Cornell University Library T 58.G46 Applied motion s«" 7 m^. fi V(o/. I r,\^^i. .mi ^^^ ■t ^-4^ ^ lib. RJ 9 1951 •^'^^Hnh^SS -fEB-6 l^BT JJAi^ ^-f954- JAiV iu "5 -THf^h-^ NOV 3 1967 J^^ ^S^ £SF43> Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924004621672 APPLIED MOTION STUDY OTHER WORKS BY TBE SAME AUTHORS FIELD SYSTEM CONCRETE SYSTEM BRICKLAYING SYSTEM MOTION STUDY: A Method of Increasing the Efficiency of the Workman. PRIMER OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT: The Function of the Mind in Determining, Teaching and Installing Methods of Least Waste. FATIGUE STUDY: The Elimination of Humanity's Greatest Un- necessary Waste. A First Step in Motion Study. iS 5 13 apt, bo APPLIED MOTION STUDY A COLLECTION OF PAPERS ON THE EFFICIENT METHOD TO INDUSTRIAL PREPAREDNESS BY FRANK B. GILBRETH Consulting Management Engineer Member Franlclin Institute; American Society of Mechanical Engineers; Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education AND L. M. GILBRETH, Ph.D. Hew Borft STURGIS & WALTON COMPANY 1917 -/^ V. ■« J^A/ V CoPTMOnT, 1917, By STURGIS & WALTON COMPANY Set up and electTotn>Bd. Published, Septemlier, 1917, PKEFAOE This book aims — 1. To describe Motion Study as applied to various fields of activity. 2. To outline the principles and practice of Motion Study in such a way as to make possible its application in any and all kinds of work. Motion Study is a means to permanent and practical waste elimination, — hence a prereq- uisite to efficient preparedness that shall be ade- quate, constructive and cumulative. FOREWOED This book aims to present in outline 1. The field where motion study has been and can be applied. 2. The methods by which it is applied. 3. The effects of the application. It shows the results of actual practice in waste elimination. It enumerates past savings, and points out present and future possible savings. It is offered as a contribution to the solution of the great national problem of " Preparedness." INTEODUCTION Blessed is the man who makes two blades of grass grow where only one grew before. More blessed is he who multiplies the harvests of toil not merely two-fold, but three-fold or more-fold, for he virtually lengthens life when he adds to its fruitage. Such a man is Frank B. Gilbreth who tells in this book just how he wrought this wonder. For years he has closely watched work- ers at tasks of all kinds; he has discovered how much they lose by moving unprofitably hither and thither, by neglecting to take the shortest and easiest paths. In the ancient trade of bricklaying he has increased the output almost four-fold by doing only what must be done, and using a few simple devices of his own invention. In this volume Mr. Gilbreth describes and pic- tures the simple photographic process which en- ables one to record in detail the motions of a handicraft, or a manufacture, so as to bring them by criticism and experiment to their utmost economy of energy and time. When once the best practice is reached in any particular field of work ix X INTRODUCTION Gilbreth motion-pictures make it easy to repeat that practice anywhere and at any time. This most f ertUe means of record and of teach- ing enters the world of industry at an opportune moment. War to-day is destroying wealth at a rate beyond computation. National debts are mounting billion upon billion, entailing burdens of taxation such as mankind never faced before. Mr. Gilbreth meets this dire emergency with a readily applied method of increasing the results of toil, of reducing all waste of human exertion to its minimum. Not the least telling branch of his activity is in extending aid and comfort to maimed soldiers. He opens a door of hope, be- cause a door of usefulness, to the thousands of brave men who have lost their limbs, their sight, or their hearing, on fields of battle. His pages teem with suggestive facts: take, for example, his discovery that the best way to perform a task unites the methods of several dex- terous and original operators. Again we are shown that wisdom rests not even with the most gifted man, but appears only when men of the rarest ability join hands. Another point: our author has found that learners should strive first for Quickness; when speed is acquired they can best pass to good quality in their work. The levy paid for Dawdling is plainly beyond all esti- mate. A third point: Mr. Gilbreth argues that INTRODUCTION xi to repeat a task should not mean monotony. Let a task be fully studied, let all its possibilities be brought into view, and the operator will be too keenly interested to complain of " monotony." This is a book written from the heart as well as from the brain. Its good will is as evident as its good sense. Frank B. Gilbreth is a versa- tile Engineer, an untiring observer, an ingenious inventor, an economist to the tips of his fingers : first and chiefly he is a man. To his wife, co-au- thor with him, this book owes much. Every page has taken form with the aid and counsel of Mrs. Gilbreth, whose " Psychology of Management " is a golden gift to industrial philosophy. And thus, by viewing their facts from two distinct angles we learn how vital phases of industrial economy present themselves to a man and to a woman who are among the acutest investigators of our time. George Iles. New York, June 14, 1917. TABLE or CONTENTS PAGE iNTBODrcnON IX CHAPTEJR I WHAT SCIENTIFIC MAXAGEMEXT MEANS TO AMERICA'S INDUSTRIAL POSITION . . . 3-20 Meaning, Scope, Aius Ain> Methods of Scientific Management 3 Relative of lonsisiAL Gbowth to Pbogbess and Main- tenance 5 IscKEAsiSG Likeness BBTwoai aix Cottntbies . . ,. 7 Need fob Intensive Study of Caxtses of Sufbemact . 8 Xecissitt fob Consebvation of Matebials and HiruAN ELEilENT 9 Fbesent Lack of Standabdization 12 Place of Labobatoby Reseabch in Motion, Time and FATiGrE Study 15 Resulting Laws fob Handling the Humas Element 17 Scientific Management a Oonsebv^ of the Human £:lement and a Cbeatob of Oo-opebation .... 17 Pbogresspte Stages in Co-opebation 19 Amebica's Supbemacy Depends on heb CoNsratvATioN AND CO-OPEBATION 19 Am^uca's Need of ADOPTiNe Scumtific Management 20 CHAPTER II UNITS, METHODS, AND DEVICES OF MEASURE- MENT UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT . 21-40 B^TNCTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT AND THEIB RE- LATIONS 21 CONTBAST Bbiween Mhjtaby and Scientific Managb- UXNT 21 Outlins Mr Scientific Management 22 Division B e t ween Planning and Pisfcsming ... 22 The Planning Defabtment 23 xiii xiv CONTENTS PAGE The Peefobming Department 24 Co-operation as a Resttlt or Functionauzation . . 29 Advantages to the Wobkeb 33 Needs fob Units, Methods and Devices of Measxibe- MENT 34 PiACE OF Motion Study and Time Study in Measure- ment 34 Size of Unit to be Measured 35 Selection of Device 36 Results of Measurement 37 Benefits to Worker 39 Need foe Oo-opebation to Avoid Wastefui, Bepetition 40 CHAPTER. Ill MOTION STUDY AS AN INDUSTRIAL OPPOR- TUNITY 41-56 Waste from Inefficient Motions and Their Fatigue 41 Importance of Waste Elimination 41 Delay in Appreciating Human Element 41 Motion Study as an Eljminatoe of Human Waste . . 42 Examples op Motion Economy 42 Definition of Motion Study 43 Units, Methods and Devices of Motion Study ... 44 The Cost Element 44 Micromotion Study 45 The Cyciegeaph Method 46 Debivation of Standard Method 47 Results of Motion Study 48 Thinking in Elementary Motions 49 Benefits to Wobkees 50 Bettebment of Industrial Selection 50 Relation to School Training 52 Effect on Society 53 Relation to Education 53 Keclassification and Standardization of Trades . . 53 Need fob National Bureau of Standards 55 Motion Study the Great Industrial Opportunity of This Oountby 56 CHAPTER. IV ' MOTION STUDY AND TIME STUDY INSTRU- MENTS OP PRECISION 57-72 Slow Apfbeciation of Waste fbom Useless Motions 57 CONTENTS XV PAGE Relation of Motion and Time Study to SciBNTinc Management 58 drffebence between motion study and time study . 59 Studies Made Without Devices 60 Eakly Time Study Devices 61 Relations or Devices to the Human Element ... 63 Requibements of Adequate Dbjvices 64 The Cameba as a Motion Study Device 65 IThe Micbochbonometeb 66 Stebeoscopic Recobds 67 Oyclegbafh and Stebeocyclegbaph Apfabatus ... 67 Special Devices 69 The Double Cinbmatogbaph 69 Auto Motion Study Appabatus 70 Advantages of These Devices 71 Availability and Low Oost 72 CHAPTER V CHRONOOYCLEGRAPH MOTION DEVICES FOR MEASURING ACHIEVEMENT 73-96 Need fob Consebvation of Human Element .... 73 EJconomy Demands Waste Elimination and Con- sebvation 75 Measubbment Essential to Consebvation .... 76 Recobds of Activity and Fatigue Indispensable . . 77 WoBK of Educatob 77 Pabt op Engineeb in this Woek 77 Motion Study as a Plan of Mbasueement .... 78 Photog&aphs as Recobds 79 Micbomotion Recobds 80 Use op Recobds ab Teaching Devices 81 Need fob Cyclegeaph Recobds 83 Development of the Steeochbonocyclegeaph ... 84 Reducing the Cost of Investigations 85 The Penetrating Sceeen 86 The Motion Model 89 Resulting Standaed Motions and Methods .... 91 Influence on Reclassifying Activities 92 The Simultaneous Motion Cycle Ohabt .... 98 Need fob Exchange of Data 95 xvi CONTENTS CHAPTER VI PAGE MOTION MODELS : THEIR USE IN THE TRAN»- FBRBNOE OF EXPERIENCE AND THE PRES- ENTATION OF COMPARATTVB RESULTS IN EDUCATIONAL METHODS 97-130 AovANOES IN Education Demand Measubement ... 97 Measurement Implies Units, Methods and Devices . 98 Motion Models abb Devices fob Measubino and Recobd- iNG Behaviob 98 Place in Coebelating Shop and School Teaching . . 102 Definition and Histoby op Motion Model .... 104 Deeivation Fbom Eablt Motion Studies 105 " Demonstration " Motions Diffebent fbom " Wobk- ing" Motions 110 Slow Motions Diffebent fbom Fast Motions . . . 110 " Short Outs " Show Individual Differences . . . Ill Best Method Synthesized From Several Methods . Ill Impobtance of Teaching Right Motions First . . 112 Relation of Motion Model to Chbonocyclbgraph . . 117 Methods of Making and Using Motion Models . . 122 The Motion Models as an Aid to Standardization . . 123 Motion Models and Visualization 125 . . 125 . . 126 . . 128 . . 129 . . 130 Benefits to Makers op Motion Modixs Use in Transfer of Exfebience and Skill Field of Application Use as Recorder of the Leabning Pbocebs Consebvation op Intelligence and Skill CHAPTER VII MOTION STUDY FOR THE CRIPPLED SOLDIER 131-157 Importance of Crippled Soldier Problem .... 131 Diversity of Types of Cripples 132 Work of the Educator 133 Work of the Engineer 134 Method op Attack op the Pboblem 135 Application of Motion Study 136 Relation to Placement 137 Use of Simultaneous Motion Cycle Chart .... 137 Description of Chart 138 Methods of Gathering Data to be Charted .... 140 Chart as a Teaching Device 141 Provision foe Fatigue 142 CONTENTS xvii PAGE Need foe Co-opesation 144 Discussion 145 CHAPTER VIII THE PRACTICE OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 158-186 Relation of Scientific Maragsbient to Pbactice . . 158 Requisities of Efficient Management 159 Necessity fob Insubing Right Wokkng Conditions . 159 Benefits to Empm)tees 161 The Adequate and SAnsFTiNG Wage 162 Rbgulabttt of Employment 163 Efficient Placement 164 Oppobtunity fob Advancement 165 Teaching 167 ElFFECT ON Fatigue 168 Decbease of Monotony 174 CONFUSION BETWEBN " HABITUAL " AND " MONOT- ONOUS " 178 Benefits of Habit 179 Monotony Vebsus Intebest 180 Pbovision foe Mental Stimulus 183 Univebsal Benefit of Pbactice of Scientific Manage- ment 185 CHAPTER IX THE THREE POSITION PliAN OP PROMOTION 187-201 Impoetance op Adequate Pbomotion 187 Relation of Placement to Pbomotion 188 Descbiption of Thbee Position Plan of Pbomotion . 189 Place of Masteb Pbomotion Chabt 190 Industbial Pbomotion Chabts ob " Fobtunb Sheets " . 191 Peovision fob Those Who Reach " Ultimate " Posi- tions 195 Tbansfobmation of "Bund Alley" Jobs .... 196 Place of the " Godfatheb " ob " Big Bbotheb "... 197 Results of Thbee Position Plan 198 Benefits to Employment Manageb 199 Relation of Success to Dndeblyino Desibe to Co-ofeb- atb 201 xviii CONTENTS CHAPTER X PAGE THE EFFECT OF MOTION STUDY UPON THE WORKERS 202-211 Relation of Motion Study to Interest 202 Pabt of Woekee in Making Investigations . . . 203 Interest of Worker in Psychological Problem . . 204 Effect of Motion Study on Observer 205 Benefits op Making Motion Models 206 Broadening of Interests 207 Effects on the Worker 207 , Oo-operation Between Management and Workers . . 209 Effects on Increase of Education 210 Simultaneous Increase of Efficiency, Prosperity and Happiness ' 211 Index 213 APPLIED MOTION STUDY APPLIED MOTION STUDY WHAT SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT MEANS TO AMERICA'S INDUS- TRIAL POSITION^ There is some confusion to-day as to the mean- ing of scientific management. This concerns it- self with the nature of such management itself, with the scope or field to which such management applies, and with the aims that it desires to at- tain. Scientific management is simply manage- (j ment that is based upon actual measurement. Its skilful application is an art that must be ac- quired, but its fundamental principles have the exactness of scientific laws which are open to study by every one. We have here nothing hid- den or occult or secret, like the working practices of an old-time craft ; we have here a science that is the result of accurately recorded, exact investi- gation. Its results are formulated, or are being 1 Reprinted from "The Annals" of the American Acad- emy of Political and Social Science, Publication No. 935. 3 4 APPLIED MOTION STUDY formulated, into such shape that they may be utilised by all who have the desire to study them and the concentration to master them. The lead- ers in the field are, as rapidly as possible, pub- lishing these results, that progress may take place from the stage of highest present achievement, and that no time or effort may be wasted in re- making investigations whose results are already known and accurately recorded. The scope of this management, which may truly be called scien- tific, is unlimited. It applies to all fields of ac- tivity, mental and physical. Its laws are uni- versal, and, to be of use in any particular field, require only to be translated into the vocabulary of the trained and progressive workers in that field. The greatest misunderstandings occur as to the aims of scientific management. Its fundamental aim is the elimination of waste, the attainment of worth-while desired results with the least neces- sary amount of time and effort. Scientific man- agement may, and often does, result in expansion, but its primary aim is conservation and savings, making an adequate use of every ounce of energy of any type that is expended. SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 5 Scientific management, then, in attacking any problem has in mind the question — How may what is here available be best used? It considers the problem, in every case, according to the scientific method ; that is, by dividing it into its elements and submitting each one of these to de- tailed study. Every problem presents two ele- ments: the human element, and the materials element. By the materials element we mean the type of material used, the quality of material used, the quantity of material used, the manner in which the material is used, with conclusions as to why the material is chosen and handled as it is. In other words, we would apply to the material the familiar questions, what, how much, how, when, where, and why. These same ques- tions are applied to the human element ; that is to say, to all members of the organisation. Having in mind now the principles and prac- tice of scientific management, we can consider its relation to the industrial position of any country. Industrial growth, like all other growth, consists of progress and maintenance ; that is, of advances over and beyond present achievement and of mak- ing adequate provision for holding any advantage 6 APPLIED MOTION STUDY that one may gain. It is generally realised that maintenance contains always the thought of con- servation, that it is impossible to hold any ad- vantage without making careful provision for using one's resources in the best possible manner. It is not so generally realised that progress also implies constantly this same conservation. The reason for this is the result of a confusion be- tween saving, or conserving, and hoarding. True conservation contains no thought of miserliness or niggardliness. It is based upon a broad out- look on life and upon the needs of the situation, upon a willingness to pay the full, just price for what is wanted, but an unwillingness to pay any more than is necessary. Progress differs from lack of progress, fundamentally, not because the progressive man is willing to pay more than the unprogressive man will, but because the progres- sive man has a broader outlook and a keener in- sight, hence, a more adequate knowledge of where and when it is necessary to pay. The unprogres- sive man or nation suffers from a limited outlook that makes it practically impossible to make a just estimate as to what is worth while. When we compare the various countries of the SCIENTIFIC MiyjGEMEXT 7 world, and try to estimate their lelatiYe indus- trial positions, we find a strong relationship be- tween conservation in its hi^est sense and indos- trial supremacy. Again, as we turn to history, we find this same relationship constantly mani- f^ting itself; that is, progress depending upon an ability to see what is worth-while, and a will- ingness to pay for that and that only, and stabU- itr or maintenance depending upon an ef&dent handling of available resource. As we reyiew history, and obserre present con- ditions, we see that the differences between Tari- ous countries are becoming less and less, as time goes on. Transportation, with its numerous by- products that affect both the material and the human element, is increasing the likeness be- tween different countries at an astounding rate. This means that industrial supremacy will de- pend more and more upon the handling of avail- able r^ourees and less and less upon distinctiTe features in these resource theniselTes. The calamitous war. which is now apparently offering such a serious check to industrial progress, is contributing toward ultimately making workiag conditions more sdmilar. in that many countries 8 APPLIED MOTION STUDY are being thrown upon their own resources for both materials and men, and are being forced to make discoveries that will more nearly equalise these resources. Another outcome of this war, that should prove of advantage to the world, is the emphasis that is being laid upon the causes of industrial posi- tion and industrial supremacy and the resulting study that is being made as to the reasons for such supremacy. Such a study should be par- ticularly profitable here in America. This coun- try has always " conceded " her important indus- trial position. She has realised thoroughly her enormous natural resources and also her wonder- ful human resources in that she is " the melting pot of the nations." It is only within the life- time of those still young among us that we have come to realise the necessity of conserving our natural resources. It has not yet reached the attention of many among us that our human re- sources are as worthy, in fact, infinitely more worthy, of being conserved. It is self-evident, then, that to attain and main- tain an industrial position of which she may be proud, America must conserve both her natural SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 9 and hep human resources. If she hopes for in- dustrial supremacy, she must set about this con- servation with energy, and must pursue it unre- mittently. The writers have a thorough knowledge of Eu- ropean industrial conditions, through having done business simultaneously in this country and abroad for many years, through frequent trips abroad before the war, through having crossed the boundaries of many of the warring countries many times since the outbreak of the war, and through having observed carefully industrial con- ditions and methods. Their opinion, which is that of all who have made intensive studies of these conditions, is that America is far behind European countries in conservation of the ma- terials element, both natural and manufactured resources. This statement needs no proof in this place. The fact it contains is universally ac- cepted by serious thinkers and investigators. It is equally true that up to recent times European countries have done comparatively little toward conserving the human element. The hope of this country lies, then, in equalling or surpassing foreign conservation of material 10 APPLIED MOTION STUDY and in maintaining or progressing beyond our present conservation of the human element. The material problem is being attacked along different lines in a more or less systematic manner. We all appreciate the benefits of scientific or intensive farming, until now our native farmers, working under the direction of and with the co-operation of the Department of Agriculture, get results that equal those of European farmers, in their native lands, or here in ours. The importance of labor- atory analysis of materials and the help that ap- plied science can render and is more and more rendering to the industries are also being recog- nised. Agricultural experience has taught the valuable lesson that it is possible to get great output, yet, at the same time, leave the producing force unimpaired, by a proper expenditure of money and brains. Experience with applied sci- ence has taught that by-products, as well as products, must be considered, and that the exact methods of science often bring results that are beyond those looked for or hoped for. It has been common practice to consider a transaction satisfactory, or better, if it fulfilled one's expecta- tions, to lay emphasis upon the result rather than SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 11 to standardise the means or method. Laboratory practice has taught that whUe the immediate re- sults are important, the standardisation of the method is more important, since the unexpected ultimate results, sometimes called by-products, are often by far the most valuable outcome of the work. Certain industries in this country have gone far toward applying scientific methods to the material element, but no one of us need go outside his own experience to be able to mention other industries that as yet have no conception of what such work means. Much has been done not only in the analysis of materials, but also with the handling of materi- als. America has cause to be proud of her ma- chines and her tools. The chief criticism that we may make of present practice in this field is that of lack of standardisation. The reasons for this are many. One is business competition, though the feeling is gradually dying out that making one's product markedly different from that of all others is a strong selling advantage. Another is the strong feeling of independence and individual- ity that leads one to prefer a thing because it is different rather than because it is adequate to the 12 APPLIED MOTION STUDY purpose for which it is needed. A third is a lack of channels for direct and easy communication of ideas. This is being supplied both through or- ganisations and publications. A fourth is the former lack of standardising bodies or bureaus, a lack which is also being supplied as the demand for such bodies increases. Because of the highly specialised nature of much present-day work, few of us realise how widespread, almost universal, the lack of stand- ardisation is. It is only necessary to turn, however, to such a field of activity as surgery, which engages the attention of some of the finest brains in the country, and which is apt to come, sooner or later in some way, into the field of ex- perience of every one, to see a striking object lesson of lack of standardisation both of tools and of method. It is the work of scientific management to in- sist on standardisation in all fields, and to base such standardisation upon accurate measure- ment. Scientific management is not remote, or different from other fields of activity. For ex- ample, in the handling of the materials element, it does not attempt to discard the methods of SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 18 attack of intensiye agriculture or of the labora- tory of the applied scientists; on the contrary, it uses the results of workers in such fields as these to as great an extent as possible. There is a widespread feeling that scientific management claims to be something new, with methods that are different from those used by other conserving activities. This is not at all the case. It is the boast of scientific management that it gathers together the results and methods of all conserving activities, formulates these into a working practice, and broadens their field of application. In handling the materials element, then, scientific management analyses all success- ful existing practices in every line, and synthe- sises such elements as accurate measurement proves to be valuable into standards. These standards are maintained until suggested im- provements have passed the same rigid examina- tion, and are in such form that they may be incor- porated into new standards. Turning now to the field of the human element — by far the more important field — we find that, while there is much talk of work in that field to-day, comparatively little has actually been ac- 14 APPLIED MOTION STUDY complished. There have, in all places and times, been more or less spasmodic and unsystematic at- tempts to conserve human energy, or to use it for the greatest benefit of all concerned; but there has not been steady and conspicuous progress in this work for several reasons; 1. Because the methods used were not accurately measured and were not standardised. This made it impossible for the individual conserver to accomplish much of lasting benefit. 2. Because of lack of co-oper- ation between such conservers. It is the task of scientific management to sup- ply both these wants. Success in handling the human element, like success in handling the ma- terials element, depends upon knowledge of the element itself and knowledge as to how it can best be handled. One great work of scientific management has been to show the world how lit- tle actual knowledge it has possessed of the hu- man element as engaged in the work in the indus- tries. Through motion study and fatigue study and the accompanying time study, we have come to know the capabilities of the worker, the de- mands of the work, the fatigue that the worker suffers at the work, and the amount and nature SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 15 of the rest required to overcome the fatigue. Those not actively interested in the industries can scarcely realise that the process of keeping the soil at its full producing capacity and of providing depleted energy is infinitely more standardised and more widely used than the process of providing that the human organism overcome fatigue and return to its normal work- ing capacity in the shortest amount of time pos- sible. Scientific provision for such recovery in the industries, before the days of scientific man- agement, was unknown. It is even more surprising that only the pio- neers in the work realise the application of any necessity for the laboratory method in the study of the human element as it appears in the indus- tries. When making accurate measurements, the number of variables involved must be reduced to as great a degree as possible. Only in the labora- tory can this be successfully done. It is fortu- nate for scientific management that its initial in- troduction in the industries has been made by engineers rather than by men who are primarily laboratory scientists, for this reason : the engineer has been forced by his training to consider con- 16 APPLIED MOTION STUDY stantly immediate as well as ultimate results, and present as well as future savings. Investigations of scientific management have, therefore, been made to pay from the start in money savings, as well as in savings of energy of all kinds. We note this in the results of motion study, fatigue study, and the accompanying time study. As an example, take the laboratory investiga- tions in motion study. These, where possible, are made by us in the laboratory, which is a room specially set apart in the plant for research pur- poses. Here the worker to be studied, with the necessary apparatus for doing the work and for measuring the motions, and the observer, investi- gate the operation under typical laboratory con- ditions. The product of this is data that are n^ore nearly accurate than could be secured with the distractions and many variables of shop condi- tions. The by-product of this work, which is a typical by-product of engineer-scientists' work, is that the conditions of performing the opera- tion in the laboratory become a practical work- ing model of what the shop conditions must ulti- mately be. When the best method of doing the work with the existing apparatus has been de- SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 17 termined in thie laboratory, the working condi- tions, as well as the motions that make this re- sult possible, are standardised, and the working conditions in the shop are changed, until they re- semble the working conditions in the laboratory. In the same way, the length and periodicity of in- tervals to be allowed for overcoming fatigue, and the best devices for eliminating unnecessary fa- tigue and for overcoming necessary fatigue, are determined during the investigation, and are in- corporated into shop practice. - ^ The various measurements taken by scientific management and the guiding laws under which these are grouped determine not only the nature of the human element, but the methods by which it is to be handled. Motion study, fatigue study, the measures supplied by psychology, — these re- sult in the working practice that fits the work to the worker, and produces more output with less effort, with its consequent greater pay for every ounce of effort expended. Through scientific management, then, the in- dividual conserver is enabled to progress con- stantly and to maintain each successful stage in the development. Scientific management can, 18 APPLIED MOTION STUDY I also, and does, wherever permitted, provide for co-operation among conservers. It does this by : 1. Demonstrating the enormous waste resulting from needless repetition of the same investigation. 2. Providing standards which must be recognised as worthy of adoption, since they are the results of measurement. 3. Emphasising the importance of teaching and of the transference of skill, which depend upon co- operation. 4. Showing that maintenance depends, in the final analysis, upon co-operation. We have formulated our programme for such co-operation into the following stages : 1. Each individual to apply scientific management to his own activities, individual and social. 2. Groups, such as industrial organisations, to apply scientific management to the group activity. 3. Trades to apply scientific management to the trade activity. This includes, ultimately, a reclassifica- tion and standardization of the trades, such as we have advocated in " Motion Study." ^ The trades must be classified according to the amount of skill involved in the motions used, and must then be standardized in order that the necessary training for succeeding in them can be given. 4. Industries to apply scientific management to the 1 D, Van Nostrand Company, New York, pages 94^103. SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 19 entire industry, with co-operation between the va- rious trades involved. 5. A national bureau of standardization to collect and formulate the data from all the industries into na- tional standards. 6. An international bureau of standardization to col- lect national standards and to work for interna- tional co-operation. America's immediate industrial position de- pends upon America's realisation of the need for conservation, as demonstrated by scientific man- agement, and upon America's use of such means of conservation as scientific management offers. America's ultimate industrial position depends upon America's realisation that the highest type of conservation includes co-operation. Individuals, groups, trades, and industries have realised and are realising more and more, daily, that it is for the good of all that common practice be standardised and that improvements take place from the highest common standard. Nations have not yet come to any great realisa- tion that this same principle applies to interna- tional relationships. If America desires to gain and maintain leader- ship in industrial progress, she must be the ad- 20 APPLIED MOTION STUDY vocate of industrial conservation and co-opera- tion, and must be the example of that readiness to derive and to share standards for which scien- tific management stands. UNITS, METHODS, AND DEVICES OF MEASUREMENT UNDER SCIEN- TIFIC MANAGEMENT^ In any paper covering a sut)ject of such scope as this, one can hope to do little more than out- line the subject, but even for such an outline it is necessary to show at the outset the scheme of division, recognition, and interrelation of the functions of scientific management. This can be done best by showing graphically two plans of management. The first of these (see Fig. 2) represents what is variously known as military or traditional management. Here each man is responsible to one man only above him, and is in charge of all those below him. Thus it is the custom for any man to come in con- tact with one man above him only, the line of au- thority being single and direct. Traditional management has been used for centuries in mili- tary organisations, and has also been used many 1 Reprinted from The Journal of Political Economy, Vol. XXI. 21 22 APPLIED MOTION STUDY times in religious organisations and political or- ganisations. The division is by men, by grades of men, rather than by functions. Because the division is by men, it is almost im- possible to measure and standardise the duties of the positions. Any attempt at such measurement and standardisation makes clear the fact that the requirements of every position, v?ith the excep- tion of the most subordinate, demand men of a higher grade of development than the pay in- volved would justify. Moreover, as the supposed requirements of the positions are the result of guess or tradition rather than of measurement, successful standardisation would be not only im- practicable, but impossible. Fig. 3 represents the lines of authority in func- tional or scientific management. Here the divi- sion is by functions, the first functional divi- sion being the separation of the planning from the performing. Graphically, this separation is represented by the horizontal line. All func- tions above this line are of the planning, all func- tions below this line are of the performing. Note the functions shown on this chart, namely, four functions in the planning and four functions in Fio. 2 Diagram Illustrating tlie routes of authority under tradi- tional type of management. Fig. 3 Diagram illustrating tlie principle of functional or sd- entiflc management 9 666c;) 66 6 66 <;> iii 11 I I I . \ TS\ / ' » \ / /"^ fCANG BOSS) j fe?,!."?;!! (f REPAIR \\ BOSS )) /INSPECTOR V tElOIlt / I VfWC ^.A O' OO/LiTT / flMDIVlDUAL^ UORKMAN 1 Fig. 3 UNITS, METHODS AND DEVICES 23 the performing. Note also their relation to each other, and to the individual worker. This chart shows one such worker represented by the lowest circle. There should be no objection to repre- senting each individual worker by such a circle, but the relation of each such worker to those over him is the same. Hence, the lowest circle is typi- cal. It will be noted that the worker receives orders directly from eight different foremen. One might suggest, on observing this, that it has often been said that no man can serve two masters. This holds good to-day, even in scientific management. But under scientific management the worker does not " serve eight masters " nor eight functional foremen, but, on the other hand, he receives help from eight different foremen or teachers. In this way, his case is not very different from that of the student who receives instruction from eight dif- ferent professors, in eight different studies. The four functions in the planning department are represented by (2) route man and order-of- work man; (3) instruction cards; (4) time and cost; (5) disciplinarian. While we speak of each function as being represented by one per- 24 APPLIED MOTION STUDY son, as a matter of fact each function may in- clude any number of individuals, according to the kind of work, and the number necessary to per- form that function as to eliminate all possible waste. Each one of these four men of the four functions in the planning department is supreme in his respective function. All deal directly with the worker, and all deal directly with the four functional foremen who are in the performing de- partment. Of the performing department we have four functions represented by (7) gang boss; (8) speed boss; (9) repair boss; (10) inspector. These functions, like those of the planning de- partment, are represented by as many men as the nature and amount of work justifies. All such representatives deal, as the chart indicates, di- rectly both with all individuals in the planning department, and with each individual worker. The fact that all divisions represented by this chart are made on the basis of the nature of the work that is to be done, makes possible units for measuring and standardising the duties of the man or men who hold the positions. The deter- mining, grouping, and assigning of these duties is UNITS. METHODS AND DEVICES £5 done by measurement ; hence the resultant stand- ardisation is successful. A statement of the du- ties of each function will make clear the amount of standardisation that is possible. Route Man. — The duty of the route man (function No. 2) is to determine and plan in ad- vance the path of each piece of material, worked and unworked, as it passes through the shop or as it is handled by each and every member of the or- ganisation who has anything to do with it. He is to decide the three dimensions of the path, and the route that the material is to pass through, whether it is to go to the stores or into temporary storage stations, or directly through the shop as fast as the operations connected with it wUl per- mit. His function is not simply to look after the details of the moving; he must also determine the "when" and in many cases the "who" as well as the " where." Broadly, he determines the entire transportation career of the material. For example, in building operations, he would deter- mine where the car was to be placed to be un- loaded, where the material was to be unloaded, when it was to be moved into the building, and exactly what path it should follow across the 26 APPLIED MOTION STUDY floor, up elevators and to its final resting-place, and who should perform each operation. Often the route man is able to simplify greatly the path of the materials, especially on large or- ders, by a rearrangement or routing of the ma- chinery. We have had one case in our experi- ence where it was cheaper, in a woodworking shop, to have the machinery placed on heavy pieces not attached to the floor, each machine op- erated by an individual motor, and to move the machinery, in order to accommodate the pecu- liarities of sequence of events of each particular order, when the order was large enough to war- rant moving the machinery. The route man's duties, also, oftentimes involve determining a new path, ordering that machinery not used be re- moved, so that he can route his material by a more economical method. After he has deter- mined the exact path by which the material shall be routed, he embodies his conclusions into pro- cess charts, route charts, and route sheets ; these illustrate his orders graphically and chronologi- cally and are worked out in detail by the in- struction card department. Instruction Cards. — It must not be supposed UNITS, METHOD'S AND DEVICES 27 that the instruction-card function consists merely of the work of writing out the instruction cards. This is the name of the function in general, and it may be performed by several men in different lines and of varying capacity in the instruction- card function ; that is to say, the department or function may be divided into measurable units or subfunctions. It is the duty of the instruction- card function to work out in detail and to devise and construct an instruction card describing the method of least waste for each element of the route sheets which are made from the route charts. The instruction-card department fur- nishes in the greatest possible detail such direc- tions as will show two different classes of men their duties, namely: (a) the worker, who must know how to perform the particular work shown on the instruction card; and (&) the functional foremen in the performing department, who must know exactly what they are to see that the worker does perform, and exactly what they are to teach the worker in order that he may so perform his work as to conform to the instruction card. Time and Cost. — After the worker has per- formed his work, a return of the time that it took 28 APPLIED MOTION STUDY him to do his work, together with its cost, goes to the time and cost clerk (function No. 4) who calculates the pay-roll, including the bonuses, and the costs of each piece or subdivision of the work. Disciplinarian. — The disciplinarian is the man who handles all matters in the entire organisa- tion pertaining to discipline. He must be a broad-gauge man, who is able to keep peace in the organisation, to anticipate disagreements and misunderstandings and prevent them when pos- sible, and to arbitrate or judge fairly such dis- agreements as do take place. The functions in the performing department are now to be»considered. Gang Boss. — Function No. 7 is that of the teacher, still called " gang boss," as it was from that function that his work evolved. There may be many gang bosses in the performing depart- ment; in fact there are frequently five or more gang bosses of a single trade, with an over-gang boss in charge. Altogether there may be in this function gang bosses of twenty or thirty differ- ent trades, in fact of as many trades as are at work ; or, possibly one gang boss might look after two or more trades. The gang boss under scien- UNITS, METHODS AND DEVICES 29 tific management is not the " strong arm " type of man represented by the mate of the vessel of former days, who boasted that he could thrash any man in the entire crew, and often did so for no other reason than to prove his words. In- stead he is a man who knows of the measuring methods of motion-study and time-study, and who can teach the worker the methods shown on the instruction card. In order to get his best work, and to enlist his zeal, it is usually necessary to pay him a bonus measured by the bonus paid each and every man under him who in turn earns his bonus ; and a double bonus if every man in his gang earns the bonus. For example suppose the gang boss received |3.00 per day, and had twenty men working under him, he would be paid, say, in round numbers, 10 cents apiece for each man under him who received his bonus; and, if all twenty men received their bonus, he would receive a double bonus of 20 cents apiece for the entire gang. It can readily be seen that such a plan of man- agement as this will bring out co-operation as would no other plan ; and it should be stated here emphatically that there is nothing that can per- 30 APPLIED MOTION STUDY manently bring about results from scientific man- agement, and the economies that it is possible to effect by it, unless the organisation is supported by the hearty co-operation of the men. Without this there is no scientific management. Moreover, since the conditions which bring about the co-operation are measured and stand- ardised, the result is stable. Co-operation with- out standardisation is a most unstable thing, likely to disappear at any moment with a change of the indiyiduals supposed to co-operate. Speed Boss. — Regardless of the popular im- pression as to his duties, the speed boss (func- tion No. 8) does not speed up the men. In fact, he has very little to do with speeding men. His duty is to see that the machinery moves at the ex- act speed called for on the individual instruction card. It is obvious that there is some one speed that is more desirable than any other speed ; for example, the speed of a buzz planer or a circular saw. is very dangerous when it is too slow, while on the other hand, the speed of a fly-wheel of an engine is very dangerous when it is too fast. What is most desirable and safe is the speed that the instruction card man attempts to set on the UNITS, METHODS AND DEVICES SI instruction card, and it is the duty of the speed boss to see that the machinery runs at all times at exactly the prescribed speeds. He not only shows the worker how he can make his machine run at the speed called for, but, if there is a question as to its being possible to run at this speed, he must be prepared to teach the worker by doing the work himself, or provide a man who can comply with the requirements of the instruction card. Repair Boss. — Function No. 9 is that of the re- pair boss. His duties consist principally in see- ing that all machines are kept clean and in proper condition, and in carrying out repairs and over-haulings, such as are called for on instruc- tion cards and iu standing orders that are given to him at regular, predetermined intervals. In this way breakdowns are so far as possible avoided. The repair boss, however, must be a re- sourceful man, prepared, in case of emergency to jump in and repair any such breakdowns as may occur, even in the absence of precise direc- tions or of instruction-card specifications. Inspector. — Function No. ICTis that of the in- spector. His duties are decidedly different from those of the inspector under the old type of man- 32 APPLIED MOTION STUDY agement. For example, his inspection must re- sult in prevention of error; in constructive crit- icism, not destructive criticism. His decisions are predetermined by measurable limits of error furnished both him and the workman by the in- struction-card department. Many times, under traditional management, the inspector comes around after the work is done, condemns it, and walks away, leaving it to others to see that the work is replaced to his sat- isfaction. Under scientific management the in- spector is required to stand near the worker when he is handling a new piece of work for the first time, in order to see that the worker thoroughly understands his work as it progresses. Thus the first unit of the material is less likely to be spoiled. If the worker has a lot of, say, fifty pieces, the inspector inspects not only the first piece most carefully, to make sure that the worker knows exactly what he is to do, how he is to do it, and the quality and the prescribed toler- ances of drawing and instruction card but also the surrounding conditions, equipment, and tools that the important features of maintenance of standards and standard conditions are enforced. UNITS, METHODS AND DEVICES 83 The Workman. — ^As for the individual worker, it will be seen that he does not receive merely an instruction card, telling him by units what he is to do, how he is to do it, how fast he is expected to do it, the prescribed quality of the work which must be done, and how much pay over and above his usual day's wages he will surely get if he does all that is called for on his instruction card. He receives also personal teaching. The gang boss acts as his teacher constantly ; the speed boss he can call on at all times to assist him with the speeds; the repair boss co-operates with him to see that his machine is constantly kept in such re- pair that he can earn his bonus, and the inspector will also teach him at any time, and show him wherein he is making a deviation from the quality called for. Moreover, the functional foremen in the planning department are ready, at call, to ex- plain their instructions. Thus he has every help that is possible, to enable him to earn the excep- tionally high wages that are offered by this form of management. He is assured of the "square deal " from the foremen who are over him, and in case others whose work affects his are deviat- ing from their measurable schedules, pro- 34 APPLIED MOTION STUDY grammes, or conduct, he always has the same op- portunity to appeal to the disciplinarian, that a foreman would have in case the worker was not doing his work as well as he could do it, or was not trying to co-operate with the other workers. Having described briefly some of the many di- visions and interrelations of the functions of scientific management and their foundation upon measurement, we are now ready to concentrate upon one, to show by a typical case how division of elements down to fundamental units may result in (a) determined units; (&) measured units; (c) devices of measurement. Let us take for a typical example two subfunctions of the instruc- tion-card function, namely, motion-study and time-study, and carry them to micromotion-study. Motion-study is a subfunction of function No. 3 of the planning department. Just as scientific management is divided into functions, so each function is divided into subfunctions, the basis of division being the same, i.e., duties, not men (see Fig. 3). Motion-study is related to all subfunc- tions of the instruction-card function, but is most closely related to time-study and to the deter- mining of methods of least waste. It is related UNITS, METHODS AND DEVICES 35 to time-study in that it determines what path a motion is to follow, while time-study determines how swiftly the path is to be traversed and the amount of rest required to overcome resulting fatigue. The two measure work and determine the best method by which the work can be done. Motion-study, time-study, micromotion-study, fatigue-study, and cost-study are important meas- ures of scientific management, by which the effi- ciency of each function and subfunction is deter- mined, tested, and checked. The unit to be chosen for intensive study is determined by the amount of time and money that it is possible to save by the investigation. This unit is deter- mined by the following method. The work se- lected is divided into natural subdivisions or cycles of performance. Each cycle is then sub- jected to motion study, to determine the best method to use in performing the work. This method is divided into the smallest practicable units. These units are timed. The timed units are then again subjected to motion study, for more intensive study of method. Subdivided mo- tions result. These are again timed, and so the process proceeds until the further possible saving S6 APPLIED MOTION STUDY will no longer warrant further study, or the avail- able appropriation of time or money is exhausted. The most efficient motions, as determined by the tests of motion-study and time-study are then syn- thesised into a method of least waste. This outline of the steps in taking motion-study and time study is necessarily incomplete, lack- ing, as it does, discussion of the selection of the observer, the observed worker, and many other elements of scientific management. As for the particular device by which the meas- urements are made, the choice depends mainly on the equipment available. Standards have been improved even by merely timing the work by counting, where no timing devices were at hand. Excellent work had been done with stop watches. But we advocate the use of micromotion-study in all work demanding precision. Micromotion- study consists of recording the speed simultan- eously with a two or three dimensional path of motions by the aid of cinematograph pictures of a worker at work and a specially designed clock that shows divisions of time so minute as to indi- cate a different time of day in each picture in the cinematograph film. Through micromotion-study MICROMOTION MBASUBEMBNTS OF TYPISTS Fig. 4 Reaction test of Miss Anna Gold, who afterward became National Amateur Champion Typist by winning the contest at Chicago, 1916. Fig. 5 Miss Hortense StoUnitz, — who afterward became Inter- national Amateur Champion, equalling the professional rec- ord of 137 words per minute net, and exceeding all previous records with 147 words per minute gross, — changing paper In the machine. Fig. 6 Miss StoUnitz' finger motions while writing at her fastest speed. These pictures were taken at the rate of 115 ex- posures per second, and can be studied with special appar- atus as continuous motions at the rate of eight per second. Fig. 4 Fig. 5 Fig. 6 UNITS, METffODS AND DEVICES 37 not only is the measurement more accurate than it could possibly be through any other method, but also the records are so complete, permanent, and accessible that they may be studied at any time and place by any one. The advantages of this in standardising work, and most especially in teaching workers, are obvious. The result of measurement, as outlined above, is standards synthesised from measured ultimate units of the workers' manual motions, Morris Llewellyn Cooke, Director of the Phila- delphia Department of Public Works, in Bulletin 5 of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advance- ment of Teaching, created for the word " stand- ard " a definition which is itself " standard " in the scientific management sense. He said : A standard under modem scientific management is simply a carefully thought-out method of performijig a function, or carefully drawn specifications covering an implement or some article of stores or of product. The idea of perfection is not involved in standardisation. The standard method of doing anything is simply the best method that caii be devised at the time the standard is dravm. - Standard specifications for materials simply cover all the points of possible variation which it is pos- sible to cover at the time the specifications are drawn. 38 APPLIED MOTION STUDY Improvements in standards are wanted and adopted whenever and wherever they are found. There is abso- lutely nothing in standardisation to preclude innovation. But to protect standards from changes which are not in the direction of improvement, certain safeguards are erected. These safeguards protect standards from change for the sake of change. All that is demanded imder modern scientific management is that a proposed change in a standard must be scrutinised as carefully as the standard was scrutinised prior to its adoption, and further that this work be done by experts as com- petent to do it as were those who originally framed the standard. Standards adopted and protected in this way produce the best that is known at any one time. Stand- ardisation practised in this way is a constant invitation to experimentation and improvement. II This experimentation and improvement are done by time and motion study before the stand- ards are made. Thus the resulting standard is in so far perfected that only the invention of a new device will make a change in the standard neces- sary. The fact that such devices are often the re- sult of the motion study also assists in making the standards that are incorporated from the completed study more permanent. As was well shown by Mr. John G. Aldrich, in a paper read before the American Society of UNITS, METHODS AND DEVICES 39 Mechanical Engineers, in December, 1912, the waste motions eliminated by such measured standardising can scarcely be overestimated. This has been demonstrated in many lines of ac- tivity. The standard toolroom, the standard as- sembly packet and bench for assembling, the standard desk in the planning department — these are but illustrations of the application of this principle. And it is not necessary that the illustrations be drawn from the field of shopwork. It has been applied to many of the outdoor trades. We are now co-operating with famous surgeons in the study of the elementary motions used in surgery, and we are investigating the muscular activity that underlies the " singing tone " of the skilled musician, to mention two recent invasions of the fields of science and art. There will be those who will say that no such theory, methods, or devices can ever supplant the need and usefulness of the first-class mechanic or the genius in the trades, arts, and professions. With this we humbly agree. But even two gen- iuses in the same work may differ greatly in their methods as a whole ; and isolating and examining 40 APPLIED MOTION STUDY the ultimate units of their work may show that motions made by one of the geniuses may he found absent, and unnecessary, in the work of the other. A synthesis of the best of the units of methods of each would present a method better than any ar- rived at by the spontaneity of any one genius, no matter how great. Surely the presentation of the best method, however discovered, must be of the greatest yalue to all below the grade of best. Meantime, all workers are sharing in the sav- ings made possible by the elimination of waste. They are being trained in habits of least waste- ful motions, and are becoming more efficient both in their working and in their non-working hours. They learn to " think in elementary motions," and to submit their activities in all lines to the tests of motion and time study. The great need now is for more efficient co-op- eration, that work done by one investigator may not be needlessly repeated by another. Through such co-operation only can come the savings that will allow of refinements of the units, methods, and devices of measurement, and that will result in progress that is definite, constant, and lasting. MOTION STUDY AS AN INDUSTEIAL OPPORTUNITY 1 There is no waste of any kind in the world that equals the waste from needless, ill-directed, and ineffective motions, and their resulting unneces- sary fatigue. Because this is true, there is no in- dustrial opportunity that offers a richer return than the elimination of needless motions, and the transformation of ill-directed and ineffective mo- tions into efficient activity. This country has been so rich in human and material resources, that it is only recently that the importance of waste elimination has come to be realised. The material element received the first consideration, and in the comparatively few years during which the subject has received at- tention, an enormous amount has been done to conserve natural resources, to economise in the use of materials, and to utilise the by-products of industrial processes. The human element is now receiving long-de- layed attention. Vocational training, vocational 1 Reprinted from " The Annals " of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 41 42 APPLIED MOTION STUDY guidance, better placement, and better working conditions have become subjects for serious con- sideration in all parts of this country and of the world. Savings in human energy are result- ing from these investigations, but the greatest saving in time, in money, and in energy will re- sult when the motions of every individual, no matter what his work may be, have been studied and standardised. Such studies have already been made in many trades, and have resulted in actual savings that prove that the results of the practice confirm the theory. In laying brick, the motions used in lay- ing a single brick were reduced from eighteen to five, — with an increase in output of from one hundred and twenty brick an hour to three hun- dred and fifty an hour and with a reduction in the resulting fatigue. In folding cotton cloth, twenty to thirty motions were reduced to ten or twelve, with the result that instead of one hun- dred and fifty dozen pieces of cloth, four hundred dozen were folded, with no added fatigue. The motions of a girl putting paper on boxes of shoe polish were studied. Her methods were changed only slightly, and where she had been doing AS AN INDUSTRIAL OPPORTUNITY 43 twenty-four boxes in forty seconds, she did twenty-four in twenty seconds, with less effort. Similar studies hare cut down the motions not only of men and women in other trades but also of surgeons, of nurses, of office workers ; in fact, of workers in every type of work studied. Motion study consists of dividing work into the most fundamental elements possible; studying these elements separately and in relation to one another ; and from these studied elements, when | timed, building methods of least waste. To cite a specific example : The assembly of a machine is the piece of work under considera- tion. The existing method of assembling the ma- chine is recorded in the minutest detail. Each element of the assembly is then tested, — the method used in handling the element being com- pared with other possible methods. In this way, the most efficient elements of an assembly are de- termined ; and these elements are combined into a method of assembly that, because it is the result of actual measurement, is worthy to become a standard. Such an assembly is that of the braider, manufactured by the New England Butt Company. As a result of motion studies made 44. APPLIED MOTION STUDY upon this, where eighteen braiders had been as- sembled by one man in a day, it now becomes pos- sible to assemble sixty-six braiders per man per day, with no increase in fatigue. The accurate measurement involved in getting results like this includes three elements. We must determine, first, the units to be measured; second, the methods to be used; and, third, the devices to be used. The unit of measurement must be one that of itself will reduce cost, and should be as small as the time and money that can be devoted to the investigation warrants. The smaller the unit, the more intensive the study required. The methods and devices to be used are also determined largely by the question of cost. Nat- urally, those methods and devices are preferable which provide least possibility of errors of ob- servation. Such errors have been classified as of two kinds: First, errors due to instruments; and, second, errors due to the personal bias of the observer. The newer methods of making motion studies and time studies by the use of the micro- motion method and the chronocyclegraph method exclude such errors. Fortunately, through an Fig. 7 Automatic Micromotion Study witli vertical penetrating screen in tlie plane of the motions. Fig. 8 Multiple use of film reducing cost of time and motion study while retaining accuracy and permanence of the de- tailed record. Fk. 9 Autoteletime study for recording motions at a great dis- tance and the position of the finger of the michronometer less than thirty feet away. Fig. 7 Fig. 8 Fig. 9 AS AN INDUSTRIAL OPPORTUNITY 46 improvement and cheapening of the devices, it is now possible to make accurate records of mo- tions, even when no great outlay for the study can be afforded. The micro-motion method of making motion studies consists of recording motions by means of a motion picture camera, a clock that will record different times of day in each picture of a mo- tion picture film, a cross-sectioned background, and other devices for assisting in measuring the relative efficiency and wastefulness of motions. Suppose the process of assembly before cited is being micro-motion studied : The assembler is placed before the cross-sectioned background ; the micro-motion clock is placed where it will record in the picture, yet not disturb the worker; near it is another clock which serves as a check on the accuracy of the special clock. The assembler, who has been rated a skilled worker under the old method, naturally does the best work possi- ble, since a permanent record is being made of his performance. The observer operates the mo- tion picture camera, which, however, allows him freedom to observe the assembly process continu- ally, and to note possibilities for improvement. 46 APPLIED MOTION STUDY From the data on the film and the observations of the observer, can. be formulated an improved method. The standard method is seldom derived from the work of one observed worker only. It has been noted that the ideal method seldom lies in the consecutive acts of any one individual; therefore, many workers are observed before the final standard is deduced. These micro-motion records give all the data required except the continuous path of a cycle of motions. This lack is supplied by the chronocy- clegraph method. The chronocyclegraph method of making motion study consists of fastening tiny electric-light bulbs to the fingers of the operator, or to any part of the operator or of the material whose motion path it is desired to study. If it is merely the orbit of the motion that is to be observed, a photograph is made of the moving part to which the light is attached, during the time that this part is performing the operation. If the direction, relative time, and relative speed are to be noted, the path of light, through con- trolled interruption of the circuit, is made to consist of dots or dashes, or a combination of the two, with single pointed ends, — the point show- AS AN INDUSTRIAL OPPORTUNITY 47 ing the direction. Through the micro-motion studies and the chronocyclegraph studies, then, the expert formulates the standard method. It is important to note the changes which the instal- lation of a standard method implies. This method consists of improved motions, and im- plies, first, changes in surroundings, equipment, and tools; and, second, changes in the type of worker assigned to do the work. During the motion study of the assembly, it was found that more efSicient motions could be made if the machine assembled was placed on a special table, which could be turned on its side and transformed into a lower table, after the base group of the machine had been assembled. It was also found that speed was gained and fatigue eliminated, when the parts of the machine were arranged in an obvious sequence on a vertical packet.^ These devices were immediately sup- plied at little cost and with great result in sav- ing. Through these devices, and the other changes made by motion study, it became possible to accomplish nearly three and one-half times I For description of the original motion study packet see " Bricklaying System," Ctiap. VIII. 48 APPLIED MOTION STUDY as much assembly as had previously been done. Such changes are typical, and it is typical that the inventions result from the motion study. As for the type of individual suited to the work, — the simplification of the process and the reduc- tion of the motions to habits often make it possi- ble to utilise workers with less initiative and skill, assigning the more skilled workers to a higher type of work. In the case cited of the as- sembly, the original assemblers were retained and enabled to do much more work with less fatigue. It has also been possible to train inexperienced men to assemble in much less time and with less effort than was formerly the case. The result of the introduction of motion stand- ards is an increase in output and wages, and an accompanying decrease in cost and fatigue. The decreased cost and the increased wages both de- pend, of course, on the increased output. The output is increased, because the motions used to make any one unit of the output are less in num- ber and more efficient in results. The average cost of output increase is sufficient not only to provide for the higher wages necessary to induce the workers to do the work in the manner pre- AS AN INDUSTRIAL OPPORTUNITY 49 scribed, and to enjoy doing it, but, also, to allow of at least enough profit to the management to cover the cost of the investigations that resulted in the standard. The quality of the output is maintained through a new type of inspection, which con- siders not only the output itself, but the ele- ments, — material and human, — which result in that output. Nothing is a higher guarantee of quality than insistence on a standard method. Along with the laboratory investigations from which motion study standards are derived, goes a general campaign to arouse every individual in the organisation to think in terms of elements of motions. Such simple office equipment as pen- cil holders are motion studied, and every member of the organisation is encouraged to observe and record his own motions in performing the most elementary of operations. Motion study may be carried on with no devices, and every one is ex- pected to know how to make at least the preliminary investigations. In this way, the spirit of motion economy grows throughout the entire plant, with a consequent elimination of waste motions and a growing interest in 50 APPLIED MOTION STUDY the more scientific methods of motion study. What, now, are the results of this motion study upon the individual men doing the work, upon the factory group, upon the industrial world, and upon society at large? The men themselves be- come more efficient. They become specialists, — skilled workers. They learn the motion-study method of attack, and are thus more fit to under- take any type of work. They learn to think in elementary motions, and to eliminate waste in every activity of their lives. The increased output of each individual worker does not result in the employment of less men in the plant. The transference of skill that main- tenance of standards implies, means that many teachers are needed. These come, naturally, from the ranks of the skilled workers. The plan- ning that is necessary is also usually done by workers promoted to the planning department. At present, at least, the demand for men trained under motion study is far larger than the supply ; it will be for years to come, — certainly until the increased output results in the increased demand which is its inevitable consequence. The industrial situation is bettered through the AS AN INDUSTRIAL OPPORTUNITY 51 general spread of the ideas of waste elimination, and through the practical application of its prin- ciples in whatever relations those trained under it may enter. How far this influence upon the in- dustries will extend will depend entirely upon the amount of work done by individuals, and upon their co-operation. At present, many individuals are engaged in, or are at least interested in, mo- tion study and waste elimination. But there is not the proper degree of co-operation. Such co- operation can only come as motion study becomes a matter of interest to society at large. The whole social group is already being affected by the results of motion study. One typical result is the gradual filling in of the gap between the school and the plant. An intensive study of mo- tions is proving that there are far greater like-; nesses in trades, and even professions, on the mechanical side, than we have ever believed possi- ble. The demand of the industrial world will be more and more for young workers trained to be finger-wise, with a knowledge of the funda- mentals of motion economy, and with an under- standing of the relationship between efficient mo- tions and success in the industries. 52 APPLIED MOTION STUDY The industrial world is becoming more and more definite in its requirements for industrial training. This is making it possible for all types of schools to give their pupils a training which enables them to fit into working conditions with- out the customary, preliminary jolt, and months and years of adjustment. The training required is so general, yet so definite, that it may well prove an important part of the training of every young man or woman, whether or not he goes ulti- mately into the industries. This training is being given not only in the technical schools and in the trade schools but also to some extent, at least, in the ordinary public schools. It consists of making every pupil, to as great an extent as possible, "finger-wise"; that is, of training his muscles so that they respond easily and quickly to demands for skilled work. With this training goes an appreciation of the importance of such "finger training," and of its relation to motion economy. The pupils are also given an appreci- ation of the problems of industry, and of the relation of these problems to social development, An effect of motion study in the industries upon society is its infiuence toward spreading the be- AS AN INDUSTRIAL OPPORTUNITY 53 lief that real efficiency considers and conserves the human element ; ^ that it makes fatigue study imperative ; and that its fundamental idea is con- servation, not exploitation. The great need to-day, as in all fields where progress is to be made, is education. The com- munity as a whole must be educated as to the importance of motion study, and as to the possi- bility of every man and woman making such mo- tion study to some extent for himself. The tech- nical press and the press generally are doing much to spread these ideas. Much is also being done by the colleges that are studying and teach- ing the subject. Such wide-spread education is absolutely necessary before we can hope for the reclassification and standardisation of the exist- ing trades, which is a necessary future step. The trades must be reclassified, according to the amount of skill involved in the motions used; and must then be standardised in order that the necessary training for entering them and suc- ceeding in them can be given. As an example of reclassifying a trade, we would recommend, for example, for brick work, five classes : 1 See " Fatigue Study," p. 10, Sturgls & Walton, New York. 54 APPLIED MOTION STUDY Class A. — Ornamental and exterior face brick and moulded terra cotta. Class B. — Interior face tiers that do not show at completion, where strong, plumb, and straight work only is needed. Class C. — Filling tiers where strength only is needed. Class D. — Putting fountain trowels and brick packs on the wall near the place, and in the man- ner where the other three classes can reach them with greatest economy of motion. Class E. — Pack loaders, brick cullers, and stage builders. The pay of the A and B classes should be con- siderably higher than is customary for bricklay- ers. The pay of the 0, D, and E classes should be lower than is customary for bricklayers, but much higher than the pay of labourers. This classification will raise the pay of all five classes higher than they could ever obtain in the classes that they would ordinarily work in under the present system, yet the resulting cost of the la- bour on brickwork would be much less, and each class would be raised in its standing and edu- cated for better work and higher wages. AS AN INDUSTRIAL OPPORTUNITY 55 In the case of brickwork this new classification is a crying necessity, as the cost of brickwork must be reduced to a poiht where it can compete with concrete. Improvements in making, meth- ods of mixing, transporting, and densifying con- crete in the metal moulds of to-day have put the entire brickwork proposition where it can be used for looks only, because for strength, impervious- ness, quickness of construction, lack of union labour troubles, and low cost, brickwork can- not compete with concrete under present condi- tions. , Having subclassified the trades, the second step is to standardise them. And both classification and standardisation de- mand motion study. The other great need, besides education, is, then, a national bureau of standards, where work done in motion study can be collected, classified, and put into such form that it will be available to every one. There is an enormous waste, at present, from repeating investigations along the same lines of work. There is not only the waste from the actual repetition involved, but also the fact that the time utilised in doing work already 56 APPLIED MOTION STUDY. done could, instead, be devoted to original work, that is sadly needed. It is the work of the United States Government to establish such a Bureau of Standardisation of Mechanical Trades. The standards there de- rived and collected would be public property, and original investigators could invent from these standards upwards. Most important of all, per- haps, these standards would furnish the ideal means for teaching or transferring skill to the young workers who desire to enter a trade. The reclassification of the trades and the Bureau of Standardisation are, then, the two great needs for motion study development. But these will come only when the individuals inter- ested apply motion study to their own work, and show willingness to co-operate with others. - The industrial opportunity afforded by motion study is not, then, some great future opportunity of which we dream, or some remote and inaccessi- ble opportunity for which we must collectively strive. It is an opportunity ready, here and now, to be grasped by each one of us individually, — and it is the greatest industrial opportunity that this century affords. MOTION STUDY AND TIME STUDY IN- STEUMENTS OF PEECISION ^ The greatest waste in the world comes from needless, ill-directed, and ineffective motions. These motions are unnecessary and preventable. Their existence in the past was excusable, be- cause there was no knowledge of how to dispense with them. That excuse no longer obtains. The methods and devices of waste elimination are known and are being constantly used. But the knowledge of how to make these great world- wide economies is being disseminated at an as- tonishingly slow pace. This paper is for the purpose of disseminating such knowledge, particularly as to the devices that are used for making the measurements that enable us to eliminate waste. In the science of management, as in all other sciences, progress that is to be definite and last- ing depends upon the accuracy of the measure- 1 Presented at the International Engineering Congress. 57 58 APPLIED MOTION STUDY ments that are made. There are three elements to every measurement : 1. The unit measured. 2. The method of measurement. 3. The device by which the measurement is made. It is here our aim to show the development of the devices of measurement, that is, of instru- ments of precision that apply to one branch of the new type of management, namely, to motion study and its related time study. The fundamental idea of the new type of man- agement that has been variously called " Scien- tific Management," or " Measured Functional Management," is that it is based upon the results of accurate measurement. This fundamental idea has been derived as follows: Each opera- tion to be studied is analysed into the most ele- mentary units possible. These units are ac- curately measured, and, as the results of the measurement, the efficient units only are com- bined into a new method of performing the work that is worthy to become a standard. Dr. Taylor, the great pioneer in time study, and his co-worker, Mr. S. E. Thompson, have MOTION STUDY AND TIME STUDY 59 clearly defined their conception of time study as " the process of analysing an operation into its elementary operations, and observing the time re- quired to perform them." Time study has to do, then, fundamentally, with the measurement of units of time. Now motion study has to do with the selection, invention, and substitution of the motions and their variables that are to be measured. Both accurate time study and motion study require in- struments of precision that will record mechan- ically, vsdth the least possible interference from the human element, in permanent torm, exactly what motions and results occur. For permanent use the records must be so definite, distinct, and simple that they may be easily and immediately used, and lose none of their value or helpfulness when old, forgotten, or not personally expe- rienced by their user. There have undoubtedly been some vague mo- tion studies and guess-work times studies made as far back as historical records are available, par- ticularly in the arts of warfare. The importance of rhythm, for example, which is one of the fun- damentals in motion study, was recognised in the 60 APPLIED MOTION STUDY Assyrian and Babylonian pictorial records which perpetuate the methods of their best managers, as examination of photographs of such records in our possession will plainly show. Babbage, Coulomb, Adam Smith, — all recognised the im- portance of the time element in industrial opera- tions, for the purpose of obtaining methods of greatest output, but not methods of least waste. It was not, however, until Dr. Taylor suggested timing the work periods separately from the rest periods that the managers tried to find accurate time-measuring devices. It is not always recognised that some prelim- inary motion study and time study can be done without the aid of any accurate devices. It is even less often recognised that such work, when most successful, is usually done by one thor- oughly conversant with, and skilled in, the use of the most accurate devices. In other words, it is usually advisable in studying an operation to make all possible improvements in the motions used and to comply broadly with the laws of mo- tion study before recording the operation, except for the preliminary record that serves to show the state of the art from which the investigation MOTION STUDY AND TIME STUDY 61 started. However, in order to make a great and lasting success of this work, one must have studied motions and measured them until his eye can follow paths of motions and judge lengths of motions, and his timing sense, aided by silent rhythmic counting, can estimate times of motion with surprising accuracy. Sight, hearing, touch, and kinesthetic sensations must all be keenly de- veloped. With this training and equipment, a motion- and time-study expert can obtain prelim- inary results without devices, that, to the un- trained or the uninformed, seem little short of astounding. When the operation has received its preliminary revision and is ready for the accu- rate measurements that lead to actual standard- isation and the teaching that follows, devices of precise measurement become imperative for meth- ods of least waste that wUl stand the test of time. Early workers in time study made use of such well-known devices as the clock, the watch, the stop-watch, and various types of stop-watches at- tached to a specially constructed board or imita- tion book. Through the use of these it became possible to record short intervals of time, subject, of course, always to the personal error. The ob- 62 APPLIED MOTION STUDY jection to the use of these methods and devices is their variation from accuracy, due to the human element. This is especially true of the use of the /stop-watch, where the reaction time of the ob- server is an element constantly affecting the ac- curacy of the records. But the greatest loss and defect of personally observed and recorded times is that they do not show the attending conditions of the varying surroundings, equipment and tools that cause the differences in the time records, and give no clue to causes of shortest or quickest times. As for motion study, Marey, with no thought of motion study in our present use of the term in his mind, developed, as one line of his multi- tudinous activities, a method of recording paths of motions, but never succeeded in his effort to record direction of motions photographically. Being unable to find any devices anywhere such as the work of our motion study required, the problem that presented itself, then, to us who needed and desired instruments of precision, ap- plicable to our motion study and to our time study, was to invent, design and construct devices that would overcame lacks in the early and ex- MOTION STUDY AND TIME STUDY 63 isting methods. It was necessary to dispense with the human element and its attending errors and limitations. We needed devices to record the direction as well as the path or orbits of mo- tions, and to reduce the cost of obtaining all time study and motion study data. These were needed not only from the scientific standpoint, but also from the standpoint of obtaining full co- operation of the mechanics and other workers. Many of these had, as a class, become suspicious of time study taken secretly by those who, they thought, did not know enough about the practical features of the trade to take the time study prop- erly, and could not prove that the times were right after putting them on paper. Here was ab- solute pioneer work to be done in inventing devices that would record times, paths, and direc- tions of motions simultaneously. With the older time study devices there was no way of recording accurately either the unit timed or the controll- ing surrounding conditions. The " elementary units " were groups of motions. They were ele- mentary only with relation to the stop-watch, with which it is impossible to record accurately the time of an element of a motion, since it takes 64 APPLIED MOTION STUDY two decisions and two motions to press the stop- watch. These " groups of motions " were some- times described at greater or less length, the ac- curacy of the description depending upon the power of observation of the recorder and the de- tail with which the time at his disposal, his will- ingness and his ability to observe, permitted him to set down his observations. Through our earliest work in making progress records we recognised the necessity of recording time and conditions accurately and simultan- eously, the records being made by dated photo- graphs. This method was particularly applic- able in construction work,^ where progress pic- tures taken at frequent intervals present accu- rate records of the surroundings, equipment and tools that affect records of output of various stages of development. In making more intensive studies of certain trades, such as shovelling, concrete work, and bricklaying, we found it advantageous to photo- graph the various positions in which the hands, arms, feet, and other parts of the body involved 1 See " Concrete System," Engineering News Publlslilng Co., New York. MOTION STUDY AND TIME STUDY 65 in the operations were placed, and to record the time taken in moving from one position to an- other by one method, as related to the time taken in moving from the same first to the same second I)osition by another method.^ Onr intensive study of bricklaying, which grew out of an ap- preciation of the unique history, present practice and doubtful future of this trade, led us to a more intensive study of the problems of motion and time study in general.* Bricklaying will al- ways be the most interesting of all examples to us, for one reason, among others, that it was the first trade to use the principle of duplicate, inter- changeable parts system of construction ; had had six thousand known years of practice in all coun- tries; and was, therefore, a comparatively fin- ished art, but not a science, when we undertook to change it by means of motion study. Fortunately, we are now able to use the motion picture camera \^ith our speed clock, and other accessories, as a device for recording elements of motion and their corresponding times, simultane- 1 See " Motion Study," D. Van Nostrand Co, Xew York City. » See " Bricklaying System," Myron C. Clark Publishing Co, Chira^o. 66 APPLIED MOTION STUDY ously. Our latest microchronometer records in- tervals of time down to any degree of accuracy required. We have made, and used, in our work of motion study investigations of hospital prac- tice and surgery, one that records times to the millionth of an hour. This is designed for ex- tremely accurate work, but can be adjusted to intervals of any length desired, as proves most economical or desirable for the type of work to be investigated. Having completed our microchronometer, we proceeded as follows: The microchronometer was placed in the photographic field near the operator and his working equipment, and against a cross-sectioned background or in a cross-sec- tioned field, and at a cross-sectioned work bench or tablCi The operator then performed the op- eration according to the prescribed method, while the motion-picture camera recorded the various stages of the operation and the position of the hand on the microchronometer simultaneously. Thus, on the motion picture film we obtain inter- mittent records of the paths, the lengths, the di- rections, and the speeds of the motions, or the times accompanying the motions, these records MOTION STUDY AND TIME STUDY 67 all being simultaneous ; and the details of the con- ditions of the surroundings that are visible to the eye are recorded without the failings of mem- ory. This was a distinct step in advance, but we realised that there was a lack in the records. It was difficult, even for one especially trained and experienced to visualise the exact path of a mo- tion, and it was not possible to measure the length with precision from the observations of the motion picture film alone, as there is no sum- mary or recapitulation of all the motions of a cycle or operation in any one picture. To over- come this lack we invented the cyclegraph method of recording motions. This consists of attaching a small electric light to the hand or other moving part of the person or machine under observation. The motion is recorded on an ordinary photo- graphic film or plate. Upon observing our very first cyclegraph records, we found that we had attained our desire, and that the accurate path taken by the motion stood before us in two di- mensions. By taking the photographic record stereoscopically, we were able to see this path in three dimensions, and to obtain what we have called the stereocyclegraphi This showed us the 68 APPLIED MOTION STUDY. path of the motion in all three dimensions ; that is, length, breadth, and depth. It did not, how- ever, contain the time element. This time ele- ment is of great importance not only for compara- tive or " relative " time, but also for exact times. This time element is obtained by putting an in- terrupter in the light circuit, that causes the light to flash at an even rate at a known number of times per second. This gives a line of time spots in the picture instead of a continuous cyclegraph light line. Counting the light spots tells the time consumed. The next step was to show the direction of the motions. To do this it was necessary to find the right combination of volts and amperes for the light circuit and the thickness of filament for the lamp, to cause quick lighting and slow extin- guishing of the lamp. This right combination makes the light spots pointed on their latest, or forward, ends. The points, thus, like the usual symbol of arrow heads, show the direction. The result was, then, of course, finally, stereochrono- cyclegraphs showing direction. These act not only as accurate records of the motions and times, but also serve as admirable teaching devices. MOTION STUDY AND TIME STUDY 69 Wire models of cyclegraphs and chronocyele- graphs of the paths and the times of motions are now constructed that have a practical educational value besides their importance as scientific rec- ords. These models are particularly useful as a step in teaching visualisation of paths by photo- graphs alone, later. Our latest apparatus in the field of recording devices apparently fulfils all present require- ments of the time- and motion-study experts and their assistants and the teachers who are now de- voting their lives to the transference of skill and experience from those who have it to those who have not.^ We have also devised and used many special kinds of apparatus; for example, devices for re- cording absolute continuity of motion paths and times, doing away with the slight gaps in the record that occur between one picture and the next on the cinematograph film, due to the in- terval of time when the film is moving, to get in place for the next exposure. To overcome this objection we have a double cinematograph, that one part may record while the other moves from 1 See " Primer of Scientific Management," D. Van Nostrand Co., New York. 70 APPLIED MOTION STUDY one exposure to the next. In this way we get a continuous record of the operation. There have been occasional objections to all methods of mak- ing time and motion studies that involve the pres- ence of an observer. Some of these have come from those working on what they consider their own secret processes, who object to having any observer record what they are doing, believing that the time study man is obtaining knowledge of their skill and giving them no information in return. Others have come from those who have seen or heard " secret time study " and " watch- book time study," and who regard all observers as spies because of general lack of understanding and co-operation; and there are some instances where they are right. For such cases we have designed an automicromotion study, which con- sists of an instantaneous modification of the standard micromotion apparatus, and also the autostereochronocyclegraph apparatus. This en- ables the operator to take accurate time study of himself. He can start the apparatus going and stop it from where he works, with one motion of his finger or foot. This invention supplies every possible requirement and feature for time and Kg. 10 Prof. Frank E. Sanborn recording times and paths of his own motions by the automicromotion device. MOTION STUDY AND TIME STUDY 71 motion study processes, except the help and ad- vice of a properly qualified observer, or the an- noyance of having one not fitted by training, ex- perience, or natural qualities to co-operate. There is not space in this paper for a discus- sion of the educational features of observations made with these devices, or of their influence upon the new and much needed science of fatigue study, or of their general psychological signifi- cance.* It is only necessary to emphasise their adaptability, flexibility, and relation to economy. We have here a complete set of inexpensive, light, durable apparatus, adaptable to any type of work and to any type of observer or self-observation. It consists of systematically assembled units that may be so combined as to meet any possible work- ing condition. Through a specially devised method of using the same motion picture film over and over again, up to sixteen times, and through a careful study^of electrical equipment and of va- rious types of time spot interrupters, we have been enabled to cut down the cost of making time and motion study, until now the most accurate type of studies, involving no human equation in 1 See " Fatigue Study," Sturgis & Walton, New York. 72 APPLIED MOTION STUDY the record, can be made at less cost than the far less accurate stop-watch study. This time study and motion study data can be used when it is " cold." No specially gifted observer, combined with the most willing and efficient recorder, can compete with it for observing and recording facts. It does not depend upon a human memory to " give up " its facts. It is usable at any time and forever, after it is once taken. Naturally, the re- quirements for refinement and the special set-ups to be used in any case must be determined after some study of the case in hand. There are now available, therefore, instru- ments of precision fitted to make measurements as fine as the most exact science demands, — eco- nomical enough to make both immediate and ulti- mate savings, and that meet the demands of the most exacting industrial progressive. When the time and motion study is taken with such instru- ments of precision, there are still other by-prod- ucts that are of more value than the entire cost of the time and motion studies.* I See " Time Study ; a Factor in the Science of Obtaining Methods of Least Waste." See " Psychology of Management," Sturgis & Walton, New Yorls. CHEONOCYCLEGRAPH MOTION DEVICES FOR MEASURING ACHIEVEMENT ^ The great need of this age is the conservation of the human element. It will be the aim of this paper to show : 1. That the human element can be more effi- ciently utilised, and conserved to a greater degree, by the elimination of useless, inef- fective and ill-directed motions. 2. That permanent elimination of such motions necessitates standardising the motions used in any activity. 3. That standardisation demands accurate devices for measuring achievement. 4. That chronocyclegraph motion devices meas- ure achievement accurately, and thus pro- vide for standardisation and, ultimately, for motion economy. Stupendous as the financial loss to the entire world is, on account of the great war that is now lA paper presented at the Second Pan-American-Con- gress at Washington, D. C, January 3, 1916. 73 74 APPLIED MOTION STUDY being waged in many countries, and affecting all countries, it is as nothing compared to the world's loss of the human element. This is not only a loss that is being felt by this generation, but it is a loss that will be felt for many generations to come. It is, therefore, a great world problem, de- manding the attention of all of us, to conserve and utilise humanity in every way possible. This problem has two aspects. The first is the utilisa- tion of those directly affected by the war, either by being crippled or maimed through some in- jury received in the war, or by being forced to become productive members of the' community through loss or crippling of the earning members of the family caused by the war. The second is the more efficient utilisation of all other members of the community, in order to make up, as far as possible, for the loss in productive power of in- dividuals either killed or rendered in some way less efficient by the war. The need for economy in the expenditure of human effort is not new. Even in the days of the Pharaohs there was the realisation that every ounce of strength of the worker was of value, as is plainly shown by photographs of the ancient CHRONOCYCLEGRAPH DEVICES 75 carvings and other records of their industrial practice. There was, unfortunately, in those times little or no appreciation of the humani- tarian side, of the need for conserving the worker for his own happiness and for the ultimate good of the race or the country. The practice was to extract every ounce of effort from the worker in the shortest amount of time possible, taking little account of the amount that the worker's life was shortened by the process. With the ages has come an appreciation of the greater benefit, not only to the individuals in society, but to society as a whole, to be derived by prolonging the life of the worker and increasing the number of hap- piness minutes that he enjoys. With the spread and growth of the movement for conserving ma- terial things, such as forests, mines and other nat- ural resources, and the utilisation of the sources of energy, such as water power, has come an ap- preciation of the field for conservation of the human element. With the growth of the science of management, and the emphasis laid on mption study and fatigue study, has come an apprecia- tion of the methods that may best be used to ef- fect this conservation. Now, with the enormous 76 APPLIED MOTION STUDY need, has come the realisation that practice of this conservation should be started immediately, and maintained permanently, or, at least, for gen- erations to come, if the world ever expects to re- cover from its stupendous and almost incalcul- able war loss. " Economy " has become the watchword of the day, and it is an excellent watchword, but the practice of unstudied economy is apt to lead to serious economic disturbances. The first step in rational economy consists of investigating the re- lation between economy and waste elimination. It is necessary to realise the need to eliminate the useless and the need to utilise to the fullest ca- pacity everything that is of use. This requires 1. The determination as to what is useless and as to what is useful. 2. The determination as to the most efficient method of utilising the useful. That is to say, it requires accurate measurement applicable to activity. The problem is not simple, for along with the activity and its result- ing achievement and output comes the fatigue ac- cumulated by the worker while doing the work, and fatigue is a subject concerning which, as yet, CHBONOCYCLEGRAPH DEVICES 77 little is known.^ Permanent results in human economy demand accurate records of fatigue co- ordinated with records of achievement, and with records of the methods by which the achievement has been secured. To find and apply the necessary measures for achievement and fatigue is primarily a task for the engineer. His training impresses him with the importance of measurement. His work makes him skilled in the use of measuring devices. Success in his profession depends chiefly upon the continued application of the most accurate meas- urement avaOable, and this provides the incentive necessary for the maintenance of the scientific method. The engineer must secure the co-opera- tion of the educator, the psychologist, the physi- ologist and the economist before he can hope to secure complete data, and to understand the full interpretation of what he finds, — but this is his duty 1. To make the investigation in the most scien- tific manner of which he is capable. 2. To submit Ms finds for comparative study by others and for the use of the world. I See "Fatigue Study," Sturgis & Walton, 31 East 27th Street, New York. 78 APPLIED MOTION STUDY This paper describes and attempts to make useful the history of such an investigation, a search for and the devising of satisfactory devices for meas- uring achievement. It is a fortunate thing to be born in an age like the present, when the scientific spirit prevails in all fields, and where everything can be legiti- mately submitted to measurement. The world- wide desire to ascertain causes made it a simple matter to realise that large output or achieve- ment was not in itself so important as the reasons for this achievement, with the consequent placing of the emphasis upon the methods and their re- sults rather than upon the results alone. The writers thus became impressed early with the im- portance of obtaining as accurate and detailed records of methods as possible, if achievements were ever to be accurately measured. This methods study was formulated into mo- tion study, and divided into three parts: 1. Study of the variables of the worker. 2. Study of the variables of the surroundings, equipment and tools. 3. Study of the variables of the motion itself.* 1 See " Motion Study," D. Van Nostrand, 25 Park Place, New Tork. CHRONOCYCLEGRAPH DEVICES 79 It was possible to make fairly satisfactory rec- ords of workers and of surroundings, equipment and tools with an ordinary camera. These were supplemented by descriptions in great detail of the best methods observed, even to the making of diagrams showing the relative location of the worker's feet and the position of the working equipment. Through such records conspicuous wastes in human energy became at once appar- ent, and various inventions of devices that cut down the amount of effort necessary, or elimin- ated needless fatigue, were made.^ With these inventions, and the comparison of the motions re- sulting from them with the motions used before the inventions, there was instantly an added ap- preciation of the importance of a study of the elements of the motions themselves. With the writer's acquaintance with Dr. Tay- lor and his epoch-making discovery of the neces- sity for recording unit times, came an added ap- preciation of the need for including time study with motion study. The great problem was to record the motions used. The cinematograph was finally resorted to as an accurate recording 1 See " Bricklaying System," Myron C. Clark, Chicago, 111. 80 APPLIED MOTION STUDY device. The invention of a special microchro- nometerthat recorded times down to the millionth of an hour, made possible simultaneous records of this microchronometer and the positions of the worker whose activity was being studied. Even the first records, though unsatisfactory in many respects, demonstrated the practicability and use- fulness of these methods of recording motions. Little by little the method was improved. An ordinary, reliable clock was placed alongside the microchronometer, in order to serve as a check upon its inaccuracy, if any occurred, and also to provide a record of the time of day that the study was made, in the resulting picture. Temperature and humidity records were included upon the pic- ture. Signs, describing the place where the in- vestigation was being made, the name of the in- vestigator and the date, were placed for an in- stant in the field, and thus became a part of the permanent record. The original white dial with black marks was subsequently changed, at the suggestion of a film reader, to a black dial with white divisions and white hands that left a clear, sharp record upon the picture, and recorded the elapsed time of each exposure. The worker and CHRONOCYCLEGRAPH DEVICES 81 the timepiece were placed in front of a cross-sec- tioned background, in order that the motions might be more accurately located. The ultimate value of these records, called " micromotion rec- ords," far exceeded what had originally been ex- pected. These records were useful, not only in deriving improved methods of performing work that were worthy of being standardised, but also in serving as most admirable teaching devices.^ The negative films were used originally for the study that resulted in the standards, and either these negative films, or positives that appeal more readily to those not trained in film observation, were thrown upon the screen, and served as topics for discussion in the foremen's, managers' and executives' meetings, or as demonstrations of the best methods of those learning the industry. Through the application of the results of data gathered from these films, large savings in indus- trial practices were immediately gained. As a typical example, where eighteen to twenty textile machines had been assembled in a certain shop before the application of micromotion study, iSee "The Psychology of Management," Stnrgis & Wal- ton, 31 East 27th Street, New York. 82 APPLIED MOTION STUDY sixty-six were assembled after the results of the study had been incorporated in the shop prac- tice. The savings were the direct result of the micromotion study, combined with the improved placement or assignment of the workers to the work, and the improved surroundings, equipment and tools with which the work was done, that oc- curred in connection with it. We have here ac- curate devices for recording achievement and for measuring the amount of time consumed by the achievement. The motions that made up the method by which the achievement was secured are also here accurately recorded. If the aim of making motion standards had been simply to provide instruction or time study data for those already skilled in the art of doing the work, the micromotion records would prob- ably have answered every requirement, but, im- portant as it is that those who know how to do the work in any fashion shall be taught the best way, it is even more important, for the savings that the learner shall be taught the best way im mediately, that is, from the beginning of his prac- tice. When it came to the transference of skill the micromotion records were not completely sat CHRONOCYCLEGRAPH DEVICES 83 isfactory in enabling the workers to visualise the path of the motion easily. The average engineer, who becomes, through his training and the neces- sities of his work, a good visualiser, even though he is not one by nature, often fails to realise the small capacity for visualisation possessed by the average person. A long experience in teaching in the industries made this fact impressive and led to the invention of the cyclegraph, and, later, the chronocyclegraph method of recording, in order to aid the non-visualising worker to grasp motion economy easily. The device for recording the path of the motion consisted of a small electric light attached to the forefinger or other moving part of the body of the worker. The worker per- formed the operation to be studied, and the path traversed by his hand was marked by a line of light. An ordinary photographic plate or film was exposed during the time that he performed the work, and recorded the motion path described by the light as a white line, something like a white wire. A stereoscopic camera enabled one to see this line in three dimensions. This line was called a " cyclegraph," since it had been de- termined a cycle was the most satisfactory unit 84 APPLIED MOTION STUDY of motions to be thus recorded, and the method was called the " cyclegraph method of motion study." A study of cyclegraphs shows a need for an indication of time, and, while the path of the motions is apparent, the time of the motions is not shown by the plain cyclegraph. . This time element is of great importance, not only for se- curing records of comparative or relative time, but also for securing records of exact time. The time element was eventually obtained by placing an interrupter in the current, that transformed the white line of the cyclegraph into a series or line of dots and dashes. This made of the cycle- graph a chronocyclegraph. The exact time is se- cured by using a tuning fork vibrating a known number of times per second as an interrupter. The record now becomes a series of timed spots, and the method becomes the " chronocyclegraph method." Through intensive study of the ap- paratus, it has become possible to devise differ- entiated time and speed spots, and thus to dis- tinguish various motion paths in the same stereo- graph (see Fig. 12). This means that we can now attach any desired number of lights to differ- ent working members of the worker's body, and Fig. U Fig. 12 Fro. 11 Types of cyclegraph apparatus for making the time spots in the paths of the motion. Fig. 12 Types of lines of cyclegraph spots. CHRONOCYCLEGRAPH DEVICES 85 obtain synchronous chronocyclegraph records that are accurate, yet that differ in shape from one another to such an amount that it is possible to distinguish each, and to trace the continuous path of each light with ease. The lat^; development in this study has been in the line of cheapening the cost of the appar- atus. As in making micromotion studies it was found that the original method could he much cut down in cost by using the same film as many as sixteen times, so here it was found that cheaper types of interrupters can be used in place of the more adjustable tuning fork, made orig- inally for the extremely accurate tests of the psy- chological laboratory. It must be understood that for the investigation of surgery and like types of activity, and for use in investigations in psychological laboratories, and in other scientific fields, the most expensive and elaborate of ap- paratus is none too fine ; but it is possible, where first cost must be considered, and in much work in the industries, to make records accurate enough with apparatus that is within the reach of any one desiring to own it, and willing to de- vote time to learning to operate it. 86 APPLIED MOTION STUDY With the study of the chronocyclegraph data has come the invention of the penetrating screen, which makes it easier to visualise and to meas- ure the elements of the cycle being studied. It was desired to visualise simultaneously the time and space occupied by the motion. As is so often the case, invention was here held back by a belief. In this case it was, " Two objects cannot occupy the same space at the same time." It took years to realise that, while this is usually true, a photo- graph can show them as occupying the space at the same time. This multiple exposure method made it possible to place a cross-sectioned screen in any place, or number of places, in the picture. A screen may be placed in the plane in which the worker is performing his chief activity, before the worker, or back of him. The worker may be enclosed in a three, four, five, or six-sided box. The screen may be set at any angle. In short, a cross-sectioned screen of known dimensions can be introduced at any place where it will enable one to secure a more accurate record of the mo- tion. This is done by the simplest and most in- expensive means. Take a sheet of black paper of the size of the space to be photographed, and l^;v.! ii!i!!!nF^/:ai{ mi m HBI nnt ■BMwril Bi'^ iaBNiiiiii^Miasniiil™' ■HHy»>«.e, Mr. GUbretb first phot(^raphs a tri-dimen- sional net of white lights, he then removes the net, places the workman in position, and makes mo- tion studies. By this way he can conceiTe, spe- cially if he makes phot(^raphs stereoscopicaHv, exactly the place every motion in space occurs. This would meet the objection raised by Mr. Hanau. H. E. B£SS£LEE gave an instance of a mechan- ical device made recently in one of our hospitals in N^ew York City. A young girl had a form of tetanus and by removing the muscles of the lower jawbone, and making a device witii a spring, to be wound up just like one would wind up a clock, fastening it to the jaw and running it over the head, the jaw was kept in constant motion. After about three weeks the device was taken off. It was surprising to note how the mtisdes of the 152 APPLIED MOTION STUDY inferior maxillary had developed. The girl was then put to chewing gum, and the development of the muscles of the lower jawbone was continued. James Gibbons: The work proposed to be carried out in Europe with a view to aiding crip- pled soldiers should hold a very important lesson for us in this country, because it seems it is an attempt to approach the efficiency question from another point of view than that which we are accustomed to. There is a tendency I think on the part of the efficiency engineer to pay more at- tention to the man of efficiency and to a certain extent discard the less efficient man, and a good deal of the opposition to efficiency methods which no doubt exists in the minds of many, and es- pecially of workmen, is due to the feeling that the men naturally less efficient will be sacrificed to a great extent to those more efficient. The fortunes of Europe are forcing upon men the necessity of taking care of their less efficient fellows. From the point of view of the working public and from the point of the good of the country as a whole, this is perhaps the real foundation on FOR THE CRIPPLED SOLDIER 153 which we should build on efficiency efforts — from the bottom up rather than from the top down ; and I think we would be making a great mistake if with our own prosperity and our own good fortune in this country we should not give our careful attention to what is being done in Europe and watch carefully for the results which will come from this effort to raise the efftciency of those who are naturally inefficient. W. N. POLAKOV : The paper by Mr. Gilbreth is of great importance, not only for the European problem of the near future, but for that in the United States, which is, so to speak, permanent, because industrial accidents happen and will hap- pen in this country, although probably in dimin- ishing proportion. It is well known to us how much money is being paid to the crippled sol- diers of former wars, although if provision of some kind had been made in this country they could have been put to productive work and not be a burden on the country, but be productive members of society ; but aside from that there was a question raised here whether it is in the domain of an engineer to look into this matter. In my 154 APPLIED MOTION STUDY opinion, it is most emphatically so, and I think we all owe Mr. Gilbreth thanks that he raised this question in our own Society. The case of the crippled soldier is nothing but using the triple expansion human body as a com- pound, or something less than that, as it were, and therefore it is a problem of engineering, and of the works manager to adapt these conditions, or the men to the conditions, so that they will be useful. It is not so much the question of the selection of the man for the particular work, as the adaptation of the available man to the work which is to be done, whether the man is crippled or not. As to the instruments devised by Mr. Gilbreth, I have watched and studied them in actual use, in the New England Butt Co.'s laboratory, although the details were too complicated to be explained in a short talk. The point of importance is that the motion shall be studied in order to save the waste motions and find out in what industrial processes certain limbs and certain parts of the body, certain muscles, are used. In a factory where wearing apparel is sewn, the legs are absolutely unnecessary, as the ma- FOB THE CRIPPLED SOLDIER 155 chines are driven by a motor. In many other in- dustries, when we consider it necessary to employ able-bodied men, we are doing a great injustice to those who are crippled, and more than that, we manifest our own lack of understanding. We do not want legs for the man who is working with his brains, and vice versa for the messenger boy it is not necessary for him to have two hands. For a telegraph operator two arms or two hands are entirely unnecessary, and many other ex- amples could be cited. Alvin Louis Schallbe: I think that one of the points ought to be emphasised that Mr. Gil- breth brought out in his paper, and that is the psychic state in which the man must be brought before he can be made successful. The only rea- son why a cripple is so successful is because he has a will and a determination to devise his own methods for doing things. I believe that one of the largest problems that Mr. Gilbreth had to confront when he began to reclaim these crippled soldiers was to get them into a state of mind where they could forget the discouragements into which they had probably fallen after receiving their wounds and realising 156 APPLIED MOTION STUDY that they would have to go through life in a crip- pled condition. Robert Thueston Kent, who presented the paper, said : Last August I spent a day at Mr. Gilbreth's laboratory and saw what he had de- veloped in the four years since I was associated with him, and Mr. Gilbreth converted me to a number of things that I believed were absolutely impossible two or three years ago, and I would suggest that all who are skeptical as to the value of the moving pictures of stereoscopic photo- graphs and the three dimensions visit Mr. Gil- breth's laboratory, where they will learn a great deal. The problem of efiflciency or scientific manage- ment is to point out the job at which a man is a first-class man and put him in it. Mr. Gilbreth has a standard method of tabulat- ing. He lays out a chart divided into different groups, as explained in his paper — the head group, the different arm groups, etc., subdividing them into the forearm, the hand, thumb, and so on. By means of his photographs he finds out the relevant amount of time each member of the body is employed on a given job ; he plots them FOB THE CRIPPLED SOLDIER 157 on a vertical scale as to time. Striking a curve through these ordinates, he can see the relative importance of each particular member of the body- in doing certain work. The particular method employed is to take these charts and see if these motions of all the parts cannot be eliminated altogether, so that in the case of only a right hand motion, the motion of the left hand is gotten rid of, making it all a job on which the right hand only is employed. THE PRACTICE OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT ^ Scientific Management is simply management based upon measurement. Being thus based, it must be not only the result of measurement, but also subject at every stage of its development to accurate measurement, and it must be willing to abide by the results of such measurement. The time has passed when Scientific Management can be content with basing its claim to being effi- cient upon the perfection of iis theory. To-day such management must submit to accurate meas- urement of its practical results. It must demon- strate its value in practice. In order to demonstrate this value of Scientific Management must show itself not only able to supply those needs of the employer and the em- ploy6 that are supplied by any worth while sys- tem of management, but also its ability to supply needs that other types of management cannot supply, and its ability to meet and solve all prob- lems raised by its peculiar and characteristic 1 Presented at The Wisconsin Commercial and Industrial Congress, 1916. 1S8 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 159 methods. Any type of management that is worth rating as efficient 1. Must give to the employer a retnm on his investment and to the employ^ a fair living wage. 2. Must insure sanitary, healthful and stand- ard working conditions. 3. Must insure a fair state of permanent co- operation between employer and employ^. This would normally result from the main- tenance of 1 and 2. It is then the first duty of Scientific Management to establish, maintain and insure these funda- mental working conditions. This it is bound to do, because in actual practice the maintenance of the entire system and the enjoyment of its ad- vantages depend upon the employes being satis- fied with their pay; working conditions being standard; and co-operation existing between all members of the organisation. For example, A is a worker in a plant under Scientific Manage- ment. It is usually not necessary for him to work harder than he would in a plant under traditional management, but he must work in ac- cordance with specific instructions, and in order leo APPLIED MOTION STUDY that he be willing to do this, and to fulfil the re- quirements exactly, it is necessary that he be paid more than the usual wage for that work in that vicinity. If he is not, in spite of the other ad- vantages of working under Scientific Manage- ment, such as better teaching, more chance for advancement, a chance to specialise, etc., he is apt, because of the natural inertia of human na- ture, to choose to work in a plant where more " free and easy " and unstandardised conditions are the rule. Working conditions in a scientifically managed plant must be standardised, and standard condi- tions must be the best possible, in order that the high output which makes possible the high pay may be made possible. A is working under fore- man B, whose bonus depends upon the success in earning a bonus of the workers under him. His instructions and materials come from men whose bonuses are also connected with his bonus. Therefore, the condition of co-operation is main- tained not only because of the theoretic necessity for such co-operation, but also because of the practical necessity for such co-operation, if all are to receive the high pay desired. SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 161 Besides providing constantly the three prime necessities for satisfactory relations between em- ployer and employ^, Scientific Management sup- plies to the employ^ five other benefits that, while connected with the three prime necessities, are not an essential part of them under ordinary management. The first of these is the opportu- nity for an increasing wage. While Scientific Management may be operated to some extent with day rate or with piece rate, it is customary, under practically all forms of such management, to in- troduce, at some stage in the development, some type of pay that allows of the worker's increasing his pay to the limit of his working capacity. The entire system is built upon the idea that it is to the advantage of every one that output be in- creased to the greatest extent possible. In- creased output means increased wages. There are two questions that have been frequently asked just here. The first is, "Is increased output beneficial to every one?'' The second is "Will the worker receive his fair share of the increased profit? " The first of these questions has been answered, as you well know, by the economists, and thinking people to-day have no doubt but 162 APPLIED MOTION STUDY that the world profits by any increase in output. The answer to the second question, that is, the decision as to the proper division of the profits from these outputs, is a question that must ulti- mately be answered by the economists also. Managers have answered it as best they could. Scientific Management answers by saying that the division must be such that the cost of the changes made by the new type of management are first deducted from the profits, and that these are then divided approximately equally between employer and employ^. Naturally, the ideal di- vision is such as will pay for the maintenance of the system, and satisfy both employer and em- ploy6. The division is usually, in practice, satis- factory, as is shown by the lack of strikes, and by the satisfaction of stockholders, as well as management and employes with the system itself. The average employ^ under Scientific Manage- ment receives a wage that increases 1. With his willingness to conform to instruc- tions. 2. With his increased skill and intelligence. 3. With the resulting formation of efficient habits. SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 163 4. With his natural strength, ambition and en- durance. The second benefit that Scientific Management confers upon its users is regularity of employ- ment. The manager realises early that it is too expensive a proposition to train a man to become an efficient member of the organisation, and then lose him because of lack of work, or poor ar- rangement of the dull and busy periods. Va- rious methods of providing regular employment are used. Typical of these are 1. Introducing a new type of work, for which equipment and workers are suited, that may be followed during the otherwise idle period. 2. Increasing, through advertising, salesman- ship, etc., a demand for one staple product that will allow of specialising upon the pro- duction of that during light running time. 3. Teaching every employe various allied types of work, so that he may be shifted with ease to equalise the stress and to evenise exag- gerated seasonal labour requirements of the working periods. This in no wise conflicts with the idea of functionalising the work and developing individuality in the workers, 164 APPLIED MOTION STUDY but simply provides various outlets for the trained activity. The careful study of psy- chology makes it possible for us to teach workers who are to perform these allied ac- tivities, so that their habits in one line are a help rather than a hindrance in another. It is always best practice to insure that the lines of activity are similar in their demands for motion cycles, because of the enormous saving in habit formation. 4, Another method is by providing that in dull times highly paid specialised workers be re- tained even if necessary to have them placed on less remunerative, but more available work. For example, that foremen in a ma- chine shop be put back on the machines. Such workers are paid what is in effect a re- tainer while on the lower priced work, which brings their earnings up to their usual amount. In this way the acquired skill and intelligence is kept in the organisation, and the outlay is reckoned as a good investment. i A third benefit of Scientific Management is the better placement of the employes. The ordinary type of management has no method of scientific- SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 165 ally selecting the workers. The hiring is done by each foreman or perhaps rarely by a man or woman who has a " knack at it," " a fine sense of intuition," or " a deep knowledge of human na- ture." If the placement is successful, well and good. If not, the employ^ is summarily dis- charged and another selection made. Now, as has been already said, under Scientific Manage- ment there would be an enormous loss in a poor placement and in training an employ^ who is not fitted for the work. This supplies a very practi- cal incentive to a careful examination of the ap- plicant and a successful placement. It leads to the transformation of such jobs as that of messen- ger boy into training stations or observation sta- tions, where a young applicant may be studied be- fore his line of work is finally determined. It leads also to the utilisation of various tend- ing jobs in the plant as such observation sta- tions. The fourth benefit is closely connected with the t^ third. It is the opportunity for continuous ad- vancement. All organisations of any type that can in any wise be rated as really efficient aim to hold their workers by offering a chance for defi- 166 APPLIED MOTION STUDY nite advancement, but there is not usually a care- fully determined path by which such advance- ment takes place. We have always believed that devising, using and maintaining a scientifically determined plan for promotion is a most impor- tant element in successful management. We have, therefore, made such a plan which we call " the three position plan," by which every mem- ber -in the organisation is regarded constantly in relation to the three following positions, a. The position that he last held in the organi- sation. b. The position that he at present holds in the organisation. c. The next position that he will hold. In order that he may keep his present position, he must see that the position below, that he has pre- viously held, is adequately filled, that is, he must be responsible for the teaching of his successor, and, moreover, in the advance to the next position he must learn the work done there thoroughly, that is, he must obtain adequate teaching from the holder of that position. Each worker is, then, constantly a learner as well as a teacher, and is a working member constantly of three SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 167 groups. In one of these he is head man, in the other middle man, in the third end man. In practice this results in more rapid advancement, in more steady advancement, and in more ra- tional advancement. The fifth benefit has already been indicated in the fourth. This is the teaching supplied. To- day, when it is everywhere, recognised that the problem of management is largely a problem of teaching, and that psychology is indispensable to efficient teaching, it is difficult to realise that less than four years ago this idea was greeted as radical, and that even to-day some of the fore- most advocates of the best known type of Scien- tific Management consider that entirely too much emphasis is being laid on the psychological side. This audience, however, because of its peculiar training and experience, will be swift to recog- nise that the great solution of the employment problem and the management problem, like the solution of most social problems, lies in more education, and education is based on psychology, and gets its results from teaching. Because Sci- entific Management supplies teaching and pro- vides that every member of the organisation be 168 APPLIED MOTION STUDY constantly both learner and teacher, it confers, perhaps, its greatest benefit upon those working under it. The average student, investigator, or opponent of Scientific Management usually is willing, im- mediately or ultimately, to accept these claims, or better, demonstrations of Scientific Management as to its practical value. There are, however, two questions, or objections, according to the type of person making them, that are constantly raised against Scientific Management, and that are well worth the most serious consideration. The first is the question of fatigue, and the second is the question of monotony. The student asks 1. Does Scientific Management increase fa- tigue? 2. Does Scientific Management increase monot- ony? The objector, or opponent, takes it for granted that " yes " answers both questions, and demands, " What are you going to do about increased fa- tigue? " and " What are you going to do about the soul killing, grinding monotony?" Since the milder queries of the student and investigator are implied in the strenuous demands of the oppo- SCIEXTIFIC MJXAGEMEXT 169 nents, it mQ, perhaps, be better to consider them in the latter more strennous form. What are Tre, who practice Scientific Manage- ment going to do about increased fatigue? We will state, first of all, that under Scientific Man- agement fatigue is not increased. This for sey- eral reasous: 1. In manv cas^ fatigue could not be in- creased, and the ordinary type of manage- ment is already resulting in the limit of fa- tigue. 2. Scientific Management believes undue and unnec^sary fatigue is the Tirorst fo«n of waste. 3. Scientific Management knows that excess fa- tigue impairs the worker's capacity perma- nentlv. 4. Scientific Management, as a result of meas- urranent alone, knows that the highest type of welfare, which implies no excess fatigue, alone makes adequate cooperation possible. We maintain, then, that we are not increasing fatigue ; on the other hand that, where escessire fatigue exists, we are cutting it down. Let us outline 170 APPLIED MOTION STUDY 1. What has been done. 2. What is being done. 3. What is to be done. That is, let us review the past, view the present, and pre-view the future. We may, perhaps, be excused, since our aim at this time is to bring before you the practice of Scientific Management, for referring, in the remainder of this chapter, largely to our work, in that we can here with the greatest ease give you concrete examples of ac- tual working practice. We realised early that fatigue is of two kinds, 1. Necessary fatigue. 2. Unnecessary fatigue. that unnecessary fatigue is inexcusable, that only that amount of necessary fatigue must be per- mitted in a day from which the worker can re- cover during the interval from the close of one working day to the opening of the next. Nat- urally, the most efficiency, as well as the most hu- manitarian method is to eliminate all unneces- sary fatigue possible, and to provide for such effi- cient rest periods that recovery from necessary fatigue may take place in the shortest amount of time, and with the greatest amount of satisfac- SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 171 tion, possible.^ We start, then, always, by mak- ing a fatigue survey of the particular plant or problem in hand, and determining, roughly if necessary, but as accurately as possible, what fa- tigue exists, and what proportion of it is neces- sary and what unnecessary. It is no easy thing to decide, what fatigue exists, or what fatigue is necessary, but one is safe to presume always that a large amount of fatigue does exist, and that an astounding proportion of it is unnecessary. There are some very simple signs of un- necessary fatigue; such as lack of chairs or rests of any kind, crowding, lack of light, lack of ven- tilation, lack of safety devices. The lacks them- selves suggest the first facts in the necessities to be supplied. We have found the chair an ad- mirable device upon which to specialise, since it is visible and tangible, and its supply, where it is lacking, usually goes a long way towards help- ing the organisation to think in terms of fatigue elimination. We adjust all work possible so that it may be done part of the time sitting and part of the time standing. We supply chairs, foot- rests and armrests; supply, or change, the posi- i See " Fatigue Study," Sturgis & Walton, New York. 172 APPLIED MOTION STUDY j tion of the working equipment itself ; use gravity ; wherever possible consider effect of direction of motion on momentum and inertia; and, finally, make an intensive study of the motions being used, in order to derive and standardise more effi- cient and less fatiguing motions. We gather the existing devices into a little group called a museum, and add photographs of devices that might supply needs, taken from other places. We co-operate with the Posture League and the Safety First people, and other existing organisa- tions that lessen the amount of pioneer work necessary to be done. We also attack the prob- lem of work intervals and rest intervals, their length and their relation to one another. Along with this we start the Home Eeading Box,^ which is a method of putting literature of all kinds in the hands of all members of the or- ganisation interested. This is a means of mak- ing the rest, or the recovery, periods more effi- cient. All of these things have been done, and are being done, and along with this we are to-day making intensive study of activity and its re- sulting fatigue. These studies are made by the 1 See " Fatigue Study," Chap. IV. SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 173 chronocyclegraph method, and by making Simul- taneous Motion Cycle Charts as a result of micro- motion study. Work in this line has received a great impetus through the work being done for soldiers, crippled in all countries through the great war. With the peculiar type that will now come in enormous numbers into the industries, the fatigue problem becomes more than ever im- portant. Where the old problem was to make it possible to do more work the new problem is, often, to make it possible to do any work at all. As for future work to be done upon fatigue, it will lie along the same lines as the past and pres- ent development. It must be realised that fatigue is no problem that can be solved by hit or miss methods. Some- thing, and a great deal better than nothing, can be done by any method of eliminating fatigue. Rest periods, no matter though they be not of the righi length or scientifically distributed, are bene- ficial. Chairs, though not scientifically con- structed, are far better than no chairs at all. We have received recently most helpful and construct- ive criticism from a professor interested in pos- ture, who says that the average working chair 174 APPLIED MOTION STUDY has an unscientifically constructed back. We re- plied to him that, in most cases, we are so glad to get any chair at all, and so delighted when we have a chair whose height is prescribed by accu- rate measurement that we have been unwilling to dampen the enthusiasm of our co-operators by criticising the backs severely. Physiologists and psychologists must co-operate in the work of solv- ing the fatigue problem. However, we feel that we have accurate methods of measurement to put at their disposal, and that the derivation of the necessary data for ideal fatigue eliminating and recovery providing devices must be a matter of time and careful application only. What does Scientific Management do about fatigue in prac- tice? It eliminates all unnecessary fatigue that it can discover. It provides the rest intervals according to the best information available, and at the most scientifically determined intervals at hand. It also provides means for making these rest intervals efficient and profitable. We turn now to the question of monotony. What do we mean by saying that work is monot- onous? In the ordinary use of the term, un- doubtedly, that it is tiresome, that it has same- SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 175 ness and great lack of variety, and that its re- sult is a growing and a deadening fatigue. No one has realised more than those who devote their lives to the practice of the science of management that monotony is a very real and a very serious evil, that it exists in many kinds of work, and that it must be lessened or removed, if the work is to be truly profitable and satisfying. Now the natural and the right method of attacking the problem is to review first, the solution, or pro- posed solutions, of those who have previously con- sidered it. There have been many of these. We might, perhaps, state five. 1. Insistence that there be no standard method of doing the work with a hope that the un- standardised conditions would render the work less tiresome. 2. "Leaving the initiative to the worker." This is simply another form of refusing to standardise the method, with the hope that the unstandardised conditions will spur the worker to invent a method for himself that will be of interest to him because he has been himself the inventor. 3. Shifting the worker from one type of work 176 APPLIED MOTION STUDY to another, with the hope that the variety in the work done will rest the worker and will make the work interesting. 4. Moving the worker from one work place to another. This is a remedy applied usually by the worker himself, who leaves one plant or locality when he becomes tired of it and goes on to another in the hope of thus find- ing the longed for interest. 5. Welfare work of different kinds, which aims to supply the interest lacking in the work itself. !Now each of these proposed remedies is sure to prove futile, either immediately or in the long run, for the following reasons. The lack of a standard method is no insurance of variety, as the individual worker must, if he acquire any skill, gradually acquire also a standard method for doing the work, that is, a method, which is, at least, a standard for him. Leaving the initia- tive to the worker by no means insures that he will take the initiative. If he is not naturally of the inventive type, he is far more apt to copy the method of his next neighbour, which is as likely to be inefficient as efficient. Shifting from SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 177 one kind of work to another, while it may for the time being interest a certain type of worker, is as likely to disgust another well marked type that has a decided hatred for changing work or work- ing conditions. Moving from place to place, though usually indulged in only by those who crave excitement, is again likely to disgust those who dislike change, and welfare work, while ex- cellent in itself and by far the best of these advo- cated remedies, has small, if any, preventive value. The commendable feature of these attempts is, of course, the feeling that underlies them, that, if the worker is to accomplish the greatest amount of and the best work, monotony must be elimi- nated and the work made interesting. This feel- ing may be promoted by a humanitarian interest in the worker's welfare, or simply by a desire to get the most out of' the worker. In any case, whatever this underlying cause, the results are to be commended. The great difficulty and danger lies in the fact that the fundamental assumption at the base of all the remedies suggested is wrong. This as- sumption is, whether those who propose or use 178 APPLIED MOTION STUDY the remedies recognise it or not, that monotony and habit are in many ways related. There is a fundamental confusion between " monotonous " and " habitual." This confusion we all recognise when it is pointed out to us, yet it is strange that so few have ever noted this confusion that really lies at the base of the discussion, now reaching everywhere, as to the " monotony " of work, and its relation to the new types of management. We know, of course, that anything that is habitual is performed with comparative ease and dexterity. We know that habit simplifies. We know that it is the aim of all who desire to become efficient in any line to reduce as much as possible of the daily routine, in fact all of their activity, to habitual action. To the psychologist, habit has always been most important as a field of study, and little by little, all interested in industry have also come to appreciate the great force that lies in habit and its wonderful power for good or evil, as it is properly or improperly directed. We realise that habit cuts down fatigue, that it is easier to do anything that has become a habit, and that it tires one less. We realise that habit cuts out waste, that it allows us to accomplish SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 179 more in less time, and thus gives us more free time to devote to other activities. Yet we sel- dom, either in conversation or in more careful thinking, fail to confuse habit and monotony. We do not for a moment believe that our every day acts of dressing and eating and walking are tiresome, or lack variety, because we do them the same way every time. Yet, when we come to the industries, and note habits of work there, and find industrial pioneers arguing for standardised habits, we immediately cry " Monotony," and the endless confusion begins. Now, when we attempt to get down to the fun- damentals of the matter we find that the habitual becomes monotonous only when there is no ele- ment of interest in what is being done, and when the higher mental powers that should be set free by habit, because they have nothing to do, go drearily over and over the mechanical acts that demand nothing of real attention. The monot- ony of housework, or farming, or different kinds of industrial work in the plant lies not in the fact that the work is habitual, but that it is uninter- esting. The problem is not to break' up habits, but to supply interests. 180 APPLIED MOTION STUDY There can be no doubt, when one thinks the matter over carefully and logically, that the greatest good to all concerned can come only when every process possible is reduced to a habit. Methods must be standardised, that is, the best possible method must be found, prescribed, and become habitual with every worker doing the work. This is the first requirement. The sec- ond is that the element of interest be added to the work and be so incorporated that the work be never done without interest. This interest element may be added 1. By making the work itself interesting. , 2. By making the results of the work interest- ing, so that the mind dwells on the results while the work is being done ; that is to say, the interest may become part of the work either directly or indirectly. The great means, in Scientific Management, by which work is standardised and interest added to it is motion study. The close relations between motion study and standardisation is based largely upon an appreciation by motion study of the im- portance of habit. Motion study starts always with an analysis of practice, and practice is only SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 181 another name for existing habits of doing work. The first step is to make the record of the places, uses, and elements of existing habits. These are studied in the greatest detail. With the cause for every existing condition carefully determined, we take up the variables of the worker, the vari- ables of the surroundings, equipment and tools, the variables of the motion itself, and in each case set down, in as great detail as is possible, ex- actly what the habit is, and to what stage of habit formation the activity has been carried in each case. From these very careful tests, and with the check of the most accurate timing possi- ble, we determine the ideal habit for the particu- lar work to be done. This is simply another name for standardising working conditions and methods, and the type of worker best suited for the work in hand. Having determined these ideal habits, the final step in reconstructing the process is to decide exactly how much may be made habit and exactly what must be left to de- cision. The process then becomes a series of de- cisions and motions. The motions cover the habit element. The decisions go a long way to- wards providing for the interest. 182 APPLIED MOTION STUDY Let us suppose now that any type of work, formerly considered monotonous, is being done according to the methods prescribed by motion study, and let us see exactly how the element of monotony has been eliminated through motion study results. The method being used is as " habitual " as is possible, that is to say, the body is performing the same activity by as nearly as possible the same method every time, with the least possible amount of active attention on the work in hand. There is a careful allowance for fatigue. There is, therefore, no possibility of the body's becoming unduly tired. In the meantime, the active attention and all the higher power of the mind are free, free for the planning of de- tails, free to plan new work, or free to do what they please. It would be much if motion study could claim only that it freed attention and these other higher powers to a much greater extent than did the older work methods, but the chief claim of motion study lies not in this freeing of the mind, but in the fact that it actually supplies work for the mind to do. Just what, then, are these provisions for men- tal stimulus? SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 183 1. Motion study shows the worker a new method of attack. The study has been done with the worker's-- co-operation, "'/^^e ' has, through the study, learned how a ''motion problem is attacked, and he can apply the same method of attack to the minutiae of motions in his own work that the manage- ment has not had the time or the money to investigate. 2. The instruction card by which he works pro- vides related items of interest that occupy his attention and stimulate to investigation. 3. The suggestion box that accompanies the in- stallation of newer methods provides an in- centive for invention that makes him want to devise better methods. 4. The new promotion plan, already mentioned, that accompanies motion study changes means that successful investigation will lead to advancement to the head of the function, to superintendence of some sort, or into the motion study or time study depart- ment. 5. The field of motion study and time study is in need of trained investigators in every in- 184 APPLIED MOTION STUDY dustrial line, and this need may be filled by any skilled worker in any line of work. 6. Fatigue study, as already said, offej-s a great field of investigation. This field can never be investigated properly until skilled workers in every line of activity record in- dividually and scientifically their own expe- rience. These are all direct elements of interest in the work itself. As for the things that make the work indi- rectly interesting, such are 1. The home reading box, which stands ready with interest and amusement when working hours are over. 2. The high pay or shorter hours gained by the increase in output without extra fatigue, and all the outside interests that the high pay and short hours and the conserved strength and vitality make possible. To sum up. Scientific Management, therefore, first shows that the problem of monotony is fun- damentally different from its usual interpreta- tion, and, second, solves the real problem of mo- notony by supplying that interest that is the SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 185 natural eliminator of monotony. The close rela- tionship between fatigue study and monotony study must have become apparent. Neither problem can be successfully solved without a si- multaneous consideration and solution of the ac- companying problem. In conclusion, Scientific Management may not be ideal in theory nor perfect in practice, but all that it claims to be is management that not only is the result of measurement, but that is con- stantly willing to submit its results to measure- ment, because this is its basis. It is a part of the things that are real and lasting, and a knowl- edge of it and practice in it should be a part of the working equipment of every man or woman who wishes to take an active part in the world's work. It is doing much to-day that is not ap- parent. Its direct product, the comparatively few factories in which any so-called system is used and the comparatively few men who are earning their living through teaching the theory or installing the practice, are unimportant. The by-products are many and important. Men and women everywhere are realising that the remote science is really the near at hand measurement; 186 APPLIED MOTION STUDY that life consists of motions and decisions; that satisfaction and interest, as well as efficiency, come from thinking in terms of elements of mo- tions; that the great waste of the world lies in unnecessary fatigue ; that " deadening monot- ony " is eliminated through interest. THE THKEE POSITION PLAN OF PROMOTION 1 An adequate system of promotion is the solu- tion not only of holding employes in an organisa- tion, but also of the employment problem. There is much emphasis to-day upon the proper selection of employ^, and many and elaborate systems have been undertaken for a scientific, or near-scientific, placement. These are not in any wise to be criticised, for the selection of the indi- viduals comprising any organisation is impor- tant, and any plan that will cause the employ- ment manager to plan his duties carefully and to give each decision on the fortunes of others care- ful consideration is to be commended. It must be realised, however, that even more important is holding and helping these employes after they have been selected, and providing an adequate systematised plan of advancement for them. In 1 Reprinted from " The Annals " of the American AcademT of Political and Social Science, Philadelphia, May, 1916. PubUcation No. 1001. 187 188 APPLIED MOTION STUDY the Three Position Plan of Promotion we have not only the true and proved answer to the prob- lem of promotion, but also the means by which efficient placement becomes almost automatic, and a supply of desirable applicants for any va- cant position is constantly available. No sys- tem of placement can hope to succeed unless such a supply of applicants is available. We wish to emphasise then three points: 1. The necessity of attracting desirable applicants. 2. The necessity of holding, fitting, and promoting those already employed. 3. The interdependence of these two. We have never known a better friend of the worker than Mr. James Mapes Dodge, and he was wont to emphasise and demonstrate the bene- fit not only to the employ^, but also to the or- ganisation of holding the co-operating employ^, and the great and needless loss to the organisa- tion, to the worker, and to society in a constant change of the personnel of the organisation. Now, no organisation can hope to hold its mem- bers that does not consider not only the welfare of the organisation as a whole, but also the wel- THREE POSITION PLAN OF PROMOTION 189 fare of the individuals composing that organisa- tion. The Three Position Plan of Promotion con- siders each man as occupying three positions in the organisation, and considers these three positions as constantly changing in an up- ward spiral, as the man is promoted from the lowest position that he occupies and into the po- sition next higher than the highest position that he occupies. The three positions are as follows : first, and lowest, the position that the man has last occupied in the organisation; second, the position that the man is occupying at present in the organisation ; third, and highest, the position that the man will next occupy. In the third po- sition the worker occupies the place of the teacher, this position being at the same time occu- pied by two other men, that is, by the worker doing the work, who receives little or no instruc- tion in the duties of that position except in an emergency, and by the worker below who is learn- ing the work. In the second position the worker is actually in charge of the work, and is con- stantly also the teacher of the man next below him, who will next occupy the position. He is 190 APPLIED MOTION STUDY also, in emergencies, a learner of the duties of his present position from the man above him. In the first position the worker occupies the place of learner, and is being constantly instructed by the man in the duties of the position immediately above. Naturally a plan like this demands a close co- ordination of all positions. This is provided for through the master promotion chart. This chart is in the hands of the man in charge of promotion. It is slightly different for each organisation. It consists of a schematic arrangement of all posi- tions in the organisation, so arranged as to pro- vide for lines of most rapid advancement, along the various functions and subfunctions, under which the measured functional management by which we operate, works. The great advantage of such a chart is that it makes possible visualis- ing the complete problem of the organisation's needs in teaching and preparing its members. The direct product of this is that the man in charge of promotion sees clearly the needs and the means of filling them, the demand and the supply. The important by-product is the grad- ual evolution of permanent, rapid, direct paths THREE POSITION PLAN OF PROMOTION 191 of promotion. This means the abolishment of the " blind alley " job, that is, a position into which some member of the organisation drifts with no chance for advancement. Another by-product of this chart is the fact that the promotion head, the promotion manager, or chief of promotion, as he has been variously called, can arrange for shifting or transferring the worker easily, if he sees that he has been improperly placed, or, if he develops abilities along some unexpected line This is often the case under this type of manage ment where there is great opportunity for the de velopment of latent, as well as apparent, abilities This master promotion chart is the great educa tive force to the management as to the impor tance of proper promotion. The interests of the individual worker and his education as to the importance of promotion are carried on through the individual promotion charts. Upon these the records of each and every member of the organisation are separately kept. These sheets are often called "fortune sheets," and it is this aspect of them that is of peculiar interest to the psychologist. When a worker be- comes an interested, or particularly co-operative 192 APPLIED MOTION STUDY or efficient member of the organisation he is called into the department in charge of advancement or promotion, and given one of these fortune sheets. Upon it is shown his present position, and he and the man in charge outline together his possible and probable line of advancement. The sheet then becomes his fortune map, or fortune sched- ule. The projected line of promotion is outlined in green, and upon it are placed the dates at which it is hoped he may reach the various stages of advancement. At set times the worker and the promotion chief, or one of his helpers, meet, and the line of actual progress of advancement of the worker is traced upon the map in red, with the dates of achieving the various positions. The two then consult as to existing conditions, the special reading and studying necessary for fitting for the new positions, possible changes, or better- ments. The direct product of this is that the worker understands what he is doing, gets expert advice for greater progress, and realises that there is, and must be, co-operation between him and the promotion department for the good of all concerned. The by-products are equally, or more, important. One is that the worker is glad THREE POSITION PLAN OF PROMOTION 193 to impart all information that would be of help to the organisation as to his history and anteced- ents, his home and other social, conditions out- side the plant, that help or hinder his plans of preparing, ambitions, etc. It is common prac- tice in these days to present the applicant with blanks to be filled in with all this information. We use such blanks in selecting applicants, always with the proviso that, if the appli- cant shows any disinclination to fill out such parts of the blank as tell of his ambitions or other details, which he may consider confidential, he be not required to do so. This information has been invariably volunteered, when the for- tune map, or schedule, is understood. Naturally the applicant must furnish such information as will show his ability and reliability; but, as we will see later, these are so supplemented by data obtained through other sources that it is not necessary to ask for information usually consid- ered confidential before it is volunteered. The second by-product of these fortune sheets is di- rectly connected with the solution of the prob- lem of getting constantly a group of desirable ap- plicants from which to select more wisely. Thus, 194 APPLIED MOTION STUDY when the worker looks at his fortune sheet, and understands the three position plan of employ- ment, he recognises that he must train some one to take his position before he can hope to be most rapidly advanced. Naturally he first looks around in the organisation to see who is avail- able, for it is always desired that those within the organisation be advanced first. However, if no such person is available, he reviews his entire acquaintance, and all possible sources for new workers, in order that he may obtain the most desirable person easy to train into that position. It is not necessary to dwell long upon the ad- vantages of this system for holding members al- ready in the organisation. No worker who is constitutionally able to become a permanent mem- ber of an organisation will wish to change, if he is receiving adequate pay and has ample oppor- tunity for advancement, especially, if, as here, he is a member of a group where it is to the ad- vantage — more than that — actually to the selfish interest, of every member to push all higher members up, and to teach and fit others to advance from below. Inseparably associated with this is the fact that any worker will be ready THREE POSITION PLAN OF PROMOTION 195 and glad to enter an organisation where such conditions exist, and a desirable applicant will automatically present himself, when needed, at the direct request of some one who knows Ms par- ticular fitness for the job, and desires him to have it. This selecting of the worker by the worker is real democracy. An organisation built thus has proved to be the most satisfying to both management and workers. Now there are various questions that may arise concerning this subject, that it is well to answer here. 1. What hecomes of the workers who find ex- actly the positions that suit them, and have no desire to advance? The answer to this is that, if a worker finds such a position, he is retained in it, and that others who go beyond it are trained by bim in the work of that position until they know enough about it to advance to the next higher grade. This often happens, especially in the case of the workers who prefer positions entailing comparatively little re- sponsibility, and who, arriving at some work that satisfies them, and that involves but slight re- sponsibility, choose to make that particular work 196 APPLIED MOTION STUDY a life vocation. If, as is seldom the case, a sec- ond worker is found who desires to remain in the same position, it is sometimes advisable to place such a contented specialist in another or- ganisation, as trained and satisfied expert work- ers and teachers are all too rare. 2. If promotion is constant, are not men con- stantly promoted or graduated out of the organisation? The answer to this is " Yes, and always to waiting and far better positions." 3. What becomes of such well known ""blind alley" jobs as that of elevator or errand boy? These positions are transformed into training sta- tions or schools. Through them the young worker is put in touch with various lines of ac- tivity in the organisation and his possibilities, capabilities and tastes are noted. Tending jobs tinder this type of management are also so used as training stations. The new work for crippled soldiers, which is now occupying so much of our attention, is also furnishing a means of filling such " blind alley " jobs. A position that might be deadening for a young, ambitious boy, or for a THREE POSITION PLAN OF PROMOTION 197 progressive worker, might prove the salvation of a maimed, or crippled, worker who might otherwise become an idle, unproductive, and worst of all, a discouraged and unhappy member of the com- munity. 4. How can the close " human touch " that is essential to this system of promotion be maintained in a large organisation? We maintain this spirit through what we call the " Godfather Movement." This is especially suc- cessful where there are many young workers. Some older man in the organisation, preferably in the same department, or interested in the same line of work, is made the godfather of several young, or inexperienced, workers, and keeps in touch constantly with their progress. We call this man " the Godfather " in all foreign coun- tries, where the relation between godparent and godchild is an unusually close one, and is very similar to the sort of relation supposed to exist here between members of the same family. It resembles, perhaps, in this country more the " Big Brother " or " Big Sister " Movement now so pop- ular. 5. What are the actual results of the workers 198 APPLIED MOTION STUDY already employed using this system of pro- motion? They are most satisfactory in every case. In organisations where we have installed this sys- tem as a part of our plan of matiagement we have seen a. OflBce and messenger boys pass through five posi- tions in one year. b. A messenger boy become head storekeeper in three years. c. A mechanic become night superintendent in four years, d. A foreman become superintendent in two years. e. A receiving clerk become head production clerk in three years. f. A stenographer pass through five positions to mo- tion study assistant in one year. g. A stenographer pass through five positions to as- sistant chief of the three position plan in one and one-half years. h. An office boy become assistant purchasing agent in three years. i. A half time apprentice become foreman ia three and one-half years. j. A stenographer become head of the department of graphical presentation of statistics. k. A labourer become superintendent in nine years. and other cases too numerous to mention, many THREE POSITION PLAN OF PROMOTION 199 advancing in spite of predicted dire failure of the plan of selection, placement and promotion. The greatest good is, perhaps, not the individual ad- vancement, but the increased interest and zeal of all the workers under this plan. 6. What are the practical results on supply of applicants and on better placement? In our experience we have never failed when us- ing this plan of promotion to supply all needs of the organisation almost immediately with most desirable and eflScient workers. Every member of the organisation working under this plan has become an active and successful "employment bureau man." 7. What are the advantages of this whole plan to the man in charge of the function of em- ployment? He benefits by this plan, perhaps, more than any one else. He comes in close touch with every member of the organisation. It is to the advan- tage of every member to tell him exactly which individuals he thinks had better follow him, whether these are inside or outside the organisa- tion. Imagine for a moment that jou are such a chief. A comes in and says, "Mr. Blank, I 200 APPLIED MOTION STUDY should like to follow me in my position." B comes in and says, " I should like to follow me in my position." C comes in and says, " Mr. Blank, I should like to follow me in my position." Naturally you would recognise the wisdom of getting better acquainted with 0. Or, perhaps, you suggest to A, " I think that M would be a good man to follow you," and A says, "No, I think I had better have some one else." You suggest M also to B and C, who reply some- what along similar lines. There may be nothing fundamentally wrong with M, but the line you have planned will probably not receive as much co-operation as it should, and, in any case, there is something there worth investigating. Again, a worker comes to you and says, " Mr. Blank, I know a man who is not in this organisation who would be just the person to follow me. You know there is no one available just now, as the man below me is satisfied with his job," Here follow particulars as to the desired man's edu- cation, training, etc., which act as the supplemen- tary data before mentioned. The recommender is given a blank form of " recommendation " to fill out for filing, whether or not the proposed THREE POSITION PLAN OF PROMOTION 201 man is hired. This naturally leads to the ques- tion 8. Can any part of this plan of promotion he used without the other parts? The answer is " Yes " and " No." " No," if the desired results are to be obtained in full, since the entire system is interrelated and correlated with the complete plan of Measured Functional Management. "Yes," in that the fundamental ideas underlying this plan can undoubtedly be worked out in many ways. The immediate suc- cess of this plan is fostered by a carefully de- vised set of forms and charts and other devices for visualising the possibilities of individual suc- cess that have stood the test of time and use. The ultimate success of this plan depends upon the principles ^ that underly it, giving every man a square deal, a maximum chance for co-opera- tion, advancement and prosperity, in other words, the opportunity for simultaneous individual and social development. 1 See " The Psychology of Management," Sturgis & Wal- ton, New York City. THE EFFECT OF MOTION STUDY UPON THE WORKERS ^ Motion study makes all activity interesting. While, at first thought, this fact may not seem of great importance, in reality it is the cause of many of the far-reaching results obtained through motion study. Motion study consists of analys- ing an activity into its smallest possible elements, and from the results synthesising a method of performing the activity that shall be more ef- ficient, — the word " efficient " being used in its highest sense. The process of motion study is such as to in- terest the worker. While undoubtedly some suc- cess could be made of motion study through a trained observer merely watching the worker, we find it of utmost importance and mutually advan- tageous from every standpoint, to gain the full and hearty co-operation of the worker at once, 1 Reprinted from "The Annals" of the American Acad- emy of Political and Social Science, Philadelphia, May, 1916. Publication No. 1000. 202 THE EFFECT UPON THE WORKERS 203 and to enlist him as a co-worker in the motion study from the moment the first investigation is made. Our methods of making motion study are by the use of the micromotion, simultaneous mo- tion cycle chart, and chronocyclegraph methods. All make it imperative that the worker shall un- derstand what is being done and why, and make it most profitable to every one that the worker shall be able, as well as willing, to help in the work of obtaining methods of least waste by means of motion study. While the process of making motion and time studies through the use of the cinematograph, the microchronometer and the cross-sectioned screen have been so reduced in cost as to make them indispensable even from the cost standpoint, the process is made even more economical when the worker, or the observed man, does his best work, and endeavours to take a part of active initiative in deriving the motion standards. We find in our practice that the worker is only too glad to do this. In fact, it is usually he, oftener than the observer, who cries out, " Wait a moment till this is done in the best way possible," or "Wait a moment, pleas6, I know a way that I believe is easier." Similarly, 204 APPLIED MOTION STUDY when using the ehronocyclegraph device; the worker is not only interested in the electric lights and their various paths and orbits of dots and dashes, but is most anxious that these paths shall be those of the greatest skill and the fewest num- ber of motions possible. The various methods used with these various types of apparatus, which are usually new to the worker, present problems in psychology which are interesting to the worker as well as to the observer. The worker is quick to note that, with the new conditions attending the measuring work, his own process varies for a short time at the beginning from his unusual habits, because of the entering of the variables of the apparatus and the strange conditions that it involves. He is quick to notice, also, that this effect of strange- ness soon disappears, and that he then works ex- actly in accordance with his normal method. This period of strangeness, far from being a dis- advantage, is, on the contrary, often a great ad- vantage. The worker is almost sure to revert to the former habit, and an investigator or observer often gains valuable clues not only to excellent standards, but to necessary methods of teaching THE EFFECT UPON THE WORKERS 205 those standards, particularly with emphasis on eliminating interference of many wrong habits ac- quired in trade learning prior to conscious effort for motion economy. It is, therefore, clear that during the period of making motion studies the effect of them upon the worker is educative to the highest degree, for not only does he become inter- ested in what he does, but he learns to think of all activity in terms of motions and elements of motions. The by-products of this are also impor- tant, as he is always able afterwards to learn new work much faster and with comparatively little coaching, and as he has that success that usually attends the work of one who knows the least wasteful method of attack of learning the new problems or performing the new task. The effects of motion study are particularly striking upon the observer or the man actually making the studies. This is true not only dur- ing the time of making the obseryation, but also during the time spent in embodying the data de- rived in simultaneous cycle motion charts and in motion models. These motion models, which are wire representations of the paths of the motion, made from the stereoscopic records derived from 206 APPLIED MOTION STUDY the chronocyclegraph process have a peculiar ed- ucative value that is well embodied in the follow- ing statement of a young engineer who spent some time making motion models as a part of that thor- ough training for motion and time study man which we believe so necessary : " After making a niiinber of models of motions I have changed from a scoffer to a firm believer. I believe not only in their value as an aid to the study of the psychol- ogy of motions, but also as to their educational value in the teaching of the motion study man. " I consider them of the same value to the motion study man as is the model of an engine or a mechanical device to an engineer. If the engineer was to study, for in- stance, a railroad engine, and the only chance he had to study was to watch an engine going by him at express train speed, his impression as to the mechanical work- ing of the engine would be, to say the least, vague. " A motion, in. itself, is intangible, but a model of a motion gives one an altogether different viewpoint, as it seems to make one see more clearly that each motion leaves a definite path, which path may be subjected to analysis. " I have made motion studies since making models, and what I learned from making the models has convinced me of their value. In former motion studies which I have made, my attention was always divided, more or less equally, between the direct distance between the starting and finishing points of the motion, the equip- THE EFFECT UPON THE WORKERS 207 ment, and the surroimdings. I have found that, since seeing a motion, as represented by a model, I am better able to concentrate first on the motion itself, and then upon the variables which affect the motion. This seems to me a more logical method, and I know that I have had better results. * " I believe a good method of illustrating how a motion model helps one to visualise is to compare it with the wake left by an ocean liner. When one stands at the stem of a liner, which changes its course often, and watches the wake he can visualise the changes more readily than when imable to see the wake." It is interesting to note here not only the in- terest aroused intensively in the subject of mo- tion study itself, but also extensively in the corre- lation of processes in the industries with general processes outside. The motion study man is a specialist who, because of Ms work, spends a large amount of time in the close study of motions, but to some extent this intensive and extensive in- terest is aroused in all those engaged in motion study, whether as observers or ob- served. After the results of motion study are actually installed the effects are as great or greater upon those who work under the derived standards. It must be understood that motion study always im- 208 APPLIED MOTION STUDY plies fatigue study, ^ for the best and least waste- ful results cannot be obtained otherwise, and that the worker who operates under these standards, therefore, not only has time to do the work in the best way, but ample time for adequate recovery from the fatigue of his work. This procedure provides directly for his physical and mental well-being. Motion study lays particular empha- sis upon this. The great bogey of all who argue against standardisation is " the awful resulting monotony." Now psychology,^ as well as the re- sults in actual practice, proves that monotony comes not from performing the activity the same way every time, but from a lack of interest in- volved in, or associated with, the activity. This interest is supplied not only directly by motion study, but indirectly by the other parts of meas- ured functional management, such as devices for eliminating unnecessary fatigue and for over- coming necessary fatigue. Besides all this there is the interest aroused and the education resulting from the graphic rep- resentation of the results of motion study data to 1 See " Fatigue Study," Sturgis & Walton, New York City. 2 See " Tlie Psychology of Management," Sturgis & Walton, New York City. THE EFFECT UPON THE WORKERS 209 the worker as well as the observer. The pictures of the micromotion films are projected at the nor- mal speed of the moving picture. They are also examined one at a time. The chronocyclegraphs in three dimensions are shown through the stereo- scope, on the screen, by means of the wire motion models to the workers at the foremen's and work- ers' meetings and are there discussed. All the traditional knowledge is literally collected, meas- ured, sorted, tagged and labelled. These data, to- gether with indisputable measuring methods is presented before those possessing the greatest craft skill of the old methods, and who can quick- est actually learn the new knowledge and put it to use. The new knowledge is of no use to the employer without the co-operation of the worker. This fact puts the relations between the worker and his employer on a new basis. They must co-operate, or both pay an awful price. These new methods have demonstrated that there is so much to learn that the employer cannot afford to put on and lay off his employes in proportion to the receipt of orders. He must solve the prob- lem of steady employment. He cannot afford to let his specially trained men " get away." This 210 APPLIED MOTION STUDY. is of vital importance in its effect upon the mental condition and activity of the worker. By these means the workers, who are the actual producers of the nation, become familiar in every day experience with motion study and time study instruments of precision and with the results of their use. Such knowledge in the hands of our workers is the means of their being able to take the initiative in acquiring greater skill in all trades and in all life works. This is one of the best forms of industrial preparedness. It must be emphasised that the facts concerning motion study here stated embody not only a program but a record. The actual every day practice of mo- tion study shows these effects upon the worker not only in the intangible results of added interest and a different attitude towards the work, but also in such tangible results as a larger number and a more profitable set of suggestions in the suggestion boxes, better attended and more profit- able foremen's and workers' meetings, a greater number of promotions, more co-operation, more reading and study of the science of management, and higher wages earned with greater ease. Motion study has no right to claim all the ben- THE EFFECT UPON THE WORKERS 211 efits that accrue from measured functional man- agement, but, as a part of this management, it shares in these benefits, and thus those who work under it are assured of unusually high pay, dur- ing and after the motion study, a chance for pro- motion, physical and mental well-being, and a co- operative atmosphere in which to work. Motion study has the right to claim as its own benefits an added interest not only in the activity involved in the particular work done in the office or plant or wherever the work place may be, but in all ac- tivity away from as well as at work. Motion study benefits employes and employers, as well as everybody else who adopts its methods, because it makes " to do/' mean " to he interested/' and to he interested means to he more efficient, more prosperous, and more happy. THE END A FINAL NOTE In writing this volume with the aim of elimi- nating waste, we realise that progress in general waste elimination is always retarded by the feel- ing that it is for others rather than ourselves. In order that we might practise what we preach, we requested that this book be printed in accordance with the forms of spelling recommended by the Simplified Spelling Board, New York City. The publishers ruled otherwise, and to change the spelling now would cause delay. New conditions confront the world to-day. These new conditions demand as never before that savings be made whenever possible. Simpler Spelling requires less time to learn, saves mo- tions of writing, typing, setting type and eye swing in reading. It saves ink, pencils, paper, and consequently helps save forests. The sav- ing of forests in turn eliminates floods. The elimination of floods saves the priceless fertile soil from being eroded and washed to the seas, there to be lost forever. Some of the greatest scholars in the English speaking worid gathered together as the Sim- 213a 21Sb FINAL NOTE plified Spelling Board have made certain stand- ards for simplification without any confusion or loss of any advantages of the present forms of spelling. Simpler spelling has been adopted by over 300 schools, colleges and publishers during the last year. Its adoption is progressing faster than is generally realised. There is no logical argu- ment against the forms recommended. Ignorance and custom are the great hindrances to progress. Every possible saving in time, ma- terials and fatigue that enables us to get more out of life should be adopted. Lillian M. Gilbeeth, Frank B. Gilbeeth, Member Advisory Council Simplified Spelling Board. INDEX Achievement, need to know cause, 78 Activities, reelassiflcation, 92 Advancement, opportunities under Scientific J^anage- ment, 165 under Three Position Plan of Promotion, 195 Aldrich, J. G., paper by, 38 A mar, Jules, 115 America, advocate of conser- vation, 20 advocate of co-operation, 20 lacking in conservation, 9 American Association for the Advancement of Science, 97 American Academy of Polit- ical and Social Science, 3, 187, 202. American Society of Me- chanical Engineers, 131 appeal for Crippled Sol- dier, date from, 145 Apparatus, cheapening cost, 85 Applied Science, by-products, 10 Assembly, Motion Study ap- plied to, 43 Motion Model studies, 45, 82 results of studies, 47 teaching, 48 Authority, lines of, under Scientific Management, 22 213 lines of, under Traditional Management, 21 Automicromotion study, 70 Awkwardness, recorded by cyclegraphs, 90 recorded by Motion Models, 90 Babbage, Charles, 60 Beginner, proper teaching, 112 Behaviour, lack of records, 98 recorded by Motion Model, 104 Big Brother Movement, 177 Blind Alley job, elimination, 191 transformation, 196 use for the Crippled Sol- dier, 196 Box, many sided, 86 Braider, assembly, 43, 45, 47, 48, 82 Bricklaying, interest, 65 motion savings, 42 recommended classificar tlon, 54 " Bricklaying System," 47, 65, 79, 114 Bureau of Pan-American Motion Standards, need, 95 Standardisation, need, 56 By-products of laboratory investigations, 16 Camera, as a recording de- vice, 114 214 INDEX Chart, Individual promotion, 191 master promotion, 190 Simultaneous Motion Cy- cle, — See Simultaneous Motion Cycle Chart Chronocyclegraph, descrip- tion, 84 facts demonstrated, 117 Chronocycle-Method, defini- tion, 46 description, 67 Cinematograph, double, 69 "Concrete System," 64, 115 Conservation, America's shortcomings, 9 Conservation, efficient, 75 relation to co-operation, 18, 19 Conserving, difference from hoarding, 6 Cooke, M. C, definition of standard, 37 Oo-operation, insured under Scientific Management, 159 necessity, 40, 94, 143, 209 relation to conservation, 19 relation to Motion Study, 51 relation to Scientific Man- agement, 18 stages, 18 Correlation, necessity, 99 Cost, relation to Motion Study, 44 Cotton Cloth, savings in fold- ing, 42 Crippled Soldier, many types, 132 Motion Study Applied to, 131, 136 necessity for training, 131 need for encouragement, 135 Crippled Soldier — continued need for teaching, 137 placement, 137 problem, 133 provision for fatigue, 142 provision for rest, 142 relation to blind alley job, 197 relation to Fatigue Study, 173 three classes, 133 typewriters adapted to, 143 use of Simultaneous Mo- tion Cycle Chart, 93 use of teaching devices, 142 problem, need for co-oper- ation, 143 Cripples, utilization, 74 Cyclegraph, apparatus, de- scription, 83 method, description, 115 records, field, 141 spots, shape, 85 stretched, description and use, 91 Coulomb, 60 Decisions, as basis for re- classification of activi- ties, 92 recorded by cyclegraphs, 90 recorded by Motion Models, 90 Devices, selection, 36 Diagrams, importance, 114 Difference, undue emphasis, 100 Disciplinarian, 28 Dodge, J. M., views on co-op- eration, 188 Ear, use of in teaching, 90 INDEX 215 Economy, dangers of un- studied, 76 need, 74, 103 relation to waste elimina- tion, 76 Education, effect of Motion Study, 205 lack of standardisation, 102 need for correlation, 101 need, 53 relation to Scientific Meth- od, 97 Elementary units, definition, 68 Employer, benefits from Mo- tion Study, 211 Employment, methods of providing regular, 163 regularity under Scientific Management, 163 steady, relation to Motion Study, 209 Employment Manager, ad- vantages of Three Posi- tions Plan, 199 Engineer, advantages as manager, 15 collection of Crippled Sol- dier data by, 94 place in measuring activity and fatigue, 77 place in Social better- ment, 144 responsibility to Crippled Soldier, 134 Experience, transfer through Motion Model, 126 Farming, intensive, 10 Fatigue, provision, 121 records, 77 relation to Motion Study, 182 Fatigue Museum, 172 " Fatigue Study," 53, 71, 77, 130, 142, 171, 172, 208 Fatigue Study, as offering field of investigation, 184 description and outline, 170 provision for rest, 142 relation to Motion Study, 208 relation to shop practice, 17 results, 14 under Scientific Manage- ment, 168 Finger-wisdom, necessity, 51 Fortune Sheet, description, 191 products and by-products, 192 Functionalization, plan of under Scientific Man- agement, 21 Gang Boss, 28 Gibbons, J., 152 Godfather movement, de- scription, 197 Grace, recorded by cycle- graphs, 90 recorded by Motion Mod- els, 90 Greul, W. H., 147 Growth, industrial defini- tion, 5 Habit, importance, 204 recorded by cyclegraphs, 90 recorded by Motion Model, 90 recorded by stretched cyclegraph, 91 relation to monotony, 178 shown in cyclegraphs, 118 use in efficient motions, 91 216 INDEX Habit — oontmued utilisation, 180 Halftime work, 102 Hanau, Mr., 150 Happiness, result of interest- ing activity, 211 minutes, need, for increas- ing, 75 Health, insured under Scien- tific Management, 159 Home Reading Box, 172, 184 Human Element, conserva- tion, 73 conserved by eflSciency, 53 lack of conservation, 14 need for study, 42 use of laboratory method in study, 15 Humidity, records, 80 Improvements, suggested by micromotion study, 92 Indecision, recorded by cyclegraphs, 90 recorded by Motion Models, 90 Individual Promotions Chart, 191 Industrial situation, effect of Motion Study, 50 training, requirements, 52 Inspection, under Scientific Management, 49 Inspector, 31 Instruction Cards, 26, 183 Instruments of Precision, 57 availability, 72 use, 61 Interest, methods of creat- ing, 180 relation to monotony, 179, 208 relation to Motion Study, 180, 181 relation to Three Position Plan of Promotion, 199 International Engineers' Congress, 57 Invention, stimulated by Standards, 95 Journal of Political Econ- omy, 21 Kent, R. T., 156 LaboratoiT investigations, by-products, 16 method, and Motion Study, 16 method, use in study of human element, 15 plant, use, 16 Learner, teaching, 112 Learning, curves, use, 142 process, composition, 110 process, definition, 121 Iiikenesses, importance, 100 Increased by transporta- tion, 7 Machines, lack of standard- isation, 11 Maintenance, relation to con- servation, 6 prerequisites, 159 Management, military, 21 Marey, 62, 115 Master Promotion Chart, de- scription, 190 Value, 191 Measurement, advantages, 37 elements, 44, 58, 98 necessity, 76 Method, ideal, derivation, 46 of attack, taught by Mo- tion Study, 183 standard, derivation, 111 Methods, improvement of standardisation, 11 Microohronometer, change in dial, 80 INDEX 217 Mierochronometer — contm- ued description, 80 history, 114 Micromotion Records, by- products, 81 field, 141 use, 81 Micromotion Study, advan- tages, 37 auto, 70 definition, 36 description, 45, 66, 80, 114 Military management, 21 Monotony, definition, 174 inadequate remedies, 175 relation to habit, 178 relation to interest, 179, 208 Motion economy, scope, 144 Motion Model, advantages, 89 a device of measurement, 97 as comparer of methods and results, 129 as record of behaviour, 104 as record of results, 128 chronocyclegraph, 90 derivation, 98 description, 104 description of making, 122 education of maker, 125 effect on worker, 206 facts demonstrated, 110 field of application, 99, 128 make motion paths tan- gible, 116 method of making, 89 relation to cyclegraph, 122 spots, 123 use, 69, 123 use by expert, 127 use in connection with Simultaneous Motion Cycle Chart, 93 Motion Study, applied to as- sembly, 43 as an Industrial oppor- tunity, 41 broadening effect, 207 data, usableness, 72 date of beginning, 105 definition, 43, 59, 202 educative effect, 205 effect on cost, 48 effect on fatigue, 48 effect on observer, 205 effect on output, 48 effect on placement, 48 effect on society, 62 effect on wages, 48 effect on worker, 202, 210 history, 105 methods, 203 multi-exposure film, 71 need for trained investi- gators, 184 part of worker, 203 perfection of devices, 71 relation to co-operation, 51 relation to Fatigue Study, 60, 182, 208 relation to habit, 181 relation to interest, 180, 202 relation to laboratory methods, 16 relation to other functions of Scientific Manage- ment, 34 relation to standardisation of trades, 55 relation to steady employ- ment, 209 Motion Study, relation to Time Study, 60 relation to working prac- tice, 17 results, 14, 48, 50 variables, 78, 137 " Motion Study," 65, 78, 111 218 INDEX Motions, as basis for reclassi- fication of activities, 92 benefits of thinking in terms, 144 characteristics of efficient, 91 common in different lines of work, 92 demonstration, 110 elements of a cycle, 138 fast, differ from slow, 109, 119 improvements of elements, 109, 130 right, derivation, 109 right, importance, 109 slow, differ from fast, 109, 119 standard speed, 109 thinking in elements, 49 transference, 140 Muscle tension, place in mo- tions, 110 Muybridge, 115 National Bureau of Stand- ards, need, 55 New England Butt Co., 154 assembly of braider, 43 Observation, types of errors, 44 Pan-American Congress, ad- vantages, 95 Pay increased by. Scientific Management, 161 Peace, relation to realisation of common problems, 96 Pendulum, bell and lamp, records, 90 Penetrating screen, descrip- tion, 86 Placement, affected by cycle- graphs, 93 Placement — continued affected by Motion Models, 93 improvement under Scien- tific Management, 164 made efficient through Mo- tion Model, 48 of Crippled Soldier, 137 Polakov, W. N., 153 Posture League, co-operation with, 172 Profits, division under Scien- tific Management, 162 Progress, definition, 6 relation to conservation, 6 Promotion, imjiortance, 187 Psychology, interest of mo- tion studied worker, 204 " Psychology of Manage- ment," 69, 72, 81, 118, 201, 208 Quality, provision for, 112 relation, to right motions, 110 result of right motions, 120 standardisation, 120 Reclassification of trades, necessity, 53, 54 Repair boss, 31 Research laboratory, use, 16, 140 Resources, necessity of con- servation, 8 Resseler, H. B., 151 Rest, adequate provision for, 121, 142 relation to Fatigue Study, 15 Importance, §9 Route man, 25 " Safety First," 172 Savings, from micromotion films, 81 INDEX 219 Savings — continued through Motion Models, 130 Schaller, A. L. 155 Screen, penetrating, descrip- tion, 86 Scientiflc Management, aims, 4 benefits to workers, 161 definition, 3, 58, 158 division of profits, 162 duties of worker, 159 elimination of monotony, 185 functionalizatlon, 21 importance of practice, 158 improvement of placement, 164 methods, 5 must be practical, 158 necessary conditions, 159 position of worker, 33 practice, 158 regularity of employment, 163 relation to America's in- dustrial position, 3 relation to co-operation, 18 relation to measurement, 185 relation to Motion Study, 34 relation to other conserv- ing activities, 13 relation to standardisa- tion, 12 results to individual con- server, 17 savings, 16 scope, 4 tasks, 14 teaching, 167 working conditions, 160 Second Pan-American Con- gress, 73 Shoe polish, savings in cov- ering, 43 Short cuts, differences, 111 Simultaneous Motion Cycle Chart, description, 93, 137 elements, 138 method of gathering data, 140 visualisation, 139 Smith, Adam, 60 Smoothness, sign of an effi- cient motion, 91 Speed standard, necessity of teaching, 120 boss, 30 Standard, definition, 37 Standardisation, of trades, 55 reasons for lack, 12 Standards, derived from Mo- tion Model Films, 81 improved by Motion Models, 91 maintenance through Mo- tion Model or cyle- graph, 92 Stimulus, mental, provision for, 182 Stopwatch, defects, 62 Suggestion box, as creating interest, 183 Summer School of Scientific Management, 143 Surgery, lack of standardisa- tion, 12 Synthesis, importance, 40 Taylor, F. W., definition of Time Study, 59 Teachers, under Stientlflc Management, 23, 50 Teaching, by micromotion records, 81 definition of efficient, 121 need for correct, 82 of beginner, 112 220 INDEX Teaching — continued of Crippled Soldier, 137 science, 98 under Scientific Manage- ment, 167 Telephoto lens, use, 88 Temperature, records, 80 Tending jobs, utilisation, 165 Ttiompson, S. E., definition of Time Study, 59 Three Position Plan of Pro- motion, 187 actual promotions, 198 advantages, 188 advantages to Employment Manager, 199 as creating interest, 183 description, 166, 189 relation to other parts of Scientiflc Management, 201 results of use, 199 Time, cyclegraph records, 81 Time and cost, 27 Time Study, defects of stop watch, 62 results, 14 lack of standardisation, 11 "Time Study." Factor In the Science of obtaining Methods of Least Waste," 72 Trades, classification based on differences, 100 necessity for re-classlflca- tlon, 53 Traditional management, 21 Transference of skill relation to micromotion records. 82 Transportation, results, 7 Typewriters, adapted to Crippled Soldiers, 143 Unit, determining, 35 elementary, definition, 68 selection, 44 Van Winkle, B., 146 Visualisation, cyclegraphs an aid to, 83 Wages, increase through Mo- tion Study, 48 increase under Scientific Management, 162 Wallace, L. M., 145 War, outcomes, 8 Waste elimination, Impor- tance, 41 from inefllcient motions. 41 through use of Motion Models, 130 Worker, duties under Scien- tific Management, 159 need for holding the co- operating, 188 selection, 195 under Scientific Manage- ment, 33 Teager, Dr., 147 Zur Nedden, T., 151