down upon us. As it came near us the whirling smoke and 
 leaping flames seemed to take the forms of living things that 
 were in terrible agony and added largely to the sublimity 
 of the spectacle. When it reached our oasis it swept past 
 on either side, and a few gulps of smoke, accompanied with 
 a strong hot wind, were the only discomforts it caused us. 
 When it was past we saw that it kept an even front, and 
 wherever the grass was long and thick the flame continued 
 for some time after the first rush had passed. 
 
 A stiff" gale had been blowing all day and continued 
 throjigh the night, and before the next evening, this fire 
 reached the Eagle Hills, and burnt up all the hay cut by 
 Red Pheasant's band. Where it burnt the hay, it was fully 
 130 miles to the northeast of us. This same fire swept up 
 between the two Saskatchewans the next night, and burnt 
 up the tent of a party of the Mounted Police who barely 
 escaped with their lives, as the fire came upon them when 
 they were asleep. Ten days after, I crossed the same tract, 
 and for twenty-four miles our horses never obtained a 
 mouthful of food, as the fire had licked it all up. 
 
ADVICE TO SETTLERS AND TRAVELLERS. 653 
 
 Settlers can easily protect their houses, barns, and stocks 
 by ploughing a few furrows around them, and without this 
 or something else is done there is no safety. Burning a 
 ring of grass, in the evening, outside of the ploughing is 
 more effectual, but this should be done during a calm even- 
 ing, and the fire stopped after it has burned the required 
 breadth. Many new comers think these precautions are 
 unnecessary, and hence the doleful accounts of the loss of 
 hay and even houses, which we read of from time to time. 
 
 "While travelling on the prairie, in September and Octo- 
 ber, no fire should be lit in the middle of the day, without 
 two or three persons are standing ready to extinguish the 
 grass when sufficient ground is burnt over, for safety. No 
 fire should be left uncovered when the party moves away, 
 and it is the duty of the leader to see personally that all 
 fire is either extinguished or covered up. There is a pen- 
 alty of $200 for the starting of a prairie fire, and as the 
 informer gets half the fine, Indians and Half-breeds are 
 constantly on the alert, during the dangerous season, to 
 pounce on any delinquent. Many people blame the Indians 
 for setting the prairie on fire, but my experience leads me 
 to lay the blame on white men, especially the young bloods 
 who go shooting in the fall. A stump of a cigar dropped 
 on the prairie is much more dangerous than an Indian fire. 
 
 Travelling on the prairie is an easy matter with or with- 
 out a road. Experience combined with intelligence, how- 
 ever, are necessary to ensure success. My plan is never to 
 combat a difficulty without seeing my way to overcome it. 
 Most people, when travelling, take a guide or a man who 
 has been over the country before, and who knows or pro- 
 fesses to know where the water-pools are. As a rule, these 
 men have not a high order of intelligence, and dare not 
 venture off the beaten track. They know nothing of the 
 use of the compass, and laugh at any person thinking to 
 cross the country by the aid of one. Should these parties 
 
654 MANITOBA AND THE GEEAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 get into a region not visited by tliem before they are per- 
 fectly helpless, and will do more barm than good. 
 
 When the Mounted Police first entered the country, they 
 always took a guide when moving from point to point. On 
 one occasion, when Colonel Irvine and party were passing 
 frjm Fort Walsh to the Saskatchewan, in the direction of 
 Battleford, they camped on the open plain. In the morning, 
 when they started off, the atmosphere was cloudy and the sun 
 obscured. After travelling steadily all day, they reached 
 their old camping place in the evening, although they 
 thought they were forty miles away from it. When ques- 
 tioned, the old guide explained that he had travelled with 
 the wind on his right hand all day, and could not be blamed 
 if it changed. Numerous instances of a like nature could 
 be related, each instance showing that guides are mere en- 
 cumberances when in an unknown district. Should any per- 
 son be travelling in the surveyed districts. Captain Allen's 
 Prospector's Manual will be found invaluable, as it is supe- 
 rior to a whole army of unlettered guides, and will never 
 lead any one astray. Outside of the surveys, a map and 
 pocket compass are necessary, and these should be studied 
 constantly until the mind takes in the whole country, and 
 a traverse of an unknown region becomes only a pleasurable 
 excitement. Owing to the absence of woods and the rolling 
 character of the country, parties may cross it in any direc- 
 tion, provided they take the risk of finding water at con- 
 venient distances. 
 
 White mud swamps are the terror of both Indians and 
 Half-breeds. Should a person incautiously attempt to cross 
 one or even lead a horse to the margin to drink, he will 
 find it a difficult matter to get on firm ground again. In 
 the south, where the rainfall is light, these swamps, in the 
 dry season, are hard baked clay flats, covered with a sprink- 
 ling of saline plants. Proceeding northward, these gradu- 
 ally change their character, and pass into the much dreaded 
 
ADVICE TO SETTLERS AND TRAVELLEBS. 655 
 
 swamp. One of the worst kind has a dry surface which 
 will not bear the weight of ^ horse, and into which he sinks 
 deeper at every step, until he lies down from sheer exhaus- 
 tion. 
 
 The much dreaded salt plain west of the Touchwood 
 HUls, contains a number of swamps of the very worst de- 
 scription. Southwest of the hills we became entangled in 
 a series of these, in the autumn of 1880, and it was only by 
 hard work and much ingenuity that we saved our horses. 
 When we entered on the clay flat it seemed quite hard, but 
 first, one horse went down and then another, until nine 
 were lying panting on the yielding surface. By the time 
 we got across, both men and horses were almost worn out, 
 as all the carts had to be taken over by hand, and the men 
 had to assist the poor horses when they sunk down com- 
 pletely exhausted. Nearly all the " sloughs " spoken of 
 by travellers are embryo white mud swamps. In every 
 case, they are merely saturated Cretaceous clay, and pass 
 from liquid " white " mud in the north to hard baked 
 clay flats in the south. These constitute the " bad lands " 
 of the south, and the saline swamps and " sloughs " of the 
 north. 
 
 As a rule, creature comforts are provided in abundance by 
 all travellers, and yet very few know how to make them- 
 selves comfortable under all circumstances. Tea and suffi- 
 cient food of any kind will suit on the plains as all parties 
 are blessed with a good appetite. Food, however, is not all 
 that is necessary. In no case should a tent be pitched care- 
 lessly or with the door to the west. Many storms come up 
 suddenly from that quarter in the night, and a carelessly 
 pitched tent admits the rain or what is much worse the 
 tent is blown down in the midst of the storm and every 
 possession is sent to the four winds or is thoroughly soaked. 
 No careful traveller will retire except he feels assured that 
 he is secure for the night. When the camping place is 
 
656 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 reached the evening may be beautiful and a gentle wind 
 blowing, so that the mosquito is not abroad and the tired 
 and possibly lazy travellers may decide to sleep under the 
 canopy of heaven. After they get asleep the wind falls 
 and they are awakened by the myriads of flies which cause 
 them such discomfort that ever after when they think of 
 that terrible night they shudder involuntarily. Flies and 
 storms should always be expected in summer and always 
 guarded against. 
 
 No person need have any fear of catching cold on the 
 plains by exposure to the night air, as such a thing never 
 happens. "When preparing the tent for the night a water- 
 proof blanket should always be placed next the ground and 
 over that a bufialo robe with the hair side up. After this 
 any kind of covering will do. Care must be taken on the 
 return to civilization that the traveller does not catch cold 
 by sleeping in a close room, as experience teaches that such 
 rooms are extremely dangerous. It is wise to open the 
 window and door of the room even if the temperature of 
 the air is at zero, so that you may escape a severe cold. 
 After the first season I always did this and by so doing es. 
 caped the colds that all surveyors complain of when they 
 return to civilization. 
 
 Travellers should always have a five or ten gallon keg 
 with them, and see that this is filled with good water at 
 least once a day. When travelling without a guide this is 
 absolutely necessary, as water may be extremely scarce in 
 the district where a person may chance to be and great 
 suffering may result. In July, 1880, myself and party were 
 thirty hours without water owing to the carelessness of the 
 men whose business it was to see that a supply was on hand. 
 We were never without water again, and I gave no instruc- 
 tions regarding it. The above incident happened on the 
 western part of the Great Souris Plain. The plain for sixty 
 miles east of the Canadian Pacific Railway crossing Moose 
 
ADVICE TO SETTLERS AND TRAVELLERS. 657 
 
 Jaw Creek is almost waterless, and great caution is necessary 
 when traversing it. Many other localities where water is 
 scarce might be cited, but it is unnecessary to mention them 
 as wise men will be prepared for all such while fools will 
 run to their own destruction, or like my party suffer for 
 their neglect of known duty. Water suited for horses is 
 generally obtainable at least once a day, but that for culi- 
 nary purposes is much more scarce than many imagine. I 
 speak of surface water. 
 
 It is not necessary to enumerate all the little things 
 travellers should carry, but axes, a saw, an augur, a drawing 
 knife, a spade, rope, and twine are absolutely required, 
 wire of two sizes, a hammer, and clout nails or tacks should 
 always be taken. Medicines are seldom needed, but salve 
 and plaister for cuts should never be dispensed with as the 
 traveller is liable at any moment to meet with an accident. 
 
 The cooking utensils should be in charge of one man even 
 if only for a day at a time, and should be counted after 
 every meal. Knives, forks, spoons, and many other small 
 articles get into the grass and without constant watchful- 
 ness and extreme care get lost. Axes, whetstones, and 
 knives are left lying around by most travellers, and are just 
 the things most required on a long journey. In every well- 
 organized party one man is detailed to go over every part 
 of the camping ground after the others have started and 
 pick up all the odds and ends that may have been left. 
 
 The chief difficulty experienced in traversing the country 
 is the crossing of rivers and small streams. Besides the 
 crossing there is the descent into the valley and the ascent 
 out of it. With loaded carts and too often baulky horses 
 this is no easy matter. At this time the spade is always 
 useful to dig down the bank so that the water may be 
 reached. 
 
 Sometimes the stream may only be a few feet wide but 
 have a quagmire on either side and not a bush for miles. 
 42 
 
G58 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOKTIf-WEST. 
 
 In a case of this kind long grass or sedge is cut and a track 
 made for the horse to walk on, and although he may tremble 
 in every limb on account of the shaking of the bog he takes 
 his load across. The others follow and that difficulty is sur- 
 mounted. Another time a creek is reached that is quite 
 narrow but running in a deep trench. The horses are taken 
 from the carts, the ridge poles of the tents are stretched 
 across the creek and the carts drawn across bv hand. 
 
 In August, 1880, Ave reached the dry bed of a creek on 
 the north side of the Cypress Hills, and after examining it 
 for miles, found it apparently impassable. The banks of 
 the creek were perpendicular, and the bed a quicksand. So 
 soft was the sand that the man who tried it had to cross on 
 his hands and knees. A brief consultation was held, and 
 while one party cut down willows to bridge the quicksand, 
 another dug down the banks. In an hour we were across 
 and ready for our next difficulty which soon came. The 
 day was extremely warm, men and horses were thirsty, 
 and as it drew on towards noon, I climbed a hill and saw 
 scarcely a mile away, a beautiful lake glistening in the 
 sun. With joyful hearts we hurried on, and unhitched 
 close to the lake. The horses naturally went to the water, 
 but to our astonisfment would not touch it. An examina- 
 tion showed that Oi'.r beautiful lake was liquid inud, with 
 scarcely an inch of water on the surface. We had our din- 
 ner, as we carried our own supply, but it was sundown 
 before our utmost endeavors could find any for the horses. 
 
 On the loth July, 1879, we reached the elbow of the 
 South Saskatchewan, at the head of the Qu'Appelle valley. 
 At this point, the river was 770 yards wide, and flowing 
 with a steady current. Sixty miles to the north, there was 
 a ferry, and forty miles to the south, Palliser had crossed, 
 twenty-three years before, but witli the loss of a waggon. 
 After examining the river carefully, both above and below 
 the Elbow, we decided to cross at that point. The means 
 
ADVICE TO SETTLERS AND TRAVELLERS. 659 
 
 "was the next consideration. There was no timber to con- 
 struct a raft, so we decided to build a boat. We had no 
 boards, but we had a large tent, water proof blankets, and 
 cart covers. 
 
 John Matheson, of Winnipeg, who had charge of the 
 horses and outfit generally, made a wooden frame about 
 nine feet long and four and a half feet wide at the stern, 
 shaped like the letter A, and interlaced it with willows. 
 Over this we put the tent, and over all we nailed the 
 water-proof blankets. By means of this frail boat, we 
 purposed taking across a river nearly half a mile wide, four 
 months provisions, all our camp equipage, four carts, and 
 two buckboards, besides risking our own lives. 
 
 The night before we undertook to cross was an anxious 
 one, and shortly after sunrise we were ready to make the 
 attempt. Our boat was found to leak considerably, but 
 one man bailing could keep it afloat. A small load was 
 put on board, and one man pulling two small oars and 
 another bailing, they started. After crossing a small branch 
 close to us, they drew the boat for a long distance up the 
 river by walking on a sand bar. When they thought they 
 had ascended far enough, they attempted to cross the main 
 channel, but the width (over 500 yards) being much 
 greater than they expected, tliey were unable to make the 
 shore, and landed the stuff on an island near the further 
 side. In coming back, they were carried over half a mile 
 below our camp, and had to haul the boat up. They were 
 in good spirits, however, as the boat was quite safe, and by 
 going further up the bar they were sure they couid make 
 the land. Another load was soon on board and hauled far 
 up the sand bar, and was easily taken across. All working 
 with a will, the greater part of the provisions and baggage 
 were across before night. Much time was lost in getting 
 the horses across, as they frequently turned back when 
 almost half across. One or two were nearly drowned, be- 
 
660 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 ing unable to stem the current for 500 yards on a stretch. 
 These, after resting a while on a bar some distance below 
 us, finally reached the shore. The next forenoon, we 
 brought over the remainder of our outfit, and by sundown 
 camped on the crest of the valley, with the mighty river 
 sweeping in graceful curves at our feet. Behind us lay the 
 river, and in our front those illimitable plains which on our 
 maps were shown as a waterless and treeless desert. On 
 the morrow, we entered on the great plain which we 
 eventually traversed in every direction, and lifted the 
 veil which had enshrouded it for many years. 
 
This jyiagram is intended to illustrate the uni- 
 form disposition of Free Grant and Pre-emption 
 Lands, also of Railway or Public Lands as the 
 case may he, in each Township in Manitoba and 
 the North- West Territories. 
 
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 La^ds 
 
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 Lands 
 
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 LAHtXS 
 
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 LaMos 
 
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 Homestead and Fre-emption Lands. 
 
 Railway or Fuilic Lands, as the casemay he. 
 
CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 North-West Land Regulations and Mode of Survey. 
 
 Inauguration of the Surreys — The International Boundary — Principal Meridians — Size 
 of Townships — Numhering of Ranges and Townships-^Base Lines — Correction Lines- 
 Size of Townships — Eoad Allowances — How Sufyey Lines are Marked on the Ground 
 
 Dominion Land Regulations — Diagram showing the Division of a Township into 
 
 Sections General Regulations — Homesteads and Pre-emptions — Colonization Plan 
 
 Number One Plan Number Two — Timber for Settlers — Pasturage Lands— General 
 
 Provisions— Canadian Pacific Railway Lands — Conditions of Sale — Liberality of 
 Canadian Land Regulations —Hudson's Bay Company's Lands — School Lands — Lands 
 at Private Sale. 
 
 Immediately after the preliminaries for tlie transfer of 
 the North-West Territories had been arranged between 
 the Imperial and Dominion Governments, Colonel J. S. 
 Dennis, D.L.S. (late Deputy Minister of the Interior), was, 
 on the 10th July, 1869, directed by the Hon. William 
 Macdougall, Minister of Public Works, to repair to the 
 Red River and prepare a plan for laying out the country 
 into Townships. After visiting the country and consulting 
 with the Crown Lands Department of the Dominion and the 
 Public Lands Department of the United States, a plan of 
 survey was drawn up and adopted by the Minister of the 
 Interior. 
 
 During the summer of 1873 the International Boundary, 
 lat. 49°, was established by the Boundary Commission ap- 
 pointed by the Imperial and United States Governments. 
 This line was fixed upon as the base of the surveys, and 
 was thereafter known as the " First Base." From this line 
 others were run at right angles northward and named 
 Principal Meridians. The First Principal Meridian runs 
 northward from a point on the International Boundary, 
 about eleven miles west of the town of Emerson. The 
 Second Principal Meridian is established upon the 102nd 
 meridian of west longitude, passing about thirty miles west 
 
662 MANITOBA AND Tll£ GREAT NORTH-AVEST. 
 
 of Fort Ellice. The Third, Fourth, and Fifth Principal 
 Meridians are identical with the 106th, 110th and 114th 
 Meridians respectively. The latter passes close to Forts 
 Calgarry and Edmonton. 
 
 After mature deliberation it was decided to lay out the 
 country in four-sided townships of almost a square form. 
 Each township measures on its east and west sides from 
 centre to centre of the road allowances, which form its 
 actual boundaries, exactly 483 chains, and on its north and 
 south sides 486 chains more or less, subject to the deficiency 
 or surplus resulting from the convergence or diverge .nee of 
 the meridians, as the case may be, caused by the curvature 
 of the surface of the earth. In numbering these townships 
 certain terms were adopted which gave precision to each 
 township no matter where situated. Starting at the 
 First Principal Meridian on the International Boundary, 
 the first township west of the Meridian was termed Range 
 I, the next west. Range II, and so on till the Second Princi- 
 pal Meridian was reached, when the numbering commenced 
 again. It will thus be seen that the first township west 
 of any Principal Meridian is in Range I west, and so on in 
 regular order. The next step was to give position, and 
 the first township was numbered Township 1, the next 
 north Township 2, and so on as far as the surveys extend 
 to the north. 
 
 After establishing the First Base, or International 
 Boundary, other lines were run twenty-four miles apart, 
 parallel to this one and numbered Second,Third, Fourth, and 
 Fifth Base as far as the surveys extend to the north. The 
 country is afterwards laid out into blocks twenty -four miles 
 square, or nearly that, each block containing sixteen town- 
 ships. These blocks are contained between four straight 
 lines, having a Base Line at the north and at the south. 
 Exactly twelve miles from either Base a line is run east and 
 west, named a " Correction Line," and on this line all correc- 
 

 A ! ; J, ; 1 : 1 I : 1 '. I ^ I A ; 1 
 
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 life 
 
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 G A TOWNS 
 ND LINKS. 
 
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 r 1 1 1 
 
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NORTII-AVEST LAND REGULATIONS. 665 
 
 tions occasioned by the convergence of meridians or any- 
 other caus? are made. East of the First Principal Meridian 
 the Ranges are numbered edst of that meridian and the 
 townships numbered as usual. 
 
 Every township is sub-divided into thirty-six " sections," 
 each containing one square mile or 640 acres, more or less. 
 All townships are subject to the conveyance and divergence 
 of meridians, together with certain road allowances having 
 a width of one chain on each section line running north and 
 south, and on every alternate section line running east and 
 west. Under the old system of survey all road allowances 
 were one chain and a half (110 feet) wide, but a new system 
 was inaugurated last year by which all are now reduced to 
 one chain (66 feet). Diagram No. 1 gives a township as 
 laid out under the old system of survey, and No. 2, one under 
 the new system. 
 
 The following extracts are taken from an excellent little 
 work published by Captain C. W. Allen, of Winnipeg, en- 
 titled the Land Prospector's Manual and Field Book : — 
 
 " Survey lines are marked on the ground by the planting 
 or erecting of such posts, stones, mounds, or other monu- 
 ments as will serve the temporary purpose of guiding 
 Prospectors through the country, and which also constitute 
 permanent landmarks to establish the legal boundaries of 
 farms held by different proprietors. 
 
 " Only a single row of posts (or other monuments) to in- 
 dicate the corners of townships, sections, or quarter-sections 
 is placed on the ground to show the line surveyed, except 
 in the case of correction lines. Such posts are invariably 
 planted along the wesiei-n limit of the road allowance on all 
 lines running north and south, and in the southern limit of 
 the road allowance on all lines running east and west. It 
 follows, accordingly, that such corner posts always stand on 
 the northeast corner of the township, section, or quarter- 
 sections to which they belong ; also, that these single lines 
 
666 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 of posts govern the relative position of the corners on the 
 opposite sides of the road allowance (or road allowances) 
 on which they stand, whether the same may be those of 
 adjacent townships, sections, or quarter sections. (See dia- 
 gram No. 2.") 
 
 On correction lines, however, the boundaries on both sides 
 of the road allowance are planted with monuments indicat- 
 ing the township, section, and quarter-section corners. 
 
 " The kind of monument employed varies somewhat, 
 according to the material available in the locality surveyed ; 
 but the position in which all such are placed is governed by 
 unalterable rules, and the inscriptions or marks are all in 
 conformity. 
 
 " In a timbered country, a post, three inches square, and 
 showing two feet above ground is firmly planted at the 
 township or section corner to be indicated, and it bears 
 marks as hereafter described. 
 
 The post distinguishing a quarter-section corner in such a 
 region is three inches wide, being flattened on two sides, 
 and it stands eighteen inches only above the surface, with 
 the flattened sides at right angles to the line on which it 
 standi. In a wooded region where stone abounds, corners 
 are sometimes defined by simple stones correctly planted 
 and properly marked. The position of all such corners 
 are indicated by simple monuments, such as a post or stone, 
 and further defined by the astronomical bearing, and dis- 
 tance therefrom being marked in red chalk upon some ad- 
 jacent tree, the side of which nearest to the monument ig 
 also inscribed with the letters " B. T." cut into the trunk." 
 
 " In a prairie country, the posts stand in the centre of 
 mounds, generally of earth, thrown up in the form of right- 
 angled pyramids. At the corners of townships, these 
 mounds are three feet high, their bases being six feet 
 square ; at the corners of sections or quarter-sections the 
 mounds stand at two feet and six inches high, and their 
 
NORTH-WEST LAND REGULATIONS. 667 
 
 bases are five feet square. In the formation of these 
 mounds, the earth is taken from four square pits, each being 
 opposite one of the four sides of the mound. In a prairie 
 country, that is also stony, the mounds are often built of 
 stones, piled up around the posts, so as to conform, as nearly 
 as possible, to the earth mounds in size and shape. 
 
 " If a township or other corner fall in a ravine, the bed 
 of a stream, or some similar situation where it would be im- 
 possible to erect a monument of a permanent character, and 
 should a " bearing tree" not be obtainable the surveyor in- 
 dicates the position of such corner by erecting at the nearest 
 suitable spot a " witness mound." In this case the mound 
 is in the form of a cone 2ft. 6in. high, its base having a dia- 
 meter of 6ft. The post in the centre is marked " W. M." 
 and also inscribed, in red cbalk, with the bearing and dis- 
 tance to such corner. 
 
 " The posts in all mounds show at least ten inches above 
 the apex of the same, whether the latter have been built of 
 earth or stones. 
 
 " On ordinary surveyed lines the posts and mounds are so 
 placed that their angles rest upon the line on which they 
 stand. 
 
 " On correction lines, however, the post and mounds are 
 erected square with the line, which passes through the 
 centre of two sides of the mound. 
 
 " Iron posts, which are placed at every tovmship corner,, 
 consist of either iron bars or tubes, driven into the ground 
 with a sledge, and inscribed, by means of a cold chisel, with 
 the necessary marks. The mounds in connection with such 
 monuments form an exception to the general rule, in that 
 they are so placed that the iron post stands at the northern 
 angle thereof There is, however, with iron posts, the 
 usual difference in respect to monuments on correction lines, 
 the mounds in connection with which are built with their 
 bases facing the cardinal points of the compass, the iron post 
 
668 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 being established in the centre of the base of the mound 
 fronting the road allowance. 
 
 '"' The letters, marks, and figures on posts and trees are 
 distinctly cut in with a knife or scribing iron ; those on iron 
 posts and stone corners with a cold chisel. 
 
 " Quarter-section corner posts are simply marked with the 
 conventional sign " j " to indicate their character, and bear 
 no inscription showing to what township or range they 
 belong. 
 
 "Posts or stone monuments indicating all other corners 
 bear sufficient marks to thoroughl}- indicate the position 
 they are intended to legally establish; and must always 
 be read from the top of the post downwards. 
 
 " On township corners the upper figure on either side of 
 the post indicates the number of the township which that 
 side of the post faces, and the next figure indicates the 
 range. 
 
 " On all other section corners, whether on township lines 
 or in the interior of a township, the numbers of the sections 
 only are to be found on the corresponding faces of three 
 sides of the post ; but in addition to the section number, the 
 number of the township and that of the range appear on the 
 fourth face, which is invariably the south-west one. 
 
 " The posts planted along the correction lines simply ex- 
 hibit luarks to show the number of the townships and sections 
 the boundaries of which they form respectively. Township 
 corners have the number of the section shown on the west 
 side of the post, and the numbers of the township and range 
 on its north side. In cases where the posts stand in the 
 nortliern limit of the road allowance, the letter " E " for 
 road alone is marked on the other two sides. A correspond- 
 ingly opposite plan will be found to have been adopted in 
 marking the township corner posts in the southern limit of 
 the road allowance on correction lines. Section corner posts 
 on correction lines have the numbers of the sections on 
 
NORTH-WEST LAND REGULATIONS. 669 
 
 their east and west sides, the letter " R " on the side facing 
 the roadway, and on the fourth side the number of the 
 township and range. " In ranges numbered from the First 
 Principal Meridian the letters " E " or " W " are marked 
 on the post after the number of the range, to denote that it 
 is east or west of that meridian." 
 
 The settler from the United Kingdom will at first find 
 the nomenclature of this system of survey a little new and 
 strange ; but he will, on slight acquaintance with it, be- 
 come charmed with its simplicity and accuracy. 
 
 The surveys are marked on the prairie itself by iron and 
 other kinds of monuments and posts at the corners of the 
 divisions and subdivisions ; and so soon as the settler makes 
 himself acquainted with these, he will instantly understand 
 the position and extent of his own farm on the prairie, or of 
 any other in the country ; or when travelling in any part 
 of the country these posts will tell him at a glance exactly 
 where he is. 
 
 A settler may obtain a grant of 160 acres of land free, or 
 even numhered sections, on the condition of three years con- 
 tinued residence, and payment of the ofl&ce fees amounting 
 to ten dollars, and he may purchase on reasonable terms 
 adjoining portions of sections. 
 
 A settler should obtain from the Government Agents 
 general information as to lands open for settlement. 
 
 All even numhered sections (except 8 and 26, which are 
 Hudson's Bay Company's Lands) belong to the Government, 
 and are open, being specially reserved, for free homesteads 
 and pre-emptions. 
 
 Odd numbered sections (with exception of 11 and 29, 
 which are School Lands) for twenty-four miles on each side 
 of the Canadian Pacific Railway, may be generally stated to 
 be railway lands, purchasable from the Company, and not 
 open to homestead and pre-emptions. 
 
670 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 DOMINION LAND REGULATIONS. 
 
 Diagram shewing the division of a Township into sections. Each section — a square mile- 
 is subdivided into quarter sections of 160 acres. Those shaded green are reserved for Free G-rant 
 Homesteads and their att;iched Pre-emptions. 
 
 The following Regulations for the sale and settlement of 
 Dominion Lands in the Province of Manitoba and the 
 North-West Territories shall, on and after the first day of 
 January, 1882, be substituted for the Regulations now in 
 force, bearing date the twenty-fifth day of May, 1881 : — 
 
 1. The surveyed lands in Manitoba and the North-West Territories shall, for the 
 purposes of these Regulations, he classified as follows : 
 
 Cla^u A. — Lands within twenty-four miles of the main line or any branch line of the 
 Canadian Pacific Railway, on either side thereof. 
 
 Class B — Lands within twenty miles, on eitlier side, of any projected line of railway 
 {other than the Canadian Pacific Railway) approved by Order in Council published in 
 the " Canada Gazette." 
 
 Class C. — Lauds south of the main line of the Canadian Paciiic Railway not included 
 in Class A or B. 
 
 Class D. — Lands other than those in Classes A, B, and C. 
 
 2. The even-mmibored sections in all the foi-egoing classes are to be held exclusively 
 for homesteads and pre-emptions. 
 
 a. Except in Class D, where they may be affected by colonization agreements 
 as hereinafter provided ; 
 
 b. Except where it may be necessary, out of them, to provide wood lots for 
 settlers ; 
 
 c. Except in cases where the Minister of the Interior, under provisions of the 
 Dominion Land Acts, may deem it expedient to withdraw certain lands, and sell them 
 at public auction or otherwise deal with them as the Governor in Council may direct. 
 
 .3. The odd-uiimbereil sectious in Class A are reserved for the Canadian Paciiic Rail- 
 way Company. 
 
 4. The odd-numbered sections in Classes B and C shall be for sale at $2.50 per acra 
 payable at time of sale ; 
 
 a. Exrept where they have been or may be dealt with otherwise by the 
 Governor General in Council. 
 
 5. The odd-numbered sections in Class D shall be for sale at $2 per acre, payable at 
 time of sale, 
 
 C. Except where they have been or may bo dealt with otherwise by the 
 Governor in Council. 
 
 b. Except lands affected by colonization agreements, as hereinafter provided 
 
 6. Persons who, subsequent to survey, but before the issue of the Order in Council of 
 9th October, 1S79, excluding odd-numbered sections from homestead entry, took posses- 
 sion of land in odd- numbered sections by residing on and cultivating the same, .shall, 
 if continuing so to occupy them, be permitted to obtain homestead and pre-emption 
 entries as if they were on even-numbered sections. 
 
NOKTH-WEST LAND REGULATIONS. 671 
 
 PRE-EMPTIONS. 
 
 7. The prices for pre-emption lots shall be as follows : 
 
 For lands in Classes A, B and C, $2.50 per acre. 
 For lands in Class D, $2.00 per acre. 
 
 Payments shall be made in one sum at the end of three years from the date 
 of entry, or at such earlier date as a settler may, under the provisions of the 
 Dominion Land Acts, obtain a patent for the homestead to which such pre- 
 emption lot belongs. 
 
 COLONIZATION. 
 Plan Number One. 
 
 8. Agreements may be entered into with any company or person (hereinafter called 
 the party) to colonize and settle tracts of land on the following conditions : 
 
 a. The party applying must satisfy the Government of its good faith and 
 ability to fulfil the stipulations contained in these regulations. 
 
 b. The tract of land granted to any party shall he in Class D. 
 
 9. The odd-numbered sections within such tract may be sold to the party at %% per 
 acre, payable, one-fifth in cash at the time of entering into the contract, and the 
 balance in fom- equal annual instahneuts from and after that time. The party shall 
 also pay to the Government five cents per acre for the survey of the land purchased by 
 it, the same to be payable in four equal annual instalments at the same times as the 
 instalments of the purchase money. Interest, at the rate of six per cent, per annum 
 shall be charged on all past due instalments. 
 
 a. The party shall, within five years from the date of the contract, coloniae 
 
 its tract. 
 1>. Such colonization shall consist in placing two settlers on homesteads on 
 
 each even-numbered section, and also two settlers on each odd-numbered 
 
 section. 
 C. The party may be secured for advances made to settlers on homesteads 
 
 according to the provisions of the 10th section of the Act 44 Victoria, 
 
 Cap. 16 (the Act passed in 1881, to amend the Dominion Lands Acts). 
 
 d. The homestead of 160 acres shall be the property of the settler, and ho 
 shall have the right to purchase the pre-emption lot belonging to hig 
 homestead at $2 per acre, payable in one sum at the end of three years 
 from the date of entry, or at such earlier date as he may, under the pro- 
 visions of the Dominion Lands Acts, obtain a patent for his homestead. 
 
 e. When the settler on a homestead does not take entry for the pre-emption 
 lot to which he has a right, the party may within three months after the 
 settler's right has elapsed purchase the same at $2 per acre, payable in 
 cash at the time of purchase. 
 
 10. In con.'iideration of having colonized its tract of land in the manner set forth in 
 sub-section Ij of the last preceding clause, the party shall be allowed a rebate of one- 
 half the original purchase-money of the odd-numbered sections in its tract. 
 
 a. During each of the five years covered by the contract an enumeration shall 
 be made of the settlers placed by the party in its tract, in accordance with 
 sub-section b of clause 9 of these regulations, and for each bon& fide 
 settler so found therein a rebate of one hundred and twenty dollars shall 
 be credited to the party ; but the sums so credited shall not, in the aggre- 
 
672 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 gate, at any time exceed one hundred and twenty dollars for each bond fide 
 settler found within the tract, in accordance with the said sub-section, at 
 the time of the latest enumeration. 
 
 b. On the expiration of the five years, an enumeration shall be made of the 
 bona fide settlers on the tract, and if they are found to be as many in num- 
 ber and placed in the manner stipulated for in sub-section b of clause 9 of 
 these regulations, a lurther and final rebate of forty dollars per settler shall 
 be credited to the party, which sum, when added to those previously 
 credited, will amount to one-half of the purchase money of the odd-num- 
 bered sections and reduce the price thereof to one dollar per acre. But if 
 it should be found that the full number of settlers required by these regula- 
 tions are not placed in conformity with sub-section b of clause 9 of these 
 regulations, then for each settler fewer than the required number, or not 
 placed in conformity with the said sub-section, the party shall forfeit one 
 hundred and sixty dollars of rebate. 
 
 C. If at any time during the existence of the contract the party shall have 
 failed to perform any of the conditions thereof, the Governor in Council 
 may cancel the sale of the land purchased by it, and deal with the party 
 as may seem meet under the circumstances. 
 
 d. To be entitled to rebate, the party shall furnish to the Minister of the 
 Interior evidence that will satisfy him that the tract has been colonized 
 and settled in accordance with sub-section 1) of clause 9 of these regfu- 
 lations. 
 
 Plan Number Two. 
 
 \\. To encourage settlement by capitalists who may desire to cultivate larger farms 
 than can be purchased where the regulations provide that two settlers shall be placed- 
 on each section, agreements may be entered into with any company or person (herein- 
 after called the party) to colonize and settle tracts of land on the following conditions : 
 
 a. The party applying must satisfy the (ioverument of its good faith and 
 ability to fulfil the stipulations contained in these regulations. 
 
 b. The tract of land granted to p.ny party shall be in class D. 
 
 C. All the land within the tract may be sold to the party at two dollars per 
 acre, payable in cash, at the time of entering into the contract. The party 
 shall, at the same time, pay to the Government five cents per acre for the 
 survey of the land purchased by it. 
 
 cl. The party shall, within five years from the date of the contract, colonize 
 the township or townships comprised within its tract. 
 
 e. Such colonization shall consist in placing one hundred and twenty-eight 
 bonct fide settlers within each township. 
 
 12. In consideration of having colonized its tract of land in the manner set forth in 
 sub-section e of the last preceding clause, the party shall he allowed ^ rebate of one- 
 half of the original purchase money of its tract. 
 
 a. During each of the five years covered by the contract, an enumeration 
 shall be made of the settlers placed by the party in its tract, in accordance 
 with sub-section e of clause 11 of these regulations, and for each bond 
 fide settler so found therein a rebate of one hundred and twenty dollars 
 shall be repaid to the party ; but the sums so repaid shall not, in the 
 aggregate, at any time exceed one hundred and twenty dollars for each 
 
NOBTH-WEST LAND REGULATIONS. 673 
 
 bond fide settler found within the tract, in accordance with the said sub- 
 section at the time of the latest enumeration. 
 
 b. On the expiration of the five years, an enulneration shall be made of the 
 bond fide settlers placed by the party in its tract, and if they are found to 
 be as many in number and placed in the manner stipulated for in sub- 
 section e of clause 11 of these regulations, a further and fii:r.! rebate of 
 forty dollars per settler shall be repaid, which sum when added to those 
 previously repaid to the party will amount to one-hj.if of the purchase 
 money of its tract and reduce the price thereof i ) one dollar per acre. 
 But if it should be found that the full number of settlers required by these 
 regulations are not on the tract, or are not placed in conformity with the 
 said sub-section, then, for each settler fewer than the required number or 
 not settled in conformity with the said sub-section, the party shall forfeit 
 one hundred and sixty dollars of rebate. 
 
 C. To be entitled to rebate, the party shall furnish to the Minister of the 
 Interior evidence that will satisfy him that the tract has been colonized 
 and settled in accordance with sub-section e of clause 11 of these regula<- 
 tions. 
 
 Official Notice. 
 
 13. The Government shall give notice in the Canada Oazette of all agreements" en- 
 tered into for the colonization and settlement of tracts of land under the foregoing 
 plans, in order that the public may respect the rights of the purchasers. 
 
 TIMBER FOR SETTLERS. 
 
 14. The Minister of the Interior may direct the reservation of any odd or even- 
 numbered section having timber upon it, to provide wood for homestead settlers on 
 sections without it ; and each such settler may, where the opportunity for so doing 
 exists, purchase a wood lot, not exceeding twenty acres, at the price of $5 per acre in cash. 
 
 15. The Minister of the Interior may grant, under the provisions of the Dominion 
 Lands Acts, licenses to cut timber on lands within surveyed townships. The lands 
 covered by such licenses are thereby withdrawn from homestead and pre-emption entry 
 
 and from sale. 
 
 PASTURAGE LANDS. 
 
 16. Underthe authority of the Act 44 Tic, Cap. 16, leases of tracts for grazing pur- 
 poses may be granted on the following conditions : — 
 
 a. Such leases to be for a period of not exceeding twenty-one years, and no 
 single lease shall cover a greater area than 100,000 acres. 
 
 b. In surveyed territory, the land embraced by the lease shall be described 
 in townships and sections. In unsurveyed territory, the party to whom a 
 lease may be promised shall, before the issue of the lease, cause a survey 
 of the tract to be made, at his own expense, by a Dominion Lauds Surveyor, 
 tmder instructions from the Surveyor-General ; and the plan and field notes 
 of such survey shall be deposited on record in the Department of the 
 Interior. 
 
 C. The lessee shall pay an annual rental at the rate of $10 for every 1,000 
 acres embraced by his lease, and shall within three years from the granting 
 of the lease, place on the tract one head of cattle for every ten acres of 
 land embraced by the lease, and shall during its term maintain cattle 
 in at least that proportion. 
 
 43 
 
674 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 d. After placing the prescribed number of cattle upon the tract leased, the 
 lessee may purchase land within his leasehold for a home farm and corral, 
 paying therefor $2.00 per acre in cash. 
 
 e. Failure to fulfil any of the conditions of his lease shall subject the lessee 
 to forfeiture thereof. 
 
 1 7. When two or more parties apply for a grazing lease of the same land, tenders 
 shall be invited, and the lease shall be granted to the party offering the highest pre- 
 mium therefor in addition to the rental. The said premium to be paid before the issue 
 of the lease. 
 
 GENERAL PROVISIONS. 
 
 18. Payments for land may be in cash, scrip, or police or military bounty warrants. 
 
 19. These regulations shall not apply to lands valuable for town plots, or to coal or 
 other mineral lands, or to stone or marble quarries, or to lands having water power 
 thereon ; or to sections 11 and 29 in each Township, which are School Lands, or Sections 
 8 and 26, which belong to the Hudson's Bay Company. 
 
 By order, 
 Depabtmbnt of the Intekiob, LINDSAY RUSSELL, 
 
 Ottawa, 23rd December, 1881. Surveyor Oeneral. 
 
 CANADIAN PACIFIC RAILWAY LANDS. 
 
 The land subsidy to the Canadian Pacific Railway Com- 
 pany consisting of 25,000,000 acres, the odd numbered sec- 
 tions are set aside for the purpose of this grant, for twenty- 
 ibur miles on each side of the Canadian Pacific Railway 
 (see Clause 2 of the Ofl&cial Land Regulations). As thes6 
 sections everywhere alternate with the even numbered 
 ones held by the Government for free grants and pre-emp- 
 tions, it is advisable to give here the regulations of the 
 Pacific Railway for the sale and disposal of their lands. 
 
 The following is a copy : — 
 
 The Canadian Pacific Railway Company, 
 
 Montreal, Canada, Nov. 2ith, 1881. 
 The Company are prepared, until further notice, to sell lands for agricultural pur- 
 poses, at the price of $2.50 per acre, one-sixth payable in cash, and the balance in five 
 annual instalments, with interest at six per cent., a rebate for actual cultivation being 
 made as hereafter described. 
 
 The genera] conditions of sale are :— 
 
 1. That all improvements placed upon land purchased shall remain thereon until 
 
 final payment for the laud has been made. 
 
 2. That all taxes and assessments lawfully imposed upon the land or improvements, 
 
 shall be paid by the purchaser. 
 
 3. The Company reserve all mineral, cool or wood-lands, lands with water power 
 
 thereon, or tracts for town sites and railway purposes ; but as regards wood 
 
NORTH-WEST LAND REGULATIONS. 676 
 
 lands, the purchaser will be permitted to cut a sufficient 0[uantity for fuel, 
 fencing, and for the erection of buildings on his land. 
 
 4. The purchaser will be required within four years from the date of the contract 
 
 for the purchase of the land, to bring under cultivation, and sow and reap a 
 crop on three-fourths of the said land ; but if he shall erect buildings thereon 
 satisfactory to the Company, and shall reside thereon continuously for three 
 years, then the quantity to be cultivated shall be reduced to one half. Dairy 
 farming or mixed grain and dairy farming to an extent to be agreed upon, 
 will be accepted as the equivalent of cultivation, entitling the settler to rebate. 
 
 5. A credit of $1.25 per acre will be allowed for all land so cultivated during four 
 
 years ; an extension of the time being granted in consideration of the erection 
 of buildings and other improvements. 
 
 6. A reservation of 200ft, in width for right of way or other railroad purposes wi]l 
 
 be made in all cases. 
 
 7 . If the purchaser fails to carry out strictly the conditions of his contract within 
 
 the specified time, the Company reserve the right to cancel the contract, 
 whereupon the lands would become forfeited and revested in the Company. 
 But in case of forfeiture the Company would take into consideration an appli- 
 cation for a new sale to the original purchaser at a revaluation. 
 
 8. Special contracts will be made with Companies for large tracts of land for settle- 
 
 ment purposes or for cattle raising. 
 
 9. Liberal rates for settlers and their effects will be granted by the Company over 
 
 its railway. 
 For further information apply at the office of the Company, Bartholomew Place, 
 London, England ; to John McTavish, Land Commissioner, Winnipeg, Manitoba, or to 
 the Secretary of the Company, at Montreal, Canada. 
 
 GEORGE STEPHEN, President- 
 CHARLES DRINKWATER, Secretary. 
 
 It will appear from a comparison of these conditions of 
 sale by the Pacific Railway Company with the Dominion 
 Government Land regulations, that if a family of four adults 
 desire to settle together they may obtain a really large 
 estate on very moderate terms. For instance, each of the 
 four members of the family may settle on the four free 
 homesteads, of 160 acres each, in any even numbered un- 
 occupied section, each may then purchase another 160 acres 
 at $2.50 (10s. stg.) per acre from the Pacific Railway Com- 
 pany in the adjoining odd numbered sections. This is the 
 same price as that offered by the Government pre-emption 
 in the Railway Belt, with the exception that the Pacific 
 Railway Company offer a rebate of |1. 25 (5s. stg.) per acre, 
 within three to five years following the date of purchase, 
 on condition of cultivation. The settlers while building on 
 
676 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NOETH-WEST. 
 
 the homes'^eads and making cultivation thereon, would be 
 able, within the time mentioned, also to cultivate the whole 
 or the greater part of the Pacific Railway lands. The office 
 fees for the Government Homesteads are $10 (£2 stg.). A 
 family of four could, in this way, in three years obtain a. 
 large estate of 1,280 acres of probably the richest wheat 
 growing land in the world, at a merely nominal price, and 
 thus secure a position not only of comparative but of sub- 
 stantial wealth. Farmers with sons can with great advan- 
 tage avail themselves of these conditions, and have the 
 advantages of neighborhood in settling together. 
 
 In cases where it is an object for families with means to 
 take up and farm more extensive tracts of land, the regula- 
 tions would also admit of this. For instance, two brothers 
 might take up free homesteads and two quarter sections of 
 any Government lands and pre-empt the remaining two 
 quarter sections, thus obtaining a whole section or 640 acres 
 for their homesteads and pre-emptions. They could then 
 purchase the whole of each of the four adjoining odd num- 
 bered sections of Railway lands, and thus obtain between 
 them a large estate of 3,200 acres. By cultivating the odd 
 sections and getting the rebate, this estate could be pur- 
 chased on exceedingly moderate terms ; while the rule of 
 the Pacific, Railway Company to insist on double the price 
 of lands not cultivated, would act as a powerful dissuasive 
 to acquiring lands for mere speculation, for the reason that 
 the cultivation rebate is always open to the actual settler 
 who, for some years to come, will have large tracts of land 
 to choose from. The arrangement we have indicated is es- 
 pecially desirable for settlers from England with means. 
 
 It will be noticed that the price of the Pacific Railway 
 lands is the same as that of the Government pre-emption 
 in the Railway Belt. The terms of credit are also liberal. 
 
 The land policy of the Government of Canada, combined 
 ■with the advantages offered by the Pacific Railway Com- 
 
NOETH--WEST LAND REGULATIONS. 677 
 
 pany, is the most liberal of any on the Continent of North 
 America. 
 
 Liberality of Canadian Land Regulations. 
 
 The Canadian Land Regulations having been very gen- 
 erally represented to be more onerous and less liberal than 
 those of the United States, it is proper to point out for in- 
 tending settlers that ten dollars ($10) covers the whole of 
 the ofl&ce fees in Canada, either for a pre-emption or a home- 
 stead ; but in the Western States there are three fees, one 
 of eight dollars, payable on entry, another of eight dollars 
 for a commission, and another of ten dollars when the 
 patent is issued, making twenty -six dollars ($26.00). In 
 some of the States the fees are thirty-four dollars ($34.00). 
 
 The lands are sold at $2.35 and $1.25 per acre. These 
 prices are nearly the same, but the difference is favorable 
 to Canada. In fact it is repeated that not on the Continent 
 of America, and it is believed not elsewhere are the Land 
 Regulations so favorable as in Canada. 
 
 It is provided by the Canadian Naturalization Act, that 
 aliens may acquire and hold real and personal property of 
 every description, in the same manner and in all respects, 
 as a natural born British subject. 
 
 The only disqualification of aliens is, that they are not 
 qualified to hold office under the Government, or to vote at 
 parliamentary or municipal elections. 
 
 The oath of allegiance required of aliens who desire to 
 become British subjects simply expresses fidelity to the 
 Queen and Constitution, without any discrimination against 
 the nation from which the aliens come. 
 
 To take up the United States Government land the fol- 
 lowing oath is required to be taken : — 
 
 DlSTEICr COUET, , 
 
 Judicial District, ( State of 
 
 County of ) 
 
 J do swear tliat I will support the Constitutiou 
 
678 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-"WEST. 
 
 of the United States of America, ard tliat I do absolutely and entirely "Renounce and 
 Abjure for ever all Allegiance and Fidelity to every Foreign Power, Prince, Potentate, 
 
 State or Sovereignty whatever, and particularly to the Queen 
 
 of Great Britain and Ireland, whose subject I was. And further, that I never have 
 borne any hereditary title, or been of any of the degrees of Nobility of the country 
 whereof I have been a subject, and that I have resided within the United States for five 
 years last past, and in this State for one year last past. 
 Subscribed and sworn to in open Court I 
 
 this day of 18.... ' 
 
 Clerk. 
 
 Hudson's Bay Company's Lands. 
 Sections No. 8 and No. 26 in every township are Hudson's 
 Bay Company's lands, and all settlers must be careful not to 
 enter upon them before they have acquired them from the 
 Company. The prices vary according to locality. Mr. C. 
 J. Brydges is the Land Commissioner of the Company. His 
 official residence is at Winnipeg, Manitoba, and applications 
 may be made to him. Under agreement with the Crown 
 the Hudson Bay Company are entitled to one-twentieth of 
 the lands in the fertile belt, estimated at about seven 
 million of acres. 
 
 School Lands. 
 
 Sections No. 11 and 29 in every township are School 
 Lands. That is, the proceeds from their sale are to be ap- 
 plied to the support of education. They are not attainable 
 at private sale. When disposed of it will be at public com- 
 petition by auction. All squatters on those lands, therefore, 
 will have to pay for them the price they bring by auction 
 when sold, or they will pass by that sale out of their hands. 
 
 Lands at Private Sale. 
 The settler may sometimes find it convenient to buy 
 lands, partially improved, with buildings and fences upon 
 them at private sale. It very frequently happens that Half- 
 breed or other lands may be obtained on moderate terms. 
 
CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 StatiMics. 
 
 Population of the Dominion in 1881 as Compared with that of 1871 — Population of the 
 Cities and Towns — Place of Birth — Religious Belief. — Areas of the Provinces, etc. 
 
 The purpose of the following chapter is to give in an 
 epitomised form the statistics of the Dominion, commencing 
 with the population, showing the nationalities and religions 
 of the inhabitants, as well as the areas of the different 
 provinces J together with a table of all cities and towms 
 having a populalion of over 5,000, and such other infor- 
 mation as could be put into the limited number of pages 
 at our disposal. 
 
 TOTAL POPULATION OF THE DOMINION. 
 
 Census of 1861 3,090,561 
 
 « 1871 3,485,761 
 
 " 1881 4,324,810 
 
 POPULATION BY PROVINCES. 
 
 1881 1871. 
 
 Ontario 1,923,228 1,620,851 
 
 Quebec 1,359,027 1,191,516 
 
 New Brunswick 321,233 285,594 
 
 Nova Scotia 440,572 387,800 
 
 Prince Edward Island 108,891 94,021 
 
 Manitoba 65,954 , 12,228 
 
 British Columbia 49,459 . 10,586 
 
 The North-West Territories 56,446 . 
 
680 
 
 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 POPULATION OF CITIES AND TOWNS HAVING OVER 5,000 
 INHABITANTS IN 1881 COMPARED. 
 
 1871. 
 
 1881. 
 
 Montreal 
 
 Quebec 
 
 Toronto 
 
 Halifax 
 
 St. John 
 
 Hamilton 
 
 Ottawa 
 
 London 
 
 Kingston 
 
 Brantford 
 
 St. Catherines . . . 
 Thi-ee Rivers . . . 
 
 Belleville 
 
 Guelph 
 
 Levis 
 
 Fredericton 
 
 Chatham , 
 
 Sorel 
 
 Port Hope 
 
 Brockville 
 
 Peterborough . . . 
 St. Jean Baptiste 
 
 Stratford 
 
 Windsor 
 
 Lindsay 
 
 Woodstock 
 
 Gait 
 
 St. Hyacinthe . . . 
 
 St Thomas 
 
 Hull (city) 
 
 Moncton (town) . 
 Winnipeg (city) . 
 Victoria (city) . . . 
 
 Portland 
 
 Charlottetown . . 
 
 Sherbrooke 
 
 St Henri 
 
 Quebec. 
 
 Ontario. 
 Nova Scotia. 
 New Brunswick. 
 Ontario. 
 
 Quebec. 
 
 Ontario 
 
 u 
 
 Quebec. 
 
 New Brunswick. 
 
 Ontario. 
 
 Quebec. 
 
 Ontario. 
 
 Quebec. 
 Ontario. 
 
 Quebec 
 
 Ontario 
 
 Quebec. 
 
 New Brunswick 
 
 Manitoba. 
 
 British Columbia. 
 
 New Brunswick. 
 
 Prince Edward Islnd 
 
 Quebec. 
 
 107,225 
 
 59,699 
 
 56,092 
 
 29,582 
 
 28,805 
 
 26,716 
 
 21,545 
 
 15,826 
 
 12,407 
 
 8,107 
 
 7,864 
 
 7,570 
 
 7,305 
 
 6,878 
 
 6,691 
 
 6,006 
 
 6,873 
 
 5,636 
 
 5,114 
 
 5,102 
 
 4,611 
 
 4,408 
 
 4,313 
 
 4,253 
 
 4,049 
 
 3,982 
 
 3,827 
 
 3,746 
 
 2,197 
 
 241 
 
 3,270 
 
 12,520 
 
 8,807 
 
 4,432 
 
 140,747 
 
 62,446 
 
 86,415 
 
 36,100 
 
 26,127 
 
 35,961 
 
 27,412 
 
 19,746 
 
 14,091 
 
 9,616 
 
 9,631 
 
 9,296 
 
 9,516 
 
 9,890 
 
 7,597 
 
 6,218 
 
 7,873 
 
 5,791 
 
 5,585 
 
 7,609 
 
 6,812 
 
 5,874 
 
 8,239 
 
 6,561 
 
 5,080 
 
 5,373 
 
 5,187 
 
 5,321 
 
 8,367 
 
 6,890 
 
 5,321 
 
 7,985 
 
 5,925 
 
 15,226 
 
 11,485 
 
 7,227 
 
 6,415 
 
 Table I. — origins of the people. 
 
 In this table will be found only those claiming origin 
 from English, Scotch, Irish, Trench, German, or Indian 
 parentage. All others will be excluded as not necessary to 
 our present purpose. 
 
STATISTICS. 
 
 681 
 
 POPULATION BY PROVINCES. 
 
 PROVmOES. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 aOOTOH. 
 
 IRISH. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 INDIAN. 
 
 Ontario 
 
 535,835 
 
 81,515 
 
 93,387 
 
 128,986 
 
 21,414 
 
 11,503 
 
 7,297 
 
 1,374 
 
 378,536 
 
 54,923 
 
 49,829 
 
 146,027 
 
 48,933 
 
 16,506 
 
 3,892 
 
 1,217 
 
 627,262 
 
 123,749 
 
 101,284 
 
 66,067 
 
 25,415 
 
 10,173 
 
 3,172 
 
 281 
 
 102,743 
 
 1,073,820 
 
 56,635 
 
 41,219 
 
 10,751 
 
 9,949 
 
 916 
 
 2,896 
 
 210,557 
 
 9,719 
 
 10,683 
 
 42,262 
 
 1,368 
 
 9,158 
 
 952 
 
 32 
 
 15 325 
 
 Quebec 
 
 7,515 
 1401 
 2 125 
 
 New BninBwick 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 Prince Edward Island. 
 Manitoba 
 
 281 
 
 6,767 
 
 25,661 
 
 49,472 
 
 British Colvunbia 
 
 TheN.W. Territories. 
 
 Totals 
 
 881,311 
 
 699,863 
 
 957,403 
 
 1,298,929 
 
 284,731 
 
 108,547 
 
 POPULATION 
 
 OF CITIES AND 
 
 TOWNS OVER 
 
 5,000. 
 
 
 CITIES. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 SCOTCH. 
 
 IRISH. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 NEGROES. 
 
 TOTAL. 
 
 Montreal 
 
 16,407 
 
 12,531 
 
 28,995 
 
 78,684 
 
 1,476 
 
 71 
 
 140,747 
 
 Quebec 
 
 3,437 
 
 1,683 
 
 10,224 
 
 46,444 
 
 263 
 
 7 
 
 62,446 
 
 Toronto 
 
 34,608 
 
 13,754 
 
 32,177 
 
 1,230 
 
 2,212 
 
 593 
 
 86,415 
 
 Halifax 
 
 11,707 
 
 6,540 
 
 12,814 
 
 936 
 
 2,292 
 
 1,039 
 
 36,100 
 
 St John 
 
 8,499 
 
 3,343 
 
 12,863 
 
 239 
 
 503 
 
 315 
 
 26,127 
 
 Hamilton 
 
 13,559 
 
 7,716 
 
 10,787 
 
 500 
 
 2,306 
 
 505 
 
 35,916 
 
 Ottawa 
 
 4,895 
 
 2.922 
 
 9,593 
 
 9,384 
 
 353 
 
 14 
 
 27,412 
 
 Loudon 
 
 8,617 
 
 3,543 
 
 6,062 
 
 223 
 
 439 
 
 261 
 
 19,746 
 
 Portland 
 
 3,679 . 
 
 2,077 
 
 8,448 
 
 124 
 
 370 
 
 84 
 
 15,226 
 
 Kingston 
 
 4,039 
 
 1,932 
 
 7,069 
 
 480 
 
 377 
 
 73 
 
 14,091 
 
 Charlottetown 
 
 3,716 
 
 3,166 
 
 4,059 
 
 215 
 
 441 
 
 83 
 
 11,485 
 
 Brantford 
 
 4,081 
 
 1,668 
 
 2,658 
 
 133 
 
 584 
 
 175 
 
 9,616 
 
 St. Catherines. . . 
 
 2,934 
 
 1,342 
 
 3,804 
 
 189 
 
 829 
 
 336 
 
 9,631 
 
 Three Rivers 
 
 288 
 
 256 
 
 182 
 
 8,537 
 
 46 
 
 
 8,670 
 
 Belleville 
 
 3,482 
 
 1,136 
 
 3,384 
 
 545 
 
 868 
 
 8 
 
 9,516 
 
 Gnelph 
 
 3,866 
 
 2,434 
 
 2,810 
 
 82 
 
 517 
 
 107 
 
 9,890 
 
 L6vis 
 
 290 
 1,934 
 
 147 
 987 
 
 431 
 2,690 
 
 6,681 
 82 
 
 10 
 226 
 
 9 
 162 
 
 7,597 
 
 Fredericton 
 
 6,218 
 
 Chatham 
 
 2,594 
 
 1,256 
 
 1,607 
 
 583 
 
 361 
 
 781 
 
 7,873 
 
 Sorel 
 
 163 
 2,606 
 
 82 
 564 
 
 90 
 2,146 
 
 5,427 
 94 
 
 9 
 162 
 
 .... 
 
 5,791 
 
 Port Hope 
 
 5,585 
 
 Brockville . 
 
 1,842 
 
 987 
 
 3,635 
 
 456 
 
 269 
 
 . .. 
 
 7,609 
 
 Peterborough . . . 
 
 1,948 
 
 1,156 
 
 2,952 
 
 624 
 
 100 
 
 1 
 
 6,812 
 
 Sherbrooke . . 
 
 1,774 
 
 612 
 
 799 
 
 3,957 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 7,227 
 
 St JeanBaptiste. 
 
 178 
 
 114 
 
 193 
 
 5,334 
 
 35 
 
 
 5,874 
 
 Stratford. . 
 
 2,954 
 
 1,849 
 
 2,773 
 
 64 
 
 436 
 
 26 
 
 8,239 
 
 Windsor 
 
 2.066 
 
 884 
 
 1,261 
 
 811 
 
 413 
 
 995 
 
 6,561 
 
 Lindsay 
 
 1,174 
 
 599 
 
 2,749 
 
 316 
 
 202 
 
 9 
 
 5,080 
 
 Woodstock 
 
 2,544 
 
 1,768 
 
 671 
 
 52 
 
 205 
 
 42 
 
 6,373 
 
 Gait . 
 
 1,294 
 
 2,634 
 
 764 
 
 28 
 
 423 
 
 13 
 
 5,187 
 
 St Hyacinthe 
 
 64 
 
 41 
 
 58 
 
 5,089 
 
 8 
 
 
 5,321 
 
 St. Thomas . 
 
 3,798 
 
 1,723 
 
 1,972 
 
 128 
 
 503 
 
 58 
 
 8,367 
 
 Hull 
 
 257 
 
 259 
 
 371 
 
 5,933 
 
 49 
 
 
 6,890 
 
 Moncton. 
 
 2,251 
 
 1,169 
 
 967 
 
 363 
 
 158 
 
 8 
 
 5,032 
 
 Winnipeg 
 
 2,352 
 
 2,470 
 
 1,864 
 
 450 
 
 191 
 
 4 
 
 7,985 
 
 Victoria . .... 
 
 2,318 
 
 917 
 
 831 
 
 145 
 
 332 
 
 137 
 
 5,925 
 
 St Henri 
 
 326 
 
 174 
 
 346 
 
 5,519 
 
 22 
 
 1 
 
 6,415 
 
682 
 
 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
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STATISTICS 
 
 683 
 
 Table II. — religions of the people. 
 
 In this Table I group together all Baptists, Methodists, and Presbyterians, and 
 take a column for each. Pagans and those of no religion I place in the sixth column. 
 
 HELIGIOKS BY PROVINCES. 
 
 PROVINOKS. 
 
 Ontario 
 
 Quebec 
 
 New Brunswick . . 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 Prince Edward Isla'd 
 
 Manitoba 
 
 British Colimibia. 
 N. W. Territories. 
 
 English. 
 
 Presby'ians 
 
 Methodists. 
 
 R.Catholios 
 
 Baptists. 
 
 No B^lierioa 
 
 366,639 
 
 417,749 
 
 592,103 
 
 320,839 
 
 106,680 
 
 3,225 
 
 68,797 
 
 •50,287 
 
 39,221 
 
 1,170,718 
 
 8,853 
 
 438 
 
 46,768 
 
 42,888 
 
 34,544 
 
 109,091 
 
 81,092 
 
 116 
 
 60,255 
 
 122,488 
 
 50,811 
 
 117,483 
 
 83,761 
 
 121 
 
 587 
 
 8,395 
 
 1,686 
 
 13,794 
 
 1,713 
 
 14 
 
 14,297 
 
 14,262 
 
 9,470 
 
 12,246 
 
 9,449 
 
 2,189 
 
 7,804 
 
 4,016 
 
 3,516 
 
 10,043 
 
 434 
 
 617 
 
 3,166 
 
 531 
 
 461 
 
 4,443 
 
 20 
 
 362 
 
 RELIGIONS OF CITIES AND TOWNS OVER 5,000. 
 
 KAHES. 
 
 English. 
 
 Presby'ians 
 
 Methodists. 
 
 R Catholics 
 
 Baptists. 
 
 No Religion! 
 
 Montreal 
 
 14,338 
 3,328 
 30,913 
 9,332 
 5,980 
 9,605 
 4,825 
 6,502 
 3,756 
 3,815 
 1,670 
 2,023 
 2,439 
 
 101 
 2,343 
 1,901 
 
 230 
 1,555 
 1,804 
 
 130 
 1,891 
 2,175 
 1,375 
 1,270 
 89 
 2,354 
 1,635 
 1,207 
 1,303 
 
 781 
 
 46 
 
 1,995 
 
 263 
 
 637 
 2,373 
 1,720 
 
 179 
 
 11,597 
 1,344 
 14,612 
 4,992 
 3,554 
 7,879 
 3,059 
 3,257 
 1,872 
 2,600 
 2,197 
 1,467 
 1,474 
 
 209 
 
 1,490 
 
 2,422 
 
 98 
 
 822 
 
 1,181 
 
 49 
 
 972 
 1,382 
 1,431 
 
 482 
 
 103 
 2,087 
 
 693 
 
 674 
 
 1,680 
 
 2,632 
 
 68 
 
 1,466 
 
 155 
 1,038 
 2,365 
 
 908 
 
 169 
 
 5,327 
 
 883 
 16,357 
 3,711 
 3,287 
 8,317 
 2.173 
 4,952 
 1,795 
 2,398 
 2,604 
 2,481 
 2,217 
 68 
 3,229 
 2,442 
 71 
 
 993 
 2,498 
 17 
 1,765 
 1,591 
 1,845 
 
 481 
 42 
 1,394 
 1,746 
 1,273 
 1,388 
 
 862 
 
 3 
 
 2,431 
 
 118 
 
 875 
 1,370 
 
 705 
 86 
 
 103,679 
 
 66,255 
 
 15,716 
 
 14,705 
 
 8,701 
 
 7,134 
 
 15,901 
 
 3,284 
 
 4,600 
 
 4,451 
 
 4,384 
 
 1,471 
 
 2,582 
 
 8,831 
 
 2,164 
 
 1,895 
 
 7,185 
 
 1,621 
 
 1,506 
 
 6,526 
 
 603 
 1,954 
 1,887 
 4,511 
 5,596 
 1,549 
 1,878 
 1,643 
 
 302 
 
 528 
 5,165 
 
 952 
 6,234 
 
 976 
 1,020 
 
 866 
 5,920 
 
 1,402 
 
 174 
 
 3,667 
 
 2,704 
 
 3,737 
 
 1,066 
 
 461 
 
 885 
 
 1,856 
 
 200 
 
 472 
 
 1,570 
 
 627 
 
 115 
 
 482 
 
 7 
 
 1,189 
 
 729 
 
 '330 
 
 360 
 
 256 
 
 63 
 
 9 
 
 417 
 
 364 
 
 215 
 
 647 
 
 236 
 
 11 
 
 1,065 
 
 79 
 
 1,357 
 
 349 
 
 114 
 
 28 
 
 39 
 
 
 5 
 
 Toronto 
 
 Halifex 
 
 59 
 8 
 
 St. John 
 
 3 
 
 TTamiltriTi , , , , 
 
 69 
 
 Ottawa 
 
 30 
 
 London 
 
 2 
 
 Portland 
 
 1 
 
 
 3 
 
 Charlottetown 
 
 '2 
 
 St. Catherines 
 
 Three Rivers 
 
 Belleville 
 
 23 
 
 1 
 
 Guelph 
 
 1 
 
 Fredericton 
 
 Chatham 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 Sorel 
 
 
 Port Hope 
 
 3 
 
 BrockviUe 
 
 16 
 
 Peterborough 
 
 Sherbrooke 
 
 St. Jean Baptiste . . . 
 Stratford. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Lindsay 
 
 15 
 
 
 2 
 
 Gait 
 
 15 
 
 St. Hyacinthe 
 
 St. Thomas 
 
 Hull 
 
 7 
 3 
 
 Moncton. 
 
 .. 
 
 Winninesr 
 
 1 
 
 Victoria 
 
 179 
 
 St. Henri 
 
 === 
 
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 MANITOBA AND THE GEEAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
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STATISTICS. 
 
 685 
 
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686 
 
 MANITOBA AND THE GREAT NORTH-WEST. 
 
 Talle IV. — Areas of Provinces. 
 
 PKOVINOES. 
 
 SQUARE MILES. 
 
 ACKES. 
 
 Ontario 
 
 101,733 
 
 188,688 
 
 20,907 
 
 27,174 
 
 2,133 
 
 123,200 
 
 341,305 
 
 2,665,252 
 
 65,111,463 
 
 Quebec..... 
 
 120,764,651 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 13,382,003 
 
 
 17,393,410 
 
 Prince Edward Island 
 
 1,365,400 
 
 
 78,848,040 
 
 British Columbia 
 
 218,435,200 
 
 North-West Territories 
 
 1,706,761,280 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 3,470,392 
 
 2,221,061,447 
 
 
 
 Table V. — dwellings. 
 
 
 TEMPORARY. 
 
 
 . HOUSES. 
 
 
 TOTAL 
 
 NAMES. 
 
 VESSELS. 
 
 ANTIE S. 
 
 IN- 
 ABITED 
 
 UN- 
 INHABITED 
 
 BEING 
 BUILT. 
 
 OCCUPIED. 
 
 Ontario 
 
 Quebec 
 
 43 
 
 6 
 
 33 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 1,216 
 
 314 
 
 385 
 
 199 
 
 35 
 
 401 
 
 2,785 
 
 9,357 
 
 358,034 
 
 216,112 
 
 73,736 
 
 50,956 
 
 17,685 
 
 12,400 
 
 6,992 
 
 2,294 
 
 19,649 
 
 18,469 
 
 2,897 
 
 2,397 
 
 607 
 
 796 
 
 1,738 
 
 30 
 
 3,145 
 
 2,887 
 1,234 
 901 
 328 
 1,136 
 151 
 100 
 
 359,293 
 
 216,432 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 New Brunswick 
 
 Prince Edward Island. 
 
 74,154 
 51,196 
 17,724 
 12,803 
 9,793 
 11,662 
 
 British Columbia 
 
 North-West Territories 
 
 Total 
 
 116 
 
 14,692 
 
 738,209 
 
 46,683 
 
 9,882 
 
 753,017 
 
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AGENTS WANTED ! 
 
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 The ¥orM PuMisEing Co. 
 
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Ill 4f Tiff lOI 01 
 
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 99 
 
 Guelph, June 13, 1882. 
 
 Gentlemen, — We have carefully examined your new work "TreaBuiy of Song," 
 
 and can say it is the book of the age. We wonder no such book was ever published S 
 
 before. We think it safe to say that every family owning an organ or piano will secure ' 
 
 a copy the first opportunity. "^ 
 
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 times the price asked by you. Every person who uses music at all would certainly ~ 
 
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 jou ask for the work complete, containing as it does three hundred of the very best C^ 
 
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 Tou will need to sell the quarter of a milUon copies you anticipate to recoup you C^ 
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 when he invented the sewing machine. KJ 
 
 We confess we expect this move on your part to help us very much, for people can t^l 
 
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 We are. 
 
 Respectfully, 
 
 W. Bell <fe Ck)., Organ Manufacturers, Guelph, Ont. „ ,, _. ». 
 
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 subscribe for a copy. . 
 
 W. Philp, Professor and Teacher of Music, Leader of the Gnelph City Band, jS 
 
 formerly WeUington Brigade Band. _ . 
 
 H. K. Maitland, Professor and Teacher of Music. ^ 
 
 The " Treasury of Song " is an admirable selection of Songs and Hymns suited for ^ 
 femily use. We feel pleased in adding our names to the list of subscribers. kj 
 
 Alex. Dixon, Rector and Canon St. George's Episcopal Church, Guelph, Ont. |^ 
 
 Th. Fleck, Pastor pro tern, of the Church of our Lady, Guelph, Ont. 
 Jane Chaelotte BtTDD, Teacher and Organist, Guelph, Ont. „„ .„, n„f 
 
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 C. A. STEviiNSON, Organist Norfolk Street Methodist Church, Guelph, Ont. 
 jiS;pH Lee, Professor of Music, Organist Congregational Church, Guelph, Ont. 
 C. Ceawtoed, Professor of Vocal and Instrumental Music, Guelph, Ont. 
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